Class .L^LSJIS-. coPHUGirr DEPosrr. LUIS CINCIXATO BOLLO SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT By LUIS CINCINATO BOLLO Retired Director General of the Civil Registry and Bureau of Demographical Statistics of Uruguay. :: :: :: :: Autlior of Physical Geography ; Geography of America ; Ideas in Zoology ; Climatology of the La Plata Region, etc, etc. Translated from Spanish By NEMESIO BAROS ILLUSTRATED WITH SIX MAPS NEW YORK 1919 Copyright, 1919, by ■■■■■■BHttllli NEMESIO BAROS m -1 !9I9 ©CI.A5;5 6 38.3 CONTENTS FIRST PART— SOUTH AMERICA PAST Historical Inpobmation Regarding Epoch-making Events IN South America CHAPTER PAGE I. Region of the La Plata River 1 II. Historical Information about the Central Andean Region — Peru and Bolivia 66 HI. Historical Information About the North Andean Region — Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador 72 SECOND PART^-SOUTH AMERICA PRESENT IV. Orography and General Configuration of South America 81 V. The Vast Natural Regions op South America 90 VI. Hydrography 110 VII. Climatology of the La Plata Region 113 VIII. The Native South American 117. IX. Present and Fossil Fauna of South America 126 X. Demography 140 XL Political Organization of the Various South American States 149 XII. Cities of South America 159 XIII. Transportation Rail and Water Routes OF South America 163 XIV. The Meat-Producing Region of South Ameri- ca — the La Plata Valley 173 iii iv CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE XV. The Cereal -Producing Region of South America — the Argentina 183 XVI. The Mineral-Producing Region of South America — Chile, Peru and Bolivia 186 XVII. The Tropical Fruit-Producing Region of South America — Brazil, Ecuador, Colom- bia, Venezuela and Paraguay 194 XVIII. Future South America (Rod6) 213 Statistics — Comparison of the General Com- merce OF South America; Currency, Weights and Measures 218 MAPS PACING PAGE South America, 1777 26 Relief Map op North America 82 Relief Map of South America 83 Physical Map of South America 90 Political Map of South America 159 Means of Communication in South America — ^Rail- roads AND Navigation Lines 163 FIRST PART SOUTH AMERICA PAST CHAPTER I REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER SUMMARY The Aborigines — ^Peoples of the Andes and the Pampas — Submissive Disposition of the Andeans — Haughty and Fighting Spirit of the Pampas — How these Peoples' Institu- tions Contributed to the Formation of this Very Marked Contrast — Conquest of the Region of the La Plata River — Condition of the Indians of South America During the Conquest — The Jesuits — System of Jesuitical Government — Social Condition of the Indigenes of Bohvia — Spanish Settlements in Uruguay — Disputes Over the Oriental Territory of Uruguay Between Spaniards and Portuguese — Founding of the Viceroyship of the Rio de La Plata in 1776 — Last "War Between Spain and Portugal (1800) for the Oriental Missions of Upper Uruguay — Invasions by the English in 1806 and 1807 — Pop- ular Movements Forerunners of the South American Revolution in Caracas in 1711 and 1713, Cochabamba in 1730, Asuncion in 1731, Quito, Chuquisaca, Montevideo and Caracas in 1809 and Buenos Aires in 1810 — ^Artigas Victor in the First Battle of the La Plata River Against the Spaniards at Las Piedras in 1811 — The Orientales Abandoned by the Buenos Aires Assembly, Obliged to Combat the Spaniards and Portuguese — Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay. The Aborigines At the time of the discovery of America by Columbus in 1492, it was inhabited by many millions of Indians unevenly scattered throughout its various regions, some of which and among them what are now known as *Peru and Bolivia com- pared in density of population with some of the European countries of the same period. There is no «iTpto*ies*of**° ^^*^ ^^ which to base an account of the Pam^as^^ *°*^ ''^^ exact number of Indians inhabiting these regions at the time, but it remains an undis- puted fact that Perti and Bolivia had a number of cities with a dense population depending principally upon agricul- ture, the mining industry being then of little importance, due to the lack of commercial intercourse with the outside world, for excepting the settlements which now comprise Ecuador and Colombia, they were all inhabited by savages. The Punas Heladas (bleak, frozen regions) of Bolivia, which are at 4,000 meters above the level of the sea, had been X 2 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT the center of an advanced civilization which left the famous ruins of Tiahuanaco, colossal city which must have exceeded in population the city of Cuzco, the capital of the Empire of the Incas, which the Spaniards found there on their arrival in Peru. The founders of Tiahuanaco were not the miserable Aimards who were first visited by the Spanish conquerors, but a banished and ignored tribe who were destroyed or compelled to migrate by the advance of a more barbarous and warring nation from the land to the south which is now Argentina. The whole Tiahuanaco race may have disappeared or been obliged to abandon its native haunts through some change in the living conditions on the lofty Bolivian plateau, which having risen higher through the action of some seismic disturbance became uninhabitable for man and his progeny. For were it not for the vast mineral wealth first found there by the Spaniards — principally silver, which gave more than a thousand million pesos, from the Potosi and other nearby regions — and the rich deposits of lead, copper, tin, etc., which are now being developed, the Puna, that bleak and frozen region, would now be completely deserted. Tliis meseta (plateau) has not always remained at its present elevation, which fact is made evident by the soil of the pampas, composed mostly of sediment such as is deposited under water and not only found on low, level ground but at more than one thousand meters above the sea on tfie sides of the Cordillera Real of Bolivia, which slopes as far as the immense desert-like plain called El Chaco. On the same soil of the pampas, which covers the Argen- tine plain, and which is to be found at more than one thou- sand metres elevation, numerous species of fossils have been discovered corresponding to the tiger, the predecessor of the elephant, ape, megatheriums, etc. No better proof than this need be asked to substantiate the fact that the Bolivian plateau has risen considerably higher than its original eleva- tion above sea level. EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 3 These changes have occurred quite frequently in South American regions as well as in other parts of the world, as is the case in the desert of Sahara in the African continent, where at one time abundant streams drained its vast domains and luxuriant vegetation and domestic animals of all kinds were to be found ; these included the ox, a likeness of which has been found hewn in the rocks, no doubt carved there by the unknown settler of that unrecorded epoch. The upheaval of the Alps mountains to beyond a certain height intercepted the northerly rain-laden winds, thereby making a barren, arid desert where once vegetation abounded and beautiful rivers flowed. The tablelands of Patagonia — a desolate arid region from the Andes to the Atlantic, which Darwin termed ^'Accursed Land" — possess fossil fauna of mammals similar to that of the pampas, a fauna so rich in species and variety of form (more than 1,500 of the 5,000 known throughout the world) that make this the biggest fossil graveyard of the world. You may find there all the species of fossils, from the predecessor of the horse to that of the ape, which bears closer physical resemblance to man, not excluding the anthropo- morphus of Asia and Africa, the gliptodon which furnished Darwin with material proof for the elucidation of the meta- morphosis, for it was this gigantic gliptodon which proved to be the predecessor of the "mulita" of the pampas. The fossil species of La Pampa and Patagonia will be dealt with in another part of the book. These huge creatures, like the megatherium, the primitive horse and other herbivorous animals, had to have an over- abundance of food. The gigantic forests where they wan- dered at will, stand today petrified mute witnesses attesting to the history of the region. The change in the elevation of the Andean range in rising to a height that impeded the eastbound course of clouds from the Pacific, which produced rain to feed this flora, gradually caused its disappearance as well as that of the animals. Evidences of this upheaval are found at Mendoza in the 4 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT pampa soil which formed the prairie now at 1,000 metres above sea level. The changes of La Patagonia are identical to those of the Bolivian plateau. The theory that the American Indians are descendants of the Mongolians and that the famous plateau of Pamir may have been the cradle of humanity, can not now be accepted. The paleontological records show that the new world of the Spaniards is older than that which was believed to have been the primitive home of man. The race which inhabited the Andean region at Cuenca on the borders of Lake Titicaca, had reached a high state of civilization, as is verified by the Templo del Sol (Temple of the Sun), the palaces and tombs of the Incas, the high- ways, the aqueducts and various other improvements, prod- uct of engineering skill. Politically, this nation was not as far advanced as others which were considered barbarians, among them the Charrtias, Arancanos and the tribes of the pampas, all of which constituted several true republics where all governmental functions were directed by parlia- ments or assemblies and where the executive was openly elected by the male members of the tribe. Every Indian was endowed with individual sovereign privileges to freely elect his governing chief, whom he obeyed strictly in all that obedience was due. The Quichuas and Aimards were organized under govern- ments similar to that under the then reigning kings of the Orient and of Egypt, whose subjects blindly obeyed every wish of a potentate whom they had not elected to power, but who had by divine inheritance received the authority to govern. This socialistic system, wherein the state not only gov- erned but also interfered in every act of the life of the indi- vidual, from the cultivation of the soil to even the most harmless diversions, and where the police vigilance had reached the stage where every ten individuals were watched by a sort of deputy who became responsible for the short- comings of others and such as he himself could not have REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 5 possibly prevented, had broken up the spirit of individual initiative and spontaneity and caused the people to become accustomed to entirely depend upon and expect everything from the government. The absolute and complete submission of the Indians to the self-constituted authorities, together with the want of initiative which is the main characteristic of the Andean Indian, was in direct contrast to the aggressiveness of the Pampas, Araucanos, Charruas and Guaranies. The Spaniards with a handful of men subdued powerful nations of millions of inhabitants, by merely mastering the Incas. Pizarro with only 180 soldiers of infantry and thirty- seven of cavalry started from Panama in 1531 to conquer Peru, which was then in itself a powerful empire of several million population, and accomplished his mission, while Don Pedro de Mendoza with more than one thousand men founded the city of Buenos Aires in 1535 and had to abandon it on the following year, after losing half of his men on being attacked by the Querandies and Charriias. The Charriias occupied what is now Reptiblica Oriental del Uruguay and crossed the river to assist in the expulsion of the invaders. The Spaniards, on being driven from the land which they had temporarily taken possession of and. on which site is now situated the city of Buenos Aires, planned to reoccupy it, and returned later with additional reinforce- ments under the command of Garay, and again founded the city whose inhabitants were constantly engaged in defend- ing themselves from continuous assaults. Soils, the discoverer of the La Plata River, on attempting to take possession of the territory which is now Republic of Uruguay, was killed, together with some of his compan- ions, by the Charriias, who very heroically defended their domains. The Spaniards later planned to found a settlement near the site where Soils died, but the Charruas burned down the Spanish fortress and drove the Spaniards out of the country. In 1600, Hernandarias de Saavedra, Governor of Para- 6 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT guay, thought that the time had come to exterminate the Charrtias, and so, at the head of 600 Spaniards, undertook the journey to Uruguay, where he arrived after a strenuous four months' campaign. The Charrtias engaged him in bat- tle on the banks of the Uruguay and the Spaniards were so decisively defeated that only their leader escaped, according to the Spanish writer Centenera in his book "La Argentina." This disaster caused Hernandarias to petition the king of Spain, Felipe II, stating that it was impossible to subdue the Charruas by force of arms and that the missionaries must be resorted to, which proposal was accepted by the king, who sent the first missionaries to the La Plata River. In subsequent encounters with the Spaniards from time to time, the Indians, now victors, now vanquished, yet never slaves, came into the possession of horses which had been introduced by the Spaniards and became invincible warriors. The Querandles and other tribes which were never van- quished first fought against the Spaniards, and later met the Argentinos in fierce encounters in the vicinity of Buenos Aires until 1879, when the conquest of the desert was finally accomplished. The Guaranles of Paraguay proved no less fearless adver- saries in the defense of their native country against the Spaniards who founded Asuncion, but instead of resorting to force the subjection of this tribe was at last effected by the Catholic missionaries. The aggressive character of the people of the southernmost regions of South America was fully demonstrated by their initiative in the war of independence against Spain, for it was the Gauchos of the La Plata River, descendants of the Indians, who were the first to take up arms to fight for their independence. They were the liberators of Bolivia and Peru, and would have gone to Colombia and Venezuela if Bolivar's men of the plains and those of his generals, Paez and Piar, descendants of the Guaranian race, had not ven- tured upon a like undertaking. Nevertheless, the indepen- dence of Peru and Bolivia would not have been secured with- REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 7 out the assistance rendered by the Gauchos of La Plata, descendants of the Pampas, Charrtias and Guaranles, all settlers of the plains. Conquest op the La Plata Region Once the discovery of America by Columbus became a realization, Spain and Portugal lent material assistance to the undertakings which resulted in the discovery of South America as a whole, followed by its conquest and its divis- ion in almost equal parts between the two. One of the exploring expeditions, under the command of Juan Diaz de Soils, arrived in 1516 at the mouth of a great river, or more properly speaking, the great estuary which he called Mar Dulce (Fresh Sea), as he admired its immensity. This name was later changed to Rio de La Plata. Soils was killed by the Charrtias on descending to the east side of the river. Following the same route that Soils had traveled, Her- nando Magallanes, Portuguese, in the service of Spain, arrived at Mar Dulce in 1520, and, as one of the members of his crew beheld the hill which rises opposite the capital of the state of Uruguay, exclaimed "Monte-vi-eu" (Mount saw I), which was later corrupted into Montevideo. Sebastian Cabot, who had been in the service of England and who discovered part of the North Atlantic coast, came afterwards to take possession of the land and govern it in the name of the sovereigns of Spain. After reaching the La Plata River, Cabot discovered the great river Parand, ascending it to its affluent, the Bermejo, where he received from the indigenes several pieces of silver, which had prob- ably come from Bolivia. On his return to Spain, Cabot presented the pieces of silver to the court, and the opinion was that this metal was very abundant in the region drained by the river discovered by Soils, and so the name of Mar Dulce was changed to the less appropriate one of Rio de la Plata. At a later period, in 1535, came Don Pedro de Mendoza 8 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT with more than one thousand men to substitute Cabot and founded the city of Buenos Aires. The city was attacked by the Indians, who compelled the Spaniards to retire shortly afterwards to the fort of Sancti Spiritus, founded by Cabot on the ParanA. Mendoza was succeeded by his lieutenant, Ayolas, the founder of the city of Asuncion on the river Paraguay. Not long after Ayolas was killed by the Indians, and in his place the settlers of Paraguay elected Domingo Martinez de Yrala provisional governor. Paraguay, which comprised all the region drained by the rivers La Plata, Parang and Uruguay, and the capital of which was Asuncion, was the first center of civilization in the discovered regions. Yrala was succeeded by Alvar Ntinez Cabeza de Vaca, who in turn was replaced by Ortiz de Z^rate, the predecessor of Don Juan de Garay, who again founded the city of Buenos Aires in 1580. Hernando Arias de Saavedra, who was afterwards elected Governor by the set- tlers and his election confirmed by the Crown, was the last of the conquerors of the La Plata, a native of Asuncion. In 1G17 the vast territory of which Asuncion was the capital city was divided into two parts: Paraguay on the north, and what was termed Province of Buenos Aires on the south, which comprised Buenos Aires and the adjacent territory lying between the rivers Parand and Uruguay, also the lands to the east of Uruguay to the Atlantic, called Banda Oriental (Eastern Bank), inhabited by such fierce tribes as the Charrtias, Yaros and Minuanos. The latter was a specially important region for the reason that the livestock which had been abandoned by the Span- iards years before had rapidly multiplied. On the other hand, Paraguay was far richer in food vegetable products than what the Guaranies, a less combative tribe, had to offer to the conquerors. This abundance of livestock prompted the Spaniards to colonize the Banda Oriental. The first settlement, known as Santo Domingo de Soriano, was founded in 1G24 on the REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 9 river Negro, a big inland stream, and at a point not far from the river Uruguay in one of the most fertile regions and where livestock thrived best. The settlement of San Sal- vador, which had been founded there previously, had to be abandoned, due to attacks by the Indians. Condition of the Indians ob" South America During the Conquest Before the establishment of missions the Indian subjects were distributed among the Spanish leaders, and formed what were known as Encomiendas, com- tiements of con- posed of ludiaus of both sexcs employed in different kinds of work for the exclusive profit of their masters. According to regulation these Indians could not be sold, neither could they be mistreated nor driven out on account of illness or old age. Thus did Yrala organize the first Reducciones of the Indians taken prisoners. Whenever they submitted voluntarily they were gathered together in villages, with their chief at the head under the denomination Encomienda Mitayo, which was awarded as a prize to the chief: These groups were not as much sought as those known as Yanacones, as only two months work from each man per year was allowed for the benefit of the Spaniards, and, besides, under the same arrangement, the women, children and chiefs were exempt from all work. Through repeated complaints, which the Auditor of Char- cas investigated in 1612 previous to action upon them, all personal work was abolished and recommendation made that the new settlements be left to the Jesuits. The Jesuits who had been summoned in 1609 established themselves at La Guaira, opposite the famous cascades which are formed by the Paran4, and founded the Reduccion of Loreto and others, which, after attacks by the Mamelucos of San Paulo, were transferred to the site of the present day missions comprising the territory between the upper Parand 10 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT and the upper Uruguay at the bend where the former turns eastwardly. This took place in 1631, when the Reducciones of Corpus, San Ignacio, etc., were founded and which con- stituted the Western Missions, now the mission territory in Argentina. Each villa or tribe was entrusted to two Jesuits, who were absolute owners of all the property and who disposed of everything at will. There was a Municipal Council in each settlement, but nominally only, as the Jesuits were the masters. All the work of cultivation, construction and lesser industries performed by the Indians was for the bene- fit of the Order of Jesuits, which fed them, clothed them and furnished them with all the necessaries of a simple life. Azara, the celebrated Spanish sage, who planned the boundaries between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions, in speaking of the Missions, gave accurate information regarding these settlements. All Indians between the ages of eighteen and fifty years paid annually one peso per head to the Royal Treasury, and in addition, each tribe had to contribute 600 pesos. In order to isolate their settlements from commercial intercourse with all other peoples, the Jesuits separated each tribe by deep pits and stockades and built big gates, under guards, at points on the roads leading to and from the settlement, allowing no one to enter or leave without a written order. They permitted horseback riding only to those of the Indians who looked after the livestock. The Jesuits had provided themselves with cannon and equip- ment and built adequate fortifications. When the Jesuits refused admittance not only to the Indians and the Spanish authorities, but to the priests as well, it was the impression that they intended the organiza- tion of a Jesuitical empire. Azara says : "The dances which the Jesuits introduced among their tribes consisted largely of instruction in fencing and the use of the sword, as I have myself seen. The women were never allowed to dance." The Jesuits were English, Italian and German, and the EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 11 few Spanish among them had neither office nor authority. The Spanish Government limited itself to telling the Jesuits, after a century and a half, that it was time to grant some liberty to the Indians by permitting them to have self- governing powers, the right to trade and transact business with the Spaniards, and in fact, that they should be extri- cated from the confinement in which they were kept like so many rabbits in a warren. The Jesuits stated that the Indians were not capable of governing themselves and promised to gradually reestablish private property, which in fact did not exist, as everything belonged to the Order. Each family was assigned a small piece of ground for cultivation two days out of each week for their own benefit. But inasmuch as the Indians could not sell their produce the arrangement was of no advantage to them for the reason that the Order paid for their products just what it saw fit. In the end, according to the Indians, the Jesuits disposed of the products of these properties together with their own. "It is beyond all doubt," says Azara, "that the Jesuits governed these tribes arbitrarily, they themselves not being responsible to any one, and disposed of the properties of the different settlements and the individual work of the Indians just as freely as was done by the Indian chiefs who succeeded them, though the Jesuits were more consid- erate, only requiring them to work half of the day, amused them with dancing, festivals and tournaments and supplied them with sufficient food and clothing. All needlework was assigned to the musicians, sextons and choir boys, as the women attended only to the knitting of the cotton." Manufactures by the Indians of fabrics, cotton and to- bacco, as well as mate (Brazilian holly), vegetables and medicinal herbs, were transported to other cities and there sold in order to bring other articles back. The churches, which were sumptuously adorned, consumed a large portion of the income. A decree calling for the expulsion of the Jesuits from 12 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT their domains was issued on February 27, 1767, by Carlos III, but the mandate was not complied with until the follow- ing year for fear of an uprising. The Indians did not want to obey the Spanish civilian authorities who were in con- flict with the clergy, and in all disputes upheld the latter. These disputes brought about the downfall of the missions and caused the scattering of the Indians throughout the forests, finally reducing their number from 144,000 in 1767 to only 45,000 in 1804. Were the Jesuits good colonizers and did they prove good sponsors of civilization? I say, No. To civilize does not mean merely to feed and clothe and impart an appearance of culture, but it means enlightenment as to the duties and privileges that all free men have in order to stabilize society so that civil equality may make of each man a social entity capable of successfully contributing to the solidarity of a nation. The Jesuits could have accomplished this after one and a half centuries of rule, but they failed, as is proven by the fact that on their disappearance all else went with them and only the ruins of the temples remained. They did not con- struct, for after one and a half centuries — according to them- selves — the Indians were not capable of self-government. "To deprive a people from practicing self-government because of incapability," says Macaulay, "is as irrational as it is to refuse to operate for cataract on the eye of a patient for the reason that he will not be able to at first see the objects before him, the retina not being used to the light, but which faculty can be acquired after training the eye as to distance by the necessary reaction on the optic nerve." The same thing is true of the Paraguayan Indians of the time of Francia and L6pez, who after forty years of domina- tion had not organized even one tribe capable of self-govern- ment, but who governed by tyranny, notwithstanding the fact that this tribe by its material progress bore evidence of a modern race. EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVEK 13 The Argentinian, Agustin Alvarez, says in one of his well-known works : "The races of mankind are not improved by their ethnical but by their mental transformation, for the ability to succeed does not take root in the skin or the bony framework of man; neither is man's value based, as is that of the ox, on the load that it pulls, value of its hide, tissue, fat and bone. Improvement in the breeding of live- stock is merely physical, but the development of the human race must be accomplished through the spirit." To quote Horace Mann : "The opinion of the most com- petent, most tranquil, most experienced instructors of the young, is, that we can within two or three generations through our school system and without undue sacrifice have this beautiful dream come true (he referred to the reforma- tion of corrupted humanity) and see the best wishes of all philanthropists fulfilled. The value of the school is insuper- able. It will before long, before the lapse of centuries, yes, within two or three generations, bring about the modification of the races. There are neither young nor old nations, neither are there superior nor inferior nations." And neither are the Latin people inferior to the Germans, as these latter in their delirium had come to believe, nor are the Latin races inferior to the Anglo-Saxon, or these to the Latin, whose highly developed culture has at times charmed and dazzled them, as is demonstrated by history in the alternating predominance of first one nation and then another. Predominance comes during an historical period to the most highly intellectual, the most industrious and the most perseverant nation of that particular period. Japan, next to China, is the oldest civilized nation in the world, but having adopted the educational system of the Occidentals, it is to-day a young nation in the Eastern Hemisphere and its intellectual men are among the most renowned in medicine and other sciences. The Americans have demonstrated the truth of the assertion by Horace Mann, by transforming, in less than a quarter of a century, the mental development of 14 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT ■the Filipinos raised and educated under the antiquated political rule of Spain. Social Condition of the Indians Under Spanish Domination "No more miserable and humiliating condition of humanity can be pictured than was that of the Indians at work in the fields. One of the iniquitous laws of the colonies, the per- sonal tribute of the Mitas (enforced service of Indians) remained in force after independence till 1857. From each settlement a certain number of indigenes was recruited annually to contribute during the year to the work in the mines, on the farms in the cultivation of the soil or the raising of livestock, and in the shops where the tocuyo (shirting) fabrics were designed. The Indians thus forced to serve were called Conciertos." "Whoever consults the Noticias Secretas (secret notes) of Jorje Juan and Antonio de Ulloa, wherein the system of Mitas is portrayed as it was carried on during the latter period of the Colonies, and how without any material difference it existed until the middle of the nineteenth century, can feel that deep melancholia emanating from a clear vision of the abyss of human wickedness. Obstinate Indians were dragged to the shops' prison hy tying their hair to the tail of the rider's horse. Only one of every ten of those thus forced to slavery ever returned alive." "In order to still further torment the Mitayo (Indian subject to Mitas) and humble his last remaining particle of self-esteem they would further punish him by cutting his hair to the roots, which punishment was to him the worst of ignominy. All this painful discipline has created in the heart of the Indian not only the habit but the necessity of suffering. Whenever treated kindly he appears nonplussed and believes that he is being deceived. On the other hand, he becomes accustomed to the harshest tyranny, with the half-harrowing, half-repugnant meekness of a much abused REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 15 and despised caninej and as is often the case with the com- mon watchdog that feels neglected and leaves home after a prolonged lapse of time between whippings." "At the time of the abolition of the unjust personal trib- ute exacted under the rule of Robles, many were the Indians that became frightened at the new order of things and acted as if a revered tradition was being violated and became homesick for the old slavery days. Away from the spur and influence of chastisement the Indian is indolent and weak. No promise can be made that he will believe nor reward big enough to stimulate him. It is not within the scope of his understanding that labor is ennobling and should be voluntary. He has neither love of freedom nor idea of rights." "The emancipation movement as regards Spain at the time of the liberal yet unfortunate uprising of 1809, also the ephemeral declaration of independence two years later, and finally the adhesion to the triumphal impulse of Boli- var's hosts, were the achievement of the few settled and cultured Creoles in whom the inspiration to be free was uppermost and ranked above all else. The idea of mother country and patriotic passion for same were conceived at the hidalgos (public meeting houses) of the cities where the traditional rivalry between 'chapetones' (imported Span- iards) and Creoles was self-evident." "The motley crowd of indigenes remained untouched by the idea and the love, even though it be sent forth as a horde or an army, its share of unredeemable blood to pay. Plebeian liberty did not obtain in them that heroic and genial incarnation which evolved into sculptural align- ments within the breast of the Gauchos of the La Plata and within the plainsman of other parts of Colombia and in Venezuela. Even long after the revolution it often hap- pened that the Ganan Indian of the haciendas, ignoring the existence of the nation, believed that the mita to which he was subject was imposed yet in the king's name." "The revolution not inspired by the Indian was even less 16 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT of a reality to him. The change in his condition was neg- ligible. Within the republic the Indian continued to acquiesce as the conquered race, the wretched clay upon which the social edifice is planted. The mestizo aims to deny his half of indigenous blood and endeavors to attest by his filial wickedness the purity of his lineage. The Indian clergyman with difficulty reaches the benefice. The uni- versity is a step-mother to him of humble birth. The plebeian Indian, like the horse changed from master to master, sees his state as a helot confirmed. He is mis- treated and annoyed by the slovenly grouch of the streets. When the Negro slave finds his task growing burdensome he turns to the Indian transient and compels him to do his work for him." "Cruelty that has perhaps been lessened by the law is kept alive through habit. The rapacious claw of the 'Cor- regidor) (corrector — magistrate) passed as had the vintage of blood of the 'Encomendero' (agent), but the whip for the Indian remains clutched in the right hand of the boss of the hacienda, the head man in the shop, the local doctrine leader, the uncivil and domineering curate, who also assumes executionership. His tyrants have trained him upon being lashed to rise and kiss the hand of the whipper and to say, 'Dios se lo pague' (May God reward you), and if it be the hand of the black slave that has mercilessly come dowTi on his back, whether on his master's account or the slave's own hatred and iniquity, the Indian, the wretched Indian of South America, kisses the hand of the slave. So continues he in a darkened night, in the shadows of which the spirit casts not even a ray of enthusiasm, or of eagerness, nor even of idle curiosity. The unfulfilled promise, the lie, sordid fruits of weakness and fear, form the timid defense with which he endeavors to repress the march to martyr- dom's excesses. Smiles of heavenly hope he sees not, as he knows not their radiancy, and the religion which taught him is to him nothing more than an unctionless monotone. Death to him means neither joy nor sorrow. Only the REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 17 ephemeral exaltation of inebriety brings forth from the depths of his slavery-bewitched soul, benumbed-like hob- goblins of daring and bravery, passionate phantoms display- ing in the lightning rays of madness, the idol of vengeance." "The air of nobility, emanating from illustrious birth or from the superiority of the profession, was maintained in all the purity of Spanish tradition, either through the pre- eminence of the families' descendants, of founders of cities and the dignitaries of the Colony, or the aristocratic aureola of the clergy, or the army or the academic degrees. All the occupations were of lower order; industrial work, the mechanic arts were assigned to Indians and mestizos or to the few foreign immigrants. Territorial wealth, perpetu- ated in fact on the society of colonial origin, was distrib- uted among very few. That mountain beyond, one of nature's wonders, that far-off prairie to which no horse's gallop finds an end, that valley which could produce bread enough for an empire, are very often the property of one single man, rich feudal patrimony where the bent figure of the indigene represents the rustic who satisfies every obligation to the master. Numberless clergymen distributed among the settlements in convents, together with the mul- titude of secular ecclesiasts, caused the population the effect of the plant that is being attacked by ants. "Also in contiguous hierarchy was the attorney, capable and only versatile personage acquainted with all phases of understanding as a politician, writer, poet, orator, and carrying wherever he went as the keys to universal knowl- edge, his Peripateticism, also his Latin. To complete the scene of the privileged fraternity, there was the soldier, the personification of a force, as a rule, uncultured and rough, but who acquired prominence through the laurels of eman- cipation and inclined to the leadership in politics, to which he had to offer some assistance at the first timid show of reaction against the all-embracing clerical influence." "The aggregate of society thus constituted was that of a vast convent which, as in the time of the feudal lordships. 18 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PEESENT had near its fortified walls an abbatial hamlet which sounds of activities of disputes or festivities were lost in the lofty and austere majesty of monastical silence." (Pages from Rodo). All the Indians of Bolivia had to pay tribute to the Spanish treasury in manner as follows : Those called Origi- narios, the most distinguished of the Indian settlements, owning land in the valley and on the puna (plateau), paid nine pesos and six reales (one real is about one eighth of a peso) per head per year. The Agregados, owning a very small portion of land in the valley or a larger one on the puna, paid seven pesos annually, that of the "Forasteros," who owned no land, four pesos annually. They had established the Caja General de Ceusos (General Annuity Funds) for the purpose of paying tribute in case of epidemic or poor crops. The lands were assigned on a usufructuary basis and could never become private prop- erty. Tribute was expected only from the Indians, who should have been by right the owners of the lands. When- ever tribute was demanded from a Negro, a Mestizo (half- breed) or a white, the Court would exempt him, stating: "Having proved that he is not an Indian he is hereby ex- empted." Bolivar abolished the law of tribute in 1825, but it was reestablished and remained in force until years afterwards. The excessive mortality rate brought about by Spanish colonization of South America is briefly explained in the fol- lowing lines : "Though we were good, useful farmers we were sent into the mines, where they loaded us like so many beasts of burden carrying baskets of ore, and so making life for us down in the bowels of the earth harsh and unendurable." The same system which decreed that landed property should never belong to the individual but to the State, pre- vailed in the empire of the Incas for thousands of years and was adopted by the Spaniards, who did not suspect that the modern Georgians were to come centuries after to find KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 19 this old-as-the-world system to be the panacea of all social evils. In Russia, just before the outbreak of the war which has recently come to an end, there were vast regions of millions of square kilometers ruled under the strictest communism dividing the land periodically in parcels allotted on a usufructuary basis according to the number of mem- bers of each family. It was practiced as the Peruvians did, as did also the Jews during their celebrated jubilees held every fifty years. Mackenzie in his very interesting book, "Russia," de* scribes the result of the system in that country in the fol- lowing manner: "Nobody digs either a ditch or a well, nor plants a tree, nor constructs a durable dwelling, nor a fence* or any other improvement, for he knows he builds for some- one else." The Georgians do not take into consideration the fact that if the land is valuable, it is due in almost every case to the accumulated work of man where one family has had the possession of it for several generations and has improved it continuously. The most fertile fields of the La Plata and where the best livestock is raised owe their productivity largely to the industry of the settlers, who were obliged to root out and eradicate weeds, thorns, and thickets of all kinds, annihilate the beasts of prey, and at the same time defend themselves from savage tribes. Where no inducement exists for man to become the pos- sessor of the land he cultivates, the land will be of little or no value, as no one is willing to toil for the exclusive benefit of others. At the time the slaves of Brazil were given their liberty, the Brazilian landowners, under the impression that the slaves were the only laborers, believed, or pretended to be- lieve, that Brazil would suffer a terrible calamity because nothing would be produced. It was their opinion that the Negro no longer under the lash would not work'^ yet the reverse happened. Production increased as the effort of the freed Negro to do better work increased. The same 20 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT results would have been obtained had they decreed that each Indian work for his own benefit. The Indian Problem Such was the condition of the Indian of the Andean tribes of South America under Spanish domination, and it so remained until a few years ago. The laws enacted have had the tendency right along to better the condition of the Indian, for there have constantly appeared legislators who have been inspired by a sense of humanity and justice to im- prove their condition. Yet laws are imxDoteut against the customs of tribes that for centuries have received their train- ing in the conqueror's school of barbarism. What could be expected of a conquering nation whose hero, Pizarro, the Conqueror of Peru, could neither read nor write? What could be expected of a cruel, ignorant, and fanatical army which only aspired to plunder? The Araucanos, indefatigable defenders of their native land, compelled the Conqueror Valdivia to drink melted gold and made him atone for all the crimes committed by his sol- diers, who, like their leader, had only one desire as they conquered, and that was the accumulation of riches, even if it were necessary to decapitate millions of human beings. The Indians of Peru, victims of the most abject slavery, the product of absolute monarchies, were unable to defend their soil against a handful of adventurers. Following the overthrow of Spanish rule, the great Bolivar, through wise legislation, initiated the regeneration of the Indian, but being that the political directors, descend- ants of the Spaniards, had the same defects as their predeces- sors, the tendencies of the Liberator availed little or noth- ing. Even to-day the Indian desirous of living a free, un- trammelled life is compelled to ascend the summit of lofty, glacial mountain peaks of 4,000 to 5,000 meters elevation looking after his small herd of llamas and alpacas. Should he venture to descend to the plains from his dwelling amid the clouds, he becomes the victim of a Government that KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 21 places him in barracks to equip him as a soldier. Should he hire out to work he becomes the victim of an employer who pays him a miserable wage of one quarter to one half dollar per day without meals. He starts to work at sun- rise, after partaking of a scanty breakfast, works all day without a morsel of food, only now and then chewing on coca leaves to check his hunger. Notwithstanding this condition, there are over 2,000,000 Indians in Peru who have nothing to subsist on. Yet the influx of hundreds of thousands of Chinese coolies is looked upon with favor, notorious gamblers who at night stake their earnings of the day before, and who are both morally and physically inferior to the Indian. It is piithetic to find th€ Chinese hotels and lodging houses of Callao and Lima crowded with the lower element of the populace who are partly attracted there by the ridiculously low prices of meals, then to gamble away the few cents saved at the expense of their stomachs. The Chinaman's love of gambling is such that it is not uncommon to find the employer become the servant of his servant, the former having staked his entire hotel on one unlucky play of the night before. The admission of the Chinese has been harmful and will prove even more so as time goes on, not only because the Chinaman is mentally and physically the Indian's inferior, but also economically, inasmuch as the Chinaman with his long and varied experience is a more successful farmer, knowledge which the Indian can in time acquire with his superior intelligence. The fault lies with the Governments which, absorbed in preoccupied politics, neglect those vital problems which should make the foundation and the bul- wark of a nation. Imagine what 2,000,000 farm hands trained in all the branches of agriculture could accomplish on soil so un- usually fertile as that of Peru, where sugar-cane, cotton, and various other plants for which the soil seems to be particularly adapted, yield such good returns. What enor- 22 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT mous production this country would contribute to the world at large should it collect the energy of so many hands right at its doors, only awaiting the opportunity to be called by other more enterprising nations. When we turn to Argentina, with its copious production of 5,000,000 tons of cereals, which it places in European markets, and which is the product of work done almost entirely by 1,000,- 000 Italian laborers who have transformed the country from a purely live-stock raising community to first place in the world's granary, we can form a fair idea of what the evolu- tion of Peru will be when it learns to utilize its idle millions. Besides the resident laborers of Argentina, it has been benefited by the added experience of thousands of golon- drinas (swallows) farm-hands transported directly from Italy, who engage in agricultural work during the winter of the northern hemisphere, and during three or four months of the austral summer season at the end of which time they return to Europe. The golondrinas have stayed away since 1914, and will remain absent till no one knows when, as many, perhaps, have gone with the departed ten million and more laborers for whom Europe now mourns and whom the whole world will miss. Should there be any extra hands in Italy, they will perhaps go to France, whose shops have lost 2,000,000 men in the recent war, or perhaps to England or to both. Argentina will therefore have a shortage of human working machines which have contributed to its present prosperity. It will lose tens of thousands of vigor- ous young men when French and Belgian industries start anew — where they can afford to offer a higher wage than Argentina because their products show a correspondingly larger profit. But Argentina could advantageously substi- tute Italian labor with Indian labor from Peru and Bolivia, the Indian being an agriculturist, has cultivated maize for centuries, is as a rule sober in his habits, and possesses endurance and unusual physical strength. The Bolivian railroad now under construction, and which will connect Quiaca and Uyuni, will permit the transfer BEGIOK OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 23 of laborers from Peru and Bolivia to Argentina, something which deserves primary consideration in the service of the Bolivian-Argentine railway. This might not coincide with the Utopian idea of the Argentinos that this railroad will turn the Bolivian market to them, as they believe that there is nothing that Bolivia can export in either mineral or vegetable products that can afford the freight from Quiaca to the ports of Buenos Aires and Rosario, which are at a distance of about 400 leagues (1,200 miles more or less) from the Bolivian frontier by rail. The mineral and vege- table products will always be exported through the Pacific ports, excepting lumber, sugar, and coffee, which can be transported out of the country much more economically via Port Suarez on the Paraguay, opposite Corumbd (Brazil), a river port with service by the Lloyd Brazilian Steamship Line, which steamers connect with Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Rio de Janeiro and all ports of the Brazilian coast line. One very much needed improvement would be a railroad from Santa Cruz de la Sierra across the Bolivian Chaco in order that this market could be successfully de- veloped, a fact which ought to interest the Bolivian republic above everything else. It is of necessity that Peru and Bolivia consider both the utilization of the Indian and his intellectual and moral development as the primordial problem affecting his ex- istence. How much better it would be for these two nations to solve the Indian question, than to employ the energy of their intellectual lights in disputing with their neighbors the Argentinos, Paraguayos, Brasileros, Ecua- torianos and Colombianos over parcels of lands which can not compare in natural wealth to those that remain aban- doned and unproductive within the confines of their native land. Wo do not make mention of Chile, which country is in conflict with the countries of Peru and Bolivia, for the reason that this is an entirely different proposition involv- ing self-love and national dignity. The illusory ambition of 24 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT seeking additional lands, is a universal malady. Geograph- ical vanity seems to be a world-wide contagion. Spain has buried hundreds of thousands of her soldiers on African soil where she has covetously sought new lands to conquer, \vhile at the very doors of the city of Madrid there lies a desert-like region unfilled and worthless and which might as well be a part of the African desert so desolate and barren it is. Italy with its maremmas, its pontiu lagoons, its malaria on the outskirts of Rome as described in the bulletins announcing the manner of combating this terrible disease, and its Isle of Sardinia now almost deserted and which at one time provided the whole of the Roman Empire with its grain, seeks new lands in Abyssinia where the torrid heat of the sun would have ere this made victims of legions of Italian soldiers had not Menelik awakened them to the fact that they were merely chasing phantoms. The Uruguayans have lost half of their territory by hav- ing it snatched away from them by the Portuguese and their descendants, the Brazilians. This, however, does not affect the size of their territory, inasmuch as their gauchos and capitalists have literally taken possession of the province of Rio Grande where they own vast areas of land, and the lack of additional territory also is made up by their attrac- tive Montevideo, the residential city of all the big land- owners, as it is also the principal port of exportation for their abundant livestock production. First Spanish Settlements in Uruguay The first settlements of the Banda Oriental (Eastern Bank) had as their object the defense of the territory against the Portuguese who invaded it to T^rtSor***^ carry off livestock into Brazil to San Paulo, betwe'^n^'pa^irds which was fouuded by criminals of all and Portuguese sorts. Thcse Were a constant menace to Spanish colonization. REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 25 The Portuguese founded the Colony of Sacramento in 1680 opposite Buenos Aires, from which place they were driven out by the Spanish Governor. The Portuguese Gov- ernor was made prisoner and deported to Lima. Hostili- ties continued until 1681 when the treaty between the Cortes of Spain and Portugal decreed the return of the Colony to Portugal until such a time as the boundaries of the Spanish and Portuguese colonies be determined. In 1704 the Spaniards of Buenos Aires received instruc- tions from the Metropolis to dislodge the Portuguese from the Colony which they proceeded to do, compelling the Portuguese to evacuate. But, in 1715, by the treaty of Utrecht, it became the possession of Portugal once again. Later, in 1720 and 1722, they tried to occupy Montevideo, but failed. In order to prevent further assaults by the Portuguese, Zabala, Governor of Buenos Aires, founded the city of San Felipe y Santiago de Montevideo in 1726. The Portuguese of the Colony continued their incursions from all sides but again without success, and finally by the treaty of 1750 be- tween Spain and Portugal the Colony was ceded to Spain. This treaty fixed the Ibicuy River — tributary of the Uruguay — as the boundary between the Spanish and Portuguese possessions. Notwithstanding the treaty, the Portuguese occupied the Colony until 1762, when the Spaniards resorted to a twenty-five day siege and forced the Portuguese to evacuate. Zeballos, then Spanish Governor, proceeded east and took the fortifications of Santa Teresa and San Miguel, which the Portuguese had built on Spanish soil. The Ibicuy boundary should have been mutually accepted as the dividing line between the Republics of Uruguay and Brazil, but the latter, contrary to all justice, extended its domain farther south as far as the Cuareim River. This treaty was endorsed by and imposed upon Uruguay by Argentina under the government of General Urquiza in 1851. The Government of Uruguay declared that it ac- 26 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT cepted the imposition inasmuch as it lacked the necessary means to defend its rights. ViCEROYSHip OP Rio de la Plata Founded in 1776 The Viceroyship of the La Plata River was established in 1776, taking in addition the gubernatorial districts of Paraguay and Tucumdn, under Viceroy Don Pablo de Zeba- Uos, who took possession of the Colony, and in so doing demolished its ramparts. The treaty of 1777 granted to Spain all of the dominion of the Banda Oriental of Uruguay. Zeballos, a progressive ruler, divided the territorj'^ into eight districts, each under an intendent, and gave the settlers permission to trade with outsiders, which until then had been prohibited. All merchandise that had come to Uruguay in the past came through the Ports of Panama and Portobelo, thence to Potosi to La Plata, its price increasing from 800 per cent to 1,000 per cent. This liberty of commercial activity gave importance to the Banda Oriental for its abundant live- stock. Hostilities were again renewed between Spain and Portugal in 1800, the Portuguese taking possession of the Misiones Orien tales (Eastern Missions) of Upper Uruguay, which they retained according to the treaty of peace that followed. This started the boundary disputes between Brazil and Argentina, which were submitted for decision to the President of the United States of America only a few years ago. Invasions of the La Plata by the English The English having profited by their triumph at Traf- algar in 1805, attacked in 1806 the city of Buenos Aires with an army of 6,000 men, and as no resistance was offered, due to cowardice on the part of Viceroy Sobremonte, the Eng- lish quickly took possession of the city. The Spaniards of Montevideo soon after planned the ex- pulsion of the English from Buenos Aires, and embarking Caracas Bo6^* 1^ SOUTH AMERICA 1777 ■\ ABW ia*oTi»* (.•Lima '^<._-p-- K r^-fr/* ^*^[ w«^ s, •-• / .^, fiBahia Bautiago ig? XonrVJMJrittf^^Wfrf >w < REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 27 at Colonia, under command of Liniers, they descended near the city and with the cooperation of the men and women residents advanced upon the invaders, and after a bloody struggle the English finally capitulated. In his proclamation, the leader of the patricians stated: "The men born in America are not inferior to the Spaniards or Europeans and no one surpasses them in courage." Viceroy Sobremonte was repudiated by the people master of their own destinies, and named Liniers in his place. The defeat of the English caused great enthusiasm in Spain, and the Cortes awarded as a recompense to Monte- video, a coat-of-arms and the title "Muy Leal y Recon- quistadora Ciudad" (Most Loyal and Reconquering City). The English returned and captured the coveted port of Maldonado at the mouth of the La Plata River and marched against Montevideo with 8,000 men, laying the city waste and capturing it after a slaughter where the English them- selves suffered great losses. This battle took place during the month of February, 1807. In July of the same year, the English advanced upon Buenos Aires, but the opposing forces surprised them by the stubborn resistance they offered and forced the English to retreat, also compelling them to surrender the sea coast of Montevideo, which they abandoned on the 19th of the following September. The short stay of the English at Montevideo proved bene- ficial to the native South Americans, as it helped them to foresee the realization of their aspirations for a better gov- ernment and the assurance of political and commercial liberty. It was then that the first daily appeared in the La Plata region. Popular Movements Forerunners op the South American Revolution The spirit of independence among the American settle- ments had been cropping out for some years, and in refer- ence to its manifestations the Spaniard Antonio Juan de Ullpa said in 1731: "It seems improper that among people 28 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT under the same Government and having the same blood coursing through their veins that there should exist such enmity, ill-will and hatred, and that the cities and large centers of population should be the scenes of discord and continued opposition between the Spaniards and the Creoles." Two revolutionary movements were started in Venezuela in the years 1711 and 1713, the first one proclaiming a native born King, and the second was an uprising by the Creoles against the monopoly created by the Compania Giupuzcana of Caracas. In 1730, the Mestizos of Cochabamba secured the right to elect Alcaldes (Mayors) and Corregidores (Town Magis- trates) from among the Creoles and to the exclusion of the Spaniards. In August, 1809, the natives of Quito failed to recognize the Spanish authorities ruling over them and established an assembly under the title of "Soberana" (Supreme). During the following May, the Creoles of Chuquisaca in Bolivia deposed the Spanish authorities and organized a governmental assembly. Two months later the natives of La Paz rose up in arms under the cry "Mueran Los Chapetones" (Death to the Spaniards), and also organ- ized a governmental assembly and in their proclamation stated: "The time has now come to raise the banner of liberty over these unfortunate colonies." These two revo- lutions were crushed by the Spaniards, who, following their established precedents, put the leaders to death. In 1809 Montevideo was the scene of a conspiracy wherein Don Joaquin Sudrez, Larrauaga, P6rez, Barreiro, Monte- rroso, and other patriots planned to strike a blow to Spanish rule in the La Plata region. Mention must be made of Miranda, who had ten years be- fore organized in the City of London the association called Gran Reunion Americana (Great American Union) for the purpose of framing a republican constitution for the various Spanish colonies. Among the prominent members of the Society were Alvear and San Martin, natives of Argentina ; KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 29 O'Higgins, Chilean; Narino and Montufar, Granadinos (from U. S. of Colombia, at that time Nueva Granada) ; Eocafuerte, Ecuadorian; Caro, Cuban. The so-called "Guerra de los Comuneros" (War of the Comuneros-party opposed to the tyranny of Carlos V) of Paraguay in 1723, was the expression of an enraged public at the city of Asuncion when the then Governor Vic- toria, an appointee of the Spanish Crown, following a custom of the Metropolis, gave up his office, for a monetary consideration, to Balmaceda. In consequence of this, the Cabildo of Asuncion arrayed itself against the Governor and opposed him with unusual zeal. The Royal Audience of Charcas sent Antequera, a native attorney and prosecuting member of the Audience, to settle the dispute. As an American, Antequera favored the Cabildo and decreed the imprisonment of the Governor, who lost no time in leaving the country. The Cabildo represented the wishes of the people against the authority and tyranny of the Metropolis. The Viceroy of Peru, on hearing the complaint of the deposed Governor, ordered Antequera to reinstate him in office, to which Antequera replied that he would not respect the order, as the authority of the people was superior to that of the King. In support of the stand that he had taken, Antequera caused Paraguay to revolt, the people investing him with the powers of Governor in opposition to the King's will, just as the Comuneros of Castilla had done under the com- mand of Juan de Padilla, in defense of Spanish municipal liberties against the tyranny of Carlos V, son of Juana La Loca (Jane the Insane) and Emperor of Germany and King of Spain, that historical figure whose record so closely resem- bles that of the German ex-Kaiser, now a refugee in Holland. Antequera was prepared for the Spanish forces which were marching against him, decisively defeating them with a loss of 800 of his own men. On withdrawing from Paraguay, he assembled the Cabildo and advised that opposi- tion be made to the entry of the new Spanish Governor, 30 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Antequera, being later apprehended, was tried and executed in Lima in 1731. Turning back two centuries, 1540, Gonzalo Pizarro, in Peru, revolted against Spain, and Carbajal, his next in com- mand, ordered the rojal banner burned. They were both arrested and summarily executed. From this time onward the smouldering spirit of independence kept constantly growing and developing, finally preparing the people for the memorable outburst recorded as the Prouunciamiento (up- rising) of Buenos Aires on May 25, 1810 (South America's Fourth of July), when the people at a public demonstration, which took place in the city of Buenos Aires, proclaimed a governmental Junta. The leaders of the revolution pledged themselves not to recognize any other government than that of Fernando VII — even if such were not their intention. The people of Caracas in Venezuela had one month before, on the 19th of Ajjril, dismissed the Spanish rulers and ap- pointed an Assembly to govern in the name of Fernando VII. Chile did likewise on the 18th of September following. These manifestations of discontent were further incited by the proclamation issued by Napoleon I, Emperor of France, in behalf of his brother Joseph Bonaparte for the throne of Spain while the Emperor was holding Fer- nando VII, the legitimate owner of the Spanish Crown, a prisoner at Bayona. This was the cause of the Spanish revolt at Madrid on the 2nd of May when the Supreme Governmental Assembly at Sevilla was organized to govern in place of the imbecile King, Fernando VII. The Buenos Aires Junta two days after its organiza- tion sent out a proclamation inviting the settlements to ap- point Deputies, and on the strength of this invitation the Royalist Party invited the Assembly to recognize the Board of Regency of Spain. Liniers in C6rdoba revolted in sup- port of this pretension of the Crown, was promptly subdued by the Assembly forces, and he and his companions executed in the month of August, 1810. REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 31 Montevideo, a well fortified city under the Realistas (Royal Party), was opposed to the revolution, and, on the arrival of the Viceroy Elio, the hostilities with Buenos Aires began. The Banda Oriental of Uruguay declared for the revolu- tion, with Viera and Benavides at Ascencio near Mercedes, at the head, and supported by the garrison of the city of Mercedes under the command of Fernandez. Artigas, later commander of the Orientales, joined with a strong force, which increased the army of patriots to 3,000 under the com- mand of Belgrano, who was later succeeded by Rondeau. The Artigas detachment was rushed to Montevideo, meet- ing the Spanish forces near Las Piedras where he engaged them in battle, annihilated them, and made their leader, General Posadas, prisoner. This was the first battle, "Batalla de Las Piedras," in 1811, which was won by South Americans in the war of independence and which gave General Artigas, Commander of the Orientales, increased prestige. Not long after, Artigas, together with General Rondeau, who commanded the Argentine forces, laid siege to Monte- video, but soon withdrawing under resolution by the Argen- tine government, claiming that it was imperative that the army be sent to Per 6. Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay The Orientales, on being left with only their own forces by the Argentinos, who had previously signed a treaty with the Spanish Viceroy of Montevideo, were obliged to combat not only the Spaniards but also the Portuguese, who had invaded the territory of the Orientales to protect the Spaniards, their temporary allies. Artigas, as the leader of the Orientales, protested against this treachery of the Buenos Aires Government and with- drew to the interior accompanied by the patrician families, including all the women and children and the aged, all of 32 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT whom were giving up their native land and suffering untold hardships rather than become a foreign master's slave. This noble act of collective heroism is known in South American history as the "Exodo del Pueblo Oriental del Uruguay" (Exodus of the People of Eastern Uruguay). Artigas, with his small army and his people, had to cross to the western bank of the Uruguay in order to save them- selves from complete destruction on being attacked by the Portuguese. The Army of Argentina Crosses the Uruguay to Combat THE Portuguese The Buenos Aires Junta protested against the entry of the Portuguese army, which, according to the treaty, should have returned to Brazil. Being unable to come to an immediate settlement, the war with the Spaniards and Portuguese was started, and accordingly the Argentinos sent an army under Rondeau against Montevideo. Artigas of the Orientales, as per agreement entered into with Rondeau, brought his forces and formed the left wing of the army of patriots and began the advance on Montevideo. On April 5, 1813, Artigas brought together delegates from among the Orientales who, in Congress assembled, recognized the authority of the Buenos Aires Junta, appointed a municipal body entrusted with the internal governmental functions of the province, and sent five depu- ties to the general Congress which was to convene in Buenos Aires. These deputies had instructions to ask for the abso- lute independence of the provinces of the La Plata and the formation of a Confederacy of all of them, constituted under a republican form of government. These were the cele- brated instructions of 1813, which had as their fundamental principle, on petition by the Oriental Deputies, the im- mediate declaration of absolute independence of the colonies, permanently relieving them of all obligations of fidelity to the Spanish Crown and the family of the Bor- EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 33 bones, and that all political connections between the colo- nies and Spain be and remain completely abrogated. They were not to accept, in substitution of the absolute regime, any other than a republican form of government nor any other system than the "Confederacion de los Estados Soberanos del Plata" (Confederacy of the Sovereign States of the La Plata ) . The celebrated instructions of 1813 came newly to light in 1867, having been found at Asunci6n dur- ing that year and published in 1878. Historians, both friends and enemies of Artigas, com- mented on them without knowing what they really were. These instructions form the basis of a constitution pat- terned after that of the United States of America. Such were the views of the leader of the Orientales, though the form of government that those people should have who still called themselves subjects of Fernando VII had not yet been defined. On Congress refusing to accept the Oriental Deputies, Artigas petitioned the Argentine General Rondeau, head of the army, for a new edict on the election of Deputies, and, according to the Argentine government, elections should be held at the encampment, or general headquarters, of the Argentinos, on the 8th of the following December. Thus was elected the Provincial Representation, which appointed three Deputies to the Congress of Buenos Aires and a municipal assembly of three members. This election was protested by Artigas, inasmuch as it did not represent the true wishes of the people, besides the fact that it had been conducted under the pressure of the army of Argentina. Besides the 5,000 Orientales under Artigas, there re- mained just a few lukewarm citizens, as are found every- where, who prefer a life of ease to making sacrifices for principle, in most cases the tranquil and peace-loving resi- dents of the cities. So, what the group of Argentine citizens assembled at the Argentine encampment under Argentine influence, resolved, was not the opinion of the Orientales, and Artigas did right in protesting as he did. 34 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT This disagreement with the government of Buenos Aires brought about the separation of the Orientales from the be- sieging forces on the 21st of January, 1814. The rejection of the Deputies sent by Artigas in 1813, was the first demon- stration of the narrow-mindedness of the Buenos Aires Junta or Committee, which desired complete and blind submission to its mandates, not taking into account the fact that they themselves, as a ruling body, were not a direct product of the popular will, but of a small coterie self- styled "Government of the Revolution." The same privilege belonged to Artigas, who was publicly known as the leader of the Banda Oriental. The government of Buenos Aires could not object to the Oriental representation as designated by the leading citizens of the country, while the members of the government were self-appointed, and they exercised au- thority without consulting the various provinces. The city of Montevideo surrendered on the 20th of June, 1814, with 5,000 men and 300 cannon. Zorrilla de San Martin, in speaking of the revolutionary spirit of the day, said : "Had we time at this moment to traverse all of the regions of America and acquaint our- selves with the revolutionary condition, we would find it useful. The sun of liberty appears to be sinking. The triumvirate government of Buenos Aires, without thought or fixed purpose, gropes in the dark, seeking or waiting for the man who never comes, and who should be recognized by his crown of gold. The Constituent Assembly cannot constitute anything as it lacks abiding faith. It does not declare independence, and much less will it adopt any symbols, coat-of-arms, or its own money, but neither does it abandon the Spanish flag — the royal flag — for it is bound to the ancient Metropolis by a traditional monarchical spirit. It will not burn down the fleet, but will calk it instead for the probable return to the port from whence it came. It will enact important reforms, but within the Spanish organism. It is somewhat similar to the con- stituency of Cadiz and nothing more. We need not hold REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 35 it responsible for this, neither shall we try to lessen its renown. It was to be expected, it is humanlike. Artigas, who was more of a seer than a sage, dictated his instructions of the year 1813. With these instructions or fundamentals, Artigas with the same confidence that led Washington and Jefferson, drafted the chapters of the South American gospel. At no place in austral America had a similar declaration been written." "Fernando VII will continue to rule morally in our midst. Belgrano and Rivadavia will go to Europe within a year to recognize Carlos III. There they will meet Sarratea, Argentine General, but they will not come to an understand- ing and only failure will they find. Belgrano, disappointed in Europe, will plan to crown a descendant of one of the Incas kings. It is essential that he be a king. The declara- tion of independence of the united provinces of the La Plata will be effected only three years after, on July 9, 1816, by the Tucuman Congress, and this will be the glorious day of Argentina." "The Tucuman declaration was made nevertheless after delays, fear, and hesitation, and the very same proceres (illustrious citizens) who sanctioned it, far from de- claring it like Artigas as the substitution of the colonial regime on a republican basis, they importuned at that time and subsequently for the establishment of a European dynasty on the La Plata." "What would the noble republic of Argentina give to-day, what would we, all the sons of the La Plata give, to see embodied in the records of the Tucuman Congress, the instructions of Attigas?" ("Epopeya de Artigas.") Artigas's Instructions op 1813 Which were presented by the Deputies of Eastern Uruguay before the General Constituent Assembly of Buenos Aires 1st. To demand the declaration of absolute independence for these colonies, and cessation of all obligations of fidelity to the Crown of Spain. 36 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PKESENT 2nd. To accept no other system than a confederacy call- ing for a covenant of reciprocity with the provinces which make up the State. 3rd. To promote civil and religious liberty within all its conceivable bounds. 4tlL That each province establish its government on the above basis besides that of the Supreme Government of the Nation, 5th. Both national and provincial governments to be divided into Legislative, Executive, and Judicial depart- ments, each one independent of the other in authority. 6th. These three branches are never to be united, but will act independently of each other. 7th. The Supreme Government to be concerned only in general State matters. Other matters to be handled specially by their respective provincial government. 8th. The territory now occupied by the people of the eastern coast of Uruguay, as far as the fortress of Santa Teresa, will constitute one single province called Provincia Oriental (Eastern Province). 9th. That the seven Mission villages, also those of Batovi, Santa Tecla, San Rafael, and Tacuaremb6, which are occu- pied by the Portuguese, to be reclaimed when the proper time comes, and as territory which has always belonged to this province. 10th. That this province for the present enters into a separate binding alliance of friendship with each one of the others for their common defense, protection of their liberty, and for their mutual and general happiness, each in turn binding itself to assist each one of the others against all violence or attack against all or any of them for reason of religion, sovereignty, commerce, or any other pretext whatever it might be. 11th. That this province shall retain its sovereignty, liberty and independence, all powers, jurisdiction, and privileges which shall not expressly be delegated by the Confederacy to the united provinces in Congress assembled. EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 37 12th and 13th. The ports of Maldonado and Colonia, with free access for the importation of merchandise and the exportation of fruits with the corresponding custom-house duties. 14th. That no tax or duty be imposed on articles exported from one province to another, nor any preference given through regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one province over those of another, neither are the vessels which are destined from this province to another to be com- pelled to enter, anchor, or pay duty in still another province. 15th. Not to permit the enactment of any law for this province covering property of foreigners who die intestate, or covering fines and forfeitures which formerly applied to the King, or on territory of the latter, as long as it does not by ordinance determine to what funds to have same applied to, as the only department legally entitled from its economi- cal jurisdiction. 16th. That this province should have its territorial con- stitution, with the privilege of sanctioning the general con- stitution of the United Provinces, as would be drafted by the Constituent Assembly. 17th. That this province shall have the right to increase its regiments to the number required, name the officers of companies, regulate its militia for the protection of its liberty, not violating the right of the people to keep and possess arms. 18th. That military despotism be duly and completely annihilated by constitutional measures that shall insure the inviolability of the people's sovereignty. 19th. That the seat of government of the United Provinces be of necessity and indispensably situated outside the city of Buenos Aires. 20th. The Constitution shall guarantee to the United Provinces a republican form of government, and shall insure each one against all domestic violence, usurpation of its rights and liberty and sovereign security. The above are the essential articles of the proposed con- 38 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT stitution, which Artigas, as leader of the Uruguayans and the people of Uruguay, wanted as their Federal Constitu- tion for the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata. These represent the principles of the Constitution of the United States of America, which were later adopted by the Argen- tine Constitution of 1816. Had these principles been accepted since 1813, we would not have had to regret the bloody civil wars between the Orientales and the PorteSos (residents of Buenos Aires), and between Artigas and the Directorate of Buenos Aires, and which acceptance would have made the Uruguayan Republic an integral part of the United Provinces of to-day. The Deputies of Eastern Uruguay were not admitted to the Constituent Congress or Assembly for the reason that the Election Ordinance proclaimed by the Triumvirate, which exercised the executive power of the nation by its Article No. 5, prohibited the Deputies from receiving im- perative orders as national deputies. None of the provinces had taken part in the preparation of this ordinance, as the Triumvirate, following Spanish practice, really believed that the Buenos Aires government, as the heir of the Vice- roys, could dictate measures of a general character without the consent or opinion of the different settlements constitut- ing the nation. The government of the Triumvirate was aware of the opinion of Artigas, as he had expressed it to General Rondeau, to the effect that it was his aim to dis- regard the interference of Buenos Aires in the Oriental province soon after the termination of the war. Artigas so arranged the Instructions as to provide meas- ures to secure the autonomy of the Oriental province, while the Portenos took measures to defeat his purpose. It is perhaps surprising that Artigas should have given instruc- tions to the Deputies; but, in fact, it was nothing out of the ordinary, as it was a case wherein the people were in accord with their leader as well as with the Deputies, and they were all in favor of the autonomy of their province. The idea of autonomy had been fostered in Antigas's mind REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 39 since 1811, when, in a communication to the Paraguayan government, he stated: ''The Banda Oriental is the sister, the ally, of Buenos Aires, hut it has its own l)Oundaries, which have been pointed out by nature." The War Between Orientales and Portends The war between the Orientales and the Portenos — the Uruguayans and the residents of Buenos Aires respectively — broke out soon after the seizure of Montevideo. This war was provoked by the intolerance of the people of Buenos Aires toward the spirit and inclination shown locally among the Orientales. The Argentine provinces of Santa Fe, Cordoba, Entre Rios, and Corrientes, on accepting the pro- tection offered by Artigas, seceded from Argentina. Shortly after the secession of these provinces, Director Posadas started peace negotiations with Artigas, and on the 17th of August drafted a decree revoking a former one fixing a price on Artigas's head, acclaiming him in the later decree a faithful servant of the mother country, bestowing upon him the rank of Colonel, and conferring on him the office of General Commander of the Oriental campaign. Peace did not last very long, for on the 1st of January, 1815, the forces of the Orientales, under Rivera, met those of Buenos Aires at Guayabos, under the command of Dor- rego, where the latter were completely routed. It was an encounter of brother against brother, as had been that of Carreras and O'Higgins at Maipo on August 26, 1815, and that of Bolivar and Castillos, at Cartagena, on the 12th of December, 1814. The government of Buenos Aires having changed hands, orders were given for the dislodgment of the Argentine forces from Montevideo, which was effected, and the with- drawal of the Argentine troops completed on the 25th of February following. The city was then occupied by the forces of the Orientales, who hoisted the first patriotic flag on the La Plata River, which has been called the Flag of Artigas, consisting of one white between two blue stripes, and a red 40 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT stripe diagonally crossing the other three. The first na- tional coat-of-arms of Uruguay was adopted the same year. This emblem had as its center a balance — symbol of equality — and beyond, the radiant sun around which was the motto : ''With liberty neither do I offend nor fear." Following the fall of the Argentine government under Alvear, a provisional law was enacted on May 5, 1815, which directed the installation of the Tucumin Congress, which proclaimed the Independence of Argentina. Discord Among the Leaders of Argentina The deep-rooted differences between Artigas and the gov- ernment of Buenos Aires had become pronounced even among the leaders of "Mayo" (Argentina's month of Inde- pendence), as is described by Mitre, the reputed Argentine historian, in his story of Belgrano, as follows : "Hardly had a year elapsed when the revolutionary arena was destitute of its most renowned leaders — Moreno, the inspiration of the revolution, died while at sea; Alberti, member of the Mayo commission, died before he saw his work completed ; Berruti and French, the two political orators of the cele- brated 25th of May (Independence Day), had been ex- patriated as of the criminal class; Rodriguez PeSa, the energetic force of the preaching campaign which preceded the revolution ; Ascueuaga, who had so efficiently cooperated in its triumph ; Vieytes, the indefatigable companion of Bel- grano in the tasks that prepared the change of 1810; all of them ignomiuiously persecuted, and whose friends of other days referred to them as frenzied fanatics, frantic demo- crats, expatriates, moral perverts, blood-thirsty plunderers, infamous traitors, rebels, low-lived, cynical, seditious in- surgents, poison ivylike, and corrupters of the people." Zorrilla de San Martin says : "That struggle will continue indefinitely, it will continue in a rage and implacable, and the man will not be there until the tyrant appears; revolu- tions, mutinies, tumultuous disorders, political conspiracies will follow each other without interruption within that REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 41 chaotic nucleus where the political rulers will rise and fall — thanks for this, as in many cases, to intrigue — betraying the lofty interests of the South American Independence. "It is not then possible that the capitan of blandengues (old-fashioned regiment), the man of sincerity, Artigas, will be a party to it, nor will he swear thereto the uncondi- tional submission of his people to any faction. He is the order ; he comes to ask for means to liberate his country, and will accept whatever means are given him and from whomso- ever he receives them, because he is ready to liberate it with those men, without those men, and against those men should it become necessary." These remarks of two historians of the La Plata give a complete idea of the grievous discords which held sway within the element that directed the revolution, and they also explain sufficiently well the state of anarchy which prevailed among the governing heads, just as it has hap- pened during momentous events which have revolutionized the world. Add to this the want of political education and of party discipline, as well as ideas of assumed authority inherited from the mother country and incompatible with political liberty, and you will form some conception of politics at that time. A group of well-meaning citizens, yet arrogant and ill-prepared to govern, imposing their will on the great majority of the citizens who were not heard in any manner. The haughtiness of Artigas is explained in the fact that he was the leader of the Orientales, the most fertile land of war- riors, the capital of which — Montevideo — proudly displayed the motto, "Muy fiel y reconquistadora ciudad," and which had been and still was the best fortified place of the Rio de la Plata, and the rival of Buenos Aires. Artigas and the Orientales could not be mere satellites of the Committee which had assumed power. "The Banda Oriental has boundaries, she is the sister, the ally, to Buenos Aires," Artigas had said in his note of December 7, 1811, which was read publicly at the City of Asuncion in Para- 42 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT guay, amid the acclamations of the people, and adding: "The Orientales have sworn an irreconcilable hatred to all forms of tyranny, and have sworn not to lay down their arms until every foreigner leaves the country." Artigas, desirous of securing autonomy for his loved Provincia Oriental, wished to embody in his instructions a federal constitution patterned after that of the United States of America, while on the other hand, individuals at the head of the Buenos Aires government, descendants of good Spanish stock, self-constituted authorities, could not conceive any other plan except one on the Spanish style, with all the exaggerated ideas of a unitary and despotic centralism as formulated by Carlos V. The Army of Argentina Rebels Against the Buenos Aires Government^ Installing General Rondeau AT THE Head General Alvear, not through his meritorious accom- plishments — he being a very young man at the time — but through the intrigues which were in vogue at the time, was appointed General of the Army of Peru, but the army leaders of Alto Peru refused to recognize him as such, there- by establishing a regrettable example of insubordination. The Army of Peru rose up in rebellion against Alvear on the 19th of December, 1814, demanding the continuance of Rondeau, Director Posadas, in view of the disobedience shown his government, renounced his authority on March 9, 1815, but against all discretion the Constituent Assembly entitled Logia (lodge) Lautaro, which was a sort of political masonic lodge, named Alvear as Director, whose position became indefensible, since his defeat by Artigas with Do- rrego as Lieutenant, and since the army disregarded him. In the meantime, Belgrano and Rivadavia were searching Europe for a Prince to occupy the throne of the Provincias Unidas (United Provinces) independently of Spain. The monarchial scheme was shared by San Martin, Belgrano, Rivadavia, Sarratea, and Puyrred6n. Director Posadas REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 43 comment was, "What difference does it make whether the ruler-to-be be called Desk, Table or Bench, Emperor or King?" Following the battle of Guayabos, the government of Buenos Aires had sent ambassadors to arrange terms of peace with Artigas, peace being endorsed by Artigas under condition that the City of Montevideo be surrendered and the forces withdrawn, which was accepted by Buenos Aires, and its forces evacuating on February 27, 1815, as before stated. Alvear would not give in, and signed a communication which placed the provinces of the Rio de la Plata under the authority of England, but this note, which was to have been delivered by Minister Garcia to Strangford, failed to be delivered, Garcia limiting himself to state to the English Minister that the Provinces of the La Plata had depended on the support of England in order to save them- selves from falling into the clutches of Spain. A subsequent revolution in Buenos Aires destroyed the power of Alvear, who sought refuge on an English battleship, and the Con- stituent Assembly dissolved. The United Provinces of the La Plata, in congress as- sembled at Tucumdn, declared their independence on the 9th of July, 1816. The Last Portuguese Invasion The Portuguese invaded territory of the Oriental province with an army of 10,000 men, commanded by Lecor, for the purpose of expelling Artigas and taking possession of the territory comprising the Banda Oriental. The Oriental forces, though weakened, offered stubborn resistance, and Director Puyrredon intimated to the invader that the terri- tory should be abandoned, and proposed to Artigas his assistance, on condition that the Oriental Division render obedience to the Directorate and to the Congress, and that the Argentine flag be hoisted instead. Artigas most em- phatically opposed the proposition, ordered the Argentine 44 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT document to be consigned to the flames, and started prepara- tions for the defense of his country. We quote from Ar- tigas's note, in answer to the Argentine proposal, the follow- ing: '^The leader of the Orientates has at all times demon- strated that he loves his country too well to sacrifice this noMe patrimony for the contemptible price of necessity." He gathered 4,000 men, who were unable to check the ad- vance of the Portuguese into Montevideo, which had been abandoned by its small patriotic garrison. During the rule of Puyrredon, the political parties were divided into Unitario and Federal. The Federal's preten- sion was that the province of Buenos Aires, which yielded larger returns, should not be under the national govern- ment, but that it be governed under autonomy, or in other words, he was asking for just the same conditions that the Banda Oriental of Uruguay wanted. Among the leaders of the Federal Party were Dorrego, Agrelo, General French, the Anchorenas, and other influential personages. They had as their organ a daily called La Cr6nica, where it was claimed that the Director Puyrredon was implicated with the Portuguese who had invaded Uruguay. This expose gave an excuse to Puyrredon to have them deported to the Antilles, together with the Oriental patriots, Colonels Pagola and Valdenegros, and other men of distinction. On arriving at Baltomire, the deported patriots issued a mani- festo reading: "What is this crime of ours if among the many facts that confront us we have believed that tlie gov- ernment is implicated in schemes of perfidy and treachery, and that it had called and entreated the Portuguese to in- vade the Oriental territory." It is not strange therefore that Artigas should have believed Puyrred6n to be a traitor. The Orientales Abandoned by the Argentinos After several engagements with the Portuguese, Artigas proceeded to Entre Rios to secure reinforcements in Argen- tina, but instead of assistance he was received by the chief- tain Ramirez, his former protege, in a hostile and warlike EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 45 attitude, and who, in a consequent encounter witli Artigas, defeated the latter, who was compelled to withdraw into Paraguay. Artigas, an unnoticed hero, was slandered by nearly all the Argentine historians, but his instructions of 1813, which were newly brought to light in 1868, when they were found in the city of Asuncion, together with other documents bear- ing his signature, place the leader of the Orientales among the first statesmen of America, both in thought and action. (Refer to the Book, "Instructions of the Year 1813," pub- lished by Miranda, Libreria Nacional, Montevideo, 1916.) Opinion Given by President Monroe's Commission to Argentina in 1818 Regarding Artigas The testimony given by the United States Government Commission, which was sent to Argentina during the Monroe administration to study the political situation at the time the Argentine government asked of the great northern re- public to recognize the independence of the United Provinces of the La Plata, proves the truth of our statements. The members of this commission who went to Argentina aboard the frigate "Congress" in 1818, were Cesar A Rodney, John Graham, and Theodore Bland. President Monroe, on ex- plaining to the United States Congress the purpose of this commission, officially requested that provision be made for the necessary funds to defray the expenses of the said com- mission. It was at the memorable session of the United States Congress in March of 1818, during the five days from March 24 to 28, which were exclusively devoted to the Argentine matter, that Clay was inspired to express the following sentiment: "Artigas appears to be in truth, a republican, a man of strong mind and strong understand- ing, brave, active, intelligent, devoted to his country, and possessing the entire confidence of the people of whom he is chief." (Smith of Maryland, U. S. A. Congress, March 28, 1818.) 46 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT It was at the most critical period of the stiniggles of Artigas and his brave gauchos, trapped as they were by their enemies, that the North American commission arrived. Clay maintained that instead of a commission, a govern- ment representative should be sent, and that the independ- ence of the Spanish-American republics should be recognized. The government's attitude was to defer recognition until re- ceipt of report, to which Clay answered by quoting Washing- ton's remarks: "Born in a land of freedom, my fervent prayers and best wishes are irresistibly roused wherever I see an oppressed nation break the barriers that separate her from freedom." "The United States of America, Clay con- tinued, "must not wait for the Kings to recognize the only other republic besides ours, in order to do likewise. If the health of the European monarchies depends upon the death of the republics of America, then the security of the Ameri- can republic must not be restrained by the others born at her side." Clay concluded his oration by saying : ''The only champion of democracy in these regions is the brave and chivalrous Artigas/' In his report to President Monroe, Commissioner Rodney sent extended and detailed information covering all the events which took place in the La Plata region since its discovery, including all documents obtained in Buenos Aires, the central point of the territory dominated by the enemies of Artigas, to whom the Argentine historians referred as the bandit, captain of smugglers, highwayman, blood- thirsty bandit, and other similar not endearing terms. The Rodney report ends with this statemeiit : "It is fair to add, nevertheless, that General Artigas is considered by persons worthy of belief, to be a consistent supporter of the inde- pendence of his country. A decisive opinion on such a delicate question could be hardly expected from me inas- much as my position does not permit me full view of the condition of the territory as a whole. I have not yet had the satisfaction of a formal interview with General Artigas, who is unquestionahly a man possessing singular and ex- KEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 47 ceptional talents. But were I to dare conjecture, I do not believe it impossible that in this as well as in the majority of local disputes there is fault on both sides. It is to be lamented that they are in open hostility." Commissioner Graham said: "General Artigas and his followers claim that the intervention of the Buenos Aires government is to dominate them and to compel them to submit to conditions which will rob them of the privileges of self-government which they believe thay are entitled to demand. They state that they are desirous of joining the people of the western bank of the river, but not in such a way as to he left subject to the tyranny of Buenos Aires. This war has had as its origin a combination of causes, wherein perhaps both fac- tions have something to complain of and something for which to repent. Mutual interests demand their union, but much discretion and moderation are needed to secure it ; in fact, a great deal more than what can at this moment be expected from the irritated spirit of some of the leading personages of both sides." At the same time that the American envoys were writing these reports, Puyrredon wrote to San Martin as follows: "Artigas has been completely routed by the Portuguese and compelled to seek shelter in the forests with very few of his bandits." San Martin had sent two messengers from Chile with instructions to go to the Artigas camp for con- ciliation, but this move was unfavorably received by Puyrre- don, who reproached San M'artin for having interfered, and ordered the messengers to return from Mendoza without interviewing Artigas. The report of the third commissioner, Mr. Bland, says: "Artigas put the plans of the Buenos Aires government to the test, demanding that the Banda Oriental he considered and treated as a state. This demand was considered at Buenos Aires as the most irrational criminal offense and defiant rebellion against the only lawful government of the United Provinces, which government, according to its doc- trine, embraced all of the viceroyship of which Buenos 48 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Aires had always heen and l)y right was then and should continue to 6e the capital whence all authority should emanate. Artigas opposed and denounced this as a mani- festation of an unjust and arbitrary spirit of domination on the part of Buenos Aires, and to which he could not in any manner submit. Artigas, though driven first in one direc- tion and then in another, attacked by the Portuguese on one side and by the patriots of Buenos Aires on the other, and on guard against an unexpected attack by the Spaniards, has the entire population in a state of submis- sion to the power of his will. It may he said that Artigas and his gauchos valiantly defend their homes, their country, and their rights, and that the King of Portugal plans to enlarge his domains hy adding the province to Brazil." In speaking of the peasants of the province Oriental, Bland says : "They are the most formidable guerillas that have ever lived.'' They rank second to none in physical prowess, and the deeds of valor ascribed to them by far surpass those of the Parthes, the Escitas, and the Cossacks of the Don. "Revolutionary America had in the culmination of its justifiable revolution, and from the very beginning, one true adherent and armed supporter, Artigas. Yet all is not known, except by the people who guard within their soul the glory of that tradition, for it happens that some of the most interesting and appealing facts about the La Plata revolution have not either been written or propagated. This came to me as I read the excellent r6sum6, written in such clear and precise style, which the illustrious noble, Rufino Blanco Fombona, presented at the Madrid conferences, re- garding the origin of contemporary America." "It is locally admitted that the revolution of the extreme south originated and was maintained in a monarchial atmos- phere, which appears to be relatively true, as no mention is made of Artigas, instigator of democracy, harassed and pursued like a beast of the jungle, by the monarchial oligarchy of the Posadas and the Puyrred6ns, and then slandered in transient history by writers inheriting the REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 49 hatred of monarchial politics. A fundamental revision of comparative worth is a new task on the history of this region of the south, and when this revision has been com- pleted and certain ghastly and mediocre figures have passed to a secondary plane, one figure will continue to grow to gigantic proportions as a figure worthy of America, the chieftain with lionlike grasp who in 1813 hoisted the flag of integral organization and clearly defined republicanism — which Bolivar also took up soon after, though in a less fervent form, in opposition to the monarchial program of San Martin." (From Jose Enrique Rod6, in Motivos de Proteo. ) Ignorance regarding the true history of the La Plata, and ignorance as to the true part played by Artigas, are the two main reasons for the many errors which we find in books of American history. In a book recently published in the City of New York (Appleton, 1918), and written by Don Enrique Santibanez, former instructor of universal history in the preparatory school in the City of Mexico, we read in substance the following : "Artigas represented in that chaos the chieftain whom we very frequently find in Latin America, who does not recede from any act of brigandage or false report, provided he can dominate his unfortunate country." This Mexican historian honestly believes that Artigas was another Pancho Villa. He is a new grave-digger for the Oriental hero who, to quote Mitre, the Argentine historian, "Has been buried definitively." "We two," wrote Mitre to Lopez (another Argentine historian), after a dispute, "have shown the same predilection for the great men and the same repulsion for the disorganized barbarians, like Artigas, whom ive have buried historically." But the historically dead one returns to life, and an aureole of glory, which no other Platenese caudillo (chieftain) or hero possesses, now crowns his head, for the reason that he was the only democrat of his time in the La Plata region, and the only one who did not doubt the ultimate triumph of the republic. 50 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT The Orientales Take Up Arms Against Brazil The Banda Oriental was annexed to Brazil, under the title of Provincia Cisplatina, thus forming part of the kingdom of Portugal. Soon after, on the 21st of Invasion of Thirty- three— 1825— September, 1822, Brazil declared its inde- pendence from Portugal, with the usual result — a conflict between the two nations, the Brazilians being compelled, under their leader, Lecor, to withdraw from Montevideo to Canelones. The Oriental Knights, members of a patriotic society, sent a commission to Buenos Aires to propose the incorporation of a Banda Oriental with the United Provinces, and so pre- sented themselves before the cabinet minister, Rivadavia, The latter remonstrated, stating that he could not accept the proposal until presented by a regularly constituted government. This provoked Lavalleja, future leader of the famous Thirty-three, to revolt. But on being pursued, and not having any resources at his command, he was unable to offer resistance, and therefore migrated into Argentina. On the 20th of October following, the Cabildo of Monte- video decided to enact the law exacted by the Buenos Aires government, and so the neighbor communities in meeting assembled unanimously declared: "That the province as a whole, and particularly the capital, placed itself freely and of its own free will under the protection of the Buenos Aires government, that they considered the act of incor- poration with the Portuguese monarchy null, criminal, and arbitrary — the act having been sanctioned by the Congress of 1821, composed largely of employees under the pay of the Portuguese King, and that the province of Oriental of Uru- guay did not belong, and should never belong, to any other power, state, or nation than that of Rio de la Plata, of which it had been and still was a part." Three days after the issuance of the above declaration, the Portuguese General, in compliance with instructions REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 51 received from Lisbon, abandoned the town to Lecor, and he himself set sail for Portugal. The patriots Lavalleja, Manuel Oribe, Zufriategui, and others got together and jointly entered a binding agreement to invade the province of Oriental, and accordingly invaded the territory on April 19, 1825, on the Agraciada coast. These venturesome heroes were thirty-three in number. They swore on their knees before the flag to liberate their native land or die in the attempt. The motto inscribed on the banner of liberty, which Lavalleja caused to wave, read: "Liberty or Death." The group of patriots under this banner was augmented by the forces of Rivera and others, and on the seventh of May laid siege to the city of Montevideo. On the 20th of August the National Assembly convened at Florida and named Lavalleja Captain General. On the 25th of August the said assembly declared the independence of the Pro- vincia Oriental and its incorporation with the Argentine provinces, and so advised the government of Buenos Aires. On the 20th of the following September, the Orientales, under Rivera, defeated the Brazilian forces at Rinc6n de las Gallinas. General Lavalleja routed another Brazilian army at the battle of Sarandi, under the cry, "Shoulder Carbine, Sabre in Hand," which triumph was enthusias- tically celebrated in Buenos Aires. The Argentine Congress declared the incorporation of the Provincia Oriental with the United Provinces, and demanded its release from the governmental authorities of Rio de Janeiro. This brought about Brazil's declaration of war, which the Argentine government answered by the in- tervention of its army in crossing the Uruguay, thence marching north and encamping on the plains of Ytuzaing6. The combined forces of Argentinos and Orientales consisted of 7,000 men, against 9,000 Brazilians, including 3,600 Aus- trians sent by the Emperor of Austria as a nucleus for the Brazilians' forces, to his political associate, the Emperor 52 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT of Brazil, the Austrian General, Bauer. There were many Austrian oflScers, members of the Brazilian Staff. The republican forces were rewarded with victory, and in due time a treaty of peace was signed, wherein England took part by guaranteeing the complete independence of the Provincia Oriental on the 27th of August, 1828. The Uruguayan Constitution was sworn to on the 18th of July, 1830, and recently amended on March 1, 1919. The War Against the Despot Eosas General Rivera, who was elected the first President, served four years, and President Oribe, elected to succeed „ , him, did not serve out his term, which was The New Troy . ' , , , . -, ^ ., interrupted by a revolution, and Oribe obliged to resign the presidency. Rivera, who again occu- pied the presidential chair, declared war in 1839 against the despot Rosas of Buenos Aires. Oribe, on giving up the presidency, placed himself at the disposal of the tyrant, who was then ruling as an absolute king. Oribe, becoming Rosas' sword, relentlessly per- secuted the Unitarians, enemies of the latter. After defeating all of Rosas's enemies, Oribe, who was an able general, came to Montevideo with a powerful army of 14,000 men, besieging the city on the 16th of February, 1843. The siege lasted for nine years, and gained for the city the title of "Nueva Troya." During this prolonged siege, the par- tisans of the despot Rosas dominated the whole of the Oriental campaign. Montevideo was the retreat of the most illustrious Argentine enemies of Rosas, the "Unitarios" (Unitarians), among them Mitre, Paz, Florencio Varela, and a good many Europeans, like Garibaldi, who was at the head of the Italian legion. Rosas was the most cruel tyrant that ever ruled in America. He established a despotic form of government, over which he ruled for twenty years, during which time he mercilessly persecuted his enemies and confiscated their property. He leaned upon and catered to the lowest element, EEGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 33 and his audacity reached such a stage that he had his photo- graph placed on the altar of a church in place of one of the images. He was inimical to all forms of civilization and oppressed all foreigners. The laws were proclaimed under the caption: "Death to the unclean, loathsome, and savage Unitarios, enemies of God and Man. Long live the Restorer of the law." His adherents were the most dreaded assassins. "La Mazorca," organized by Rosas, was an organ- ization of bandits, associated for the purpose of whipping and murdering all Unitarios without any process of law. It was this despotic cruelty that drove the Unitarios and their families into Montevideo and Chile. Two thousand two hundred Argentinos were murdered during this reign of terror and tyranny. His outrages against the French caused the French fleet to blockade the port of Buenos Aires, and it was then that he added to his title, that of "Restaura- dor de las leyes," the one of "Defensor de la Independencia Americana" (Defender of American Independence), when instead he should have acquired the title of "Defensor de la barbarie pampeana" (Defender of pampean cruelty). The Triple Alliance Against Rosas It appears almost incredible to-day to read of the atroci- ties committed by Rosas, but nevertheless it remains a fact. He was a bloodthirsty emulator of Neron. "Amalia," by the well-known author Jose Marmol, gives a very good idea of who Rosas was and what took place under his dominion. Rosas claimed to be a federalist, but had no conception of what a federal government should be, as his government was as absolute as the most exaggerated form that could be found in any country in the world. All of Argentina was a gathering of savage gauchos, who controlled in their territory in the various provinces, also as absolute owners of the land. In December, 1850, the defensive government of Monte- video celebrated a treaty of offensive-defensive alliance with Brazil and the Argentine provinces of Entre Rios and Cor- 54 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT rientes, against Rosas. The Argeutiue General, Urquiza, crossed the Uruguay with his troops to attack Oribe, and thus deprive Rosas of the former's support. The Brazilians also entered Oriental territory. Oribe was soon after abandoned by his best leaders, and nearly all of his army, composed mostly of Argentinos, joined Urquiza's troops, and Oribe was compelled to capitulate on October 3, 1851, thereby terminating the siege of Montevideo, which had lasted for a period of eight years, seven months, and twenty- two days. The allied forces, numbering 30,000, invaded the province of Buenos Aires, finally accomplishing the overthrow of Rosas on the third day of February, 1852. He sailed in an English vessel to England, where he died several years later. Thus was fulfilled the prophecy of Mdrmol, the poet who said : "Ni el polvo de tus huesos America tendr^" (Not even the dust of your bones will America retain). War Against Lopez_, the Tyrant of Paraguay Another tyrannical government had been implanted in Paraguay by the dictator Francia and the members of the L6pez family, his successors, making it necessary for the Argentinos, Orientales and Brasileros to organize a triple alliance to demolish it (treaty of May 1, 1865). No more bloody war has been fought on American soil than that be- tween the Lopez forces and those of the nations allied against him. The conflict lasted five years. Paraguay was ruined and its man power almost completely annihilated defending a tyrant ruler, not defending the land, as the allies did not intend to acquire territory by conquest, seeking only to rid the republics of America of a despotic government which was a constant menace to their comfort. Paraguay was then the first military power in South America, and her position would have entitled her to the sobriquet of "The Germany of America." Her ruler, L6pez, had ideas in common with the would-be world-conqueror ex- Kaiser, leading his people to believe that he was fighting for REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 55 the liberty of the country which he ruled as a tyrant, just as the Kaiser succeeded in making his subjects believe that the allied nations had provoked the war as a pretext to deprive them of their commerce and rob them of their wealth. These two absolute monarchs differed, in that L6pez died fighting the enemy, while Wilhelm II, after careful planning and watching for the opportunity that finally came, succeeded in making his flight to neutral territory though he yet had a powerful army and navy at his command. "Paraguay lost over 500,000 men in this war, of whom 160,- 000 died in the field of battle, 40,000 among those executed and tortured to death, 200,000 victims of cholera epidemic, etc., and lastly, a vast number died of hunger." (Geography of Paraguay, by Hector F. Decoud, Asuncion, 1896.) The citizens of Paraguay have familiarized themselves with the depraved record of L6pez, as is proven by the earnest protest recently made at Asuncion when some one planned to honor the memory of the tyrant Lopez. His case should be treated in like manner as that of the Kaiser, who is being cursed by his former countrymen as having been the instigator of the most terrible catastrophe ever recorded in history, for Paraguay's position in American politics at that time was identical to that of Germany in European poli- tics until destroyed by the recent war which proved the Kaiser's undoing, under which government the people as a whole were further advanced in a general way but polit- ically the least competent — the government of Germany having been conducted as were those of medieval times. The political education of tlie people is worth far more than all German "Kultur" methods such as make her unfit for real self-government, due to the fact that her subjects have been brought up to obey and given no opportunity to practice any form of free government. The Oriental Republic in 1885 exempted Paraguay from payment of the war debt and returned to the latter all the trophies of war which the Orientales had captured during the conflict, with the statement that the war had not been 56 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT waged against the noble Paraguayans but against the despot L6pez. The Causes Which Led to the Independence of South America prom Spain In the chapter wherein Professor Shepherd explains the causes which led to the Independence of Spanish America, he says : "Few movements in history have been so much mis- understood and few have displayed such a complexity of purposes and methods, and none has presented a stranger outcome as the series of revolutions which from 1810 to 1826 destroyed the power of Spain in America." The struggle is best explained by regarding it from a threefold point of view: Spanish, Spanish-American and European. "In the first place," says Shepherd, "it was a fight between Span- iards of the New World and a conservative government of the Old World." We would say more fittingly that it was a struggle between the old spirit of Spain anterior to Carlos V and the absolute ideas of domination of the latter, which destroyed Spanish liberty. In Spain, Padilla and the Comu- neros revolted against the absolute power of Carlos V (who ruled according to the German way) and were defeated, but the triumph of the absolute monarchy proved disas- trous for Spain, as America could not become the victim of tyrannical government, without protesting, which was done by the War of the Comuneros of Paraguay in 1723, who in their proclamation resolved: "That the authority of the people was superior to even that of the king." This revolution was suppressed and its leader executed after he resigned his command, but there remained within the breast of each Paraguayan and Platense a concealed animosity towardvS the tyranny of Spain. Shepherd credits the Indians as being neutral or inclined to favor the government of the metropolis; this may be true of the Indians and Mestizos of Peru and other Andean districts, trained in the school of despotism or absolute government of the Incas. These In- dians did not detect any difference between their old form of REGION OF THE LA PLATA RIVER 57 government and that administered by Spain. Indian the- ocracy did not recognize citizenship, and had it not been that the Spaniards forced the Indians to work, these would have perhaps preferred the Spanish form of government. But such was not the case with the papipean Indian of the La Plata, the Charrua of Uruguay, the Araucano of Chile, and the Guarani of the Paraguay and of the Bolivian plains, who were never subdued, who always maintained their inde- pendence and were the first to assist in the expulsion of the Spaniards, and also contributed the larger number of de- fenders to the cause of independence, many of the city resi- dents remaining neutral, preferring a tranquil existence, whether as subjects of Spain or of any other dominion. Other factors which Shepherd and many other historians believe had an influence on the independence of the South American colonies were the ideas evoked in connection with the American and French revolutions, as well as those ad- vanced by the philosophers Montesquieu, Rousseau and Vol- taire, neither of which was known but slightly in South America. Books and printed matter were not at that time world-known, and besides, the great majority of South Americans, particularly the residents of the champaign, who took an active part in the revolutions, the real patriots, were unable to read. It was not ideas, it was not what the philosophers said that aroused those patriots, but it was the spirit of freedom in the Indian and the Creole before Spain's time, during the rule of Spain and after the victory over Spain. It is that same spirit that causes them to revolt and take up arms against the seat of government when it no longer respects their rights. These are the horrible revo- lutions which so alarm the Europeans when contrasting the South American revolutionists with the meek and tolerant people of some of the countries of Europe, among them the Germans, Austrians, etc., who will stand for the most tyran- nical or despotic form of government. The moment for which the South Americans had so long- ingly waited to accomplish their desires came when Napo- 58 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT leon invaded Spain, as we hereinbefore stated. We must insist that the independence was not brought about by the dreamers and thinkers, but by the plainsmen, men of action — the gauchos of the La Plata, the 'llaneros (plainsmen) of Venezuela, and Nueva Granada (now Colombia), Bolivar and Artigas, the "Caudillos," who embody the souls of peoples, and San Martin, Sucre and Cordoba, the generals who win the battles for freedom. COLONIAL AUTHORITIES! Summary Indian Council — Board of TraflSc and Commerce — The Royal Audience — Consulates — The Viceroys — The Governors — The Cabildos — Town Mayors — Spanish Municipal Laws — Padilla and the Comuneros. Indian Council The discovery and settlement of America, which placed such vast domains under the authority of the King of Spain, had an immediate influence on the public administration of the Metropolis whereby the opportunity came to create new special authorities entrusted exclusively with American affairs. The judicial concept on Spanish domination of America, decreed complete separation of its affairs and those of the Metropolis, the only tie binding America to Spain being the authority of the Sovereign who governed Spain under the mandate of a public law which insured the people a certain participation in public matters, particularly as to the levying of taxes voted upon by the Cortes (Senate and Congress of Deputies in Spain). America became the ex- clusive property of the Sovereign with all rights vested in him and combining the Executive, Legislative and Judicial powers, with authority thereby to tax and alienate the prop- erty if he so desired. Consequently, America did not form a governmental part of Spain, it being only and exclusively the property or > From the " Historical Manual of the Oriental Republic of Uruguay," by Santiago Bollo, Libreria Nacional, Montevideo. COLONIAL AUTHOKITIES 59 dominion of the Sovereign. We will see further on how at the beginning of the struggle for the .independence of South America that this judicial concept of sovereignty was to be the legal doctrine to be invoked for its severance from the Metropolis. The supreme authority on whom rested all matters rela- tive to America consisted of an Advisory Board which bore the title "Consejo Real de Indias" (Royal Indian Council) which body was appointed as were all other supreme colonial authorities, directly by the Crown. One of the functions of the Council was the drafting of Ordinances and Laws pertaining to civil as well as econo- mical and religious matters which it presented for final approbation to the King who on finding them to his liking would publish them and order their enforcement. The Council also attended to the revision of all plans by the viceroys who, on the Council's mandate, would submit them to the King. Board of Commerce The Board of Commerce established at Sevilla, about the year 1605, was also a collegiate body composed of President, Treasurer, Accountant, three Advocate Judges and Prose- cutor. The functions of this Board were to attend to all matters relative to commerce and navigation in connection with America, to directly supervise the dispatching and registering of all vessels destined to take care of the Indian trade, and to exercise civil and criminal jurisdiction on all cases arising therefrom. The Royal Audience The Royal Audience had judicial supervision within the territory to which it was assigned and had the authority as a second and third higher tribunal to hear civil and crim- inal cases originating before the lower courts, and having besides, the right to pass on the appointments of those magistrates. 60 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT The members of these Audiences were appointed by the King with whom this assembly communicated directly and which privilege contributed largely to earning for it the high consideration in which it was held. Consulates The Indian Consulates, established since 1543, composed an institution adapted to the commerce of America and at- tended to the settlement of all disagreements between the carriers. The election of the Consuls was conducted by two graded bodies, or in other words, the carriers in a body selected thirty of their number who, in turn, elected the Consuls. The Viceroys The executive power in the territory of the colonies rested on the Viceroys, who, as the name indicates, were the direct representatives or delegates of the Crown and vesting in themselves such political powers as the Sovereign had not already delegated to some one else. The vast American domains had during the colonial period, only four viceroyships, namely: Mexico, Nueva Granada, Peru and Rio de la Plata, organized according to the latter, in the year 1776. As the Crown's representatives, the Viceroys had supreme jurisdiction over all matters and under no other appellate authority than the King himself. They had the right to modify judicial deliberations, and, in fact, provide them- selves with the supreme authority of the King, without any other limitation than what was expressly prohibited. The Viceroys had under their immediate jurisdiction several Governors, each viceroyship being divided into gubernatorial districts which, in some cases, embraced large territorial areas. The Viceroys were also Commanders-in- chief of land and sea forces with supreme military au- thority and the privilege to appoint and discharge the com- manding officers of the land forces. COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 61 Such responsibility attached to the office of Viceroy to which supposedly highly respectable men of the Metropolis were appointed, that they were prohibited from coming to America in company with their wives and sons and the wives of the latter. Governors Each Governor and Intendant comprised the Executive Department in their respective gubernatorial district into which the viceroyship was divided. They were, as a rule, appointed by the Viceroy, but these appointments were temporary, as the appointment only became effective after confirmation by the King. Some of these appointments were not confirmed at times and therefore the provisional Governor would retire in favor of the King's appointee. As a necessary qualification, the prospective Governor had to be a native born citizen of Spain and he should bind himself not to contract marriage in the territory where he was to assume authority. The general functions of the Governors were the same as those of the Viceroys within their respective jurisdiction, excepting that the latter were superior in authority. When- ever a vacancy occurred, whether through death or for any other reason, or the appointee failed to take up the duties of his office at the time, the Royal Audience would take charge until the appointment of a successor or until the original appointee was ready to exercise the duties of his office. Cabildos (Town Assemblies) The only authority that did not emanate directly from the Metropolis amidst the various regulations which com- pletely absorbed the rights and privileges of the native born American, was the institution called Cabildo or Ayun- tamiento (Town Assembly) whose members were elected from among Spaniards or Americans without distinction. 62 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT only that the candidate be a resident of the town and a man of sound moral character. Theoretically, the Cabildo was the genuine representative body of the people, an adulter- ated imitation of the- ancient Comunas of the Metropolis which shared in the carrying out of public questions through the deputies sent from the towns by the efforts of the Comunas, to the General Congress. We have stated that this institution represented the people only theoretically, for although the election of its members was originally by popular acclaim, besides holding elections to name a successor to fill each vacancy occurring, the truth was that the sovereign reserved unto himself the right to name a few of its members who were none other than the five appointed for life, who naturally had more prestige than those who were elected annually, not alone for the reason of their owning the position but also in recognition of the origin of their authority as the repre- sentatives of the interests of the Sovereign. The municipal power of Spain had suffered the first of the illegal attacks of the throne, and at the time to which we refer it had been deprived of its attributes and independence. It existed only as a ridiculous image of what it once had been. National sovereignty was originally concentrated in the municipal power. It was the legiti- mate organ of expression of each community's social inter- ests, but the fusion of the divers monarchies and lordships into which the peninsula was divided, together with the plan of centralization evolved by Fernando the Catholic and consummated by Carlos V accomplished the ruin of that municipal power. By the time of the conquest there remained not a trace of this power in the Cabildos. Subse- quent Indian legislation reduced these institutions to an absolute nonentity and reversed the order of their functions by completely surrendering them to the despotic and arbi- trary government of the Metropolis. Carlos y, King of Spain and Emperor of Germany, was not a Spaniard. He was German on his father's side and COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 63 by education, and was not even familiar with the Spanish language at the time of his occupation of the throne. He surrounded himself from the very beginning of his reign v\^ith a German Court and a government conducted k la Germanica, in no different manner than was the recently deposed German Kaiser, the instigator of the war that has destroyed Europe. Carlos V died insane while confined in a convent, and the Carlos V of the present day, as a criminal also, will in time be called to justice. Were the Spaniards to familiarize themselves with the history of Carlos V, there would be no German sympathiz- ers among them, inasmuch as it was the Germanic system that brought about the ruination of Spain and Spanish liberty. Whenever the Cabildo sat in private session it was de- nominated Cabildo Cerrado (Reserved Assembly), but when the public was admitted to its deliberations it was called Cabildo Abierto (Open Assembly). The latter would con- vene either on petition by the people or of its own volition, the conduct of its deliberations being similar to that of assemblies of the old democracies. CORREGIDORES (ToWN MAGISTRATES) The corregidores were the exclusive functionaries of those districts where the indigenes under subjection were congregated, their duties being to impart justice in cases where Indians and Spaniards were in dispute, to represent the former in all such cases and more specially to train them in all the industries, strictly prohibiting them from keeping any of the profit from their own work. These oflSicials were also appointed by the Crown. Spanish Municipal Rights In Spain as well as in America at a later period, munic- 64 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT ipal power was vested in the Cabildos whose memhers were the direct representatives of the people and Commefo's^Mem- ^^® medium through whom the necessary ^^5^o°lf?^^„ arrangements were made in the selection opposing the en- '-> Eng cTiolV/ ®^ Deputies to be sent to the Cortes who in turn, as we have learned, drafted legisla- tion on matters relative to taxation and were also re- sponsible for the security of the fundamental laws of the nation, should these at any time be in danger of being ab- sorbed by the power of the Sovereign. The elections of Deputies to the Cortes were conducted at the Town Hall or Cabildo headquarters under the chair- manship of the Cabildo. The powers with which they were invested clearly specified the wishes of the civic bodies they represented, leaving it to the people to be the judges with the privilege to pass on the use or misuse that the Deputies would make of these powers. Thus, the Cabildos were primarily the bodies entrusted to guard the rights and privileges of the civic communities as well as to take the lead should the people revolt at any time against the viola- tion of their prerogative. Such was the action taken in 1520 when on the occasion of Carlos V leaving Spanish territory to go to Germany, the Cortes met in session at Santiago de Galicia to confer on a subsidy which was asked by the King to pay for the expenses of his trip. Therefore, taking advantage of the opportunity afforded by the Cortes, the majority of the Spanish cities sent their Deputies with explicit instructions demanding that the King stay within the confines of the nation, or in case he should absent himself therefrom, to leave part of the na- tional territory in the hands of the various cities and not to centralize it in one foreign regent, thereby violating monarchial laws. Padilla and the Comuneros These Deputies had express orders not to take part in the voting on the question of subsidy until action had been COLONIAL AUTHORITIES 65 taken by the King on the various petitions made through them by their respective cities. But instead, the Deputies went before the Cortes, tied hand and foot, voting for all measures that the King through his minister demanded of them. This disloyal action was the signal for a general insurrection by the cities represented, and their taking up of arms in defense of their trodden rights. The first one to give the signal was Toledo, supported by two of the mem- bers of his Cabildo, Don Juan de Padilla and Don Fernando Davales. This revolution was suppressed by force of arms and the leaders executed. This also sounded the death knell to Spanish liberty under the despotic reign of Emperor Carlos V and that of his successors. This same Carlos V, a native of Gante, was the one who in reply to a lawful peti- tion from his fellow-citizens in support of their rights, had them executed as a warning to all who dared complain. CHAPTER II HISTORICAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE CENTRAL ANDEAN REGION— PERU AND BOLIVIA SUMMARY Conquest of Peru — Empire of the Incas — Upper Peru from ISIO to 1812 — Spanish Invasions into Argentina — Argentine Invasions into Upper Peru — San Martin Crosses the Andes — Bolivar and San Martin — The Guayaquil Conference. The CoNQUEsr op Peru The conquest of the Andean region first began in 1524 by the famous conquerors Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, who started from Panama and, traveling along the Pacific coast, penetrated as far south as Peru. The two sons of Huaina Capac — Huascar and Atahualpa — were at war against each other at the time of the arrival of the Spaniards. Huascar solicited Pizarro's assistance against his brother Atahualpa, who did likewise when in 1532 he went before Pizarro in great pomp and splendor. This, was the opportune moment of which Pizarro took advantage to treacherously imprison Atahualpa, who was tried for imaginary crimes and executed. One of Atahualpa's sons was proclaimed Inca, but his reign was of short dura- tion, as he died soon after having assumed power. Pizarro returned to Spain and obtained the confirmation of his authority, Almagro being designated for the conquest of the lands to the South. Pizarro founded the City of Lima on the site which to him seemed the most proper for the exchange of communications with Spain. In the mean- time, Almagro proceeded in a southerly direction and ex- plored Chile, but failed to find any gold, which was his main object, and also that of Pizarro. Almagro's troops had been reduced considerably in numbers in crossing the 66 PEEU AND BOLIVIA 67 desert of Atacama aud later in crossing the mountains, Almagro returning to Pern very much disappointed and disillusioned. Valdivia was finally the conqueror of Chile. The Peruanos rose up in rebellion and attacked the Almagro troops, who routed the former and took the city of Cuzco, which Almagro claimed as his own. The civil strife between the Spanish factions started, culminating in the defeat of Almagro, who was made prisoner and decapi- tated. Pizarro was soon after assassinated by Almagro's adherents. Gonzalo Pizarro next assumed authority and revolted against Spain, which action was later indorsed by Carbajal, who burned the royal banner to the ground and hoisted one which he himself designed. Both Pizarro and Carbajal died in battle against the royal army, which had been organized by Pedro de Gasca, sent from Spain to assume control of the government of Peru. In looking back into the remote past to the first Peruvian Empire, founded 3,000 years before the beginning of the Christian era, we find little to establish its identity, but such is not the case with the empire founded in the year 1100 A. D., by Manco Capac, which dynasty numbered thirteen emperors, ending with the rule of Tupac Amarti, who was beheaded by the Spaniards in 1571. The empire was named Tauantinsuyu, which in the Quichua language means "The Four Regions." The god of these agriculturists was the Sun, whose rays ripen the earth's products and give life to creation throughout. The lands were divided into three equal portions : one for the Inca Emperor, another for the Sun and priests, and a third for the people. Each married man received a parcel of land, which increased with each new son born to the family. The lands were again divided after the harvesting of the crops. Farming was done in common, first cultivating the lands of the Sun, then those of the soldiers, and lastly those of the individual families. The Great Spirit, supporter of their religion, was known as Pachacamac, whose symbol was the Sun. The 68 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT inhabitants were familiar with astronomy, and the seasons of the year had special recognition; Spring and Summer, when nature appears the brightest, was the "Season of Creative Heat," while Autumn and Winter represented the "Season of the Darkened Side." They were also familiar with the twelve signs of the zodiac, and the Milky Way was to them a belt of luminous matter. Their chronological records dated back 3,000 years before the present era began. They used to celebrate festivi- ties in honor of the Sun when the rays of this heavenly body attained their verticality at the Tropic of Capricorn. Instead of penmanship they used "Quipus," which con- sisted of strings of various colors, which with the aid of knots tied in divers ways, enabled them to record a variety of events. Their architecture was of a massive style like that of the Egyptians, and their buildings more substantial than those of the Romans, as attested by the ruins of their temples, the Cuzco Palace, and several other works of con- struction. Alto (Uppee) Peru prom 1810 to 1812 We will take a passing glance at the regions of Alto Peru (Bolivia), where the general headquarters of the Spanish troops were situated, and which troops had instruc- tions to advance upon and attack the patriotic army of Argentina. The Army of the North under the command of Balcarce, entered Bolivia on the 27th of October, 1810, attacked Cota- gaita, and was defeated. A second attack was successfully carried out, this time at Suipacha, ending with the capture of Cotagaita. The attacking army proceeded north and on meeting defeat at Huaqui was compelled to retreat to Argentine territory. After the defeat at Huaqui, the Army of the North, under instructions from Belgrano, initiated its campaign and was victorious at the battle of Piedras River on the 2d of Sep- tember, 1812, and soon after routed the enemy at Tucuman, PERU AND BOLIVIA 69 pursuing the Spanish army to Salta, where they were obliged to capitulate. Belgrano penetrated Upper Peru, which was in revolt against Spain, went to Potosi, and on his march north- wardly he was attacked by Viceroy Pezuela, his forces being first defeated at Vilcapugio in October, 1813, and later at Ayouma on the 14th of November following. The Argentine troops had again failed in their mission, and returned to Argentine territory a second time. These fruitless attempts convinced the army of patriots that this was not the proper route for them to carry on a successful campaign against Spanish power, and con- sidered the plan of maritime connections to reach Lima, the capital of Peru and center of all resources used by Spain. This was the idea conceived by General San Martin, who was more capable and better prepared than Belgrano to take charge of the campaign. The Army of the North under Rondeau again ventured into Upper Peru, a third time reached Potosi, and though favored in a way that it had not been formerly, was completely routed at Sipe Sipe and forced to retreat. Spanish Invasion of Northern Argentina Checked by THE GaUCHOS op GtJEMES After the battle of Sipe Sipe, the Spaniards invaded Salta and Jujuy in 1816, but were checked by the brave gauchos of Gtiemes, fearless soldiers and expert riders, such as the Orientales of Artigas and Rivera, who had battled against veteran Spanish troops. The courage displayed by the gauchos was such that they would venture near enough to throw their lasso around the soldiers on guard duty and drag them away as prisoners. The gauchos finally drove the Spaniards out by their continued surprise attacks, though without the implements so necessary in battle. The Army op Argentina Crosses the Andes to Chile San Martin was at Cuyo organizing the army which was 70 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT to cross the Andes for the purpose of attacking the Spaniards in Chile and thence go by water to Peru. On completing the preparations for his Chilean campaign, with his Army of the Andes in two divisions of 4,000 soldiers and 1,200 recruits, San Martin left the encampment at Mendoza and began his journey across the Andes through the passes of Uspallata and Los Patos, encamping in the valley of Aconcagua in Chile. In their first encounter, which took place at Chacabuco, the Spaniards were routed and almost the entire army captured. San Martin next entered Santiago, the capital of Chile, which Junta de Notables (Council of Notables) elected him Supreme Director of Chile, but San Martin did not accept the honor and there- fore the title was bestowed upon General O'Higgins. The Spaniards, through a surprise attack in the valley of Cancha Rayada on the 19th of March, 1818, caused the Argentine army to scatter, but it was promptly brought to- gether by San Martin, who led it to victory in the battle of the valley of Maipo on the 5th of April, 1818. This glorious victory opened the road to Peru. On the 20th of August, 1820, San Martin, at the head of 4,430 Argentines and Chilenos, set sail from the port of Valparaiso with the Chilean fleet under the celebrated Admiral Lord Cochrane, disembarking on the coast of Peru on September the 8th. BOLiVAR AND SaN MaRTIN CONFERENCE AT GUAYAQUIL The Spaniards scattered throughout Peru and the Argen- tine frontier numbered 20,000. The army commanded by San Martin had its first triumph against the Spaniards at Cerro de Pasco, going from there to Lima the capital of the Viceroyship of Peru, thence to Callao, a strongly fortified port, both of which had been recently abandoned by the Spanish forces. During the same period, another illustrious patriot, Gen- eral Bolivar, "Libertador del Norte" (Liberator from the North) had after hard-fought battles reached Guayaquil, PERU AND BOLIVIA 71 having first liberated Venezuela, Colombia and Quito. On being invited to a conference in Guayaquil, San Martin met the other liberator to consult upon a plan for the conduct of the Peruvian campaign. Bolivar expressed his desire to continue his campaign through Peru, and so San Martin realized that the only thing for him to do was to withdraw and make the sacrifice in behalf of the South-American cause in order that Bolivar could lead his army to Peru and thereby consummate its independence through the destruc- tion of the only remaining center of Spanish power. San Martin arrived at Lima on the 20th of August and pre- sented his sealed resignation to the Constituent Congress duly assembled, leaving soon after for Chile. On accepting his resignation. The Congress bestowed upon San Martin the title: "Fundador de la Libertad del Perti" (Founder of the Liberty of Peru) and "Capitdn General de sus ej^rcitos" (Captain General of its Armies). Thus terminated the career of one of the greatest generals of the war for South- American independence. CHAPTER III HISTORICAL INFORMATION ABOUT THE NORTH ANDEAN REGION— VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR SUMMARY Independence of the North Andean Region — Miranda and BoKvar, Northern Heroes — The Liberating Armies of the North and the South Shake Hands in Peru — Sarroiento's and Rodo's Opinion of BoKvar. Miranda and Bolivar — Northern Heroes We will now look into the important events which, pre- ceded the independence of the provinces of the Andes. We have already stated that one month before the Cry of Freedom by the Argentinos of Buenos Aires, in the month of May, the people of Caracas, in public meeting assembled, de- clared that "Venezuela in the exercise of its natural and political rights" would proceed to establish a government which would exercise its authority in the name and as the representative of Fernando VII. Bogota did likewise, establishing another assembly on July 20th, and Chile's on September the 18th. The Miranda revolution failed in 1812, when he capitu- lated at San Mateo. He was sent to Cadiz and imprisoned in the Carraca (the navy yard in Ciidiz, Spain) with a ring placed around his neck like a common criminal, in which prison he died in 1816. Miranda's comrades, Bolivar and the other leaders migrated to Cartagena (New Granada, now Colombia), which was in the hands of the revolu- tionists. Bolivar, who initiated his campaign in 1813, after seven victories reached Caracas, his native laud, a trium- phant hero. In his manifesto of June 15 he stated the following: '^ Spaniards and Canaries — Reckon with Death, 72 VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR 73 notwithstanding your neutrality. Americans — Count on Life though guilty you might be." This was in retaliation for the butcheries and atrocities committed by the Spaniards. In 1813, after alternate victories and defeats, Bolivar started the organization of an Assembly. During the fol- lowing year he was defeated at Lapuerta and Aragua by the bloodthirsty Boves, who also triumphed over Rivas and Bermudes at Maturin. Three thousand of the inhabitants of this latter town were put to the sword by Morales the barbarian. While these executions were taking place, Bolivar went before the government of Nueva Granada, where he was appointed Captain General. Little could he accomplish at this time, due to the civil war which was then going on, so he sailed for Jamaica, whence he was to return later to prepare for his third campaign into Venezuela. At about this time (1815) the Spaniards received rein- forcements, with the addition of 10,000 veteran troops under Morillo, which together with the Caracas reinforcements, formed an army of 16,000 well equipped men, 5,000 of whom marched against Cartagena, which was abandoned by its garrison after a siege which lasted 180 days. Six thousand people died of hunger and disease, besides 400 old men, women, and children who were beheaded under Morales' orders. In 1816, Bolivar returned for his third campaign, with re- sources furnished him by Petion of Santo Domingo. He met with reverses at the beginning and dispersed his troops under the command of his lieutenants Marino, Piar and Paez, and set sail for Haiti, due to discord in the ranks. On being summoned again, Bolivar presented himself at Barcelona, Venezuela, in 1816. He failed in his first at- tempt to capture Caracas and asked the protection of his general ''Black" Piar, who was the owner of the llanos of the Orinoco, and who advised Bolivar to start operations in the region of Guayana, to which Bolivar acceded. Piar next 74 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT defeated the Spaniards at San Felix, and shortly after, on being found guilty of conspiracy against BoKvar, was ar- rested and executed. Bolivar, later reinforced by Paez, mustered an army of 4,000, which was subsequently annihilated by a surprise attack at Rincon de los Toros. Bolivar, then, with only forty men he was able to get together, marched into San Fer- nando. So ended the year 1819. Bolivar's next reinforcements came with the addition of General Santander of Nueva Granada, who joined him at the foot of the Andes, completing an army of 2,500 men for the invasion of Nueva Granada, which was being defended by Viceroy S^mano with an army of 4,000 men. After many minor incidents, Bolivar routed the Spaniards at Boyac^, where he captured 1,600 prisoners along with their leader, Barreiro. Bolivar then fought his way triumphantly into Bogota, and on the 8th of September issued a proclama- tion announcing the consummation of the union of Venezuela and Nueva Granada under the name of Republica de Colombia. Bolivar proposed before the Congress of Angostura (Venezuela j the union of The Republic of Colombia with Venezuela, Nueva Granada, and Quito (now Ecuador), which proposal was enthusiastically and unanimously adopted. The confederacy covered 115,000 square leagues with a population of 8,000,000. Its banner was that of Miranda, hoisted by him in 1808. Bolivar was appointed Provisional President on the 17th of December, 1819, and military operations were immediately begun against Morillo, who had 12,000 men under him. The Northern and Southern Armies of Liberation Shake Hands in Peru It was at this historical moment, which turned out to be the most important of the revolution, that the Generals, San Martin in the South and Bolivar in the North, without previous notice or agreement, simultaneously started both VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOE 75 campaigns against Peru, whicli was then the principal Spanish fortification in America. Bolivar started from Venezuela, by destroying the enemy forces numbering 5,000 men at Carabobo on the 24th of June, 1821. This triumph permitted him to enter Caracas a second time as the victor. It proved to be the decisive battle for the independence of Colombia. The Congress of Cucuta sanctioned the new constitution and elected Bolivar first President for a term of four years. He delegated his office to his Vice-President, Santander, and placed himself at the head of the troops assigned to liberate Ecuador. On the completion of arrangements of a few unimportant details in Ecuador, Bolivar named General Sucre as the leader of the military campaign. The first few engagements proved disastrous to the American patriots. General Sucre was defeated at Huachi and was compelled to seek aid from San Martin, who sent General Arenales to the Quito frontier, thence to Guayaquil. Thus, 1,500 men of the Army of the South joined forces with the Army of the North during January, 1822, to combat Spanish rule. Following the .conference held in Guayaquil, Bolivar moved to Peru, and at the head of his army triumphed at the battle of Junin. On being defeated, the Viceroy La Serma decided to concentrate his forces at the Apurimac and there fight a decisive battle. He opened his offensive campaign in December. The opposing armies met on the pampas of Ayacucho, the Spanish under the command of the Viceroy, while General Sucre assumed command of the South Ameri- can forces. General Cordoba, a young man twenty-five years of age, but of magnetic personality, raised his hat high in the air and imperatively commanded : "March on ! Arms at will ! Conquerors dash !" and with one accord, 3,000 Colombian bayonets advanced with such vigorous energy that they demolished everything in their way. The Viceroy, desirous of checking defeat, dashed amid his troops to en- courage them, but was himself wounded and taken prisoner. 76 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PEESENT The Spanish army capitulated. Officers and men were taken prisoners and the liberty of Peru accomplished. Alto Peru, to do honor to its liberator, changed its old historic name to that of "Republica de Bolivia" and the name of its capital to "Sucre" in honor of the victorious General of Ayacucho. Sarmiento^s and Rodo's Opinion of San Martin AND BOLiVAR Don Domingo Faustino Sarmiento, native of Argentina and one of the most brilliant intellects which South America has produced, said in criticising a biography of the Hero of the North : "In that biography, as in all the others that have been written about him, I have seen the European General, the Marshals of the Empire, a less colossal Napoleon, but I have failed to see the South American caudillo (the chief- tain) in a revolt by the masses of the people. I see a repro- duction of Europe, but nothing that reveals America to me." "Venezuela has plains, pastoral life, barbarian life, purely American — from these the Great Bolivar sprang forth." "The manner in which the European and American writers have written the historj'^ of Bolivar, corresponds to San Martin and other military men like him. San Martin was not popular as a 'Caudillo,' he was truly and only a General. He had received his education in Europe and came to South America at the time his country was in a state of revolution, enabling him to organize the army at his ease under the European plan, and conducting the fighting in the regular way according to prescribed rules." "San Martin's expedition into Chile was a methodically conducted conquest like that of Napoleon into Italy. But if San Martin had had to command 'guerrilleros,' and had been defeated at one point, then joined a group of 'llaueros' farther on, they would have hanged him on the second attempt." "The Avorld does not yet know Bolivar, the real Bolivar, and it is quite probable that when the true interpretation VENEZUELA, COLOMBIA AND ECUADOR 77 of his higher psychological being is vividly explained, he may then appear even more extraordinary and great." The celebrated Uruguayan vrriter Jos6 Enrique Rod6 says of Bolivar : "Great in thought, great in action, great upon being glori- fied, great upon being victimized by misfortune; great in exalting that which might be impure in the souls of the great, and great to endure in loneliness and in death, the tragic atonement of greatness. Many there are whose lives show a more perfect harmony, a finer moral or esthetic sense, but few that manifest such resolute character of greatness and of strength, and few that control with like fortitude the sympathetic feeling of heroic imagination." "Bolivar, the revolutionst, the bushwhacker, the general, the leader of men, the tribune, the legislator, the president, all in one and all in his own style, represents an unparalleled originality which assumes and includes that of the land upon which he lived and of the means he had at his com- mand. He did not fight like the European strategist, neither did he employ for his visions as a founder other than the divided elements furnished by institutions founded on universal experience and justice, and neither did he leave in the ensemble any image like anything that had gone before. That is why we dote upon him, that is why he con- trols us and why he will always remain as the hero par excellence, representative of eternal Spanish-American union. He — far better, for reason of his greatness and still more so for his eminence above the sectional leaders in whom semi-barbaric originality became individualized — per- sonifies that which is characteristic and peculiar in our history. The clay of America, pierced by the breath of genius, transformed its flavor and its aroma into qualities of the spirit which exhaled in a vivid flame, an original and distinct heroic personality." "The Alcibiades, the writer, the statesman of Caracas, was, whenever the occasion demanded it, the intrepid gaucho of the pampas of the North — el llanero (the Plainsman)." SECOND PAET SOUTH AMEEICA PRESENT CHAPTER IV OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION OF SOUTH AMERICA SUMMARY South America compared with other continents — Structure of both Americas — Descrip- tion of the Andes — Mountain systems of Brazil — Has the Andean relief changed? — South American appearance during the tertiary epoch — The South American of the tertiary age — Change of Uving conditions on the Patagonian and Bolivian plateaus. South America Compared with Other Continents The continent of South America, like the continents of North America and Africa, is triangular in shape but smaller than either of these two, as the following figures show: CONTINENTS Asia AB£;A in SQ. KTTiOMETSBS Millions 42 population Millions 920 Africa 31 144 North America. . . . South America. . . . Europe Australia 26 18 10 8 133 52 450 5 South America ranks fourth in size, is two-thirds as large as North America and as large as Europe and Australia combined. Structure of Both Americas The structure of South America resembles that of North America. On the west, the high range of mountains called the Andes corresponds to the Rocky Mountain Range of the latter, though the former range has higher peaks, and plateaus of from 3,000 to 4,000 meters elevation. On the 81 82 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT east, the range of mountains along the coast of Brazil, which vary from 1,000 to 2,000 meters above sea-level, corresponds to the Allegheny Range of the North American continent. (Figure No, 1.) Description of the Andes The Andean Range and its branches cover one-ninth of the territory of South America, or an approximate area of two million square kilometers, attaining its widest expanse in Bolivia, where it extends from the Real (Royal) or Interior Range to the Western or Exterior Range, a distance of 750 kilometers — region of Lake Titicaca, 18° south. The length of the Andes from the Strait of Magellan, at the southern extremity of Chile to Cape Gallinas at the extreme northern- most point of Colombia, is 7,500 kilometers. They are the highest man-inhabited mountains in the world, where human habitations are to be found at more than 4,000 meters above sea-level. One of these, the station of Pun to Alto, is at 4,788 meters elevation on the slope of Titicaca on the Antofagasta- La Paz railroad. At 5,592 meters above sea-level, latitude 16° in Peru, there is a small settlement of Indian herders of whom The Geographical Magazine made special mention in 1917. The large cities of PotosI, La Paz (capital of Bolivia) and Puno are approximately at 4,000, 3,000 and 4,260 meters elevation, respectively. It can be said of Bolivia that it is the roof of America, as Pamir is the roof of the world. The Andes mountains are the second highest in the world, next to the Himalayas in Asia. Mount Aconcagua, the high- est peak, which is 7,130 meters above sea-level, is in latitude 32° S., in line with another high peak, Mount Tupuugato, at 6,510 meters elevation, and also in line with the city of Mendoza. Next in height to Mount Aconcagua comes Cerro de Huascan, in Peru, at 6,721 meters, and Mount Sorata, in Bolivia, at 6,617 meters elevation. The average cubical di- mensions of the Andes mountains in kilometers are 7,000 in length, 160 in width, and 4 in height. RELIEF MAP OP NORTH AMERICA RELIEF MAP OF SOUTH AMERICA OROGKAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 83 PRINCIPAL MOUNTAINS Andes Meters Aconcagua 7,130 Tupungato 6,550 Cerro Mei-cedario 6,670 Cerro Porongos 6,052 Cerro Juncal 6,070 Mont Pissis 6,772 Cerro de Colorados 6,115 Volcan Llullaico 6,620 Voloan Lincancaur 6,000 Monte Illimani (Bolivia) 6,400 Monte Sorata " 6,617 OF SOUTH AMERICA Andes Meters Volcan Sajama (Bolivia) 6,424 Volcan Misti (Peru) 6,100 Nudo Cuzco " 6,000 Cerro Ampato " 6,950 Huascan " 6,700 CMmboraao (Ecuador) 6,310 Cotopaxi " 5,943 Sierra Tocul (Colombia) 5,984 Nevado Tolima " 5,584 Columna, Sierra Nevada (Vene- zuela) 5,000 Mountains op Bbazil Meters Serra dos Orgaos 2,391 Agulhas Negras 2,994 Serra de Pirineos 2,932 AREA AND POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF SOUTH AND NORTH AMERICA, 1919 Square Bolometers (l Square Mile = 2.5896 Square Kilometers) United States 110,000,000 BrazU 8,550,000 Argentine 2,950,000 Mexico 1,987,000 Peru. Bolivia . . . Colombia. Venezuela . Chile Ecuador . . Paraguay . Uruguay . . 1,769,000 1,470,000 1,300,000 1,020,000 767,000 307,000 253,000 187,000 Inhabitants 110,000,000 24,000,000 8,000,000 15,000,000 4,600,000 2,650,000 5,700,000 2,800,000 4,000,000 1,500,000 800,000 1,500,000 Inhabitants Square Kilometer 12.0 2.8 2.6 8. 2,7 1.8 PRINCIPAL RIVERS— SOUTH AMERICA Kilometers Amazon 5,000 Parand 4,500 Madeira 3,240 Purus 3,000 San Francisco 2,900 Yapura 2,800 Tocantins 2,500 Orinoco 2,250 Paraguay 2,200 Xingu 2,100 Kilometers Jurua 2,000 Pilcomayo 2,000 Ucayale 1,900 River Negro of Amazon 1 ,700 lea o Putumayo 1,600 Tapajos 1,500 Uruguay 1,500 MamorS 1,500 Beni 1,300 Magdalena 1,300 Mountain Systems op Brazil The range of mountains on the coast of Brazil, which, together with all its ramifications, form the backbone of Brazil, cover a much larger area than the Andes mountains, in fact twice the area, or about 4,000,000 square kilometers, though considerably lower than the Andean range. Has THE Andean Relief Changed? Why is the mountainous region of South America the most densely populated? Have living conditions changed in the 84 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Bolivian, Andean, and Patagonian regions? It will be noticed that the most densely populated districts of South America are the tropical mountainous regions, particularly in Brazil, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador and Colombia. The climate of the plains of the Amazon is extremely warm and moist. It is specially remarkable that the indigenes of Bolivia and Peru have preferred the almost barren frozen Andean Punas to the fertile plains, which, under cultivation, will yield the largest variety of vegetable products known to man, but which climate, as that of the plains of the Amazon, is exceedingly warm. It was in the arid frigid regions of the high mountains of Peru that the Incas founded their highly cultured empire, not unlike the kingdoms of the Pharaohs of ancient Egypt. The famous ruins of Tiahuanaco of Bolivia, which are now in a desolate waste, represent the handicraft of a civiliza- tion preceding that found there by the Spaniards at the time of the exploration of the new world. But it can hardly be believed that the nation, which had developed into such a powerful empire, could have prospered as the Empire of the Incas did in a semi-sterile region such as it is now. There- fore, the belief that the region of Bolivia has passed through a transformation in the upheaval of its soil, from an eleva- tion of 1,000 to 2,000 meters, to more than 3,000 meters to which it has risen since that unknown imperial epoch, up to the present time, and that the whole Andean region has had a like change. When comparing the present soil formation of Patagonia, so desolate and arid that Darwin called it "Accursed Land," with that of the same region which pro- duced the gigantic fossil fauna, among which remains we find the mammoth animals which only luxuriant forests could feed, and these very forests being now in a petrified form by the changes which thousands of years have wrought, it can not be doubted that the "punas heladas" of Bolivia have undergone a similar change. Euroj)Gan science, influenced by religious tradition, located the primitive home of man in Asia, and, later, when the first OROGKAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 85 fossil remains of man were found at Simia together with Proboscidea and colossal Rodens and Edentates, the wise men were then of the opinion that Europe was where man first appeared on earth. Ameghino, noted Argentine natur- alist, on discovering the largest ossarium of big mammals which has yet been found, revealed the fact that the Pampa Argentina is the most complete page in the history of the world, for the reason that it has never been entirely sub- merged, and beginning with the cretaceous period of the secondary epoch, the various species of animals continued to record their evolution in this part of America without in- terruption for millions of years. So that on the side of the Andean range, which sprang forth from the waters during the Azoic or lifeless era, are the tertiary and quaternary terrains, which were the cradle of reptiles, mammals and man. Thus, it is explained, that the present soil of Argen- tina, Bolivia and Brazil constitutes today the largest fossil animal graveyard in the world, and which has contributed more than 1,500 species of fossils such as are not found any- where else on the globe. It means, in fact, that South America has contributed one-third of the species of fossil remains which are known today. At the time of the secondary epoch, when the cretaceous terrains of the Patagonia region appeared above the water, there was no such land as the Northern Hemisphere with exception of a few islands widely scattered in the northern vast watery expanse. What now constitute the mainlands of Europe, Asia and North America were yet under water. The Southern Hemisphere consisted then of a large tract of continental land including what is now Patagonia, the Pampas and a part of Brazil, which were united to Africa by a body of land which is known today under the name of Arquelensis, just as Patagonia was united to Australia and New Zealand by the lands of the Antarctic, which were under the icy regions recently discovered by Admundsen, the noted Arctic explorer. The present conditions of the Pata- gonia region are not altogether adapted for a stupen- SQ SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT dous development of animal life, which were just the reverse conditions during the secondary epoch. The Andean range was very low and did not obstruct the moist winds from the Pacific Ocean as is the case today. The climate was moist and warm and the vegetation compared with the flora which we find today growing on the plains of the Amazon. The forests of palm trees and coniferous plants are to be found in a petrified state, covering large areas, among which are also found large trunks of the hardness of flint. We find, in these petrified forests buried in the reddish sandstone, the petrified skeletons of mammoth animals which today are extinct, such as the Dinosauru, or huge crocodiles, measuring 30 meters in length; the Miolania, gigantic turtle with horns like those of an ox, and measuring four meters in diameter; the Physornis, a runner bird of prey twice as large as the nandi^ (American ostrich) of the pampas ; the Peludos, of the size of an ox ; the Parastrapote- therium, which was much larger than the elephant of the present day; the Proroterido, the primitive horse; and the Pyrotherium, which on migrating into Africa and later into Asia was transformed into Mastodon and Dinoterium. Appearance op South America During the Tertiary Epoch During the tertiary epoch the appearance of the whole world changed. The Northern Hemisphere became conti- nental, the Arquelensis, which joined South America and Africa, disappeared and South America took its present aspect. Therefore, the Hebrew Cosmogony results entirely in error. The southern part of the New World was the first habitation of animal life including man, for as man was one of the last mammals, it is not probable that on the South American continent becoming the primitive home of the bigger species of mammals, not excluding the ape, man would not have appeared also. The Trigodon, another monster about the size of the rhinoceros, inhabited the Pata- gonian region during the tertiary period, also the Gliptodon, a huge tatii or armadillo or "mulita," the shells of which OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 87 were used as houses, accordiug to all indications, by the primitive man of the pampas, his contemporary, as is proven by the human remains found with fragments of burnt earth which were part of ancient fireplaces, with the remains of bones chipped and broken by blows, and those of the primi- tive man measuring one meter in height (about 39 inches). There are also found the complete skeleton of the Mega- therium, measuring. eight meters in length, and the Towodon, corresponding in size to the hippopotamus, an aquatic mak- ing its abode in river streams. Some of these skeletons have been found with the points of stone spears and arrow- heads of the first man of Patagonia, buried in the backbone and the bones of the leg. Also, skeletons of the Stnilodon of the tiger family, with canine-teeth in the shape of a saw, and much larger than the species of Asia and Africa. The South American of the Tertiary Age The Scientific Congress, which met in Tucumdn in De-, cember, 1916, and which was attended by the geologists, zoologists and other men of science of Argentina, declared the Towodon to be of the tertiary epoch, adding that the spear^ and arrowheads found imbedded in the bones were genuine. Therefore, it remains a proven fact that the man of the tertiary epoch was an inhabitant of South America, and that he is not the exclusive patrimony of the so-called Old World, as is claimed by the wise men of Europe. Ameghino, the naturalist, has received the fullest confir- mation, since his death in 1911, regarding his conjecture of the existence of man in the Patagonia region during the tertiary era. The celebrated naturalist, Agassiz, had already given it as his opinion that it would have been possible for man to have lived in America during the tertiary era, as Voltaire also stated in 1775 that man could have appeared at the same time in Europe and in America, and asked — "Could not man have appeared on both continents at the same time. 88 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT just as the fly did?" All that has been said has its attesta- tion in the museums of La Plata and Buenos Aires, where they have complete skeletons of the animals described and that of the ape fossil of the Santa Cruz river in Patagonia, which, according to Mahoudeau, instructor in the Paris School of Anthropology, has more characteristics in common with man than any other. Change of Living CoNniTiONS on the Patagonian and Bolivian Plateaus As in the case of the Bolivian plateau, it will perhaps be possible to demonstrate later on that the same conditions prevailed there as in Patagonia and that conditions of life in general were very different from what they are today. It is probable that the same upheaval ihat caused the change in elevation of the Bolivian plateau, also caused the change in living conditions in the Patagonian territory, and that the change took place simultaneously in both places. Were it not so, it could not be explained how the great Bolivian plateau could have been settled during the time of the Incas, inasmuch as the severity of the climate and the barrenness of the soil were such as to make the territory in- adequate for the primitive inhabitants' first abode, when they could have selected the Andean slopes and valleys with an extraordinarily fertile soil and a milder and healthier climate than that of India, which had been the home of hundreds of millions of men since the remotest times. Be- sides, the formation of the soil of the pampean region, that is to say, its geological structure and composition, is identical with that of the eastern plains of Bolivia, Paraguay and a large area of the Amazonian region. The soil is of the same yellowish color and composed principally of sand and clay in almost equal proportions. The soil is rich in fossils of similar mammals, small shells forming large banks and other mollusks of salt and fresh water varieties, proving con- clusively that these areas had been covered by water from the sea and by river-floods alternately. OROGRAPHY AND GENERAL CONFIGURATION 89 The extensive salt-pits of the central part of the Argentine republic, which cover an arc circle 700 kilometers in length within the provinces of Rioja, Catamarca, Tucum4n and Santiago del Estero, are not deep deposits of salt, but a thin layer of sea-water salt, like that found in the salt-pits of Jujuy, Salta, and on the great Bolivian plateau, which de- posits were probably formed by the salt which had been dissolved by sea-water. The Andean range was much lower than it is today, both in the northern and southern parts of the present terri- tory of Argentina, particularly in the north, where the ground was so low that the waters from the Pacific Ocean would through several narrow passages inundate the terri- tory of northern Argentina and southern Bolivia. We find today in southern Patagonia the big lake Buenos Aires, which is crossed by parallel 46° S., at 227 meters above sea-level, like a gigantic condor climbing the Andes, the waters of this lake flowing into the Pacific through the Barker or Las Heras River and into the Atlantic through the Deseado River. This communication between the two oceans had been maintained at many points of the Andean range before the upheaval, which was the fundamental and immediate cause for the stoppage of abundant rains easterly bound for the Patagonian region, and resulting in the dis- appearance of the gigantic flora which fed the largest fauna of mammals that has ever inhabited the globe. The Andean valleys of the Patagonian region, which were thus visited by the rain-laden winds from the Pacific Ocean, are today a vast expanse of fantastic petrified flint formations of what was a wonderful Patagonian forest in prehistoric times. The west- ern slope of the region of Patagonia which is in Chilean territory, is noted for its magnificent forests which receive copious rains. This region is very similar to that of North America along the Pacific coast states of California, Oregon and Washington and the western coast of Canada. CHAPTER V THE VAST NATURAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AMERICA SUMMARY Description of its vast regions: Region of the Andes, Region of the Plains, divided into the Plains of the La Plata or the Pampas, the Plains of the Amazon, the Plains of the Orinoco; How was the soil of the Pampas, which cover one-third of the territory of South America, formed? — Opinions of Darwin, D'Orbigny, Bravard, Burmeister and Ameghino, regarding this formation — Analogous formation of the loess and]the soil of the Pampas — Burmeister's error regarding the fertility of the Pampean soil. Fossils of the Pampean soil — The Pata- gonia of today and what it was during the tertiary epoch — The plateaus of the Brazilian System. Region op the Andes As hereinbefore stated, the mountainous regions of the Andes and its branches, which measure 7,500 kilometers in length, cover an area of 2,000,000 square kilometers, reach- ing to a height of 7,130 meters above sea-level at the Mount of Aconcagua (Argentina) and more than 6,000 meters ele- vation at other points in Argentina, Bolivia and Peru. The Andean range, which is several hundred meters in height at the extreme southern portion of Patagonia, increases gradu- ally in height until it reaches parallel 32° S., with Mounts Aconcagua 7,130 meters high, and Mounts Tupungato, Mer- cedario and Juncal at more than 6,000 meters above the sea. It again attains considerable height farther north at the Bolivian frontier, with higher peak^s in Bolivia and Peru. From the extreme southern point of the continent the range is a heavy, massive main line till it reaches parallel 27° S., where it divides into two branches — the eastern branch, which is farther from the Pacific, is the Cordillera Real (Royal Range) in Bolivia. Between the two ranges lies the great Bolivian Plateau, which is 800 kilometers in length north and south and more than eighty thousand square kilo- meters in area. 90 "5 the x> ontier impede further navigation, makes the Guajamirin Railway to Port Velho an indispensable VAST NATURAL REGIONS 91 In Peru there are three parallel branches of the Andes, between which lie the extensive plains through which run the big rivers MaraEf6n, or Amazon (five thousand kilometers long), the Huallaga and the Ucayali, which reach far into the interior of the country and are large navigable streams, particularly the Amazon, which admits steamers of 18 feet draught. The Andean valleys of Peru and Bolivia are extremely fertile, producing coffee, cocoa, cotton, rubber and all the tropical products. The valleys of the eastern slope of Bolivia, called "Yungas," are the most fertile regions on the globe. The Pacific coast along the northern part of Chile and Peru has very little rainfall, but tropical products, such as sugar-cane, cotton, cocoa, etc., are raised in the regions where they have irrigation. The climate of the valleys and coast is very warm, but no fevers prevail. Mining is the main source of wealth in these two countries, as well as in Chile. These are the largest producers of copper, lead, zinc, silver and tin. Chile and Peru produce nitre and guano, the latter being used as a fertilizer. Peru and Bolivia also produce the well-known coca (from which cocaine is extracted), quinine and other medicinal plants. The Yungas and the Bolivian plains, where the tributaries of the Madeira River (tributary of the Amazon), 3,000 kilo- meters in length and navigable as far as the Bolivian fron- tier, yield a large variety of vegetables, which cannot be exported either to the adjoining countries, to Europe, or to North America, due to want of transportation facilities. Rubber is the only product exported, as its commercial value warrants the payment of high freight rates. The tributaries of the Madeira River are the rivers Beni, Mamore and Purus, and the tributary of the latter — Acre River — which flows in the territory of the Acre, is remarkable for its abundant rubber production. These rivers are navigable for small vessels, but the fact that the cataracts of the Madeira at the Brazilian frontier impede further navigation, makes the Guajamirin Railway to Port Velho an indispensable 92 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT route for the products of Bolivia that are exported to Eu- rope and North America via the Madeira and Amazon. The Andean valleys of Peru and Bolivia, which face east- wardly, have a larger rainfall than those facing westwardly or toward the Pacific Ocean, and are therefore more fertile. Peru, having an outlet through the Maraiion and its tribu- taries to the Atlantic, and through its numerous ports on the Pacific, can export its products to all parts of the world, yet its principal source of wealth, like that of Bolivia, lies in its minerals. The plateaus, which are at 3,000 and 4,000 meters elevation, have the richer mines and are consequently the places which are more densely populated. The climate at 4,000 meters, which is the region of the Puna Brava, is not mild, the mean temperature being from six to ten degrees centigrade. On the Puna, at less than 4,000 meters and not under 3,000, the mean temperature is from twelve to fourteen degrees centigrade. The rainy season starts in November and lasts until the following March. The hot months of the year are from Au- gust to November. The months of May, June and July are cold with frequent snows. The region of perpetual snow is above 6,000 meters, and still higher on the western slope. The Central plateau of Bolivia is the region for products such as potatoes and other vegetables which constitute the principal food of the Indian, who also cultivates quinoa and maize in the valley. Ecuador is also in the Andean region. The Andes are here divided into two large branches which enclose a narrow valley called El Callejon. The two ranges called Oriental and Occidental, beginning from the equator as far as parallel 3° south, are united by a chain of high mountains called Pdrano de Azuay, 4,500 meters above the level of the sea. The highest peak in Ecuador is the majestic Mount Chim- borazo, 6,400 meters high. The most dreaded volcanoes of South America which are in the republic of Ecuador are the Cotopaxi, Sangay, Tunguragua, Cayanib6, and also below the equator the Pichincha and others. It could be called the VAST NATURAL REGIONS 93 "Land of Volcanoes and Earthquakes/' Here we also find the most densely populated region — the plateau or Puna, which has a mild climate, though just below the equator. Quito, the capital, which is 3,000 meters above sea level and at a few minutes distance from the equator, has by reason of its altitude a mean temperature of 15° centigrade, which is somewhat colder than the temperature of Monte- video and Buenos Aires, latitude 35° south, and the Tambo of Antisana at 4,500 meters elevation has the mean tempera- ture of Petrograd — 4° centigrade. Ecuador has two seasons, the rainy or winter, and the dry or summer season, the latter being also the windy season. The winter lasts from December till May, and summer the remainder of the year. The region along the coast has very little rainfall, and, as has been observed for several years past, there seems to be a tendency to its complete cessation, as happened in Peru. On the other hand, the Oriental region of the plains has a heavy rainfall which feeds many large rivers, tributaries of the Amazon, such as the Napo, Pastassa, Santiago and Tigre. The boundary between Ecuador and Peru, which nature has pointed out by the Marari6n, or Amazon, has been the source of a long dispute between the two countries, and in fact, Peru exercises authority over the Port of Iquitos and the territory on the north bank of the Amazon, farther north beyond the bend of this river where it changes its course from a northerly to an easterly direction. So, part of the tributaries of the Amazon — the rivers Napo, Tigre, Pastassa and Santiago — are in the zone occupied by Peru where it joins Colombia, with which country Peru also has a dispute on boundaries. It is possible that all these questions of boundaries between Peru and Chile for Tacna and Arica, and the boundary disputes between Venezuela and Colombia and between Colombia and Ecuador with Peru, will be submitted to arbitration before the tribunal of the League of Nations. 94 SOUTH AMEKICA PAST AND PRESENT Whether this or some other means will be the solution of these boundary controversies, it can be affirmed at this time that settlement will be arranged before long, as the epoch of wars and conquests has terminated since the intervention of the United States of America in the European War. We still remember President Wilson's comment at the time of his departure for Europe to the Allied Congress, when he said in substance that the governments of America which will not try by all means to prevent their peoples from being incited into war to settle their international disputes will be responsible to the world for their failure. These remarks were prompted by the outrages committed by the mob of Peru and Chile in the Tacna and Arica dispute. Since the opening up of the Panama Canal, the Republic of Ecuador has planned to turn the commercial route to the Pacific, and to this effect a railroad line has been constructed from Quito to Guayaquil and another one is projected to extend from Port Bolivar on the Gulf of Guayaquil, to the Santiago River, a tributary of the Amazon. The Andean range at Pasto in southern Colombia separates into three smaller ranges called Oriental, Central and Occi- dental, all being less than C,000 meters high. These valleys, which extend north and south, are drained by the Magdalena and its tributary, the Cauca, neither one of them being diffi- cult to navigate. The Magdalena is navigable only by small steamers as far as Girardot, which is the port for Bogotd, the capital of Colombia. The Atrato River also runs in a northerly direction, as does the Magdalena, and flows into the Sea of the Antilles. The climate and products compare with those of Ecuador, and in addition, Colombia produces platinum and emeralds, which are not to be found anywhere else in the Andean region. On the east side of the Andes, as in the other countries of the Andean region, are immense plains drained by the tributaries of the Amazon, remarkable for their fertility and variety of vegetable products, among which rubber is the most valuable. The principal commercial products of the Andean valley VAST NATURAL REGIONS 95 are coffee, cocoa and quiniue. The Putumayo and Yapiira, tributaries of the Amazon, and the Inlrida and other tribu- taries of the Orinoco, drain this region. The eastern range branches off into northern Venezuela and forms a mountain- ous zone to the coast of the Sea of Antilles; it has fertile plains, and its climate and corresponding products vary with the altitude, as in the other mountainous districts of the Andes. No point in Venezuela is over 6,000 meters above sea-level. The Orinoco, which is 2,000 kilometers long, drains the plains extending south of the Andes as far as the Parime range, which separates them from the plains of the Amazon. The Orinoco is a large navigable stream and a very im- portant commercial route to the Atlantic. The plains of the Orinoco are adapted to cattle-raising. A resume of all that has been said regarding the coun- tries in the Andean region north and south of, and including Bolivia, and which we find to have the same structure, can be given as follows : First. Plateaus or punas, varying from a mild to a very cold climate, scanty vegetation, large mineral wealth and a dense population dependent on the mining industry. Second. Valleys of the Andes at a low elevation, with an abundance of tropical vegetable products, such as coffee, quinine, sugar, cotton, etc., cultivated with great care and in sufficiently large quantities to supply local and foreign markets. Third. The plains drained by the tributaries of the Am- azon, which among other products furnish high-grade lumber and rubber to the markets of the world. The Plains The plains extend from one end of the continent to the other, a distance of 7,000 kilometers north and south and a maximum width of 5,000 kilometers east and west in the region of the Amazon along the line of the equator, occupy- ing two-thirds of the continental area, or 12,000,000 square kilometers in all. The plains are divided into three large 96 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT zones, or slopes, called Plains of the Orinoco, Plains of the Amazon, and Plains of the La Plata or the pampas. The plains of the Orinoco occupy more than 1,000,000 square kilometers, mostly in Venezuela. The land is well adapted to cattle-raising, though the climate is very warm, which with its long dry spells makes it unsuitable for Eng- lish breeds, which the packing industry prefers. Native cattle can be raised successfully as in Paraguay and Brazil. Humboldt, in describing the plains of the Orinoco, says: "When, through the vertical effect of the sun's rays which no cloud can obstruct, the parched weed falls like dust and the hardened soil cracks open as if disturbed by a violent earthquake, then if opposing winds clash on the surface, and the clashing terminates in a circular motion, the whole plain presents an extraordinary spectacle. Vapor-like, the sand ascends with the rarified whirlwind, perhaps charged with electricity, like a dark funnel-shaped cloud with its point sliding over the earth like the roaring water-spout, which is so much dreaded by the experienced navigator. The skies, which appear depressed, cast only a semi-day light blurred and livid across the desolate plains. The horizon seems to close in abruptly, tightly hugging the desert and squeezing the heart of man. Suspended in atmosphere which the horizon conceals, the burning, dust-like sand feeds the sultry heat in the air. Instead of coolness, the eastern breezes bring on new heat from some place long under the rays of the sun. The water-puddles which the palm-tree shades, but which the sun has robbed of its verdure, gradually disap- pear and go. Animal life falls into a lethargy ; the crocodile and the boa lying deep in the dried clay appear to have lost all sense of motion. Everywhere the drought announces death, and everywhere it besets the terrified traveler, who is deluded by the resplendence of the rays of reflected light giv- ing the appearance of an undulated surface. Cattle and horses roam aimlessly about enveloped in clouds of dust, tormented with hunger and an unquenchable thirst. The former bellowing plaintively, the latter with necks stretched VAST NATURAL REGIONS 97 against the wind lustily inhaling the air, trying to locate some pool of water not yet swallowed by the rays of the sun. When after a long drought the welcome rainy season arrives the scene of the desert changes. The pale blue of the sky which until then had been devoid of clouds, takes on a lighter hue. The Southern Cross is hardly discernible in the night across the darkened space and hardly has the dampness touched the surface of the earth when the mist-laden desert is to be seen covered with a variety of grasses. Later the moistened clay rises beyond the edge of the swamps; a sud- den noise is then heard as of an explosion of a small marshy volcano, as the soil rises and shoots up in the air. He who happens to be familiar with this phenomenon rushes away on its being announced, as it means that a monstrous aquatic serpent or a crocodile is leaving its grave as the first water ripples form and awaken it from its seeming death." The plains of the Amazon, which have an abundance of vegetation, occupy half of the area of Brazil and a large zone in the adjoining countries — Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia — or about 7,000,000 square kilometers, drained by the great river and its big tributaries. They slope slightly from west to east and territory on both the northern and southern hemispheres is drained by tributaries of the Amazon, These rivers form the largest fluvial network in the world with 50,000 kilometers of navigable waters, the combined length of which could circle the globe at the equa- tor with 10,000 remaining kilometers, which is the distance from the La Plata to the City of London. Their great vege- table wealth has only in part been developed for want of transportation facilities, as is the case in many other wealth- producing districts of South America. No other part of the world offers as fine a grade and as large a variety of lumber, including cedar, pine, ebony, lignum-vitae, jacarandd and rosewood. The industries are limited to the extraction of India rubber, rosin, etc. The climate of the Amazonian region is equatorial, that is, it is a uniform high tempera- ture. There is no dry season as in the tropical regions; the 98 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT rainfall is heavy the entire year. Agassiz, who explored this region, gave the name of "Marea Semestral" (semi- annual tide) to the -flood- tides of the northern and southern tributaries, which alternate every six months. It is a well- known fact that the Amazon runs parallel to the equator and that its affluents lie in both hemispheres. The rains follow the sun and every six months the rainfall is heavier alter- nately in each hemisphere. The heavy rains temper the climate and so it is not as warm as it is in other equatorial regions. According to Agassiz, the maximum temperature is not over 30° centigrade and the climate, though somewhat unhealthy, is not unsuited to human habitation, as are parts of India and certain equatorial regions of Africa. So, one half of Brazil is covered by the plains of the Amazon and the other half by the mountainous region of the coast. The variety of vegetation distributed over these valleys is so great that it divides them into belts, as follows: First — The Palm Tree Region occupies a wide strip on the banks of the Amazon in Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador and Peru, and produces a diversity of tropical fruits, among which are bananas, dates and cocoanuts, and another palm, some of which grow to twenty-five meters in height, others very small with leaves so wide that the Indians use them for roofing their houses. Agassiz counted more than one hundred dif- ferent varieties of palm trees in this region. Second — The Region of Tree-like Ferns occupies a belt 800 kilometers wide across the whole width of the Amazonian slope. Third — The Region of Virgin Forests has an immense wealth of gums, rosins and medicinal plants, and extends from the mouth of the Amazon to Bahia. This is the zone of the gum-extracting industr}\ Fourth — The Coffee, Tobacco and Sugar Region includes the plains and valleys of eastern Bahia as far as Santa Cata- lina. Four-fifths of the coffee consumed throughout the world comes from Brazil and most of it is exported through Rio de Janeiro and Santos. VAST NATURAL REGIONS 99 Fifth — The Cotton Region extends from Para to Rio de Janeiro. The Pampas op the La Plata The pampas of the La Plata, which extend from the Brazil- ian transversal region (Sierra Parecis), latitude 20° S. to parallel 40° S., a distance of 2,000 kilometers north and south, are noted for their big forests, which prinpeanSoU ^^® ^° ^^^ northern part and are named Chaco and Paraguay, and which produce the hardest woods known — the lapacho, nandubay, quebracho, etc. — and are also noted for their magnificent prairies which, lying in the southern part, are nowhere equalled in the raising of live stock for meat purposes, and in the pro- duction of wool. Live-stock raising has become a scientific industry and the agricultural industry has been developed to the extent that Argentina is to-day one of the largest grain-producing countries of the world. This is "Pampa Fertil," which occupies the southeastern portion of the La Plata basin, including the whole of the Province of Buenos Aires as far as the Negro River. This is the most favored of all the regions of Argentina as to fertility of soil, mildness of climate, abundant rains and accessibility for communi- cation with the rest of the world, through its large and important ports — Buenos Aires, Rosario, La Plata and Bahia Blanca. Its climate compares with that of southern Europe; a sub-tropical climate, in other words, a temperate climate with no cold season. Four months, June, July, Au- gust and September, the thermometer registers a mini- mum temperature of 5° centigrade. It rains the year round, with a heavier rainfall during the Spring and Summer, though more rainy days during the winter months. There are four months with a mean temperature of 20° C. Few days during the summer season have a temperature exceed- ing 35° and less than 5° during the Winter season, along the eastern border. Farther in the interior, in C6rdoba for in- stance, the maximum is 43° C. and the minimum 8° 0. below 100 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT zero; at San Luis 40° maximum above and 7° minimum below zero; Victoria, in the pampean territory, 40° above, 11° below. The maximum temperature of Montevideo is 38° and Buenos Aires 40°, which takes place every five years or more. In fact, from a climatological standpoint, Monte- video is the most fortunate city in the world, for added to its advantage in having a sub-tropical climate, the fact that it is a peninsula on high ground and open to the ocean winds, it enjoys a maritime climate during the Summer months when those winds prevail. The reader may refer to L. C. Bollo's "Climatologia Platense," Montevideo, 1916, Libreria Barreiro y Ramos. The northern part of the La Plata plains (Chaco, Para- guay, Matto Grossc of Brazil, eastern plains of Bolivia) which, as we have said, is covered by forests among the most valuable in the world from a standpoint of lumber material, is called the Northern Littoral, which it derives from its big streams the Parang and the Paraguay, which, together with the Uruguay, form the great estuary of the La Plata. The Paraguay, a tributary of the Parand, penetrates into the heart of the continent and is navigable almost to its source, its principal ports being Cuyabd and Corumbi^, which are in the heart of Brazil. Port Suarez, which is opposite Corumbd on the plains of Bolivia, is a promising port for commercial communication between this region and the ports of Monte- video and Buenos Aires. Cuyabd is in latitude 16° S. while Montevideo is in latitude 35° S., or a distance of nearly 20 degrees, approximately 1,200 miles, which have the service of several steamship lines. This is the future great impor- tant route frofn the La Plata to the Amazon, as the Arinos River, a tributary of the Tapajos, one of the largest tribu- taries of the Amazon is just a few miles distant from the Paraguay where canal communication could be established to connect all the South American streams. Captain Bossi has written a book in regard to navigation of upper Para- guay, giving the details as to the facilities for the enterprise. It is yet remembered in Brazil that pieces of artillery have VAST NATURAL REGIONS 101 been transported from Cuyab^ via the Paraguay and after crossing a few miles by land have been shipped at Port Velho on the river Arinos, the tributary of the Tapajos, finally reaching the Port of Par^ or Belem, via the Amazon. The reader can readily form an idea of how important these navi- gation connections would be within the interior of the South American continent through lands which embrace all climatic belts with an abundance of the most valuable prod- ucts of the soil, over an area more than 2,000 miles in length from the equator south to Buenos Aires and Montevideo, a distance of 35 degrees. This northern littoral has a warm climate with its dry season during the Winter. A large por- tion of Matto Grosso, lying in the valley of the La Plata in Brazil, has an equatorial climate with a mean annual tem- perature of 20° C, and rain the year round. Referring again to the soil of the Fertil, or Southeastern Pampa: Throughout the whole expanse of this vast plain, under a growth of vegetable mould and under the sandy marshes and shell banks, the soil is composed of a clayish sand to a depth of from fifteen to twenty meters, and as much as fifty meters in some places. It varies in color from a dark gray in certain parts to a whitish and yellowish hue in others. This soil formation lies uncovered on the banks of the rivers and on the hills and high ground where the mould has been carried away by the water. Large forma- tions of solid rock, called Toscas, composed of lime, clay and sand, are also found. The pampean soil does not contain fossil sea-life, but a great quantity of land fossil mammals, such as the Megatherium, Toxodon, and other gigantic ani- mals, which we have already mentioned. Fresh water mol- lusks and varieties of salts have been found. The soil con- tains a certain amount of lime which emits carbonic acid whenever brought in contact with sulphuric acid. D'Orbigny referred to this soil as "Pampean Formation" and Dar\\dn called it "Pampean Slime." The former considered it supe- rior tertiary soil, while the latter believed it to be a late quaternary. Bravard, another great naturalist, was in 102 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT accord with D'Orbigny. Burmeister, at one time Director of the Buenos Aires Museum, claimed it was quaternary and corresponding to the Deluge period iu Europe. The artesian wells in the city of Buenos Aires show this pampean formation to be thirty meters in depth, and in excavations between the La Plata and the Tandil ridge of mountains it is found to have a depth of fifty-six meters. This kind of soil is not to be found beyond the Colorado River, which boun- dary Darwin pointed out as being the extent of this forma- tion. At Mendoza, which is 800 meters above sea-level, the formation described is fourteen meters deep and has the same gigantic fossil mammals: Megatherium, Mastodon, Gliptodon, etc. The soil formation in the San Luis district is the same, according to Burmeister. It is also found be- tween Entre Rios and Santa F^, between the rivers Uruguay and Parand, in the Oriental Republic, a large part of the Chaco, in Paraguay, and the eastern plains of Bolivia. This soil formation continues to a great height on the Mount of Montevideo. The southern part of the Republic of Uruguay is also covered with humus, or vegetable mould. It is found on the river Negro, near Mercedes in Uruguay, along the rivulets Coquimbo and Sarandi, and at Talar where the large deposits of gigantic fossil mammals are found. But nowhere in the pampean soil is there any fossil sea-life, which proves that it does not owe its formation to the action of sea-water. Not a vestige of marine infusoria is found, even with the aid of the miscroscope. The question arises, How was the pam- pean soil formed? According to D'Orbigny, Darwin, Bra- vard, Burmeister, Ameghino and other sages, several have been the factors which have contributed to the formation of this soil. Ameghino, who knew more about the soil by rea- son of his having always lived in the country and who there- fore made a closer and longer study of it, says that many have been the causes which together have shared in its forma- tion, principally the action of the winds (the theory also advanced by Bravard) which have carried the material dur- ing heavy windstorms, as iu the case of the "loess" which VAST NATURAL REGIONS 103 form the soil of China. It represents the accumulation of material which the winds have piled up for centuries. The loess of the Rhine are of like origin. Richtofen, the geologist, was the first to demonstrate the origin of the loess caused by the winds in China, to which conclusion he arrived after a very close study of the Chinese soil. The loess soil which formed a border around the des- erts of Central Asia specially attracted his attention. The wind-storms of that region caused him to understand the action of the winds on soil formation. The dust which is carried by the winds is the last product in the pulverization of the sand. It is carried to the edge of the dry belt, where it precipitates through the action of the rain, or falling by its own weight becomes fastened to the weeds, the roots of which have left as traces the little canals characteristic of the loess soil. By erosion the rain-waters and the river- streams have transported the loess formation for long dis- tances and deposited it in the form of alluvions at the bot- tom of lakes and on the banks of rivers. According to Fritch, the volume of dust which was transported in 1863 by the trade-winds of northeastern Sahara to the Canary Islands amounted to 4,000,000 cubic meters. This dust is similar to that of the loess of China, which form its yellow soil, similar to that of the pampas. Loess soil formation covers at least 20 per cent of the surface of China, the region of the Mississippi, the pampas and other regions. He who has witnessed the cyclones produced by the Zonda winds of the plains of San Juan in the republic of Argentina, which are similar to those of the simoom of the Sahara, can very well appreciate the powerful action of the wind as a carrier of the material which has made the pampean soil what it is. Ameghino affirms that the pampean soil is not of marine origin but that it is the result of the combined action of the rains, rivers, winds and the subterranean forces, which have caused depressions and upheavals of the soil. He has shown that the soil at the foot of the Cordoba ridge is a quartz sand which gradually changes to impalpable mud at the 104 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT mouth of the Parana. This proves the fact that the greater part of the material which forms the pampean soil between Cordoba and Rosario comes from the decomposition of rock of the C6rdoba ridge of mountains. The fragments of rock from the mountains first form into boulders, the separate particles of material being carried away in the form of sand to a greater distance, and the material which comes from the decomposition of feldspar is carried to the valley of the Parang, where part of it remains, and part of it, together with clay which the Parana carries from the north, is finally deposited on the plains of Buenos Aires. So it is everywhere; the pampean soil contains a larger proportion of sand as it nears the mountains and a larger proportion of clay the farther the distance from the mountains that formed it. The soil of the republic of Uruguay, which is farther away from the mountain range is much harder, due to the large percentage of clay over sand. The action of the carry- ing winds is very evident in many places where the sands and dirt have formed deep banks where fossil remains are buried. Among the opinions given by men of science, regarding the fertility of the soil of the pampas, it is well to note the serious error committed by Burmeister when he asserted in his important work, "Physical Description of the Republic of Argentina," published forty years ago, that the soil of the pampas was unfit for cultivation and that live-stock raising would be the only industry. It was Burmeister's belief that plants inferior to those native to the soil should be the kind cultivated, and cited the lands of Brazil, where the gigantic forests were cut down and in their place coffee-trees and sugar-cane were planted. He said : "The pampas produce only miserable grasses consisting of plants inferior to wheat that the planters want to cultivate. These attempts will have no success. These are positive facts," he said, "which are proven by Liebig's Agricultural Chemistry." But ex- perience has refuted the erroneous statement which so in- jured Argentina, for to-day the pampas lead the world in VAST NATUKAL REGIONS 105 grain production, sending f,ve million tons of wheat, com, barley and oats to European and North American markets. Fossil Eemains op the Pampean Soil In conclusion, and so that the North American reader may be able to compare its antiquity with that of the soil of the Northern continent, we will briefly enumerate the fossil mammals of the pampean soil, as follows : Primates — Besides the fossil remains of man, there are in Brazil and Argentina, the Protopithecus of Brazil (Lund) and the Protopithecus Bonaerensis (Gervais and Ame- ghino), which compare with the Anthropomorphus. There are four species of Primates (Cebus) and other apes of Brazil. In North America the true fossil ape of the tertiary age is not known, and the apes of today, natives of Central America and Mexico, are South American types. In Europe and Asia they appear in the Miocene epoch, but these species have no predecessors in the most ancient formations of that same region, and it is evident that they came from South America, where they had lived, crossing over the Arquelensis or the continent which united America and Africa. The apes called "Homunculideos" or "Hombrecillos (little men) de Santa Cruz" in Patagonia, are, in the opinion of Dr. Mahou- deau, Instructor in the Paris School of Anthropology, the species which bear closer resemblance to man and which show closer relation to the common trunk from which man and ape originated. It is possible that the predecessor of man had its origin in the Pampa Argentina. Cheiroptera — Seven species of bats have been found. Carnivorous — Smilodon populator, stronger than the lion of today, and stronger than the Smilodon which is now on exhibition at the Museum of Natural History in New York City, the fossil remains of which were found on soil of the United States of America. Canis — Eleven species of dogs and the fossil Canis Azarde. Artotheriums — Gigantic bears unlike the present species. 106 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Tipoteridos — Order discovered by Gervais and Ameghino. Includes the tii)oterium, of which there are three sijecies, and the Toxodou, of which five species have been found corre- sponding in size to the rhinoceros. SoUpede — Three species of horses have been found, among them the Equus Argentinus (by Burmeister). The South American horse of the present day was introduced by the Spaniards. Macrauquenia — Twice as high as the horse, and combining the characteristics of the giraffe, camel and llama. Prohoscides — There are two species of Mastodons: Hum- boldt and Andium. No fossil elephants have been found. Ruminants — There are several species of Auchenia, Cierves, Antelopes, etc. Edentates (toothless) — The Megatherium family. — The American Megatherium is much larger than the elephant. It is on exhibition in nearly all the museums of the world. There are five smaller species, and several of the Milodon type. Among the Edentates, mention must be made of several of the animals with armour-like coverings not un- like that of the Armadillo. These are the Gliptodon species with an armour covering which in some places measures two meters in thickness; exhibited in the museums of La Plata and Buenos Aires. These armour coverings were used as tents by the fossil man of the pampas of the tertiary age, as verified by marks of the handiwork of primitive man, and which can not be disputed. The Patagonian Region op the Present Day and What It Was in the Remote Past Patagonia, which was at one time one of the most fertile regions on the globe, is today a vast arid tract, almost unin- habitable for reason of its sudden and extreme climatic changes and limited rainfall. The winter temperature falls as low as 30" C. below zero at Colonia Sarmiento and Buen Pastor on the Chubut, and to 28° C. below in many places; the summer temperature rises at times to 40° C. VAST NATURAL REGIONS 107 above zero at points on the rivers Chubut and Negro, and in the southern pampas. This contrast is due to the dryness of the air, the rainfall being exceedingly low throughout the Patagonian region excepting on the Andean valleys of the Neuquen and a few other places. Onelli, the Argentine explorer, who served as a member of the Commission on boundaries with Chile, and is therefore thoroughly familiar with this region, says in his recent book, "Climbing the Andes," B. A., 1916 edition : "Patagonia has a uniformly monotonous and gloomy aspect ; its step-like graded plateaus alternating with its mountains of basalt, appear aston- ishingly duplicated along the line from the Negro river to the Strait of Magellan, 15,000 sq. leagues." The abrupt and smooth coast line is destitute of all vegetation, and its gloomy appearance can, perhaps, be better imagined than described, for this is the region to which Darwin applied the term "Accursed Land," to which we have alluded before. The land which can be utilized for sheep-raising purposes covers an area of 8,000 square leagues, figuring on about 1,500 head to a square league or a total of 12,000,000 sheep, which is a small figure, for were the rainfall heavier a much larger number could be accommodated. The remaining 7,000 square leagues of surface will remain unserviceable for an indefinitely long time, due to the difiiculty, and, I dare say, impossibility of finding fresh artesian water. The fertile part of the Patagonian region is that which penetrates into the heart of the Andes through the ^'Valles Gordilleranos'' (valleys of the range), comprising 4,000 square leagues of fertile soil with abundant rains, large forests and metals which can be easily exploited through the advantages of an abundant supply of fuel and motive force, which can be obtained from the numberless streams and water-falls found in the district. This region can be properly referred to as the ''Switzerland of Argentina/' having even larger lakes than those of Switzerland in Europe, surrounded by high mountains. We find there the great lakes : Argentina, which is 120 kilometers long by 50 kilometers wide ; Buenos Aires 108 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Lake, 150 kilometers long; Nahuel Euapi Lake, resem- bling a gigantic octopus, 100 kilometers in length, and many others. There are more than 100 lakes of considerable size. The lakes of the Andes, which Frey numbered from 1 to 70, and which are considered large bodies, do not appear on the maps. The Sterile Pampa The sterile pampa region with its barren deserts occupies the northwestern part of Argentina as far as the foot of the Andes mountains. It is sandy in certain places and saline in others ; very little rainfall with a tropical African climate during the summer season, and very cold in winter. The only vegetation found consists of a species of feeble, thorny shrubbery. High temperature of 46° centigrade at Santiago del Estero, and 44° at San Juan, Rioja, have been recorded, temperature such as is recorded in the Desert of Sahara. In the very same region the thermometer registers six and eight degrees below during the winter months, and has fallen as low as twelve and fourteen below, at San Luis and Mendoza. The Mountainous Region of Brazil and the Plateaus of THE Brazilian System The great system formed by the Coast Range and many other chains of mountains, attains its maximum height (2,944 meters) at Agulhas Negras, and 2,932 meters at the Pyrenees in Goyaz. It covers an area of 4,500,000 square kilometers, which is equal to almost half of the territory of Europe. Two million square kilometers of this area have a healthy and temperate climate. This comprises the most densely populated and most widely cultivated region in- cluding the states of San Paulo, Rio Janeiro, Bahia, Pernambuco, Santa Catalina, and Rio Grande del Sur. Most of the cofifee, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, lumber, and tinctorial plants produced, come from the valleys, while VAST NATUEAL REGIONS 109 the plateaus are being utilized for cattle-raising, where there are more than 28,000,000 head at the present time. One of the leading regions of the live-stock industry is Matto Grosso, situated in upper Paraguay, known as the plateaus of the Parecis Range, and which is now accessible by the railroad recently built from Corumbd to San Paulo and Santos. The jerked beef, prepared in this region, is shipped via the Parang and the La Plata, for consumption in Brazil. Another very important live-stock state is Rio Grande del Sur, which adjoins the Republica Oriental del Uruguay, and ships prepared beef via the Uruguayan Central Railroad to Montevideo, whence it is exported to foreign markets. This route is also used for the exportation of wool, hides, fats and other animal products, the value of which amounts to more than 40,000,000 dollars annually. Live stock is also an im- portant industry in the states of Goyaz and Minas. Not so much beef is exported, as the consumption among the 24,000,000 inhabitants of Brazil is in itself an important item, figuring that the proportion is a little more than one animal for each inhabitant, while Argentina has 30,000,000 head of cattle and 67,000,000 head of sheep for 8,000,000 inhabitants, and Uruguay for its one and a half million population, has 8,000,000 cattle and 20,000,000 sheep. The United States of America at one time exported large quantities of beef, for in 1890 their 65,000,000 head of cattle were more than enough for the population of 60,000,000, but they are today importing large quantities of beef from the La Plata region in order to keep pace with the consumption of their 110,000,000 population. It is possible that Brazil will be able to increase its production of live stock and has accordingly taken very good steps to effect it. CHAPTER VI HYDROGRAPHY SUMMARY Influence of the Andean Range on the Hydrography of South America— The Line of Perpetual Snow on the Andes — The Great Hydrographic Slopes of South America — 1st, La Plata Slope — 2d, The Amazonian Slope — 3d, The Slope of the Orinoco — ith, Pacific Slope. Influence of the Andean Range on the Hydrography OF South America The Andean Range is the water-shed between the two large drainage slopes, one over a long and narrow tract, the other extending over nearly the whole continent. Dne to its great height this range has a marked effect on the climate and the rainfall, in obstructing the moisture-laden clouds carried by the eastern winds. The Line of Perpetual Snow on the Andes It is noticeable that the eastern slope has a heavier rain- fall than either the plateau region or the western slope of the Pacific. The line of perpetual snow is at a higher alti- tude on the mountains along the Pacific Coast than on the eastern range where the snowfall is heavier. Perpetual snow is at a height of 6,000 meters on the western range of Bolivia, while at an elevation of 5,200 meters on the eastern Cordillera. It is of course a natural fact that the line of perpetual snow descends to a lower elevation the farther the distance from the equator, to wit : at Mt. Acon- cagua 33° south, 4,482 meters elevation ; at Mt. Sarmiento, 55° south, 1,072 meters. As the rainfall of Ecuador is heavier than in Bolivia, the line of perpetual snow is higher, or 4,G00 meters on Mt. Cotopaxi, which is situated almost on the line of the equator. 110 HYDROGRAPHY 111 The Great Hydrographic Slopes of South America The eastern or Atlantic slope consists of three slopes drained by the three large rivers of South America: the Orinoco, the Amazon and the La Plata, the first two being 2,200 and 5,000 kilometers long, respectively, and the third is formed by the rivers Parana and Uruguay, 4,500 and 1,500 kilometers, respectively. In the chapter devoted to "Means of Communication" we show in detail how easy it would be to establish communication between the La Plata and the Amazon through the rivers Parana and Para- guay and the Tocantins, tributary of the Amazon, a project which should attract the attention of enterprising Yankee concerns to whom nothing seems impossible. This route could be established far more economically than the one contemplated by the English, in Africa, from the Cape through the South African republics, through the Congo and the Mle to Cairo, Egypt, a part of which is already completed. The reader can easily observe the conditions of navigation of South America, by consulting the map on "Communications" found in another part of this book, with reference to river communication and railroad lines now in operation as well as those being planned. The so-called Rio de la Plata is a big estuary formed by the Parang, and Uruguay, both of which have their origin in the tropical region of Brazil. The La Plata is 180 miles wide at its mouth, where it flows into the Atlantic Ocean, between Cape Santa Maria in Uruguay and Cape San Antonio in Argen- tina. The distance across the estuary, between Montevideo and Buenos Aires, is 120 miles and 30 miles from Buenos Aires to the nearest point in Uruguay. The part of the river from Montevideo, toward Buenos Aires, is fresh river-water, and east of Montevideo salt sea-water. Monte- video is a seaport. The Parand is a very large stream not unlike the Mississippi of North America, as to abun- dance of water, general course and different climatic belts through which it flows. The Paraguay, the principal 112 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT tributary of the Parang, though far more useful as a navig- able stream, compares with the Missouri River. It is navigable by small steamers almost to its source. The great central zone of Brazil, with its immense wealth of lumber and live-stock, can have direct communication with the Atlantic Ocean through the Paraguay into the Parand and the La Plata. Bolivia, which is devoid of seacoast though nearer to the Pacific than to the Atlantic, has outlet through the Paraguay, with Port Suarez on one of the tributaries of the above river which flows through Bolivian territory, and far more advantageous for Bolivian commerce than the Beni, Mamore, Madeira and Amazon. One steamship line connects Port Suarez with Buenos Aires and Monte- video. The Amazon, which is 5,000 kilometers long, is the largest river in the world, both as regards volume of water and the number of its big tributaries. The combined length of the navigable streams, including the Amazon and its tributaries, and which extend to both hemispheres, is 50,000 kilometers. The Madeira, which flows from far in the interior of Bolivia, is 3,000 kilometers long. The Tapajos, Xingu, Purus, Tocan- tins are each more than 2,000 kilometers in length. The Negro is the main northern tributary. In our chapter "Means of Communication" we give a more detailed account as to the navigation and the importance of the tributaries of the Amazon. The rivers of the Pacific slope are of very little importance, the principal streams being the Barker, Aysen, Valdivia, Bueno, etc., of the Chilean republic. It is a well-known fact that the northern littoral of Chile and Peru is a dry and riverless region. Ecuador has one large river, on the side of the Pacific, the Guayaquil. Colombia has the rivers Mag- dalena and Atrato, which are very important navigable streams. CHAPTEE VII CLIMATOLOGY OF THE LA PLATA REGION SUMMARY Climate of the Coast Belt — Basis of Temperature of the Coast Belt — Temperature of the Pampean, the Central and the Patagonian Regions — The Law of Rains — Transparency of the Sky in the Various Zones of the La Plata Region. Climate op the Coast Belt In addition to what has been said in describing the regions of the Andes and the plains, we will here supplement that which relates to the Climatology of the La Plata, which embraces the best known regions of the South American Continent, there being over 200 meteorological observatories scattered from Tierra del Fuego to Paraguay and covering the territory of the republics of Argentina, Uruguay and Paraguay, or from parallel 22° S. to 56° S. a distance of 700 leagues, or 34 degrees of latitude, which is half the length of the continent north and south. The meteorological department of Argentina is under the direction of North American meteorologists who publish a daily weather re- port or bulletin. The tract of land situated between and on the Uruguay, Parand and Paraguay rivers is called Littoral, supposed to reach not only to Buenos Aires, but includes the Atlantic littoral as far as Patagonia. Basis op Temperature op the Littoral Belt The Littoral, which is the most thickly populated district of Argentina and Uruguay, has a temperate climate, which gradually gets colder as the distance from the equator in- creases and as is the natural result on all regions under 300 meters elevation. We give below the average temperature of 113 114 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT the last ten years beginning with the City of Asunci6n on the north : CENTIGRADE ATERAQB UAXIMtJM HINIMUU Asuncidn (Capital of Paraguay) 22 42 Corrientes (Argentine Republic) 20 42 Sal to (Republic of Uruguay) 18 Montevideo (Republic of Uruguay) 16 38 -5 Buenos Aires (Argentine Republic) 16 40 -6 Bahia Blanca (Argentine Republic) 14 42 -8 Montevideo has perceptibly the same average mean temperature as Buenos Aires, though not as warm in sum- mer as the latter, and a maximum temperature of 38° C, which is recorded only about every eight or ten years, which is not the case in Buenos Aires, where this maximum is reached almost every summer. Buenos Aires has also colder winters, due to the cold winds which sweep over the city from the mountain range, and which winds have risen in temperature after crossing the estuary of La Plata, which waters have a minimum temperature of 5° or 6°C. above zero. The coldest time of day is between six and seven o'clock in the morning. It must be borne in mind that Montevideo has a maritime, and Buenos Aires a continental climate. Temperature of the Central and Patagonian Regions In Argentina, as the distance from the littoral or coast increases the intensity of heat or cold increases until, at the Pampa, there is a maximum temperature of 44° and 46° C, in the provinces of Santiago, Tucuman, etc. The mean maximum temperature of this central zone can be compared with that of the warmest regions of the globe, as is shown by the following figures : centigrade MEAN MAXIMUM Catamarca (Recreo) 34 Santiago del Estero 35 Cruz del Eje (C6rdoba) 33 Uaadi-Halfa (Nubia) 34 Masaua (Central Africa) 34 Kartum (Soudan) 33 CLIMATOLOGY OF THE LA PLATA REGION 115 Patagonia has an excessively cold winter climate, whicli goes down to 30° C. below zero at the Neuquen in Colonia Sarmiento and other places. In the summer the temper- ature rises to the other extreme, registering 42° C. on the Chubut at port Madrin on the Atlantic. Many are the places where the temperature rises to 40° C. in summer and falls to 25° below zero during the winter. The Law of Rains The rainfall gradually decreases towards the southern extremity, following the natural result of rainfall, being heavier nearer the tropics and lighter as it uears the poles. In the northern part of the Littoral, which comprises Para- guay, Chaco and the Mission district, there is a rainy season between April and September, with a heavy rainfall the re- mainder of the year. Farther south, between the rivers Uruguay and Parana or Argentine Mesopotamia, the rain- fall in the summer and winter is equal. The following table shows the decrease in the annual rainfall (in millimeters) from north to south: Aeunci6n (Paraguay) 1320 Concordia (Argentina) 1070 Montevideo 934 Buenos Aires 930 Mar del Plata 690 Patagones 310 In the region of the sterile or midland Pampa, the decrease in rainfall is noticed the farther the distance from the Uruguay river between the parallels 30° S. and 35° S., which is the latitude of the Republica Oriental del Uruguay. The diminution is about at the rate of 100 millimeters for each 100 kilometers. Therefore, the rainfall of 900 to 1,000 milli- meters on the coast of Uruguay is only 200 millimeters in San Juan, at the foot of the Andes, making irrigation indis- pensable for all agricultural products raised in this latter region, which, nevertheless, is the best wine-producing zone, its grape competing with the best made in Andalusia, 116 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Spain, and in the wine-producing districts of Portugal. All the best grades of fruits and vegetables, native to the region, are also raised. The Patagonian region has very little rainfall excepting at Neuquen (1,820 mm.) and at San Martin de los Andes; in a few other places it is considerably less. On the Pata- gonian coast the rains are few and far between, the maxi- mum corresponding to Trelev, which is 560 mm. On the other hand, the rainfall on the Chilean side is from 2,000 to 3,000 millimeters, only equaled in the Amazonian region. Punta Arenas, on the Strait of Magellan, at a great distance from the Pacific, has little rainfall (400 mm.). Refer to L. C. Bollo, "Climatologia Platense" Barreiro y Ramos, Montevideo, 1916. Transparency op the Sky in the Various Zones op the La Plata Region Regarding the condition of the sky, few places can com- pare with Uruguay in clearness and transparency, prin- cipally because the atmosphere is free from haziness and dust. This fact alone entitles Uruguay and Argentina to display the sun as their symbol together with the white and azure hues, which their flags unfold. CONDITION OF THE SKY. A Perfectly Clear Sky is marked 100 LITTOBAL ZONE TEN-TEAR AVERAGE Montevideo 51 Asunci6n 45 Buenos Aires 46 Bahia Blanca 44 MIDLAND ZONE Tucumdn 58 C6rdoba 63 San Luis 44 ANDEAN ZONE La Quiaca 38 Salta 56 Mendoza 36 CHAPTER VIII ^ THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN SUMMARY Ib there One Singular Type of Native South American 7 — Was South America First Settled by Men from another Continent 7 — The Various South American Races, Accord- ing to D'Orbigny: Andean-Peruvian, Pampean, Brazilian-Guarauitica — The Races of South America do not descend from the Mongolians — The Americans were the first to use cop- per, which metal was unknown to the Egyptian, Asiatic and European peoples, and were the first to discover bronze which the South American introduced during the invasions of the Eastern Hemisphere — The Esquimaux of today, of American oriKin, invaded Green- land and Northern Asia. Is There One Singular Type of Native South American f We will not here discuss the origin of the American, who was considered, until just recently, a modification of the Mongol type, which it resembles slightly, though a great iivany of the nations of the South American indigenes are as (lilTcrent from the Mongols as tliey are from the Caucasians. The Yuracares, of the Mamor6 river in Bolivia, and of whom D'Orbigny made a very close study, having resided among them for about eight months, are almost white in color and have a fine physique. The Chiriguanos of Bolivia, on the river Pilcomayo, have a light-copper complexion. The Im- babureuos of Ecuador are as white of skin as the Europeans. The Cailazos, also of Ecuador, have an aquiline nose like the Jivaros of the Pastaza river, while the Zaparos of the Napo resemble the Chinese. According to tradition, Manco Capac, who founded the Empire of the Incas, 1,000 years before the present era, had white skin and golden hair as had his wife. Was South America First Settled by Men from Another Continent? Mr. Andres Lamas, well-known Uruguayan publicist, in his introduction to the work of Lozano, ^'History of the 117 118 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT Conquest of Paraguay, La Plata River and Tucum^n," says : "We do not know of any American myth or tradition to which we can attribute the supposition that America might have been settled by emigrants from another continent." "We find traditions of invasions, conquests, colonization, transmigrations, the supplanting of various tribes whose origin we ignore but who appeared to have been moving and operating within the same continent and coming from the interior of the mainland." "We find traditions of civilized men of divers American races, traditions of white-skinned gOlden-haired men, of barbates, who have had more or less influence in the do- minion, culture and destinies of peoples. But there is no tradition to tell us that such and such a trihe or, such and such men were the settlers of an uninhatited land. On the contrary, each one in its turn appears, according to its re- spective tradition, to have functioned and established its dominion over people already occupying the premises, who either were or considered themselves aborigines. Therefore, not only is there want of a determined fact, myths and native traditions that will permit us to suppose that America was settled by immigrants from another continent, but the American myths and traditions existing are in opposition to this supposition. This is the opinion of one of the most celebrated historians of the La Plata, who, with great ardor and devotion, made a thorough study of these questions." The opinion that became so general some time ago that the Mongolians had migrated into and settled in America, was due to the fact that many invasions into North America came from the North, but in South America we find that the invasions were just the reverse. Manco Capac went to Cuzco, from the South ; the civilization which he founded and the palaces constructed in Tiahuanaco, all preceded Manco Capac's time and emanated from people that came from the South; the tribes that destroyed Tiahuanaco and THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 119 exterminated the inhabitants fifteen centuries ago, also came from the South ; the great invasion, which put an end to the second dynasty of the Incas of Cuzco, proc-eeded from Argen- tina ; the Yncasica civilization started from the South travel- ing in a northerly direction, goinrj from Cuzco to Quito and thence to Ecuador; the Guarani race, which contributed a larger number of inhabitants to South America, started its invasion from Paraguay northwardly to the Amazon, the Orinoco and the Caribbean or Antilles Isles; the Caribbeans were Guaranies; the Tuples a family branch of the Guar- anies, moving northwardly «lrove away the indigenes from the territory where today stands Rio Jaui'iro. The Mexicans make mention of invasions which have lome into their terri- tory from the South. If South America was the continent where the ape and the biggest ape first appeared, it is not altogether impossible that it also had human inhabitants contemporaneously with the Old World or even before. Could it be that the At- lantida of Platon is the Arquelensis, which united America and Africa? And do not the names of Atlantic and Atlas mountains indicate invasions by Mexicans of Tlascala who arrived from Western Lands, according to tradition of the indigenes of Old Berberia, now Marruecos and Tunes? There is no other language that could have applied these names distinctly of Mexican origin. The South American Races According to D'Orbigny Going back to the subject of the indigenous races of South America, we are indebted to the celebrated French natur- alist, D'Orbigny, for a good classification based on the principal anatomical characteristics. Although it may not correspond exactly with the details given at a later date through anthropology, then an almost unknown science, he furnishes by means of his exactness in detail a perfect idea of the man of South America. The sage D'Orbigny resided 120 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT in America several years and was able to understand those peoples. The Andeari-Peruvian race was of dark olive com- plexion, small stature, horizontal eyes and rather high fore- head. It is divided into three branches : Peruana, Anticiana, and Araucana. Average height of the Peruano, 1.59 meters ; large, aquiline nose ; lips, medium ; cheekbones not high ; long, oval face, in fact, characteristics which the Mongolian does not possess. To this branch belong the Quichuas and Aimaras of the Peru-Bolivian Plateau, the founders of the Empire of the lucas, which, as we have said, attained civilization comparable to that of Ancient Egypt. The Anticiana: average height, 1.64 meters; nose not uni- form in shape; dark-olive complexion, more or less fair; forehead, not low; horizontal eyes; face, oval. To this branch belong the Yaracares, almost white in complexion, who live in the forests of Bolivia, and the Mocetones, etc. The Araucama: Average height, 1.64 meters; complexion, very dark brown ; face, almost circular ; nose, short and flat ; high cheek-bones; forehead, rather high. Araucanos Ran- queles and Fueguiuos of Patagonia are descendants of the Araucanos of Chile, the Pehuenches of Patagonia and the Aucas. The Pampean Race : Very tall ; arched forehead, not low ; horizontal eyes; dark-olive skin. This race inhabited the Pampa Argentina and the territory of Uruguay. It is di- vided into three branches: Pampeana, Ghiquitana and Moxcana. The Pampean is tall of stature, averaging 1.68 meters in height; complexion, brown, dark-olive or reddish brown; long face; fiat nose; very large mouth; high cheek- bones ; many are ferocious in appearance. The Patagones and Tchuelches, of Patagonia, the extinct (Jharruas, of Uruguay, and the Tohas, and others of the Chaco. The Chiquitana and Moxana branches are scattered throughout the Bolivian plains of Moxos and Chiquitos. The BrasiloOuaranitica Race: Yellowish with a pale reddish tinge; moderate stature, average 1.62 meters; THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 121 rounded forehead; circular face; small protruding mouth, thin lips, cheek-bones somewhat regular; stockily built. The larger part of the indigenous population of Brazil, Paraguay and the regions of the tributaries of the Amazon belong to this race. The Querandit'ii, who settled on the right-hand side of the La Plata when Buenos Aires was founded, belong to the Chiaranies branch. The Races of South America Are Not Descendants op THE Mongolians We believe that upon inspection of the descriptive char- acteristics as given by D'Orbigny, regarding the jtrincipal Ameritan peoples, they will be found convincing enough to cause us to abandon the Mongolomanian idea of the sages who make of the Mongolian race an enormous bag wherein thej' cram all things about which they are unable to give a satisfactory explanation. The Peruvian race, which founded one of the greatest empires that have ever existed, is distinguished mainly by the fact that their cheek-bones are not high, contrary to the most noticeable characteristic of the Mongolians, which is predominant even among the races to which the Mongolians are related, as for instance the Magiares, and all the descendants of Mongolians found in Russia today. The Guaranics and Pvrnanos, who repre- sent, perhaps, the largest of the South American races, are also noted for their high cheek-bones. The region of Pamir, which the believers of the Mongolian immigration idea have selected as the original home of man- kind, and which place they claim was the starting point of the great invasions that went into Europe from Asia, is on account of its climatic conditions of excessive heat and cold during the opposing seasons, the contrasting changes be- tween the places which are bathed by the rays of the sun and those in shade, as well as by its barrenness, lack of water and fuel, the least desirable location for human life to have grown and developed. Its present inhabitants are among 122 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT the most inferior of the Asiatic races of today. It can not be aflSrmed that the conditions of life may have been better, as was the case in Patagonia and even in the Desert of Sahara, for notwithstanding the untiring study of that region, by famous explorers, particularly the English, not even a vestige has been found which might establish the fact that there was at one time a more profuse vegetation or a partially advanced civilization, and not a trace that there might have been, in that particular region, a higher order of animal or vegetable life nor of a more civilized man. It is like the other legends, which treat about the antiquity of the white races of India, as the Dravidians, and that attributed to the Aryans, this latter legend having been completely disproved by the conscientious study of the most renowned investigators of a later period. The celebrated structures of India and everything that was considered remotely ancient, are found to date back only a few centuries prior to the con- quest by Alexander the Great. Yet some of these novels are being used as a historical text today in certain universities. Like the oldest civilized regions of Egj^pt and Chaldea, though their history only goes back 7,000 years, these regions, due to their fertility of soil, were the centers of numerous organized nations, which found means of subsist- ence and iiroper living conditions for the successful develop- ment of the species. But what are 7,000 years against 18,000, which the Mexican traditions claim for their civiliza- tion, the antiquity of the Empire of the Incas and still the older civilization preceding that of the Incas, and which is attested by the ruins of Tiahuanaco? There exists one fact which proves that the people of America exerted some influence in European civilization, they being the first to use copper, as in no part of the Old World was copper known, neither among the Egyptians who made use of brass nmny thousands of years before the Europeans did. As bronze is an alloy of copper and tin, it is natural to suppose that if copper was unknown to both the Europeans and the Egj'ptians, and known to THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 123 the native Americans, who used it as arrow points, the latter were the inventors of bronze, which product has phiyed such an important part in the civilization of the Eastern Hen)isi)lierc. It has also been demonstrated that the Eskimo are natives of America and differ from the Mongolians, who are brachicephalus, in that the Eskimo are niiquestionahly the most dolichoccplialic of all the peoples of the world. The Eskimo, on being pushed away by other pcoi)le, si)read to the Arctic regions and crossed to Greenland and Northern Asia. This invasion differed en- tirely from those which might have taken place from Asia to America, and of which there may have been .several in the course of all the past ages. The primitive races of America are represented by the Eskimo in the North, the Dotocudos of Brazil, and the Tekinicos and Pechcrais of Tierra del Fncgo; their respec- tive languages are unlike tho.se of their immediate neighbors; they have a dolicocephalus cranium. In lOurope, the Bas- cos and the Bereberes are considereil the primitive races; the former believe that they are the descendants of the Iberians, who inhabited a large part of western France and l)art of Italy. The Bereberes of Marruecos and Tunis, formerly Berbery, have many things in common with the inhabitants of Livia, who in many ways resembled the Iberians. All these peoples have suffered many changes, due to the intermingling with the peoples of contiguous terri- tory, though they yet retain a certain degree of similarity to the native American. The Bcrebcr, like the native Ameri- can Indian, has scanty beard; red skin; black and straight hair; dolicocephalus cranium. The Bcrberes (Guanches) also inhabited the Canaries, and spoke a language similar to the Basco. The Bascos resemble the Indian of America in that they both have black, straight hair and a dolico- cephalus cranium. The Fulos or Fnllahs of the Soudan in Africa have also the same complexion and hair of the American Indian. Columbus claimed that the inhabitants whom he found at 124 SOUTH AMERICA TAST AND PRESENT Hisj)auiola and on the island of Gualiamani resembled the Canarios. Castelnaii, noted explorer, says in bis book "Voyage dans TAm^rique du Sud :" "I have found it an im- possibility to examine the beautiful Egyptian paintings in the British Museum, without registering surprise on notic- ing the striking resemblance of many of the subjects to the Indians of the New World, among whom I have lived for many years. The best artist could not paint a better repro- duction of the savages of South America than has been made by these very able masters." The reputed French geographer, E. Reclus, declares that the Mutugorri, Iberian people or ancestors of the Bascos, were of a reddish complexion. Michelet, celebrated French historian, says that on beholding the Etruscan vases, they reminded him of the Mexican statues of Palenque. The reader will no doubt have noticed that the resemblances described by these eminent men are not a mere accident, but they cause one to ponder and realize that there was a re- semblance between the oldest races of the two hemispheres — Oriental and Occidental — and there is one additional proof in the fact that there existed another continent which joined these two — the Arquelensis, which joined Brazil and Africa, or the Atlantida of Platon, which joined Mexico to Berberia and Spain and which was the road used by the Mexicans, who were probably the ancestors of the Bascos, Bereberes, Fulahs and Egyptians. Platon says in his Timeus, that Solon on his trip to Egypt heard one of the priests exclaim : "Oh Solon ! Oh Solon ! You Greeks are young still. There is not one single old man among you. You accept as facts what are emblematic fables. You only have information as to one Deluge which has been preceded by many. Athens has existed as a civil- ized community for ages, and has for a very long time been famous in Egypt, for feats which you ignore and the history of which is on record in our archives. There you may secure information as to tlie antiquity of our nation. There you will learn about the heroic manner in which tbe THE NATIVE SOUTH AMERICAN 125 Atbeuiaus of old times checked a formidable uatiou which had established itself over Europe aud Asia through an iu- vasiou by warriors coming from the Atlantic Sea. This body of water partially surrounded a large tract of land situated opposite the entrance to the Strait called 'Columns of Hercules.' This region was larger than Asia and Libia combined. There was a large number of islands between this land and the Strait. The country, about which I have just spoken, or Atlantida island, was governed by united sovereigns. In one of their expeditions they took posses- sion of Libia as far as Egjpt on one side, and on the other they traversed the whole region as far as Tirreni. All our people were at one time slaves, our grandfathers becoming our liberators when their tleet defeated that of the Atlan- tidos. A short time afterwards their island became sub- merged, and the region which was larger than Europe and Asia combined disapi)eared instantaneously.'' There is a similar tradition in America. "At one time there was in Central America the Empire of Xibalba. governed by two kings, who were Supreme Chiefs of the empire and who had ten other kings under them, each one the ruler of a large kingd(Mn, establishing among themselves a sort of council, which decided matters of common interest. Gradually they extended their dominion over the whole world, but a sudden deluge came and they all disappeared.'' ( Brasscur de Bourbourg, Histoires de nations civilisees du Mexique et de FAmerique Centrale.) Be this the truth or a mere myth, science considers possible the existence of the Atlantida island, and Tale- ontology considers it even more necessary in order to explain the emigration of the big mammals from Europe to North America and from South America to Africa. CHAPTER IX PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA OF SOUTH AMERICA The present fauna of South. America is characterized by the absence of Proboscides and Hypoides, but such was not the case in ages past, this continent having furnished more ungulates or hoofed-animals with hoof and skull, and also had a large number of Proboscides (animals with prehensile extension of the nose like the elephant) and Hypoides or primitive horse. Eight speces of ungulates are known, all of which have disappeared ; four of these — the Tillodont, An- cylopoda, Amblypoda, and Condylartha — are found among fossil remains in Europe and North America. A larger variety was found in South America. The sub-orders now extinct, Protongulata, Litopternos, Toxodontia and Typo- theria, were exclusively South American. In brief — This continent had all the ungulates that ever lived and are yet living in the other continents, thereby proving that South America was the primitive home of all ungulates, and the center of irradiation which reached across the Arquelensis, uniting Brazil and Africa, and across the land joining Patagonia and Australia — the Austral Continent, the route taken by the Marsupials, from which the Kangaroo of Australia descends. The Comadreja (Opossum) of the Pampa is the predecessor of the Kangaroo and the oldest of the mammals living today. The gigantic ungulate Am- blipodes, primitive South American species, had a bulk and heavy frame like the elephant's, though having much heavier and stronger legs and five toes on each foot. The family of the Astratoperiums developed into a larger species than the elephant, of which we have as an example the Parastra- potherium. Several species of the family of the Protohippus are known to be the predecessors of the horse today. The 126 PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 127 primitive horse had five toes on each foot, the toes gradually disappearing until finally only one remained, that of the present horse. An exhibit in the American Museum of Natural History of New York shows this and other phases in the evolution of the horse. It is known in this museum as Eohippus (Aurora horse), and it is stated that it lived 3,000,000 years ago. In North America it inhal)iterocess has taken a divergent course which at each step separates them farther from man. All the fossil apes so far discovered in the Old World PRE^;ENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 131 belong to these diverging and retrograding branches. The same applies not only to the renowned Pitecantroi)0 of Java, but also to the man of Neanderthal, both of whieli would rei)resent extinct divergent lines which have become se])arated from the central trunk, during a comparatively recent i)eriod. The anthropomori)hic apes are, in the opinion of Ameghino, our degenerated or retrograded brothers and not our first cousins, as Darwin believed. Such is Anieghino's oi)inion regarding the races of man- kind, and which opinion more closely coincides with the information that is being gathered through the natural scienies. We mentioned in chapter 11 tlie jirincii)al fossil remains of llu* r;im]>a. The Man ov C'hai'almalaiv — Fli.l Sanction "The Congress of Natural Sciences which met recently in Tucumiin, and in which all the eminent stientists in our country, both national and foi-eign, took part, has just given recognition by unanimous vote to the authenticity of the weapons, instruments and fossil remains found by Dr. Carlos Ameghino at Chapalmalal, and which were presented by him as an attestation of the existence of man during the remote prehistoric ages." The Congress which has recognized this authenticity as well as that the objects were found in their proper place, and that they were made and in use during that geological era to which belong the animal fossil remains that have also been found — backbone and femur of the Toxodon, both with incrusted quartz points of arrow and spear — thus gives the fullest sanction that may be desired bj' our countrj' (with repre.sentation of the foreign scientific element) to the fruit- ful labor and self-evident scientific knowledge of Dr. Carlos Ameghino, Director of the Paleontological and Anthropolog- ical departments of our museum. "The matters herein referred to, received the special atten- tion of the Congress, which on terminating its labors at one of the sessions, gave a vote of thanks to the erudite Paleon- 132 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT tologist. Therefore, the last investigations made at Mira- mar and Chapalmalal, together with the proof of the ex- istence of man during that geological epoch, have been recognized." "These facts had been formerly recognized by the commis- sion appointed by Dr. Angel Gallardo as Director of the Na- tional Mnsenm of Natnral History, and by Dr. Joaqnin Y. Gonzalez, Rector of the La Plata University. The members of this commission were: Dr. Santiago Roth, Director of Mines and Geolog}^ of the Province of Buenos Aires and In- structor of Paleontology; Dr. Walter Schiller, Instructor of Mineralogy and collaborator in the management of Mines and Geology of the country; Moises Kan tor. Instructor En- gineer; Dr. Lntz Witte, Geologist of the mines within the province; Dr. Luis Maria Torres; Dr. Carlos Ameghino." ''This commission after a careful study, drew up an affi- davit which has been published in Spanish and in French, enumerating the articles found and asserting that 'The ocular inspection of the site where the above handiwork is found does not show any indication which would lead any one to suppose that the articles described were buried at a period subsequent to the formation of the covering layer; that they were in proper position and were therefore con- sidered objects of human handicraft, contemporary to the geological stratum where they were deposited.'" 'Taking in consideration," adds the affidavit, "all the cir- cumstances surrounding these discoveries, as well as the con- dition of the objects and the relative stratitication of the layers, the commission opines that the objects in question show traces of the hand of man who lived during the geo- logical epoch corresponding to the Chapalmalense stratum." "This closing declaration of the said scientific authorities was afterwards adopted by another commission later ap- pointed, and is now corroborated by the significative sanc- tion of the Congress of Natural Sciences." "Thus, scientific evidence asserts itself and leaves those who would fain deny it in a lamentable state." PRETEXT AND FOi^ftTL FAUNA 133 Published in *TLa Nacion" (principal Argentine daily) of Buenos Aires, issue of Dec. 15, 1010, regarding the de- liberations of the Tucuman Scientific Congress, which met a few days before. Extraordinary Fish Wraltii of La Plata Montevideo h;is, since the colonial epoch, been famous throughout the civilized world for its extraordinary wealth and varietj' of fishes, such as will satisfy the most exacting taste. Its supply by far exceeds that of most of the seaport towns of Europe, not excluding England, Holland and otlier countries of norlliern lOuropc. It is dilficult to find better edible fish than the pescodilla da red, hrotnla, pejcrrcy, anrhoti, corbina, ftatfjo, etc., and other varieties which abound in Montevideo, Maldonado, and all along the coast of the Atlantic. Several of these species come from South Atlantic waters as they migrate north, seeking a warmer climate during tlie winter season, liatching their eggs in the estuary of La Plata, where they find in the sediment brought down by the waters of the ParanA and Paraguay, an abundant sii[)ply of vegetable food or phyto- planktou in the form of microscopic seaweed, which makes an excellent fish food. In Canada it is the sea-coralline wrack that attracts the codfish of Terranova. The zoo- j)lankton must necessarily be very abundant, inasmuch as it is formed ])y microscopic animals like the foraminiferes, nocticules, radiolaves, etc., which abound in temperate waters. Our book in Zoologj-, published in 1894, states that certain species migrated, among them, the ancho\'y, which is found near Montevideo only during the Autumn and Winter. The immigrating species are still unknown, as the Institute on Fishes, founded a few years ago, has not made a complete study of them as yet. The French naturalist, A. Bouyat, has included in his book, "Les Pecheries de la Cote d'Afrique" (Challamel editeur, Paris, 1908), the life of the fishes of the Atlantic. The said author, who is in- structor of Zoology in the Institute of Agriculture in Monte- 134 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT video, says in his book, "Contribution al etude de la peche maritime en Uruguay," that the abundance of sardines dur- ing certain epochs seems to indicate that the coast is frequently visited by shoals of sardines, and that a complete study as to their migrating habits should be made. The author of this book lives near the seashore of Montevideo, and it has been his observation as well as that of the fisher- men of that region, that there are certain periods of the year when large schools of fish come from the South Pole as far as the estuary of La Plata. Many species, such as the pejerrey and the boga, find their way during the winter months into the Parand and Uruguay and their tributaries. The supply of fish in Montevideo is sufficiently large for home consumption and for exportation to the Buenos Aires markets, large quantities being carried by all the night steamers that leave Montevideo for the Argentine capital. The fish bureau, under the direction of Don Juan Nelson Wismer, a North American expert, sells the highest grade fish on the street markets at six cents per kilo (less than three cents per pound) . During certain days of the summer season, the fish caught in nets reach such vast proportions that it sells at the rate of twenty liters for one-half of a peso (approx. a five gal, measure for about fifty cents) at the Pocitos of Montevideo. Bouyat says in his book, which we have already men- tioned : First — Fish is very abundant on the Uruguayan coasts. Second — The edible species are abundant enough to make the fish industry a profitable occupation under wise manage- ment. Third — The demand for fresh fish, due to the proximity of the cities of Buenos Aires and Montevideo, makes it even more attractive from a commercial standpoint. Fourth — The conditions, which will be found for the future exploitation of the industry, are to a great extent superior to those to which all foreign enterprises will have to be sub- ject in both the old and the new continents. In fact, the PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 135 field of operations — the La Plata River — which is a veritable sea at Montevideo, is at just a few hours' ride from the center of consumption. The fishing boats, in case of storms, have adequate shelter at Montevideo and Maldonado, and while on duty at night have the advantage* of splendidly lighted coast line, which receives its illumination from the light- houses of Polonio, Santa Maria, Jose Ignacio, Punta del Este, Islas de Lobos y Flores, Banco Ingles, and I'unta Brava. A refrigerator has been recently constructed at the port of Montevideo, in order to facilitate exportation to the interior of the country. The city of Buenos Aires itself has developed a profitable fishing industi*y and brings great quantities of fish from Mar del Plata, a southern port, and from the lakes of Chascomus. Montevideo exports from twenty to thirty million kilos of fresh fish annually. There are plants in Montevideo and Maldonado lor the prejiaration of canned and salt fish, which is intended for shipment to points in the interior. The Uruguay, the I'aran^ and tlieir tributaries have big fish such as the surubi, pacil, pati, mauguruyil, etc., which average as much as 40 to GO kilos in weight each, delicious eating and quite well adapted for canning purposes. The Liebig i)lant of Fray Bentos, a [lort of the Uruguay, manu- factures fish oil for its own nmchinery :ind for exj)ort pur- poses. Schools of big fish are constant visitors at this port. There is no ostricultural jdant at any point on the La Plata. It is the opinion of many that a profitable business could be developed by some North Auierican concern which would establish in Montevideo an oyster-farm on a big scale, with two cities of a combined population of more than two million inhabitants to feed. The 20 to 30 million kilos of fi.sh that Montevideo exports should be increased to 80 or 100 million for consumption in Buenos Aires and the rest of the Argentine Republic, which, having no inland streams, the only fish to be had is from the lake Chascomus and others of the province of Buenos Aires. 136 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT The Neuquen and other streams of Patagonia have fish hatcheries (salmon, trout, etc.) for fish imjiorted from the United States, but the great distance to the Buenos Aires market and the competition with the La Plata fish industry right at the door of the consumer make the former a more risky enterprise. The wealth represented by the fish industry of the prin- cipal fish markets of the world is represented by the statis- ical figures of 1910 as given below, according to the Interna- tional Council's report on activities on the sea : Year 1910 Value — Million Million Country Kilos Dollars England 666 38 Norway 629 12 Scotland 442 14 France 230 22 Germany 166 8 Holland 137 8 Iceland 78 2 Sweden 119 Ireland 52 United States America 70 See the synopsis of the species of vertebrates, copied from L. C. Bollo "ISloctones de Zoologia" (published in Monte- video, in 1890, in five volumes with 540 illustrations, at Li- breria Nacional de Barreiros y Ramos). PRESENT AND FOSSIL FAUNA 137 < o H- 1 W H P O cc CQ l-H O IZi >^ sag .e 01 •So. S I » 8 - So 3'=^ ill ill „a B o t: o ^. .3 1-1 • o- B 5? ts i g c 2 .Is A s • 3 i^ ■£• ■ " o o a w Sc ■» ' .a EhK£ ^1 :_ 5 c S a a cr a 5 * O l- •- P IK o it C'a § t * lis > t:s H H O Q WW J J 2 < < M ^ B. 0. p 2 e p p S to 00 C 3 « IS z 5 < ■< c S 138 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT o a s '3 - c! « -g .. -a g S 8 2 ^ .2 fl S 2'5 £! o 3-5 "S S-a •^ -§ -^ o 3 3 Oi M O O •73 'O Ni;: : : q iM al a ical :al a ical o 3 'ate " s- •- e- P S'S e-2 o"a2 co.H S a> I. 3t3 d^ ' O g o* c3„- ^ 0)0 a °rt So^§ ^: jj , Pi +j « 3 3—. 3 „< 330 2^ o g 3^ S O S §.ss Al Cl s ■1 ca a 4) (J Hh xt « ^ ap^ O tfl o o 5 : >* <) § 2 w 00 O O Q Q o o ta w « K B< CK 00 00 ^ •« -^ -g «i a •2 E w o fi; o P< < i E e a ■< P o o a =* ^* ?: « < ti C3 o (fl •cua OS o§ Oi oTOh 1 . . o ->4S.5air.S -e-C el 0-5 'I' c'c =- a. a =• ir— c ^ n -r O Q -2 ^ ^ >^"^ J3 '^ ^o CHAPTER X DEMOGRAPHY SUMMARY Composition of the Present Population of South America — Demographic CoeflScients Compared — ^Alcoholism, factor in the Mortality rate — Growth of the Large Cities of South America. Composition op the Present Population of South America The population of South America as a whole, represeuts the issue of the crossing of the Spanish and Portuguese with the Aborigines. The purity of the indigenous race being now found only in isolated districts of the Andean moun- tains and on the plains drained by the Amazon, Paraguay and Parana. Peru and Bolivia have a preponderance of in- digenous population, the workingmen in the mines and on the farms being Indians and Mestizos. The same thiug is true of Paraguay and Central Brazil where the Guarani Indian that makes up the bulk of the working population retains his racial purity. The Indian and the Mestizo of Chile, Bolivia, Peru and other countries of the Andean region has by nature great physical strength and en- durance, and the added fact that he is thoroughly acclimated and is more frugal in his habits, makes him a more competent worker in the mines than the European. Brazil had for centuries imported negroes from Africa for work in the fields, agriculture being at that time its main industry, but slavery was finally abolished without having to resort to a conflict such as the Avar of secession, which caused so much bitterness and sorrow in the United States of America. The population in general represents a mix- UO DEMOGRAPHY 141 hire of Indians of the Guarauies family, negroes and Europeans. During the last few years the European ele- ment has increased considerably, particularly among the Germans and Italians, the latter settling at 8an Paulo, Minas and Rio de Janeiro, and the former at Rio Grande, Santa Catalina, Parans'i and other places farther south. The German immigrants and their descendants who have been educated under Germanic methods, hoped and expected to see Germany trium]>hant in tlie woild's greatest war, and planned to sece, when it ceded to the Italian which now constitutes half of the foreign population. Brazil has more than two and one- lialf million foreigners out of a total of 24.00(),0()0. or 10 per cent of the whole. Argentina, according to the census of 11)14, had 2,358,000 foieigners, of whom there were 1,470,000 men and S84,000 women, or a total jiopulation of 7.885,000, the foreign element therefore representing :'>0 per cent of the populatitm. Buenos Aires, the capital, showed still a larger i)roportion, for out of a total of 1.575,000 there were 777,000 foreigners, almost an even 50 per cent. In 10 1(5, the fcu'eign element of Argentina was divided as follows: Italians, !)2!»,000; Spaniards, 820.000; Russians, !>::.000; French, 70,000; English, 27,000; Germans, 2t),000 ; Austria- Hungarians, 38,000; Turks, 04,000; Swiss, 14,000, as per data furnished by "La Nacion" of Buenos Aires, January 1, 1917. The Italians, who hold first place, are the most thorough and efficient agriculturists, excepting the "golondrina" im- migrants, who go to the La IMata to engage specially in agricultural pursuits during the farming season, returning to Italy in April or May. Next to the Italians, the Spaniards represent the largest number of any one nation- ality, in fact they have been the only immigrants that South America has had in recent years. The Oriental Republic of Uruguay, with one and one-half 142 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT milliou inhabitants, has 250,000 foreigners, among whom the Italians and Spaniards are in the majority. There are no Indians in this republic as in the other countries of South America, not excluding Argentina, which has many in the Patagonia region and on the Chaco, the two northern and southern extremities of the country. In Montevideo, the majority of the inhabitants are foreigners, but in the country the native or Creole element is on the ascendancy. The Creoles are descendants of the Spaniards and Italians principally, with a very small per- centage of Charrua blood among the gauchos. The latter are a healthy and strong people, and as a rule superior in intelligence to the European peasants who come to the La Plata, and can adapt themselves to all kinds of labor. The disappearance of the Indian from the Uruguayan repub- lic is due to the fact that this region was the main battle ground during the wars waged by the natives against the Spaniards, Portuguese and Brazilians during the eight years of struggle that Montevideo suffered at the hands of the tyrant Rosas, at that time dictator of Buenos Aires, as well as to the many civil wars which had taken place within the republic from time to time. His passion for war, linked with his love for freedom, were the fundamental causes of his disappearance. In 1830, there yet remained a large Indian population, numbering thousands, in the northern part of Uiniguay. They engaged in battle with the army of Montevideo. General Rivera (Don Beruabe), who was considered one of the most brilliant militarists of the age, was killed. The Indians, after being defeated, scattered throughout the whole country, finally settling among the whites, and a new nation of vigorous and intelligent men was born — the Gauchos. Demographic Coefficients Compared Vegetative growth, or the difference between births and deaths, is the essential force of young nations because it is DEMOGRAPHY 143 the principal factor iu their growth. Imruigratiou is au- other contributing factor, but this is not continuous, for there are periods, as for instance, that between the years 1014 and 1910, when this contributing factor is suspended. The countries of South America mostly favored by nature for the increase of the population are Argentina and Uruguay, for reason of their exceptionally healthful climate, their abundance of food products and their absence of epidemic (smallpox, typhus, diphtheria, malaria fever, etc.) as the result of adequate hygienic measures. According to data secured through the Demographic Bureau of Uru- guay, founded by L. C. BoUo, the vegetative growth of the fol- lowing countries is given on a basis of 1,000 inhabitants : Re- public of Uruguay, 22; Argentina, 21; England, 13; Ger- many, 12; Austria, 7; Italy, 7; Chile, 6. Brazil was dreaded by the immigrants who were kept away by the terrible diseases to which the country was sub- ject. The mortality' rate of Santos, Rio de Janeiro and other ports had reached an alarming figure. Under the American methods of hygiene of today, the yellow fever has completely disappeared. The Oriental Republic of Uruguay, with less than half the population of Chile, shows a higher rate of increase. Chile has 30 deaths to every 30 births per 1,000 inhabitants, or a vegetative growth of (I per 1,000, while Uruguay has a growth of 22, almost four times as mucji as Chile. Its birth rate is higher than the latter and its mortality rate less than half of its birth rate. Besides, the republic of Chile has little or no immigration. It would be interesting to present the demographic data of other countries, but though many may have an established civil registry, they have no complete demographic statistics. But it is a well-known fact that the rest of the South American countries where the indigenes are iu the majority, pay little attention to hygiene and the consequence is that they are decimated bj'^ typhus, tuberculosis, small-pox, diphtheria, syphilis and other dread- ful contagious diseases. The Republic of Uruguay has di- 144 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT reeled the passage of a law compelling the coustruction of a moderu sewerage system in all towns or villages of over 10,000 population. This work of constructiou is under the direction of the well-known American firm — Ulien of Washington. Alcoholism Factor in the Mortality Rate Alcoholism, a world-wide evil, is, next to tuberculosis, the biggest factor in the increase of the mortality rate. Ac- cording to Mr. Fernet, 10 per cent of the mortality of Paris is due to alcoholism, and according to Dr. Salterain of Mon- tevideo, 5 per cent of the mortality of the latter city maj' be attributed to the same cause, which is low in comparison to what it is in other parts of the world, as will be seen by the figures below, which appear in Dr. Salterain's book entitled "Sobre el Alcoholismo." The author of the said book is a highly intellectual Uruguayan physician and one of the leading anti-alcohol propagandists of the First Anti-alco- holic Congress held in Montevideo in 1918. Number of liters of pure alcohol per inhabitant con- summed annually in the form of whiskey, beer, wine, etc. Annual average from 1801 to 1895 inclusive: Liters Liters France 15 . 83 Roumania 9 . 74 Belgium 12.58 Germany 9.25 Spain 12.05 British Isies 8. 17 Denmark 10. 87 Austria-Hungary 7 . 99 Switzerland 10.73 Uruguay 5.30 Italy 10.30 Russia 5.21 Portugal 10. 10 Sweden 4.43 Central Emope 10.39 It will be noticed that in Spain, Italy and Portugal, though showing a high rate, not many drunkards are found, due to the fact that they consume mostly wines to the exclusion of the stronger alcoholic drinks like absinth, whiskey, gin, cognac, etc. According to notes by Dr. Etchepare, physician at the hospital for the insane (Asylum of Montevideo), 21 per cent of the mentally deranged owe their condition to alcoholism. DEMOGRAPHY U5 We have no exact data regarding this matter on the other countries of South America, but it is widely known that Chile and a few other countries show a high rate of alco- holic consumption. The mortality rate of 80 per 1.000 in- habitants in Chile is largely due to alcoholism, while Uruguay, which shows a small percentage of alcohol con- sumed, has a mortality rate of less than 15 per 1,000. It is in countries showing a constantly increasing mortality rate where dry laws should be enacted, something that would be almost impossible in Chile, as the biggest land-owners whose large vineyards represent a great deal of their wealth, would consider themselves bankrupt the moment that any law prohibited the use of wine and chicha. These same land- owners now control and sit in Parliament to draft the laws of the country. It is essential, in order that nations may sweep away all obstacles which obstruct their progress, to first eliminate from all law-making bodies, the commercial strategists who enact laws for their own exclusive benefit and with no thought of i)ublic health or morals. If the wel- fare of mankind demands that no vineyards be jtlanted be- cause the wine and chicha therefrom are detrimental to the health of the individual, then why not plant apple, pear and peach trees, Avhich fruits have a sure market everywhere? The wealthy land-holders of South America should not lose sight of the fact that the condition of the working people of the rural districts is bad, that it has to be im- proved, and if this is not done they will be laying the founda- tion for Bolshevism, and conditions then carried to the other extreme causing the suppression of private property. Experiments are being made in Chile in connection with the preparation of raisins so that the exportation of grai)es in a dried form may be made easy, as is done in Spain. In Uruguay and in Argentina the workers in the fields use the infusion of "mate" leaves (ilex-paraguayensis) and no alcohol. The workingman believes that cold water drinking during fatigue produces discomfort and sickness at times, and so whenever he can procure mate he will not drink 146 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT alcoliol. This infusion is very healthful aud even nutritious, has a smaller quantity of the alkaloids found in cotfee and tea and is very economical. The power of nations is not based on the number of its inhabitants, but on the race which forms the kernel of its population. One million white men are worth far more to a nation than five or six million Indians or Creoles, the cross between the Indian and the European. Thus, Uruguay stands as the first among the countries of South America in the evolution of modern ideas. It was the first to establish the secularization of cemeteries formerly in the hands of the Catholic church, as well as equality of civil rights among foreigners and natives (1869) ; the first to establish laical compulsory education (1879), compulsory registration and civil marriages (1879), absolute divorce (1908), absolute separation of church and state, and absolute religious liberty (1918) embodied in the new constitutions, also pro- portional representation and a collegiate government wherein the functions of the Executive are divided between the President of the Republic and an Administrative Board of nine members. It is a form of transition between the collegiate government of Switzerland and the presidential system of the other republics of America. Growth of Large Cities No other countries in South America show as large an increase in population as Argentina and Uruguay, The latter country's steady and rapid growth is shown by the following figures: Uruguay Year Population 1796 30,000 1829 74,000 1852 131,000 1860 227,000 1873 450,000 1895 822,000 1919 1,500,000 DEMOGRAPHY 147 The City of Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, shows also a wonderful gradual increase as follows : Buenos Aires Year Population 1801 40,000 1822 55,000 1852 76,000 1869 117,000 1889 523.000 1919 1,600,000 Next to Bueno.s Aires, Montevideo .sliows a more rapid groMth than any other South American city, and the figures below are self-explanatorj': MONTEVmEO Year Population 1803 4,700 1813 13,000 1852 33,000 1860 57,000 1884 164,000 1889 216,000 1919 450,000 Montevideo's jtopulntiou is n])]»roxiniately one-third that of the whole country (Uruguay), while Buenos Aires has about one-fifth of the population of Argentina. It must be borne in mind that Montevideo is the capital and com- mercial center of a country, the area of which is only about 200,000 square kibmieters, and Buenos Aires is the capital of a country covering .'^.OOO.OOO square kilometers. Brazil has several important cities which show a large increase in population during the last few years, particularly Bio de Janeiro and San Paulo, the latter having grown from 250,000 in 1890, to more than 400,000 in 1919. The city of Montevideo, besides having the advantageous commercial position at the entrance of the La Plata estuary and at the same time being on the route of steamers bound for the Pacific via the Strait of Magellan, has a specially attractive seashore, inasmuch as the improperly named Rio de la Plata does not reach Montevideo, which is on a gulf formed by the Atlantic, as its salty and clear waters indi- 148 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PEESENT cate. A large number of raisers of live-stock in Brazil, with business interests in the state of Rio Grande, make their home in Montevideo, and many others come from different parts of Brazil to enjoy the many advantages which the beaches of Montevideo afford the pleasure-seeker. Its thoroughly modern and luxurious hotels compare with the best in the world. The "Casino del Parque/' on the seashore, is as sumptuous as that of Monte Carlo, and with its roulette and other games contributes more than a million dollars annually to the municipality, a large part being used for charity purposes. Another very attractive Casino at a short distance from the city on the Carrasco beach resembles that of Ostend. This Casino, which cost $2,000,000 to construct, compares with the best in Europe. Montevideo also enter- tains large numbers of tourists from Buenos Aires, where they have very warm summers. The large influx of tourists into Montevideo during the summer season is also largely due to the excellent accommodations offered by the comfort- able steamers which cross the estuary of La Plata during the night between the hours of 10 :00 p. m. and 6 :00 a. m. The steamship lines, which have service along the Uruguay, per- mit the inhabitants of Paraguay and those of the eastern Argentine region, to change to Montevideo without any difficulty or inconvenience, while at the same time the Brazil trains bring large numbers of Brazilians who regu- larly spend their summers at the beaches of Montevideo, prop- erly called the "Ostend" of South America. CHAPTER XI POLITICAL ORGANIZATION OF THE VARIOUS SOUTH AMERICAN STATES Following the independence of the several South American States which comprised Spaniyh America, came the dis- ordered conditions which are a natural result in newly formed nations born to independence without a previously acquired political education. Consetiuentlj' there were revo- lutions after revolutions in all the dilferent states until they secured a definite orjja nidation. The Eurojieans above all, have disdainfully looked ujion these states which have lived in almost constant strife, the Europeans failing to under- stand the spirit of justice which has been the prime in- stigator of the revolutionary convulsions among the South American populace, who have revolted from time to time against the powers which have been guilty of tyrannical acts and which have violated the rights of the citizens, con- trary to what their respective state constitutions prescribe. A fraudulent election, or a violation of the rights of the citizens, in some form or another, has nearly always served as the spark that has kindled the revolutions. The Euro- peans cannot understand the pride of the South Americans, ior the very simple reason that the former have been born and reared in a servile school, a political school which trains the individual to look upon his king or emperor, and the powerful military government with its imposing army, as an almost divine, superliuman entity. The I'arliaments of nearly all of the European nations may be anything but the result of regularly conducted elec- tions by the people in selecting the most honest, impartial and patriotic of their citizens to serve in what should be a 149 150 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT representative body. Instead, they are composed of the most servile individuals whom the governing authorities can possibly find, and who receive fi^m the same authorities the support of the official element in order to be sure of winning the elections. The government respects no scruples in pub- licly recommending the official candidates. The traveler, visiting the various European countries, can- not but feel surprised at the almost unbelievable blind obedi- ence of the masses, not necessarily to the laws enacted in Parliament, but to the most trifling of police regulations and the whims of minor authorities. Obey is the luatchicord, obey in silence and without protest. Such was the govern- ment of Germany, Austria and other European nations. The unfairness of the accumulated vote, entitling each citizen to as many as three votes, elections by cities, which for reason of this or the other special privilege of nation- ality can elect a certain number of deputies when some other larger and more important city elects just one-half of the number, and many other similar unjust regulations have been in vogue in Austria and Germany, these regula- tions having been tacitly tolerated by the so-called citizens. Any of these extreme violations would have been the cause of an armed revolution in South America. We will not deny that many revolutions have not been altogether justified, but it is more worthy of the man to revolt against injustice even though the faults of govern- ments be exaggerated, than to maintain an attitude of abject servility which is characteristic of the European, toith but a feio exceptions. When Carlos V assumed the control of Spain in 1519, he destroyed the power of the Cabildos, representative bodies of national sovereignty, and when subsequent Indian legisla- tion reduced the powers of these institutions to a complete nullity by surrendering everything to the absolute and arbi- trary system of the king's central government, Spanish lib- erty ceased to exist, as did the ])arty of the Comuneros of Castilla under Don Juan de l*adilla and his followers, who POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 151 fought so nobly in defense of independence and freedom, and against the imperial and germanic system of him who dis- played the double diadem of King of Spain and Emperor of Germany. It is true that on certain important occasions, the Open Cabildos of America were the people's tribunals, but these assemblies, where each and every citizen had the privilege of being heard, met in session but few times. It may be said that since the revolution of the party of the Comuneros of Castilla, Carlos V, Felipe II and the other kings governed South American possessions through their viceroy just as they pleased, excepting a few times when the people of the American colonies rose up in protest and succeeded in securing an audience. And s«» Spanish America was under an arbitrary form of government inspired by what personally suited the king and his delegates, as it is a well established fact that the South American colonies did not belong to Spain but were the exclusive property of the king. We read in the book entitled "Memorias Sobre la Influencia Social de la Conquista Colonial de los Espanoles en Chile" (Treatise on the Influ- ence of Spanish Colonial Conquest on Chilean Society), by the eminent Chilean writer Lastarria, the following: "The Cabildos of the Chilean part of the population had no other sphere of action than the jurisdiction intrusted to the Town Mayors and tlie i)olice i)owers conferred upon the couucilmen in such cases as the law prescribed, or on the will of the ofBcial governing the colony in the name and as representa- tive of the monarch. This institution was therefore of no benefit to the people; on the contrary, it favored and was devoted to the throne on which its existence depended. It was in fact, though of secondary importance, an instru- ment of the will of the king and his individual interests. We can therefore establish beyond a doubt the fact that the despotic monarchy in all its deformity and with all its vices teas the political form of government from which our society sprang and developed, for such was its constitution and its 152 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT mode of being during all of the colonial era. This political form of government spread its corrupting influence in our society all the more energetically for the reason that to this system alone was reserved the right to create, inspire and direct our habits, and further, that it was supported by the religious power with which it formed a confederacy on which was founded the theoretic omnipotent despotism that con- quers all." The Cabildo of Buenos Aires consisted of twelve members, four of whom were life appointees, and the balance for a certain specified number of years. In smaller cities the Cabiidos had from six to twelve members according to their importance, besides exercising duties in the administration of justice, such as Mayor Ordinary, Judge of Festivals, Police Judge, Prosecutor, Defender of the Poor, etc. Another factor which robbed this assembly of the emi- nently popular characteristic that the municipal spirit of the institution required, was the presence of the Governor, who was its President Inherent, and though he had no voice in the proceedings, he had the right to vote in case of a tie. Therefore, the influence that the presence of a magistrate invested with such authority had on the members of the Cabildo, can well be imagined. Notwithstanding this, the Cabiidos gave legal recognition to the struggle for inde- pendence right at its incipiency, as they assumed the repre- sentation of the people in the absence of the legal authority, on the imprisonment of the sovereign. "This deficiency in the guarantees offered by the Spanish government, will be the cause for the first disturbance within the patriotic government, the proceedings of which are a re- production of the Colonial government; the same tyranny over the masses by the small oligarchy in control of the government; the same lack of respect for public opinion, which is not in any way consulted in public matters; the same dictatorial and despotic manner in dealing with the various sections of the country, which compose the nation." When the divers divisions of what once constituted the POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 153 great domain belonging to the King of Spain, secured their independence, the newly constituted governments followed the same despotic methods of government. Buenos Aires established since 1810, a government under the direction of a society of influential individuals, who, though cultured, did not understand the rudimentary principles of a free govern- ment. This society was known as *'Logia Lautaro," a secret order founded by Miranda, which continued to rule despite the fact that it did so in violation of the law, inasmuch as public matters should not be carried on secretly. This group of well-intentioned but politically unfit citizens were the rightful heirs of Spanish political incompetence based on despotism. All the civil wars which have taken place can be attributed to the inefficiency in governmental affairs, inherited from the mother country. Yet practice and experience have enabled the South American countries to become exemplary governments, many of which could serve as models of progressivism for some of the governments of Europe, specially as some of the latter are just beginning their apprenticeship in the matter of government organization deserving of popular approbation. In this connection we ask: "How many lustrums will elapse before they become thoroughly republican forms of govern- ment?" Not long, let us hope, for the people have awakened and buried the crowns deep in the ground. Following their independence, the three northern repub- lics — Venezuela, Nueva Granada and Ecuador — formed a confederacy under the name of Colombia, selecting as their first President, the Liberator Bolivar. This confederacy was short-lived, as Bolivar's resignation brought about its dissolution and the organization of three separate and in- dependent states was effected, as follows : Venezuela, a fed- eral republic; Colombia, a unitarian republic, formerly federal ; Ecuador, a unitarian republic. Peru, Bolivia, Chile, Uruguay and Paraguay are unitarian republics. Argentina and Brazil, the two most important countries of South America, have adopted a federal form 154 SOUTH AMERICA PAST AND PRESENT of government with a constitution patterned after that of the United States of America. As to the relations between Church and State, all these re- publics exercise religious liberty, but in Argentina, in Chile, and in the other Spanish-speaking countries, the Church has maintained its influence to the extent that it has pre- vented the enactment of laws granting divorce, with excep- tion of Uruguay, which has the most progressive legislation of all the countries of South America. Both Uruguay and Brazil have separated the State from the Church. Primary education is compulsory in all the different South American states, and the university training in some of them competes with leading European countries and with the United States of America. The primary schools of Uru- guay and Argentina show a superior rating over those of France, Italy and Spain. Other places show a large per- centage of illiteracy, particularly where the indigenes are in the majority. All the mediums that modern civilization has to offer for the general advancement of the individual — primary and technical institutions of learning, scientific societies, up-to- the-minute illustrated magazines and dailies, fashion estab- ments, municipal water plants, heating plants, sewerage systems, comfortable public conveyances, luxurious theatres, electric lighting systems, magnificent hotels, etc., etc. — are to be found in all large cities and important commercial centers of South America. The large operatic companies of Milan, Italy, visit Buenos Aires and Montevideo every winter, remaining during the months of May, June, July, and August. Dramatic, light- opera and vaudeville companies frequently visit Buenos Aires, Montevideo, Rio Janeiro, Santiago and other large cities. The modistes and tailors offer the very latest Parisian creations, and as to general innovations, many new inven- tions are introduced in South America before they become known in Europe, for in order to avoid European competi- POLITICAL ORGANIZATION 155 tion, the merchants turn to South America with all the novelties that the mind of the inventor can conceive. There is no restriction to the admission of men of all nationalities and the use of passports is unknown. Every- body enters and leaves the ports without permission of any kind, provided the individual is not a notorious vagrant or criminal. It is not supposed that the color of the skin im- parts either intellectual or moral superiority, neither is it feared that the labor of the foreigner will in any way hurt that of the native, as is the belief of the North Americans, Australians and South Africans, who bar the Japanese and the Chinese. Intellectual superiority belongs to him who studies and toils the hardest. The member of the small negro population that remains in the La Plata, is not only mentally and morally the e