' ' '■"■' INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK ■ BOSTON • CHICAGO • DALLAS ATLANTA • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION A STATEMENT OF FACTS AND PRINCIPLES RELATED TO THE VOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF EDUCATION BELOW COLLEGE GRADE BY DAVID SPENCE HILL, PH.D., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF THE STATE TJNIVER8ITY OP NEW MEXICO WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY M. V. O'SHEA ^tw fork THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1920 All rights reserved COPYRIOHT, 1920 By the MACMILLAN COMPANY Set up and electrotyped. Published July, igao. ICU571788 JUL^Sl^^O EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION One may safely predict that vocational training in some form will occupy a larger place in American education in the future than it has occupied in the past; but among teachers as well as laymen there is a lack of agreement regarding the scope, char- acter, and value of vocational education. One reads articles on this subject in general and professional magazines and listens to addresses at educational meetings, and he is confused by the different claims which are made and the varying points of view which are presented. Some declare that we should train boys and girls speci6ca[ly for definite occupations which they will enter the moment they leave school, while others oppose this view and hold that our training should concern only the general sciences or principles or skills upon which all occupations de- pend. Some advocate that vocational and general education should be rigidly distinguished the one from the other, while many persons protest that such a separation would undermine American democratic institutions. Again, one frequently hears devotees of vocational education say that a pupil will receive better discipline of mind and character in working with tools and shaping materials to definite purposes than he will in study- ing the so-called cultural subjects such as history, literature, foreign language, mathematics, and the like. But this proposi- tion is vehemently denied by one group of teachers and educa- tional theorists in particular, who maintain that vocational edu- cation is commercial and materialistic, that it restricts the pupil's vision, and that it fails to give him an understanding of human nature or interest in or sympathy with his fellows. So it is not to be wondered at that teachers as well as laymen are vi EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION perplexed when the advice given them by different counsellors is so conflicting. In this volume President Hill discusses all these problems and others in a critical, unbiased manner. In order that the reader may view vocational education in the proper perspective he is first led to reflect on the purpose and function of education as a whole in a democratic country like ours. The author shows that the preservation of democracy is dependent upon a thorough- going, comprehensive educational program; and he shows fur- ther that in a democratic country the individual is entitled to an education which will prepare him to fulfill the duties of a citizen in the large sense of this term. When the reader gains the broad view of education presented here he readily concludes that preparation for a vocation is a phase, and a natural and neces- sary phase, of training for citizenship in a democracy. Of course, problems concerning the adjustment of specific vocational work to more general studies have to be considered. The vocational needs of communities large and small have to be investigated. The intellectual and temperamental require- ments for success in different vocations have to be taken into account. Problems relating to federal, state, and local support of vocational work have to be solved. President Hill treats all these matters in the light of extensive investigation and experi- mentation in vocational training. He has succeeded in estab- lishing harmony between the general principles of vocational as related to other forms of education; and the concrete programs he presents are based upon the results of experiments that have been made in vocational education in agriculture, the mechani- cal industries, trade, business and commerce. A reader who has doubts regarding the value and need of vocational education will probably have his doubts dissipated if he will read this volume. If he has been overwhelmed by questions relating to the adjust- ment of vocational to cultural training he will see how the problems involved can be solved without sacrificing general EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION vii education while attaining the ends of effective vocational training. The author of this volume is fortunate in being versed in the principles both of general and of vocational education, so that he is enabled to treat his theme with reference to the whole field of educational aims and values. He does not overstate the case for vocational education as some enthusiasts have done. He warns the reader that he must not expect too much from the in- troduction of vocational work into the schools. It is not a specific for all our educational ills. The need for it is very great ; it has its place; but it cannot be made a substitute for general training. A large amount of concrete material is brought together in this book. It is well organized and skillfully interpreted. Spe- cific reference is made to all the best literature bearing upon the problems which are considered. The points of view presented in this literature are worked into the text of the various chapters, so that the reader will feel that the author has surveyed a large field and given him just the facts and principles that he should consider in order that he may comprehend the meaning and appreciate the value of vocational education as an integral part of a comprehensive educational program. The book is designed to be of service to teachers and students of education as well as to the general reader. It is admirably suited for a text-book. The treatment is clear and logical throughout. The topics discussed in each chapter stand out distinctly and topical headings enable the reader to keep clearly in mind the problems under discussion in any part of the work. A brief summary of important conclusions is given at the close of each chapter. In order that the student may gain a firmer hold upon the principles developed in the text, he is required to test and apply these principles in a number of interesting, practical and stimulating exercises at the close of each chapter. He is thus given experience in using the principles he has learned vm EDITOR'S INTRODUCTION and in noting whether they can be advantageously employed in the community in which he is working or with which he is best acquainted. M. V. O'Shea. The University of Wisconsin, 4 November, 1919. FOREWORD In undertaking to write a book setting forth the important facts and principles concerning vocational education lower than college grade, the writer has encountered difficulties concerning the need to be met by such a book, a sound underlying philoso- phy, and the selection of suitable materials to be used as il- lustrations of practice. With regard to the need for such an introduction it seems that no adequate text exists from which the general reader, the rank and file of teachers, as well as those who, for the first time, are becoming acutely interested in the problems of vocational education, can obtain a comprehensive but condensed statement of essential principles, facts and con- crete examples in this rapidly enlarging field. The writer, therefore, has endeavored to keep in mind these possible readers rather than the technical expert. With regard to basal principles we note that it is popular these days to say that there must be no separation or division between liberal, cultural, and specific vocational education, but the explanation or reason for this indispensable solidarity are not frequently made plain. It is perhaps natural that a psy- chologist with considerable industrial experience should find an explanation or reason for the administrative unification of all kinds of public education in the fact that in the developmental processes of society increased knowledge and skill without direct- ing ideals which are altruistic and specifically democratic, have been found totally inadequate for human welfare, whether we regard the individual or the race. While this is no new doctrine it perhaps needs renewed em- phasis to-day when skills and knowledge have been exercised XX X FOREWORD amazingly in the causation of a world war, and when the word democracy is upon millions of lips. Ethical idealism is a neces- sary step in conscious evolution, for evil as well as good may result from the acquisition of mere skill and knowledge. A measure of ethical idealism as a direct objective in all kinds of schools will involve realization of some of the choicest elements of liberal education — appreciation, discipline, information, physical well-being. The writer believes that American de- mocracy in its broad outlines as understood by Washington, Jefferson, Lincoln, Roosevelt, Wilson, and, indeed, by the ma- jority of intelligent American citizens is the most practical and general embodiment of the ethical idealism to be promulgated by public education. The materials utilized for illustrative purposes in the making of our book have been of wide variety and some of them are quite inaccessible to the average reader. The writer, therefore, has included rather long lists of selected references at the end of each chapter and throughout has also quoted very liberally. Frequent and long quotations have in some respects unavoid- able objections, but we consider our use of them justifiable both for the purpose of bringing to the reader many concrete examples of the principles discussed, and also for the conven- ience of the reader, who may not be able to secure easily or quickly the original reports or books used. Certainly our method is at least better than the paste-and-scissors procedure used in making "source-books" where illustrative materials are loosely strung together, connected perhaps by a little com- ment of the editor. In making these quotations and allusions the writer has en- deavored to give due acknowledgment by reference to the author or material mentioned. However, in seeking to en- compass an extreme range of facts bearing upon our general theme, it is probable that there have been unintentional omis- sions. FOREWORD xi The aim of our undertaking, which has been steadily to furnish an introduction to the study of the vocational aspects of public education, has forced us to make the book one of con- siderable scope. We are supposing that the reader will be in- terested in obtaining a bird's-eye view of the relation of public education to democracy, of the auspices of vocational education in its historical development, of recent federal legislation, of those aspects of education called agricultural, industrial and trade, commercial, and of the vocational education pertaining to girls and women. We deem it of especial importance to point out the significant facts and principles which are exhibited in the contemporary movements for the application of the research method in behalf of both our schools and industry. This move- ment is developing rapidly and although we believe that we have set forth the most significant points of interest and the literature of the subject, nevertheless, this chapter of the book must be regarded strictly in the light of an introduction to a vast and important field. The same reservation is of course made in writing upon the different topics of applied psychology. The writer is indebted to the publishers of the Popular Science Monthly, of School and Society, of School and Home Education, and of McClure's Magazine for permission to use portions of articles which have been published by them. He expresses especially his indebtedness to the following gentlemen for looking over certain chapters of the manuscript: Dean Eugene Davenport, Dean Kendrick C. Babcock, and Professor Maurice H. Robinson of the University of Illinois. Professor M. V. O'Shea of the University of Wisconsin has examined the entire manuscript and has made numerous helpful suggestions. Pro- fessor Robert C. Whitford, now of Knox College, has pointed out many errors during the preparation of the original manuscript, and practically the entire work of copying has been Sone patiently by Miss Winifred Amos. The writer xii FOREWORD is appreciative of the opportiipity to do his share of the work during his former engagement at the University of Ilhnois. David S. Hill. Albuquerque, N. M., December, 1919. CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER I Safeguarding American Democracy 1 CHAPTER II The Meanings of Vocational Education 33 CHAPTER III Adjustments to Individual and to Society 60 CHAPTER IV Social Problems in Relation to Vocational Education 95 CHAPTER V The Auspices of Vocational Education 122 CHAPTER VI The Further Development of Federal Cooperation. 167 CHAPTER VII Problems in Agricultural Education 192 CHAPTER VIII Education for Mechanical Industries and Trades 238 CHAPTER IX Education for Mechanical Industries and Trades — continued 279 xiii xiv CONTENTS PAGE CHAPTER X Education for Business and Commerce 308 CHAPTER XI The Practical Education of Girls and Women 350 CHAPTER XII Uses of Research for Education and Industry 389 CHAPTER XIII Applications of Psychology to Instruction and Industry . . . 420 Appendix 451 FIGURES IN THE TEXT PAGE Fig. I. Proportion of Persons Engaged in Each General Division of Occupations, by States, 1910 72 Fig, II. Proportion Which the Gainful Workers of Each Specified Age Constituted of All Gainful Workers, 1910 73 Fig. III. Beginners Who Remain in School in Cleveland, Ohio. . . 76 Fig. IV. Percentage Attending School in the Total Population, 6 to 20 Years of Age, 1909-1910 79 Fig V. Distribution of Projects 222 Fig. VI. Divisions Within an Industrial Day School 247 Fig. VII. Division of Work, Worcester Trade School 250 Fig. VIII. Occupational Intelligence Standards in the United States Army 426 XV TABLES PAGE Table I. Classification of Human Types 64 Table 11. Occupational Statistics 69 Table III. Occupational Groups 70 Table IV. School Enrollment and Costs in 1916 84 Table V. Distribution of School Enrollment, 1915 86 Table VI. Students in Certain Studies in Public High Schools Since 1890 137 Table VII. Income of Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges dur- ing Five Years 154 Table VIII. Appropriations of United States Government for the Advancement of Education during 1914 155 Table IX. Statistics of Vocational Schools and of Vocational Teacher-Training Centers for 1918 183 Table X. Annual Grants under Smith-Hughes Act 185 Table XI. Agricultural Workers in the United States 194 Table XII. Institutions Giving Instruction in Agriculture 202 Table XIII. Enrollment in Principal Divisions of Agricultural Colleges 207 Table XIV. A Course for Teachers of Agriculture 219 Table XV. Numbers of Occupations in Certain Industries.. . .242-245 Table XVI. Statistics of Trade and Industrial Schools 246 Table XVII. Continuation Classes in New York City 256-257 Table XVIII. Students in Commercial Courses 325 Table XIX. Manufactures into Which Girls go from School in Worcester, Mass 360 Table XX. Girls' Ages upon Leaving School ia Worcester, Mass. 360 Table XXI. Scores Made by Students of University of lUinois Taking Army Intelligence Tests 427 Table XXII. Various Methods Employed by Different Organiza- tions in Conducting their Educational Work 442 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CHAPTER I SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY The Basis of Society: Preliminary considerations; enduring elements; idealism in America. Education Indispensable in Democracy: The reasons — (o) security of the state; (6) to increase knowledge and skill; (c) a birthright; (d) power and money essential; (e) school an aspect of democracy. The Meaning of Education: What is education? factors in education; education complex; universal education. Making Education Democratic: Individuahsm vs. collectivism; coopera- tion vs. force; progress against obstacles; needed reorganizations; univer- sities produce leaders; vision for men in industry. Teaching Democracy: Democracy and humanism; methods in securing ideals — (1) ultimate, single control; (2) didactic assertion; (3) curriculum changes; (4) expression or practice; (5) consciously developed attitudes; (6) emotionahsm; (7) specific education for patriotism; (8) health; (9) at- tendance, and cure of elimination; (10) vocational education not mere addition. Summary. Problems. Selected References. The Basis of Society Preliminary considerations. In our study of the facts and principles underlying the movement for vocational edu- cation lower than college graae, we shall encounter contro- versial points, considerable descriptive matter illustrative of contemporary practice but difficult of interpretation, and many unsolved problems. The writer will be content if, in addition to the presentation of some facts and sound prin- 1 2 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ciples deduced therefrom, he succeeds in stimulating in the reader a scientific as well as a sympathetic attitude toward these same unsolved problems of an important and interest- ing phase of public education. To become conscious of these problems and to bring to each question an attitude of open- mindedness and of kindly understanding, are steps more vital for progress than to offer as remedies ready-made solutions or pedagogical recipes. It is not easy to remove difficulties that have their deep root both in the characteristics of human nature and also in existing social and political conditions. One is tempted in trying to lead the reader toward a better knowledge of the vocational movement in education, to tarry long in the discussion of relevant facts concerning these charac- teristics of human nature, and of the underlying social and poUtical conditions which environ us. Of course, a thorough- going appraisal of systems of public education can be made only in the light of such preliminary considerations. We must be content, however, in the immediately following pages merely to suggest some of the psychological, social, and political start- ing points fundamental for our later and more descriptive pres- entations, and also to explain the various meanings attached to the term vocational education. All this we must try to do very briefly in the course of the first four or five chapters; then we may press on in the subsequent chapters to the exposition of the more specific and concrete matters of agricultural, in- dustrial, commercial, home-making, and other types of voca- tional education. The effort in the twelfth chapter to develop a technic for the practical application of the research-method will suggest fascinating and profitable fields for further study, revealing still more unsolved problems, but yielding the promise of a way of successful attack upon them through the applica- tion of scientific procedure. Finally, in view of widespread interest in the subject, we shall attempt an appraisal of psy- chology applied to industrial and educational problems. SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 3 It will be difficult for a student following the above plan to keep quite distinct the matter that is controversial from that which is descriptive or expository. In this present chapter, the writer sets forth arguments that might be denied by some who are not old-fashioned Americans, but he sets these arguments forth, believing that the assumptions involved therein are fundamental to the perpetuation of true democracy and ethical ideahsm. The reader who may not accept his assumptions will at least be awakened to a consciousness of the basal issues in- volved, and will therefore be better prepared to weigh the claims of the vocational emphasis as contrasted with the cultural and disciphnary tradition in public education. All may agree that there are too many advocates of education, radical or reaction- ary, who have no adequate philosophy or background for their propaganda. Having in mind the necessity of discriminating in this field between opinion and fact, we may now proceed in the present chapter to consider certain basal facts about the evolution of knowledge, human skill, and ethical standards. These facts attest the necessity of developing ideals as well as skill and knowledge, if men are to live in peaceful society. Reasons follow to show that general public education in our democracy must have concerted support in order that knowledge, skill, and also ethical, altruistic standards, all three being indis- pensable for human welfare, may increase. Finally, in the present chapter we shall sum up the agencies or means useful in effecting this combination of knowledge, skill, and ethical idealism in our American democracy. Enduring elements. A combination of this kind is one of . the foundation-stones of civilization. Buildings, farms, ma- chinery, railroads, ships, guns, laboratories, and banks are neces- sary although vanishing utensils and products of society, but the essential and permanent element of democratic society is an ideal. No present exigency should be permitted to separate 4 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION permanently the idealistic and the practical in an education supported by democracy — whether the "practical" be of the manual, or of the intellectual types of training. This is a good principle to set down at the outset of a discussion of a form of education that has much to do with production, the making of things, and the control of physical and chemical forces. (13) Emerging from primitive life mankind with the slow accumu- lation of knowledge and skill gained power. With skill came dominion over fire, light, the forest, the sea, and wild beasts; with added knowledge, disease and pestilences were also over- come, pain was diminished by anesthesia, and duration of life prolonged. Especially has the development of trained con- sciousness vanquished superstitions, and fear. However, knowledge and skill brought evils to mankind along with good. There are several kinds of evils and unhappiness that come to the race and to the individual with the evolution of knowledge : E. g., the man of thought foresees the inevitable course of nature in decay and death, — and these realizations may bring unhap- piness in hours of leisure. Rousseau thought fore-knowledge to be a true source of all our miseries. Ebbinghaus thinks that art and music had one primitive beginning in the reaction from this unhappiness, as well as in the expression of excessive or playful energies. Some formal expressions of religion may have begun in the reactions of man's consciousness of his relative minuteness and helplessness in the universe. (8) Still another unhappiness which results from knowledge, and for which society also has evolved a corresponding antidote, is the misuse of accrued knowledge and skill and power by the more fortunate or the stronger individuals and groups of men who follow low ideals or none, and exploit and even enslave their fellows. Thence came slavery, caste, robbery, wars of aggran- dizement — with their attendant long trains of evils, such as cruelty, ignorance, poverty, disease, weakness, and degenera- tion. However, the misuse of knowledge, skill, and power SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 5 through centuries of costly experience has taught mankind that the majority must agree to unite in suppressing evil-doing. Ideals of conduct must be both defined and also maintained, as well as skill and knowledge. Some of these universalized agreements of society are written visibly in constitutions, statutes, and laws. Other consensuses regarding right conduct are invisible yet potent forces in the form of customs, tradi- tions, sentiments, and aims and ideals — the last being definite products of creative imagination. To us in America the word democracy is the symbol for all that is best in common agreement, sentiment, and determination of a collective people — whether expressed in book or in con- science. This solidarity of understanding and approval and feeling constitutes the psychic basis of democracy, and is the most real and durable element of the structure. The essential fact stands out clearly that neither knowledge nor skill nor both combined, can be sufficient for human welfare, especially in a democracy where the good of the people is cherished. Ability to make and enforce law, imagination to create aims and good ideals, and sentiments and emotions that react habitually to the true, beautiful and good — these are quite as essential as accumulation of fact, or as specialized accuracy and speed of coordinated brain, eye, and hand. Thus there is a psychological and ethical explanation for the development of a true vocational education to inculcate a combination of knowledge, skill, and idealistic sentiment — a basis indicated emphatically as indis- pensable in the hard experiences of the race. The unimagin- able suffering of the World War is a result that accrued where knowledge and skill, without controlHng aims and ideals truly democratic, were unleashed upon the world. Idealism in America. The democracy of the United States in points of magnitude, duration, economic progress, and reali- zation of individual liberty, surpasses the restricted Athenian democracy, is rivaled by superb France, and Switzerland, and 6 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION shares the strong spirit of our brothers in Canada and England. Not alone is it wealth, potential and achieved, that drew here men of all races. We whose fathers have dwelt in America longest know that in our constitution and statutes, and habitu- ated in our every-day thinking, there are steadfast principles such as these: In the life of the individual there will be liberty compatible with the welfare of the majority of the inhabitants; freedom of personal development and expression will be main- tained, but standards of conduct will be established and pro- tected for the betterment of society. The zealous protection of women and children is seen in unremitting efforts toward progressive legislation to meet changing social and economic conditions, and there is cherished a survival of the nobler senti- ments of chivalry as concerns women and children. Equality of opportunity is a right, and cooperation in civic responsibiHty is a duty, in American democracy. Life in its fullness, true liberty, and the pursuit of happiness based on health, knowledge, and achievement, are as yet found nowhere on this globe, but .all these surely have been nearest to realization in the United States and in Canada, blessed of all countries of a world re- turned temporarily to fierce struggle for elemental things. In the social consciousness of seasoned Americans we can also dis- cern, aside from mawkish sentimentality, a collective, emotional reaction in which are mingled sentiments of admiration for our soil, our mountains, our lakes, our mines, and forests — for the very land itself and for the pioneer-conquerors of it, along with convictions held in common concerning the essentials of govern- ment and of union, that make for determined solidarity and brotherhood, a true patriotism for both peace and war. Education Indispensable in Democracy The reasons. If the essence of democracy consists of these habitual sentiments and convictions which are nourished in SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 7 common by the increasing millions of our population, who never- theless are more and more remote in time from the aggressive spirits who established these principles in our land, then meas- ures can be undertaken by us who now live, for the strengthen- ing of such habits of mind until they become increasingly per- manent. The perpetuity of the elements of our democracy will b(3 uncertain, unless there be effective preparation to train each new generation, and all newcomers, for social participation in the manifold phases of modern life, as well as for industrial efficiency. The best instrument for this undertaking is the pub- lic educational system, from kindergarten through university. There are some persons who are still lukewarm or dubious about the mission or the efficacy of the public school supported as a fundamental phase of democratic life. Echoes survive of the voice of Herbert Spencer opposing education of a man's children by the government; and of J. S. Mill contending that education should be at the charge of the parent. On the other hand, strong notes for support and for fearless readjustments of pubHc education are being sounded to-day by trained schoolmen and women of enlightened, democratic spirit. One could easily adduce many expressions from publicists and American states- men firmly asserting the principle of the oneness of democracy and education. For example, "Educate and inform the whole mass of the people," said Thomas Jefferson, "no other sure foundation can be devised for the preservation of freedom and happiness." We prefer for our present purpose to tabulate in succession (a, b, c, d, e) the reasons why a government of true democracy, whatever may be its various administrative sub- divisions, supports public education. Reasons why the incorporated people should establish and maintain education have been formulated repeatedly by men of renown, from Plato to Woodrow Wilson. (5) A type of educa- tion is desirable for civilization even in a monarchy, but that universal education in a democracy is imperative appears from 8 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION this summary of reasons, which deserve frequent repetition be- fore the youth of this country, and indeed before many peoples. (a) Security of the state. Since each child born is a possible factor either toward betterment or destruction of the state, the state in self-protection must be attentive to the conditions af- fecting the maturing of the plastic generation. (23) The suf- frage, the referendum, and the necessity for prevention of crime and degeneracy, each renders education an indispensable meas- ure for social security upon the part of the state. (b) To increase knowledge and skill. The accumulation of knowledge and skill has made man a master of fire and electricity. Through knowledge he has dispelled savage superstition, and conquered many plagues, and filled hours of leisure with music, art, and philosophy. The continuance of prosperity, sustenance, adequate supply of food and clothing and shelter for our en- larging population, measures of miUtary and naval defense, competition in commerce and industry, the disappearance of ap- prenticeship, the necessity of transmission of culture and moral- ity and law to our successors^all these vital conditions render necessary the support of pubHc education by concerted action of the people, in order to increase knowledge and skill. (c) A birthright. It is a fact in common experience, com- memorated by poets more remote than Lucretius, and attested by biology and psychology, that the human being is peculiarly helpless in infancy, a being immature, sensitively responsive to physical or psychic stimuli which environ him at birth and during infancy, childhood, and adolescence. As the lungs have a right to air, the stomach to food, eyes to sunlight — a demo- cratic view of life is that every child has a birthright to that environment best suited to his potentially useful capacities. The state controls this general environment into which the child is bom perforce (16). Therefore the state must assure to every child his birthright, an environment indicated best, we believe, by the concept "education," in its broad implication. SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 9 (d) Power and money essential. The task of public education is so stupendous that only by the authority, powers, and re- sources of government can it be estabhshed and maintained, (23) The leadership and supreme authority in public education upon the part of authorized organization of the whole people, are not inconsistent with the operation of other useful agencies in edu- cation, private or denominational, conducted compatibly with the sound principles of humanism; principles which, we have faith to beheve, are at the basis of true Americanism. The state has power and money to support education, and the state alone can enforce universal standards regarding the health, the in- tellectual, and the industrial training, and ethical rules, stand- ards which are both incentives and also safeguards in the de- velopment of all the people. (e) School an aspect of democracy. Public education, in a sense, is, in fact, an aspect of democracy, one inevitable form of its expression. The Meaning of Education What is education? Better realization of the possibilities of democracy in assuring lile, liberty, and the pursuit of happi- ness, and more money for the school, might result from general deliberation upon the above often-stated reasons for the support of education by every phase of our organized people, be it federal, state, county, township, municipality, or other con- tributory agencies. It is opportune in this connection also to bring in rapid review before the people certain basal facts about the nature of education, its instruments, the difficulties, and the present status of this our greatest American undertak- ing. One could compile a small volume to include attempts at defining education. We may agree to indicate by the term the attempt to modify human beings in accordance with chosen ideals and aims. (22) 10 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Factors in education. The broadening relations of educa- tion emphasize the truth that many elements and changes other than the teacher and the school are operative in modifying the human organism. It is necessary only to hint at the possible effects of climate, heat, cold, moisture, dryness, proximity to or remoteness from the sea, disease, occupation, the family, the crowd, the church, the press, the theater, peace, and war upon individuals, groups, or races. So impressive is the magnitude of modern educational machinery that the incessant operation of these other agencies of change in innumerable forms may be forgotten, if we neglect the fundamental characteristics of formal education as an undertaking to modify, to alter, to de- velop, or to suppress, the original inheritances of man's nature. We may not be able directly to cause or to prevent various changes in the young generation dwelhng daily for some years within the schoolhouse. It is convenient, when we define edu- cation as a formal process, to say that it is an effort to cause or to prevent modifications in human beings in accordance with a chosen aim or ideal, but at best, we can only manipulate stimuli and environment in a manner conducive to the desired changes in the human organism. Education complex. Education therefore is not properly a daily task for a sleepy pedagogue, a pedant, or a mere wage- earner. There are profound problems in physics, chemistry, zoology, physiology, psychology, hygiene, as well as in ethics, economics, industry, and occupations before the professional educator of to-morrow. Other subjects at this point are sug- gested which concern the more perfect realization of an educa- tional system, considered as an integral part of our developing structure of democracy. These subjects are: The nature of universal education, and the organization and practical admin- istration of universal education compatible with individualism and avoidance of waste, i. e., the problems of making education democratic and of teaching democracy. SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY U Universal education. Public education, as a deliberate at- tempt upon the part of the state to mold human beings, can have no narrow aim, restricted ideals, or be exclusive privilege of caste, of sect, of wealth, or of poverty. The process touches all ages of men, both sexes, all races, and is to be articulated with all socially desirable occupations of agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry; of the extraction of minerals; of the manufacturing and mechanical industries of the factory, building, or hand- trades; of commerce; of public service; of professional service; of domestic and personal activities; and with the merely clerical occupations. Universal education includes in its scope the appropriate training in skill, or in knowledge, of those human beings who exhibit extreme individual variation from their kind, whether the variation be destructive or abnormal, or one of unusual mental capacity, the supernormal, or of the defective — such as the feeble-minded, the confirmed delinquent; and it includes training of the bKnd, and the deaf, and the crippled, whether they be victims of birth, of industrial accident, or of war. There are to-day kindergartens, primary grades, grammar grades, intermediate schools, junior high schools, classical high schools, commercial high schools, technical high schools, in- dustrial, trade, continuation, part-time, and evening schools. Scores of differentiations in school work to adapt the school to individual and community need are familiar to us, e. g., open-air classes, oral teaching of the deaf, classes for epileptics, schools using the preventive mode of attack upon vice and crime. And in addition, utilized by a fractional percentage of our population (less than one per cent), there are the colleges, the professional schools, and the universities. Whatever may be one's verbal definition of universal education, a ghmpse of this Hst of typical kinds of educational machinery at work in our country reveals the presence of multitudinous, formal instru- ments of education which, if they were well coordinated for 12 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the higher purposes of democracy conceived as organized humanism, would constitute a near-reaUzation of universal education in practice. Naming solely in general terms the kinds of schools which we have developed in varied forms to meet different needs, is not sufficient to indicate fully the complexity and the magnitude of the task of maintaining practically a system of universal education. Within each school class there are differentiated types of groups and of individuals. The skillful adjustment of instruction to individual differences and to the inevitable groupings of the population are incessant difficulties in public education. Even pupils of the same chronological age differ in anatomical and physiological maturity, in mental growth, capacity and interests, and we shall illustrate in succeeding pages the manifold groupings into which mankind falls even in a relatively homogeneous population. Making Education Democratic Individualism vs. collectivism. Both collective striving for universal education and also the vigorous expression of in- dividualism are witnessed in our forms of educational ma- chinery. The present status is not without danger, lest conflict, waste, and chaos result from the failure to coordinate in prac- tical administration the whole school machinery of the nation, through the power of broadly democratic and educational ideals, clarified and made controlling in the thinking, customs, and laws of our swelling population. Educators often have wasted time in debates about words. The difficulties of some teachers in mental reconstruction, in surrendering personal prejudices (or, at least, in keeping in proper relation to each other those educational aims or ends which are immediate or proximate in nature, and in keeping them distinct from those ends, aims, and ideals which are consummate or ultimate in nature), are persistent obstructions to better realization of SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 13 universal education. All of the traditional notions of formal and of mental discipline, e. g., culture, development, perfection, utility, knowledge, etc., as aims in education still have their place, and, clarified, doubtless will continue, but they will be subordinated to a high ultimate aim for education, an education intended to produce men and women who live in health, in economic productivity, in civic intelligence, in observance of standards of conduct, and in the happiness of brotherhood, whatever be the occupation or status of the individual. Neither crass materialism, on the one hand, nor obsolete asceticism, on the other, will suffice in place of this unifying conception of the mission of public education. An individualism bringing personal isolation — in essence selfishness and fear — is as incompatible with American de- mocracy as a radical socialism and collectivism which knows not the individual. In the struggle to define and maintain the sane and righteous balance between the demands of the in- dividual and of the group, comes the trial of democracy. A critic of the democracies so labelled in history, thinks that popular govermnents imply a breaking up of political power into morsels, and the giving to each person an infinitesimally small portion. "They (democracies) rest upon universal suffrage, which is the natural basis of tyranny; they are unfavorable to intellectual progress and the advance of scientific truth; they lack stability; and they are governments by the ignorant and unintelligent." Further, declares Maine, "By a wise constitu- tion democracy may be made as calm as the water in a great artificial reservoir; but if there is a weak point anywhere in its structure, the mighty force which it controls will burst through it and spread destruction far and near."(ll) Maine's fear of democracy seems based upon the assumption that prejudice and ignorance render the masses more dangerous than the controUing few, because the masses will run counter to scientific conclusions — and the agonies of Russia seem to support the 14 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION theory. This expressed principle, however, illustrates first, the necessity of universal, public education including inculca- tion of sentiments of liberty, equality, fraternity, loyalty — the excellent prejudices of democracy, and secondly, the fact that they who control, be they representatives or be they mon- archs, must be animated by democratic ideals to guide the uses of science at their disposal. The public education we have achieved in America, and the encouraging success of our de- mocracy now adequately tested, demonstrate that we have learned how to upbuild and to perpetuate democracy through the instruments of public education and of ideals made potent in high places. Cooperation vs. force. ''An order in an autocracy is a com- mand, in a democracy it is a call to cooperation" — declares a modern phrase-maker. The effective organization, coordina- tion, and practical administration of all the resources of in- vestment, income, officials, and teachers enlisted in public education, might be promoted better through the spread of democratic idealism, and of clear-cut comprehensions of edu- cational science, than by the sudden centralizing of political power in education, or through undemocratic imposition of force by the Federal Government. Thus may we hope to bring into more effective articulation within our states the diverse forms of education maintained by the people, and also to include in this articulation more satisfactorily to all concerned the educa- tional instruments of the church and of endowed institutions. The seemingly unsatisfactory organization of American edu- cation can be understood only by reference to conditions of its origin and tremendous growth. Not referred to in the Federal Constitution, public education was an interest left to the states. The development of federal policies toward education has been slow but positive, as evinced by land grants, the establishment of the Bureau of Education, the passage of the Morrill Act and the Smith-Lever Act, the direct participation of governmental SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 15 authorities in the educational work of Hawaii, the Philippines, Alaska, and Porto Rico, and by the enactment recently of the Smith-Hughes Act. We interpret the federal policy as one of encouragement, enlightenment, and aid toward education. Direction towards uniformity and minimal essentials, where these are desirable, without cramping individual or local initi- ative, is an increasing tendency discerned especially in the Smith-Hughes Act, the administration of which is being ob- served keenly by teachers and citizens. Progress against obstacles. Of interest are the present status and the evolution of characteristic state, county, town- ship, town and municipal organizations of education within our forty-eight states. Public education has developed in spite of early conditions adverse to education — the primitive conditions of the wilderness, poverty, persistent ideas of caste, the inevitable development of crazed radicals and of stubborn obstructionists among our millions of people, and amid the rapid economic changes due to exploration, increasing popula- tion, and the production and expenditure of amazing wealth. Students of educational organization, surveying to-day the fail- ures and successes in our administration of education, are able with some certitude to draw the outlines of better, if not ideal, organization of the forces of state, county, and municipality. Needed reorganizations. The important distinctions be- tween the lay function of educational control — that of legisla- tion, consideration of policies, finance, and the employment of experts, and the professional function — that of the expert executive, the director of departments, supervisors, principals, or teachers, are distinctions being better recognized. Boards and superintendents and teachers are improving. Neverthe- less, the reign of the district trustee is not ended. To the number of thirty thousand and more in some states they exert in zealous holding to an exploded notion of democracy, a varied and often paralyzing educational control of the schools. Rural education 16 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION suffers from the delay in sensible county reorganization. Munic- ipalities are showing encouraging tendencies toward the small school board appointed, or elected at large, and the services of a trained and professional superintendent; but there are cities where schools still remain under the domination of political rings, and there are, alas, a few superintendents in name who are tools of cliques, excrescences upon both education and American democracy. Universities produce leaders. Statistics show that the leadership in great things as a rule has been held by men and women trained in our higher institutions of learning. This is a tribute to the efficiency of the hundreds of noble men and women who have given their lives to labors of instruction and research within our higher institutions. Their production of leadership does not seem to diminish. However, our universi- ties, state, endowed, and denominational, and our colleges, and normal schools, are undergoing scrutiny, questioning, and, in some instances, wholesome transformation. In the process of self-examination some strange products of systems of selection of men by mere criteria of degrees and publications, or worse, by sole criteria of personal, social, or political influence, are occasionally uncovered. Here and there men are found in normal schools, colleges, and universities, posing as peculiarly fit teachers of chosen youths in this democratic nation, men who might be employed better at simple manual labor, or in clerk- ships. Egotism, and oracularism parading in the name of science, complacency in the guise of the professional philosopher, ignorance and bad manners in the guise of a type of culture, anti- American, and anti-social notions flaunted in the name of prog- ress, small souls striving for livelihood, conspicuity, or leader- ship, whether in lower or in higher schools — such as these are aliens in the sphere of education for democracy. Vision for men in industry. A few conspicuous men in in- dustry have attempted publicly to belittle the work of the SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 17 public school. Abuses in the schools exist, and these abuses demand correction. Many of the criticisms of individuals doubtless result from petty conceptions, ignorance, and wrong evaluat'on of personal successes. Thousands of men in industry and in professions directly serve the schools, as members of school boards, giving unselfishly of time and thought for the public welfare. Labor unions, and corporations, each group in turn, have established special vocational schools to meet urgent needs, or have entered into cooperative agreements with exist- ing public schools, thus evincing faith in formal education. Millions of dollars of taxation are contributed annually by citizens for the support of the schools — a matter of accepted custom and law. Not only do schools need transformation, but industry also needs modification continually to conform to the ideals of de- mocracy. A fair distribution of earnings between employer and employee, reasonable hours of labor, precautions against the evils of narrow specialization, and of "speeding up" processes, as they affect the individual, and the assurance of safety against industrial accidents and diseases of occupation, the protection of women and children in industry — all these are desirable ob- jects in industry, as well as are high-powered efficiency, and in- creased production. Education for workers in a democracy demands recognition of these objects, but in order to concede them, men who control both industries and schools must have far-reaching vision of the social significance of occupation. A real danger toward perpetuation of a caste tendency in our existing industrial system is thus expressed by the philos- opher John Dewey: Sentimentally, it may seem harsh to say that the greatest evil of the present regime is not found in poverty and in the suffering which it entails, but in the fact that so many persons have callings which make no appeal to them, which are pursued simply for the money reward that accrues. For such callings constantly provoke one to aversion, 18 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ill will, and a desire to slight and evade. Neither men's hearts nor their minds are in their work. On the other hand, those who are not only much better off in worldly goods, but who are in excessive, if not monopolistic, control of the activities of the many are shut off from equality and generality of social intercourse. They are stimulated to pursuits of indulgence and display; they try to make up for the dis- tance which separates them from others by the impression of force and superior possession and enjoyment which they can make upon others. It would be quite possible for a narrowly conceived scheme of voca- tional education to perpetuate this division in a hardened form. Tak- ing its stand upon a dogma of social predestination, it would assume that some are to continue to be wage earners under economic conditions like the present, and would aim simply to give them what is termed a trade education — that is, greater technical efficiency. Technical proficiencj' is often sadly lacking, and is surely desirable on all ac- counts—not merely for the sake of the production of better goods at less cost, but for the greater happiness found in work. For no one cares for what one cannot half do. But there is a great difference between a proficiency limited to immediate work, and a competency extended to insight into its social bearings; between efficiency in carrying out the plans of others and in forming one's own. At present, intel- lectual and emotional limitation characterizes both the employing and the employed class. (7) There are four vivid characteristics of our American education : First, the magnitude of present educational efforts, whether estimated by the twenty millions of young lives enrolled, or by the eight hundred millions of dollars expended yearly for education; secondly, the variability in educational organiza- tions, administration, methods, and expense; thirdly, the per- sistence of fundamental convictions, aspirations, and faith toward education in the minds of our one hundred millions of people, most of whom are toilers; fourth, the conflict between efficiency aims and ethical idealism. Now that the pillars of civilization have trembled, well may we pause to reflect upon our educational system as it affects democracy, to examine SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 19 present democracy as affecting education, and to consider both education and democracy in the hght of human experience, in order that we may renew our zeal for our country and our be- hef in humanity. There should be no permanent gap between demogratic idealism and any form of public education. Teaching Democracy Democracy and humanism. We desire renewed cooperation by all agencies in education, by citizens and by teachers, the press, the churches, the homes, and industrial organizations, in order to conduct an education suited for life in our American democracy, which to-day presents the greatest opportunity in the world's history wherein to work out the ideals of human brotherhood. By a turning to practical idealism in our schools, we can all work profitably for democracy. If teachers, writers, preachers, industrial leaders, philosophers, and psychologists, would help to disseminate to the people clearer, simpler con- ceptions about the nature of education and its inevitable re- lations to the fundamentals of democracy, they would render a patriotic service the results of which should be enduring. We have referred to American democracy as symbolizing all that is best in common agreement, sentiment, and determi- nation of a collective people who have tested the worth of de- mocracy through the storms of more than a century. This experience and contemporary world events increase our con- fidence in the system and awaken forethought to safeguard and improve American democracy. There has been the matter of overcoming vicious idealism, autocracy, Prussian mihtarism, which have brought cataclysms. There is now amongst us some anarchism, and a pestilential propaganda called bolshevism. It is opportune to take up the matter of methods and means for perpetuating the best American habits, convictions, sentiments, and attitudes in the mind of the present and future public. 20 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION These mental conditions constitute the foundation rock of our democracy. The schools, i^s well as the Army and Navy, are a tremendous engine for defense, and for effecting changes in human nature in times both of war and of peace. An idea inculcated firmly in the minds of the Prussian children of twenty or thirty years ago ("With God, for King and Fatherland") found atrocious expression in Belgium and on the high seas. In America we are reaping to-day the rich mental and social fruitage of the convic- tions concerning "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" inculcated in the minds of our children of a score of years ago, and of their fathers. Who can predict adequately, therefore, the ultimate results for humanity in the lives of the unnumbered millions yet to be born, if the schools of to-day should effectually inculcate the purest ideals of democracy refined in the fires of the cen- tury and a half of our national existence and in the recent ex- periences of the World War? Methods in securing ideals. Opportunity exists for those who are expert in the technique of instruction to discover and to evaluate all available methods of inculcating democratic ideals as consciously selected and followed goals in individual life. It is a phase of the complex problem of moral education, but the undertaking concerns in detail everything done in the school. Given the content for instruction in ideals the problem is to devise practical methods for making our ideals of democ- racy both conscious and also controlling in human lives. Great has been the demand for technique in imparting ele- mentary knowledge, and the present emphasis upon the vo- cational aspects of education now calls imperatively upon the teaching body for economical and effective methods for impart- ing skill in mechanical occupations. The present emergency magnifies the two demands for better methods for the acquisi- tion (a) of knowledge and (b) of mechanical skill. An important third issue appearing in each of these two problems— the acquisi- SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 21 tion of liberal knowledge and the acquisition of technical skill, is the introduction of ethical idealism into all teaching whether for knowledge or for skill. It is not the purpose of our study to enter very far into the detail of this question, how to teach ideals, the answer to which has been sought ably by such teach- ers as Hall, Thorndike, Bagley, Dewey, and McMurry. Ross observes, — "The overwhelming majority of people, bad as well as good, respond to some ideal or other. Chesterton is not far wrong when he says: 'Eveiy man is idealistic; only it so often happens that he has the wrong ideal. Every man is incurably sentimental; but, unfortunately, it is so often a false senti- ment.' "(19) It is said in this connection that we need sorely the develop- ment of "industrial intelligence" as well as industrial skill. A broad interpretation of industrial intelligence reads into this expression (a) an ethical idealism, as well as (b) information about industries of economic value to accompany (c) skill in the sense of manual dexterity and training, coordination of brain, eye, and hand. We venture to lay down tentatively the following outline of ten means whereby the ideals of democracy and also industrial intelligence may be developed in our schools. In practical con- tact with private individuals and with social and civic groups the superintendent and the professional educator simultane- ously utilize many channels to move forward ethical idealism. A distinction fundamental is that between the lay (legislative) and the professional (executive, supervisory) functions in school- administration. The first of these functions belongs to school boards; hence we speak first of this matter of control. 1. Ultimate, single control. Systems of public education whether organized into federal, state, municipal, county, or smaller units, should avoid rival boards of control. There should be ultimate, unitary control in order to enforce but one Jdnd of ideals, the ideals of democracy. Our Constitution and 22 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION practices provide safeguards to prevent perversion of unitary control to permanent autocracy. Dual or entirely independent systems of elementary education supported by public funds, whether set up by irreconcilable educational factions, by re- ligious denominations, or by partisan politics, are essentially wasteful and promotive of caste and have not proved satis- factory upon trial. Adherence to single control, however, does not negate the value of temporary boards, commissions, or other bodies for educational control, organized to estabhsh neglected phases of education in the face of academic opposi- tion, and constituted with representatives of the schools, labor, and capital, and with restricted and defined powers. An example of this emergency type of board, or commission, was the Federal Board for Vocational Education, organized to cooperate vitally with State Boards and with the United States Bureau of Edu- cation and other federal bureaus and departments. Both the spirit and the letter of the Smith-Hughes Act demanded con- siderable cooperation and unity of effort rather than rivalry or dualism; ultimate control inhered in appeal to Congress as well as in the legislatures of the States. If the work of the Federal Board should be entirely absorbed by a national Department of Education, there should still remain a safe-guarding of one- ness of aim and administration compatible with democracy. A good type of unitary state control is one in which the Code and the Statutes of a state authorize: (1) A small, appointive, or elective-at-large Board of Education composed of intelhgent laymen; (2) that these laymen appoint an expert educator to discharge executive and professional functions as head of the State Department of Education; (3) that this executive (Com- missioner of Education) nominates other trained persons to be executives of various divisions of his Department, — such as Division of Elementary Education, Division of High Schools, Division of Vocational Education, Division of Health, Division of Educational Research, etc. The whole school system of the SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 23 state thus may be coordinated for teaching consistent with democracy. Universities and other special institutions are in- cluded in the scope of the above plan with boards affiliated with the State Board; (4) Municipal and County Boards advan- tageously could be modelled in similar but simpler form. 2. Didactic assertion, simple teaching of truths by word of mouth and by printed page has its place. Reaction from the Socratic doctrine that "virtue can be taught" need not lead us to utter abandonment of the principle that information, under- standing, facts, are conducive to steady action. When one con- siders the universality of imitation in the human mind, and the power of normal suggestion in modifying conduct of individuals and of groups — he is likely to magnify the utility of oral or written words in the inculcation of effective ideals. The ' ' winged word " is the most powerful of all instruments. The difficulty is that our words meant to convey deepest truths often lack the masterly utterance and timeliness of the great teachers — Jesus, Confucius, Socrates, Plato. 3. Curriculum changes. Educational research has uncov- ered wasteful practices in treadmill repetition and some in- consistent courses of study in our elementary and secondary schools. Encouraging progress is being made toward economies of time and effort, which will give better opportunity for em- phasis upon the civic and ethical bearings of every subject in the curriculum. 4. Expression or practice. Oral and incessant portrayal of ideals is not enough. There must be expression if the ideals are to be ingrained in life. Opportunities for development of expression inhere in the school, in shop, in play, in social or- ganizations, in participation of pupils in the multiplying ac- tivities incident to the war, such as thrift campaigns, gardening, and the Boy Scout movement. The day is past when the teacher of language, or mathematics, or manual training, or science, or history, or civics, or hygiene, may consider safely his subject 24 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION as of value in itself and to be taught to receptive or merely ab- sorptive students regardless of any bearings that the subject may have upon active or community life. Every teacher may consciously indoctrinate and make active the principles of de- mocracy as revealed in his subject — be they the subordinate principles of culture, discipline, utility, knowledge, or skill. Only teachers who can do this thing are fully qualified for public education. There are abundant potential avenues in the schools for putting into practice the choicest ideals of equality, fra- ternity, liberty, fair play, team spirit, manly competition, sympathy, love of our country. 5. Consciously developed attitudes. The development of educational psychology has brought forward facts and methods of some general value to educational practice, as witness the psychology of instincts, of habit, of interest, of attention, of formal discipline, of the learning process, etc., the psychology of the elementary and high school subjects, and the tendency to- ward experimentation, or trial, rather than toward dependence upon debate and oratory in educational advancement. Some new light also has been thrown upon the psychology of preju- dices, set convictions, emotional attitudes. (Ic) Attitudes may be in large measure the product of controllable factors or situa- tions. It would seem that in the matter of inculcating ideals, and those mental complexes called attitudes, which embody both ideas and emotional factors — opportunity appears for practitioners of applied psychology to tell us more definitely how to develop consciously those desirable prejudices toward the good, which may be utilized in the development of individual character and for the stability of our democratic society. 6. Emotionalism. Aims and ideals to live in conduct must be rooted in the impulses, feelings, emotions and sentiments that often motivate life more deeply than perception or than reasoning. Cold-blooded analysis of fact, verbal portrayals of truth immaculate in rhetoric, but somehow totally lacking , SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 25 the qualities of appeal, are not always sufficient in teaching ethical and national ideas to pupils. Music, poetry, drama, real oratory, personal appeal, the Flag, the Church, each has a vital function not to be neglected and not to be relied upon as ex- clusively sufficient. 7. Specific education for patriotism. The sentiment of patriotism is a refined form of emotion. Abiding patriotism in the individual includes definite ideas developed by the people of the nation as concerns the common good, equality, liberty, and the principles for which our fathers fought. It includes also the affective glow of feeling which combined with the ideas about principles, pioneers, country, constitute the sentiment of patriotism — a subtle sentiment to analyze, but a real, stupen- dously powerful social energy. The point is, there are definite ideas and facts to be nourished in engendering patriotism, ideas found in the Declaration of Independence, in the Constitution, in the non-sectional history of our country, and in the expres- sion of choice thoughts of our great men. E. g. : thus spoke on July 4, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson at the tomb of Washington: The associations by which we are here surrounded are the inspiriting associations of that noble death which is only a glorious consummation. From this green hillside we also ought to be able to see with compre- hending eyes the world that lies about us and should conceive anew the purposes that must set men free. It is significant — significant of their own character and purpose and of the influences they were setting afoot — that Washington and his associates, like the barons at Runnymede, spoke and acted not for a class but for a people. It has been left for us to see to it that it shall be understood that they spoke and acted not for a single people only but for all mankind. They were thinking not of themselves and of the material interests which centered in the little groups of landholders and merchants and men of affairs with whom they were accustomed to act, in Virginia 26 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and the colonies to the north and south of her, but of a people which wished to be done with classes and special interests and the authority of men whom they had not themselves chosen to rule over them. They entertained no private purpose, desired no peculiar privilege. They were consciously planning that men of every class should be free and America a place to which men out of every nation might re- sort who wished to share with them the rights and privileges of free men. (24) Teachers who nourish in their hearts loyalty to American ideals, and who know enough of history, tradition, and litera- ture to supply the indispensable basis of fact are the ones qualified to instill patriotism, and no others are. Whether the teacher's subject of instruction be German or science, Latin or gymnastics, English or machine work, the building trades, or home economics — the qualifications for loyalty and patriotism are essential in our democracy. 8. Health. "While some gifted persons may possess strong wills in spite of weak bodies, for most people physical and moral vigor are connected intimately," remarks Neumann. (18) Sam- uel Johnson's remark that the sick man is a scoundrel is given some credence by the numerous instances where vice, intemper- ance, gross indolence, harmful fears, obsessions, fanaticism, and crazed radicalism may be traced to bad health or physical weakness. One of the other functions of public education, in addition to the establishment of standards of individual conduct compatible with democracy and the development of individual capacity to share in social life, is to provide the best conditions for the conservation of physical strength, for the prevention of disease and of accident. New meaning therefore will attach to the administration of all valid health and safety measures in our effort to conduct a public education conducive to the up- building of true democracy. In our emphasis upon the spiritual, or upon ethical ideahsm, we cannot afford to ignore the other, the physical aspect of the human organism, whatever may be SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 27 our metaphysical theory of the nature of the mind-body rela- tion. 9. Attendance, and cure of elimination. Our public schools will never serve completely all the people (a) until we achieve compulsory and regular attendance during an adequate school year, and (b) until the present evil of premature elimination is overcome. Schools which in upper grades and in the high schools educate only a small, fortunate fraction of the population may be contributing to caste and an aristocratic tendency. That less than a seventh of the pupils who enter the first elementary grade have been graduating at the average American high school is due to factors in the pupil, in society, and in the school, worthy of serious study and determined remedial effort. 10. Vocational education not mere addition. Merely to add vocational courses to the existing school as though they were something entirely different from the educational process and intended only for a distinct group of pupils is a wrong con- ception of public education. The whole fabric of education — elementary, secondary and higher, needs renovation in accord with a vocational end compatible with democracy and universal education. This renovation should be accomplished in a con- structive spirit taking care to conserve, not to destroy, the best in existing schools. The schools of the past half century succeeded marvelously in safeguarding the ideals of democracy. Otherwise, how came during the World War the unanimity of action, the oneness of purpose and of whole-hearted effort of our people working and fighting to preserve the best of civilization and to make the world "safe for democracy"? Our industrial unpreparedness and inability to furnish trained men quickly for and from those industries demanding skilled labor was revealed during the War as a weak point in the prod- uct of our schools. The problem of rectifying our errors in 28 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION industrial education and, indeed, of supplying adequate voca- tional training of many other kinds is emphasized for schoolmen and citizens by the World War. In the meantime, we will con- tinue to conserve and cherish the best in our educational system, which delivered for world service our armies of millions of young men — healthy, clean-minded, efficient, imbued with the ardor and conviction of democracy. Summary 1. Thoroughgoing discussion of vocational education lower than college grade, especially a discussion including reference to the historical background, the psychology of human nature, and the concrete practices in the field, inevitably encounters controversial along with descriptive matter. We may safely accept the statement that the evolution of human society reveals the necessity of ethical ideals along with the increas- ing skill of hand and accumulating knowledge. Disaster and horrors have come repeatedly to individuals and to peoples because of neglect of this principle. In democracy it cannot be forgotten. 2. Formal education, in the schools, is the recognized instru- ment for perpetuating skill, knowledge, and ideals. The five specific reasons why the state, as the incorporated people, must support education, should be familiar to every student and citizen. 3. Education, regarded as process, is the effort to make or to prevent changes in human beings according to some aim and ideal. There are numerous controllable factors in effecting these changes, some within, others without the school. The undertaking is highly complex and chal- lenges the best professional thought and energy when we accept the program of universal education. 4. The common ideals of American democracy are pretty well SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 29 established, known or felt. Theorists who bring up alleged difficulties in reconciling the claims of individuals and of groups within the schools are needlessly alarmed. The traditional ideals of the past vigorously advocated for education by eminent individuals or by collective groups great or small, can be reconciled by the application of the principle of relativity or balancing of aims. The individual- ism bringing voluntary personal isolation — in essence selfishness or fear, is as incompatible with American de- mocracy as a radical socialism and collectivism which knows not the individual. In general, the ideals of Ameri- can democracy have thoroughly dominated our public schools, which have had enormous growth in spite of early obstacles. In articulating the schools with industry, men in industry as well as pupils and teachers in the schools need a broad vision of the significance of education and of the dignity of human labor rightly directed. It is futile dogmatism to lay down unchangeable rules of method whereby democracy may be safeguarded always in the schools. The undertaking is one that demands pe- culiar vigilance, intelligence, loyalty. The new emphasis upon the vocational aspects of education, however, necessi- tates effort to formulate tentatively the important means to supply the needed safeguard. We have enumerated ten in number, as suggested by these topics: (1) Securing an ultimate single not dual control; (2) didactic assertion of ideals; (3) curriculum changes; (4) emphasis upon prac- ticing ideals; (5) development of fixed attitudes; (6) regu- lated emotionalism; (7) specific education in patriotic facts; (8) conservation of health as the basis of sane thought; (9) cure of premature elimination of pupils from school; (10) regarding vocational education as more than a mere addition and recognizing the need of educational reorgani- zation. 30 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION We have been speaking of the benefits of general pubUc edu- cation as a factor in safeguarding democracy, and as the engine to build ethical ideals as well as knowledge and skill. We are concerned definitely in this book only with one important as- pect of public education — the vocational. In the next chapter, therefore, we must examine the meaning of the phrase "voca- tional education." Problems 1. Is there any particular kind of existing school best suited to inculcate democratic ideals in the minds of the people? Describe it. 2. Formulate arguments for the public support of different phases of education, — i. e., (a) physical, (b) moral, (c) in- tellectual, (d) industrial. 3. Seek concrete cases to show the distinctions between knowl- edge and skill. 4. Explain the meanings of the concepts, altruism, humanism, socialism, individualism, anarchy, egotism, obsession. 5. Show how Prussian ideals modified the course of the World War. 6. To what extent are opportunities for universal education offered in your state or city, or county? 7. Tabulate reasons alleged by some persons as opposing the public schools. Consider each allegation. 8. In the technique of teaching ideals, what other means are promising in addition to the ten enumerated? 9. What is your ultimate, highest general aim in life? State various immediate or contributory aims, or ideals. 10. In what ways has the World War made plain certain ex- cellencies and defects of our pubUc schools? Apply the question to your local school system. 11. Before reading the following chapter, endeavor to formu- late different interpretations of the phrase "vocational education." SAFEGUARDING AMERICAN DEMOCRACY 31 SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Bagley, W. C. (a) Classroom Management; Its Principles and Technique. N. Y., 1907, 322 p. (fe) Craftsmanship in Teaching. N. Y., 1911, 247 p. (c) Educational Values. N. Y., 1911, 267 p. 2. Bechterew, W. M. (tr. P. Keraval; from Russian). La suggestion et son role dans la vie socials. Paris, 1910, 270 p. 3. Binet, Alfred. La suggestibilite. Paris, 1900, 392 p. 111. 4. Cubberley, E. P. State and County Educational Reorganization. N. Y., 1914, 257 p. An attempt to set forth in its larger outlines the main lines of edu- cational organization and administration along which we must travel if substantial educational progress is to be made. 5. Cubberley, E. P., and Elliott, E. C. State and County School Ad- ministration. N. Y., 1915, 729 p. A source book of materials, pertinent documents, and typical records illustrative of principles of state and county school adminis- tration. 6. Deffenbaugh, W. S. Current Practice in City School Administration. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin 8, 1917, 98 p. Data concerning school board organization, administration, and supervision in Ameri- can cities. 7. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. N. Y., 1916, 434 p. 8. Ebbinghaus, Hermann. Psychology (tr. and ed. by Meyer). Boston, 1908, 215 p. 111. 9. Education in Patriotism. U. S. Bureau of Education Leaflet 2, 1918, 10 p. A synopsis of the manifold agencies at work. 10. Flexner, Abraham. A Modern School. The General Education Board. N. Y., 1917, 24 p. 11. Garner, James Wilford. Introduction to Political Science. N. Y., 1910, 616 p. Pp. 318-321. A text-book setting forth important theories concerning the origin, nature, functions, and organization of the state. 12. Hall, G. S. Educational Problems. N. Y., 1911, 2 v. 13. Hill, David S. The Psychology of Democracy in Public Education. Scientific Monthly, May, 1919, pp. 442-455. 14. Maine, Henry. Popular Government. N. Y., 1886, 251 p. 15. McDonald, R. A. F. Adjustment of School Organization to Various Population Groups. N. Y., 1915, 145 p, 32 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 16. McKechnie, W. S. The State and the Individual. Glasgow, 1896, 451 p. 17. McMurry, Charles. Conflicting Principles in Teaching and How to Adjust Them. N. Y., 1917, 290 p. 18. Neumann, Henry. Moral Values in Secondary Education. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin 51, 1917, 37 p. A report of the Com- mission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, appointed by the N. E. A. 19. Ross, Edward A. Social Psychology. N. Y., 1912, 372 p. 20. Sutherland, Alexander. The Origin and Growth of the Moral Instinct. London, New York, 1898. 2 v. 21. Terman, L. M. Health of the School Child. N. Y., 1914, 417 p. 22. Thorndike, E. L. Education, N. Y., 1912, 292 p. 111. 23. Wilson, Woodrow. The State. Boston 1908, 656 p. Elements of historical and practical politics. 24. Wilson, President Woodrow. (a) War Message to the American Congress. (b) Address at the tomb of George Washington, July 4, 1918. CHAPTER II THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Contemporary Demands and Interpretations: What is vocational edu- cation? Demands for the practical. Different provisions needed. Divorce impracticable. Six Contemporary Interpretations: (a) Fad; (6) the narrowly practical; (c) production vs. consumption; (d) specialized efficiency vs. adaptability; (e) utility; (/) vocational education compatible with idealism. Educational Ideals and Distinctions: Balancing aims; divisions of vo- cational education; practical arts courses distinct. Standardizing Terms: (1) Vocational education; (2) professional edu- cation; (3) vocational commercial education; (4) commercial arts educa- tion; (5) vocational agricultural education; (6) agricultural arts education; (7) vocational industrial education; (8) industrial arts education; (9) vocational home-making education; (10) household arts education; (11) nautical education; (12) day vocational schools; (13) evening vocational schools; (14) continuation schools; (15) prevocational education; (16) vocational guidance. Characteristics of German Schools: Dangers in imitation; Volksschule, Gymnasium, Realschule; privileged groups; predestination; Fortbildung- schulen; Vorschulen and Einheitschulen; threefold errors; fallacies felt; no autocracy in America; curricula not static. Summary, Problems. Selected References. Contemporary Demands and Interpretations What is vocational education? The phases of education concerned chiefly with the practical appUcations of knowledge and skill in vocations (e. g., the occupations of the home; of the farmer; of the mechanic and factory worker; of the railroad, or nautical, or automobile man; of the miner; of the tradesman, merchant, clerk, or banker; of the barber, cook, waiter, janitor; of the engineer, doctor, minister, lawyer, journalist, artist, etc.) 33 34 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION these are types of vocational education. Stripping the term of * restricted meanings, we understand vocational education to be a phase of education emphasizing specific preparation for and participation in occupations of social value. If one should claim that the training of thieves, adulterators, and social parasites is vocational education, then the criterion of "social value" prevents the implication. Further on we shall see that one service of educational research is to disclose conditions that will estop the schools from training youth for blind- alley jobs, or aiding in schemes for the exploitation of boys and girls. Monroe (15) emphasizes the fact that in a sense all education is vocational because it aims to prepare for the more efficient and satisfactory performance of the activities of life. Liberal education in a sense is vocational, for it aims to prepare for the life of the gentleman, the statesman, the man of public affairs, or the ecclesiastic. It aimed to produce the philosopher of Greece, and the orator of Rome. Elementary education in its early historic stages was vocational, since it was preparatory to some higher form of education, (in the ordinary usage of the words, vocational education has become differentiated from the more general aspects of education. It includes train- ing in the practical application of knowledge and for distinct groups of workers, and is obtained both within and also out- side of the schoolhouse. | It is usually a difficult undertaking to preserve the differentiation of labor, methods, and equipment which make for occupational proficiency, without neglecting the development of the prospective worker into a citizen and man. The difficulty of access to the other, i. e., liberal educa- tion, once a youth is committed to any specialized vocational training, was one deplorable element in the Prussian schools. It aided the stratification of society into autocratic, cruel masters on the one hand, and efficient but automatically subservient people on the other. THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 35 Demands for the practical. The recent years of the world have revealed unprecedented economic conditions, and these raise the question, what has the education predominant in the public school to do, what part does it play, in the status of those (1) persons who are employed unhappily, as misfits; (2) persons who are employed viciously; (3) persons who are tem- porarily unemployed; (4) persons who are unemployable; (5) persons who are happily and usefully employed? Some critics have jumped to the conclusion that the schools having under control the majority of the population during ea^rly years of plasticity, are therefore chiefly responsible for unfavorable social and economic conditions. Reckless criti- cism forgets the principle set forth in an ancient Hindoo saying, that a man obtains a fourth of his education from nurture, a fourth from growth, a fourth from his companions, and a fourth from the school. The responsibility of the school in se- curing the health of the people, economic productivity, the transmission of knowledge and of skill, the establishment of standards of conduct — is supreme, but a sound educational theory and practice can not ignore other factors in the educative process. We refer to the home, the playground, the street, the theater, press, church, nutrition and food, climate, and occu- pation. Dissatisfaction with existing schools has also been fed by journalism. For example, here is quoted a widely-dissem- inated article by an able popular writer, Dr. Frank Crane, in McClure's, during 1917. THE UNTRAINED I have just graduated from the High School. I am supposed to be educated. The City has provided me for some years with skilled teachers and expensive apparatus of all kinds. I will tell you a few things I don't know. I know by heart several slices of Goethe and Schiller; but I don't know how to ask in German for a piece of bread and butter. 36 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION I know some irregular French verbs; but if I were lost in the streets of Paris I couldn't ask my way home. I can say amo, amas, amat, also e?i to oikio ton anthropon horo, but I cannot keep the ledger at my father's store nor send out his monthly statements. I am half-back on our team and know the quirks of passing the ball; but I don't know how to build a woodshed or shingle a roof. I can extract the square root of 9,273,642; but I don't know how to extract the milk from our cow. I know how to parse a sentence from Macaulay's Essays; but I don't know how to light a match in the wind or how to chop down a tree. I have studied Political Economy until my head is full of raw theories and long words; but I don't know the name of the alderman from our ward nor the congressman from our district. I can prove that the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the base and perpendicular; but I don't know how to hang wall-paper, put in a pane of glass or paint a buggy. I have taken fifty lessons in Chemistry; but I don't know enough to keep alcohol out of my system, I know nothing of food values and gorge myself on what pleases my palate. I received eighty-five per cent in English Literature; but I couldn't get fifteen dollars a week writing news for a newspaper, I can't write a readable letter, and my average conversation is about on a level with the sporting page. I don't know who our mayor is and nothing of our city government; but I know the names and have the pictures of all the prominent ac- tresses, prize-fighters and base-ball stars. I can order drinks at the Country Club; but I can't churn a good mess of butter, I don't know when to plant beans, I have no idea what kind of soil is good for corn, I can't tell a slippery elm from a hickory tree, I don't know the names of the grasses, mosses, ferns, and flowers in the woods I tramp over, I can't fry fish nor make coffee nor biscuit, and I don't know the names of the stars I see every night in the sky. Nobody has made me understand how to control my appetites, nor the laws and dangers of sex feeling, nor the need of discipline, nor the art of engaging conversation, nor the true nature of happiness. THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 37 I was educated according to the ancient formulas for producing a scholar and a gentleman, and I find I have to work for a living. I have no taste nor love for hard work, no habits of saving, no disposition to resist temptation, and no skill in doing anything the world is willing to pay for. I am wholly untrained for efficiency; and before I make good I will have to undo most that has been done to me in school. Different provisions needed. The investigations and re- ports of the National Society for the Study of Education are evidence that encouraging progress is being made throughout the country in the reorganization and betterment of elementary and secondary education. Surveys of higher educational in- stitutions, and of city and state systems, also indicate interest and progress. The passage of the Smith-Hughes Act for the promotion of vocational education below college grade and its acceptance by the States, were signs of intelligent recognition of the particular claims of vocational education. One claim of vocational education, as distinguished from practical arts education and from general and liberal education, is that different provisions are necessary in order to make it an actual preparation for and participation in, occupations of social value. Its activities so closely resemble, or are so nearly identical with the activities of industry, that the hours, methods, equipment, and control of vocational education must be in some respects different from those of the average, old-time elementary or high school giving instruction in the conven- tional, bookish subjects, and by traditional devices. Especially are demanded vocational instructors trained both in books, and also in industrial occupations through actual contact, and in the elements of educational science and art as well. This is a vaHd claim to be admitted by the school man. However, the admission does not disregard the necessity of ultimate unitary control of all public education as a sound policy of educational organization and statesmanship. 38 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Divorce impracticable. It has yet to be demonstrated any- where in the world that, in the education of an individual spe- cialized vocational education can be divorced safely and perma- nently from general and liberal education. There are hours, weeks, semesters, years during which one's attention must be exclusively centered upon the acquisition of specific skill and practical knowledge — but during the active years of every human being under democracy, there must be provided ready access to the choicest fruits of general and of liberal education. Several considerations strengthen this conviction. First, in our eagerness to supply the special skill and knowl- edge of operation, process, or trade, needed for individual pro- motion and social economy, we are prone to overlook the fact that eveiy active person has along with his dominant occu- pation, life-work, or vocation, many other occupations. Says Dewey: (5) "In the first place each individual has of necessity a variety of callings, in each of which he should be intelligently effective; and in the second place, any one occupation loses its meaning and becomes a routine keeping busy at something in the degree in which it is isolated from other interests. No one is just an artist and nothing else, and in so far as one approxi- mates that condition, he is so much the less developed human being; he is a kind of monstrosity. He must at some period of his hfe be a member of a family; he must have friends and com- panions; he must either support himself or be supported by others, and thus he has a business career. He is a member of some organized political unit, and so on. We naturally name his vocation from that one of the callings which distinguishes him, rather than from those which he has in common with all others. But we shall not allow ourselves to be so subject to words as to ignore and virtually deny his other callings when it comes to a consideration of the vocational phases of education." In the second place, utter specialization of education, divorced from liberal education, would be impracticable because of the THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 39 existing multiplicity of trades, occupations, operations, and processes. A mere glance at the last government census of thousands of occupations (Census 1910, volume IV), reminds us of the absurdity of erecting a distinctive, isolated course of study for each of the ever changing, endlessly varied forms of human labor. (17) Thirdly, there are some phases of general and of liberal edu- cation of common value to most occupations. Liberal educa- tion that is not pseudo in content, method, or result, should promote in the individual such abihties and traits as these: health; knowledge and skill in the elements of reading, writing, arithmetic, personal and civic hygiene, history, and geography; some factual acquaintance with scientific knowledge, and an appreciation of scientific method; habits of enjoyment of the true, beautiful, and good, in science, nature, art, literature, and people; emotional attitudes and conscious aims, that will sen- sibly subordinate and regulate the various motives and purposes of individual life to ultimate ideals of democracy and brother- hood. Unfortunately, declares Dewey, liberal culture by tradition has been linked to notions of leisure, purely contemplative knowledge, and a spiritual activity not involving the active use of bodily organs. Culture has tended to be associated with a private refinement, a cultivation of certain attitudes of con- sciousness separate from either social service or direction. Arm- chair reformers have assumed a gap between labor and leisure, practice and theory, body and mind, knowing and doing. Six contemporary interpretations. Democracy flourishes upon intelligent discussion. Extreme use of the principle has occasionally been exhibited in talk about the meanings of the adjectives vocational, cultural, liberal, general, manual, special- ized, etc. The reader may be interested in reviewing some typi- cal contemporary interpretations of vocational and of liberal education. However, the supposed antithesis between the 40 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION liberal and the vocational is no new discovery, the elements of present day debate being found in the discussions of Aris- totle, Socrates, and Plato. Here follow six examples of con- temporary interpretations (A, B, C, D, E, F) of the expression "vocational education." A. Vocational education a fad. Resentful of efforts at pro- gressive change, or educational readjustment, a minority care- lessly labels all aspects of the vocational movement as "fads," or "sops to soothe labor and capital." B. The narrowly practical. Vocational education is con- ceived as merely a special variety of inanual training, or of agricultural, or commercial, or trade training, etc. C. Production vs. consumption. Vocational education is conceived as essentially education for production, contrasted with liberal education conceived as education for consumption. David Snedden, an advocate of this distinction, thus explains: Liberal education may be defined in various ways, but to the writer, the most serviceable definition is to be made by contrasting liberal with vocational education in the same way that production and con- sumption (or utilization) are contrasted in social and economic life. Vocational education is designed to make of a person an efficient pro- ducer; liberal education may be designed to make of him an effective consumer or user. The liberally educated man utilizes the products and services of many producers ; but because of his education he uses them well, both in the individual and in the social sense. Through the ef- fective utilization of such products and services he raises the plane of his own life; and, none the less, he elevates the sources of the goods and labor which he employs. He uses good literature, rather than bad; he exacts from other producers expert rather than untrained and fraudu- lent service; in his contacts he puts a premium upon good taste, re- finement, and right morality; and in the sphere of more material con- sumption, his demands lead to improvement both in the quality of the goods he obtains and in the social conditions surrounding their pro- duction. His utilization elevates himself and also the world because of his appreciation, his insight, his sympathy. (22) THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 41 D. Specialized efficiency vs. adaptability. Vocational educa- tion is for specialized efficiency, and liberal education is for pro- viding adaptability to changing conditions. This viewpoint of W. C. Bagley, offered before the National Education Associa- tion during 1914 in opposition to the views of David Snedden, is supported by the former with these considerations: (1) Production and consumption are merely convenient abstrac- tions of the economist for the promotion of clear thinking. (2) No sharp distinction can be drawn between a man as producer and consumer. Certain fundamental activities, such as citizenship and home relations, — can not be classified as predominately productive or consumptive. (3) The distinction between production and consumption "per- petuates an older prejudice under which the so-called liberal education already suffers too much. I refer to the notion that the liberal educa- tion is in some way opposed to the practical things of life." (17) E. Vocational education is for utility. Utility, a word used in more than one sense, has been applied often to denote the end of vocational education. Sometimes the term is meant to imply something not as good as culture, knowledge, etc., or at least merely the bread-and-butter end. Leake, a Canadian writer, reminds us that our educational systems should prepare us to lead a worthy life, but that no one can live a worthy life who is unable to make a living. ... In the present economic con- dition of society the bread-and-butter problem is the great question of life for the large majority, and is one of the most logical and effective arguments that can be made. It is the manifest duty of the State, if it be truly democratic, and if it be organized on the principle of the great- est good to the greatest number, to make the chief work of the elemen- tary schools that of training the great bread-winner, the hand, assum- ing of course the self-evident proposition that the hand cannot be ef- fectively trained without at the same time training the head. (12) E. L. Thorndike, in evaluating educational aims and speaking to the same point, expresses these views : "It is true that the money-price which 42 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION an act or quality of mind or body brings in the world is not a right measure of its real value to the world. For instance, the discovery of truth and the bearing of worthy children, the two things most essential to the world's welfare, are, as a rule, not paid for at all. A writer of advertisements is paid more than a poet; and a crafty trader in soap more than the best physician. But it is also true that in many cases the money-price paid is a symptom and a partial measure of real worth. The graduate who has learned nothing for which the world will pay may in a few rare cases be a great scientist or poet or social reformer, but he will far more often be a mere incompetent. . . . "A contrast is also often drawn between the 'bread-and-butter' stud- ies and those which give culture and refinement. This is unjust to both sides. Culture and refinement are not good because they are the marks of an idler — of one who does not share in the world's productive labor. They have a far different warrant from that. Much less are the bread and butter studies bad because they are for the great majority, the toilers, those whose talents and opportunities do not suffice to win them an easy or bountiful living. It is just because the bread-and-butter studies make the struggle for bare existence less intense and exacting and dull that their value is real and great. It is, moreover, precisely by their aid that those who would otherwise be unskilled slaves to daily necessity are given some chance for culture and refinement. "Another vmwise contrast is that between certain forms of education commonly called utilitarian, such as instruction in agriculture, in trades and industries, or in the technical and scientific professions, on the one hand, and certain forms of education commonly called non- utilitarian or cultural, such as the study of the classical and modern languages in high school, or the courses in art, music and manners in girls' boarding-schools. To call a thing utilitarian or non-utilitarian does not make it so. The study of agriculture may demand and foster as intellectual interests as does the study of poetry. That the individual earns his living by it may be a minor matter. The scientific professions need be no more subdued to dollars and cents than the profession of literary man or painter. The languages of the high school are very often out-and-out utilitarian, namely, in cases where the method of earning a livelihood — for instance, teaching — demands a high-school graduation. The art and music and manners of the finishing school THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 43 are intended precisely to get the girl such a livelihood as her social class requires by getting her a husband. "(25) F. Practical education compatible with ethical idealism. It is possible to combine the acquisition of skills and of knowledge and of ethical idealism. This is the fundamental assumption of this book. This combination, it appears both from the stand- point of sound psychology and also of history, is indispensable for democracy. The fear that practical training may interfere with the idealistic training of our boys, is thus combated by Professor Moore : There can be no question that this movement is on. It has two forms, one the movement for definite vocational or trade or occupa- tional training, the other a much larger movement to make education of all sorts definitely and specifically preparatory for the life that the student will lead by making that life the basis of his education through- out. . . . My own difficulty is not at all due to concern lest the young may lack an idealistic training if they are instructed in practical studies and given what is called a vocational education. My difficulty is that I can not comprehend how any other kind of education ever came to be given. How did it happen that anything but that which prepares men for their work ever came to be regarded as education? Must not all education be vocational f If we follow Aristotle's advice to study things in their origin we get great illumination upon this problem. Pa- leolithic man, if he taught his child anything, must have taught him to do the things which he had found indispensable, to chip stone im- plements and to hunt with their aid. Wlaatever education there was in that early time was clearly vocational. And vocational it remained at Sparta, and at Athens too, for reading and music and gymnastics were the means to that democratic citizenship which the ability to read Solon's laws, to understand the Homeric morality and to defend the state against the Persians made possible. When the Sophists intro- duced higher education into Greece they came offering to teach the art of life or how to succeed in public and private affairs. One of them, Gorgias, believed and taught that but one thing was needful. The 44 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION person who wanted to be a physician he urged to learn how to make speeches rather than to study medicine, and the man who wanted to become a general he said should study speech-making rather than military tactics. But Socrates corrected this error and spent his life in telling the Athenians that they must learn civic and manly virtue in just the same way that they learned to make shoes or pilot ships. Plato in a famous passage tells us that his notion of education was: "According to my view, any one who would be good at anything must practice that thing from his youth upwards, both in sport and earnest in its several branches; for example, he who is to be a good builder, should play at building children's houses; he who is to be a good husbandman, at tilling the ground and those who have the care of their education should provide them when young with mimic tools. They should learn beforehand the knowledge wliich they will after- wards require for their art. For example, the future carpenter should learn to measure or apply the line in play, and the future warrior should learn riding, or some other exercise, for amusement, and the teacher should endeavor to direct the children's inclinations and pleasures by the help of amusements to their final aim in life. The most important part of education is right training in the nursery. The soul of the child in his play should be guided to the love of that sort of excellence in which when he grows up to manhood he will have to be perfected. ..." No better statement of what education is has ever been made than this. It is learning beforehand the knowledge which one will require for his art. The teachers should direct the children's inclinations and interests to their final aim in life, and of all these aims that of being a good citizen and a good man is the greatest. That, too, according to Plato, is an art in which one is to gain skill in distinguishing good from evil, true from false, noble from ignoble by what he does, just as the carpenter learns his trade or the farmer his. Cleanthes tells us that Socrates " cursed as impious him who first separated the just from the useful." That knowledge is virtue was the one doctrine that he taught. To him all knowledge was practical and as I read him all knowledge was practical to Plato also. It was Aristotle who introduced confusion, first, by distinguishing a liberal education from an education fit for THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 45 slaves, a distinction which the world mistakenly tries to maintain after slavery has gone out of existence, and, secondly, by separating theoretical knowledge from practical knowledge — theoretical knowl- edge, as he put it, being knowing just for the sake of knowing, knowing wholly unmixed with volition, and practical knowledge knowing for the sake of doing. Is there any such thing as knowing unmixed with volition? . . , It is what we do that teaches us. It is easy to get on with one's fellows in the school, but in the shop team work and the ignominy of shirking are realities. Our little undertakings, if they be real, teach us the importance of the virtues. Our great undertakings in which we stand together facing defeat and death teach us perhaps for the first tune in our lives that all that we can do is of but slight avail, that unless right is on our side and God fight for us our struggle is in vain. It is purpose, laying hold of life in race-old human ways rather than indifferent and aimless seeings and hearings, that we must depend upon to make men really conscious of the facts and significance of re- ligion and morals. For a purposeful wrestling with conditions has a sobering poignancy about it as superior to a mere verbal taking account of them as first-hand evidence is superior to hearsay evidence. It is in sweeping rooms, in herding sheep, in plowing fields, in driving en- gines, in tending machines, in fighting battles, that one must learn to be a child of God, or his religion will be as little a workaday affair as his Sunday clothes are. (16) Educational Ideals and Distinctions Balancing aims. Some of the confusion and bitterness in- herent in the efforts to define and administer various aspects of education, might be lessened by a fair appraisal of the various historic aims or ideals of education, each in its just social rela- tion. Various two-fold distinctions have been erected, as be- tween secondary and primary, immediate and remote, subordi- nate and dominant, proximate and ultimate aims and ideals. There are in education intense devotees respectively of culture, knowledge, skill, development, utility, perfection, service, discipline, and happiness. Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Quintilian, Simeon 46 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Stylites, Comenius, Vittorino, Loyola, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Herbart, Locke, — each educational pioneer has admirers and imitators. In balancing ideals and aims in education there is, first, to be made a study of the conmiunity and of existing schools. Secondly, there arises continuously the question, what subordi- nate, or proximate aims are justly demanded by the present hour, week or semester, as claims upon the individual, the teacher, the class, the school, or the community? Thirdly, the dominant, or ultimate, the all-inclusive motive or ideal is superior to any immediate objective of special training, or of occupation in- dicated by social and individual needs. The definition and es- tablishment of such a dominant motive or ideal is a problem of practical ethics, in behalf of both the individual and also the state. There is some agreement that its ingredients will include : (1) Brotherhood — desire, ability, and effort, to add something to the sum total of human welfare. (2) Morality — conformity to common social habits of thought and action that are approved by the sifted experience of the race, by enlightened conscience, and that make for the just use of knowledge, skill, and resources. (3) Individual independence — ability to earn a living, freedom from parasitism in thinking and doing. (4) Health — physical and mental well-being, — an indispensable factor for individuals and posterity. Divisions of vocational education. The visible forms ex- hibited by the movement for vocational education are numerous and a complicated terminology has come into being within our own country. A full understanding of the origin of certain of our vocational educational institutions, and of the present nomenclature, would carry us to a study of European school systems and to the history of education in general. A practical system of nomenclature for vocational schools can have as its general basis the accepted classification of all occupations. The United States Census groups all of the occu- THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 47 pations of 38,167,336 gainful workers under these nine occupa- tional divisions: (17) 1. Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. 2. Extraction of minerals. 3. Manufacturing and mechanical. 4. Transportation. 5. Trade. 6. Public service. 7. Professional service. 8. Domestic and personal service. 9. Clerical. We find corresponding to these divisions certain phases of vocational education: such as, agricultural education, industrial education, commercial education, homemaking education, and professional education. Other major divisions of education, corresponding to vocational education, are cultural education, physical education, etc., each being a type of education differ- entiated by a special emphasis. Practical arts courses distinct. Similar to the distinctions drawn between general and vocational education, there is a difference between practical arts education and vocational edu- cation. It was the opinion of a Committee of the National Education Association that vocational education is to be dis- tinguished from various forms of so-called practical education, which may resemble, in their processes, vocational education, but which do not result in definite vocational results. For example : Various forms of nonvocational education here comprised under the term "practical arts," include manual training, sloyd, manual arts, arts and crafts when pursued as part of general education, household arts, simple gardening and agricultural education, many phases of commercial education, etc. The various forms of practical arts education as now given in schools are not properly vocational, although sometimes mistaken for vo- 48 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION cational education, because they do not result, except by chance, in recognized forms of vocational efficiency, nor are they assumed to be given to persons who have defined vocational aims. Various forms of practical arts education have a valuable place in general or liberal education, as a means of enlarging general intelli- gence, developing sound appreciation of economic products, and in laying the foundations for vocational choice. Practical arts education is sometimes termed * pre- vocational edu- cation, ' because of the belief that a suitable program of practical arts training will make important contributions toward the individual's ability to choose a vocation wisely. Its value to this end depends largely upon the degree to which the individual has already developed vocational interest and a desire to choose a suitable vocation. (26a) Standardizing Terms This Committee on Vocational Education of the National Education Association agreed upon certain definitions and types in the attempt to standardize terms. The Committee com- plained that "No two speakers on a given subject (in educa- tion) will be found to use terms derived from the popular lan- guage in exactly the same sense. Great confusion and waste of effort thus result." An abstract of sixteen definitions and analyses of important terms offered tentatively by the Com- mittee follows: DEFINITION AND TYPES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (Abstracted from Report of Committee on Vocational Education, N. E. A., U. S. Education Bulletin 21, pp. 33, 36, and 42-49.) 1. (Definition.) Vocational education is any form of education, whether given in a school or elsewhere, the purpose of which is to fit an individual to pursue effectively a recognized profitable employ- ment, whether pursued for wages or otherwise. 2. Professional education includes those forms of vocational educa- tion the direct purpose of each of which is to prepare individuals for the successful pursuit of a recognized profession. THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 49 3. Vocational commercial education includes those forms of voca- tional education the direct purpose of each of which is to fit for some recognized commercial calling. 4. Commercial education, or preferably "commercial arts education" includes those studies derived from, or based upon, the commercial pursuits which are designed to give liberal or general education and to contribute to vocational guidance and vocational ideals in the field of the commercial occupations. 5. Vocational agricultural education includes those forms of voca- tional education the direct purpose of each of which is to prepare stu- dents for some one of the agricultural occupations. 6. Agricultural arts education includes those forms of training and study based upon agricultural pursuits and designed to enhance gen- eral intelligence, to promote appreciation of agriculture as a form of economic activity, to show wherein various sciences have practical application to human affairs, and to give vocational guidance and to inspire vocational ideals as these relate to the field of agriculture. Agricultural arts education, therefore, constitutes an important divi- sion of liberal education, both in the elementary and the secondary field. 7. Vocational industrial education includes those fonns of vocational education the direct purpose of each of which is to fit the individual for some industrial pursuit or trade. 8. Industrial arts education includes those forms of training and study based upon industrial pursuits and designed to enhance general intelligence and give vocational guidance in the field of industrial occupations. 9. Vocational homemaking education includes those forms of vo- cational education the direct object of which is to fit for homemaking as practiced by the wife and mother in the home and also for some specialized forms as practiced by household employees, housekeepers, or other wage-earning assistants to the homemaker. 10. Household arts education includes all those forms of instruction and training based upon the occupations of the home or household and which are designed to promote higher standards of appreciation and utilization in the field of the activities associated with homemaking, to promote right conceptions of the social importance of the home as a 50 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION nursery of childhood and a haven for the wage earners of the family, and to show wherein the various arts and sciences have practical ap- plication in domestic life. Hence, household arts education can be made a large factor in the liberal education of womanhood. 11. Nautical education is the term used to designate those forms of vocational education, the controlling purpose of each of which is to train youths for such occupations as those of the fisherman, the sailor, the ship captain, and the like. These forms of training have not yet been clearly differentiated in the educational practice of America. A few special nautical schools of a technical character exist, and in the United States naval service facilities for training seamen are pro- vided. 12. Day Vocational Schools, in which the pupils attend school the greater part of the working day for at least five days each week. In these schools are taught both the actual operations and the theory underlying these operations. 13. Evening Vocational Schools, in which, as the name implies, the instruction in the school is given in the evening. It may be given in the same operation or in some operation connected with the occu- pation in which the pupil is employed in the daytime, but in which he wishes further instruction to increase his efficiency. On the other hand, it may be in some occupation which the student wishes to enter, which differs materially from his regular daily work. 14. Continuation Schools, which, as generally carried on in this country, are schools in which the pupil receives some form of day school instruction at the same time that he is employed in the shop. Like the evening schools, the work in these schools may be preparatory or extension. In addition, it is possible in these schools to offer work for general improvement or culture. 15. Prevocational education includes any form of education de- signed to enable a youth to discover for which one of several possible vocations he is best fitted by natural ability and disposition, the pro- gram of instruction and practice for this purpose being based mainly upon actual participation on the part of the learner in a variety of tjrpical practical experiences derived from the occupations involved. 16. Vocational guidance includes all systematic efforts, under private or public control, and excluding the traditional activities of THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 51 the home, the conscious and chief purpose of which is to secure the most economical and effective adjustment of young people to the economic employments which they can most advantageously follow. (26a) Characteristics of German Schools Dangers in imitation. The history of education reveals many- lessons concerning mistakes of educational pioneers, and also records established principles of eternal worth. It has always been an error, however, to transplant to modern soil the un- modified theory and practise of other generations and of other lands. Even the methods of the Master-Teachers, Jesus, Socrates, Pestalozzi, Vittorino, must be adapted and adjusted for modern use. Similarly, the schools excellent in one country and nation, need modification and adjustment when trans- planted to another people's land. There have been and are dangers in imitating any foreign school system. Especially before the war the industrial schools of Germany were lauded. We thought then more highly than we do now of the product of these schools, — viz., a certain industrial and militaiy efficiency. Volksschule, Gymnasium, Realschule. During and since the World War scrutiny of educators has been directed par- ticularly toward the results of the German elementary and secondary schools. It is now universally conceded that these schools, although as a whole efficient in the sense of realizing the inmiediate aims sought, have been instrumental in the un- doing of the German people and nation. These pages are not the place for a review of this whole question, but we may profit- ably single out certain relevant facts. The German schools at the beginning of the War were far more varied than the casual student of German affairs realizes. The Prussian system was similar to, but by no means identical with, the school systems of the twenty-five other States of the German Empire. As a whole the schools of the Empire were not centralized as in France. 52 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Nevertheless, in no other country than Germany have the schools been so deeply under the influence of certain philosophic thinkers and in general accord with the plans and ideals of the governing classes. There were many special types of educa- tional institutions throughout Germany, but the important kinds were the elementaiy school (Volksschule), the secondary schools (Gymnasium and Realschule), and the universities. Privileged groups. The overwhelming majority of the German people never entered the secondary school, — i. e., the Progymnasium, the Realgymnasium, the Gymnasium (three types of schools in which mathematics, and Latin, or Greek, or both were required subjects). Graduation from one of these, especially from the Gymnasium, brought definite social, busi- ness, and political privileges which fostered caste and auto- cratic rule. The Realschule, and the Oberrealschule substi- tuted modern languages for the ancient, were a more modern development than the Gymnasium — but also predominantly were schools for the privileged classes. There was no definite, convenient means of access to the secondary schools (Gjon- nasien and Realschulen) from the elementary schools of the people, i. e., the Volksschulen. Predestination. A transference of a pupil from the public elementary to the secondary and higher school system of Ger- many was possible as a rule only at one point, namely after the third or fourth school year when the boy was about ten or eleven years of age. No German State had an ''educational ladder" leading from kindergarten to university such as exists in the United States. Fortbildungschule. From the Volksschulen the young pupil as a rule went to work at an early age in an occupation selected for him by his parents. In productive industry at fourteen years of age, rather than in a secondary school, the children of the masses were compelled to attend "continuation schools" (Fortbildungschulen) in the evening and on Sundays, in order to THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 53 increase their skill and knowledge in the processes of their daily occupation. Few have denied the resulting technical skill of the German workman. Vorschule and Einheitschule. The Vorschule was an elemen- tary, special fee-paying school which prepares pupils from six to nine years of age for entrance into a secondary school (Gym- nasium). Progressive educators in Germany for thirty years have advocated the Einheitschule, a free school to be extended for all children between six and twelve years of age, and to be followed by educational opportunities adapted to the various abilities of pupils. Threefold errors. The most fatal errors in the German schools appear to have been threefold: First, there was the permanent divorcement of the young pupil when leaving the Volksschule from equal access to general and liberal education open to the privileged few in the Gymnasien and Realschulen. Secondly, there was the practical isolation of the pupils of these secondary schools into a privileged caste remote in feeling and activity from their fellows in Volksschule and in industry. Thus Prussian autocracy inculcated its ideals, produced skill coupled with a certain automatism or docility in the masses of the people. Thirdly, there was utterly inadequate provision for the education of women. When one considers that shortly before the World War only about five per cent of the enrollment in the German universities were women, this fact is strongly in evidence. Fallacies felt. It is significant that about the year 1911 Paul Ziertmann, a German Oherlehrer in Steglitz Oberrealschule, Berlin wrote as follows after reviewing the German system : It is a pretty generally accepted opinion that the German higher school system, as at present organized, cannot last any length of time; but how it is to be reformed is a problem. But those concerned in it are convinced that reform will not be brought about by a revolution, but by gradual, even slow, but unceasing development. (8) 54 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION A review by I. L. Kandel of the Carnegie Foundation of various announcements emanating from Germany during the years 1916-1918, presents an elaborate program of educational reform issued by the Kultus-Minister Hanisch during 1918(26b). The educational world awaits with interest the subsequent developments of this or other attempts to modify German edu- cation radically. The actual changes doubtless will remain obscure to us until sources of direct information are open to the world. No autocracy in America. Any system that develops privi- lege, caste, autocracy, can not be long tolerated in America. All children of ability from our elementary schools must have ready access and even strong incentives to go through high school and to college. Universal education embodies training for efficiency coupled with the ideals of democracy. Curricula not static. Equality of opportunity does not imply uniformity in curricula or in schools for all pupils. Two facts or principles demand incessant readjustment of all plans of education and all curricula. The curriculum makers of to-day who seek a perfected product that will remain static and stand- ardized are following a jack-o-lantern. The "perfect" curric- ulum of to-day before many years will be like the Trivium and Quadrivium of yesterday. The two facts are: (1) human beings exhibit individual dif- ferences in capacity, abilities, and interests; (2) individuals in a large population inevitably fall into groupings — natural, social, economic. Whether we are adjusting vocational cur- ricula to the needs of individuals, or to the needs of groups, or are making propaganda for better laws concerning public edu- cation, these two facts can not be ignored. In the next chapter we shall pause to elaborate the two principles as being funda- mental in educational readjustment. Summary. In review of some of the important principles stated in this chapter we may emphasize these nine points: THE MEANINGS OP VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 55 1. Vocational education is a phase of education wherein emphasis is laid upon preparation for and participation in oc- cupations of social value. Its means are found both within and outside of the schoolhouse. 2. Demands for the practical in education arise from (a) changed economic conditions, (b) defects in existing schools, (c) sensational journalism. 3. There is a difference between temporarily isolating stu- dents in vocational courses for purposes of practical adminis- tration within a school system, and permanently isolating the individual throughout life from contact with vocational, or general, or liberal courses. Special provisions are needed for vocational education (apart from intensive work in general, practical arts, or liberal education), as to teachers, methods, courses, equipment. But efforts utterly to predestine pupils to exclusive pursuit of vocational, or general, or liberal educa- tion, fail. The reasons are: (a) Each person perforce follows many callings; (b) occupations are too numerous and ephem- eral to make practicable, or necessary, exactly corresponding courses in specialized, vocational education in every instance; (c) phases of general and liberal education are valuable in all occupations, especially those phases having to do with health and idealism. ' Unfortunately both vocational and also liberal education have become associated with narrow or ambiguous meanings. 4. Contemporary interpretations of the meaning, value, and relations of vocational education are varied. Some of these doubtless are based upon misunderstandings about words, or refer merely to certain concrete instances. Fad, the narrowly practical, education for production, for specialized efficiency, for utility, useful education compatible with idealism — are expressions symbolizing various interpretations, of which the last is sound. ^ 5. A clue to the puzzle of conflict of educational ideals, is '56 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION found in the principle of balancing aims to accord with individ- ual and social needs — the inunediate and proximate aim ac- ceptable, but always to be subordinated to a regulative, al- truistic, and ultimate principle or ideal. 6. Strictly vocational courses are distinct from "practical arts courses," the immediate aims of which may be general or vague. 7. Classifications of definitions and principles are afforded in the statements of the Committee Report of the National Education Association. 8. The pre-war influence of German educators such as Ker- schensteiner, and the reputed peculiar efficiency of industrial education in Germany, doubtless influenced many American thinkers to advocate before the World War the German system for America. It is now believed that the fallacious philosophy underlying the German elementary, secondary, and university education was a powerful element in producing the World War. It is certain that no ready-made educational system can with safety be transplanted. Progressive leaders in Germany are advocating radical changes in education, and the world during future years will await the results. 9. All valid educational programs and curricula are fluid, not static. There is incessant adjustment of the schools to the needs of the individual and of society. Problems 1. Trace the historical development of systems of vocational education for one or more of the following callings: min- ister, lawyer, doctor, engineer, teacher. 2. Also, of these: carpenter, machinist, cooper, operative en- gineer, mason, seamstress, tailor, stenographer, printer. 3. OutUne woman's share in the vocational activity of some primitive people, e. g. : Africans, Australasians, Eskimos, Indians. 4. Show to what extent the courses (in addition to reading. THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 57 writing, and arithmetic) in the elementary schools with which you are familiar function in certain definite callings. 5. Is there demand and reward in your community for many persons not exceptionally proficient in any one calling, but of "all-round ability" with tools, clerical work, etc. Nmnbers employed, constancy of employment, wages? 6. How do (a) arithmetic, (b) grammar, (c) algebra, (d) ge- ometry, (e) Latin, (f) rhetoric, (g) Hterature, (h) chemistry, actually function in the lives of high school (1) boys and (2) girls, of your community? 7. After investigation appraise the value of (a) household arts and of (b) manual training as given in a local school or system. 8. Find, study, and describe in writing, any existing provisions illustrative of these types of vocational education in your community: practical arts; pre vocational; trade; continua- tion; agricultural; homemaking; commercial. 9. Restate and evaluate the six interpretations of, or attitudes toward, vocational education of secondary grade, stated in this chapter. 10. How can training in democratic and ethical ideals and sen- timents best be coupled with specialized trade training? 11. How would you secure for youths, boys and girls, compelled to enter industry, skill and knowledge of advantage in a chosen occupation, and also the elements of general and of liberal education? What provisions would you make for education after entering industry? 12. Study the program, courses of study, and curricula of a modern American high school with reference to general or to definite liberal, culturistic, and utilitarian aims within the various divisions. 13. Study critically the chart of Farrington (Reference 7) and of Simmons (Reference 23) illustrating the various phases of the German school system. / 58 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 14. Tabulate the special privileges granted only to graduates of certain Prussian schools in 1904, See Russell (Refer- ence 21), pages 469-470. 15. Indicate the practical difficulties of enforcing compulsory education in the United States. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Annual Report of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Wash- ington, D. C, 1917. 2. Bloomfield, M. The School and the Start in Life. School and Em- ployment in England, Scotland, Germany. U. S. Education Bulle- tin 4, 1914. 3. Cooley, Edwin G. Vocational Education in Europe. Chicago, 1915, 2 V. 4. Davenport, E. What is Involved in Vocational Education. University of Ilhnois Bulletin 19, 1915. 23 p. 5. Dewey, John. Democracy and Education. N. Y., 1916. 6. Farrington, F. E. The Public Primary School System of France. N. Y., 1906, 303 p. 7. Farrington, F. E. Commercial Education in Germany. N. Y., 1914, 258 p. 8. Germany, General Characteristics of Education in. Wilhelm Miinch, Paul Ziertmann, F. M. Schiele. Monroe's Cyclopedia of Educa- tion, vol. Ill, pp. 63-102. 9. Graves, Frank P. A History of Education in Modern Times. N. Y., 1914, 410 p. 10. Hanus, Paul. Beginnings in Industrial Education. N. Y., 1908, 199 p. 11. Hughes, R. E. The Making of Citizens. A Study in Comparative Education. N. Y., 1902, 405 p. 12. Leake, Albert H. Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods and Dangers. N. Y., 1913. 13. McDonald, R. A. F. Adjustment of School Organization to Various Population Groups. N. Y., 1915, 145 p. 14. Monroe, Paul. Text-Book in the History of Education. N. Y., 1906. 15. Monroe, Paul. Principles of Secondary Education. N. Y., 1914. 16. Moore, E. C. The Stress which is now being put upon the Practical Interfering with the Idealistic Training of Our Boys and Girls. School and Society, March 31, 1917. 17. Occupations. U. S. Census, vol. IV. Washington, D. C, 1910. THE MEANINGS OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 59 18. Proceedings of National Education Association, pp. 150-170, 1914. 19. Roman, Frederick W. The Industrial and Commercial Schools of the United States and Germany. N. Y., 1915, 382 p. 20. Rouvier, Gaston. L'enseignement public en France au debut XX siecle. Paris, 1901, 129 p. 21. Russell, James E. German Higher Schools. N. Y. 1905, 489 p. 22. Snedden, David. Educational Readjustment. N. Y., 1913. 23. Simmons, L. V. T. Problems of Vocational Education as Carried Out in the German School System. School and Society, June 2, 1917. 24. Statement of Definitions and Policies by National Society for Promo- tion of Industrial Education. In Bulletin of the Society, 25, 1917. 25. Thorndike, E. L. Education. N. Y., 1912. 26. (a) United State Bureau of Education. Bulletin 21, 1916. Report of Committee of N. E. A. on Vocational Secondary Education. (6) Ibid. Bulletin 21, 1919. I. L. Kandel: Education in Germany. CHAPTER III ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY Individuals and Society: The question of adjustment; the place of re- search; individual differences; types of individuals. Society not Homogeneous: Miscellaneous population and the conse- quences; groupings of society; general occupational groups, distribution by years, industries, and sex; occupational groups in states; age-groupings of workers. Youth Classified Within and Without the Schools: Three school prob- lems; persistence and elimination; causes of elimination; results; malad- justments of groups within schools; vocational education not a cure; dis- tribution of school enrollment; visible efforts at adjustment. Summary. Problems. Selected References. Individuals and Society The question of adjustment. The idea of universal educa- tion may be associated in careless thinking with the fallacious notion of uniformity in schools, curricula, and methods as a necessary consequent. Universal education as a policy of the best civilization demands suitable and abundant opportunity for education for all kinds of persons regardless of age, sex, race, or economic status, and the various capacities and interests of individuals as well as the common welfare of all, necessitate wide variety in the programs and devices of formal education in order that universal opportunity may be realized. Advo- cates of vocational education in reacting from the "lock step" of traditional school methods, run the danger of foisting an- other kind of rigid uniformity upon our schools, where voca- tional courses are not constantly readjusted to the needs both of individuals and of society. 60 ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 61 Much thought and many words have been used by theorists in philosophy and in education to determine whether the schools should be adjusted to the needs of the individual or of society. The superintendent engaged in the practical introduction of vocational education in any community encounters this ques- tion in a practical aspect, for he will have pressed upon him the demands for school-adjustments both in behalf of individuals and in behalf of groups. It is foreign to the purpose of this book to enter discussion of the theoretical aspects of this problem, which may become con- fusing when we recall that society is a mass of individuals, and contrast the various meanings of the terms need, desire, values, as affecting individual and the social group. "Society" is de- fined as "Those persons collectively who are united by the common bond of neighborhood and intercourse, and who recog- nize one another as associates, friends, and acquaintances." That the word thus loosely used, may denote innumerable groupings of undesirable persons including thieves, anarchist rings, fanatical sects, or any vicious combination, is evident. In the effort to adjust education to the needs of "society," therefore, it is quite essential to maintain steadily a definite conception of society compatible with the ideals of American democracy, even though such a working definition may seem to be arbitrary in excluding from society certain elements which would be included in a more generic use of the term as denoting mere collectivism or mass. We may, therefore, agree to think of American society in this wise, when we speak of adjusting the school to its demands or needs. It is that major portion of our whole people who to date have nourished common interests, aims, and ideals regarding intelligence, morality, health, in- dustrial activity, loyalty, and liberty — traits demonstrably characteristic of true Americans. The place of research. To ascertain the needs of local and of general American society in order better to adjust schools 62 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and industry is a valid use of the research method to which we shall refer in Chapter XII. This is essentially the method of the more scientific type of vocational-educational survey. It is equally important to learn the needs of the individual in order that we may provide just that articulation of his capacity and interests with the programs of the school helpful to him in becoming the best possible unit in society. It will be the aim of the truly efficient individual to develop and use his own powers without an injury or loss to self, that would be incompatible with his greatest contribution to hmnan welfare. An altruism therefore that zealously guards the individual seems to be the cue for action in the frequent clash of the interests of the in- dividual and of society, when radical readjustments of educa- tional machinery are attempted. Educational research that contemplates something more than mere clerical work, the playing with school statistics, etc., will help to lay before the school administrator the facts both about the nature of the in- dividual and also about the needs of various groupings of society. For information about the individual as a psycho-physical organism physiology, anthropology, and psychology give us method and facts. The psychology of childhood and ado- lescence built upon the studies of such men as Hall, Baldwin, Thorndike, and Judd, is a recognized factor in the preparation of professionally trained educators. On the other hand, soci- ology and the work of the school surveyors are focusing scientific method in the study of the occupational and other groupings of society as a whole. Individual differences. Equally fallacious with the notion of equality or uniformity of curricula, is the idea that human beings of a given group are near-duplicates. One notes easily the fact of individual variation in a large crowd, because of the visible differences in age, sex, physique, conduct. In a seem- ingly homogeneous group the individual differences with regard to abilities are not so easily discerned, but the differences are ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 63 real and often extreme as the experiments of Thorndike and others clearly show. The general causes of individual differ- ences are heredity, growth, disease, environmental factors, practice. The practical importance of what we think about individual differences in youth is greater than one may realize. For ex- ample: Schemes for instruction whether to classes or to in- dividuals, promotion systems, prescription of manual training upon the assumption "that skill of movement is intimately connected with efficiency in thinking," grading and tests, legis- lation about the age-of-consent, and about child and woman labor — all these involve assumptions about the nature and amount of individual differences. Effective description of the individual differences among persons ideally should be accurate or quantitative — a work for the scientific student of human nature. Thorndike thinks that while our curricula are framed with some speculation concerning mental development as a guide, the "American public school system rests on a total disregard of hereditary mental differences between the classes and the masses." Types of individuals. The student of the vocational edu- cation movement can not safely lose sight of the facts of in- dividual differences when the matter of experimenting with agricultural, industrial, commercial, or homemaking curricula is concerned. It suffices at this point of our study merely to in- dicate qualitatively various types of human beings, enumerated in an illustrative exhibit based upon different criteria of classi- fication. The following table was prepared by McDonald(lO) following Professor Giddings. As numerous and very com- plex as human types appear to be from this table, the classi- fications are utterly inadequate, for the terms used are of the most general character. For example, note the crude differen- tiation of persons according to "mentality." Nevertheless, a brief study of this table (p. 64) impresses one with the gravity 64 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE I Classification of Human Types (10) o. Chromatic race A. As TO GEN- ESIS b. Sex. c. Nativity.. B. As TO PER- SONALITY. . . C. As TO EN- VIRONMENT a. Age. I. White. II. Yellow. III. Red. IV. Brown. V. Black. I I. Male \ II. Female. I. Native-born II. Foreign-born. I. Minority. .. . II. Maturity. III. Senescence. I. Physically normal b. Vitality. Vocational background Economic background f 1. Native parentage. \ 2. Foreign parentage. f 1. Infancy. \ 2. Childhood. 1.3. Youth. 1. High type. 2. Medium type. 3. Low type. fl. Blind. I 2. Deaf. 3. Crippled. 4. Anemic. 5. Tuberculous. 1. Retarded. 2. Epileptic. 3. Speech defective. 1. High type, icutaiy I 2. Medium type, '^o™*! is. Low type. II. Physically defective. Border line types . . . L Mentally c. Mentality. d. Morality and sociality. . Home condi- tions 6. Literacy i II. Mentally. . . . defective. . . I. The normal (and social) II. The immoral (and unso- cial) 1. Moron. 1. Feeble-minded i 2. Imbecile. [ 3. Idiot. 2. Insane. 1. High type. 2. Ordinary type. L Untrustworthy. 2. Incorrigible. 3. Delinquent. 4. Confirmed criminal. 1. High tj-pe. I. Normal {'2. Medium type. 3. Low type. II. Subnormal. . Literate. Illiterate. 1. Neglected. 2. Deserted or homeless. 3. Ill-treated. 4. Orphan or half orphan. f I. Professional. ! II. Artisan. III. Unskilled. [ IV. Idle. r I. Wealthy. \ IT. Middle class. I III. Poor {k Insolvent. Dependent, Political background. /. Religious background. ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 65 of the problem of adjustment of school organization to needs both of individuals and also of population groups within the heterogeneous populations found in some portions of our coun- try. If the principles we have stated above are true, the fact of these differences can not be ignored by the pioneers in vo- cational education. Society not Homogeneous Miscellaneous population and the consequences. Before the World War our nation was a heterogeneous population. Sons of Puritans and of Cavaliers, peoples of English, Scotch, Dutch, Irish, French, Italian, Spanish, Russian, PoHsh, German, Scandi- navian, Swiss, Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Negro, and other races or extraction make here their homes. The population of the United States is mobile, especially in certain states and cities. Ayres' studies in 78 American city school systems brought out these approximations: As a rule only 16 per cent of the fathers of thirteen-year-old children were natives of the city where found; 24 per cent were born in the same state but not in the same city where living; 20 per cent were born in other states; and 40 per cent were foreign born. (2a) Notwithstanding mani- fold differences, the invisible, indissoluble bonds of certain con- victions held in common, of sympathy and understanding in striving for the great ends of democracy, — these real bonds of democracy so far hold like steel. Hereafter the currents of immigration may tend to make our population even more mis- cellaneous and our problems of adjustment in education cor- respondingly more difficult. Plato enunciated principles that indicate possible results of population-characteristics, prin- ciples of interest to educators who would maintain a sane balance in advocating the new in education while they discard the old: . . When a colony is of one race, and has the same language and the same laws, it possesses a kind of friendship as being a partaker 66 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION in the same holy rites, and everything else of a similar kind, nor does it easily endure other laws, and a polity foreign to what it had at home. . . . But on the other hand, a colony, composed of all kinds of people flowing together to the same point, will perhaps be more willingly obedient to certain new laws; but to ccttispire together, and, like a pair of horses, to froth together, as the saying is, individually to the same point, is the work of a long time and very difficult. (Plato, The Laios, IV, 4.) Giddings, the sociologist, thinks that these words of Plato express five cardinal generalizations about the nature and be- haviour of human society: First, miscellaneous groupings of people, as well as groupings of kindred, are spontaneous, natural. Secondly, the ethnically homogeneous groups have a psycholog- ical and physical unity, a basis of understanding not present in the heterogeneous group. Thirdly, there is nevertheless, a collective behaviour in the miscellaneous group. Fourth, in the heterogeneous group, the practical working level of col- lective action is difficult. Fifth, violent breaking away from an old order of things to experiment with the new, to abandon old traditions, is more likely to occur in the heterogeneous than in the homogeneous group. (7) Groupings of society. The concept "needs" of society seems even more complex when we recall that human beings fall naturally into groups. O'Shea thus explains and illustrates this natural tendency : In any biological group, the markedly exceptional individual in respect to any particular trait generally arouses the antagonism of some or all of the remaining members, unless he be very clearly a leader and is accepted as such. Only birds of a feather can flock to- gether. The odd sheep in the flock is constantly plagued by the rest of the group, and they would eliminate him if they could. The treat- ment of the ugly duckling is typical in principle of that accorded the peculiar individual in the life of the forest, or elsewhere. In previous chapters we have noted instances showing that this same phenomenon ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 67 may be seen in human society. Study the Ufe of the playground, and it will be seen that a boy in any way markedly peculiar is apt to become an object of more or less direct and persistent bullying by the crowd. The group will not easily tolerate any considerable departure from gen- eral group characteristics, either in respect to physical traits, or to dress, manners, or any attitudes or actions affecting the interests, customs, or practices of the group. (11) There are innumerable "social groupings" within our Amer- ican society and each group may have a distinctive need, e. g. : groups of family, kinship, race; county, city, state, nation; cultural groups, as of music, art, science, history, literature; religious groups; business and industrial groups, such as partner- ships, companies, corporations, associations, unions; occupa- tional groups, as of the homemakers, farmers, miners, factory workers, carpenters, plumbers, bricklayers, electrical workers, engineers, printers, barbers, cooks, tailors, railroad workers, nautical men, soldiers, officers, doctors, lawyers, ministers, artists, writers, clerks, brokers, salesmen, public officials. When legislatures and school officials are confronted by the special needs and demands of. these different groupings of society, the demands should be evaluated with reference to society in the larger sense defined. In the direction of public education, there enters the principle of preserving a hierarchy of aims and ideals, of the balancing and subordination of aims (ante, p. 45) of individual, of group, and of society to an ultimate aim under democracy. General occupational groups. The field of vocational edu- cation may be comprehended more clearly when we view tables showing the kinds and numbers of occupations in our country. It is a difficult thing to classify all occupations into logically con- sistent groups. Tables showing the relative numbers of workers in hundreds of different occupations are compiled every ten years by the United States Census. No statistical table is quite adequate to portray existing conditions, since the incessant 68 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION changes of industry and of population, modify the figures of any such table before the printer's ink is diy upon the page. Remarkable changes, owing to the World War, would appear in census tables were it possible to revise them to the present hour. For example, the enumeration of 77,153 persons as "soldiers, sailors and marines" would have been augmented to millions in the year 1918. Distribution by years, industries, and sex. Table II shows the groupings of workers contained into an occupational classi- fication by sex, and from 1880 to 1910. Contrasting the num- bers in the respective industrial groupings, and by sex, during the past 30 years, we obtain interesting information concern- ing the general drift of workers in diversified activities during that period. The table shows that while there were in 1910 six times as many men as women in agriculture the country over, neverthe- less the proportion of all male workers thus engaged had de- creased twelve per cent since 1880. More than five times as many men as women were in manufacturing and mechanical industries in 1910. There was relatively a somewhat smaller number of women in manufacture in 1910 as compared with 1880, probably owing to better laws regarding child and woman labor. The industrial changes due to the War have, of course, brought thousands of women into such work. There were about nine per cent more of all male workers in mechanical and manufacturing industries in 1910, contrasted with the record of 1880. With regard to domestic and personal service markedly smaller percentages of all female workers were found in 1910 (cf. 32.5 per cent with 44. 6 per cent). The increase of women in "trade and transportation" was relatively greater than of men, due to the tendency of women to enter phases of com- mercial life. The awkward five-fold classification of Table II conformed to that of early censuses. Table III of the Thirteenth Census conforms to a ninefold rather than to the older four- ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 69 a h OJ^ O -jH o O t-. +^ ^^ o -Mt3 C5 XI o a =) CO ^ l>. ■*iot^oo CO CO OS IM CO Tf 00 IN in IN^ CO locvicoco CO T)(t^l-ICO l-H oji>.ooco CO P-i'-B lMOr-(C0 rHCOlMO l-H (MCCCOI> 05t~i-llO oococv) csi CO -* CO T-I(>J CO CO C» -^CO lO TtiooiOiM c>q COCOiOO CD o-i'-a dl^ ■ Cfti-HOOl^ rt Tt- fl 3 o g O OS P S I) S" Cm-O g a OS C^ Oj rH ti a o T^ -fi -5 — ii--'^ o3 cj'3 1 (U .2^ a-o a 3 sga 3 o M o C3 3 S °*« M ■r"^ a^ => r, ^ " ^ ^ e m o H §5^ r>s ii S =3 ft m-o g a -^s 9-^'C 5 0.2 a c.S o S 2 *i"3 >- TABLE III Occupational Geoups SEX AND GENERAL DIVISION OF OCCUPATIONS Both Sexes All occupations Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. Extraction of minerals Manufacturing and mechanical industries... . Transportation Trade PubUc service (not elsewhere classified) Professional service Domestic and personal service Clerical occupations Male All occupations Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry Extraction of minerals Manufacturing and mechanical industries. . . Transportation Trade Public service (not elsewhere classified) Professional service Domestic and personal service Clerical occupations Female All occupations Agriculture, forestry, and animal husbandry. Extraction of minerals Manufacturing and mechanical industries. . . Transportation Trade Public service (not elsewhere classified) .... Professional service Domestic and personal service Clerical occupations Number, 1910 38,167,336 12,659,203 964,824 10,658,881 2,637,671 3,614,670 459,291 1,663,569 3,772,174 1,737,053 30,091,564 10,851,702 963,730 8,837,901 2,531,075 3,146,582 445,733 929,684 1,241,328 1,143,829 8,075,772 1,807,501 1,094 1,820,980 106,596 468,088 13,558 733,885 2,530,846 593,224 Per cent distri- bution 100.0 33.2 2.5 27.9 6.9 9.5 1.2 4.4 9.9 4.6 100.0 36.1 3.2 29.4 8.4 10.5 1.5 3.1 4.1 3.8 100.0 22.4 (0 22.5 1.3 5.8 0.2 9.1 31.3 7.3 1 Less than one-tenth of 1 per cent. 70 ADJUSTMENTS TO INDIVIDUAL AND TO SOCIETY 71 fold grouping. It displays somewhat more satisfactorily the occupational groupings of all gainful workers in the year 1910. Occupational groups in states. Generalized percentages, such as are seen in Tables II and III, and averages contain an illusory element. For example, the figures showing occupa- tional distributions in the forty-eight states of the Union vary widely from the general tendencies of the country as a whole. This fact is shown by Figure I. So far as the distribution of occupations is a partial basis for the establishment of different kinds of vocational education, a proper correlation should always be sought between (a) the needs of industry in a given state or local community, (b) the general national need, and the general aim of public education. The means for securing this correlation is the vocational-educational survey referred to in the last chapter of this book. Figure I exhibits some marked contrasts between New England, Southern, Western, and North Central States. This chart, of course, is being modified by contemporary industrial changes, especially in the states of the West and the South where development is now rapid. MISSISSIPPI SOUTH CAROLINA ARKANSAS ALABAMA NORTH CAROLINA GEORGIA HORTH DAKOTA tEXAS OKLAHOMA SOUTH DAKOTA NEV< MEXICO TENNESSEE KENTUCKY LOUISIANA NEBRASKA VIRGINIA IDAHO KANSAS FLORIDA IOWA WEST VIRGINIA MISSOURI VERMONT MINNESOTA WISCONSIN WYDMINO INDIANA MONTANA MICHIQAN OREGON UTAH DELAWARE MAINE ARIZONA COLORADO WASHINGTON OHIO MARYLAND CALIFORNIA ILLINOIS NEVADA NEW HAMPSHIRE PENNSYLVANIA CONNECTICUT NEW YORK NEW JERSEY RHODE ISLAND MASSACHUSETTS OIST OF COLUMBIA k^2AAyn^o.'lure,/'ores/ry, and AnJmo/ Nusiandry WkTx tract/on ofM'ners/s ^2^Abnuf3ctunnyar,3nKil/n0'*iN ■* CO 0> CD CO eg T}._(NCo_^(NC._ .,__.-_ , -. ,_^ ._ ^ ^. . , ^. . .^ io -^coci-^ i-H oToTb^co »o CD o^^'^co o lo o CO o o oTo c^Tco o 05 o CD rCcf CD CO OOOcOCDOrH CDOOCDCOOOO "-l --I 00 lO 00 O 00 00 lO CO CD CD CO rH Tf "-leq lOCO i-l i-l rH ,-1 CDCDIO"-! rH i-l (N CO Ph a o •o»ooa:i^»ot^t^coT-ic^Thoico Ot^OSCDCDOOOOOO'OCDOOCOOOO "^corococD cO'-''-icooi^O(N»ooocooocoo ■^'-(CDOOC^lOo^rHoOIM-rtiOOO io_ic 1-H o ffl (N t-H_oo_cn o> 02 03 N CO ci lO CO lo" ■* o oo" co" co" b-" o" oq en ■« CD t^l^ WiNi-i OiOTfiOlN CO .-I TfHN rt rt rH CD (M CD O C5 ^O >C 1-1 CO 05 i-H o o in T-H lO t^ t^ 1.0 IC COt> Tt-< o ■^ in CO >o o ira 00 00 CD 1-1 CO 'H CO i-< O) CO CD (N lO 'H t^ "^.O T-( CD oT i-HOiNi^r t--. Tt<'-ICOCO CO CO T-H CO CO <— I (^ o o »n 03 02 lO O CO 00 t^ Q0_COcO_C0M CO 0(Nt~TH ci oi I-l 00 ^ cN r^ (N CO 05 t> O l> CO CD t^ i-H IN 02 t~ CO 1-1 l^ 1-1 00 Tt( in (M Tf CI 03 CO OOINOOOOOO) 00 O CD t- (N (M rt< oooo i-ii>coao OOCDOO i*00CO_W (-Ct)h'05(N CDOOOlO Ttico>no TjHCO lOi-l (Nr-l (MO CO rHlNOOOO .3:2 <" 2 1 ■2 & I •slia-s-saoo-^ai^gs^ H-3 2'*dS??2_ao'M^'^m3S-S3-C w a"S^ § S.2-S-g °=i 0-3 o o S 2 2 fe 138 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION upon different bases; and (c) one cause of the conditions shown is that scientific subjects are often placed by school authorities in the upper years of the high school or in classes before attain- ing which thousands of pupils are eliminated. These statistics suggest that the trend of the high schools during the past twenty- five years has been academic as a rule, and that they have been suited especially to the needs of prospective teachers of bookish subjects and to academic students. Even science, — physics, physiology, geology, astronomy, and manual training, — and also agriculture and industrial training, have had relatively un- important places. The science courses are taken by relatively small numbers. In publicly supported high schools of the dates indicated, overwhelmingly more students took rhetoric, algebra, Latin, English literature, and history than any other subjects. The numbers taking physics, chemistry, physiology, astronomy, are far less, and the relative percentages are lower than those of twenty years ago, a time of reputedly less science than to-day. The percentages for commercial and industrial subjects are small. Bookish tendencies. In different localities the numbers of students taking different studies will of course vary from these central tendencies noted in the U. S. Education Report. Un- less the tendencies of the last twenty-five years have been modi- fied suddenly, one can hardly generate from these general sta- tistics any great fear lest vocational education, particularly of the specialized, industrial type for our boys over fourteen years of age, will overrun in the near future the high schools — for the figures reveal unmistakably the academic influences that have prevailed in American high schools, so far as enrollments in subjects is concerned. The claim of the secondary school for public support can not be weighed justly except in the light of the kind of education that is being given by them to our sons and daughters. Progressive communities in many instances have already reorganized secondary schools. In the East, West, THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 139 North, and South are scores of high schools erected during the past ten years, that rise high above the country-wide averages for almost any aspect of secondary education. Students of sec- ondary education, such as the lamented Johnston, and Lange, Claxton, Snedden, Monroe, Hollister, and Inglis have contrib- uted successfully to train a new generation of superior teachers with better views of the responsibility of the high school toward the state and society. It is an encouraging sign also that able commissions and com- mittees have under way plans and recommendations for the entire reorganization of secondary education in this country, — a reorganization doubtless that will be fought at every step just as the introduction of industrial education into public educa- tion has been combated by ultraconservatives at every turn. It is a good thing that democracy flourishes under discussion, especially when discussion is tempered by a ballast of facts gained through experiment. What Schools Should Teach Vocations? Vocational courses in public schools. The above prelimi- nary sketch indicates some of the problems intrinsic in support- ing vocational education lower than college grade. Various economic changes and the disappearance of the protective and instructive gild and apprenticeship systems have rendered un- certain and inadequate the training of modern youth in the common occupations. These occupations, grading from well- defined trades down through specialized factory-operations demanding little previous training, to simple manual labor — if they are to be taken in hand by public schools, present peda- gogical, ethical, and financial difficulties of moment. If the ex- isting high schools are to be utilized more widely for vocational instruction of boys and youth, we are confronted by academic habits of instruction, and by the fact that the high schools as a rule minister, to young girls, rather than to boys, and are manned 140 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION by women, rather than by men. During the year 1915-1916 there were in the four-year pubhc schools of the United States 36,894 women and 25,749 men as instructors. The relative number of woman instructors in the elementary schools is far greater. In the high schools there were enrolled 743,663 girls, and 618,851 boys (U. S. Education Report 1917, vol. II, p. 520). Neither the women nor the men in academic high schools as a rule are prepared by training and contact with industries to teach boys the specialized dexterity and knowledge necessary in common skilled occupations. Shall we then erect sepa- rate, distinct, vocational schools under public control? It is to be admitted that in some instances this step is necessary in order to achieve the objects desired, although even in separate schools the individual can not be permanently separated from opportunity for general and liberal education. As we have indicated (page 38) there can not be a safe divorcement in the lifetime of an individual between general and liberal, and special- ized vocational education under a democracy. Obviously, new types of teachers, new processes, and productive shops, will be needed in public high schools, if the divorcement is to be avoided. The Illinois Educational Commission reported ten reasons why the public schools should "take on vocational courses" rather than " continue as in the past under the assumption that the vocational idea has no proper place in the educational process." These ten reasons, set forth for the adoption of the vocational plan within public schools, are in substance as fol- lows: 1. It is vastly cheaper. 2. It enables the student to live at home where all young people of secondary age belong. 3. A single school with a variety of vocational courses is a better school than is one devoted to a single idea. 4. In the cosmopolitan school, the student develops vocational THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION l41 consciousness and is trained to efficiency while maintaining true re- lations between the vocational and the non- vocational, the particular and the general, himself and the race, his own class and people in gen- eral. 5. To educate the children of different classes separately is to pre- vent that natural transfer of individuals from one profession into an- other which is in every way desirable from both the public and the private point of view. If the children of farmers are systematically put into schools where only agriculture is taught, many a good lawyer and many a good citizen will be spoiled to make an indifferent farmer. Boys do not necessarily inherit the father's vocation. 6. The school that offers a variety of vocational courses enables the student to "find himself" during the educational period. 7. Students educated in company with those preparing for other vocations, will go out better prepared to respect other callings, and the rights of men, and to deplore factions. 8. Schools involving a variety of interests instill into a community, as well as an individual, ambition and spirit. 9. Schools should foster vocational ideals and turn out individuals efficient in specific lines, but should be essentially non-vocational. 10. The cosmopolitan school will prevent social cleavage. "The separated agricultural school, for example, is an irresistible agent for peasantizing the American farmer." (12) Public sentiment. Considerable weight of testimony de- manding practical education lower than college grade comes from many classes of citizens — educators, manufacturers, em- ployees, unionists, social workers, philanthropists, etc., and is recorded in the reports both of the Royal Commission on Indus- trial Training and Technical Education for the Canadian Par- liament in 1913, a comprehensive study of conditions in many lands, and also of the Federal Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education appointed by President Woodrow Wilson in 1914. The materials of these reports, as well as of other special reports, furnished evidence of the increasing desire and need throughout the whole of North America for a better vo- 142 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION cational training for the common occupations of life as con- trasted with the professions. This desire and need has been accentuated by the World War. The Federal Commission placed stress upon the fact that, in addition to affirmative replies from certain representatives of corporations and unions, in answer to the question as to whether there was need for vocational education in the various states, 43 out of 44 state school superintendents, 320 out of 375 super- intendents of cities over 10,000 inhabitants, said, by question- naire, "national aid is necessary." The state superintendents of education gave numerous reasons for the need of national grants. E. g., "State lines are becoming less and less distinct." "To start a belief and an interest in such education." "Our local school bonds are insufficient." "Investigations must be made to put the work on a sound and economic basis. Services of experts are needed." "People wander from State to State." " State and local funds are inadequate." "Such education is expensive but confers a benefit upon the entire nation." "Would stimulate local effort and increase local facilities." "Our State is largely rural and rural communities can hardly support schools where the bare essentials are taught." "Our dual system of schools for whites and negroes imposes a heavy cost, rendering the development of industrial and vocational education slow." "This is a young and rapidly growing State where taxes are high." (2) Vocational education and philanthropy. At this point we note the strong financial and moral support that has been given by philanthropy and by corporations and unions to certain forms of vocational education. This support has happily miti- gated conditions that characterized schools of the past. Phil- anthropy in vocational education has found multitudinous channels. Professional schools for theology, medicine, law, engineering, music, art, have been richly endowed. Some phil- anthropic industrial schools were established for general train- ing and have added industrial training. Others began as trades THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 143 schools. Some are free, some charge nominal fees or tuition. Some are preparatory trades schools; some, night schools; some aim to turn out graduates prepared to be skilled workers. There are day schools provided, and schools that afford a home for pupils. The Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Commis- sioner of Labor describes a wide range of industrial schools estabHshed through benevolence. (13) An illustrative list of industrial schools or endowments in different parts of the country, established through benevolence, is as follows: Young Men's Christian Association, International. The Women's Educational and Industrial Union of Boston, Mass. Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williams, Pa. The Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, Pa. David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo. Wentworth Institute, Boston, Mass. Virginia Mechanics Institute, Richmond, Va. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, New York. Wilmerding School of Mechanical Arts, and the Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco, Cal. The Ralph Sellew Institute of St. Louis. Clara de Hirsch Trade School for Girls, New York Cit3^ Rochester Mechanics Institute, Rochester, New York. Hebrew Technical School for Girls, New York City. The Lewis Institute, Chicago, Illinois. The Dunwoody Institute, Minneapolis, Minn. The Isaac Delgado Central Trades School for Boys, New Orleans, La. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute (for Negroes), Tuskegee, Ala. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (for Negroes), Hamp- ton, Va. Corporation and trade-union schools. Schools are main- tained by scores of corporations both to give academic training needed by their younger workers, and also to supplement by 144 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION trade and technical instruction the training received by appren- tices in their plants. In many instances there is a survival of a type of apprenticeship. There is a tendency in some plants to keep a youth, or so-called apprentice, at one operation or one machine long after he is familiar with it, in the interest of large output. Consequently when the boy or girl finishes the term, he may know one process or operation thoroughly, but not a skilled trade in its various aspects. One bad result of this sinful practice has come home to both the employer and the employee, for we are confronted with a scarcity of well-trained workers, so that industrial enterprises have been seriously hampered. Broadminded employers have recognized that under this policy industry will produce neither skilled workers nor competent foremen, so that some commendable efforts have been made to erect real apprenticeship systems. In these it is planned that the indentured boy should receive trade training and also in- struction in mathematics, mechanical drawing, elementary physics, or other subjects, to facilitate advancement in his trade. Arrangements are frequently made for attendance dur- ing a few hours per week throughout the period of indenture. In the better class of such schools, the employers pay a bonus for completion of the course, and the shop instructors inspire as well as teach, and encourage clean personal habits and right ideals of work. Some corporations cooperate with the public schools; others maintain independent schools within their own plants. The danger of exploitation of youth is ever present, and the corporation schools vary in efficiency and merit. (19) The following railroads established schools, or classes for emi^loyees: New York Central, Santa Fe, Grand Trunk, Erie, Pennsylvania, Union Pacific, Delaware, Lackawanna and Western, Delaware and Hudson, Central Railroad of New Jersey, Chicago Great Western, Pere Mar- quette, Southern, Big Four, etc. Among corporations wliich have supported apprenticeship schools are: Ford Motor Co., Detroit, Mich.; Cadillac Motor Car Co., Detroit, Mich.; Armour & Co., Chicago, THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 145 111.; General Electric Co., Schenectady, N. Y.; Metropolitan Life In- surance Co., New York; Western Electric Co., Chicago, 111.; Westing- house Electric and Manufacturing Co., East Pittsburg, Pa.; Brown & Sharpe, Providence, R. I.; International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111.; D. E. Licher & Co., New York; Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co., Stamford, Conn.; Baldwin Locomotive Co., Philadelphia, Pa.; Ameri- can Locomotive Co., Dunkirk, N. Y.; Lakeside Press, Chicago, 111.; Cincinnati Milling Machine Co., etc. Department stores and similar corporations have made marked progress in the establishment of vo- cational schools or classes of various types, e. g., Jordan Marsh Co., Boston, Mass.; Sears-Roebuck Co., Chicago, 111.; William Filene, Boston, Mass.; John Wanamaker, New York; Lord & Taylor, New York; Broadway Store, Los Angeles; Emporium, San Fi'ancisco, Cal; Halle Bros. Co., Cleveland, Ohio; L. S. Ayres, Indianapolis, Ind. Telephone companies have also developed service instruction, e. g., the New York Telephone Co., and the Chicago Telephone Go. In Chicago, Minneapolis, and other cities labor unions have from time to time entered into agreements with both philan- thropic and public schools to supplement the training of ap- prentices. Unions also support a few trade schools. A notable example is the training afforded by the International Typographical Union Commission on Supplemental Trade Education. Federal Policy toward Education Slow development. The policy of the Federal Government toward education in general has been a matter of slow develop- ment. The Government at first merely aided and encouraged the States by granting endowments to the States, unevenly distributed grants of land or money. The land grant policy was begun in the days when land was about all the govern- ment had to give, the money grants representing a much later development. Vast wealth in lands which might have been retained for the support of public education was grievously dissipated in some States. From the original proposal of Colonel 146 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Pickering in April, 1783, to the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act by Congress in April, 1917, — there is a history of increasing national aid and participation in education. The details of this history are found in the Congressional Globe, in the Con- gressional Record, in American State Papers, Public Lands, in Poore's Federal and State Constitutions, in Congressional Docu- ments, etc., and in abbreviated fonn, illustrative material is available in the studies of Kandel,(16) and of Cubberley and Elliott. (5) Some legislative history. Early in the history of our country there came to Congress a stream of requests, petitions, and memorials asking for grants of land and money for educational or for charitable purposes. President Pierce vetoed a bill grant- ing aid to States for a hospital for insane, and during the debate on Senator Morrill's first bill asking for aid to agricultural and mechanical education, Senator Pugh quoted with approval this veto, urging that if Congress could aid agricultural educa- tion it could assist every species of education and in time would encroach upon the whole field. Senators Mason, Jefferson Davis, and Clay supported him in the contention that the bill was opposed to the reserved rights and true interests of the states. Some contemporary disputants of vocational education pro and con speak as though the reasons set forth by them were new discoveries, peculiar to these present times. It is interesting at this point to note the trend of arguments offered by Mr. Morrill before Congress in the year 1858, Mr. Morrill began his address by reminding the House of the literal bombardment of petitions it had undergone on this subject from "the various states, North and South," state societies, county societies, and individuals. Hardly a day had passed since the beginning of the session that had been without some petition in favor of this bill. Con- gress had legislated for all other classes of the community ; it had pro- tected authors by means of copyright laws, it had given encourage- THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 147 ment to inventors by patent legislation, and so on through a long enu- meration of interests whose welfare had been considered. "All direct encouragement to agriculture has been rigidlj'^ withheld," but "when commerce comes to our doors, gay in its attire and lavish in its prom- ises, we 'hand and deliver' at once our gold. When manufacturer appears, with a needy and downcast look, we tender, at worst, a ' com- promise.'" Federal aid in favor of agriculture, Mr. Morrill contended, was im- peratively needed. So defective is the method of agricultural culti- vation that year by year the American soil is becoming poorer, and "many foreign states support a population vastly larger per square mile than we maintain." The one way to overcome this condition, Mr. Morrill continued, was to enable each profession to educate itself. "The farmer and the mechanic require special schools and appro- priate literature quite as much as any one of the so-called learned pro- fessions. ... It is plainly an indication that education is taking a step in advance when public sentiment begins to demand that the faculties of young men shall be trained with some reference to the voca- tion to which they are to be devoted through life." A system of agri- cultural colleges would interfere in no way with the existing literary colleges. Mr. Morrill then proceeded to outline the definite purposes that the proposed agricultural colleges would fulfil. . . . In conclusion Mr. Morrill made an appeal to the House to "Pass this bill and we shall have done — " Something to enable the farmer to raise two blades of grass instead of one; Something for every owner of land; Something for all who desire to own land; Something for cheap scientific education; Something for every man who loves intelligence and not ignorance; Something to induce the father's sons and daughters to settle and cluster around the old homestead; Something to remove the last vestige of pauperism from our land; Something for peace, good order, and the better support of Christian churches and common schools; Something to enable sterile railroads to pay dividends; 148 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Something to enable tlie people to bear the enormous expenditure of the national government; Something to check the passion of individuals, and of the nation, for definite territorial expansion and ultimate decrepitude; Something to prevent the dispersion of our population, and to con- centrate it around the best lands of our country — places hallowed by church spires, and mellowed by all the influences of time — where the consumer will be placed at the door of the producer and thereby Something to obtain higher prices for all sorts of agricultural pro- ductions; and Something to increase the loveliness of the American landscape." (16) I. L. Kandel has dug into congressional records and brought forth a monograph of the above facts about the legislative history of federal aid for vocational education, the constitu- tional and educational precedents, and subsequent develop- ments. The debates and parliamentary tactics resorted to by Messrs. Morrill, Cobb, Davis, Bell, Pugh, Rice, and others may be read now in the perspective of sixty years with keen interest and perhaps with some amusement. Veto of Buchanan. The action of President Buchanan who vetoed the bill in 1859, granting federal aid in support of agri- cultural education, was accompanied by his statement of six grounds for disapproval. Repeated in abbreviated form the reasons were these : 1. The bill was financially inexpedient at the time. 2. It established a dangerous financial precedent. 3. The bill would be prejudicial to the settlement of the new States which needed above all things actual settlers occupying small portions of land. 4. The Federal Government had confessedly no constitutional power to follow it into the States and enforce the application of the fund to the intended objects. No control over the gift would remain after it had passed from the Government's hands. THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 149 5. The bill would injuriously interfere with existing colleges in the different States in many of which agriculture was taught as a science. 6. The bill was unconstitutional. (16) Some of the dire things prophesied by President Buchanan came true after the final passage of the Morrill Act in later years, but, on the whole, the federal appropriations for agri- cultural and mechanical education in the States have been tre- mendously fruitful of good to the whole people. Morrill Act. The unsuccessful attempt to pass the bill vetoed by President Buchanan in 1859, was soon followed by the introduction of a similar measure. This measure was passed by both houses and approved by President Abraham Lincoln on July 2, 1862. This great Act, the provisions of which were subsequently enlarged or extended by amendments, and by the Hatch Act (1887), by the Second Morrill Act (1890), by the Nelson Act (1907), and by the Agricultural-Extension Act (1914) — was for the purpose of donating public lands to the several States and Territories which may provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts. (See U. S. Statutes at Large, 37 Congress, p. 503.) It is known as the First Morrill Act, and under its provisions and amendments the agricultural and mechanical colleges in our states have multiplied and grown. The fact that the Morrill Act is often spoken of as the prede- cessor of all other appropriations by the general government for education has led to considerable glorification of Senator Morrill. Jonathan B. Turner. President James has brought to light evidence to show that the real father of the so-called Morrill Act was Jonathan B. Turner (b. 1805, d. 1898). He formulated clearly and definitely a plan for national grants for the promo- tion of education in agriculture and the mechanic arts, and inaugurated agitation among the citizens of Illinois which event- ually made possible the passage of the bill. Definite proposi- 150 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION tions were recommended to Congress by the famous resolutions of the Legislature of Illinois in 1853 (15). There is good reason to believe that Turner and his friends selected Morrill to introduce the bill, and that Morrill managed the matter ad- mirably. (15) Significance of Morrill Act. The tremendous influence of the Morrill Act evidently gained impetus from currents such as the Fellenberg movement, and especially from the activities of Jonathan B. Turner, activities already under way even before the veto of President Buchanan. Henry S. Pritchett of the Carnegie Foundation claims that there is wide misconception as to what actually took place in Congress prior to the enact- ment of the Morrill Act of 1862. "The discussions," says he, "which led up to the passage of that Act are buried in numerous volumes of the Congressional Record and are not accessible to the public. A brief exhibit of this discussion is of high value in showing what the original intentions of Congress were, by what means the bill was enacted into law, and, most astonishing of all, the absence of any serious educational program. Congress had before it no clear, well-considered educational project. Senator Morrill himself knew very little of education. His wish was to do something for the farmer. "(16) Federal acts summarized. We have added below to the summary prepared by the U. S. Bureau of Education memo- randa concerning the Smith-Hughes and the Smith-Sears Acts of Congress. These various Acts mark important steps toward federal support of various phases of vocational education. (1) The act of July 2, 1862, granting public lands to the States, known as the "first Morrill Act," and the act of March 3, 1883, amend- ing the previous act and providing for the investment of capital. (2) The Act of August 30, 1890, making yearly appropriations to the States and Territories in aid of colleges of agriculture and the mechanic arts, known as the "second Morrill Act." (3) The act of March 4, 1907, known as the "Nelson amendment," THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 151 increasing the annual appropriation to $50,000 per year to each State and extending the conditions for the use of the funds. In addition to the three acts supporting instructional work there have been three acts granting federal aid for experimentation and extension work : (4) The act of March 2, 1887, the "Hatch Act," granting $15,000 to each State for agricultural experiment stations. (5) The act of March 16, 1906, the "Adams Act," increasing the annual payment for experiment stations to $30,000 for each State. (6) The act of May 8, 1914, the "Smith-Lever Act," making an annual appropriation to each State for agricultural extension work. (7) The act of February 23, 1917, the "Smith-Hughes Act," an act to provide for the promotion of vocational education; to provide for cooperation with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the trades and industries; to provide for cooperation with the States in the preparation of teachers of vocational subjects; and to appropriate money and regulate its expenditure. (8) The act of June 27, 1918, the "Smith-Sears Act," an act to provide for vocational rehabilitation and return to civil employ- ment of disabled persons discharged from the military or naval forces of the United States and for other purposes. After the appointment of the Commission on Vocational Education, created by act of Congress on January 20, 1914, Congress provided still further means of aiding the agricultural colleges to extend their work. This was the "Agricultural- Extension Act" (Smith-Lever), providing cooperative agri- cultural extension work between the agricultural colleges in the several states receiving the benefits of the Morrill Act of 1862, and of acts supplementary thereto, and the United States De- partment of Agriculture. Federal appropriations began in 1914 with $480,000 or $10,000 for each state. This sum is to be in- creased by annual increments until a total of $4,100,000 annual appropriation is reached, to be divided by the Secretary of Agri- culture among the states in the proportion that their rural pop- ulations bear to the rural population of the United States, and 152 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION each state must raise an amount equal to that from the Federal Government. Four points in this Act are to be noted: (1) The Act aids in the diffusion among the people of the United States of useful and practical information on subjects relating to agri- culture and home economics. (2) The extension work is to be done in connection with colleges. (3) Instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics, shall be given "to persons not attending or resident in said colleges in the several communities." It will be found that this provision (Act of May 8, 1914, Sec. 2) made possible a duplication of some work authorized under the Smith-Hughes Act, the bene- fits of which are intended only for instruction lower than college grade. (4) Cooperation is demanded between the States, the Colleges, and the United States Department of Agriculture. Concerning cooperation. Dean Eugene Davenport, of the Illinois College of Agriculture, has made this observation: I am convinced that most of the irritation and difficulty and most of the absurd 'cooperation' have arisen from the Department's un- dertaking to solve local problems entirely outside its proper field of activity, often to the embarrassment of the stations, and with no other excuse than that it had the money and the inclination to do it, and that it is easier to secure funds by indirect than by direct taxation. (6) Dean Davenport is of the opinion that the sphere of the United States Department of Agriculture should be "national, international, or at least interstate in operation," while "to the state institutions belongs the study of local questions." Federal Expenditures for Education Income of agricultural and mechanical colleges. The severe critics of the expenditures of federal money for vocational edu- cation whether in agricultural colleges under the Morrill and subsequent acts, or in secondary education under the Smith- Hughes Act, overlook three important facts which destroy some THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 153 of the force of destructive criticism. First, the proportion of income derived by the agricultural and mechanical colleges from the Federal Government is less than twelve per cent of their total income, — most of which comes from the states and from private sources. Table VII, on page 154, shows the sources of income of all agricultural and mechanical colleges for five years. The second fact is that the total amounts appropriated by the Federal Govermnent for the agricultural and mechanical colleges have been relatively insignificant when compared with govern- mental expenditures for objects other than education, or with expenditures of the American people for tobacco, or confection- ery, etc. A third matter is that under the Smith-Hughes Act, the proportion of costs borne by the States is far greater than that borne by the Federal Government. The States, or local authorities, often furnish buildings, equipment, and plants in addition to sharing costs of instruction dollar for dollar with the Federal Government. Total of federal grants before the World War. Before the appointment of the Federal Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education, the work of which culminated during 1917 in the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act, and four years before the World War, Cubberley, summing up data from various sources, attempted to set forth the grand total of national grants for education. He estimated the amounts to be as follows: total acres of land granted — 149,299,775; total funds derived from land sales — $206,343,494; probable future income cal- culated for twenty years into the future— $725,100,000; total income from these grants— $829,520,000. (Monroe's Cycl. of Ed., Vol. IV, p. 382.) The amounts do not include federal expenditures for the training of officers for the Army and Navy, at West Point and Annapolis. TABLE VII Income of Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges dur- ing Five Years. (31) Funds for instruction and administration Source of income 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 State funds: From endowment granted by the State $131,415 3,095,341 591,921 6,703,831 3,695,249 $479,050 4,010,234 615,183 9,176,464 3,716,834 $104,966 3,733,316 624,467 10,774,782 2,768,576 $135,444 3,842,112 629,419 11,829,281 2,833,2M $160,766 From mill tax levy for support. . . From mill tax levy for permanent improvements From appropriations for support From appropriations for per- manent improvements 6,441,533 692,116 10,300,845 3,783,702 Total State aid 14,217,760 17,997,765 18,006,107 19,269,460 21,378,902 I'nited States funds: From land-grant fund of 1862 . . From other land-grant funds .... From Morrill-Nelson funds of 1890 and 1907 859,074 186,551 2,490,000 846,087 264,111 2,500,000 856,838 195,239 2,500,000 884,514 193,573 2,500,000 930,170 241,840 2,515,171 Total Federal aid 3,535,625 3,592,198 3,552,077 .... 3,578,087 3,687,181 College funds: From college endowment funds . . From tuition, fees, board, and 966,204 2,683,960 (2) (2) (2) 3,558,590 1,151,511 3,059,358 (2) (2) (2) 9,090,392 1,206,672 3,565,771 (2) (2) (2) 5,621,138 1,444,075 3,741,429 (2) (2) (2) 10,541,771 15,427,275 1,399,607 6,077,868 From departmental earnings. . . . From private gifts for support . . . From private gifts for permanent improvements and endow- 2,970,412 312,054 901,340 1113 8.36 Total college funds 7,208,754 13,301,261 10,403,581 12,775,117 Total income for instruc- tion and administration . . 24,962,139 34,891,224 31,961,765 38,274,822 37,841,260 FUNDS FOR EXPERIMENT STATIONS $1,024,4.55 1,.3.59,302 (3) (3) $1,068,441 1,347,4.59 (3) (3) $1,129,700 1,369,288 (3) (3) $1,059,018 1,.362,000 f3) (3) .$1,588,883 1 369,700 Private gifts . . . 242 602 Experiment station earnings 1,213,216 Total funds for experiment . 2,383,757 2,415,900 2,498,997 2,421,018 4 414 419 FUNDS FOR EXTENSION SERVICE State funds, Smith-Lever, and others United States funds $722,425 $1,292,273 $1,075,005 491,238 (3) (3) $1,364,356 1,113,490 (3) (3) $2,325,563 1,411,836 County, city, or association funds . . Private gifts and miscellaneous. . . . (3) (3) (3) (3) 696,.334 79,985 Toral for extension service . . 722,425 1,292,273 1,566,243 2,477,846 4,513,718 Grand total income of in- 28,068,321 .38,599,397 36,027,005 43,173,686 46,769,397 Receipts from board and lodging included for the first time in 1917. ; Included in miscellaneous. 154 3 Not reported. THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 155 Other federal appropriations for education. Since our en- trance into the World War and the tremendous expenditures resulting therefrom, we do not know the expenditures appor- tioned by our Government for educational purposes. In addi- tion to the grants and endowments recorded in the above table, the reader will understand that it has become the policy of the Federal Government to expend large sums for both the direct and also the indirect advancement of education. Here is a tabulation of the groups of appropriations made by the Govern- ment for the advancement of education through its various departments and bureaus, during the year immediately pre- ceding the outbreak of the World War. (5) TABLE VIII Appropriations by the United States Government for the Advancement of Education for the Fiscal Year ending June 30, 1914 a) Department of State $31,000.00 b) War Department 1,246,159.97 Department of Justice 41,000. 00 d) Navy Department 893,457.00 e) Department of Interior 7,745,945 . 00 f) Department of Agriculture 1,679,660. 00 g) Department of Commerce and Labor 25,640 . 00 h) Library of Congress 809,375.00 i) Smithsonian Institution 805,400 . 00a j) District of Columbia 3,163,640.00b $16,441,276.97 a. Includes $50,000 to be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia. b. One half of this amount is to be paid from the revenues of the District of Columbia. 156 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION The Federal Government also conducts vast educational enterprises concerned with direct teaching, in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Porto Rico, and Panama, and for the Indians. It aids indirect educational agencies of many kinds, such as the Smithsonian Institution, the Children's Bureau, the United States Bureau of Education. International congresses, scien- tific associations, expositions, commissions, etc., have received millions of dollars from the govermnent. The United States Department of Agriculture is an institution largely educational in character. The agricultural appropriation during March, 1918, amounted to $28,000,000. Federal support of vocational education a fact. The pre- ceding pages have related partly to governmental aid as ex- tended to education in general, and to agricultural and mechan- ical education of college grade. More specific is the inquiry con- cerning federal aid to vocational education lower than college grade as an important phase of public education. The figures in this chapter so far have not included the appropriations for support of vocational education made under the Smith-Hughes Act. We have reached the stage in our national history where federal aid for vocational education of definite types is a fact. Large support has long been given to agricultural education. Occupational training for the Army, the Navy, aviation, etc., is paid for and regulated entirely by the Federal Government — as is also general education in Hawaii, the Philippines, and Alaska, and for the Indians. The vocational rehabilitation of disabled returned soldiers has been added as a national obliga- tion to be discharged under the auspices of the Federal Govern- ment. The Smith-Hughes Act has made operative a larger measure of cooperation with the States in the establishment and maintenance of vocational education lower than college grade in agriculture, trades and industries, and home economics. However, the recognized responsibility for all education, as a rule THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 157 in America, is generally local not central. It is probable that in the future there will be an increasing development of larger federal aid and participation in education, but that in equal measure the autonomy of the States in educational organization and control will be zealously preserved by school men and citi- zens. Summary 1. The problem is present continually: What phases of edu- cation can be supported most profitably by municipality, by State, or by Federal Government? The reasons why society must support universal education have already been stated in Chapter I. The distributions of money and of effort for education with reference both to the upbuilding of the mass of the people and also to the train- ing of able leaders need to be scrutinized in order that the ideals of universal education may be followed. 2. The questions of responsibility for and support of education may be approached better by an understanding that many factors other than the school are educational sources — e. g., physical environment, the tribe, the family, the church, the theatre, the press, the crowd. 3. Many of the occupational activities of man can perhaps be traced back to his inevitable reaction to the necessities of adaptation to physical environment, e. g., food-getting, manufacture, transportation, barter and exchange, and even the uses of spare time. Environment both supplies raw materials, and is also an instructor of the human race, although ages of slow progress have proved that we can not depend very definitely upon the poetical conception of "Nature the first and great Teacher." 4. The family both in primitive and in modern life is a cardinal element in occupational and in general education. Ethi- cal idealism, which is an indispensable accompaniment 158 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of specialized vocational training, must have its root in wholesome family life. 5. Apprenticeship and the gilds of olden time do not exist today, although similarities to them are discovered in modern agreements for apprenticeship and in the exist- ence of unions and corporations. Specialization of labor, competition, the factory system, the fact that employers can not know personally hundreds or thousands of em- ployees, conflicts between capital and labor, — all these factors render futile the hope that revivals of apprentice- ship at its best may solve the problems of secondary vocational education. 6. Because precious arts lost beyond recovery were probably practiced by a few, or have been replaced by better arts — as the match replaced flint and steel, and the turbine the crude water-wheel, it is problematical whether the system of individual responsibility for workmanship which produced many wonderful products has not gained an exaggerated evaluation, so far as the welfare of society is concerned. Individualistic handicraft flourishes in backward countries. 7. The decay of individualistic handicraft, apprenticeship, and the fostering gild, however, has left youth without responsible direction or support in learning skilled trades. Quantity of production is emphasized at the expense of the worker. Women and children have been exploited, machine-like operations full of monotony and danger some- times have accompanied standardization and specializa- tion in manufacturing; aimlessness and drifting of labor cause ultimate loss to employer and employee. These conditions are found both in the United States and in Canada. 8. More than ninety one per cent of the total school enrolhnent is found in the elementary schools. General, elementary THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 159 education is fundamental to all useful occupations; that, as given, it is insufficient as adequate preparation for occupa- tions, is also true. Seven per cent of school enrollment is in the high schools. Of high school students overwhelmingly large numbers take English literature, algebra, history, Latin, etc. Relatively small numbers have taken manual train- ing, household economics, agriculture. Progressive tend- encies are marked in many American high schools, and large results are accruing from the introduction of the junior high schools. The National Commission on Reor- ganization of Secondary Education of the National Education Association has offered comprehensive sug- gestions for better adjustment of the American high school to meet the needs of democracy. 9. That public schools may generally assume the burden of providing vocational courses, rather than invariably to allow separate vocational schools, appears established for reasons such as those set forth by the Illinois Commis- sion. However, this cannot be wise in every locality, and where courses are to be installed in existing public schools, usually a different type of teacher, trained by contact with industry as well as with books, must be se- cured. Furthermore, staid, academic influences must not be permitted to obstruct or dominate through majority votes or executive inactivity, plans for sub- stantial improvement of the community by means of the vocational classes or school. 10. The arguments for national aid to vocational education have been variously appraised, from the time of Presi- dent Buchanan to the present. The need, however, of better secondary vocational education seems firmly es- tabUshed. 11. The fact that the state must support and control education 160 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION under democracy does not exclude philanthropy, churches, or individuals from the conduct and ownership of educa- tional institutions. They are permitted to help, not to de- stroy, the ideals and efficiency of democracy. Corpora- tions, unions, benevolent associations, notably the Young Men's Christian Association, and individuals, have shown remarkable enterprise in supplementing public education by means of apprentice, industrial, and commercial classes or schools of various types. 12. Federal policy toward the support of education in the res- pective states has been of slow development. Not men- tioned in the Constitution, the control and support of education was left to the States, the Federal Govermnent, however, constantly encouraging and helping the States by means of land grants and appropriations. The Gov- ermnent has gradually taken upon itself, directly or in- directly, great educational enterprises. The average citizen perhaps does not realize the extent of governmental activity in education, or the vast sums annually appro- priated therefor by the government, even before the exceptional conditions of the World War. The federal policy reached its present culmination in the radical changes introduced by the enactment by Congress of the Smith-Hughes Law in 1917. It is an important task for students to examine this law. The following chapter will therefore deal with the further development of federal cooperation, especially as indi- cated by the Smith-Hughes Act. Problems 1. During the past ten years in your own community what different factors have been most potent in the different phases of education? Give illustrations for each general kind of education. THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 161 2. Give definite examples of how physical environment has modified the prevailing occupations of people in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, California, lUinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Maine, Pennsylvania, Tennessee. Consult the Census Reports for 1910, vol. IV, and geographies. 3. Has Nature ever taught you directly? How and what? Was your method in that case of learning (a) trial and error, or (b) imitation, or (c) reasoning? • 4. Show that ethical idealism obtained in family life is a neces- sary foundation and supplement to specialized vocational training. Consider with reference to (a) prospective workers in industry, and (b) adult workers in industry who attend night schools. 5. What steps can be taken in your community to conserve the features of the American home life at its best? 6. A well educated man has obtained his status from (a) hered- ity; (b) growth or time; (c) home and social environment and activities; (d) the school; (e) occupation or vocation; (f) uses of spare time. Evaluate in selected occupations the probable effects of each kind of the six groups of fac- tors named. 7. Contrast modern and medieval forms of indenture for apprenticeship. 8. Why is it futile to rely to-day upon a revival of medieval apprenticeship to give us adequate vocational training of secondary grade? 9. Seek out in old homes, or in museums, some masterpieces of handicraft or workmanship, that are known to have been made under the old system. E. g. : Furniture, vessels, rugs, weapons, jewelry, pottery, books, clothing. Contrast carefully with quality, use, and quantity of similar productions of to-day. Look up handicraft in books about Turkey, China, Africa, Russia, or Indians. 10. Give any examples of manufactures of to-day that surpass 162 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION anything of the past, — in metals, wood, fabrics, chemicals and drugs. 11. Trace the origins of invention and the share of woman in the establishment of human industries. (See Mason.) 12. Look up the percentages of law, medical, and theological students who have academic degrees. (U. S. Education Report, 1917, vol. II.) 13. Look up the values of plants, endowments, and the cost of maintenance of professional schools in the United States. 14. Show to what extent the actual work of the elementary schools of your community contributes to vocational efficiency. Explain the distinctions between elementary education considered as (a) fundamental and as (b) suf- jicieni for occupational fitness and citizenship. 15. Determine the proportions of the student body studying each subject, in each of the classes of the high schools of your community. Compare with the country-wide tendencies. 16. Abstract important points as related to vocational educa- tion, from the report of the Committee on Reorganization of Secondary Education, N. E. A., 1918. 17. Show, along with the power of the strengthened home, that vocational courses conducted as a rule in existing public schools rather than in separate schools, will help still further to prevent the divorcement of general, liberal, and specialized vocational phases of public education. 18. Scrutinize the arguments of the Federal Commission for National Aid to Vocational Education, with reference to their pecuhar appUcability to specialized vocational education. 19. Look up President Buchanan's veto of the agricultural bill of 1859. Which of his predictions have not been fulfilled? (See Cubberley and Elliott, Source Book, pp. 84-86.) THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 163 20. From the- U. S. Labor Report for 1910 (Industrial Educa- tion) and Annual Reports of the Y. M. C. A., ascertain the nature and extent of the activities of the Association in vocational education. 21. Show that schools conducted by churches, or associations, or by private enterprise, may be conducted compatibly with the doctrine (Ch. I, p. 8) that the State must support and control public education. 22. What definite safeguards of different kinds should the State throw around the conduct of educational enterprises other than public institutions? E. g. : With reference to health, morals, standards, finance? Apply your con- clusions to elementary, to secondary, and to professional schools not conducted by the state. 23. Should the city or state have the right to enforce medical inspection in all vocational and other schools, private and public? Explain the necessity. 24. In your own city and county what philanthropic institu- tions exist for vocational education? Visit, and study data from such an institution with regard to : endowment, control, organization, purposes, plant and equipment, student enrollment, ages and sex of pupils, faculty, meth- ods, disposition of products, and results achieved for the community. 25. State any possible dangers both in corporation and also in union vocational schools. 26. Do you know of instances of private vocational schools run for gain, and in fact fraudulent? 27. Obtain data from some of the best corporation, or union schools and classes, and analyze for their excellent fea- tures and their defects. (19). Formulate some of the difficult educational problems that confront corporations in the matter of employment and of lessening the "turn over" or transiency of employees. 164 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION SELECTED REFERENCES 1. American State Papers. Documents, legislative and executive, of the Congress of the United States. Selected and edited under the au- thority of Congress. Washington, Gales and Leaton, 1832-1861. 38 v., maps, plans. No. 1-38 of the Congressional series. Class III, Finance, 5 v. Class VIII, Public Lands, 8 v. 2. Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education. By order of the Sixty-Third Congress. Washington, 1914, House Document 1004. Two volumes. See vol. 1, ch. I. 3. Congressional Globe. Dec. 2, 1833-March 3, 1873. Washington, 1834-1873. For debates and proceedings of earlier congresses, see Annals of Congress, 1789-1824. 4. Cooperative System of Education, C. W. Park, U. S. Education Bxille- tin 37, 1916, 48 p. 111. An account of cooperative education as developed in the College of Engineering, University of Cincinnati. 5. Cubberley, E. P. and Elliott, E. G. Source Book, State and County School Administration. N. Y., 1915, 729 p. 6. Davenport, Eugene. Proc. Assoc, of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, 1913, pp. 121-133. 7. Department Store Education. Helen R. Norton. U. S. Education Bulletin 9, 1917, 77 p. lU. 8. Dodd, A. E. Vocational Education and Government Aid. Proc. N. E. A., 1916, pp. 479-483. 9. Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulletin 1, 1917, 70 p. 10. Graves, Frank P. A History of Education. N. Y., 1914, 410 p. 11. Hall, G. Stanley. Industrial Education. A comprehensive chapter in vol. 1, of his Educational Problems. N. Y., 1911. 12. lUinois Educational Commission. Springfield, 111., 1911, 125 p., pp. 121-125. 13. Industrial Education. Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Com- missioner of Labor. Washington, 1911, 822 p. Data and analyses concerning various systems of industrial education in the United States. 14. Influence of Environment upon Human Industries or Arts. O. T. Mason in Annual Report, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, 1895, pp. 639-655. 15. James, Edmund J. The Origin of the Land Grant Act of 1862, and Some Account of Its Author. University of Illinois Study, vol. IV, no. 1, 1910, 139 p. THE AUSPICES OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 165 16. Kaudel, I. L. Federal Aid for Vocational Education. Bulletin 10, Carnegie Foundation, N. Y., 1917, 127 p. A historical study of legislation, constitutional and educational precedents relating to vocational education. 17. Mason, Otis T. The Origins of Invention. A study of industry among primitive peoples. N. Y., 1910, 419 p. 18. Monroe, Paul. Text-book in the History of Education. N. Y., 1906, 771 p. 19. National Association of Corporation Schools, Report. Lee Galloway, Sec, New York University, New York, 1917, 893 p. 111. 20. National Government of the United States and Education. E. P. Cubberley in Monroe's Cyclopedia, vol. IV, pp., 372-382. 21. Nevins, Allan. Illinois. A first history of the University of Illinois and of important early movements for education in the Middle West. N. Y., Oxford Press, 1917, 378 p. 22. Organization and Administration of Secondary Education. Report of Committee on the Administration of High Schools of the National Commission on Reorganization of Secondary Education of the N. E. A. Edited by Charles Hughes Johnston, 1918. 23. Poore, Benjamin P. The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and other Organic Laws of the United States. Compiled under order of U. S. Senate. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1877, 2 v. 24. Reigart, J. F. Family Education. In Moru-oe's Cyclopedia, vol. II, pp. 574-576. 25. Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education. By order of Canadian Parliament, Ottawa, 1913. Four volumes, Parts I, II, III and IV; ill. See Part IV, p. 1643-1645. A compre- hensive series of first-hand studies of industrial education made in many lands. Probably the most extensive report of the kind in recent years. 26. Scott, J. F. Historical Essays on Apprenticeship and Vocational Education. A monograph concerning historical developments of apprenticeship and gilds. Ann Arbor, 1914, 83 p. 27. Service Instruction of American Corporations. L. F. Fuld. U. S. Education Bulletin 34, 1916. 28. Snedden, David. The War and Vocational Education. Adminis- tration and Supervision. January 1918, pp. 33-41. 29. United Census 1910, vol. IV, pp. 18-27. 166 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 30. United States Education Report, 1917, vol. II, pp. 12, 371-372, 374, 520. 31. United States Education Bulletin 41, 1918, 43 p. Statistics of Agri- cultural and Mechanical Colleges. 32. Woman's Share in Primitive Culture. O. T. Mason. New York, 1894, 295 p. 111. CHAPTER VI THE FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION Nature and Origin of the Smith-Hughes Act: Functions and aims; origin; National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education; its successor; predecessors of the Act; text of the Smith-Hughes Act; mandatory pro- visions; discretionary provisions; Evaluation of the Smith-Hughes Act: A war measure? Criticisms: (a) The Carnegie Bulletin; (b) National Education Association; (c) personnel of the Board; (d) incoordination of government effort; (e) the problem of discretionary interpretation; (/) professional representation of education; (g) a new department. Merits of the Act; allotments to the States; addi- tional obligations. War and Progress: Accelerated development; fourteen factors in rapid development. Summary. Problems. Selected References. , Nature and Origin of Smith-Hughes Act Function and aims. The Act of Congress known as the Smith-Hughes Act, enabled the Federal Government to develop far its cooperation with the States in the promotion of voca- tional education lower than college grade. The general methods and objects or aims of the Act were summed up thus by the Federal Board: 1. The Federal Government deals with the work in the States only through an official State board created by the legislative machinery of the State. 2. The Federal Government deals with the State only in terms of standards and policies and not in terms of particular institutions or individuals. This means standards and policies rather than person- aUties. 167 168 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 3. The Federal Government deals with a State in terms of the con- ditions within that particular State and not in terms of the United States as a whole. This is possible through the provisions of the Act which provide for standards but do not specify such standards in terms of equipment, courses of study, or other uniform requirements for the country at large. This cooperation of the Federal Government with the States in the promotion of vocational education is based upon four fundamental ideas: (1) That vocational education being essential to the national wel- fare, it is a function of tlie National Government to stimulate the States to undertake this new and needed form of service. (2) That federal funds are necessary in order to equalize the burden of carrying on the work among the States. (3) That since the Federal Government is vitally interested in the success of vocational education, it should, so to speak, pur- chase a degree of participation in this work. (4) That only by creating such a relationship between the Federal and th(; State Governments can proper standards of educa- tional efficiency be set up. (lb) Origin. The Land Grant Act (called the Morrill Act) was preceded by a period of agitation. Memorials, resolutions and propaganda now almost lost sight of, found ultimate expression in the bill finally passed by Congress during 18G2. Similarly, there was a ten-year period of determined agitation preceding the Smith-Highes Act. Not many of the resolutions passed by various organizations bore explicit reference to the Smith- Hughes Bill, but scores of resolutions indorsed by various or- ganizations voiced a demand for vocational educa,tion of lower than college grade or gave direct support to the various prede- cessors of the Smith-Hughes Bill. In 1912 the United States Education Report contained the statement: "The press fairly teems with editorial and signed articles, which indicate an over- whelming sentiment in favor of enlarging and extending the scope of education in this country to include the training of the DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 169 great mass of our workers for wage-earning occupations of every kind." In behalf of this cause industrial, commercial, education, and social organizations gave support by either reso- lutions or activities. The Report lists the following among the organizations referred to: National Education Association. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. National Metal Trades Association. National Association of Manufacturers. American Federation of Labor. National Child Labor Committee. National Committee on Prison Labor, American Association for I^abor Legislation. American Society for the Prevention and Study of Infant Morality. Southern Commercial Congress. Southern Educational Association. General Federation of Women's Clubs. United Textile Workers of America. American Society of Equity. National Farmers ' Grange. National Farmers ' Congress. Department of Superintendence, National Education Association. International Congress of Farm Women. American Foundrymen's Association. National Domestic Science Association. National Committee on Agricultural Education. American Education and Cooperative Farmers ' Union. Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America. The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- cation. The movement culminating in the passage of the Smith-Hughes Act had been stimulated by the propaganda of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion. The Smith-Hughes Act crystallized in legal form the primary motive of the first decade of the Society's existence — "a period of propaganda to awaken this country to the need for 170 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION secondary vocational training supported by public money and maintained under public control." The National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education was organized in 1906 in response to the recognized need for industrial education in America. Its membership and boards included industrial and commercial managers, labor leaders, educators, and public men. It conducted a vigorous propaganda by means of bulle- tins and by offering its facilities as a clearing house for various achievements and experiments in vocational education, and by making expert knowledge available to all who are interested in this new and complex problem. Twelve annual gatherings of business men, investigators, labor men, and educators, nour- ished public appreciation of the need of vocational education of certain kinds. Largely owing to the efforts of members of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, Congress authorized the appointment of the Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education. It speaks strongly for the high-power efficiency of the Society, as well as for the ur- gency of the cause, that a society of not more than 1700 mem- bers should have proved to be so powerful in influencing the edu- cational legislation of a nation of one hundred millions. (10) Its successor. On February 23, 1918, a "Committee on Future Policy" of the Society brought in a report changing the name of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education to the National Society for Vocational Education, which report was adopted with amendments. It is not to be assumed that the activities of the groups backing both the old and the new societies have not encountered criticism. Professor Charles H. Judd of the University of Chicago wrote these comments after the February (1918) meeting: The change in name is significant for two reasons. First, the period of "promoting" industrial education is believed by the members of the Society to be over. With the organization of a Federal Board for In- dustrial Education the first aim and purpose of the Society has been DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 171 achieved. Secondly, the term "industrial education" is too narrow to describe the interests which now ask for recognition. There are commercial interests, agricultural interests, home economic interests, as well as the narrow interests of the industrial schools and of trade schools. So the name is to be changed and the scope of the Society- is to be much enlarged. . . . The present writer has repeatedly stated in the pages of this Journal that in liis judgment any move which tends to set up in America a group of people or a group of schools which are intent on industrial education to the exclusion of general education is dangerous to de- mocracy. ... No such scheme is possible in this country as exists in Prussia, of a dual school system. . . . The new Society ought, in the opinion of the present writer, to put away the fundamentally wrong attitude of the old Society. Vocational education is not a thing apart. It can flourish only when it becomes a part of our national system. There is something larger than vocational education; it is American education. The new Society was perhaps wise in reconsider- ing its action; perhaps not. One thing is certain — it will make the mistake of its young life if it attempts a policy of separatism in educa- tion. With best wishes for wisdom to the leaders of the new organiza- tion and for the carrying forward in a more democratic way of a work which up to this time has been relatively narrow in purpose and highly restricted in its control, this Journal pledges its support to the new venture just in so far as the Society cultivates the most intimate re- lations possible between vocational education and general education. (5) Predecessors of the Act. As in the case of the Morrill Act, before the Smith-Hughes Act there were also many abortive attempts at similar legislation. For example, there were: The Davis Bill of 1907, the Davis-Dolliver Bill of 1910, the Mc- kinley Bill of 1911, the Lever Bill of 1911, the Overman Bill of 1911, the Page Bill of 1912, all of which failed of passage. The Act finally passed was fathered by Senator Hoke Smith and Representative Dudley M. Hughes, both of the State of Georgia. It should be noted that it was a period of increasing war-tension at the time when the Smith-Hughes Bill was passed in an 172 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION amended form, and approved. Changes were made in the original Bill before its final passage. The Bill originally rec- ommended by the Federal Commission (H. R. 16952, Smith- Hughes Bill) provided in Section 6 that the United States Commissioner of Education should be the executive officer of the Board, which Board was to consist of the Postmaster General, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agri- culture, the Secretary of Commerce, and the Secretary of Labor, one of its members to be elected Chairman. The Bill as amended in conference and finally passed (S. 703) provides in Section 6 that the "Commissioner of Education may make such recom- mendations to the Board relative to the administration of this Act as he may from time to time deem advisable." The membership or personnel of the Board was also radically modified. Text of the Smith-Hughes Act. At this point the student should read and study each of the eighteen sections of the text of the Act. (13) This may be found in the Appendix. He may then profitably write a brief abstract containing the essential points of each section, and formulate a tentative interpreta- tion of his own for each section of the Act. The first published bulletin of the Federal Board for Vocational Education was a statement of policies, which, it is stated, was to be regarded as preliminary and tentative, since sufficient time had not yet elapsed to permit the Federal Board to view the problems of administration from every possible angle. Bulletin I also con- tained the text of the Act. Subsequent experience of the Federal Board made necessary additional interpretations and formula- tions of policy, statements of which are contained in the Second Annual Report. (lb) To facilitate understanding of the Act, the Board made two series of statements in order to bring out the distinctions be- tween the (1) mandatory obligations imposed by the Smith- Hughes Act upon the Federal Board, upon the states, upon the DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 173 Secretary of the Treasury, upon the State Treasurers, upon State Boards, and concerning expenditure of appropriations, and (2) provisions where discretion and judgment are allowed to the Federal Board. The student should procure and study the original statements of policies for a full understanding of the operation of the Smith-Hughes Act. Mandatory provisions. The mandatory provisions are, of course, included in the Act itself, although an analysis prepared by the Board was designed to make these obligations stand out clearly as affecting the Federal Board, State Boards, State Treasurers, etc. (3) Discretionary provisions. The range of matters depending chiefly upon the discretion and judgment of the Board was wide, as will be indicated by the following memoranda of certain points referred to in the aforesaid first interpretations of the Federal Board. (Supra, pp. 20-48.) Although the interpre- tations were tentative, these first reactions will be of some per- manent interest to the student of education. Federal Board reserves right to judge arrangement made with each State, (p. 17, Bulletin 1) ; determines duration of agreement between States and the Board, (Sec. 6 of Act, and p. 18, Bulletin 1); reserves the right to inspect local institutions, but will deal only with State Boards, (p. 18, Bulletin 1); decides when funds may be withheld, (Sees. 15, 16, 17, of Act, Bulletin 1, p. 19); decides whether privately owned equipment may be utiUzed, (pp. 19-20, Bulletin 1); prescribes in detail the nature of the reports on finance and work of schools, to be furnished by State Boards, (pp. 20-21, Bulletin 1); devises the methods of ascertaining annually whether the States discharge their responsibility, (Sec. 5 of Act, Bulletin 1, pp. 22, 23); exercises discre- tion in permitting mixed classes with some pupils under 14 years of age who are "competent to do work designed for those who are 14," (Sees. 10 and 11, pp. 23-24, Bulletin 1); defines methods of prorating salaries of teachers, (Sees. 9, 10, 11, 12, Bulletin 1, pp. 24-25); de- fines rules for divorcement of teacher-training classes and of secondary classes using federal funds, (Bulletin 1, p. 26); advises concerning con- 174 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION trol of supervisors loaned by institutions to State, (Bulletin 1, pp. 27- 28) ; advises against expenditure of federal money in few rather than in many schools, (Bulletin 1, p. 29); may accept different standards for colored and for white schools, (Bulletin 1, p. 30); does not approve of use of federal money for instruction designed for benefit of delinquent, dependent, incorrigible, defective, or otherwise subnormal youths or adults, (Sees. 10, 11, Bulletin 1, p. 30); advises with regard to mean- ing of "well-rounded courses of study," (Sec. 9 of Act, Bulletin 1, pp. 30-34) ; advises that States may accept one or several funds either through Legislature or the State Board, (Sec. 5 of Act, Bulletin 1, pp. 34-35) ; decides that federal moneys for teacher-training can only be used for separate, not for mixed classes, the full course of which must be approved, (Sec. 8 of Act, Bulletin 1, pp. 35, 36); interprets the Act to exclude payment of federal funds for the teaching of commercial subjects in all-day industrial schools, but permits the same in part- time schools. The Act also provides for research in commercial sub- jects, (Sees. 1, 6, 7 of Act, Bulletin 1, pp. 36, 57). In addition to the above examples illustrative of the de- mands upon the discretion and judgment of the Federal Board in interpreting and administering the Smith-Hughes Act, there remain other cases in point. These cases concern special ques- tions in agricultural education, in industrial education, and in home economics. Evaluation of the Smith-Hughes Act A war measure? During unprecedented times in the history of our country, less than two months before the entrance of the United States into the greater war in order to help "make the world safe for Democracy" — the Smith-Hughes Act was passed by both House and Senate, and it received the approval of President Woodrow Wilson on February 23, 1917. tn times of peace this measure would have been a remarkable step toward extending national aid to the support of secondary education. In this critical year it was peculiarly an opportune movement, DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 175 because of both our demonstrated need of industrially trained men and women, and also our want of facilities for training men and women vocationally. (1) Criticisms. Teachers and citizens need not be without knowledge or voice in the matter of future national legislation affecting education in the states. In order that the student may be aided in the attempt not only to appreciate the excellent features of the Smith-Hughes Act, but also to appraise justly its defects, we cite herewith typical contemporary criticisms {a,b,c,d,e,f,g). (a) The Carnegie Bulletin. One of the severest criticisms and most pessimistic views with regard to both the Federal Com- mission, and the Smith-Hughes Act, is contained in a report of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, e. g. : It is essential that such a revolutionary measure (The Smith-Hughes Act) be considered from all angles. The one large experiment in the provision of federal support fqr education, the Morrill and supple- mentary acts, failed for nearly four years, and the failure was due to the absence of an educational policy. Only when the States really took up the objects, and only when a general social demand arose, was success possible. However sound the theoretical arguments for voca- tional education may be, all the arguments adduced by the Vocational Education Commission or the supporters of the federal aid bills in behalf of federal aid could be applied with equal weight to any other department of education or social activity. The need of education, the extensiveness of the problem, the mobility of population, the need of trained teachers, and the need of a central information bureau are all reasons that could be applied equally in support of any other kind of claim on the federal treasury. Of much greater importance than the unsoundness of these claims is the absence of an educational policy underlying this type of legislation. There has been sufficient piece- meal tinkering with educational problems. Federal interference to- gether with an attempt to patch up a small part of the whole simply perpetuates a system that is failing because there is no sound, unifying principle to vitalize the whole body of educational practice. The prob- 176 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION lem of vocational education cannot be treated in isolation; if it has any place at all, it must be made a part of the general organization. The experts have not yet arrived at any unanimity on the subject of voca- tional education. In fact, while the experts in general and vocational education have been discovering the very grave difficulties underlying the problem and are less able to present a policy now than they were five years ago, the federal legislators are still discussing the merits of a measure framed, in outline at least, in 1911, and going back in principle to the act of 1862. During this period a new problem has come prominently to the front involving a drastic change in the con- ceptions and administration of the education of adolescents. Educa- tional surveys are only just beginning to apply real tests to present systems and to formulate the results. . . . The Act itself presumes to settle a question that is far from being settled: it divides up the educational process; it would probably sanc- tion the establishment of dual boards for educational control, with a federal board as a third authority supervising these; it fails to set up a successful machinery to supervise the expenditure of funds, since the members of the proposed federal board could devote only a fraction of their time and interest to the subject; it would create in each state con- flicting interests between institutions, and set up agents with divided allegiance. The Act attempts to legislate for the country as a whole. But the situation with regard to agriculture and trades and industries varies so widely in the separate States that each State has a problem of its own, and legislation which might be good for one State might be wholly unsuited to another. It is true that the Act permits each state board to draw up its own plan, subject to the approval of the federal board. Such a provision might serve some purpose if all the States had reached the same educational standards, but they have not. Before any money is appropriated for industrial education by Congress, there should be a thoroughgoing study of present conditions to show the present situation and present needs. To legislate without a more thorough consideration of the whole subject than the examination by an ex parte commission of ex parte witnesses is to legislate in the dark But even such an investigation could prove only the need or otherwise of vocational education, not the advisability of federal aid. The only DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 177 genuine desire to promote educational progress, would be a bill author- izing the appropriation of a sum of money to be placed at the disposal of the Commissioner of Education for the purposes of conducting educational enquiries and collecting and distributing information. This can be done effectually by endowing the educational authority with a position of dignity and influence. What the country needs at the present moment in education is the guidance of the expert. Edu- cational progress, especially in a country of such varied conditions as the United States, can be advanced only by experimental solutions demanded by these conditions; diversity rather than uniformity is a greater guarantee for the future. The development of the land grant colleges indicates that state generosity is not stimulated merely by a federal bounty. There are other and more pressing questions relating to the general system of education that demand attention ; to these the states are addressing themselves. Vocational education will be taken up by the States as soon as educators and others can come forward with a policy. (6) (6) National Education Association. The Department of Superintendence, National Education Association, has ex- pressed objection to the provision of Section 5 of the Act, which makes possible the creation either of a unit or of a dual system of control within each state. The recommendation of the Department was probably aimed at Section 5 of the Act which permits a state either "to designate or create a State Board." The effect of this phrase is to make possible a dual system such as existed during 1918 in the State of Wisconsin. The Department of Superintendence passed this resolution along with certain others during February, 1918: We recommend that the Smith-Hughes law be so amended by Con- gress as to prevent the possibility of the creation of a dual system of education in any State. All acts appropriating money for the advance- ment of education in the States should place the administration in the hands of the commissioners of education and the chief school officers in the various States. (8) 178 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (c) Personnel of the Board. It was claimed that it is futile to hold that the Secretaries of Commerce, Labor, and Agri- culture would spend much time sitting with the Federal Board. The Commissioner of Education also was a busy man. Most ex-oflficio boards suffer from the fact that their members al- ready have enough to do if they discharge well the duties of their chief offices. If the three Secretaries should spend all of their time with the Board, there is nothing in the qualifi- cations demanded by the Act which would prevent in the future their being amateurs in education, yet possibly filled with the assurance of men successful in other lines of endeavor. (d) Incoordination of government effort. The humble official rank of our United States Bureau of Education, its insufficient financial support, and its honorable and useful record, and also the overlapping of its reasonable functions by the new Chil- dren's Bureau and by other federal undertakings in education, have long made some kind of change desirable. The creation of the Federal Board for Vocational Education was followed by remarkable promptness of organization and efficiency in execution upon the part of the Board. Nevertheless, there remained lamentable lack of coordination, and a duplication, in the various educational efforts long maintained by the Federal Government — as witness the moneys and labor expended in behalf of education through the Departments of the Interior, of Commerce and Labor, and of Agriculture, and in the Army and in the Navy. We refer not to the indispensable emerg- ency work incident to the War, but to conditions existing prior to 1914 and in 1919. That some duplication and lack of co- ordination is productive of waste is inevitable. There are those also who view with alarm the tendency "to run to the Federal Treasury for every need." (e) The problem of discretionary interpretation. A danger is that future boards, or executives, may err in the exercise of discretionary powers. Discretion, in contrast to mandatory DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 179 direction, e. g., may be exercised by the Federal Board in scores of important matters. These discretionary powers we have already referred to in preceding paragraphs. Probably as much potential good as error inheres in the necessary exercise of dis- cretion and judgment upon the part of the Federal Board. (/) Professional representation of education. John Dewey has voiced the complaint of inadequate representation of edu- cation on the Federal Board, thus: At the present moment, (March, 1917) the first bill appropriating federal funds for industrial education in schools below the grade of the college of agriculture and mechanic arts has been passed by the two houses of Congress. So far as provisions for the representation of employers and employed is concerned, the act is a fair one. So far as the interest of education is concerned, the representation of educators is scandalously inadequate. As passed, the original bill, which safe- guarded unified control on the part of the States which take advantage of federal financial aid has been changed so as to make a dual scheme optional with each State. I do not say these things to cast any dis- credit on the act. I refer to them only to indicate that the passage of the bill illustrates the whole situation in which we find ourselves. It settles no problem; it merely sjanbolizes the inauguration of a con- flict between irreconcilably opposed educational and industrial ideals. Nothing is so necessary as that public-spirited representatives of the pubUc educational interest, such as are gathered here tonight, shall perceive the nature of the issue and throw their weight in munici- pal, state and federal educational matters, upon the side of education rather than of training, on that of democratic rather than that of feudal control of industry. (2) (g) A new department. There were persons who believed that the functions of the Federal Board, put into operation by the enterprise of Charles A. Prosser and his colleagues, might be administered safely and economically in the future by a United States Department of Education, of equal rank with the Departments of State, Interior, Agriculture, Labor, Com- merce, War, Navy, etc. This Department, it was urged, con- 180 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ceivably might administer all national funds for education under safe-guarding restrictions to help and stimulate local effort, without undertaking autocratic control interfering with the needs and the rights of States. It should not be forgotten, however, that our educational ills can not be solved merely by legislating into existence any central board or department, or by creating new, expensive jobs. Potential dangers along with potential benefits inhere in the establishment of any cen- tralized federal authority in education, be it board or depart- ment. A modification of the Smith-Towner bill was introduced at the opening of the special session of the Sixty-sixth Congress on May 19, 1919, by Congressman Towner of Iowa. (H. R. 7.) This excellent bill made possible the creation of an executive department in the Government, as the following excerpts show : Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby created an executive department in the Government, to be called the Depart- ment of Education, with a Secretary of Education, who shall be the head thereof, to be appointed by the President, by and with the ad- vice and consent of the Senate, and who shall receive a salary of twelve thousand dollars ($12,000) per annum, and whose tenure of office shall be the same as that of the heads of other executive departments; Sec. 2. That there shall be in said department an Assistant Secretary of Education to be appointed by the President, who shall receive a salary of five thousand dollars ($5,000) per annum. He shall perform such duties as may be prescribed by the Secretary or required by law. There shall also be one chief clerk and such chiefs of bureaus and cleri- cal assistants as may from time to time be authorized by Congress. Sec. 3. That there is hereby transferred to the Department of Education the Bureau of Education, and the President is authorized and empowered in his discretion to transfer to the Department of Education such offices, bureaus, divisions, boards or branches of the Government, connected with or attached to any of the executive de- partments or organized independently of any department, as in his DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 181 judgment should be controlled by, or the functions of which should be exercised by, the Department of Education, and all such offices, bureaus, divisions, boards or branches of the Government so trans- ferred by the President, or by act of Congress, shall thereafter be ad- ministered by the Department of Education, as hereinafter provided. The bill also proposed to appropriate $500,000 for adminis- trative purposes; and $100,000,000 to the States, to be divided as follows: Removal of illiteracy, $7,500,000; Americaniza- tion, $7,500,000; equalization of educational opportunities, $50,000,000; physical education, health education, and sanita- tion, $20,000,000; preparation of teachers, $15,000,000. Merits of the Act. Waiving all questions of the origin of the Act, it appears plain that it was an achievement toward uni- veral education — an achievement, however, encompassed by potential dangers, which we now see more clearly than before the World War, for few men of intelligence have not attempted some mental reconstruction since the challenging events of the World War. The outcome of Prussianized civilization with its exalted system of educational efficiency has forced us to destroy some of our idols. We are chiefly concerned with con- serving our education for democracy, and therefore school- men as a mass need be vigilant to judge and to rout any taint that appears in educational legislation. On the other hand it is not quite absurd to believe that some little of the abuse of the Smith-Hughes Act emanated from pro-German sources. It was a good thing for the enemy or his friends that o\u people should be deceived about any measure promising greater efficiency to us, and there was also that bubbling dissatisfac- tion which comes from a minority type of American citizen who will deride any governmental activity whatsoever which does not invariably accord with his own partisan politics. The sterling merits of the Act, because of the emergency for which it was enacted and because of the general objects achieved, (p. 168) outweighed its defects and inherent dangers. During 182 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION the first two years of its existence remarkable progress was made by the Federal Board in stimulating every State of the Union to a new interest and activity with regard to secondary vocational education. During that time more than two score monographs and bulletins of direct application to the problems of vocational education were prepared and issued by the re- search workers of the Federal Board. State organizations were effected with amazing promptness, provisions made for teacher- training and actual courses started over all the country. By January 1, 1918, all of our 48 States accepted the Smith-Hughes Act either by specific provisions of the legislatures or by au- thority of the governors. The table on page 183 shows num- bers of pupils enrolled in classes supported in part under the Smith-Hughes Act at the end of the second year of the Board's work. Even enthusiasts for the Act did not assert its perfection. E. g., Director Frosser in speaking before the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education said in 1917: "I do not beheve that the Smith-Hughes Bill is the last hour on the clock. I do not believe it strikes High Noon. I think it is only a way-mark along the road. I think that before we settle this problem we will have to assert the right of the State to take charge of the whole question of the training of its workmen and if you say that it is German autocracy, I say to you that it is possible to maintain that sort of procedure and that sort of autocracy within that splendid thing you call a Democracy. "(12) The Act is so far reaching that it of course represents some marked changes in educational policies. Bawden observes: As an expression of educational policy, the new Act embodied some important departures from previous legislation. It made provision for the training within the schools of a large group of our population unreached directly by the Federal Government. On the other hand, by offering instruction along vocational lines and of subcoUegiate grade, it supplemented the Morrill Act, the expressed purpose of which was to DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 183 TABLE IX Statistics op Vocational Schools and op Vocational Teacher-tkaining Centers FOR the Year ended June 30, 1918 Type of school, center, or course, sex, class of State director or supervisor, and source of salary Total . Agricultural school. Trade or industrial: All-day school . Evening school . Home economics: All-day school. . Evening school . Part-time school . . . Agricultural Trade or industrial . Home economics . . . Total, both sexes ' . Agricultural school. . Trade or industrial All-day school. . Evening school. Home economics: All-day school. . Evening school. Part-time school . . . Total, male. Agricultural school. Trade or industrial: All-day school. Evening school. Home economics: All-day school. Evening school. Part-time school. . . . Total, female. Agricultural Trade or industrial; All-day school. Evening school- Home economics: All-day school. Evening school. Part-time school United States Region North Atlantic Southern East Central West lp„„:e„ Centralj^^"''"' Number of schools reporting vocational courses 1,741 609 168 299 200 123 341 794 285 423 92 166 200 159 45 71 104 33 125 6 24 6 12 102 76 275 24 10 10 34 35 37 25 1 3 147 39 41 35 15 1 16 Number of centers reporting teacher-training courses 40 45 60 8 20 12 9 6 13 11 7 11 7 5 12 5 7 12 Number of pupils enrolled in vocational courses 164,186 15,187 18,528 45,985 8,333 22,360 53,005 100,760 13,901 14,645 39,580 25 4 32,605 62,941 1,286 3,883 6,708 8,308 22,356 20,400 3,649 13,039 23,196 4,186 15,270 45,373 60,825 3,569 10,639 18,428 4 28,185 44,191 80 2,400 5,071 4,186 15,266 17,188 9,476 4,648 664 1,694 890 1,133 447 6,119 3,922 399 1,604 25 i69 3,357 726 265 90 865 1,133 278 37,145 4,681 3,582 14,931 1,801 5,752 6,398 24,307 4,247 2,489 13,451 12,838 434 1,093 1,480 1,801 5,762 2,278 4,669 921 62 2,295 753 55 3,262 880 62 2,272 23 753 55 50 7,880 1,288 1,181 3,869 703 150 689 6,247 1,283 1,056 3,825 1,633 5 125 44 703 150 606 1 Includes 485 pupils not classified by sex. 184 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION maintain colleges ' to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts ... in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pursuits and professions of life.' On the other hand, since it contemplated a system of training in the schools, it also supplemented the Agricultural Extension Act of 1914, in which the service provided was "the giving of instruction and practical demonstrations in agriculture and home economics to persons not attending or resident in State colleges in the several communities." Since it imposed definite requirements as to the training of teachers, it also represented a material extension of au- thority over the purely permissive provisions of the Nelson amend- ment of 1907.(16) The problem of future modification of the Act should be ap- proached understandingly and sympathetically by teachers and by citizens. Opponents of progress in education who con- sistently try to block efforts at change, should not be permitted to make undue capital of the objections illustrated in the above list. Many of the defects are remediable. One explanation of the separatist attitude of some friends of vocational education is their pessimism in awakening a certain type of academic to the urgent needs of the majority of our beginning pupils, eighty or ninety per cent, of whom will never pass through a high school. Evil results conceivable under the Act might come through abuse, ignorance, or unintentional error upon the part of the Federal Board and its officers who are intrusted with the heavy responsibilities of administering the Smith-Hughes Act. However, hardly any public trust imposed by democracy carries solely possible good without potential evil. Necessary modifi- cations of the Act, and publicity, research, the rise of intelli- gence and education, and pounding away to perpetuate the simple, ethical, idealism of our American fathers at its best — these are trustworthy safeguards. Allotments to the States. As indicated in Table X allot- ments under the Smith-Hughes Act increase annually until TABLE X Annual Grants by the Federal Government for Vocational Education under THE Smith-Hughes Act approved Feb. 23, 1917 Total Agriculture: For salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors. (Seo. 2.) Fiscal year ending June 30 — Total Allotted on basis of rural population Additional to provide minimum allotments to States 1917-18 $1,860,000 2,512,000 3,182,000 3,836,000 4,329,000 4,823,000 5,318,000 6,380,000 7,367,000 7,367,000 $548,00 784,000 1,024,000 1,268,000 1,514,000 1,761,000 2,009,000 2,534,000 3,027,000 3,027,000 $500,000 750,000 1,000,000 1,250,000 1,500,000 1,750,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 $48,000 34,000 24,000 18,000 14,000 11,000 9,000 34,000 27,000 27,000 1918-19 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26 Trade, home economics and industry: For salaries of teacher.?. (Sec. 3.) • Fiscal year ending June 30 — Total Allotted on basis of urban population Additional to provide allotments to States 1917-18 $566,000 796,000 1,034,000 1,278,000 1,525,000 1,772,000 2,019,000 2,.556,000 3,050,000 3,050,000 $500,000 750,000 1,000,000 1,250,000 1,500,000 1,750,000 2,000,000 2,500,000 3,000,000 3,000,000 $66,000 46,000 34,000 28,000 25,000 22,000 19,000 56,000 50,000 50,000 1918-19 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26 Fiscal year ending June 30 — Teacher training: For salar- ies of teachers, and main- tenance of teacher training. (Sec. 4.) For Federal Board for Vocational Education (Sec. 7.) Total Allotted on basis of total population Additional to provide minimum allotments to State 1917-18 $546,000 732,000 924,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 1,090,000 $500,000 700,000 900,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 1,000,000 $46,000 32,000 24,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 90,000 f 900 000 1918-19 200,000 200,000 200 000 1919-20 1920-21 1921-22 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200,000 200 000 1922-23 1923-24 1924-25 1925-26 1925-26 ' Not over 20 per cent for salaries of teachers of home economics. 185 186 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 1926. Appropriations for teachers of agriculture, trade, home economics, and industrial subjects increase some 600 per cent, within that period, for teacher-training, about 200 per cent. Additional obligations. Since the passage of the Smith- Hughes Act, Congress created another law, the execution of which brought an additional power and obligation to the Federal Board. This law is known as the Smith-Sears Act, and its pur- pose was to provide for the vocational rehabilitation and return to civil employment of disabled persons discharged from the military or naval forces of the United States, and for other purposes. Enlargement of the number of executives, under the control of the Federal Board, and a reorganization of its labors were made necessary. The activities of the Board therefore may be roughly classified into three groups: (1) Administration of the Smith-Hughes Act; (2) administration of the Smith-Sears Act; (3) investigations, reports, — research. War and Progress Accelerated development. In a biennial survey of the two years 1917 and 1918 by the Bureau of Education the statement was made that it is probably conservative to say "that the tangible results accomplished in vocational education during this period equal those of any decade preceding." Fourteen factors in rapid development. The same review, which was written by William T. Bawden, sets forth fourteen factors of this rapid development, which we mention in abbre- viated form: (1) Culmination of campaigns for Smith-Hughes Act. (2) Gigantic experiments in training "fighting mechanics" by the Committee on Education and Special Training of the War Department. (3) Training of skilled workers by the Emergency Fleet Cor- poration of the United States Shipping Board. (4) Plans, conferences, constructive programs, contributed DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 187 by various agencies, including : Navy Department, Department of Labor, Council of National Defense, International Young Men's Christian Association, United States Bureau of Educa- tion. (5) Unprecedented reliance upon the machinery of popular education — a new conception of the relation between education and national achievement. (6) Public discussion of vocational education. (7) Scrutiny and appraisement of existing school programs. (8) General diffusion of the idea that secondary education must be adapted for actual needs of persons of about 12 to 18 years of age, rather than only for persons who have completed certain prearranged "grades" and hence there has come new interest in junior high schools, continuation and cooperative schools, and vocational guidance. (9) Recognition of need of preparation for teaching voca- tional subjects. (10) War called attention to the fact that nothing adequate had taken place of apprenticeship. (11) Shortcomings appeared in the failures to coordinate compulsory-education legislation, child-labor legislation, and vocational education legislation. (12) Manual training gravitated toward actual shop and industrial work. (13) The volume and quality of books on vocational educa- tion increased. (14) A numerous official personnel along with the multi- plication of vocational classes and schools came into existence during this period. (16) Summary 1. The Smith-Hughes Act represented the culmination of a series of efforts for federal legislation for education. It is the most specific act of its kind passed by Congress. Its 188 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION origin is found in pressing economic and social needs, in the evolution from preceding measures of like nature, and its passage was facilitated by various propaganda. 2. The eighteen sections of the Act demand intensive, separate consideration of the student, since the administration of the Act is deeply complicated by existing customs and laws within the States. 3. Criticisms of the Act found considerable solid ground of objec- tion, although the great merits and results of the Act de- manded its support by progressive school men, even if modifications in the law ultimately were found to be necessary. 4. Interpretations and policies as promulgated by the Federal Board present inevitable difficulties of adjustment that will recur. A serious undertaking will be the exercise by the Federal Board of sane and equitable judgment or discretion concerning a wide range of issues which are left open and concerning which legal exactions are not plain, 5. The organization of the first Federal Board was satisfactory in character, and the initial steps of administration and service were undertaken with remarkable promptness and energy. The stress of war-times increased the number of problems before the Board. 6. Allotments of federal money to the States are on a progres- sively increasing scale until 1926, have been accepted under conditions of cooperation by all of the forty-eight States, and are a tremendous stimulus and aid to voca- tional education. 7. The conditions of war have brought good along with evil. One benefit derived is remarkable stimulus to vocational education other than college grade. The factors in the ac- celerated progress of the war period were numerous and complex and the effect will probably be permanent. DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 189 Problems 1. Make a careful abstract of each section of the Smith-Hughes Act. Make the abstract as brief as possible, consistent with clearness. 2. Make a statement naming consecutively the good points of the Smith-Hughes Act. 3. What do you consider its most serious defects? 4. Study in detail the operation, present or prospective, of the Act in your own community. 5. After you have entirely finished the study of this chapter, try to draw up a bill, which you would substitute for the Smith-Hughes Act. 6. State and compare merits of bill recommended by the Federal Commission, (vol. I, pp. 84-85, section 6), and of Smith-Hughes Act (Section 6) with reference to organi- zation and personnel of the Federal Boards provided. 7. Sum up reasons for enlargement and better support of the United States Bureau of Education. 8. Construct a table thus: Select twelve States, North, East, West, and South; write in, the amounts of money to be appropriated to each State from the Federal Govern- ment under the Smith-Hughes Law, during the next eight years; in separate columns write the amounts respectively for payment of salaries of teachers of agri- culture, of home economics, and trade and industrial subjects; for training of teachers, etc.(l) 9. What future dangers from partisan politics confront the operation of the Smith-Hughes Act, or a Department of Education, and how might such dangers be avoided? 10. Prescribe the reasonable requirements or qualifications to be demanded of persons in charge of studies, investiga- tions, or researches authorized under Section 7 of the Act. 11. Prescribe the (a) qualifications desirable, and (b) the amount 190 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of time to be expended for the Federal Board upon the part of appointive members of the Federal Board. 12. Show that the range of instruction, under the Smith-Hughes Act is relatively narrow in subjects allowed but extremely broad in application. 13. Why did the Federal Commission recommend omission of provisions for salaries of teachers of commercial subjects? (See Report of Federal Commission, vol. I, p. 40; also Bulletin 1(3), p. 36). 14. Ascertain to what extent cooperation is being effected be- tween the Federal Board, the Bureau of Education, and the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Labor, as provided in Section 6 of the Act. 15. From governmental reports show where duplication of efforts for education exist, and where and how better co- ordination can be effected. 16. Read Bawden's review, and then contrast the relative permanency and power of the fourteen factors enumerated as helping to promote sound vocational training in pub- lic education. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. (a) Annual Report (First) of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion. Government Printing Office. 1917, 32 p. (6) Second Annual Report, do., 1918, 172 p. 2. Dewey, John. Learning to Earn. School and Society, March 24, 1917, pp. 331-335. 3. Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulletin 1, 1917. Govern- ment Printing Office, Washington, 70 p. This important Bulletin contains the preliminary statements of policies of the Board in de- tail. Also, tables showing appropriations available; the Smith- Hughes Act, the supplementary Act of October 1917, and the anal- ysis of mandatory provisions, etc. 4. House of Representatives Bill 5949. An Act supplementary to the Smith-Hughes Act, passed and approved in October 6, 1917. 5. Judd, Charles H. Editorial in Elementary School Journal, March 1918, pp. 482-484. Chicago, lU. DEVELOPMENT OF FEDERAL COOPERATION 191 6. Kandel, I. L. Federal Aid for Vocational Education, Bulletin 10, 1917, pp., 96-97. The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching. 7. McVey, Frank L. Hearing before Federal Commission, April 20, 1914. Report of Federal Commission on National Aid to Vocational Educa- tion, 1914, V. II, pp. 128-143. 8. National Educational Association, Department of Superintendence, Resolutions at Atlantic City Meeting, 1918. 9. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. What is the Smith-Hughes Bill and What Must a State Do to take Ad- vantage of the Federal Vocational Education Law? Bulletin 25, 1917, 48 p. 10. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. Report of Committee on Future Policy. (Pamphlet) February 1918, 15 p. 11. Pritchett, Henry S. In Carnegie Bulletin 10, 1917, pp. VI. 12. Prosser, Charles A. Address before National Society for the Pro- motion of Industrial Education. Bulletin 24, 1917, of the Society. Pp. 76-81. 13. Senate Bill 703. The Smith-Hughes Act as passed and approved on February 23, 1917. (See Appendix.) 14. Senate Bill 4557. The Smith-Sears Act as passed and approved on June 27, 1918. (See Appendix.) 15. Senate Bill 4987. Proposed Act to create a National Department of Education (October 10, 1918). 16. Vocational Education. Biennial Survey. W. T. Bawden, U. S. Edu- cation Bulletin 25, 1919, 30 p. 17. Vocational Summary. Published monthly by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 1918 — . CHAPTER VII PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION The Fields of Instruction: A major industry; agricultural education de- fined; agricultural industries. Elementary Agriculture: Growth of elementary instruction; the place of nature study; stimulating factors; school garden movement; agriculture for city boys; farm-craft lessons. Secondary Instruction: Characteristic questions; development; high school departments; special or separate schools; courses of study. Study and Teaching vs. Practice of Agriculture: Farming by graduates; college enrollment; theory and practice. The Machinery for Adequate Agricultural Education: A vertical view; an outline in detail of necessary means. Apphcations of the Smith-Hughes Law: Agricultural questions; dupli- cation; payment of directors and supervisors; club work; short courses; local distribution of funds; at least dollar for dollar; teaching versus super- vision; mixed classes; the training demanded. Pedagogical Problems: Preparation of teachers; a course for teachers; technic in teaching; project method; essentials of a home-project; distri- bution of projects; agricultural and liberal education; agriculture as therapy. Agricultural Education in Philanthropic and Other Institutions: Hamp- ton and Tuskegee; the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades; a specimen course; agriculture for delinquents and feeble-minded; agri- culture in other institutions. The Improvement of Rural Life: City and country interested; the ad- vocates. Summary. Problems. Selected References. The Fields of Instruction A major industry. — The fact that so large a number of workers is found in the various activities of agriculture is of significance for vocational education. There are broadening and stimulating factors in agricultural arts education regard- 192 PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 193 less of the vocation a person enters eventually. Vocational agricultural education is being taught successfully by many land grant colleges, and it is superfluous to-day to marshal arguments for the continuance of such instruction. A series of volumes could be written in order properly to present even the leading problems of agricultural education lower than college grade. We shall make no attempt in this introductory volume to cover these special fields, other than to present some significant data and questions and to indicate selected references bearing re- spectively upon elementary and secondary training in agricul- ture. The fact that the Smith-Hughes law applies to agricul- tural education as well as to education in industries and trades, home economics, and commerce, indicates that the Act is po- tentially broad in application. Agricultural education defined. On page 49 agricultural education has been defined both as vocational, or direct prepara- tion for occupations (such as those of the farmer, planter, dairy- man, stock raiser, poultry keeper, bee keeper, gardener, florist, nurseryman, etc.), and also as agricultural arts education (de- signed to enhance general intelligence, to promote appreciation of agriculture as a form of economic activity, to show practical application of sciences, and to inspire vocational ideals related to agriculture, etc.) Agricultural industries. The table on page 194 from the U. S. Census of 1910 (with an added estimate for homemakers, not included under ''gainful" occupations) displays the broad scope of agricultural industries. Elementary Agriculture Growth of elementary instruction. Instruction in the ele- ments of agriculture began early in European schools. The United States Bureau of Education has made available to the public interesting studies of agricultural education in Denmark, Russia, Ireland, and the PhiUppines. (49) In France by 1877 194 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE XI Agricultural Workers in United States Occupation Total Male Female AH (gainful) occupations in United States Homemakers (estimated) Agriculture, forestry, and an- imal husbandry Dairy Farmers Dairy farm laborers Farmers Farm laborers Fisherman and oystermen Gardeners, florists, fruit growers, and nurserymen Garden, greenhouse, orchard, and nursery laborers Lumbermen, raftsmen, and wood- choppers Stockherders, drovers, and feeders Stock raisers All others in this division 38,167,336 30,091,564 8,075,772 22,000,000 22,000,000 12,659,203 10,851,702 1,807,501 61,816 59,240 2,576 35,014 32,237 2,777 5,865,003 5,607,297 257,706 5,975,057 4,460,634 1,514,423 68,275 67,799 476 139,255 131,421 7,834 133,927 126,453 7,474 161,266 161,191 77 62,975 62,090 885 52,521 50,847 1,674 104,092 92,493 11,599 every normal school and in 1882 every rural primary school was required to give place for the study of elementary agri- culture. By 1896 the courses were revised, made definite and practical. Before the World War agriculture was taught uni- versally in the primary schools of France. Belgium had one of the best systems of elementary agricultural instruction in Europe. In Sweden the elements of agriculture and forestry are taught in all rural schools. In Great Britain relatively little had been done before the War, but the English colonies- West Indies, Australia, Canada, provided for agricultural edu- PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 195 cation in certain grades. Germany, Austria, and Switzerland developed special agricultural schools rather than general work in agriculture in elementary schools. The Fellenberg-Pestalozzian movement stimulated agri- cultural education both in Europe and in America. In America, however, numerous institutions at first embracing the idea of manual labor, early dropped this and agricultural training and became purely ''literary." Little was done in the United States toward instruction in elementary agriculture before 1900, but since 1905 rapid progress has been made. By October, 1908, agriculture had been added to the list of subjects to be taught in the common schools of Alabama, Arkansas, California, Georgia, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North Caro- lina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas, and Wis- consin. Agricultural colleges joined in the movement for the preparation of agricultural teachers— notably, Cornell Univer- sity, the University of Illinois, Massachusetts Agricultural Col- lege, and Ohio State University, cooperating with the United States Department of Agriculture. Boys' agricultural clubs and farmers' institutes have further helped on the good cause. During the years of the World War there were rapid developments favoring elementary instruction in agriculture in the United States. In Minnesota during 1918, school children to the number of 32,000 were enrolled in home-project gardening. In California the State Board of Education passed a regulation relative to agricultural in- struction in normal schools, that students entering after June 30, 1919, one unit shall be required in manual training or household arts or both, and one unit in the elements of agriculture, including practical work in gardening, floriculture, and plant propagation. In Michigan, county normal training classes in agriculture grew to 53 in number. In Montana during 1918 a bill passed the legislature making agricul- ture a required subject in elementary schools. In Kansas the number of high schools giving teacher-training work in agriculture rose to 234 in number. The general assembly of North Carolina created a com- 196 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION mission to assist teachers in making agricultural work more practical. An act of the New York Legislature for 1917 provides for the employ- ment of "directors of agriculture in cities, towns, and school districts not maintaining a school of agriculture, mechanic arts, and home mak- ing." Indiana developed plans for an "ideal organization for club work in a county. "(49r) That much of the teaching of elementary agriculture has been superficial is obvious because of the unpreparedness of teachers, lack of equipment, and the nature of the subject. A precaution to be observed is that a subject need not be intro- duced merely because adult farmers demand it as ''useful." To open the eyes of the child to Nature is as important as to impart useful information. By all means the most valuable product of the farm is a wholesome boy or girl. The Committee on Instruction in Agriculture of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, recommends generalized nature study, with school gardens, in the first three grades; nature study with school and home gardens in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades; and elementary agriculture in the seventh and eighth grades. The Committee has prepared a syllabus of a course in elementary agriculture. (Circular 60, Office of Ex- periment Stations.) The place of nature study. Nature study in the elementary schools has not been uniformly successful. One reason is that some teachers have endeavored to teach Nature out of books. The mere memorizing of names or classifications is a waste of time, if given as nature study. Others have insisted upon the morphological point of view. That is, the child is assigned to minute studies of form or structure of plants or animals. This may be a necessary method for the adult student, but is very little needed in the instruction of a child, who is interested in the dynamic aspect of Nature. Action, use, as has been shown by Binet, Barnes, Shaw, O'Shea, Hodge, and others, are the aspects of objects that appeal to the boy or girl. To utilize this PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 197 natural mode of reaction or interest of the child, in order to lay- in him a deep foundation of knowledge about Nature, of curios- ity and zeal for scientific research in later years, this should be an aim in nature study. Hodge(27) and Nolan (36) agree that nature-study of the right type should precede definite instruction in agriculture. Says Nolan: Before the seventh grade of the public school, agriculture should probably not be taught as a vocational or technical subject. Nature- study should here be the content and spirit of the work. Nature- study should be prevocational to agriculture. Stimulating factors. The progress of agricultural education in the United States has been aided by many forces. Particularly inspiring was the example of France in the matter of economical use of land-areas. The conviction has been growing that not- withstanding our own efficient use of man-power, that our waste of possibilities in land-areas for agriculture cannot continue. The general introduction of nature study prepared the way, and, as shown by the monograph of Jewell in 1907, the school garden movement contributed a share in preparing the way for a more elementary and general agricultural education. (49a) The adop- tion of school gardening is becoming more and more a practice of pedagogical and of economic value, as shown by the recent studies of Jarvis(49h), and Randall(49m). Probably the majority of city school superintendents are encouraging some form of school gardening. The necessity of food conservation and the efforts of the United States Food Commission has mightily stimulated interest in agriculture of many types. School garden movement. Large gains in food production and conservation during 1918 were attributed by the Bureau of Education to city gardening. "A million and a half boys and girls in cities, towns, and industrial villages, directed by 25,000 or more teachers, have produced millions of dollars' worth of 198 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION vegetables on thousands of acres of land that would otherwise have been unproductive." The United States Commissioner of Education, Dr. P. P. Claxton, thus advocates the school garden: IT IS GOOD FOR CHILDREN To work under kindly and intelligent direction, with their feet in the soil, their heads in the sunshine, and their lungs filled with good fresh air; To work till they are tired and hungry, and can eat heartily and sleep soundly; To work with Nature and become familiar with Nature's phenomena and laws as they can not from any set lessons in school; To work at tasks that can not be finished in an hour, or a day, or a week, but which must continue through weeks and months and years, with a reward only for those who hold out faithfully to the end; To form the habits of endurance to which such work must lead; To work at something in which the relations of cause and effect are so evident as they are in the cultivation and growth of crops; To work at problems the results of which are not wholly subjective, and in which their degree of success or failure is written more plainly and certainly than by per cent marks in the teachers' record books; To know the mystic joy of work in cooperation with the illimitable and unchanging forces of Nature; To come to learn the fundamental principle of morality that every person must contribute to his own support, and by labor of head or hand or heart pay in equal exchange at least for what he consumes. (42) Agriculture for city boys. The last thirty years have been a period of remarkable growth of city population. In 1890, the urban population was 36.1 per cent; in 1910, it was 46.3 per cent of the whole population of the country. Cities differ character- istically from each other, and from the country. Cities differ with regard to size, races, proportion of sexes, factories, resi- dences, booms, decay, railroads, seaports, cultural and moral conditions. Cities differ from the country in the concentration PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 199 of diverse population within small areas, industrial and com- mercial establishments, community provisions for public utili- ties, e. g., water, gas, sewerage, electricity, transportation, mani- fold schools, theatres, hbraries, churches, etc. Agriculture for city boys because of its educational possibilities has often been advocated. The tired man of the city also ex- hibits at times a fascination or interest in a rural life remote from the artifact of his own existence and from the rush, smoke and noise of the city. Enthusiasts have even dreamed of overcoming the habit and lure of the city, and consequently of checking the disproportionate growth of the city by generating a back-to-the- farm movement. No remarkable results in this direction have been achieved. However, patriotic impulse as well as economic necessity during war time have stimulated both a widespread revival in home-gardening and also in some parts of the country an exodus of city boys to work on farms. Professor Dean claims that we can not much longer avoid the question of bringing agriculture to the city boy, or, rather, taking the city boy to agriculture. (15) Experience during the summer of 1917 with city boys working on farms brought forcibly to attention some of the advantages of a closer relation between city children and country life, when educationally supervised. He points to the modification of the school-attendance law of New York State made to facilitate this movement, as well as to the discretionary powers of state educational officials in the matter. For instance, the New York Commissioner of Education issued regulations, in substance as follows, regarding children who might be employed : Boys only, 15 years of age and above, residing in cities. Boys only, 14 years of age and above, residing elsewhere than in a city. Girls, 14 years of age and above, residing outside of cities, may work at home in the district in which such girls reside, or at a place sufficiently near such girls' homes as to afford supervision by their parents. 200 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION No child shall be employed or permitted to work on farms and gar- dens until such child shall obtain a farm-garden permit. No child shall receive a farm-garden permit who does not present to the issuing officer the written consent of his parent or guardian and who is not found to be physically competent to perform the labor pro- posed. (15) Farm-craft lessons. Under the direction of the College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, cooperating with the State Council of Defense, during 1918 a valuable series of farm-craft lessons was prepared and given wide distribution. The lessons originally were intended for the use of Volunteers of the U. S. Boys' Working Reserve under the auspices of the U. S. Depart- ment of Labor. Dean Eugene Davenport edited and enlarged the series and afterwards an edition of 350,000 was printed by the United States Department of Labor under the title "Farm Craft Lessons." The lessons doubtless will be of permanent value. Expressed in simple language, they are interesting and practical. Here are typical subjects from the original series: Lesson Subject Author 1 2 3, 4&5 The American Boy and the War When the City Boy Goes to the Farm The Horse. Eugene Davenport Eugene Davenport J. L, Edmonds 6 The Cow 7 Swine W. J. Carmichael 8 9 Farm Machinery The Wagon and Its Care E. A. White 10 The Plow E. A. White 11 12 Cultivating Corn The Mower 13 The Hoe and Its Uses J. W. Lloyd 14 Wrenches and Other Machine Tools G. H. Radebaugh 17 Useful Knots E. A. White 19 Care of the Garden C. E. Durst 20 Rainy Days on the Farm A. W. Jamison PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 201 Secondary Instruction Characteristic questions. Provision for instruction in agri- culture in high schools is a different problem from providing such instruction in the elementary schools. The tendency to- ward specialization of subject matter, the nature of the school, the relative physical and mental maturity of the pupils, and the near approach to vocation make agricultural education easier to organize in the high school than in the elementary school. On the other hand, the development of the social instincts and interests in early adolescence, and the facts that more extensive equipment is needed and that few good text-books on secondary agriculture exist, complicate the problem. Development. Schools of secondary grade for agriculture exist in France, Japan, Sweden, Denmark, Ireland, Germany, Austria. Much of the agricultural instruction in the United States given by colleges under the Morrill Act of 1862 was of secondary grade, and the extension work of these colleges and of the United States Department of Agriculture is largely of secondary grade. The first successful agricultural high school in this country was established in 1888 in connection with the University of Minnesota. In 1898 the number of agricultural high schools had increased only to ten. Statistics collected in 1909 showed that in all, 500 institutions (high schools, normal schools, colleges) were giving secondary instruction in agricul- ture. (9) The table below shows the remarkable increase of agricultural education since that time. The table on page 202 is from a bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education. (49o) High school departments. Tendencies favor the support of departments of agriculture in the high schools rather than sup- port of separate agricultural schools. Assistant Director Haw- kins of the Federal Board pointed out that such departments in high schools usually have a minimum amount of equipment and only one or two teachers of agriculture. "Until recently 202 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE XII Summary of Institutions Giving Instruction in Agriculture in 1915-16 Names of Institutions Number of institu- tions Students in agri- culture T State agricultural colleges Students in 4-year college courses >50 16,008 Students in 1 and 2 year college courses 10,332 Students in subject-courses of less than 12 weeks 14,108 17 TT State agricultural colleges for negroes Students in 4-year agricultural courses 2,053 III. IV. Other universities and colleges Private secondary schools (not special agri- cultural schools) 2 16 149 12 107 5 124 38 28 74 M21 2,981 820 2,601 V Private agricultural secondary schools Secondary and higher schools for negroes. . . Public normal schools. VT VII VIII Public institutions for juvenile delinquents . Secondary schools of agriculture maintained by the State agricultural colleges at the colleges IX. 3,958 X. Special agricultural schools receiving state aid 6.643 XI. Vocational agricultureal department in public high schools under state super- vision XII Public high schools 60,925 1 Not including separate state agricultural colleges for negroes, given in II. 2 Not including separate colleges for negroes given in VI. ' Does not include 27 county normal training schools in Wisconsin, all of which teach agriculture. * Many of these are included in the 2,981 following. these schools also have given more attention to instruction in the science of agriculture than they have to farming. With the PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 203 growth and development of the home project idea, however, they are relating the classroom instruction more closely to farming conditions and farm practice as well as extending the work of the school to the study and supervision of some practi- cal farm work carried on by the pupils at their homes. The home project is a project in farming carried on at home by the pupil under the direction of the teacher." ''While there are all sorts of combinations and variations of these two types, it is usually possible, by determining whether or not the supervised practical work is to be done at the school or home, to classify all schools under one or the other of these two heads. This classification relates entirely to day schools. It is also possible to set up part-time or evening schools. These are not specifically mentioned in the law; neither is specific mention made of a day school of agriculture. It is assumed, therefore, that part-time or evening classes will be organized on the same general lines as trade extension, part-time, or even- ing schools for industry, that is, that the evening schools will be for those who have entered upon the occupation of farming and that the instruction given will be supplementary to the day employment and that part-time schools will be for the trade extension type, that is, for persons who are already engaged in the business of agriculture, but who, during a portion of the year or a portion of the day, week, or month wish to secure in- struction supplementary to the business of farming in which they are engaged." (la) The following conditions should obtain in the agricultural department of a high school, according to the Federal Board: (a) A room equipped primarily for instruction in agriculture. Such a room should not be fitted up with the ordinary seats and desks of the schoolroom, but should have movable tables and chairs which may, on occasion, be moved to one side in order to provide for demonstrations requiring large apparatus, or even the presence of a coop of chickens. 204 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (6) Sufficient equipment to demonstrate the ordinary improved scientific methods of testing milk, incubating eggs, grafting trees, test- ing soils, making butter, etc. (c) Suitable room for properly storing apparatus and properly caring for materials collected in the community, such as grains, grasses, fruits, vegetables, small implements, poultry, feeds, animal feeds, etc. (d) A good, but not necessarily large, collection of reference books and bulletins. (c) A few good farm papers and periodicals. (/) The equipment for a group of from 15 to 20 pupils will cost from $350 to $500. In case farm mechanics is to form a part of the course about $200 should be added for such equipment. If farm mechanics is to be a part of this course it is better to have a room especially equip- ped. The course in farm mechanics is largely a course in toggery and repairing, not in building taborets and necktie racks. Some of the subjects which would be included in this course are rope splicing, knot tying, harness mending, and building chicken coops, milking stools, sawhorses, gates, etc. While the statement is made that the equipment for a group of from 15 to 20 pupils will cost from $350 to $500, it is perfectly possible to equip a school suitably, especially for the first year, on about one- half this estimate. This would, however, be an absolute minimum based upon the assumption that the school already had suitable labor- atory facilities and equipment for biology, chemistry, and physics. It is also to be noted that while the departments may get along very well without any land, it is always advisable to have a small plot or perhaps a quarter of an acre available for use as an out-of-door labor- atory, rather than as a demonstration farm or plot. (Ibid.) Special or separate schools. These "special" agricultural schools often have extensive equipment in the way of build- ings, farm lands, machinery, etc. They are equipped to give boys practical experience in farming as well as to teach the science of agriculture. Examples of special or separate schools are the county schools of Wisconsin and Massachusetts and the state schools of New York and Minnesota. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 205 Courses of study. Various adaptations of plans and out- lines however excellent, must be made to suit local conditions. Valuable are the suggestions of the Massachusetts State Board bearing upon the problems of organization, equipment, selection of teachers, finance, methods of instruction, and courses of study, for agricultural secondary schools or departments of agriculture in high schools. These suggestions have been set forth in detail in publications of this Board. We are re- printing herewith two instructive diagrams illustrative of Massachusetts practice in the matter of courses of study. (33) CAREER MOTIVE— BETTER FARMING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AT A COUNTY AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL For All-day Pupils has Two Parts Part 1. — Intensive Training Part 2. — ^Extensive 20 Per Cent. of Pupil's Time 80 Per Cent, of Pupil's Time (1) 50 Per Cent, in Project Study and (2) 30 Per Cent. " Related! 20 Per Cent. Cul- Project Work, centering on — Study," consisting of such tural and Good close correlation with the Citizenship train- A. Projects of the Pupils. project study and project ing in such sub- a. At home, as a rule. work of the following activi- jects as — b. At school, rarely. ties or subjects of instruction c. Pupil responsible, but super- as to warrant the prefix vised by his instructor. ' ' farm " or " agricultural : " | B. Projects of the School. English a. Illustrative of well-proved Farm arithmetic methods, crops, etc. b. Trial, as to adaptability of Farm biology History promising methods, crops. etc., to local conditions. Farm physics c. School responsible, but uses Citizenship projects for group instruc- Farm chemistry tion of pupils in observa- tion and practice work. Farm entomology Government C. Substitutes for Projects. Farm veterinary science Economics a. Work on approval farm, with agreed upon educa- Farm drawing tional duties as cost-ac- Drawing, freehand counting one or more cows Farm shop work and mechanical or one or more crops. b. Work on the school farm. Farm typewriting and filing with educational duties Hygiene and physi- like the above. Farm accounts cal training c. Employer chiefly responsible but supervised by instruc- tor. Farm journal reading Music Agricultural economics Recreation Diagram of County Agricultural School Education. (33) 206 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION CAREER MOTIVE— BETTER FARMING VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IN A HIGH SCHOOL AGRICULTURAL DEPARTMENT For Day Pupils should have Two Parts Part 1. — Intensive Training 50 Per Cent, of Pupil's Time Project Study and Project Work, center- ing on — (1) Projects of the Pupils A. At home, as a rule. B. Near home, occasionally. C. Pupil responsible, but supervised by structor. (2) Projects of the Department. A. At the high school, rarely. B. Neighborhood demonstrations, as of pruning, spraying, hotbed making, or greenhouse work. C. Instructor responsible, but uses proj- ects for group instruction in obser- vation and practice work. (3) Substitutes for Projects. A. Work on approved farms, with agreed upon educational duties, as cost accounting one or more cows or one or more crops. B. Employer chiefly responsible, but su pervision by instructor. (4) Remark. — The agricultural instructor must, as a rule, assume full respon- sibility for teaching the "related .study" required for the proper un- derstanding and execution of the pro- jects of his pupils. He must gener- ally teach his boys the vital correla- tion between their projects and such subjects and activities as arithmetic, biology, physics, chemistry, entom- ology, drawing, shop work, account- ing, filing, farm journal reading and agricultural economics. Part 2. — Extensive 50 Per Cent, of Pupil's Time Cultural and Good Citizenship Training, selected from one or more of the regular high school courses, and dealing with such subjects as — English, every year Social science, including community civics and economics Natural science, including elementary science, biology, physics and chemistry Drawing, freehand and mechanical Shop work Business, including typewriting, business forms and filing, bookkeeping, commer- cial geography and commercial law Physical training Music Recreation Diagram of High School Agricultural Department Education. (.33) Study and Teaching vs. Practice of Agriculture Farming by graduates. How many persons are taught agri- culture; how many so taught follow it as a vocation? The gratifying growth of secondary agricultural education seems to mark but a beginning of what should be, when we contrast the numbers of students taking agriculture in public high schools during 1915 (seven per cent, of the total) with numbers taking PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 207 algebra (48 per cent.), geometry (26 per cent.), Latin (37 per cent.), rhetoric (48 per cent.), German (24 per cent.), French (eight per cent.), drawing (22 per cent.), etc. We know that a large proportion of our population is engaged in agriculture and only an insignificant fraction of the agricultural workers of the country ever pass through college. College enrollment. Because of the vast expenditure of the Government and of the States for agricultural education of secondary and of college grades, the citizen may carelessly as- sume that theory and teaching in these schools are followed by life-work on farms. It is yet to be shown clearly what pro- portion of the thousands of students enrolled in agricultural and mechanical colleges have followed practical agriculture afterwards. Neither is it to be assumed that all of the students enrolled in agricultural and mechanical colleges are actually taking agriculture. For example, consider the en- rollment in principal divisions of these colleges. Table XIII is compiled from the U. S. Education Report, 1917, vol. II, pp. 323. TABLE Xiri Enrollment in Principal Divisions of Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges fob White Students Departments Agriculture Home economics Mechanic arts Short and special courses. All departments 911-12 1912-13 1913-14 1914-15 1915-16 10,701 12,462 14,844 17,169 16,874 2,506 3,074 4,018 4,431 5,177 15,702 15,141 16,235 16,554 17,097 10,106 11.300 15,510 11,997 12,181 84,633 90,705 105,803 114,905 119,886 Theory and practice. Some of the states most widely known for development of theory and experiments in agricultural in- struction actually have had small enrollment in the agricultural courses of public high schools. Massachusetts, for example, has developed scientifically an application of the project-method of teaching agriculture, widely heralded and imitated. The educational administration and organization of Massachusetts 208 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION is regarded as unusually efficient. Massachusetts is more of a manufacturing than an agricultural state, but the vocational agricultural schools of Massachusetts were given considerable prominence in the display of rural and agricultural exhiliits at the Panama-Pacific exhibition (49k). Nevertheless during 1915 only 186 boys and girls were enrolled in elementary and second- ary courses in agriculture in the whole state of Massachusetts (49°). Throughout the country, as a rule, the small enrollments and the total investment in agricultural education and the need to conserve and develop our resources make desirable a revival of interest to enroll more boys and girls in agriculture for voca- tion. Recent statistics exhibit encouraging showings. At present, however, there seems to be little danger of agriculture displacing immediately the stock subjects of average high school instruction, which probably remain as the choice rather of academic tradition than of individual and social need. A vertical view. Our sketch of various phases of agricul- tural education of elementary, secondary, and college grades, reveals the necessity of taking a vertical rather than a horizon- tal view of agricultural work in the schools. It is evident that the work needs better coordination in order to effect cooperation and understanding among the agencies participating, and to eliminate wasteful duplication. The following outline is intended to give such a "vertical view," but it probably contains references to some schools that do not exist, and is somewhat artificial in its classification. It at least exhibits in brief space plans for a wide range of in- struction in agriculture. It may be useful to the student who desires to schematize an inclusive plan for different grades of agricultural instruction. The outline is substantially the one published by the Bureau of Education and abstracted from the report of President Butterfield.(48) PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 209 An Outline of Means for Agricultural Education I. The Public Schools Presenting agricultural material as one means of general education, through — 1. Boys' and girls' agricultural clubs; Supervision by farm bureaus and college. 2. School subjects: Nature study; elementary agriculture. 3. Courses in agriculture in the high school: Three to five hours per week for one to four years. II. The Public Schools Teaching agriculture for vocational ends, through — 1. Agricultural departments of the high school: To reach pupils 14 to 16 years of age and 16 to 18. 2. Continuation and extension schools: In connection with public schools, to reach pupils no longer enrolled in the pubhc schools, ages 14 to 18. 3. Agricultural education for famiUes. 4. The public schools as centers for extension work in agriculture and country life, carried on by the farm bureaus and the college. III. County or District Agricultural Schools 1. General and specialized agriculture: Temporarily for boys 14 to 18. 2. Specialized courses in agriculture, such as poultry husbandry, dairy husbandry, pomology, etc., as the eventual purpose for boys 16 to 18; these courses correlate with the work of the agri- cultural departments of the high schools. 3. Extension work, in cooperation with the county farm bureaus and improvement leagues; this should be coordinated closely with the work of the county schools on the one hand, and with 4 the agricultural college on the other. 210 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION IV. The Agricultural College 1. Investigation. (a) Research. (6) Experimentation and testing. (c) Cooperative studies in agricultural resources. 2. Teaching. (a) The four-year course for a degree. (6) Graduate work. (c) Short courses for pupils of 18 years and upward. A. Short courses of college grade, one to two years. (1) For graduates of county agricultural schools. (2) For graduates of agricultural departments of high schools. (3) For graduates of high schools who have not had agricul- ture and are not eligible to the four-year course. (4) For graduates of liberal arts colleges. (5) For adults 21 years and over not eligible to four-year course. B. Short courses giving elementary and specialized work, if the demand requires, for those 18 years of age upward. (1) Winter courses of 12 weeks for highly specialized work, such as butter making, etc. (2) Winter course of 20 weeks for students desiring more gen- eral work. (3) Summer course of 6 weeks, primarily for teachers of non- vocational agriculture. 3. Extension service. (a) General extension work for adults. (1) Lectures and study clubs. (2) Extension schools. (3) Correspondence courses. (4) Demonstrations. (6) Junior-extension work. (c) Extension work for urban and suburban residents. Note. — So far as possible the work in rural home-making will parallel agricultural work tliroughout the whole system. (48) PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 211 Applications of the Smith-Hughes Law Agricultural questions. The legal obligations imposed by the Smith-Hughes Act, and also the discretionary interpreta- tions of the Federal Board disclose many questions in the matter of agricultural education lower than college grade. (a) Duplication. Since land-grant colleges were conducting considerable agricultural work of secondary or lower grade, and already were receiving federal moneys from the Morrill, the Nel- son, and the Agricultural-Extension funds, the possibility of dupUcation appeared under the Smith-Hughes Act. This Act provides : "That there is hereby annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, the sums provided in sec- tions 2, 3, and 4 of this act, to be paid to the respective States for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the salaries of teachers of trade, home-economics, and industrial subjects, and in the prepara- tion of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home-economics subjects ..." (Sec. 1.) "... That such education shall be of less than college grade . . ." (Sec. 10.) The interpretation of the Federal Board in this matter was that the only way in which a land-grant college can use federal money under the Smith-Hughes Act for the salaries of teachers of agri- culture is by making a separate organization of vocational classes of less than college grade. (Federal Board, Bulletin 1, pp. 36-37). (6) Payment of directors and supervisors. If a person divides his time between supervision of agricultural subjects and the training of teachers of agriculture, then a definite division of his time between supervision and teacher-training should be made at the outset of the fiscal year and adhered to. (Ibid., 37.) The Federal Board believed it to be the intent of the Smith-Hughes 212 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Act that States should pay for salaries of directors of agriculture, although latitude was allowed during the year 1917-1918. The principles to govern the payment of federal moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act for supervisors of agriculture are also open to interpretation. The Act provides: "That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this Act, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural sub- jects, either for the salaries of teachers of such subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such subjects under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education." "... The State boards shall prepare plans showing ... in the case of agricultural subjects, the qualifications of supervisors or di- rectors . . . Such plans shall be submitted by the State Board to the Federal Board for Vocational Education and if the Federal Board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions and purposes of this Act, the same shall be approved." (Sec. 8.) The decisions of the Federal Board were these: Any states may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, either for the salaries of teachers in schools, or for salaries of supervisors or directors, under a plan of supervision prepared by the State Board and approved by the Federal Board. A supervisor must meet qualification standards, particularly if a part of the time of the supervisor of agricultural education is given to industrial and home economics education. The amount of time and the amounts prorated for salaries must be prorated from sworn reports. (Ibid., 37-38). (c) Club work. The question has been raised : Can one person serve in both positions, as a state supervisor of agriculture and as a state leader of boys and girls' club work? The Federal Board ruled that he might not so serve, except (and this only for the year, 1917-1918) when his status is clearly defined, and federal moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act are to be used only PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 213 to pay for that part of his time given to supervision of instruc- tion in vocational agriculture. (Ibid., 38.) (d) Short courses. Moneys from the Smith-Hughes Act may be used for short course in agriculture. The Act reads: "... That such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per year . . ." (Sec. 10.) The ruling of the Federal Board was that the length of the school course in agriculture is independent of the required six months of supervised practice on a farm, since that practice must be regarded as only a part of the regular instruction, the other part being carried on in class. Pupils may be in atten- dance on school classes for any period of time necessary to com- plete all other than the practical work. This time may be long or short, according to the state plan adopted. It might be, at least in theory, one week, or one month, six months, nine months, or two or more regular school years. The State Board, however, should set up a system of reports clearly showing whether or not the practical work was properly supervised. The practical work may be either regular farm occupations or specific projects (ibid., 38-39). (e) Local distributions of funds. The allotment of agricultural funds to the States under the Smith-Hughes Act is on the basis of rural population. The industrial funds are alloted upon the basis of urban population. Nothing is said in the Act regarding where the States shall spend the respective funds — whether for agriculture, industries and trades, or home economics: "Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their rural population bears to the total rural population in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last pre- ceding United States census . . ." Sec. 2.) "Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which 214 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION their urban population bears to the total urban population in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last pre- ceding United States census ..." (Sec. 2.) "The moneys so receiA^ed by the custodian for vocational education for any State shall be paid out on the requisition of the State board as reimbursement for expenditures already incurred to such schools as are approved by said State Board and are entitled to receive such moneys under the provisions of this act." (Sec. 14.) The Federal Board declared that the distribution of the funds is a matter to be determined by the State Board which may accordingly place the funds where it believes the money will do most good. (Ibid., 39.) (/) At least dollar for dollar. Every dollar of federal money must be matched by at least one dollar of state money. The Act provides : "... The moneys expended under the provisions of this act in cooperation with the States, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, shall be conditioned that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such salaries the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such salaries; and that appropriations for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, as herein provided, shall be conditioned that such money be expended for maintenance of such training, and that for each dollar of Federal money so expended for maintenance the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for the maintenance of such training . . ." (Sec. 9.) (g) Teaching vs. supervision. The Federal Board made the rulings that : (a) The teaching and the supervision of agricultural education are distinct and separate lines of work; (b) in every instance States must show that federal funds for each purpose will be matched by at least an equal sum furnished by the state or local commuities for the same purpose; (c) the method in which a State may use its allotment for supervision of agri- PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 215 cultural education will be controlled by the provisions of the plan approved by the Federal Board. The provision is : "That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural pur- poses, or any part thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this act, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of such subjects in schools or classes or for salaries of the supervisors or directors of such subjects, under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education ..." (Sec. 10.) (h) Mixed classes. Of importance to institutions training teachers for agriculture, trade and industrial subjects, and home economics, under the Smith-Hughes Act, was the following ruling of the Federal Board (Bulletin I, pp. 35-36) : Federal funds for the training of teachers may be used only on the following conditions: (1) That the classes for which these funds are used are composed entirely of those students who are preparing to teach in vo- cational schools. Such students must be pursuing the course of study approved by the State and Federal boards. (2) That no separate classes for which federal funds are used are to parallel other classes being conducted in the institution. When such separate classes are formed it must be clearly shown that they are a necessary addition to classes already in operation for other students. Instruction in these separate classes must be sufficiently differentiated from the regular classes to justify their establishment and maintenance. The Federal Board, however, declared that an institution may use moneys under both the Nelson and the Smith-Hughes Acts for the maintenance of the same teacher-training classs in agriculture. (Ibid., pp. 40). It was the policy of the Board in general to regard the Nelson amendment of the Morrill Act as meeting the need for the training of teachers for rural schools, or in other schools not meeting the requirements of the Smith- 216 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Hughes Act, whereas the Smith-Hughes fund was to be used for training teachers primarily for service in schools meeting certain definite standards under the Act. The Federal Board also required that where land-grant colleges operate in the same buildings a teacher-training school in agriculture and a second- ary school fitting for the pursuit of agriculture, absolute separa- tion be made of all instruction for teacher-training classes from that of secondary grade, if either or both are to receive moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act. (Ibid., pp. 41.) In the opinion of the Federal Board it was not the intent of the Act to use federal moneys for general supervision of agricultural training in the States, as distinct from the supervision of schools and classes receiving federal moneys for instruction in agricultural subjects. (Ibid., pp. 41.) (i) The training demanded. A fundamental specification of the Smith-Hughes Act concerning agricultural education is the following : The controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit for useful employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and be designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home; — that such schools shall provide for directed or super- vised practice in agriculture, either on a farm provided by the school or other farm, for at least six months per year; that the teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects shall have at least the minimum qualifications determined for the state by the state Board with approval of the Federal Board. (Smith-Hughes Act, Sec. 10.) The Federal Board required at the outset that the State Boards should provide within a reasonable time new standards of training in agriculture, for qualifications of teachers serving under the Smith-Hughes Act. The State Boards with the ap- proval of the Federal Board establish minimum requirements for persons undergoing training as teachers. This training is PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 217 given only to persons who have had adequate vocational experi- ence, or contact in the line of work for which they are preparing themselves as teachers, supervisors, or directors, or who are acquiring such experience or contact as a part of their training. The training is carried out under the supervision of the State Board, in schools or classes under public supervision or control. Not more than twenty per cent of the money appropriated under the Act for the training of teachers of vocational subjects to any State for any year shall be expended for any one of the following purposes : For the preparation of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or the preparation of tea- chers of trade and industrial subjects, or the preparation of teachers of home economic subjects. (Section 12 of Act.) Pedagogical Problems Preparation of teachers. Where the elements of agriculture are taught in elementary or in high schools as a vocational sub- ject, i. e., vocational agricultural education, the teachers of science may well correlate elementary science with the growing of agricultural products. Some high school teachers with practical farming experience may be trusted with agricultural courses which are truly vocational. The home-project plan of teaching agriculture is especially desirable for boys who live on farms. It is recognized that the teacher of vocational agricultural education must be preeminently practical — with understanding, sympathy for youth, and with ability to do. "He must have common sense — the most uncommon of all senses. He must be not only a man among men, but a farmer among farmers — Life-long farm experience is desirable." Massachusetts has set a high standard for the qualification of secondary teachers of agriculture. The diagram on page 218 exhibits in concise form the qualifications desired, as set forth by the Massachusetts State Board of Education. (33) 218 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION MINIMUM QUALIFICATIONS OF PROSPECTIVE INSTRUCTORS For County or Separate Agricultural Schools and High School Agricultural Departments 1 2 3 4 5 Related Farm Work Non- Specifications Farm Work Study or and Related agricultural Instructor Technical In.structor Study Instructor Instructor (1) Age A. Without successful teaching experience. 21 21 21 No such ap- plicant con- sidered. B. With 21 21 21 21 successful teaching experience. (2) Farm Experience Eight calendar Two calendar Eight calendar Knowledge years under years, and va- vears in farm- enough of farming condi- cations during ing if only farming to en- tions Uke those agricultural special agri- able the in- in Massachu- school or col- cultural courses structor to un- setts. lege course. have been taken; 4 cal- endar years in farming if 2 years or equiv- alent in agri- cultural courses have been taken. derstand the aim of voca- tional agricul- tural education, and a natural inclination toward the betterment of country living. (3) Academic Grammar High school or High school or College or Education graduate. agricultural agricultural normal school school graduate. school graduate. graduate. (4) Technical Special courses Two vears or Two vears or Courses in .sub- Education in agriculture. equivalent in equivalent in jects to be agricultural agricultural taught. courses. courses. (5) Professional Approved Courses in Approved Course in ped- Education study of home- home-project study of home- agogy, and one project methods of project year of .suc- methods of teaching agri- methods of cessful teach- teaching agri- culture and re- teaching agri- ing experience. culture. lated studies. culture and re- lated studies. (6) Personality Satisfactory and with presumption of ability to handle pupils (Personal interview required). (7) Physique Good health (attested by physician's certificate) and no deformity. Good health (attested by physician's certificate) . Good health (attested by physician's certificate) and no deformity. Good health (attested by physician's certificate). (8) Sex Men only. Men only Men only. Men only. DtAGRAM OP Minimum Qualifications of Candidates for AgrictjIiTTjraij School ano Department Instructorships.(33) PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 219 It is evident that to secure men with such minimum quahfi- <"itions renewed effort should be made to attract desirable men by means of adequate salaries into the work of teaching. More compensation, monetary and social, must go hand in hand with iuie elevation of standards for certification to teach. A course for teachers. Suggestions for what ought to be the general content of a two or four year course for teachers of agriculture have been made by the Federal Board. The Board emphasizes the statements that no hard and fast classifications are used in the suggestions offered, and that supervised practice in teaching vocational agriculture must be stressed strongly. A notable omission under professional training is the general history of education. At least the reading of the briefer work of Graves, or of Monroe, should be required in order to give perspective and inspiration to the prospective teacher. The following table embodies the suggestions: (la) TABLE XIV Approximation op Time in a Course for Teachers of Agriculture (Practical Experience not Included) Agricultural Sciences Humanistic Professional 4-year course, 40 per 4-year course, 30 per 4-year course, 20 4-year course, 10 cent; 2-year course, 60 cent; 2-year course 15 per cent; 2- per cent; 2- per cent. per cent. year course 15 year course 10 per cent. per cent. Field and forage crops. Chemistry. English. Educational Soils and fertilizers. Physics. History and Gov- psychology. Animal husbandry and Biology. ernment. Principles and dairying. Geology. Rural economics. general methods Poultry husbandry. Etc. Rural sociology. School organiza- Horticulture. Rural organiza- tion and man- Vegetable gardening. tion. agement. Farm mechanics. Agricultural chemistry. Etc. Etc. Farm management, etc. Economic entomology. Plant pathology. Vocational edu- Both general and special Plant breeding. cation, history courses in the above. Veterinary science. and principles. Bacteriology. Special methods Etc. (in agriculture). Practice teaching. Etc. Technic in teaching. Modern teachers and researchers such as Suzzallo, McMurry, Bagley, Parker, O'Shea, and Hosic, 220 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION have clarified the matter of technic of general instruction for elementary and secondary schools, and are aiding in placing inetliods of teaching different subjects upon a scientific basis. It is not assumed in these days that definite procedure or meth- ods can be laid down in advance to suit most if not all situations where instruction is called for. A dozen years ago the writer ran across a pedant who so highly esteemed his own "mastery of methods" that he boasted openly that "he could teach any- thing." Contemporary educational science condemns such quackery. Experimentation taking the place of mere hypoth- esis in educational theory is yielding norms and procedure for the difficult work of instruction. The project method. Borrowed from other fields the word 'project has come to denote a method, or group of methods of instruction, of high potential values, especially in the teaching of agriculture. As shown by Stimson, Heald, Stevenson, Krack- owizer, and others, in procedure and results, the project system is probably superior to some other methods of teaching. There has been considerable waste of time and money, however, de- voted to merely academic elaboration of the different meanings of the concept project. There is a type of mind which acts as though a problem were solved when once the words symbolizing it have been minutely defined and classified. Essentials of a home-project. In the project system, life activities hitherto considered outside of the school are organized and utilized beneficially as educative processes in the life of the pupil. Heald, referring to Stimson's earlier studies, to the Massachusetts plans, and to Department of Agriculture Bul- letins, thus indicates the essentials of a home-project as a phase of vocational agricultural education : 1. A carefully drawn plan covering a considerable extent of time, with a definite aim, including some problems new to the pupil and outlining with sufficient detail the methods to be employed. This plan should be written and should be an exhil)it in connection with the second essential. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 221 2. An agreement between parent, pupil, and teacher, based upon the plan already prepared and so prepared as to eliminate later disa- greements. The boy's financial privileges should be clearly stated. 3. Instruction in the school both in regular course and in special individual study to the end that the project work may be done intelli- gently and that the home may furnish the kind of laboratory practice best adapted to the school work. 4. Detailed records of method, time, cost, income, and other impor- tant factors which shall finally be summarized in — 5. A report including both a story and a complete accounting for the entire project period. 6. Supervision by a competent instructor of such a nature as to help the student to succeed in his project, to encourage him at times when difficulties arise and to hold him to his agreement; incidentally to impart instruction supplementing that of the classroom. (40) Distribution of projects. The studies of Stimson, Heald, and Nolan, and those contained in state and federal bulletins and reports — render unnecessary any detailed treatment of the project-method in these pages. We are appending, however, another useful diagram (page 222) offered by the Massa- chusetts Board of Education to illustrate how a series of agri- cultural projects may be distributed through periods of years. Agricultural and liberal education. The question of sepa- rating agricultural education and liberal education arises here as a similar question arises in every other field of specialized train- ing for useful occupation. Again we revert to the necessary doctrine of balancing or weighing educational ideals and aims (ante, p. 45) rather than to mere partisanship, be it academic or utilitarian; of keeping open during the career of every individual adequate opportunity for elementary, for liberal, and for spe- ciahzed vocational education compatible with the principles of democracy. We rely also upon the nature of instruction, upon the quality of teachers, upon the home, and upon social organizations to counteract any evil tendencies in separate, technical classes or schools. o-^ a 0) g o jH ej M S " 3 b fl "S -w' g a o 2-!^ =*^ o >T3 g a) «; ■ o 3Xi « (P - ra t' >c3-g flH J;- g.^ o o" la'^^'^'^t. ^Sit^afe^P^-o-^ O fc; O Mg "^;S-C H " o £-5 H "5^ ■§ a >> ■TJ 3 O ."O w-*^ >- m PhV> 'S"3'S jS g.§^ < •S9C, rt OS - S s s bj !>D a 9 — 'aS 0) . -g > H ii C3 c3 a 03 15 (/J O a o T3 > a a ffi * till ^ ^ ti- a ni hfl s > p •<»< 222 PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 223 The problem of whether an agricultural school should be separate and distinct may be a problem to be solved locally- according to conditions. It may be necessary under certain circumstances to have separate agricultural schools, as entirely separate as some of the purely classical high schools. We believe that the former, too isolated, would tend to "peasantize" the farming population, just as the latter could breed intellectual pretenders or snobs, now that our vision of the interrelation of the different phases of education is some clearer. By no means, however, is there unanimity of conviction regarding the best ways to prevent agricultural education intended for the pros- pective or active farmer from becoming bookish, academic, theoretical, as witness the discussion of Snedden(43) and Crom- well (8). Agriculture as therapy. Light agriculture under favorable conditions is being used for its health-imparting effects to in- valids and the convalescent. In Europe, in Canada, and in the United States, gardens in connection with hospitals have been found of three-fold value for convalescent soldiers. To some of these it affords (1) necessary exercise, fresh air, sunhght, and (2) mental diversion ; (3) it may give a vocational consciousness and ambition to the man who feels " I am undone." A good example of agriculture used as occupational therapy, was the training offered to disabled soldiers and sailors at the Walter Reed General Hospital, Washington, D. C. Practical work was offered in (1) elementary agriculture — general farming, dairying, farm management, farm mechanics, poultry hus- bandry, entomology, botany; (2) elementary horticulture-fruit grow- ing, pomology, vegetable gardening, landscape gardening, floriculture, nursery practice, forestry, plant propagation. For the reeducation of returned, disabled soldiers, and for their reestablishment in civil life, farm activities have played an important part in France, England, Belgium, and especially 224 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Canada. In the United States large opportunity existed for the use of tillable land by war veterans for vocational agriculture in extension of agriculture used during convalescence merely as therapy. (Id.) Agricultural Education in Philanthropic and Other Institutions Hampton and Tuskegee. There have been interesting de- velopments of agricultural education in other than public schools or state colleges. The practical work at Tuskegee and at Hampton has long been illustrative of the benefits of agri- cultural and mechanical education especially to the negroes of the South, and to other peoples as well. Doubtless these insti- tutions under the leadership respectively of Armstrong and of Washington have utilized some of the best things in the teach- ings of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg. The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades. A notable example of agriculture in a semi-public institution is the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades of Williamson, Pennsylvania. This endowed school conducts courses for machinists, operative engineers, bricklayers, etc., as well as for prospective farmers. A specimen course. The following is a reproduction of the "trade course in agriculture," as offered at Williamson during 1914: Williamson Scientific Agricultural Trade Course "Farm Practice. (1) Under this head will be classed the work in Farm Mechanics, which will consist of talks relating to the machines in use on the farm: Blacksmithing; farm carpentry; concrete construc- tion; steam and gas engines and electric motors. (2) Stock Judging: Talks with illustrations showing the correct type of the breeds of domestic animals; extensive work in judging classes and individuals. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 225 First Year — Judging with score card. Second Year — Judging without score card. Third Year — Competitive judging. (3) Dairying: Care and feeding of dairy cattle; the production of milk; stable sanitation; testing milk; handling milk for market; butter making; cream separators and dairy machinery; the manufacture of cottage cheese and commercial buttermilk; dairy bacteriology. (4) Poultry Raising, including hatching by incubator and natural process; preparation of broilers for market; feeding for egg production and growth; mating and judging stock. (5) Horticulture; grafting, spraying and diseases of fruit trees; commercial fruit growing; farm and market gardening. (6) Market Farm Produce; the killing and curing of meats; lectures on the value of organization in marketing; and world's greatest markets, cold storage." The work by years. First Year — Farm practice 36 hours per week "Between the hours of 5 and 7 a. m. and 1 and 5 p. m. the students are detailed to the various departments to carry on the work of the farm. This practice is to be closely correlated to the classroom work, and to be supplemented by "field talks" relating to the work in hand. Special emphasis is placed on the training of the students in efficiency. Time exercises are given and a continuous effort made to develop speed and accuracy in the performance of farm work." Breeds of live stock 2 hours per week Soils 2 " " " Academic work: Arithmetic, history, geography, grammar, spelling, physiology, hygiene, botany — each 2 hours, total 12 " " " Drawing 6 " " " Literature 1 " " " Music 1 " " " 226 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Second Year — "The work in Farm Practice during the Junior Year is a continua- tion of the plan as outlined for the Freshman Year. Farm practice 36 hours per week Agronomy and diseases of plants 2 " " " Feeds and feeding (April to September) 2 " " Veterinary science (September to April) 2 " " " Academic: April to September: Grammar and spelling, literature, civil government, physics, chemistry, commercial, each 2 hours 12 " " Mensuration 3 " " " September to April: Grammar and spelling, litera- ture, civil government, physics, chemistry, com- mercial, each 2 hours 14 " " " Algebra 1 " " " Music 1 " " " Third Year- Farm Practice. "Farm Practice five and one-half days per week for two successive weeks. Each third week the student will spend seven full days in the departments. An opportunity will be given here for students to specialize in any of the various departments of the course. Lectures will be given from time to time covering in detail some branch of farm practice. A chance will be given for original work, and each student will be required to assist in the management of the farm for a specified number of days. Time will be allowed for experi- mental work in crop growing, feeding and manufacturing farm pro- duce. Special attention will be paid during the latter part of the year to the marketing of produce and the business management of a farm." (49). The student body at Williamson is largely a select group of youths, chosen from a waiting list upon the basis of physical and mental capacity. The applicants must be at least 15 years of PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 227 age. The property includes some 25 buildings, and 230 acres of land. The school meets all expenses, including lodging, meals, clothing, etc. Agriculture for delinquents and the feeble-minded. Out-of- door and agricultural activities have long been relied upon in special institutions to benefit unfortunates. Scores of so- called industrial schools maintained for juvenile delinquents utilize agricultural instruction in varying amounts and kinds. Examples of institutions of this type are St. Charles School for Boys, St. Charles, 111.; Glen Mills Schools, Glen Mills, Pa.; Lincoln Agricultural School, Lincolndale, N. Y. ; Lyman School for Boys, Westborough, Mass.; Preston School of Industry, Waterman, California; State Industrial School, St. Louis, Mo.; Wisconsin Industrial School for Boys, Waukesha, Wisconsin; Boys Industrial School, Topeka Kansas; Richmond County Reformatory, Georgia; Industrial and Training School of Shelby County, Tennessee; etc. (26) Agricultural activities are also found beneficial in the care and training of the feeble- minded. An interesting example is the Vineland Training School of Vineland, New Jersey. (6) Agriculture in other institutions. The report of the U. S. Education Bureau during 1917 listed types of schools referred to above, and also contains data concerning other institutions utilizing forms of agricultural work. E. g. : " In many State and county prisons, penitentiaries, and jails, farm work is required of the inmates. In a few of them definite instruc- tion in agriculture is given through classroom work, lectures, etc. For instance, at the California State Prison at San Quentin, 318 in- mates were enrolled and took agricultural courses through the ex- tension division of the State Agricultural College in January, 1917. Twenty-three different courses were given. Weekly meetings of the agricultural students were held, at which special lectures in agriculture were given. In the California State Prison at Folsom, 70 men have been enrolled in agricultural classes during the past year. The work 228 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION is carried on under the general supervision of the State Agricultural College, an instructor coming to the prison every Saturday. In the State penitentiary at Columbus, Ohio, in February, 1917, 46 inmates were taking or had completed courses in poultry, swine, horses, truck gardening, etc., all through the extension service of the State University. In the State Prison at Walla Walla, Wash., between 400 and 500 inmates work on the farm and receive instruction in the tech- nical side of their work. In the State Penitentiary at Lansing, Kans., 20 inmates are enrolled in an agricultural extension course organized by the State Agricultural College. The plan has been followed for five years." Improvement of Rural Life City and country interested. Realization of the inevitable effect of rural conditions upon the life of the nation and the race gives strength to the movements for the improvement of rural life. Efficiency, sanitation, better schools adapted to the needs of society and of individuals, are powerful elements in this im- provement. Agricultural education lower than college grade is of immediate importance to people living in the country, al- though the mechanical trades also are of use upon the modern farm. Education in mechanical industries and trades, however, concerns chiefly the city boy and girl. We shall consider in the next chapter some of the problems of this kind of education. In ultimate analysis, both country and city are interested in vocational education of all kinds and therefore join in its hearty support. The advocates. Reports of the United States Department of Agriculture, of Experiment Stations, and published pro- ceedings of the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations probably contain the most complete materials for a history of agricultural education in this country. There are many names of men who have pushed the good cause of agricultural education which should be recorded in such a history. Among the names of such workers may be mentioned PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 229 the following roughly grouped into periods: (1860-1880) Levi Stockbridge of Massachusetts; Manley Miles, R. C. Kedzie, W. J. Beal, of Michigan; Samuel Johnson and Frank Storer of Yale; J. P. Roberts of Cornell; (1880-1919) W. A. Henry and H. L. Russell of Wisconsin; L. H. Bailey of Cornell; E. M. Shel- ton and G. T. Fairchild of Kansas; T. F. Hunt, now in Cali- fornia; W. H. Jordan, of New York; C. F. Curtis and R. A. Pearson of Iowa; C. G. Hopkins, H. W. Mumford, J. C. Blair, and Eugene Davenport of lUinois; W. R. Dodson of Louisiana; A. M. Soule of Georgia; M. A. Scovell of Kentucky; J. F. Duggar of Alabama; C. E. Thorne of Ohio; E, A. Burnett of Nebraska; H. J. Waters of Wisconsin; H. P. Armsby of Pennsylvania. The work of A. C. True, Director of States Relation Service, United States Department of Agriculture, has been of wide influence. On the plane of educational administration there must be included the name of E. P. Cubberley of California who has helped to show teachers how to improve rural life. (10) Summary The nine series of problems and topics we have brought before the mind of the reader are these : 1. It is a fact that agriculture diversified in method and location is the major industry of the country, both in importance and in numbers employed. 2. Elementary agriculture in the country and in the city is taking definite form, stimulated by need, by enlarging interests of pupils and teachers, and by favorable legisla- tion and p^iblic support. 3. The question of separate vs. high school departments of education is still an open one in many communities. Pro- gressive high schools are now modifying programs, and courses of study, curricula, and are employing practically qualified teachers of agriculture. 230 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 4. Large numbers of graduates from agricultural colleges do not engage in practical farming. Both in collegiate and in secondary schools, distinctions should be recognized be- tween agricultural course that are vocational in aim, and those agricultural courses that are intended merely to enlarge knowledge, appreciation, and to be an adjunct to liberal education. 5. Better coordination is needed between the numerous instru- mentalities of training in agriculture at public expense, whether in elementary, secondary or higher instututions. Students may profitably study tabular schemes showing a "vertical" view of the existing educational machinery for a better understanding of this problem. 6. The Smith-Hughes Law afforded liberal aid for States in the cooperative upbuilding of agricultural education of sub- collegiate grade. Valuable are the regulations exacting teacher- training courses as a prerequisite for federal aid. 7. The pedagogical questions of organization of programs, courses of study, and of curricula are pressing. They can not be worked out in isolation, but through conferences, researches, and united effort of teachers, superintendents, university professors, and by state and federal specialists. Pedagogical dogmas however camouflaged about "methods of teaching" without regard to such scientific studies and cooperative efforts should be shunned. 8. Some of the private or philanthropic institutions, such as Williamson, Hampton, and Tuskegee, have already demon- strated important experiments in the practical working of agricultural courses. Other institutions have proved its utility in the social treatment of special types of persons. 9. Rural life and city life are becoming more and more inter- dependent. From the economic point of view the interests of the country have become the interests of the increasing urban population and the reverse is true. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 231 In our next chapter we shall present materials that make plainer the problems of education in mechanical industries and trades — i. e., for occupations that concern predominantly the boy or girl of the city. Problems 1. Show in what sense the education favored by the Smith- Hughes Act is extremely broad. 2. Can you draw a sharp line between agricultural education as a part of liberal education, and agricultural education for vocation? 3. Enumerate all of the different farming occupations in your county. Make some investigation of each type of occupa- tion. 4. To what extent and how should the teaching of pure science (chemistry, physics, etc.) be safeguarded, in the case of agricultural programs in high schools? 5. In communities where separate agricultural high schools exist, how may a degree of general and liberal education be assured in the life-time of each student? 6. What are the principal advantages and disadvantages of agricultural courses in ''regular" high schools? 7. Study typical programs, courses of study, and curricula in secondary agricultural schools or courses, 8. Classify and characterize the institutions giving second- ary agricultural instruction in your own state. 9. Write a paper, or critique, concerning the interpretations of the Smith-Hughes Act by the Federal Board. 10. Read the discussion of Snedden and of Cromwell: "What is Agricultural Education?" (See references 8 and 43). Evaluate the arguments. 11. Study methods and results, pedagogical and economic, of use of agriculture in an institution for the care of feeble- 232 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION minded. Procure recent reports, and if possible visit several times an institution, e. g., Vineland.(6) 12. Make a similar study of a school for delinquents, e. g., St. Charles, 111., or the Lyman School, Mass., or the Whittier School, California. 13. Study the possibilities in your own community of agricul- ture for city boys and girls. 14. What do you think of renting vacant land adjacent to cities and putting boys in charge of the work on a supervised project basis? 15. To what extent is it practicable for boys in the secondary course in agriculture to qualify themselves for an agri- cultural college? 16. What kinds of farming in East, West, North, and South, respectively, may now offer promising opportunity for women? 17. Make a study of the actual costs (a) per put)il, (b) per pupil hour, in each course of agriculture, and of different academic subjects in a high school, or a college. 18. Study the present vocational preferences of pupils, and also the after-career of graduates of an agricultural institution, 19. From useful, healthful home activities, draw up a definite plan for home projects. 20. Contrast the practice in the matter of home-projects in agriculture in the States of Michigan, Minnesota and Massachusetts. 21. Evaluate points of weakness and of strength in the use of agriculture by some local institution for delinquents and for dependents. 22. How can a rural survey be made of a county or district pre- paratory to improving systematically the conditions of rural life? PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 233 SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Agricultural Education. (a) The first of a series of bulletins devoted to agricultural education under the Smith-Hughes Act. L. S. Hawkins, Assistant Di- rector for Vocational Education. The Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin 13, 1918. (b) Bulletin 14, 1918: Reference Material for Vocational Agricultural Instruction. (c) Bulletin 26, 1918: Agricultural Education— Some Problems in State Supervision. (d) Opportunity Monograph 33, 1919: Technical Agriculture as a vocation. 2. Agricultural Education. Bibliographies: (a) Selected classified references for Agricultural Colleges, Experi- ment Stations, and Agriculture in Public Schools. Bailey and Cubberley in Monroe's Cycl. of Education, vol. 1, pp. 68-69. (6) Indices to U. S. Ed. Reports. 1867-1919. (c) Indices to Proc. N. E. A., 1857-1917. (d) Poole's Annual Index. (e) For complete lists of available publications of departments and bureaus of the Federal Government, see Price List, Superin- tendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 3. Bricker, A. B. The Teaching of Agriculture in the High Schools. N. Y. 1916, 202 p. 4. Carter, Louise. A School of Horticulture for Women. Jour. Associa- tion of Collegiate Alumnae, April 1918. Pp. 501-506. 5. Claxton, Philander P. The United States School Garden Army. Re- view of Reviews. April 1918. Pp. 393-394. 6. Colony Cure for the Feeble-Minded. Bulletin 3. 19 p. 111. Com. on Provision for Feeble-Minded, Philadelphia, Pa. 1917. 7. Correlating Agriculture with Public School Subjects in Northern States. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Bulletin 281, 1915. 8. Cromwell, A. D. Agricultural Education. What Is It? School and Society. February 9, 1918, pp. 170-172. 9. Cubberley, E. P. and Bailey, L. H. Agricultural Education in the Lower Schools. Monroe's Cycl. of Education, vol. 1, pp. 64-69. 10. Cubberley, E. P. Rural Life and Education. N. Y. 1914, 367 p. lU. 11. Davenport, Eugene. Education for Efficiency. A discussion of cer- tain phases of problems of universal education with special reference to academic ideals. N. Y., 1914. 234 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 12. Davenport, Eugene. History of Collegiate Education in Agriculture. Proc. Society for Promotion of Agricultural Science. 1907. 13. Davenport, Eugene. Why Teach Agriculture in the Public Schools? lUinois Academy of Science. February 23, 1913. 14. Davis, C. O. Continuation work in the high school. A chapter (XXII) in The Modern High School by Charles H. Johnston and Others. N. Y., 1914, 847 p. Chapter XXII includes discussion and classi- fication of specialized high schools, as: Technical, commercial, school of commerce, manual arts {hoys), 'practical arts (girls), industrial, and agricultural. 15. Dean, Arthur S. Our Schools in War Time— and After. N. Y., 1918, 335 p. Pp. 155-164 contains discussion of agriculture for city boys and of the New York regulations. 16. Ellis, A. Caswell. The Teaching of Agriculture in Public Schools. Univ. of Texas Bulletin 85, 1906. 17. Experiment Station Record. United States Department of Agricul- tiu"e. Contains numerous abstracts of publications of experiment stations, and kindred institutions in this and other countries. Eight numbers each year. Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. 18. Federal Agencies for Education. A review, including comparison of U. S. Department of Agriculture and U. S. Bureau of Education. In Source Book, Ch. III. State and County School Administration, Cubberley and Elliott. N. Y., 1915, 729 p. 19. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Statement of Policies. (a) Bulletin 1, 1917, 70 p. Washington D. C. (6) Evolution of National Systems of Vocational Re-education. D. C. McMurtrie. Bulletin 15, 1918. (c) See also § 1. 20. Gillette, John M. Constructive Rural Sociology. An organized pres- entation of the phases and problems of rural life. N. Y., 1913, 301 p. 21. Graves, Frank P. A History of Education in Modern Times. N. Y., 1914, 410 p. 22. Hall, G. Stanley. Educational Problems. 2 vols. N. Y., 1911. Vol. I, ch. VIII (pp. 540-710) contains a review of the problems of in- dustrial education by the world's greatest student of adolescence. Pp. 660-674 concern education for the farm. 23. Hatch, K. L. The High School Course in Agriculture. University of Wisconsin Bulletin 594, 1913 (rev. ed.) 39 p. 24. Hatch, K. L. and W. F. Stewart. Suggestions for School and Home Projects in Agriculture. University of Wisconsin Bulletin 757. 1916, 30 p. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 235 25. HiU, David S. Industry and Education. New Orleans Commission Council 1916, 409, p. 111. Scientific agriculture, dairying, and horticulture for city boys, pp. 273-278. 26. HiU, David S. An Experimental Study of Delinquent and Destitute Boys and notes Concerning Preventive and Ameliorative Measures in the United States. Commission Council, New Orleans. 130 p. 111. 1914. Contains illustrated descriptions of the Lyman, Lin- colndale, St. Charles and other institutions for delinquents. 27. Hodge, Clifton F. Nature Study and Life. N. Y., 1906, 514 p. 28. Home Projects in Secondary Courses in Agriculture. U. S. Depart- ment of Agriculture, Bulletin 346, 1916. (See also 35-38.) 29. Hummel, W. G. and B. R. Materials and Methods in High School Agi-iculture. N. Y., 1913, 385 p. 30. Instruction in Agriculture in Prussia and France; Industrial Educa- tion in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland; Advancement and Im- provement of Agriculture in Europe, etc. U. S. Education Report 1896, vol. 2, pp. 1199-1297. 31. Jordan, Whitman H. Agricultural Education. Public endowments, land grant acts, kinds of colleges, experiment stations, courses of in- struction, short courses. Monroe's Cycl. of Education, vol. 1, p, 58-64. 32. Journal of Delinquency. Devoted to the scientific study of problems related to social conduct. J. Harold Williams, Editor. Whittier State School, Whittier, California. Vols. I, II, and III. 33. Massachusetts. Information Relating to the Establishment and Ad- ministration of County Agricultural Schools and Agricultural De- partments. State Board of Education, Bulletin 23, 1916, 80 p. See pp. 39-43. 34. Mclntire, Ruth. The Effect of Agricultural Employment Upon School Attendance. Elementary School Journal. University of Chicago. March 1918. Pp. 533-542. 35. Minneapohs Vocational Survey. U. S. Bureau of Labor Bulletin 199, 1917, 592 p. Elementary agriculture and gardens for city boys, pp. 469-482. 36. Nolan, Aretas W. The Teaching of Agriculture. N. Y., 1918, 277 p. 37. O'Shea, M. V. The Dynamic Factor in Education. N. Y. 38. Project, the Massachusetts Home Project Plan of Education. R. W. Stimson. U. S. Education Bulletin 579, No. 8, 1914. 39. Project. Discussions by A. W. Nolan, in The Teaching of Agriculture. N. Y., 1918. See pp. 24-30, 123-131, 152, 213-223. 40. Project, the Home Project as a Phase of Vocational Education. Bulle- 236 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION tin 21, Federal Board for Vocational Education. September, 1918, 43 p. 41. Robinson, C. H. Agriculture (in the high school). In High School Education, Charles H. Johnston and Others. N. Y., 1912, 555 p. Pp. 381-396. 42. School Life. Official organ of the U. S. Bureau of Education. Pub- hshed twice monthly. 1918. See December 1, 1918, No. 9., pp. 9-10. 43. Snedden, David. Agricultural Education. What Is It? School and Society. January 19, 1918, pp. 66-71. 44. Snedden, David. Educational Sociology, A Digest and Syllabus. Part I, 38 p: Introduction; Part II, 20 p.: Applications to Curricula and Studies. Columbia University, New York, 1917. 45. Stimson, R. W. The Massachusetts Home Project Plan. U. S. Educa- tion Bulletin 8, 1914. 46. Stimson, R. W. Vocational Agricultural Education. N. Y., 1919, 468 p. 47. True, A. C. and Crosby, D. J. Agricultural Experiment Stations in Foreign Countries. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Experiment Stations Bulletin 112 (revised) 1904, 276 p. 48. United States Education Report. 1916, vol. 1. Pp. 245-246. A proposed outline of comprehensive organization or machinery for agricultural education. Vol. II, pp. 322. 49. United Slates Bureau of Education Bulletins: (a) Agricultural Education. J. R. Jewell. Bulletin 2, 1907, p. Bibliography of 123 titles. (6) Country Schools for City Boys. W. S. Myers, Bulletin 9, 1912. (c) Agricultural Instruction in Secondary Schools. Papers read at Third and Fourth Annual Meetings of American Association for the Advancement of Science. Bulletin 14, 1913, and 27, 1914. (d) The Folk High Schools of Denmark, L. L. Friend. Bulletin 5, 1914. (e) Stimson, R. W. (See 45). (/) Needed Changes in Secondary Education. C. W. Eliot and E. Nelson. Bulletin 10, 1916. {g) Vocational Secondary Education. Prepared by the Committee on Vocational Education of the National Education Associa- tion. 21, 1916. Pp. 12, 16, 44, 45, 68, 153. (h) Gardening in Elementary Schools. C. D. Jarvis. 74 p. Bulletin 40, 1916. PROBLEMS IN AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION 237 (i) Agricultural and Rural Extension Schools in Ireland. A. C. Monahan, 38 p. 111. Bulletin 41, 1916. (j) District Agricultural Schools of Georgia. C. H. Lane and D. J. Crosby. 32 p. Bulletin 44, 1916. (k) Rural and Agricultural Education at the Panama-Pacific In- ternational Exposition. H. W. Foght. 112 p. III. Bulletin 2, 1917. (Z) Secondary Agricultural Schools in Russia. W. S. Jesieu. 22 p. Bulletin 4, 1917. (m) Educative and Economic Possibilities of School-Directed Home Gardening in Richmond, Indiana. J. L. Randall. 25 p. IJI. 6, 1917. (n) Garden Clubs in the Schools of Englewood, New Jersey. C. O. Smith, Bulletin 26, 1917, 44 p. 111. (ft) Institutions in the United States Giving Instruction in Agri- culture. A. C. Monahan and C. H. Dye. 34, 1917, 115 p. See p. 26. (p) The Township and Community High School Movement in Illinois. H. A. HoUister. Bulletin 35, 1917, 48 p. 111. (g) Vocational Teachers for Secondary Schools. What the land- grant colleges are doing to prepare them. C. D. Jarvis. Bulletin 38, 1917. (r) Lane, C. H. Agricultural Education during 191&-1918. Bulletin 44, 1918, 40 p. 50. Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades. Bulletin 13. Scientific Agriculture. 51. Wilson, G. M. Instruction for Teachers of Agriculture under the Smith-Hughes Vocational Education Law. School and Society, 1918, pp. 520-523. CHAPTER VTII EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES AND TRADES DifIi(Hilties in Terminology: Industries and trades; standardized defini- tions illustrated; vocational industrial education; industrial arts education. Size and Variety of Major Occupational Groups; Census data; extreme differentiation of industries; outline of industries and contained occupa- tions. Descriptions of Trade and Industrial Schools: Vocational, industrial day schools; divisions within an industrial school; analysis of departments; the prevocational course at Lane; proportions of shop and of academic work; Worcester; Williamson, uses of spare time; principles for day in- dustrial schools; part-time and continuation schools; continuation classes in New York City; varieties of part-time schooling; apprentice schools; general industrial school ; tendencies siunmarized. Problems of the Evening Schools: Evening vocational schools; European countries; the United States; distinct problems, constructive principles; the unit course defined; values weighed; the unit-course in emergency war-service; typical unit-courses; stdiools for miners. Vocational Instruction by Correspondence: Strength ani weaknesses; extent. Summary. Problems. Selected References. Difficulties in Terminology Industries and trades. In view of different meanings cur- rent botli for the wortl industries and also for the word trades as applied to education, the use of these two terms necessitates some working agreement upon definitions. Industrial educa- tion is the more gen(nalized ('xpr(\ssion referring to preparation for occupations in which manual labor or skill is an important factor, while trade education denotes the more specialized prep- aration for specific mechanical trades, or operations. It is 238 EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 239 doubtful whether the expression trade education is very useful, since industrial education is sufficiently comprehensive. The word trade in the Century Dictionary is given some ten mean- ings, and its etymology is confused or obscure. In secondary vocational education and in the interpretation of the Smith- Hughes Act the word trade denotes specific, skilled occupations involving manual skill, such as the machinist trades, the print- ing trades, the trade of pattern makei", the dressmaker's trade, trade, etc. Unfortunately coupled with this usage is the word trade in the U. S. Census used synonymously with commerce, the exchange of commodities, buying and selhng. The word industry similarly has more than one meaning. In a general sense it refers to almost any kind of human labor or activity. Industrial we use here to denote manufacture and manual activity of a productive character. However, all pro- ductive work is not predominantly manual, as witness the labor of statesmen, surgeons, physicians, ministers, writers, teachers. Examples of non-productive school work are these : Writing pre- functory themes; studying vaguely for disciplinary effect; pupils doing practice typewriting of a non-marketable nature, or stud- ents keeping books of a non-commercial character; agricultural students raising products that can not or will not be consumed ; shop students making objects for exhibit or for consignment to the junk-heap, etc. The word industrial may also refer to a growp of trades or occupational activities, such as the metal-working industry, the iron industry, the wood-working industry, the clothing industry, farming industries, etc. The expression "industrial school," in the minds of many persons suggests only a type of reform school or an institution for defective or unfortunate persons. The U. S. Education Reports classify under this term 121 state schools which receive children committed by public authority. An industrial school is properly a school teaching some trade or part of a trade, and may include such work as carpentry, 240 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION mining, and training of teamsters, chauffers, barbers, machinists, printers, mill operatives, seamstresses, etc. Industrial schools or classes may be day, part-time, or evening. Schools such as the Williamson Free School supply lodging, food, clothing, etc., in addition to instruction. A review of practically all industrial schools existing at the time in the United States is found in the Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor (15) and a similar review of industrial schools in Canada, in the report of the Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education. (31) Standardized definitions illustrated. The Committee of the National Education Association on vocational secondary education, we have found, (40) formulated these definitions, with examples (A and B) : (A) Vocational industrial education includes "those forms of vocational education the direct purpose of each of which is to fit the individual for some industrial pursuit or trade." E. g., journejmien in trades and industrial pursuits are the book- binders, carpenters and joiners, brick masons, stone masons, painters, paper hangers, plasterers, plumbers, steam-fitters. There are also more or less specialized workers, such as box makers, mill operators, tobacco operatives, etc. Large numbers of persons in such pursuits as those of carpenter, plumber, stone cutter, machinist, etc., are still trained through a system of apprenticeship. Well-organized schools or classes, often called trade schools, are available in Boston, New York, Chicago, Minneapolis, Cincinnati and Milwaukee, for complete training, or for partial training, adjusted to the practice prevailing in the industry, e. g. for machinists, printers, engineers, electrical workers, dressmakers, milliners, etc. There are also numerous schools publicly or privately conducted for telephone and telegraph operators, linotype operators, photographers, confectioners, cooks. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 241 (B) Industrial arts education signifies "those forms of train- ing based upon industrial pursuits and designed to enhance general intelligence and give vocational guidance in the field of industrial occupations." In these schools work is often given closely allied to actual trades and industrial occupations; e. g., fine jewelry, bric-a-brac, or pottery may be produced. Fre- quently industrial arts education is only a name for some type of manual training. Sometimes the course is known as a pre- vocational course. Size and Variety of Major Occupational Groups Census data. In Table III, page 70, we have indicated the important occupational groups. Among these are the following large groups: Extraction of minerals; workers, total 964,824, male 963,730, female 1,094. Manufacturing and mechanical indus- tries; workers, total 10,658,881, male 8,837,901, female, 820,980. Transportation; workers, total 2,637,671, male 2,531,075, female 106,596. Domestic and personal service; workers, 3,772,174, male 1,241,328, female 2,530,846. Public service; workers, 459,291, male 445,733, female 13,558, including during 1910 large numbers of soldiers, sailors, firemen, engineers, mechan- ics. Of course, since the World War began these last occupa- tional groups have expanded to far greater numbers. Omitting from our present consideration the workers in agriculture (12,659,203), trade or commerce (3,614,670), professional service (1,663,569), clerical occupations (1,737,053), we observe that the first five great occupational groups mentioned above con- tain the most persons affected directly by education for mechan- ical trades and industries, — about half of all gainful workers in the country, skilled and unskilled. To this number may be added about 22,000,000 of home workers not included in the Census among those engaged in gainful occupation. A study of the above figures and of Table III, page 70, is of interest for two reasons: First, we may be enabled better to 242 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION appreciate the large variety of mechanical occupations that are encountered in the effort to conduct specific industrial educa- tion suited to the needs of workers, prospective or employed. Secondly, the sizes of the occupational group for the country as a whole, and in each local community, afford one basis, an "actuarial basis" (p. 409) for planning courses, classes or equip- ment when subjects are in question for the industrial school. Extreme differentiation of industries. One should not understand from the above table that all of the different occupa- tions found in industries are there enumerated. The table is in condensed form, showing only the nine great occupational groups of the Census. Advocates of a vague or general indus- trial education may overlook the extreme differentiation of industrial occupations, while advocates of specialized trade training may attempt the impossible in providing adequate training for any occupation presented. The extreme differen- tiation may be demonstrated thus: We have counted the num- bers of occupational designations of the Census found only in one of the ynajor occupational groups, i. e.. Manufacture and Mechanical. {i^) Table XV below shows the result of the enu- meration. Space does not permit the printing of the specified occupations. For these in detail the reader is referred to the fourth volume of the Census. TABLE XV Outline of Certain Industries and Numbers op Occupations Therein in the United States I Manufacturing and Mechanical Industries in United States Specified Occupations Building and hand trades 64 Chemical and allied industries — Fertilizer factories 20 EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 243 TABLE XV~Continued Specified Occupations Paint factories 28 Powder, cartridge, dynamite, fuse and firework factor- ies 26 Soap factories 24 Other chemical factories 35 Clay, glass and stone industries — Brick, tile and terra cotta factories 37 Glass factories 61 Lime, cement and gypsum factories 43 Marble and stone yards 37 Potteries 40 Clothing industries — Suits, coats, cloaks, overalls 33 Other clothing factories 35 Corset factories 29 Glove factories 23 Wool and felt hats 65 Shirt, collar and cuff factories 32 Food and kindred industries — Bakeries 28 Butter and cheese 20 Candy factories 24 Fish curing and packing 23 Flour and grain mills 31 Fruit and vegetable canning 22 Slaughter and packing houses 50 Sugar factories and refineries 30 Other food factories 35 Iron and steel industries — Agricultural implements 47 Automobile factories 71 Blast furnaces and steel rolling mills. 87 244 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE XY— Continued Specified Occupations Car and railroad shops 63 Iron foundries 63 Ship and boat building 47 Wagon and carriage factories 59 Other iron and steel factories 96 Leather industries — Harness and saddle factories 22 Leather belt, leather case and pocketbook factories . . 28 Shoe factories 78 Tanneries 48 Trunk factories 22 Liquor mid beverage industries — Breweries 36 Distilleries 28 Other liquor and beverage factories 25 Lumber and furniture industries — Wood box factories 32 Furniture 57 Piano and organ factories 50 Saw and planing mills 59 Other woodworking factories 55 Metal industries, except iron and steel — Brass mills 62 Clocks and watches 55 Coffin factories 39 Gold and silver 45 Jewelry 46 Lead and zinc 33 Tin plate 36 Tinware and enamel ware 42 Other metal factories 48 EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 245 TABLE XY— Continued Specified Paper and pulp industries — Occupations Paper box factories 31 Blank books, envelopes, tags, paper bags, etc 37 Paper and pulp mills 60 Printing and bookbinding — Printing and publishing establishments 50 Textile industries — Carpet mills 52 Cotton mills 77 Hemp and jute mills 29 Knitting mills 44 Lace and embroidery 36 Linen mills 23 Rope and cordage factories 28 Sail and tent factories 18 SilkmiUs '. . . 50 Textile dyeing, finishing and printing mills 49 Woolen and worsted mills • . 72 Not specified textile industries 61 Miscellaneous industries — Broom and brush factories 30 Button factories 32 Charcoal and coke works 30 Cigar and tobacco factories 50 Electric light and power plants 38 Electrical supply factories 75 Gasworks 35 Oil refineries 37 Rubber factories 60 Straw factories 30 Turpentine distilleries ] . . . . 15 Other miscellaneous industries 68 Other not specified industries 54 Not specified metal industries 64 246 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Descriptions of Trade and Industrial Schools Vocational, industrial day schools. In these schools in- struction is given in the day time, and so far as possible the actual conditions of the shop are given. The product is market- able, and the student performs work which is productive while he is learning the operations involved. Day industrial schools may be of the nature of high schools devoting either all or a por- tion of the time to trade-instruction, e. g., the Lane Techni- cal High School of Chicago, or the Oakland Technical High School, of Oakland, California, or they may be separate public schools such as the Worcester Independent School of Trades, or philanthropic institutions such as the Wentworth Institute of Boston, the David Ranken, Jr. School of Mechanical Trades of St. Louis, or the Williamson Free School for Mechanical Trades of Pennsylvania. The published statements of such schools describe in detail the programs, courses of study, buildings, equipment, etc. They may give either, what might be called elementary in- struction in vocations for pupils 14 years of age, or also more advanced instruction for pupils 16 years of age and over, as in the case of the Lane School, or the David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, of St. Louis, Mo., or both. The Federal Board for the year ending June 30, 1918, gave out these facts regarding all-day vocational schools reporting in the United States. table XVI Statistics of Trade and Industrial Schools Region United States North of Atlantic Southern East Central West Central Pacific All-Day Trade or Industrial Schools 168 71 17 33 6 41 Evening Schools 300 104 24 125 12 35 EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 247 Division within an industrial school. A diagram showing the possible relation of the prevocational and the practical trades courses of such a day industrial school is seen in Figure VI. This represents a plan drawn by the writer for a school of mechanical trades for boys. In any one community the group of trades taught in the practical trades department should be determined after a thoroughgoing study of the local as well as of the general problem of relating education to industry. (See Ch. XII.) PRACTICAL TRADES DEPARTMENT For youths 16 years of age and older Includes: (a) Day classes, (b) Evening classes, (c) Part-time classes for workers employed. Occupations Taught in Following; Metal Working Division Wood Working Division Building Trades Division Printing Trades Division Operative Engineering Division PREVOCATIONAL DEPARTMENT For boys 14 to 16 years of age. Gives knowledge of tools, materials, ele- mentary shop practice, industrial organiza- tion, elementary subjects. Does not teach a specific trade, but helps toward wise choice of occupation. Holds and interests boys. Fig. VI. — Divisions within an Industrial School 248 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Analysis of departments. The Massachusetts Board of Education recommends that the following terms should be used to designate departments of industrial schools. (23) DEPARTMENTS For purposes of record, the following terms should be used to designate departments: — 1. Machine Shop Department. This includes: — (o) Training all-round machinists. (6) Training machine specialists. (c) Training machine operators. (d) Training tool makers. 2. Printing t)epartment. This includes: — (o) Training all-round printers. (6) Training compositors. (c) Training stone men. (d) Training linotype and monotype operators. (e) Training press men. 3. Factory Maintenance Department. (a) Training for employment in the maintenance work of an industrial concern (mill- wrights). 4. Power Department. Training for employment in connection with the development or generation or distribution of power. It may include: — (o) Power housework. (6) Telephone work. (c) Operation of boilers and engines. (d) Elementary electrical wiring. 5. Electrical Department. Training for employment in the control and distribution of electrical power, which may include: — (a) Training wire men. (6) Training line men. (c) Training telephone operatives in the maintenance department. (d) Power housework. 6. Steam Engineering Department. Training for employment in connection with the care and operation of steam and gas engine plants. 7. Sheet Metal Department. Training for employment in sheet metal work, both ar- chitectural and shop work. 8. Automobile Repair Department. Training for employment in the overhauling, ad- justing and repairing of automobiles. 9. Pattern Making Department. Training for employment as pattern makers. 10. House Carpentry Department. (In general outside the shop.) Training for employ- ment in house carpentry, in occupations carried on essentially outside the shop and largely of an assembly character. 11. Shop Carpentry Department. Training for occupations in the production of articles of wood essentially carried on inside the shop, essentially productive occupations rather than assembly occupations. A department so designated could probably include: — (a) Pattern making. (b) General shop work. (c) Specialized training on special woodworking machines. 12. Bookbinding Department. Training for occupations connected with the operation of a bindery order given to boys or girls might include: — (a) Folding. (6) Setting. (d) Stapling. (d) Binding. (e) Tooling and lettering. 13. Machine Drafting Department. Training for employment in the drafting room of a machine production concern. 14. Architectural Drafting Department. Training for employment in architectural drawing offices. 15. General Education. (o) Personal hygiene, occupational diseases and accidents. (b) Citizenship training. (c) Cultural subjects. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 249 The prevocational course at Lane. An example of an American public school observing the distinction between pre- vocational day courses and practical day courses is seen in the Lane Technical School of Chicago. Here follows an abstract, of the statement of the Lane program, developed under Mr. Bogan : The Prevocational Course aims to give these boys a new start in an environment of older and larger boys, and in classes where new interests are aroused through new purposes and definite work. The administration is flexible and special opportunities are given to ambitious students who wish to pursue the same subject in more than one class. Non- essentials are eliminated and the work is especially designed for boys who wish to make up deficiencies in scholarship or to pursue special courses in shop. Individual likea and dis- likes are obsen^ed and guided. Many of the boys work in upper and lower grades at the same time. Another encouragement that is offered the boy is "irregular advancement" as soon as his disposition and work show that he is outstripping hia class. The course of study serves individual as well aa class needs. The shop work is diversified and so arranged that a pupil may spend a few weeks in woodshop, a few weeks at electric wiring, then turn his attention to forge or printing, and so on until he finds the particular occupation that attracts him. The course of study follows: Mechanical Drawing One period a day English " " " " Mathematics " " " " History 1 Civics > combination " " " " Geography J Gymnasium " " " " Woodwork Two " " " Foundry " " " " Forge " " " Electricity " " " " Printing " " " " House Construction " " " " Machine work " " " " The eighth grade has four (45 min.) periods of shopwork each day. The seventh grade has two (45 min.) periods of shopwork each day. The principles of correlation are strongly emphasized in the academic work. In mathe- matics the plan is to give a ready command of the principles dealing with shop and factory problems. Essential facts of industrial and civic life and research work, supplemented by the stereopticon, characterize the department of history and civic. The English depart- ment by concrete and practical methods aims to develop a senee of the unity and organiza- tion of the various industrial activities. The informality and freedom of the discussion bring out the best in the nature of the boys. There is found ^eans of expression for the bashful and backward lad in the practical shop work whose processes he has no difficulty in discussing as a part of his exercises in his English classes. Proportions of shop and of academic work. The schoolman who organizes trade courses for the first time may be puzzled by the practical difficulties of articulating shop work and acad- emic work in a day school. Time schedules must vary accord- ing to climatic conditions, the ages and capacities of pupils, and the occupations taught. 250 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Worcester. The Worcester Independent Trades School of Worcester, Mass., for boys over sixteen years of age, undertakes practical trades instruction for youths and young men. A schedule of forty-four hours per week is maintained. Figure VII below, exhibits the proportions of time devoted to academic work and shop work respectively as worked out by former Prin- cipal Fish. The formal, academic work comprises commercial EACH TERM CONSISTS OF 14 WEEKS TERM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ^ - '///////// y ® KWAW' ' ■ --■ v.vi.w;/A'/, "commercial' m\\Hl'.W^/^W/M^66mV^v\'w, •77777, ^ii'^i^if^'^AWiii^' } COST ACCOUNTING U 1 M 1 11. 1 NhTURAL SCIENCE FORMULAS pEOMETR, : ENGL ISH 1 HISTORY r COMM. TION COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY GOOn CITI^EN.SHIP - 1 DRAWING JIG 1 1 ; SHC F INSTR JCTION ■1 FIXTl DESIGN : SHOP WORK -; p^ M kKING UF LOST Til IE DIVISION OF WORK WORCESTER TRADE SCHOOL Figure VII arithmetic, bookkeeping, cost accounting, commercial law, shop computations, geometrical formulas, study of triangles, natural science, history of commerce and invention, commercial geogra- phy, civics, drawing, jig and fixture design, and English. The other and the major part consists of shop instruction, shop work. Four hours per week are allotted for "making up lost time." Williamson. Reference already has been made to the Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, in relation to agriculture (pp. 224). The general plan published for the divi- EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 251 sions of time spent in different departments of the Williamson School is shown in the outline below. The preponderance of time spent in shop or closely related work is to be noted. THE ACADEMIC COURSE with the time spent in the different depahtments is outlined below First Year April 1st to August 1st Hours per week Hours per week Arithmetic 3 Grammar 2 Geography — General Review 2 American Literature 2 U. S. History — Review 2 Vocal Music 1 Physiology—General Review 2 Mechanical Drawing 6 In Shop 20 September 1st to April 1st Hours per week Hours per week Arithmetic 3 American Literature 2 Algebra 2 Vocal Music 1 Physics 2 Mechanical Drawing 6 Civil Gov't. — . .General Review 2 In Shop 20 Grammar 2 Second Year April 1st to August 1st Hours per week Hours per week Arithmetic — Mensuration 3 English Literature 2 Algebra 2 Vocal Music 1 Grammar 2 Mechanical Drawing 6 Physics 2 In Shop 20 Chemistry 2 September 1st to April 1st Hours per week Hours per week Algebra 3 Enghsh Literature 2 Geometry 2 Vocal Music 1 Grammar 2 Mechanical Drawing 6 Physics 2 Chemistry 2 In Shop 20 Third Year April 1st to August 1st Hours per week Hours per week Geometry 3 Commercial Course 1 Trigonometry 3 Mechanical Drawing 8 Physics 3 In Shop 23 Chemistry 2 September 1st to April Ist In Shop, hours per week 43 Evening Recitations Strength of Materials, hours per week 1}^ Steam, Gas and Electrciity 1 J^ Worcester and Williamson represent highly organized types of schools for mechanical trades with work clearly differentiated 252 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION for more mature boys preparing for definite occupations in the industries. The prevocational idea, included in the aims of the Lane Technical School of Chicago, Illinois, and of the David Ranken Jr. School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Missouri, is not included in the more advanced work of Worcester and of Williamson. Uses of spare time. In the arrangement of programs and schedules for industrial education, it should not be forgotten that the uses of spare time by students and by employees are of grave significance for both prospective and employed workers in industry. Individual or collective life reduced to a grind in behalf of a mythical efficiency is not worth much to individuals or to society, and can not endure. With the emphasis upon the eight-hour day for labor, practical idealism will not overlook the provisions for the use of the six or eight hours of leisure of the prospective or actual citizen. Healthful habits of mind and of body are the most highly desirable products of any school. Recreation is a necessity, and discrimination needs to be exer- cised in the matter of provisions for recreation, — whether the provisions be public, private, or commercial, or philanthropic. The right uses of spare time are problems of import to student, teacher, employee, employer, indeed to all thinking persons. Principles for day industrial schools. There are those who believe that practically all adolescents should remain in school until eighteen years of age, and that such attendance would promote both individual and economic or social welfare. We are constantly faced with the fact, however, that the majority of persons who enter industry do so earlier than the age of eighteen, most of them with limited elementary education, and without skill, and immature. There is evidently need of day vocational schools for those who will enter industry early, although an all-day industrial school can seldom teach a full trade. Experience shows, however, that it can do much to pre- pare boys and girls over fourteen years of age for entrance into EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 253 the trades and to minister both to their vocational and also their civic needs. The Committee on Vocational Education of the National Education Association recognizing this need endeavored to safeguard the operation of the all-day industrial school by sug- gesting principles or standards by which they may be* safely established and conducted. These principles are twelve in number, as follows: In these schools a close relation must be maintained between theory and practice. Practical shopwork must be supplemented by related studies in English, civics, industrial history and geography, and ele- mentary mathematics, as well as by the science and mathematics underlying the trades. In this way the school will make for intelligent citizenship as weU as for superior workmanship in the years to come. Shop conditions must be approached as nearly as possible in the school, and in general the following conditions should be met in the school: 1. Not less than one-half the time of the pupil should be given to actual shopwork, including such calculations and shop drawing as may be necessary to bring the projects of the pupils in the shop to successful completion. 2. The shopwork must be conducted on a productive or commercial basis as distinguished from the ordinary manual-training method of handling pupils in the shop. 3. The instruction must tend to become individual as distinguish from group or class instruction. 4. The shopwork must be carried on as nearly like the work done in a first-class commercial shop as conditions will permit. 5. The results of the pupils' work should be useful articles which can be utilized in the school system or have a market value. 6. The assignment of work to a pupil in the shop should be by pro- jects or jobs. 7. The progress of the pupil through the shop and school should be measured by the projects or jobs which he has completed in a satis- factory manner. 8. The classroom instruction in the related academic subjects, such as arithmetic, drawing, and science, should be closely connected at 254 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION every possible point with his shoproom experience in order that it may be of immediate practical vakie to the pupil. 9. Every day industrial school should plan for at least a one year's course and for not more than a four year's course. 10. Every year's work should, so far as possible, be a unit unto itself. Each year's work should be organized and administered in a way that would confer upon the pupil a definite value in vocational training, so that if he should leave the school at the end of the year the instruction could be used by him as a tool in trade for better wage earning. 11. Not less than three (60-minute) hours should be devoted each day to actual shopwork. The school session should not be less six nor more than eight hours, not counting the recess and noon periods. 12. So far as feasible, instruction should be given in Enghsh, history, civics, and other appropriate subjects which would tend to make the pupils self-helpful, intelligent, and worthy citizens. The end of the vocational school should not be merely to produce a technically com- petent workman, but a citizen of the State who seeks not only to ad- vance his own welfare through his work, but who is ready and willing to place his efforts at the service of his community and State. (40) Part-time and continuation schools. These schools or classes are attended for a Hmited number of hours per week, or during alternate weeks, by persons who also are employed in industrial shops. Part-time vocational schools are particularly intended for students from fourteen to eighteen years of age for whom an arrangement has been made for the gaining of practical experience in some industrial establishment. The cooperative plans now in operation in New York City and also in Cincinnati are examples of the part-time system. The continuation school is intended for the improvement of workers regularly employed in industry. It may be either (a) a trade extension school which gives instruction or practice di- rectly related to the daily occupation of the pupil, or (b) a trade preparatory class, which helps toward a new occupation. The actual content of courses given to workers in continuation or EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 255 improvement class varies widely, from the elements of reading and arithmetic to specialized trade and technical knowledge and skill. Continuation classes are found in railroad shops, fac- tories, manufacturing plants, and department stores. In this country they are an outgrowth of experience showing that evening instruction is not very profitable for working children under or about sixteen years of age. In New York City a com- pany usually furnishes equipment and the Board of Education the supplies. Hours of instruction vary from three to ten per week. In some cases the classes meet one hour per day; in some there are two-hour sessions twice a week; in some, two hours daily five times a week. With few exceptions the pupils are em- ployees of the company. In nearly all cases the company pays the workers for full time occupied in class attendance. The fol- lowing exhibit from the Superintendent's Report gives a brief statement of continuation classes in New York City, under supervision of the Board of Education. (Table XVII, pp. 256- 257). The term "continuation school" in America is often used comprehensively or loosely to indicate any kind of education undertaken by people employed. In this sense continuation schools embrace apprenticeship education, part-time education, evening schools, correspondence schools, university extension, etc. Varieties of part-time schooling. The continuation school is, of course, a variety of part-time schooling in which the in- dustrial or commercial training predominates. Part-time schooling has developed in many forms. Young people em- ployed are released for regular periods, either certain hours per week, or sometimes alternate weeks, in order to obtain, either in shop or in other schools, instruction and practice related to their occupations. Some continuation schools aim to utilize the continuation period of instruction only to further general education, rather than to promote direct mastery of processes, 256 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TABLE XVII Name of Firm (1) Abraham & Straus (2) B. Altman & Co (3) Hotel Astor (4) B. & O. R. R. Co (5) H. Batterman Co (6) Bedford Co (7) Hotel Biltmore (8) Bloomingdale Bros (9) Bronx House (10) Bush Terminal (11) P. F. ColUer & Son (12) Educational Alliance (13) J. B. Greenhut & Co (14) R. Hoe & Co ( 15) Kops Bros (16) Frederick Loeaer Co (17) L. I. R. R. Co (18) Lord & Taylor (19) R. H. Macy & Co (20) Hotel Majestic (21) Manhattan Hotel (22) Hotel McAlpin (23) James McCreery & Co (24) Metropolitan Engineering Co (25) A. I. Namm & Sons (26) N. Y. Butchers' Dressed Meat Association. (27) Public School 4 (28) Richmond L. & R. R. Co (29) Rothenberg & Co (30) Sherry's Location 420 Fulton St 5th Ave., 34th St Broadway, 44th St Clifton, S. I Broadway 1055 Broadway Madison Ave., 43rd St .3rd Ave., 59th St 1637 Washington Ave Building No. 7, 34th St 416 West 13th St 197 East Broadway 18th St., 6th Ave 504 Grand St 120 Ea.st 16th St 482 Fulton St Morris Park, L. I 5th Ave., 38th St Broadway, 34th St 72nd St., Central Park West Madison Ave., 42nd St 34th St., Broadway 5 West 34th St 1250 Atlantic Ave Fulton St .39th St., nth Ave 176th St., Washington Ave.. Livingston, S. I 34 West 14th St 44th St., 5th Ave Borough Brooklyn. . Manhattan Manhattan Richmond. Brooklyn . Brooklyn . Manhattan Manhattan Bronx Brooklyn . Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Brooklyn . Queens. . . . Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Manhattan Brooklyn . Brooklyn . Manhattan The Bronx. Richmond. Manhattan Manhattan or technical operations. In the practical administration of part-time day schools pupils either spend a specified number of hours of a day or week both in the school and also in the indus- trial establishment, or by means of alternating teams of boys, a pair or group of pupils is one week in the school, while the corresponding group is in an industrial establishment. Examples of continuation schools of various kinds are found in New York, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Massachusetts, Penn- sylvania, in fact in nearly all of the great cities of America, — as New York, Boston, Cincinnati, Fitchburg, Cleveland, Minne- apolis, San Francisco, Portland, Seattle, etc. The continuation school idea was developed remarkably in some European coun- tries before the World War. E. g,, the continuation schools of Munich under the direction of George Kerschensteiner have EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 257 Continuation Classes IN New York ClT-J , 1915-1916 Business Classes Hours per Week Subject Register of Classes Total M.* w.* Boys Girls Jrs.** Department store Department store 1 2 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 4 1 4 1 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 7J^ 15 8 6 10 8 10 20 15 10 36 7M 33 5 10 8 10 10 4 4 4 5 6 10 4 4 4 8 4 C. B. (1) C.B. E. F. (2) Trade (3) C.B. C.B. E.F. C.B. E.F. C.B. D. S. (4) E.F. C.B. Trade E. & T. (5) C.B. Trade C.B. C.B. E.F. E.F. E.F. C.B. Trade C.B. E.F. E.F. Trade C.B. E.F. "i '33 -3 1 "ie 22 11 44 "53 21 40 43 138 ii' 'is 5 23 ' '5' '29' ■23' 45 (1) 52 (2) . .49 (3) 2 53 (4) Department store Department store 90 (5) 22 (6) 6 28 46 (7) Department store 71 (8) 154 (9) Manufacturing 2 ■ 'e' 4 10 5 66 " 97' 72 (10) ISO 17 56 27 (11) Social settlement Department store Printing machinery .... Corset manufacturers. . Department store Machine shop Department store Department store 197 (12) 97 (13) 45 7 "33 ■36 37 42 '"2 39 84 4 31 ' 6 129 (14) 3 25 '27' 40 5 25 1 26 27 (15) 92 (16) 65 (17) 61 (18) 79 (19) 30 (20) 10 79 47 (21) 4 48 83 (22) Department store Machine shop Department store 48 (23) 34 "30 70 80 2 27 •ie 39 73 (24) 4 130 150 (28) 30 (26) 2 1 73 (27) 80 (28) Department store 34 23 3 6 i 46 (29) 50 (30) * Over 18 years of age. ■(2) English to foreigners. (5) English and textiles. ** Under 16 years of age. (3) Trade subjects. (1) Common branches. (4) Domestic science. been upheld frequently as models of efficiency and of adaptation to local industrial needs compatible with good citizenship. In England continuation education found development in exten- sive systems of evening schools. The National Government has assisted these schools by generous grants. In America much of the continuation work in cities has been of the evening school type, and a great variety of continuation work is being done. Part-time schooling (except in the sense of home projects, etc.) is not adapted to elementary education because of the tender age of the elementary pupils. With regard to the alter- nating-team plan of part-time industrial education, wherein one 258 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION group or individual is in the shop while a paired group or individ- ual is in the school week by week, union labor has objected on the ground that the system trains two persons for each job. Em- ployers or foremen have objected to the alternating system be- cause it may cause disorganization of shop routine and waste of materials. Apprentice schools. In the endeavor to provide a substitute for apprenticeship manufacturers in some instances have or- ganized under private management apprenticeship and co- operative industrial schools. (26) Frequently large firms or cor- porations have maintained the apprenticeship schools, the general plan of which is to train a boy in actual shop work and at the same time to give necessary instruction in mechanical drawing, mathematics, etc. As a rule each pupil or indentured boy is required to attend the school, which is situated in the works, during a certain number of hours per week. He is paid for his time, the wages being increased about every six months, if he makes good progress. The cooperative industrial school offers through a combination of employers what the apprentice- ship school offers through the efforts of a single employer or cor- poration. Objections to these private enterprises for industrial educa- tion are numerous, notwithstanding some excellent results that have accrued. Such schools have enlarged opportunity where regular public schools have failed in some localities. Foremen and employers have objected to part-time plans because inter- rupted work and readjustments of shop schedules cause bother and loss. Employers have sometimes abandoned private efforts to train employees because competitors who do not put forth such efforts reap the fruit by employing the former pupil- workers. A serious objection alleged is that such schools are too much under the domination of employers, or of employers' interest; that the schools may give apprentices only a highly specialized training making for high efficiency in the employers' EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 259 establishment, but for practical uselessness elsewhere, and for lack of adaptability or resourcefulness. Objections to the privately controlled continuation school, as well as scarcity of skilled labor, higher wages, competition for workers, etc., have brought new impetus to the continuation school controlled by public school authorities. In many states employers, employees, and educators working in cooperation are developing new types of continuation schools and part-time schools. Wisconsin, Massachusetts, New York, Illinois, In- diana, Pennsylvania, Iowa, and other states have developed continuation and part-time schools. These may be found not- ably in our large American cities, — New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Minneapolis, Rochester, Milwaukee, Cincinnati; also in Springfield, Mass., Bridgeport, Conn., Dubuque, Iowa, Centralia, Illinois, etc., under the auspices of the public schools. General industrial school. There are cities of less than 25,000 inhabitants which can not advantageously establish a specialized trade school, for there may not exist local opportun- ities for employment of all who are trained in such a school. This fact, and the provision of the Smith-Hughes law which allows state boards to modify the conditions of industrial schools have created a demand for a "general industrial school." Kelly has endeavored to show that an inviting opportunity exists in the general industrial school to develop a type of vocational training that will help boys of the small city toward industrial success whether they work at home or go abroad. (18) The Federal Board has offered these constructive suggestions con- cerning the general industrial school : In planning the course of study for such a school, it is necessary to make a careful study of all the industries of the community, to pick out certain ones which offer the greatest opportunities, and to endeavor to give more training in each of these, with the aim of picking out from the different occupations such common elements as may exist. The 260 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION instruction will be as specific as possible with the equipment and diver- sified aims, but will necessarily seek for common interests upon which to base its development. For example, in practically every trade or industrial pursuit a knowledge of drawing as related to that pursuit is advantageous, and the common element in the drawing of different industrial occupations is considerable. Consequently it is possible in the general industrial school to give a course in mechanical drawing which will prove of considerable value to the students who take it, no matter what industry they enter. It is true also, that the skill acquired in handling tools in any school shop will carry over to some extent into several occupations. A unit trade school will undoubtedly give more efficient instruction in any one trade, but by careful selection a teacher may sift from the unit trades various skilled processes that depend somewhat upon a basic ability of the worker to use his hands and his head for mechanical production. (lie) Tendencies summarized. Rapid changes during recent years render impracticable any sweeping statement regarding the present or future development of continuation and part-time industrial education. The Massachusetts Board of Education set forth during 1915 certain conclusions, after reviewing events since the historic report of the Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical Education. They are of interest as having been written in the cahner years before our entrance into war: 1 . Consideration of the pertinent facts regarding the needs and the employment of minors fourteen to sixteen years of age results in the following:— (A) The evident trend of industry is to exclude the fourteen to six- teen year old minor from skilled industry. These minors are forced to enter employment as unskilled workers. (B) There is an increasing demand that the compulsory period of education be raised to sixteen years. (C) Many of the group of minors from fourteen to sixteen years of age find that economic necessity demands that they contribute to their own support; they must find some remunerative employment. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 261 (D) The regular school is not organized to meet the special needs of the group of minors who would be kept in school should the com- pulsory age be raised, (E) Permissive legislation will not result in many municipalities taking advantage of the present continuation school law. (F) Four hours a week for two years is not long enough for continu- ation school pupils to secure adequate results. It is, however, all that we should demand at this time. (G) Three types of educational opportunity should be furnished in continuation schools: — a. General education. b. Pre- vocational education (for choice of a calling). c. Vocational education (for training in the chosen calling). 2. Consideration of the ways and means of improving the condi- tions set forth in these conclusions leads us to make certain definite recommendations . (A) That State- wide compulsory continuation schools should be provided for all employed minors of fourteen to sixteen years of age. (B) That employed minors fourteen to sixteen years of age should be required to attend a public continuation school for four hours a week. (C) That the best results will be secured from compulsory continua- tion schools when the opportunity for attendance is continuous through- out the year, or at least for forty-eight weeks. (D) That unemployed minors fourteen to sixteen years of age who have left the regular public schools and are temporarily out of employ- ment should be required to attend the compulsory continuation schools for the full session of such schools each day during their unemploy- ment. (E) That municipalities having a population of 50,000 or more should be required to maintain the three types of schools referred to in conclusion (G) , and that all other municipalities should be permitted to maintain these three types of schools. (F) That municipalities having a population of 10,000 and less than 50,000, and having not less than 50 employed minors fourteen to sixteen years of age, should be required to maintain general improve- ment continuation schools. (23) 262 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Problems of the Evening Schools Evening vocational schools. One feature of value in evening schools is the greater adaptation to the needs of individuals and of the community than is usual in conventional day schools. Such schools may offer instruction in (1) general elementary or secondary courses; (2) industrial, commercial, and professional courses; (3) informational and cultural subjects. European countries. Evening schools are found in many countries. In England, the first evening schools probably were private schools. In the eighteenth century the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge recommended "masters and employers to appoint some hours in the evenings of certain days of the week to teach such grown persons to read as had neg- lected to study."(16) Enlargement of the humble beginnings has continued until the present day through the stimulus of economic pressure, recognition of needs, and influence of gilds, and by parliamentary acts and grants. By the Code of 1905 the subjects of the night schools were grouped in six divisions: (1) Preparatoiy and general; literary and commercial. (2) Art. (3) Manual. (4) Science. (5) Home occupations and indus- tries. (6) Physical training. In France the evening schools have constituted an important part of the continuation schools. The classes are divided into: (1) cours d'adultes, classes for illiterates; (2) cours complementaires, continuation classes; (3) cours techniques, technical classes. It is said that the evening schools in Germany owe their origin to the estabUshment, as early as 1569, of Sunday-schools for teaching religion to youths. Lessons in reading and writing afterwards were added. Gradually this instruction was given on week day evenings as well, and until the majority of such schools became evening schools. They constituted before the war an impor- tant part of the general system of industrial education in Germany. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 263 United States. In the United States private and endowed institutions have contributed tremendously to the practical education of workers, e. g., such as the Ohio Mechanics' Institute of Cincinnati (1878); New York Trade School (1881); Pratt Institute of Brooklyn (1877); Drexel Institute of Philadelphia (1891); Carnegie Technical Schools of Pittsburg (1900); Virginia Mechanics' Institute of Richmond (1905); Franklin Union of Boston (1905). The William Hood Dunwoody Industrial In- stitute of Minneapolis (1914). The Young Mens' Christian Association and the Young Womens' Christian Association have done pioneer work in the establishment of evening schools. The greatest development, however, has been in the public schools. The public evening schools now reach: (1) Those deficient in the rudiments, whether they be foreigners or Americans; (2) young workers who have had elementary or high school training and who desire to continue their education, whether for (a) college entrance, (b) greater proficiency in com- mercial, (c) technical, (d) trade work; (3) men or women in business who desire special help along special lines, e. g., sales- manship, commercial law; (4) household arts courses, e. g., for young women in industry. Distinct problems. The problems of evening schools are numerous and distinct. There is the matter of fatigue, physical and mental, which leads some investigators to question the pedagogical or hygienic value of instruction given to tired work- ers coming from labor in industry. It is agreed that night school work is not suitable to boys and girls under 16 years of age, if indeed to those under 18. Quahfications of teachers are not standardized, there being a great variety of men and women employed, such as young lawyers, architects, engineers who are supplementing a meagre income and who have no idea of becoming professional teachers, regular teachers from high or elementary public schools, already weary from a day's work, tradesmen and journeymen, skilled in industry but without 264 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION pedagogical and cultural education. Poor or irregular attend- ance is a common trouble. E. g., in Minneapolis during 1914- 1915 out of 457 students enrolled in evening industrial classes, 107 remained less than five nights after paying one dollar for books and materials. In the commercial classes 94 out of 786 remained, and in domestic science and art 219 out of 1,242 re- mained, '' Apparently, many left the work from disappointment as to instruction," says the Minneapolis Survey. Especially poor was the showing of elementary instruction in the trades to mixed groups. Constructive principles. Certain aspects common to well- conducted evening vocational classes have been emphasized constructively, as follows: (1) Vocational courses are most effective when placed under the supervision of a competent vocational director. (2) Qualifications of teachers should in- clude (a) sufficient knowledge of trade, (b) good manners, and good appearance, and good English, (c) health, (d) character, (e) ability to teach and organize. (3) Adequate illumination, ventilation, and hygenic standards are necessary. (4) Standard reporting or record systems should be used. (5) Regular attend- ance should be encouraged by useful adaptation of the work in hand, appeal to interest and personal cooperation, and require- ment of a small deposit from the pupils. (6) Pupils should be carefully grouped according to aim, occupation, age, experience, and factors determining a homogeneous group. (7) Evening classes should be small. (8) Short, unit courses are desirable for vocational instruction in evening schools for mature workers. (27) The unit-course defined. In the fields of industrial, home- making, and agricultural education, short courses, each com- plete in itself and dealing with a teachable phase of a trade or other occupation, have been worked out. The unit-course is defined as an "intensive form of training and instruction in- tended to meet in a lunited number of lessons a specific need of a particular group of workers." EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 265 Short unit-courses are not intended to be short-cuts to a superficial knowledge of a trade, but rather, devices for meeting the special needs of workers already employed. The courses are given as trade-extension work in part-time and evening schools. The great variety of employments, as well as of individual capacities, makes difficult any plan for imparting trade in- struction to workers in the mass. The short unit-course has proved successful in reaching many groups of individual work- ers. A bulletin of the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics thus classifies the groups needing unit-courses: (1) Specialized machine hands, who while running one machine de- sire to learn the operation of another. E. g., a planer hand is enabled to operate a universal grinder in the Newton, Mass. Trade School. (2) Skilled workmen who desire to meet new or recent demands of their trade. E. g. : A piano tuner is enabled to learn the mechanism of the player piano in the Murray Hill Evening Trade School, New York City. (3) Operators or workers in low-grade skilled and unskilled occu- pations, where there are "best ways of doing things," "tricks of the trade," or special information not available in the shop. E. g.: The training of chocolate dippers in the school of a candy factory. (4) Workers on special jobs desiring to prepare for promotion. E.g.: A cleaner or finisher in the dress and waist industry who desire to be- come an examiner or inspector. In a furniture factory of Grand Rapids, Mich., a rod maker desires to become a cabinet maker, and may be helped to this end in the evening trade school. (5) Skilled workers who can be persuaded only to take brief and direct courses. E. g.: Courses for steam engineers, 40 lessons each, in the industrial school at New Bedford, Mass. (33) Values weighed. The disadvantages in unit-courses are numerous. For instance, a student may be led to beUeve falsely that in a small number of lessons he is "learning a trade." Suitable teachers are difficult to find and to retain. Some may hold in contempt the apparent absence of cultural elements in courses giving specific facts or definite skills. 266 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION The advantages potential in well-conducted unit industrial courses are numerous, and, in substance, are thus summed up by the Bureau of Labor Statistics: 1. The work completed is an asset to individual and to em- ployer. 2. The time of the pupil is economized. 3. Conditions for admission are, nature of worker's need, his probable ability to profit by instruction, — rather rigid, academic tests. 4. The weakness of general evening schools, — the deplorable dropping out of pupils during a long course, is avoided. The unit is small, a specific thing is to be done, and the instruction to this end is organized and complete, — facts which tend to hold the pupil. 5. Series of unit courses in the same subject, experience shows, tend to interest the pupil to go on after one course. 6. Content of the course is first determined by going to the industry, and specific needs of individuals are also considered at registration. 7. Short units are especially adapted to the mature worker, who is likely to know what he needs. 8. Chaotic conditions in some evening industrial schools are supplanted by classification of aims. 9. Unit systems enable the school to discover new groups to be served. 10. Unit courses are flexible. A well-rounded training may be approximated by taking enough unit courses. The flexibility of the unit system as compared with a regular school course is thus illustrated by grouping the letters A, B, C, and D. If the letters A, B, C, D represent progressive steps in the usual school course, there is only one point at which the pupil can enter; EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 267 that is at A. If he wishes to enter at C he must pass an examination in A and B. If these letters each represent a unit course, it is seen that by the flexible organization of these units, a pupil may enter at any position of A, B, C, or D for the desired instruction, and still, if he wishes, com- plete an entire course equal in practical content to the regular school course, ABCD BCDA CDAB D A B C (33) The unit-course in emergency war-service. The critical need of thousands of mechanics, technicians, and Army work- ers, brought into remarkably rapid and satisfactory develop- ment types of unit courses. War-emergency courses were not strictly trade courses in the sense that they prepared men for occupations as carried out in civil life, but were intended to be short, direct courses of instruction to help fit men to meet spe- cific demands of operations and processes carried on under war conditions. The demands and requirements might or might not approximate the requirements of similar work in civilian occupa- tions. The Federal Board for Vocational Education issued a series of bulletins outlining a wide range of such courses, e. g., for training conscripted men for service as radio and buzzer operators (No. 2); for emergency training in ship-building (No. 3); for motor-truck drivers and chauffeurs (No. 7); for machine-shop occupations, blacksmithing, sheet-metal work- ing, pipe fitting (No. 8) ; for electricians, telephone repairmen, linemen, cable splicers (No. 9) ; for gas-engine, motor-car, motor- cycle repairmen (No. 10); for oxy-acetylene welders (No. 11); for air plane mechanics, engine repairmen, woodworkers, riggers, and sheet-metal workers. Typical unit-courses. The bulletins referred to above con- tain outlines of emergency unit-courses comprising a small 268 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION volume. A bulletin of the U. S. Department of Labor contains outlines of typical courses that have been given in many Ameri- can cities. A complete enumeration of the cities employing unit courses is impracticable. Instances are as follows: New York City, Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, Minneapolis, St. Louis, San Francisco, Seattle, Rochester, N. Y., Albany, N. Y., Newton, Mass., Worcester, Mass., Scranton, Pa., Williamsport, Pa. Many of the industrial courses of the Young Men's Christian Association in scores of cities are unit courses, consisting of from five to twenty lessons. The reader who may be unfamiliar with the use of the unit-system of instruction or with the nature of the industrial subjects thereby made sub- jects of organized teaching, will be interested in the following enumeration of varied unit courses, indicated here in order to illustrate the wide range of the work. These courses were in operation before the outbreak of the World War. It will be understood that each title or subject barely enumerated below refers usually to a group of courses, — e. g., carpentry, includes five different unit courses, and each course in turn may con- tain from one to twenty lessons. Farming: Orcharding, general cropping, truck farming, grape growing, small fruit rais- ing, poultry keeping, dairying, swine raising, sheep raising, horse husbandry. Furniture making: Stock and machine work, cabinetmaking, finishing, courses for de- signers, machine men, stock keepers, foremen, prospective foremen, clerks, spindle carvers, pattern makers, filers and sharpeners, carvers, upholsterers. Cabinetmaking: Courses for foremen, journeymen and apprentices, including blue-print reading, drawing and layout, estimating, millwork, assembling, finishing. Painting: Courses for foremen, journeymen and apprentices, including estimating, paint composition, color harmony, fresco, staining, graining, finishing. Pattern making: Courses for foremen, journeymen, and apprentices. Drawing, sketching, foundry practice, tools, materials, glue and gluing, types of patterns, sweeps, etc. Carpentry: Stair building, inside finish, roof framing, drawing and mathematics, house framing. Wood m.ill work: Courses for foremen, journeymen, and apprentices. Window-frame, sash, door frames, wainscot making, etc. Plumbing: Courses for foremen, journeymen, and apprentices. Drainage, ventilation, joint wiping, water systems, estimating, blue-prints, etc. Sheet-metal work: Drafting, shopwork, drawing and mathematics. Steam engirieering: License work, arithmetic, boiler-room chemistry, steam plant manage- ment, gasoline engines. Steam fitting: Courses for foremen, journeymen, and apprentices, high-pressure work, traps, conden.sers, pumps, regulators, valves, pipes, low-pre.ssure work. Machine drafting: simple, complex, assembling, gears, freehand sketching, etc. Machinist's trade: Shop practice, machine-shop mathematics. Blacksmithing: Courses for foremen, journeymen, apprentices. Practical electricity: House installation, branch exchange installation, central office in- stallation, central energy installation, intercommunicating systems, electric lighting; sig- EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 269 nal men and electricians — including armature winders, repair men, switchboard con- struction men, etc.; linemen and power-plant men, etc. Stone and granite cutting: Courses for firemen, journeymen, and apprentices. Monu' ment design, lettering, geometry applied to stone cutting, drawing, molding, etc. Terra-cotta work: Architectural drafting, model making. Concrete construction: Courses for builders, draftsmen, inspectors, field men, clerks, in- cluding materials, principles, steel reinforcement, specifications, designing, tests, cost data, etc. I Estimating: For general building construction-estimators, contractor's clerks, etc. Mining: Courses for mine firemen, mine steam engineers and mine workers. Boilers, steam engines, pumps and air condensers. Practical electricity and electrical machines. Mine gases, mine ventilation. Timbering, haulage, pumping. Mine calculations. Re- ports and accounts. Show-card writing: Courses for journeymen and apprentices, in handling and care of tools, mixing and blending colors, preparation of surfaces, use of "lettering pencil," prac- tical lettering, etc. Proof reading and copy editing: Theory, practical work. Printing: Courses for foremen, journeymen, and apprentices in make ready, register, ink, papers, cost systems, composition, cutting stock, design, punctuation, spelling. Player-piano-action mechanics: Courses for repair men and workmen. Player-action construction, installation. Cotton manufacturing: Carding and spinning, warp preparation and weaving, designing. Boot and shoe manufacturing: Pattern cutting and clicking, fitting and machining, sole- leather cutting, lasting and attaching, finishing, last making and pattern cutting, clicking and closing, machine operating, design, management, etc. Nursing: Courses for trained attendants. Cooking: Courses for housekeepers. General, and for nurses. Domestic economy: For housekeepers, for mothers in feeding and care of infanta and young children. Millinery: Courses for makers. Sewing for domestic use: Underwear, waists, skirts, neckwear, etc. For mothers — baby clothes, small children, etc. Dressmaking: For dressmakers. Tailoring, waist draping, waist making, costume de- sign, drafting and pattern making. Power-machine operating: Felling, hemming, gathering, tucking, two-needle tucking, button-hole machine operating, embroidery machine, hemstitch-machine, two and three and five needle machine operating. Waitress work: Care of dining room, washing and ironing table linen, setting of table and serving, care of pantry, carving, personal appearance. Janitor work: Cleaning, repairs, fire escapes, heating systems, gas, electric bells and ele- vators, tools, telephones, sanitation, water supply, air shafts, roofs, care of mail, telegrams, relationships, renting, etc. Laundry chemistry: Courses for foremen and workers. Water, alkalies, solvents, bleaches, drying, starch, dyes, textiles, etc. (33) Schools for miners. An important group of industrial workers not to be overlooked are the miners. Vital to the com- munity and to himself is it to safeguard and increase the miner's productiveness, his health, his earnings, his social well-being. The Royal Canadian Commission on Industrial and Technical Education devoted considerable attention to this matter. Pro- fessor Harry H. Stoek has arranged in useful form the facts and principles underlying industrial mining education, and also has compiled useful data regarding actual practice in this phase of education both in America and in many foreign countries. (38) This difficult but important field of industrial education de- mands renewed effort upon the part of all concerned. The 270 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION studies of the Bureau of Ijabor Statistics afford an introduc- tion to the processes and occupations in mining. Vocational Instruction by Correspondence Strength and weaknesses. The efficiency and economy of the modern mail service has made possible a remarkable develop- ment in correspondence schools. Pupils of such schools may reside far from the institutions, and instruction is carried on by correspondence. In a few instances institutions provide a "correspondence instructor," — a travelling teacher who meets periodically groups of pupils in a community in order to supple- ment the explanations given by correspondence. Usually all instruction is given through the mails by means of printed out- lines, specially prepared text-books, directions, suggestions, etc., and pupils are required to submit reports and answers in writing. The precision and fullness required in the responses are advantages inherent in the correspondence method. Thou- sands of individuals have greatly profited by correspondence instruction and industry consequently has been helped by improved efficiency. Exceptional workmen who can not attend regular sessions of a college or university are enabled to study under expert direction. Courses are taken either for general self improvement, or for special purposes related to certain trades. The courses are of extraordinary variety and range. The disadvantages of the method are numerous. The student must work alone without the stimulus of personal help. Ex- planations demanded must be made by the laborious method of correspondence. Where college instructors are subsidized by extra fees to correct papers, etc., the work adds extra burdens interfering with regular instruction and likely to be performed perfunctorily. Some collegians are prone to look upon the correspondence instruction as superficial. Laboratory guidance and equipment are lacking. The informality, accessibility, and popularity of the courses have made it possible for scores of EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 271 semi-fraudulent institutions run for gain to flourish under the name of correspondence schools. One needs only to read the extravagant claims set forth by expensive advertisements to understand both the unworthy character and also the possible monetary gains of certain private, correspondence-school enter- prises. Extent. Systematic instruction by correspondence prob- ably grew out of the university extension movement beginning in England in 1868. President William B. Harper of Chicago University during and after 1892 did much to stimulate corre- spondence instruction in America. To-day many American universities carry on the work — notably Chicago, Wisconsin, Nebraska, and California. The enrollments, in correspondence courses of these universities are: Chicago 5,000 (1916); Wiscon- sin 10,000 (1916) : California 3,399 with 42 lecture centers (1915). It is said that one private correspondence school has had an enrollment of a million and a half pupils during twenty-five years, although reliable statistics from private concerns are difficult to obtain. Correspondence schools that advertise widely often make extravagant promises. The educational and industrial surveys of late conducted in American cities dis- closed numbers of workmen who send money away for corre- spondence instruction. This is a matter of significance for two reasons: First, workers who choose to follow correspondence courses are likely to represent a select, ambitious class who often are worthy of help in public, trade-extension courses to be offered locally; secondly, the aggregate sums of money sent out from a community for fees, etc., often far exceeds the sum needed to support adequate classes at home with laboratory equipment and personal instruction. Summary Before we discuss still further the problems of education for mechanical industries and trades, we may pause to enumerate 272 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION by way of summary the five groups of problems which we have presented so far. 1. The necessity of standardization of terminology in this field is pressing. Vocational industrial schools, and courses and industrial arts schools or courses are dis- tinct in aim, although overlapping in content and method. 2. If we combine into one great classification the workers in manufacturing and mechanical industries, in extraction of minerals, in domestic and personal service, and in public service — these combined groups contain most of the workers to be affected directly by trade and industrial training, and their number comprised even before the war one half of all gainful workers in the United States. This great number is exclusive of the 22,000,000 home workers who are not classified by the census as "gainful work- ers." The field of appropriate vocational education for this great host is exceedingly broad. 3. The student should understand the functions and aims of the different kinds of classes and schools operating in this field, such as: Prevocational school, day industrial school, part-time school, unit course, night school, continuation school, apprentice school or class, and general industrial school. The organization and the work of these types of school are fluid and changing in these years of rapid development, and the need of adjustment to individual and to com- munity should always prevent them from becoming static. 4. The evening schools, both academic, and mechanical or industrial, in character, present peculiar problems owing to the adult age of the students, their frequently specific demands for instruction to supplement their occupational efficiency, and because of the limitation of hours and strength. The unit-course — the short, intensive treatment of a topic complete in itself, is of singular value in evening EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 273 work. Some of the features of the "project" method of teaching can in some instances contribute to better instruc- tion in unit courses in trade subjects. 5. Instruction in correspondence for increase of knowledge and skill has helped many a handicapped toiler. Probably millions of dollars are sent away from home by workers to correspondence schools — money which could have bought locally more practical instruction. Instruction by corre- spondence has points both of strength and of weakness when administered with best intentions toward the learner. The Smith-Hughes Act has given more impetus to trade and industrial education of sub-collegiate grade than any other one piece of legislation. In the continuation of this subject in the next chapter we shall refer to the provisions of this law as affecting education in mechanical industries and trades. Problems 1. Give reasons why lines of demarcation should be drawn between vocational industrial education, and industrial arts education. Examples of each kind in your commun- ity? 2. Distinguish between trade education and the more general meaning of industrial education. 3. From different standpoints show that the processes of learning and of doing occur together. Discuss, from (a) pedagogical, (b) ethical, (c) philosophical points of view. 4. Explain what is meant by a project in industrial teaching? 5. Contrast the proportions of shop or practical work in the Worcester schedule with the original requirements of the Smith-Hughes Act. 6. Make a systematic study of the uses of each hour out of twenty-four hours during one week for each member of 274 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION a high school group. Devise a carefully drawn blank for this purpose and obtain cooperation of pupils. 7. If possible, make a similar study of a group of industrial workers. 8. Classify the wholesome uses of spare time open to different age-groups, and the sexes, in your community. Com- pare commercial, philanthropic, and public provisions for recreation. 9. In local plants ascertain by first-hand study probable pro- portions of time needed in continuation schools for tech- nical, general, and practical training respectively, for given occupations and for workers of different ages and abilities. 10. Contrast the effects of the German system where the parent is likely to decide the occupation of the boy at about ten years of age, with our own elastic and opportunity-afford- ing schools. See Beckwith, Roman, Cooley, Judd. 11. Ascertain how much money goes annually from your com- munity, or even from the employees of one large plant, for correspondence instruction. 12. Ascertain the actual attendance in the different kinds of vocational industrial schools of your community or city. 13. Where unskilled or semi-skilled service is demanded in manufacturing plants, to what extent shall specialized instruction be given by public schools? E. g., in garment, tobacco, chewing gum, tin-can, cotton, packing, canning industries, etc. 14. To what extent and how can training for foremanship be organized? Consider with reference to particular indus- tries. 15. To what extent shall specific industrial training be given to girls who will spend from one to seven years in industry, after which they will take up home-making? 16. Describe any mechanical occupations intermediate between EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 275 those of the graduate professional engineer, and those of a trade nature with practical training predominant. 17. Procure from the reports on evening schools of New York City a descriptioti of the unit-courses now being given in the night schools of that city. Ascertain also what courses of a similar type are being offered by the public schools of your own community. Investigate the ques- tion of the adjustment of such unit-courses to meet the actual needs of your own community. Does the New York list of unit-courses afford you any valuable sug- gestions? Obtain also a similar list or description of courses from Milwaukee,Wisconsin. 18. With the consent of the management, procure definite information from the workers in a large manufacturing plant with regard to their present or past enrollment in correspondence schools, the amounts paid, and the bene- fits actually received. Ascertain from employees and from unions through personal visitation what courses or subjects are desired for public evening schools in your community. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Ayres, L. P. Constant and Variable Occupations and Their Bearings on Problems of Vocational Education. Russell Sage Foundation Bulletin, p. 136. 2. Beckwith. German Industrial Education and Its Lessons for the United States. U. S. Bureau of Education, No. 19, 1913, 154 p. 3. Bibliography of Industrial, Vocational, and Trade Education. U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin 22, 1913. 4. Chicago, 111. A Report on Vocational Training in Chicago and Other Cities. By a Committee of the City Club of Chicago. 1912, 315 p. 5. Child Labor. List of References. U. S. Department of Labor, Chil- dren's Bureau, Publication 18, 1916, 161 p. Probably the best and most extensive annotated bibliography, showing recent studies and legislation concerning child labor. 6. Cincinnati, Ohio. The Cooperative System of Education. An account of cooperative education as developed in the College of Engineering 276 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of the University of Cincinnati. Clyde W. Park. U. S. Education Bulletin 37, 1916, 4S p., ill., with bibliography. 7. Cleveland, Ohio. Wage Earning and Education. Cleveland Survey. R. R. Lutz. Cleveland Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio, 1916, 208 p. One of 25 volumes of the Survey. 8. Cole, P. E. Industrial Education in the Elementary School. N. Y., 1914, 60 p. A brief study of ancient views of industrial education, modern views and of present problems, with suggestions for curric- ulum and method. 9. Cooley, Edwin G. Vocational Education in Europe. Report to the Commercial Club of Chicago, 347 p. 10. Farrington, F. E. (a) The Public Primary School System of France. N. Y., 1906, 303 p. (b) French Secondary Schools. N. Y., 1910, 450 p., and bibliography. 11. Federal Board for Vocational Education. (a) Statement of policies, interpretations, etc., and the text of the Smith-Hughes Act. Bulletin 1, 1917, 70 p. Washington, D. C. (6) Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and Industrial Subjects. Bulletin 20, 1918, 77 p. 111. (c) Trade and Industrial Education, Bulletin 17, 1918, 125 p. 12. Hall, G. Stanley. Industrial Education. In Educational Problems. Vol. II, pp. 540-710. N. Y., 1911. 13. Hicks, Warren E. A Description of the Continuation Schools of Wis- consin. Proc. Ninth Annual Meeting, National Soc. for Promotion of Industrial Education. 1916, pp. 203-219. 14. Hill, David S. Industry and Education. Commission Council, New Orleans, 1916, 409 p. 111. A study of manufacturing establishments and mechanical occupations of boys and men with reference to educa- tion, and a plan for the Delgado School. 15. Industrial Education. Twenty-fifth Annual Report of the U. S. Com- missioner of Labor. Washington, 1910, 822 p. A compendium of industrial education statistics, etc., of that date. 16. Jones, A. J. Evening Schools — -In Germany, England, France, United States — the last in some detail. Monroe's Cycl. of Education, vol. II, pp. 521-527. 17. Kandel, I. L. Educational Tendencies in England. In School and Society. June, 1917. 18. Kelly, F. J. The General or Composite Industrial School in the City of Less than twenty-five Thousand Population. School and Society. Dec. 21, 1918. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 277 19. Lapp, J. A. and Mote, C. H. Learning to Earn. Indianapolis, 421 p., 1916. 20. Leake, Albert H. Industrial Education, Its Problems, Methods and Dangers. N. Y., 1913, 205 p. 21. Leavitt, Frank M. Examples of Industrial Education. 1912, N. Y., 330 p. 22. Marshall, Florence E. Trade Extension and Part-time Courses for Girls in New York City. Proc. Ninth Annual Meeting. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, 1916, pp. 220- 225. 23. Massachusetts Board of Education. (a) Information Relating to the Establishment and Administration of State Aided Vocational Schools. Bulletin 22, 1916, 62 p. (6) Project Study and Industrial Schools. Bulletin 76, 1916. 24. Massachusetts Industrial Education Commission. Public Document No. 76. Boston, 1907, 682 p. 25. Minneapolis, Minn. Vocational Survey. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bulletin 199, 1916. 26. National Association of Corporation Schools. Proc. Fifth Annual Convention, Buffalo, 1917, 893 p. 27. National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education, 1917, Bulle- tin 23, 73 p. Evening Vocational Courses for Girls and Women. 28. Population: Occupation Statistics. U. S. Census. Washington, 1910, vol. IV, 615 p. 29. Richmond, Va. Vocational Education Survey. Made with coopera- tion of United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Bureau of Education, Russell Sage Foundation, National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education, School Board of Richmond, State Department of Education, citizens and schoolmen. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 162, 1916, 333 p. 30. Roman, Frederick W. The Industrial and Commercial Schools of the United States and Germany. A comparative study. N. Y. 1915, 382 p. 31. Royal Commission on Industrial Training and Technical Education. Report of the Commissioners. Four volumes. Ottawa, Canada, 1913. 32. Service Instruction of American Corporations. Leonhard F. Fuld. U. S. Education Bulletin 34, 1916, 73 p. 111. 33. Short-unit Courses for Wage-earners, and Factory School Experiment. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 159, Washington, 1915, 93 p. 278 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 34. Small, R. O. Is It Possible to Give Trade Preparatory Work in the Part-time School? A discussion with definite recommendations by the Deputy Commissioner for Vocational Education of Massachu- setts. Proc. Tenth Annual Meeting National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 1917, pp, 109-117. 35. Snedden, David. Continuation Schools. Monroe's Cycl. of Educa- tion. Vol. II, pp. 194-195. 36. State Aided Vocational Education in Massachusetts. Resume of 10 years progress. Statistics regarding state-aided vocational schools. 1915-1916. Bulletin 6. The Massachusetts Board of Education, Boston, 1917, 81 p. 37. Springfield, 111. Industrial Education. A study by the Russell Sage Foundation, 1916, 173 p. 38. Stoek, Harry H. Illinois Miners' and Mechanics' Institutes. Uni- versity of IlUnois Bulletin 19, 1914, 136 p. 111. A study of the education of mine employees, and of industrial mining education in America and in foreign countries. 39. Taylor, Joseph S. A Handbook of Vocational Education. N. Y., 1914, 221 p. 111. 40. Vocational Secondary Education. Report of Committee of National Education Association. U. S. Education Bulletin 21, 1916. 41. (a) Vocational Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. A preliminary study by the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion concerning rehabihtation and placement. Principles, policies, foreign legislation and experience. Bibliography. Sen- ate document 166, 65th Congress. 1918, 112 p. (6) Evolution of National Systems of Vocational Reeducation for Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. The Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulletin 15, 1918, 319 p. 111. (c) Vocational Summary. Published monthly by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. 1918. See November, 1918, for statistics of vocational schools and of teacher-training centers for the year ending June 30, 1918. CHAPTER IX EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES AND TRADES— Continued The Smith-Hughes Act; Apphcations to Industrial and Trade Education: Significance; provisions and policies; entrance requirements for all-day industrial schools; distinguishing between all-day and part-time schools; 'meanings of "nine months," "hours," "productive basis;" work other than shop work; age-limits in evening industrial schools; time basis for half-time work; kinds of work in part-time courses; subjects in evening schools; small cities conditionally exempt. Other Aspects of Industrial and Trade Education: The rehabilitation of disabled soldiers, and of workers from industry; education of women; dis- position of products; cost-records; production versus exercise; accidents and injuries, a three-fold problem — first aid, prevention, legal aspects. Questions about Teachers and Methods: A weak point; types of in- structors; selection and training; methods of teaching; the phase method; the project in trade and industrial education; project-routing; Allen's con- tribution; an analysis; detailed lesson; centers for teacher-training; par- ticipation of universities. Summary. Problems. Selected References. The Smith-Hughes Act; Applications to Industrial and Trade Education Significance. The perspective disclosed in preceding pages showed the historical significance of the Smith Hughes Act. It- is probably the most potent action ever taken by public authority in order to promote education in the trades and industries in which so large a proportion of our wage-earners engage. Table X on page 185 exhibits the sums of money appropriated by the Federal Government to the States for cooperation in this work — the first sum being $500,000 in 1917- 279 280 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 18, and finally the sum of $3,000,000 to be appropriated in 1925- 26 and annually thereafter. The moneys thus appropriated are to be duplicated at least once in each instance by the States, so that actually large sums are in prospect for the promotion of education in trade, industrial and home economics subjects. (E. g., Smith-Hughes Act, Sections: 1, 3, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14.) Provisions and policies. The mandatory provisions of the Act, and also the pul^lished policies of the Federal Board in the matter of discretionary interpretations and applications are of interest to students and schoolmen, and all citizens. The Fed- eral Board for Vocational Education has also published answers to special questions relating to industrial education, the answers constituting at least tentative statements of policies of the Board. Here follows the substance of some of these inter- pretations. (13) (a) Entrance requirements for all-day industrial schools. Sec- tion 1 1 of the Act provides : . . . That such education shall be of less than college grade and shall be designed to meet the needs of person over 14 years of age who are preparing for a trade or industrial pursuit or who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pursuit. (Sec. 11.) While a minimum age of fourteen is the age requirement in the Smith-Hughes Act, the Federal Board recommends that care be taken to secure pupils who are physically and mentally able to do the work required. While neither an absolute nor a uni- form standard as to educational qualifications can be fixed, experience shows that pupils failing to make normal progress in the regular schools rarely do satisfactoiy vocational work. Ability to do the work of the all-day industrial school should be the determining test even after admission. A probationary period of attendance will enable the school to determine the boy's or girl's real ability. Communities maintaining all-day vocational schools should offer full opportunities to all capable EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 281 boys and girls, and should see to it that such schools do not be- come the resort of the undesirable, the feeble-minded, or the physically weak. (b) Distinguishing between all-day and part-time schools. Section 11 also provides: That such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not entered upon employment shall require' that at least half of the time of such instruction be given to practical work on a useful or pro- ductive basis, such instruction to extend over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week. (Sec. 11.) . . . That at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, if expended, be applied to part-time schools or classes for workers over 14 years of age who have entered upon employment. (Sec. 11.) Where pupils work alternately in a class or school and in a privately owned shop, the determining factor is whether the pupils, when in such shop, are entirely under the supervision and control of the school. If they are, it is an all-day school. If not, it is a part-time school. This is true regardless of the fact that the pupils are, or are not, paid. The final test is whether or not the shop work is carried on independently or as an inte- gral part of the school. (c) Meanings of "nine months," "hours," "productive basis." These terms occur in Section 11 of the Act. The Federal Board's interpretation requires a day industrial school to be in session during nine months of four weeks each, regardless of the calen- dar months, and including only such holidays as are observed by the regular public schools. By ''hour" is meant a period of sixty minutes, the ''clock hour" being intended rather than that shorter recitation or study period sometimes called by schools an "hour." "Useful or productive basis" is interpreted to mean work similar to that carried on in the particular trade or industry taught. Such work is on a useful or productive basis 282 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION when it results in a product of economic value comparable with that of a similar product made by a standard shop or factory. (d) Work other than shop work. In an all-day industrial school arises the question of what work other than shop work may be included in the "industrial subjects," for which teachers may be paid in part from moneys under the Smith-Hughes Act. The Federal Board answers that the State Board must be satis- fied that such work is inherent in the vocation taught in the school and is a subject which enlarges the trade knowledge of the worker. For example, in a machine-shop school which gives at least three hours a day to shop work, a part of the remaining time might be given to such topics as machine-shop mathe- matics, drawing as related to the machine-shop trades, science applied to the machine shop, and the hygiene of the trade. In a school which teaches printing time devoted to related studies might be given to such subjects as estimating costs, English for printers, art in printing — such as the layout of a paper, proper margins and title pages, science as related to printing, and hygiene of the trade. Before such work in related subjects can be paid for from Federal funds, the State Board must be satisfied that the teacher has had satisfactory contact with the vocation to which the related work is supplementary. (e) Age limits in evening industrial schools. Section 11, re- quires . . . That evening industrial schools shall fix the age of 16 years as a minimum entrance requirement. . . . (Sec. 11.) In this provision Congress has specifically prescribed 16 years as the requirement, and therefore a State may not prescribe a higher age (e. g., 18 or 20) as the minimum requirement. The Federal Board interprets the requirement as mandatory and consequently if Federal funds are to be used to aid States in con- ducting education in schools of this character, such schools must be open to persons of 16 years and over. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 283 (f) Time basis for half-time work. The effect of the provision in Section 11 relating to at least half of the time of instruction to persons who have not entered upon employment to be given to practical work, etc., was thus construed by the Federal Board. The provision is twofold in effect : (1) It required that at least one-half the time given to in- struction shall be devoted to practical work, irrespective of the number of hours per week required of students; (2) it established a miniinum period of instruction. These requirements are in no way connected, but are, on the contrary, separate and distinct, and each must be given full force and effect. Consequently in cases where it is proposed to conduct schools for a longer period than the minimum prescribed by the Act, the half-time for practical work must be based on the number of hours during which the school operates. (g) Kinds of work in part-time courses. The Federal Board has not undertaken to define generally the many varieties and types of part-time schools and classes which may be entitled to federal aid under the Act. Section 11 contains the provision: . . . That at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, if expended, be applied to part-time schools or classes for workers over fourteen years of age who have entered upon employ" ment, and such subjects in a part-time school or class may mean any subject given to enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of such workers over fourteen and less than eighteen years of age; that such part-time schools or classes shall provide for not less than one hundred and forty-four hours of classroom instruction per year. (Ibid.) The interpretation of the Federal Board, however, held that Federal moneys might be used to pay the salaries of teachers em- ployed in those part-time schools or classes where wage-working boys or girls receive any or all of the following benefits : (a) Increased skill or knowledge in the occupation which the wage- worker is following. 284 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (b) Skill or knowledge leading to promotion in the industry or calling wherein the wageworker is engaged. (c) Improvement in the knowledge of regular subjects which the wageworker did not complete in school. (d) Increased civic or vocational intelligence. (e) Skill and knowledge in home economics for girls employed as wageworkers. In general any part-time school must be in session during a part of the working time (day, week, month, or year) of its pupils; while an evening school or class must be in session outside the regular working hours of its pupils. . . . The number of aims or benefits which the school or class is to undertake should be governed by the number of hours available for instruction; and pupils should be so grouped and taught as to deal definitely with one aim at a time. Preferably, the aims should be few to insure effective results; and care should be taken not to attempt inconsistent or conflicting aims with the same pupils. For example, a part-time class, having but four hours per week for instruction, should not attempt for any given group more than two of the above aims as a maximum. (Ibid.) (h) Subjects in evening schools. Section II provides: . . . That evening industrial schools . . . shall confine instruction to that which is supplemental to the daily employment. The Federal Board interpreted this to mean that evening instruction "can be given only in such subjects as will increase skill or knowledge in the occupation in which the worker is engaged as his daily employment, or such as will lead to promo- tion or advancement in that work. The time available in an evening school is so short that it is impossible to teach a skilled trade to anyone unless he is engaged in daily work affording him opportunity to apply the skill or knowledge gained in the even- ing school, or unless the daily employment gives an experience which will enable the worker, with the knowledge or skill ac- quired in an evening school, to secure promotion in that occupa- EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 285 tion. The work can be most effectively given when workers in similar or allied occupations are grouped together." (i) Small cities conditionally exempt. Section 11 also con- tains this important provision regarding education for trade, home economics, and industrial subjects: That for cities and towns of less than twenty-five thousand popula- tion, according to the last preceding United States census, the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion, may modify the conditions as to the length of course and hours of instruction per week for schools and classes giving instruction to those who have not entered upon employment, in order to meet the particular needs of such cities and towns. Other Aspects op Industrial and Trade Education The rehabilitation of disabled soldiers, and of workers from mdustry. In another place we have referred to the matter of industrial and trade education utilized in behalf of two gen- eral groups : Disabled soldiers, and workers maimed by accident in industrial occupation. The condition of the men who, having served the country and humanity upon the battlefield, return disabled — ^blind, or mutilated, or prostrated, suffering from shock, and sick — presents a pathetic appeal that stirs any patriotic citizen. However, to rehabilitate these men has not been merely a matter of humanitarianism. It has been an economic necessity in order to lessen dependence, invalidism, pauperism. It should open up new fields of employment to many men who have lacked occupational opportunity; it should increase self-respect and personal joy of living. We have just awakened also to the necessity of rehabilitating the thousands who are injured in industrial plants or upon railroads. Practi- cal and social aspects of this great work have compelling fasci- nation but can not be included in the present chapter. Education of women. The problems of industrial and trade education for girls and women are in many respects the problems 286 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION we have already presented. Special issues appear in the field of women's occupations and in the institutions erected to meet the individual and social needs of the girl or woman employed. A brief consideration of some of these special problems will comprise the content of another chapter. Disposition of products. When a product of an industrial school is used for the benefit of the public there should be a diminution of the net cost of the school to the taxpayer. Prod- ucts that could be made economically under skilled trades instructors for the public school system and with educational advantage to the boys are such as these : Printing of all kinds in large quantities. Furniture, for teachers, officials, pupils Supplies for schools. Additions, repairs, furniture, etc., for schools. Repairs to electric bell and school telephone systems. What to do with the products of the labor of students in a trade or industrial school is a problem for consideration. Usually the small amount of products of the trade school does not enter largely into the business of a city. Several methods of disposing of articles made have been in vogue. For example: (1) Consignment of product to junk-heap; obviously waste- ful. (2) Making things for oneself; articles are limited in charac- ter, practice is expensive to school ; may develop a selfish rather than altruistic school spirit. (3) Sale in open market, in school sales-room. (4) Sale on special orders. (5) Exchange of service with factories where articles made by boys for factory are exchanged for new school equipment, such as lathes, etc. (6) Repair work, as plumbing, electrical work, etc., done in EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 287 public schools by students under the supervision of a competent man. (7) Manufacture of articles for use of public schools, such as desks, chairs, tables and printing for the public schools. In this matter it should not be lost sight of that to over- emphasize the value and amount of the product rather than the good of the boy or girl is fatal to the aim of true education. In some schools, under private auspices, children have been ac- tively exploited in the production of goods, under the guise of education. In considering the question of the disposition of products made from raw materials in a trades school it should be ever re- membered that the "boy is the most important product." Industrial efficiency in the school must not be obtained at the cost of the pupils' development. Cost-records. Modern industries utilize record-systems that indicate the actual costs in time expended, unproductive labor, materials, etc., for every finished product. It is clear that a school related to actual industrial and commercial con- ditions, must give place to the study of cost-record systems and to practice in the use of such devices. Students should know well both the uses and the abuses of the cost-record system in actual industry. Production versus exercise. Manual training often based upon the academic idea of ''general mental discipline," "trans- fer of skill gained by special practice," "development of the senses," etc., is still offered sometimes in the place of produc- tive, vocational courses. In order that an industrial course may be truly vocational, it is necessary for it to duplicate actual shop conditions. Nevertheless, the possible evils of the commercial shop must be avoided, and it is ever to be remembered that "the boy is the most important product of the shop." Lewis H. Carris has prepared a tabulation intended to ex- 288 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION press in parallel columns, the differences between the com- mercial shop and the school shop conducted on a productive basis. It is as follows: Principal Differentiating Characteristics — OF the commercial shop in BUSINESS 1. Money-making enterprise. 2. Considers maximum of profit. 3. Keeps man on special proc- ess to secure maximum output. Production. 4. Has usually no primary in- terest in providing variety of ex- perience. 5. Aims at production of goods. 6. Marketable product is the primary aim. 7. Interest in materials. 8. Individualistic interests. 9. Serves private capital. 10. Immediate profit. 11. Concerned with competi- tion. OF the school shop conducted ON A USEFUL OR PRODUCTIVE BASIS 1. Educational enterprise. 2. Considers maximum of edu- cational values. 3. Keeps student on special process only until skill in spe- cial process is sufficient to war- rant advancement. 4. Tries to give a complete round of experiences. 5. Aims at production of skill. 6. Marketable product is the secondary aim, but necessary to give adequate training. 7. Interest in human beings. 8. Society interests. 9. Serves state. 10. Future welfare. 11. Not concerned with compe- tition. (22) Accidents and injuries, a threefold problem. The question of accidents in industrial schools has three aspects: (1) First aid to the injured; (2) preventive and protective measures; (3) liability and compensation. First aid. Even in a crowded curriculum, place should be found for competent instruction of teachers in such matters as emergency treatment of hemorrhages, simple and compound fractures, sprains and dislocations, poisonings; foreign bodies in EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 289 skin, eye, ear, nose; burning clothing; fainting, shock, epilepsy, hysteria, etc. The need of immediate and competent medical help should be emphasized in emergency work. Prevention. Administrators, executives, teachers, and pupils should be acquainted so far as possible with modern preventive measures. Safety devices providing against acci- dent from wheels, belts, shafting, electricity, dust, etc., are of necessity in the efficient industrial plants of to-day. Standards of illumination and ventilation should be understood and ob- served. Of value also is instruction in swimming, diving, the transportation of the injured, management of fires, handling and storage of poisons, avoidance of street accidents from cars and automobiles. Legal aspects. Instances of accidents caused variously by personal negligence, unprotected machinery, or from wrong ac- tion or attitude of officials or boards, give rise to the question of liability and compensation. Decisions in such instances will depend upon the laws and statutes applicable in the various States, and especially upon the specific facts in a case. The following is a legal opinion concerning accidents in in- dustrial schools, published by the Massachusetts State Board of Education: (a) It would seem that in the event of an accident there would be no liability upon the Commonwealth or upon the State Board of Educa- tion, acting as an instrumentality of the Commonwealth within the scope of the duties imposed upon it by law, since the Commonwealth is not liable for torts. (6) There would seem to be no liability upon the city or town by which the school was established and in which it was maintained. (c) For accidents resulting from negligence there would probably be a personal liability upon the part of the person directly responsible, unless such accidents resulted directly from the negligent official action of a board or public officer, in which case it is doubtful if there could be a recovery. Where the action of the Board or public officer is 290 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION proper and within the scope of the pubHc duty imposed upon them or him, and the agent to whom the order is directed is neghgent, there would be no Hability upon the board or officer who gave the order. In general, the question of liability for accidents of the character described must ultimately be a question of fact to which the general principles above outlined may be applied, and should probably be determined in each case upon the specific facts of that case. (11) Questions about Teachers and Methods A weak point. The advancement of the program for better industrial education has been in spite of the marked scarcity of teachers who combine personal qualifications, special skills, practical experience in industry, scholarship, and acquaintance with essentials of school management and methods of instruc- tion. Suitable personal qualifications, plus practical experience, and skill in occupation, necessarily have been given preference in the choice of vocational teachers. It was a wise provision of the Smith-Hughes Act which demanded provisions for training teachers to be made by the States as a first prerequisite for gaining Federal cooperation. A reading of the recent discussions of Messrs. Carris,(22) Myers, (12) and Snedden,(18) reveals a determined effort to think out means of efficient teaching in industrial education, but at the same time indicates the immature and unsatisfactory status of teacher-training provisions for industrial instructors. Types of instructors. The term teacher may include di- rectors, supervisors, principals, heads of departments, instruc- tors. All of the teachers in a vocational industrial school of course need not be strictly vocational instructors. A classifica- tion of such instructors comprises three groups : (a) Vocational instructors. Those, in shop, farm, or home, who teach shop work, technically related work, or both. (b) Technical instructors. Those who teach technically related sub- jects, as sciences, drawing, mathematics. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 291 (c) Non-vocational instructors. Those who teach non- vocational subjects, as English. The following types of instructors may give instruction in schools or classes maintained in part by federal funds under the Smith-Hughes Act: (22) 1. Teachers of shop subjects in the all-day, part-time, or evening school classes where instruction is limited to a particular trade. 2. Teachers of shop subjects in general industrial schools and in part-time schools when the shop work is of a general or elementary character. 3. The related subjects teachers in the all-day, part-time, or evening classes. 4. Teachers of non-vocational subjects in part-time schools or classes. Selection and training. A conference of state executives during 1916 recommended certain findings concerning the se- lection and training of teachers for state aided industrial schools. The recommendations embody a development of recommendations originally prepared by C. A. Prosser and W. A. O'Leary for the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. The recommendations of the conference comprise almost a compendium upon this debatable subject. Space permits here only a brief condensation of some of the important findings, which we embody in the following para- graphs (a, b, c, d). (a) Qualifications of Teachers. Industrial school teachers should be required to possess definite and clearly defined qualifications. Trade teachers should be masters of their craft; technical teachers should have trade experience and adequate technical knowledge; and non- vocational teachers should have special training in the subjects they are to teach and at least a layman's understanding of the trade and the industrial processes taught in the school. Every instructor should know how to teach and should possess satisfactory personal and educational quali- fications. 292 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (b) Certificatio7i of Teachers. New plans of certification are needed. Because of the difference between the quaUfications necessary for regu- lar school teachers and those required of teachers in industrial schools, existing plans for the certification of regular public school teachers cannot be satisfactorily used for industrial schools. No scheme of certification can be of permanent value that is not based upon accurate knowledge of the requirements for teachers and a state-wide uniform plan for estimating the qualifications of applicants. In most existing plans written examinations, together with credentials of one sort or another, are the basis upon which certificates are granted. Officials in charge of the certification of industrial school teachers may well recognize these means of testing applications, but a much more thor- oughgoing examination than that now given teachers in elementary and high schools is essential. The state should be the sole certificating authority. . . . The aim of state certification is to estabUsh minimum standards. Certification by the state does not create an obligation on the part of local authorities to hire or retain any particular holder of a certificate. (c) Training of teachers. The entrance requirements for admission to training classes should be carefully determined. The same care in choosing students should be exercised as the best trade schools give to the selection of their pupils. Only those persons should be admitted to training classes who give promise of the qualifications necessary for successful teaching service. Justice to these prospective teachers as well as the economic use of public money requires that they should not be permitted to give their time to special preparation at public ex- pense for service for which it is obvious that they are not fitted. No person should be accepted who does not possess at least the minimum of personal qualifications as to health, personality, etc., which the state authorities require for the certification of teachers. The training given teachers for industrial school service will generally be of two types : Short courses like evening or part-time classes where the instruction must necessarily be confined to the one problem of giving the pupils an introductory teaching equipment; and longer courses such as could be given in more extended part-time classes or in an all-day school where it is possible to give more thorough teach- ing equipment as well as supplementary preparation in such things EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 293 as technical knowledge, additional practical experience, industrial, social, and civic contracts. Training should be given all teachers before they enter school serv- ice and also after they begin employment. The most promising plan for training shop instructors at the present time is the evening introductory training course for skilled trade work- ers having the personal and trade qualifications. After finishing an evening course these men and women should serve as assistant or pupil teachers in an industrial school. . . . The best scheme for securing teachers of related subjects will be one which will draw men and women of actual trade experience. Every effort should be made to attract skilled trade workers to evening or part-time classes giving preliminary training for teaching. When persons having no practical experience are employed as technical teachers, industrial and trade contacts must be given them as part of their training. These teachers should have in general the same after- training in the service as that recommended for trade teachers. Teachers of non- vocational subjects might be trained best in the state normal schools. This means that the normal school must organize separate departments and assume the responsibility of providing suit- able instructors who understand the peculiar teaching required in industrial schools. So far as it is possible for a school to do so the normal schools must furnish the outside contacts which will give their pupils a sympathetic understanding of the problems of industry and the worker. After entering the service, non- vocational teachers as well as trade and technical instructors should have probationary experience and further professional training. (d) Control of Training Courses. The control of all state-aided classes for the training of industrial school teachers should be conferred by legislative authority upon the board or committee in charge of industrial education. Non-state-aided classes should be controlled through the certification of teachers by the same body. (14) Methods of teaching. Instruction in industrial subjects does not yet embody a well-developed technic. Formalism, cut and dried "pedagogy," have little place in live industrial education, which must ever change. Some of the principles 294 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and facts stated elsewhere in this book refer in a general way to good instruction. Difficult is the task of guarding the content of instruction so that the three results may be secured for every young pupil; namely, (1) skill in a selected occupation; (2) knowledge related both to that occupation, and also to culture; (3) ideals of personal and civic welfare. The efficient processes to be followed in securing these three aims in their respective details, will comprise the basis of a technic of instruction for industrial schools. The phase method. By this method of organizing instruc- tion the progress of the pupil is based upon ability to meet the conditions of the next phase, rather than upon a grading meas- ured by time. For example, here follows three phases illustra- tive of such organization in Massachusetts : Phase I. — Trying-out phase (all shop period). (a) Doing the job without introducing complications of any kind. (6) Carrying out a series of single projects in which planning and related study are carried out in their logical order and in the shop. Phase II. — Period of close correlation emphasis on good shop work (shop and class room time evenly divided) . Carrying on more than one project and not necessarily carrying out each subject in logical order. Phase III. — Period of intensive shop and technical training (shop and class room time evenly divided, with correlation not closely made). Mastery of a series of organized subjects of instruction on the one hand, and the training and the ability to work under purely productive conditions in the shop on the other. (11) The project in trade and industrial education. In the con- sideration of agriculture we have already referred to (p. 220) possibilities in the use of the "project method." The unit course (p. 264) affords interesting possibilities for the develop- ment of projects in industrial education. The Massachusetts State Board suggests a combination of the phase and of the project methods, as follows: EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 295 In the simplest sense in which the term can be used, a project is a job, or it is something involving the discharge of a responsibility on the part of a pupil. The project method of instruction in vocational education is a plan of instruction combining growth in manipulative skill on a shop, farm, or home job with growth in power to apply the re- lated technical knowledge (drawings and mathematics) of the job. The project method of instruction, as a method of instruction best calculated to train for power to use and apply information, is suggested for vocational schools, rather than instruction on independent subjects arranged in series and courses organized in logical progression, and chiefly valuable as a method of imparting information. The project method of instruction involves the following activities on the part of the pupil: — (a) Determining the conditions to be met in doing the work. (6) Planning how to meet these conditions in terms of materials, operations, and suitable equipment. (c) Preparation of this material in conventional form (operation sheet, drawing, etc.). (d) Performing such calculations as may be necessary (figuring cost, amount of stock, cutting speed, amount of feed, etc.). (e) Carrying out the job according to specifications. A combination of the project method of instruction with the phase scheme of grading is recommended as calculated to give the most efficient vocational education, (ibid.) Project routing. Management involving checking, inspect- ing, and routing of a pupil through a series of projects is desira- ble. The specific requirements must be carefully planned and accomplishments recorded systematically. It is a problem to manage this adequately, and at the same time not to kill initia- tive and spontaneity in the pupil. One simple form of project routing-card shows the fol- lowing: (a) The elements of the projects, (b) The operations called for in each particular project, (c) The inspection for each operation. A 296 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION very definite progressive project control, combined with an inspection report and the perpetual inventory of the pupil's educational condi- tions at the close of the given project, is an essential part of the pro- ject method of instruction. The use of such a card is intended to cover the following points: (a) To place a definite responsibility on the instructor for the assignment of work. (6) To furnish an accurate record of the work actually carried on in connection with each job. (c) To place a definite responsibility upon the instructor for accepting such work as may be asked for. (ibid.) Allen's contribution. Endeavoring to avoid the unnecessary use of "abstract theory," in favor of practical methods, the contribution of Charles R. Allen marks a unique and forward step in the pedagogy of instruction in trade processes. A worker of long practical experience in training industrial teachers, Allen wrote his system as an immediate result of his supervision of training courses for one thousand ship-yard instructors, under the Emergency Fleet Corporation during the years of the War. The book deals with the three factors in efficient production — the instructor, the man and the job. Scientific students of education unacquainted with industrial life will find the book a source of information and suggestion. The book tells better how to produce trainers quickly than to produce all-around teachers. In education for increased production trainers of men in specific processes are, of course, a necessary part of modern industry. The methods set forth for instruction in efficiency production are schematized by Allen and are illustrated. For example, here follow two samples, one (A) of one of Allen's schemes of analysis, the other (B) showing in some detail one of his lesson plans. (A) An atialysis. In the following tabular arrangement Allen sets forth the four instructional operations in teaching a specific job, for example, heating and driving hot rivets. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 297 THE ANALYSIS Development Informational The suggestive The informational Step I. question. question. Preparation. Demonstration. Demonstration. Foundation. Illustration. Illustration. Experience. Experience. Step 2. Demonstration. Demonstration. Presentation. Illustration. Illustration. Putting over. Experiment. Lecture. On the job. Step 3. Discussion. On the job. Application. Recitation. Recitation. Checking up. Written Test. Written Test. Examination. Examination. Step 4. On the job. On the job. Inspection. Recitation. Recitation. Final Test. Examination. Examination. (B) Detailed lesson. Now comes an example of a detailed lesson used by Allen in such work as that done for the Shipping Board. The job is heating and driving hot rivets. Step I. Preparation First Idea. (A rivet.) 1. Have you ever seen a rivet? 2. Can you tell a rivet from a bolt? 3. Did you ever see any riveting? 4. Is a rivet alike at both ends? 5. Is a rivet round or square? Second Idea. (A hot rivet.) 1. Could you pick up a rivet that you found lying around the yard? 2. If you saw a rivet on top of a hot stove would you try to pick it up? 298 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 3. Why would you take a chance in picking up the first rivet but not on picking up the second? 4. Could you tell a very hot rivet from a cold rivet without touching it? Third Idea. (A rivet heated enough.) 1. Can a rivet be heated to different heats? 2. Would it make any difference what heat a rivet has, provided it is hot? 3. Hasn't the heater boy got to know somehow when the rivet is at the right heat? How does he know when a rivet is just hot enough? Step II. Pbesentation First Point. The rivet must be at a certain temperature to work right. (Memo. Head up cold and hot rivet.) 1. Which rivet takes the most time to head up? 2. Which rivet, hot or cold, makes the best head? 3. If you were paid for the number of rivets driven, which would you prefer, cold or hot rivets? 4. If rivets with well finished heads only were accepted, which would you prefer, hot or cold rivets? (Memo. Drive an over-heated rivet.) 5. Does this rivet head up right? 6. Would you rather be paid for driving over-heated, or properly heated rivets? Second Point. (The appearance of the rivet varies with the heat.) 1. Can a rivet be too cold for the job, or too hot for the job? (Again head up an under-heated rivet and an over-heated rivet, directing the attention of the boys to the appearance of the rivets when they are taken from the fire.) 2. Could you see any difference between the two rivets? 3. Could you pick out an under-heated rivet? An over-heated rivet? 4. How would you do it? Third Point. (The rivet must be just under a "scaling" [white] heat.) (Memo. Head up a properly heated rivet.) 1. Has this rivet worked right? EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 299 2. Could you tell a rivet that would work right from one that is under-heated or over-heated by looking at it? 3. How would you pick out a properly heated rivet? Step III. Application (Memo. Place rivets in fire.) Have each boy pick out correctly heated rivets, meantime asking such questions as are suggested below, of the other three boys. Bill, Pick out a correctly heated rivet. Sam, Did he do it? Jack, How do you know he did it? Tom, You pick out a rivet. Jack, You watch him. Sam, Pick out another one. Bill, That wasn't right, was it? Jack, Pick out a burnt rivet. (Memo. Carry on work of this kind until satisfied each boy knows a properly heated rivet.) Step IV. Testing (Memo. Proceed to rivet and say:) Now I'm going to riveting and am going to use each of you boys in turn as a heater boy to pass me ten rivets. If all ten are at the right heat I'll 0. K. you to the foreman for a job. Go to it, Sam. You other three fellows don't mix in, give him a show. You'll get your turn. Watch me rivet. Use of Other Methods. — Other methods entirely unsuitedfor teaching a lesson of this type, and one of which would probably be selected by a poor teacher, but which a good teacher would never use for this sort of lesson, are illustrated in this paragraph. Had the informational line of approach been selected, the questions in Step I would have been so framed that the answers would require no thinking by the boys. . . . If the recitation method were used in Step III the instructor would be prepared with a set of "cross examination" questions, such as,-^ Must a rivet be heated at the right temperature? How can you tell an over-heated or under-heated rivet, etc. (in- 300 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION formational approach), or, by the (developmental approach), "Why isn't an over-heated rivet just as good? Why isn't an under-heated rivet just as good?" etc. By the examination method a few questions selected at random would be given. Under either approach the instructor would, by giving ad- ditional information or suggestive comment, straighten out any points he found needing it. If the lecture method were used the instructor would proceed some- what as follows: "You boys have seen a rivet, you know that rivets may be heated and that the rivet heater has to know when a rivet is at the right heat. In doing this he goes by the color. If the rivet is red hot it is too cold, if it is too hot it scales, so the way to know a rivet at the right heat is to pick out one that is just under a good white heat, but not to let it get so hot that it scales. "(I) Centers for teacher-training. Sneddon complains that "al- ready a number of cities have made the absurd mistake of as- suming that instructors in technical knowledge are much more important men than trainers in industrial skill, and are paying the former much larger compensations." Whether for the prep- aration of instructors or trainers, questions arise about the best location of teaching centers for these purposes, and about the relative uses of existing institutions — normal schools, engi- neering colleges, technical high schools. The advantage of proximity of such centers to industrial areas seems clear; the relative values for the purpose of the three types of institutions, not so plain. The majority of normal schools are apart from large indus- trial centers, and are patronized chiefly by girls preparing to teach in elementary schools. The same writer observes: "It is doubtful whether more than a very small part of the general normal schools of America can advantageously develop train- ing departments for industrial school teachers. In the more naive stages of reflection on this subject, we are apt to infer that 'a teacher is a teacher ' and that any institution devoted to the EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 301 training of one type of teachers can readily adapt itself to the training of another type. More analytical study, however, will show that the training of different types of teaching must be differentiated, if anything, more widely than the forms of educa- tional service, considered in terms of objectives, for which these teachers are being trained." Participation, of universities. It is probable that any definition of necessary qualifications of the different types of teachers will undergo constant revision in the direction of higher requirements. The sudden growth of industrial educa- tion lower than college grade has made imperative the employ- ment of persons new to teaching, and the lack of adequately prepared industrial instructors has sometimes forced the accept- ance of compromise measures, both in lower schools and in university training courses. Colleges of engineering connected with state universities are also, most of them, remote from city life. Some of them provide industrial teacher-training courses in centrally located indus- trial centers, as in Wisconsin, Indiana, Michigan, and Illinois. Snedden says: "The pedagogical influence of the engineering colleges on the standards and methods of industrial teacher- training will probably not be good for several years, or until some very definite prescriptions are established by state and national authorities. Typical engineering schools are institu- tions for technical instruction as distinguished from vocational training. Only lately and reluctantly have they come to ap- preciate the importance of practical experience obtained under educational supervision, as a necessary part of integral voca- tional education. The University of Cincinnati now provides definitely for the acquisition of such practical experience. Sev- eral other colleges do so in a half-hearted way through summer camps, compulsory service in mines, etc. "(18) In some cities there are found technical high schools, as in Oakland (California), Chicago, St. Louis, Cleveland, Boston, and 302 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION New York. Some of these institutions possess space and equip- ment which could be adapted for additional vocational courses, day and evening. An opportunity exists to utilize more fully the departments and schools of state universities for mutual betterment. Most of these probably would find it possible to maintain a teacher- training division within a city. Schools of education, engineer- ing, agriculture, and commerce merit a share in the training of young men and women, both in the principles of vocational education and also in the adjustment and supervision of well regulated experience in shops and industries and in laboratories looking toward the acquisition of specific skills. The Univer- sity of Cincinnati, Columbia University, and the Universities of Indiana, Illinois, and Wisconsin are examples of institutions which have begun such work. As a rule, the universities are better equipped with shops, laboratories, and farms, for this kind of activity than are normal schools, but to accomplish it, certain academic notions of prereq- uisites must be altered in ultra-conservative places where pro- fessors and petty executives are more interested in college en- trance units and the perpetuation of favorite courses, than in the adjustment of state institutions to meet the needs of larger proportions of our population. It will be a mistake also to continue to admit to university faculties men of inferior intel- lectual capacity and inadequate industrial training as "pro- fessors of industrial education," if such men are to become permanent leaders and expect attention in their effort to modify or to reorganize university life. Encouraging symptoms of vigorous, competent leadership are manifest in several state universities. Summary 1. The Smith-Hughes Act until the year 1917 was the most far- reaching law ever passed in the United States affecting EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 303 directly sub-collegiate education in the mechanical trades and industries. The measure stimulated all-day schools, part-time schools, and evening schools, and rapid construc- tive work was accomplished in the cities of two score States within a short time. The federal officials in extending co- operation have provided helpful and protective rulings and explanatory literature to authorities in the States. 2, Numerous new problems and difficulties arise to challenge the best thought and the energetic efforts of advocates and administrators of industrial education. Examples of such questions are : The vocational rehabilitation of the disabled, those from war, and those from industry; the problems peculiar to the industrial education of women; questions about commercial production, disposition of productsl made during training; the medical, preventive, and legal aspects of the industrial accident. 3. Especially difficult and new are questions about instruction- the selection, the training, and the methods of teachers. Distinctions need be made between trainers of men for spe- cific jobs and instructors of elementary or of technical sub- jects. Scrutiny and trial need be made of the methods of trade and industrial instruction now variously advocated, i. e., the phase, the project, the analysis of steps of produc- tion with demonstration and practice as by Allen. The choice of institutions and of their locations — whether they be normal schools, technical high schools, or universities is a matter which calls for local adjustment in order to meet the radically different demands of practical trade and industrial instruction. Production and distribution, making and selling are perhaps becoming more unified in industry and commerce. However, somewhat distinct from the occupations of the makers of things in mechanical trades and industries are the sellers and ex- 304 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION changers of commodities. A great number of occupations in the commercial, as marked off from the industrial field, must be considered in establishing vocational education. Commercial education, therefore, will be the subject of the following chapter. Problems 1. What is the most important "product" of any school? 2. Consider from points of view of (a) employers, (b) labor unions, (c) the school, (d) the pupil, the relative merits of different ways of disposing of things made in an industrial school. (See p. 286.) 3. Where trainers are needed rather than professionally devel- oped teachers, how can the matter of preserving ethical ideals under democracy be cared for in the schools? 4. Distinguish between training for skill, and education of best modern type. Can animals be trained or educated? 5. Show that increase of production in any plant necessitates both training and education in the ideal worker. 6. Contrast the relative merits of systems of part-time school- ing: e. g., (a) where alternating teams work for a week in shop and then in school; (b) where young workers put in certain hours each day or week in shop and in school; (c) part-time classes run by corporations, and by the public schools. 7. Why should employers pay wages for the time young em- ployees spend well in part-time courses? 8. How may we safeguard the health of students in part-time and evening courses? 9. Endeavor to formulate definite "projects" for teaching purposes, with regard to a part of some mechanical occu- pation or trade — as firing a boiler, making a door, in- stalling a telephone, driving a rivet, running a planer, or a drill press. EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 305 10. Study and sum up the points of strength and of weakness in Allen's system of teaching jobs. 11. Consider the reasons why the State should pay for the voca- tional rehabilitation of its wounded and disabled soldiers. The strongest of these reasons? 12. Make a statistical study of the numbers and varieties of wounds received in war, and a similar study of industrial accidents per year. Give reasons for (a) enforcement of safety devices in industry; (b) vocational reeducation of the victims of industrial accident. 13. Examine the laws of your State with regard to employer's liability. 14. Show how industrial intelligence as well as skill may be developed even in a unit-trade class. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Allen, Charles R. The Instructor, the Man, and the Job. A hand- book for instructors of industrial and vocational subjects. Phila- delphia and London, New York, 1919, 373 p. 2. Baldwin, Bird T. Occupational Therapy, Applied to Restoration of Disabled Joints. Walter Reed Hospital Monograph, 1919, 67 p. 111. 3. Bibliography of Industrial, Vocational, and Trade Education. United States Bureau of Education Bulletin 22, 1913, 92 p. 4. Buildings and Equipment for Schools and Classes in Trade and In- dustrial Subjects. Federal Board for Vocational Education. Bulle- tin 20, 1918, 77 p. 111. 5. Dean, Arthur S. The Worker and the State. A study of education for industrial workers. N. Y., 355 p. 6. Dearie, N. B. Industrial Training. Special reference to the condi- tions prevailing in London. London, 1914, 596 p. 7. Education of Cripples. An edition of the American Journal of Care of Cripples, vol. IV, no. 2. June 1917, 297 p. 111. Devoted to a sym- posium of 14 studies chiefly concerning disabled soldiers and sailors. See also vol. V. 8. Employment Opportunities for Handicapped Men in the Copper- smithing Trade. B. J. Morris, Red Cross Institute for Crippled Men. New York, 1918, 45 p. lU. 9. English Trade Advisory Reports upon Openings in Industry Suitable 306 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION for Disabled Sailors and Soldiers. 1. Attendants at Electricity Sub-Stations; 2. Employment in Picture Theatres; 3. Tailoring; 4. Agricultural Motor Tractor Work; 5. Furniture Trade; 6, Leather Goods Trade; 7. Boot and Shoe Repairing; 8. Gold, Silver, Jewellery and Watch Clock Repairing; 9. Dental Mechanics; 10. Aircraft Manufacture; 11. Wholesale Tailoring; 12. Boot and Shoe Manufacture; 13. Basket Making; 14. Building Trades; 15. En- gineering; Ministry of Labour and Pensions, Whitehall, S. W. 1. 1917-1918. 10. Industrial Accident Statistics. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Bulletin 157, Washington, 1915, 210 p. 11. Massachusetts State Board of Education, Boston, Bulletin 22, 1916, 62 p. Information Relating to the Establishment of State-Aided Vocational Schools. 12. Myers, George E. What Methods and Standards Is It Advisable to Adopt in the Training of Teachers of Industrial Subjects for Day Schools. Bulletin 26, National Society for Vocational Education, 1918, 83 p. 13. Ruhngs and Decisions of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Includes rulings made subsequent to the pubhcation of Bulletin 1, 1917 (which see). Second Annual Report, pp. 141-151. Wash- ington, D. C, 1918, 172 p. 14. Selection and Training of Teachers for State-Aided Industrial Schools. Summary and Recommendations of Committee Report. National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, Bulletin 19, 1917, pp. 53-56, 64 p. 15. Smith-Hughes Act. See Appendix. 16. Smith-Sears Act. See Appendix. 17. Smith, Harry B. Estabhshing Industrial Schools. N. Y., 1916, 167 p. 18. Snedden, David. Utilization of Existing Teacher Training Institu- tions to Meet the Needs of Industrial School Teachers. Bulletin 26,' National Society for Vocational Education, 1918, 83 p. 19. Trade and Industrial Education, Organization and Administration, Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletin 17, 1918, 125 p. State plans, standards, all-day trade or industrial, part-time, even- ing schools and classes. Text of Smith-Hughes Act. 20. Training of the Injured. Special Report of Mass. Bd. of Education. House Doc, No. 1733, 62 p., 1917. 21. Training of Teachers for Occupational Therapy for the Rehabilitation of Disabled Soldiers and Sailors. A Study by the Federal Board for EDUCATION FOR MECHANICAL INDUSTRIES 307 Vocational Education. Senate Document 167. 65th Congress. 1918, 76 p. 22. Training of Vocational Teachers for Trades and Industries. L. H. Carris. Bulletin 26, National Society for Vocational Education, 1918, 83 p. 23. U. S. Federal Board for Vocational Education, Bulletins: No. 3. Emergency Training in Shipbuilding; 4. Mechanical and Technical Training for Conscripted Men; 5. Emergency War Training for Machine-Shop Occupations, Blacksmithing, Sheet-Metal Working, Pipe Fitting; 9. Training for Electricians, Telephone Repairmen, Linemen, and Cable Sphcers; 10. Training for Gas-Engine Motor- Car, and Motor-Cycle Repairmen; 11. Training for Oxy-Acetylene Welders; 12. For Airplane Mechanics; 17. Trade and Industrial Education, Opportunity Monographs: No. 7, Metal Working Trades; No. 8, Factory Working Trades; No. 11, Automobile Maintenance and Service. Washington, D. C, 1918-1919. 24. Vocational Reeducation for War Cripples in France. Grace S. Harper. New York Institute for Crippled and Disabled Men. New York, 1918, 97 p. lU. CHAPTER X EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE The Workers: Enumeration difiBoult; men and women in business; new occupations; office employments; descriptions and definitions; office or- ganization. Executive Control in Business: Analysis of kinds; main divisions — finance, manufacturing, sales, personnel or employment; qualifications of employment manager. Development of Commercial Education: An ante-bellum review — France, England, Belgium, Germany, United States; statistics of enroll- ment. Terminology in Commercial Education: Important definitions; voca- tional commercial education; commercial arts education; analogies. The Needs and the Types of Schools: Analyses useful; elementary com- mercial education; secondary commercial education; criticisms of secondary training; the private commercial school; evils of private schools; excel- lences of private schools; higher schools of commerce; three types. Contemporary tendencies: Education for work in stores; New York City plan; department store education; methods of instruction; technical knowl- edge required; school credit for business experience; reducing the turn-over; education for foreign trade; the next step; a unit Junior and Senior High School plan; Federal aid for commercial education. Summary. Problems. Selected References. The Workers Enumeration difficult. Illustrative of the variety of workers in occupations termed commercial, are the following: Account- ants, advertising men, agents, auctioneers, bankers, book- keepers, brokers, bundle boys and girls, buyers, cash boys and girls, canvassers, cashiers, clerks (in stores), clerks (shipping and others), collectors, commercial travelers, commission men, dealers, — retail and wholesale, decorators, deliverymen, demon- 308 EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 309 strators, dictaphone operators, drapers, dressers (window), errand boys and girls, executives, exporters, floor- walkers, graders, importers, inspectors, insurance agents and officials, investment bankers, jobbers, loan-brokers, newsboys, packers, pawnbrokers, porters, real estate agents, sales agents, salesmen, saleswomen, speculators, stenographers, stockbrokers, telephone operators, traffic men, typists. This list refers predominantly to persons having to do with the buying and selling, exchange, or delivery of merchandise, rather than with its direct manufac- ture or production. Comparisons for periods of years of the relative numbers of persons engaged in commercial pursuits with the numbers en- gaged in manufacturing or mechanical operations are difficult for several reasons. The enumerators of the Census failed to mark off the clerks as distinguished from the salespeople em- ployed in retail and wholesale trade. There are occupations, such as those of clerks, stenographers, bookkeepers, which are common to many industries, while other occupations — such as those of linotypers, telegraphers, puddlers, pilots, are more nearly elemental or specific for certain industries. Furthermore, previous to the year 1910, the Census combined under the designation "Trade and Transportation" occupations later classified (1910) under "Trade " and "Transportation" respec- tively. Formerly, agents, bankers, brokers, bookkeepers, clerks, and copyists were for some inexplicable reason grouped with draymen, hostlers, steam railroad employees — engineers, switch- men, etc., and undertakers! However, during the year 1910, the United States Census reported 3,614,670 persons under "Trade," and 1,737,053 persons under "Clerical." These to- gether comprised about fourteen per cent of the gainful workers. (28) Men and women in business. There is some indication that commercial life tends to be progressive for boys and static for girls. In one large American city, Cleveland, Ohio, sixty- 310 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION one per cent of the office workers were men, and thirty-nine per cent were women. However, among these workers, of those doing administrative work, ninety-four per cent were men and only six per cent were women. (3) New occupations. The transaction of business a half cen- tury ago was relatively simple as contrasted with the procedure of to-day. The magnitude of contemporary transactions is stupendous. Inventions of machinery and of labor saving devices — such as the telephone, the typewriter, the dictaphone, the adding and computing machines, filing systems, efficiency devices, etc., have greatly modified the variety and types of business and commercial activities. Relatively stable in kinds of activity are bankers, brokers, exporters, importers, insurance agents, jobbers, newsboys, retail proprietors, sales people, whole- sale dealers. Office employments. The U. S. Bureau of Labor has at- tempted to furnish definitions of the various office occupations so that specifications for help may be made uniform, also to furnish a means by which the individual accepting employment may be informed as to the nature of the work he is expected to do. (29) Descriptions and definitions. The definitions and descrip- tions were based upon studies extending over practically the entire United States. More than three score different occupa- tions were enumerated, as follows: Accountant Chief clerk Addressing-machine operator Claims, or complaint adjuster Advertising manager Clerk, general Auditor Collection man Bill clerk Comptometer operator Bookkeeper Controller Bookkeeper, type- writing machine Copy writer Calculating-machine operator Correspondent Cashier Cost accountant EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 311 Credit man Price clerk Dictaphone operator Private secretary Dispatch clerk Production manager Duplicating-machine operator Publicity manager Ediphone operator Purchasing agent Employment manager Receiving clerk Entry clerk Houte clerk Executive secretary Sales manager File clerk Shipping clerk General manager Shop router Graphotype operator Statistical clerk Invoice clerk Statistician Ledger clerk Stenographer Librarian Stenotj^pist Mail clerk Stock chaser Messenger Stock clerk Multigraph operator Storekeeper Office boy Stores clerk Office equipment and arrangement Switchboard operator supervisor Tabulating-machine operator Office girl Telegraph operator Office manager Telephone operator Order clerk Timekeeper Paymaster • Traffic manager Personnel supervisor Transcribing-machine operator Phonotypist Typist Photostat operator Welfare supervisor Here are a few selected definitions of the Bureau illustrative of the above occupations. Code words are printed to the right. Accountant Abate Kindred Occupations: Auditor; Cost accountant. Description: The accountant makes a thorough study and analysis of the business and devises and installs the forms of books and ac- counts best adapted to meet the needs of the concern. Once a satisfactory system has been put into operation, the accountant oversees the general bookkeeping force and makes up statements of 312 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION results when required. He interprets the results shown by the financial statements and prepares such special statements as are needed. Qualifications: Should be familiar with general office practice and should have an analytical mind. Should have executive abihty and be mentally alert. Should have graduated from an account- ancy school of recognized standing, or have had equivalent ex- perience. Schooling: High school; higher education desirable. Advertising Manager Abode Kindred Occupation : Copy writer. Description: The advertising manager plans and carries out the publicity policy of the firm. Qualifications: He must be able to write and arrange forceful, timely, convincing, and grammatical copy for newspapers, magazines, trade and house papers, catalogues, form letters, booklets, and other advertising mediums. He must understand the details of publishing and printing and must determine the size, frequency, and position of insertions. He should have had selling and news- paper experience and know the advantages and limitations of the various advertising mediums. He must have initiative, originality of expression, breadth of view, and a knowledge of human nature. Schooling: High school; higher education desirable, Card-Punching-Machine Operator Click Description: The card-punching-machine operator transfers data from original records to tabulating machine cards by punching holes into a standard tabulating card. Qualifications: Accuracy; speed. Schooling: Common school. Credit Man Card Description : The credit man investigates the financial standing and reputation of customers, and passes upon the extent of credit to be advanced them; approves or rejects charge sales. Qualifications : He should be familiar with commercial agency ratings and be able to read reports and statements correctly and intelli- EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE . 313 gently. Should have some accountancy training and a thorough knowledge of credit instruments. He should have a thorough knowledge of trade and financial conditions, have keen business insight, should be a good judge of men, possess tact, have a good memory, and be thorough. SchooUng: High school. File Clerk Fade Description: The file clerk files away for safe-keeping letters and other papers, and finds them promptly when they are needed. Qualifications : Should have had some general office experience and be familiar with the various filing systems. Should be a keen ob- server, a quick thinker, possess a good memory and a mind for detail. Should be thoroughly conscientious, accurate, and alert. Schooling: Common school; standard course in filing, or equivalent. Office Manager Ocher Description: The office manager has charge of the office and must see that each department has the proper number of employees, that the work is satisfactory, that the methods of the office are efficient, that the work is properly and promptly dispatched, and that the workers are efficiently placed. He is responsible for regular and punctual attendance, and looks after the employment, transfer, and discharge of office help. Qualifications: He must be progressive and have a broad point of view, the power to direct others, and the ability to delegate work that can be done by subordinates. He must understand thoroughly the work of every department and its interrelations. He must be enthusiastic, alert, tolerant, firm, tactful, and resourceful. Schooling: High school; higher education desirable; accountancy and business courses desirable. Purchasing Agent Pall Description: The purchasing agent investigates market conditions, determines where the needed material can be most advantageously purchased, and sees that the material is bought and delivered at the proper time. Qualifications : He must know how to obtain information as to sources 314 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of supply, and how to give records of past purchases, prices, and quotations. He must know how much material must be purchased and when to purchase it most advantageously. Good judgment; must be well balanced and alert; technical education in his industry desirable. Schooling: High school. Statistician Shirk Description: The statistician is responsible for the collection, com- pilation, and preparation of statistical tables, graphs, and reports of various kinds. Qualifications : Should have experience in investigative and statistical work and a broad general knowledge of statistics and their appli- cation to business conditions. He should be thoroughly familiar with the work of accounting, sales, and statistics, or have equiva- lent training. Schooling: College education. Tabulating-Machine Operator Tame Description: The tabulating-machine operator assembles the tabu- lating machine cards by means of an electric sorting machine, which classifies the cards according to the desired classifications. Qualifications: Accuracy, speed, manipulative skill, and a mind for detail. Schooling: Common school; special training. Traffic Manager Tan Description: The traffic manager specifies for the purchasing de- partment the best routing for outgoing and incoming freight; computes freight charges, checks freight bills, and handles all claims for damages, loss, or overcharge. Qualifications: He must be thoroughly familiar with all railroad routes, terminals, and tariffs in the territory over which he is to route freight. Must be familiar with interstate commerce laws and methods of packing and classifying freight. Actual railroad experience essential. Schooling: High school; courses in business arithmetic, industrial history, commercial geography, and business procedure. EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 315 Transcribing-Machine Operator Thus Kindred Occupation: Typist. Description: The transcribing-machine operator types the dicta- tion which has been recorded on the cyhnders of the dictating machine. Quahfications : The operator should be neat, accurate, mentally alert, and quick. Should have a thorough knowledge of business English and letter writing, spelling, and punctuation. Must be a high-grade typist and should have had special training in tran- scribing. Accurate hearing. Schooling: Common school; high school desirable; special training as typist. Welfare Supervisor Wage Description : The welfare supervisor has general charge of the work- ing conditions that make for efficiency and well-being of factory and office employees. The duties include the oversight of hos- pitals, lunch rooms, wash rooms, and libraries, housing conditions, and often require visits to the homes of the workers. Qualifications: Must have a knowledge of factory hygiene, housing, education, club activities, the improvement of the industrial environment; courses in industrial and social sciences or equiva- lent. Schooling: College education or equivalent. (29) Office organization. The Cleveland Survey thus classified kinds of work and the positions of a typical large office organi- zation: (3b) Kinds of Office Work Classified Administrative Clerical Financiering Accounting, bookkeeping Organization and administration Credit work Merchandising and advertising Handling funds Development and experimentation Correspondence Efficiency engineering Filing, records 316 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Workers Officials Managers Salesmen and advertising men Other specialists Assistants Auditors Accountants Bookkeepers Credit men Cashiers Clerks Stenographers Machine operators Telephone operators Messengers Office boys Executive Control in Business Analysis of kinds. In well-organized concerns there may be found different divisions of administration. Professor Robin- son thus outlines business organizations: (32) Ultimate Authority Individual proprietor General Policies Individual proprietor Departments Partnership Partners Accounting Purchasing Chief Executive Individual pro- Legal prietor or gen- eral manager Partners, sever- ally, or man- aging partner Manufacturing Executive com- m i 1 1 e e or president Executive com- m i 1 1 e e or president Main divisions. Another way of looking at the main de- partments of business administration yields the following four main divisions: Corporation Co-operative society Stockholders and directors Society and the committee Sales Transportation EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 317 (1) Finance, — chiefly under the charge of a treasurer or president. (2) Manufacturing, — under the charge of a general manager, superintendent, or otherwise designated officer. (3) Sales, — under the charge of a salesmanager with special- ists as assistants. (4) Personnel, or employment. This fourth, and recently recognized, general division of industrial management is con- cerned with the centralization of activities having to do with the "human relations" — that is, with living, education, pro- motion, discipline, discharge, wage setting, pensions, sick bene- fits, housing, etc., of employees. Qualifications of employment manager. It is our purpose to illustrate more fully only the fourth of the above divisions — employment. This new division of commercial and industrial organization involves employing specialists rather than per- mitting its functions to remain under the charge of a variety of minor executives, superintendents, foremen, head clerks, and bosses. Edward D. Jones of the War Industries Board, thus describes the successful employment manager: (14) The employment manager, who measures up to the new standards now being set, is a first-class executive,, standing on a parity with the sales manager or the production engineer. He has the more need of talent because of the newness of his position, a circumstance which emphasizes flexibility of ideas, the ability to conduct investigations, the courage to be a pioneer, and the power of commanding the con- fidence of others in his pioneering. Again, his position is difficult, because he stands between parties which have been traditionally op- posed to each other, namely, capital and management on the one side, and labor and craftsmanship on the other. He must always perform the functions of a mutual interpreter and often those of a peacemaker. In considering a proposed occupation it is wise to present a sober view of its conditions, so that persons who lack a sufficient persistency and depth of conviction for success may be early dissuaded. Wlierever 318 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION there is authority there is responsibility; where there is reward there is struggle. If the general significance of employment management lies in its accord with the progressive tendencies of the age, the greater part of the energies of the individual employment manager is absorbed by the practical problems of finding enough workmen, of supervising records, and of hearing and adjusting complaints. It may be the lot of an employment officer to deal with a hard-headed proprietor, who is habituated to take the defensive against new plans. He may encounter the open or concealed opposition of foremen who, for the sake of pres- tige, cling to functions they can not properly perform. He may find organized labor cold to benefits which the unions have not won, and which look toward the substitution of a vertical bond, uniting employer and employed, for the horizontal union of employees of different es- tablishments. All of this means that the successful employment manager must be a person exceptionally fitted for leadership. He needs good native ability, made serviceable by adequate general and special training. He should possess a well-balanced and absolutely impartial judgment. It is a powerful aid if he possess humanitarian instincts and a sympathetic disposition. These must, however, be real attributes, and not a mere pose or poUcy, for no deception will long blind those with whom he is associated. The person who measures himself for this position should be able to find indubitable testimony as to the strength of his own character, in the quality and amount of his achievements, and in the regard he has been able to earn from responsible persons with whom he has been associated. He should find in himself, also, the ability to understand human nature, not through the absurd practice of some quackery of phrenology and physiognomy, but by having analyzed his own nature, and having found therein the instincts and emotions which illuminate for him the motives and passion of others. With these endowments the employment manager should couple sufficient education to avoid embarrassment in the oral or written use of his mother tongue. His education should enable him to under- stand the use of general principles, avoiding the pitfalls into which the so-called "practical" man has usually fallen when he complains of "theories." And this education should have had a wide enough scope EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 319 to enable him to meet the minds of others, and cement friendships, in a world of ideas larger than the details of his work. Finally, the employment manager is perfected for the practice of his art by general industrial experience and (if the position in view be in a manufacturing estabhshment) by actual contact with shop problems. This shop experience is useful to make the candidate familiar with factory tools, machinery, equipment, materials, and processes. It will instruct him, as no form of systematic training can do, in the meaning of factory Ufe, the significance of its discipline, the meaning of its schedule of hours in terms of fatigue, and in the attitude of the worker to his job, his boss, his fellow worker, and to life in general. Any general social experience which the candidate may have had, which has taught him how to deal with people, not as individuals only but in the various forms of voluntary organization, will have value. The employment manager is related to recent movements in psy- chology. He has an opportunity to apply appropriate performance tests and general intelligence tests, for the purpose of sorting out those persons who, although adult in physical development, have still the minds of children. These classes he identifies, not to reject from em- ployment but to place at appropriate work; not to browbeat and ter- rorize, but to protect and guide by patient and educative foreman- izing to insure their becoming happy and permanent members of the productive community. To summarize the matter of qualifications we give the relative weights which a number of successful employment managers have agreed upon for five principal factors: Per cent Personality 35 General industrial experience 25 Executive experience 20 Shop experience (for employment managers in manufacturing establishments) 15 Experience with organized social movements 5 Total 100 (ibid.) 320 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Development of Commercial Education An ante-bellum review. The following abstracts and quota- tions present the substance of an historical review of com- mercial education written by Dean Johnson a few years before the World War. These items were set forth: France had a few old and well-established schools of commerce, but on the whole the number of students in commercial education was sur- prisingly small, and the system was not very extensive. There were con- tinuation schools with evening sessions under government supervision, in which instruction was given in commercial and industrial subjects. Private commercial schools like those in the United States were also found in many cities. The chambers of commerce were responsible for three other types of commercial education: (1) Free evening classes; (2) secondary commercial schools; (3) higher commercial schools. Of the third type, the School of Higher Commercial Studies at Paris was the most advanced. It presumed a fair degree of maturity in the stu- dents, and the number of these is limited. A two-year course was given of about the grade of' university schools of commerce in the United States. Emphasis was laid upon instruction in languages, accounts, commercial geography, commerce, and commercial law. There were more than a dozen other higher schools of commerce in France. Some are among the oldest in the world. England was far behind, a fact which has caused no little uneasiness among English business men. The chief hindrance to progress was the examination method which has been in vogue there so long, and which naturally has given little incentive to improvement of instruction. Examinations in commercial subjects were conducted by the London Chamber of Commerce, the Society of Arts, the Institute of Chartered Accountants, the Institute of Banlcers, and many other bodies, each for its own aims and in its own way. There was little cooperation be- tween the bodies, although this defect is being remedied. But because of this unfortunate system, schools have been devoted too much to cramming, and development has been individual and slow. Up to the beginning of the present century there was little commercial education worthy of the name. Although there were almost innumerable va- EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 321 rieties of commercial schools, few were comparable with similar ones in Germany and the United States. Continuation schools had been established and recognized by the Department of Education. They gave evening instruction of a rather elementary kind in commercial subjects. There were a number of private business schools, notably the Pitman School, similar to those in the United States, and equal to the best of them. Secondary schools of commerce had been established in a few large cities, through the efforts of the chambers of commerce and other commercial bodies. The London School of Economics and Political Science, founded in 1895 and supported at first by the Tech- nical Education Board of the London County Council, gave higher commercial instruction of a rather liberal character. In 1900 it was admitted into the University of London. Courses covering a wide range were given, and the degrees of Bachelor of Science and Doctor of Science were conferred upon successful candidates. Other university and college schools of commerce, most of them of a more professional character than that at London, have been established in Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds, Birmingham, and other cities. The evening courses have met with a fair degree of success. Belgium is credited with having established the first commercial school of true university grade at Antwerp in 1853, and the work had been kept up to date. Germany. Her growth and development in the two fields (commer- cial education and commerce) was rapid and simultaneous since the latter part of the nineteenth century, especially since 1887, which marked the beginning of Germany's real advance in commercial educa- tion. The result has been manifested in the most complete and com- prehensive scheme of commercial education in the world. Its salient features were the close relation of its several parts and its breadth of outlook. The system in Germany's education before the war was the envy of foreigners. The whole structure was planned to give a unified and thorough preparation for any calling in life. It was fostered and controlled by the government, and thus secured not only provisions for all classes of students, but also a harmonious interrelation of the sev- eral schools. The Realschulen and Oberrealschulen were credited with the foundation of the scheme of commercial education, because they had been kept constantly in touch with changing needs, and have 322 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION therefore supplied preparation that is not too rigidly classical in char- acter. The strictly commercial education, however, was given mainly by three types of schools, corresponding roughly to the three main types in the United States; namely, the private commercial school, the public secondary school, and the university. In Germany the three main groups are the continuation school, or school for apprentices, the middle commercial school, and the higher commercial school. United States. The beginning of commercial education in the United States was characteristically American. It was a growth, not an in- stitution — a growth of private enterprise in response to public need. It was spontaneous, and several early forms were almost simultaneous. All were in answer to definitely voiced demands. In the early part of the last century there was practically nothing in the way of instruction to prepare for business life. Boys who looked forward to business careers left school early and entered stores or offices, where they served apprenticeships of greater or less duration. Here they learned such bookkeeping and business methods as were then in vogue. The quahty of instruction they obtained depended, of course, on the employer. There was small opportunity for comparison or improvement of meth- ods, and progress was slow, individually and, collectively. Even this meager instruction was not to be obtained by all. The increasing im- portance of commerce attracted more men than the offices and stores could train ; and this training, moreover, was too slow for those who had already reached manhood. . . . Their demand was unheeded by public and private schools then in existence. As it increased, private schools and classes in bookkeeping sprang up in all the principal cities of the country, somewhere between 1830 and 1840. These private schools, formless and unsystematic as they were, gave the first commercial education and were the forerunners of the modern business schools that are found in every important city in the United States. To whom belongs the honor of the first venture in commercial edu- cation is a matter of some dispute. It has frequently been attributed to R. M. Bartlett of Philadelphia, who established a school there in 1843 to provide the substitute for apprenticeship, of which he had himself felt the need. By others the honor is claimed for James Bennett, a New York accountant, who seems to have conducted a private school, in which bookkeeping and navigation EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 323 were the principal subjects, some time between 1818 and 1836. The exact date when the school was begun is not known. James Gordon Bennett, with whom James Bennett is frequently confused, announced a school of this kind in 1824, but it is doubtful if it was ever established. Other early schools were founded by Peter Duff of Pittsburg, George N. Comer of Boston, and Jonathan Jones of St. Louis. Most of these early schools had bookkeeping as their foundation subject. There were some, however, of slightly different origin. They were begun by itiner- ant penmen, such as Silas S. Packard and Piatt R. Spencer, who formed penmanship classes in various cities. From these classes schools often sprang up. The number of these business schools seems to have in- creased with more rapidity than their quality. Penmanship and book- keeping were still the main subjects, with frequently the addition of commercial arithmetic and commercial law. Later stenography and typewriting came in. But in general the instruction given was purely technical and along narrow lines. Practical utility rather than cultural value was sought. The instructors were frequently men of deficient education, especially in English composition, and in many cases en- couraged extremely mechanical methods of work. What was more serious, the aims of education were often defeated by too great an influence of the money-making spirit in the manage- ment of the schools. Energetic and resourceful men estabUshed chains of business schools in a number of cities throughout the country. These they placed in charge of young men as managers, who were to share in the profits. The most important of these chains was that established by H. B. Bryant and H. D. Stratton, whose efforts began in 1853 and resulted in 1863 in a strong combination of schools, to the number of fifty or more, all under their general management. So successful were they that about 1866 they made an attempt to monopolize the field of commercial education by crushing all competition of other business schools. Internal dissensions and opposition by the managers of many of their branches, and the failing health of Mr. Stratton, the real director of the organization, made this plan impossible of execution. Other associations of commercial schools were begun in 1866, but none rose to the commanding position enjoyed by the Bryant and Stratton chain in the early '60's. The intense competition which followed was productive of as great evils as the monopolistic system. Special in- 324 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ducements were offered to part-time students. In some cases the only requirement for entrance was the necessary fee. Vast sums of money were spent in all kinds of advertising. Brass bands, stump speeches, and penmanship exhibitions at county fairs and the like were among the schemes resorted to by some of the aggressive "educators." It is not surprising, in view of this, that there were many charlatans in the field, and that the work suffered accordingly. In spite of the evils, the schools grew in number and in size with astonishing rapidity. They furnished training that was not to be obtained elsewhere, and served an extremely useful and necessary purpose. From an enrollment of at most a few score students in 1840 they increased in half a century to more than 100,000.(7) Statistics of enrollment. The United States Bureau of Education states that the numbers of students in public and higher institutions had not been reported for a number of years. These unreported schools and the enrollment in the hundreds of business schools not reporting would increase the known totals, it is 'believed, nearly one-half million. Table XVIII on page 325 contains data from schools reporting to the Bureau for 1915 and 1916.(36) Terminology in Commercial Education Important definitions. Two definitions may be accepted as fairly well standardized in the attempt to clarify the ter- minology of business and commercial education. These denote respectively vocational commercial education, and commercial arts education. Vocational commercial education. A committee of the Na- tional Education Association agreed that "vocational com- mercial education" denotes those forms of vocational edu- cation the direct purpose of which is to fit for some recognized commercial calling, such as that of accountant, banker, broker, clerk, shopper, salesman, stenographer, or telegraph operator. EDUCATION FOR BUSINESS AND COMMERCE 325 3 00 00 CO (N 00 05 o 00_ m OJ CO c3 C-l -!l< Ttl Q "3 t^ o lO -* ■^ S 00 (M 05 3 oo" CO co" CO CC m ta 03 (M 02 _« CD (N CO CO CO CO "3 o oT OS co" CO o o CD ■* oq (N o •* ■* O j3 t^ °° 05 >o a (N Tl<" z m ■< lO _^^ 05 CD lO CD 1^ no "3 O o 00 CTi tr- CD IM lO S s o nT CO CO cji" w K H O 00 O > R (1) The Schools. With regard to necessary modifications of or additions to existing schools. 414 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION (2) Industries. With regard to necessary modifications of existing practices and laws as affecting local industries. It is not to be overlooked that while the special, legitimate interests of groups are to be equitably conserved, e. g., of teachers, of employers, and of employees,— nevertheless the im- plications of universal education point directly to the welfare of society as our chief end. The schools do not exist merely in behalf of the teacher-group; they must not be allowed to serve solely for the special advantage of a special group, as employers and corporations, or employees and unions. Efficiency and material benefit will accrue to all concerned from wise and im- partial use of a ballast of facts in navigating many an educa- tional shoal. One might tabulate an inventory of numerous specific prob- lems for educational research that urgently invoke serious cooperation of good citizens, whether they be school men, on- lookers, or men in industry. In the meantime, sound judgment prescribes a firm foundation of facts of many kinds in the execu- tion of plans for relating rightly the schools to industry, and industry to the schools. Preconceived ideas in places high or low, partisan debate and controversy, instead of fair trial, and methods of experimentation or observation under controlled conditions, ultimately may give large place to the preliminary application of scientific methods to the study of the educational and industrial problems. This application is desirable if we are to effect the right interrelation between education and in- dustry — an issue fraught with some peril. Summary Without attempting to review the vast fields to which we have referred in this chapter, we may emphasize four aspects of the general problem of utilizing the research method in the effort to secure wholesome, mutual adjustment of education and in- dustry. RESEARCH FOR EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY 415 1. Research is a fundamental step preliminary to human prog- ress, as proved in the fields of chemistry, physics, medi- cine, and invention. Its methods — painstaking collection of relevant data, systematic observation and experiment, and cautious deduction of principles from facts — are ap- plicable to the problems both of industry and of the schools. 2. Industrial researches, in addition to technical studies about materials and machines, are being made with success, as concerns efficiency of operations, selection of promotional material among candidates and employees, occupational descriptions and analyses. 3. Educational researches in school administration vary in aim but mainly have been concerned about curricula, courses of study, methods of teaching, measurements of achieve- ment in spelling, arithmetic, reading, grammar, etc., with some attention to building standards, hygiene, and finance. 4. The movement for better articulation of the school with life has given impetus to the industrial survey preliminary to the establishment, or addition to existing schools, of voca- tional education. Sound principles of research demand that a complete vocational-educational survey shall com- bine these four elements: (1) Adequate studies of com- munity background; (2) studies of existing industries and analyses of the important occupations therein contained; (3) study of the existing schools, pubhc and private, with reference to administration, organization, number, staff, hygiene programs, curricula, methods, finance, and general operation; (4) constructive plan of action based upon the preceding three studies and pointing to definite modifica- tions both of schools and of industrial establishments. One hears often these days of the new applications of scientific psychology to the problems of the schools and of in- 416 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION dustry. It remains for us to say a word of caution and of in- formation regarding practical applications of psychology. Problems 1. Look over the preceding eleven chapters of this book and then formulate a statement of twenty different and un- solved problems in vocational education which profitably might be attacked by the method of scientific research. 2. Point out the differences between the philosophical and the scientific modes of approach upon a problem. 3. Show that attempts at research without suitable plan or preparation upon the part of the investigator may result in a mere trial-and-error procedure, imitative effort, or a repetition of what is already known. 4. Read Durand(l) and Thomson(28) and afterwards write a brief resume of most important facts and conclusions therein. 5. What are the various meanings of the word practicalf 6. Describe the essential features and the valid uses of a trade test. 7. Restate the steps or stages in the making of a trade test. 8. As a study of some magnitude single out a well-defined trade in your community (e. g., monotyper, linotyper, cabinet maker, stationary engineer, hand cigar-maker, tailor,) and without reference to existing tests, make a valid performance test, following the procedure indicated above. (Problem 7.) 9. Examine carefully the following reports of surveys and classify them as predominantly (a) educational or school, or (b) vocational or industrial, or (c) vocational educational combined: San Francisco, Cleveland, Indian- apolis, Butte, Salt Lake City, Richmond (Va.), Newark, St. Louis, Detroit, Minneapolis, Springfield (111.). 10. Single out a dozen local occupations, study them carefully RESEARCH FOR EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY 417 at first-hand, write specifications for each occupation or job. Afterwards compare your own specifications of the local occupations with specifications of the War Depart- ment and Bureau of Labor Statistics. 11. In a small city under 25,000 inhabitants, and first obtaining skilled assistance and also the cooperation and backing of local Board of Education, Association of Commerce, and Labor Unions — make a vocational-educational survey with a view to mutual adjustments of schools and of industry. This, of course, is not an undertaking for amateurs. 12. Before reading the next chapter, recall your own views regarding the nature and applications of modern psychol- ogy. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Applications of Science. W. F. Durand. The Science Monthly. Au- gust 1917, pp. 146-154. 2. Bigelow, C. M. Industrial Management, pp. 1-8, N. Y., July, 1919. 3. British Ministry of Labour. Reports on Openings in Industry. Pamphlets I-XV, 1918. H. M. Stationery Office, London. 4. Cleveland Education Survey Reports. 25 volumes. Div. Ed. Russell Sage Foundation. New York City. 5. Farnham, D. T. Industrial Management, N. Y., January, 1919, pp. 37-38. 6. Hill, David S. (o) The Application of Research in Relating Industry and Educa- tion. School and Society, N. Y., July 6, 1918, pp. 1-11. (6) Industry and Education. New Orleans, 1916, 409 p. 111. 7. The Joxirnal of Educational Research, Bloomington, 111., 1919. 8. Mahoney, James. Some Foreign Educational Surveys. Bulletin No. 37, 1915. U. S. Bureau of Education. 9. Measurement of Education Products. Part II. Seventeenth Year- book, Nat. Soc. for the Study of Education. 1918, 194 p. (Bibliog- raphy). 10. Methods of Gathering Data about Industries. U. S. Education Bulle- tin 21, 1916, pp. 98-117. 418 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 11. Minneapolis, Minn. Vocational Education Survey. U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1917, 592 p. 12. Personnel Management. Topical Outline and Bibliography. Jan- uary, 1919. Adjutant General's Office. Washington, D. C, 59 p. 13. Personnel Work in the United States Army. Summary of the work of the Classification Division. Adjutant General's Department. Wash- ington, D. C, 1919, 15 p. 111. 14. Plans for Organizing School Surveys. U. S. S. Ed. Thirteenth Year Book. Part II., 1913, and bibliography to 1912-1913. 15. Pritchett, H. S. Survey Movement. Ninth Annual Report Carnegie Foundation. 1914. 16. Prosser, C. A. Organization and Methods of the Survey. Proc. Ninth Annual Meeting. Nat. Soc. for the Promotion of Industrial Educa- tion, 1916, 403 p., pp. 85-95. 17. Research — The Amateur Graduate Student. W. A. Hervey. Co- lumbia Univ. Quarterly. September, 1916. 18. Richmond, Va., Vocational Education Survey of. Bulletin 162, 1916, U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 333 p. 19. Right Man in the Right Place. Pamphlet issued by Adjutant Gen- eral's Office. 1919, 68 p. 111. Shows trade tests, personnel work, ratings, etc. 20. Scott, Walter D. Selection of Employees by Means of Quantitative Determinations. Annals of American Academy of Political and Social Science. May, 1916. 21. Segur, A. B. Industrial Surveys for Physical Readjustment. In- dustrial Management. January, 1919, pp. 63-65. 22. Smith, H. L. Establishing Industrial Schools, N. Y. 1916, 167 p. 23. Smith, H. S. Survey of a Public School System. (Bloomington, In- diana, Schools.) 304 p. Teachers College Publication, 1917. 24. Standards and Tests for the Measurement of the Efficiency of Schools and School Systems. Part I, Fifteenth Yearbook, Nat. Soc. for the Study of Education, 1916, 172 p. 25. Surveys — bibUography to 1914. U. S. Education Report, Vol. 1, 1914, p. 592 et seq. 26. Surveys, School; Reviews by E. F. Buchner. Ch. XVIII. U. S. Educa- tion Report, 1915, pp. 433-492. Also, see ibid.. Vol. I, Ch. XXIV, pp. 513-562, 1914. 27. Survey of School Surveys. L. P. Ayres, 1915. Ind. Univ. Bulletin, October, 1915, pp. 172-181. 28. Thomson, S .H. An Introduction to Science. N. Y., 1911, 256 p. RESEARCH FOR EDUCATION AND INDUSTRY 419 29. Trade Specifications and Occupational Index. United States Army, 1918, 239 p. 30. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bulletins containing oc- cupational analyses of various industries. 1918. 31. Winslow, Charles H. How the Indiana Surveys were Made. Proc. Tenth Annual Meeting, Nat. Soc. for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 1917, 311 p. Pp. 31-33. 32. Yearbooks of National Society for the Study of Education. 1902- 1920, inclusive. CHAPTER XIII APPLICATIONS OF PSYCHOLOGY TO INSTRUCTION AND INDUSTRY Psychology Explained: Unwarranted expectations; extreme attitudes; what psychology is not; progress of psychology; scope and status. Measuring Abilities: Analysis of general intelligence; intelligence as voluntary adaptability; testing intelligence; standards of intelligence, in army, in university; interpreting tests; not sufficient for guidance; measure- ment vs. guess; judging others — students, employees; Hollingworth's experiments; army ratings. Other Psychological Applications: Mental hygiene; detecting new ca- pacities; fatigue; dependence upon special practice; economy in learning — ■ modes, habit; instructional methods; principles of method; concrete types of teaching. The Meaning of Life Work: Three terms distinguished; guidance diffi- cult; ideal conceptions; maintaining ideals. Summary. Problems. Selected References. Psychology Explained Unwarranted expectations. Years ago Professor James called attention to an unnecessary feeling of strain upon the part of some conscientious teachers, lest they do not learn enough of psychology to be efficient as instructors. It is not true that all of the psychology a teacher needs can be written on the palm of one's hand, but it is true that unwarranted, disap- pointing expectations have arisen regarding the immediately practical benefits to accrue in education from the psychology of introspection, reaction time experiments, tests with nonsense syllables, and other laboratory devices. In active life outside of the school we hear often of the applications of psychology to problems of business and industry. The student of the voca- tional movement in education may pause therefore long enough 420 PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 421 to gain an appreciation of what is worth while in the attempt to apply psychology to education and to industrial problems. Extreme attitudes. Two extremes of position may be found with reference to the utility of modern psychology in solving problems of education and of business or industry. The one extreme is that of credulity or naive faith in almost anything that purports to be psychology. The other is an attitude of utter dislike of anything called psychological. A writer in a journal of business said the mention of applied psychology "gave him disgust," and Paul Shorey, a university professor of the extreme classical school, writes about as strongly against educational psychology. The moderately interested reader is puzzled by these extreme opinions and by the fact that psychol- ogists among themselves apparently have differed in views. With respect to this divergence among psychologists, it may be said that points of difference naturally have been discussed and magnified more than those conclusions upon which all are prac- tically agreed. The steady growing applications of scientific psychology in schools, in the Army, in industry and business render imperative a sane appraisal of the nature values and limitations of this branch of pure science used so much by re- searchers. What psychology is not. The uninitiated are likely to confuse psychology with legends or with pseudo-scientific talk about such things as these: Mind-reading, telepathy, search for spirits and spooks, phrenology, palmistry, "character reading" by physiognomy, animal magnetism, somnambulism, "new thought," necromancy, and additional subjects that appeal to the morbid. The word psychology has become indelibly associ- ated unfortunately with such things in the minds of many intel- ligent persons. Psychology is only concerned with these matters so far as the demonstrable facts about illusions, hallucinations, delusions, and suggestion, uncover fraud and error in order to get at the 422 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION truth. A scientific study is an organized body of knowledge based chiefly upon careful observation and recorded experiment. Scientific psychology is simply the scientific attempt to study mental life wherever found. Progress of psychology. Scientific psychology has made re- relatively slow progress because all mankind necessarily possesses a working knowledge of facts about mental processes (anger, fear, memory, imagination, dreams, etc.) and has been satisfied with crude psychology. Opposition to psychology has arisen owing to the conflict of some psychological findings with in- trenched interests in medicine, in education, and in ecclesiasti- cism. Furthermore, the subject matter of psychology, mental life, is infinitely varied, complex, and difficult. Socrates and Aristotle long ago pointed the way to the study of mind — but scientific psychology has uniformly made relatively slow prog- ress, even during the days of modern experimenters. Scope and status. As in medicine, so in psychology many pages would be required merely to catalog a classification of the types of studies now being made in psychology. The scope of pure and of applied psychology is very wide. Pure psychology has been approached from various points of view, e. g., the philosophical, the physiological, the genetic, the laboratory. Its materials for observation include animals and human beings, the young and the old, both sexes, the normal and the abnormal. Applied psychology is used in medicine, in the training of teachers, in business— as in the study of advertising, testing candidates for designated positions, discovery of promotional material. At best, however, applied psychology is only in its beginnings. The American Psychological Association and the National Council of Research have maintained a high standard of scientific rectitude for its psychological workers. Nevertheless, outside of the fold, fakers and pretenders in applied psychology abound, often making unwarranted and silly claims for its values which may appeal to the credulous or unwary. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 423 Measuring Abilities Analysis of general intelligence. The expression intelligence is inextricably associated with different meanings. For example, philosophers debate about the intelligences — animal, human, and divine, and intelligence as related to the ''dichotomies and trichotomies of the soul." In everyday speech the word intel- ligence may vaguely denote discernment, or understanding, or power of .cognition, or acquired knowledge, or common sense, etc. The practical use of mental tests has rendered imperative a statement of the essential properties of the thing to be measured ; hence have come numerous attempts to define general intel- ligence, a phase of life very desirable to measure. It will be use- ful to review briefly some of these attempts before stating a working definition. James, in distinction from Darwin, held that man has the largest number of instincts (inherited racial habits) of any animal. Darwin, however, admitted that a high degree of intelligence is compatible with complex instincts — as in the case of the beaver, the sterile worker-ants, and bees. The problem of the nature of intelligence has been probed deeply not only with reference to human beings but also with reference to ani- mals, as witness the researches of Claparede, Morgan, Forel, Jennings, Dawson, Porter, Davis, Watson, and Yerkes. Hart and Spearman regard general intelligence as a central tendency or common factor of the mind, present in practically all mental activities. Laboratory psychologists have been prone to single out aspects of memory, attention, imagination, per- ception, discrimination, etc., as functions of consciousness and by testing these separately have sought a fair sampling of the mind. The trouble about this method much used by psychia- trists who study and treat mental disease, is that we do not know how far general intelligence is related to these specific functions, and furthermore, there is assumed in the method an artificial 424 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION separation or distinction of the functions of the mind from each other and from the emotional nature. (18) (22) Intelligence as voluntary adaptability. Although the ex- pression general intelligence remains ambiguous, nevertheless much has been gained by the movement to limit and circum- scribe definitely what we shall denote by general intelligence in the practice work of testing. Any pragmatic definition doubt- less will be unsatisfactory to the metaphysically minded ; never- theless it has been pointed out that we do not have to be able to define a thing truly before we are able to use it, for example, electricity. The movement to limit the meaning of the expression general intelligence is discerned in the work of such investigators as Binet, Burt, Spearman, Stern, and Terman. Stern, as trans- lated by Whipple, felicitously expresses a widely accepted work- ing definition as follow : hitelUgence is a general capacity of an individual to adjust his thinking to new requirements: it is general mental adaptability to new problems and conditiotis of life. (22) The definition is not final and denotes something quite different from that implied in the common loose use of the expression. It de- notes by general intelligence essentially a mental capacity for voluntary, advantageous adaptability to definite, new conditions. Testing intelligence. Mental testing is very practically re- lated to contemporary educational and applied psychology as developed by Thorndike, Hollingworth, Judd, Dearborn, Free- man, Starch, Woolley, Colvin, Gordon, and others. Indeed, it is impracticable to draw rigid lines between the three kinds of experiments in educational and applied psychology, viz.: (1) Experiments upon the learning process, upon individual differ- ences, etc.; (2) measurements of achievement in school subjects, such as spelling, reading, writing, arithmetic; (3) mental tests to measure specific traits, or attitudes, or general intelligence. We have already referred to contemporary uses of mental tests for the quick selection of good promotive material in Indus- PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 425 try and in the schools. A psychological experiment of the lab- oratory and research type, is simply an introspection under con- trolled conditions. A mental test resembles it in that conditions similarly must be controlled, and accuracy of observation and report must be secured. It differs from the old-time psychologi- cal experiment in that emphasis is placed upon behavior, per- formance, rather than upon introspection. It can be used there- fore with children and with those untrained in psychological introspection. The purposes of mental tests are also becoming restricted and more clearly specified, such as, to ascertain the presence and amount of certain traits, or to measure aptitudes for designated mental and physical performances, or to ascertain the relative amount of "general intelligence." The technics of the trained psychologist, of the statistician, and of the skilled teacher are being focused upon the derivation and standard- ization of mental tests. A sound appraisal of their limitations and values always is desirable, but already far more good re- sults from mental tests are accruing, than have been secured from the merely laboratory type of psychological experiment, which has been a disappointment in pragmatic uses. Standards of intelligence, in army, in university. We are printing Figure VIII and Table XXI which are examples of re- cent uses of the Army Intelligence Tests. In Figure VIII are shown the scores made by men classified in various occupational groups within the Army.(l) Although the results are open to certain criticism they mark the beginning of a real occupational psychology. However, it is not known just what grade of oc- cupational skill is actually represented by the men classified in the different groups, and the aspects of intelligence measured by the particular test do not give accurately comparable pictures of the "general intelligence" of the men, defined in broad terms. In Table XXI are given the results of the application under the writer's direction of Army Tests (Alpha-Form 6) to about 3500 students in the University of Illinois during 1919. (7c) 3 Laborers -^^m^" 48 TailorsJ •^— i 47c Cobblers _ 12g General'Minera ■»- 27t Teamsters mm 12dr Mine Drill Runners _■■» 2f Farmers ■ 9 Concrete Workers -wmmm 27b Horse liostlers — i 45 Barbers, 63b Gen. Boiler Makers 7H HorsesHoers 6r3 R. R. Shop Mechanics- 40Ca Caterer^ • 26 Bricklayers 40e Cooks. I 75 Laundrymen 26s Stat. Gas Enginemen - - 40b Bakers-j. 27tr Horse T -ainers 13 Painters 7g Gen. Blacksmiths 8Br BridgeCjarpenters 23t Heavy Truck Drivers _ - 8g Gen. Caji-penters 17me Marine Enginemen Butchers 171e Locomotive Enginemen 61 Lathe riand 6g Gen. Mtlchinists 171f Locomotive Firemen — 21rh Hand Riveters 15b Brakemen 32t Tel. andTel. Linemen_ 15c R. R. Conductors 14g Gen. Pipefitters .| _ 22m Motorcyclists. 14p Plumbers 6to Tool and Gauge Makers- 11 Gunsmiths- 22a Auto Chauf! 6mc Gen. Mecha 24g Gen. Auto Repa 6tr Tool Roim Experts- 82 Detectives and Polic 24e Auto Erlgine Mechai 24a Auto Assemblers _ - 18c Stock Checkers 83 Ship Capenters 28 Farrier and Veterinarians - 23tm Truckmksters 330 Telephone Operators 50c Concrete Construction ^ o 18r Receiver and Shipper _ 18s Stock Keeper 84 Photographer log Gen. Electricians 44b Band Milsicians Sit Telegraphers 38rr R. R. cferks 38f Filing clerks 38g Gen. Clerks- Army 38b Bookkeepers Dental y fTicers 29m Mechanical Draftsmen- 39 Stenographers and Typi: 37 Accountants 105 Civil Engineers Y.M.C.A. Secretaries- Medicallofficers Army Cfiapl: Engineer Officers - OCCUPATIONAL INTELLIGENCE STANDARDS Leng- ;h of Bar Shows Range of Middle 60 Percent Vertical Crossbar ^OWB Poaitior of Median Fig. VIII. — Occupational Intelligence Standards in the United States Army Bar shows range of middle 50 per cent. The vertical cross bar shows position of median. The figure is based on data for approximately 36,500 men. Numbers at extreme left are key numbers of occupations. Data taken from soldiers' Qualification Cards. ^ 426 TABLE XXI Intelligence Scores at University op Illinois I I College or School cB a, '3 'S Liberal Arts and Sciences fin cb i^ cc Median 147 145 145 151 High Score 188 206 192 206 Low Score 52 70 80 79 Students taking test first time 489 278 278 229 Commerce Median 140 151 151 150 High Score 193 197 206 169 Low Score 51 73 74 88 Students taking test first time 218 118 78 25 Engineering Median 140 144 147 144 High Score 196 191 193 191 Low Score 41 46 73 87 Students taking test first time 304 123 102 69 Agriculture Median 139 138 137 145 High Score 199 197 189 186 Low Score 74 63 49 96 Students taking test first time 134 67 48 42 Law 1st year 2nd year Median 163 High Score 178 192 Low Score 112 129 Students taking test first time 11 9 Music Median 121 131 High Score 159 179 166 041 Low Score 80 103 110 120 Students taking test first time 15 11 9 5 Library 1st year 2d year Median High Score 198 172 Low Score 92 146 Students taking tests first time 7 6 Graduate 1st year 2d year 3d year Median 150 156 155 High Score 191 205 207 Low Score 80 105 96 Students taking test first time 90 37 14 Sex Differences in the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences Freshmen Sophomore Junior Senior MW MW MW MW 149 136 150 140 147 143 159 147 427 428 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION Interpreting tests. To understand Army scoring, it should be borne in mind that the maximum score possible in the Alpha tests is 212 points. The letter equivalents are assigned as follows: A=135-212; B = 105-134; C+= 75-104; C= 45-74; C- = 25- 44; D= 15-24; D- =0-14. We believe we have already emphasized fairly the pitfalls lurk- ing in the use of mental tests, notwithstanding their demonstra- ble and growing values in the schools and in industry. (See pp. 398 and 421). Caution must be used particularly in the manage- ment of tests given simultaneously to groups of persons. Group tests are becoming more popular because of obvious economies of time and labor in the administration of the same. However, there are certain difficulties in a group test that must be care- fully considered. The person in a group reacts differently than when alone. In a group distraction may occur, or discomfort, interruption, negligence, inattention, cheating. City and coun- try children may act with characteristically different attitudes in group and in individual tests respectively, and in the presence of strangers. A skilled examiner tactfully strives to combat these factors in order to prevent the entire invalidation of results. Not sufficient for guidance. To date, attempts to build a system of vocational guidance relying chiefly upon mental tests have failed. Hollingworth has shown that such attempts, as in the case of palmistry, fortune-telling, phrenology, have long been a persistent, illusory pursuit. (8) It is perhaps futile to hope that any adequate vocational guidance of youth ever will depend chiefly upon mental tests of ability or aptitude. Prac- tical vocational guidance or advisement has many inseparable phases or steps, such as: The matter of personal choice, the systematic study of industries and occupations, the disclosure of opportunities, educational guidance, training for citizenship, PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 429 training for definite occupation, placement, facilitating pro- motion, follow-up work. A man who would solve such com- plicated problems solely and exclusively by the use of "tests" be they derived from some physiognomic delusion, or phrenological chicanery, or be they genuine measures of general intelligence, is probably either a faker or a simpleton, and possibly both. Students of modern mental tests, and social workers who witness the use of such tests upon juvenile delinquents, the feeble-minded, and the unfortunate, know practically that no mental test or scale in existence used alone is sufficient to serve as the criterion in business, industry, institution, school, or court, of an individual's fitness or destiny, when the data con- cerning the hereditary, environmental, and physiological con- ditions of the individual are unknown or neglected. A few enthusiasts with Binet or other tests have exhibited an almost superstitious belief in the magical efficacy of their devices, which is as foolish as the stiff-necked opposition to all thoroughgoing studies of each markedly exceptional individual for whom a decision regarding treatment or disposition must be made, whether in school or court. In the investigation of hundreds of cases of children and adults from the juvenile court, or the public schools, or the university, the writer has found it indis- pensable to combine and to review the data obtained from physicians, teachers, and social workers, with the results of his own mental testing with the form-board, with the Binet, with the Healy, and other good instruments of mental measurement, before drawing conclusions about an individual. Tests, how- ever, have a valid function in this work. Measurement vs. guess. In business as well as at school we all judge or estimate the general intelligence of our friends, whether or not we use formal tests. The refined, scientific judg- ment relies rather upon the application of a standard unit than merely upon opinion or comparisons. The mastery of heat, electricity, and metals is due in last analysis to the use of stand- 430 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION ard units. Quantitative physics and chemistry have made possible the gigantic ocean vessel amenable in control to the brain and hand of one man, in distinction from the raft and canoe of our ancestors. The goal of science is control. Ulti- mately better control of the processes and results of education may accrue from the substitution of quantitative measurement in place of prejudice and opinion. Judging others. Both teachers and also employment man- agers systematize their use of opinion in estimating the worth of human beings although they may not use mental or other formal tests. Such systematized judgments we must rely upon largely, but they have severe limitations in respect to accuracy. For example, consider two illustrative cases — one concerning students, the other business employees. Students. A familiar experiment in educational psychology requires a group of teachers acting individually to mark or grade the same examination paper and then to study the resulting variation in judgments of value. Kelly reports upon such an experiment at Harvard, as follows: An examination of the teaching in the Division of Economics at Harvard University was completed by the Division of Education of that university in September, 1916. It includes a study of marks given by seven instructors who graded ten mid-year examination books. In each book there were ten answers, and each instructor gave a sepa- rate mark for each answer, as well as a mark for the book as a whole. All of the questions proposed in the examination were asked in such a way that there could be no fundamental disagreement as to the state- ment of fact involved in any given answer. The table given below shows how widely the instructors varied in their estimate of the ten books: PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 431 Number of Book Highest Mark Lowest Mark 1 95 75 2 81 69 3 81 66 4 88 60 5 85 65 6 84 62 7 71 57 8 69 50 9 63 46 10 47 28 Even greater variations appear in marking the separate questions. Only one answer out of the hundred which appeared in the ten books received the same mark by all seven instructors ; and there were only seven cases where five or more professors agreed upon the rank to be given a question. Variations in marking were found to be so great that under certain circumstances a professor's tendency to mark high or low could determine a man's success, not only in attaining a degree with distinction, but even in securing his A. B. degree at all. Similar discrepancies are to be found in the marks of school teachers every- where, the widest differences appearing in the judgments of any group of instructors who are asked to mark the papers of students in any sub- ject.(12). Employees. The second illustration refers to variability in judgment in appraising candidates for emplojmient, and em- ployees. Employment managers formulate for themselves certain standards of appraisal which more or less consciously they use as candidates for position or promotion are under consideration. Scott, of Northwestern University, thus experi- mented with six experienced managers: There were thirty-six candidates for a selling position in a firm employing a thousand salesmen scattered over the United 432 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION States. District managers were in charge of subdivisions of the whole territory. These district managers in the past selected their salesmen more or less independently. There was no way to tell whether the different managers would have agreed as to which of all the applicants to reject and which ones to select. The following experiment makes clear the amount of agreement and disagreement between the selections of six of these district managers. Thirty-six applicants for a selling position for this company assembled at Evanston, Illinois. Each of the six managers occupied a room in Northwestern University Psychological Laboratory where he inter- viewed each of the thirty-six applicants. Each manager was instructed to assume that he alone stood between the applicant and the pay roll of the company. This was a responsibility that every manager was familiar with. Following the interview each manager made a report on each of the thirty-six applicants and indicated which was the most likely candidate, the second best, the third best, etc. . . . Applicant I was thought to be the fifth best by Manager A; the eleventh best by Manager B ; the second best by Manager C ; tied for first place by Man- ager D; third by Manager E; and second best by Manager F. It was the intention of the company to select about one-half of the applicants. It might have been assumed that these six district man- agers would have agreed pretty closely as to whether a particular ap- pUcant was in the upper half of a group or in the lower half. As a matter of fact, in the case of twenty-eight of the applicants, these six managers disagreed as to whether the individual should be placed in the upper or the lower half of the group. All agreed that Applicants I, II, IV, VI, and XVI should be in the upper half, and that applicants XXXIV, XXV and XXVI should be in the lower half. An inspection of the results showed much agreement among the six managers, but the disagreements were striking. Thus applicant XVII was thought to be the third best of the group of thirty-six by Manager C ; but was placed thirtieth by Manager B. Applicant XVIII was thought to be the best in the group by Manager E; but was ranked as tied for the thirty- second place by Manager D. Yet there is reason to believe that these six gentlemen agreed even more closely than is the case with employ- ment agents in general. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 433 The ordinary method of selecting employees is by means of inspec- tion, interviews, and recommendations. These are not worthless and they secure results much better than would be done by flipping a coin or by drawing the names by chance out of a hat. Such methods are, however, unscientific, unsatisfactory , and should be supplemented. (21b) Hollingworth's experiments. Other experiments indicate abundantly the vaiiation and the unreliability of appraising the virtues or defects of others or of oneself. Hollingworth secured results about similar to the above by having students who knew each other score both themselves and their acquaintances upon these traits: Neatness, Intelligence, Humor, Conceit, Beauty, Vulgarity, Snohhishness, Refinement, Sociability .{^) The army ratings. Factors that make for definiteness in the qualities in men to be judged tend toward agreement in observers. The United States Army utihzed a method in rating officers which has worked fairly well and helped to solve this problem of securing reasonable agreement in judgments of men. The scale is made definite by means of this ingenious process: Each rating officer creates his own scale with five headings and based upon officers of various merits whom he has known well. Under each of the five headings he places appropriately five names of such officers of his acquaintance — altogether twenty- five names. In rating his subordinates he then compares each subordinate actually judged with the men upon his fixed scale. A man's total rating will be the sum of the scores under all of the five headings. We are printing below a sample scale with the names of the twenty-five officers whom the maker of this scale uses as his standards of comparison in rating his subordi- nates. (17) 434 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION THE RATING SCALE CARD Physical Qualities Physique, bearing, neatness, voice, energy, endurance. Consider how he impresses his command in these respects. II. Intelligence. Accuracy, ease in learning; abil- ity to grasp quickly the point of view of commanding officer, to issue clear and intelligent orders, to estimate a new situa- tion, and to arrive at a sensible decision in a crisis. III. Leadership. Initiative, force, self reliance, decisiveness, tact, ability to in- spire men and to command their obedience, loyalty and co operation. IV. Personal Qualities. Industry, dependability, loy- alty; readiness to shoulder re sponsibility for his own acts; freedom from conceit and self- ishness; readiness and ability to cooperate. General Value to the Ser- vice. Professional knowledge, skill and experience; success as ad- ministrator and instructor; ability to get results. Highest: Capt. John Doe 15 High: Capt. H. Black 12 Middle: Capt. R. White 9 Low: Capt. W. Smith 6 Lowest: Capt. E. Jones 3 Highest: Capt. R. White 15 High: Capt. B.Gray 12 Middle: Capt W. Smith 9 Low: Capt. J. Brown 6 Lowest: Capt. E. Jones 3 Highest: Capt. B. Gray 15 High: Capt. John Doe 12 Middle: Capt. R. White 9 Low: Capt.W. Green 6 Lowest: Capt. R. Blue 3 Highest: Capt. H. Black 15 High: Capt. W. Smith 12 Middle: Capt. R. White 9 Low: Capt. A. Old 6 Lowest: Capt. J. Young 3 Highest: Capt. R. Day 40 High: Capt. H. Night 32 Middle: Capt. R. Roe 24 Low: Capt. A. Old 16 Lowest: Capt. R. Blue 8 This scale would be used in rating First Lieutenants. The officers listed would be regarded as the "Standards." PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 435 This interesting plan is being extended to business use. P. J, Reilly has devised nearly such a scale for the rating of foremen, his five qualities for judging being these: (1) Trade Ability; (2) Production; (3) Administration; (4) Training; (5) Special Executive Qualifications. (12) Other Psychological Applications Mental hygiene. Very many of the thousands of persons now in hospitals for the insane were once pupils in schools, and, later, workers in industry. There are millions of persons who do not suffer from dementia (mental bankruptcy) or amentia (arrest of mental growth) who nevertheless are handicapped by faulty mental habits such as chronic w^orry, anxiety, fear; inde- cision, vacillation, inattention, lack of concentration; indolence; immorality.. The tendency of ameliorative effort to-day is in the direction of prevention rather than mere cure. The control- lable conditions of work, play, sleep, recreation, and one's inter- est and satisfaction in his vocation are potent factors of mental stability. The psychopathic employee, or employer, or pupil, is always a troublesome proposition. Directors of vocational education have not time or inclination or preparation to go into the matter of diagnosis of the mentally defective. The question in a crisis properly will be submitted to a psychiatrist. A qualified psy- chiatrist is a physician who has been specially trained in the study of abnormal psychology and also in the treatment of the mind. An elementary knowledge of such matters upon the part of an expert vocational officer might be of service in enabling him to detect more readily the necessity of prompt reference of a case to a qualified psychiatrist for detailed study and wise treatment. Detecting new capacities. At least an attitude might be cultivated in personnel and vocational experts, by means of the skillful presentation in conferences and readings of the essential 436 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION principles of abnormal psychology, which might help them to- ward these two desirable results: (1) To be able to recognize more accurately the various factors in the mind of worker or pupil, to appreciate better his point of view, and (2) to detect points of undiscovered capacity as a basis for occupational train- ing, as well as serious defects interfering with any proposed vocational training, or job. Fatigue. Work is not all immediately pleasant, and for instructors to be able to predict something definite about the progress and process in the acquisition of skill and of knowledge is worth while. It has not often been found desirable or practi- cable in schools or shops to plot curves of the changing speed and accuracy from hour to hour, and from day to day. It is quite worth while, however, for an instructor or a superintendent to know that habit-building in many instances can be charted (as for example in learning to typewrite, or to run a machine), that various physical and mental factors effect the rise and fall of the learning curve of an individual engaged in daily attack upon a work of labor or play; and that "plateaus" where no progress is made are likely to occur, calling for urging of the student, or for rest, as the circumstances dictate. Here may be found useful for reference some of the studies of Bryan and Harter, Book, and Thorndike. Dependence upon special practice. A confirmed tendency in school practice is to depend largely upon formal discipline or doing some painful task in some specific subject in the expec- tation that therefrom will invariably accrue, or transfer, a gen- eral benefit. Acquire accuracy, or speed, or good judgment, or good memory in the doing of one thing and the effect will trans- fer equally to other activities in life, it was believed. Upon this plea many a useless and ill-taught course remains in the school programs, and it has also affected some of the methods and aims of manual training. It is the exploded doctrine of extreme formal discipline. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 437 In giving vocational instruction, this tendency must be guarded against, especially in the necessary book work where conventional pedagogues are inducted into the service. The present status of the doctrine of special practice is approximately this: (1) There is a possibility of considerable transfer effect (through ''ideals of method," "generalized experience," "iden- tical elements," etc.) of the results of a special practice. (2) The actual amount of transfer is usually a false assumption. (3) Much of the present literature is controversial and contra- dictory. One's attitude toward the whole matter of school ideals, courses of study, and methods will be determined largely by his attitude upon formal discipline. If our assumption con- cerning the significance or practical outcome of the position of educators upon this question be accepted, it seems that voca- tional teachers might well consider the results of the studies of Thorndike, Colvin, and Judd upon this central topic of educa- tional science. Economy in learning. There are other general principles of psychology to be made conscious to every student and teacher who seeks success with economy of effort in the pursuit of skill and knowledge. For example, there are the three general modes of all learning : (1) Learning hy trial and error, which is the animal way, in hu- man beings called "the school of experience" — an effective but costly school. (2) Learning hij imitation — a common, almost universal practice — but limited where new achievement is sought. (3) Learning hy use of free ideas, reasoning — the method of the thinker, the inventor, the creator. Realization of the possibilities of the habit forming tendency is also of personal value to students and industrial workers. Habit is primarily a modification of our original nature, a change which we have gained through individual experience. Habits, good and bad, as James shows, (9) may be formed, like the per- manent bending of a metal rod by many repetitions, or by one 438 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION strong intense effort. A process made habitual becomes more accurate, more speedy, less conscious, hence a useful habit well acquired makes for mental economy. The threefold law of habit-building as stated by Bagley is this: (a) Focalization of consciousness upon the combination of movements to be made automatic; (b) attentive repetition of this behavior; (c) per- mitting no exceptions to occur until the habit has been estab- lished. (3) Instructional methods. In preceding chapters we have repeatedly touched upon questions of methods in teaching. We beheve, that given a thorough knowledge of one's subject or trade, and a good knowledge of human nature — preferably supplemented by facts from scientific psychology and physiol- ogy — an enthusiastic teacher need not bother about the various classroom devices offered by advocates of method and technic in classroom instruction. However, teachers rightly demand of professors and re- searchers some analysis and practical help in the matter of effective teaching. Books on the subject are as a rule unsatis- fying. So profitable in the past has been the pubHcation of books on pedagogy considered chiefly as "method," it came to pass that many relatively unscientific writers entered this field of authorship, while men of truly scientific standing in psychology were too busy to attack the problem of method or were indif- ferent. It has come about, therefore, that the word " pedagogy," either from this cause, or by reason of its historical origin, brings not infrequently a contumelious reaction in real scholars. Lat- terly it is l^ecoming the fashion to avoid the word "method" altogether and substitute for it some other expression. That great Frenchman, Binet, complained that too many pedagogical discussions were mere verbiage. What is needed, he pointed out, is to subject pedagogical theories or hypotheses to actual trial, and where possible under experimental conditions. Herein lies much of the value of the work of such researchers as Binet in PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 439 France, Meumann in Germany, Winch in England, and of Rice, Gorman, Ayres, Thorndike, Judd, Dearborn, Whipple, O'Shea, Gourtis, Starch, Ballou, and Freeman in America. With regard to method, the desired procedure is to try out under experimental conditions any educational process that promises to make for economy of time and effort and to record and analyze the results. Principles of method. Gonclusions regarding method, based more upon philosophical than upon experimental evidence, abound in the literature of the history of education — from Quintilian to Dewey. For example, John Dewey deplores the currency of wrong conceptions of the value of logical methods appealing to matured, developed experience, to the neglect of practices that have been found helpful in teaching. Such prac- tices are considerations of order, sequence, definiteness, fit adaptation of means to ends, thoughtful surveys and reviews of ground traversed. Goncerning method, "the way of going at a thing" as related to teaching, he says: Strictly speaking, method is thoroughly individual. Each person has his own instinctive way of going at a thing; the attitude and the mode of approach and attack are individual. To ignore this individual- ity of approach, to try to substitute for it, under the name of "general method," a uniform scheme of procedure, is simply to cripple the only effective agencies of operation, and to overlay them with a mechanical formaUsm that produces only a routine conventionality of mental quaUty. The primary factor in general method, so construed, is the existence of a situation which appeals to an individual as his own concern or in- terest, that is to say, as presenting an end to be achieved, because arousing desire and effort. The second point is that the conditions be such as to stimulate observation and memory in locating the means, the obstacles and resources that must be reckoned with in dealing with the situation. The third point is the formation of a plan of procedure, a theory or hypothesis about the best way of proceeding. The fourth is putting the plan into operation. The fifth and last is the comparison 440 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION of the result reached with what was intended, and a consequent esti- mate of the worth of the method followed, a more critical discernment of its weak and its strong points. These five steps may be reduced to three more generic ones. The first and fundamental condition of right method is the existence of some concrete situation involving an end that interests the individual, and that requires active and thought- ful effort in order to be reached. The second is consideration of the nature of the problem, the difficulty or perplexity involved in reaching the end set, so as to form a suggestion or conjecture as to the best way of proceeding to solve the difficulty. The third is the overt effort in which the thought of the plan is applied and thereby tested. Scientific method will be found to involve exactly the same steps, save that a scientific mode of approach implies a large body of prior empirical and tentative procedures which have finally been sifted so as to develop a technic consciously formulated and adapted to the given type of problem. (4) Method, as indicated above, is essentially a problem of the individual, but there seem to be some principles of educational practice of quite general applicability to the educative process. Suzzalo emphasizes six principles of this kind : 1. Aim. It must be recognized that the ultimate function of the school is social, however variously the schoolmaster may organize or emphasize the specific aims or values. 2. Interest. The fundamental determinant of the teaching process is the unfolding nature of the child. To recognize stable interests as the basis for teaching is to guarantee absorption in the work at hand. 3. Expression. Normally a person learns by doing. 4. Motivation. The person should be enabled to feel that the acqui- sition of facts or skill is related to his own need to act. 5. Concentration. The center of the school curriculum is not in any one subject (geography, history, science, literature) but in the active needs of the child. 6. Apperception. What the child can learn depends upon his pre- vious knowledge. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 441 Concrete types of teaching. The same author further or- ganizes the types of teaching in common use into sixteen groups, namely: (1) Expression; (2) practice; (3) objectifi cation; (4) induction; (5) deduction; (6) formal association; (7) study; (8) discipline; (9) appreciation; (10) instruction; (11) investiga- tion; (12) development; (13) drill; (14) examination; (15) re- view; (16) assignment. (23) Very different from this type of review of the principles of method, is an account of the kinds of devices for instruction found in industrial and business schools. For example, a com- mittee of the National Association of Corporation Schools ascertained by questionnaire from thirty-three mostly large firms two sets of facts: (1) Subjects taught; (2) methods em- ployed in teaching the same. A concise view of the information obtained from them is shown in Table XXII on page 442. The Meaning of Life Work Three terms distinguished. Education for vocation should have a noble meaning, but the terms work, drudgery, vocation should be well understood. Work is to be distinguished from mere drudgery and toil. Drudgery is more familiar than work to mankind because of their lack of opportunity, or lack of physi- cal well-being, or because of mental arrest, or on account of mal-adjustment of individual and of activity. Ingredients of drudgery are too long hours, uninteresting tasks, unpleasant supervision, ill health. Work, at its best in human life, is some- thing more than the mechanical conversion of energy, such as motion of wheels into heat or light or electricity. Work means effort, but conscious movement directed toward a remote goal. It is not mere painful action, nor is it an incessant insect-like being-busy that accomplishes little. Work at its best is not only purposeful activity directed to a future end, it is also activity tinctured with the spirit of play, and perhaps in the course of evolution both the physical and mental bases of work TABLE XXII Various Methods Employed by Different Organizations IN Conducting their Educational Work a t3 IK o o , § § o o TS "S Classification by Industry of 02 1 o a o -4^ 'TIS 1 Corporation Schools g o w m O in o 1 o a i o O o § 1— 1 o o d a 1 Conference Objective IV Miscellaneo Locomotive Manufacturing * * * * * Manufacturer * * * * * * * Public Service Company * * Automobile Manufacturing Co. * * * * Printers and Bookbinders * * * * * Steel Manufacturing Co. * Steel Manufacturing Co. * * Steel Manufacturing Co. * * * * * Hardware Manufacturers * Hardware Manufacturers * * * * * * * * Mail Order Company * * * * * Leather Manufacturing Co. * Manufacturers of Wearing Apparel * * Manufacturers of Electrical Apparatus * * * * * * Railroad * * * Manufacturers of Machinery * * * * Metal Manufacturers * * * * * * * * Telephone Company * « * Telephone Company * * * Manufacturer of Rubber Goods * * * * * Metal Manufacturer * * Manufacturer of Machinery * * * * * * * tc * Railroad * * Construction Engineers * * Oil Refiners * * * * * * * * Automobile Manufacturers * * * Railroad * * * Specialty Manufacturers * * * * * * * Metal Manufacturer * Telephone and Telegraph Co. * * * * * Corset Manufacturers * * * Manufacturer of Machinery * * * Oil Refiners * * * Asterisk indicates that this method is employed by organizations shown. 442 PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 443 and play have a common development, as, for example, in the inborn tendency to constructiveness. This instinct of con- structiveness has later developments both in the make-believe creations of childish hands and also in the production of things of value— houses, bridges, ships, which are largely, too, the product of economic pressure. The rich results of the work of the creative artist, or inventor, or statesman often come through prodigious activities, and in these play and work have blended. Experimental, genetic, pedagogical, and social studies of work, physical and mental, have made somewhat clearer the mean- ings and significance of drudgery, toil, fatique, play, and avoca- tion, and the value of hygienic efficiency. We know that work, defined as conscious effort toward a future ideal, has uniformi- ties in process, and a knowledge of these uniformities gives us control, a result that is the ultimate end of many sciences. In genuine work there is mental concentration, pleasurable interest, organization of details, elimination of non-essential movements. Work, with sufficient repetition and with sufficient intensity, tends to make motion become more accurate, more speedy, less conscious, thus with every achievement equipping the organism for more and better work. Employers and employees and teachers who regard daily work only as a "job" without regard to the development of the individual or an ambition to build up a vocation of ascending values and rewards are on dangerous ground. Mr. Fuld thus expresses the fact: The worker's most important possession is his job. Upon his job depends his health, leisure, power, living conditions, and his happiness and the happiness of all who are dear to him. If he is separated from his job it is a personal calamity of the greatest importance, and if he be- lieves himself unjustly separated from his job he becomes a national menace and a possible officer in the ranks of Bolshevism. A worker cannot, when separated from his job, rely upon his accu- mulated wealth to support himself until he gets a new one, because he 444 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION has no capital. A worker cannot, when separated from his job, spend his leisure in browsing among the philosophers of past ages nor can he readily embark upon a new sea of endeavor, because he has no educa- tion other than the training he has received from his experience. A worker cannot, when separated from his job, enjoy himself until he finds another, because there can be no happiness when the family larder is empty and the landlord is clamoring for the rent. (5) Guidance difficult. Jobs are necessary fragments of voca- tion, but vocation should mean life-work and nothing less. Life-work ideally is found in the adjustment of the individual through right education meeting opportunity in business or industry or profession. They who undertake that new attempt at conscious evolution — organized vocational guidance, there- fore are superficial in method if they do not understanding^ unravel the tangle of inter-dependent factors that determines the careers of boys and girls. Opportunity must be known, sifted, exhibited; this means a knowledge of economic and social conditions, of the status of local industries, commerce, trades, professions, occupations. The individual must be known; this does not imply mere knowledge of that non-existent phantom, the " average boy or girl " portrayed in text-books; it is a demand that we be able to know the individual by a method more sure than casual observation, and demands the best of psychology. In the study of individuals will be encountered also those com- plex factors, personal preference and choice, — inevitable in all fitting of human beings into appropriate grooves, or changing grooves to fit human beings. Ideal conceptions. There is a broader vision of vocational education than to think of it confusedly as some short avenue to a commercial position or to superficial success. Education for vocation, or for life, should enable a man or woman to bear the burden of life rather than to become a parasite. It should tend to develop health, independence, ambition, active morality within our great democracy. Education encourages in one the PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 445 desire to do some one thing "well, perhaps to do it better than any one else, and by the exercise of this trained ability to make a contribution to the betterment of human life. This conception of education forever banishes the false notion that education is merely for the favored few, either solely for ''idle gentlemen's sons," or for "sons of the working people." It opens new pos- sibilities in the adjustment of individual capacity to the various employments and dignifies these with importance, whether these vocations be those of the farmer, the mechanic, the seam- stress, the cook, the mill hand, the sailor, the stenographer, the actor, the home maker, the engineer, the writer, the teacher, the lawyer, the doctor, or the minister. Maintaining ideals. The schools should assist in making these adjustments. The public schools are intended to serve the masses for the ends of democracy. Vocational education is not merely to be added to our present system of education. The existing school system needs gradual renovation from kin- dergarten to university, until wise articulation of the vocational aim with the disciplinary and cultural aims has been effected. In this work of renovation we are ever to have in view the goals of ethical idealism as well as the immediate acquisition of skill and knowledge. The undertaking is complicated and difficult. Programs, courses of study, and curricula, preparation and selection of teachers and officials, the choice of sites and plan of buildings, the purchase of supplies and equipment, the prob- lems of finance, legislation, the study of industries and business, occupational analyses and provisions for preliminary research — all these topics involve unanswered questions remaining to be solved in a courageous and cooperative spirit. Summary The major subjects of this chapter, each of which merits much further study if the student is to acquire skill, as well as apprecia- 446 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION tion, in the use of psychology appUed to industry, business, and education, are these four : 1. The nature of modern psychology, and the necessity of a calm, intelligent appraisal of both its values and its limita- tions. The public should discriminate between fraudulent practices in the name of psychology by phrenologists, physiognomists, clairvoyants, and other charlatans, and the work of men and women enrolled in the American Psychological Association, or under the National Council of Research. 2. The problem of measuring abilities and traits — in the schools, in the army, and in industry, by a procedure more accurate than guesswork. Considerable advance has been made in these fields by recent experiments with an applied psychology utilizing tests of intelligence, rating scales, and exposing the fallacy and variability of subjective judg- ments. 3. Other contributions of applied psychology, although it is in its infancy, of some significance for vocational education, relate to the conservation of mental health, and to economy in the learning process. Valuable also are the established principles organizing our knowledge of habit formation, and demanding trial or experiment rather than debate from those who advocate specific methods of instruction. The result should eventually give better control of human nature for the ends of education and democracy. 4. Vocation as distinguished from job, drudgery, toil, labor, or avocation means life-work. At its best, life-work is the chosen activity of an individual adjusted through right education meeting opportunity in business or industry or profession. However humble or exalted one's place or temporary job may be, it becomes a part of his vocation and has dignity if only it is in accord with his best capacity 1. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 447 and opportunity and the higher ideals of himself and his countrymen. It is the function of a legitimate vocational education to assist in this adjustment. Problems Why has scientific psychology made relatively slow progress compared with chemistry or physics? 2. Indicate the dangers of relying too much upon psychology in solving problems of business or industry. 3. Endeavor to make valid distinctions between the true mean- ings of the terms: capacity, trait, ability, instinct, habit. 4. What is a practical definition of general intelligence? 5. Write a paper bringing out in succession the purposes and methods of (a) trade tests (see Chapter XII), (b) intel- ligence tests, (c) rating scales. 6. Name the five qualities by which officers in the Army were rated for promotion. 7. Explain how each rating officer must first make his scale upon the basis of his own acquaintances. 8. Select an occupation (such as manager of insurance office, train master, quarry foreman, conductor on steam rail- road, ship captain) and determine after adequate first- hand study and conferences the five significant qualities for that particular occupation. Then devise a plan of scoring for promotion similar to the Army plan of rating officers. 9. Have several persons authorized to recommend for promo- tion in that occupation try out your scale, and contrast the results with the actual records of the persons scored. 10. How can you overcome the difficulty of having those who use a rating scale agree upon an exact definition or inter^ pretation of the qualities or traits to be scored? 11. Select certain qualities as Intelligence, Honesty, Courage, Eefinement, Egotism, Leadership, Cleanliness. Find a 448 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION class or group of twenty-five persons who know each other pretty well. Upon a blank form prepared for the purpose, have each person rate both himself and all of the others in these qualities on a percentage scale, where 100 denotes the most possible, and zero denotes none of a quaHty. Study the results for variations as concern: (1) The persons; (2) the qualities; (3) difference between one's scoring of self and of self by others. 12. Tabulate for a given hard occupation which you may study the actual causes of turning work into drudgery, such as : Too long hours, speed, unpleasant supervision, lack of interest, unsanitary conditions, ill health. 13. Devise an experiment to keep track of and to chart the prog- ress of acquiring skill by daily practice in a given opera- tion — as learning to typewrite, or to run a machine. The daily practice should be of same duration, at same hour, and physical and mental conditions should be kept uni- form throughout. Memoranda daily should be made of various causes affecting progress. 14. Returning to the early pages of the first chapter of this book review the statements showing that ideals as standards of conduct must be developed along with skill and knowl- edge, if society is to be freed from misuse of power and injustice. 15. After rapidly reviewing the whole field of vocational educa- tion lower than college grade, as discussed in this book, single out the most urgent problems inviting intensive, further study. SELECTED REFERENCES 1. Army Mental Tests. Methods, typical results and practical applica- tions. Washington, D. C, 1918, 23 p. 111. 2. Bingham, W. V. Army Personnel Work. Journal of Applied Psy- chology. March, 1919, pp. 1-12. PSYCHOLOGY APPLIED TO INSTRUCTION 449 3. Colvin, S. S. and Bagley, W. S. Human Behavior. N. Y., 1913, 336 p. 4. Dewey, John. Method. In Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education. Vol. IV, pp. 202-205. 5. Fuld, Leonard F. Employment Managers and Bolshevism. Indus- trial Management, July, 1919, pp. 73-74. 6. Goddard, H. H. Psychology of the Normal and Sub-Normal. N. Y., 8 vs., 1919. 7. Hill, David S. (a) Mental Tests: Nature and Use. School and Home Education. February, 1919, pp. 127-130. (6) Applications of Intelligence and Other Tests, ibid, April, 1919. (c) Results of Intelligence Tests at the University of Illinois. School and Society, May 3, 1919. (d) Valid Uses of Psychology in the Rehabilitation of War Victims. Mental Hygiene, October, 1918, pp. 611-628. 8. Hollingworth, H. L. Vocational Psychology, Its Problems and Meth- ods. N. Y., 1916, 308 p. 9. James, William. Psychology. Vols. I and II. 1890. See vol. II, for habit. 10. Jastrow, Joseph. Fact and Fable in Psychology. N. Y., 1900, 375 p. 11. Judd, C. H. Psychology of High School Subjects. Boston, 1915, 515 p. 12. Kelly, Roy W. Dangers in Rating Employees. Industrial Manage- ment, July, 1919, pp. 35-42. 13. Lamb, J. P. Intelligence Tests in Industry. Industrial Management, July, 1919, pp. 21, 24. 14. Mann, Charles. A Study of Engineering Education. Carnegie Bulle- tin 1918, 130 p. 15. Measurement of Educational Products. Part II, Seventeenth Year- book, Nat. Soc. for the Study of Education 1918, 194 p. (Bibli- ography.) 16. Personnel Management. Topical Outline and Bibliography. January, 1919. Adjutant General's Office. Washington, D. C, 59 p. 17. Personnel Work in the United States Army. A summary. Washing- ton, D. C. January, 1919, 15 p. Also, 2 vols., 1919. 18. Pinter, R. and Paterson, D. G. A Scale of Performance Tests. N. Y., 1917, 218 p. 19. Pressey, L. L. and L. W. A Group Point Scale for Measuring General Intelligence with First Results from 1100 School Children. Jour, of Applied Psychology, September, 1918, pp. 250-269. 20. Psychological Tests. Revised and classified bibliography. Mitchell 450 INTRODUCTION TO VOCATIONAL EDUCATION and Ruger. Bureau of Educational Measurements, N. Y., 1918, 116 p. 21. Scott, Walter D. (a) Selection of Employees by Means of Quantitative Determina- tions. Annals of Academy of Political and Social Science, May, 1916, 12 p. (6) Scientific Selection of Salesmen, in Advertising and Selling, N.Y., 1917, 6 p. (reprint). 22. Stern, W. The Psychological Methods of Testing Intelligence (tr. Whipple). Baltimore, 1914, 160 p. 23. Suzzalo, H. Principles of Teaching, in Monroe's Cycl. of Education, vol. V, pp. 533-544. 24. Terman, L. M. (o) The Measurement of Intelligence. Boston, 1916, 362 p. (b) The Use of Intelligence Tests in the Army. Psychological Bulletin, June, 1918, pp. 177-187. 25. Thorndike, Edward L. (a) Individual Differences. Psychological Bulletin, May, 1918, pp. 148-159. (b) Tests of Intelligence; Reliability, Significance, Susceptibility to Special Training and Adaptation to the General Nature of the Task. School and Society, February 15, 1919, pp. 189- 195. 26. Whipple, Guy M. (a) What Superintendents and Other School Administrators Ought to Know of Educational Measurement. Michigan School- master's Club Journal, March, 1918, 12 p. (b) A Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Vols. I and II, Balti- more, 1914. 27. Walhn, J. E. W. Problems of Subnormality. World Book Co., 1917. 485 p. 28. Walton, Geo. L., M. D. Why Worry? N. Y., 1916, 275 p. 29. Yerkes, R. M. (a) Introduction to Psychology. N. Y., 1911, 427 p. (fe) The Measurement and Utilization of Brain Power in the Army. Science. March 7, 1919, pp. 221-226. 30. Yerkes, R. M., Bridges, J. W., and Hardwick, R. S. A Point Scale for Measuring Ability. Baltimore, 1915, 218 p. APPENDIX Smith-Hughes Act of Congress (Senate Bill 703, 1917) Smith-Sear Act of Congress (Senate Bill 4557, 1918) [Public — No. 347 — 64th Congress.] [S. 703.] An Act To provide for the promotion of vocational edu- cation; to provide for cooperation with the States in the promotion of such education in agriculture and the trades and industries; to provide for co- operation with the States in the preparation of teachers of vocational sub- jects; and to appropriate money and regulate its expenditure. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That there is hereby annually appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury not otherwise ap- propriated, the sums provided in sections two, three, and four of this Act, to be paid to the respective States for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the salaries of teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects, and teachers of trade, home eco- nomics, and industrial subjects, and in the preparation of teachers of agricultural, trade, industrial, and home economics subjects; and the sum provided for in section seven for the use of the Federal Board for Vocational Education for the administration of this Act and for the purpose of making studies, investigations, and reports to aid in the organization and conduct of vocational education, which sums shall be expended as hereinafter provided. Sec. 2. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricul- tural subjects there is hereby appropriated for the use of the States, subject to the provisions of this Act, for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, 451 452 APPENDIX the sum of $750,000; for the fiscal year endmg June thirtieth, nine- teen hundred and twenty, the sum of $1,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, the sum of $1,250,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun- dred and twenty-two, the sum of $1,500,000; for the fiscal year end- ing June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $1,750,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, the sum of $2,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-five, the sum of $2,500,- 000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-six, and annually thereafter, the sum of $3,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their rural population bears to the total rural population in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last pre- ceding United States census: Provided, That the allotment of funds to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year prior to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nine- teen hundred and twenty-three, nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter, and there is hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be necessary, which shall be used for the purpose of providing the minimum allotment to the States provided for in this section: For the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $48,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $34,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of $24,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, the sum of $18,000; for the fiscal year end- ing June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of $14,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $11,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, the sum of $9,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty- five, the sum of $34,000; and annually thereafter the sum of $27,000. Sec. 3. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in paying the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and indus- trial subjects there is hereby appropriated for the use of the States, APPENDIX 453 for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eight- een, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $750,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of $1,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun- dred and twenty-one, the sum of $1,250,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of $1,500,- 000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $1,750,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-four, the sum of $2,000,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty- five, the sum of $2,500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-six, the sum of $3,000,000; and annually thereafter the sum of $3,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their urban population bears to the total urban population in the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last preceding United States census: Provided, That the allotment of funds to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year prior to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter, and there is hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be needed, which shall be used for the purpose of providing the minimum allot- ment to the States provided for in this section: For the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $66,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, the sum of $46,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of $34,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, the sum of $28,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-two, the sum of $25,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-three, the sum of $22,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun- dred and twenty-four, the sum of $19,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-five, the sum of $56,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty- six, and annually thereafter, the sum of $50,000. 454 APPENDIX That not more than twenty per centum of the money appropriated under this Act for the payment of salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, for any year, shall be expended for the salaries of teachers of home economics subjects. Sec. 4. That for the purpose of cooperating with the States in preparing teachers, supervisors, and directors of agricultural subjects and teachers of trade and industrial and home economics subjects there is hereby appropriated for the use of the States for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $500,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hun- dred and nineteen, the sum of 1700,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, the sum of S900,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty- one, and annually thereafter, the sum of $1,000,000. Said sums shall be allotted to the States in the proportion which their population bears to the total population of the United States, not including outlying possessions, according to the last preceding United States census: Provided, That the allotment of funds to any State shall be not less than a minimum of $5,000 for any fiscal year prior to and including the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nineteen, nor less than $10,000 for any fiscal year thereafter. And there is hereby appropriated the following sums, or so much thereof as may be needed, which shall be used for the purpose of providing the mini- mum allotment provided for in this section: For the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and eighteen, the sum of $46,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and nine- teen, the sum of $32,000; for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, nine- teen hundred and twenty, the sum of $24,000; for the fiscal year end- ing June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty-one, and annually thereafter, the sum of $90,000. Sec. 5. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations provided for in sections two, three, and four of this Act, any State shall, through the legislative authority thereof, accept the provisions of this Act and designate or create a State Board, consisting of not less than three members, and having all necessary power to cooperate, as herein provided, with the Federal Board for Vocational Education in the administration of the provisions of this Act. The State Board APPENDIX 455 of education, or other board having charge of the administration of pubhc education in the State, or any State board having charge of the administration of any kind of vocational education in the State may, if the State so elect, be designated as the State Board, for the purposes of this Act. In any State the legislature of which does not meet in nineteen hundred and seventeen, if the governor of that State, so far as he is authorized to do so, shall accept the provisions of this Act and desig- nate or create a State board of not less than three members to act in cooperation with the Federal Board for Vocational Education, the Federal Board shall recognize such local board for the purposes of this Act until the legislature of such State meets in due course and has been in session sixty days. Any State may accept the benefits of any one or more of the re- spective funds herein appropriated, and it may defer the acceptance of the benefits of any one or more of such funds, and shall be required to meet only the conditions relative to the fund or funds the benefits of which it has accepted: Provided, That after June thirtieth, nineteen hundred and twenty, no State shall receive any appropriation for salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, until it shall have taken advantage of at least the minimum amount appropriated for the training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, as provided for in this Act, and that after said date no State shall receive any appropriation for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects until it shall have taken advantage of at least the minimum amount appropriated for the training of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial sub- jects, as provided for in this Act. Sec. 6. That a Federal Board for Vocational Education is hereby created, to consist of the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Commerce, the Secretary of Labor, the United States Commissioner of Education, and three citizens of the United States to be appointed by the President, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate. One of said three citizens shall be a representative of the manufac- turing and commercial interests, one a representative of the agricul- tural interests, and one a representative of labor. The Board shall elect annually one of its members as chairman. In the first instance, 456 APPENDIX one of the citizen members shall be appointed for one year, one for two years, and one for three years, and thereafter for three years each. The members of the Board other than the members of the Cabinet and the United States Commissioner of Education shall receive a salary of $5,000 per annum. The Board shall have power to cooperate with State boards in carrying out the provisions of this Act. It shall be the duty of the Federal Board for Vocational Education to make, or cause to have made studies, investigations, and reports, with particular reference to their use in aiding the States in the establishment of vocational schools and classes and in giving instruction in agriculture, trades and industries, commerce and commercial pursuits, and home eco- nomics. Such studies, investigations, and reports shall include agri- culture and agricultural processes and requirements upon agricultural workers; trades, industries, and apprenticeships, trade and industrial requirements upon industrial workers, and classification of industrial processes and pursuits; commerce and commercial pursuits and re- quirements upon commercial workers; home management, domestic science, and the study of related facts and principles; and problems of administration of vocational schools and of courses of study and instruction in vocational subjects. When the Board deems it advisable such studies, investigations, and reports concerning agriculture, for the purposes of agricultural education, may be made in cooperation with or through the Depart- ment of Agriculture; such studies, investigations, and reports con- cerning trades and industries, for the purposes of trade and industrial education, may be made in cooperation with or through the Depart- ment of Labor; such studies, investigations, and reports concerning commerce and commercial pursuits, for the purposes of commercial education, may be made in cooperation with or through the Depart- ment of Commerce; such studies, investigations, and reports con- cerning the administration of vocational schools, courses of study and instruction in vocational subjects, may be made in cooperation with or through the Bureau of Education. The Commissioner of Education may make such recommendations to the board relative to the administration of this Act as he may from time to time deem advisable. It shall be the duty of the chairman APPENDIX 457 of the Board to carry out the rules, regulations, and decisions which the board may adopt. The Federal Board for Vocational Education shall haA^e power to employ such assistants as may be necessary to carry out the provisions of this Act. Sec. 7. That there is hereby appropriated to the Federal Board for Vocational Education the sum of $200,000 annually, to be avail- able from and after the passage of this Act, for the purpose of making or cooperating in making the studies, investigations, and reports pro- vided for in section six of this Act, and for the purpose of paying the salaries of the officers, the assistants, and such office and other ex- penses as the board may deem necessary to the execution and admin- istration of this Act. Sec. 8. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriation for any purpose specified in this Act, the State Board shall prepare plans, showing the kinds of vocational education for which it is proposed that the appropriation shall be used; the kinds of schools and equipment; courses of study; methods of instruction; qualifications of teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects the qualifications of super- visors or directors; plans for the training of teachers; and, in the case of agricultural subjects, plans for the supervision of agricultural edu- cation, as provided for in section ten. Such plans shall be submitted by the State Board to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and if the Federal Board finds the same to be in conformity with the provisions and purposes of this Act, the same shall be approved. The State Board shall make an annual report to the Federal Board for Vocational Education, on or before September first of each year, on the work done in the State and the receipts and expenditures of money under the provisions of this Act. Sec. 9. That the appropriation for the salaries of teachers, super- visors, or directors of agricultural subjects and of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall be devoted exclusively to the payment of salaries of such teachers, supervisors, or directors having the minimum qualifications set up for the State by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation. The cost of instruction supplementary to the instruction in agricultural and in trade, home economics, and industrial subjects provided for in this Act, necessary to build a well-rounded course of 458 APPENDIX training, shall be borne by the State and local communities, and no part of the cost thereof shall be borne out of the appropriations herein made. The moneys expended under the provisions of this Act, in cooperation with the States, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, shall be conditioned that for each dollar of Federal money expended for such salaries the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for such salaries; and that appropriations for the training of teachers of vocational subjects, as herein provided, shall be conditioned that such money be expended for maintenance of such training and that for each dollar of Federal money so expended for maintenance, the State or local community, or both, shall expend an equal amount for the maintenance of such training. Sec. 10. That any State may use the appropriation for agricultural purposes, or any part thereof allotted to it, under the provisions of this Act, for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, either for the salaries of teachers of such subjects in schools or classes or for the salaries of supervisors or directors of such subjects under a plan of supervision for the State to be set up by the State board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Educa- tion. That in order to receive the benefits of such appropriation for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural sub- jects the State Board of any State shall provide in its plan for agri- cultural education that such education shall be that which is under public supervision or control; that the controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit for useful employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and be designed to meet the needs of persons over fourteen years of age who have entered upon or who are preparing to enter upon the work of the farm or of the farm home; that the State or local community, or both, shall provide the neces- sary plant and equipment determined upon by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, as the minimum requirement for such education in schools and classes in the State; that the amount expended for the maintenance of such education in any school or class receiving the benefit of such appro- priation shall be not less annually than the amount fixed by the State APPENDIX 459 Board, with the approval of the Federal Board as the minimum for such schools or classes in the State; that such schools shall provide for directed or supervised practice in agriculture, either on a farm provided for by the school or other farm, for at least six months per year; that the teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural sub- jects shall have at least the minimum qualifications determined for the State by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Sec. 11. That in order to receive the benefits of the appropria- tion for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and indus- trial subjects the State Board of any State shall provide in its plan for trade, home economics, and industrial education that such edu- cation shall be given in schools or classes under public supervision or control; that the controlling purpose of such education shall be to fit for useful employment; that such education shall be of less than college grade and shall be designed to meet the needs of per- sons over fourteen years of age who are preparing for a trade or in- dustrial pursuit or who have entered upon the work of a trade or industrial pursuit; that the State or local community, or both; shall provide the necessary plant and equipment determined upon by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, as the minimum requirement in such State for education for any given trade or industrial pursuit; that the total amount ex- pended for the maintenance of such education in any school or class receiving the benefit of such appropriation shall be not less annually than the amount fixed by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board, as the minimum for such schools or classes in the State; that such schools or classes giving instruction to persons who have not entered upon employment shall require that at least half of the time of such instruction be given to practical work on a useful or productive basis, such instruction to extend over not less than nine months per year and not less than thirty hours per week; that at least one-third of the sum appropriated to any State for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects shall, if ex- pended, be applied to part-time schools or classes for workers over four- teen years of age who have entered upon employment, and such sub- jects in a part-time school or class may mean any subject given to 460 APPENDIX enlarge the civic or vocational intelligence of such workers over four- teen and less than eighteen years of age; that such part-time schools or classes shall provide for not less than one hundred and forty-four hours of classroom instruction per year; that evening industrial schools shall fix the age of sixteen years as a minimum entrance requirement and shall confine instruction to that which is supplemental to the daily employment; that the teachers of any trade or industrial subject in any State shall have at least the minimum qualifications for teachers of such subject determined upon for such State by the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Education : Provided, That for cities and towns of less than twenty-five thousand popula- tion, according to the last preceding United States census, the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation, may modify the conditions as to the length of course and hours of instruction per week for schools and classes giving instruction to those who have not entered upon employment, in order to meet the particular needs of such cities and towns. Sec. 12. That in order for any State to receive the benefits of the appropriation in this Act for the training of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or of teachers of trade, industrial or home economics subjects, the State Board of such State shall provide in its plan for such training that the same shall be carried out under the supervision of the State Board; that such training shall be given in schools or classes under public supervision or control; that such train- ing shall be given only to persons who have had adequate vocational experience or contact in the line of work for which they are preparing themselves as teachers, supervisors, or directors, or who are acquiring such experience or contact as a part of their training; and that the State Board, with the approval of the Federal Board, shall establish minimum requirements for such experience or contact for teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects and for teachers of trade, industrial, and home economics subjects; that not more than sixty per centum nor less than twenty per centum of the money appro- priated under this Act for the training of teachers of vocational sub- jects to any State for any year shall be expended for any one of the following purposes: For the preparation of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or the preparation of teachers of APPENDIX 461 trade and industrial subjects, or the preparation of teachers of home economics subjects. Sec. 13. That in order to secure the benefits of the appropriations for the salaries of teachers, supervisors, or directors of agricultural subjects, or for the salaries of teachers of trade, home economics, and industrial subjects, or for the training of teachers as herein provided, any State shall, through the legislative authority thereof, appoint as custodian for said appropriations its State treasurer, who shall receive and provide for the proper custody and disbursements of all money paid to the State from said appropriations. Sec. 14. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall annually ascertain whether the several States are using, or are pre- pared to use, the money received by them in accordance with the pro- visions of this Act. On or before the first day of January of each year the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall certify to the Sec- retary of the Treasury each State which has accepted the provisions of this Act and complied therewith, certifying the amounts which each State is entitled to receive under the provisions of this Act. Upon such certification the Secretary of the Treasury shall pay quarterly to the custodian for vocational education of each State the moneys to which it is entitled under the provisions of this Act. The moneys so received by the custodian for vocational education for any State shall be paid out on the requisition of the State Board as reimbursement for expenditures already incurred to such schools as are approved by said State Board and are entitled to receive such moneys under the provi- sions of this Act. Sec. 15. That whenever any portion of the fund annually allotted to any State has not been expended for the purpose provided for in this Act, a sum equal to such portion shall be deducted by the Federal Board from the next succeeding annual allotment from such fund to such State. Sec. 16. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education may withhold the allotment of moneys to any State whenever it shall be determined that such moneys are not being expended for the purposes and under the conditions of this Act. If any allotment is withheld from any State, the State Board of such State may appeal to the Congress of the United States, and if the Con- 462 APPENDIX gress shall not direct such sum to be paid it shall be covered into the Treasury. Sec. 17. That if any portion of the moneys received by the custo- dian for vocational education of any State under this Act, for any given purpose named in this Act, shall, by any action or contingency, be diminished or lost, it shall be replaced by such State, and until so replaced no subsequent appropriation for such education shall be paid to such State. No portion of any moneys appropriated under this Act for the benefit of the States shall be applied, directly or indirectly, to the purchase, erection, preservation, or repair of any building or build- ings or equipment, or for the purchase or rental of lands, or for the support of any religious or privately owned or conducted school or college. Sec. 18. That the Federal Board for Vocational Education shall make an annual report to Congress, on or before December first, on the administration of this Act and shall include in such report the reports made by the State Boards on the administration of this Act by each State and the expenditure of the money allotted to each State. Approved, February 23, 1917. [Public — No. 178 — 65th Congress.] [S. 4557.] An Act To provide for vocational rehabilitation and return to civil employment of disabled persons discharged from the mili- tary or naval forces of the United States, and for other purposes. Be it enacted hy the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled, That this Act shall be known as the Vocational Rehabilitation Act. That the word "board," as hereinafter used in this Act, shall mean the "Federal Board for Voca- tional Education." That the word "bureau," as hereinafter used in this Act, shall mean the "Bureau of War-Risk Insurance." Sec. 2. That every person who is disabled under circumstances entitling him, after discharge from the military or naval forces of the United States, to compensation under Article III of the Act en- titled "An Act to amend an Act entitled 'An Act to authorize the establishment of a Bureau of War-Risk Insurance in the Treasury APPENDIX 463 Department/" approved October sixth, nineteen hundred and seven- teen, hereinafter referred to as "said Act," and who, after his dis- charge, in the opinion of the board, is unable to carry on a gainful occupation, to resume his former occupation, or to enter upon some other occupation, or having resumed or entered upon such occupation is unable to continue the same successfully, shall be furnished by the said board, where vocational rehabilitation is feasible, such course of vocational rehabilitation as the Board shall prescribe and provide. The Board shall have power, and it shall be its duty, to furnish the persons included in this section suitable courses of vocational rehabilitation to be prescribed and provided by the Board, and every person electing to follow such a course of vocational rehabilitation shall, while following the same, receive monthly compensation equal to the amount of his monthly pay for the last month of his active service, or equal to the amount to which he would be entitled under Article III of said Act, whichever amount is the greater. If such person was an enlisted man at the time of his discharge, for the period during which he is so afforded a course of rehabihtation, his family shall receive compulsory allotment and family allowance according to the terms of Article II of said Act in the same manner as if he were an enlisted man, and for the purpose of computing and paying com- pulsory allotment and family allowance his compensation shall be treated as his monthly pay: Provided, That if such person willfully fails or refuses or follow the prescribed course of vocational rehabili- tation which he has elected to follow, in a manner satisfactory to the Board, the said Board in its discretion may certify to that effect to the Bureau and the said Bureau shall, during such period of failure or refusal, withhold any part or all of the monthly copmensation due such person and not subject to compulsory allotment which the said Board may have determined should be withheld: Provided, however, That no vocational teaching shall be carried on in any hospital until the medical authorities certify that the condition of the patient is such as to justify such teaching. The military and naval family allowance appropriation provided for in section eighteen of said Act shall be available for the payment of the family allowances provided by this section; and the military and naval compensation appropriation provided for in section nine- 464 APPENDIX teen of said Act shall be available for the payment of the monthly compensation herein provided. No compensation under Article III of said Act shall be paid for the period during which any such person is furnished by said board a course of vocational rehabilitation except as is hereinbefore provided. Sec. 3. That the courses of vocational rehabilitation provided for under this Act shall, as far as practicable and under such conditions as the board may prescribe, be made available without cost for instruc- tion for the benefit of any person who fe disabled under circumstances entitUng him, after discharge from the military or naval forces of the United States, to compensation under Article III of said Act and who is not included in section two hereof. Sec. 4. That the Board shall have the power and it shall be its duty to provide such facilities, instructors, and courses as may be necessary to insure proper training for such persons as are required to follow such courses as herein provided; to prescribe the courses to be followed by such persons; to pay, when in the discretion of the Board such payment is necessary, the expense of travel, lodging, subsistence, and other necessary expenses of such persons while fol- lowing the prescribed courses; to do all things necessary to insure vocational rehabilitation; to provide for the placement of rehabilitated persons in suitable or gainful occupations. The Board shall have the power to make such rules and regulations as may be necessary for the proper performance of its duties as prescribed by this Act, and is hereby authorized and directed to utilize, with the approval of the Secretary of Labor, the facilities of the Department of Labor, in so far as may be practicable, in the placement of rehabilitated persons in suitable or gainful occupations. Sec. 5. That it shall also be the duty of the Board to make or cause to have made studies, investigations, and reports regarding the voca- tional rehabilitation of disabled persons and their placement in suit- able or gainful occupations. When the Board deems it advisable, such studies, investigations, and reports may be made in cooperation with or through other departments and bureaus of the Government, and the Board in its discretion may cooperate with such public or private agencies as it may deem advisable in performing the duties imposed upon it by this Act. APPENDIX 465 Sec. 6. That all medical and surgical work or other treatment necessary to give functional and mental restoration to disabled per- sons prior to their discharge from the mihtary or naval forces of the United States shall be under the control of the War Department and the Navy Department, respectively. Whenever training is em- ployed as a therapeutic measure by the War Department or the Navy Department a plan may be established between these agencies and the Board acting in an advisory capacity to insure, in so far as medical requirements permit, a proper process of training and the proper prep- aration of instructors for such training. A plan may also be estab- lished between the War and Navy Departments and the Board whereby these departments shall act in an advisory capacity with the board in the care of the health of the soldier and sailor after his discharge. The Board shall, in establishing its plans and rules and regulations for vocational training, cooperate with the War Department and the Navy Department in so far as may be necessary to effect a continuous process of vocational training. Sec. 7. That the Board is hereby authorized and empowered to receive such gifts and donations from either public or private sources as may be offered unconditionally. All moneys received as gifts or donations shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, and shall constitute a permanent fund, to be called the "Special fund for vocational rehabilitation," to be used under the direction of the said board, in connection with the appropriations hereby made or here- after to be made, to defray the expenses of providing and maintaining courses of vocational rehabilitation; and a full report of all gifts and donations offered and accepted, and all disbursements therefrom, shall be submitted annually to Congress by said Board. Sec. 8. That there is hereby appropriated, out of any money in the Treasury of the United States not otherwise appropriated, available immediately and until expended, the sum of $2,000,000 or so much thereof as may be necessary to be used by the Federal Board for Vocational Education for the purposes of this Act, to wit, for renting and remodehng buildings and quarters, repairing, maintaining, and equipping same, and for equipment and other facilities necessary for proper instruction of disabled persons, $250,000; for the prepara- tion of instructors and salaries of instructors, supervisors, and other 466 APPENDIX experts, including necessary traveling expenses, $545,000; for travel- ing expenses of disabled persons in connection with training and for lodging, subsistence, and other necessary expenses in special cases of persons following prescribed courses, $250,000; for tuition for disabled persons pursuing courses in existing institutions, public or private, $545,000; for the placement and supervision after placement of vocationally rehabilitated persons, $45,000; for studies, investiga- tions, reports, and preparation of special courses of instruction, $55,- 000; for miscellaneous contingencies, including special mechanical ap- pliances necessary in special cases for disabled men, $110,000; and for the administrative expenses of said Board incident to performing the duties imposed by this Act, including salaries of such assistants, ex- perts, clerks, and other employees in the District of Columbia or else- where as the Board may deem necessary, actual traveling and other necessary expenses incurred by the members of the Board and by its employees under its orders, including attendance at meetings of edu- cational associations and other organizations, rent and equipment of offices in the District of Columbia and elsewhere, purchase of books of reference, law books, and periodicals, stationery, typewriters and exchange thereof, miscellaneous supplies, postage on foreign mail, printing and binding to be done at the Government Printing Office, and all other necessary expenses, $200,000. Sec. 9. That said Board shall file with the Clerk of the House and the Secretary of the Senate on July first and every three months thereafter, for the information of the Congress, an itemized account of all expenditures made under this Act, including names and salaries of employees. Said Board shall also make an annual report to the Congress of its doings under this Act on or before December first of each year. Sec. 10. That section three hundred and four of the Act entitled "An Act to authorize the establishment of a Bureau of War Risk Insurance in the Treasury Department" approved September sec- ond, nineteen hundred and fourteen, as amended, is hereby repealed. Sec. 11. No person of draft age physically fit for military service shall be exempted from such service on account of being employed under the terms of this Act. Approved June 27, 1918. INDEX Abilities, measurement of, 423-435. See Tests. Accidents in industrial schools, 288- 290. Accoxmtant, description of occupa- tion of, 311-312. Achievement tests in schools, 405. Adams Act, the (1906), 151. Adaptability, as a supposed aim of liberal education, 41. Adjustment of education to popula- tion groups, efforts at, 87-88. Adolescence, studies of, in relation to education of girls, 351-352. Adult illiteracy, importance of re- moving, 108. Advertising manager, occupation of, 312. Age, distribution of workers ac- cording to, 73. Age-grade maladjustment, voca- tional education not a remedy for, 82-83. Age of pupils, questions which arise about, 73-83. Agricultural arts education, 49, 193. Agricultural colleges, legislative measures providing for, 149-152; statistics of income of, 152-153, 154. Agricultural education, 47; defini- tion of vocational, 49; problems in, 192ff.; defined, 193; elemen- tary, 193-200; secondary instruc- tion in, 201-206; study and teaching vs. practice of agricul- ture, 206-208; applications of Smith-Hughes Act to, 211-217; preparation of teachers for, 217- 219; project method in, 220; in philanthropic and other institu- tions, 224-228; specimen course in, 224-226; improvement of rural life through, 228-229. Agricultural-Extension Act (1914), 149; (Smith-Lever), 151-152. Agricultural workers, statistics of, in tabular form, 194. Agriculture, Department of, farm bulletins published by, 365. Aim, as a principle of educational practice, 440. Alaska, educational work in, 15; statistics of schools in, 84; Fed- eral government's support of education in, 156. Allen, Charles R., contribution of, to pedagogy of instruction in trade processes, 296-300. Allotments to States, under Smith- Hughes Act, 184-186. American Psychological Associa- tion, high standard maintained by, 422. Amos Tuck School of Administra- tion and Finance, Dartmouth College, 332. 467 468 INDEX Antwerp, early commercial school at, 321. Apperception, as a principle of educational practice, 440. Apprenticeship, vocational training as a supplement to, 98. Apprenticeship schools, 258-259. Apprenticeship system, ancient, 127-129; economic changes vs., 132-134; survival of, in some corporation schools, 144. Arguments for vocational educa- tion, statement of, 95-102. Armsby, H. P., a supporter of cause of agricultural education, 229. Army, intelligence tests in, 399, 425; method of rating officers in, 433- 435. Arts, stories of loss of precious, 129- 132. Attendance at school, regularity of, 27. Attitudes, relation between ideals and, 24. Australia, agricultural education in, 195. Austria, agricultural schools in, 195. Autocracy, fostering of, by German educational system, 52, 53; sys- tem tending to develop, not to be tolerated in America, 54. Avocation, vocation distinguished from, 441-444. Ayres, L. P., studies of city school systems by, 65; studies of elimina- tion by, 75. Bagley, W. C, 21, 219; view of vocational education held by, 41 ; threefold law of habit-building as stated by, 438, Bailey, L. H., 229. Baldwin, B. T., 62. Bartlett, R. M., pioneer in com- mercial education, 322. Bawden, W. T., defense of voca- tional education by, 103-104; quoted on Smith-Hughes Act, 182, 184; Biennial Survey (1917- 18) by, quoted, 186-187. Beal, W. J., 229. Belgium, elementary agricultural instruction in, 194; commercial education in, 321. Bennett, James, early commercial school conducted by, 322. Bigelow, C. M., chart by, 409. Binet, Alfred, value of work of, 438. Biological adaptation, a factor for consideration in introducing spe- cialized vocational training, 104- 105. Blair, J. C, 229. Book, Professor, investigations by, of causes of elimination, 78. Boston Trades School for Girls, 373. Boys' agricultural clubs, 195. Briggs, T. H., cited concerning elimination, 77. Brotherhood, as an educational ideal, 46. Brown, Chancellor E. E., 333. Bryant and Stratton business school, 323. Buchanan, President, veto of first Morrill Act by, 148-149. Burnett, E. A., 229. Business administration, 316; divi- sions of, 316-317. Business and commerce, education for, 308-345. INDEX 469 Business investment, vocational training as a, 99-100. Business schools, development of, 320-324; private, 330-331. Butterfield, President, report of, on agricultural education, cited, 208- 210. Canada, rehabilitation of disabled soldiers in, 113; decay of appren- ticeship system in, 133; agricul- tural education in, 194; farming by disabled soldiers in, 224. Card-punching-machine operator, occupation of, 312. Carnegie Foundation for Advance- ment of Teaching, 404; criticism of Smith-Hughes Act in Bulletin of, 175-177. Carnegie Institute of Technology, Pittsburgh, 143. Carnegie Technical Schools, Pitts- burgh, 263. Carris, Lewis H., tabulation by, 287-288; cited, 290. Children's Village, New York, 111. Cincinnati, part-time system of schools in, 254. Cincinnati, University of, industrial teacher-training at, 301. City boys, agriculture for, 198-200. Classification of human types, 64. Claxton, P. P., school gardens ad- vocated by, 198; on home-making as a vocation for women, 356- 357. Cleveland, Ohio, studies of persist- ence and elimination in, 75-76; men and women workers in, 309- 310. Cleveland Survey, 408-409; scope of modern educational survey shown by, 411. Cleveland Survey of Education and Occupations of Cripples, cited, 113. Colleges, agricultural, 195; enroll- ment in agricultural and me- chanics arts, 207; correspondence courses in, 271 ; industrial teacher- training courses in, 301-302; commercial education in, 331- 332. Columbia University, training of vocational teachers at, 302. Comer, George N., pioneer in com- mercial education, 323. Commercial arts education, scope of term, 326. Commercial education, 47; a defini- tion of, 49; development of, 320- 324; terminology in, 324-326; elementary, 327-328; secondary, 328-330; in private commercial schools, 330-331; contemporary tendencies in, 332-344; Federal aid for, 344-345. Commercial occupations, workers in, 308-309. Commercial schools, enrollment in, 324. See Business schools. Concentration, as a principle of educational practice, 440. Consumption, liberal education con- ceived as education for, 40. Continuation schools, defined, 50; in German system of education, 52-53; privately controlled, 258- 259; in England, 320-321; for industrial workers, 254-258. Control, desirability of single, in system of education, 21-22. 470 INDEX Cooperation, in education in a democracy, 14— 15; in agricultural education, 152; account of devel- opment of Federal, 167-187. Corporations, schools maintained by, 143-145. Correspondence, vocational instruc- tion by, 270-271. Cost of living, vocational training a means of offsetting increased, 99. Cost-record systems, study of, in industrial schools, 287. Courses of study in agricultural schools, 205-206. Crane, Frank, article by, quoted, 35-37. Credit man, occupation of, 312-313. Crime, and vocational education, 109-112. Cromwell, A. D., cited on agricul- tural education, 223. Cubberley, E. P., cited, 83; on national grants for education, 153; help of, to teachers, in im- proving rural life, 229. Cubberley and Elliott, cited, 146. Cultural education, a major divi- sion of education, 47. Curriculum, changes and improve- ments in, 23; cannot remain static, 54. Curtis, C. F., 229. Dahm, E. F., criticism by, of com- mercial training in high schools, 329-330. Dangers in vocational education, 102-105. Darwin, Charles, cited on instincts and intelligence in man, 423. Davenport, Eugene, on cooperation, in agricultural education, 152; farm-craft lessons by, 200; a sup- porter of cause of agricultural education, 229. David Ranken, Jr., School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, 143, 246. Davis Bill, 171. Davis-Dolliver Bill, 171. Day industrial schools, 246; princi- ples for, 252-254. Day vocational schools, 50. Dean, A. S., on agriculture for city boys, 199. Delinquents, agriculture for, 227. Democracy, necessity of an ideal in, 3-4; significance of, in Amer- ica, 5; characteristics of, 5-6; reasons why education is indis- pensable in, 6-9; public educa- tion an aspect of, 9; the teaching of, 19-28; the great task set for, according to Giddings, 114—115. Democratizing of education, voca- tional training as a means of, 100. Department store education, 334- 338. Dewey, John, on certain dangers of existing industrial system, 17-18; "Democracy and Education" by, quoted and cited, 38, 39; com- plaint voiced by, concerning Smith-Hughes Act, 179; quoted on principles of method, 439- 440. Disabled, rehabilitation of the, by vocational training, 112-114. Divisions of vocational education, 46-47. Dodge, J. M., study by, 105. Dodson, W. R., 229. INDEX 471 Domestic and personal service, workers engaged in, 241. Drexel Institute, Philadelphia, 263. Drudgery, meaning and ingredients of, 441. Duff, Peter, commercial school founded by, 323. Duggar, J. F., 229. Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, 143, 263. Ebbinghaus, H., 4. Education, indispensability of, in a democracy, 6-7; reasons for es- tablishment and maintenance of, by the incorporated people, 7-9; the meaning of, 9; public, an aspect of democracy, 9; factors in, 10; complexity of, 10; univer- sal, and its scope, 11-12; in- dividualism vs. collectivism in, 12-14; cooperation vs. force in, 14-15; needed reorganizations in, 15-16; some effects of, seen in production of leaders by univer- sities, 16; vision necessary for men in industry, 16-18; four vivid characteristics of, in America, 18-19; the teaching of democ- racy, 19-26; relation between health and, 26-27; vocational, not merely an addition, 27-28; defini- tion of vocational, 33-34; de- mands for the practical in, 35- 37; relations of liberal and voca- tional, 37-39; six contemporary interpretations of vocational and of liberal, 39-43; compatibility of practical, with ethical idealism, 43-45; historic aims and ideals in, 45-46; difference existing between practical arts courses and vocational, 47-48; German sys- tem of, 51-54; effect on general, of vocational education, 100; money values of, 105-106; as a preventive of poverty, 106-108; for mechanical industries and trades, 238-307; for business and commerce, 308-345; practical, of girls and women, 350-380. See Agricultural education and Voca- tional education. Educational research, 402-403; the sm-vey movement, 403-404; bu- reaus of, 404-405; vocational- educational surveys, 407-414. Efficiency, specialized, as an aim of vocational education, 41; search for, in industry, 393-395. Einheitschule, the German, 53. Elementary commercial education, 327-328. Elementary schools, teaching of home economics in, 363-364. Elimination, evil of premature, 27; amount and causes of, 74-80; results of, 80-82. Ellis, A. C, study by, of money value of education, 105-106. Emotionalism, relation between ideals and, 24-25. Employees, selection of, 395; ex- periments in testing, 431-432. Emplojonent, department of, in business administration, 377. Emplojonent manager, qualifica- tions of, 717-319. England, evening schools in, 262; commercial education in, 320- 321 ; reports issued by Ministry of Labor in, 399-400. 472 INDEX Enrollment, statistics of, in schools, 84-87. Environment, classification of hu- man types as to, 64; influence of, on education, 123-125. Ethical idealism, practical educa- tion and, 43-45. Ettinger, Superintendent, work of, for teaching of salesmanship, 333. Europe, continuation school idea in, 256; evening schools in countries of, 262. Evening schools, desirable results expected from, 102; problems of, 262-270; subjects of instruction in, under Smith-Hughes Act, 284-285; household arts courses in, 366-370; provisions of Smith- Hughes Act affecting, 377. Evening vocational schools, 50, 262. Expense of vocational education, 104. Experience, disadvantages of, as a school, 81. Expression, as a principle of educa- tional practice, 440. Extension trade teaching for women, 374-376. Extraction of minerals, workers en- gaged in, 241. Fads, aspects of vocational educa- tion viewed as, 40. Fairchild, G. T., 229. Fallon, John J., quoted on in- competency and crime, 110. Family, relations of the, to educa- tion, 125-127. Farm-craft lessons, 200. Farmers' institutes, 195. Fatigue, periods of, 436. Federal aid for commercial educa- tion, 344-345. Federal Board for Vocational Edu- cation, 22. Federal Commission on National Aid to Vocational Education, propositions of, 96-102. Federal Government, policy of, toward education, 14-15, 145- 152; expenditures of, for educa- tion, 152-157. Feeble-minded, agriculture for the, 227. Fellenberg movement, the, 111- 112; agricultural education stim- ulated by, 195. File clerk, occupation of, 313. Finance department of business administration, 317. Financial argument for vocational education, 99-100. First aid, instruction of industrial teachers in, 288-289. Foreign trade, education for, 340. Fortbildungschule, the German, 52. France, study of elementary agricul- ture in, 193-194; commercial education in, 320. Franklin Union, Boston, 263. Galloway, Lee, quoted on educa- tion for work in stores, 332-333. General Education Board, con- tribution of, in field of educa- tional research, 404. Genesis, classification of human types according to, 64. Germany, pre-war influence of, 51; characteristics of schools of, 51- 54; educational system not safely to be transplanted to America, INDEX 473 54; agricultural schools in, 195; evening schools in, 262; commer- cial education in, 321-322. Giddings, F. H., 63; on the nature and behavior of human society, 66; on the goal of democracy, 114-115. Gilds, medieval, 128-129. Gild system, modern economic changes vs., 132-134. Girls, practical education of, 350ff.; psychology of adolescent, 351- 352; home-making as a vocation for, 354-358; occupational tend- encies among, 358-361; indus- trial and trade-extension schools for, 373-376. Glen Mills Schools, Pennsylvania, 111. Graves, Frank P., quoted on Fellen- berg movement, 111. Groupings of society, 66-67. Groups, occupational, 67-72. Gymnasium, the German, 52. Hall, G. S., 21, 62; on legends of lost arts, 130-131. Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, 143; agricultural edu- cation at, 224. Hanisch, German Kultus-Minister, program of educational reform issued by, 54. Harper, William B., correspondence instruction stimulated by, 271. Harvard School of Business Ad- ministration, 332. Hatch Act, 149, 151. Hawaii, educational work in, 14; Federal government's support of education in, 156. Hawkins, L. S., on study of agricul- tme in high schools, 201-203; quoted, 345. Heald, F. E., study by, of project- method in agricultiu"al education, 221. Health, education and, 26-27; as an educational ideal, 46. Hebrew Technical School for Girls, New York City, 143. Henry, W. A., 229. Hickok, Mrs. H. M., cited on home- making, 358. High schools, students in certain studies in, 137; problems pre- sented by introduction of voca- tional training in, 139-140; in- struction in agriculture in, 201- 205; technical, 301-302; commer- cial education in, 328-330; pro- posed commercial curricula for, 342-344; teaching of home eco- nomics in, 364-365. Hirsch Trade School for Girls, New York City, 143, 373. Hodge, C. F., cited concerning nature study, 197. HoUey, C. E., studies by, 78. HoUingworth, H. L., cited, 424, 428; experiments of, 433. Home, function of the, in educa- tion, 125-127. Home economics: household arts education, 362-370; vocational home-making courses, 370-373. Home-making education, 47; a definition of, 49. Home-making, as a vocation for girls, 354-358; responsibility in, shared by boys and men, 362; courses in vocational, 370-373. 474 INDEX Hopkins, C. G., 229. Hosic, J. F., 219. Household arts, use of term, 363. Household arts education, 49-50, 362-370. Hughes, Dudley M., Smith-Hughes Act fathered by, 171. Hiunanism, democracy and, 19- 20. Human types, classification of, 64. Hunt, T. F., 229. Ideals, an element of democratic society, 3-4; in America, 5-6; methods for use in securing, 20- 21; expression vs. mere por- trayal of, 23-24; practical educa- tion compatible with, 43-45; dis- cussion of educational, 45-48. IlUnois, University of, farm-craft lessons distributed by, 200; in- telligence testing at, 425-426. IlUnois Educational Commission, report on vocational courses by, 140-141. Immigration, problems presented by, 108. Independence, individual, as an educational ideal, 46. Indians, Federal aid in education of, 156. Indian schools, statistics of, 84. Individualism vs. collectivism in education, 12-14. Individuals, adjustment of schools to society or to, 60-61; differ- ences in, 62-63; table showing classification of types of, 64. Industrial arts education, 49; forms of training included under, 241. Industrial education, 47; a defini- tion of vocational, 49; in German schools, 51-54. Industrial research, 393-402. Industrial schools, results expected from, 101-102; established by philanthropy, 142-143; meaning of term, 239-240; description of, 241ff.; divisions within, 247; departments of, 248; prevoca- tional courses in, 249; propor- tions of shop and of academic work in, 249; uses of spare time in, 252; principles to be observed in, 252-254; provisions of Smith- Hughes Act regarding, 280-285; production vs. exercise in, 287- 288; teachers and teaching meth- ods in, 290-302; book by H. L. Smith on establishing of, 405- 406. Industrial unrest, traced to lack of vocational training, 100-101. Industrial victims, vocational edu- cation of, 112-113. Industries, relation of vocational- educational siu-veys to, 414. Industry, importance of vision for men in, 16-19; the word, as dis- tinguished from "trade," 238- 239. Injuries in industrial schools, 288- 290. Instruction, psychology applied to, 420-445. Instructors in industrial schools, 290-293. Intellectuals, class of, among young women, 354-355. Intelligence, denotation of term, 423; analysis of general, 423- 424; viewed as voluntary adap- INDEX 475 tability, 424; standards of, in army and in universities, 425- 426. Intelligence tests, 398-399, 424^425. Interest, as a principle of educa- tional practice, 440. International Typographical Union Conamission on Supplemental Trade Education, 145. Isaac Delgado Central Trades School for Boys, New Orleans, 143. James, E. J., address by, cited, 329. James, William, 420, 437; on in- stincts in man, 423. Jarvis, C. D., on gardening in elementary schools, 197. Jefferson, Thomas, on education, 7. Jewell, J. R., monograph by, cited, 197. Jobs, real life work distinguished from, 443-444. Johnson, J. F., on commercial edu- cation, 320-324, 340. Johnson, Samuel, 229. Jones, E. D., description of success- ful employment manager by, 317- 319. Jones, J. C, study by, 105. Jones, Jonathan, commercial school founded by, 323. Jordan, W. H., 229. Journalism, responsibility of sensa- tional, for demands for practical in education, 55. Judd, C. H., 62, 424; quoted con- cerning National Society for Vocational Education, 170-171; quoted on tendencies in commer- cial teaching, 335. Juvenile delinquents, vocational education for, 110-111. Kandel, I. L., review by, presenting program of German educational reform, 54; cited, 146, 148. Kansas City, statistics of elimina- tion in schools of, 77. Kedzie, R. C, 229. Kelly, F. J., cited on the general industrial school, 259. Kelly, Roy W., quoted on experi- ment in examining at Harvard, 430-431. Kerschensteiner, George, continua- tion schools of Munich under, 256-257. Kindergartens, statistics of, 84. Kinley, David, quoted on commer- cial education, 340-342. Knowledge, increase of, a reason for education, 8. Labor power, reduction of waste of, by vocational training, 97-98. Labor unions, schools maintained by, 145. Land grants for educational pur- poses, 14, 145-146. Lane Technical High School, Chi- cago, 246; prevocational course at, 249. Leaders produced by universities, 16. Leake, Albert H., 41; book by, on vocational education of women, 377-378. Learning, three modes of, 437; securing economy in, 437-438. Legislative enactments regarding vocational education, 145-152. 476 INDEX Lever Bill, 171. Lewis Institute, Chicago, 143. Life work, meaning of, 441-445. Literacy, the need of, as well as of skill, 108-109. Lyford, Carrie A., courses in home- making by, 36&-366. Lyman School for Boys, Massachu- setts, 111. McDonald, R. A. F., tabular classi- fication of human types by, 64. McKinley Bill of 1911, 171. McMurry, C. A., 21, 219. Maine, Sir Henry, quoted on dan- gers of democracies, 13. Manhattan Trades School for Girls, New York City, 373. Manual training, vocational educa- tion sometimes viewed as merely a variety of, 40. Manufacturing, department of, in business administration, 317. Manufacturing and mechanical in- dustries, statistics relative to, 241-245. Marshall, Florence, study by, 105. Mason, O. T., quoted on influence of environment on education, 123, 124, 125. Massachusetts, agricultural educa- tion in, 207-208; qualifications of teachers of agriculture in, 217- 218. Mechanical industries and trades, education for, 238-307. Mechanic arts, legislation providing for colleges for, 149-152; statis- tics of income for colleges of, 152-153, 154. Mental hygiene, 435. Mental tests, 424-435. Method, principles of, 439-440. Miles, Manley, 229. Mill, J. S., cited on education, 7. Miners, schools for, 269-270. Miimeapolis Vocational Survey, 406. Minnesota, University of, agricul- tural high school connected with, 201. Monarchy, desirability of educa- tion in a, 7. Money values of education, 105- 106. Monroe, Paul, on all education as, in a sense, vocational, 34. Moore, E. C, on practical educa- tion and idealistic training, 43- 45. Morality, as an educational ideal, 46. MorrUl Act, 14, 146-148, 168, 201; veto of first, by President Bu- chanan, 148-149; passage of, in 1862, 149; the second (1890), 149; Jonathan B. Turner the real father of, 149-150; influence and significance of, 150. Mosby, Thomas S., on relation be- tween incompetency and crime, 109-110. Motivation, as a principle of educa- tional practice, 440. Mumford, H. W., 229. Munich, continuation schools of, 256-257. Murray Hill Evening Trade School, New York City, 265. Mm-tland, Cleo, cited on part-time courses in household arts, 372- 373. Myers, G. E., cited, 290. INDEX 477 National Council of Research, high standard maintained for workers of, 422. National Education Association, definition and types of vocational education by committee of, 48- 51 ; criticism of Smith-Hughes Act by Department of Superintend- ence of, 177. National prosperity, viewed as de- pendent on vocational education, 100. National Society for Promotion of Industrial Education, 160-170. National Society for Study of Education, 37. National Society for Vocational Education, 170-171. Natural resources, relation of voca- tional training to conservation and development of, 96-97. Nature study, place of, in agricul- tural education, 196-197. Nautical education, vocational, 50. Nelson Act, 149, 150. Neumann, Henry, quoted on phys- ical and moral vigor, 26. New Bedford, Mass., Industrial School, 265. New Orleans, percentage of elimina- tion in schools of, 76-77. Newton, Mass., Trade School, 265. New York City, part-time schools in, 254-255; cooperative plan in, for education for work in stores, 333. New York Trade School, 263. Nichols, F. G., quoted on commer- cial education, 327-328; recom- mendations of^ 342-344. Nietzsche, disciples of, among pres- ent-day young women 354-355. Nolan, A. W., quoted on nature study and agriculture, 197; study of project-method in agricultural education by, 221. Oakland Technical High School, California, 246. Occupational groups, the major, 241-245. Occupations, classification of, 67- 68; statistics of, in tabular form, 69, 70, 72; influence of environ- ment and, on education, 123-125. OflSce manager, occupation of, 313. Office occupations, definitions and descriptions of, 310-315. Office work, classification of, 315- 316. Ohio Mechanics' Institute, Cin- cinnati, 263. O'Leary, W. A., recommendations by, 291. O'Shea, M. V., 219; quoted on groupings of society, 66-67. Overman Bill, 171. Packard, S. S., penmanship teacher, 323. Page Bill, 171. Panama, Federal government's sup- port of education in, 156. Panama-Pacific exhibition, rural and agricultural exhibits at, 208. Part-time courses, provisions of Smith-Hughes Act in regard to, 283-284; for housewives, 372-373. Part-time schools, desirable results expected from, 102; for industrial workers, 254-258. 478 INDEX Patriotism, education for, 25-26. Paulsen, F., quoted on intellectuals among young women, 355. Pearson, R. A., 229. Persistence, studies relating to elimination and, 74-78. Personality, classification of human types according to, 64. Personnel department of business administration, 317. Pestalozzi, theory of, and its in- fluence, 114. Pestalozzi-Fellenberg system, 111- 112, 195. Phase method of organizing indus- trial instruction, 294. Philanthropy, support given voca- tional education by, 142-143. Philippine Islands, educational work in, 14, 156. Physical education, a major divi- sion of education, 47. Plato, cited on education, 7; quoted on population-characteristics, 65- 66. Population, characteristics of, of United States, 65; contemporary education in relation to, 134- 139. Porto Rico, educational work in, 15; Federal government's support of education in, 156. Poverty, education as a panacea for, 106-108. Practical arts courses, distinct from vocational education, 47-48. Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, 143, 263. Prevocational education, so called, 48; definition of, 50; in industrial schools, 249. Prisons, farm work at, 227-228. Pritchett, Henry S., quoted on the Morrill Act, 150. Private schools, commercial educa- tion in, 330-331. Production, vocational education conceived as education for, 40. Professional education, 47; defini- tion of, 48; of women, 378. Project method, in agricultural education, 207-208, 220-221; in trade and industrial education, 294-295. Project routing, 295-296. Prosser, Charles A., 179; quoted on Smith-Hughes Act, 182; recom- mendations by, 291; cited rela- tive to vocational industrial courses for girls and women, 374; on special value of survey work, 407. Psychology, of childhood and ad- olescence as a factor in prepara- tion of educators, 62; of adoles- cent girls, 351-352; applications of, to instruction and industry, 420ff.; unwarranted expectations from, 420-421; two extremes of position in regard to, 421 ; certain confusions concerning, 421-422; slow progress of scientific, 422; scope and status of, 422; applied to measuring abilities, 423-435; various applications of, 435-441. Public service, workers engaged in, 241. Purchasing agent, occupation of, 313-314. Qualifications, of industrial school teachers, 291; for oflBce occupa- INDEX 479 tions, 311-315; of employment manager, 317. Railey, Mary, 83, 93. Ralph Sellew Institute, St. Louis, 143. Randall, J. L., cited on school gar- dening, 197. Realschule, the German, 52. Reigart, J. F., quoted on family education, 125-126, 127. Reilly, P. J., scale devised by, for rating foreman, 435. Research, methods of, for adjusting schools to individuals and to society, 61-62; uses of, for educa- tion and industry, 389ff.; mean- ings and values of, 389-393; in- dustrial, 393-402; educational, 402-406. Retardation, use and abuse of term, 82-83. Roberts, J. P., 229. Rochester Mechanics' Institute, 143. Ross, E. A., on response of people to an ideal, 21. Rousseau, J. J., 4. Rural education, needed reorgani- zations in, 15-16. Rural schools, household arts in- struction in, 365-366. Russell, H. L., 229. Russell Sage Foundation, work of, in educational research, 404. St. Charles School for Boys, Illinois, 111. Sales department, in business ad- ministration, 317. San Francisco, percentage of elimi- nation in schools of, 77. School credit for business expe- rience, 339. School garden movement, influence of, 197-198. Schools, question of adjustment of, to individuals and to society, 60- 61; problems of persistence, elimi- nation, and maladjustment in, 73-83; statistics of enrollment in, 84-87; vocational courses in pub- lic, 139-141; industrial, estab- lished through benevolence, 142- 143; corporation and trade-union, 143-145; statistics of vocational, 183; giving instruction in agricul- ture, 202; special or separate, for agricultural instruction, 204; com- mercial, 320-324; as means for maintaining ideals, 445. Scientific methods in research, 389- 392. Scott, J. F., quoted on old appren- ticeship system, 128. Scott, W. D., quoted on tests of em- ployees, 431-433. Scovell, M. A., 229. Secondary commercial education, 328-330. Sex, occupational groupings ac- cording to, 69, 70, 73. Sex differences, relation of, to edu- cation, 351. Shelton, E. M., 229. Shorey, Paul, attitude of, toward educational psychology, 421. Skill, increase of, a reason for edu- cation, 8. Smith, H. L., "Establishing Indus- trial Schools" by, 405-406. Smith, Hoke, Smith-Hughes Act fathered by, 171. 480 INDEX Smith, W. W., study by, 105. Smith-Hughes Act, 15, 22, 37, 96, 114, 146, 150, 151; function and aims of, 167-168; origin of, 168- 169; predecessors of, 171-172; text of, 172-174, 451-462; com- ments on and criticisms of, 174- 181; merits of, 181-184; future modification of, 184; allotments to the States under, 184-186; appli- cations of, to agricultural educa- tion, 193, 211-217; applications of, to industrial and trade educa- tion, 279-285; applications of, to practical education of women and girls, 376-377. Smith-Lever Act, 14, 151-152. Smith-Sears Act, 150, 151; voca- tional training of disabled soldiers under, 113-114; purpose of, 186; text of, 462-466. Smith-Towner Bill, 180-181. Snedden, David, view of voca- tional education held by, 40; quoted concerning industrial evils, 132; cited and quoted, 103, 223, 290, 300, 301, 362-363. Social unrest, traced to lack of vocational training, 100-101. Society, adjustment of schools to individuals or to, 60-61; lack of homogeneity in American, 65- 66; groupings of American, 66- 67. Soldiers, industrial and trade educa- tion for rehabilitation of disabled, 285. Soule, A. M., 229. Specialized efficiency, as a supposed aim of vocational education, 41. Spencer, Herbert, enduring in- fluence of, 7. Spencer, P. R., penmanship teacher, 323. Standards of living, effect on, of vocational education, 101. State, security of the, a reason for education, 8. State expenditures for agricultural and mechanical colleges, 153, 154. States, distribution of occupations by, 71; allotments to, under Smith-Hughes Act, 184r-186. Statistician, occupation of, 314. Stern, W., definition of intelligence by, 424. Stimson, R. W., study by, of proj- ect-method in agricultural edu- cation, 221. Stockbridge, Levi, 229. Stock, Harry H., work of, for indus- trial mining education, 269. Storer, Frank, 229. Stores, education for work in, 332- 345. Strayer, G. D., studies of elimina- tion by, 75. Surveys, vocational-educational, 62, 407-il4; educational, 403-404. Suzzallo, Henry, 219; principles of educational practice emphasized by, 440; types of teaching or- ganized into groups by, 441. Sweden, study of elementary agri- culture in, 194. Switzerland, agricultural schools in, 195. Tabulating-machine operator, occu- pation of, 314. Talbot, Winthrop, cited, 108, INDEX 481 Teachers, of agricultural courses, 217-220; in evening schools, 263; in industrial schools, 290-293. Teacher-training centers, 300-301; statistics of vocational, 183. Teaching, types of, organized into groups, 441. Technical knowledge required in department stores, 335-338. Terman, Lewis M., cited, 424. Tests, for employees, 395-396; trade, 396-398; intelligence, 398- 399, 424-425; arguments for and against, in school, 405; use of mental, 424-434; insufficiency of, for real guidance, 428-429. Therapy, agriculture as, 223-224. Thompson, F. V., criticism by, of commercial education in high schools, 330. Thorndike, E. L., 21, 62, 63, 424, 437; quoted on educational aims, 41-42; studies of elimination by, 75. Thome, C. E., 229. Thwing, Charles, study by, of definite rewards of education, 105. Trades and industries, use of words, 238-239. Trade schools, supported by labor unions, 145; description of, 246- 261; for girls, 373-374. Trafiic manager, occupation of, 314. Trained workers, vocational train- ing as a means of meeting demand for, 99. Training of industrial school teach- ers, 291-293; centers for, 300- 301. Transcribing-machine operator, oc- cupation of, 315. Transportation, workers engaged in, 241. True, A. C, work of, for agricul- tural education, 229. Turner, Jonathan B., father of so- called Morrill Act, 149-150. Turn-over of labor, reduction of, 339. Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute, 143; agricultural edu- cation at, 224. Unitary control in systems of edu- cation, 21-23. Unit courses, defined, 264; groups needing, 265; disadvantages and advantages of, 265-267; in emer- gency war-service, 267; outhnes of typical, 267-269; part-time courses for housewives should be, 372. United States, rehabilitation of dis- abled soldiers in, 113-114; prog- ress in elementary agricultural education in, 195; evening schools in, 263; development of commer- cial education in, 322. United States Bureau of Labor Statistics, 371, 400-402. Unit plans for commercial educa- tion in junior and senior high schools, 342-344. Universal education, scope of, 11- 12; does not imply uniformity in schools, curricula, and methods, 60. Universities, leaders among men produced by, 16; correspondence courses at, 271 ; industrial teacher- training courses at, 301-302; com- mercial education at, 331-332; use of mental tests at, 425-426. 482 INDEX Utility, as a supposed end of voca- tional education, 41-43. Van Den Burg, I. K., studies by, 78. Van Sickle, Witmer, and Ayres, monograph by, cited, 82-83. Vineland Training School, agricul- tural activities at, 227. Virginia Mechanics' Institute, Rich- mond, 143, 263. Virtue and knowledge, correlation between, 10&-110. Vocation, necessity of understand- ing term, 441; should mean life work, 444. Vocational commercial education, significance of term, 324. Vocational education, the proper conception of, 27-28; what is meant by, 33-34; necessity of different provisions for, 37; can- not be divorced from general and liberal education, 38-39; divi- sions of, 46-47; practical arts courses distinct from, 47-48; definition and types of, offered by Committee on Vocational Edu- cation of N. E. A., 48-51; rela- tion between distribution of oc- cupations by states and, 71; probable effect of, on elimination, 80; as a panacea for maladjust- ments of children with reference to age and grade, 82; not a cure for retardation, 83; statement of twelve reasons for, 95-101; dan- gers in, 102-105; definite rewards of, 105-108; crime and, 109-110; for juvenile delinquents, 110-111; provisions for, in relation to population, 134-139; question of schools which should give, 139- 141 ; public sentiment in favor of, 141-142; support given to, by philanthropy, 142-143; Commis- sion on, 151; federal support of, a fact, 156-157; the Smith-Hughes Act, 167-186; statistics of schools and vocational teacher-training centers, 183; acceleration of, due to war, 186-187; agricultural education defined as, 193; in evening schools, 262-270; educa- tion for mechanical industries and trades, 238ff. ; by correspondence, 270-271; education for business and commerce, 308-345; of girls and women, 350-380; ideal con- ception of, 444-445. Vocational Education, National So- ciety for, 170-171. Vocational-educational surveys, 398-399; elements of, 407; steps in, 407^14. Vocational guidance, defined, 50-51. Vocational home-making courses, 370-373. Vocational industrial education, forms of education included under 240. Volksschule, the German, 51-52. Vorschule, in Germany, 53. Wage-earning power, vocational training as a means of increasing, 99-100. Wallin, J. E. W., plans by, for facilitating promotion, 83. War-service, the unit course in emergency, 267. Waters, H. J., 229. INDEX 483 Welfare supervisor, occupation of, 315. Wentworth Institute, Boston, 143, 246. West Indies, agricultural education in, 194. Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Penn- sylvania, 331-332. Whipple, Guy M., 424. Whittier School, California, 111. Williamson, Pa., Free School of Mechanical Trades, 143, 246; agricultural education at, 224^ 227; division of time among courses at, 250-252. Wilmerding Schools, San Francisco, 143. Wilson, Woodrow, on education, 7; speech by (July 4, 1918), quoted, 25-26. Women, industrial and trade edu- cation for, 285-286; in business, 309-310; practical education of girls and, 350ff.; industrial and trade-extension schools for, 373- 376. Women's Educational and Indus- trial Union, Boston, 143. Worcester, Mass., statistics of work- ing girls in, 359-360. Worcester Independent School of Trades, 246; work in, 250. Worcester Trades School for Girls, 373. Work, distinguished from drudgery and toil, 441; not to be regarded merely as a "job," 443-444. World War, conditions resulting in, 5; Federal grants for education before and since the, 153-155; effect of, on vocational educa- tion, 186-187. Yerkes, R. M., researches of, 423. Young Men's Christian Associa- tion, industrial schools estab- lished by, 143, 160; evening schools established by, 263; imit courses in industrial courses of, 268. Young Women's Christian Associa- tion, evening schools established by, 263. Ziertmann, Paul, quoted on Ger- man educational system, 63. Printed in the United States of America.