PRACTICAL POTATO CULTURE BY E. A. ROGERS PRICE FIFTY CENTS Practical Potato Culture By ^ E. A. Rogers Brunswick Maine MR. E A. ROGERS PEMHSYLVANfA DEPABTMENTOr AGRICULTURE. HARAISBURG Jmaxiarj 29,191S ilr. J. B. Hainaa, Ballsy Building;, Philadelphia, Pa. My dear Slrs- 1 understand that you are about to publish a book oa Potato Oulture by B. A. Rogers of Maine. Mr. Rogers prepared a bulletin for this Department on Potato Culture , whloh was published in 1910, which was very satisfactory to this Department and proved to be of great value to the potato growers of this State. I shall look with anxiety for the appearance of your publication shlch I feel sure will be well received by potato growers throughout the country. Sery truly yours. Secretary ct AgriculXwre Introduction ^"^p^^ To the readers of this treatise on the potato I have but to state that I receive so many inquiries each year as to our Maine methods of growing this crop that it is impossible for me to answer and give the information asked for in a letter. Two years ago I was asked by the Secretary of Agriculture of the State of Pennsylvania to prepare a bul- letin on the potato. This I did, and it was issued as bulletin No. 190 of the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture, Harrisburg, Pa. I only had a few weeks in which to pre- pare this work and was unable in the short time at my dis- posal to make the work as complete as it should have been. Nevertheless, it was considered of value enough so that a year later the great Pennsylvania Railroad reissued it in an abridged form for distribution to the farmers along its lines, and up to November, 1911, had been obliged to print the third edition to supply the demand for it. In December, 1911, the manager of the New England Industral Bureau of the N. Y., N. H. & H., the Boston & Maine and the Maine Central R. R. wrote, asking the au- thor's permission to publish the original bulletin for dis- tribution throughout New England. This permission was readily given, for while the orig- inal bulletin was not as complete as desired, I felt that it might be of value to many. Nevertheless, I have no doubt but what it will increase the number of letters asking for information that come to me. In order that I can fully answer these personal in- quiries, I have revised and rewritten those parts of the original bulletin which I considered incomplete. I also have added a few more pages on the home garden and its protection from insects, which is growing to be of more and more importance to us each year as the cost of living increases. I am not going to attempt to say that all the methods as laid down in the following pages relative to growing pota- toes in Maine will be equally as productive in every state. The principles of soil preparation and the use of com- mercial fertilizers must be the same in one state as another. So will the keeping and preparation of seed, the fighting of ■^'01.^^43407 all insects without the injury to the vines, as is now so often done, be the same, whether in Maine or Colorado. The methods of cultivating may differ somewhat, depending on the amount of rainfall in different states, but even this is a mooted question. I have simply put down facts as they apply to Maine's conditions, with as great a variety of soil as will be found in any state. They have proved sound for Pennsylvania condi- tions and will, I believe, prove equally as valuable for Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Wisconsin or any other of our two Northern tiers of states. I ask my readers to re- member as they peruse these pages that they are the work of an everyday farmer, and one of the objects in writing this book is to save the author's time in the busy seztson answering questions by letter to those who desire to learn how it is that Maine leads every other large potato grow- ing state in yield per acre. Theory is not fact, and while theory helps the scientist on his way to work out many problems, it will not feed the nation; that is done by you and I, the hard-working farmers of this broad Isuid. To make many phases of the work more clear anrl understandable to my readers I have used as far as pos- sible photographs of the different farm implements, each doing some portion of the work which it was designed to do. I have taken as far as possible those makes of imple- ments which will do the work shown by the photograph in the best possible manner, and to help out my readers who desire to purchase implements of this kind I have given the name of the manufacturers, who are in every case honest, reliable firms. I have no interest whatever in the manufacture of any of these implements, with the excep- tion of the dry dusting machines, but give the information wholly for the benefit of my readers and a desire to make this work of the greatest possible value to them. Yours truly, E. A. ROGERS. Sec'y Johnson Seed Potato Co., Brunswick, Me. General Offices, Leominster, Mass. GENERAL CONDITIONS The great bidk of the potatoes consumed in the United States during the late fall and winter months 4 probably will be grown for a generation at least in the northern tier of states, as they are today. There are sec- tions in most of these states where enormous quantities could be grown with profit where but few are produced today. As the population of the country increases, there will be an ever increasing demand for the potato, for there is no vegetable grown so generally used by all classes. There is also a Vv^ide demand for better quality than is now raised in many sections, and a more intelligent system of getting them to the consumers' table, with the natural quality unimpaired, than is now the case. The culture of this important crop has not received the attention in certain localities that it deserves, for there are but few crops grown that will so quickly r€- spond to intelligent care and culture as will the potato. The value of the crop per acre ranks with the highest in those sections where the crop is studied and modern methods and machinery are used. That this can be made to be true in many other localities where at present the culture is limited, or if followed in the old way produces but little or no profit to the grower, few who are familiar with the subject will deny. The following statistics obtained from the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Statistics, for the year 1908, are here given, showing the relative standing of the seven leading potato states of the coun- try, both as to acreage and yield per acre. For con- venience of comparison, I give them in order of the largest acreage first: State. Acreage. Average Yield- Per Acre. New York 425,000. 82 bushels Michigan 325,000 72 bushels- Pennsylvania 277.000 72 bushels' Wisconsin 252,000 80 bushels Ohio 170,000 77 bushels Minnesota 145.000 70 bushels Maine 116,000 225 bushels By this table it will be seen that while Maine comes seventh on the list in number of acres planted, she is second in point of yield, the average per acre being over three times as great in Maine as in Michigan and Penn- sylvania, and practically three times as large as in Min- neso'ta, Ohio and Wisconsin and 23-4 as large as in New York. Maine, with her 116,000 acres planted, harvested a crop of 26,100,000 bushels, while Pennsylvania, with an acreage planted of 277,000 acres, only harvested 19,944,- 000 bushels; or, with 161,000 more acres planted, she did not harvest as mauiy potatoes by over six million bushels. Michigan had over two and three quarters times as many acres planted as did Maine, zmd harvested less by 2,700,000 bushels. That this is wholly or largely the re- sult of better climatic and soil conditions in Msune, I do not believe. The conditions in Maine, one year with another, may be, and probably are, more favorable than they rule in Pennsylvania or Michigan. I do not, how- ever, believe that this is true of New York. From a thor- ough knowledge of Maine conditions, I have been able to compare them with the conditions I have found in my travels throughout New York, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, Pennsylvania and several other states, and it is my firni belief that the attention given the culture, with protection against insects and blight, along with a crop rotation suited to the potato itself, has more to do with the great differ- ence in yield found between Maine and those other states than more soil and climatic conditions. In this view, I believe I am supported by the yield gotten by individuals in practically all the above-named states, who have given the potato conditions suitable for its best development, which any farmer can do in any state named, who has gotten yields from 300 to 500 bushels per acre. . If such yields as the above can be gotten in indi- vidual cases by proper fitting of the soil and fertilization, there can be no question but what the same effort put' forth by the potato growers of any state would increase the yield per acre nearly, if not quite, up to that of Maine. ROTATION . The potato grower should have a certain fixed sys- tem of crop rotation in order to get the best results. No haphazard method will pay in a series of years, and this rotation will have to be varied to 'suit the different localities. In the southern sections, where winter wheat is grown, a different system will be luund necessary than in northern and mountainous regions. The Maine potato grower usually has either a three or four year rotation. First, potatoes on broken sod. Second, grain, usually oats or spring wheat, which is sown as early as the ground is in condition to be properly worked, grass and clover being sown along with the oats or wheat. Third and fourth years, hay, unless a three-year rotation is practiced, when hay will only be cut the third year, plow- ing under the second crop of clover for potatoes. This is sometimes varied by planting corn the second year, seeding to grass and clover at the last working of the corn, which in Maine usually comes in the first ten days of July. As fine a stand of grass and clover is usually obtained by seeding in this manner as it is possible to obtain with any system of seeding with small grains. There is one disadvantage, in that the first year's hay will contain more or less corn stubble ; this is of no con- sequence if the ha}^ can be fed on the farm and is not intended for sale. This following of potatoes with corn allows an ap- plication of barn dressing to be applied to land that is in the potato rotation, with but little if any injury to the potato crop, as it will be so far used up by the corn and hay crops before potatoes will again come into the rota- tion that the chances of rot or scab from this cause are slight. The application of barn manure will greatly help both corn and the newly seeded grass and clover. If oats were to be sown, it would not do to apply this barn dressing, as it is almost sure to result in lodged grain, which means a killing out of the clover in the lodged portions of the field, and a failure of the grain to fill. This rotation should do as well for other states as it does for Maine, but in the southern sections, where corn is planted on sod, followed the second year with pota- toes, crimson clover, winter vetch, or some other humus- supplying crop should be sown in the corn, if large crops of potatoes are to be expected. No farmer who follows a system of rotation which places the potato second can hope to get maximum crops. SOILS FOR POTATOES The potato must have well-drained soil; no amount of care in selecting seed and cultivation or surface drain- age after planting will avail, the potato will not produce a paying crop of nice, marketable tubers in a soil filled with stagnant water. The deep sandy or gravelly loams are without question the best. Not only will the potato, as a rule, grow better in this kind of soil, but they are more easily worked. The successful potato grower knows that it is largely a question of doing the work at just the proper time, and a deep sandy or gravelly loam can be worked sooner after rains, and little delay will be caused in the work by our short summer rains on this kind of land. Clay loam, if not too heavy, will produce just as many bushels per acre as will the lighter soils and of just as good qual- ity, provided the soil is well drained; the disadvantage of the heavier soils is in the working of them in wet weather, which may delay planting in spring, and prevent cultiva- tion to such an extent that the weeds may get a start, not to be overcome with any system of cultivation, except hand-work, which is too costly and slow to be consid- ered in these days of high-priced labor. Some of the largest yields I have ever seen, running from five to six hundred bushels per acre, and of the very finest quality, were grown on clay loam soil, and a farmer having such a soil need not despair of entering potato growing in com- petition with his more favored neighbors, who may have an easily worked sandy or gravelly loam. UNDERDRAINAGE The value of underdrainage to land intended for potatoes cannot be overestimated. In many cases the whole cost of putting in a system of tile underdrain will be mo^e than paid back by the increase in the first year's crop. In fact, if there were any places in the field where water was wont to stand after rains, this is most sure to be the case. When we consider that a properly laid sys- tem of tile drain will last for a lifetime or longer, with its beneficial effects on all crops every year, it becomes one of the most profitable investments any farmer can make. The farmer will understand that this applies especially to those fields which are springy or with depressions in them where the water stands after rain. Such places iH^^/p^y^ ^S u i j^Pfe ^^ IT' Mht^ 59^ «.' ggy ''X^'gl ^K» BiylM t;n' '.•...'•/» will not produce a paying crop of potatoes, no matter how much care is given in the way of fertilization, cul- tivation and spraying, until the surplus water from those places is removed by underdrains. The increase in the crop from these underdrained wet places is only a part of the value of this work to the potato grower, as a wet, springy place or depression where the water may collect after a rain will so reduce the vigor of the crop, if not killing it outright in these places, that blight will very often start ; spreading from these to the higher portions of the field, with the result that the whole field will be ruined when, but from these sources of infection, it would have escaped. An undrained sag in a potato field is a menace to the whole field, for it is a breeding place for the late blight or rot, and furthermore, even in a dry season, when pota- toes can grow in such a place, they are seldom fit for market, being rough and ill shapen and of poor quality. PREPARING LAND FOR POTATOES In taking up the preparation of land for white potatoes I shall have to divide it into several sections in order to suit each kind of soil and to properly describe how to work up the vegetable matter that grows on each. To the average grower the preparation of a potato field is of more importance than the kind of soil, always provided it is well drained. I believe we have very little workable land which cannot by intelligent methods be made to produce a paying crop of potatoes. Land which is too wet needs drainage ; land which is naturally too dry can, by supplying it with plenty of humus or vegetable matter, be made to hold plenty of moisture to produce a paying crop. With the potato, I believe, more than with any other crop does success depend on the man than on the soil itself. Potatoes need a large amount of available moisture, not stagnant water which excludes the air, but moisture in such a way that air can circulate freely through the few inches of the top soil and the more vegetable matter or humus, the more moisture it can hold and stiU have this air circulation. There is no crop I know of that will so rapidly use up vegetable matter from the soil as will the potato, and the more humus the soil contains the greater will be the re- sultant yield ; and the lack of humus or vegetable matter 10 in our soil is, I believe, one of the greatest drawbacks the potato grower has to contend with today. For this reason, in the chapters that follow, I shall treat fully of the different methods by which the grower can obtain this vegetable matter with the least possible expense of time and labor. Again, after the grower obtains this, it is equally as important, if the very best results are to be obtained in crop production, that it be properly in- corporated into the soil. The system of planting corn on sod, following the next year with potatoes, deprives the potato of the vegetable matter it so badly needs, and in many cases reduces the yield of tubers below a paying basis, and one of the greatest problems of the potato grower is how at the minimum cost to supply this vegetable matter. In those sections w'here crimson clover can be sown at the last working of the corn with a fair prospect of get- ting a good growth, it will be found to be of benefit, but in the more northern sections and mountainous portions, where corn is not so much grown, the same system of cul- ture and rotation that is practiced in Maine can be followed successfully with some slight variations. On an old meadow which has been down to grass for several years and covered with a heavy sod, there will be found to be vegetable matter enough in the sod to produce a large crop of tubers if a liberal application of chemicals or ready mixed commercial fertilizer is used. Having such a sod, the next thing is to so prepare it that the potato crop will derive the maximum benefit from it. The chapters immediately following will give some of the best known methods. Subduing a New England Witch-Grass Sod This is known locally also as quack, couch, wild rye and Johnson grass, and the methods described for fitting a sod of this kind for potatoes is equally as good for any other kind of grass, but usually the work does not have to be so thoroughly done, therefore is not so expensive. Land with a tough w^tch-grass-bound sod, such as is found in New England, must have a dift'erent and longer prepara- tion before it can be planted to potatoes than any that is usually found in most other sections of our country. Again, the more northern sections can and should use 11 a different method than would give the best results farther south. While witch-grass is not confined wholly to the New England states, there is practically no farmer there but what knows what it is, with its long white roots with a very sharp point which will grow right through a good sized tuber. It starts its growth early in the spring and if the roots are cut or broken will send up new stalks from every root joint. Probably it has driven more New Eng- land boys from the farms than any one thing, and where allowed to get a good start in a potato field makes it im- possible to dig such a field with any digger yet made with any degree of success. Witch-grass is one of the greatest curses to New England agriculture and one of the greatest blessings also (when you have gotten rid of it), for one having a good sod of this kind is sure of raising fine pota- toes if he will simply kill it out and make plant food of it. Potatoes will grow smoother upon it than they will on a clover sod and be of the finest quality. To subdue a field of this kind the work must be begun the year previous to planting potatoes, and if the land is in grass this should be cut just as the witch-grass begins to blossom, as the roots then seem to be at their most ex- hausted period. As soon as the hay is gathered in, work should be commenced to kill out the grass, and on land free from stone a double cutaway harrow is a fine imple- ment. In using this method the ground should not be plowed until the sod has been entirely killed out by har- rowing. The disks should be ground sharp and the harrow weighted, and if three or four horses can be spared for the harrow the more quickly and thoroughly can the work be done. The field should be gone over both lengthways and crosswise, cutting us as deeply as the harrow will do the work. The field should be gone over at least once a week with the harrow for the first few weeks and then as often as any of the roots show any signs of sprouting, even as late as October. I have at this stage sown winter rye and plowed down in the spring, but there is most sure to be some of the witch-grass roots which would not be quite dead and would make growth after the rye was sown, springing into vigorous life after the rye was plowed down in the spring. Thus, one wanting to make a sure kill of the grass had bet- ter leave the rve out even if there is some loss of nitrates 12 by leaching during the winter. There will be such a mass of dead vegetable matter that the soil is not exposed to winter leaching like plowed land, which will make humus, pulverized and mixed all through the top, five or six inches of soil. As soon as the soil can be worked in the spring start the harrow again going, both crosswise and length- ways, as before. If the work has been done thoroughly there should not be a live root on the field, but there will be an immense amount of dead vegetable matter. Photo No. 3 shows a double-action cutaway harrow made by the Cutaway Harrow Co., Higganum, Conn., cut- ting up and pulverizing a heavy timothy red top and witch- grass sod in early September, 1912, for a crop of potatoes in 1913 on the author's home farm, Mere Point Brunswick, Maine. The reader will note the mass of vegetable matter that has already been w'orked up. This in itself is a good protection against winter leaching. The field is now ready to be plowed, and this should be done deeply, not less than eight, and ten inches is much better for potatoes, turning down this top soil with its mass of vegetable matter into the bottom of the furrow. Go over the field both ways again with the double cutaway, followed by the smoothing harrow, and we have the whole depth plowed a finely pulverized seed bed with the witch-grass sod entirely killed and in the best possible place and condition to make the potato crop grow. It will now act as storage for moisture and not prevent the sub- soil moisture from coming to the surface by capillary at- traction, as would have been the case had it been plowed down without being first cut up and mixed with the soil. No harm will be done on land worked in this manner by plowing as deep as mentioned above, even if an inch or two of the hard subsoil has been turned on top. We have got to have a few inches of the soil that is on top for our dust mulch, and this subsoil we have turned up will do nearly as well as any and gives the potato crop all the nice soil to grow in. The cost of w'orking a witch-grass sod in this way is about ten dollars per acre, previous to plowing. The work after plowing is less, as less discing is needed to make a perfect seed bed. The yield per acre is very much more, as the intense cultivation required to kill the grass roots makes the soil more productive, and the reduction in the cost of handling the crop after planting more than offsets 14 the cost of the work to kiU the grass. Hsmdling a Northern Timothy, Red Top and Clover Sod In describing the working up of a witch-grass sod the everyday fanner will know that the witch-grass seldom grows entirely alone, but has mixed with it timothy and usually some red top, and at times some clover, although the clover stands but little show when the witch-grass is thick or has had time to form a heavy sod. Hence, any land that has the witch-grass in it should be worked as de- scribed in the previous chapter. A good timothy and red top sod can be as thick on the ground as the quack, but is not usually as deep, and as this can be readily killed out, the harrow need not be started until spring, when the work can be thoroughly done unless the land is intended for very early potatoes, wjien it is better to cut it up late the fall previous. No man who has not thoroughly tried this cutting up of the sod with a good cutaway harrow previous to plowing can begin to realize the benefit it is to the crop, the mixing of this decaying turf all through the soil and then plowing down works favorable to the crop in many ways. The old method in Maine was to break the sod late h\ the fall. This, if followed by a dry season, was much bet- ter than turning it down just before planting in the spring. None of our general field crops need as deep plow- ing to do their best as does the potato; to break and turn down a sod in the fall and plow the land as deeply as the potato needs to do its best in is to put all that vegetable matter too deep into the soil for the best results. No har- row can be worked deep enough to touch it, amd the re- sult is that only a few inches of the top soil gets worked with the harrow at all, leaving this blanket of turf to re- tard the subsoil moisture from coming near enough to the surface to benefit the growing potatoes as it should and further denying them of the plant food the sod con- tains, which they could have used had the sod been prop- erly worked up previous to plowing. However, it is much better if a sod is not going to be cut up with a harrow to plow it down the fall previous to planting, then to wait until spring, especially if followed by a dry season. Land broken in the fall gets settled down together and decay sets in from the rains of winter and spring, so that there is much better capillary connection 15 through the turf than if the same field was spring plowed, and while it cannot be harrowed as deeply as it should be to get the best results in crop production, the same would hold true if it were spring plowed. In turning down a heavy sod in the spring without first cutting it up and mix- ing it with the first five or six inches of soil, we are deny- ing the crop to be planted, whether potatoes or anything else, not only of the greater part of the plant food the sod contains, but we are putting it in the worst possible place and condition to retard that crop's development, for with dry weather coming on the sod will not decay, and until it does none of the subsoil moisture can get near enough to the surface to be of any use in dissolving plant food for the crop to drink up. This working will apply equally as well to any clover field, either crimson or northern, wherever grown, South or North. It is a decided advantage in sprouting and kill- ing millions of w^eed seeds before the crop is planted. Subsoiling We see but little of late years about subsoiling, and there seems to be a sort of fad to plow very shallow for most every crop. This is a better system for corn and the small grains than for the potato. The deeper soil can be worked for potatoes the better, if it is done right. There is always a right and wrong way to do most any kind of farm work. Subsoiling, if done when and as it should be, will greatly increase the yield of potatoes, enlarge the water holding capacity of the soil and improve the crop of grain and hay which follow. Let a farmer take a field where the soil is somewhat thin, and which he had been plowing for years from five to not over seven inches, and put on a heavy team with a big plow, and plow twelve, turning up from four to fi\e inches of hard subsoil with all of his good soil underneath and there could be but one result, and that a bad one. Yet that subsoil contains elements of plant food in much more abundance than the top soil which he has turned down, but it is to a very great extent deficient in humus or vegetable matter, and it will make but little difference to most crops how much potash and phosphoric acid it may contain, it is unpalatable to them, and they will not thrive upon it until in course of time it becomes filled with decaying vegetal)lc matter. 16 On some farms, cultivated as they are, this might take years. Therefore, unless a farmer clearly knows what he wants and just how to go about it, he had better let sub- soiling alone. Dig a well, twenty feet or more deep, in my section of Maine, and take the clear blue clay from the very bot- tom of it and spread it on the ground and clover will come up and grow finely upon it, but not many other plants would. I have pulverized clear blue clay to the depth of two feet and planted potatoes in it and they have done finely, and no smoother, finer tubers were ever taken from the ground than these out of this clear blue clay. I cite these cases simply to call attention to the possi- bilities that lie in our soil below what the common farmer is cultivating. When the potato grower has worked up his sod as I have described under "Subduing a New England Witch- grass Sod/' and starts his plow at the depth I have named, if he will follow with another team with a good subsoil plow, running it as deep as he can, the deeper, the better, but not turning this up on top of the other soil, simply hreaJking it up and loosening it in the bottom of the furrow, he will find that not only will his potatoes pay him a big price for the work done by an increased yield, but the other crops that follow will for years do the same. By doing this in this way he has greatly enWged the soil's water holding capacity, which in a dry season may for this reason alone make him a good crop of tubers, when with- out it his crop would have been a failure. Potato roots will penetrate deeper into this in a dry season than many will believe. When seeded to the grasses and clovers the clover roots will fill this full of roots, gradually filling it with humus as they_ decay, deepening and making the land more pro- ductive as the years go on. _ I suppose I have heard hundreds of farmers say that their soil was not as deep as it used to be, and almost in- variably by inquiry I find that shallow plowing for corn and small grains has been the rule. I believe that in thousands of cases the growers of corn and small grains could, by working their land over as above described, planting to potatoes the year they sul)- 17 soiled, increase the production of their farms many per cent over what they are now getting. SubsoiUng, when rightly done, on many soils is a decided benefit. HOW TO GET HUMUS The control of moisture in land to be planted to potatoes is of great importance and cannot be secured by drainage alone, as it is largely a matter of the humus- content in the soil. One hundred pounds of clean, dry sand will take twenty-two pounds of water to saturate it ; one hundred pounds of our ordinary clay loam soil, perfectly dry, will take fifty-six pounds of water before it will become saturated, while one hundred pounds of perfectly dry leaf mold soil will take one hundred and ninety-six pounds of water to saturate it, or nearly nine times as much as it takes to saturate an equal number of pounds of sand, and three and one-half as much more as it takes to saturate our ordinary clay loam soil. With a soil deficient in humus, no amount of cultivation or commercial fertilizer in a dry season can make it produce a paying crop of potatoes, while a soil filled with humus can be made by cultivation to produce a paying crop even in a season of practically no rain. A clay loam soil, filled with humus, can be worked much quicker after a heavy rain than the same soil which is deficient in it, and the capacity of the humus-filled soil to hold moisture is so much greater, that w^ith intelligent shallow culti- vation, a good crop is practically assured. The control of moisture is not the only advantage of having a soil filled with humus. The rock-formed soils of the eastern portion of our country are filled with mineral plant food. It has been claimed by leading scien- tific men that the top eight inches of our heaviest loams contains potash enough to raise maximum crops from two to four hundred years, and phosphoric acid from one hundred and fifty to three hundred years, but they are locked up in an insoluble form ; a wise provision, in- deed, to prevent man from leaving the face of nature a barren waste. Fill a soil with humus, which is decaying organic matter, and the acids formed in this process help to break down and set free some of this locked- up plant food. The second eight inches contains as much or even more mineral plant food than the first. The 18 productiveness of our soils depends more largely upon their humus-content than upon any other one thing, and one of the first objects of the potato grower should be to fill his soil with this decaying vegetable matter. In studying to replenish the organic content of our soils, we should keep in mind those plants which will also supply nitrogen, as this is the most costly element of plant food we have to buy, and both humus and nitro- gen can be supplied to our soils by the legumes. Of these, alfalfa stands at the head, but owing to the short rotation usually carried out by the potato grower, it is but little used. With those who have land enough to adopt a five-year rotation for their potato crop, and facilities for keeping stock to use up the alfalfa on their farms, I know of no crop which will give better returns. Alfalfa makes a very large root-growth, which will pene- trate deeply, even into a hard clay sub-soil, bringing up fertility from below, increasing greatly the water-hold- ing capacity of the soil, and at the same time gathering and storing the costly nitrogen. None of our clovers have the soil-renovating capacity equal to alfalfa, and the potato grower, having a three-year-old alfalfa sod to plow under, can grow a good crop of potatoes with the smallest amount of commercial fertilizer. Alfalfa can be grown on most any well-drained soil, and as it seems to thrive best when sowed in early August, it can follow early potatoes. The ground should be thoroughly worked previous to sowing the alfalfa to kill out the weed seeds; this, ot course, would be the case on land planted to early pota- toes, and this is one of the essentials, as the alfalfa plant, when young, is easily smothered out by weeds. Taking a field which has been worked in this manner and ap- plying a liberal amount of lime, not less than one ton per acre, well harrowed in with from one to three bushels of inoculated soil from a thrifty alfalfa field, sowing twenty-five to thirty pounds of the best north- ern-grown alfalfa seed about the first week in August, there will be no trouble in getting a stand of alfalfa which will last three years, giving a large amount of hay and putting the soil in the best possible condition for the growing of potatoes. Next to alfalfa, a heavy clover sod to plow under not only furnishes a large amount of vegetable matter, 19 but also many dollars' worth of nitrogenous plant food. Some authorities claim that a second crop of clover, with its root system, leaves in an acre of ground from 150 to 200 pounds of nitrogen, which, at the price the farmer has to pav, of eighteen to twenty cents per pound, would amount to from twenty-seven to forty dollars in nitro- gen, and the mechanical effect of plowing under this sec- ond crop of clover and sod, while not as great as with alfalfa, would be worth as much as the nitrogen to the potato grower. In many sections clover does not grow as well as it formerly did, and owing to this failure, many farmers have entirely stopped using it in their rotation, which must result in a great loss to the productivity of their farms. From my experience, there are two main causes for this failure of clover to grow, and I think these two will prove to be the case in ninety out of every one hundred cases, taking the country as a whole. These are, first : The lack of lime; clover needs a great deal of lime. Bum clover hay and a certain per cent of the ashes will be found to be lime, which shows that the plant needs more or less in its stock-growth, and unless lime is present in the soil, the bacteria, which lives on the clover roots and gathers nitrogen from the air for the plant to use, cannot live, or at least will not develop to the extent of being of much use to the clover crop. Second: If, after applying lime, the farmer still finds that his clover refuses to grow, he may be very sure that an application of phosphoric acid will be the one thing now lacking to give him as bountiful crops as he has ever grown in the past. The potato grower cannot afford to do without one of these two crops, alfalfa or clover. WINTER VETCH. Next in value to alfalfa and clover as humus pro- ducers, I should place winter vetch, especially for the northern states. This is sown with winter rye by a good many, as the rye will hold the vetch up, it is easier to plow under. In my experience, to sow the vetch with rye brings the seeding of the vetch too late to get as good stand as is to be desired, although many do this with good results. In the more northern states, I believe July to be the best time to sow winter vetch. Vetch has 20 one drawback, while it is one of the very best soil im- provers known to agriculture today, unless handled rightly it can become a troublesome pest in our fields. This is one of the reasons I dislike to sow it with rye, as sown as late as the rye will have to be in order for it not to make too large growth before winter, it is seldom that all the vetch will sprout and grow the first season, but will keep coming up for two or three years at least, as soil and weather conditions become favorable to i^. This will bring more or less of it over into the grain and hay crops, and while not so bad to have in the hay, espe- cially if the hay is to be fed on the farm, it is unde- sirable to have in the grain, from every point of view. Again, as vetch ripens more or less of its seeds early, it is most sure to reseed itself in the hay field. I have one small patch, which was sown to vetch alone about September 15, 1909. The weather being somewhat dry, the germination was not of the best, and it made but little growth that fall, but what was there developed finely the next spring, and by early June I had all that was possible to turn under with a big breaking- up plow. Corn was then planted, and at every cultiva- tion a liberal sprinkling of vetch plants was noted com- ing from seed which failed to sprout the fall previous. The following season, 1911, it was again plowed and planted to melons, and a goodly number of plants de- veloped after the last working of the melons. Some of these developed into the largest, finest vetch plants I have ever seen, there being individual specimens by October 20th that measured over 8 feet across, forming a fine, close mat over the soil ; as fine a winter covering as I have even seen. None of the plamts were ever allowed to seed, so there can be no doubt in this instance but what all came from the first sowing of seed in September, 1909. Those who follow potatoes after corn can sow the vetch in the corn at the last working in July, and unless the season should finish very dry, would be almost sure to have it all germinate. Sown at this early date, not near the amount of seed would be needed per acre as is usually called for. The plants would spread out over the ground, covering it nicely and make a vigorous and early start the following spring, and excepting where very early " potatoes were to be planted, would give a large amount 21 of highly nitrogenous vegetable matter to plow down, and early enough in the season for any except the very early potatoes. Rightly handled, there need be no trouble of having it become a pest, and as it can be successfully grown in the northern states, it takes the place in the north that crimson clover occupies farther south. A farmer having a field he wishes to plant to potatoes, which is deficient in vegetable matter, can get a larger amount of highly nitrogenous vegetable matter in a shorter time with vetch than any other plant I know of, but I would advise, in the northern states at least, that it be sown in July or August. WINTER RYE. ' Probably winter rye is one of the most, if not the most largely grown crop for plowing under green that we have. The fact that it can be sown very late in the fall is perhaps one reason for this. It needs only to get well sprouted to pass through most any winter, and will make a good growth even on poor soil. The amount of nitrogen it will return to the soil is, of course, small, as compared to the clovers, vetch, peas or beans, but with it one can greatly increase the humus content of the soil, which is one of the first re- quirements in building up top-worn or run-out soils. With a liberal application of barn dressing, I have had it make a growth by early June of over seven feet, and this on poor soil. A growth of this kind is not to be desired, for while it can be plowed down as easily as a shorter growth, it is apt to be woody, and does not decay very readily in the soil, and in case of dry weather following, it holds up the furrows and dries out the soil, to the injury of any crop planted or sown immediately following its turning under. Probably the best stage of growth to plow down is when the rye is about twenty inches high, before it com- mences to head out. For this reason it can and should be sown much thicker when intended for this purpose than if desired to ripen for grain. Humus is so badly needed in poor, thin soils that a whole season had better be given to filling the soil on 22 a field ^\•here potatoes are to be planted, if a profitable crop is to be expected. If some bam dressing can be spared to give the rye a good start there will be a large amount ready to plow down by the last of May in our Northern states, then Japa- nese Millet can be sown, and by August 20th a much heavier crop of Millet will be ready to turn down than we had of rye. Now, if winter Vetch is sown, there will be a heavy crop of this ready the following spring, in ample time for a medium, early or late crop of potatoes. By this means the soil will be filled with vegetable matter, and a part of it at least containing a large portion of nitrogen. To be sure, one season's cropping has been entirely given up to this vjork, but it means so much larger crops in the years to come that one can hardly afford not to do it. It is a comparatively easy matter for the thought- ful farmer to keep the humus content of his soil up to where it will produce good crops after it has once been brought up to that desired state, but unless a season is taken for this work in the beginning, the average man will crop it for years, getting only barely enough to pay him for his labor, when it might have been growing him immense and paying crops every year. To start with a thin soil that will only produce a small crop of rye, and turn it down and crop it with potatoes, is to use up practically all the vegetable matter we have got with the rye, which would not be enough in any case to grow a paying crop of potatoes, and the soil would be in prac- tically the same condition as at first. As this would be the case each year, no great gain towards building up the soil to where it could produce maximum crops can be accomplished unless one season in the beginning be taken for this purpose. The potato grower who is using commercial fertilizers should remember that he must have a large supply of humus in his soil, or he will get but little benefit from the use of the fertilizer used, and he, of all men, cannot af- ford to neglect adopting a system to replenish this moisture-holding, life-giving quality to his soil. TWO MAIN CAUSES OF THE DETERIORATION OF THE POTATO Within the memory of living men, all one had to do 23 to raise an abuiulance of potatoes, was to plant them; it did not much matter how, as long as the seed was covered by soil. Methods of culture, which at that time produced a large crop of tubers, if followed today, would hardly pay for the seed planted. The vigor of the pota- to in those days enabled it not only to produce an abundant crop of tubers, but to produce its true seed under the worst cultural methods. The date of the de- cline of this vigor was the arrival east of the Colorado Potato Beetle. The injury done by this insect in stripping the vines of their leaves was one of the prime causes of this loss of vigor; another, and far greater cause, was the use of Paris green to kill the beetle and their larvae. These two causes, one destroying the foliage of the plant entire- ly and the other poisoning the life of the plzmt by the ab- sorbing of arsenic, acting year after year on practically the whole potato crop of the eastern part of the country, did an incalculable damage to the vigor of the potato. So much has the old-time vigor been impaired, that there are but few of the younger generation of farmers who have ever seen a potato boll, the true seed of the plant, the plants not possessing vitality enough to produce a good crop of tubers and the seed boll also. See photo No. 2. That the habit of producing seed bolls is more pro- nounced in some varieties than in others no one who is familiar with the subject will deny. There are some va- rieties which possess great vigor, but little in the line of producing tubers, especially of good quality, that grow the seed bolls even under the vigor-destroying condi- tions I have named, yet these are of little use to the grower. On the other hand, many of our best varieties, in point of yield and quality of tubers will, if given proper culture and protection from insects and blight in a man- ner which will not in itself injure the vines, produce many of the seed bolls. There has not been a year for fourteen years when I have not been able to pick seed bolls in more or less abundance from varieties that are of the very best qual- ity for table use and largest in point of yield of tubers. New varieties have been constantly brought forward, many of them of great promise and vigor, only to run out in a few years, chiefly from the causes above given, but helped along in many minor ways. Many farmers 25 saved and planted only culls; these gave them good re- sults years ago, before the bug and the poison had de- stroyed the old-time vitality, but will not, except in rare instances, give a paying crop today. This is true also of many of the older varieties which have so far lost their vitalit}-. that it is practically useless to try and bring them back to productivity equal to some of the newer varieties. There can be no question but what there are thousands of farmers today planting potatoes of so low vitality that it is an impossibility for them to raise a pay- ing crop of tubers under any system of cultivation and pro- tection from insects and blights, even in a favorable sea- son. The remedy for the more Northern states is to get some newer strain and make careful selection each year from the best and most vigorous hills, coupled with a sys- tem of protection to the vines against insects sind blights that will not in itself destroy the vitality of the pleuits. Farther South, where the soil and climatic conditions are more unfavorable, there was a still more rapid decline, and even in those sections where the second crop is grown for seed there is a disposition to get Northern-grown seed every few years as a new start, in order to keep up the vitality. There has been a widespread effort on the part of some of the Ex. stations in the last few years to get a potato of large yielding capacity and of good table qual- ity, that is blight-resisting, but, so far as I am able to learn, with but little success, owing, I firmly believe, more to those having the work in charge failing to realize the deadly influence the arsenical poisons have on the vitality of this plant. As a proof of my contention along this line, I refer my reader to Fig. 4 of a field of Green ^Mountain, Jr., potatoes, which is a four-year-old seedling, having been originated by W. E. Johnson, of Bowdoin, Me., in 1905. The parent stock had been carefully protected from blights and insect injury without the use of any arsenical poison for several years previous to producing the seed boll from which the Green Mountain, Jr., was originated. This field was planted on an old run-out field or knoll, too poor to produce even a fair crop of weeds, and was given no fertilizing material whatever, but was protected from insects and blight in the same manner as its parents had been without the use of the arsenical poisons. As 26 the reader will note from the cut, there is the most perfect development of vines and bloom possible to obtain, and this in the face of the most severe drouth Southern Maine has known in the memory of her oldest living inhabitant. The yield per acre of 354 bushels, while it would not be considered remarkable on a good clover sod with liberal fertilization in a year of normal rainfall, shows to what extent we can bring back the potato to its old-time vigor when we get back to first principles. Fig. 5 shows the field at digging, October 15th, 1909. If a blight-proof potato is ever found, it will be devel- oped along these lines, as it is a practical impossibility to produce a blight-proof variety when the methods of culture are such that every year saps to a greater or less extent the original vitality. More than this, there is lit- tle hope of getting a seedling from a seed boll grown on plants that have had their vitality weakened by arsenical poisoning, that will develop vigor enough to be blight- proof, but the plants producing the seed boll from which we will get, if we ever do, a blight-proof variety of good yield and quality, must have behind them a series of years of unimpaired vigor, which can never be obtained if insect injury or arsenical poisoning is allowed. The orchardist of Colorado has found to his sorrow that the use of Paris green has poisoned, not only his trees to their death, but his land as well. If we had the vigor in our potatoes today we had forty years ago, before the use of Paris green, with the methods of culture and fertiliza- tion we are now giving them, I believe we are putting it low to say that the yield would be double what we are now getting. POTATOES FOR SEED As I have shown in the previous chapter, "Two Main Causes of the Deterioration of the Potato," that seed of strong vitality is of vital importance to the grower, the losses from poor seed w^ould be staggering if fully realized. Many a farmer has given up the plant- ing of this crop, with the idea that his land was not suited to it, when a successful grower on other soil would have had no better success with the same seed. I have carried on experiments along this line for years, some of which have cost me mzmy hundreds of dollars, and in spite of fertilization, cultivation and protection against m- at :,.^ M"-.'-' ^^«ei^ 28 insects and diseases, the fact remains that the yield is large- ly governed by the seed we plant. No amount of care can produce a good crop from a iield that has come up weak and spindling. While such a state of affairs might, and does sometimes happen from other causes, it is mostly the result of poor seed. The true seed of the potato is in the potato boll, and the tuber is merely an enlargement of an underground stem, and as such it partakes of the character of the vine that produced it. If the vine was vigorous with ability to resist disease, just so sure will that tuber, if properly stored and planted, produce the same type of plant the next season, if kept free of all dis- ease. "Like begets like," and if tbbers are saved for seed from little, weak spindling- vines, we will have little, weak spindling vines in profusion the next year. It makes no difference whether those tubers come from vines weakened by disease, insects, climate conditions or arsenical poisoning, the vitality is lowered, and while extreme favorable soil and weather conditions will help greatly to produce a good crop from this kind of seed, the fact would remain that good seed planted on the same soil under the same conditions would have pro- duced a much better yield. Potatoes grown in the South rapidly lose their power to produce tubers, and it is sel- dom of much use to plant them even the second year. There is a belt that is too far north for the growing of the second crop for seed, and too far south to plant their own raising, which has to buy nearly all Northern-grown seed every year. To the grower who has to buy new seed every year from the North, it is of great importance to him to know something of the growing of that seed, and it is not out of place to point out a few methods in the growing, which the buyer should demand of the North- ern seed grower. Good seed is worth all it costs to grow it, but poor, weak seed is deau* at any price. There is a widespread prac- tice in Northern Maine of planting second-size potatoes without much attention being given to whether they come from vigorous hills or not. This is all wrong. Second-size potatoes taken from the bin year after year, can result in only one thing, the eaurly running out of the variety. Sec- ond size potatoes are all right for seed, provided they grew in hills showing vigor of plant and a goodly production of large, nice market tubers other than the one or more sec- 29 ond-size which the hill may contain. The practice of hill- selections of seed should be done, at least, every two or three years by the Northern grower, and every year will give better results. This involves some extra labor, but not so much as the average grower would think, and it is worth many times its cost. The process is simple, and more uniformity of selection can be had by confining one's self to the one-stalk hills in the field ; this can be varied, however, setting a standard for hills in about the ratio of not less than four nice potatoes large enough for market purposes to each hill of one stalk, and not less than seven, to each hill of two stalks, and ten, to a three-stalk hill, all grown from a single seed price. When the field to be selected from is from one-half to two-thirds ripened off, the grower, taking a bundle of twigs or sticks, goes over the field, up one row and down the next, and wherever there is a hill showing more vigor than the rest, marks it by placing one of the twigs, designating in this manner hills enough to furnish seed for the next season's planting. A little later when the field is ripe and ready for digging, it should be gone over with a hand-digging potato fork, and these marked hills dug out by this hand method. We know that all these marked hills have vigor that was apparent to anyone at the time the hills were marked, but what the grower did not know at that time, was whether or not they had desirability of tubers. It is not every vigorous hill that has tubers desirable for seed, either in number of tubers per hill or quality. Any marked hill that produces less tubers per stalk than we have set for our standard, should be discarded ; also any that varies in type from she original stock, or for any other reason, such as roughness or prongs. In making a selection in this manner, we have got the following points : First, vigor, which is of prime impor- tance, enabling the crop to be grown to withstand insects and blights without injury, when the weak stock, mixed in, which we have discarded by this selection, would be attacked by fungus diseases. This would spread to the more vigorous plants by being in such close proximity, and our whole field would die before it had grown a paying crop of tubers. Thousands of farmers have lost their potato fields at various times by having only a few weak, spindling hills there, which made breeding places for fungus diseases which would never have got started but for these weak hills. Second, the grower is getting all of his seed stock from 30 hills that have produced a good number of market-size tubers which greatly increase the yield. Third, it has enabled him to eliminate any desire to sport which is rampant in even some of our best varieties, and keeps any variety in which seed is being selected in this manner true to name, and puts a stop to so much of the seed stock sold to the Southern potato grower becoming badly mixed, which is one of the banes of some Northern grown seed. The seed grower making a selection of this kind for his own planting, his resultant crop is sure to give satisfaction to the purchaser who buys it to plant, and is worth much more to that pur- chaser. In my own experience I have had a single selection made in the above manner increase the yield the following year over one hundred bushels per acre over the same variety taken from the same field, but sorted out of the bin the following spring when desired for planting. This method of seed selection is as applicable to the farmers of other states as it is to the seed growers and farmers of Maine. In many cases this would do away with any need of sending North for seed stock, and the yield per acre would be doubled in a few years without any additional expense in growing the crop. In a section where it is not necessary to get new seed every year, one wishing to get a new variety or new stock of an old variety to grow seed to plant and not being able to buy seed grown from selected hills, should buy large size potatoes of the variety wanted that are smooth and free from disease. My rule is, where possible, not to take anything under a pound each of the medium late or main crop varieties. By so doing I am sure that the seed I get has vigor, for not little, weak, sickly hill or stalk ever produced a tuber to weigh a pound. Planting these, hill selection can be made from those hills producing the most tubers per hill in number and weight, and the pur- chaser has got new seed containing both vigor and pro- ductiveness at a minimum cost. In selecting seed stock on the above plan, the size of tubers would need to be governed somewhat by the variety ; for instance, with the Green Mountain or Norcross, a potato weighing a pound, is not an overgrown one, as in favorable conditions either variety will produce tubers smooth and nice weighing up to two and two and one-half pounds, and a tuber weighing a pound may be only one of a half-dozen grown on a single vigorous stalk, while on a variety like the Irish Cobbler potatoes weighing from one-half to three-quarters of a pound would indicate 31 vigor, and would be all right to plant to make a hill selec- tion from. %i[ #(P ^^^-^ ^■HiT* fl |»4P^ Photo No. 6. A plate of Clyde Potatoes. One of the best medium late potatoes grown in Maine today. Originated in l')02 by the Johnson Seed Potato Co. VARIETIES It is quite an important matter that the grower obtains a variety which will do well in his particular locality. It is a common occurrence to see two varieties planted on the same field, both receiving the same treatment and planted on the same day, one giving double the market tubers of the other, and the tubers of both being of the same general appearance, so much so that the ordinary grower would be unable to tell them apart. One would spell financial suc- cess and the other ruin. In those sections where the potato can be raised year after year without changing seed, the farmer has a chance to test out new varieties and seldom meets with heavy loss. Where new seed has to be bought every year for a large acreage and proves to be an inferior variety for that section, the loss is heavy. Again, a grower has got to conform to shape and color demanded by the market he sells in to get the most out of his crop. As a rule. the most of the large markets are demanding a round white 32 potato with a shallow eye, and many of these are of fine quality. Some of the best eating, largest yielding and blight- resisting varieties I know of, will not sell well in the City markets simply because the public judges them by color; but to the grower who largely retails his crop to his own cus- tomers, they are of value, as his crop, differing in color and perhaps shape, from the majority sold in his market, gives him an added individuality and helps him to build up and keep a fine local retail trade. There are many varieties which will not properly ma- ture if planted as late as June 1st and will skin badly when dug, and never get to market in shape to get the market price for good stock. There are but few of these grown in Maine, but this cannot be said of New York and Michigan, especially the latter, where a large proportion of the potatoes grown are of this type. Michigan would be the banner potato state in the Union today, if she had not got into the way of raising Rurals and other varieties of this class, which has killed her prestige in the potato markets. The time was not so many years ago w4ien Michigan largely governed the price in New York City, but that was before her farm- ers took to raising Rurals. Today Michigan potatoes sell about 15c per bushel less in New York City than does Maine stock. Yet Maine has much to learn along this line, she has no cause to cast reflections towards Michigan, the well graded ripened stock from Long Island brings from 50c to 75c per bbl. more than the Maine tubers. I firmly believe much of the soil of Michigan to be capable of pro- ducing as fine potatoes as Long Island and to command as high a price, but that will never come to pass wdth the varie- ties generally planted in that state at the present time. For one to lay down a list of varieties for any section to plant would be folly, this I shall not do, but will name a few only of the newer varieties which have proved good from Maine to Minnesota. In doing this I shall not name any of the older ones except perhaps the "Norcross." There are but few varieties of potatoes that do not begin to fail after their fifteenth year. For this reason it would be use- less for me to name a potato for a section like Michigan, where it will take from five to eight years to get them gen- erally disseminated, which has reached the age of fifteen years from the seed boll. To do so is to see the variety run out by the time it becomes generally known. Thus I shall name but three of the Medium late varieties, but varieties 33 which will ripen up good and hard when planted as late as June 1st to 15th, and which are as fine table tubers as can be grown. These are the Clyde, Green Mountain Jr. and Snow. See photos Nos. 6 and 7. The Clyde and Green Mountain Jr. are only seven and ten years from the seed boll, and the Green Mountain Jr. should not be confound- ed with the old Green Mountzun. The Snow is older, its age I am not sure of, but would place it around twelve years. These three potatoes will suit most any section, the Snow for light and sandy soils or light clay loam, the Clyde for heavy and clay soils, while the Green Mountain Jr. will do well on either if not too heavy clay or too light sand. These are three distinct varieties, yet they are so near alike in looks and eating qualities that no one can tell them apart in the market. Here in these three vau'ie- ties we have one that will suit the farmer who has light soil, as well ais the farmer with heavy, and which will suit the buyer and the market, for no one can tell them apart except the expert. I might go on and name several more which are good, but no better than these, but to do so would only tend to confuse, amd help no one. \\ hat any section needs which has a diversity of soils are varieties which will do v/ell on each, but which, when it conies to marketing will be alike as to shape, size, color and eating qualities, all of which are found in the above three. I shall say nothing abovit the Rurals or potatoes of that class, they have their place, but they should at least be planted early enough to get ripe before digging and near enough together to prevent being overgrown. Much of this unripe, overgrown stock is hardly fit to eat and is never a source of pride to the grower. As to early varieties the country today lacks a first class early potato. I shall mention but three or four and these with considerable mental reservation. The Irish Cob- bler is perhaps the most generally known in the East. It is roundish white and a good yielder in many localities, while perhaps but a few miles away its yield is very light. The eyes are apt to be deep and the stem end is sunken and its quality is not first class in many sections. The chief reason it is grown in the Xorth is to furnish seed for the early Southern crop, and the same can be said of the Red Bliss. Both of these potatoes have got to an age where they have done their best, but will be grown for some years yet for want of something better. The early Ohio is perhaps the 34 leading potato of the Central West. It is a better all-around potato than either the Cobbler or Bliss, it is reddish in color and when it grows well is of fine shape alid good quality. I will mention but one more of the Early sorts, and this is the Early White Albino. It is the least known of either 1 have mentioned, but ahead of them all as to quality and yield. Its color is white and of as good shape as the Early Ohio. See photo No. 8. Photo No. 7. Sliowing two liills of the Green Mountain Jr. potatoes. A large strong yielder orij;inated 1905 by the Johnson Seed Potato Co. SAVING POTATO BOLL SEED There seems to be a lack of knowledge among many as to the proper way to save the seed from the potato boll. From letters received by the author, it would seem that many who are so fortunate as tQ find seed bolls on their potato vines have difficulty in keeping the seed through the winter, and I am led to believe that they have tried to keep 35 the seed over in the pulalu IjuU itself. This is all wrong, and I do not believe it can be done in a satisfactory manner by the majority of those who try it. The seeds of the potato boll should be saved in the same manner as are the seed from the tomato. Take a small vessel and cut open the bolls and squeeze the seeds into it, getting as little of the pulp as possible. The vessel should not be tilled more than half full of seeds and pulp, but warm water should be added and the vessel con- taining the seeds set in a warm place for 36 to 48 hotu-s until the mess ferments so that the little seeds will wash clear from the pulp. Care will be necessary in doing this work or the seeds will be lost. After being well washed they should be dried. This leaves them clean and dry, eacli seed a free atom. There are about nine hundred thousand of the seeds in a pound. When planting some very fine rich soil should be taken. Old rotted cow manure four or live years old, well screened is good, as it will hold moisture better than common soil. The seeds should be planted the last of March either in a hot house, cold frame or even in a box in the kitchen window, and should be covered very slightly with the soil. This should be kept damp by fre- quent watering or by a piece of woolen cloth spread over the box until the seeds begin to break ground. With me they come up about as quickly as weed seeds and it is rare that any fail to germinate. They can be transplanted like tomatoes, and will in many cases give tubers the first year that will weigh a pound or over. This is contrary to the common belief, but I have had a single little plant trans- planted June 15th which yielded twenty-three market sized tubers with a total yield in weight of four and three-fourths pounds. ORIGINATING NEW VARIETIES Most new varieties are obtained from planting the true seed of the potato, which is found in the potato boll, the product of the blossom of the plant. These are as full of little seeds as are tomatoes, and there may be from a few^ dozen to several hundred seeds in each boll. Each separate seed produces a different variety. There is much more liability of the originators getting some new variety of value, if care has been exercised in growing the boll from whicli the seed has been obtained. Some varieties which grow 36 coarse, ill-shapen tubers, of very poor eating quality, seem to throw nearly, if not all their vitality into producing seed bolls. The varieties obtained from seed from bolls of this pedigree are most sure to be nearly, if not all, of the same Photo No. 8. A plate of early White Albinos, both as to quality and yield. A better early potato it would be hard to find, general characteristics as their parent. Probably not one in thousands will ever be of any value to the general potato grower. One wishing to originate new varieties should take one of our best standard varieties, and by a proper system of culture and protection from insects and blight, so build up its vitality that it will produce potato bolls. This is easily done in the Northern states, but might be impos- sible farther South. One wishing to carry on this work South of where our best varieties can be made to produce seed, should get seed from these best varieties, which are grown in the North, rather than waste their time with seed from those varieties which produce tubers of practically no market value. Personally, I prefer to take seed bolls from a field containing only one variety. This should be of large yield- ing capacity, combined with very high eating quality, with no other variety planted near them. Seed taken from such a source will produce a greatly increased per cent, of valu- able varieties. The originating of the new varieties is of vital impor- 37 tancc to llie potato industry of the country, and the man who brings out a new seedling, which is a decided improve- ment over the older standard sorts, is entitled to a great deal of praise and financial return. The originator has his own troubles ; a new seedling may give promise of being a great acquisition and make good from the beginning, up to four or five years old, and then go down in a single year, proving worthless. If a new seedling proves good for seven or eight years, and increases in productivity and quality each year, the originator can feel reasonably certain that he has something of value. The only proper way to test a new seedling is in general field culture, side by side with the best standard variety to be had. The seedling to be tested should be at least two years old, and four or five would give a truer idea of their worth. If they give larger yields then the standard variety, and quality and other characteristics are equal or superior, and give this result for two or more years, the originator is reasonably safe in pushing its sale. To the farmer, however, I would give this word of warn- ing — don't invest a large sum in any new seedling until it has been tested out on your own farm in a small way; a variety that will do well in one section may not in another. Every large potato grower should test the newer produc- tions. There will be so many of them that he will have to cast aside that no large sum should be invested in any one, until it has been tried and proven. WHOLE POTATOES FOR SEED The question of planting small to medium size pota- toes whole, probably has occurred to every grower. It is one that should be thoroughly understood and the source from which the seed came be known in every case before it is planted. Failure to do this is likely to result in a loss in the yield of the crop. The size of the tuber and the time, and condition it is in when planted, has much to do with the results obtained. In testing out the value of small-sized whole potatoes for seed, I have planted a good many hundred bushels of them, and under certain conditions, there is no seed we can plant that will give us the results in yield and desirability that can be ob- tained from medium-size potatoes planted whole. Small tubers that are to be planted whole should come from good, vigorous hills; this is of the first im- 38 portance. They can be selected from a bin, provided these were grown from selected seed and the whole field was vigorous and thrifty. If there were many spindling stalks or weak hills in the field, the small-size potatoes should never be planted that grew on it. A good, vigorous hill seldom produces more than one or two tubers, small enough to plant whole, and many times there will not be one in several hills small enough for this purpose. The weak, spindling stalks and hills, not having vigor enough to produce large tubers, will nearly all be of the size needed for planting whole. Thus it will be seen, unless care is used in getting seed of this kind, we will be planting tubers largely from the weakest hills in the previous crop ; and as "like begets like," our crop is sure to suffer. The best size of tuber to use I have found to be just about as large as a medium hen's egg, and with rows three feet apart and seed dropped fourteen inches apart in the row of a size will take about twenty bushels per acre. If a potato of this size is planted when in a dormant condition or before the sprouts have started, there will usually be from one to three sprouts start from the seed end. These start so much quicker and stronger than those from eyes nearer the stem end, that they will use up the plant food contained in the tuber, and there will be no sprouts start from the other eyes. If tubers of too large size are used, the quick starting sprouts on the seed end will not use up all the plant food they contain and there will be many weak sprouts start from the other eyes. These would not amount to anything as tuber-producers, and to all intents and purposes are simply as so many weeds. It is not best to plant tubers of too small size, even though they come from good, vigorous hills, neither is it best to plant any potatoes whole after the eyes have once started, as there are most sure to be too many stalks in a hill. This can be varied in case of very early potatoes where the side sprouts are broken ofif by hand, leaving only one or two of the best on the seed end. The advan- tages of planting whole seed when they come from thrifty, vigorous hills are that they are certain to produce a per- fect stand of plants, no matter how the weather may turn after planting. The vines grow faster and the crop will mature from one to two weeks ahead of cut-seed planted at the same time and under the same conditions. The result- ant crop will be smoother and rounder potatoes than usually 39 grow li\>ni cut scchI. Why iliis is so I have never been able to determine. In phintiny whole seed, if desired, more fertilizer can be used in the drill at time of plant- ing, without injury to the seed, as there is no cut surface for it to come into contact with. There is also less injury to the seed by wire worms when planted whole, if they are present in the soil, than is the case of seed cut. GREENING AND BUDDING SEED POTATOES In planting potatoes for early market, time can be gained by budding or sprouting 'them. This is especially true for the small grower, who can spend the time neces- sary to do this work just right. Many times the owner of a small garden wishes to grow a few early potatoes for his own table, and anything that can be done to hasten early maturity is of value to him. While potatoes can be sprouted or started for later planting, with a potato planter, the buds or sprouts should not be allowed to get growth enough so that they will be broken off in the machine. This is the most sure to be the case if the buds are allowed to get much of a growth. No potatoes which are to be planted in a planter should be allowed to start their sprouts to the extent that they will be broken off by the machine when planting. This results in a loss of vitality, as a portion of the plant food stored up in the seed piece has been used up. The second starting of the bud w'ill be weaker than the first, and cannot, all other things being equal, produce as many tubers as will the first budding of the sprout. In starting the sprouts for early hand-planting, the potatoes should be brought into the light and air, where it is reasonably warm. The stronger the light, the shorter and greener the sprouts. For very early planting, it is better to have the sprouts started in semi- darkness, so that they will be a reddich pink in color and thick and stocky. Such sprouts will push up through the soil quicker than will the short, dark, green sprouts started in bright sunlight. Potatoes sprouted in this maimer otight to be planted when the sprouts are just right, as delay of even a few days will allow them to get so far long that it will be almost impossible to cut and plant them, even by the most careful man, without breaking them oft'. Those who are intend- ing to plant only a bushed or two in their kitchen garden, and desire to get them as early as possible, the seed can be put 40 into boxes, whicli should not be over five or six inches deep, and placed in a light, warm place where the heat is not too great, and sprouted there. Those who are to plant a larger area, an available barn floor will do, provided light and warmth enough can be obtained ; or they can be spread out of doors in a dry, warm, sunny place. In the later case care must be taken to fully protect them from the cold nights, as long as there is any danger of their freezing. As very early potatoes are planted usually before the late frosts are over, and as they would need to be sprouted from one to two weeks before planting, the danger of sprouting out of doors so early in the season is quite considerable. But for the late or main crop there is no better way than spread- ing them right out upon the ground. A place should be selected, if possible, where there is a good turf and still not but little grass. If there is no turf the sprouts on the under side of the tubers will take root into the soil, which very materially injures them for planting. On the other hand, if there is too much grass to grow up around them, the same thing will happen. Partial shade is better at first, if the tubers are right from the cellar and hard and cold, but if they have been exposed to light in the cellar for a week or two it is all right to spread them right out in the sun when first taken from the cellar. The point is, that too great a change from a cold, dark cellar, where the tubers are hard and cold, to direct rays of the sun, is not the best plan. Potatoes handled in this manner will sprout and grow all right, but the change is too severe for the very best results, and if it is necessary to take them right from the cellar to a place selected to spread them where they will get the direct sunlight all day, it is far better to leave them in bags there for a few days, turning the bags over once or twice in order that all the tubers may green and soften somewhat before spreading them out. They should not be spread over one deep on the grass, and it is better if they are to lay there several weeks to rake them over at least once a week. This will expose the whole surface of the tuber to the direct rays of the sun. It is claimed by many that the sun's rays will kill the scab fungus, and my experience is that it is at least beneficial in this respect. I have seen many acres of potatoes showing missed hills, from ten to fifty per cent, or even more, which was wholly the result of neglect or want of care or knowledge in handling the seed before planting. The loss from a poor stand of plants to the potato growers 41 of this country every year is enormous, and when we con- sider that a large part of this can he overcome hy a httle care in handhng the seed before planting, it becomes of very great importance, not only to the grower, but the consumer as well. To begin with potatoes intended for seed should be stored in a dark, damp cellar, and kept as cool as possible without any danger of freezing. If they can be kept per- fectly dormant up to the time they are needed, with the tubers dry, hard and cold, we have them in the best possible condition to make a start for a good crop. With potatoes in this condition, some two or three weeks before we are to plant them, they should be taken from the cellar, put into sacks, a bushel in a sack, and soaked for two hours in a solution of formaldehyde. (See chapter Treatment for Scab.) When the bags are removed from the solution they can be placed upon the ground, where the potatoes are to be spread and let remain there some four or five days, turn- ing them over once or twnce during this time so that all may soften and green alike. Then spread them out only one deep on the turf. If they are raked over about once a week, so that the sprouts on the under side won't send roots into the soil, they will keep in almost perfect condition for plant- ing all summer. I have had them keep in perfect condition, treated in this manner, spread in the direct sunlight, until spoiled by the frosts of October. Seed treated in this man- ner will give a perfect stand of plants unless insects or mice destroy the seed after planting. Now if the grower finds his seed tubers starting badly in the cellar long before it is safe to spread them out of doors, the same process as I have described can be followed by spreading under cover where there is light. SELECTING AND CUTTING SEED Having selected a variety that will thrive in his lo- cality, the grower must select seed free of scab. Good, smooth tubers, of an average size, will cut up into more uni- form pieces, which is a saving of trouble, if to be used in any of the planters. It is really of more importance to the farmer, who is using a planter, that his seed be cut to a uniform size, than that there should be a certain number of eyes on each piece. Hand-cutting by one, who knows his business, is to be preferred to any of the potato-cutting 42 machines, which mangle more or less and cause an uneven stand. In hand-cutting, the knife should be ground very thin, not much thicker than common writing paper, or just as thin as it can be and stand the work of cutting. This will allow the user to cut many more bushels in a day's time, as he will feel hardly any resistance as the knife passes through the tuber, and the cut pieces will not be mangled. In cut- ting potatoes large enough to make over four pieces, it is better to first cut the tuber in half, as shown in the center of photo No. 9 and if very large, into quarters. Either the center or right hand tuber, shown in the cut, should be quar- tered. In all three of the potatoes shown in the cut the stem end is down. In cutting up either into halves or quar- ters, cut above the eye. The eyes of a potato have roots always running towards the stem end of the tuber. These take the stored-up plant-food, which the tuber contains, to the sprout. If these are cut off close to the eye, while there Photo No. 9. Showing method of cutting seed tubers, the stem end being down. 43 luighl be a good-sized piece of the tuber above the eye or towards the seed end, the sprouts would have no way of getting the plant-food it might contain, as it has no eye roots running towards tiiat end of the tuber. In this case it would not make so strong or thrifty a plant or yield the tubers it otherwise would. The potato on the lleft, shown in the cut, is a medium- sized tuber, or what would be termed a good second. As the reader will note, the stem end is cut off, cutting above at least one good eye and taking about one-third of the tuber. This usually allows from one to three or more good eyes on this stem end third of the tuber, even in a variety possessing but few eyes. The next cut is made by cutting from the upper or seed end down towards the stem end. This makes three pieces of a tuber of this size, and there will always be plenty of eyes on each, and very evenly divided between the three pieces. It also has the advantage of having them of very uniform size, which insures much better work with any of the planters. As it is no more work to cut potatoes with this idea in view of cutting above the eye, and the pota- toes will come up a little more vigorous, it is well to observe it. With potatoes the size of the one on the left, cut as that one is, it will take about twelve bushels of seed per acre, with rows three feet apart, and dropped fourteen inches apart in rows. Cut seed should never be left in bags or piles so that there is any danger of its heating. Seed that has heated even a very little is unfit to plant, and if it conies up at all it is weak and spindling and beyond any possi- bility of making a paying crop. The proper way to treat cut seed is to sprinkle liberally with land plaster (gyp- sum), as fast as it is cut, being sure to get all the cut surface covered with plaster. This keeps them cool amd prevents dying out, and if spread out, not over six inches deep until wanted to plant, will not hurt, even if cut a week or ten days before planting, provided they are kept in a cool, shady place. Sulphur is also good for dusting the seed pieces- as they are cut. In fact I have used the latter almost entirely these last few years, especially on land v.here wire worms were known to be present. Sulphur is not a sure deterent for preveiUing the wire worms from getting into the newly ])lanted seed, but where care has been used to get all the cut surface well covered with the sulphur, I am siu'e tliat it prevents damage by this worm to quite an extent. 44 If fertilizer is used, the land plaster or sulphur will also prevent it from coming in contact with the cut sur- face of the seed, which otherwise it might do, causing decay to begin before the sprout starts, and many times the seed altogether. This is more likely to take place when seed is planted as fast as cut, and experience shows that the best results come from seed cut from twenty- four to forty-eight hours before planting, and liberally sprinkled with the land plaster or sulphur at the time of cutting. It will pay any grower to follow along this line as far as possible. The size of the cut pieces has much to do with the vigor of the sprout, and a fairly liberal piece should be allowed, especially if the weather is cold and wet at plant- ing. With rows three feet apart and pieces dropped four- teen inches apart in the row, twelve bushels of seed per acre is none too much, but if the weather is warm and the soil warm and moist, the seed can be cut finer, say to ten bushels per acre, and a good, vigorous stand result. A great many growers practice clipping the tip off the seed end of the tuber. There is nothing to be gained by this ; in fact, in many cases, it is a distinct loss. Of all eyes on the tuber, the one or two directly on the seed end are the earliest and most vigorous, and the clipping of these deprives the groAver of the strongest and best eyes on the whole potato. This may not possibly be true of some varieties, but it certainly is of the greater number. The general feeling of those who practice' this is that there will be so many stalks come from the cluster of eyes at the seed end that there will be too many potatoes set to grow to good market size. This is not true of potatoes planted in a dormant condition, as one or two, visually one eye on the seed or tip end, will start so much quicker and stronger that all the plant food in the potato, if small or from reasonable sized pieces will be taken, the other eyes failing to make any growth. One of the reasons why the Author prefers the hand over machine-cut seed is that it enables the one cutting to keep a much better oversight over the tubers cut. This allows him to throw out many which would not be noticed by one running a cutter. There are so many dis- eases of the potato which are spreading over the country, some of them very bad, like '"Stem Rot" and "Late Blight," that no tuber which shows any sign of disease 45 should be planted by anyune. The soakintj of the seed tubers in the formalin solution will kill the spores of most of these diseases which are on the surface of the tubers. It is a much more serious matter when one has the "Stem Rot" or "Late Blight" fungus to contend with, as the spores of these are inside of the tuber itself and cannot be killed by soaking the seed. Therefore, any tuber, when cut, which shows any discoloration which may be either of these diseases, should be thrown away and the knife disinfected before another tuber is cut. The writer keeps a pint glass jar filled with a strong solution of formalin, and dips his knife into it whenever he cuts into a tuber which shows any discoloration from any cause. Such discoloration might be harmless, and again with pur- chased seed, it might contain the spores of one or more of the worst diseases a potato growler has to contend w'ith, and by using the knife without disinfecting it, would carry these spores to several other tubers. It is better to have two knives for each one cutting, and when a potato is cut into wdiich shows signs of any disease, the blade can be placed in the formalin solution and the other knife be used until another bad seed tuber is cut into, when that knife can be placed in the solution and the first knife be used again. My own opinion is that it is better to do this every few' minutes, even if the operator has seen no signs of diseased tubers. The cost of enough of the formalin solution and the time taken to change knives is so small as not to be even reckoned with, and it will make many hundred hills difference on each acre planted, if there is by any chance a few^ tubers with the stem rot or late blight in the seed potatoes. As the formaldehyde solution loses its strength very rapidly when exposed to air, the writer uses a glass preserving jar to hold the strong solution necessary to disinfect the knives. Keep the jar covered at all times when not actually cutting the seed tubers. When the cutting stops, even for the dinner hour, the cover is put on the jar, having the rubber underneath which makes the jar air tight. If care is used to keep the jar covered at all times when not actually cutting pota- toes, one mixture of the solution will do for several days' cutting of seed. PLANTING F.ARLY POTATOES IN A GARDEN In treating on the planting, I shall take it up under 46 three divisions : P'irst, taking up planting of the very early varieties in a small way. Those who are growing a few for their own table, and desire to get them very early, can take more pains in planting them than can the larger grower. The gain of a few days in the maturing of the crop more than pays for the extra time and trouble necessary to obtain this result. A warm, sunny slope to the south, or better still, to the southeast, on land as little subject to late frosts as can be selected, will, of course, be the best. Tt should be well fitted by deep plowing as soon as frost is out so the work can be done. Frequent workings with the har- row, both to fine and lighten the soil, and also to warm it, will, if it can be so arranged to have this work done without too much cost, help gain a few extra days in maturing the crop, and in this way prove profitable. If these harro wings can be done just after the heat of the day, turning under the top or warm soil and bringing up the colder soil underneath, and followed for a few days, if the weather is warm, will increase the warmth in the soil to quite an extent. A few extra degrees of heat in the soil early, means a great deal to the grower of early potatoes. When the soil is well fitted, furrows should be opened quite deeply, and for these early varieties, a distance of from twenty-six to thirty-four inches between furrows is room enough. For extra early potatoes, there is nothing that will force a quick growth any better than fine hen manure, it being rich in nitrogen. If the potatoes are liberally sprinkled with land plaster w^ien cut, and sulphur scattered along the rows at planting, usually but little damage will result from scab from this use of hen dressing, where potatoes are to be dug early. Later on, when the potatoes have well started, some fertilizer containing an abundance of phosphoric acid and potash to force tuber formation and growth should be used. If hen manure is used, it should be drilled along the furrow and mixed into the soil, so the seed pieces when dropped will not come in direct contact with it. The same rule would also apply to commercial fertilizer; if circumstances make it necessary to use barn or stable manure, it will do no harm to the seed to drop it right upon the dressing. The objection to this is in the labor involved to drill the manure, and the ever-present danger of scab. Rot need be but little feared on very early potatoes. The seed pieces should be dropped about fifteen inches apart in the row, some taking the time and trouble to place these with the 47 sprouts up. This is a needless waste of time and labor. I have carefully tested this, and if there is any difference in time of coming up, it is in fa\or of those pieces dropped with the sprouts down. The tirst covering of this seed, while it will depend somewhat on the nature of the soil, should be light, not over one and one-half inches in the heavier soils, and two and two and one-half inches in the lighter, and the rows should be deep enough so that after the seed is covered, there still should be a depression of some two or three inches. If the seed has been well sprouted and carefully planted, it will begin to break ground in from one to two weeks, according to weather conditions. The depression along the rows can be gradually filled in as the plants grow. The.weeder can be used, if run lightly, but care should be taken not to break off any sprouts from these early potatoes, as the time taken for the weakened seed pieces to throw another sprout will make it so late, that that hill wall be worthless when the others are ready to dig, and for all practical purposes might just as w^ell have been entirely destroyed. If at any time there is danger of frosts after the potatoes break ground, they should be buried up with soil ; this can be done very c^uickly with a horse hoe, and if there is a depression along the row, they can be buried up quite deeply without making too much of a ridge, and as soon as the danger of the frost is over, the weeder can be again used to smooth the field oft" level, killing out all weeds which have started. This will put the field in con- dition to be again buried if another frost threatens. Pre- vious to the second burying, an application of fertilizer should be scattered along the rows, and the second burying should cover this fertilizer at least three inches. If this fer- tilizer contains quite a per cent of nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, it will give the plants a very quick start, as they have at this period a well-developed root system. This nitrogen would not be so much needed in case of potatoes planted on hen manure, but a fertilizer containing a high per cent of phosphoric acid and potash applied in the same man- ner would be highly beneficial in this case. The point in getting potatoes early, is to get them up as soon as possible in order that they can develop root growth, and still keep the tops small enough so that they can be covered with soil at any time to protect them from late frosts. In this manner, with a well-developed root .system and the second application of fertilizer applied at 48 just the right time, the grower can produce a crop that will catch "the high prices of the early market. As the reader will see, this method could not be used in large fields where it is necessary to use a planter, but in a small way it has advantages. Well-sprouted seed, planted and covered lightly at first, practically insures a perfect stand of plants. This, many times, will largely make up for the extra cost of the labor involved. Another point for the kitchen garden grower, is to take medium potatoes of about the size of a large hen's egg and sprout them as above described. At planting, break off all sprouts but one or two of the best and strongest at the seed end of the tuber. In this way there will not be one chance in a hundred of the seed rotting in the ground, no matter how cold and wet the weather may turn. Of all eyes on a potato, those on the seed end are the earliest and strongest, and by breaking ofi: all but one or two of these w^e have the very earliest and strongest eyes on the whole potato. These having such a start will take out so much of the plant food contained in the tuber that there will sel- dom be enough left to start any more stalks. Whole pota- toes, of the size above described, taken from the cellar in a dormant condition or before the eyes have started in the least, and planted whole, will seldom produce, on an average, more than four stalks to each tuber planted. This is too many for very early varieties, as the resulting crop would be too many in number and of too small size. By breaking off all but two or three, or if large-sized tubers were wanted very early, all but one, it would mean but one strong, vigorous stalk in a hill which would pro- duce the result wanted. If the grower will take two bushels of medium tubers, about hen's egg size, from the cellar when they are in a dor- mant condition, cutting one bushel of them either in halves, thirds or quarters, as best suits him, and plant the other bushel whole, side by side with these cut ones on the same day, under the same treatment, he will find those planted whole will mature or ripen from a week to ten days ahead of those cut. The cutting of the tubers seems to delay its maturing its crop. If we take a tuber of the size of a hen's egg and sprout it as we must to get a very early start of our crop and plant it whole, all the eyes which have gotten well started will produce a stalk, re- 49 suiting- in loo many stalks in a place, and m p^cl both re- sults tending- to the earliness of our crop from both sprout- ing and planting whole seed, Ave are obliged to break ofif all but one or two of the strongest sprouts on sprouted medium-sized potatoes and then planting them whole. This is too much labor, except in a small way, for the small grower. FIELD PLANTING OF EARLY POTATOES In planting early potatoes where the acreage is large enough to make it necessary that the work should be done with the planter, the sprouts cannot be allowed to start as much as with the carefully hand-plantedl tuber. Still, if the crop is desired earl}^, quite a little time can be gained by starting the sprouts in a warm, light place. The long white sprouts which start in the cellar are of no use ; they only sap the vitality of the tuber, and cause the next set of sprouts to be weaker, and they will not produce the crop of potatoes the first would. The seed should be kept in a cold, dark place where the temperature is about thirty-five degrees, to get the best results. A few weeks previous to planting, they should be brought into a warm, light place and spread where the sprouts will start. I do not prefer for the sun to shine directly upon potatoes put to sprout, for the very early crop to be planted in a small way by hand, as described under that head, but it is all right for those wdiich are to be planted through a ma- chine, the sun will green and toughen the sprouts, and at the same time soften up the tubers. Potatoes exposed to direct sunlight will start their sprouts more slowly and they will be stouter and less liable to break off. In other words, direct sunlight will seem to put the potato in bet- ter shape to start its sprouts quickly when planted in suitable soil, and at the same time start them the least before planting. As it won't do for seed, which is run through a planter, to have the sprouts but just well started, owing to their breaking off, this is a decided ad- vantage. Potatoes Avarmed and softened by the sun, with the sprouts just well showing in the eyes, will come forward and be from one to two weeks ahead of the same seed taken from the cellar or pit, and when cutting, this gives a chance to thr'iw away all impotent eyes and all tubers 50 in which the sprouts fail to start. This insures a much better stand of plants. The ground should be well fitted in order that the planter can do its best work. The depth to plant early potatoes with a machine must, to a cer- tain extent, be governed by local conditions. In sections where there is but little danger of moisture becoming- short early in the season, they can be planted more shal- low. The deeper they are covered the longer they will be in coming" up, and in many cases the weaker they will be. If the crop was desired as early as possible, I should not have them covered over two inches below the surface of the ground when the ridges which the machine left in plant- ing is leveled off. This leveling off should be done as soon as possible after planting-. In order to be sure that all seed is covered on an average of two inches after the surface has been smoothed down, the planter must be set so that there will be at least five inches of soil over the g-reater part of it as the planter leaves the rows be- fore leveling'. This extra three inches should be worked off at once, as it prevents both air, light and warmth from penetrating- to the planted seed, and delays growth and would retard the crop many days. The top soil is the warmest in the early spring, but we have got to keep in mind the fact that later in the season, the soil deeper down contains more moisture, and is in better condition for growth of tubers than is that nearer the surface. We must have even our early potatoes rooted as deeply as we can, and when we have planted them only two inches below the surface, we have made as great a sacrifice for warmth and an early start of the crop as the exigencies of the later part of the season will warrant. In planting early varieties of potatoes, I have found it best not to use over seven or eight hundred pounds of high-grade fertilizer per acre, in the drill, at planting time. Early varieties are not so vigorous, as a rule, as the later or main crop, and the amount of fertilizer that many times will not cause any appreciable damage to the later kinds will do quite an amount of damage to the seed of an early variety. The rows of an early variety, with its usually smaller growth of vine, can be several inches nearer together, most growers planting from twenty-six to thirty inches. In planting early potatoes, It is better to have fer- tilizer of two different formulas. The one to be used in the 51 drill to have its nitrogen in a slower form tham nitrate of soda, as it is usually several weeks before the plants would have root growth enough to readily use it. Nitrate of soda is available over night when placed in damp soil, and would be, in case of heavy rain previous to the potatoes breaking ground, largely lost to the crop. When plants are well up, so that the rows can be plainly seen, the balance oC the fertilizer to be used should be applied. In my ex- perience, I have got the best results from applying this along the rows and by hilling the plants, covering them some three or more inches. This second application of fertilizer can have nearly half of its nitrogen content in the form of nitrate of soda. The plants will now have a large root system, and can use it, and it will cause them to make a very quick growth at this time. This is of much importance, as the quicker the ground can be covered with vines the less moisture is lost by evaporation, and the more rapid growth at this time the less real damage is done by insects, especially that scourge to early potatoes, the flea beetle. The quicker we can get our vine growth on early potatoes, the better, and I know of no way to so rapidly push it along as by an application of fertilizer along the rows, containing quite a part of its nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, after the plants have broken ground and have a well-developed root system. PLAXTING THE LATE OR MAIN CROP In planting the late, or main crop, but little dilTerence in the method is required over the machine-planted early crop. The seed should never be allowed to sprout in the cellar or pit, as these sprouts are of no use and result in a great loss of vitality. If it is possible when one finds his seed stock starting in the cellar before he can use it, it should be gotten out into the sunlight and spread out, not over one deej). Potatoes that have begun to sprout will keep in good condi- tion to plant, spread out in the direct sunlight much better and longer than in any other way. If they have been kept in cold storage, at a temperature too low for sprouts to start, they will require considerable more time to break ground than if they are warmed up a short time before planting. The ideal way to treat any potatoes intended for seed is to keep them at such a temperature that the sprouts 52 will not start, and then a short time before needing them to ])lant to bring them into the light and sun. In the case of the late or main crop, to expose them to direct rays of the sun, spread out thinly just long enough to get the buds well started. They can be spread out of doors on the grass, but it is much better to have them under cover in a building with windows enough to let in plenty of sunlight, as then there is no danger of late frosts doing them damage. In cutting such potatoes, all weak eyed ones can be readily detected and thrown out, which would be impossible to do if cut right from the cellar or pit. Seed handled in this way has all its vitality to put into the sprouts which are to make our crop. This one point in handling seed potatoes may make a difference between a good profit and a no inconsiderable loss. The method of cutting seed is described under that head. The planting of the late or main crop should be deep- er than for the earlier planted. The reason for planting the general early crop more shallow is because the ground is cold, wdiich is likely to cause a loss in the seed by rot and a delay in coming up if planted as deeply as the later varieties, which with an early crop is something to be avoided. With the main crop it is different, as the planting is later and the soil has had time to warm up, and, having been well pre- pared, the planter should be set to drop the seed at least three inches deep, even in the heavier clay loams, and four inches is better in most soils adapted to potato growing. About one-half of the fertilizer should be used in the drill at time of planting, or at least up to one-half ton of high- grade fertilizer per acre. I do not find it advisable to use more than this in the drill, even on the vigorous late varie- ties, unless medium-size whole potatoes are being planted. In this case as much as one ton of high-grade fertilizer per acre can be used in the drill without but little harm resulting to the seed, especially if the seed has been well started by exposure to the light and sun. The main crop varieties, which, as a rule, are of much larger growth of vine, need to be planted in rows farther apart than the early kinds. The most of them in the State of Maine are given from thirty-two to thirty-six inches and about fourteen inChes in the row. With some of our best late varieties I have been forced to plant as near as twelve inches in the row, in order to keep the size down to that which the market most demands. This might not be the case in many sections where dry weather is likely to cut the 53 size (k)\vn more than it is along tlie coast of Maine. STAllLE :\IANURE Stable manure is but little used in Maine in growing potatoes. It has a tendenc}- to cause both scab and rot, and should only be used on land intended for potatoes, when such land is sadly lacking" in vegetable matter. As I have said previously, the potato demands a lot of humus in the soil to do its best, and only when it can- not be supplied in any other way is it advisable to cover the field with stable manure. This, of course, refers to applying mamu'c direct)}- preceding the planting of pota- toes. On the other hand, stable manure seems to add to or give more life to soil bacteria that are so essential to crop growth. Land that is well supplied with this soil bacteria to start with can and will produce great crops for years on commercial fertilizers, provided there is plowed imder a goodly supply of the clovers, vetch or other humus-making material. Even if this is done, there is but little doubt that a good application of stable manure once every few years will give new life to crop productions far in excess of the actual plant food it may contain. The question with the potato grower is whether or not the application of stable manure will not cause a loss in cpality as well as making the tubers rough and scaby to offset the gain of the few bushels extra yield per acre which usually results from its use. The proper time to apply it to land that comes in the potato rotation is after the potato crop is taken off. In this way, by the time potatoes are again planted in the field, there will be but little tendency left from its effect to produce either scab, rot or a loss in quality. When applied to the newly seeded clover after a potato crop, it Avill help greatly to make a vigorous perfect stand of clover. This insures a good sod to plow under to furnish vegetable matter for the next crop of tubers when the rotation comes around to potatoes again. I have grown as good crop of tubers as I ever grew on barn dressing alone, free from scab and rot, and of g-ood quality; but this is the exception, and the safer way for the potato grower who seeks fine qualitv in his S3» -'1 55 product is to use this valuable product of the farm in growing- some crop other than the potato. COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER Probably there is no crop grown today, by the North- ern farmers, at least, that will give so great a profit one year with another, when the plant food to grow it is bought in the form of commercial fertilizer, as will the potato. For this reason, more than any other, is the potato in the East- ern states grown on plant food purchased in the form of chemicals or commercial fertilizer. Probably ninety per cent, of the potatoes grown in the State of Maine have the plant food supplied to the soil in this form. There has been a vast deal of discussion as to whether a farmer can maintain or increase the productivity of his farm by growing crops on commercial fertilizer alonCi many claiming that it cannot be done, while others, taking no part in the discussion, have gone ahead year after year and demonstrated its entire practicability. Many of the first users of commercial fertilizer made the mistake of using a few hundred pounds per acre in the production of grain. This gave good results for a short time and then failed utter- ly, even with much heavier applications than at first. The reason for this was not generally understood at the time, and is not today in far too many cases. Commercial fertilizer will not supply any of the bac- teria to our soils which are absolutely necessary for a soil to be productive. More than this, it does not supply any vege- table matter to the soil, which is also absolutely necessary for what bacteria there are in the soil to live and thrive. There is, I believe, a ground for belief that heavy application of the strong potash salts (acidulated phosphate rock) and nitrate of soda tends to kill out the bacteria by direct con- tact with them in the soil. If heavy applications of these are made every year and no stable manure used, or leguminous crops turned under to bring a new supply of bacteria to the soil, it is only a question of a very few years when the soil, being deprived almost entirely of bacteria, will not produce a paying crop of anything, regardless of the amount of plant food it may contain. In addition to this loss of bacteria which the soil will sustain, it loses also in its mechanical condition, as well as in its water-holding capacity, becoming heavy, inclined to bake after rains and, instead of having a moist, lively look, is dry and dead looking. 56 The question then arises, Can the farmer, who is so situated that it is not advisable for him to keep stock, grow potatoes on commercial fertilizer year after year and main- tain the productivity of his soil? There is no question but what he can (see photo No. 10) ; but if his soil is deficient in vegetable matter, and, in that case, of bacteria also, he has got a longer, harder road to travel before he gets it back to producing maximum crops. If it is well supplied with both humus and bacteria to start with, each year will see it pro- ducing more and better crops. As practically all soils have a great deal of locked-up plant food in them, some an immense amount, no matter how run-out they seem to be, the increase in productivity comes largely from the acids formed by the decomposing vegetable matter breaking down and making this available for the growing of crops. That the bacteria aids in this decomposing of the vegetable matter and the forming of these acids, which break down and liberate this locked-up mineral plant food, there can be no question. That they directly take part in the process is open to doubt. One of the chief objects of the potato grower who is using commercial fertilizer wholly in growing his crop is to get and maintain this vegetable matter in his soil, in order to get satisfactory results from the fertilizer applied. The amount to be used per acre should not be governed wholly by the amount he expects the potato crop he will raise will take off . For this reason, the most successful potato grow- ers are applying many more pounds of phosphoric acid and potash than any crop of tubers they may raise can possibly remove. There are certain sections where potash seems to be needed but little, even in growing potatoes, while phosphoric acid is needed in large quantities, although the potato crop itself needs but comparatively little phosphoric acid. These facts make it impossible for one to give any set rule as to the formula another should use in making up or selecting a fertilizer for his potato crop. This should be, however, se- lected or made up with due consideration as to what the crops which are to follow the potato in the rotation will need. Probably a 4-6-10 formula is more largely used by the Maine potato growers than any other combination. I refer to this not as a guide for the grower in other states to fol- low, but to the fact that there is no section of the country where run-out, abandoned farms are now being brought up 57 to a state of productix ity so rapidly as they arc in Maine. This shows that this formula is not only giving the Maine farmer the largest yield of potatoes per acre of any state in the Union, hut is adapted to his general rotation as well. That the phosphoric acid and potash can be varied to suit different sections and given even better results than the majority are now getting seems probable. But for a general formula a 4-6-10 will }M-obably suit as many different soils as any, where the land is to be put into a rotation, including potatoes, and its productivity increased. However, a 4-6-10 fertilizer usually carried quite an amount of what is known as filler, which the purchaser has to pay freight on, as well as handle, and it is far better and cheaper to buy a 4-8-10 fertilizer, as there can be but very little in a fertilizer of this high analysis. The amount of plant food removed from the soil in a crop of three hundred bushels of potatoes is, according to the best authorities, about 58 pounds of nitrogen, 27 pounds of phosphoric acid and 80 pounds of potash. As heat and cold, dry or wet weather affects the availability of the plant food in a fertilizer, we have to apply much more potash and phosphoric acid than a crop will take oft", in order to have what the crop needs available at the time the crop most needs it, if a maximum yield is to be obtained. The larger part of the best farmers not only in Maine, but in most other sections where potato growing on com- mercial fertilizer is made a business, use a ton per acre of a fertilizer of a 4-6-10 analysis. This means that they are applying 200 pounds of potash, 120 pounds of phosphoric acid and 66 pounds of actual nitrogen. With a crop of three hundred bushels per acre, there are left in the soil 120 pounds of potash, 93 pounds of phosphoric acid and 8 pounds of nitrogen. Nitrogen is the most elusive element we have in our fertilizer, and it is not economy to apply much more in any one season than the crop Vv^e expect to grow that season will use. The margin between what a crop of this size would take oft" in nitrogen and the amount we have applied in the ton of fertilizer is so narrow that if the crop depended altogether for its nitrogen on what we applied in this way, its growth would suft"er. This would be especially true in dry seasons. As potatoes should always be planted on land con- taining more or less decaying organic matter, nitrification is going on, furnishing enough a\ailable nitrogen to make up all that the crop will need to do its Ijcst. 58 The office of nitrogen to the plant is to promote vine growth, and an abundance of this element causes a heavy, dark green growth of leaves and vines, and in case of a fer- tilizer not well balanced up with phosphoric acid and potash might, and in most cases will, produce much vine growth, with few and small tubers. If either element was to be lacking, it had better be nitrogen, especially towards the last of the season. On the other hand, plenty of available nitro- gen early in the season, to promote vigorous growth of vines to cover the ground and prevent evaporation of moisture and check the germination of weed seed, usually results in a good crop. Potash and phosphoric acid promotes and de- velops the formation of tubers, which takes place later in the season, the tubers growing until the vines are entirely dead. The vast importance of ready-mixed fertilizer to the potato growers of Maine, and the unquestionable fact that the farmers, especially the potato growers of the Central Western states, have got to begin their use in a very few years, makes the question of how and what to buy of great interest. The plowing under of clover and the use of barn dressing has been practically all the fertilization given the potato in many sections where they have been largely grown. This form of fertilization is unbalanced, for there is but lit- tle phosphoric acid and potash returned to the soil in the barn dressing, especially where the liquid part of it is allow- ed to drain away, as it is on so many farms. There certainly will come a time when phosphoric acid and potash will have to be applied, or the growing of potatoes will become a failure. This failure will show fully as much in the quality of the crops growm as in the quantity, as the tubers will grow rough and scraggy in appearance and be more often afflicted with scab. This condition can be almost entirely overcome by good seed, a proper handling of the soil and the intelligent use of a properly made commercial fertilizer. I presume the knowledge the Maine potato growers have of commercial fertilizer has cost them millions of dollars, and it is pretty safe tO' say that any section just beginning their use will pay a like penalty. In the first place, no farmer, if he needs a complete fertilizer and wants to get his money's worth, should buy a cheaper grade for any crop than a 4-8-10. It is also true that in a section just beginning to use commercial fertilizers that a grade as high as a 4-8-10 is scarcely sold at all or even heard of. Now, to make a 59 fertilizer of the above grade, it will take of the very best concentrated materials that can be bought some 1920 lbs., leaving only a chance for 80 lbs. of filler. The farm- er thinks this high at $42.00 per ton, and in many cases will turn around and buy a 2-4-5 and pay $25.00 per ton and think he is getting a bargain. The facts are, he is only getting just half of the amount of plant food he would in a ton of 4-8-10. In other words, he would have to buy 2 tons of the 2-4-5 to get as much plant food as he would get in one ton of the 4-8-10, costing him 350.00 instead of $42.00, or eight dollars more. It this was all of the extfa cost, it would not seem so bad. but he has got to draw and handle that extra ton of weight, which means, if he is some miles from the railroad, several ik, the limb and even into the branches. The course zvas direct, and the flozv of the poisonous solution zvas con- fined to a comparatively narrozv channel. * * * * ]y(, have not simply assumed that the placing of sodic arsenite in the ditch and the dying of this branch of the tree tzvo days later are zvholly conclusive as to the cause of death. I have examined the zvood of the branches and the root, and find an abundance of arsenic in both. In this case I recovered the largest amount of arsenic found in any sample, ***'*' corresponding to 3^.5 parts of arsenic acid in one million parts of the tissue. The other portions of this tree were apparently in good condition zvhen I last sazv it. * * * * / have given tJiis case in some detail, because I believe it to be as conclusive proof as can possibly be ad- duced that soluble arsenic compounds not only produce death zvhen introduced into the circulation of the apple tree, but zvill produce the effects zvhich zve find preceding the death of our apple and pear trees. In both cases zve have the killing of the bark, the staining and destruction of the tissue and the killing of the trees. * * * * / ji^ve nozv given the rea- sons for my conviction that the arsenic zvhich has accumu- lated in our soil from the use of arsenical sprays used in 78 combatting the codling moth and other fruit, leaf and bark- eating insects is the cause of this trouble. To restate them succinctly, zve find the arsenic already accumulated in the soil to an extent far beyond the danger line for solutions as^ established by competent experimenters. We find it also in the tissues of the plant, where it is not normally present. We have proved both in the ease of herbaceous and zvoody plants that soluble arsenical compounds ivill cause their death. I regret that I can see no other conclusion than that the cor- roding of the crozvns, the killing of the bark, the staining and final destruction of the zvoody fiber, the early dropping of the leaves presaging the early death of the tree and its final death a fezv months later are caused by arsenical poisoning." All of the above quotations have been taken front Bulletin No. 131, dated July, 1908. I w^ill now quote from Bulletin No. 157, May, 1910: '"/ gave in Bulletin 131 a definite experience zvith a case in zvhich it zvas charged that arsenic, lead and copper had^ been the cause of the death of trees, grass and even of animals eating the grass, and I am fully convinced that there is great danger of our adding arsenic enough in the form of materials used for spraying to jeopardise not only the life of the trees, but bring about other conditions of a most serious character. I have heretofore been very careful not to con- demn the practice of spraying, but simply to call attention to the dangers accompanying the practice, and particularly the excessive application of these poisonous preparations to the trees, and eventually to the soil. ^ * ^ * Up ta the present time zve do not knozv of any other practical and effective means of protecting our fruit against the codling moth than some form of arsenic, and so far as zve nozv see zve must continue to use this means. This, hozvever, does not mean that zve cannot improve the practice in several zvays. * * * * ^ ^^,7/ greater improvement zvould be to obtain some substance zvhich zvould furnish our fruit the desired protection, but zvhich zvould be entirely free from the serious objections zvhich apply to the use of any arsenical prepara- tion. This is not an impossibility. =«=*** Xhe assumption that the arsenical preparations used for spraying are insoluble in zvater is not justified, and yet this is a condi- tion zvhich they must fulfill in order that they may be safely used. Further, conditions may, and in some cases certainly do, exist in the soil zvhich makes them more soluble than they Photo No. 17. Show'iiii; the etfccts Of arsenical poisoning on polato leaves from Paris ureen. No potato i)lant can produce a full crop of tubers when sutferine from injury of this kind. 80 arc in pure zvatcr. I Jiavc met z^'itJi many men to whom it 7vas a matter of some surprise that the arsenic might accumu- late in the soil, though they knezv that the amount of soluble arsenic in the soil might increase with the years." "The Number of Trees Affected."- — Under this caption, in Bulletin 131, I stated that it ivould be difficult to obtain data on ivhich to base ei'cn a rough estimate of the number of trees suffering from this trouble. I have visited many orchards since Tzvrote the above statement, and am nozv con- vinced that it is difficult to find a fifteen-year-old orchard in \^he state zvholly free from this difficulty. * * * * / am convinced that the number of trees already seriously af- fected by this trouble are not numbered by hundreds, but rather by tens of thousands. '■'• '•'• * * IVe have been using arsenical sprays in the various parts of our country for various purposes about W years. We have been spraying our apple orchards about 28 years, and in Colorado zve have been spraying 18 or 20 years. The question is zvhat has been the effect of this in regard to the amount of arsenic in the soil. The anszver is given above, i. e., that even in Colorado zve have increased the arsenic content of our orchard soils at least tenfold, and in the older states it must be even zvorse if they have been nearly as zealous in spraying as zve have been. But fezv people consider the real character of the sprays used, and zve cannot expect tlie ordinary orchardist to con- sider the possible results, and there has been an abuse of the practice. The practice in this sense has been a dangerous one. "Trees That Have Not Been Sprayed." — / introduce this subject for the simple, reason that through this claiiu for certain trees I found some very instructive and interest- ing cases. It is a very common thing for persons to state that "those trees have never been sprayed." I have been deceived by this statement so often that I nozv pay no attention to it at all. J have examined too many trees that "have never been sprayed," and found arsenic, copper and lead present, zvhich I consider as establishing a strong presumption that the tree has been sprayed. In this instance, hozvever, I knozv the ozvner personally, and he zvas so positive, and his statement zvas corroborated by at least one other member of the family, that zvhen I sazv the trees, zvhich I thought zvere surely not sprayed, I did not knozv zvhat to think. I at once sazv that I had to examine at least tzvo of the trees, for if these trees had not been injured by arsenic, then I had at last found an 81 instance of apple trees zvitJi corroded crowns and all the other conditions zcliich I had been attributing to the irritant action of arsoiic zvhich were not due to this cause. I took samples of the corroded roots of two trees, and found iirsenic without any trouble. I knezv that my friends had not iried to deceive me, and was certain that an explanation zvas to be had. I suggested to them that potatoes might have been groivn betzveen these trees and had been sprayed zvith Paris {jreen or possibly lead arsenite. This proved to be the case, and zvhile the trees liad not been sprayed as apple trees, they had been sprayed with the potatoes. At this time it is impossible to learn whether these trees had ever had the poison applied directly to the body of the tree or not. A feiv points, however, are established: That the crozois of these trees rvere girdled, the roots zvere cor- roded, arsenic was present in the zvoody tissues of the trees. The trees have since died. They zvere never directly sprayed as apple trees, but potatoes zvere grozvn betzveen these trees, and zvere sprayed zvith Paris green in the earlier years of the vrcliard, and later zvith disparine, a trade name for arsenate of lead." I have examined a number of samples of apples and pears from Colorado and other states, namely, from Cali- fornia, Michigan. Nezv York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and Illi- nois, and found them all to contain arsenic. Some of these samples zvere bought in market, but for others I am indebted to the officers of the respective Experiment Stations, and it is a pleasure to acknozvledge my obligations to them. I may state in this connection that the above fact is not the only one indicating that other states zvhere spraying has been dili- gently practiced are suffering as zve are, but not to the same extent. The author has quoted largely from these bulletins of Prof. William P. Headden, for the results shown tally with the author's own experience as to the danger of the use of arsenical poisons. 1 believe there is as much dan- ger today in Maine from the use of Bordeaux mixture as there is from the arsenical poisons in poisoning the soil. In many parts of the state there are potato growers who tise from 25 to 40 or more pounds of copper sulphate per acre each year in spraying with Bordeaux mixture. That this amount of copper sulphate can be used without danger to the vitality of the tubers grown when used year after year I do not believe. Five years ago I had a barrel con- 82 Dr. G. M. TWITCHELL. Auburn, Maine. One of the foremost thinkers along agricultural lines in tlie country today. For thirty years devoted entirely to study of and experiments in agriculture. Never with a thought of personal gain but that he might in some way serve his brother farmers and aid in promoting the one industry most vital to the enduring life of the natfon. 83 taining about fifteen gallons of copper sulphate water, one pound to the gallon left at my last spraying in September. This stood at one side of the potato field on the sod ground. This was an old turf composed mostly of red top and June grass, and was very thick. The barrel con- taining the fifteen gallons of copper sulphate was upset by some one, spreading over a place several feet across. The grass and turf was entirely killed out as far as the water reached, and there has been neither grass nor weeds of any kind grown on this spot in the five years since. That tlie result o£ using Uordcaux mixture where a potato rotation of once in three years is practiced, espe- cially the amount used by many, can fail to be anything but harmful to crop production in the near future goes without saying. It is through the leaves that the potato plant is enabled to store starch in its tubers and make quality. Dr. G. M. Twitchell, of Auburn, Maine, who is one of the foremost Institute speakers Maine ever produced, has set this out far better than I, a plain farmer, can do. Dr. Twitchell Clearly Explains this in the Following Article \Mth natural increase in interest in potato growing, there follows the necessity for a like increase in attention to the subject of spraying, for the reason that is the only path by which we can insure a healthy, normal or satisfactory crop. Being in business for a livelihood, it behooves every farmer to consider what may be the conditions ten, twenty or thirty years hence. Population will have doubled by that time, but not cultivated area, hence you must prepare for in- crease of crop per acre. Going still further, we lind that, in the studv of food by the public, the time is at hand when the value of any food product will be determined, not by the mere fact that "it is a food product. l)ut by the actual food value enclosed within its skin or shell. The potato grower must be preparing for the day, not far distant, when price realized will be fixed by food content in the product, when his potatoes must carry a higher per cent, of starch, that be- ing the element which insures quality. To get this, more at- tention must be given to protection of the leaves, as well as soil, from any and every agent which might detract from the perfection of the tuber. No man has yet learned the 84 secret of maximum production. A great undiscovered coun- try opens before the aspiring grower, but to enter he must know that his soil is free from harmful minerals, and his vines protected throughout the season from all insect pests and fungus diseases and certainly froin the possible injury to leaf and stalk by the use of arsenical sprays. Infinitesimal damage to leaf structure, damage revealed only by the mag- nifying glass, will reduce the starch content in the potato, as well as yield per acre. The relation spray solutions hold to financial net returns to the grower are not realized. It is a sad mistake to figure upon the basis of first cost. Final yield and food value alone can determine. Arsenic kills, therefore use arsenic, is the sum total of the advice given by those set to aid the farmer. If there was no other agent, or combination of agents, which will protect, without injury, the danger from pest and disease might justify this cry. So far as known, no attempts have been made by the scientific workers to find any other effective, yet absolutely safe agent, for the farmer to rely upon. It has been fully demonstrated that it is practically impossible to use Paris green without doing injury, yet, in view of this fact, this agent is today being urged as most efifective and economical. Arsenate of lead is far preferable, less injurious, and protects for a longer period, but both have value only from the arsenic they contain, and this is an indestructible mineral, finding its way into the soil, never to be removed, and increasing with every year's use. Some day this must be reckoned with by the potato grower and orchardist, hence, it becomes vital that we rely upon agents free from all possible danger to crop or soil, and promotive of growth and quality. For eight years I have used nothing but Bug Death on pota- toes, garden crops, also on all fruits, and also for pests on apple trees and fruit. When some machine is perfected, so that as thorough work can be accomplished in dust-spraying apple trees as are now available for potatoes, and all small fruit and vegetables, I am forced to believe that protection will be complete and the delicious apple can be offered the purchaser absolutely free from all taint of arsenic. Economic conditions, growing more exacting every year, force a constantly increasing study of this problem of quantity and quality, and, if it results in more complete mas- tery of the subject of pieparation, care and fertilization, it must also lead to as critical study of the safest, surest means of protecting growth and leaf development that greatest 85 value may inhere in the finished pro(hict. Here is where the net profit of the future grower is to be found and the business estabhshcd. The day is near when guarantee of starch content will open wide the door to a market the value of which cannot be estimated. It is showing itself in the demand already active for graded potatoes, packed in bushel boxes, every potato wrapped in paper. The step is short from here to that of guaranteed quality based upon per cent, of starch. To obtain this it behooves the grower to give close at- tention to the insecticide he uses and think of cost only as related to quantity and value of the perfected product. GEO. M. TWITCIIELT.. PARIS GREEN Paris green is today the most universally used of either for killing the potato-eating insects. It is a copper com- pound of arsenic and a deadly poison, and should never be kept where children or stock can reach it. Its action on foliage is harmful ; many farmers who have applied to po- tato fields a little too strong solution of Paris green have killed them entirely. Others have noted when a weaker solution was used that their fields turned a lighter green, losing their thrifty appearance and becoming a ready prey for blights. Many farmers claim that it is the cause of the late blight or rot ; this is true only in the sense that its use so weakens the plant that the power to resist this disease is lowered. Its depressing eft'ects on the vines are greater if the leaves have been more or less eaten by insects ; this is specially true of the work of the flea beetle, wliich it does not kill to any appreciable extent. The reader will get a better idea of the injury done the potato plant by Paris green by referring to Figure 17, show- ing injury due to arsenical poisoning. Some authorities claim that this is wholly due to the free or water soluble arsenic which the green contains, and that the addition of lime will prevent all injury. To a cer- tain extent, this is true, and the user should always use more or less lime in any mixture containing Paris green which he sprays upon his potato vines. That this injury can be wholly overcome by the addition of lime has not been the experi- ence of one of the greatest potato experts I have ever known. Neither has it been true in mv own case. That its use on 86 potato fields will, in time, impregnate the soil to the extent that it will impair the growth of vegetation seems plausible, in view of the recent developments in the orchards of Colo- rado. It must be remembered, however, that the amount used per acre of orchard was several times the amount usu- ally used on a field of potatoes ; and in the case of potatoes, where a rotation is followed, bringing them on the same field only once in three or four years, it would take a much longer period of time for the soil to arrive to that stage now found in some of the poisoned orchards of the West. In the one point of killing the Colorado potato beetle there is nothing much cheaper than Paris green, and the potato grower using it in a spray mixture should add a pound or two of lime to every pound of Paris green. If Photo No. IS Showing- the tliamond slot 4 -row duster applying- Bug- Death to a 25- acre field of potatoes on the Johnson Seed Potato Co.'s farms, Richmond, Maine, season of 1912. Note the fine condition of the vines. This field was never sprayed with Bordeaux Mixtur.^ and kept green many weeks longer than fields nearby, which were thoroughly sprayed with Bordeaux. 87 Bordeaux mixture is used, the lime in the Bordeaux will be sut^cient, the Paris green being added to the Bordeaux at the rate of one pound to each acre of potatoes to be sprayed. Paris green has no fungicide value, and its addition to the mixture is simply to combine an insecticide with the Bor- deaux. Used in this way, it will adhere better to the vines than if used alone. Those who use it in a dry form will get the least injury to the potato vines by mixing it with land plaster (gymsum) at the rate of one pound of Paris green to fifty of plaster, dusting over the plants with any of the dusting apparatus that will do the work. That it is not more generally used in this way is because of the fact that most of the machines on the market have not been a success in distributing it as it should l)e. For one who desires to use Paris green, mixed with land plaster, will find the Diamond Slot two and four row^ duster (photos Nos. 18 and 19) equadly bls effective for putting on this mixture as for applying dry Bug Death. The plaster has a beneficial efi:'ect on many soils. Paris green varies greatly in its killing strength, also in the water soluble arsenic it may contain, but this variation is not so w'ide as to cause the great difference in the killing of the potato bugs wdiich so many farmers complain of. One pound per acre ought to entirely kill the bugs, if evenly ap- plied, but I have seen many potato growers who had to apply from three to four pounds per acre at an application, and even the second and third application of this amount would not clear the vines of bugs. I am inclined to the theory that under certain weather conditions it makes the vines distasteful to the bugs, and they pass through a period of time when they do not eat enough to kill them, while the vines growing new leaves soon give them a new feeding ground free of the poison. I have noted this same failure both with arsenate of lead and Bug Death practically as often as I have with Paris green ; and as all three are eft'ective in killing these ])ests when eaten by them, I can account for their seeming failure in no other manner. The heavy amount spoken of above, however, should never be used, as the injury to the vines is too great, and may result in the entire loss of the crop. The potato grower using Paris green should use as lit- tle as possible of it, and get as even an application as possi- ble over the entire plant. With the Paris green and plaster 89 mixture, the evenness of the ajiphcation is apparent at a glance, and a niininnnn amount of the green can he used. ARSENATE OF LEAD Arsenate of lead was the result of the demand for some poison as effective as Paris green, hut without its injurious effects on foliage. It was used largely hy the old Gypsy Moth Commission in Massachusetts for the spraying of trees infested with this pest. It has two advantages over Paris green, in that it will adhere much hetter to the leaves during rainy weather and that the injury done the vines- is not so apparent. In my experiments with it, the loss in yield of tubers by its use was not over one-half that caused by Paris green. One objection to it is that it is slow in its action in kill- ing the bugs. I have seen fields after the third spraying with it literally swarming with larvae of the potato beetle. It is more costly than Paris green and is equally danger- ous to stock, and, as more pounds of it are used per acre, is open to the same objections as a soil poisoner as is Paris green. However, if I were obliged to go back to the arsenic- al poisons as a means of killing the potato-eating insects, I should use arsenate of lead in preference to Paris green, making several sprayings within few days' time, when the slugs were hatching out. In this way insects could be gotten rid of. with a minimum of injury to the plants by arsenical poisoning. As it has to be applied in the form of a spray, it is not so available for those not equipped with some spray- ing apparatus as is Paris green or Bug Death, either of which can be applied in a dry form. BUG DEATH Bug Death is entirely different from either of the pre- viously discussed insecticides. It contains no arsenic, and while it will kill many kinds of insects, including the potato beetle in all its stages of growth, it is entirely harm- less to stock or human beings. There is absolutely no dan- ger of stock getting poisoned with it; no more than there is with road dust lime or ashes. But its chief value lies in the fact that it affords the potato grower, the market gardener, the fruit raiser and all growers of flowers a safe means of fighting a greater part of the insect pests, without the least 90 danger of injuring the foliage. There are hundreds of thousands of country people who need and have been look- ing for years for something along this line, which can be easily and quickly applied without any danger of injuring tender plants. The author has been using Bug Death on his potatoes and garden truck for fourteen or fifteen years, using some seasons over a ton of it, practically all of which he applied himself, either with a horse-power sprayer or dusting it on dry. From this long experience, I feel seife in speaking very positively of the value of this material to any one needing an insecticide. In the growing of seedling pota- toes, which have a very tender foliage, which is certain to be injured by the application of arsenical poison, and which are most certain to be injured by Bordeaux Mixture itself, I have been able to keep them in much better con- dition by the simple method of dusting them lightly with dry Death Bug five or six times during the season. This in spite of the fact that some of our scientific men in the State Ex. Stations ridicule the idea of Bug Death being a fungicide. As far as first cost, it is not as cheap as either Paris green or arsenate of lead, as much more of it has to be used. The retail price is $7.50 per hundred pounds, and 100 pounds is none too much to use on an acre of potatoes during the season, and in many sections will give as good results as is possible to get with Bordeaux Mixture, no mat- ter how well made and thoroughly applied. Bug Death can be applied in water through a sprayer, but I have never been able to get as good results in that manner of applying as I have in dry form. It is a decided improvement to Bordeaux mixture where one needs an in- secticide with the Bordeaux. Used in this way, 15 to 20 pounds per acre at each application for three or four appli- cations will give almost perfect protection both for the flea beetle, that scourge of the potato growers, and the Colorado beetle also. Fifteen to twenty pounds of Bug Death, added to enough Bordeaux Mixture to thoroughly cover an acre, makes a thick, heavy mixture, which will not wash ofif the vines when once dried on. In fact, after trying all kinds of insecticides, I unhesitatingly claim that Bug Death and Bor- deaux Mixture gives the greatest protection, both for insects and blight on the potato, of anything yet produced as a spray mixture. In spite of this, all things considered, I prefer to dust 91 the Bug Death on dry, especially the early part of the sea- son. There are several reasons for this; first, there is sure to be more or less injury to the potato vines from the Bordeaux Mixture itself, varying in the time of showing according to weather conditions, but usually showing here in Maine in about six weeks from the time of the first application. By dry dusting with Bug Death early in the season to keep the vines free of all insects, those who live along the Atlantic coast and near ponds and streams, where foggy weather is apt to make blight conditions very bad, can delay the use of Bordeaux Mixture usually into August, and thus to a large extent escape the injurious effects of the Bordeaux But sections with these conditions form but a small part of the potato-growing area of the country, and in most cases the use of the dry Bug Death will give all the protection needed, both for insects and blights. The matter of getting water is a serious one to many, and costs a lot of hard work to any one spraying. Again, when spraying, work should not be begun in the morning, when the vines are heavily laden with dew, but with the dry dustings many acres can be gotten over with the dry duster before it would be best to start the sprayer. Photo No. 18 shows the Diamond Slot four-row horse duster. As it is but a few seconds' work to fill this machine with the dry powder, four or five acres an hour can be easily gone over, thereby allowing the large grower to get over a large field long before the dew would be dried off enough to start a sprayer. Photo No. 19 shows the hand or two-row duster. This machine will apply dry powder like Death Bug very evenly over the vines, and two acres an hour can be easily gone over with it, doing fine work. This photo was taken Sep- tember 5th, 1912, and shows the author and a part of one of his potato fields. This field has been gone over twice with the two-rowed machine, applying a total of 80 pounds Bug Death per acre in the two applications. The photo showing the Diamond Slot duster applying Bug Death on a 25-acre field of the Johnson Seed Potato Co., Richmond, ]\Iaine, was taken August 30th, 1912. This field had nothing but dry Bug Death a])plied for either in- sects or blight, and was on September 1st, 1912, the finest field of growing potatoes of its size I have ever seen, and I have seen some of the finest fields grown in Aroostook 92 County, Maine, where soil and climatic conditions combine to make of a potato field a thing of beauty. To sum up, those wishing to use something besides the deadly arsenical poisons will find Bug Death will free the vines of both the Colorado and flea beetle, and give practi- cally the same protection against blights as Bordeaux Mix- ture. In addition, it will be found to be a positive benefit to the plants, which will be shown in the darker green of the foliage, and an increased yield per acre, varying from ten to sixty bushels. Photo No. 20 shows the plant where Bug Death is manufactured. I want the reader to note photograph No. 4. showing an experimental plot of one-seventh of an acre on an old, run-out piece of land, planted without any commer- cial fertilizer or barn dressing, but which was heavily dusted three times during its growing period with dry Bug Death, a 100-pound keg being used, or at the rate of 700 pounds per acre. This amount was used not because it was necessary to kill or keep off insects, but to see the effect this heavy amount would have on the plants themselves. FACTORY IS .i60 FEKT I.N LENGTH A.M) HAS A YEARLY CAPACITY OF 3000 TONS OR MORE OF BUG DEATH. II 1 Ifillll Photo TSo, 20 Showing the Danforth Chemical Go's plant, Leominster, Mass., manufac- turers of Bug- Death, the only Insecticide made which does not contain arsenic. 93 There was absolutely no question but the large growth and perfect condition of these vines was due, to a great extent, to the heavy application of the Bug Death. I have noted the same effect times without number on many garden vegetables, especially melons, squash, cucumbers, tomatoes and eggplant. Many times the benchcial effects are so great as to be far bevond the small amount of nitrogen Bug Death contains could have. There is a process in the economy of plant life, not yet investigated by the Ex. Stations, whereby a combi- nation of materials different than those used in the composition of the arsenical preparations which will in certain stages of atmospheric conditions allow the leaves of plants to which it is applied to draw, in some-at-pres- ent unaccountable manner, plant food either from the air or soil. In no other way can 1 account for the vigor of growth which so many times follows an application of Bug Death to growing plants. The writer has strongly urged the Ex. Stations in many states to take up this work, as it is of vital importance to the whole agriculture of the country ; but, so far as my knowledge goes, I have yet to hear of the first in- stance where any eft'ort has been made along this line,but the sole eft'ort on the part of the Ex. Stations has been to push the sale of arsenical poisons, regardless of the eft'ect on both plants and soil. If the farmers of the country want the Ex. Stations to work for their interest along this particular line, they will have to exert a stronger influence over them than has been the case in the past. BORDEAUX MIXTURE The general spraying- mixture used on i)()tatoes as a prevention of blights is Bordeaux mixture. It has been condemned by so many potato growers who have used it that there can be but little dotrbt but what it is not all the early advocates of its use claimed for it. Probably it has been more generally used by the potato growlers of the State of Maine than those of any other section of the country. That there is a stronger feeling in the state today that it is not all that has been claimed for it would hardly be denied by any one familiar with the existing conditions. Potatoes rotted badh- in Aroostook Count v in 1907, de- 94 spite the fact that spraying was general. In 1908, the season being dry and unfavorable to the spread of the spores of the disease, very little rot was found in the county. The crowning year for rot coming the next, or 1909, when those best able to judge claim that one-third of the crop rotted, many farmers losing nearly their whole crop, and resulting in a loss to the county, esti- tnated by some to be around five millions of bushels. Some claim that the best-sprayed fields rotted the w^orst, while others claim, with equal vehemence, that spraying saved their crop, one probably being as near right as the other. Too many farmers have reported that their sprayed fields have rotted badly, while those not sprayed rotted but little, if at all, to waive them aside without consider- ation. That there are reasons back of all of this not yet understood there can be no doubt. From my experience, I am inclined to believe that the vitality of the seed planted many times determines whether or not the crop can be saved by spraying with Bordeaux mixture. In writing this I have aimed to keep my own experience in the background, putting down as far as possible only known facts. But one experience of my own along this line might be of interest to the reader. I planted one five-acre field several years ago with seed which I knew to be lacking in vitality. This field was as thoroughly sprayed as it is possible to do the work. Eighty gallons of Bordeaux mixture was used per acre at the first application, tw^o hundred gallons each at the second and third spraying and one hundred and thirty- three in the fourth, the last application being September 7th. Late blight or rot spread on this field after the sec- ond spraying, many leaves being afifected all over the field. The third spraying seemed to check the spread for a time, owing partly to cooler weather. The fourth application had little efifect in checking its spread, it being about as bad in one portion of the field as any other. The vines were thoroughly covered wdth the Bordeaux, yet the blight spread, and there was quite a per cent, of rot- ten tubers. Had there been a few days of as hot weather as we usually get in late September, there is but little doubt but nearly all the tubers would have rotted. If Bordeaux mixture gave no better protection to fields in general than it did to this one, it would be of but very little use to the potato grower. On the other hand, I am 95 satisfied that had this field I^een planted with strong, vigorous seed that the spraying given it would have en- tirely pre\enle(l the hliglu and r<'i. There is a question whether the action of the Bor- deaux mixture itself is not weakening the vitality of our potatoes, despite the protection it usually gives against blights. I have yet to examine a field in September that has been kept thoroughly sprayed during July and Au- grust that does not show leaf injury caused by the Bor- deaux. This shows in a burning and browning and harden- ing of the leaves, and in some fields is a very pronouced in- jury. The later in the season the vines remain green the more this burning of the copper sulphate shows. Yet, when well made and intelligently ap])lied, it will in- crease the crop of tubers in most any kind of a season, especially in the more Northern states. The making of Bordeaux mixture has a great deal to do with its effi- ciency in protecting the vines, and no doubt there are many using it who do not mix it in such a way as to get the best results. The old formula of six pounds of blue vitriol and four pounds of lime to forty-five or fifty gallons of water is seldom, if ever, used now by the potato growers in Maine. This did not carry enough lime, and the injury spoken of above caused the use of more lime and less vitriol. The five-five fifty formula is used by many, while five pounds blue vitriol and six pounds of lime and fifty gallons of water probably is an even better one. The ready mixed Bordeaux mixture or ready mixed dry Bordeaux has not seemed to give as good results as the home-made. The new process lime manufactured for the making of Bordeaux does all right, but more of it should be used than of common lump lime. Seven to eight pounds of this should be used to five pounds of blue vitriol to get the same effect as six pounds of common lump lime well and properly slacked. As the new process lime costs more per pound, and more of it is needed to the same effect, it is more costly to use. For the small, and many times to even the large grower, the easiness with which it can be mixed up will save enough time to more than make up for the added cost. It is a good plan for any potato grower who plans to spray his crop to have a supply of this new process lime on hand. Many plans of making and mixing .Bordeaux mixture have been given to the public, showing how the diluted lime water is contained 96 in one barrel and the diluted blue vitriol water in another, both being run into the spray tank through pipes or hose, where they mix together as they enter the tank. These are all right as far as they go, where water is handy and can be pumped up to a height which will allow this to be done. This is seldom the case in actual field work with the average grower. Probably ninety per cent, of the water used to make Bordeaux mixture has to be drawn to a greater or less distance to get it to the potato field. If the distance to get it there is more than a few rods, the quickest and most economical way is to haul it in large barrels on a farm wagon rather than in the sprayer itself. In this case it is much better to slack the lime and dissolve the blue vitriol in that section of the field where the greatest saving of time can be made when spraying. Stock mixture should always be made even for a few acres, and as both the lime and vitriol will keep indefi- nitely until mixed together, much time can be saved by so doing. The following stock solution will make five hundred gallons of Bordeaux: Get two large barrels, holding fifty ^a.llons each, dissolving in c^ne of these fifty pounds of blue vitriol. There are two ways of doing this. One is to put the vitriol in a coarse sack and hang it into the barrel near the top., so that the vitriol will be only partly covered by the water. This is the usual way, but is not so satis- factory as the following : Get or make a box about twelve inches square and ten to twelve inches deep, tacking on the bottom of it a piece of brass or copper wire netting after removing the bottom. Nail two cleats along oppo- site sides near the top, so that the box can be set into the barrel resting on the cleats. This will bring the box down into the barrel some eight or ten inches, according to its depth. Pour the fifty pounds of blue vitriol which is to be dissolved into the box, and fill the barrel with water by pouring it through the vitriol. More than one-half of the vitriol will be dissolved in just filling the barrel, and as the bottom of the box is down in the water, the balance of the vitriol left in it is in the best possible posi- tion to dissolve quickly, and in an hour or two all will be found ready for use. If the box is made with copper nails and the netting tacked on the bottom with copper tacks, the box will last for years, and will save many hours of time as well as wastinsr of blue vitriol. We now 97 have fifty pounds of vitriol dissolved in fifty gallons of water, or one pound of vitriol to each gallon of water. In the other barrel Ave will slack sixty pounds of good lump lime. Pour two or three pails of water in the barrel first, then turn in the sixty pounds of lime. A eood stirring paddle should be at hand, for the lime will begin to boil in a very few minutes. Care should be taken that this does not spatter into one's eyes. More water will have to be added, always keeping enough in so the lime will slack without burning. Ten to fifteen minutes will slack this to the consistency of a thick paste. If this can be done the night before wanted, it is better letting it set iintil morning before filling the barrel up with water, as it will slack better to be kept hot for a few hours. When needed, fill the barrel with water. This gives us sixty pounds of lime in fifty gallons of water. When ready to spray, first fill the sprayer at least half full of clear water, then add five gallons of the blue A'itriol water. If insecticides are to be used, they should be added at this time. Next, add five gallons of the lime water, give the pump a turn or two to start the agitator and stir the mixture, and if the sprayer is not quite full, fill it by adding clear water. This will make as good Bordeaux mixture as one can get, and at the lowest price. As the operator uses the lime water out of the lime barrel, he can add more water, always keeping in mind to use all the lime the barrel contains in using the fifty g-allons of blue vitriol. The object in adding more water to the lime is to so dilute it that it will readily pass through the strainer in the sprayer tank. This also does away with trying to strain out the coarse material, which we always find in our lime which settles in the bottom of the barrel. Thoroughly sprayed with a Bordeaux mix- ture made in this manner five or six times during the season by going over and back on the rows at each spray- ing, potatoes will seldom be badly hurt by blight and rot. AVhen this does occur, the chances are that there are other and obscure causes that are back of it, like poor, weak seed, which should never be planted. SPRAYERS A sprayer should be thoroughly well built, with large pump capacity and a strong agitator working close to the bottom of the barrel or tank, keeping the mixture in perfect 98 suspension. Most machines are now made to spray four rows at a time, and on rough, uneven land this is as many as it is advisable to try to cover at once. On large, smooth fields, free from stones of any great size, six rows can be covered at a time, provided the pump has a capacity enough to keep the working pressure up to where it should be. A working pressure of at least 7h to 90 pounds is needed when the machine is working in the field with the spray turned on, whether spraying four or six rows at a time. A sprayer that will not develop and maintain this de- gree of pressure day after day either is out of order or is lacking in pump capacity. The pump should be made entire- ly of brass and copper, and the plunger should be so made that the wear of both plunger and cylinder can be taken up by putting on the plunger leather or canvas cups. These will make the pumping capacity of the machine as good as new. Two or three days of continuous work will so wear these cups that the pressure will begin to fall, and many times before the operator realizes it, he will be doing in- ferior work, and another set of cups will need to be put on. A sprayer needs a good deal of attention to keep it in first-class working condition. Many have fitted up for spraying their potato fields, and then for inferior work done have not received the returns they looked for, and therefore condemned the process. This is almost always either the fault of the operator, who fails to understand the proper working of the machine and keeping it in perfect working order, or of the machine itself. Bordeaux Mixture is hard on the life of any sprayer, on account of the lime used in its making, and in the hurry of the work many fail to properly strain the mixtvire as it goes into the sprayer tank. This results in clogged nozzles, impatience on the part of the operator and unsprayed por- tions of the field, allowing both insects and blights to get a start. I have not yet found any nozzle equal to the vermorel for the potato field. The pump should be fitted with two leads of pipe, a return pipe to the tank and the one leading to the nozzles, both being fitted with a stopcock. When starting for the potato field, after filling the tank, start the pump and open the stopcock leading back to the tank. This allows the agi- tator to thoroughly stir the mixture while the pump is pump- ing it back into the tank. When the potato field is reached, shut ofif the stopcock leading back to the tank, allow the 99 pump a few strokes to get up as much pressure as wanted and then turn on the stopcock leacHng to the nozzles. An allowance should he made of a few feet in entering the rows, in order that the nozzles may all get working in good shape hy the time they get over the tirst hills when entering the rows. A little practice on the i)art of the operator in turn- ing the spray on or oft" will enable him to spray the end hills when entering and leaving the rows as well as any part of the field. A first-class power sprayer will be fitted with a waste gauge leading back into the tank, and so arranged that by a turn with a thumb nut the amount of pressure can be easily changed. This waste gauge should be set at all times so that it will give up and relieve the pressure on the pump before breakage occurs on any part of the machine. It also should be fitted with a pressure gauge, allowing the operator to see at all times the amount of pressure his pump is under. A good strainer should go with every machine, fitted with brass or copper wire screen of thirty meshes to the inch. This is fine enough, so that if nothing passes into the spray tank but what goes through this size mesh there will be no trouble in clogging of the nozzles. Some sprayers are fitted with a strainer containing a screen of too small surface, which is easily clogged up when filling the tank, especially wdien straining in the lime. The aperture in the spray tank should be large enough to take a strainer containing at least twenty-five to thirty square inches of wire screen. This will allow surface enough, so that with a reasonable amount of care on the part of the operator there will be but little, if any, trouble in rapidly filling the tank. All of these things are of impor- tance to the grower. Many times, with a small screen sur- face strainer, it will take longer to fill the tank with the mix- ture than it does to apply it to the potato field. This is a useless waste of valuable time at a season wdien every mo- ment is precious, and causes a slighting of the work which would not otherwise happen. With a good four-rowed horse sprayer, kept in condition, as perfect work can be done on large areas as is possible for the small grower to do with a knapsack sprayer. Photo No. 15 shows a four-rowed horse- power sprayer at work. SPRAYING The importance of spraying potatoes as a preventive of 100 blight is overlooked in many sections. This is especially true in the case of late blight or rot. There is hardly a sea- son, even when there is no late blight, that the extra yield from sprayed fields will not more than pay all cost of spray- ing. This being the fact, spraying becomes a system of crop insurance which the careful grower feels that he cannot afford to neglect. Spraying, to be effective, must be carefully and thor- oughly done. In ill-planted fields, with crooked rows and rows of varying distances apart, no perfect work can be done. The spray should be forced all through the vines, coating the under as well as the upper side of the leaves and stalks. Spraying is a preventive, not a curative necessity. For this reason, it should be begun before the blights are established on the plants, and this holds true for the larvae of the potato beetle as well. To do this work effectively demands much of a sprayer. The nozzles should not be set to point straight down, but a little forward or backward. The larvae of the potato beetle likes to get into the crown of the plants, feeding on the tender new leaves growing there. To be effective, our spray must be forced into the crown of the plant, while, at the same time, we want angle enough so that it will be forced among the stalks and under the leaves, coating both leaves, stems and stalks with the mix- ture. We should have pressure enough to have our spray come out of the nozzle just like a jet of steam. The nozzles should be as near the rows as they can be and get spread enough to the spray to cover the whole of the row. Many make a sad mistake here in not adjusting the nozzles to the size of the plants they have to spray, and really cover only a narrow strip through the center of the row. Others have their nozzles too high, and, while they cover the rows entire- ly, the spray has no force to it when it reaches the plants, and consequently it is not forced among the stalks. In this way the stems, stalks and under side of the leaves get but little benefit from the spraying, although to the careless observer the work looks to be perfectly done. There can be no real, thorough spraying in going one way over the field. Some advocate, where the pumps are powerful enough to furnish plenty of pressure, the putting on of double nozzles, one pointing forward and the other backward, will give the same result in one driving over the field. While this is all right in theory, it doesn't work out as well in field practice, partly because it applies too much mix- 101 ture at once, without giving it any chance to dry on ; and, again, the operator, unless he has had long practice, is almost sure to fail to have the pressure up at times when he enters the rows. This leaves the ends of the rows unsprayed, even with double nozzles, as double nozzles cannot spray with no pressure behind them. With the sprayer in good working condition, the operacor, if returning on these rows, even with single nozzles, is certain to have plenty, of pressure as he leaves them. In this way, the ends of the rows which he failed to spray on entering will at least get a more thorough spraying than if he had gone only one way, even with double nozzles. To go both ways with double nozzles takes too much mixture per acre and makes spraying too costly. The best results are obtained with the minimum amount of mix- ture by using single nozzles. Going over the field and let- ting the tirst application dry on, and then reversing, reaches both sides of the hills, and the small crown leaves, where the tiny slugs have congregated, have got two sprayings at dif- ferent angles, which is practically certain to cover them and kill all the slugs. Spraying should begin when the vines are from six to eight inches high. Fine caps should be used on the nozzles at this first application, as it saves material, and a sprayer holding sixty gallons can then be made to cover an acre, go- ing both ways. If insects are plenty, the second application should follow the first in a very few days. It is sometimes better to make the first three sprayings inside of ten days' time, if the weather is very warm and slugs are hatching" rapidly. These should be killed before any damage is done the vines. At this period of rapid growth the foliage is in- creasing so fast that plenty of unsprayed surface can be found in the crown of the plants by the little slugs as they hatch out. For this reason, three sprayings are sometimes needed to entirely rid a field from slugs. If this work is done as it should be, there will be but few bugs left to bring out a crop of slugs later in the season, and in the subsequent sprayings an insecticide may and probabily will not be needed. A field allowed to become badly eaten by either the flea or Colorado beetle is much more likely to be attacked by either the early or late blight than one kept free from them. This is also true of arsenical poisoning, which is much more likely to injure the plants if badly eaten by insects, especially the flea beetle. The free arsenic, acting on the raw, freshly 102 eaten edges left by these insects, seems to be much more harmful to them than it is to uneaten foliage. After the first three sprayings, the others can follow along at intervals of ten days to two weeks, according to weather conditions. Dry, cool weather is unfavorable to blight, and the period between the sprayings can be longer, while moist, hot weath- er, being favorable to the spread of the late blight or rot, would necessitate a shortening of the time between spray- ings. There comes a time in the period of the growth of the potato when it seems to be the most susceptible to disease, especially the late blight; this is just when it is passing out of the blossom stage of its growth. If we can get it through this critical period without harm, it is a comparatively easy matter to keep the vines green until late in the season in the more Northern sections until killed by frost. This means a greatly increased crop, as the last few weeks the vines re- main green is when the potato makes the most profit to the grower. For this reason, it is advisable when the potatoes are passing out of the blossoming stage to use more gallons of mixture per acre than at any other time. On vines that thoroughly cover the ground not less than one hundred and twenty-five gallons per acre should be used at this time, and I frequently use more. Spraying should never be stopped because the vines cover the ground and will be broken and more or less trampled upon when driving through them. Vines that have got to this stage of growth will not be cut off badly by the wheels of the sprayer going over them. The rolling of them down by the wheels, while it looks bad, will hardly even bruise them except on side hills where the sprayer slides more or less down hill. When this happens a few will be cut ofif, but the damage done is infinitesimal compared with the good done in preventing blights and promoting growth of tubers. No one should hesitate to spray, even if the vines are so rank and tall that the rows can hardly be made out; a growth of vine of that magnitude certainly needs the pro- tection given by a thorough spraying. THE FLEA BEETLE There is no insect that does greater damage to po- tato vines at times than the little black flea beetle. I had much rather have the Colorado beetle to fight than I'buto >'<». 21! This shows the injurious effect of the flea beetle. The injury of this insect is one of the most destructive the potato grower'has to contend with. Bujj Death is tlie most successful insecticide to combat this ravaging and destructive insect. 104 this little pest. In fact, he does far greater damage be- fore attention is attracted to his work than any other insect I know of. In my section of Maine there is an early brood, which usually comes the last half of June in great numbers. Frequently potato fields will show practically all their leaves eaten, as shown in Photo No. 22 by the time the plants are five or six inches high. Fully one-half of the surface of the leaves have been destroyed as far as their use to the plants is concerned before the grower realizes what is being done. This could not happen with the Colorado beetle without being seen long before one-half of this damage could have taken place. Potato vines eaten in this manner are much more susceptible to arsenical poisoning and the early and late blight and other fungous diseases. There is sometimes an August brood in Elaine, and in some cases these are so plentiful that even a vigorous field of vines, which completely cover the ground, will be ruined by them in a very few days. Not only do they eat the leaves full of little holes, but eat in many places part way through, thus making little depressions. It is the settling of the Paris green into these little depressions, partly eaten through the leaves that causes the target-like marking shown in Fig. 17 of injuring due to Paris green or ar- senical poisoning, and makes arsenical poisoning so much more pronounced on a field that is badly infested with the flea beetle. Its ravages also have a decided eiTect in causing- the early blight; so much so that it seems reason- ably certain to claim that the early blight would seldom, if ever, cause much loss to the grower unless the plants suffered a loss of vigor through the ravages of this pest and arsenical poisoning. Again arsenical poisons do not kill this pest to any great extent, or, at least, do not seem to lessen their rav- ages. Hence Paris green should not be used when the vines are afflicted with the flea beetle unless it becomes necessary to use it to kill the Colorado beetle, as the Paris green, settling in the little holes, partly eaten through the leaves, helps along the injury to the vines and makes a bad matter worse. Bordeaux mixture, thoroughly ap- plied, will keep them partly in check by driving them away. There is no way I have ever found to protect my fields from the flea beetle like dusting them with dry Bug B'eath when the plants are damp either with dew or 105 ri^lit after a rain. 1 ha\e nc\er been able to deterniine whether or not it was fatal to them or simply drove them away, but it makes but little difference to the potato grower, pro- \ided his fields are kept free from them, which the Hug Death will do far better than an_\thing else I have ever used. THE COLORADO BEETLE The Colorado beetle is probably the best known of all the potato-eating insects. It seems to have been a native of Colorado, hence its name. When the settlers carried the potato into its home it seemed at once to form a particular liking for the foliage of this plant, and at once began to spread East in search of its new-found food. It reached Iowa in 1861, and Wisconsin in 1862, Illinois in 1864, Michigan and Indiana in 1867, Ohio in 1868 and Pennsylvania in 187U. Twelve years later it reached Nova Scotia, and has been a pest over the whole eastern portion of the country ever since. That it will ever disappear hardly seems probable, although it varies in number greatly in dift'erent sections at different times. It flies readily in bright, hot weather, but the distance it can cover in this manner does not seems to be known. From my observation, I believe it never flies in damp, cool weather, and the approach of evening or a sudden shower will precipitate it to the ground, regardless of where it may be. It can frecpiently be found washed up on the shores of lakes and ponds, sometimes in countless numbers, a sudden cooling of the atmosphere causing them to fall into the water in their flight across where they have miserably perished. They winter b}^ burying into the soil, coming out with the first real hot days of spring, and sometimes ap- pear in such numbers on a potato field, where the plants are just breaking ground, that all growth made for sev- eral days, or even weeks, are eaten by them. It is at this stage of the growth of the plants that they are the hard- est to combat, as there is so little leaf surface that it is practically useless to try to poison them. They mate at once, and egg laying commences within a few^ days if the weather remains warm, the little potato plants frequently having several hundred eggs on them wdien two or three inches high. If these plants can be covered up with 106 soil, it will spoil these first egg clusters, and in the case of verv late planted potatoes many times will be all that is needed to free a field from them. The work of fighting them should never be delayed until damage is done the plants, as it will result in a loss of crop that will amount to many times the cost of the labor and material needed to rid the field of them. What to use in this work is described under Insecticides. TREATMENT FOR SCAB Scab is a fungus disease (Oospora scabies), growing on the surface of the tubers, causing rough pitted patches, or Photo No. 23 Showing scab. 107 in badly infested soils these patciics cover the whole surface of the tubers, oftentimes making the whole crop unfit for market. (See Photo No. 23.) Some varieties of potatoes are much more susceptible to scab than others. The American Giant is noted for its scab-resisting qualities, but its cooking quality is such that in most mar- kets, if bought at all, it brings a much lower price. As a general rule, the better the quality of the variety tiic more likely it is to be attacked by the scab fungus. This is not always true, however. This disease is widespread and is carried to soils which are free from it by planting infected tubers. One of the methods of controlling scab is to plant seed free from it. A\'ith a system of crop rotation which will bring potatoes on a field only once in three or four years, little or no trouble will be experienced from its attacks. The scab fungus will not thrive in an acid soil, and although it may be present or even scabby potatoes planted in such a soil, the resulting crop would be free enough from it to sell readily in the market. We can lime a soil and sw^eeten it up to that point where clover will thrive, and still not have it sweet enough to prevent growing potatoes on it by reason of scab, if we will be sure to have the seed we plant free of the disease so as not to plant the scab along with the potatoes. If it becomes necessary to plant any seed showing spots or patches, as shown in the cut, it should be disin- fected. One of the methods to do this is to soak the tubers before cutting in a solution of formaldehyde. This is com- monly called the formalin solution. It is not a very costly or time-taking job if gone about in a businesslike way. There are several methods of doing this, but the following will suit the farmer who plants up to 100 or 150 bushels of seed : Get five large barrels holding from fifty to sixty gallons each and set them in a row out of doors, putting into each of them 35 gallons of water; add to this one pint of for- malin of the standard 40 per cent, solution to each barrel. Put the potatoes into coarse bags (bran sacks are best for this purpose), tieing them near the top. This allows the potatoes to spread out in the bag, and by so doing three bags, holding one bushel each, can be gotten into each barrel, and the 35 gallons of the solution will completely cover the potatoes. The five barrels make it possible to have 15 bushels of potatoes soaking at a time. This is about all one man can attend to at once. Let these soak from one and 108 one-half to two hours. While this is going on, more can be sacked up and got ready to put into the barrels, as soon as the first lot is removed. In this way one man will pick up out of a bin and soak about 100 bushels in a day's time. The cost of the formalin should not be over a dollar and a quarter for the five barrels, and each barrel should soak at least 40 bushels of seed. When the potatoes are removed from the solution it is better to turn them upon the ground, one bushel in a place, and throw a bucket of clear water over them to rinse the solution off, as it makes them nicer to handle when cutting. When dried they can be picked up and put in bins again until needed for planting. All bags, boxes or baskets used to handle the potatoes after being soaked should be previously dipped in the for- malin solution to kill any of the scab fungus which might be on them; and if they are to be put back into a bin, a bucket of the solution and an old broom w'ill allow the operator to thoroughly disinfect the bin before putting the potatoes back into it. When a soil becomes badly infested with scab it is a serious matter, and if the disease is to be eradicated it can be more quickly done if potatoes are kept off of it for some years and green crops grown and plowed under to set up a slight acidity, which will help to kill it out. Lime, ashes or heavy application of barn manure tends to sweeten the soil and promote its growth. Sulphur has been used by many to dust over tliC seed when cut, and also scattered along the row when planting. With some this seems to be a perfect remedy, while with others it seems to amount to very little. That the condition of the soil itself has much to do with its effectiveness 5s no doubt true. Some authorities claim that spreading seed potatoes to sprout where the direct rays of the sun will strike them will kill the scab fungus. When the scab fungus is in the soil, any treatment given the seed will not insure a clean crop, but only makes certain that we are not planting the disease along with our seed. Many times it may be present in a limited way in a soil favorable to its growth and not get to affect the tubers enough to hurt their market value from one season's plant- ing unless the scab in good, vigorous condition is planted on the seed. Land that is reasonably free from it will usually grow good market crops of tubers if a rotation is followed which 109 will bring potatoes on the groiuid not oftener than once in every three or four years. This is most sure to be tlie case if stable manure is not used on the held ; but the humus- content kept up by plowing under green crops or a clover sod, and chemicals or commercial fertilizer used to supply the plant food needed by the potato crop. One having scab on his seed potatos should read the chapter on "Selecting and Cutting Seed." If this is fol- lowed thoroughly and the knife disinfected as stated, the grower will have but very little trouble either with scab or many other diseases which now make potato raising on some soils a risk. LATE BLIGHT OR ROT The late blight or rot probably causes more loss to the Northern potato grower than any other disease which attacks the plant. As far as known, it lives through the winter only in the tuber itself, and many times it can be easily detected when cutting potatoes to plant, although it might be present in many of the potatoes cut and not detected even by an expert. It may affect only a small portion of the tuber, and, in cutting, the portion affected might not be cut through and, therefore, would not show even to the most expert observer. If, when cutting seed, the cut surface show's black- like threads running through the tuber, it should be dis- carded, as this is more than likely to be the late blight, or rot, in the dormant state in which it passes the winter. It also can sometimes be detected by sunken spots on the surface of the tubers. These are usually irregular in shape and vary from mere spots in size to covering nearly the w'hole surface of the potato. These usually appear during the winter while in storage, and in some cases quite a percentage of a bin of potatoes will be found showing these spots in spring, when at digging time no trace of rot was found on the tubers in the whole field. When infected seed is planted and the soil and w^eather conditions become favorable to the growth of this fungus, it spreads to the surface by the roots and stalks. I have frequently found the wdiole root system and stalk below the surface of the ground badly affected when the thor- oughly sprayed top show^ed no blight whatever, and a slight pull w-ould break the stalk off just below the sur- face of the soil. This is one reason wdiy early spraying for the late no blight or rot is necessary, as it may be working towards the surface on the roots and underground stems when infected seed has been planted, and even the most critical observer could not detect it in the field unless an infected hill should happen to be dug out. If any seed piece planted was badly infected, the sprout or stalk springing from it is likely to come up weak and spindling. On the other hand, many seed pieces may be so slightly infected that the vigor of the sprout will apparently be but little impaired, and the field make a splendid growth and ap- pearance. If at about the time the plants are going out of blos- som and sometimes before, if the weather becomes hot with frequent rains, the spores of the blight reach the surface, and if the vines are unprotected, they spread very rapidly over the leaves, and in a few days' time will turn a fine looking field into a mass of blackened, dying vines, with a very offensive odor. If no rain falls from the time the vines become infected with the spores until they are entirely dead, and the unripe tubers in the ground have ripened off or hardened up, there is little danger of it. Tubers after they are thoroughly ripe seldom rot in the soil unless it becomes very wet. Again, a field that shows but little blight on the vines, perhaps none to the average grower, and keeps green until frost may have its tubers rot badly. This comes from the spores of the blight being washed from the leaves down upon the unripe potatoes, which they immediately attack. A field can have its vines so slightly affected by the blight spores that the casual observer would not detect it, and still there be enough to wash down upon the unripe tubers and cause a bad case of rot in case of heavy rains. A field can also become infected with blight by the spores being brought to it by the wind from a field per- haps miles away. In this case, it is usually detected on the leaves near the top of the plants. A leaf showing a portion turned black and drooping, with a white mold on the under side, can safely be diagnosed as affected with the late blight. If good, vigorous seed has been planted and the vines kept thoroughly sprayed with Bor- deaux mixture, or thoroughly dusted with Dry Bug Death, see photos Nos. 18 and 24, beginning when they are only six to eight inches high, there is but little danger of 112 the grower losing his crop from the late blight or rot. If blight is once allowed to get well started on a field, there is but little hope of saving the crop. The above-mentioned photographs show a part of a 25-acre field of potatoes on the Johnson Seed Potato Com- pany farms at Richmond, Me., in 1912, which had noth- mg m the way of insecticides or fungicides applied to it but Dry Bug Death, and were in the best of condition on September 1st of any field in that section. The vines remained green until late in October, the last photo show- ing the digging of the World's Wonder October 22nd, 1912, the yield being practically 430 l)ushels per acre. HARVESTING THE CROP Potato harvest at best is hard work both for teams and man. The old hard work of hand digging is largely done away with by the modern potato digger, which will do fine work if cultivation has been thoroughly and prop- erly done unless heavy and frequent rains keep the ground in muddy condition. This may and frequently does hap- pen, and where the crop is on a clay loam soil no potato digger made will do good work or, in fact, do any work at all in mud. When these conditions do overtake the grower there is nothing left but hand digging with the potato or tined hoe. The elevator diggers are most used and most practical and there are several makes on the market. As in showing the various other machines used in the fitting of the soil and the growing of the potato, I call the reader's attention to the photo No. 24 of the O. K. Champion Potato Digger No. 2 at work on the Johnson Seed Potato Co. farms at Richmond, Maine, taken October 22nd, 1912. This digger is manufactured by the Champion Potato Machinery Co. of Hammond, Ind. This machine is of light draught and is easily drawn by one pair of good horses, and if cultivation has been done as it should be one man and a pair of horses will dig an acre easily in from two to two and a half hours, leaving the tubers all or nearly all on top of the ground ready for the pickers. The form of the rows has much to do with any ma- chine doing good work. Tlie practice of the Maine grower, almost witliout exception, is to ridge his rows, but not too high or wide. This forms an ideal chance for any 113 digger to do its best work. If the rows are ridged too wide and liigli, no machine can handle the soil and separate thi: tubers out without a draught nnich too heavy for one pair of horses. This is especially true if the ground is in any way too wet. Thus, if le\el cultivation, or wide and high ridged rows confront the grower a large four-horse digger might have to be used, as it has a much larger separating capacity. Such a machine, when the ground is in proper condi- tion and the rows have been ridged about right, is not nearly as desirable for many reasons. First, the draught is much too heavy for one pair of horses, and a four-horse team, outside of the extra expense for the extra horses, will trample upon and cause more or less loss of tubers. Again, with fine conditions for digging, the soil will leave the machine too quickly, leaving the tubers to pass over the elevator ^vith no protection from bruising unless the machine is run at a much greater depth than is necessary or desired. A digger which requires four horses is unnecessary in most cases if proper attention has been given to ridging as it should be done. With most late varieties which grow a large top which usually entirely covers the ground the rows should be not less than 34 to 36 inches apart. In ridging, planted this distance apart, it won't do to take the soil from centre to centre, as a too large ridge will be thrown up to work properly through any digger which can be drawn by two Inorses when the ground is wet. Therefore tlie Maine growers' practice is to make a medium sized ridge as shown in Photo No. 14. This will Avork nicely through a smaller or two-horse digger and leave the tubers as clean and nice to pick up as can a larger machine wdiich costs much more to operate. That a very large ridge may, in some seasons at least, be the means of producing a little larger crop of tubers I am inclined to believe. That this increase in yield will be enough to ofifset the extra cost of digging has not been my experience. Dif- ferent sections of the country have ditierent methods of handling the crop after being dug. The Aroostook county method is to pick into barrels, drawing these from the fields on low w^agons or jiggers. This is a type of wagon little seen in most other sections of the country, but it makes a rapid, easy way to get the crop to the storehouse. Other 114 Photo No. 25 Showing- the Aroostook type of storehouse. This depends on artificial heat passing- up bet-ween the outer and inner -walls. sections use bushel boxes or sacks, which can be much more easily loaded on the high wagons used in many of the potato-growing districts, but for those sections where the crop is to be stored for winter or spring shipment there is no cheaper or easier method than having the pickers dump the tubers into barrels set at proper distances along the rows and drawing the filled barrels to the storehouse with the low wagon. STOREHOUSES Storehouses for the keeping of potatoes are a neces- sity where the crop is largely grown and not all sold from the field as dug. It is pretty safe to assume that new 115 seed would not have to be broui^ht from the North every yeai in many sections where it is now done were the growers fitted with proper storehouses. Once in two years would be as often as new seed would have to be obtained throughout Pennsylvania and as far South as the Southern border of this state west through Ohio, In- diana and Illinois. There are two ways to build a frostproof potato storehouse. The one most generally used in Aroostook County, Me., see photo No. 25, is to have a chance in the cel- lar or basement for a stove with double walls to the building, with the outer air space opening into the cellar or basement. Thus a very little heat will keep this air space above the freezing point, and with another air space between this and the potatoes, where the air is dead, potatoes can be kept free of frost with but little cost for heat, no matter how low the temperature may go outside. Aroostook County, Me., gets a temperature from 30 to 50 degrees below zero every winter, but there is seldom any loss of tubers in the storehouses there by reason of frost. Such a house needs constant attention in cold weather, and is not the best form for the grower farther South. Some writers claim that a dry, cool cellar is bet- ter than a damp one for the keeping of potatoes. This is not so. The cellar should be cool almost to the freezing point, but there is less loss in weight if it is damp. For the grower as far South as Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, a house with a cellar under ground is, in my opinion, far better. Such a house is shown in photo No. 26. The upper part of this building is used for the storing of farm implements, fertilizer, sacks, etc. The cellar walls should be either of stone or concrete, and the ceiling over the cellar should be plastered with concrete in order to keep the moisture away from the timbers. Unless this is done, the timbers will not last over from six to ten years. \\'ith a building as shown in the photo, the potatoes are drawn from the fields into the building and dumped through scuttles into the bins below, care being taken not to bruise them in so doing. After the potatoes are in, the cellar should be cooled down as fast as possible until the desired point is reached. This can be done by keeping it closed during the day and opening it nights, when the temperature outside is 116 cooler than in the cellar. If the cellar is dug into the hillside, and proper precaution taken to keep water from coming in, there is no need of any floor, but the potatoes can be dumped right upon the earth bottom of the cellar. They will keep much better than on a wooden floor. I have seen many such that were cemented on the bottom. Unless this is necessary to keep water out, it should not be done, as it makes the cellar too dry for the best keep- ing of the tubers. The nearer underground such a cellar can be the more even the temperature, and if the cellar is kept closed as spring approaches, the tubers can be kept until well into the spring before sprouting. The darker the cellar is the better will the tubers keep their quality ; but some way must be provided for light when it is desired to re- move them. Such a cellar as the above will keep tubers without freezing with no artificial heat whatever. The writer's own cellar has now been built ten years, and I have seen the glass go to 25 below zero, and hang around the zero mark for weeks at a time without a tuber being touched by frost. Where a building is not needed over the cellar for storage of farm implements, a reinforced concrete roof can be made with scuttles to dump the potatoes through to get them into the bins. These can be raised as high as wished and the whole roof covered with soil and grass allowed to grow upon it. The roof should be made water tight by a thin coat of cement before being covered. Such a cellar should be dug into the side of a hill or knoll, al- lowing teams to drive over the cellar easily to dump into it, while on one side or end it should be on a level of the bottom of the cellar, allowing a team to be backed right into the cellar when the doors are opened, or, at least, al- lowing the potatoes to be taken out on the level. This saves lifting both in storing and removing from the cellar. By having a storehouse on the above plan, a grower can keep his seed stock in much better condition, and many times, by so doing, he can produce enough larger crops to pay for the whole cost of building such a cellar. Again, if buying Northern seed, by having a proper chance to store and keep it, he can purchase in the fall, when it is usually cheaper in price. He is then sure of having his seed on time in the spring, which means 117 much in many cases, as delays often occur in j^etting seed from the North in early spring'. MARKETING THE CROP The marketing is largely a matter of color, size and quality. A roundish white potato with a shallow eye is what most markets demand today. These should he well sorted and graded as to size. It is uniformity of size that takes the eye of the huyer. I'here always should he at least two grades, and if there are many large tubers of a pound or more in weight, it is many times advisable to make three grades. The first grade should be all nice, smooth tubers, practically free from scab, prongs or any form of roughness. The largest of them should not be much if any over 12 to 14 ounces and the smallest not below 5 ounces. This is as great a variation in size as ought to exist in any lot which the grower expects to have graded as firsts and to bring the highest price. All above this grade in size that are good and smooth will usually sell for a higher price per bushel than could be obtained if both of these grades were mixed together. There is almost always a good market for these large tubers if they are smooth and nice in appearance and are good clear through. The fear that they are hollow or black in the centre or core is about all the reason the buyer has against them ; but in their favor they have large size, which readily commends them to the maker of potato chips or the hotels or restaurants where fried potatoes are served. Large tubers are peeled with less labor and waste. Could nice, clean stock, running from 12 ounces up to two pounds, always be ob- tained, there would certainly be a good demand for it at good prices. In the third grade would be all those below tive ounces in weight down to those of the size of large hen's eggs that were good and smooth. Many prefer this grade for baking purposes, as they will bake quickly and the iiavor is equal to any. The average grower does not have enough of either of the last two grades to estal)lish and maintain a trade in them, and in an average neighljorhood there are so many ditTerent varieties grown that it would be impossible to work tnis in a co-operative way. Still there is no question but what pota- toes graded and put upon the market in this way would return to the growers more monev and give the consumer 118 better satisfaction. Any section where potatoes are largely grown ought to have a co-operative organization among the growers, not only for marketing their crop, but in the purchase of seed. This orgsmization should have a building ample for its needs with facilities for loading cars right at its doors. The growers should draw in their potatoes and have a corps of experienced men to sort and grade them. The cost of this would be a little more perhaps than the grad- ing in the field; but the extra price would much more than offset this extra cost, as no field-sorted stock is ever perfectly graded. By this method the men doing the grading having no interest in one man's lot above that of another would grade uniformly, something absolutely needed to build up a reputation and get prices above the general market. By having such an organization the varieties planted can be Hmited to those best suited to the locaHty in point of quahty, yield and market demands. Any section which can establish and maintain a reputation for choice, well-graded stock not only obtains the highest price at all times, but has a demand for its product even when there is a glut in the market. This point alone is many times of the greatest value to the grower, enabling him to dig and dispose of his crop at good prices even in an overstocked market. The prices obtained by the Long Island, N. Y., potato growers above the general market prices well illustrate this point, as they frequently get from fifty cents to a dol- lar more per barrel than the general run of potatoes are selling for. There is hardly a section where potatoes are grown, where a right system of intelligent and broad-minded co-operation in selecting a few varieties best suited to that particular locality and having the product grown, properly sorted and graded, in which the returns could not be in- creased at least 10 to 15 per cent. THE HOME GARDEN A chapter on "The Home Garden" seems out of place in a work on the culture of the potato. Yet nearly every grower of potatoes is directly interested in a "Home Gar- den," from which his table can be supplied with the choicest of fruit and vegetables. The high cost of living is something that every one must face, and there is no 119 spot 111)011 a farm where more can be got for the time and labor expended tlian a properly laid out Home or Kitchen Garden. 1 believe tlie ne.glect so often noticed on many farms of any pretense along this line is, to a large extent, due to the inability of most farmers to fight the garden insects in a quick, economical manner. Nothing has been tendered them but arsenical pois- ons by most agricultural writers and Ex. Stations, and it w^as pretty nearly an even chance for the grower whether to let the insects kill his garden truck or for him himself to kill both truck and insects by an application of some of these poisons, usually Paris green. This was particularly true of scpiash, cucumber and melons, to say nothing of eggplant and many other vege- tables of the garden. Hence I shall confine myself almost wholly to those plants and vegetables whose growing is the most hazardous by reason of insects. One of the most delicious of the products of the gar- den are Melons, both Water and Musk. These need light, warm soil, and in the more northern states at least the spot selected should slope to the South or Southeast, as a greater degree of heat will be obtained, and heat and sun are essential to their growth. The land should be finely cut up with the harrow before plowing, and a heavy ap- plication of barn dressing be applied and plowed in, but not very deep. The writer uses a high-grade potato fer- tilizer, with a part of its nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, running at the rate of one-half ton per acre into the rows with the potato planter, the disk coverers cover- ing this, and with the leveling attachment following, the rows are smoothed dow^n level and all done at one going over with the planter, the row^s being six feet apart for watermelons and a little less for muskmelons. This might not be room enough in the south, but is plenty for Maine conditions. The great trouble with watermelons in the North is to get the seed to come up cpiickly. The seed is usually so dry and hard that in our Northern States there is not heat and moisture enough to germinate the seed properly, and a poor stand of plants is usually the result. After many trials with dift'erent methods. I have used the hot-water idea for the last five years with not a single failure. Watermelon seed are so hard that soaking them for a day or two in tepid water is not enough. Again, there seems to be more or less germs of 120 Photo Xo. 26 Showing the frost-proof cellar type of potato storehouse. This type is far better for the more soiTthern sections, as potatoes can be kept much later in the season without sprouting'. different diseases that live through the winter on the seeds ready to attack the plants as soon as they begin to sprout. Five years ago it occurred to me to use hot water at first when I put the seeds to soak. This can be almost scalding hot when poured over the seeds, but the seeds should not be allowed to stand in scalding water but a very few seconds, just long enough to kill any germs that might be upon them, but not long enough to injure the vitality of the seeds themselves. This is no job for the heedless or careless man; but in my experi- ence of only five years, when I have used the hottest water, I have got the best results. After this scalding process the seeds should be put into real warm water and allowed to soak for from two to four days, the water being grad- 122 ually brought down to about the temperature of the air and soil conditions out of doors. In planting, I follow the rows as left by the potato planter, and with a round pole from one to one and one-half inches in diameter laid upon the row and with the foot pressed into the loose soil. This makes a depression about one inch deep, with the soil packed in the bottom. This will insure moisture along the bottom of this little row where the seeds are to lay, and seeds that have been soaked must not be planted in dry soil where there is no moisture. A little care and these pole furrows can be got very straight. I plant Watermelon Seeds not over 4 inches apart along these rows, and cover not over one inch deep. I have never failed in this manner from having a perfect stand of plants, except once on one variety, wdiere the seed was bad. This leaves our melon rows only an inch or so wide when the plants first break the ground, and the cultivator can be worked so closely to them that the cost of this part of the work is very small. When the plants get well started, thinning should begin. There is always danger from cut worms, which is the reason the seed is sown so thick along the row, for, with any method of fighting the cut worm, he is most sure to get a good many plants before the worms can be all killed. After all danger of insects is by the plants should not l)e left nearer than three feet apart in the rows. The most active enemies to melon plants both water and musk are the flea beetle and striped squash bug, both of which can be entirely controlled by the frequent appli- cation of dry Bug Death. The same duster as is shown in photo No. 18 can be used only now, but one row at a time can be dusted, the rows being so far apart. By nar- rowing up the width of the dust the machine will drop there will be but very little waste, and it is only a few minutes' work to cover an acre of melon plants in this manner. They should be dusted earl}- in the morning or late at night Avhen damp with dew. There is another pest sometimes called the wilt beetle, which causes the plants to wilt and die, and which may not attack them until the vines have made quite a growth. There will be but lit- tle trouble with this pest if the vines are kept dusted, as they should be, with the Bug Death, as long as the ma- chine can be used without too much damage to the vines 123 by the wheel running- over them, and by the time this will happen the vines will be largely out of danger. One of the surest watermelons to grow in the North- ern states is the Coles Early. It is a good eating melon, but too tender for shipi)ing ; but that is no drawback for the "Home Garden." The "llalbert Heney" is the sweet- est and finest llavored melon of them all, and, while small, will grow most years as far North as central Maine if on light, warm soil and in a sheltered place. The Keckley Sweet is another fine melon, much larger than the Halbert Heney and nearly as good fla- vored. I have grown specimens of the Coles Early to weigh 32 pounds and Keckley Sweet 25 pounds here in Maine, which is larger than needed for home use. In the case of muskmelons, where the seeds are thin, and in some cases have split open more or less, it will not do to use the water as hot, as it will upon the harder shelled dry watermelon seed. The two objects in using hot or nearly scalding water on watermelon seeds is, first, to soften up the hard shell of the seeds so that they can sprout quickly, and, second, to kill the germs of any disease that might be upon them. With musk- melons the last is the only reason, as there is but little trouble in getting a stand of plants if the seed planted is good, and with thin-shelled seed hke muskmelons care must be used in order not to kill the germ of the seed when scalding to kill the germs of any of the melon blights which may be upon them. Cut worms and the flea beetle like muskmelons much better than watermelons ; hence, when planting musk- melons, the seed should not be dropped over one and one- half to two inches apart in the rows. This seems like a great waste of seed, as these should be thinned out to not less than 30 inches apart in the row after all danger from insects is past. The cost of seed is not very great, and with both water and muskmelons the time of planting is very short in our Northern states, and if the first plant- ing fails to give the proper amount of plants needed the whole season will have been lost. There can be no set time for planting either, as the ground must be warm before it is any use to plant melons. As a rule, Mav 25th comes as near as any date can be specified, but I have planted a week earlier with fine results, and with the Gran- ite State Muskmelon as late as June 15th, and got fine 124 ripe melons weighing- four and five pounds by September 8th, but the Granite State melon is the only one I have ever had that will do this. In fact, I have never planted any of the other varieties after the first week in June and re- ceived any crop. The Granite State is the most sure of any of the muskmelons, and if planted side by side with the "Miller Cream" for a few years will take on the good quailty of the "Miller Cream," while still keeping its old shape and size. Next to the Granite State would come the "Miller Cream." This is the finest eating melon I have ever tasted when grown to perfection. It should be planted never been able to have it grow properly planted later as early as the ground and weather will permit, as I have than June 1st. The Granite State will make a good crop in any season I have ever seen here in Southern Maine, but it is the only one that will. The "Miller Cream" will in about four years out of five, and so will some of the "Netted Gens" or "Rocky Fords." It is but little use to plant anything but the "Granite State" and "Miller Cream" as far North as Maine, but these two are all one needs or desires. SQUASHES In planting squashes, the same general system of preparing the soil is followed as in planting melons. What barn or stable dressing that can be spared is spread over the patch, and either harrowed or plowed in, and some commercial fertilizer used in the drill the same as for melons. In fact, I find this to be about the best method for most garden crops, as much time is saved and all vegetables will get a quick start. The squash rows are run six feet apart, and the seed is pushed into the soil about 1^ inches with the fingers and about two feet apart in the row. There is not as much danger from cutworms with squashes as with melons, but if they are known to be present the seed should be planted thicker. Four feet apart in the row is about right to leave the squash plants. The flea beetle does not attack the little squash plants as they do muskmelons, but the striped squash bug will be a great deal worse. If the little plants are dusted two or three times with Bug Death none of them will be lost. I do not think I 125 ever lost a squash plant when kept dusted with Bug Death, and if dusted with it before the bugs come they will not light upon the plant at all. Hence it is very im- portant to dust them as soon as the plants break ground. With plants as scattered as they are in a squash patch, the best way is to take a piece of cheesecloth or burlap and make a small bag, putting a pound or so of the Bug Death in it, and with a little jerk or shake over the plant it will be well dusted. This should be done early in the morning or at night when the plants are wet with dew. With this method I have gotten nearly three tons of fine squash from one-eighth of an acre of ground, and it is rare that the yield will be less than six tons per acre. Squashes should never be planted near melons, as they are apt to spoil the flavor of the melons. CUCUMBERS Cucumbers are planted in the same manner as mel- ons, with the seed dropped as thickly in the rows, but only thinned to one foot apart in the row. and the rows can be as near together as three feet. I like the drill method for all garden truck, and by keeping the seeds in a straight line when they are small, there is but very little of the soil which cannot be stirred by the cultivator, keeping the garden free from weeds with the least possi- ble amount of hand labor. Bug Death should be dusted on the cucumbers as soon as they break ground, for the flea beetle will get at these plants nearly as quickly as muskmelons. Many who raise cucumbers for the pickling factories claim that several dustings with the Bug Death after the vines get to a bearing age will piolong their fruiting season from two to three weeks. Unfortunately, the writer has never grown cucumbers in a large way, but only for his home use, but they grow and bear fruit until killed by frost. If the claim of those who grow them for the pickling fac- tories is well founded, it is certainly worth the trial for this purpose, as the vines can be dusted with the same duster used for potatoes and with very little waste of the Bug Death if the rows are in drills. CONCLUSION In conclusion, allow me to thank you for your atten- tion and say that the methods, both in the home garden and 126 potato growing, which I have had the pleasure of bringing to your notice, have been worked out in the field by myself, and do assure you that if you will follow to the letter my instructions, the result will be a good paying crop of tubers in most any season, wet or dry, from Maine to Michigan. I have many points herein in the culture of the potato mostly overlooked by potato growers, thinking it of too little importance, and wdiich, to my mind, lead to a real loss. The methods of preparing the soil are correct. If the seed is handled as I have above outlined, there wall be almost a perfect stand of plants in any season ; and the method of fertilization keeps the plants supplied with plenty of available plant food well balanced the season through. Thus you have the whole scheme — very simple, is it not? Yet I venture to say that there will be thousands who read this book who will so improperly fit their ground and fer- tilize that there will be weeks at a time in a dry spell when their crops cannot get a tenth part of either the water or plant food absolutely necessary to make a normal growth. Feed your crops as you know you must feed your stock, and the increase will be accordingly. If the author is wrong, get after him. Yours truly, ' E. A. ROGERS, Johnson Seed Potato Company, Leominster, Mass. INDEX In'roduction General Conditions Rotation . Soils for Potatoes . Underdramage Preparing Land for Potatoes How to get Humus Winter Vetch Winter Rye Two Main Causes of the Detoriation of the Potatoes for Seed . Varieties. Saving Potato Boll Seed Originating New Varieties Whole Potatoes for Seed Greening and Budding Seed Potatoes Selecting and Gutting Seed Planting Early Potatoes in a Garden Field Planting of Early Potatoes Planting the Late or Main Crop Stable Manure Commercial Fertilizers Cultivation Insecticides Paris Green Arsenate of Lead . Bug Death Bordeaux Mixture Sprayers . Spraying . The Flea Beetle . The Colorado Beetle Treatment for Scab Late Blight or Rot Harvesting the Crop Storehouses Marketing the Crop The Home Garden Conclusion Potato MAR 10 J913 J. B. HAINES, Advertising 708-9 BAILEY BUILDING 1218 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 018 528 321 5