Class _LjGLJ§.?i" h(kJlA CoipghtN" COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. A THEORY OF MOTIVES, IDEALS, AND VALUES IN EDUCATION A THEORY OF MOTIVES IDEALS AND VALUES IN EDUCATION BY WILLIAM ESTABROOK CHANCELLOR Superintendent of Public Instruction, District of Columbia ; Lecturer on History of Educational Theory, Johns Hopkins University; Lecturer on Education, George Washington University ; Author,'' Our Schools: Their Administration and Supervision ; " etc. " There is no darkness but ignorance." Shakespeare, Twelfth Night Act IV, Sc. ii g^^^^ L BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON, MIFFLIN AND COMPANY mt HiitoErisilie ^rei^^, CambnD0e 1907 1 7;^ fi p, ((y of congress'' two Coole? Received CCT li'90'* Cmtyriffht Entry ? CLASS /^ )lAC., No. ^ 7(5^79/ COPYB, 3 L't COPYRIGHT 1907 BY WILLIAM E. CHANCELLOR ALL RIGHTS RESERVED PREFACE In this book I have undertaken that most difficult of all intellectual tasks, — to determine the values of the activ- ities and of the ideals of men. In this task, many men engage themselves more or less seriously ; poets, philo- sophers, statesmen, historians, men of affairs, gossips, cynics, idlers ; and all fail. Yet no critic is competent to measure the extent of their failures. If, however, the practical educator would lift his own work out of empir- icism and traditionalism into the freedom and reason- ableness of philosophy, he must undertake this task. The immediate influences upon me have been of two kinds : the practical experiences of a working superin- tendent and the academic associations of a university lecturer. The true substratum, the bedrock of the book is not science or art, but a faith that seems to me war- ranted by history as well as by philosophy and necessi- tated by the nature of the human mind, — that this life is, to use the frequent phrase of Carlyle, "but a little gleam between two eternities." I am well aware of the place of this opinion in the history of philosophy. But only such an opinion, true or false, it seems to me, can justify true seriousness of thought or of conduct in life. It warrants the saying of Emerson, " I am to see to it that the world is better for me, and to find my reward in the act," — my reward being the irreversible educa- tion of an eternal soul.^ I cannot accept the opinion of Matthew Arnold, " Hath man no second life ,'' Pitch this one high ; " 2 for the conclusion seems a non seqtiitiir from the pre- mise, and the premise itself false. I hold life one. Obviously in every progressive age there must be a 1 Man, the Reformer. 2 Poents^ ** Anti-Desperation." vi PREFACE " new education," for the progress of humanity is con- ditioned by the better development of the new generation. A static education is both cause and effect of a static civiUzation. I use these terms very loosely, for it may fairly be questioned whether education is not in its very nature dynamic, and whether a civilization must not al- ways be either progressive or decadent ; but as thus used the terms deliver my meaning. Nothing can be more false than the notion that a civilization may advance while its educational phase remains in statu quo. Yet this false notion is the very substance of most of the opposition, whether popular or professional, to "the new education." It becomes, therefore, a part of my obligation to dis- cuss civilization, success, education, and progress, for until the terms are defined, neither agreement nor con- clusion, neither satisfaction nor enlightenment is possi- ble. I must, of course, take for granted certain matters, for education is not a basic science, but rather one that utilizes as its own postulates the conclusions of other sciences. Indeed, by some, the proposition that educa- tion is a science is challenged. In this book, I do not discuss these postulates, though I state and, in some instances, illustrate them. The philosophy of education is not quite synonymous with the science of teaching, and the profession of edu- cation is not at all coterminous with the art. Teaching is artistic ; education architectural, architectonic. From want of this distinction, there have been confusion and conflict. This distinction I draw, following it with various conclusions and applications that appear pertinent to the needs and conditions of this American democracy. The references will, I trust, sufficiently display my obligations to those who have gone before me. Many principles and notions here repeated seem to be too much the general property of mankind to justify mention of PREFACE vii their last or most elaborate account ; and some have come to me in periodicals or in conversation in such fashion that I am unable to identify their sources. As far as possible, I have avoided topics treated by myself in other books ; but where an argument has seemed essential to my theory, I have not hesitated to repeat at least the outline. From what I know of educational theory and practice, it seems that this book has five features of significance : 1. The assertion of the universal rather than the mediate place and value of education, as an integral social institution. 2. The presentation in a hierarchical form of the evidences of education as its successively higher ideals. 3. The discovery of the true relations of motives, values, and ideals by arranging these terms logically. 4. The emphasis of the philosophic spirit underlying and establishing the modern course of study and mode of administration. 5. The development of a system based upon the pro- position of the necessity of the complete education of each and of all. I have sought not to substantiate, but to demonstrate these principles and their corollaries. I believe not that these should be the principles of education, but that they are the principles, for I look upon education as a science whose truths are certain to be discovered by observation, experimentation, and verification. Of course, if these simple principles are the real truth, then we can construct scientifically and easily the appropriate machinery of educational practice, redeem the schools from their pre- sent overloading, confusion, and routinism, and restore education to its purpose, which is to educate men and women. True education is indifferent as to what particu- lar things its graduates know, but sensitive in every fibre to what they are and can do. CONTENTS PART ONE. EDUCATION AND SOCIETY CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF EDUCATION Educational theory must precede educational practice — The duality of man — The individual paramount to the race — Development of the soul -The leisure class - Society and solitude — Recapitulation theory— Order, the manner of edu- cation ^ CHAPTER II VALUES OF THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Property - The Family — The Church — The State — The School — Culture— Business— War 3^ CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION Mechanical processes of civiUzation — Its quality depends upon its morality — Morals : social, popular, historical, national, com- parative, ideal — Morals and ethics — Educability unaffected by physique, race, sex, or time — Growth of the race in know- ledge — Individual and race culture — Good and bad education 52 CHAPTER IV PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE Success not always a matter of the entire life or of general accom- plishment—Personal weaknesses often forgiven to the great — Success not always recognized at the time — Our failures in matters of property, religion, domestic life, government — Tests of success and failure 7° X CONTENTS CHAPTER V EDUCATION IN RELATION TO PUBLIC AND PRIVATE MORALITY AND TO SOCIAL AND PERSONAL PROGRESS Source and growth of new truth — Assimilation of ideas — Hu- man and social characteristics — Dependence of civilization upon education — Fundamental laws of population — Duty of education toward the classes and the masses 82 CHAPTER VI THE FAILURE OF EDUCATION Social motives in organizing education — Social causes for the failure of education — Education toward ends unwarranted — Personal causes for the failure of education 97 PART TWO. THE MACHINERY OF EDUCATION CHAPTER VII THE PRESENT SUBORDINATION AND DEPENDENCE OF THE SCHOOL The school of education and of training — Subordination and morality — Dependence upon Property — Upon the Family — Upon the Church — Upon Culture — Upon the State . . . . 115 CHAPTER VIII THE NEW^ EDUCATION Mechanism of education — Bases of education as a science — Psy- chology — Criminology — Political Economy — The progressive stages of education 138 CHAPTER IX THE FORMAL SYSTEM OF EDUCATION Parents should compose most of the educational profession — Pe- riod of compulsory education — Varied materials of education — Individual needs 164 CHAPTER X LEGISLATION, ADMINISTRATION, SUPERVISION, AND INSTRUCTION AS EDUCATIONAL INSTRUMENTS Legislation by constitutional conventions — Legislatures and Boards of Education — State interference with private schools CONTENTS XI — State centralization and local autonomy — National control — Purpose of supervision — Characteristics of poor instruction i8o PART THREE. THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION CHAPTER XI INTELLIGENCE The senses — Processes of observation — Literacy — Language — Literacy and efficiency — Literacy and moraUty — Phonics — Polyglottism — Grammar — Definition 203 CHAPTER XII EFFICIENCY Activity beyond knowledge — Health and efficiency — Efficiency and property — Economic inactivity in the home — Efficiency and the Church — Efficiency and government — Efficiency and the arts — Efficiency in education — Economic efficiency — Ef- ficiency and war 243 CHAPTER XIII MORALITY Physical laws of morality — Moral laws of Property — Of the-Fam- ily — Of the Church — Of the State — Of the School — Of Cul- ture — Of Occupation — Of Business — Of general Society . 274 PART FOUR. THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE CHAPTER XIV SCIENCE The scientific method — Superstitions — The search for truth in Nature — God in Nature — Science and Philosophy .... 317 CHAPTER XV ART Multiplicity of the arts — Tyranny of art — Artists and artisans — Art and education — Democracy of art — The technique of art 328 xii CONTENTS CHAPTER XVI PHILOSOPHY Individual philosophy — Historical philosophy — Differentiation of other sciences from philosophy — Dangers of philosophy to the inexperienced — Functionings of knowledge — Instinct . . 341 CHAPTER XVII HEALTH AND HOLINESS Efforts of Nature in behalf of health — Civilization inimical to health — Heredity, environment, and health — Health and occu- pation — Age and holiness 359 PART FIVE. MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCA- TIONAL PRACTICE CHAPTER XVIII HABIT, CHANGE, AND ILLUSIONS OF CHANGE Habits of individuals — Habits of communities — Habits of social institutions — Conservatism of the School 373 CHAPTER XIX MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS Subjects tending to train the powers of observation — Training in efficiency — Training in morality — Language — Mathematics — History — Science — Art — The art of health . , . . . 383 CHAPTER XX CONSTANTS, ELECTIVES, PROGRAMMES AND COURSES Play — Nature-study — Language — Music — Drawing — Arithme- tic — History — Electives — Order of studies — Arrangement of a curriculum 423 CHAPTER XXI RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF SOCIETY AND EDUCATORS Responsibility of the teacher to the child — To the mother of the child — To the taxpayer — To the State — Increased expendi- tures for the School a necessity 433 CONTENTS xiii CHAPTER XXII THE NATURAL MAN Primary and secondary motives of life — City life — Resistance of humanity to culture — Motives, ideals, and principles of the bar- barian — The warfare of civilization 442 CHAPTER XXIII THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN The qualities of the well-educated man — His acquirement of cul- ture 464 CHAPTER XXIV THE LINE OF MARCH Method of growth in civilization — True civilization a progress away from Nature — Evidences of a true civilization . , . . 475 CHAPTER XXV THE MEANING OF LIFE Common attitude toward death — The necessity of evil — Contin- uousness of the School — Education as an independent social institution 486 BIBLIOGRAPHY 499 INDEX 519 PART ONE EDUCATION AND SOCIETY The difficulties of democracy are the opportunities of educa- tion. — Butler, The Meaning of Education^ p. 120. A THEORY OF MOTIVES, IDEALS, AND VALUES IN EDUCATION CHAPTER I THE NATURE OF EDUCATION Where no vision is,'the people is made naked. — Proverbs xxix, i8 (alternative reading). And whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely. — John, Revelation xxii, 17. in the dialectic of personal growth, the development of self-consciousness proceeds by a two-fold relation of give-and-take between the individual and his social fellows. . . . Both ego and alter are thus essentially social ; each is a soctus, and each is an imitative crea- tion. — Baldwin, Mental Development: Social and Ethical I titer pretations, pp. 512, 519. To educate is to lead forth, to guide forward. But what is to be led or guided } And from whence } In what direction is forward t Who should lead, and who be led } And when } By what means, and by what methods } These questions are to be answered by edu- cational theory before the answer may be demonstrated in educational practice. In the familiar illustration of the Cave,^ Plato represents men as " living in a kind of underground den that has an opening toward the light. Chained so that they cannot turn their heads, they see only their shadows, or the shadows of one another, which the fire above and behind them throws on the opposite wall of the cave." Occasionally, one is freed from his chains. At first, such an one does not know whether the shadows or the other men themselves are real. When this one goes out into the world, the sun, moon, stars, and earth astonish him ; and he wonders that he ever could 1 Plato, The Republic, 515. 4 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY have enjoyed the cave. Should he return thither, the cave- men will despise him because, with the loss of familiarity, he will have lost skill in the ways of the cave. But he himself will know that the outer world is the true world and will always desire to dwell there. Such is an interpretation of life that education may derive from philosophy. Education is applicable to whosoever is educable. To say that education is impossible in a particular instance is to say that the creature is not educable, is indocile, is incapable of growth. A good man would hesitate to affirm this of any conscious living thing. Of any hu- man being not educable, he speaks with sorrow, using with the utmost hesitation such terms as '* feeble- minded," "imbecile," "idiot," and "incorrigible," and trying to think and to act upon the theory that there is no absolute idiocy. A complete system of therapeutics has been built upon the theory that even the insane may be redeemable and educable. To say, as some do carelessly, that education is "finished," is to display ignorance or forgetfulness of the nature of education. It is the conscious creature alone that is educable. The stone may be cut and carved : this is not education. The tree may be transplanted, grafted, or bent : none of these operations is education. The oyster may be improved by proper planting and feeding ; but this im- provement is not education. Certain insects, however, may be educated. In many instances, birds, beasts, and fishes have been educated to considerable degrees of larger and more conscious thought and action. The higher, the stronger, the larger the conscious life of a creature, the greater is its educability. In the case of man, the educability of an individual seems to be quite as much a matter of the skill of the educator as of the quality of the pupil. The limit of the education of a man of talents seems usually to be rather in his oppor- THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 5 tunities than in himself. The genius ^ is he whose edu- cation is self-originated and transcends the quality of his instruction. The larger, the more intense, the fuller, and the clearer the presentations in consciousness, and the vaster, the saner, and the more reliable the subcon- sciousness, the more nearly may perfect education be at- tained.^ It is true, of course, that the finite as such can never be perfectly educated. Individuality sets its own limitations. To know everything, to feel everything, to will everything ; to mirror the world ; to represent per- fection : these are beyond the goals of the finite creature. To run well the race of the mortal ; this is enough. God cannot ask the mortal to return more than He gives him ; but so much as He has given God may ask. And no man may say how much God has given. Of mortal man, there is the carnal, and there is the spiritual. The body is the temple of the soul.^ Spirit wars with flesh.'* The spirit indeed is willing, but the flesh is weak.^ In respect to this apparent duality of man, the purposes of education are to make the body a satisfactory, that is, healthy, obedient, and skillful, instrument of the spirit ; to give the spirit all possible freedom from the body, its functions, duties, needs, weaknesses, lusts, joys, and pains ;*^ to keep the body alive as long as the spirit may use it as a fair habitation ; and to release the spirit from the body undefiled by it ^ Baldwin, Mental Development : Social and Ethical Interpretations^ chapter v. 2 ]^sixo'^, Psychology of the Unconsciotts. 2 I Corinthians vi, 19. A saying of Paul's. ■* Galatians v, 17, A teaching of Paul's. ^ Matthew xxvi, 41. A saying of Jesus'. ^ " Let a man be of good cheer about his soul, who has cast away the pleasures and ornaments of the body as foreign to him, and has fol- lowed after the pleasures of knowledge in this life, and who has adorned the soul in her own proper jewels, — temperance and justice and cour- age and nobility and truth." Plato (Socrates), Phcedo. 6 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY and ready and eager for the opportunities of the life to come.* Evidently, then, the soul, which is spirit at once con- scious and self-conscious, is to be educated, and the body is to be trained. The final education of the soul is its release from the body.^ Mere physical growth brings the human being from infancy to maturity ; and the brain of the man appears to be a better instrument for his soul than was the brain of the child. ^ Such growth effects of itself a partial release of the soul from the body. For reasons inscrutable to man, it appears that the purpose of human life in respect to the spirit is to inform it by giving it knowledge. The spirit is incar- nated and thereby becomes soul. A soul, then, is spirit, living in the flesh and become conscious of its isolation from other spirit. Incidentally, the purpose of education is to inform the soul by giving it systematic experience. In this sense, education is the salvation or redemption of the soul, which is its restoration to pure spirit.^ ^ " Deliberate and foresee the end : examine whether passion tend to that which will be approvable when it is past. The sinful passions are blind and are moved only by things present. They cannot endure the sight of the time to come." Coit, after Richard Baxter, Christian Ethic Sy p. 261. 2 " He has outsoared the shadow of our night. Envy and calumny and hate and pain, And that unrest which men miscall delight, Can touch him not, and torture not again. From the contagion of the world's slow stain He is secure." Shelley, Adonais. 3 The educator need not answer in terms the metaphysical questions whether the soul itself grows, whether the body is such an instrument as actually helps the growth of the soul, and whether the body condi- tions the soul. Strong, Why the Mind has a Body, pp. 336-348. ^ The theological and religious implications of this principle are obvious. No human culture has neglected to consider them. See Hall, Adolescence : its Psychology, chapter x, for the history of the soul. Arnett, "The Soul: Past and Present ^Q\\&is>'' Joiirtial of Psychology, K^x\\ July, 1904. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 7 To say that it is the purpose of education to acquaint the individual with Nature and human society is to assign as a purpose what is philosophically but a means or at best a method ; or else to assign as a purpose of education what is really but a purpose of instruction. These propositions must be true, unless we conceive individual man as ephemeral and man the race or human society as paramount. Man, the physical race, is de- monstrably not eternal or immortal. It is inconceivable that sun, earth, mankind as such will last forever. But it is not inconceivable that the individual is immortal or eternal or that one may achieve immortality, which is not necessarily to suppose that, retaining personality, one may achieve infinity, universality, eternity. Shut in, there- fore, by the inexorable logic of the human status, to save for one's self the ideal of the worth of effort, one must regard the individual as of greater value than soci- ety or the race itself. This brings us to the conclusion that the purpose of education is not the welfare of humanity, but the progress of the individual.^ Fortu- nately for the cause of education, considered as a social institution, this apparently metaphysical conclusion is sustained by common sense, for a society composed wholly of fully educated individuals would be ideal, and a society blessed by the activities of though but a few nobly educated individuals is enlightened by a quality of genius transcending all the possibilities of any quantity of lesser talents. Entire ages and nations, all the world and all time, glow with the beauty of the truth seen and 1 To achieve eternal life is an ideal not less broadening than that to achieve social efficiency. By as much as eternity transcends society, and immortality sociality, by so much does the individual transcend mankind. This raises without answering the question whether body and soul are not both, as products of this particular universe, and as conditions of one another, incapable of being related in thought to eternity and infinity as expressed in any other universe. 8 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY taught by Buddha, Moses, Confucius, Socrates, Jesus, Paul, Augustine, Dante, Kant, Emerson. " Great men are the fire pillars in this dark pilgrimage of mankind : they stand as everlasting witnesses of what has been, prophetic tokens of what still may be, the revealed, embodied possibilities of human nature." ^ The soul is to be developed out of the ignorance, the weakness, and the errors of childhood into full ma- turity, and sustained therein till freed from the body by death. Its development is outward, a revelation, a disclosure, an expression. But as the soul develops, it infolds knowledge, ideals, hopes, gathered out of the world. The larger the soul grows, the more it includes. Its sympathies and passions, its joys and griefs, its facts, laws, values, its truths, standards, principles, its motives, desires, purposes, increase, take on organization, resolve themselves with every new experience. The outer man grows larger, the inner man more full and perfect.^ He centres himself upon conscience, whose still, small voice is an echo, as it were, of the voice of God : he radiates into the universe of Nature, and there likewise finds God.^ But shall the child, the youth, the man, educate him- self ? The Maker of worlds has not so ordered this world and this humanity. The spirit is not to be left in its confusion alone in a strange body upon this new earth as a being lost, helpless, unbefriended. The soul 1 Goethe, Schiller. 2 " Century by century the educating process of the social life has been working at human nature ; it has built itself into our inmost soul. Con- science — the sense of right and wrong — springs out of the habit of judging things from the point of view of all and not of one." Clifford, Ethics of Religion, Essays, p. 383. 3 " The voice of conscience is the voice of our Father Man who is within us ; the accumulated instinct of the race is poured into each one of us, and overflows us, as if the Ocean were poured into a cup." Clif- ford, Decline of Religious Belief p. 391. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 9 finds itself surrounded by other and older souls, lest it die.^ The entire process before and after birth is a pro- vision for the circumstancing, supporting, sheltering, nurturing, and befriending of the soul. And never was this more true than at the present age in America, for all the institutions of society are wrought together to protect the new soul in its adventures in, this strange world. The womb, the mother, the home, the church, the school, all speak one truth. We prolong infancy for the one purpose of enriching the human being.^ What- ever works to the injury of the child from conception to maturity is contrary to the design of Nature and of human nature ; and appearances to the contrary not- withstanding, it is occasional and exceptional. It is an evil tending to destroy humanity ; and to this time, all evils, however many, however great, have been, though able to stay, yet unable to stop, the progress and the multiplication of mankind. In the environment of childhood and' youth, by far the most important feature is the society of persons. In this society of persons, two classes are of paramount importance, the parents and the teachers, both of whom work upon the child with intent and with greater or less deliberateness. The whole tradition of the race with respect to childhood is the necessity of developing it or of developing manhood or womanhood out of it.^ The tradition is against a natural maturity, that is, against a manhood or womanhood uninfluenced by the deliberate labors of older persons. The street gamin of the city, the boy hermit of the country, every isolated child, is 1 " At birth, the child is tossed like a shipwrecked mariner upon a strange and unknown coast." Hall, Adolescence^ p. 5. 2 Fiske, A Century of Science, chapter iv ; Butler, Meaning of Educa- tion, p-p. 6-iy ; Charlotte Oilman, Woman and Economics, passim; Ter- man, fournal of Psychology, 1905, April, "Precocity and Prematuration." 3 Mathews, Proceedijigs Amer. P/iilos. Soc. ; Spencer-Gillan, Central Australian Tribes. 10 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY believed to be on the way to making a criminal or a lunatic. Men humanize each new man. The parents are the natural and predestined educators of children, the teachers are their chosen and voluntary- educators. As civilization grows in difficulty and in com- plexity, the popular requirements of teachers grow con- stantly greater. This is due not only to the fact that the items and the mass of inherited culture constantly increase, — a heritage that imposes upon the individual an undeniable servitude, — but also to the fact that the powers of the individual must be developed more and more for his own preservation in civilization and for the preservation of that civilization itself. One cause of the failure y final and hitherto inevitable^ of every civilization has bee7i the inability of Nature to bring to birth, and of the civilization to develop, a siifficient number of persons competent for its tasks. The problem of education, con- ceived as a social institution, is to produce for "the work of the world" at least as much from its raw material as that work needs. This work of the world is not merely "the hewing of wood and the drawing of water." It is providing for humanity more than food and clothes, homes, shops, factories, and mines. A purely material civilization, however many its luxuries, almost because of its marvelous luxuries, would have no consistency ; could never be established ; if suddenly created, would not last a day. A hundred and twenty years ago France, and in our own times Russia, disintegrated in murderous revolution for want of generally diffused intellectual and moral culture. The poet is as much a necessity to a great civilization as is the business man or the legislator ; ay, and more of a necessity. " We are the music makers, And we are the dreamers of dreams, Wandering by lone sea-breakers, And sitting by desolate streams ; THE NATURE OF EDUCATION ii World-losers and world-forsakers, On whom the pale moon gleams : Yet we are the movers and shakers Of the world forever, it seems. *' With wonderful deathless ditties We build up the world's great cities, And out of a fabulous story We fashion an empire's glory : One man with a dream, at pleasure, Shall go forth and conquer a crown : And three with a new song's measure Can trample a kingdom down. " We, in the ages lying In the buried past of the earth. Built Nineveh with our sighing. And Babel itself in our mirth ; And o'erthrew them with prophesying To the old of the new world's worth ; For each age is a dream that is dying, Or one that is coming to birth." ^ Every civilization requires a certain amount of econo- mic burden to steady it ; a leisure class is as neces- sary as are the various industrial classes. ^ This leisure class, however, must be a working and not an idling class. Every leisure class is always perilously near its own destruction. The true leisure class is a reservoir, often a well-spring, of true culture. It makes scholarship possible. It protects ethics. It standardizes morals. It reflects, criticises, evaluates, appreciates, and encourages whatever is good in the world. It knows sympathy and has time and disposition to manifest the graces of social and personal life. It works, though indeed it may work upon things at present invisible. Many an economic par- asite is a moral or cultural paragon : many such a para- site has built for the economic life of future society. 1 Arthur O'Shaughnessy. 2 Vide Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class, passim ; Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Economics, chapter xiii; Statistics and Sociology, p. 206. 12 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY This is a hard doctrine, resented in many quarters, resented by nearly every economic worker who hears it and has time to think of it. Because of their resentment against those who may give their whole life to leisure, there is a defensive and reactionary disposition in cer- tain quarters to declare that economic laborers shall have no leisure at all. But this conclusion is distinctly a non sequitur. The familiar notion of such as Tolstoi, that in an ideal society all will work as producers of economic goods or as servants of such producers part of the time, and have leisure for the rest, is a merely mechanical view. This view ignores one of the great qualities of a civil- ized society, — its power to store up goods, scholarship, traditions, arts, culture, against the future. A civilized society does not live from hand to mouth, no, nor by a year at a time ; but it lives centuries beyond its econo- mic working period, as Rome and France lived. If a man may work mornings and enjoy economic leisure afternoons ; if he may work six days and rest the seventh ; if he may work winters and rest summers or work summers and rest winters ; if he may support his children in the economic idleness of school-going ; if he may, and indeed ought to, lay up a store ''against the rainy days " of invalidism, old age, accident, and illness ; if he can ever earn the right to travel for recreation and for intellectual and moral improvement ; if he has a right to the mere society of his fellow men in hours, days, and seasons when neither he nor they are bearing the bur- dens of active labor, — and all these things are part and parcel of civilization, — then of right the man is entitled to leisure. The other questions — how he is to be sup- ported in his leisure ; whether a child may or may not be rightfully or wisely given, by inheritance or by other social favor, a leisure that he (or she) has not earned ; whether the leisure class is or is not too large, too secure, too luxurious — do not concern us here as critics THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 13 of education. We may well sympathize with the plaint, — " And these all, laboring for a lord, Eat not the fruit of their own hands, Which is the heaviest of all plagues To that man's mind who understands." ^ But we must recognize the fact that in every civilized society there must be some who eat bread in the sweat of other men's faces ; whose obligation is to return ten- fold to their souls. Education must prepare for the no- blest social services of leisure, deserved or justified, if not actually earned. But education finds its larger responsibility in bring- ing the economic workers, hitherto spoiled more or less wantonly of most of the benefits of civilization, to their highest possible state, redeeming them in their eco- nomic labor to become co-workers with all others in gov- ernment, in religion, and in every other social activity. When should education begin its work of perfecting the sons and daughters of men ? This question can be answered only by modern physiology and psychology. It is scarcely approvable that education by schooling should be begun before the child is seven years old ;• but occasional education by suggestions, play, story-telling, and unwatched voluntary manual exercises may be beneficial before that time. A real garden of children is greatly to be desired wherever children congregate ; but the formal kindergarten may be maintained at the price of passivity, anaemia, brain-lesions, dullness, arrest of development, and consequent failure of life and in life. And the formal common school also is too often responsible for similar wrongs.^ When should education cease its work of perfecting men and women ? Once more we must go to physiology 1 Matthew Arnold, Sick Man of Bokhara. 2 Harris, Psychological Foundations of Education, p. 142. 14 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY and to psychology for our answers. While the brain and the nervous system are able properly to sustain con- tinuous, directed, exacting mental, manual, and other or- ganic effort before seven years of age, seldom are they able to sustain such effort after sixty years of age; and seldom do the character and mind of an individual display any improvement from direct educational effort after forty years of age. In the old, motives, ideals, judgments function so persistently that the traditions of society are conserved. Moreover, these older persons are able to devote most of their time and nearly all of their energy to industrial effort, thus bearing the world of humanity upon their shoulders.^ Youth generates ideas ; genius, persisting in youth, devises many inven- tions ; thereby youth and genius dower society with op- portunities of progress, while age, proving all things, holds fast to that of the old which appears good. Perhaps age rejects too much of the new that is good ; but the fault is remediable by larger education of individuals and con- sequently of society. For most mankind, these educable ages of forty to sixty are much too high, even with all the improvement in physique resulting from modern hygiene : educational courses usually are too severe for the brain of the man of forty or of the woman of thirty-five, and valueless for the character of the man or of the woman several years before that time. In this respect, the mental life runs a course equal and parallel with the physical. Man appears to be educable by formal processes for some thirty years ; that is, capable of development beyond the norm that may be attained without education by mere sufficiency of food, warmth, shelter, sleep, and exercise. But man is most educable in the earlier half of this period ; and the climactic years of educability may be assigned as in primary adolescence from fourteen to twenty in males 1 Shaler, The Individual, p. 269. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 15 of the Teutonic race and from thirteen to eighteen in females. Though there may be much learning after this period, the ideas acquired do not function later as effi- ciently in the modes of motives, habits, ideals,^ and judgments as do those acquired before the brain structure is finished and the adolescent ferment has subsided ; while ideas acquired before ten or twelve years of age are too insecure, perhaps partly from physiological or anatomical causes,^ but no doubt mainly from lack of experience (in other words, scarcity and vagueness of ideas), to remain the permanent and dominant possessions of the mind.^ Mere economic tradition and self-interest must not bhnd us to the fact that the half-dozen years of second- ary adolescence, from twenty to twenty-five, are quite as valuable for " conscious evolution " '' as are the half-dozen years before primary adolescence, which the fashion of American democracy has arbitrarily, complacently, and wantonly chosen for ''compulsory education."^ There is, it seems, a serious general misconception of the purpose of adolescent education. No physiologist or psy- chologist wonders at the success of the thousands of " self- made " men who have learned to read, to write, and to cipher after being "grown up," that is, at eighteen or twent}- years of age. Lincoln did his high school work with a teacher as a tutor after he had become a member of the legislature of Illinois, and benefited by that education : ^ his experience was not unusual, but typical. No physiologist or psychologist wonders at the failure of the thousands of high school and college educated men who never appreciated or soon forgot their "advantages." Truth cannot be set solidly into plastic 1 Bagley, The Educative Process, chapters thus entitled. 2 Donaldson, Growth of the Brain, chapter iv. * Hall, Adolescence, first three chapters. * Davidson, History of Education, preface. 5 " The Educational Outlook," Journal of Pedagogy, July, 1905. ® Curtis, Life of Lincoln, pp. 62-63. i6 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY minds ; before eighteen or twenty, all minds are plastic, or should be. The full period of secondary adolescence, from twenty to twenty-eight in men and from eighteen to twenty- five in women, is the right or best time for marriage, for the sufficient reason that docility or adjustability is still active, though declining, while the body is growing in strength, in weight, and in vigor. Monogamic marriage, indeed, is the latest important historical mode of education for man and for woman alike, and parentage is the final genetic process in the normal schooling of humanity.^ By what means and by what methods shall teachers proceed to educate childhood, youth, and young man- hood and womanhood ? Obviously by such as in theory and in practice have resulted in the best, the most nobly educated, men and women. Who have been, who are, these best and noblest men and women ? What means and what methods did their teachers employ to de- velop their qualities, to bring their powers to fruition, to produce in them sweetness and light, ^ sympathy and virtue, wisdom and power ? The answer is the tale of biography since the record of individual lives began. We know that certain men and women have been, must have been, well educated : by their fruits, we know them.^ They have met the standard of universal morals ; they have manifested the ideals of an abundant and aspiring life.^ Not one of them was perfect ; but some were flaw- less, sinless, just and fair in a noble sincerity, of whom Socrates was the type. To these ten thousand of the "just men made perfect,"^ from Moses to Lincoln, we must look for the ideals of education and for the methods 1 Libby, " Shakespeare's Treatment of Adolescence," Pedagogical Sem- inary ; Howard, History of Matrimonial Institutions, vol. iii, pp. 244-259. 2 Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy. 3 Matthew vii, 20. A saying of Jesus'. * John X, 10. " I am come that they might have life, and that they might have it more abundantly" (overflowingly, irepiao-Jv), a saying of Jesus'. 5 Paul, Hebrews xii, 23. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 17 of reaching or approximating these ideals. " Be ye there- fore perfect, even as your Father in heaven is perfect," seems an impossible requirement.^ Men should be per- fectly prepared for this life that now is, just as God is perfectly able to live wholly His life. The means by which the best of earth were prepared for their lives have varied more in appearance than in reality. The good and great have known both society and solitude. The one makes and tests character, the other intelligence. A good man cannot grow alone upon a desert island ; nor can a great man grow in the throng of the crowded street. Emerson and Goethe are the teachers of a true wisdom ; but the opinion of neither is completely true. Moses, Buddha, Jesus, Mohammed, each withdrew into the mountains and into the wilder- nesses "to pray." " True dignity abides with him alone Who, in the silent hour of inward thought. Can still suspect and still revere himself In lowliness of heart." 2 Great and good men have ever loved the silences ; but they have also dared, must dare, the market-places with their many voices. In the dialectic of mental growth, we go forward by zigzag from experiences to reflection and back again to experiences ; and the most important of our experiences are those with men. When Tenny- son asked, — " Is it well that while we range with Science, glorying in the Time, City children soak and blacken soul and sense in city slime ?"^ he was perhaps too gloomy, and presented eloquently what should be considered with the cooler judgment of 1 Matthew v, 48. The word reAeios, translated here "perfect," means complete, as in the case of the newborn babe, ready for this world, per- fect of its kind. The goal of the babe, which is birth, has been attained. The word does not mean perfect in the sense of final, ended. 2 Wordsworth, Poems written in Youth, Lines, p. 33, Boston, 1854. ^ Locksley Hall Sixty Years After. i8 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY psychology. The senses of children are indeed soaked and sodden by the too many and too intense sensations of the city street ; and souls are drowned there by sense- suffocation. The soul is bleached rather than blackened in the cavernous city, whose life, to those really knowing and understanding it, is rather quicksand than slime. It is true that the children of the tenements seldom grow into men and women of many talents. Lacking these, they remain poor. Yet how rich in the powers and graces of character are these tenement-poor! Is it not sadly true that the children of the isolated country districts seldom grow into men and women of equally philanthropic char- acter ? The inability of the country-bred youth to resist the temptations of city life is familiar to every observer. What Wordsworth wrote, — " The world is too much with us ; late and soon, Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers," ^ is an impulse moving in the soul of every man who seeks the wilderness that he may recover himself from civilization. Of course, one may find solitude in a city room, and companionship upon the moor. The aphorism of Goethe must not be taken too literally.^ Emerson expressed the truth in this compact paragraph, — " Here again, as so often, Nature dehghts to put us between extreme antagonisms, and our safety is in the skill with which we keep the diagonal line. Solitude is impracticable, and Society fatal. We must keep our heads in the one and our hands in the other. The conditions are met, if we keep our independence, yet do not lose our sympathy. These wonder- ful horses need to be driven by fine hands. We require such a solitude as shall hold us to its revelations when we are in the street and in palaces : for most men are cowed in society, and say good things to you in private, but will not stand to them in public. But let us not be the victims of words. 1 Miscellaneous Sonneis, 1836. 2 Legend, Part Three, p. 20 1 , iiifra. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 19 Society and solitude are deceptive names. It is not the cir- cumstance of seeing more or fewer people, but readiness of sympathy, that imports ; and a sound mind will derive its principles from insight, with ever a purer ascent to the suffi- cient and absolute right, and will accept society as the natural element in which they are to be applied." ^ The school (o-xoAt;, leisure) is partly a matter of society {collegiiiniy bringing together) and partly a matter of solitude in study {sttcdiiim, effort). The school is the typical means of the teacher in his effort to educate the pupil. The school is perhaps too much a matter of the crowd. 2 Rousseau, Locke, and Mark Hopkins all con- sidered education a process for the society of but two, the teacher and the learner. We do not accept this ideal, pitying quite as much the lone pupil of tutor or gov- erness as the distracted pupil of the crowded, factoryized public school class with its overburdened instructor. Our ideal is part study and reflection in solitude, part in- dividual instruction by the teacher, part class recitation. Fortunate is the child or youth who may visit the lonely seacoast, the secluded forest, for weeks at a time in each year. There he may learn what Wordsworth, Bryant, Thoreau knew of the lessons of Nature. " Oh, there is not lost One of earth's charms : upon her bosom yet, After the flight of untold centuries, The freshness of her far beginning lies. And yet shall lie." » One who has known the varied glories of the natural world, who has seen perhaps through the eyes of some scientist, poet, philosopher, a part of the truth, knows a reserve, a poise, a health of the soul that should pre- serve him sweet and innocent in the thick of humanity ; 1 Emerson, Society and Solitude^ final paragraph. 2 Bryan, The Basis of Practical Teaching, chapter i. 3 Bryant, A Forest Hymn. 20 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY but only the world itself can teach him to be strong. Nature is like food ; society like exercise. Fortunate is that youth who, knowing Nature, has been severely tried among men. " If the chosen soul could never be alone In deep mid-silence, open-doored to God, No greatness ever had been dreamed or done; Among dull hearts, a prophet never grew; The nurse of full-grown souls is solitude. And who hath trod Olympus, from his eye Fades not that broader outlook of the gods ; His life's low valleys overbrow earth's clouds. He in the palace-aisles of untrod woods Doth walk a king ; for him the pent-up cell Widens beyond the circles of the stars, And all the sceptred spirits of the past Come thronging in to greet him as their peer; But in the market-place's glare and throng He sits apart, an exile, and his brow Aches with the mocking memory of its crown." ^ Even in early years, one may discern the truth de- clared by Carlyle, Ruskin, and Lowell, that society dries and seasons the soul as the kiln dries and seasons the wood from the forest. In the education of a man, there are many elements. We may collect some of them in the term Nature, and the rest in the term Human Nature. Or we may employ the terms Sciences, Arts, and Humanities. Again, all knowledge and all experience may be comprised within the terms Philosophy and History. Names often reflect methods, sometimes dictate them. For educational pur- poses, the method makes or mars the subject. Studies and exercises in public elementary schools are sometimes classified as Essentials and Non-essentials. These very terms demonstrate a utilitarian philosophy. High school 1 Lowell, Cohimbiis. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 21 courses are sometimes classified as Classical, Scientific, Technical, Commercial. These terms betray traditionalism, juxtapositing, accident, abject surrender to present opinion. A secondary pupil is said to "study Latin" for four or five years, a phrase that tells the pedagogical fact of grammar above thought, form above spirit. Still worse is the classifi- cation of disciplinary and informational subjects. These abortive terms disclose a mode of teaching that evidences not pedagogy or even methodology, but pseudo-philosophy. Yet this false philosophy, in defiance not only of modern psy- chology and of all common sense, but also of the old psycho- logy of the intellect (which every teacher has been supposed to know, whether applying it or not), has prevailed very gener- ally, and has driven more boys and girls out of school than all other causes, — social, economic, or whatever else, — sev- erally or taken together. The tale of arithmetic and the tale of grammar in the elementary schools have recited the ruin of two perfect subjects by drill. Every genuinely educational method involves concurrently information and habituation. The true analysis of knowledge for the purposes of education comports with the analysis of the presentation of thought in consciousness. In that presentation, I receive the sensation with a chorus of half-sensations, like echoes or overtones of a true note; while I, who receive it, am flooded with memories and imaginings from the past. The new sensation marks the present. It is a verity, without a history. In education, each fact is to be presented vividly, or not at all. It becomes a present or a presented fact, without a history. For the purposes of education, every presented fact should con- form to some philosophy. Unless essential in substance or in process to the education of the person receiving it, the fact, truth, principle, is foreign, inapplicable, and to be rejected. For the purposes of education, every fact used must belong properly and logically to the essentials. In education. Nature becomes subjective and wholly subordinate to human nature. Of course, 22 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY this is true philosophically, though scientists and prac- tical persons sometimes like to forget it : scouting ideal- ism, they fail in sound psychology.^ Indubitably, the mind conditions, colors, and moulds whatever it discerns. The question of the learner. What is the use of knowing this ? may be unanswerable to him or by him ; but it must rouse in the mind of the teacher the correlative question, What is the use of teaching this ? This ques- tion the teacher must answer before proceeding farther lest in this respect he fail of being truly an educator. As for the distinctions of the Arts, the Sciences, and the Humanities, a chief article in the creed of every true scientist seems to be correctness in system,^ and of every true artist, perfect accord with fact.^ The humanitarian seeks for himself, his enterprise, his principle, social values ; and the societarian desires to lead men to truth, to beauty, and to goodness, respectively the ideals of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Humanities. For the pur- poses of education, we must preserve the wholeness, or at least the correlations, of knowledge. Because education is a system of successive efforts to effect presentations in consciousness, and there to affect their constitution, it must concern itself with me, the conscious being. Only in this sense is education influenced by history as such. The educator, as the maker of states of consciousness that are not accidental or incidental or occasional, but purposive and often sys- 1 The argument in the text is not for idealism, but for some theory, any reasonable theory, that fairly accounts for the mutual interrelations of body and soul. Cf. Strong, IVAy the Mind has a Body, pp. 294, 295, 341 etseq. His argument is for some " double aspect " theory, e. g. psy- chophysical idealism or perhaps panpsychism. 2 " Mere system, of course, does not constitute a subject a science: ab- solute, unvarying, interpretative law is requisite." Fisher, Science, " Eco- nomics as a Science," August 31, 1906. 3 As internally and spiritually perceived and understood. Esthetic perceptions are subjective: scientific perceptions are, in a sense, objec- tive. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 23 tematic, and either consecutive or regular, must know the conditions governing the ego in consciousness. Thesfe conditions are largely physiological, and whatever is humanly physiological is necessarily the product of gen- eral biologic history. Man is the offspring of all the animals that went into his making.^ Moreover, their experiences, their consciousnesses, have left in man residuums, echoes, atmospheres, tones that tell the past.^ It is better so. We need to feel our kinship with all creatures and with all Nature. To accept this is not to deny the origin of the soul immediately from God. We may try to satisfy ourselves with definitions, saying perhaps that spirit is the one reality, the thing-in-itself, that mind is conscious spirit and matter unconscious spirit, and that soul is self-conscious mind ; but we know in our hearts that in truth we are not obligated to un- derstand the relation between God and Nature, or that between mind and body, for we are finite and are not to be called upon to produce the infinite. We are creators of nothing whatever. Only God needs to know what man really is.^ At best, we see only in part.'' Our only duty is to see clearly the part within our vision. To do this, we must cheerfully accept the truth, whatever truth is de- monstrated to our reason.^ The need of truth is general, not particular or special : it is not only a religious need, or a psychological, or an educational, or a scientific,*^ but it is all these. True or false ; that is the only question.'^ Truth is the price of freedom, which is the goal of 1 Darwin, Descent of Man, chapters ii, vi. 2 Hall, Adolescence, chapter x; Darwin, op. cit. chapter iii. 2 I.otze, Microcosjtiiis, book ii, chapter ii. 4 I Corinthians ix, 9-12, expresses this philosophy of Paul. ^ " It is wrong always, everywhere, and for any one, to believe any- thing upon insufficient evidence." Clifford, Essays, p. 344. ^ " Howbeit when he, the Spirit of truth, is come, he will guide you into all truth." Jesus, John, Gospel xvi, 13. ' Huxley, Sciefice and Culture, p. 240. 24 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY man, the mark of his sonship to God, the perfectly free. " For He that worketh high and wise, Nor pauses in His plan, Will take the sun out of the skies Ere freedom out of man." ^ As the scientific method for developing freedom in man and in society, education must use truth and truth only, but truth skillfully. " The truth," said Jesus, " shall make you free." ^ But skillful teaching of truth is simply teaching truth by methods true to the human mind. These methods are summarized in the sciences, that is, the systematized truths as far as we know them, of psy- chology and of pedagogy or education. Education, there- fore, must operate in the light of the consciousness of man, which has been built up through all the ages.-^ This is the familiar "recapitulation theory,"^ which should be pressed by education much farther than is yet com- mon in practice. By this theory, the individual repeats in body and in mind the history of the race. In strict truth, he repeats in body the tale of his own particular ancestry,^ and in soul the tale of those who have become known to him and who have been appreciated by him. He repeats, and he varies.^ In his variability lies all his hope of progress. His physical recapitulation and his physical variability are narrow enough compared 1 Emerson, Concord Ode. 2 John, Gospel viii, 32. 3 Hall, Heirs of the Ages, pamphlet. * Drummond, Ascent of Man, chapter iv; Baldwin, Mental Develop- ment,'^'^. \df et seq. The terra " culture epochs theory" does not fully cover its content. 5 Up to the period of conception in the case of his father, and of birth or perhaps of weaning in the case of his mother. The experience of aged men and women cannot pass to posterity via heredity. The text does not deny or assert that the soul is likewise inherited. If it is, how fortunate that we inherit the bodies and souls of youth and of early maturity only I ^ Darwin, Origin of Species, chapter ii. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 25 with the possibiUties of his psychical repetitions and differentiations, which depend largely upon his educa- tional opportunities. In his soul, he may repeat, he may even improve upon, the emotions, thoughts, impulses, of the very greatest and best men who ever lived before him or are living now. It is this phase of the possible recapitulations of man that education is too much dis- posed to ignore. To suppose that repeating the economic history, or the social, or the religious, or the cultural is enough for a highly educated individual is quite as fallacious as to suppose that such a repetition of the history of nations is enough for a new nation "in the foremost files of time." The familiar summary, " Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny," is a truth; but one that does not go far enough for education. As a beginning, we should con- cern ourselves with the principle that no man can develop soundly save by repeating every stage and every step by which the race has progressed. Thus, the individual is made human by being humanized in embryo and in independent body, in infantile and maturing soul. He develops best as well as most rapidly who takes the smallest number of false steps and delays least at the various stages: he is neither distracted from his pur- pose to grow nor arrested in his growth. Therefore, that education is best which avoids the pitfalls and pro- ceeds to the goal. The child and youth will think of stealing and of killing : restrained in these thoughts, to him property and sanctity of life come to be realities. He will inevitably desire to be indolent: encouraged in industry, to him work becomes a moral duty. He will lie, he will lust, he will imagine treacheries and dishonors, he will devise all historic sins, as did his ancestors, animal and human : let him inhibit these psychoses, and he will achieve truthfulness, chastity, fealty, honor. Though it be granted 26 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY that one who gives way to these ancestral promptings and indulges them may yet, after the satisfactions of experience, clear and clean his soul and develop beyond them, upon the principle of the Aristotelian catharsis,^ two things still remain true : that he who never steals or murders or idles or lies or otherwise sins will most quickly and most surely attain moral freedom and intel- lectual power, and that society will have no harsh or pitying memories of him to cloud its picture of his final virtue. What society, in its successive stages, has agreed to call " vice " or '' sin" has not been the highway either to per- sonal virtue or to social favor, though moral fault has often been the highway to power, and society has for- given much to those who have served its greater interests. Jesus taught us to pray, " Lead us not into temptation,^ but deliver us from evil." To be consistent, one who argues that the child must be savage, barbarian, hunter, shepherd, farmer, mechanic, clerk, scholar, statesman, and more, in order to realize himself through conscious repetition of race history, should also argue that he must be slayer, thief, forni- cator, idler, liar, sloven, traitor, and worse, if worse there be; for man morally has manifested all these criminal and base creatures. The psychoses of all these ancestral experiences endure more or less darkly or clearly in every human being: they are our latent or potent temptations.* 1 Nicomachean Ethics ; Politics / also cf. Virttce and Vice, probably not written by him. 2 " For we have not an high priest which cannot be touched with the feeling of our infirmities ; but was in all points tempted like as we are, yet without sin." Paul ( ? ), Hebrews iv, 15. 3 " But I say unto you, that whosoever looketh on a woman to lust after her hath committed adultery with her already in his heart." Mat- thew V, 28. A saying of Jesus'. " Thou shalt not covet thy neighbour's house . . . nor any thing that is thy neighbour's." Exodus xx, 17. To covet is to be ready to take. These outgrown psychoses are all too ready to waken into will. We inherit the youth of our ancestors. This is physical good fortune ; but perhaps psychical ill fortune, for the virtues acquired in late life — tem- perance, prudence, self-command, and self-restraint — are not trans- THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 27 In this phase of the recapitulation theory, there is a truth for pedagogy. Upon evidence of a new psy- chosis, echoing the past, the educator should endeavor to check at once whatever is bad (i. e. contrary to mod- ern morals), and to develop quickly and fully whatever is good (i. e. in conformity with essential morals). The evil instinct is to be encouraged to atrophy. It is the duty of pedagogy to know how to check, to cut off, to paralyze, or to encyst the bad in its nascent period.^ This is one of the essential methods of education. It may seem narrow, one-sided, partial, to evaluate education thus in the terms of morals ; but upon reflec- tion such an evaluation is thoroughly sound. Morals are not wholly a matter of will and but slightly a matter of feeling : they are largely a matter of intellect. Socrates was altogether right when he argued that *' knowledge is virtue." An intelligent man cannot be moral in mat- ters above his comprehension, nor can an ignorant man be moral in matters outside of his knowledge. The law is theoretically a system for executing justice between man and society and between man and man. It is a metaphysic designed to interpret right and wrong in terms. It is also an ethic designed to reduce the metaphysical- terms to concrete realities. The " quibbles " of the law, however, are quite as notorious as are the subtleties of scholasticism. In matters of right and wrong, hair-splitting is often inev- itable. In consequence, the law requires very able men in its administration ; and its applications demonstrate by induction that moraUty is conditioned by intelligence. Only the wise judge can be righteous in difficult cases. Government is carried on by men, some of whom are incapable of comprehending their tasks. Many an intellectual blunder or error has been charged to moral turpitude. "To mitted. Each man must discipline himself, that he may manifest the life of reason. Cf. Santayana, The Life of Reason, passim. 1 Ellis, " Philosophy of Y.dMZ2X\ox\.,''' Pedagogical Seminary, October, 1897. 28 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY be faithful to one's own " is sound family morals, but it is vicious government procedure until "one's own" are con- ceived as enlarged to include all the community : such en- largement of vision is beyond the intellect of some legislators and officers of the State. Men of narrow experience often go astray in government affairs for want of criteria of judg- ment. There is a large aspect of the recapitulation theory that is social. The individual is to discover for himself that great life which the race has wrought for itself in and through civilization. He will not become wholly human until he knows what the associations and institutions of mankind are and what they mean. As long as this knowledge is denied him and in the degree in which it is denied to him, so long and in this degree he is out- side of humanity. In this phase of sociological theory, he is not yet conscious of his kinship ; ^ and here human- ity is conceived not as real mankind, but as the ideal mankind that we believe we are helping to produce. It belongs to education to introduce the growing mind to these social institutions. Education may be described more easily than it may be defined. It is a system of processes for liberalizing the soul. The most highly educated man is he who is most free, farthest-sighted, strongest in purpose, kindest among men. To be highly educated is to desire truth, to admire beauty, to love goodness. To desire truth is to seek facts, and within the facts laws, and to abandon the falsities clearly exposed by the truths. To admire beauty is to see into the harmonies and concords of Nature and of Art, and to appreciate their order, peace, and propriety. To be good is to avoid sin, which is harming others or one's self, and to seek righteousness, which is helping others or one's self without sin. Goodness is a matter of the will, as every one knows ; truth, a matter 1 Giddings, Principles of Sociology, chapter i. THE NATURE OF EDUCATION 29 of the intellect ; beauty, a matter of the heart. They are various aspects of the soul. With these excellent qualities, a diseased or awkward or depraved body scarcely comports. Therefore, not for its own sake, but for the sake of its inmate, the soul, the body is to be nourished, exercised, and trained. Not weight or size or strength, but grace, vigor, and health are the signs of a body fit for an excellent soul. The body is to be the servant of the self-conscious spirit. These are but commonplaces ; and yet for want of them many a scholar and many an athlete has gone to ruin. Education has but one proper manner ; this is order- liness.^ It includes calmness, timeliness, propriety, pur- pose, completeness. Education has, it is true, time for ecstasy ; but it is the ecstasy of poetry, not of hysteria. Education has a time for conflict ; but it is the conflict of deliberate warfare, not of fanatic riot. Education has a time for dreaming ; but it is the dreaming in revery, not in hallucination and in delusion. Order is the man- ner of education, which is the method of approach to heaven, the scene and evidence of the life eternal. Education seeks to discover, to produce, and to perfect that harmony which is the essential nature of the soul.^ For what is the soul but a harmony of all the powers ; and what can heaven be but a harmony of educated souls ? So Plato reasoned,^ and Jesus taught.^ 1 "To everything there is a season, and a time to every purpose under the heaven : a time to be born, and a time to die ; . . . a time to break down, and a time to build up ; ... a time to keep silence, and a time to speak ; . . . a time of war, and a time of peace." Ecclesiastes iii, 1-8. "A certain order, then, proper to each, becoming inherent in each, makes each thing good." Plato, Gorgias, § 133. 2 " The harmonious unfolding of the soul is the supreme end of the art of life." Hoffding, Problems of Philosophy (Fisher, transl.), p. 162. 3 Socrates speaking, Phcsdo, § 99. * Cf. Mark xii, 32-34. 30 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Forever the new birth, forever regeneration, forever natura, being born ! Such is education. Its limit may no man set.^ Each generation manifests the superman. Always comes the new heaven upon a new earth.^ " Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul, As the swift seasons roll ! Leave thy low-vaulted past ! Let each new temple, nobler than the last. Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, Till thou at length art free, Leaving thine outgrown shell by life's unresting sea." 3 1 *' Eye hath not seen, nor ear heard, neither have entered into the heart of man, the things which God hath prepared for them that love him." Paul, i Corinthians ii, 9. 2 The climax of each succeeding civilization is always higher than the preceding. No dream of a better age to come ever is as beautiful in comparison with the old as is the actual age when it comes. 3 Holmes, The Chambered N'autilus. CHAPTER II VALUES OF THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS Individuals may form communities; but it is institutions alone that can create a nation. — Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconsfield), Manchester Speech, 1866. Upon earth is no power that may be compared with the State. — Pollock, Science of Politics, p. 126. Neither race nor tradition, nor yet the actual past binds the American to his country- man, but rather the future which together they are building. — MOnsterberg, The Americans, p. 5. Throughout the world of civilized mankind, society manifests, in greater or less completeness, eight great social institutions, — Property, Family, Church, State, School, Culture, Business, and War. From many thou- sand years ago in Mesopotamia and in Egypt, until now, these institutions have been gradually evolving. How ancient they are in India and in China, I do not under- take to say : it suffices that wherever civilization arises, there arise also these institutions to develop, to con- centrate, to cherish, and to destroy the customs" and interests of a common humanity. Of the individual, whether in ancient Chaldea, in mediaeval Europe, or in modern Japan or England or the United States, it is reasonable to say that the largeness of his life depends mainly upon the extent of his identification with the first six institutions and realization of their opportunities, and of his understanding of the last two. It may be added that to withdraw or to be withdrawn from any of them is at the peril of narrowness and anxiety of life. The fact that in historical civilization woman has generally been property rather than the owner of pro- perty, practically enslaved by marriage, silent in the church, unrecognized in the state, almost never at school, 32 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY without knowledge of literature, music, or art, and at best but a servant in business, tells the bitter story of the vulgar philosophy of humanity. All ignorant men, like some intelligent scientists, believe in heredity and doubt environment and education. They are fataUsts. They idolize function and instinct. They are routinists and caste-worshipers. The behef of intelligent men, excepting only a few of the scientists, is that heredity is not fate, that indeed heredity may be modified by education and by other environment, and that these modifications may be transmitted to offspring. If this belief conforms to the facts, it follows from the facts that to the progress of humanity the progress of woman by participation in the activities of religion, of govern- ment, and of education must be advantageous. Doubtless, to the completeness of this argument, some consideration of the relative influences of father and of mother upon the child is desirable ; but limitations of space and the digressive nature of the topic forbid full treatment. The weight of evidence and opinion seems to be that (i) in general, the boy is like the mother, the girl like the father; (2) heredity crosses at adolescence so that the adult tends toward the parent less closely resembled in childhood ; (3) in skin, flesh, muscle, the child resembles the mother more than the father, but in skeleton, form, and general structure resembles the father more than the mother; (4) mind and character are not inherited, though they are conditioned by the physical inheritance ; (5) a habit acquired by one parent is scarcely transmissible, but if acquired by both parents may be transmissible, and, if acquired continuously in all lines for three or more generations, will probably be transmitted.^ ^ Example. The son or daughter of two parents, four grandparents, and eight great-grandparents, all highly educated and sound physically in manhood and in womanhood, is easily edu cable, probably displaying almost or quite without suggestion the mental and moral habits taught to his or her ancestors. Darwin, Origin of Species, launched this world- wide controversy. Patten, Heredity and Social Progress, chapter ii. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 33 To the correctness of this belief, the progress of the United States since the prevalence of the education of women is fair evidence. In the face of the incal- culably great services of emancipated women to their peoples and to their times, — Elizabeth, Victoria, Cath- erine, Marian Evans, Harriet Beecher Stowe, — the vul- gar philosophy, that in the interests of humanity woman may rightly be limited to the functions of child-bearing and of child-rearing, seems incredibly ignorant.^ Such ignorance is part and parcel of human nature as mani- fested in a considerable portion of mankind ; and with it, educators should reckon. It may be that because of our prosperity most of us tolerate rather than advocate and support the education of woman. And yet in our worst years of business depression, though we may talk of closing our high schools, no one has suggested denying our girls equal privileges with our boys in elementary schools. The fact that for centuries, throughout Christendom and all heathendom that is visited by its missionaries, the Roman Catholic Church has enforced the celibacy of its clergy, removing them from the family as parents, and has limited them in matters of property, of govern- ment, and of business, does not prove the wisdom of such limitations, but raises the questions whether the individuals have not been sacrificed to the institution, and whether the institution itself has not thereby been limited in its own success.^ It may be that the redemp- tion of the world requires martyrs, and that an institu- tion must be maintained to train, to discipline, and to support men who are primarily social functionaries and therefore essentially martyrs ; but that such martyrdom is a manifest mode of education to be imitated by a ^ Charlotte Gilman, Human Work; Woman and Economics^ both passim. ^ Fisher, History 0/ the Christian Church, pp. (i^, loi, 173, 174, 183. 34 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY considerable portion of mankind is not in the least a debatable question, for it is an absolutely necessary con- dition of human society. The man who has inherited property, who has known the care of parents and the love of wife and children, who has participated in the affairs of government and of religion, who has benefited by the school, who knows the arts of culture, and who has tried his powers in business is the larger for all his experiences ; and no amount of experience in one or more of these fields but not in all can make up for its absence in others. The woman, likewise. To say that property tends to idle- ness, family to aloofness, government to corruption, religion to hypocrisy, education to egotism, culture to conceit, and business to selfishness is but to say that personal motives may pervert the good to the base. To say these things is once more to indulge ourselves in an unhappy and vulgar philosophy.^ Each social institution has its own characteristic motive ; yet grouping the in- stitutions is possible. Property, Family, Church, State, School, Business,^ Culture, do, indeed, all tend to the domestic peace of society. Civil warfare is their antitype. They are cosmos ; War, chaos. In their methods and means. Property, Business, War, and Culture are pri- marily personal, while Family, Church, State, and School are primarily social. A true profession serves an insti- tution by devising appropriate methods and means by which it may perform its functions. Society is the trea- sury of such methods and means. The first and lesser institutions content themselves with servants, to each ^ To each man, his philosophy. In the degree of his reflection upon life, that philosophy is individual. The vulgar philosophy is traditional, social, superficial, inconsistent, and plausible. Wisdom seeks to cleanse the mind of all such philosophy. 2 This is true of business only as a body of industries; it is not true of business as competitive selling of goods, or of services. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 35 institution its peculiar class : Property ^ has the poHce- man ; Business, the mechanic and the clerk ; War, the soldier ; Culture, the artist and the expositor. The second and greater institutions have their professions : Family- has the physician ; Religion,^ the clergyman ; Govern- ment, the lawyer ; and Education, the teacher. In this democratic age, when humanity, failing to realize its ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity, out of defeat has risen to the higher ideals of justice, inde- pendence, and opportunity, we are likely to be deceived, by the excessive authority of the State, into thinking it the one truly universal institution of society. There is to-day little into which the modern State does not in- quire and little in which it does not interfere.^ That the State is usurping functions proper only to other social institutions is believed by many. That it is patronizing and subordinating the School, truckling to Property, sac- rificing some of its own best interests to Business, modi- fying the Family (scarcely improving it thereby), and deliberately isolating itself from the Church, is also be- lieved by many : to no slight extent, these measures are reducing the sphere of liberty.^ In their motives and aims. Church and School are primarily personal ; but in whatever respects Family and State are personal, they are in danger of being vicious. It is the personal legislation of the State that threatens the peace and the welfare of general society. ^ Wealth is sometimes considered as synonymous with Property-and- Business, and is treated as one social institution. The appearance of being synonymous is mere appearance ; the reality of difference is developed in the text at various places. 2 Church and Religion, State and Government, etc., are not synony- mous terms : they do, however, denote the same matter, while affording somewhat different connotations. ' Mill, Liberty ; Spencer, Social Statics. * Butler, " Principles of Education," Educational Review, June, 1902, p. 190, discusses the aspects of this matter in relation to the University. 36 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY The State has legitimate functions ; but it has so far overreached these functions that some persons fear and others hope ^ that it may become the sole authoritative and independent social institution. No doubt, if govern- ment is the dominant concern of mankind, then society organized as a State and performing therein all social functions would be logical ; but perhaps religion and education are quite as important concerns, requiring for their proper development and full service to mankind entire freedom from the State. In respect to the School, it may indeed prove that the State must serve and not rule. The characteristic motive of Property is self-realiza- tion through ownership of the things of the objective world. Acquisition is its accent. Possession is its em- phasis. Transmission to the heirs of the body is its climax. The slow music of the monotonous melody of Property is the funeral dirge of the spirit. To desire to be rich as a goal is significant of arrest of develop- ment, for the property instinct characterizes later child- hood ; 2 as a preparation for adolescence, as a stage, marking perhaps high-water level of some adult crea- ture forerunning man,^ activity in property-getting may be commendable. But property as sole or chief object in life becomes a stumbling-block, whatever may be the opinions of the many or of the millionaire.* Property founds the leisure class, which is at once the treasury of culture, the fortress of ethics, and the palace of luxury, with all that these symbols involve. But property is 1 Hillquit, History of Socialism. This, it may be, is the largest ques- tion now under consideration in the Western world. 2 Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child-Study, p. 206 ; Klein-France, " Psychology of Ownership," Pedagogical Seminary, vol. vi, pp. 421-470. ^ Hall, Adolescence, p. 45. * " A man's first duty," said President Theodore Roosevelt in a speech in 1903, "is to his family; his next to the State." It is doubtful whether, in either particular, history sustains this familiar thesis. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 37 only the necessity, not the ambition of the leisure class/ whose members are at once the scum and the cream of society. Thus the wheat and the tares are growing, to be gathered together for the harvest. A life without pro- perty is a life without background. A life with property and nothing else is a life without foreground. Property is the right to exclude all others from use of the thing owned.2 Originally it presumed physical power to resis't all others. Now it necessitates society organized poten- tially (covertly but ready to be overtly) to serve the owner against the trespasser. ^ Property preceded a common humanity, even any humanity, for animals recognize it. An individual without property in civilization is a most pathetic object. He usually seems to lack true personality. A civilization with many such individuals stands convicted of social iniquity. The fact, unremedied and continued, is an advertisement of the public guilt of all. Tolstoi was a benefactor of humanity when he drew upon all the resources of his superb literary art to re- store to health a truth long " bedridden in the dormitory of the soul" ^ and declared year after year, "Yes, we will do almost anything for the poor man, anything but get off his back."5 Emerson stated the principle- with perfect clearness in respect to the most important of all kinds of property when he said, *' Whilst another man has no land, my title to mine, your title to yours, is at once vitiated. "« But this is just as true of every other necessary of life. Of two poor women in a tenement, one with bread, the other with no bread, let us learn once more the doctrine of John, "We know that we 1 Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class. 2 Holmes, Common Law, chapter i. 8 The right of property issues out of the power of one class over all others. Gumplowicz, Sociology, p. 179. * Coleridge, Aids to Reflection. 5 Quoted, ^xari^Xxvgiou, Philanthropy and Morality. 6 " Man the Reformer," Nature, Addresses, and Lectures, p. 234. 38 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY have passed from death unto life, because we love the brethren. He that loveth not his brother abideth in death." ^ " Behold ! No land like this barren and naked land of poverty could show the moral geology of the world." ^ This, however, is no reason for continuing poverty forever in the world. It is rather a very good reason for listening to the revelations of poverty con- cerning morals, and for discontinuing the causes of pov- erty so far as possible. These causes appear to form a vicious circle ; they may be cited as ignorance, fraud, and disease.^ The circle can, however, be broken by govern- ment, when it destroys privilege ; by science, when it prevents disease and hastens the cure ; and by educa- tion, when it enlightens ignorance and develops power. The characteristic motive of the Family is self- sacrifice. The ancient patriarch owned his sons and daughters-in-law and all their descendants. Out of this ownership of consort and of lineal descendants in the male line (and unmarried daughters) ^ grew the modern family, as we know it in Europe and in America. In the Family, the individual foregoes his own economic advan- tage. Property is in common use, even though the title be in the head.^ For the sake of his kin, the individual 1 I Epistle iii, 14. 2 Phillips Brooks, Sermons, 5th series, p. i66. 3 Cf. Ross, Social Control, p. 382. * The daughters at marriage took their dowry as their share in the general family property. Maine (Pollock, ed. New York, tenth edition), Ancient Law, p. 218. 5 To the historian familiar with anthropology, the modem statute laws giving the married woman control of her own property, granting alimony to divorced wives, and preserving very limited rights to husbands in their deceased wives' estates, and the laws relating to wills, are invasions of the sacred precincts of Property and of Family, are declarations that individuals are greater than these primary social institutions, and are challenges (perhaps presumptuous and perilous) of the very method by which modern society has come into being. Cf. Howard, History of Mat' rimonial Institutions, vol. iii, chapter xviii. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 39 is glad to imperil life itself. Self-denial for the sake of others in the family is so common as to pass unnoticed. This denial attains often the dignity of self-sacrifice, occasionally the glory of martyrdom in life and in death. In the history of the Family, we may trace the steps by which man has ascended to humanity.^ As the secondary purpose of Property is to secure to posterity wealth and its accompanying advantages in material civilization, so the secondary purpose of the Family is to secure to posterity culture and the spiritual civilization. Older than Church and State, Property and Family underlie all religious and political laws, customs, ceremonies, and traditions. Possession and title, mar- riage, and parental and filial obligation are stronger than worship, ceremonial, and religion, — stronger than power, politics, and government.^ We may liken family affec- tion to atomic affinity, religious association to molecular attraction, and patriotism to mass gravitation. In the day of social dissolution and anarchy, only the Family endures, and the last fight is for the land and the home. The personal motive inculcated by the Church is self- abnegation. Reverence for the Higher Power is the melody of the religious life. The origin of the Church was in the convenience of differentiating the religious functions of the patriarch and of integrating them in the priestly office.^ It scarcely appears that the primitive man was a worshiper of his gods and devils ; but out of the savage fears and superstitions ^ of primitive man grew the ceremonial rites and worship of the barbarian. As guardian of the ritual and of the ceremonial arose the priest ; and with the priest appeared the Church. Isolated from heavy labor, from the hunt, and from war, 1 Drummond, Ascent of Matt, chapter vii. 2 Cf. Sophocles, Antigone. 3 Spencer, Principles of Sociology, vol. iii ; Maspero, Egypt (transl. Sayce-McClure), vol. ii, chapter i. * Fiske, Idea of God, p. 166. 40 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY the priest observed, thought, acquired knowledge, and became wise beyond other men. He saw that the world is mystery, and learned the power of mystery by partly resolving it into knowledge.^ This process, begun seven thousand years ago,^ may be observed to-day, when a man arises from among ignorant manual laborers to become priest, preacher, statesman, or other scholar. He feels his littleness in the immensity and the eternity of the universe of God; and teaches others so. P'oreverthe burden of his sermon is self-abnegation. '* Be ye recon- ciled." "Not my will, but Thine be done." "Thy will be done on earth as it is in heaven." Such has been the revelation proclaimed in every age by the prophets and the priests. It is a mystic and esoteric doctrine ; but its power, its influences, and its results have been visible in all the recorded history of mankind. It has compelled introspection, made revery, silence, and solitude sacred, immeasurably dignified the individual, and evolved the conscience of man, which, though indefinable, is neverthe- less undeniable and tends to universality. By religion, the creature man is bound directly and intimately to his creating God. The real savage, before the days of Pro- perty, of Family, and of Religion, lived a unit upon the surface of Nature. Property gave man largeness through self-realization, while the Family gave him permanence through a recognized continuity of generation, conse- quent upon the social relations of blood-kindred. The Church gave man worth by developing, according to its dogmas, consciousness of sonship to the Power of whose thought this world is but a passing form.^ 1 Titchener, Outlines of Psychology, chapter i. 2 Mitchell, The Past in the Present. Without a knowledge of this theory, as expressed by historians and by philosophers, and as displayed in a multitude of modern facts, the present civilization is scarcely under- standable. 8 Luke, A<:tSy quoting Paul, " For in him we live and move and have our being." THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 41 Through self-surrender, man acquires dignity. " Who- soever will save his life shall lose it," said Jesus.^ It is scientifically demonstrable. The discovery of this truth is the new birth. ^ " Ye must be born again," said He to Nicodemus. By this birth, self becomes, in sympathy, coextensive with the cosmos,^ securing thereby moral sanity, and death ceases to have the meaning of fear or of regret. The man who really loses himself gains the whole world."* It is the moral of all heroisms and martyr- doms. "What excites and interests the lookers-on at life, what the romances and the statues celebrate, and the grim civic mon- uments recall, is the everlasting battle of the powers of light with those of darkness, — with heroism reduced to its bare chance, yet ever and anon snatching victory from the jaws of death." * Younger than the Church, evolving out of Church, Family, and Property, arose the State with its double function, external and internal, like the obverse and the reverse of a shield. One function of the State is to protect a particular society of men, women, and children with their particular forms of religion, of marriage, and of property, from all other societies. In respect to this function, the State is the organizer of defensive war.^ It is an interesting instance of differentiation and of in- tegration.^ In organizing aggressive war, the State is 1 Matthew xvi, 25. 2 John iii, 4. 8 Naden, Induction and Deduction {Hydo-Idealism), p. 174. * The man who, in the popular sense, " loses himself " in vice, does not really lose himself at all. He is enslaved to self, degraded to that wor- ship, and at last lost from the world in the sole "society" of himself. Dante showed the liar thus lost from the world in lowest hell upon a pinnacle of ice. ^ James, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, p. 272. 6 Bluntschli, Theory of the State, Oxford transl., p. 320. ' It is unnecessary to do more than to acknowledge my obligation to 42 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY usually acting in the sole interest of Property. Land- hunger, proper or artificial, has set in motion most wars. The army and the navy exist for aggression, while the militia and the marine exist for defense. Beginning as a means to preserve for a society its peculiar institutions, the State has grown into a machine for modifying and even controlling and directing them. Both property and family, both religion and education, both culture and business, have assumed voluntarily or involuntarily unnatural forms because of the force and influence of political government. In the period of nation-making intolerance is a political necessity.^ The State has meddled, not always from necessity, in all the various affairs of human society.^ The State has several conspicuous weaknesses. It has no voluntarily and, in consequence, liberally granted means of support ; therefore, it is inadequately supplied with wealth for its several needs, especially for its need of superior talents to be employed in its service. In its democratic forms, it has no permanence either of personnel or of specific traditions,^ changing its men and its purposes as public opinion wills.* Every other social institution — Family, Church, School, State, Culture, War — is finally dependent upon either Property or Business for revenue.^ The State has felt itself Spencer, Principles of Sociology^ etc., for the theory. " Evolution is a continuous change from indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to definite, coherent heterogeneity of structure and function, through successive differentiations and integrations." Rogers, History of Philosophy, p. 510. This is a more compact statement than is anywhere offered by Spencer himself. 1 Seeley, Introduction to Political Science^ p. 137. 2 The necessity of the State in respect to property is solely to derive revenues from it. The State, however, has undertaken to create many forms of property, such as corporations, franchises, titles, mortgages, money. ^ Bryce, American Commonwealth, vol. ii, p. 572. * Oliver, Alexander Hamilton, p. 164. fi Government is founded upon property. ^Nebsiex, Speech at Plymouth, 1820. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 43 forced or has deliberately chosen upon many occasions, in order to secure large funds for its support, either to bribe or to overpower Property or Business to meet its demands.^ Civilization has been the scene of many struggles between the eight major social institutions. In the first decades of the twentieth century, the terrific struggle for mastery is between the State and Business for the control of society: the other institutions are standing by as little more than onlookers. The Church, indeed, and the Family, are disintegrating before our eyes : neither has sufficient surplus vitality to take part in the struggle. Culture, with its overlord, the University, stands aloof. Whether its revenues come from govern- ment or from property, the University cares but little save in so far as its own academic freedom is involved.^ The School has joined the State in its struggle for supremacy, and in return has secured the support of the State for its own maintenance. This singular alli- ance has resulted in making the School almost wholly ^ Of bribes to business, many protective tariff laws have been exam- ples. Of threats to overthrow Property as a social institution, " con- demnation proceedings " are examples. In a certain sense, every tax, direct or indirect, is confiscatory. Of course, both Business and" Pro- perty have methods and means of revenge, familiar enough to all social observers. ^ It is a fair question whether there is greater academic freedom in the State University or in the " endowed " or Property University. There is, however, no little evidence that a University that draws its revenues directly from Business (as by fees or current donations) and a University that draws its revenues from the Church (mediating between Culture and Property or Business) are both certain not to have genuine and complete academic freedom. Whether the University draws its millions of annual revenue directly from Property ("invested funds "), or from Business (gifts), or from the State (" grants " or taxes), or from the Church makes no difference in the amount of the burden thereby imposed upon so- ciety ; but it makes a very great deal of difference to the University itself because the mediating persons who collect the revenues affect, in the degrees of their power, and in accordance with their social obligations, the policy of expenditure. 44 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY dependent upon the State ^ and in emphasizing in all school courses the aim of preparation for citizenship as paramount, which in sound social philosophy it certainly is not. The American State has chosen to assume for the public school the tremendous responsibility of Ameri- canizing an annual number of immigrants ranging from one to two per cent of the entire old population. To Americanize means to adapt to all our institutions, — marriage, religion, property, business, military service, as well as education and culture. Such an assumption amounts almost to a usurpation of all the functions proper to Society itself. This assumption illustrates per- fectly the arrogance of the modern democratic State, falsely conceiving itself to be coterminous, synonymous, yes, identical with Society.^ In a mad delusion. State- socialism arises, in which a State-Society is conceived, a far more dreadful notion than the historic State-Church. No such terror can, however, come to pass, for the world sees age after age not combination and consolidation with coincident integration of the whole, but variation and differentiation with coincident integration of the parts. The State will not synthesize all institutions into one State-Society, but rather will Society itself produce yet other institutions to reduce the State to smaller pre- tensions and to greater efficiency in its proper field. The entire sociological history of mankind is a prophecy of farther specializations of social function with coincident reductions of the older institutions. Vast as the State is to-day, great as its power is, it is nevertheless a secondary and subordinate institution. ^ "To the public (State) schools goes $225,000,000 annually; to all other schools, $40,000,000; to universities of all kinds, $10,000,000 for current expenses. We need five times as much." YMot, More Motey for the Public Schools. * VoXiozV, Science of Politics,^. 125; Bluntschli, Theory of the State, pp. 17, 92 et seq. ; Le Rossignol, Orthodox Socialism. I I THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 45 Property, Family, and Church, — private wealth, the home, and religion, — in the persons of lords, of patri- archs, and of priests, conspired to build the State, to make its princes and its laws. To this day, in every Nation sufficiently civilized to have orderly government. Property, Family, and Church manipulate government to their own ends.* Culture antedates Business by many a century, for it began with language and the industrial arts. As a social institution, Culture finds its apotheosis in the university; but it requires many other modes for its expression. The museum, the library, the newspaper, the magazine, the book, the picture, the hospital, the factory, and the farm are essentially the products of Culture. The fine arts, however broadly we may use the term, are but exhibits of its power. Man finds in music, poetry, painting, architecture, a relief for self-expression, a joy of being, a meaning to life, that nothing else can give.^ 1 Superficially this may not appear true. By franchises and by tariff laws, the State puts many men in the way of wealth ; but it does so at the dictates of Property. The poUtical power of the millionaire is pro- verbial. The monogamous Family is a sacred idea : despite divorce and Mormonism, the governments of this Nation and of the States dare not, never even consider, legalizing bigamy, polygamy, and polyandry. The Family, not the State, invented the civil marriage ; and did so because of the weakness of the Church, which could not everywhere solemnize the ecclesiastical marriage. Free love, adultery, and prostitu- tion endure because the work of the Family in developing the human being out of the animal is not yet complete ; atavisms will recur, and degeneration as yet continues to accompany civilization. More recon- dite, yet not less certain, is the subordination of even the American State to the Church. In this New World, religious conflicts have dictated reli- gious toleration to save both religion and society. (See Gumplowicz, Outlines of Sociology, p. 155, trans, by Moore. Also Chancellor-Hewes, The United States^ vol. i, p. 450.) Therefore, the Church itself has com- manded, and still commands, the separation of Church and State. At the same time, it compels the State to withhold taxation of ecclesiastical pro- perty while affording police protection and maintaining title. (Schaff, Church and State.) 2 Henderson, Education and the Larger Life, p. 80. 46 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Culture, then, is a reality that gives beauty to morals and content to existence. True culture is the solvent of the confusions of egoism and altruism. The motive of Culture is self-development ; but its beginning is social service and its outcome is social usefulness. Culture is not synonymous with education, for its speech is of amenities and of graces rather than of powers and of insights. It is education raised to the second power. When culture is founded upon education, it possesses dignity ; when education is crowned with culture, it possesses charm. An economic analysis discovers Culture in its rela- tions with Property and with Business. The creations of Art become the things of Property through the process of exchange, which is the essence of Business. In these times, many of us imagine that the farmer raises wheat, the miner digs iron, the potter moulds clay, the me- chanic builds the machine, the weaver makes cloth, the painter creates the picture, the author writes the book, the surgeon binds the wound, the lawyer pleads his case, that all artists or artisans do their work, in order that Business may resound upon the earth. It is a strange, unhistoric, unphilosophic delusion. It is the modern temporary insanity. Such is the transcendence of Busi- ness, the last survival of private war upon earth.* Of this temporary unsoundness of the social judg- ment, due largely to the unprecedented and marvelous augmentation of economic activity, itself the effect of political freedom, which in turn is the effect of religious freedom,^ the symbol is money, the medium of modern exchanges of property, real and personal. We vainly imagine that money buys anything and everything ; but when we undertake to buy the things and the experiences ^ Webb, History of Trades -Unionism, p. 78. ' " Freedom is the heart of commerce." Colbert in Comptes Rendus de V Institute xxxix, 93. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 47 that are really worth while, this imagining abruptly ends in the shock of the discovery that only a few things are bought and sold. Of services of man to man, money buys but few ; and of these few services, money buys almost none that are important. The economic world is really much restricted. In many instances, where we seem to be buying services we are in fact but merely repaying to the servant the cost of the services to him in order that he may live by his generous labor. In truth, in this modern age, honest services are scarcely to be bought at all. Even in the case of goods and of lands, by no means all the exchanges are in the way of business. Men do not sell household furniture and sup- plies to their wives and children. The proposition to pay salaries to mothers for the care that they take of their own children is but one phase of the modern un- soundness of judgment upon most economic matters.^ The delusions of Business have made not a few mad.^ Culture is to civilization what the intellect is to the mind : Religion is the heart of civilization ; Government, the will. Last and least of the social institutions is Business, which reflects the warfare rather than the peace of humanity, and tells the story of the past rather than pre- dicts the future. It is possible to conceive a civilization without war, and without business in its strict economic sense. The theory of Business does not comport with the fundamental morality of mankind. In order to make this theory, as expressed in its vari- ous maxims, comport with the tenth commandment of 1 This proposition has repeatedly appeared in various current period- icals for women and the home. Charlotte Oilman, Woman and Eco7tomics. 2 One of these delusions is that money values are competent mea- sures; e. g. that an income of a million dollars a year represents in the recipient a thousand times as much worth to the world as an income of a thousand dollars a year; and this irrespective of its sources and of its expenditure. 48 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY the Decalogue and with the Golden Rule, it is necessary to define many terms and to refine the general opinion of many familiar practices. This tenth commandment begins, **Thou shalt not covet," and the Golden Rule is, ** Do unto others as ye would that they should do unto you," while the essential theory of Business is, " Get for what you have more than its cost : that is, sell at a profit." To " make money " is to get more for less : the added "more " is "something for nothing." In the history of the world, nearly every fortune has been made by gains from others. The established business maxims tell the story : " Buy from weak holders : that is, from those who must sell." "Buy cheap, sell dear." *' Let the buyer beware {Caveat emptor)!' Morality, however, is gaining upon business, as it is upon warfare. We now generally recognize as usury, and therefore immoral as well as illegal, interest above six per cent. The law enforces commissions of only five per cent upon sales. The man who literally gives nothing and gets something is "ob- taining money under false pretenses," and may be liable crim- inally. Moreover, Business, like War, is becoming organized, ordered, and professionalized. We have put an end to private war and to the overt acts of private feud ; and it is quite within the limits of possibility that we may bring to an end private business and private gain. The corporation is a limitation of private enterprise ; it is quite possible that in the future corporations, as democratic as the modern churches or the modern governments, may control economic life. And it is much more likely that this will take place than that the State will extend much more broadly than now its illogical and unnatural economic functions, which, as should be antici- pated, it usually performs so poorly. Upon this analysis, it is obvious that the pupil who is to understand modern life at as early an age as is appro- priate must secure some knowledge of, some insight into the meaning of, these great social institutions. But THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 49 what is the meaning of War ? What knowledge of War can be of any possible use even as a stage in the edu- cation of a boy or girl, not to say as a feature of en- during culture?^ The history of the mechanics of war is convincing evidence that war will cease. War is con- ditioned by ignorance : only the man who cannot by argument convince his enemy desires to slay him. War is conditioned by selfishness ; only the man who cannot by service get what he desires of his neighbor thinks to rob him. The first wars were between families ; the next between clans ; the next between communities ; then followed wars between tribes, nations, peoples, empires. To-day, from San Francisco to Boston there is organized and, let us hope, permanent peace. War is the true suicide. " He that takes the sword shall perish by the sword." ^ The families and children of soldiers are few. Thus evil cuts itself down.^ 1 It may be necessary to set apart a certain number of youths to be instructed (not educated) in the theory and tactics of war. It may per- haps be desirable as a miUtary precaution to maintain a miUtia and even high school and college cadets. There is perhaps some physical train- ing in the manual of arms. But war as manslaughter, real war, and the spirit of real war are all absolutely anti-educational. 2 Cf. Jeremiah, Lamentations xv, 2; xlii, 11. 3 Franklin said, " There never was a good war or a bad peace." (Letter to Josiah Quincy, September 11, 1773.) Of course, no war can be righteous upon both sides. Even the righteous side is likely soon to develop such a pitch of rage as to cease to be righteous in spirit. " Ven- geance is mine, I will repay," saith the Lord. Paul, Romans xii, 19, referring to Deutero7iomy xxxiii, 35. A defensive war may be righteous. No offensive war possibly can be. The arguments in defense of the American aggression in the Spanish - American War all proceed from the postulate that there was no other way to put to an end the atrocities of the Spanish rulers ; whereas, there was, in fact, an easy way : purchase of the island of Cuba at any price rather than renewal of the lust of blood in Americans. War does not become us. We are the first of the true world-peoples. We are what the Romans meant to be. But what we gained in pride, we lost in character and in reputation when as a nation we asserted that the end justified the means. Cf. Plutarch, The Slow Punishme^it 9J the Wicked. 50 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY To charge war to ignorance is fallacious. To charge anything to ignorance is to argue on the theory that human nature is a vacuum. Such an argument is built on negation, and circles about in nothing. In truth, war is conditioned by ignorance of facts and of principles because the heart of man is full of desires ; to their ac- complishment, he is willing to proceed directly, whereas the best way, often the only way, to accomplish them, is to proceed indirectly, that is to find a tool ^ or a method.^ The thief desires property and steals it, while the honest man, desiring it, gives services or goods in exchange for it. At the cost of bloodshed, of hatred, and of revitalized estrangement, war is always wrong, even when the end proposed is good. " Thou shalt not kill " is a universal law : not even for Church or State may one kill righteously another man, save, of course, in defense. Even the killing of a murderer by the State in punishment of his crime is no longer to be approved, for both Christian ethics and scientific pedagogics show that it is possible to redeem the criminal from the sinful conditions of his soul. He may be " born again : " educated out of his past : so that his sins are literally forgiven, and he will go and sin no more.® Wars are crimes in the history of nations. The no- tions of war in the minds of a civilized people are echoes of the past, regurgitations of ancient passions, reverbera- tions of ancestral rages, telling of the pit from which we were digged. They become effective only when the people, from want of intelligence and goodness, despair of accomplishing some purpose in righteousness.^ ^ See Ward, Psychic Factors in Civilization, chapter xxix. 2 Method = way through, a main traveled road, ;u€Ta bl6%. ^ Criminals are either sane or insane. The sane are educable and therefore redeemable. Criminology and Pedagogy have many points of common interest and bearing. The insane may be curable or chronic. Their cases are pathological. * Longfellow, The Arsenal ; Bloch, The Future of War. THE SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS 51 War as an institution has its schools, its arsenals, its factories. It maintains the cult of military drill and of naval display. It chants a pseudo-patriotism dangerous to the real, which overclouds it, almost suppresses it, sometimes makes any patriotism seem callous, absurd, and base. Property, Family, Church, State, School, and Culture are all good, entirely good. But Business and War, though ne- cessary until now, and apparently for no little time to come, and therefore good as mediate institutions, have many evil features and influences. The good institutions should be set to the redemption of society from War and from Business by cultivating in their practices what is good and by eliminating and suppressing what is evil. Whatever is good works for the welfare of man and of men ; whatever is evil injures humanity itself and all the individuals concerned. Business and War have brought together the ends of the earth. The merchant and the soldier wove the fabric of Ro- man civilization. The Crusades redeemed Europe by giving it light from the East. For Europe and America, Business and War have rediscovered India, China, and Japan. Let us hope that only in appearance do they squander human lives for naught. *' O yet we trust that somehow good Will be the final goal of ill." 1 * Tennyson, In Memoriam. CHAPTER III CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION In our country and in our times, no man is worthy the honored name of statesman who does not include the highest practicable education of the people in all his plans of admin- istration. — Mann, Education (lecture iii). Therefore, my people are taken into captivity for want of knowledge. —Isaiah v, 13. The perfection of human life is our aim. — Pollock, History of the Science of Politics, To educate is to educe or to develop ; to instruct is to train ; to inculcate is to inform ; while to teach is to show, to guide, to impart anything whatever for any purpose whatsoever.^ These terms are arranged in an order that, according to the strictest logic, displays the extent and intent of their content. Educate denotes most, teach least ; educate connotes least, teach most. Educate has the most intension, teach the most extension. There- fore, educate is a word more difficult of definition than teach. And, therefore, despite popular notions and prac- tices, while even a child may teach, only an expert can educate. It has frequently been observed that without teaching humanity in the course of a single generation would re- lapse into savagery and nearly perish in internecine war- fare. Civilization is utterly dependent upon teaching.^ But is it true that without education humanity would be wrecked } Despite the obviousness of the distinction be- tween the two hypotheses, many, failing to discriminate ^ Cf. Palmer, "The Ideal Teacher," /^^/aw/zV Monthly, April, 1907, p. 442. ^ Per contra, Ross, Social Cojttrol, pp. 152, 224. He insists that the " moral osmosis " and the " vegetative moral life " assist teaching to maintain civilization. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 53 between teaching and education and between civilization and humanity, have confused them. Let us, therefore, inquire as to the relation between education and civilized humanity. First, then, what is civilization ? and, next, what is humanity ? Like many other grandiose terms, — like culture, phi- losophy, religion, philanthropy, nation, wealth, — the term civilization lends itself more readily to description than to definition. In popular usage it has several mean- ings, none of them clear ; and it may be used properly to designate either process or result, either kinesis or status. Civilization is the evolution of human society. Its me- chanical processes may be stated in these terms, — Humanity is originally manifested in groups, from whose conflicts and unions larger societies are formed. In these societies, the weaker and more numerous individuals are reduced to the ser- vice of the stronger and fewer, who, thus granted economic leisure, develop the political structure and the various arts of war and of peace. By the new social relations, the hetero- geneous ethnic elements are brought into closer homogeneity of kinship and of sympathy and develop a typical and integral character. Other conflicts and unions with other groups and societies arise. The general society grows externally larger and internally more complex and displays in succession aris- tocracy, oligarchy, bureaucracy, monarchy, democracy ; and bourgeoisie, proletarians, peasants, slaves, various manners of classes, of castes and of masses. When too great homogeneity of blood-kinship and independence from other societies have continued for decades, conspiring to separate too far the nobles and the commons, the rich and the poor, the free and the unfree, the society disintegrates in revolution. The his- tory of a particular civilization ends always either in its sub- jection to another civilization or in cataclysm.^ The spirit of true civilization has been expressed in these terms: — ^ Gumplowicz, Outlines of Sociology, part iii, translated by Moore. 54 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY "Civilization is ... a complicated outcome of a war waged with Nature by man in Society to prevent her from putting into execution in his case her law of Natural Selec- tion. . . . The measure of success attending the struggle of each band or association [of men] so engaged is the measure of the civilization attained." ^ Civilization is progress, said Guizot. The contrary of the qualities and conditions of the savage life is civilization, said J. S. Mill.=^ Our notions of civilization necessarily depend upon the observed facts of our own national life and of the lives of other nations, our cross-sections of humanity, as now manifested in various parts of the world, compared and contrasted with the recorded and considered facts of the lives of earlier nations.^ But whatever these notions may be, they will concern truth, art, and morality ; our visions of reality, of beauty, and of goodness ; our development in intelligence, in appreciation, and in honor. And what- ever these notions be, they will all be essentially social ; for they will be derived from our fellow men and in com- mon with our fellow men from the records and traditions of our ancestors. Now and then may appear among us one who to a degree is original in that he possesses some new individual knowledge ; but most of this original, new knowledge will be new and original in appearance only, for upon examination it will be mere synthesis of what many others know. The quality of a civilization is to be valued in accord- ance with its morality, while its culture is the measure of ^ Mitchell, The Past in the Present : What is Civilization? p. 189. ^ Cf. Y^xdidi^ Law of Civilization and Decay ; T)\2l-^^x, Intellectual Devel- opment of Europe. If civilization is not cyclical and does not include retrogression as well as progression, the title and thesis of Gibbon, " De- cline and Fall of the Roman Empire," must be considered either illogical or unhistorical. 3 Acton, Study of History, pp. 12-16; Seeley, Lectures and Essays, p. 306. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 55 its efficiency. Hence arise the two questions whether there is a morality transcending nations or ages ^ and whether diffusion of culture or its particular height is the true test. These large philosophical questions concern the educator : Shall he teach social, popular, historical, national, comparative, or ideal morals ? Shall he aspire to educate as many as possible to the average best pos- sible degree, or a few to their particular best possible degrees ? According to his answers to these questions, he will mould the life of his people.^ Social (group) morals differ with the particular class in the community. The lord believes in honor, in self-reliance, in bravery, in frankness, in patriotism, in independence : he is masterful.* The commoner believes in honesty, in service, in fortitude, in silence, in sympathy, in modesty ; he is dutiful.^ The educator who proposes to teach social morality will teach the morality learned in his own youth, — a morality predeter- mined by the social (economic) position of his parents, in the degree permitted by the social conditions of the parents of his pupils. Popular morals are broader and deeper than social (group) morals. They differ less from section to section and from generation to generation than do social morals in their smaller and shallower diffusion. They manifest the influences that go to the making of all averages. To particularize : Popular morals depend upon kinds and forces of the various classes, cultures, communities, races, religions, and languages in- volved. The educator who proposes to teach popular morality will teach the norm of the morality of the various persons and communities known or reported to him. Historical morals go far deeper. They speak the truth of the progress of mankind. They sound the natural law. ^ Acton, Study of History, pp. 64-73. 2 Hadley, Education of the American Citizen, p. 180. 3 Cf. Aristotle, Ethics, iv, 78, on the high-minded man. * This contrast is now a commonplace. Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals ; Ruskin, Munera Pulveris, Fors Clavigera ; Lecky, Histoyy of European Morals ; all passim. 56 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY National morals are stable for long periods, though subject to revolutionary change. Their aspirations are sincere. Morals are in part traditional, and in part comparative. In their traditional aspect, they are habits, duties, customs ; in their comparative aspect, fashions, modes.^ Comparative morals are as deep as history and as v^ide as the nations : they, and they alone, are absolutely true to our universal human nature, for in the present they include the best of the past. Jesus Christ summarized them : "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy mind, and with all thy strength; and ... thy neighbor as thy- self." 2 . . . 'AfATri^CEIC (welcome as a household guest) KY- PION TON 0E6N coy 'El "0AH3^KAPAIAC COY (out of thy whole heart) KAJ 'E| "OAHC THC M^YXHC COY (out of thy whole soul) KAI 'EI^'OAHC THC AIAN6IA3 COY (out of thy whole thorough-mind, discernment, intention) KAI 'E| "OAHC TH3 ICXYOC COY (and out of thy whole bodily strength). . . . 'AFATTHCEIC (welcome, love, dwell with) T6N TTAHCiON COY (thy near man) 'COC CEAYTON (thy very self). The power and beauty of the Greek text do not fully appear in the English translation. " Love " means the love expressed by a noble host toward an honored guest whom he welcomes into his own home. (Compare ayaOo?.) The tremen- dous emphasis appears in the exposition, — heart, soul, mind, strength, — and particularly in the word " mind," which means perfect insight and unlimited purpose. (For neighbor, com- pare the definition of the neighbor in the parable of the Good Samaritan.^) The word ivToXrf, command, is likewise emphatic, meaning " finality." For the whole passage, compare " Jesus . . . said . . . , ' If a man love me, he will keep my words : ^ Ross, Socm/ Control, pp. 180-195. CL Baldwin, Mental jDevelopmenf: Social and Ethical Interpretations, chapter I, viii-x. 2 Mark, Gospel xii, 30, 31. Greek text of Westcott and Hort: Schaff, editor. 3 Luke, Gospel x, 29-37. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION S7 and my Father will love him, and we will come unto him and make our abode with him.' " ^ Literally : If any one welcomes (and honors) me, he will guard my plan (logic), and my father will welcome him, and we will (freely) go to him, and we will make a home (staying) with him. This plan of Jesus was invariably to do for others. Toward all, we are to be like God, who " giveth to all men liberally and upbraideth not." ^ " It is more blessed to give than to receive." ^ From this single principle, every other doctrine of Jesus follows. It is the neighbor-religion, ridiculed by Schopenhauer, Von Hartmann, and Nietzsche ; and rejected by every civilization to this date : and yet building every civilization ; and destroy- ing it finally.'* " Have ye founded your thrones and altars, then, On the bodies and souls of living men ? And think ye that building shall endure, Which shelters the noble and crushes the poor?"^ Ideal morality may seem the proper teaching for the educator. Kant often spoke with enthusiasm of " the moral law within." " The still, small voice of conscience " is a famil- iar phrase : nor is conscience to be lightly challenged as a reality of personal experience. But whether conscience is a revelation of new truth, original with the soul that hears it, or an echo, a sifting, a refining of the notions of general human society is a question. New truth does come into the ^ John, Gospel xiv, 23. 2 James, Epistle i, 5. 3 Luke, Acts xx, 35. A saying of Jesus', quoted by Paul. * " The suffering of an advanced society is not that of one struggling for subsistence, or in combat with enemies, but of one in the throes of disease." ..." The civilization natural to our age is conspicuously retarded by ignorance, disease, crime, poverty, and other disagreeable anachronisms." Charlotte Oilman, Human Work, pp. 10, 7. The famiUar " Golden Rule " is not half of the above-quoted " Eleventh and Twelfth Commandments." It is a prescription that one about to act should consider the sufferer. Its converse, Do not do unto others what you would not have them do to you, is negative and inhibitory for the actor. The " New Commandments " universalize the Golden Rule and thereby immeasurably elevate and dignify its principle. 5 Lowell, A Parable. S8 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY world via individual men. In the souls of such exceptional men, conscience, morality, duty, responsibility, rise to new heights, but even in them common morality is the substruc- ture and the main structure, the new truth only the super- structure, of their moral system.^ Moreover, once expressed by them in act or in thought, their higher morality is no longer ideal but real, and is added to the sum of comparative morals. " E pur si muove," said Galileo ; and lived and died to prove what he said. Even morality advances.^ We know the road but cannot see the goal.^ The term morals forthshadows its true meaning. Morals are customs ; but customs are not necessarily morals.* Morals are almost synonymous w^ith ethics. The shades of difference appear in the roots of the two words morals {mos, custom, manner, mode, cf. maneo, remain) and ethics {Wo^, custom, will, cf. c^cA-w, desire ; ^eos, god [free in act] ; and c^vos, race, peoples, caste). Morals are the ex- ternal habits and manners ; the modes of action ; the objec- tive customs ; the clothes of the individual and of society. "^ Ethics are the habits of thought, of will, and of desire ; the subjective customs ; the forms and modes that express the character ; the language, the force, the grace of the individual and of society. A moral quality may always be measured ; an ethical may only be inferred ; one lies upon the surface, the other below it. *' In the beginning is the act." " The act evidences the motive and discloses more or less of the ethical character of the actor. The judgment of the act * " To know that the greatest men of earth are men who think as I do, but deeper, and see the real as I do, but clearer, who work to the goal that I do, but faster, and serve humanity as I do, but better, — that is an inspiration to my life." Baldwin, Mental Development, vol. ii, chapter, " The Genius," p. i68. 2 Westermarck, Origin and Development of Moral Ideas. 3 Hoffding, Problems of Philosophy, p. i86. * Socrates died to prove this. Crito ; Phcedo. 5 Cf. Carlyle, Sartor Resartus. ® Goethe, Faust, part i, sc. iii. Such is the first axiom of the modem pragmatic philosophy. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 59 is an ethical judgment ; but the language in which that judg- ment is expressed conveys a moral decision. An act may be in accordance with the morals of the times and yet be essen- tially immoral ; or it may offend the common morals and yet be essentially moral. But no ethically correct action, no right- eousness, ever offends customary or historical or national or comparative ethics ; because by definition ethics is in con- formity with reason, and, by definition again, reason is uni- versal, uniform, and increasingly certain. Ethics, then, is a single term conveying the meaning of the phrase, '* ideal morality." ^ In appearance, there is here a paradox ; or rather, here is a paradox in the original meaning of the term, a proposition that appears false until it has been adequately considered. Humanity requires a term to satisfy its need of finality, the Kantian category of absolute obligation. Ethics is such a term, a metaphysical abstraction that enspheres, illuminates, and organizes the kinds and modes of duty.^ The entire structure of a particular civilization de- pends upon its morality. This is its character. So the ^ " Duty is to our humanity what gravitation is to the physical uni- verse. " Martineau, Ethics and Religion^ p. 302. " The situation that has not Ideal, its Duty, was never yet occupied by man." Carlyle, Sartor Resartus, book ii, chapter ix. " Thou dost preserve the stars from wrong, And the most ancient heavens, through Thee, are fresh and strong." Wordsworth, Ode to Duty. 2 Watson, Philosophy of Kant {extracts). " Nothing in all the world, or even outside the world, can possibly be regarded as limitlessly good except z. good will" (p, 225). This goodwill enforces "the obUgation to act from pure reverence of the moral law," irrespective of consequences. " Reason issues its commands inflexibly, refusing to promise anything to the natural desires" (p. 231) and despising their claims. " There is but one categorical imperative : Act according to that maxim, and that only, which you can will at that time to be a universal law" (p. 241). Or, " act as if the maxim from which you act were to become through your will a universal law of Nature." Such is rationalized morality. " Act so that the will may regard itself as in its maxims laying down universal laws " (p. 249). Such a categorical imperative necessitates each man's conceiving himself as an end in himself, which upon re- flection means conceiving himself as free and a lawgiver to himself. 6o EDUCATION AND SOCIETY entire structure of a particular person depends upon his morality, which is his character. And since it is the purpose of education to develop character, obviously this can be accompHshed only by training in the morality of civilization as manifested in the morality of the best persons.^ Here we come upon the essential problem of educa- tion. And we must solve it in the light of certain axioms, self-evident or agreed truths. Unless there are such truths, there cannot possibly be any science of educa- tion or any need for an art of education ; for otherwise education must appear to be a matter of a series of for- tunate accidents, within and without the individual, an occasional, sporadic, unintended, unnecessary, unintel- ligible procession of facts, which no amount of desire, will, and intelligence can secure with certainty. The common sense of mankind says, Not so. But has our common sense erred .■* Many persons deny that education is ever consciously accomplished or achieved. According to their notion, which they often express both in speech and in action, educated in- telligence exists only where the intelligence would have been equally great without education. All increase in ability ac- companying or following courses of education is but the in- crease natural to the person. At most, educational courses but sift the smart and label them to their social advantage ; yet the courses are in no wise to be credited with the result. This is our crux difficultatis. Is there a law of growth } Our problem is. Can reason effect education } If it can, then let us seriously undertake the task of universal education ; if it cannot, let us give up our futile general experiments, allowing individuals, when they so desire, to waste their time, their wealth, and their energy for ^ " Men of character are the conscience of the society to which /they belong." Emerson, Character. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION • 6i affection's sake upon their own, but no longer squander- ing the common treasure. This is no idle matter. All about us, for hundreds of gen- erations, the long-schooled — the university-cultivated men — have in most instances not manifested the character of the educated. " So with the man who has daily inured himself to habits of concentrated attention, energetic volition, and self- denial in unnecessary things. He will stand like a tower when everything rocks around him, and his softer fellow mor- tals are winnowed like chaff in the blast." ^ Certain minori- ties — one, two, three, five, to be very generous, perhaps ten in a hundred — of the schooled and graduated men and women have been well educated ; but most have developed in moral character, the final test, no more than they would have de- veloped in the haphazard environment of life out of school and college. How many years ago the animal destined for human- ity developed its last physical feature, the hand,^ no one knows. Until the human hand was completely developed, the brain was not finished.^ Until then the education of man beyond the animal was proceeding physiologically as well as psychologically. But when the hand, with its four fingers and its opposing thumb, with its muscular' palm and sensitive finger-tips, had been finished, the ani- mal in man had been perfectly wrought out. Whatever cells and tissues, whatever blood and lymph currents, whatever organs and systems of organs, whatever gen- eral and special senses could accomplish in building and furnishing a temple for a soul, had been accomplished. The origin of man is, as every one knows, lost in obscurity. Several facts of much anthropological interest are hidden from the knowledge of man, — the future ; the cause of sex ; the ^ James, Talks on Psychology and Life's Ideals, p. 76. 2 Drummond, Ascent of Man, pp. lOO et seq. 3 MacDougall, " Significance of the Human Hand in the Evolution of M.md" Jou7'nal of Psychology, April, 1905. 62 . EDUCATION AND SOCIETY origin of life ; the links connecting man and his progenitors, the anthropoids and subanthropoids ; the stages by which the sea-animal became a land animal quadruped, then a tree ani- mal (when the hand evolved), and last a land animal biped ; ^ and the region of the origin of man, wherein God breathed into him the breath of life, and he became a living soul.^ Whether in forty or fifty or a hundred thousand years, man has grown taller, heavier, and stronger, or the contrary, does not affect the question of his edu- cability, for between height, weight, and strength, whether of animals or of men, no relation of intelligence and character has ever been established.^ Elephants, horses, and dogs are rival claimants for intellectual supremacy among the beasts, and parrots, crows, and canaries among the fowls. Kant was five feet in height. Napoleon five feet four inches, Emerson five feet eight, Gladstone five feet ten, Webster the same, Bismarck six feet one inch, Washington six feet three, and Lincoln six feet four inches. Little and big, sick and well, weak and strong, indifferently are good and bad, capable and dull. Even the nervous speed, the psychological rate, makes but slight difference. The quick and the slow indifferently are educable or not educable. Sex matters little or nothing.'* Race is of but slight importance. Between Alexander and Napoleon, Dewey and Togo, Confucius and Buddha, Dante and Goethe, Tolstoi and Hawthorne, Socrates and Emerson, Aristotle and Kant, Grant and Oyama, Sophocles and Shakespeare, there is not much to choose. The ages have displayed no determinable advance. Sargon, Caesar, Charlemagne, have no modern superiors. David, the author of Job, ^ Tyler, Whence and Whither of Man ; Darwin, Descent of Man ; Drummond, Ascent of Mati ; Hall, Heirs of the Ages ; Hall, Adolescence: its Psychology ; YAdd, Social Evolution : zXX passim. ^ Genesis ii, 7. 3 Donaldson, Growth of the Brain., p. 174. * Thompson, The Mental Traits of Sex, chapter ix. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 63 Homer, ^schylus, Thucydides, Virgil, Paul, Plato, Ovid, Cicero, Tacitus, Plutarch, St. Augustine, Luther, Tennyson, Lowell, Thackeray, Marian Evans, Victor Hugo, display no gradual improvement in the mind of man. If the good inherit personal immortality in a local- ized heaven, the ancients will doubtless be found the peers of the moderns,^ whether the race lasts a hundred thousand or a hundred million years. Whatever be the metaphysics of the individual, this opinion of physiology that man as a physical animal is no longer improving is likely to be acceptable. From Abraham till now, we are all fellow men. The soul of the modern harmonizes with the soul of the ancient : all of us have sought and are now seeking the same goal. Life is a school, the same kind of a school since the walls of Thebes first rose. Human educability is the same now as in the days of Tiglath-pileser. Is there any difference between men and nations of the different ages ? Undoubtedly there is ; and, of course, this difference is in knowledge. With not one new cerebral cell or spinal ganglion, man the individual is the same educable creature as in the days of Moses ; but man the race knows more.^ How much more that it is really worth while to know, how much more truth, let no man undertake to say. The stones that bore the commands given in the thunder of Sinai recorded truth to which the race has not yet risen. No civilization as yet has fairly represented the results of faithful observance of the Ten Commandments. No civilization yet has attempted to express the meaning of the Tenth. We do, indeed, know more than any other people ever knew; and yet it may be that the race has forgotten many things. There are reasons to believe that a vast deal of knowledge perished with the Egyptians, with the ^ Duruy (Grosvener, transl.), Ancie^tt History of the East, p. 25. ^ Charlotte Gilman, Human Work, chapter iii. 64 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Chaldeans, with the Greeks, with the Romans, with the Arabs, with the Venetians, with the Moors. And yet no serious man would challenge the proposition that Ger- many, France, England, America, or Japan, knows more than any earlier nation, not excepting Greece "in her glory's prime." Not only do we know more, but much of our knowledge is now set in order, in systems, in sciences. This orderly knowledge is the key to education. It is, in truth, a partial discovery of the logos (Aoyos) without which was not anything made that was made.^ " The belief that the course of events and the agency of man are subject to the laws of a divine order, which it is alike impossible for any one either fully to comprehend or effectu- ally to resist — this belief is the ground of all our hope for the future destinies of mankind." ^ In a certain sense, it is the race rather than the indi- vidual that has been educated, for the individual of these later times inherits the results of the experiences of the individuals of the past. The total of these experiences is the racial culture, expressed partly in laws, customs, institutions, habits, and notions, and partly in ideals and standards not reducible to words or forms or habits, which we may call the human spirit or wisdom. That ^ itivTO. ZC avrov iyevero, Koi x«P^s outoC iyevero ouSe eV. Literally, all things came to be through {vm) this (\6yos, thought), and without this no [existing ] thing came to be. h yeyovev ev avTCf ^«^ [^v] , koL r} (cot] ^v rh u)5 Tuv avQpdiiruv. What began in this was life, and the life was the light of (the) men. John, Gospel i, 3, 4. This passage is truly Platonic. It glorifies the Idea (tSea), of which the human mind {vovs) is but a form. Plato, Phcedo, 96; Timceus^ 51; Philebus, 54 ; Sophist, 256; ThecEtetus, 184, 186, and many other passages. The teaching is that the Reason (God) created the cosmos, and that His light forever shines in every individual man in the cosmos. These " own " of the Reason, His " idiots," do not understand Him. But such as do understand Him (in so far as they understand) become His offspring not from the flesh or their own desire but from God (e/c fleoO, from the Vision, SeeJs, of the Light, ipm, sent by the Reason, \6yoi). 2 Thirlwall, Remains, iii, 282. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 6$ the race has been educated, and that individuals partake, some largely, some but little, some scarcely at all, in this racial education is the common belief: if it be but illusion, then humanity is insane, too insane to recognize in any degree its essential madness. The relations of the individual to the racial culture are two ; discrete, independent, necessary. One relation is that of the bondman, the other that of the heir. Birth brings with it conditions of environment, conditions filial, ecclesiastical, political, physical, economic, from which escape is absolutely, at least for all practical purposes, impossible. In this relation, one's education is more than compulsory, it is inevitable. So inevitable is it that we speak generally of it as "rearing" or "breeding" or "parentage." We often forget that for a child of good parents to become good is a matter not of nature but of education ; so also with regard to the aristocrat, the healthy, the rich. The truth of this we recognize at once by postulating the opposite : imagine a child born of poor, sickly, outlawed, sinful, unkind parents, who cast him out as a foundling, and adopted by sensible foster- parents, entirely opposite in character and station. By common consent, these new parents have before them a work of education. The child has escaped from one bond- age to another. He has changed one fate for another. Even the Gospel, which fulfills the Law, is a schooling.^ The other relation is that of heir. This is obviously, apparently, openly, a relation of education. The heir inherits all, but, of course, can really possess only that which he understands, appreciates, and uses. In these times, one's property may far exceed his possessions ; this is no less true of culture than of wealth. The bond- age of the environment compels adjustment to facts ; * "The law was our schoolmaster to bring us unto Christ." Paul, Galatians iii, 24. Literally, the law (the culture from the past) became our pedagogue unto Christ. Also Matthew, Gospel v, 17, 18. 66 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY this is the natural or necessary or inevitable education ; but the heritage merely offers opportunities, and what- ever education may result is voluntary. As certainly as the heir of the millionaire may renounce his inheritance of wealth or waste it, so certainly may the heir of the scholar refuse or ignore his inheritance of knowledge. And we are all heirs : of wealth, in public buildings, parks, roads ; of knowledge, in books, arts, minds.^ Every inheritance is conditioned by the ability to enter in. The lazy, stupid heir to a fortune is no less and no more subject to this condition than is the lazy, stupid heir to knowledge and to art. It has sometimes been said that while one may or may not be an heir to wealth, every one is an heir to the culture of the ages. This is a careless but dangerous fallacy. The boy of quick and retentive mind is a possible heir to the world's knowledge ; but he cannot qualify unless given health, time, and opportunity. He must have either parents or guardians able and willing to support him in study, and also school, library, and laboratory in which to study. Moreover, he must have surplus energy for study. There is a feature of the physical and the psychical inher- itance to which education must give greater consideration. There is a catharsis due to satiety of experience in parents that forefends children from repeating their lives or powers. In the child of the skillful manual laborer, motivation func- tions not in bodily technique, but in spiritual activity. The ancestors live in their descendant a new mode of existence. The energy of the soul functions differently. Here demo- cracy, denying class and caste, denying " like father like son," asserting the value of " fallow ground " and the necessity of opportunity, is true at once to the biologic law of variability and the physiological law of cross-functioning in heredity.^ Parents acquire qualities for their children to use. It is a psychological exposition of the Second Commandment. ^ Butler, Meaning of Education, pp. 17-31. ^ Patten, Heredity and Social Progress, chapter iii. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION ^^ With every item of inheritance actually possessed, util- ized, assimilated, change takes place in the soul of the heir. Most of the changes may be slight, too slight for observation, but the sum of the changes, their direction, their influence, and the nature of the series are unmis- takable. Even adult men are educable and often educated by new heritage. We are all familiar with the phenomenon of the poor person gradually or suddenly acquiring or receiving riches. Proceeding from two to three dollars a day; from nothing in the bank to a thousand dollars saved ; from pov- erty to affluence ; from homelessness to family and land ; from subjection and irresponsibility to power and obligation ; from ignorance to some knowledge ; from little knowledge to great; from awkwardness to skill; from fault and folly to virtue and judgment : whatever be the stages of progress, each new stage in change is invariably accompanied by change in the soul. The person who is just the same as before is unknown and inconceivable. The science of human nature is so far advanced that from every change we expect what we call a " result." ^ We expect the man grown famous to be increased in self-confidence, and the man grown rich to be increased in authoritativeness. We have, in fact, a complete catalogue of labels ready for the inventory of the effects of change : conceit, egotism, breadth, pride, arrogance, generosity, etc. Some results we call good, others bad ; but all of them we recognize as familiar evidences of education. Unfortunately, these changes do not always lead in the direction commended by society. We speak, there- fore, of being "well " or ''badly " educated ; and, in gen- eral, we agree that to be well educated is to be educated ^ Royce, Outlines of Psychology, p. 375. His classification of mental phenomena under the three heads of sensitiveness, docility, and initia- tive ; that of Tarde, Social Laws, under the heads of repetition, opposition, and adaptation ; and that in this text, intelligence, efficiency, and moral- ity; should display the modes of psychology, of sociology, and of edu- cation in dealing with the same phenomena. 68 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY in such a manner as to repeat the qualities of the best of times past and present or to anticipate the qualities that the faith of common humanity presents as certain to characterize the society of the future, while to be badly educated is to manifest the qualities of the worst, or to resurrect the qualities that the verdict of common humanity condemned and thereby destroyed in the society of the past. Once all men were thieves : in our loose speech, we allow ourselves to say that a youth may now be educated into the thief. Chastity has become a female virtue ; and will yet become the common virtue of men : a youth may now be educated in that virtue. So constituted is the human mind, however, that almost always we think of the good rather than of the bad kind of anything that has more than one kind. "This was a man," said Shakespeare.^ "Take him for all in all, we shall not look upon his like again." The poet meant, and we recognize, a good man. So when we speak of education, by common usage and acceptance, we mean the good education. Similarly, civilization has its good and its evil meanings. If the "city is civiliza- tion," a common adage, the profit thereof may indeed be challenged as to whether it offsets the loss to man- kind. There is a good civilization ; and there is a bad. Marcus Aurelius could no more save Roman civilization than Lot could save Sodom. And yet, though both good and bad civilizations were and are realities, when we speak of civilization, we mean that which is good.^ If it be asked, how civilization in seeking to protect the unfit from the operation of natural law can be evil, we must reply sadly that many of the unfit are morally unfit; whom civilization perforce keeps alive. Of this, the cured and unrepentant victims of the social evil are conspicuous * Julius CfBsaTn, act v. 2 This is in obedience to the familiar social law of optimism. Cf. Ross, Social Control, pp. 154-55. CIVILIZATION AND EDUCATION 69 examples. The very triumphs of medicine and of surgery often restore to their deadly work in society those whose mission is the injury of mankind. The education that is good conspires with the civiliza- tion that is good to redeem man from his past, from the v^rorld, from himself, for the future, for the larger life, for the infinite heart v^rhence man came.^ ^ Drummond, Ascent of Man, p. 56. CHAPTER IV PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE 'T is not in mortals to command success, But we '11 do more, Sempronius ; we '11 deserve it. Addison, Cato, I, ii. The anguish of the lost ones of this world is not fear of punishment. It was and is the misery of having quenched a light brighter than the sun ; the intolerable sense of being sunk ; the remorse of knowing that they were not what they might have been. — Robertson, Sertnons, Luke x. For my part, I sympathize sincerely with all failures, with the victims of society, with those who have fallen, with the imprisoned, with the hopeless, with those who have been stained by verdicts of guilty, and with those who, in the moment of passion, have destroyed, as with a blow, the future of their own lives. — Ingersoll, Crime against Criminals. The purpose of systematic education is to develop a suc- cessful life. But what is a successful life .-* What is suc- cess } To secure or to endure systematic education is so far to be successful; and yet the thoroughly educated are not always successful in life. The school is not life, as commonly understood, but preparation for life.^ What proportion of human beings are successful ? The answer is entirely a matter of standards and of defi- nitions. It may be profitable to inquire briefly into the subject. The Arabians said, ''Call no man successful until his death." The same thought may be found in the Egyp- tian Book of the Dead? Even then the verdict may be premature. In truth, it is not for man, in any serious sense, to pass upon this matter. "Judge not, that ye be not judged"^ applies to this as well as to every other ^ Life, cf. Leib, body, implies fullness of life, adult life, maturity, the pragmatic stage, action. Rosenkranz, Science of Edtication, passim. The school is not life, but leisure. 2 Myers, The Oldest Book in the World, p. loi. 3 Jesus, quoted by Matthew, Gospel^ chapter vii, i. PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE 71 aspect of our relations to our fellow men. " Do not judge by appearances," at any rate, as the proverb says. Nei- ther judge by the general verdict. Reputation has no dependable relation to success, or to character, or to fact A Roman poet,^ two thousand years ago, exposed the valuelessness of rumor. Success is not always a matter ,of the entire life. The greatness of Gladstone was not of single acts or of a single epoch ; he grew with the years ; only old age could limit his ever-increasing usefulness. Not so with that abler and perhaps also more important contempo- rary, Bismarck, who outlived his own historical self. Napoleon, who in all the annals of mankind yields place only to Caesar, saw Waterloo after Austerlitz, and dis- played at St. Helena the petty weaknesses of human nature. The Roman, whose greatness in action is in- comprehensible, was perhaps fortunate in his death. Some of the great drew upon " the two worlds " of truth and of falsity, of fact and of fiction, of love and of hate, in order to win. Of course, they doubled thereby their present resources, for the liar, the visionary, and the murderer escape the limitations of the truth-speaker, the man of fact, and the lover of his kind. Of them, history, as its ethical standards rise, is constantly revising its verdict.^ Success is not always a matter of general accomplish- ment. Washington, who is revered by us perhaps beyond any other man excepting Lincoln, was successful alike as a soldier, as a legislator, as an executive, and as a man of affairs. Not so with Daniel Webster, who had but one surpassing power, the persuasion of men to high thinking in the State. So Luther excelled only in the construction of a new Church. Dante, Cromwell, Kant, Marian Evans, were all comparatively narrow. But few may, like Alexander, reconstruct a world. ^ Ovid, Metamorphoses, book iii. 2 Lea, " Ethical Values," American Historical Review, January, 1904. 72 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Success is not always a matter involving conformity in all particulars to the personal morality of the times. The plain people have been extremely lenient with those able to render large social service. There is perhaps something in the wear and tear of body and of soul in great affairs, that weakens and distresses the great man in his personal relations. Abraham, Solomon, Pericles, Shakespeare, Goethe, Byron, Franklin, rendered their services to mankind, and passed on, forgiven.^ We number among the great some of the sinners and the criminals of their countries and ages. Many a prophet might have gone to his king with that awful, righteous, and final sentence, " Thou art the man." ^ Knowing as we do that sometimes the poisoner, the mur- derer, the adulterer, the drunkard, the thief, the forger, the liar, the traitor, the miser, the slayer of nations, the debaucher of peoples, has not failed of success, educators must face many an embarrassment. Success is not always a matter of recognition at the time. What Greek dreamed that Aristotle would rule the intellectual world for two thousand years ? ^ To his own generation, Shakespeare was only a good business man. Perhaps he scarcely suspected more himself. We, not his contemporaries, have made the fame of Galileo, ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides loomed large in their own day, in their own little city ; Michael Angelo and Raphael were the great artists of their times ; all Frenchmen knew Voltaire and Victor Hugo ; but in their own lifetimes, Keats, Poe, and Whitman had only small 1 Many " true " biographies (i. e. those which expose the weaknesses, the errors, even the vices, of great men) are often really false because the perspective of values is false. To forgive is not to ignore ; and to ignore is not to condone. 2 2 Samuel xii, 7. The rebuke of David by Nathan. ^ There are certain signs of an Aristotelian " revival." Cf. Pollock, History of the Science of Politics. Turner, History of Philosophy. Aristotle w-as never confused as to the nature of success. PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE 73 audiences compared with those after their bones rested in the grave. And success is seldom evidenced by accumulations of property. Who cares whether Copernicus or Columbus left fortunes ? Croesus made Caesar, and Maecenas made Virgil, so they say; and therefore we remember Croesus and Maecenas. Jesus had not " where to lay His head." ^ It is possible to defy one's age and to be remembered as its peculiar glory. Socrates drank the hemlock as ordered by Athens; and John Brown died upon the scaffold of the State of Virginia. Will their names ever perish ? It is not even necessary to be either right or successful. Robert E. Lee was wrong in war and failed to win ; and yet we love him and count him among the great. Shelley was wrong in his morals, and often in his moral teaching, as was Byron also ; yet who will deny either his fame or his success ? I have written of the greatest of mankind. Each conveys some lesson, whether the individual be Homer, Buddha, Confucius, Moses, ^sop, Paul, Caesar, Augustus, Attila, Charlemagne, Elizabeth, Louis Fourteenth, Crom- well, Peter, Catherine Second, Frederick, Jefferson, Thackeray, Scott, Emerson. I might write of lesser persons, such as we meet every day. We know, as a matter of common sense we must know, that deathless fame among men is by no means proof of real success. The " monuments " of the Nile Valley and of Mesopotamia record the names of few save the kings. Many of these kings were almost total failures. The immortal Cleopatra was a failure. Beyond peradventure of doubt, thousands on thousands of Egyptians and of Mesopotamians lived successful lives. Who believes that the only record is that of earth .? Only he who, believing this, believes also that life is not worth while, though a success. No educator 1 Matthew viii, 20. A saying of Jesus'. 74 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY can sincerely deny the possibility at least of some other record, for to deny some other existence, some other fame, is to deny the substantial value of education.^ Education is not an end in itself. Life, however, is such an end ; life, not living merely. Life is an end in itself, because life has no conceivable end.^ To con- tribute to the fullness of life is the end of education, which has limits only in its own methods and in the educability of the individual. When education has done all that is possible to itself, it necessarily terminates in its own end, which therefore must be considered as mediate to life. Obviously, therefore, true success, which is the only kind of success to be regarded by the edu- cator, is largeness of life, which of necessity is a notion varying with all varieties of individuals. ^ And yet the thoughtful must recognize that to live narrowly, to live for the day, to live unrelated to the great institutions and forces of society and to one's individual fellow men, is to live but in part and not vigorously. The difficulty of the social philosopher is to devise a system of educa- tion that arouses and organizes activity in insight and outlook, and thereby produces the thoughtful. For, in real life, most persons are not thoughtful, and therefore are not essentially successful. When from among those reputed successful, we have eliminated the many who have gone upward from below to notoriety without worth and to power without value to themselves or to other men, the remainder is very small. Is it, then, true that all of those of no repute and of those reputed to be unsuccessful are really failures .'' Of course not ; but the presumption is against them. We are dealing here with a matter of much subtlety. Dante lived so ^ " If there be no second life, — pitch this one high,^^ cried Matthew Arnold {The Better Part). In the form stated, the non sequitiir is obvious and significant. 2 Plato argued this out to a finality, quoting Socrates. See especially the Phcedo, 49, et passim. PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE 75 deep in life as not wholly to be known to his contem- poraries. The immortal Italian was not a successful man of his times. He appeared to them a failure. No doubt among men now there are thousands on thousands who live deep in life, a silent folk, building themselves and supporting others. The true success of most of them will never be revealed on earjLh in their own days or after their death. And yet,, according to the measure of their worth and of their service, we ought to call them successful. Most men and women are failures, and most of us know that we are. This fact appears upon consideration, for unhappily it is susceptible of proof by demonstration. Of property, few leave at death more than they re- ceived at birth; and many have received from others more than they have returned. This is not always a matter of fault, though it is a matter of fact. Of religion, few manifest the fruits by the peaceful works of the spirit. "Pure religion and undefiled before God and the Father is this. To visit the fatherless and widows in their affliction, and to keep himself un- spotted from the world." * Were this not an irreligious age, as it unmistakably is,^ there might be some discus- sion upon the point as to whether most individuals are religious. Not to confuse morality with religion, let it be observed that the decline of charity and the increase of worldliness are too patent to permit discussion. Con- sequently, whatever may be the success or failure of most persons, considered broadly, their failure in religion must be admitted.^ ^ Literally, Worship clean and stainless before the God and Father is this very thing, — to watch over orphans and widows in their distress, to guard one's self spotless from the times. James Epistle i, 27. In that Ro- man age, the passage was most significant. It is scarcely less significant in ours. ^ Per contra^ Donald, The Expansion of Religion, passim. 3 This failure of the many in religion must not be taken as a failure of religion itself. 76 EDUCATION AND SOCIETY Evidence of an irreligious age is seen in the fact that in most cities, should all the people desire to attend worship, not one in five or in some instances not one in ten could find seats, while nowhere is it necessary for all the churches to resort to successive services with admission by card to prevent repetition of attendance. Again, this popular failure in religion is seen in the fact that the church, which symbol- izes religion, no longer receives the services and products of the finest artistic talents. And it is seen in the disappear- ance of the church universal. Men are no longer born into the church. A majority of Americans live and die churchless ; and the churchless man or woman is very seldom religious. In marriage, in home, and in family, most men and some w^omen are failures. Divorce, often amply justified by sins and even by crimes, prepares the v^ay for bigamy and even for polyandry and polygamy. Often divorce is avoided only by continuance in unhappy marriage, so profaned by faithless husband or wife as to be unholy. Not a fevs^ married men and fathers provide first for themselves and last for their wives and children. Home life for most persons is no longer an entirety, a force in itself. No mere tenant can feel a deep affection for his house and land ; he moves too often. Brothers and sisters part more easily in the twentieth century in America than ever they did in the dark ages of Western Europe. Too many men build houses, not homes ; marry women, not wives ; rear children, not families. The man and woman of property and of cul- ture, marrying and bringing into life a normal number of children,^ creating a home and establishing a family, ^ There is a very general misconception of the functions of repro- duction among mammals. Almost the entire burden rests upon the female. The appearance of a second, a third, or a fourth child weaker than the preceding is a neglected signal. The birth of constantly stronger children is a neglected command. The particular norm for the particular parents is determined physically by such indications as these. The average norm for the Teutonic race may be taken as four children born PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE -jj are confronting the solid antagonsim of their class. ^ Few such persons care to rear families, while the igno- rant, propertyless masses cannot do so in their poverty and ignorance in opposition to modern economic forces. They multiply ; but they do not multiply homes. In education and in culture, the failure of most per- sons is too familiar for discussion. Few ever realize their powers. Few ever learn the best that is known, thought, and done in the world. Prematurely arrested in develop- ment, shut away, often willingly, from art and knowledge, they exist in superstition and in dependence, the slaves of the world, unrelated things in an imperfect cosmos. Of government, most men and women know nothing, even in democratic America. Why, then, does the Re- public proceed } Because every society, once in motion, tends to increase in numbers and proportionately in wealth '' to the point of diminishing returns," ^ a point in most regions not yet reached by us ; and because from the nature of the social conflict, the strong tend to rise to the mastery for which they are competent. Even democracy cannot prevent this. Of course, the failures of men in business are so numerous as to have passed into a proverb, — " Ninety- five per cent of men fail in business." This has been a matter of statistics. Syndicates, trusts, corporations, rise solely by the defeat of competitors. The successful become multimillionaires, magnates, capitaHsts ; the un- successful become their clerks ; and the masses grind on. In what .^ Fortunately, the grinding of the multi- tudes is in the various cultural, commercial, and domestic arts. This it is that saves us, for as a people we are im- proving in scientific knowledge and in technical skill. three years apart, with the mother passing from twenty-four to thirty- three years of age. Cf. Sociological Papers, ii, " Eugenics " by Galton. ^ Rae, Sociological Theory of Capital, edited by Mixter, p. 358. 2 Walker, Political Econojny, pp. 51-54. 78 • EDUCATION AND SOCIETY What, then, is it to be successful ? The foundation of it is health of mind, a large view of things, vital, effect- ive, vigorous relations to the world outside one's self, — a health that is conditioned, in part at least, upon one side or aspect, by health and by strength of body. And yet some have been successful despite ill-health, mani- festing, indeed, the noblest evidence of character in struggle against physical weakness and disease. Some inheriting poor physiques have by intelligence built for themselves sound bodies. But to return : needlessly to sacrifice health bears witness to deficiencies of intelli- gence and of will, even of heart, for he who is an invalid because of follies has carelessly burdened his friends. Though he be rich, he is still a total loss to the economic world, rendering it no return for its rents, interests, dividends, and profits. I call him successful who numbered a sufficiency of days ; who found a deep satisfaction in life ; who learned sympathy, patience, fortitude, courage, through trials ; who brought himself to order and the things of the world to order in relation to himself; who promised within his power of performance and changed not, though promising to his own hurt ; ^ who injured none more than himself, and desired not to injure even himself ; who rendered to the world in product and in service more than he received ; who lived as celibate in chastity or as husband in continence ; who made of his body a temple for his soul ; who loved truth and pursued it ; desired freedom and granted it ; was first just and then merciful ; first honest and then generous ; became disciple and apostle of the laws of essential Nature; and rejoiced to be a servant of God. Such a successful man is a living wit- ness that material wealth should be a consequent, not a cause ; and that it is not even a necessary consequent. After his death, his life becomes a delightful memory. ^ David, Psalm xv, 4. PERSONAL SUCCESS AND FAILURE IN LIFE 79 And him I call unsuccessful who by fault of his own failed of sufficiency of days to bring his soul to complete- ness ; who found no meaning and satisfaction in life ; who grew hard, impatient, timid, fretful ; who became erratic and disorderly, and set the world about him in dis- order; who in anxiety for the morrow promised more than his power to fulfill, and being hurt, shrank from pay- ing all ; who injured himself or others, debasing life from its purposes of joy and delight, — purposes inalienably the property of all living things ; because of whom the world was poorer in material wealth ; who by unchastity and incontinence defiled life at its fountains ; who forced his soul to abide in a body degraded into a mire or ethe- realized mto a shadow or converted into a prison ; whose yea was not yea, nor his nay, nay ; who accepted ser- vitude and enforced it; founded mercy upon injustice and generosity upon dishonesty ; preached and practiced the natural laws of the elements and of the brutes ; and declined the service of God. Clearly, and without exposition, the truth appears that to be successful, one must be intelligent, efficient, and righteous ; and it needs no argument to show that in the final analysis intelligence, efficiency, and righteous- ness are one quality, goodness. This, however, being un- defined, does not necessarily carry correct and adequate meaning.^ We mean not good as antithetical to evil, not good as antithetical to bad, but good as worth while be- cause it realizes life ; and, therefore, we mean good as antithetical to harm. Finally, upon all these considera- tions, and upon many others that are derived from com- mon sense, we know that to be successful is to fill life to overflowing, while to fail is to deny life content, mean- ing, use.2 The application of this principle becomes ^ Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, edited by Tilly and Houseman, p. 8. ^ " While from him that hath not shall be taken even that which he seemeth to have." Jesus, Luke, Gospel viii, 18. The context shows 8o EDUCATION AND SOCIETY increasingly easy and clear to the candid who desire success and depart from the pathways of failures ever crossing the "narrow way unto life." ^ It would be presumptuous for humanity to expect to know either the why of life or the object assigned to us by the Creator ; and very few individuals have dis- played the desire to know either the final "whence " or the final "why."^ The goal is not in sight. We may believe as Wordsworth sings, — " The soul that rises with us, our life's star. Hath had elsewhere its setting, And cometh from afar."^ But though we inquire with Darwin what is the origin of the physical body, and expect to learn the truth some day, we do not expect in this finite life to learn when or how we were set apart from the infinite, or when or how we are to return again. ^ The soul in humanity that conditions the conscience of every individual, whatever be its origin, whatever be its coloring by physical being, knows true success and discriminates it from failure. And every educator owes unmistakably that understanding of life is the subject under discussion. Consider also the parable of the talents, Matthew, Gospel xxv, 15 ^^ seq. Jesus saw and taught perfectly the meaning of success and failure, and reiterated the principle involved. 1 Jesus, Matthew, 6" ^^JT^if/ vii, 14. ttri . . . reflAt/xjuevT? ^ ^5bs ■^ a7rc{7ouopta, well- bearing, joy in life, a sense of carrying life out gloriously. There are a few amazingly, extraordinarily " well " (vigorous) persons who seem almost to manifest the symptoms of a physical insanity, a paresis. " They carry all before them." They are not so much " magnetic " as overpowering. If tra- dition is correct, Charlemagne was such a person ; William the Conqueror ; Alexander the Great. Such men are occa- sionally successful in business far beyond their intellectual and moral deserts ; because business is the modern form of private war.^ (Not exactly, however, in the same sense as diplomacy is a modern form of public war.) Probably more persons are born capable of such exceeding health than are permitted by modern civilization to attain it.^ The systematic school-o-oing of the commercial middle-classes prevents this superb physical development, which appears most frequently among the well-reared rich and the industrious farmers and mechanics. Certain significant features of the modern life of chil- dren appear to me notable and reprehensible, for the suf- ficient reason that they tend to prevent or delay normal 1 They are the examples cited by the proponents of the new science and art of energetics, which seem to some nobler than ethics. Cf . Gulick, The Efficient Life ; Roosevelt, The Strenuous Life. 2 I have met among the Negros and Mestizos a proportion of such per- sons far beyond that among the Caucasians, who in comparison with them seem physically victimized by centuries of civilization. 250 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION efficiency.^ My postulates are that intelligence, effi- ciency, and morality need not be excessively disparate ; that they may be developed in a zigzag of process or in a concatenation of stages ; and that with most persons a generous intelligence is unattainable in the absence of some efficiency. Merely for the sake of system, I note these features in the familiar order of their relations to the social in- stitutions, — Property, Family, Church, State, Culture, Education, Occupation, Business, War.^ Despite the im- portance of Property in this American civilization (where, indeed, it is less important than in England or in France), persons under twenty-one years of age have almost nothing to do with it. They are practically never the executive owners of wealth. The American legal theory is that the person under twenty-one is an infant, not able to walk amid vital matters, not able to talk about wealth and property. The purpose of this theory is to prevent the swindling of ignorant, weak-willed persons by scoun- drels. The effect of it is to keep boys and girls ignorant and weak of will in relation to property. As curiosity is the motive of both observation and literacy, so ambition is the motive of efficiency ; and ambition soon recognizes the relation of property to personal success. The pro- tection of infants from swindlers never has been effec- tive : the frauds of trustees are as notorious as are the follies of heirs just come of age. As for the trust-estates, 1 The present abnormal conditions seem obstructive to the progress of mankind and characteristic of a necessary but transitional and temporary economic regime. 2 The formalism of this system would seem more vital to Americans, were all of us to visit Central and Western Europe. In March, 1906, the German Kaiser denounced the opponents of the "great fundamental social institutions, the monarchy, property, and the army." For us, the monarchy is a figment of the imagination and the army a minor school. This seemed to be the issue between Miinsterberg and his critics at the Peace Congress, New York, April, 1907. EFFICIENCY 251 those half-feudal creations of the modern economic re- gime, their sole result is to keep the heirs of wealth children throughout hfe, the pathetic victims of paternal pride and solicitude. Poor or rich, the child should acquire and hold pro- perty. It is the price of self-respect, the condition of self- enlargement. As one who holds a cane in his hand has enlarged his physical periphery by his new ability to feel at a distance (the hand enlarges the life beyond the brain), so one who owns books, tools, furniture, a cow, a colt, a city lot, a savings-bank deposit, a share in a rail- road company, has enlarged his mental horizon and has a sense of security, of "home " in the world. Moreover, his ambition to be something by getting something leads him to do something ; and this doing for an end con- duces to efficiency. Ten years of age is the character- istic period for the manifestation of the sense of meiim and of tiium. Let the child acquire property in the light of his accumulating knowledge, permanently worth while property as well as temporary toys. Many things the children read about they can never own ; but some of them their schools should own and use for them ; and some few the children could and would own, were our social notions more sane. The victim of a trust estate gave as his reason for marrying early : " Well, I knew that I could never own any property myself. My father saw to that. But at least I own a wife ; she 's mine, and she does n't belong to the trustee." This same wife has taught, perhaps forced is not too strong a term, the man to save one half his annual income, so that he has acquired unreasonably late in life a notion of property. The poor suffer too much from family communism. A little girl, who had been given two pennies, justified her ex- penditure of them for candy by saying: "If I had took them home, Pop would have taken them from me to buy tobacco or Maw to help get the Baby some shoes." 252 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION Much worse in modern life is our inability properly to utilize in the home the labor of our children. This is a great pity, and our schools should supplement the radical defect. Getting up, dressing, eating, going to school, acquiring literacy, playing, and going to bed do not constitute for children a normal or a rational life. They are deprived of the human right to do and to make use- ful things. In the modern home, of poverty, of compe- tence, and of wealth, there is nothing worth while for the child to do. The kindergarten with its occupations and its busy work for the four-year-old comes into the life of the modern child as a great relief ; but it lasts at most only a year or two. The art and manual training of the grades when immediately connected with the kinder- garten tasks help in a measure, especially when objects of value are made. But at the best they do not help much. Said a three-year-old child to its father, " I Ve nothing to do." She harped on this for days, cried herself to sleep with the monotonous refrain, night after night. She had sickened of the inept nursery toys, the aimless paper-cutting, the watching of her sisters after school at their employments and the watching for their home-coming from school. Finally, her mother invented something worth while for her to do, and kept on inventing until the day for going to kindergarten at last arrived. The modern mother either buys her bread at the baker's or hires a servant to make it, — and the servant is too busy to allow children around. A house with two or three servants is a tomb for children. The boys and even the girls of well-to-do parents who keep horses in stables upon their own property are usually to be found there (for stables are favorite haunts for children because there is always some- thing to do where there are animals) ; but city parents, for obvious ethical and social reasons, must order coachman or stableman to keep their children out of the stables and barns. Even country parents of means try to shut up their children into lives of "nothing to do." EFFICIENCY 253 The normal animal becomes partly self-supporting when very young. The human young are deprived of this means of growth and of enjoyment and of acquiring insight into life. This is one of the significant features that gave meaning to the experimental elementary school of the Chicago School of Education under Dr. John Dewey, But it is not enough to have industrial education at school. Industrial activity at home is yet more important.^ The rapid disintegration of the home as a social force is due primarily to its loss of economic activities, and secondarily to its resultant inability to secure and to re- tain the affection of the children. In the days when children as well as adults worked to help keep the family alive, home meant something. Indeed, it meant almost everything. To-day it means almost nothing. Hence, among the poor we have desertions by husbands and fathers of the wives, mothers, and children, and among the rich divorces and adulteries, unknown or condoned. And we have also unfilial children, parents neglected in old age, brothers and sisters alienated and estranged. There may be no way, no means, in an age of machinery, whereby ever to restore to the home an integral and- es- sential character. But if there be such a way or means, it must be by restoring economic activities to the home, — to the father, to the mother, and to the children. In the country or the village, the home may have both out- door gardening and indoor industrial manufacture ; in the city, it can have only the latter. Whether the factory- system will break up when electric power can be con- veyed to any room, no one yet knows. If there be no way to restore the home, and if the race is to maintain its efftciency, the children must have the opportunities of industrial accomplishment at school. And the school must absorb many features now outside its customary * Cf. Dopp, Industrial Education. 254 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION range and be integrated as the new, vast, portentous, independent, unique social institution.^ No man knows how much the School may yet arrogate to itself. Three hundred years ago no man dreamed that the State would arrogate to itself even a fraction of its present powers and influences. It is quite conceiv- able that the School will watch over childbirth and child- rearing, feed the children, house them in dormitories, teach them religion, educate them as now and far better than now, advise them in courtship, and instruct them in parentage and in home-making. ^ No one of these propo- sitions is more unreasonable, of not one is the accom- plishment more incredible than are the present efforts to teach the duties and powers of political citizenship and to train to skill in the affairs of business. In its schools, China emphasizes most the obligations to parents. Everything depends upon the point of view, as has been said ten thousand times before. In short, either the home must be restored for the sake of children and of the mothers or else the school must be developed.^ In human history, when a proposed reform is the restora- tion of an institution that society has outgrown, we may be reasonably certain that the reform would be anachronistic, 1 In 1905, there was founded in Illinois a new educational paper, The School Century. The title may be prophetic. We speak of the fifteenth century as the Italian century, of the sixteenth as the Spanish, of the seventeenth as the Dutch, of the eighteenth as the French, of the nine- teenth as the English, and of the twentieth as the American. (Posterity may speak of the twenty-first as the German and of the twenty-second as the Russian or Japanese ; who knows ?) Similarly we speak of the thirteenth century as the Church century. We may speak of the nine- teenth as the State century and of the twentieth as the School century. 2 As indication of the tendency in this direction, see Harris, Address, Department of Superintendence, Proceedings National Educational Asso- ciation^ Chicago, 1907. 3 Stetson-Gilman, Woman and Economics ; Spargo, The Cry of the Children; Tyler, The Physical Basis of Education. EFFICIENCY 255 reactionary, and destructive of progress. But is the Home really outgrown, outworn, passe ; and would its restoration be devolution ? Why not make homestead land once more allodial, free of all tax, inalienable by owners or heirs, non- transferable even as pledge upon mortgage ? Only upon such legal foundation can homes once more grow in the land. As many men and women, perhaps most, go through life as proletarians, propertyless, so the multitudes of the essentially homeless, who as apartment or room tenants tramp from street to street, from city to city, from State to State, is annually increasing. Property and Home, as social institutions, are almost as meaningless to them as Paradise and Heaven. I know these things because I have experienced them through bitter years and decades as child and man. But the case of these multitudes is quite as bad in respect to the Church. Religion used to be a dehcate and a difficult subject. It has lost for many its delicacy because of its remoteness ; and it has lost its difficulty because of its strangeness. Many persons either have had no religious experiences or have forgotten them. Such cannot understand or appreciate religion^ — just as he who has had no pro- perty cannot understand or appreciate the love of pro- perty and the care for it, despising the rich and the thrifty, but for whom all the wealth of the world would soon be wasted away and civilization would disappear in barbarous poverty. ^ The disintegration of the Church has, it is true, been accompanied by, perhaps has caused, a certain expansion of religion.^ How far it has proceeded, few realize until they have investigated the matter historically. The Ro- man Catholic Church is, indeed, recovering to-day by indirection a measure of its former power in the State, 1 Illingworth, Personality, Human and Divine. 2 Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Economics. 3 Donald, The Expansion of Religion. 256 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION being a greater influence in politics than those outside of politics realize : but even this international Church is losing its grip upon men and upon children. When the Church lost its monastic and conventual estates and its political and ecclesiastical powers of taxation, it lost its economic functions and, therefore, declined in authority and prestige.^ The Catholic Church, however, does gen- erally hold a brief for its right to educate children. Now the children are the lifeblood of any religious organiza- tion, denomination, or sect ; and the Protestant sects at least in America pay but little attention to, and care but little for, children, I speak in the relative terms of history. The evidences of this are the scant time de- voted to children, — an hour of a Sunday, though even this is omitted by city churches during the summer vacation, 2 — and the elaborate process of " admission into the church." If, as I believe, the Church is an institution ordained by God for man, then the Church is universal, and every child is born into the Church when he is born into the world, as certainly as he is born into the State, as certainly as he should be understood to be born into the School, as certainly as he has the right to be born into the Home. This belief is for me the solvent of all the related questions of right and wrong, — of religion, of government, of education, of parentage and homestead rights, and, therefore, of atheisms and anarchies, of igno- rance and indolence, of adultery, tenantry, and poverty. ^ We see, for example, at Vienna and at Washington wonderful gov- ernment buildings that display the political color of the modern world ; and we forget that at Rome and at Constantinople are wonderful religion buildings that display not less conclusively the ecclesiastical color of the mediaeval world. To-day, the State transcends the Church ; to-morrow, Business may transcend State and Church, and establish at London and at New York wonderful commerce buildings to bear testimony to this transcendence. Cf. Patten, Theory of Social Forces. 2 The pastor of a metropolitan church sent out, October i, 1906, a cir- cular that began : " Dear Friends, — It is the season when we resume the work of the Lord." EFFICIENCY 257 If the child is born into the Church, then from birth he has duties to the Church as well as rights from it. These duties are worship, service, contribution, loyalty, society ; and these rights are instruction, tasks, benefits.^ There are but few signs, however, that the so-called " leaders " of the churches have any efficiency in the pre- sence of the fact that the multitudes no longer go to the Protestant churches and but a small proportion of them to the Catholic church. Most Americans are as church- less as they are essentially homeless and propertyless. Most American children go too infrequently to church and Sunday-school to derive therefrom any instruction in ethical efficiency. The whole scheme of church mem- bership and admission thereto is in Protestant churches so antagonistic to the teaching of John, "Whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely," - that but for the ''exclusive club" features, most city and many country churches would long since have perished. In religion, something to do is essential to adult and to child. Protestantism supplies very little to do. Its ineffi- ciency is notorious. And the children perish. If I have said almost nothing of the Sunday-school, it is because there is very little of good or very little of anything to say. The faith for want of works is moribund. To many who know and love the Church, each new revival strikes upon the heart a fear like that which suffocates the fond watcher at the bedside of the dying. We build not cathe- drals, but banks ; and we fashion not creeds, but platforms. We are overthrowing the diseases of the body, while the soul shrivels, hardens, and dies. The Church itself is dying for want of children whose hearts are devoted. In its weakness, it has no power to draw children to itself. The vicious circle of a maelstrom ^ Blanchard, The Twentieth Century Church in Early Christian Con- ditions. 2 Revelation xxii, 17. 258 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION of final destruction seems established ; and the spell can be broken only from without. The worshiping church- goers are an ever-decreasing minority. And rehgion pure and unadorned, divine worship and humanitarian ser- vice, grow less and less in Sunday-school and mid-week prayer meeting. To the noble band who guard the sanctuary, all honor and all gratitude. The truth en- dures ; and they are safe within its protection. But the custodian of the truth, the institution that manifests it, deprived of economic functions, is slowly wearing away from the tides and storms of the world. In the present conditions of the Church, the child has no hope of acquiring efficiency by directed doing in its service. What then of the State .'' The American democratic State is peculiarly a man's institution. In the Nation and in forty-one out of the forty-five States, women can hold no important offices and can exercise almost no political functions save the paying (or the giving-up) of taxes. They may here and there vote at school elections ; but taken generally, they are nonentities in government. It is possible for a woman to be monarch of the British Empire, but not president of the American Republic. The influence of women in American political life is far less than in Eng- lish or French political life.* The situation is this : save for a few equal suffragists, American women care little or nothing about government or politics. Even taxpay- ing women leave the affairs of government to men. The result is that the mothers have but little influence upon the political education of their sons, and none upon that of their daughters. This produces a singular condition in the instruction in our high schools, with their hundred girls for every forty boys and their five women teachers for every man teacher. Usually the history and the Eng- lish, the Latin and the German are taught by women and ^ Barrett, Women and Democracy. EFFICIENCY 259 Studied by the girls for mental discipline or emotional experience, while the mathematics and the sciences (if any) fall to the other sex. American public secondary education has taken on a strangely introspective charac- ter. Almost the last notion of the school is that know- led2:e should eventuate in and direct action. The children of a democracy have no conscious rela- tion to government. Is the case different in aristocracy and monarchy ? Most assuredly yes in the cases of some children ; for in the aristocratic monarchy, the princes are reared from infancy to be rulers in the State, and the nobles, lords, knights, officials, are trained from in- fancy to be the executive agents of the political rulers. Nor has the education of the princes and of the lords been without avail : this, rather than hereditary excel- lence,* accounts for the unbroken line of the descendants of Cedric upon the throne of England and for the long centuries of Hapsburg sovereigns upon the Continent of Europe. Considered as government purely, and not as ethics, the best government in the world to-day is that of the Kaiser, as every competent observer knows ; and the strength and the wisdom of that government may be discovered rather in the Hohenzollern dynasty than in the Reichstag. In America, there is some slight insight into the prin- ciple involved in the European training of princes for rule and of lords for high service. We talk about the pre- paration of every future self-governing voter-sovereign, the democratic servant-ruler, for citizenship. But what we talk, the European nobles do. The education of princes does not end until it is completed, or until the tutors agree that further efforts at education will avail nothing. We are content to let the education of our boys end whenever our boys choose or the economic pressure determines. But, it will be replied, Europe 1 Per contra, Woods, Heredity in Royalty, passim. 26o THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION completely educates only a few ; we try to educate all. To this, the answer is that Europe intends to educate every heir to thrones, to dukedoms, to baronies, in short every probable ruler, and bars all others out from the opportunities of political power. By its system of aris- tocracy, monarchical Europe saves from destruction by the masses those ideals and traditions of culture which the uncultured hold of little value or despise.^ Whatever may be the qualifications of the foregoing principle, whatever may be its relation to the indubitable fact that all power is essentially economic and material, and that such economic power has survived the transit of civilization ^ to America, the conclusions are the same, and they are inevitable. Every boy should be educated for citizenship, and his education should be continued until its completion, because citizen-sovereignty is cer- tain for him.^ What, then, as to the American girl ? If there is any- thing that is certain in human history, it is that the mater- nal heritage is as important to the child as the paternal. Every princely line in Europe has educated its women. As long as the American girl has no future in govern- ment, so long will the American mother be less well fitted than she should be to bear and to rear boys who shall be worthy of our democratic citizenship. At pre- sent American democracy with its enfranchised men ^ Miinsterberg, The Americajts, chapter xxiii ; cf. Carlyle, Heroes and Hero-worship. 2 Eggleston, The Transit of Civilizatio7t, passim. 3 Except in the District of Columbia. The effect of confining citizens to the function of criticism can be understood only by residence in this unfortunate satrapy of Congress and the President. Every American has a right to the educational opportunities of the ballot. In this District, the lessons of a thousand years of social development have been brusquely thrust aside; and political serfdom has been boldly and probably irrevo- cably revived. The dry rot of empire sets in at the capital as the dry rot sets in at the hearts of forest timber. Perhaps, republican empire can endure no longer than can any other kind of empire. EFFICIENCY 261 and unfranchised women is like a biped trying to walk with one leg sound and the other shriveled. The systematic private war of the feudal period and the systematic public war of the national period have been responsible for the genealogies via the male line and for the patronymic nomenclature. In yet older times, the children bore either the maternal name or no ancestral name at all. But, in war times, the fathers become social dictators by virtue of their superior fighting powers. In monogamic marriage, both parents could be identified, and both parental and filial pride dictated the dual name system, — one name personal, the other paternal. Re- cently the triple scheme — one name personal, the next maternal, and third paternal — has found some vogue. Biology knows no defense for paternal genealogies rather than ancestral pedigrees. The proposition that girls should have no preparation for government because as women they are not to par- ticipate in it, save as the political subjects of their fathers, husbands, and sons, exactly squares with the proposition that women should not participate in govern- ment because they have no preparation for it. And both propositions reek with the false notions of- our eccentric culture, — that the child is not equally the heir of the father and of the mother, of their bodies, and of their souls ; that it is good for the woman and for the race that she should be but half educated ; and that the minds of men are, in some mysterious way, of masculine descent and those of women of feminine descent, while these two ways are growing ever more and more diver- gent. To some, the issue here raised may seem academic. It has, however, the most practical bearing upon the question of human efficiency, and has the most intense meaning for human morals. In relation to all matters of the State, — government, politics, legislation, judicature, 262 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION enforcement, international affairs, private property, — the girl who studies history, government, political science, or reads the daily papers, current magazines, novels of political life knows that however intelligent she may be- come, she can never be directly an actor in such affairs. Government is for her a blind alley. The curiosity that leads to intelligence must not awaken in her an ambition to be efficient, lest her will be broken. I shall recite no general argument for woman suffrage or for equal suf- frage. I present only this, to my notion, unanswerable proposition : No education can be complete that excludes the idea of efficiejicy in any important social institution. It is unanswerable because it is a matter of definition, of postulate, of original premise. Of course, if the purpose of the Creator in maintaining the world is fulfilled though an entire sex be inefficient in respect to the poli- tical order, then I fail to conceive the Creator properly, and the nature of human society, this book is useless, and my argument is wasteful of time. A notion, how- ever, persists that most of the competent, clear-headed, and large-hearted men of this civilization are in favor of the complete education of all, to the measure of their capacities.^ Because of this proposition that male and female chil- dren alike should be prepared for efficiency in govern- ment, the question arises as to which of two kinds of methods in education is the more likely to prepare them properly. It is argued by some and practiced by most that discipline in youth is the source of independence and of intelligent, efficient, and moral authority and obedience in manhood as democratic voter-ruler. It is argued by ^ If, because woman is consecrated to the home, therefore she needs no knowledge of government, then, because man is devoted to bu-siness, why is he not relieved of the burden of government ? Masculine demo- cracy objects, "No," violently; but the Old World quietly puts queens on thrones and relegates ordinary men to economic work and nothing more. EFFICIENCY 263 most and practiced by few that self-government in youth leads to self-government in manhood and in womanhood. Neither teacher-rule nor pupil-government has the breadth of vision to see the real conditions to be met. In adult life, the man is to progress.through many stages and is to sustain many relations, some superior, most subordinate, and perhaps none of them continuous and permanent. The objects of teacher-rule are two : obedience, that is, docile acceptance of authority, and knowledge of princi- ples, that is, acquaintance with adult standards of action. The teacher instructs and reigns, the pupil hearkens and does. Unless on the merits of the various possible causes of action the pupil chooses to obey, there is for him no will-training in this system of teacher-tyranny, however enlightened the teacher may be. Neither fear nor affec- tion trains the will. As a matter of fact, the pupils in the school governed absolutely by the teacher get most of this will-training through the voluntary choices ex- ercised in their free relations with one another at recess time and out of school. Those who argue in favor of pupil-government occupy different but scarcely larger ground. It is true that " like produces like ; " and that, therefore, the child who. sees in his teacher a "boss" will look for a "boss" to rule him in government, in religion, and in business through- out life. But we are apt to forget the other equally true result of the principle : the child who has governed himself and others in the light of a child's knowledge will be very apt to regard that knowledge as sufficient for the self-government of men. In real life, childish ignorance and independence in government are quite as common and as dangerous as slavish dependence. Just as teacher-rule fits girls to obey sullenly in monoga- mous marriage and to accept frivolously a male demo- cratic government, so pupil-government brings boys to an arrogant assumption of duties of which they have 264 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION no adequate conception. Sometimes, the boy-victim of teacher-tyranny at school becomes by reaction the would-be man-tyrant in business or "boss" in politics. On the other hand, the pupil-governed school is a forcing-house of youthful politicians. If the School should be continued upon its present lines with boys and girls in compulsory attendance until twenty-one years of age/its graduates would be turned loose into the world in a very different condition from that which they now manifest after schooling until four- teen or fifteen years old, and then training (more or less) in domestic or factory or office life for the girls, and in factory or store or mine life for the boys, for seven years thereafter. These intervening years before coming of age and after school life is over are of signal importance in the actual preparation of young men for active and of young women for passive citizenship. But the School should not be continued upon its present lines. It must effect a practical reconciliation between teacher- despotism and pupil-democracy. The relations of education to efficiency in the cultural arts are few and simple. Mere intelligence in music or in painting, in architecture or in agriculture, in engineer- ing or in carpentry, in bricklaying or in mining, in book- keeping or in merchandising, in managing employees or in obeying employers, is but the vision of the pro- mised land. It is useless to others for one to have a scientific knowledge of music or of literature or of steel- making or of house-building, but no power to express this knowledge in appropriate action. Such knowledge makes critics and mere critics.^ 1 Henderson, Education and the Larger Life, p. 368. 2 A professional critic may be a person who has tried an art and failed in it, or one who has never had the courage to try, or one who has been denied the opportunity to try, or one who has succeeded so well that he dares not or cares not to try again ; a critic is never a first-rate artist. EFFICIENCY 265 The arts may be considered as fine or industrial. The latter form a signally important division of the occupa- tions of mankind. Two of the fine arts, music and paint- ing, should be of major consideration in all education because of their exceeding value in the liberation and disciplining of the soul. Moreover, their relation to effi- ciency is so immediate and their appeal to the soul is made so early in life that they are available for training to do from the first days at school. But it costs money to secure teachers and apparatus for teaching any art. Consequently, the actual courses in school in music and in painting are mere skeletons. Music requires not only teachers who are both educators and musicians, but also musical instruments. Children should hear good music and learn to play good music upon piano, harp, violin, flute, or organ, and to sing both in chorus and solo. Simi- larly, painting requires not only teachers who are both educators and painters, but also the materials and the tools of the painting art. Recent educational progress in this fine art has not yet reached oil color, but it offers more promise than that in any other fine art. The gen- eral public can see the results and retain them more or less permanently and conspicuously. What as to efficiency in education itself ? Has this been either a social or a professional ideal ^ Is it not true that in the teeth of the fact that business men and social workers are calling for actors and doers, we are sending into the world boys and girls who are mere knowers and critics ? Why do we not ourselves demand engaged at the time in his proper business as an art producer. The critic has a possible function, that of the watch-dog for the public. Some critics who perform this function wisely deserve the gratitude of human- ity. ("The critic must accept what is best in a poet and thus become his best encourager." Stedmsin, Foe^s of America, chapter vi.) There are many varieties of the critic ; and every field of human activity is the witness of his exploits. But the critic and the creator will ever be at war, — often, be it confessed, in the same man. 266 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION more years for education and meanwhile set about mak- ing school work really educative ? It IS perfectly true that in efficiency Americans have attained extraordinary excellence ; but this is true only of the men and not of the women. American women are characteristically less efficient than the German, the French, or the Swiss. ^ Even the woman teacher who, in America, has secured a monopoly of elementary class teaching is successful rather in intelligence and in the sex-instinct to love children than in efficiency. The ex- planation of the efficiency of American men lies else- where than in their schoolings The boys of America get into their life-work, their in- dustrial or commercial art, early ; and with a peculiar national tradition. It is a wonderful country for men ; or rather it was until the very last years of the nine- teenth century. "Room at the top" and "Go West, young man, and grow up with the country " were famous sayings of Daniel Webster and of Horace Greeley. "America," said Emerson, " is another name for oppor- tunity." Here the European peoples were debouching their vanguards in our valleys and upon our prairies and plains. Here were struggles, at first of Spanish, Dutch, English, and French ; later, of Americans, English, Irish, Germans ; and recently of Americans, Poles, Russian Jews, and Italians.^ These struggles were intellectual, economic, social, political, ethical, and religious. They resulted in the breaking up of the national groups ; and denationalization, in turn, produced individualization. The often excessive individualization that results is one of the largest factors in what the world calls American- * I speak of the whole, not of any class, and of course not of individ- uals. 2 Hughes, The Making of Citizens ; Miinsterberg, The Americans. 3 Here also is going on that tremendous and perilous social develop- ment of the Caucasian and the Negro in juxtaposition. EFFICIENCY 267 ism. The individual, disregarding family traditions and social customs, seeks his own ends. His powers are lib- erated. His new and relatively free outlook upon the world suggests forthstepping into it toward some goal of personal desire. He strikes out for himself. The resources planted by Nature in our country are very great. The exceeding individual activity of our people, reinforced by group-activities and ancestral, fac- tional, and personal rivalries, and still further stimulated by climates of great heat extremes and in great variety, producing peoples of varying and in certain respects an- tagonistic temperaments, has resulted in scientific dis- coveries and in technical inventions surpassing those of any other nation in history. Not Nature, but man here, in the presence of these extraordinary opportunities, has made the United States the richest nation of all the world and of all the ages. This economic efficiency has not been the result of the common schools, but rather in spite of them. It has, indeed, erected special schools for its own maintenance and extension. The rise of scientific and technical schools in Germany has been the result of political ambitions and of a deliberate govern- mental policy : here it has been the result of economic ambitions, spontaneous, free. '' Self-made " men, who often have had almost no schooling in the cultural sense, have founded, endowed, and popularized our schools for economic efficiency. Their purposes have included a de- sire to secure more and better and cheaper servants to carry out their far-flung plans of industrial warfare. A fairly complete list of the occupations and trades now practiced in our country, some by multitudes, others by groups, would fill several pages. It would begin with the professions, proceed with the learned and the expert occupations, carry forward the arts, follow on with the routine industrial habitudes, involve every manner of business, and end in the simplest manual labor. Law, 268 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION medicine, ministry, education, engineering : consider their hundred forms and processes. Journahsm, teaching, nurs- ing, authorship, editing : these are but suggestions. Music, instrumental and vocal ; the drama, the opera, vaudeville, the circus, painting, sculpture, landscape gardening, architecture : every term has many possible applications. Shoemaking, silk, woolen, and cotton tex- tile manufacture, mining of iron, coal, copper, lead, gold, silver, metal-working, lumbering, cattle-raising, cotton- and rice-planting, farming, gardening, fruit-growing, brew- ing, distilling : every word speaks of thousands, yes, tens of thousands of workers. Banking, merchandising, organ- izing, superintending, and employing labor, transporting goods by ship and by train, real estate, stock-broking, pawnbroking, hotel-keeping, saloon-keeping, policing, cooking, sewing, telegraphing, typewriting, telephoning, detecting, guarding criminals : these are terms almost vague because of the varieties and numbers of persons involved. Ditch-digging, road-working, hod-carrying, teaming, sweeping, moving household goods, carrying letters, bearing messages, selling newspapers: thus an- other part of the list begins. Moreover, there is here scarcely a suggestion of the thousands of lawmakers, executives, judges, in government. And we must try to put out of our minds the underworld of vice, — the vari- ous *' hells " whose workers and victims are constantly recruited from the boys and from the girls of a nation whose God seems to forsake them. Lastly, there is a kind of efficiency not to be ignored in our various para- sites and paupers, the worlds of excessive luxury and of excessive poverty, — efficiency in holding on to life. In early adolescence, the first symptoms of our amaz- ing American efficiency appear. The boy pines to go to work. Many girls are similarly afflicted. They desire "goods," property of their own to spend or to consume or to keep. Sometimes, their motive is the same as that EFFICIENCY 269 of the boys, to make places for themselves in the world, but very often it is maternal, to help the younger chil- dren, or patriarchal, to help keep the family together by supporting in whole or in part the parents. Millions of the girls of America go from school to factory or busi- ness just as millions of the girls of Europe share in the labors of farm, dairy, and shop. The turning of nearly all the boys and of a constantly increasing proportion of the girls at thirteen, fourteen, or fifteen years of age into the world of work for wages is so essentially historical, so distinctly hereditary, so thoroughly human that it appears appropriate. More- over, it so certainly results in a narrow technical effi- ciency in work as to appear commendable. When the boy fails at school, the parent (and often the teacher also) cries, '' Put him to work," on the theory that the factory or store is really a better school for the careless, inattentive, disorderly, perhaps truant boy, than the school of education. It is a strange situation, worthy of an entire book by itself, this going to work, with mind unformed, in a civili- zation incredibly more complex than any hitherto known in the world. The economic effect upon the wages of adult men and women; the moral effect upon family life ; the physical effects, personal and racial ; the aesthetic and cultural effects : one does not like to contemplate these. Two aspects only, both of them educational, we may not neglect. The school wants the ability to prepare for economic efficiency. But for this grave defect, millions of boys and girls would continue at school several years longer than they do now. Moreover, the school itself suffers by the absence from the higher grades of these stronger-willed workers. For the truth of the matter is that while the boys and the girls of superior intelligence deliberately choose to remain at school, those of superior energy quit the leisurely life of study for the harder work 270 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION of the wage-world/ Poor as the schools are, this early maturity of will is usually a misfortune. By the time that he reaches twenty-five or thirty years of age, the man usually wakes up to the value of an education when he sees that those who remained at school longer than he are passing him in the race of life. By the time that he is fifty, he knows certainly that "education pays." There are, of course, apparent exceptions to this rule, but none of them is real. A genuine education neces- sarily increases the efficiency as well as the intelligence of the individual. What has been said of occupation is quite as true of business narrowly defined as " the commercial pursuits." The trader in products, like the producer, — the book- keeper, the salesman, the banker, the merchant, like the bricklayer, the iron-worker, the builder, and the employ- ing manufacturer, — the man whose primary economic motive is competition, like the man whose primary motive is cooperation, — must find his preparation at the foot of the ladder after school days are over. Lastly, war. So rich is America, so efficient are our people in the industries of peace, so essentially peace- able are we all, that we refuse to obey the maxims, ** In time of peace prepare for war " and "■ The best way to avoid war is to be ready for it." We have no systems of military drill in our public schools, not even in our high schools.^ And yet we have fought many wars, two of them essentially domestic and civil, the so-called *' Revo- lution" and " Rebellion," both of them originating as insurrections against established government. In all of ^ Webb, Industrial Democj-acy, part ii, chapters x and xi. 2 There are a few cadet companies ; but there is no universal drilling of boys for military service. Yet every great nation is great partly be- cause of its volunteer soldiers. Where all the aristocrats are ready to do battle, there the nation need not fear its enemies. A mercenary army, like a corrupt Capital, like an hereditary class in power, displays to the dis- cerning the dry rot of empire. Cf. Ruskin, " War," Crown of Wild Olive. EFFICIENCY 271 our wars, the regular army has been only the nucleus around which have gathered such militia as our Colonies and States could furnish and the volunteers. Militia and volunteers alike have been young men. Toward the close of the War of Secession, more than half of the soldiers of the United States were under twenty-one years of age. And yet we have always chosen to instruct our boys as though they were all certain to live the peaceful lives of women. The tale of history is the tale of wars ; and war has often been nearest when it has seemed farthest away.^ Most wars, domestic as well as international, come suddenly, like ''the thief in the night." As a matter of history, it may be gravely questioned whether he who is brought up in entire ignorance of drill, of arms, and of obedience and command is really educated for the common life of humanity. In i860, most men said that the slave-labor question would be answered by the peaceful evolution of social life. In 1906, they are saying the same thing of the wage-labor ques- tion. Who really knows what time may yet bring forth .'* This cursory view of the surface of American society for the sake of seeing whether or not our average boy or girl is educated for efficiency in its life may include only a brief survey of certain miscellaneous social relations. But one other people, the Chinese, have as many secret societies as have the Americans. Both China and Amer- ica have governments that interfere but little in so-called personal and private affairs. The result is that freedom of assembly has developed numberless instances of secrecy of assembly. The meetings of lodges, councils, fraternities, sororities, clubs, unions, guilds, with and without political, religious, educational, and economic features, vastly exceed in number the formal meetings ^ William Pitt, " Roll up that map : it will not be wanted these ten years." After Austerlitz. Stanhope, Life of P lit, chapter xlii. 272 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION of governing bodies, political parties, churches, colleges, schools. Millions of American men and tens of thousands of American women belong not to one only but to many public and secret societies.^ '* Consciousness of kind " is a fundamental principle, perhaps the fundamental prin- ciple of sociology.^ Despite this fact, the educators of young American democrats at school, often, it may be usually, try to prevent the formation of secret societies and sometimes of public societies. The superintendent of schools in a great city has pronounced secret societies undemocratic,^ The boys' " gang " characterizes every neighborhood in America, urban, suburban, village, and rural ; and it v^^ill always characterize American society so long as our government is neither a tyranny nor an aristocracy.^ The proposition that '* getting together " is dangerous is an inheritance from the days when it really was dangerous — to kings, to nobles, and to lords. If men and women are to conduct lodges and clubs wisely and efficiently, the timely place in which to learn the sciences and the arts not only of parliamentary law but also of social control ^ is the school. Neither parents nor teachers have the right to deny to children " the peaceable assembly " secured to themselves by public opinion and by the Constitution.'' The theatre and the opera constitute a social institu- tion as necessary as the court and the jail to civilized mankind (that is, creatures living in crowds and yet imaginative and aspiring, and, of course, fatigued). The school almost always and almost totally ignores the drama, — its appeal to the larger nature, its effort to ^ The "joiner" is a well-recognized species of the American social man. 2 Giddings, Principles of Sociology, p. 17. ^ Superintendent E. G. Cooley, Chicago, special report, 1905. * Puffer, *' Boys' Gangs," Pedagogical Seminary, June, 1905. ^ Ross, Social Control, chapter xiv. 8 Amendments, Article I. EFFICIENCY 273 realize the good and evil of the human heart, its frivolity and its passionateness. The boy or girl, released or escaped from the school, suddenly finds in the theatre instruction in the comedy and in the tragedy of human life by impersonation with a skill so incredible to the childish mind that the acting is more real than Hving. Strange as it may seem, there is a panacea for this delu- sion of the school and factory children and street gamins, become, one and all, "gallery gods" in the city theatre, — and this panacea is the play at school.^ There is a recreation more valuable to the inhabit- ant of the city than the drama, and this is the summer vacation in the open country, in the woods, or by the sea. To be able to return to Nature is not a gift, but an edu- cation. In every year for the civic folk a month in the forest-camp or in the tent-on-the-beach ! To know how to enjoy it ! To know how to play in the world as God makes it ! Why should not the school prepare us for this return to Paradise ? ^ I have been told many times by boys and girls sixteen to eighteen years of age, who left school at the close of the compulsory term, that their main object in so doing was " to get money to go to the theatre." In this exaggeration, there was no little truth. The movement for .school dramatics for all ages of children is psychologically correct. CHAPTER XIII MORALITY Plus on sais, plus on peut. — Edmond About, A B C du Travailleur, p. 39. Duty is not the child of a birth to-day or yesterday, but hath been, no man knoweth how long since. — Sophocles, A niig-one. Our lives make a moral tradition for individual selves, as the life of mankind at large makes a moral tradition for the race. — George Eliot, Romola, chapter xxxix. Every man contains in himself the elements of all the rest of humanity. Some time or other to each must come the consciousness of this larger life. In acceptnig as his own the life of others, he becomes aware of a life in himself that has no limit and no end. — Carpenter, Civilization, its Cause and Cure, pp. 126, 128. No perfect man has ever walked this earth. Even the blessed Master was only sinless, not complete ; as a per- son only innocent, not infinite. He never undertook the relations of husband and father, of captain of armies, or of artist, of engineer, or of employer, ruler, or lord of any kind in church, state, land, goods. As for the rest, whether hero-saints or men of genius, whatsoever their qualities, they all fail in perfect righteousness at the bar of the courts of even this world. Caesar was a grievous failure. He flooded the Western world with the light of his genius, in Spain and in France gave Europe its foundations, mapped out the Roman Empire, wrote laws and histories ; but of his personal life he made nothing else or less than a botch. His very death was due to personal mannerisms and methods. Napoleon with perhaps equal genius flooded Europe with democracy, tearing away old traditions, and irrigating many a desert in the human spirit, but failed even more ignominiously ^ than Caesar, — for his failure was not only in the private relations of life, but also in the ^ Byron, ChilJe Harold, Canto iii. A truthful contemporaneous picture. MORALITY 275 public. And Cromwell, perhaps the greatest of all Eng- lishmen of action, was a dismal failure in the fundamental morality of human sympathy. Neither Washington nor Lincoln, neither Franklin nor Emerson, was altogether sound-to-the-core, — outwardly gracious, inwardly sub- stantial, in public ready for all enterprises, in private wholly good. The roll of great and good women may be called : some were never wives and mothers, others knew nothing save religion, others despised art and society, and all failed in more ways than one, as all the finite must fail. We have but to compare great men with one another to see how partial in his excellence each one is and how serious in his deficiency. Consider that greatest of all American names in theology, Jonathan Edwards, and link with his name that of Benjamin Franklin. It is like a comparison of Dante with Shakespeare.^ Or consider those two men of " universal genius," Michael Angelo and Goethe. How narrow and how shallow the universal genius seems to be ! The devoted physician wrecks his health to tend the diseases of humanity, and dies, leaving a broken-hearted wife and orphan children, often poor, and sometimes penniless. A captain of industry revolu- tionizes the industry, enriches himself and perhaps many others, cheapening his products for the markets of half a world, and dies with never a good deed to his credit in religion or in government, in culture or in charity. Or a poet crystallizes in new forms the spirit of a great and different people, for he is a seer. But he has never lifted his hand to labor or sung one verse for righteousness. The pantheons of nations are indeed many; but there is none perfect therein, — no, not one ! So difficult is morality that, though quick to express judgments of individuals, most men and women refuse to discuss or even to consider its general themes. The moral judgment is more frequently exercised by us than » Chancellor-Hewes, The United States : A History, vol. ii, p. 471. 276 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION any other. ''Good" and "bad," and their equivalents, are the commonest words in the languages of men. *'I don't like John or Mary," says one, to be asked in reply, " Why not ? " and to answer, '* Because he is mean or stingy or hateful or deceitful," or something else that is immoral. Morality becomes, therefore, a topic to be avoided in education, but invariably relied upon as an assured by-product. Is it possible to avoid this? Is it desirable to try to do so ? In no age have the consciences of the best men en- dorsed the morals of most. And yet human morahty has improved. Is it possible to accelerate the rate of im- provement by deliberate planning and working ? If not, then all our criminal laws and sanctions, and all our religious activities of the past have availed nothing ; and the progress actually achieved has been no greater than it would have been without them. Nay more : these may have actually retarded the moral advance by natural (that is, unreflecting) evolution. The common sense of mankind objects to such a conclusion. On the con- trary, mankind is looking for social machinery adequate to undertake and to accomplish the task of universal betterment.^ In this task, three stages are presented. First, a suffi- cient number of sufficiently intelligent persons must be found to undertake wisely the direction of the enterprises of the various social institutions and of all the miscella- neous, heterogeneous, disassociated activities of mankind that we now group arbitrarily in the " sphere of liberty." Next, these consistent enterprises and these vigorous activities must be sufficiently correlated upon principles and by laws that they will work together for the good of mankind with common consent. To discover these prin- ciples and to frame these laws is the first business of the wise men : their second is to persuade the rest to accept 1 Ward, Psychic Factors in Civilization, chapter xxxiv. MORALITY 277 them. And, third, there must stir and there must be stirred in the social mind and in the body pohtic suffi- cient motives to set and to keep the entire machine at work. Obviously, each stage is higher and harder than the preceding. The first requisite is clear intelligence. Ours is a civili- zation so vast that few may compass it, so intricate and so tortuous that few may follow its ways, so dark that few may see its facts. But the second test of individual and social preparation for the task is still more severe. Intelligence must add to itself effectiveness, the will to do, working-and-transforming power. The panorama displays millions of persons, whom the wise observer un- derstands. Is he more than an observer .? What has he the strength and the desire to do for them ? There are workers enough among them, strong-willed men, who must often be shouldered aside or knocked down that truth and right may be cleared from their trampling feet. The man who would do work worth doing for his kind must have power to do it against every kind of op- position, including often that of those whom he would befriend.^ And yet another qualification is set for the task. Intelligence and power of will must add to them- selves morality ; and what is this ? No simple thing, but indeed the most complicated of all things, a composite of many lives, a reflex of ages shining in the soul, the spirit that knows and loves whatever promotes life and knows and hates whatever injures life. For this is the test. For this Jesus came.^ No age or land has ever known perfectly moral indi- viduals ; and as certainly no age or people has ever dis- ^ " The fully developed man knows in every situation in life just exactly what he can do and therefore must do and does it." Caldwell, Schopen- hauer's Syste77i in its Philosophical Significance, p. 20 r. 2 Saleeby, Atlantic Monthly, April, 1906, " The Testimony of Biology to Religion," and Nietzsche, Genealogy of Morals, The Will to Live, third essay. 278 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION played a perfectly moral society. Noble Athens had so many immoralities that it seems almost immoral : and yet if Athens was essentially immoral, then morality is a contradiction in terms. Athens loved life and, for many of its own citizens and for untold thousands since her great day, made life beautiful. In so far as Athens loved life, dignifying and ennobling it, she was moral. He dig- nifies life who makes it seem desirable, essentially worth while ; and he ennobles it who makes of life an art. He whose life makes others aspire for equal life lives mor- ally. And what is life ? To see, to will, to feel ever more abundantly, for life is growth. Thus Athens magnified life, evolving great persons, — Plato, Sophocles, Phidias, Pericles, Aspasia. Mother England, whose children have gone forth to America, Africa, India, Australia, New Zealand, has dis- played so many immoralities as to seem almost immoral. Yet England has loved life, rnultiplying her children and sending them forth lusty and strong to possess the earth. She has evolved not only great persons, magnifying life, but very many such persons, multiplying lives. From certain points of view, France and Italy, resting in the balance between the tides, seem immoral ; and yet France made perfect for this modern age the industrial arts, and Italy made perfect the fine arts. Together, they have given to us much — it may be, most — of the glory and excellence of our culture. The immoral can- not achieve such frankness and beauty. Nevertheless, in history the liberalizing of life and the increasing of the numbers of the living have often pro- ceeded when the heart of society was unsound. A great tree grows with rot at its centre until storm overthrows it or it breaks of its own weight. So with societies of men. The rot of society we call immorality because it eats out the heart of life, which is morality. God, the giver of life, is good. He who thinks not so MORALITY 279 is a hater or a despiser of life. The moral man thinks highly of life, prizes it, desires to avoid death, which is the apparent, the earthly bound of life, and desires to avoid disease and accident, which limit life. He cares for his health, which increases life. Moreover, he loves the living, his fellow men, and in particular he loves children, whose lives are to endure after his own is terminated here ; and he loves women, the bearers of life. More- over, his love of life, of children, of women is such that he lives, works, wars, and dies for them ; boldly, always, and as matter of course. Therefore, the moral man loves God and fears Him, — loves because God gives and enlarges life, and fears because He visits sin with disease and death. The precepts of morality grow more numerous and difficult as men grow in knowledge, character, and virtue, and as they increase in numbers and in variety of social relations. There is a morality of the body. " Wash you, make you clean." ^ Dirt invites the microbes of disease, the dealers in pain and in death. Every great religion has emphasized the physiologic truth that cleanliness pro- motes immunity from disease. And why not ? Did not man come up out of the clean sea scarcely an aeon ago ? The body has the right to be clean, to be cleaned as soon as dirt or soil forms or falls upon it.^ Yet we build schoolhouses in which dirty children must get dirtier and stay in their dirt, involving all in the general misfortune. And the city poor, through the day deprived of the cleansing of the free air of the fields and sky, at night languish at home without baths. ^ Isaiah i, 16. It is the saying of the greatest of the Hebrew prophets. Many modern men have forgotten the foundations as given in the Mosaic Code. 2 Curtis, Nature and Health, and Stinson, The Right Life, discuss these themes of a prescriptive morality. 28o THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION Eating is a moral duty. Jesus established eating and drinking as the basis and form and structure of a re- ligious sacrament.^ The metabolism of food is miracu- lous. No scientist has yet disclosed this mystery. Eating good food, properly chewed, is life-getting. One must eat enough and often enough, not too much or too often ; and one must fast in season. Here poverty strikes with such cruelty that the pitiful challenge the goodness of an omnipotent God. Or is He not omnipotent, though perfectly good ? I have seen too much of life, too many of the living, not to know how terrible and how common the lack of sufficient good food is. The starving children, the overworked and underfed mothers and fathers, the graves of the dead who died of innutrition and its diseases are forever before the city school superintendent.^ Lack of proper food causes more drunkenness than all other causes combined : and drunkenness causes more crimes than all other causes combined. Poverty fills our jails and peniten- tiaries ; and the prevention of poverty is precisely the most important and the most difficult task of modern statesmanship. To sleep is to be moral. In sleep, one finds life. He v^ho wakes out of sufficient sleep is new born. This, too, is miracle. Mechanical explanations analyze ; but the secret is beyond all analysis. The length and the fre- quency of sleep must be such that the body is never wholly fatigued. Dirt, hunger, fatigue ; these are the traitors that betray the body to its enemy, disease. The " new medicine " of the twentieth century is mainly 1 " Unfortunately, while we argue the question of social responsibility against individual responsibility, of the paternal State against the demo- cratic with its dogma of equality of opportunity, children are starving for want of food. The modern State cannot now, for its own sake, refuse to provide that necessary physical nourishment which alone can make the mental food palatable and nourishing." Hughes, The Making of Citizens, p. 24. 2 Hunter, P(werty ; Spargo, T/u Bitter Cry of the Children ; George, Progress and 'Poverty ; Ghent, Our Benevolent Feicdalism ; Wallace, This Wonderful Century. MORALITY 281 directed to vitalizing the blood, the life-currents, — along which the soul flashes ; and for which organs, tissues, and bones are but springs, channels, reservoirs, and filters. In vitalizing the blood, the first process is cleansing it in sleep. To waken any one is a sin, but especially to waken a grow- ing child.^ To prevent sleep by noise or by disturbance, by excitement or by stimulant of whatsoever kind, alcohol or drug or narcotic, is fullness of sin ; it is malice against life. To go to bed early enough to insure sufficient time for sleep is a moral duty. Many a sick child and man has died because of violent awakening. In a certain city, a sleepy physician took a strong drink to get himself awake to finish the duties of the day ; and the day was very long. He was in bed that night but two hours. His appetite for food slackened. Three days of increasing duties and of increasing alcoholic stimulants followed. A change in the weather brought on a chill ; still other drinks ; a cold night ride to visit a distant patient; and pneumonia set in. Ten physicians and four nurses fought for him for two days, when death came. And a hospital had to secure a new chief-surgeon, a city a new mayor, and hundreds of homes a new family physician ; all for want of sleep. American economic life, especially in factories and mines, upon railroads and railways, and American domes- tic life little heed the requirements of the body to rest in sleep. Therefore, the regime must pass. Into what it shall pass, no man can yet see. But human nature cannot and will not endure its present burdens. It is the ending of an era. The human body is periodic ^ and regular in its pro- cesses. It needs a day in every seven for rest, and bene- fits by two days, one of rest, one of change. The body is not a machine, but an organism. On the seventh day, 1 Curtis, Nature a^id Health, p. 297. 2 This periodicity is of day and night, of weeks, of moon-months, of seasons, and of terms of years. Cf. Hall, Adolescence, chapter vii. I 282 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION **thou shalt not do any work," thou nor thy wife nor thy son nor thy clerk nor thy hireling : it is the moral law, founded in the human body. The sin of our economic regime that forces millions of women to work under overseers, in defiance of their periodic life, often when bearing or nursing children, is upon this people, upon our legislators, upon our educat- ors as well as upon our manufacturers, our merchants, our consumers, and upon our husbands.^ And the retri- bution is as certain as history is certain. Who cares whether the babies perish and the mothers grow faint and fade away ? Examine the statistics. Read the tale of past nations. Go about among the people. He who knows the truth, who has seen things as they were and are knows who He is that cares. There are moral laws of Property, of the Family, of the Church, of the State, of the School, of Culture, of Occupation, of Business, and of General Society. Only war has no moral law : ^ "all is fair in war." War is the antitheme of every moral law, for it destroys life, cus- toms, habits, social relations, and affection, and sets in their places death and ruin, pain and hatred. The physical laws of morality are personal. All others are social in origin, personal in application. To sleep, to eat, to bathe ; these the solitary man on an island ought to do regularly and frequently, that he may be inwardly and outwardly clean and full of health. But to him most other moral laws are ''dead letter," for he has no neigh- bors to love and to help. Where two or three are gathered, there comes in the new and larger morality. The lonely hermit has no property of his own to preserve, no property of others to respect, for property is a social institution. He may have religion, but can have' no ^ Particularly, upon our publicists and thinkers. 2 " It is the strain of murder that is the inheritance of the sons of men." Joubert, The Tsar as He is, p. 293. MORALITY 283 church ; may exercise some art, but can engage in no commerce. Property is either real or personal : in general, real estate is land, and personalty is everything else.^ Now, in a civilized society nearly every birth is due to, or at least quaUfied by, the assurance of its conditions and the expectation of its continuance. I am not merely con- ditioned by my environment, I am in reality produced by it. This environment, therefore, this civilized society owes me perhaps not a share in its rights and goods, but surely owes certain rights and goods. What society owes to the individual, whose coming into life it causes,^ constitutes both the total social obligation to the indi- vidual and the total personal right as against society. Morality requires the performance of this obligation by the acknowledgment of this right, and by action accord- ingly. And the requirement is more than merely the vaunted "democratic equality of opportunity," What the total obligation is, of course, conditions the total right; and is itself conditioned by the nature of the society. We have heard so much of the duty of the individual to society and of the rights of society against the individual, that this argument may perhaps- find some difificulty of lodgment in minds that almost inevit- ably have prejudged and closed the case. Because of society, indeed by the very force of social precept and example, of social organization and operation, men and women marry and beget offspring and are enabled to rear them. We may classify civilized societies in two groups, — ^ For the legal distinctions and exceptions vide Washburn, Real Pro- perty ; Gray, Cases in Real Prope7-ty. ^ Of all the thoughtlessness of mankind, there is perhaps nothing more common or striking than the absence of thought that I, the indi- vidual, am here, because antecedent social conditions permitted my birth and rearing. Reverence for the Past is but filial gratitude to the true parent of us all. Cf. Plato, Laws, xii. 284 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION those which have already turned all their lands over to private ownership and those which still have unoccupied public lands in their vicinage. With private property in land what it now is, — the right by title, guaranteed by government law and force, to exclude all others irrespect- ive of the owners' use or mode of use of the property and irrespective of the use proposed by all others (save in certain instances, when the property may be taken by condemnation proceedings), — the first group of commun- ities must contain two classes of citizens, the landed and the landless, the **rich," so-called, and the proletariat. But every child born into life has a natural right to place, to sunlight, to air, and to water, — that is, a natural right to life. To that end, God gave the life in the womb. And every child has a social right to a mother's milk and to a Another's care and to that minimum of support, preparation, and opportunity which will enable him or her to live out a normal term of years. Every right is a minimum of expectancy of the per- sistence of conditions ; which is to say that every right is a vested right. Every right is a psychological condi- tion resultant from a sociological situation. The denial of a right is, therefore, a mental shock, from which men- tal insanity may, and not seldom does, result. This is equally true whether the right is based on conditions clearly of ethical advantage to society or to the individ- ual, or is based on conditions more or less injurious to all concerned. No child yet born has failed to be surprised when he learns that his parents do not own their "own house " or quarters, but must pay rent to a landlord for them. When he first learns that the "house " is not " mine " or " ours," a shock results from which there is no moral recovery. To this child, home and property are terms with false meanings thereafter. Born with the idea of absolute right in his birthplace, the right expressed in the popular saying, "An Englishman's house is MORALITY 285 his castle," once let him realize that he is but a wanderer and sojourner, and his universe has lost its centre. It is not pos- sible to measure how much immorality is due to this unmoor- ing of life.^ Wife-beating is a right in various countries. In a certain city of the East, a wife-beater and the frequently beaten wife were haled into court by the neighbors for disturbing the public peace. When sentenced and fined, the husband broke down utterly. His " liberty " had been taken away, his family disintegrated. The wife was scarcely less moved from her foundations. The effect upon her was that of suddenly giving sight to the blind, while that upon him was like the loss of an oar by a boatman in a swift current. Much of the progress of society depends upon the reduction of rights ; not the restoration of a simple prim- itive equality, but the construction of an elaborate civil- ized equality. And yet the rest of the progress of society- depends upon the maintenance of the essential rights, inhering in man from birth by virtue of the human or even the more ancient animal nature. Such a risfht, in- disputable, though often denied, in fact, is the right to a part of the earth for room to live, to breathe, to eat, to marry, to sleep, to die. Society organized in the universal institution of government has permitted, indeed has encouraged the partition of all the land to the living, and then has encouraged their multiplication by promoting marriage, peace, and hygiene. A transformation, there- fore, begins immediately. The added generations and the unsuccessful are, or become, landless. Society soon consists of landlords and tenants, only a few being house- owners without tenantry. In the cities^ the multitude must pay at stated intervals to privileged individuals various sums of money for the use of their privilege to ^ " Whilst another man has no land, my title to mine, your title to yours, is at once vitiated." Emerson, "Man the Reformer," Nature, Ad- dresses, and Lectures. 286 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION exclude them from the land, that is, they must pay for the right to live upon land, a right, be it repeated, that is inherent in life itself. A certain philosophic defense has been attempted, to the ef- fect that rent-payment is commutation of war avoided or fore- gone. The new-born babe is not required to fight for a spot upon which to go on breathing, but by a money-payment from his parents may commute the natural necessity to fight. Of course, that defense of the advantage taken by private property apologists of true economic rent (the Ricardian rent of "the dismal science"), which says that there is plenty of "no-rent land," is both fallacious and malicious. It is fal- lacious in that there is literally no land in America without an owner who does not exclude all trespassers. There may be land earning no real economic rent, but there is none to be had for homestead use without price for fee-simple or for an- nual or other hire. The price may be very low ; but the argu- ment in the main text asserts that the right to breathing- space is absolute, and therefore the space must be as free as life itself; which life the Creator makes compulsory for sane men and women and children. Such is the fallacy. The malice consists in this : Man is by nature gregarious. In this age, the horde does not run in the fields or make clearings in the forests, dwelling in a communism that would be indeed anachronous ; but it settles in the town, which grows into the city perforce of modern domestic and international peace and of industrial progress. Private property, extending itself beyond any ancient powers of savage force or feudal custom by means of documentary titles and constitutional government, fines mankind for our strongest and most commendable char- acteristic, our joy in neighborliness, our sociability, our abso- lutely necessary desire "to get together," and universal habit of doing so.^ The moral law of society is, therefore, prescriptive of ^ I propose no remedy. The disease is political and legal in its origin, not educational. But I see no prospect of relief through either socialism or anarchy. The problem appears to be rather municipal than national. MORALITY 287 the right of every individual to land, — that is, free land. This is proper to him. Decency requires the recogni- tion by society of this right. What else the moral law of society prescribes with respect to the institution of Property is comparatively clear. Every individual has the right to his own product and to gifts of the products of others ; and he has no right to anything more. Stated otherwise, the moral law assures no right to levy upon the products or services of others, no right to get from other individuals something for nothing. In a genuine morality, a morality without hypocrisy, a morality willing to see things as Jesus saw them, we are brought face to face with this law, — "Come, follow Me," ^ who have nothing. " Give us this day our daily bread." "The laborer is worthy of his hire;"^ and to every man a penny a day.^ In these days of new and strange extensions of private property, the pretensions of the beneficiaries become im- moral, and provoke barbarous reprisals by the victims ; but the worst result is the setting-in of racial degenera- tion, strictly inevitable when essential rights are violated. We need to think what wealth may properly be private. When we shall have formed a more correct definition, and when men working in governments shall have recon- structed law to conform to morality, then we may all become once more admirers and respecters of private property as it really is.^ Property that is really wealth proper to the possessor is the bedrock of civilization, more ancient and more necessary than marriage and ^ Luke, Gospel, xviii, 22. 2 Luke, Gospel, x, 7, where the hire is lodging, eating, and drinking. ^ Matthew, Gospel, xx, 9, * "The happiness of a people depends upon the degree of promptitude with which the gulf between social necessities and established law is nar- rowed." Maine, Ancient Law, p, 23. 288 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION family. Respecting such true property, secured by effort or by free gift, and not by stealing, direct or indirect, open or covert, the moral law is against not only actually stealing it but against even coveting it, as Moses said more than two millenniums ago.^ As the moral law regarding Property is social, involv- ing at least two, go also is the Family. We have now risen one stage higher in the social scale. The Fam- ily is a physical relation of parent and child, mother and father, publicly acknowledged throughout life, so that in an advanced society the physical aspect is subor- dinated to the free recognition of the relationship, which thereby becomes idealized or, as we say, spiritualized. History has known many varieties of the Family, — the polyandrous, the polygynous, the patriarchal, the matri- archal, and the monogamous, free and strict. Christian civilization in the West has indorsed the monogamous Family, and is now struggling with the vital question whether or not to permit not contemporaneous but suc- cessive polygamies through the marriage of divorced persons. In building up the strictly monogamous Family (di- vorce and even separation denied in State and in Church) five ideals have been developed, unique in the history of animal life upon the earth and of singular portent. These five ideals appeared in this order, — female vir- ginity, female chastity, male chastity, male virginity, and continence in marriage. These severe ideals have had an exactly opposite effect upon population from that which might have been anticipated. The more closely and generally they have been maintained, the more numerous have been the births, the longer the lives, and the lower the death-rates. Prostitution, a notion beyond the understanding of a primitive horde, developed in ^ This is said without prejudice as to whether or not Moses wrote Exodus and revealed the Decalogue, as many believe. MORALITY 289 polyandrous and polygamous societies into the dignity of a religious ceremony, to descend in monogamous soci- eties to a concealed and ashamed commercial activity, and has at last been put under the ban of the public law, surviving as "the social evil." Almost equally abashed though not yet equally rebuked, male wanton- ness is declining. The moral law is not yet fully clear on all the matters involved. But society is beginning to see that to call into life a human being whom the parents cannot properly support and educate is a sin, and that for society to neglect a child, even though thus actually brought into life, is a yet greater sin. And society, more or less consciously and conscientiously, approves the life of that man or woman to whom marriage is a sacrament and a covenant before God and man, to be fulfilled with absolute honor. The excuses prevalent a hundred years ago, in certain regions of Christendom, and among cer- tain classes of religious and secular men and even women, for promiscuity before marriage are no longer made pub- licly. An equal faithfulness is demanded of both man and woman, and celibacy is required to be synonymous with virginity. And everywhere celibacy is discouraged. It is a curious and apparently contradictory movement in an age of the economic freedom of woman. These movements conspire for the equality of the sexes. On this foundation of clean marriage, there is built the new moral law that every parent owes to every child an education, and that the State is a proper social instru- ment to give to the child such an education, taxing (par- tially confiscating) any property for that purpose. There are other moral laws of the Family. To the father and mother who work to support and care for their children until they are able decently to care for themselves, the children owe obedience and faith. And grown sons and daughters, not invalid, owe to aged or otherwise invalid parents support in their infirmity. In 290 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION this age of the dispersion of families, many have for- gotten that " blood is thicker than water ; " and bro- thers and sisters, not to mention uncles and nephews, aunts and nieces and cousins, of one or two removes, seldom recognize relationship as of any special moment. Lineal descent seems alone to count ; and modern moral- ity scarcely enforces the ancient family affection. Whether this can be recovered without the pressure of an era of severe social distress through famine, riot, or war, is doubtful ; but that in losing the diffused affec- tions of the ancient patriarchal family society has lost not only one of its charms but also one of its sources of strength is certain. There are moral laws of religion unrecognized by millions to-day. Religion is, of course, not synonymous with the Church ; and may not be coterminous with it. Religion is capable of various definitions. But whether we call it a sense of the disposition of the Universe (or God) toward ourselves,^ or belief in the ultimate con- servation of values,^ or desire to be holy,^ or indeed any- thing else that recognizes its essential property, which is the consciousness of relation between the whole and man, sound moraUty requires that every person should deliberately and constantly keep in mind that relation- ship, and act in accordance with whatever light may issue from this consciousness of himself as part of a whole. In the terms of the Christian religion, morality requires obedience to conscience, and also persistent effort to enlighten conscience with all truth. Now the relation of the Church to religion is that, in any given age and land the Church displays its institution, and constitutes its objective realization or embodiment, 1 Perry, Approach to Philosophy, chapter iii. 2 Hoffding (Fisher), The Problems of Philosophy,1^6.iiox's Introduction. 3 Watson, The Philosophy of Kant (excerpts), p. 294, Critique of the Practical Reasojt. MORALITY 291- of course, always imperfectly. And the peculiarities of this particular age and land — America in the first decades of the twentieth century — are that religion is not a universal activity, but only partial, and that even the religious do not all unite in one general Church. We have, it is true, so far as we have any religion at all, apparently but one religion, Christianity. And yet be- neath the appearance certain differences of moment are discovered. We have Judaism, the mother-religion of Christianity ; Roman Catholic Christianity with its his- torical desire for universality ; Protestantism with its hierarchical, presbyterian, and democratic sects ; Mor- monism with its desire to reunite Church and State, a pseudo-Christianity of portentous menace ; and miscella- neous sects from Ethical Culture to the religious com- munities and from Christian Science to the basest sor- ceries.^ Woven in among all these, there are millions of atheists, infidels, secularists, of every shade from those who forget God, though treating His creatures fairly, to those who despise Him and hate His children and all His works. In such an era, needing religious and moral regenera- tion, and needing also, it would appear, both religious and moral unity, or at least consistency, the beginning of social reform and of personal education is " the fear of the Lord." It is no doubt possible to worship God in temples not made with hands ; ^ but man in civiliza- tion has chosen to erect houses of worship, — tem- ples, mosques, kiosks, synagogues, churches, cathedrals. Therein they gather regularly whose fear of the Lord is not an occasional or startling terror, but a humble desire to know His will and to live in obedience to Him. » Carroll, T/if Religiotis Forces of the U. S., passim. Also, advertise- ments in metropolitan newspapers. 2 Paul, Acts, vii, 48. Bryant, Forest Hymn, has rich meaning in this connection. 292 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION The moral law requires such obedience, whether we pray to God in the closet ^ or openly. The moral law requires such outward acts as issue from a heart genu- inely responsive to the voice of God in the conscience. That the observances of times, seasons, missions, festi- vals, fasts, sacraments, charities of a religious nature con- duce to the sensitiveness of conscience, few doubt. That the Church, which organizes and maintains such observ- ances, is essential to the preservation of religion from generation to generation, few doubt. And they who doubt have never shown themselves serious and anxious to elevate the morals of mankind, never. The moral law seems, therefore, to require support of the Church as the preserver of the forms and times of religion and worship. To say this and not more is to represent the Church as in sad plight. The individual does owe allegiance to the Church as the outward form of religion. But the Church has a duty to the individual, to every in- dividual born into the world, which, to speak plainly, most of its servitors, clerical and lay, have neglected and perhaps forgotten. The Church absolutely denies its mission when it requires application and examination for membership. The Church is "the Bride of the Lamb," to use the figure of the Apocalypse. It is the visible symbol upon earth of the omnipresent, eternal, omni- potent God, who cannot forget one of His children, not even the least; nay more, not even the sparrows.^ The Church must forego every division, cease every exclu- sion, and proceed to the work of saving all. "Go ye, preach the gospel to every creature." "Whosoever will, let him take the water of life freely." ^ ^ A saying of Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, vi, 6. 2 John, Revelation, xi.x, 7 ; Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, x, 29. ^ Mark, Gospel, xvi, 15, the last saying of Jesus, according to the oldest of the Gospels; John, KcvdatioHy xxii, 17. MORALITY 293 Any view or practice contrary to the text appears to afford three objections to its moral soundness. First, " God hath made of one blood all nations of the earth " is true whether taken as a matter of religious faith or of scientific proof, and whether man be of but one stock or polygenetic ; the synthesis of bodies and souls by heredity is complete.^ Second, the State aims at uni- versality. Can the Church, an older and more widespread institution, do less ? Third, the School is developing the same purpose, drawing its inspiration from the Church, its organization from the State. Is the School to replace the Church } In this age and land, when government is over all, when kings and outlaws alike are unknown, the State, which is the objective expression of government, claims and endeavors to enforce the allegiance of all. It is fight- ing for sincerity of soul with that strange new interest of mankind. Business, which is trying to subordinate government to its own particular and discordant ends. But the very fight bears witness to the accepted prestige of the State as the dominant and paramount social insti- tution. Said Edmund Burke, a hundred years ago : — " [The State] is a partnership in all science ; a partnership in all art ; a partnership in every virtue, — and in all perfec- tion. As the ends of such a partnership cannot be obtained in many generations, it becomes a partnership not only be- tween those who are living, but between those who are living, those who are dead, and those who are to be born. . . . The municipal corporations of that universal kingdom are not morally at liberty at their pleasure, and on their speculations of a contingent improvement, wholly to separate and tear asunder the bands of their subordinate community, and to dissolve it into an unsocial, uncivil, unconnected chaos of elementary principles. ... If that which is only submission to necessity should be made the object of choice, the law is ^ Hall, Adolescence : its Psychology, chapter x,/'ass/jn. 294 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION broken, nature is dissolved, and the rebellious are outlawed, cast forth, and exiled from the world of reason, and order, and peace, and virtue, and fruitful penitence, into the anta- gonistic world of madness, discord, vice, confusion, and un- availing sorrow." ^ The first moral law of the State is to give security to life, to liberty, and to property (or to "the pursuit of happiness," as Jefferson phrased it in the Declaration). It constructs the social order, its form and substance. A State that permits preventable injury to life is im- moral. A State that permits any form of slavery or servi- tude is immoral. A State that permits preventable losses of property or damage to it — that does not conserve all true wealth and protect all private and public property, righteously produced and acquired — is immoral. Because the State is the intellect of modern society, it requires for its service the ablest men. The second moral law for the State is to secure the ablest men for the conduct of its affairs. American government — our democracy — persists in the two superstitions, vox populi, vox Dei^ and the least govern- ment the best government; with their inevitable results. They were exposed long ago by Plato and by Aristotle ; and they were much discussed by the Fathers of this Republic in the Constitutional Convention of 1787.2 One of these results is that we American democrats suppose that if the legislature of all the people intends to legislate well, then all the govern- ment is necessarily good. To suppose this is to be unmindful of the fact that the executive department is quite as important as the legislative.^ Another result is that in order to have a weak government, the common political purpose of most Americans, very weak men have been tolerated in office. In ^ Reflections on the French Revolution ; also, William, Bishop of Ar- magh, National Review^ "Edmund Burke" (February, 1906). 2 Chancellor-Hewes, The United States : A History, vol. iii, chapter x. ^ As every lawyer, jurist, and publicist knows : judges and executives make laws as well as unmake them. MORALITY 29s Nation, State, County, City, and Village, the average intel- ligence of the officers scarcely rises above the average intelli- gence of successful business men. We have had not only mediocre Governors but mediocre Presidents, and as for City Aldermen and State Legislatures, the facts are so notorious as to have become irritating commonplaces. A third moral lawof the State is so to exercise its pov^rers and to perform its functions as to promote the vi^elfare of society. " Unto whomsoever much is given, of him shall much be required," ^ is a saying quite as true of institutions as of individuals. The State is paramount, its opportunities are surpassing, and its responsibilities, despite denials, are, therefore, correspondingly great and heavy.2 It is, of course, unwarranted to expect progress to result uniformly and rapidly ; but the excuse, so often heard, that this Nation or State, County or City, Town or Village is no worse than some other is no more valid for political sins of omission or of commission than are the similar excuses of individuals. It is unnecessary to discuss here the applications or the details of this gen- eral principle. The moral law is that to be content with things as they are is to deteriorate. The statesman, whether ruler or subject, officer or voter, who has no aims for complete righteousness, for a beautiful national and domestic life, and for economic prosperity for all is mor- ally a criminal. From these moral laws of the State, there follow two for the individual as a citizen. Of these, the first is the obli- gation of the able and right-minded citizen to seek office and serve in it unmindful of his private interests. /// a 1 Jesus, Luke, Gospel, xii, 48. " And to whom men have committed much, of him they will ask the more." 2 " Civilized mankind are aware of the changes taking place in their social condition and do consciously and deliberately take measures for its improvement. This consciousness of a corporate existence and of the power to direct social progress is a new force in human destiny." Cairnes, Fortnightly Review, January, 1875, p. 71. 296 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION democracy, no man ca7i be a good ma?i who is not ready to be a public man. This is a hard doctrine. No other can preserve the Republic. It maybe that no other can now redeem the Republic, which requires the best of us all. The second moral law for the citizen is never to desire the government to serve his private interests, whether with or without detriment to others.^ This law involves- the most far-reaching and the most searching criticisms of things as they are. There are moral laws of the School, whose business it is, as Spencer said, to "prepare for complete living." Knowing well that they are making now and have made in the past no effort to prepare all youth for complete living, schoolmasters and schoolmistresses have always regarded this ideal as academic rather than practical, as intellectual rather than moral. The School has been 2.cnl de sacT2X\iQ.x than a highroad. Too many of its births are abortive, still-born. The first moral law of the School is to prepare all, without exception, for the largest life in the greatest variety of activities, subject only to the limitations of each in ability, in character, and in energy. This will be a life of action, for the philosophy yet to be developed from the aphorism, "I act, that is, I am," will yet exceed in mass and in force all the philosophy from the aphorism of Descartes, " I think, therefore I am." The worst deficiency of the School is its renunciation of duty and responsibility in respect to all matters that concern Mar- riage, Family, and Home. This renunciation is seen in the almost universal willingness of schoolmasters to graduate boys and girls with diplomas signifying preparation for life (or at least supposed so to signify) at the close of grammar-school courses at fifteen years of age. Still worse is the leaving of school, often, be it said with sorrow and shame, by the encour- agement of principals and teachers, at the age of fourteen or ^ Seelye, Hickok, Moral Science, chapter \x,fassim. MORALITY 297 fifteen from sixth, fifth, even fourth and third-year grades, "to go to work." Children who leave school so young, so imma- ture, so ignorant, often already so discouraged with life, fur- nish the recruits for those pitiful companies of the envious victims of human nature in civilization, — street-walkers, har- lots, gamins, hoboes, petty thieves, holdup men, — most of whom are under twenty years of age. There are not many of these ? Their influence is negligible ? There are more of them in every great city than of ministers, lawyers, physicians, and teachers combined. They "must live," and they do live, — short lives, it is true, but lives perilously infectious. Visit the police courts, and learn the truth about the married lives of the wretched. Visit the homes for " fallen women," most of whom are but girls who should bfe still at school. Visit the slums and the cheaper theatres on Saturday evenings ; and think better of humanity, which endures so much of evil, of pain, and of ecstasy, and yet persists in life.-^ And remember that all these men and women, boys and girls were born to the common heritage of knowledge, of cul- ture, of home, and of freedom. Deprived of that heritage, sometimes themselves wantonly wasting it, they must live for simply the necessity of living, moment by moment, — aban- doned to the appetites, hunger, warmth, desire, the delight of the eye, the pride of life. They are graduated from the middle grammar grades to the factory, store, street, dance-hall, saloon, den, jail, and grave- yard. And priest and Levite and I pass by on the other side.^ The school has failed to educate us as well as them. A second moral law^ of the School is to employ teachers competent to interpret life in all its phases. " No stream can rise higher than its source." A third moral law is to demand and to enforce ade- quate support for itself. Any other course is hypocrisy.^ The present situation in which the average teacher is 1 The reaction from all this is reflected in the novels of the times : e. g. Tolstoi, Resurrection ; Henry, The Unwritten Law. 2 Jesus, Luke, Gospel, x, 30. 3 Chancellor, Our Schools, chapters xiv, xv, and xvi. 298 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION a girl, looking to marriage for escape and burdening her relatives for at least a part of her support, is an histor- ical and an economic absurdity. A fourth moral law is to regard its own rights to equal- ity with every other social institution. It must insist upon service by an independent profession, exercising entire control in it. Under lay domination, the public school at least, if not also the private and the endowed, is only a pseudo-school. In respect to education, every person who is not an educator, formally recognized as such by other educators, is a layman. There is a moral law for the educator, flowing out of his relation to the School ; and this moral law requires him to live like a man in the world of men. The exceed- ins: deference of schoolmen and schoolwomen to their political superiors, and sometimes even to parents, is treachery to the cause of education, betrayal of the rights of children and youth, confession of the untruth of the claim of fitness to prepare the young for life. So varied is culture, so numerous are the cultures, that it is not easy to discern the moral law therein.^ Culture, Philosophy, whatever we call the s^immum of human knowledge, — all sciences and arts, the science of sci- ences, and the art of arts, — affords, has always afforded, and will always afford the supreme problems to the supreme intellects. Were the problems ever solved, new ones would be presented ; hitherto these supreme pro- blems have not been solved. There are, however, discernible moral laws for Culture as an institution and for cultured men and women. The first of these laws is to preserve the true, the good, and the beautiful. In whatever form Culture mani- fests itself, the law holds : whether the form be the Uni- versity, the Drama, Literature, Art, or Music. Obedience to the law requires not only intelligence and good faith, 1 Carlyle, Sartor Re sarins : "The Everlasting Aye." MORALITY 299 qualities common among the cultured, but also courage and patience and self-denial, elemental qualities that Culture seems to neglect, sometimes even to eradicate.^ Culture shrinks from battle. It has grown refined and suffers pain from the din and the flame, the pain and the blood of conflict. Yet the good, the true, and the beautiful can be preserved in an ignorant and wicked world, and have been preserved, only by the self-denial, the patience, and the courage of the cultured. In truth, that is not true culture which is not able to attack whatever is false, evil, or hideous, and anxious to defend whatever is true, good, or beautiful. In respect to morality, Culture is self-containing. It is not a goal, but a course upon which mankind goes forward to the completeness designed for us by the Creator. A second moral law for Culture is to seek these excellent things everywhere and always, and gladly to recognize them. This is a hard saying : Truth is often destructive of much that hitherto has passed for Culture. It is often unpleasant to champion the new.^ Beauty is often found where Culture is least inclined to look for it. And Goodness may appear anywhere, — not the goodness, it is true, always of the great but often of the little things of life. In democracy. Culture must walk not only where the rich and the powerful and the learned resort, but also by the countryside and in the city slum. Cultitre must go wherever men are ; it is not only to be sought, it must itself seek. A third moral law of Culture is to give itself freely 1 I have examined book on book dealing with ethics and morals. I have yet to discover one that tells the truth that courage is the first, the basic, the absolutely essential, and the only essential, virtue. 2 Cf. " Blessed are ye, when men shall revile you, and persecute you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, for my sake. /Rejoice, and be exceeding gladr Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, v, 11, 12. Common and virulent abuse test and witness the only real courage. Men speak well only of '• the false prophets." 300 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION and commonly, to spend and to be spent in the cause of humanity. Whatever it gathers, it must spread. And in the modern mind only that Culture is Godlike which, like God the Giver, loseth its own life, careless whether it may ever find the life again. The University exists not for itself, but for the Truth ; and for the Truth only because man needs truth. Whatever truth the University knows it must dispense as truly as possible. Literature is under the same law. In the ideal State, there- fore, all Religion, all Art, all Science, all Drama, all News, all Literature, all Music will be as free as the highroad, the elementary school, the mother's care, and the air itself now are. " That day, how it shines afar ! " But the highway could not be made free until the men who traveled it had learned to go about peacefully and orderly, until they were worthy of its freedom and fit for its society.^ Culture must be faithful to its trust, catholic in its taste, and generous in its spirit ; and it must be more. It must be patient with ignorance and with weakness, sympathetic with every manner of inferiority, whether of will or of feeling, of intellect or of opportunity, and urgent only of that which is fit and right in the pre- mises. Upon this high range of human power and skill and feeling, Culture must walk discreet as well as right- eous, kind as well as just, not condescending and yet not equal ; for there is no unkindness more harsh than that which demands of the less what only the greater can perform. It is a moral law for Culture to be charitable ; more- over, it is a graceless spectacle for Culture to appear wanting in charity. We expect of Culture every charm, as we expect the diamond to be flawless in its substance 1 Similarly, the railroad — the modern highway — cannot be made free until men are fit to travel freely upon it. MORALITY 301 and form, and the rose to be perfect in its fragrance and beauty. For the man or woman of true culture knows how infinite the world is, how great and beneficent was that series of good fortunes by which even his or her little culture has been made possible, how every moment spent upon this or that truth has been taken away from all other truth, and how frail is the hold of the mind upon its treasures. There are never two persons of like or equal culture in all the world, nor ever have been. Men and women of culture stand upon the outermost circumference of the sphere of humanity, to whose cen- tre the ignorant and the mediocre must cling. They are like plateaus or mountain peaks thrust into the blue, — radiations tending ever to greater remoteness from com- mon human lives. Moreover, their bases are the rock of this same humanity by which they are supported. In the very nature of culture, it is economically parasitic, based upon substance. The man of culture cannot eat bread in the sweat of his own brow. Consider that high mountain. First to catch the sunrise of the new day, it is last to reflect the sunset of the old day. It rises firm and solid, high into the blue of heaven. Its base is skirted by pleasant valleys, its sides are green with forests, upon its top lies the white snow, while around it flock the gleaming clouds. Beneath it is the mighty earth, with its rock crust and white-hot core, rotating on its axis, revolving in its planetary course, whirling with all the rest of the solar system upon its path through this special universe. The mountain seems so strong that we imagine it eternal. And yet we know that in truth there are no " everlasting hills." Wind, rain, ice, faulting, compression are reducing its mass and lowering it to the common flat ; and the end is certain. To-day the mountain stands, symbol of the majesty of God, expressing the laws by which He manifests Nature, laws of gravitation, of centrifugal and centripetal forces, of atomic valence and molecular cohesion, of heat, of electricity, of light, of vibrations, of periodicity, of sound, of all manner 302 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION of attractions and repulsions, because of which the mountain with its snows and rains and clouds, with its now sun-kissed, now starlit, now cloud-crowned head, is. Destroy one of these laws, and the beneficent, solid, glorious mountain is not. So with Culture. Take from it the love of Truth or the sense of Beauty or devotion to the Good or sympathy with Mankind, and the culture is an illusion, a fog, a miasma. There are moral laws of Occupation, which is the mode of the industrial arts ; that is, Culture in the con- crete ; objective or real Culture. The distinction be- tween Art (the fine arts) and industrial culture is not that Art is for Art's sake while Occupation is mediate that Life may be, for Art is no true end in itself, but serves to perfect Humanity ; nor is the distinction in the motive, for Art may be as self-centred or as practical as Occupation : but the distinction is that Art (or any other mode of pure Culture) is careful only of the spirit and is careless of the material, while Occupation must consider the material, the substance. Michael Angelo may be architect and painter and sculptor, for he is an artist ; but the masons must build St. Peter's of stone of right quality and carefully cut to pattern. The artist fixes his eye on the design, the artisan his on the mate- rial. The modern architect-engineer has a vision of the building that is to be ; but within the limits of the ma- terials chosen, steel, brick, concrete, stone, terra-cotta, wood, its form may be whatever he chooses. Not so the workmen, for they are not the masters but the slaves of the form. The poet may sing his thoughts in ode or sonnet or ballad or lyric ; but the typesetter must pre- sent his words exactly in the literal types. The world of Culture is a world of free men, the world of Occupation is a world of servants. The first moral law of Occupation is that it must support the worker and all his natural dependents. Other- wise, it is no true occupation, but a cheat and a snare and MORALITY 303 a torment, which betrays its victim and draws society to ruin. Because this is the moral law and for no other reason whatsoever, for this law is wholly sufficient and absolutely imperative. Society in its organized and dom- inant form of the State undertakes to regulate wages. Here all the political ecomony of laissez faire, with its world partly God's, partly the Devil's, the political econ- omy not of true wealth but of property-wealth, utterly breaks down, because it denies sound morals. The laborer must live by his work, he and his sick, his weak, his aged, his little ones. Why.? Because God has con- structed humanity in a fashion that requires care of infants that civilization may endure, care of the young and the weak that man may be tender-hearted, care of the aged that he may be just and grateful, care of the strong that his strength be not used for his own destruc- tion. Work without adequate wages for all these objects of human necessity and affection is work that destroys the race, is work against the will of God, whose end is to establish and to perfect humanity. " Then Christ sought out an artisan, A low-browed, stunted, haggard man, And a motherless girl, whose fingers thin Pushed from her faintly want and sin. " These set He in the midst of them, And as they drew back their garment-hem, For fear of defilement, ' Lo, here,' said He, ' The images ye have made of Me.' " ^ What are we going to do about it .? First, recognize it, diagnose it. There is no cure until the disease is known. This is a disease of civilization. What has education to do with this .? Who does not understand the proper relation of education to civilization, does not yet under- 1 Lowell, A Parable. 304 THE EVIDENCES OP^ EDUCATION stand what education in America is and what we as Americans have undertaken. A second moral law of Occupation is that it should include all who are capable of its labor without injury to themselves, but not capable of rendering any higher service to society. Every one with the power to do im- mediately useful work should be required to do it, unless he is actually doing or is being fitted to do work that is or will be more useful work than Occupation affords. The leisure class must be composed exclusively of persons who as exponents of Culture are more useful to human- ity than they would be as workers by Occupation. The working classes must be composed exclusively of those well able to work and not able to do anything better. The corollary of this moral law is that no persons phys- ically or psychically unable to work without detriment to themselves should work. The spectacle of pregnant and nursing mothers, of consumptives and other invalids, of half- grown girls and boys, even of baby children, at work in mines or mills or factories or stores is an offense against conscience as well as against common sense. ^ It may be " Business " ; but so may war and pestilence, crime, graft, and vice be " Business." That reconstruction of society, that " industrial revolution," ^ which has borne the fruits of disintegrated home and family, government for the merchant, religion and culture for persons of leisure and wealth, education for prac- tical life, has itself been brought to bar for judgment and sentence. It has filled the world with goods, but for whom ? 1 " * True,' say the children, * it may happen That we die before our time : Little Alice died last year ; her grave is shapen Like a snowball in the rime. We looked into the pit prepared to take her : Was no room for any work in the close clay : From the sleep wherein she lieth none will wake her, Crying, " Get up, little Alice ! it is day." ' " Elizabeth Barrett Browning, T/ie Cry of the Children. 2 Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution ; Ruskin, Fors Clavigera. MORALITY 305 The year 1660 saw the end of feudalism, the year 1776 saw the rise of republicanism ; but by 1830 this republicanism, which was in substance a democracy, with an aristocratic overtone, a representative democracy, began to be subverted by a new feudalism more subtle, less responsible than the old. Therefore, we have a democracy with a plutocratic over- tone and a demagogic undertone : and what is that sad music as of breakers so far away ? Is the wind rising ? Is there thundering in the air? Is the good ship driving into storm ? A second corollary of this law is that none should work overtime, beyond his strength, so long as to exclude the possibiUty of living the present life of civilized society. Even the workingman is clearly entitled to some leisure. It may be true that he cannot for a year or for five years at a stretch produce as much when working eight or six hours a day as he could when working twelve or fourteen hours a day. It may be inconvenient for commercial and industrial enterprises to give every worker a day and a half in every seven for rest and recreation. It may be true that the man who works eight hours a day and five days in the week will spend much of his time and of his money in the " saloon," that bugbear of philan- thropic business men, who do "not believe in the eight-hour day " and in the Saturday half-holiday.^ A third moral law of Occupation is that its product shall never be harmful to humanity. This is an applica- tion of that fundamental law of righteousness, — to do nothing injurious to one's self or to others. Law-honesty may not run pari passu with real honesty ; but to adul- terate food is none the less vicious. Fornication may be practiced without prejudice among certain classes, and is forgivable in the notion of certain churches ; but as a mode of livelihood or of amusement, it is as vicious 1 In the reaction against what I know of too much work, I will not find fault with the middle-aged workingman who visits the saloon in the even- ing, or even the young man or woman who goes to the " cheap theatre " or to the music- or dance-hall. Cf. Patten, New Basis of Civilizatiotiy chapter vii. 3o6 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION to-day as it was when God wiped out whole peoples that practiced it. This moral law of Occupation affords a simple yet entirely convincing test of " what one has a right to do for money." Applied, it would revolutionize the prac- tices of .the ministry, the law, medicine, education, gov- ernment, manufacture, commerce, marriage, and indeed what not ? Religious hypocrites for hire, legal tricksters and shysters, medical quacks, uneducated educators, legis- lators on behalf of "special interests," makers and traders in the "just-as-good " and "harmless adulterants," gamb- ling of whatever kind, marriages for money or for sup- port, and everything else that tends to debase mankind, would disappear ; therefore, this cannot yet be, for the end apparently is not yet in view. A fourth moral law of Occupation is to improve both the art itself and the artisan. The machine that conquers work is a benefaction to mankind. A corollary of this law is almost as important as the law itself. Wanting a universal organization, Occupation, both as Employer and as Employed, has appealed often to Government for relief when machinery has displaced laborers and upon many other occasions. Occupation must organize in order to set its artisans and other workers right in the world as con- ditions change.^ For the worker in Occupation, there is the law to deal honestly with one's self and with the world. The product and the service for one's own sake and for the sake of humanity must be the best of which one is capable under the circumstances. This, too, is revolution. If ever}'' workman were intelligent and honest and as efficient as Nature and School have permitted, Death would harvest few before they had reached "man's allotted span," whatever that is. * Webb, Industrial Democracy. MORALITY 307 For the Professions, which are higher than the Occupations and founded on them, which are, indeed, useful modes of Culture rather than distinct modes of human activity, though they are modes of applying special knowledge in the service of humanity, there is the distinct moral law that the professor should serve all the needy irrespective of compensation, honorarium, or other reward. Business has many meanings. In its narrowest sense, ac- cording to Webster, it means "traffic," "buying and selling," " financial dealings." I use it in the slightly broader sense of directing occupations, exchanging goods, employing services for economic ends. Among business men, I include employ- ing manufacturers, merchants, bankers, brokers, contractors, agents, overseers, transportation managers, and others simi- larly engaged. In the year 1776, nine tenths of Americans were farmers.^ The number of business men was very small. Even of these, most were partly farmers and mechanics. There were some business men in England, but its repu- tation as "a nation of traders and shopkeepers " was not yet established. A study of the census of 1900 for the United States fails to reveal what we desire to know. There were merchants and dealers (wholesale), rnale 42,032, female 261 ; (retail), male 756,802, female 34,084 ; bankers and brokers, male 72,984, female 293 ; officials of banks and companies, male 72,801, female 1271. But we are at a loss to discover how many employing farmers there were ; how many of the foregoing merchants were their own bookkeepers and salesmen ; how many con- tractors there were in the building trades ; how many employing manufacturers; in short, how many men and women in "gainful occupations" were securing their gains from products of their own hands, and how many by trading in the products of others. It may be Utopian to expect a census that will adopt philosophical or even V Schouler, Americans 0/ lyyO. 3o8 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION economic distinctions, and cease to call both the man who lays brick and stone and the man who employs such brick- and stone-layers "masons." The man who cuts diamonds and the man who buys and sells cut diamonds view life from different points. He who farms twenty acres and he who farms twenty thousand differ as the laborer in an industry and the manager of a business must inevitably differ. Their differences are many. The important difference for this discussion is that the pri- mary interest of the man of art, whether fine or indus- trial, is in the work itself, the product, the service, while the primary interest of the business man is in what he or his employers or his stockholders will get out of it, in the profits, in the results to property. In 1893, at Interlaken, in a little wood-carving shop, I saw a little carven bear. The price was five francs. I offered four. After some parley, the carver said, " Oh, well, I can make another," and sold the art-treasure. He was an artist. In that same year at Pisa, in a store, I saw small replicas of the Leaning Tower at four lire each. I offered seven lire for two. " No, signore," said the proprietor, " the price of two towers is ten lire." " Why ? " I asked. " If you can buy two, you must be rich," answered the business man. The argument is not that the small farmer may not be also a good business man. He may be also a good politician. It is that, as compared with the "bonanza farmer," he is not primarily a farmer for the profits of " the farming business." It is in fact easy to transform any profession or art or trade (occupation) into a business ; and to do so is one of the temptations that beset mankind. The physician who betrays medicine from the art of healing into the business of get- ting money from incurably or disgracefully sick persons, the woman who marries for money, the author who writes books to sell, and others like them, pervert art from its purposes and strike at the heart of civil society. The characteristic purpose of Business, as defined and MORALITY 309 used in this text, is without labor or value to make some- thing into more, which is in reality to get something for nothing. Of Business, used in this sense, some typical operations are these : to buy at a price and '' to hold for a rise," then by selling ''to make a profit;" to force owners to make sales to their disadvantage ; to mono- polize or " corner " properties so as to force purchasers to buy "at artificial prices; " to defraud the general public, that is, one's fellow men, by bribing or bulldozing their representatives in government or by betraying the public through making its own heads, employers, or attorneys the political representatives; to muzzle the press; in its own interest, to publish statements not true or to sup- press true statements ; to enforce contracts to their limit when favorable, and to scant them to the limit when unfavorable. " The stock market is pure business, and no sentiment," is a common saying. It is Business that has given basis to the philosophy of Nietzsche. Mankind may be divided into two kinds : masters and servants. The world exists for the profit of the masters. To the consistent exponent of Business the end of life is gain. Business is not too serious in its view of life, but too intent in its purpose to say, " Eat, drink, for to-morrow we die." But it does say, and act accordingly, " I will tear down my barns and build greater." Given free rein, Business would wreck mankind immediately, for it would destroy every form of Society. Business must not be confused with transportation of goods. This is a service that actually adds value to the goods. The service requires fabor and employs capital often at many points. Wholesalers and retailers (the " middlemen " between producers and consumers) must move the goods from mine, mill, warehouse, store, to the place of consumption. The artificiality of business becomes apparent when the canvassing agent is considered. Clearly he adds nothing to the value of the goods, though he must be paid out of the price. 3IO THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION War is without morals. What are the morals of Busi- ness as defined here? War is a relation, an anti-relation, a struggle between assailant and assaulted. Business is a struggle between seller and buyer. The "ethics" of selling involve getting the highest possible price for the article ; of buying, getting the article at the lowest pos- sible price. To be sure, when one expects to go on sell- ing the same kind of article for years to come, it " pays " to be " honest," that is, to represent the goods as they are. But this is the "honesty" of "policy," not of morality. There are many evidences that Business is a Warfare tempered by truces : only a few of these evidences may be outlined. To prevent competition from running into cut-throat anarchy, rival sellers of similar goods form pools or consolidate into syndicates, corporations, or "trusts," while rival sellers of labor form unions and federations. "Ethics" require that the merchants shall keep honor with one another unless a very great profit is certain to follow withdrawal from the agreement, and that the laborers shall stick together and not " scab " in time of trouble. The same "ethics" permit strikes, boy- cotts, when laborers are dissatisfied, and lockouts when the employers are dissatisfied. . It is conventional "ethics" to bribe an opponent when bribery is cheaper than mak- ing war upon him. There are, no doubt, tens of thousands of men who wish that Business could become moral, even religious and philanthropic, in its character. And there are also many instances when Business actually serves the inter- ests of morality and even of charity. But consider two of the fundamental tenets of morality, — to tell the truth and to keep one's promises, — and imagine the effect upon Business of obeying these principles in letter and in spirit! What becomes of the doctrine of a "fair profit" ."* Does it include anything more than fair wages MORALITY 311 for the service rendered and repayment of expenses actually incurred ? On this basis would any man " earn " a million dollars by a deal ? What becomes of the law- suits for broken contracts that crowd the calendars of the courts ? Do not the records of these courts bear witness to the fact that they are the umpires, referees, and judges in a warfare regulated but not suppressed by civilized society ? Is not the lawyer a champion for an otherwise hapless wight in a jousting match or a tournament ? The very penalty for non-performance, so frequently set forth in contract, bears witness to the fact that in Business we expect promises to be broken. The man who tells the truth in Business, who gives full value (literally so) for value received, and who keeps his promises, — who, in other words, deals with others as he would prefer them to deal with him, — has re- nounced Business. Such a man does not consider what he can get and then proceed to get all that he can for a product or a service, but considers only what the product or service has actually cost him in goods and time; in short he is working for a livelihood, and not for a fortune. This is not Business as here defined. This man must be an artist, a professor, a servant, an artisan, a mechanic, or some other kind of person who lives to do good work and who works to live; but he is no "business man." The aim of the business man is to get more of the wealth of *' the other fellow " than he gives in return : he adds to his own property if he can, and he does not care whether or not he adds to the sum of the world's wealth or happiness.^ His own life is not an art in its aims or in its acts or in itself ; but it is a means to get goods, to get ever more and, more property. There are many other relations than those of the for- mal social institutions and of the social struggles. These 1 Ruskin, 312 THE EVIDENCES OF EDUCATION Other relations have never been classified, but are miscel- laneous. We may combine them in the term General Society, which has clear and explicit moral principles, needing no exposition. Social morality requires one to tell the truth unless that hurts, and even when it hurts, provided the case re- quires it, — that is, when the truth will do more good than harm. It requires keeping one's promises and appoint- ments unless released. It requires the consideration for others, exemplified by such virtues as punctuality, polite- ness, and gentleness. It requires, therefore, decency of attire, courtesy by the strong to the weak, promising no more than one can perform, and raising no false expecta- tions. It requires gratitude, resistance to evils suffered by or threatened against the weak, magnanimity to en- emies, indifference to insults, to false accusations, and to backbitings, and a desire to deal justly, mercifully, chari- tably, with all men, good and bad. It requires full per- formance of every obligation in Church and State and in every other social institution. That peculiar community known as Society and familiar in every part of the world does not manifest all these moral principles. Whether in China or in Boston, in Vienna or 'in St. Louis, Society worships success, and after a generation or two ignores the methods. It has one additional require- ment, grace — or at least graciousness. To be successful and to have manners — such as affability, cordiality, bodily grace, and acquaintance with " the world " — is to have the keys to this Society. Though it knows thoroughly and appreciatively nothing, — neither Art nor Music, neither Drama nor Philo- sophy, not even War or Business, — Society is an aesthetic world-by-itself, not lightly to be regarded by actors in, or by students of, the various real worlds of men. How shall education induct the youth into such a great and complex body of morals as this discussion suggests ? MORALITY 313 It has not yet seriously attempted the task. Only one so informed as to society may safely be trusted to take his conscience as his king.^ 1 " A creed is a rod, And a crown is of night But this thing is God ; — To be man with thy might, — To grow straight in the strength of thy spirit, And live out thy life as the light." Swinburne, " Hertha," Songs before Sunrise. PART FOUR THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE The sheer purpose to see things as they are, the love of our neighbor, the impulses to action, help, and beneficence, the desires for removing human confusion and for diminishing human misery, the noble aspiration to leave the world better and happier than we found it, the recognition that to be salutary and stable every action and every institution must be based upon reason and maintained by method, and the persistent sense of duty constitute culture, which seeks to make the best that is known and thought in the world current everywhere. Culture has one great passion, the pas- sion for sweetness and light. It has one even yet greater, the pas- sion for making ihtm prevail. — Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy (abridged). CHAPTER XIV SCIENCE "Forward let me still go in my search after truth; and therein let me die." — Barneveld, Letter to a Friend, in Life by Motley. The greatest intellectual revolution man has yet seen is now slowly taking place by the agency of science. — Huxley, Zoology, Lay Sertnons, p. ii8. The course of Nature is the art of God. — Young, Night Thoughts, ix. Literacy writes and reads various records of fact and of opinion. Science discovers facts and exposes false- hoods. In respect to Nature, literacy expresses her appearances as seen casually, often as seen emotionally, by man, expresses her not perfectly, accumulates in books what man thinks of her. The burden of the thought of man about Nature, real enough perhaps for the recorder, but to all others secondary and not pri- mary, grows ever heavier upon the shoulders of man. Science is the result of the desire of man to know facts, to ascend the heights of Truth. For the discovery of Truth, for the knowledge of Reality as far as Man can know it, he has invented a method called Science. This is a method not of strictly universal applicability, but of far more general applicability than at first appeared. By it, man arranges the Facts and tests such hypotheses as may suggest themselves to him when he considers the Facts. The hypotheses remain in the domain of Philo- sophy, which is a system of generalizations upon general- izations, a science of sciences, and belongs, therefore, in the field of Literacy. The scientific method has constructed a multitude of sciences, — to mention a few, botany, biology, zoology, anthropology, physiology, chemistry, physics, philology. 3i8 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE geology, mineralogy, meteorology; and is trying to construct many more, — sociology, therapy, hygiene, ethnology, somatology, psychology, pathology, economics. It undertakes to invade the field of history and to con- vert this into a science,^ and has not hesitated to discuss religion, sometimes even challenging the reality of faith. When we divide all subjects as belonging either to Nature or to Man, and therefore as belonging either to Science or to Philosophy, we are confronted by Mathematics, which are neither inductive and scientific in their nature nor human in their interests. We are told that, though essential to his success in the struggle with Nature, the Mathematics are sciences, and indifferent to the temporal concerns of man, because they are the logical, dialectic, intuitional, and supreme achievement of his intellect. For the Mathematics attain certitude, and all mathematical knowledge is indubit- able. Therefore, they constitute abstract or pure Science, and contribute a statistical method to Science and a mode of quantitative measurement to the qualitative criticisms of Philosophy. The scientific method begins with a childlike insistence upon sight of the thing as it is, and disregard, of every opinion concerning it. Science is the second power of that activity of intelligence which functions as observation. Equally truthful and impartial with the observation must be the record of the fact as seen. The method proceeds to accumulate, to collate, and to correlate the facts and to consider them in their relations. It is, therefore, a method of redemption from superstition as well as from ignorance. The scientific method is truth itself functioning as desire and purpose to learn yet more truth. As such, it requires the exercise not only of the reason — that highest mode in which the mind of man acts, and which in its insights and intuitions seems to act independently of all condi- ^ Fling, " Historical Synthesis," American Historical Review, October, 1903. SCIENCE 319 tions — but the exercise also of every other faculty. The eradication of superstitions must proceed pari passu et aequo gradu with the acquisition of truths, for the mind is not a vacuum but a plenum, and is capable only of cor- rection and of enlargement, never of reduction. In itself, the denunciation of error can produce but one or the other of two results, obstinate accentuation of belief in the error through reaction against the assault, or con- fusion of ideas, unsettlement of opinion, and hopeless- ness of ever knowing truth, which is worse. Nor may we with propriety too greatly flatter our- selves that superstitions are not in course of developing or of strengthening in these our own "modern " times. A superstition may indeed be an " ancient good " made "uncouth "by Time (to use the phrasing of Lowell), a prin- ciple grown anachronous, a corpse once living but at last putrid in death. For we must not only find new truth but reject old truth, not only construct but destroy. Tabula the mind never was, but tabula rasa in parts it must be in order that new truth may be written upon it. Agnos- ticism is the transition from knowledge to yet greater and better knowledge. One who is not willing to doubt is not yet ready to learn. A world that dares not challenge its beliefs thereby certifies that it is superstitious, for truth is militant.^ Into Nature, its past and its present, into Man as the chief product and example of Nature, we inquire to-day most anxiously and as scientifically as we know how. In this inquiry, we shrink from nothing whatsoever, believ- ing that truth only is sacred, believing that truth is necessary to human salvation, believing that truth can receive no wound save the death-blow of fear for its safety. " Defend truth } " said Hegel. " Truth will de- fend thee." ^ The free world challenges by experiment the modern reform. Wundt, Human and Animal Psychology, p. 9. 320 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE A multitude of problems and of questions suggest themselves to illustrate the range of this scientific inquiry into Nature and human nature to find truth. It is possi- ble to transplant the ovaries : consider what questions of heredity and of morality this surgical achievement raises. Once man knew nothing of race ; then came philology, measuring his kinship by language ; now comes somato- logy, measuring his kinship by the ratio of length of head to breadth. Historical geology reconstructs the earth and localizes the subanthropoid upon ancient lit- torals of the sea. The brain appears to be a medium to register vibrations of thought. Mob sympathy becomes intelligible ; and clairvoyance. Said Tolstoi : " The power transcending all others, which has influenced individuals and peoples since Time began, the power that is the convergence of the invisible, intangible spiritual forces of all humanity is social opinion." ^ The worm grows by visible stages into man. Electricity and steam have made the ancient aphorism untrue, *' Government is strongest at its centre, weakest upon its periphery; " and democracy becomes as practicable for a continent as for a city. Radium looks through many forms of matter, and a new philosophy is born. In the spectrum, the universe be- comes a unity. We measure fatigue by sphygnometry, and reconstruct education by anthropometry and by psychology. By the quantitative measurements of statis- tics, the old political economy fails and the new succeeds. Chemistry analyzes foods, and a nation changes its break- fasts.^ As a mountaineer ascends the ice cliff, digging handhold and foothold anxiously, joyously, each hold slowly won but secure, so man ascends the heights of perfectness, relying upon ever higher and higher truth. For truth, man turns ever more and more to Nature, the visible garment of God, as Goethe said ; and God is no 1 Tolstoi, The Kingdo7n of God, chapter x, 2 Patten, N'eiv Basis of Civilization, p. 20. SCIENCE 321 hypocrite displaying one thing as truth in Nature and another thing as truth in Men. If there is a revealed Word, that Word and Nature must, of course, agree. There can be no reconciliation between scientific truth and religious truth, for there never was nor ever can be any disagreement.^ The supposed disagreements were all revelations of new truth and exposures of old error. Superstitions were respectable in ages when the structures of particular societies were too weak safely to permit collisions of thought ; but in this age and land, when and where society has many different bonds, there is no danger but only good in freedom of thought, the last, not the first, the highest freedom of man. There- fore, he turns to Nature hopefully and continually. " For I have learned To look on Nature, not as in the hour Of thoughtless youth ; but hearing oftentimes The still, sad music of humanity. Nor harsh nor grating, though of ample power To chasten and subdue. And I have felt A presence that disturbs me with the joy Of elevated thoughts ; a sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused. Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean, and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man : A motion and a spirit, that impels All thinking things, all objects of all thought, And rolls through all things. Therefore, am I still A lover of the meadows and the woods, And mountains ; and of all that we behold From this green earth ; of all the mighty world Of eye and ear, — both what they half create And what perceive ; well pleased to recognize In Nature and the language of the sense. The anchor of my purest thoughts, the nurse. The guide, the guardian of my heart, and soul Of all my moral being." * White, The Warfare betiveen Science and Theology^ vol. i, p. viii. 322 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE *' To them, I may have owed another gift, Of aspect more sublime ; that blessed mood, In which the burden of the mystery, In which the heavy and the weary weight Of all this unintelligible world, Is lightened : — that serene and blessed mood, In which the affections gently lead us on, — Until, the breath of this corporeal frame And even the motion of our human blood Almost suspended, we are laid asleep In body, and become a living soul, While with an eye made quiet by the power Of harmony, and the deep power of joy, We see into the life of things." ^ Man as the product of Nature, body evolved, soul, too, evolved : is not this better, after all is said, than to suppose that each man is a stranger here, an individual special creation, homeless ? And does this preclude his being an individual creature, proceeding, as Carlyle so often said, "from Eternity to Eternity" ? Is there not a dignity in this conception of a cosmic life, of a life akin to all other creatures, that is unattainable by any other philosophy ? " Immense have been the preparations for me, Faithful and friendly the arms that have helped me, Cycles ferried my cradle, rowing and rowing like cheerful boatmen, For room to me stars kept aside in their own rings, They sent influences to look after what was to hold me. Before I was born out of my mother generations guided me, My embryo has never been torpid, nothing could overlay it. For it the nebula cohered to an orb, The long, slow strata piled to rest it on, Vast vegetables gave it sustenance, Monstrous sauroids transported it in their mouths and deposited it with care — All forces have been steadily employed to complete and delight me, Now on this spot I stand with my robust soul." ^ * Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey. 2 Whitman, The Song of Myself. SCIENCE 323 Our hope is that the scientific study of Nature, begun in the nineteenth century, may prove to be one of those factors for want of which no nation has ever yet solved the problem of progress without end, but by the posses- sion of which this nation shall so progress. This scien- tific study may produce, is, we believe, actually producing, results of value in human economy. Man, said Malthus, increases in geometric ratio, food in arithmetical ; and, Ricardo added, by the law of diminishing returns, food- lands certainly reach a point where each laborer begins to find his individual return growing smaller. Social peace, therefore, multiplies man and thereby brings him to starvation. History has disproven this proposition; the factor ignored was scientific discovery accompanied by technical invention.^ We have learned how to ex- haust nitrogen from the air, how to inoculate the soil with the microbes of fertility, how to sow, to cultivate, and to reap by machinery, how to produce new plants, and how to work many other marvels ; and starvation is more remote from man to-day than it was a hundred years ago, when the "dismal science" first declared its prophecy. Natural science not only discovers new truth and adds to the stock of human knowledge, but manifests a singu- lar power in the education and elevation of its students. It liberates talents, quickens curiosity, arouses devotion, inspires activity, and enlarges sympathy. The serious student of Nature seems to be quickened by cosmic force, to be brought into the presence of the Maker. "Through Nature to God " ^ is a current phrase that conveys a truth familiar to the students of science, tech- nical as well as speculative, laboratory as well as library. Telescope, microscope, telemicrophotoscope, spectro- scope, reagent, flux, seismograph, quadrant, vernier, flame, 1 Ward, Psychic Factors in Civilization, chapters xxvii, xxviii, xxix. ' Fiske, Through Nature to God, p. 193. 324 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE furnace ; botanist, biologist, histologist, physicist, chem- ist, physician ; tool, medium, worker : all these reveal the same truth as do Huxley, Tyndall, Spencer, Darwin, Wallace, Fiske, that the whole, from ion to universe, from star-dust to mind, is the thought of God. John, the re- ligious poet, called the thought (the "logos") a person, ** without whom was not anything made that was made." ^ And Dante ^ saw that all Nature is interwoven with the love of God. It requires but very little philosophy to see that the ques- tion whether humanity is to conquer the slow cooling of the earth and to last forever, or is to have an end in the flesh as it had a beginning, has no relation to the question of find- ing God and His truth in Nature, Humanity is no entity, is a mere abstraction of thought, a concept, a term. Each indi- vidual may be an entity, a reality, an eternally living soul. For the individual, this particular Nature, the surrounding world, is real : each man in the course of his life may find this Nature his Maker and his God. An impermanent world, in- habited by a mortal humanity, may afford a sufficiency of experience for this period of time for each permanent and immortal man. The heavens may be rolled up as a scroll ; but the reader may never forget what was written thereon. In the long perspective of eternity, evil is not " inchoate good," not "good in the making," not even a sacrifice that good may come, a temporary scaffolding for the permanent struc- ture ; but both good and evil cease to be, our finite judg- ments no longer hold, and we are reduced to a proper place as creatures who cannot judge.^ Thus good and evil become inexplicable, their incidents mere occasions for the exercise of our finite powers ; and we are taught " to trust in the Lord " and to do always and only that which to us seems good. One cannot look upon Nature and remain at peace, as one cannot look upon men and human society and remain ^ John, Gospel, i, 6. 2 Paradiso, xxxiii, 85. ^ " I have learned," said Goethe, " quietly to revere the unfathomable." SCIENCE 325 at peace, or find peace, until one sees in all external processes the manner in which the Almighty works. And why then shall one do that which seems good ? Only because life seeks goodness as though it were a positive magnetic pole ; and the good promotes life. One who is the parent of ten children, another who rears two well, another who educates fifty, others who by their products or services feed, clothe, transport, en- lighten, heal, amuse, or in any other of familiar uncounted ways, direct and indirect, benefit hundreds, perhaps thousands of humankind : these all do good because they promote life. Therefore, America has done well to regard economic service as useful and as honorable as political or cultural.^ Consider the varied forms of life in a single foot of woodland sod. Spears and roots of grass, weed and flower seedlets, worms, insects, seeds and eggs, lives and germs of lives visible and invisible, unnumbered and in- numerable ! The great tree near by sends tiny rootlets into it. On that sod, the bird, the hare, and the snake feed. The rain waters it, the air dries it ; the sun warms, and the frost chills it. Here work all manner of physical forces, — capillary, molecular, atomic, kinetic, chemic. Underneath it subsists the planetary mass held in its course by sun and stars. This foot of sod, teeming with life, has all the interest of the universe ; and, as a part of the universe, it has a dignity beyond estimate. Thus Science, beginning with facts in the concrete, and proceeding through relations and generalizations, that involve all history, natural and human, arrives at the gateway of Philosophy, In this world of God, we may not honorably fasten our attention and affection too much upon the various sciences of Nature from geology to ecology, or upon the fields of investigation as determined by a particular instrument, whether telescope or radium tube, or upon any particular method, historical, laboratory, comparative, ^ Miinsterberg, The Americans^ chapters xi, xil 326 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE inductive, or any other ; Nature is more than Science, and the whole is far more worthy of our interest than any part. Moreover, Nature is the real teacher ; and, when the soul is responsive, offers lessons of incalculable value. " And Nature, the old nurse, took The child upon her knee, Saying : ' Here is a story-book Thy Father has written for thee.' " ^ Poets and naturalists have conspired with the hearts of men, have indeed expressed the innermost heart of man, by expounding and by exemplifying the lessons of Nature. In the education of the individual man, there is always a development that appears to be a revival of the ancient familiarity with Nature. But the appearance is far from the reality. By science, by literature, by the summer camp in the woods or upon the shore of ocean, we do not go "back to Nature." Knowledge builds in things visible the world of the city and builds in the invisible mind the world of Nature. The primitive sav- age of the fields and woods could not know or love Nature : the fear of the mysterious events and processes of the external world consumed him. Winters, storms, drouths, nights, wild beasts, reptiles, insects, diseases, acci- dents, deaths, births, wars, — an anarchy of circumstances not understood or misunderstood, — filled and terrorized his soul.^ All the glory of life has increased as man has removed from his starting-point to his goal, from his origin to his destiny : all the glory, — freedom, beauty, ^ Longfellow, To Agassiz. 2 A comparison of the Nature-fiction — e. g. De Foe's Robinson Crusoe, Weyman's Story of Ab, London's Before Adam — with the Nature-books of Thompson-Seton, Long, and their school, and with the Nature-bibles, — Hall's Adolescence, Darwin's Origin of Species and De- scent of Man, Drummond's Ascent of Man, — reveals vividly the desire of man to uncover the depths whence he came and the road by which he came. SCIENCE 327 wisdom, righteousness, love of Nature. To the man who has won power from struggle, patience from pain, straight- forwardness from difficulty, each virtue from evil over- come, each knowledge from darkness lighted, the en- trance into Nature is an exceeding, an intoxicating joy. Pictures of sky and hill, of river and plain, of marsh and sea, of mountain and forest, of stars and sun, of night and twilight, of snow and rain: sounds of **the little green leaves," ' songs of birds, plashing waves, roaring tempests, all manner of voices : insights and lessons'': for these he goes into the open country not yet noisome with men, and of these he composes reverie and dream while life lasts.2 The history of Nature fascinates him with its extinct animals, its changed seasons and climates, its human civilizations now vanished away, its evolution out of the primordial disorder, if such thing ever were. Cosmos out of Chaos ? Never. A universe out of no- thing.? Never. A surprising reconciliation grows in his soul. What has made me must be like me and must make all things like me. This lesson comes late. The great throng of Nature-lovers belong to our own times ; the names of Thoreau, Jefferies, Wordsworth, Bryant,' Whitman, Tennyson, Lanier, lighten our age with the halo of glowing reverence for the works of God. '* Shall any gazer see with mortal eyes, Or any searcher know by mortal mind ? Veil after veil will lift — but there must be Veil upon veil behind. " Stars sweep and question not. This is enough, That life and death and joy and woe abide ; ' And cause and sequence and the course of time And Being's ceaseless tide." ^ ^ Lanier, Sunrise. 2 jefferies, S^orjy of My Heart. 3 Edwin Arnold, The Light of Asia. CHAPTER XV ART A good man out of the good treasure of the heart bringeth forth good things. — Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, xii, 35. Cf. Luke, Gospel, vi, 45. In our heart of hearts, we are well assured that the truth that has made us free will in the end make us glad also. — Felix Adler, A Religion based ok Ethics, p. 34. Art consists in this, that one person consciously, by certain external signs, — move- ments, lines, colors, sounds, images, words, — so conveys to others feelings that he has experienced that they are affected by these feelings and live them over m themselves. — Tolstoi, What is Art? p. 74 (Johnston, translator). The ideals of Education, which is the proper concern of the School, are Intelligence, Efficiency, and Morality, — developed processes of intellection, conation, and emo- tion. The ideals of Culture, which is the proper concern of the University, are Science, Art, and Philosophy, — perfected processes of intellection, conation, and emo- tion. Thus by Education and by Culture, one may arrive at self-understanding and world-understanding. But one may achieve this end only by the long way of the mediate processes. One should know, do, judge ; out of the know- ledge let wisdom arise ; out of the doing, art ; out of the moral judging, a philosophy of conduct. Even observation and literacy, the first and yet least of the ideals of education, can never be perfectly achieved. No man lives who can see all the truth and understand the written thought of every other man, living or dead, and express every thought of his own. He who studies Sci- ence seriously and continuously at last knows how futile all his study is ; the unknown is so vast as to be essen- tially unknowable. Yet men have dreamed of becoming complete scholars and synthetic speculative scientists. Neither Von Ranke nor Lord Acton by long lives of ART 329 prodigious industry, supported by extraordinary talents, could master even all history, not to say all other fields of hurnan literary expression.^ Spencer essayed to master the meaning and details of all the sciences; but his phil- osophy, despite its mechanical and rational excellencies, fails as a science of sciences. True philosophy recognizes such an undertaking as literally " beyond reason." Still more daring would he be who in this modern age should undertake the mastery of all the arts, for though in its essence Science is one, the arts are many. Michael Angelo, indeed, was painter, sculptor, architect, poet, and singer. 2 We meet men and women to-day who play the piano and the violin, write verse and prose, sing, and paint. The polyglot who is eagerly attacking his thirteenth or thirtieth language has his counterpart in the artist who in clay, oil, water-color, bronze, stone, brick, in tone of flute, cornet, viol, organ, by essay, poem, narrative, argu- ment, seeks to express his thought in mode or form of beauty. Such universal artistry is a far more difficult enterprise than universal literacy. Artistry involves concepts of beauty, motor-efficiency, and that vigorous integrity of soul which we call conscience. To perceive beauty and to image it in the mind, to desire to make the image real in the world and to reduce hand and eye and brain, muscle, nerve, will itself, to successful obedience to the vision, and to think, to feel, and to perform everything in sweet harmony^ with genuine morality are the obligations, the life-long, insistent obligations ^ The curious should read the notes to Acton's brief essay, The Sttidy of History^ and discover how vast his reading was. 2 Raphael, dying at thirty-seven, had compassed an immense range and variety of subjects and technical methods. 3 As a comparatively trivial instance of perfect artistry notice the phrase of Milton, — "the quiet and still air of delightful studies," {Reason of Church Government, Introduction, book i.) A lesser artist would have fallen into verse and have written " still and quiet air," but Milton saw the true climax from quiet to still. 330 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE of the artist. Moreover, to each particular art are its peculiar modes and forms of beauty and its peculiar technical requirements of the human body. Few, there- fore, may rise to Art. Day after day, day and night, year upon year, the ideal and the performance consume the soul. The world is not merely careless of the artist, but essentially ignorant of him, blind to him.^ The mod- ern world requires every man to make a living, or to show cause or privilege to live without working for a living. With this, the world rests. The world (the age, the time), this world of the present passing economic regime, is not concerned with Art : ours is no time of cathedral-building. What few pageants we have pass and are forgotten ; our world-expositions are confessedly ephemeral ; our operas, our picture-galleries, our tapes- tries, our ceremonies are for the few. Yet Art is eternal, universal, public. And Art endures and conquers in the good and proper fullness of time that shields, sanctifies, and saves all truth. Of '* the masterless man," " afflicted with the magic of the necessary words " that " become alive and walk up and down in the hearts of all hearers," Kipling has said that " there is no room for pity, for mercy, for respect, for fear, or even for loyalty between man and his fellow man when the record of the tribe comes to be written." " It must satisfy alike the keenest vanity and the deep- est self-knowledge of the present ; it must satisfy also the most shameless curiosity of the future." "By the light of his words, our children will judge us"; and we all desire beyond everything else "to stand well with our children." ^ 1 " William Dean Howells said to me, * The artist, the only person in the world who is in the right, is made by our social system the only person who is in the wrong.' " Du Bois, " A Student of Drawing," Quarterly Illustrator, 1894, p. 183. 2 Address, Royal Academy, May 7, 1906, London. Report, N. V. Sttn. ART 331 The man who intends to become supreme in his art aims at nothing less than perfection, knowing that this alone can never be surpassed, and desiring it partly because it is unattainable. Life, health, pleasure, property, family, become to him, at most, but as means to his end, at worst, as nothing. He has some thing, perhaps many things, to express ; and in getting this thing out of him- self, in a perfect mode or form, he comes to see the real world as a spectacle, the ideal world as real. Then does the artist often commit what seem to the common world terrible offenses ; and so they would be in com- mon men. He has (or he thinks that he has) a message to give, a thought to create into an object, an emotion to teach for the social harmony ; and because of the burden, he goes roughshod about the world, or shrinks into solitude, or becomes intoxicated with the idea and wanders gently about, dissipating time and attention and energy, until in the great appointed hour, the whole, formed, illumined, vital, is ready to be said or sung or painted or built in the open world. Art is a tyrant ; the artist is a slave. One art requires the organic training of every limb, of eye and ear and touch, — the art of music upon the great reed-organ of orchestral power and choral beauty. Art is a taskmaster ; the artist is a workman under bonds. He who would master the art of painting must begin in his youth to por- tray the appearance of things and to project upon paper or canvas forms of beauty evolved in imagination or fancy. The price of sensitiveness to beauty is continual hearkening with obedience. There are many arts, general and special. The arts are beyond and above the sciences and cannot be scien- tifically classified and ranked. The sciences themselves weave their edges together, for who shall say where biology ends and psychology begins } Shall sociology, economics, political science, ethics, or jurisprudence 332 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE answer the question, To whom of right does ground-rent belong ? ^ Similarly, the arts may coalesce. Is the song- writer musician or poet ? Ruskin has explained elo- quently the fine distinctions between outline, light and shade, color, form, and substance. Potter or sculptor, athlete or acrobat, physician or surgeon, pianist or organ- ist, politician or statesman, writer or orator, novelist or essayist, poet or dramatist, the artist may die not know- ing to which art he would owe his posthumous fame. Art finds its origin in love of the beautiful, goes to work, acquires efficiency, at last finds expression. Of any particular example of this art, the most that the artist can say is that it expresses his ideal well enough for him not to desire to work longer upon it. He knows that no work of art can ever be perfect. Art never originates in anything else than in a passion to express completely the idea at work in the soul ; therefore, the artistic is the truthful made orderly, peace- ful, and general. Art can never be evaluated in terms of anything else. It is incommensurate with time, with labor, with pain, with pleasure, with property, with money. Art is worth everything or nothing. A work of art has no value because it cost this or that in education, labor, materials, self-denial, time to produce. It has no economic value even in relation to other works of art, though it has many other values, historical, cultural, crit- ical, moral. The world of art is a world by itself. It is the supreme objective product of man because it is his essence.^ The artisan is the man who has not risen above effi- ciency in his work. This may be due to various causes : 1 Certain Western States make homesteads exempt from debt. None yet grant and guarantee homesteads to all. It is no more right to bargain for homestead land than for slaves. Patten, New Basis of Civilization, p. 152. This proposition to place homestead land extra commercium is discussed at length in Pollock, The Land Laws, chapter vii. 2 " Art is man's nature." Boswell, Life of Johnson. ART 333 he may not sufficiently love beauty, he may work for the reward, he may be on the road to Art, but may not yet have reached its first gate, which is self-effacement ; he may have been prevented from journeying farther and may have been forced to remain an artisan. The true artist, whether he be poor or rich, is none the less a resident in the palace of life. He who carves wood well, makes it tell a story, may earn less money than his brother the carpenter ; but he may not take his brother with him into the palace. It may, indeed, be well with all the workers in houses and barns, in fields and mines, in shops and mills. Every genuine work that sustains life — life physical or psychical, individual or social — is good. Art is the second power of work. It issues from work of sufficient intelligence and devotion, because God has so made man that such work delivers his deeper nature from its imprisonment in circumstance. To him who desires to become an artist, the command is simple : Work in the faith that the end crowns all genuine, com- petent work. Whether the work be genuine depends upon the desire and the devotion, which are, we believe, somewhat within the control of the workman ; but whether the work be competent, or will become compe- tent, depends upon the intellect, which is with the Maker of the workman.^ If the work be not competent, if it can never become competent, the workman does not know it, for the self-criticism that tells one of his failure also conditions and forwards his success. The man with the instinct for the work that is to lead him to Art, "the capacity for taking infinite pains," knows at the outset clearly and simply that he must acquire the method of Art, the historical, and the general, if possible, the uni- versal method. He obeys this knowledge by studying the 1 " Intellect is not a power, but an instrument worked by forces behind it. Reason is an eye through which desires look." Spencer, Social Statics^ 1851, p. 350- 334 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE methods of other artists, the best artists known to him. He realizes fully that "individuality of method is but the effort of ignorance to imagine what has not been learned."^ True art is without individuality, the work alone exists and delights, not merely because the artist was self-forgetful when he wrought the work, but also because he had long ago discarded his own individual notions and opinions, seeking only and always the best, the most general, the ideal. The working efficiency that is the material of artistic skill may express itself in unremitting daily industry or in periods of excessive effort alternating with longer or shorter periods of exhaustion, rest, and recuperation. But it can never be developed late in life. When devel- oped in youth in certain modes and expended in certain directions, in manhood it may be transformed to other modes and set in other directions. Like electricity, it may drive machinery, produce light and heat, or trans- mit messages ; but also like electricity it must be itself produced or induced. Art finds its origin, therefore, in the release of the primal energy of the soul. Education must effect such a release, and must effect it while muscles and nerves and brain-cells are in process of form- ation, organization, and correlation. Americans and Englishmen might well learn of the French, the Italians, the Germans, the Japanese, the Chinese, and the Hindoos that Art lends beauty to life.^ Art is to life what the sky is to the earth. This truth has a very practical bearing. The joy in beauty continues unceasingly and renews itself by contemplation of the beautiful object. God made the human soul upon this fashion. The more a workman seeks to find beauty in his work, to make every product an art-product, the happier 1 Fromentin, Old Masters of Belgium and Holland, p. 177. 2 '* The environment transforms the animal, while man transforms the environment." Ward, Psychic Factors in Civilization, p. 257. ART 335 he is, for he is helping to fill the world with beauty and is filling his own memory with images of beauty. The finis of art would be a world made wholly beautiful. We cannot make American automobiles so good as the French, for one clear reason. Our mechanics work for wages, our engineers work for salaries, and our business men work for profits. The machine to be made is a means to the end. The French work for wages, for salaries, and for profits that they may go on making better and better machines. Each nation gets what it desires, — we Americans the wealth, the French the delight in fine machinery. Neither really " competes " with the other. Each travels a different road ; but each travels. To our Art defectiveness, we are blind, and therefore indifferent. We sometimes mourn that this man or that has no knowledge of history or of literature. Less often we charge his failure in life to inefficiency. Once in a while, we speak of one as law-honest, controlled only by conventional morals, having no genuine appreciation of general and essential morals. But with all our social self- criticism we seem to agree that to expect any one not a "professor" to know anything scientifically, or any one not an ** artist" to be able to make any object of art, or even to appreciate the object, is beyond common sense or discernible reason. Nor have we seriously or otherwise proposed this to ourselves, that it is our duty to society, to mankind, to the nation, and to each individual man to make of him, if we and he together can achieve this, a man of scientific knowledge, or, still better, of artistic power. We do not feel the beauty or sincerity or other value of what art we see ; we do not feel the truth or meaning or other value of what science we discern ; and having no feelings for the realities, we can have no desires for their presence or increase except in so far as perhaps we have inherited from nobler ancestors the 336 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE instincts for the beautiful or for the simply true.* As for women, one who struggles out of the social quick- sand and reaches the solid ground of science or the free water of Art must do so by her own strength, aided perhaps by some sister or brother scientist or artist, but derided and impeded by society. It is so all over Europe.? It has been so in all ages.-* By no manner of means. Hitherto the great civilizations, as far as their institutions have permitted, have always rejoiced to help the ambitious and consecrated man or woman. Western Europe still rejoices in the strength and zeal of the young. We present a curious anomaly. Our institutions are far more favorable to the rise of youth of talent and energy ; but, save in isolated communities, we are dead to the glory of the only true aristocracy, that of worth. The more honor and the more gratitude, there- fore, to those few communities and individual men that have forwarded the progress of youth in Science or in Art. However, the need is too great for individual or even community endeavor. The entire force of public and private education and culture ought to be directed toward producing as many as possible true scientists and artists, that the nation may be wise and the land be filled with the beauty of sincere and complete truth. Such truth must include the life of human emotion as well as of pure thought. Life as a whole resembles the architec- tonic grandeur of the musical orchestra or the architec- tonic complexity of the theatrical drama, — architectonic because it includes so many arts. Pictures, vistas, pano- ramas are swept across the vision of the soul ; and the soul responds with sentiments, emotions, despairs, and 1 Spencer was substantially, though not universally, correct when he said : " Desires are cravings for the return to consciousness of real feel- ings." Principles of Psychology , pp. 126, 273. We have never experi- enced these real feelings of music, of poetry, or of other arts. ART 337 ecstasies. These states and conditions of the soul Art crystalHzes in a melody, a symphony, an opera, a poem, a drama, a painting, a sculpture, a story, a novel, a design, an essay, — whatever form the artist who conceives the thought afresh finds his hand or voice or imagination ready to execute. Therefore truth in Art is the thing as the artist sees it, and seeing re-creates. The worlds of Science, Art, and Philosophy are all democracies. No man can say that it is greater or higher or profounder to discover a truth in geology than in zoology, in economics than in mathematics. At present a particular science may appear to be a cul de sac ; a day later there may open out from it a wide avenue into the universe. Nor may any one safely predict when or where or by whom the new way shall appear. There are, how- ever, at particular times, correlations, inclusions, exclu- sions, limits, disputed fields, that later may be changed but now are very real. Of the arts also, no man may safely predict what developments the future has in store. Art is democratic. No man may rightly say that a thing of beauty in one particular art is more beautiful than a thing of beauty in some other art. A poem as an art product does not transcend a cathedral ; or an opera, a drama ; or a statue, a painting. One may indeed be more important than another because at present it con- cerns more persons or more important persons ; but Giotto who built the tower sits in Art with Longfellow who wrote the sonnet : — How many lives, made beautiful and sweet By self-devotion and by self-restraint, Whose pleasure is to run without complaint On unknown errands of the Paraclete, Wanting the reverence of unshodden feet, Fail of the nimbus which the artists paint Around the shining forehead of the saint, And are in their completeness incomplete ! 338 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE In the old Tuscan town stands Giotto's tower The lily of Horence blossoming in stone, — A vision, a delight, and a desire, — The builder's perfect and centennial flower, That in the night of ages bloomed alone, But wanting still the glory of the spire. It is the technique in such art as this that conceals the art. This technique includes skill and judgment in these several respects : The master-artist possesses his body in every part that is concerned with his art, and directs it as a whole and in each part concerned ; therefore, he can do what he desires. This possession and this power of direction he secured by physical effort unremitted until the victory was won and his body was put under ; and these he maintains by continued effort. He has won over into the field of consciousness his emotions, passions, and desires, rationalizing them only in part but understanding them as wholes. He knows his funda- mental, original, primitive self. He has mastered the mechanical elements that concern his art, and all its tools and instruments and recording devices. By his tech- nical art, he expresses only what he understands. He is, therefore, substantially in his creative moods the master of his soul as he is at all times master of his body. He has gone out into life, has observed the facts, has dis- covered and to a degree interpreted the events, and has taken the lessons thereof to heart, by feeling their real- ity, their nearness, their akinness to his own experi- ences. He has enlarged his personality into sociality and thereby absorbed society as far as he knows it.^ He has found the way of escape out of his own introspectiveness into the objective world, can feel what another person might feel, achieves, it may be, various other personalities, and has forgotten the limitations of his own individuality. 1 Norton, " The Intellectual Element in Music," Studies in Philosophy and Psychology. ART 339 He knows the achievement of other artists. Lastly, he has now the mastery of the essential things present in consciousness in these moods and holds to them, discarding the non-essentials. Thus physical control, psychical understanding, social truthfulness, imagination that bodies forth ideas as realities, and judgment that selects and discards, conspire to make the artist ; but they cannot make the art-product. What the artist of any kind produces will fall into one of two classes : art-products of the first class represent- ing the syntheses of long reflective periods, maturing gradually in consecutive creative moods alternating with moods of reverie and criticism, and art-products of the second class representing the syntheses of sudden creat- ive moods that are apparently accidental and uncaused. To the first class belong the architectonic displays char- acteristic of Angelo, Dante, Milton, Goethe, Beethoven ; to the second, the sudden gusts of passionate art in Demosthenes, Byron, Poe, Heine. All the greater artists have achieved both kinds of success, — Shakespeare, Verestchagin, Wagner, Tennyson ; but in various degrees. Can such power be taught .■* No ; but if present, it can be inhibited, combined, saved, directed, utilized, and disciplined ; and this process culminates in Art. The triumphs of Art are higher than the triumphs of Science as such for several reasons : Art is a functioning of Science, a kind of higher applied Science, being im- possible without Science ; moreover, until Science finds a sufficient tool in some appropriate art-technic, it can- not accomplish its ends, nor does it convince the world until it has found some form or mode of art-expression ; and Science in itself, being essentially intellectual, does not stir the souls of men as does the least of the arts — for every art is essentially affective and affectional. Art is magic, is miracle, is incomprehensible and incredible. We do not know it or believe it or understand it : we 340 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE obey. Art masters the souls of the sons of men because it has first mastered the soul of the artist. Art is surrender to motives, delight in absorption in ideals, conviction of values : it is delivery from chaos into cosmos, from the fleeting into the eternal, from the particular into the universal. We love Art because it embodies and visions forth the love that the artist felt in it. And this is the final test of pseudo-art, wherein it fails ; that we regret its memory and resent its presence. CHAPTER XVI PHILOSOPHY There is one only good, that is, knowledge; and one only evil, that is, ignorance.— Diogenes Laertius, Socrates, xiv. Philosophy is completely unified knowledge. — Spencer, First Principles, part 2, chap- ter I, § 37- Whatsoever things are true, whatsoever things are honest, whatsoever things are just, whatsoever things are pure, whatsoever things are lovely, whatsoever things are of good report, if there be any virtue, and if there be any praise, think on these things. — Paul, Epistle to Phil, iv, 8. Thought takes man out of servitude into freedom. — Emerson, "Fate," Conduct of Life. By observation, one may acquire facts. By listening and by reading, one may receive facts. By study, one may organize facts into a body of knowledge. But the result of all the observation, reading, investigation, and consideration, of all the activity of the senses, the literacy, the diligence, the honest inquiry, the science, the art, and the knowledge of years of life may yet be disap- pointing, even disconcerting. The natural, or at least the logical, culmination of Intelligence is Science ; of Efficiency, Art ; of Morality, Philosophy. Science is the second power of Intelligence ; Art, the second power of Efficiency; Philosophy, the second power of Morality. The experience that in thinking functions first as Intel- ligence by longer processes of the undiscovered essential spirit may function later as Science, whose substance is the ideal ; the experience that in willing functions first as Efficiency by longer processes of the same spirit may function later as Art, whose substance is the motive ; and the experience that in feeling functions first as Morality may function later as Philosophy, whose substance is the 342 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE intent. The mystery and miracle lie in the functioning, which some may perform but others may not, whose nature and essence are hidden in the spirit until man knows himself even as he is known. Culture itself, rightly considered, is but a higher, a sublimated stage of education. And the well-educated man does not rest content until his developed powers have borne the fruits of culture, which are Science, Art, and Philosophy. Education may be completed in adolescence ; but culture, the refining of powers, the manifesting of results, the evidence that education has been worth while, is the occupation of manhood and the solace of old age. It pleases the Creator of man to give him in youth a certain capital, greater or less, a certain number of talents. Of manhood, God requires the capital to be put to use. In old age. He asks an accounting.^ It is well for us to accept the fact, to rejoice that the burden of responsibility does not grow heavier with each year of life. Neither youth nor manhood can dispassionately take toll of itself, for youth is full of hope that more power may yet be given, and manhood is busy with faith- ful discharging of its trusts. At last, however, in the normal life, not cut off before the second twilight, there comes old age, calmly ; and its coming is welcome. Then man looks back and measures the track from dawn till dark. By this retrospect, life gathers to itself complete- ness.^ To the life-process, by which the soul of the human being comes to the only perfectness possible to the finite creature, the education-culture-process is closely ana- logous. For Philosophy, like old age, busies itself with retrospection and seeks harmony and reconciliation. And as, in old age, one who sees what he has done that he ought not to have done, and what he has not done that 1 Parable of the talents. Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, xxv, 15-25. ' Shaler, The Individual^ chapter x. PHILOSOPHY 343 he ought to have done, comforts one's self with sorrow for errors and with faith that the great temporal world, which one is about to leave, will not miss one, so the philosopher who knows how great are the gaps in his knowledge, how prone to fallacies all his opinions are, how self-deceiving all his motives, comforts himself with the universal outlook. The philosopher — whether his life be mainly good or evil as others view it, whether he be Aristotle or Spinoza or Schopenhauer, historian, primitive ballad-singer, ruler, mechanic, farmer, man-in- the-street — seeks to order his knowledge in a system wherein the principles radiate outward from a central thesis with due rank of superiority and subordination. He knows how incomplete the system is, that indeed he can never complete it ; but by means of the system, he is reconciled to life. Men differ not as beings with and beings without Philosophy, but as philosophers of various kinds, extents, and qualities. Ignorant men are not less but rather more prone to philosophizing than men of larger knowledge. They are quite as likely to arrive at items of real truth as are any other men (this is true empirically and also logically, for were it not true, then life would be both a deception and a wrong, and the giver of life entirely evil) ; but they cannot compass as great a round of truth. Therefore, their philosophical contribution to their fellow men is less. Moreover, there is but little likelihood that an ignor- ant man may discover any new truth, make any original or larger synthesis, or bring forth anything that shall be forever afterward indispensable to mankind. And yet in times past unlearned men have made such dis- coveries, for the human soul is not utterly dependent upon formal circumstance and opportunity for knowledge of the truth. Moses, Paul, and Kant asserted the original power of the soul to know the truth. It may be that knowledge of truth is as much a constituent part or form 344 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE of the immaterial soul as the soul is a constituent part or form of the material cells by which heredity flows from parents to child, in generation after generation. Cer- tainly th*e power to recognize truth and the instinct for it are part and parcel of our common humanity.^ Cer- tainly the minds even of ignorant men revolve and try to resolve the problems and the principles of what world they know, meaning to find the heart of it, to make a universe of it. In such state, each man in his degree is a philosopher.^ It is not, however, with the natural, the seemingly inevitable, philosophies of ignorant or half-taught men that the science of education is concerned, but it is rather with historical philosophy and particularly with the highest philosophy to which man in the modern age has at last attained. This highest philosophy is by no means wholly modern : it is very largely the philosophy that has survived the academic discussions and the life- and-death conflicts of many ages and of many peoples. No summary of this final philosophy can be compassed in the pages of a brief chapter : nor is such a summary logically within the purview of this book. While in a certain sense, the educational ideals of the first round — Intelligency, Efficiency, and Morality — express them- selves in concrete examples and are conditioned by such exemplification, the ideals of the second round — Science, Art, and Philosophy — are independent of particular in- stances and modes. Of the highest ideal in this cycle. Philosophy, this is true in nearly every sense, as appears in every definition of Philosophy. Let us call it "the science of sciences" or "theory of rational conduct" or 1 '* Two things fill the mind with ever-increasing awe and admiration : the starlit heavens above, and the moral law within," Kant, Works (Rosen- kranz transl.), vol. viii, p. 312. 2 This, of course, is the lesson taught by the novelists, conspicuously by Dickens, George Eliot, and Hawthorne. PHILOSOPHY 345 "unitary view of knowledge" or *'of the world" or "of life " or " system " or '' history of pure thought," Philo- sophy is always incorporeal, remote from material things, and absorbed in the things that are spiritual, — that is, in the life beyond, above, and within living things. Sci- ence is content to search, to know, and to understand, Art to do, to make, and to appreciate ; but Philosophy is con- tent only to think, to feel, and to desire. Science is out in the world, Art is forthputting one's self into the world ; but Philosophy is bringing back into one's self all that one may of the world of Nature and of Man. The philosophy that eventuates may hold that Nature transcends Man, produces and reduces him, or may hold, diametrically opposite, that Man conceives Nature, gives it the appear- ance of rationality, and endures before Nature was and after it shall have passed : whatever the opinion be, if it be able to render its reason, it is still Philosophy. Because Philosophy is essentially the gathering and folding of the world into one's self, and, therefore, more purely human than Science or Art, it is both historical and personal. The wealth of one's philosophical treas- ures depends upon one's knowledge of the philosophies of men since they began to record and to display them ; but to their possessor the value of these treasures de- pends upon his ability and inclination to use and to increase them by his own thinking. To say this is to say more than that the eye of the intellect sees in all objects what it brought with it the means of seeing,^ for it includes more than seeing, — considering, rejecting, accepting, absorbing, utilizing, interpreting. And it is also to say more than that the content of the intellect comes from experience,^ for it includes the contents of heart and of will also. There is an historical philosophy 1 Carlyle, Collected Works, vol. v, p. 309 (now a very common ob- servation ).. 2 Caldwell, Schopen/iaiier^s System in its Philosophical Significajice. 346 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE that is contained in logic, in ethics, in metaphysics, and in poetry ; and there is another historical philosophy incor- porate in deeds, in institutions, and in customs. The books one may read, the deeds one must diligently and anxiously consider. The books are jewels; the deeds, metallic ores. This folding of the world into one's self is the human quality that makes man what he is, an alien from all animals, a possible son of God upon earth. According to his disposition, this infolding induces in the individ- ual philosopher his particular and characteristic mood; indeed, it converts his individuality into personality. For although personality transcends individuality, even transforming it, reducing (as it were) the various ores of the original soul, each to its pure metal, precious or base, overlaying the coarse with the fine, no man, what- ever be his education, can go entirely free from the orig- inal heritage and bondage of temperament, disposition, and aptitude.^ Whether for good or for ill, the past of heredity can never be wholly eradicated or converted. Regenerations are never original generations. The individual gives to his philosophy the color of his own soul. The philosophy of no two men can ever be the same ; at most, we are but sympathetic occupiers of similar grounds. As Plato interpreted Socrates, express- ing, expanding, and expounding him, far beyond his own powers of self-revelation, as Fichte, Schleiermacher, Schel- ling, Hegel, and all the rest of the brood of the post- Kantians, without perfect agreement among themselves, developed, improved, corrected, and modified the mas- ter, none ever wholly agreeing with him, so all of us, whether empiricists, materialists, rationalists, monists, pluralists, naturalists, idealists, or anything and every- 1 " The biological origin of mind is a main avenue to the deeper secrets of the universe and of the futurity of man." Nichols, Philosophical Review, September, 1892, p. 534. PHILOSOPHY 347 thing else at the same or at different times, disagree upon some articles of our particular faiths, as our lives or our words invariably show. And this color of the soul displays itself in contradictory ways. One man who is by nature gloomy becomes a disciple of the philosophy of fate because that doctrine comports with his own mood, fits him easily, interprets himself; while another of the same sad nature dons the garb of the absolute idealist, hoping against hope, as it were, that the natural man in him is entirely wrong, and that the will of the indi- vidual is kin and companion with the will of a gracious, personal, immanent God. The same experience functions in one soul in one mode, in others in other modes. Yet civilization seems to induce persistently the mode of melancholy. " Every man hath evil enough of his own ; and it is hard for a man to live soberly, temperately, and religiously ; but when he hath parents and children, brothers and sisters, friends and enemies, buyers and sellers, lawyers and physicians, a family and a neighbor- *hood, a king over him, or tenants under him, a bishop to rule in matters of government spiritual, and a people to be ruled by him in the affairs of their souls ; then it is that every man dashes against another, and one relation requires what an- other desires ; and when one speaks, another will contradict him ; and that which is well spoken, is sometimes innocently mistaken, and that upon a good cause, produces an evil ef- fect ; and by these and ten thousand other concurrent causes, man is made more than most miserable." ^ Intelligence, Efficiency, Morality ; Science, Art : all these add knowledge or skill to man ; but Philosophy adds nothing of either kind. One may study all the histories of philosophies and all the philosophies them- selves (and, as has been said so emphatically, every philosopher must have his own philosophy) ; in the end, he will know nothing that he did not .know before and 1 Jeremy Taylor, Works, vol. ix, p. 316. 348 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE have no skill that he did not have before. And yet, paradoxical as it ssems, unless he has been unable to apprehend them in the least particular, he is certain to be a different man, in the greater or less degree that marked his apprehension of philosophic truth, for Phil- osophy, though not constructive and certainly not de- structive, is reconstructive. No philosophic truth ever was or can be new truth, ever did or can destroy any old truth. Thus, Philosophy has no war with Science or Religion or Art or Politics or any other systematic activity of man. The business of Philosophy is to evalu- ate all truths in the term of truth itself, to the extent that the philosopher himself knows it, — to collate, to arrange, to systematize, to interpret, and to appreciate them, — in order that the philosopher may possess a co- herent, rational, truthful world of thought, of action, and of affection. Consequently, with every new truth ac- quired, the philosopher is obligated by his profession of philosophy, whether the profession be private only or both private and public, to square his philosophy again so that the new truth be orientated and correlated within the philosophy. And, therefore, it follows that the man with a mind wide open to the world of reality never has a finished, final philosophy. Or, to put this conversely, a true philosophy is never complete ; but like life itself forever changes and grows. What of the foregoing is true regarding the philosophy of the individual as he proceeds through life is substan- tially true of Philosophy itself as a living body of thought. In the history of Philosophy, every truth and every opin- ion has had a place, a meaning, a value in philosophical progress. A sane man has never had a false philosophy : imperfection, incompleteness, let us say frankly, ignor- ance, — but not falsity, not even error without return, — has characterized the opinions of men regarding Nature, Being, Knowledge, Duty, Freedom, and Things-to-Come. PHILOSOPHY 349 In other words, from Thales to the latest modern, Philo- sophy has advanced continuously and has widened immensely its line of march. ^ To say this is, of course, to define somewhat my own posi- tion. Every philosophy, whether of Democritus or of Berke- ley, is substantially true, is explicable in the light of the age, of the land, and of the quality of the particular philosopher declaring it. Moreover, when of sufficient importance to be considered by others, it has necessarily been incorporated in the content of historical philosophy. The reason is simple : human reason is one among all men, conditioning humanity. Otherwise, there can be no truth for all men, for most men, for some men, or for any man. No sane man can reason un- reasonably, untruly, erroneously ; but, of course, he may be wrong or imperfectly informed as to his data. To say this is not to juggle with the term sanity, but is to use it scientific- ally : since sanity is the power to reason correctly, which postulates correct reason as the common possession of hu- manity and truth as the certain attainment of reasoning men. We do, in fact, go even so far as to say that no one can reason wrongly, for that is nothing else than not reasoning at all. From this dialectic, which might, no doubt, be pre- sented more in detail, the familiar conclusion of the text fol- lows, that every individual philosophy has been a contribution, great or small, and never a detriment to the sum total of Philosophy. The extent of its contribution has been measured by its originality. Every man tends to recapitulate the philosophy of the race unless he interferes with the natural process by reading philosophy. Such philosophy as springs from life in its course must of necessity be psychologically 1 "Any one who is acquainted with the history of nineteenth century thinking would say that one of its great characteristic achievements is to have shown Nature to include both what was previously known as natural and what was previously known as spiritual." Caldwell, Schopen- hauer's System in its Philosophical Significance, p. 23. 350 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE sound and historically uniform.^ Of necessity, each man who faces life intelhgently must ask the great questions, — Whence ? Whither ? Why ? How ? The forms and occasions of these questions differ, the substance is ever the same.^ The answers also vary in their forms, though not in their content. But to reach the questions too early, to anticipate the anxieties of life before experience has given the facts and the skill required to endure them, to run where one should walk : this is to imperil sanity itself, as the suicide of many a young student so sadly testifies. Life itself in its haphazard too often forces us into unnatural positions with relations essentially incomprehensible to the insufficiently experienced.^ "Beware who ventureth," said Gilder of the sonnet, — " For like a fjord the narrow floor is laid Deep as mid ocean to the sheer mountain walls." Such a sea is Philosophy, — a sea of every climate and of storm and calm. But the sea is for sailors only to live upon, to enjoy, to grow strong thereon. A single voyage, as the passenger of a book or two, is enough for most. For the rest of our philosophy, we content ourselves with the tidal inlets that cut into our lands and with the distilled waters that fall upon us gently in showers from the sky. The philosophy of the books is indeed often a bitter brine, — product as it is often of life in some nar- row and peculiar reality. Life as a whole is not life as seen ^ " The real philosopher ought not to be content with a view of the world that can be fully expressed in abstract conceptions." Caldwell, Schopenhauer' s System in its Philosophical Significance, p. 127. 2 "The individual now confronts the world with as pronounced a sense of wonder and of mystery as he did in the morning of creation." Caldwell, Schopenhauer'' s System in its Philosophical Significance, p. 20. 3 This may be stated mechanically in the terms of sociolog)' and of psychology : as sociology, in that the individual faces the problems of larger groups or different groups, not yet understood ; and as psychology, in that he faces situations, before his soul, in motives, intellections, affec- tions, intentions, and habits, is ready for them. PHILOSOPHY 351 by this German mysogenic sensualist or that French de- cadent, nor even by philosophers generally (for Philo- sophers are but a class, and not the type, of humanity) ; but it is life seen by all men and women in all lands and ages, and this life is good and satisfying as its multipli- cation, extension, and intensification demonstrate to the observant. Because in its natural course the philosophy of the individual repeats that of the race, the history of Philo- sophy and the study of comparative philosophy, which displays the stage attained by particular nations, take on compelling significance. An extended review of the history of Philosophy would be disagreeable here to the common sense of the competent. It is enough to remind ourselves that Philosophy began with a naturalism that tried to construct a theogony to the end that man might relate himself wisely to the reality behind appearance and opinion. In other words, Primitive Religion was the mother of Philosophy ; and Reason, seeking to under- stand the world, was its father. Conscience taught man re- verence, reason led him to postulate purposiveness, and ex- perience proved to him that the purposiveness was not the caprice of individual gods, but a universal plan. As the theo- logians had grown out of the priests, so physicians (physicists) were to grow out of theologians. School succeeded school, each learning from its predecessors and its rivals. Men dis- cussed matter, change, permanence, elements, being, becom- ing, and anticipated many a principle of the modern sciences. Philosophy soon discovered itself as the crucible of all know- ledge. ' Materialism arose to reveal and to offset spiritualism ; and pluralism arose to explain monism. Methods of reasoning are developed and systematized ; and we are able to isolate the principles of hypothesis, logic, dialectic, syllogism, induc- tion. Space, time, motion, series, cause, quantity, quality, and relation are disclosed. Infinity and limitation, eternity and period are considered. Creation and destruction, life and death, society and the individual, one after another, present 352 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE themselves upon the philosophic stage. Man is learning himself, as a whole, and in detail. Knowledge and skepticism, truth and falsity, reason and sensation, God and man, soul and body, and many another antithesis furnish foci for the ellipse of thought. After several centuries, metaphysics comes to know itself and to cast out physics ; and Philosophy assumes a superiority to Science never afterwards to be questioned in its own thought. Then Philosophy proper becomes critical ; and symptoms of a new differentiation, that of psychology, appear. In Socrates and Plato, criticism and idealism, the assertion of moTa.\ity per se, the assertion likewise of Philo- sophy as supreme, and the discovery of ideas as the true realities constitute Philosophy the guide of human life. For those who can understand, Philosophy has become forever the highest achievement of the mind of man. Aristotle demon- strates this by accomplishing the broadest and most original synthesis of knowledge ever attempted, not to say success- fully carried out. We are now upon the edges of the world-transformations by the Roman conquest, the Teutonic invasions, and the suc- cess of Christianity. Philosophic progress, like all progress, flows with many windings, often subterraneously in darkness. Men inquire Avhether life is worth living, how to make it tol- erable, how to get the greatest happiness out of it, what is pleasure, what is truth, what is virtue. Polytheism, pantheism, theism, supernaturalism, agnosticism : each goes into the battle, and truth organizes victory. Stoicism confronted the world of politics ; but the Caesars represented laws and forces triumphant at certain stages in every civilization known to history. The truth in stoicism is eternal, rises again and again, and endures. Men inquired whether speculation is not useless and patient obedience to Nature the one duty. From Rome, the centre of Philosophy moved to Alexandria ; and Hellenism sought reconciliation with Judaism. Into that struggle of thought, monotheistic Christianity, with its dogma of the Son of God become man to save mankind and men, projected a new, a genuine, religion, an intense faith such as civilization had not known since Zeus ruled in Greece, Jupiter PHILOSOPHY 353 in Rome, and Osiris in Egypt. Over against the Utopia of the Stoa for the solace of the wise and the great, was the Kingdom of God, preached by Jesus and Paul, for the com- forting of the ignorant and the humble. Eclecticism, Gnos- ticism, Neo-Platonism, Buddhism, mysticism, rationalism, theurgy, fill the minds of philosophers and overflow upon their parchments. The world that Parmenides thought to resolve into simplicity itself has become complicated beyond the power of reason to resolve : the question, Can God commun- icate with man ? baffles Philosophy. The doctrine of the Logos is revived, the Christian world recovers Plato and later discovers Aristotle, who for a thousand years is accounted " the philosopher." In that " long waste of years " until Des- cartes, the philosophic world debated over realism and nom- inalism (that is, idealism and materialism), over every theo- logical doctrine, from the nature of God to the method of redemption. Asceticism, imperialism, revelation, determinism, nature, freedom of the will, innate ideas, theosophy, a new skepticism, kept scholasticism busy through these centuries while other great questions slept. Then arose Giordano Bruno to set Philosophy once more free from Religion as Soc- rates had set it free two thousand years before ; and to die as he had died, because State and Church were one and politics and religion indistinguishable. He took his first principle from the new physics : God is natura natiirans, and the world natura naturata. God is the universe transcending the world of space and of time. After the Italian came an Englishman, Francis Bacon, discoverer and expounder of a method, the re- lation of Science to Metaphysics. Descartes discovered the question and answer, reviving for metaphysics the certainty of Science. " I believe that I may know," said the Scholastics. " I doubt that I may know," queried Descartes, to reply, "I think, that is, I am." Thus, the world of Philosophy found a central sun of certain knowledge about which to revolve. Spinoza, Leibnitz, Berkeley, Hume, Kant, Fichte, Comte, Hegel, Darwin, Spencer, with their respective pantheistic, atomistic, idealistic, critical, rational, positivistic, scientific, monistic, evolutionary, and synthetic philosophies, follow in 354 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE close succession, as nations, politics, and philosophies expand and multiply.^ Anthropomorphism — God in the image of man — is long since dead. Darwin has taught us the divine method of evo- lution by natural selection, and De Vries, the discoverer of new elementary species by mutation, has supplemented the doctrine of the origin of species by inherited small variations. Hall has demonstrated that the soul as well as the body is immensely old, a silent treasury of forgotten but ineradicable pasts. Whole departments have been established in philo- sophy, teleology, epistemology, ontology, ethics, metaphysics ; and psychology, integrated decades ago, is itself breaking up into genetic, physiological, intellectual departments, not long hence to be separate sciences. As for physics, matter has become force, centres of energy ; and physics (natural philo- sophy) has broken into a score of sciences. The early Hel- lenic philosophy nurtured every one of these modern sciences, from chemistry to sociology and from metaphysics to biology. The old idea that it is worth while to know historical philosophy that one may appropriate its light for one's own pathway has broken down from several causes. The mass of it is beyond the powers and opportunities of most men to acquire ; the gist of it — the reasons and the conclusions — is all necessarily contained in the most recent modern philosophy ; the whole needlessly excites the soul by reviving what for most of us may well lie dead ; and the great questions have all been isolated and may be studied in their integrity, freed from the false issues of the outgrown past.^ What is worth while is familiarity with these ques- tions and with their most profitable answers. This famil- iarity involves understanding certain terms : materialism, ^ Cf. Harris, Address, Social Culture in the Form of Education and Religion, Congress of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, 1904. [Rogers, ed.] Vol. viii, First Paper. 2 Cf. Perry, Approach to Philosophy, of which this proposition is the thesis. PHILOSOPHY 355 dogmatism, rationalism, idealism, pluralism, monism, determinism, reality, matter, force, will, reason, God, ego, Nature, voluntarism, morality, good, truth, beauty, love. The great questions are : Does God live in and love the world ? Am I immortal ? May I become so ? Is will, reason, or emotion the dominant quality in God ? in man ? What is right ? Does God transcend Nature ? Is Nature or the universe God ? ^ Is Nature primarily spir- itual or mechanical ? Is it possible to know goodness, truth, beauty ? These questions take innumerable forms. Can man know anything } Yes, answered Descartes. What does this include .? asked Kant. And modern Philosophy accepts his answer, which is that man can certainly know his own thought. "Nature," says one historian of Philosophy, "is an evolution, of which infinite Perfection is both the motive force and the highest goal."^ One who knows this philosophy, understanding the reasons for it, has attained almost the highest stage of which man is capable. He may not be able to express it adequately, perfectly, uniformly in his conduct, because practical life seeks but cannot fully realize its ideals ; yet he has the possibility of reaching the highest stage. This possibility, this desire for perfection, this sense of imperfection glorifies the world about him and his own life also. As the universe dignifies each star and planet, so Philosophy dignifies mind and man. By its philosophy, every age stands or falls ; by his philosophy, each man reveals himself to those who may understand.^ 1 *' I have read somewhere that Philosophy has always been chiefly engaged with the inter-relations of God, Nature, and Man. The Greeks occupied themselves mainly with the relations between God and Nature, and dealt with Man separately." The Christian Church thought of God and Man and neglected Nature. Modern philosophers think of Man and Nature and cannot remember God. Ball, History of Mathematics, p. 281. 2 Weber, translated by Thilly, History of Philosophy, p. 603. 3 Cf . Home, Philosophy of Education, p. 281. 3S6 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE In education and culture, therefore, the true function of Philosophy, the motive for its study, is the rationaliz- ing of the individual by relating his thought to historical and contemporaneous thought, by balancing his idiosyn- cracy over against general humanity, by universalizing the man in the atmosphere of infinity, eternity, reason- able cause, of absolute duty to God, and of rational serv- ice to humanity. Thus conscience becomes intelligent, energetic, and sensitive; and the will-to-live is justified by knowledge of what is worth while and sweetened by love of fellow sojourners upon the world, scaffolded by time, space, cause, and every other of the present limita- tions of the soul in man. For the categories of the human mind are in a sense limitations as he passes out of ignorance into the light. "There is no darkness but ignorance," said Shakespeare.* And we are as much puzzled in it as the Egyptians in their fog. But because of our effort to see light we can- not employ all our energy to see other things and phases of this universal world. To direct energy, to withhold its dissipation, is to limit it. Thus, the very development of our finiteness by directing it to ends fences it in with barriers ; as we grow intense we withdraw our extensions of reverie, abstractedness, vague longings. The philo- sophy of this appears in the theory of education by knowledge incorporate in this inquiry into the theory of education. Knowledge as such, knowledge consisting of items stored in the memory, flitting about in conscious- ness, subject to sporadic, spontaneous, undesired recall, is of little direct use. In fact, as soon as such items of information, as we say, become so disciplined as to be of use, they become organized, systematized, and subject to intentional recollection. Mere information is one of the two "mothers" of interest in the human soul ; the other is inherited instinct. It may be that only such ^ Twelfth Night, Act iv, Scene ii. PHILOSOPHY 357 information as supplies the demand of some instinct inherited as taste is found interesting. We may say that knowledge functions as interest, and that this function- ing of knowledge is its lowest, most elementary mode of action. In its passive aspect, such informing knowledge is a form of thought ; in its active aspect it is a mode of thinking. In respect to this matter, it is perfectly true that one may know too much for his own good, for one to whom the opportunities have come to observe and to read many things may be found in a condition of excess- ive mental dissipation. All his thinking will be peri- pheral.^ The central consciousness is vague, extense, and unillumined. His thoughts radiate outward, not focally. In the process of gratification by being supplied with facts, interests function as desires, purposes, and judg- ments. It is at this point that man discovers his three- fold nature, — emotion, conation, and intellection ; heart, will, and intellect. All these are but attitudes or disposi- tions toward truth. Emotion accepts or believes truth and directs it internally ; conation uses truth and exer- cises it externally ; intellect confronts truth to know and to examine it. Desires and purposes, combining, function as motives. Desires and judgments, combining, function as ideals. Purposes and judgments, combining, function as intentions. Motives, ideals, and intentions, combining, function as habits ; and habits, combining, function as character. Knowledge, then, functioning in its first power as judgment, becomes in its second power an ideal, and in its third a habit ; and the habit, functioning as the fourth power (as it were) of knowledge, becomes the sense of duty or of necessity or of righteousness. 1 He realizes too little the truth that " in comparison with our know- ledge, Being is inexhaustible " (Hoffding, Problems of Philosophy, p. 112), and in trying to exhaust the opportunities of learning the facts of Being wrecks knowledge itself by accumulating too much and constructing too little. 358 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE Knowledge functions, again, as desire ; becomes inten- tion ; becomes habit ; and blossoms as the sense of utility or of value or of goodness. Once more, knowledge func- tions as purpose ; proceeds to judgment ; is established as habit ; and evolves finally as the sense of conduct or of decorum or of beauty. Thus by origination and process the right, the good, and the beautiful, — the true, the kind, the desirable, — derive in due order from know- ledge, the form proper to mind, the food by which it grows from spirit into reality. The sum of one's original instincts is one's tempera- ment ; the sum of one's interests is one's disposition. Infancy develops instincts and inhibits them ; child- hood develops interests and, by absorbing, outgrows them ; youth develops desires, purposes, and judgments, and forgets them in the higher life of later adolescence, in which they reappear strengthened and glorified as motives, ideals, and intentions ; maturity develops and systematizes habits, and old age summarizes them all as character, which is the true expression of wisdom, our personal solution of the problems of love and hate, of good and evil, the real form of the personal soul. For instincts as compared with rationalized habits areas shapes compared with forms, and as acts compared with processes. Absolutely universal is the mission of mechanism ; entirely subordinate to spirit is mechanism ; but mechanism by removing obstructing shapes and by devising appropriate forms, by inhibiting bad acts and disciplining activity until it becomes due process and reliable conduct, delivers lawfully the spirit from bondage to license and proposes it as an integral, free soul, dis- playing character and ready for a better work, a harder discipline and, we may hope, a happier life later else- where. CHAPTER XVII HEALTH AND HOLINESS So every spirit as it is most pure, And hath in it the more of heavenly Hght, So it the fairer body doth procure To habit it, and it more fairly dight With cheerful grace and amiable sight, For of the soul the body form doth take. Spenser, Hymn in Honor of Beauty. If we give more to the flesh than we ought, we nourish an enemy ; if we give not to her necessity, we destroy a citizen. -Saint Gregory, Homilies, iii, secund. parte Ezech. (Quarles, Emblems., p. 51). Mmd makes the man, and our vigor is in our immortal soul. — Ovid, Metamorphoses xiii. ' Therefore, all things whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye even so to them. — Matthew, Gospel, vii, 12, a saying of Jesus. To be hale, healthy, whole is the greatest blessing in life. In civilization, health seems to be conditioned by intelligence, knowledge, ambition, and morality rather than to condition them ; seems to be a result rather than primarily a cause. And for two reasons. In civilization, many physically unfit persons become parents. And civilization seems to wreck the health of very many. It is difficult to measure health and healthy persons quan- titatively, statistically. The truth may perhaps appear upon two investigations, one negative, the other by enumeration. Whether born healthy or not, in civilization one may easily lose one's health because of lack of intelligence, as a child, by fault or deficiency of parents, as an adult, of one's own motion ; bad or insufficient or irregular feeding, darkness of abode or working-place, bad air, dampness, excess of alcoholic drinks, or of tobacco, or of drugs, or of sexual gratification, deficiency of sleep, 36o THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE inactivity of body, in short, failure to understand, by observation of others and by introspection of one's self, the relations of cause and effect. There are in civilized so- ciety but few persons who are strong, active, vital, healthy. Again, from sheer lack of knowledge, health may be wrecked by a single ignorant act or slowly exhausted by a series of acts. He who really knows human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene and the facts and principles of social hygiene, who can realize their truth and is willing to observe their lessons, may be able to remain well in civilization, which is the city. Even more. Unless born deformed or deranged, however weak one may be, one may win health, surprisingly good health, by accumulat- ing physiological knowledge and obeying its teaching.^ Nature means men to be well, strong, and active. But one may be intelligent and well informed, and yet weak or sickly, or as we often say " morbid," predisposed to disease and not combating the idea. It is necessary also to desire to be well. Herein the mind controls the body ; not, indeed, to the extent of curing serious diseases, of healing broken bones, of immediately revolutionizing its structure and tissue. But as Nature does all vital things, quietly and in order, so does she assist the weak to grow well. Though as a race, as communities, as in- dividuals, men do ten thousand things to offend the good mother of us all, she is still ever ready to forgive, pro- vided we repent. The secret of ten thousand thousand miraculous "cures" lies in the cells that Nature is al- ways glad to build anew, provided the organizing soul desires it. To the dipsomaniac, to the sex-pervert, to the hypochondriac, to the neurasthenic. Nature says : If you will but endure the agony of repentance, I will make you whole again. But all these may count for naught, — intellect, knowledge, ambition, — for the soul of the health of the body is the soul itself : let us call it ^ e. g. the famous old book, //ow to Get Strong, by Blaikie. HEALTH AND HOLINESS 361 prosaically "sound morals." One may so sin against Nature or against man as not to care to get well again in this life. Such an one desires surcease of sorrow in death. But the immoral do live long and prosper ? A few, yes ; but not many. " For the wages of sin is death." Man should live to be eighty or a hundred, as we all know. But the cemeteries are full of the graves of those who have died before their time ; nor do the burial certificates tell the truth. In many cases, — shall I say two in three or nine in ten .? — instead of " pneumonia," "consumption," " brain disease," " cholera infantum," and any other of the long and usually tragic list, — for the death of a man, like that of the animal, is usually a tragedy,^ — should be written " a violation of the law of Nature." The pity of these early deaths, which cost the race so much, is that so many of them are the results of social rather than of personal immorality. They are the effect of the environ- ment, the "fates," not the choices of the individuals destroyed. Perhaps, in the mind of God, all sins are the result of such fate. Who is to hold the child of the slum guilty when he surrenders to drunkenness and lechery ? Not he who never knew the slum. Who is to hold the child of the palace guilty when he surrenders to the dissipation and too often the sin of the society that bred him ? Not he who never knew the palace. Who is to hold the child of the country suddenly exiled into the city responsible for the unmooring of conduct in that maze which must appear to him hysteria ? Not he who never knew the exile and the ecstasy. We are not qualified to judge. We must, however, examine the record. Perhaps these immoralities, at least the personal immoralities, which destroy health, life, soul, are in some measure prevent- able by personal education. We educate for law, for business, for teaching, for ^ Burroughs, Long, Thompson-Seton all emphasize this fact. 362 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE " society," for carpentry, for forestry, and for what not, save for living. Why not educate for living ? Why not educate for healthy physical living ? Why not ? The only reason is because wq do not. And this, of course, is no reason at all — but a confession. The essence of living is health ; but in civilization health can seldom be attained or even maintained by direct effort. The first prerequisite to health is life itself ; and in civilization one receives the means for life only by economic effort or by some form of gift from others. There are, it is true, many forms of economic effort that are directly favorable to health, — farm-labor, teaming, tracklaying, indeed, all manner of outdoor work and of muscular exertion. But by no means all modes of labor are favorable to health. Of the thirty million Amer- icans over ten years of age now engaged in "gainful" occupations, a very considerable proportion are engaged upon such conditions of hours of services or of surround- ings or of materials employed as are essentially injurious to health. The abnormally high death-rate of mankind is sufficient evidence of this.^ And of these thirty mil- lion, many are sick persons who, if they work at all, should earn a sufficient surplus over bare cost of living to enable them to cultivate their health in hours and days when not at work. Of this, again, the death-rate is evidence that few actually do earn such a surplus. In order, therefore, to remain or to become healthy in civilization, it is first necessary to obtain a livelihood — or, in other words, to find and to hold a place in the eco- nomic world, the world of dollars and cents, of payment for value received. This fact, this bitter fact of the world higher than and remote from primitive communal man- kind, this fact of private property, work-for-wages, no- service-no-necessaries, work-or-freeze-and-starve-to-death, 1 Of children condemned to certain kinds of labor, but one in three or four survives to manhood, as the unchallenged current statistics show. HEALTH AND HOLINESS 363 may be the power that is driving the race forward by compelling effort all along the line ; but nevertheless it is the power that hour by hour removes the inv^alid poor from the face of the green earth. The view that "wealth is the siren that lures labor on " * is seen from the vantage-point of those whose food, shelter, clothing, and fuel are guaranteed, and is not discovered from the vantage-point of the multitudinous proletarians. The man who does not need to work for a living often does work for wealth ; but he is not the typical man in a civilization wherein even the land to live on must be won at a price. Not the food lures, but the hunger drives, most men. The city school superintendent must necessarily be familiar with the procession to the gates of death. Thither go the young babe whose parents were too poor to dare to send for the two-dollar-a-visit doctor until too late ; the child whose bad teeth were extracted to avoid the costly services of the dentist ; the child with poor eyes, — run over by car or wagon for want of proper glasses ; the worn-out mother of a large family dead from underfeeding, undersleeping, overwork, and overworry ; the father whose cough ran into consumption be- cause he could not leave his indoor work 2 and let his children starve, but whose children nevertheless do starve when he is gone ; and all the other victims of the competition for employ- ment. But granted good health at birth and sufficient cloth- ing, shelter, and fuel until manhood, in civilization health is not yet assured. Many things are necessary to render this blessing secure against the forces tending to its destruc- tion. Disease is evidence of hygienic sin, not conclusive evidence, to be sure, but presumptive. And death before old age, unless by accident, is overwhelming evidence. For the man who has lived with some regard for the laws of Nature may be ill because of a lapse in hygienic » Clark, Philosophy of Wealth, p. 25. 2 Riis, How the Other Half Lives ; Spargo, The Bitter Cry of the Children. 364 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE morals ; yet he will not die. His vital reserve, the bank account with which the good Mother endowed him in the womb, will meet the draft. But he who has often sinned with or without punishment is certain some day to overdraw that account. Nature means men to resist the microbes of tuberculosis and of pneumonia and the acids of rheumatism. The purpose of oxygen and of sleep is to burn up waste tissue and to ehminate the poisons of fatigue and of infection. He who breathes an abundance of good air, drinks enough water to flood his system, takes enough exercise to vitalize his tissues, and sleeps long enough to clear his body is not likely to "die before his time ; " yet most men and women do die for want of these simple virtues. In respect to health, there is, however, no need of experiment, no need of ignorance, no need of hypothet- ical theorizing. Consequently, there is no personal excuse for hygienic sinfulness unless there is cause beyond per- sonal control. For in respect to health, we owe absolute obedience to Nature within the limits of our opportun- ities and heritage. We owe, therefore, definite consid- eration of the facts and principles of physiology, which we should study as a science, and of hygiene, which we should practice as an art, in order that we may know what the commands of Nature are. By such care, we fit our- selves to live healthily in the sorry maze of this diflficult civilization. But such care only the privileged few may exercise. To go free in the world, to be able to take in lungfuls of air, to enjoy work, care, and even anxiety, to eat with good cheer and to sleep in peace, to feel that life is a play of the spirit rather than a labor of the flesh, to be strong enough, and to dare to look every other human being in the eye, to be unafraid in the crowd or in soli- tude, to know and to feel, love and pity and reverence : this it is to be whole, to be healthy. To achieve this, and HEALTH AND HOLINESS 365 to express it, it is often necessary to undergo a severe regimen and even surgical operations in order to correct the ills of inheritance and the injuries of poverty in childhood and youth. To be willing to undergo these remedial measures requires intelligence and character beyond most youth. As long as we inherit spinal curva- tures, eyes defective in vision or in external muscular accommodation, bad teeth or the conditions that produce these ; as long as parents persist in drinking too much alcohol, or in smoking or chewing too much tobacco, or in sexual excess, or in overwork and undersleep ; as long as ignorance, fraud, and previous poverty, the three causes of all present poverty, endure ; as long as luxury ruins the few and poverty injures the many, — so long will most children be born too weak in will to win health out of their weakness or wickedness or evil fate. But some will strive, and a few will succeed. One who has transformed invalidism into health is more likely to use that health well than another to whom health was given. Democracy is founded upon the doctrine that one who wins power is far more fit to wield it than one who inherits power. So with health. But health is not only a matter of body and of will. It is also a matter of work, of work exalted to art, of- work exulting in strength and skill and become play, the free adventure of the spirit creating things or performing services. In all ages, labor, work, and service have been signs of the menial and degraded, and in all languages, the words indicating work, labor, and service have been ignominious and irritating ; and for one sole reason, — they have designated the life-occupation of persons sub- jected to the will of superiors. The tendency of all such subjection has been to destroy the health of the body and the health of the soul. We have seen this in the extreme forms of plantation slavery, of mercenary sol- diery, and of feudal serfdom. We see it now in the 366 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE extreme forms of wage-service in mines, in mills, in stores, in packing-houses, and in domestic employment. One of the chief purposes of intentional alcoholic intoxication and of sexual excess is to feel the ecstasy of relief from control by the will of others. This ecstasy mimics the joy of true health by causing in the soul a pseudo-euphoria; but it costs too dear because it short-circuits the long natural winding ascent right up the mountain-side of true health. Such as commit these excesses cut their way ruthlessly to results and lose all the education of passing wholly through each process. They cannot know what true manhood and womanhood are, what good life really contains and expresses. Learning, doing, conduct, truth-seeking, love of beauty, and the search for wisdom are but the rungs of a ladder whose sides are health and creation. To get better, to grow stronger, in such phrases the soul speaks its desire for physical health. To imitate things and acts, to initiate, to invent, to create, in such phrases in ascending scale of aspirations, the soul speaks its desire for spiritual health. He is whole who in his originality is independent of physical and psychical conditions within himself ; and this independence can be secured only by the long train- ing that wins through self-mastery. The mastery of the world by understanding it, at best but partial, is little more than an incident in the process ; as far as it is more than an incident, it is only a means. The frame of this world passes. Any other world, many another world, let us suppose, would serve as well as this in the schooling of the living soul. As the educated man nears such perfection as is pos- sible to the best of human beings, his desire and his power to discern and to produce the new and the perfect increases rapidly. The roll-call of the immortals, how- ever, shows that each failed in greater or less degree completely to endure the processes of education and to HEALTH AND HOLINESS 367 conform to its ideals, the greatest failing least, succeeding most. It is perhaps as fanciful as it is accidental that in this text the ideals of education and of culture should appear to be seven in number. Ruskin likened seven ideals of architecture to seven lamps, after the fashion of the seven golden candlesticks seen by Saint John in apo- calyptic vision. ^ These seven ideals appear like the seven stars of the same vision. We can never attain to them ; but we may travel by their light to the desired haven. Pure intelligence, entire efficiency, sinless morality, all truth, immaterial beauty, errorless wisdom, perfect health : to not one of these, by no manner of means to all, may any human being attain. And yet by discipline, by un- remitting effort, by information ever welcomed, by dream and by sacrifice, he may attain to the power to contribute something new and worth while in a form or by a mode agreeable to his fellow men. At every stage in the pro- cess, he may daily in greater or less measure, as he nears the goal in ever greater measure, repay to society the cost of his life. Not in selfishness or in pride will he win to that goal; but only in generous mood and in docility may he go forward, remembering that not the goal, but the journey, is his reward. In this journey, he is seeking the perfection of which alone is the finite soul capable, holiness. From the heights of modern thought to which some have ascended by obeying the Master, it may be clearly seen that body and soul, intellect, heart, and will, matter and spirit are, for the purposes of the life-journey, of the world-school- ing, inseparable. There is no dualism in righteousness. The physical life may be stainless, while the soul is suffused with passions : the man is unclean, imperfect, distraught, unholy. The spirit may be full of kindness 1 Vide Seven Lamps of Architecture. Also, Osborn, "Seven Factors in Education," Educational Reviexv, June, 1906. 368 THE EVIDENCES OF CULTURE toward others and of desire to grow into the light, while the body is weighted and warped by many a lust of the flesh : the man is unclean, imperfect, distraught, unholy. The dull and ignorant intellect blocks the strong will by inaoility to perform its purposes and baffles the kindest heart by perverting its impulses. The weak will undoes, retards, wrecks the plan of the keen intellect and the aspiration of the loving heart. One who sees and knows, who directs his course and holds to it firmly, may for want of affection, loyalty, or sympathy fail of that com- pleteness, serenity, sanity which is holiness. These qualities, though distinguishable in the process of de- velopment, are inseparable in the final result. Too long we have thought of health as a mere phys- ical desideratum, as something incidental and not abso- lutely necessary ; of holiness as a religious ideal, aside from the concerns of politics, business, education, culture, property, and family. We have allowed ourselves to think of holiness as a symptom of senility. True, it flowers in middle life and bears fruit in old age. In our best moments, we know that all the glory of a long life, the visible evidence that it has been well spent, is to wear the halo — to develop, as it were from the soul itself, the atmosphere — of holiness. Of the old man and of the old woman, we love to think, we can scarcely prevent ourselves from thinking, in this one term, holiness. There is no higher praise than the comment, — a hale old man and good, his mind filled with pleasant memories, his soul serene with the consciousness of temptations resisted, obstacles over- come, and victory won. Because we think of the old in this one term, there is nothing whatever in all the world that so grieves the heart, confuses the intellect, and offends the will as to see an old man nearing the veiled gates, in decrepitude of body, dullness of intellect, mean, vicious, flooded with memories of defeats of the spirit. HEALTH AND HOLINESS 369 Holiness is the character to be won in Hfe by a good will toward life ; and, therefore, it is the one highest ideal, the final outcome, of education. Upon the old man, sitting apart quietly in the aloof- ness of old age, there seems to rest the blessedness of absolution from sins and sinfulness. Upon him has de- scended the last benediction of life, its extreme unction. He has made ready to be called away, upon his face is written expectancy of the call, and his manner reveals peace.* As for us who are younger travelers, we have yet to learn the patience and the faith of old age, the crowning age of life. We cannot bring ourselves to say that old age and death are the best blessings because the last ; and yet we know and really believe that they are. For every man, we desire long life and a happy old age, and death not in sudden torment, but in quiet expira- tion of the breath. This desire is the keynote in which is pitched the song of our human life. Let me live as long as I may live honorably, that I may die regretted, but without regrets. The soldier who goes to battle for his country, the laborer who goes to work for his family, the wife, the teacher, the man of business and all others, one and all, offer the same human prayer. ^ It is time to be old, To take in sail : — The god of bounds, Who sets to seas a shore Came to me in his fatal rounds, And said, " No more ! " As the bird trims her to the gale, I trim myself to the storm of time, I man the rudder, reef the sail, Obey the voice at eve obeyed at prime : *' Lowly faithful, banish fear, Right onward drive unharmed ; The port, well worth the cruise, is near, And every wave is charmed." Emerson, Terjninus. Cf. Tennyson, Crossing the Bar. 370 THE EVIDENCE OF CULTURE " Grow old along with me ! The best is yet to be, The last of life, for which the first was made : Our times are in His hand Who saith, ' A whole I planned, Youth shows but half ; trust God : see all, nor be afraid.' " * Because life is sacred, death is likewise. The good old men and women see this sacredness in all relations and walks, of life because they sit apart, conscious that they are near the gates of exit. To the toilers, an understand- ing is often denied. Life seems the cheapest of all com- modities ; and so it may be in the terms of business ; but the good old man sees life in all its terms. He sees all life clearly, and he sees it whole. Not so with him who in old age has his gaze still riveted upon particular aims. Such an one becomes peculiarly horrible in his vice, whatever it be, — avarice, envy, drunkenness, lechery, lying, — and peculiarly pitiable in his weakness, what- ever it be, — timidity, invalidism, indecision, vanity, im- patience. To us, he seems to have made a failure of life, — though he may have won millions or fame or power, he has not gathered from life its fruit, which is preparedness to live again. Not he who in old age recounts his mis- takes and exhausts his little strength in vain regrets, not he who boasts of his successes and wears himself out in vain mimicry of the efforts of his prime, but he who recognizes what is fit, as the pulse runs down and desire fails, and deports himself accordingly, honors human nature, and by his own life expresses its final glory. ^ Browning, Rabbi Ben Ezra. PART FIVE MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE American scholarship, through its ministry in the universities, through its teachings and its teachers, is to remove the evil, to instruct the ignorant, to broaden the narrow, to elevate the low, and to transmute the brutal into the human, and the human into the divine. — Thwing, History of Higher Education in AinericUy p. 466. CHAPTER XVIII HABIT, CHANGE, AND ILLUSIONS OF CHANGE The higher the mental grade of the organism and the more varied the conditions of its life, the greater is the balance of intelligence remaining beyond the period of youthful plasticity for further adaptation in adult life. — Morgan, Habit and Instinct, p. 15S. To know the past is a duty; to be in touch with the present, an imperative necessity ; to have constantly in mind the future, a privilege that will prove the source at once of comfort and of inspiration. — Harper, The Trend in Higher Education : " The Old and the New," p. 119. Through ages innumerable, we look back over an infinitely slow series of minute ad- justments, — material undulations among individual molecules, mental discriminations of likenesses and of unlikenesses, — gradually and laboriously increasing the points of con- tact between the inner Life and the World environing, until at the critical moment evolu- tion shifts to a higher plane and the nascent Human Soul reaches forth toward some- thing akin to itself, not in the realm of fleeting phenomena, but in the Eternal Presence beyond. An internal adjustment was achieved in correspondence with an Unseen World; and man knew his essential kinship with the ever-living God. — Fiske, Through Nature to G Efficiency ^ Morality. Unfortunately, in our schools we have given too little attention to the middle term. The motive in all recita- tions, exercises, games, compositions, products is not to inform or even to develop the intellect, and certainly not to get visible, measurable results, and by all means not to restrain and to destroy the will, but to give it out- let, to develop and to strengthen it. This motive, once understood, must transform many of the practices now common in American schooling, which term in truth has become offensive to many of the discerning, chiefly because of its confinement and devolution of the will. There is, of course, a certain restriction of the will that is merely direction of it and richly profitable ; but among such profitable modes of direction should not be included imprisoning children for hours at a stretch in straitjacket school-desks, drills upon forms and modes after the content has been mastered and reasonable facil- ity secured, and similar triumphs of the ignorant parsi- mony of adults over the natural exuberant vigor of children. In the sixth year of the child's age, the star of an- other and third ideal has appeared above the horizon, morality. The little boy and girl at school are trying to learn how to live in society. It is true that they have 390 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION already learned how to live fairly well in the family where morality begins in reverence and duty to parents and in kindness to brothers and sisters ; but this family moral- ity is not self-conscious, while school-morality, in order to be moral at all, must be to at least a slight degree intro- spective and self-understanding. The morality of pre- cept is of but little value ; only the morality of experience enlightened by that consideration of the self-conscious soul which we call conscience is able to carry itself well in the conflicts of the world, in even the little conflicts of the school-world of the child. Morality begins, then, with thoughtfulness regarding one's duties and relations to the world of Nature and of humanity. All this world is symbolized, in its mystery and in its certainty alike, by the idea of God. From the autocracy of the mother or father in the home to the hierarchy of the school is a difficult transition for the child. Combined as it is with the discovery of a world of strangers, the transition often presents situations that baffle the little child. Al- ready, however, he has learned not only to obey but also ''to try to be good," which is the efficient motive in all morality. This motive of the will necessitates also the intellectual effort to understand what is good and the emotional appreciation of the good. Not to rise to this motive, not to be evolved sufficiently to will the good, is arrest of development in moral idiocy, a condition unfortunately too often to be diagnosed in our people to-day to warrant contentment with American morals. To go out from the home into the school is for the child the discovery of a new world of morals, whose two great virtues are obedience to teachers and honor among mates. The obedience to teachers may develop into im- personal duty to laws and ordinances ; and the loyalty to comrades may develop into social morality. As the years pass, the child grows into the youth by absorbing the life of others into his own thought and by directing MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 391 his own conduct in relation to others. All the morality thus acquired is practical ; but the opportunity of the child in school does not end with efficient morality but extends to theoretical morals. Faithfulness in study, deliberate attention to instruc- tion, persistent exclusion of the outside interests of the moment and of other occasions and relations : these are matters not so much of the intellect or even of the heart as of the will. To think as directed at school is a moral duty. In this sense, he who learns to obey thereby learns to command, for such obedience is self-command without which to command others is impossible. There is, then, a moral principle that constitutes a true school motive, — the will must restrain itself sufficiently to wait for the light and then to follow it. Shut within a room entirely dark and silent, with every wall, the ceiling, and the floor black, one is thrown upon one's self; it is a moment of mystery and searching. A spot of light appears, a sound is heard : how infallibly the eye fixes upon the light and will not be drawn away and the ear fixes upon the sound and cannot exclude it. As certainly as light commands the eye, which is made to see light and for nothing else, and as sound commands the ear, which is made to hear sound and for nothing else, so certainly does the right command the will, the good the heart, the true the intellect. But we know what light and sound are ? and we cannot know what the right, the good, and the true are ? Who knows the essence and the cause of light or of sound ? Verily, even in the twentieth century in America, " we see as through a glass darkly," and we do not yet know what seeing really is. By study and reading and information at school, the opportunity is afforded to learn in the concrete manners, customs, laws, and morals. Literature, history, and geo- graphy are the typical media for conveying these facts. The child or youth learns what the world is, what it contains, what it expresses. This " world " changes from 392 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION generation to generation and from land to land, for it is a thing of a particular space and of a particular time and of the particular person who sees it and of the par- ticular mood in which he is at the time when he sees it. One motive, then, and a very important motive of these several school studies, is to learn morality of one's own times. In this view, correct spelling is a moral duty. Both in its content and in its method, arithmetic teaches right and wrong. Legible handwriting becomes a moral obli- gation as certainly as rapid handwriting is evidence of efficiency. The ascent to complete education may be likened to a spiral stairway, lit by the lamps of seven ideals, — in- telligence, efficiency, morality, science, art, philosophy, holiness. Of these lamps, three light the first cycle of the pathway, — Intelligence, Efficiency, and Morality, — and three light the second cycle, — Science, Art, and Phil- .osophy. Far above Intelligence, yet directly above it, shines the manyfold brighter light of Science ; above Effi- ciency shines Art ; and above Morality, Philosophy. Few may breathe the high mountain air of the second cycle. The traveler up the ascent has always the light of three stars to guide his steps. In the kindergarten. In- telligence shines full upon him ; but he sees also the rays of Efficiency and of Morality. It is the age of versa- tility, of flitting about. To see, to know, to understand is the master motive. Play leads to anticipations in which the imagination exults. At ten or twelve years of age. Efficiency shines in the zenith, bright as the sun. It is the age of drill and habituation for accuracy, for effort, and for facility. The motive should be a passion for skill. The will takes pride in its own voluntary subjection to habits. Self-control, won thereby, is the apotheosis of will, as wisdom is of intellect. Sixteen is the typical age of Morality. The soul has blossomed into life in the sun- MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 393 shine of society. God is discovered, and duty universal- izes what has hitherto been but obedience to special persons and their orders and rules. Mere Intelligence has ceased to be a desideratum ; but the star of Science shines upon the wider horizon. At twenty, the youth has risen to the levels of Science and has the visions of Art. Age now tells nothing exactly. At twenty-five, even ear- lier, the foregleams of Philosophy may be shining ; yet the ascent to the high levels of Philosophy is usually but slowly won. To here and there one in a land, to now and then one in an age, it is given to know holiness ; but the white star of this ideal shines for many who may see it only afar off. Figures of speech fail ; concrete language fails ; general abstract terms fail ; and the very thought of man fails to express clearly the hope of perfection. As for the method, who is there that knows it ? In the merciful providence of the God of all worlds, man has been granted a vision beyond his farthest reach, to lead him on, forever on. It may well be that whole worlds of experience — new senses, new powers of mind, alto- gether new tools and objects — are provided in life after life ; and there are times when it appears that this must be so. As the child's dream of manhood, so may be man's dream of holiness, — for saints and other holy men have accounted themselves the most unworthy. Upon this presentation, the motives and values of the conventional studies and exercises in education and cul- ture reveal themselves with unwonted simplicity and clearness. Certain criticisms suggest themselves. The atmosphere becomes more free, the light grows stronger,' the view widens. Utilities find their places. Something of new meaning confronts us ; and we are awakened out of our traditions. It is an old world in a new guise. And yet there is really nothing new here. Philosophy has no new discoveries. It but harvests and markets the products of other efforts ; if possible, of all effort. 394 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Why educate ? That the pupil in the school may at- tain intelligence, efficiency, morality, science, art, philo- sophy, health, and holiness. Why ? Because these are the successively higher manifestations of life ; and life alone warrants itself, is its own justification. Moreover, life is its own method, and to him that hath life is given yet more life. How, then, shall we educate ? By setting before ourselves and our children, in order, the oppor- tunities and materials of life ; by confronting ourselves and them with the necessity of exerting their powers of life. The school and college do this in orderly fashion : education therein is formal. In the world it is informal, save in so far as personal genetic physical and psychical change and growth formulates the education of every man whether he goes to school in his youth or not. The school is tempted to claim a great deal that mere growth gives. The conventional studies and exercises and the studies and exercises that should be pursued are not the same. A study pursued by one method differs greatly from the same study pursued by a decidedly different method. Apparently belonging in the field of pedagogy, these two matters are of vital interest in educational philosophy and concern us here. We may believe that the chief end of education is utilitarian : that the youth may earn a livelihood and support a family, that certain truth and skill may endure in the world, or that the nation shall have a sufficiency of workers to maintain its life. Or we may believe that the chief end of education is to educate, that the youth shall have the most abundant life. We sometimes call this end cultural, but it is not that : rather it is something that may be properly styled only an end- in-itself, for it recognizes that the youth is his own end now and must forever be his own end. Life is self- sufficient, its own justification ; and the value of each individual life depends upon the degree and measure and MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 395 quality in which it is Ufe. One generation is as sacred as another; posterity is not -^ler than ourselves nor less noble. The entire chain partakes, link by link, ot the divine metal of which it is made and of the divme fire by which it is shaped and welded. By utility, we measure the conventional studies until there dawns upon our minds the sun oi^^e.terr.^\l^nih that we exist not for purposes but for life itself. In the lieht of this truth, we make new measurements to dis- cover that we must fashion once more the formal educa- tion of our youth. , ^ .i,,. The same general argument holds in respect to the methods of our various studies and exercises. The old school ideals- to read loudly and briskly to cipher accurately and rapidly, to write legibly and handsomely, to sing enthusiastically in chorus, to draw true outlmes in black and white, to parse correctly, to declaim set pieces unabashed, to know the hundred dates of Ameri- can history and the thousand places of world-geography, to be punctual, persevering, regular, and obedient, and perhaps later to learn Latin, algebra, physics, rhetoric world-history, and similar desiderata, ideals unfortunately attained by but a small portion of school attendants - are seen to reflect particular traditions and aspirations not organized into a philosophy and essentially incapable of reduction to scientific order, relation, and system. Sub- jected to our analysis, not one of them rises higher than the plane of science, and most of them are upon the lower levels of intelligence and efficiency. These ideals are not untrue but inadequate. Not one of them has the abstract dignity of art and of philosophy, but all are weio-hted with the concrete. A motive in each is he desrre to appear well in the social world, and the value of success is to be well thought of. In this aspect, edu- cation is information to dress the naked soul. It is not strange, therefore, that many a man and woman, well 396 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION educated in these respects, has seemed but a shadow when measured against some soUd native soul from the unschooled back country. The true method for any and every study and exer- cise is of the same nature as the standard by which the content of the philosophically acceptable studies is measured and approved. Content and method are for the development of the soul stage by stage in intelligence, in efficiency, in morality, in science, in art, in philosophy, in health and holiness. Consequently, the true method is psychological ; being also logical in respect to the sub- ject or content only in so far as that material is itself truly psychological in its facts, forms, and order. Fantas- tic subjects and exercises, that evade or defy psycho- logy, do not belong, are not in any sense permissible, in formal education. And this is equally true of fantastic methods and devices. A method is always a way through, a highway (/xcra 68os). It implies a straight road that reaches some goal. It may be defined as a line of orderly procedure to reach an end. Says Kant in the " Critique of Pure Reason," "Method is procedure according to principle." It is a universal procedure, — one for companions, one for all men. Method is truth presented in its own fit clarity. vStrictly considered, '' true " or '' sound method " is a tautological phrase ; and false or ** unsound method " is a contradiction in terms. The teacher who has no method or so-called " false methods " cannot educate ; and a body of knowledge or of practices not yet sub- jected to methodological criticism and organization is out of place in any educational curriculum, which should in- clude only sciences, arts, and philosophy. Methodology is simply a phase of psychology. A method is always psychological. Yet from various causes pseudo-methods abound in numberand in injuriousness beyond the limits of this book MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 397 to record. They tend to destroy themselves, and, though constantly replaced, are individually but short-lived. A genuine science, art, or philosophy infolds a true method ; and its method expresses its content of truth. The his- torical culture of mankind already includes an ampli- tude of methodized subjects for use in formal education. For the purposes of systematic information and disci- pline, the School and the College suffer from a profusion of scientific, aesthetic, and philosophical riches. He who knows a few perfect tools is an artist far superior in his achievements to one who uses many tools unskillfully. Too many tools are confusing. The science of language is grammar, its art rhetoric. Magical language, expressing truth, beauty, goodness, wisdom, in the " necessary words," to quote the phrase of Kipling, is literature. Language and literature, — that is, grammar and rhetoric, in themselves, and truth, beauty, and goodness expressed in the modes and forms of grammar and rhetoric, constitute the most important tools in education. The chief output of the human mind, they are its largest expression. In its highest form, the art of poetry, literature becomes a medium of philosophy and of religion. Mastery of language and familiarity with literature, indissolubly one, is the first essential, the typical and most prominent formal and objectively appar- ent characteristic of a well-educated person. Of all the subjects used in systematic education, language and liter- ature, giving content to the mind and voice to the soul, afford the widest range of material. They feed the intel- ligence of the child, stir him to efficiency, instruct and discipline him in morals. They are the medium for the propaganda of science; the indispensable mode and form for receiving and giving forth the products of the arts of oratory, poetry, prose, allying themselves to music with almost perfect intimacy ; and reservoir and conduit of every kind of spiritual truth. It may not be said at what 398 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Stage language and literature most closely knit them- selves to education ; but it may be said that they are too much neglected at every stage, for neither is that child advanced in intelligence who cannot read and talk well nor is that adult scholar wise who despises the art of expressing thought in words. The motive for the study of language, oral and writ- ten, is the desire to enter into the real, substantial, spiritual life of humanity, to know the divine in man, to feel and to express the soul. The unlettered child gazes at the printed word and feels that it conceals yet adver- tises a world at once mysterious to himself and precious to his elders ; and altogether infinitely desirable, as in- deed it is. In his earliest infancy, he had listened with equal eagerness to the sounds of human voices. In his latest age, his last conscious desire is the desire to know the meaning of words, to find the thought that others are expressing in them, and to express his own thought. He who acquires words afterwards thinks in them for- ever. They are the links of thought. In importance the sound of words far exceeds their appearance in letters, written or printed. Phonics concern not merely the child in his effort to pronounce words, to associate their signs with their sounds ; they con- cern also every one who converses, who writes prose, who composes verse, and who reads prose and verse. Our insensitiveness to the power and charm of good language, in particular of good English, is due largely to deafness to phonics, which in turn is due to our neglect of reading, conversation, and oratorical com- position as arts, the supreme arts by which men relate themselves in thought to one another. The length, breadth, force, and tone of the vowels, the sharpness, smoothness, and intensity of the consonants, the coales- cence of diphthongs, alliteration, and rhyme, meter and scansion, rate and variety of movement of syllables, of MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 399 words, of phrases, of clauses, of sentences, and of para- graphs, are one and all matters of no small concern to those who would convey and receive thought in its purity. This thesis requires no demonstration. Two men may speak the same truth with equal logic ; but if one be an artist in phonics and the other not, we listen to the first alone. In their degrees, all men are skillful or ignorant in making and in hearing the music of words. To Milton in poetry and to Webster in oratory, language was of organ-tones : to Shakespeare, it was orchestral. In Whitman, we hear the booming of the drum, in Wendell Phillips and in Tennyson the melody of the violin. In this poetic passage, the words by their sounds suggest time and travel, — "Across birth's hidden harbour bar, Past youth where shoreward shallows are, Through age that drives on toward the red Vast void of sunset hailed from far, To the equal waters of the dead ; Save his own soul he hath no star, And sinks, except his own soul guide, Helmless in middle turn of tide. " * Contrast Vv^ith these soothing lines, expressing per- fectly the democracy of death, the individualism of life, the shocking sound of the speech of the wanton man- in-the-street who declares, " We 've got to go it alone through life. It 's all the same in death for the man who made good and for the man who welched." The poet sings, the uncouth philosopher screeches. Each mes- sage has the same weight and is apparently of the same value : but examined, the one is gold, the other brass. Our own poet Lowell was characteristically too much in earnest to pause for choosing the perfect word, and failed, ^ Swinburne, Songs before Sunrise, p. 7. 400 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION therefore, to attain the heights of supreme art in verse. The famous Hues " New occasions teach new duties ; Time makes ancient good uncouth ; They must upward still, and onward, who would keep abreast of Truth," are cacophonous with their difficult vowels and numerous dentals and sibilants. Keats, Poe,,Tennyson, or Swinburne loved their art too well to pass such lines. ^ In language, we are concerned not only with the phonics but also with the associations of words. The Constitution of the United States has been styled the magna carta of our liberties. This means something to one who knows American history, colonial and national : but it means vastly more, intensely more to one who knows English, mediaeval, and Roman history and law and comparative politics, because the words constitution, state, charter, liberty are keys to rich storehouses of knowledge. The artist in words knows how by choosing the right word to suggest outlines and colors for pictures to be composed by the imagination of the reader. The power of words is partly the power of their sounds, partly the weight of history and literature that they carry. What reader of the "Scarlet Letter" can ever again see that branded letter without thinking of Arthur Dimmesdale and of Hester .? As Emerson and Trench and many others have pointed out, a word is often a poem, an immortal product of the creative imagination. 1 Among several famous passages that challenge the world for supreme beauty, this may well be quoted : — " It was the lark, the herald of the morn, No nightingale : look, love, what envious streaks Do lace the severing clouds in yonder east : Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops." Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet, iii, v. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 401 The very word " poem " is itself an island in the cur- rent of historical philology. And there is a fitness of the word to the idea that is apart from its phonics, from its historical and literary associations, and from its philology. The power to fit words to ideas is the hallmark of genius; it immortalizes men ; it decides the crises of nations ; it is the soul of literature. The fit word delights every one; it is so obvious, after it has been discovered and attached to the idea. The skill that finds this word seems a special gift of God : fiat hix. And we stand and marvel at the sudden shining of the light. Grammar is to language what the intellect is to man. The motive for the study of grammar is a subordinate mode of the motive for the study of language and of literature. It is the desire to follow the process by which one's fellow men express themselves in language and to acquire skill in expressing one's self so accurately as to be understood by them with certainty. It is a social con- vention to call a particular kind of objects "food" and a particular kind of action " giving ; " but it is necessary to follow these conventions in order to be understood when one says or hears, " the good man gives food to the hungry without asking whether or not they deserve to be hungry." ^ Similarly, it is social convention of several centuries that has constituted such a succession of words as grammar. To defy, to ignore, and not to know the conventions or principles of grammar are respectively immoral, insolent, and unfortunate. The study of grammar belongs at a definite stage in the process of formal education. The ungrammatical may be intelligent and somewhat efficient ; but they may never be wholly moral in the broadest sense of that term. They can never be, in any ordinary under- standing of the term, scientific. The age devoted to the 1 Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, vii, i ; xxv, 31-46. 402 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION development of efficiency and morality is from ten to six- teen ; and it is in the latter half of this period that the systematic study of grammar properly belongs. Because grammar is a science, — a science indispensable to all other sciences, since we must think in words, if we are to cover much ground, — its study should be continued into the scientific period after sixteen years of age. Higher than the science of grammar are the arts of rhetoric and poetry. To these, few ever attain. The imi- tative impulses of human youth often suggest the writing of essays, of stories, and of verses, and the effort of public debate ; but it is not difficult to discern whether the product is or is not the preface to genuine art. The child or youth with the capacity to become an artist in words will set his own exercises and revise them for his own satisfaction : he will display initiative and conscience. For, in truth, there is nothing more false than to suppose that the motive of the literary art is self-exhibition. After that regeneration into the poetic artist, which Sterling pronounced necessary to the completion of the born poet,^ he may desire that his expressed art-product be highly valued by his fellow men (for even Art is hu- man) ; but no true artist ever produced a work primarily that it might be seen of men, — wherein Art manifests the modesty of religion. In its essence, every work of Art is self-caused: the great poem must be sung; the perfect statue must be carved ; a living idea seeks a body and form in every art-product. By art, the seed of an idea quickens into beauty. Language, however, serves mankind beyond the ranges of science and of art. Wherever thought moves, there language seeks to move, for it is " the picture and counterpart of thought," as Mark Hopkins declared."' Without language, philosophy itself were not merely 1 Essays and Talcs : Thoiif^hts and Images. ^ Williston Seminary, Speech, 1841. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 4^3 dumb, but must halt in painful vagueness and isolation in the mind of each several philosopher. Deprived of history and of conference, philosophy would wither and die. Poetry tries language sorely, hammers and exhausts it, finally compels it to shelter and enthrone truth in beauty ; but Philosophy does more. Philosophy requires language to image shadowy ideas and distant ideals, to run as swiftly and as surely as reason itself, and to deliver at the goal every part of the strange message. Fossil, crystal, mechanic, traditional, final, though language apparently is, Philosophy asks of it the flexibility, resourcefulness, vitality of living thought. And language wins its greatest victory in becoming the medium of that highest literature, which is Philosophy. In endeavoring to express the supreme ideal of mankind, language fails. Words cannot deliver or contain the full meaning of the revelation of righteousness, holiness, freedom, health, genius, perfection. By acts, Jesus ex- presses that ideal in love, which is the nature of God. For all the beatitudes of the Sermon on the Mount, the Gospel was told not in words, but upon Calvary. By language, we must understand all language, not .only our native tongue. Indeed, it is by a variety of languages, and similarly in a variety of literatures, that man discovers his larger self in many individuals and societies, ancient and modern, neighboring and remote. The motive is removal to a different point of view ; and the values are two : that one learns new, different, and often strange facts, principles, and sentiments, and thereby enlarges himself ; and that one com- pares the old and the new, correlates ideas, cross-sections life, and thereby reviews and corrects himself. One ancient language, Latin, and one foreign language, German, mastered in their literatures, fill, develop, enlarge, and re-create the mind not by addition merely, not even as it were by multi- plication, but by a subtle geometrical progression. Not sur- prising therefore, is polyglottism, when Greek follows Latin 404 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION and Hebrew Greek, and French follows German, and Spanish, Italian, Russian follow French. If their literatures justified it, tens of thousands to-day would be studying Japanese and Chinese. For the permanence of Occidental morality, it is well that Oriental literatures are formal, superficial, artificial, and monotonous. In educational value, the mathematics are only less important than the languages. Number, which counts things, is an indispensable tool of the active intelligence, — a tool used almost as early as the noun, which names things. The operation of numbers promotes efficiency. Arithmetic with its system of commercial and industrial applications is a highroad through the maze of social morals. Algebra, geometry, trigonometry, calculus, qua- ternions, dynamics, mechanics, statistics, and their cor- relates and extensions are the very forms of science and the modes of Art. And mathematics ends by founding in Philosophy the certitude that man seeks in the flux and illusion of spatial, temporal, and sequential affairs. As Descartes and Kant showed, mathematics is the TTov OTTO) of metaphysics. Therefore, in a scientific age that seriously tries to evaluate and to utilize most advantageously the intellect- ual and moral resources of mankind, it is not strange that in government, in business, in education, the place of mathematics steadily grows. Essentially one of the sci- ences, it is so much more important than any other as to be classified apart popularly from all the others. Because as a science it is the basis of many others, such as physics and astronomy, in formal instruction we approach it first as a highroad into all science ; but we fail to note that the desirableness of a special kind of knowledge and the feasibility of attaining it are by no means synchronous in psychical genetics. All education since its beginning has gone astray, and most education for centuries to come will go astray, wandering far from the path that with MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 405 certainty leads to perfection, wandering into sloughs and quicksands and upon barren hillsides, and losing most of the wanderers because of ignorance of the genetic order of mental functions. The nascent period of interest in the science of mathematics is not so early as most courses of study subsume. In childhood, we may learn many items of mathematics and drill ourselves in many pro- cesses; but the science and the art belong to youth. The information and the processes are matters of in- telligence, efficiency, morality, for want of which many a man has served time in jail and penitentiary and many times more become parasite or vagabond ; but the science and the art are not the avenues of approach for mathematics, but goals not visible before fourteen or fifteen years of age. For want of understanding this principle, school-children are set to work upon a special division of mathematics, the science of arithmetic, when they should be working on the elementary factors of all mathematics, which are number, magnitude, mechanical computation, observation, and invention. Indeed, our position in respect to the mathematics of the elementary school has been the illogical one of anticipating method before we have a content, and of anticipating science and art before we have facts and processes. In mathematics, like children, we havie expected re- sults before inaugurating causes. Before the brain con- volutions were entirely formed and long before the brain tissue has developed its organization, we have expected perfect habits of observing, of measuring, of computing, and of recording. We have supposed that efficiency comes forward pari passti with intelligence, as though whatever one understands one can do ! We have in- sisted that correct figuring is a matter of morality, as it is, indeed, but only for those capable of uniformly cor- rect figuring or, in other words, not for young children. Intimidated by the commercial forces that now rule 4o6 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Western civilization and will ruin it, unless successfully resisted soon, educators attempt the impossible and in the attempt destroy the material upon which they work. Fortunately, W^estern civilization is not uniformly and perfectly accomplished everywhere in Europe and the Americas, and also, fortunately, childhood itself some- times successfully resists ; but '' dropping out of school," the sad death-roll of education, is not the recovery of freedom to grow in the way Nature intends, but renun- ciation of the hope of attaining culture in the way man should intend for all. The motive for th-e study of mathematics is insight into the nature of the universe. Stars and strata, heat and electricity, the laws and processes of becoming and of being, incorporate mathematical truths. If language imitates the voice of the Creator, revealing His heart, mathematics discloses His intellect, repeating the story of how things came into being. And the value of math- ematics, appealing as it does to our energy and to our honor, to our desire to know the truth and thereby to live as of right in the household of God, is that it estab- lishes us in larger and larger certainties. As literature develops emotion, understanding, and sympathy, so math- ematics develops observation, imagination, the reason. What is history ? According to our answer, its place in education is fixed. Is it, as its philology suggests, truth determined by investigation ? ^ Is it a fable cun- ningly agreed upon, as Voltaire said ? Is it philosophy teaching by examples, as Dionysius held } Is it a pag- eant, as Birrell would have us believe ? ^ Is it a record of progress, as proposed by German philosophers, — in par- ticular, of freedom, as Hegel endeavored to show.? Was Carlyle right in calling biography " the only true his- tory " ? Was Gibbon partly blind when he pronounced it " little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and 1 laTwpla, a learning by inquiry. ^ Oditer Dicta, ii : Muse of History. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 407 misfortunes of mankind " ? Is it a science, as a modern school of historians would have us think ? Is it, as Macaulay declared, *' a compound of poetry and philo- sophy " ? ^ Shelley called it ** a cyclic poem."^ Freeman asserted that it is "past politics." Seeley says it is a *' residuum" after all the sciences have been abstracted from the total of human knowledge.^ History has been styled "a thesaurus of the facts and opinions of the past," " a record of events that have affected the gen- eral welfare,"^ "an interpretation of the social forces and movements," ^ "a probably true prose narrative of past events," *' a record of exceptional phenomena," ^ or ** everything that Nature is not." '^ Claimed by literature, by philosophy, and by science, each denying the claims of the others, history is in some danger of being accounted but the rubbish-heap of the past, the debris of civilization. From Adams who pro- nounces it " the highest form of prose literature " to the scientific school in Europe and in America that proclaims it an accumulation of proven facts is indeed a very dif- ferent direction from that by which we reach the scorn- ers who reject history utterly ; but, for educational pur- poses in the elementary schools, the one journey is as fatal as the other. If history is a science, it certainly does not belong in courses for children under fifteen years of age. If it is cunning fable, it belongs nowhere in education or in culture. "The past," however, says Lord Acton, " burdens, but knowledge of the past eman- cipates, us."® As a matter of common sense, we are likely to agree that history is not science, but a record 1 Essays : Hallani's Constihitional History. 2 Also Acton, Study of History. 3 Introduction to Political Science. * Chancellor, The United States : A History, vol. i. 5 Mace, Method in History. ^ Ward, Applied Sociology., p. 234. ■^ Droysen, Principles of History (translated by Andrews). ^ Study of History, p. 17. 4o8 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION and an interpretation of the materials of many sciences. One who has read Thucydides, Tacitus, Gibbon, Macau- lay, and Parkman is not Ukely to dispute the proposition that the best history is at least fair literature. Accepting these debatable premises, educators are likely to find a place in the school curriculum for history, with literature upon one side and geography upon the other. But this place, let it be clearly understood, is for history as a systematic literary account of the past of mankind upon earth, not for history as a science and not for it as a polemic, a fable, or a collection of ollapodrida. Three principles that must be regarded in every method of history teaching are the time-perspective, the sequence of events, especially cause, crisis (issue), and result, and the milieu (environment, atmosphere, circumstance). The foci of interest for children in history are biography and action, and the ellipse evolved is drama or epic. In the light of this discussion, it becomes clear that with history as such children have no concern until so- cial morality begins to mean something to them. It is an advanced grammar-grade study for children not under thirteen years of age. The locus of real history is far above Morality, Science, and even Art, for history needs the light of Philosophy, and its method is not syllogistic or inductive or aesthetic, but dialectic, and its concern is with all the life of all mankind. More near the truth is it to say that history is at once a science, an art, and a philosophy ; in other words, literature of the highest kind, that is derived from a science as exact as the ma- terials permit to an art limited in its activity and range only by conviction of the truth, an art without fiction, portraying fact to its best advantage. " History is Humanity's knowledge of itself, its cer- tainty about itself, a search for light and truth, a ser- mon thereupon, and a consecration thereto." ^ But this 1 Droysen, Principles of History, p. 49. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 409 consecration is not purely or even mainly academic, as is that of philosophy, but it is practical, manifesting itself in councils of politics, in the battles on land and sea, in the factories and upon the farms of industry, — wherever men congregate and, by colliding, produce events. The ego of the individual is poor, indeed ; history is the way of escape out of that poverty. Whether we mean by history the real action in the material world or the written record, the historical motive is the same, to achieve oneness with humanity. The values of histor- ical studies for those able to pursue them with under- standing are two, — history lifts to ever wider horizons, and history persuades to action, while equipping the actor with wisdom how and when to act. The data of the sciences may interest and concern the child ; but the sciences themselves only frighten and worry him. Certain great intuitions, Space, Time, and Unvaried Sequence ("Cause and Effect"), he may sus- pect or even discover; but their manifoldness, their pos- sibilities of discrete content, and their nature are beyond his vision. Ideas familiar as the light of common day to mature philosophers are not credible to him, not com- prehensible, not visible, not conceivable, not even pos- sible. This is not merely because the intermediating words are outside of his vocabulary, not merely because his sensations and cognitions are not yet the themes of his reflection, but it is because as yet he does not reflect, does not even construct in his imagination, and does not pause to inhibit and to consider. His sensational and emotional experiences proceed in constant succession without breaks, and thus fill his mind, overflow it, indeed. No day is so long as the day of the child ; no man sees and "thinks," desires and feels, so many things. His mind, could an adult see it, would appear to be a chaos of business with accidental and not logical results. Simi- larly, the mind of the trained and educated adult would 410 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION appear to the child a mesh of tracks and signals, a be- wilderment of mechanisms. As a garden run wild com- pares with a closely built city of streets and houses, so does the childish mind compare with the adult ; the one teems and booms with life, the other is packed and agitated with things. In a certain sense, order is the badge of senility, in that when one no longer generates ideas in profusion, he has time and feels an interest to husband the ideas that he has. Virile youth is too busy to fall a prey to habits. To the logical man of talents, matured and trained, all genius, whether of childhood or of manhood, appears dissipated, accidental, irrational, unnecessary, natural, without merit, and perilous to itself and dangerous to others, because genius is childishly profuse and careless. There are two kinds of precocity : one is early senil- ity, the other is genius, and both threaten an untimely doom. From all these considerations, one seems compelled to conclude that the sciences as such are not for the ele- mentary school years. But equally it follows that child- hood has a right to the materials of all the sciences. The birthplace and early home of every child should be in or near the open country, — field, forest, valley, wood, sky, air, water, birds, stones, flowers, beasts, bugs, sounds, smells, running, swimming, playing, hunting, fishing, working belong to childhood of immemorial right, nay, of everlasting right, since living creatures, our ancestors, first moved upon the lands or in the waters of the earth. The civilization of the city is a modern, shameless, unnoticed, malignant fraud upon childhood ; seen in its true light, persisted in after its recognition as a fraud, the city ap- pears malicious and dangerous. The city has properly three functions and three only : as exchange of goods, as treasury of the arts, and as headquarters of government. Every other function of man in society — rearing of MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 411 children, worship, education, manufacture, mining — be- longs in the village or in the open country. History is a panorama that displays the destruction of peoples by their swarming in cities where the soul and the flesh of childhood bleach out, and where men and women fall afoul of one another and perish at once from luxury and from poverty, from crowding and from solitude, from overwork and from want of work. Of course, the city is not entirely bad ; but the greater it is, the worse it is, from which one may not fail to see the conclusion. Twenty-two run together : it is football. A million : and it is stampede and slaughter. For the child of the city, a mimic reproduction, a mu- seum collection of the products of field and forest and shore, is as essential as are playground and gymnasium. These materials must furnish the data for all the sciences to come later, — for physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, biology, physiology, hygiene, anatomy, histology, ecology, entomology, anthropology, ethnology, mineralogy, geo- logy, meteorology, astronomy, physiography, domestic and political economics, sociology, philology, govern- ment, statistics. Such a museum, as it were, may be afforded in connection with so-called Nature-study, with the pseudo-science of geography, and with the various subjects included in manual training. It must be no drawerful of things, or mere cabinet collection or wall decoration for assembly room or for hallway ; but an ever-changing, ever-growing, constantly overflowing ac- cumulation of every manner of things " animal, mineral, and vegetable." ^ 1 This will cost money? Probably. In 1905, cigars cost American men ^300,000,000 ; all forms of tobacco, $745,000,000. Pianos cost $50,000,000. Alcoholic drinks cost $1,550,000,000. School-books for 17,500,000 pupils cost $12,000,000; school supplies, $6,000,000. The army and navy cost $185,000,000, not including pensions, — $145,000,000 more. All forms of public and private education cost $290,000,000. 412 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION The motive for the study of the things of the real world, the data of science, is to know into what environ- ment one has come " out of the everywhere into the here." Incidentally, such knowledge has two values : it promotes skill in self-preservation ; and it lays founda- tions for later science. But its substantial value is in itself, for knowledge is, indeed, the furniture of the mind, which without knowledge is the bare habitation of every echoing, turbulent, destructive instinct and passion from all past ages. As Froude said, *' Ignorance is the do- minion of absurdity." ^ Of the arts, their inappropriateness in the formal education of children is even more apparent than is the inappropriateness of the sciences. Our conclusion will be the same whether we accept the opinion of Mill that Art is based upon Science, or the more common opinion of such as Karslake that Science is higher than Art. Said Mill, "Art necessarily presupposes knowledge. In any but its infant state, Art presupposes scientific knowledge : and if every art does not bear the name of a science, it is only because several sciences are often necessary to form the groundwork of a single art." ^ Such an opinion, of course, subsumes certain definitions of Science and of Art. Mill had in mind clearly two grades of Art, for he expressed the dialectic that what Art does, Science collates and in- terprets, and then Art (higher Art, true Art), mastering the interpretation, produces with certainty. And he declared that Art selects for its rules the theorems of Science. The order of the rules of Art is by no means the order of the theorems of Science, for their use is entirely different. In the reason for the difference in their order lies the superiority of Art to Science. Art aims to produce perfection, to improve Nature, to create particular things that suggest universal principles. Art 1 Short Studies : Party Politics . 2 John Stuart Mill, System of Logic ^ Introduction. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 413 is objective in its motive, subjective in its method. Science aims to derive from given particulars universal laws, to discover Nature, to know the imperfect. Science is subjective in its motive, desiring its own completeness, but objective in its method, living in the external world of reality. As self-direction is higher than self-conscious- ness, which is the highest reach of the highest science, psychology, so Art is higher than Science. But the Art of which this is true is not the mere art of doing. There are many arts, — the fine arts, the appHed arts, the mechanic arts, we say, but appropriate terms of grouping and of classification soon fail. We may group the sciences as exact, e. g. mathematics; as physical, e. g. chemistry ; and as natural, e. g. biology ; and feel that the grouping is fairly satisfactory.^ But so much more elaborate are the arts than the sciences, and so much more numerous, that any grouping simple enough to serve a philosophical purpose is not distinct and com- plete enough to be absolutely true. In the manifoldness of modern civilization, the arts are multiplied. In music, which is itself an art, there are many coordinate arts, as of singing, of song-writing, of composition, of orches- tration, of playing upon violin, upon flute, upon the organ ; in painting, there are several arts ; sculpture likewise ; literature has poetry and prose, and both poetry and prose have several arts ; statesmanship is an art, concerned with many particular arts, public and private ; and teaching, learning ; dancing, swimming ; carpentry, iron-working, farming, gardening, tree-growing ; preach- ing ; journalism, editing; telegraphy, typewriting, book- keeping; medicine, surgery, dentistry — these all are arts, but they are only a few of the many differing arts. When we reflect upon the sciences and upon the arts, and consider them in reference to ourselves and to others, we discover an important fact : that no scientist and no ^ Cf. Duncan, The New Knowledge (asserting the atom as all in all). 414 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION artist in these times comprehends or understands or scarcely appreciates the sum totals that we mean by Science and by Art.^ Living humanity does not contain them, though possessing means of access to most of their truths and practices. For Science and Art are stored in books, in things, in the minds of millions of different men. They are the subject of oral traditions and of practical "object-lessons." Humanity, Science, Art: these are too varied and too vast to take form and body, for they suggest the infinite and the eternal. With the arts of skillful performance of definite exercises the elementary school is concerned, but not with the art that is founded upon a science or upon several sciences. The lower and lesser arts are but suc- cessful examples of attained efficiency, and may properly occupy the attention of boys and girls before they are ten years old. In this sense, art is but joining together, as its philology indicates. The limitations of success in these childish efforts to draw, to sing, to play the violin, to weave, to make with tools, to cook, to sew, to play games, to make verses, to write compositions are two. Of these, the first is implicit, if not fully explicit, in this argument : the incapacity of the child to see much more than the special matter before him and even to hold this firmly in consciousness, that is, his incapacity to see a thing in its relations and therefore to know its value. A child may see truly, but seldom sees wholly. The second reason is that the realized psychical development of the child but reflects his physical state, which is still far from completion and perfection. Nerves and mus- cles do not yet coordinate; the very cells of the brain do not seem as yet to be constituted as a brain. The physiologists tell us what our common experience confirms, that the accessory muscles are late in develop- ment and still later in control. The baby can walk long ^ Lotze, Alicrocosmus, ii, 318 et seq. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 415 before he can roll a pin between thumb and forefinger. The boy kicks a big football successfully years before he can catch the small baseball. Years before he can write well with a pen, he can pull an oar or grub with a hoe. The eye cannot be consistently accurate in childhood. Thus, all the physical conditions of perfection in true art are wanting in childhood ; and we are in danger of trying to force an anticipation of mature skill that would wear out the very powers necessary to its development. Colors, masses, solids, sounds, tones, directions, forces, ideas, words, tools, processes, methods, devices, the dis- crete data of the arts, we indeed can teach in some measure successfully. Such data become nuclei of mem- ory and interest, fountains of thought in the wilderness of childhood. As the wild profusion of childhood dries and dies until the adult mind often resembles a hot, windy desert, about the fountains of childish interest and skill grow the life-saving oases of true art. The boy who drew pictures becomes the painter or architect. The girl who wrote compositions becomes the novelist. It is in this sense that '* genius, wanting art," is " forever dumb."^ And it is in discursive, encyclopcedic instruc- tion in childhood and in youth in respect to the elements of the sciences and of the arts that the hope of educat- ing the great genius lies, such a genius as conforms to that dictum of Ruskin : *' That artist is greatest who has embodied, in the sum of his works, the greatest number of the greatest ideas." ^ The youth whose opportunities were really narrow (not merely so in appearance) can by no possibility even of regeneration grow into such large- ness of mind and of soul as has been so clearly demon- strated in the case of William Shakespeare.^ For the boy without education when a little child the hope is of 1 Longfellow, Kavanagh, ch. 20. 2 Modern Pai7tters, part i, § i, ch, 2. 3 Halleck, Education of the Central Nervous System. 4i6 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION intensity and integrity of genius rather than of extension and variety. We never outgrow our own childhood un- less we become false to ourselves : we may and should grow out and around, above and beneath it : our true soul centres there. As the motive of Science is truthfulness, for the motive of its substrate, intelligence, is to know facts ; so the motive of Art is the facile and skillful production of beauty, aesthetic sense and aesthetic power, artistry, for the motive of its substrate, efficiency, is power to do or make or serve well. But Science and Art have values beyond the personal, values social, general, universal, eternal. They are the media by which mankind is com- ing into humanness and divineness : it is our faith that in Science God teaches men Truth, and in Art, Beauty. The scientist and the artist transcend their individuality and mortality and transmit the unseen infinite and eternal. Athletics, gymnastics, calisthenics, dietetics, hygiene, sanitation, work and play : what shall we call all these together but the conditions and processes of health ? We realize, all of us to a man realize, that health is the most important thing in life. But we neglect it, we even ruth- lessly thrust it out of consideration. Why ? Because as wisdom cannot be won by desire or conveyed by exhorta- tion, but is the flower of a lifetime, so health in civiliza- tion is an end, not a means. It is, however, as an abso- lute, not as a relative term that we so regard health. An individual may be conceived as ill, as able-to-be-about, and as well. Normal growth from infancy to maturity, increase in height, in weight, in energy, in control, in activity, improvement in certainty, periodicity, and com- pleteness of the processes of digestion, nutrition, excre- tion, sleep, sex-functioning after puberty, freedom from avoidable disease, exemption from contact with dis- ease, progress toward perfect health, may indeed well be MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 417 considered as concurrent with the psychical chain repre- sented by the Hnks, IntelHgence, Efficiency, MoraUty, Science, Art, Philosophy, Holiness. As with Science and Art, so with Health, only the itemized facts are con- ceivable and usable by the child. Moreover, as in their cases, so in that of physical culture, there is always danger of exceeding the limits of childhood and of youth and thus defeating the very purpose of such culture. Overdrill, overexertion, too much instruction in hygiene, and too complete and rigid conformance to the principles of sanitation in schoolhouse construction and in school administration, are, however, dangers very remote from ordinary public education. As we have failed to discover and to develop as yet a psychology of habit to match the psychology of function, so we have failed to discover and to develop a curriculum for the body to match that for the mind. In mental education, imitation and tradition avail much, because we learn by example of our superiors and from the successful precepts of the past ; but in phys- ical education we must deal with the body of the boy and of the girl, scientifically diagnosing, prognosing, and prescribing correctly, or we must not deal with it at all. This may seem mystery and paradox ; but it is truth, nevertheless. " It is so easy to feel that our knowledge of the material world is simple, and our knowledge of moral obligation and of spiritual life a mere matter of opinion ; but we must come to realize just the reverse." * Unlike philosophy, science has no power finally to solve difficulties: it merely shifts them deeper into the mys- tery. But in that shifting, it performs immense services to mankind, which may be temporary and individual or permanent and general. Why God permits conditions of poverty, ignorance, and crowding, in which some infants are born ill prepared for life, and other infants healthy at birth must inevitably deteriorate into anaemic, crippled, 1 Studies in Philosophy and Psychology : Letter from Carman to Hall. 4i8 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION consumptive, and otherwise defective youth, science can- not answer, does not try to answer. Science, however, can relieve the special condition of the individual and can show how to reconstruct society so that the immedi- ate causes of the general conditions may be removed. But the ultimate causes of poverty itself, which are ignorance and fraud and precedent poverty (a vicious circle, indeed), Science cannot remove, does not even consider. Our very philosophy as regards the place of health in life and in education is at fault, as I have tried to show elsewhere. Not only do we look upon health as a means to the end of success in life, but we also fail to regard it as highly as we should ; these two errors are essentially one. For health is not a means at all but an end-in-itself, to which most other forces and events in life are but means. When we have exalted health into the end that in truth it is, we shall be ready to arrange and to estab- lish in education the means by which it may be secured. These means are three : intellectual equipment for economic society so that by intelligent and efficient work, either as producer or as servant, one may obtain the necessaries of life ; moral training so that one may take his place in society and maintain it peacefully ; and physical training so that his body shall be strong, serv- iceable, and obedient. These means suggest the three methods to be followed in the formal system of educa- tion, in which they become not ends-in-themselves but intermediate processes, that is, educational ends. Such a discussion as is at once proposed is foreign to the pur- pose of this book ; and it suffices to remark that a cur- riculum calculated to equip youth as valuable economic workers, whose comradeship in labor is acceptable to their fellow workers and calculated at the same time to develop in them all the physical energy and skill of which their bodies are capable, would be revolutionary, MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 419 because it would be radically different from all curricula now indorsed by public opinion. The motive for the serious, systematic, scientific pur- suit of health is beyond not only the conscience but also the intelligence of most men, because health itself as thus conceived is beyond their opportunity and their attention. He who labors unremittingly in adult life for the means of life for himself and his dependents must inhibit thought as to what life itself is. Seeking to save his life, he is losing it. Yet he must seek to save it, must because his soul is part and parcel of the human- ity that brought him to being and surrounds and sus- tains him. He must stay his thought of the meaning of the life, lest from inattention to the immediately practical he fail therein : as, indeed, many do fail and perish. In order to seek the meaning of life, some have renounced society : such as Thoreau and Walt Whitman. Many a vagabond is a philosopher gone astray. The true motive for seeking perfect health, whether by honest labor, by sufficient rest, by intellectual activ- ity, .by moral discipline, by gymnastics, athletics, and dietetics, by surgical remedy of malformations, great and small, by medical cure of maladies, by renunciation of a noisy, crowding, unpitying civilization, by deliberate set- ting aside the inessentials of culture, of wealth, and of pleasure, by any or all of these, is always the emancipa- tion of the spirit from the flesh. One who is perfectly well, flawlessly skillful in bodily movement, joyously but calmly performing every bodily function, who takes from the physical creature everything of which it is capable, never was and is never like to be ; but did such an one exist, he would be so completely master of his body that he would not be conscious of its' existence. This is health, for it is body and soul working as one. In that co-working, the soul would by its very nature so possess the body as to be free from it. 420 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Of such health, genuine art, the very spirit of art, is the essence, for health is the nature of art, which ex- presses universals in the various visible, audible, sensu- ous forms of particulars. Philosophy is the method of health, for philosophy expresses universals in the forms of thought, more or less darkly revealed in words. Or- ganized by philosophy, which rationalizes rehgion, health assumes the character of holiness, whose motive is real- ization of sonship to God, the infinite holy One. Upon this vision, formal education dares not look face to face, but, in the manner of Moses of old, descends from the Mount quickly and humbly. For no man knows and manifests, and no man can know and manifest perfectly, the way to salvation and the life of entire holiness.* Philosophy has a lower aim and a lower plane than true religion, but only the next lower. The motive for the study of philosophy is to organize knowledge, to relate particulars to generals, and generals to universals, and universals to one truth upon which all turn; and like- wise to organize conduct, to relate impulses to purposes, and purposes to motives, and motives to the one char- acter in which all consist. Thus philosophy rationalizes thought and action. And religion spiritualizes such thought and action so that in a state of holiness reason and practical life may be one. Part and parcel of a sound philosophy of conduct is the art of health, which, like all other arts in civilization, is based upon certain sciences, — in particular physiology and hygiene. The art of health, moreover, like every other great art, comprises many lesser and subordinate arts. It is, indeed, a system of technics, requiring prac- tice continued until habits are formed and established, and is based upon knowledge of many facts and prin- ciples, — the whole utilized intelligently in the manage- ment of a particular and, therefore, peculiar, human 1 Sterrett, The Freedom of Authority, chapter i. MOTIVES AND VALUES OF SUBJECTS 421 body. Several decades ago Spencer said that few seemed conscious of health as a duty, avoiding disease and invalidism as immoral.^ On the whole, we have advanced since then, as vital statistics show; but most persons even to-day are not well, and few are as strong, as full of health, as expert and agile as they might well have been. The very weight and mass of civilization seem opposed to producing a vigorous humanity. Human nature, civilized, seems anti-natural. The city, with its sewers, its streets, its noises, its restlessness, its ambi- tions, anxieties, overwork, overplay, and accidents, its sunlessness and crowding, the city which should be at best only the occasional resort of mankind, the scene of a week's visit for recreation of mind or of a month's sojourn for transaction of business, has become the fatal theatre of man's tragic passions for excite- ment, for society, for wealth, and for power. There is land enough upon which children might grow into manhood and womanhood and men and women micfht o grow into wholeness of life ; but no, we prefer (and we draw our very laws so that we are compelled to accept) the white blight of the city to the ruddy health of the fields, — we, that is, the ruling and suffering third of us who dwell in cities. And, out m the roomy open lands, too many of the rest of us imitate in our houses, in our dress, in our amusements, in our worship, in our educa- tion, the manners, the conditions, the ideas that prevail of apparent necessity in the cities. But a reaction of opinion has set in, and a reaction of deed may follow, — must follow, if this nation endures. Some of the intelligent and moral, some of the well-to-do and frightened, have set up their homes in the fields : it is a fashion of incalculable possibilities of value in health, in knowledge, in conduct. Yet while cities endure as the residences of multitudes, the general citizenship must 1 Education, chapter iv. 422 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION endeavor to palliate evils not always of the choosing of particular individuals by resorting to many artifices of device, such as indoor calisthenics, gymnastics, athletics, and of substance, such as parks, sewers, waterworks, ventilation and sanitation systems in buildings, fresh-air excursions in the country, free public baths. The formal system of education must include from the day the boy enters school all of these artifices in their order. The school is the cure for civilization, as we have seen ; and it may yet be required to provide a month in the moun- tains or by the sea to restore our city boys and girls to at least a measure of the playful health that God meant them to possess when He gave them being. We may investigate forever the mechanics of life : we shall never resolve the miracles of growing grass or of the twain become one flesh and spirit in the child. We know at last that health is the beginning of holi- ness, its circumstance, its outward manifestation, its form and manner. Therefore is health sacred, right- eous, and holy : and whatsoever is unhealthy, that is sin. To cleanse our own bodies of unhealthiness and to strengthen every personal weakness, to cleanse the social body of unhealthiness and to strengthen every social weakness : these are moral duties. Who shirks them, who offends them, must answer in "the great assize," whatever be the nature or the time of that final account- ing. Many a schoolhouse, most factories, all tenements, — and whatsoever and whosoever, whether in ignorance or by design, caused these to be what they are, — must stand the challenge, — Was it good for the bodies and souls of men ? CHAPTER XX CONSTANTS, ELECTIVES, PROGRAMMES, AND COURSES We cannot always be contemplative or pragmatical abroad, but have need of some delightful intermissions wherein the enlarged soul may leave off awhile her severe schooling. — Milton, Prose Works, Tetrachordon. Every want satisfied adds to the fullness of life. The whole object of the fine arts is to create new wants in order to satisfy them. — Ward, Applied Sociology, p. 330. Horace Mann, being asked, after his memorable commencement address, if he had not exaggerated in saying that no possible amount of time, thought, and treasure could be too much to expend if it would save one boy from ignorance and evil and train him for life, replied promptly, " Not if it were my boy." — Birdseye, Individual Training in Our Colleges, p. 196. Since education and culture are to be redeemed from traditionalism, from particularism, and from teleological notions, and since they are to be made valuable for all kinds and conditions of men and women in all good kinds and conditions of employment and of leisure, the pro- grammes of studies and exercises must be made at once encyclopaedic in material, scientific in method, and. ap- propriate in their application to various individual men. In pedagogy, therefore, four questions arise : i. Are there any studies and exercises that should be pursued by all persons, or by all boys, or by all men ? 2. Are there any studies or exercises that are of sufficient importance to large classes of individuals to warrant their inclusion as electives or options in every system of formal education ? 3. What is the logical sequence of studies and exercises .^ 4. What is the logical correlation of studies and exer- cises ? Complete answers to these questions have con- stituted the subject-matter of entire books; they are technical, and as such do not fall within the purview of the present work. But brief answers, involving certain 424 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION principles herein developed at length, are essential to the present argument. The logic of this inquiry — a proper progressive concatenation of facts, concepts, judgments,^ and opinions from which reason demands an applied conclusion — requires an issue in formulated recommendations. Play is an absolute constant in education from birth until full maturity ; and it is a very valuable aid in man- hood and down to old age. In association with play and games, both intellectual and physical, both individual and social, a choice of gymnastics, athletics, calisthenics, swimming, hunting, fishing, travel, is an absolute con- stant in childhood and youth. ^ And in association with these more or less undirected exercises, the various lines of manual training, so called, present themselves for choice by educator and educatee. • In all this play and physical development and training, the motive is a facile control of the body, a delight in its powers, a desire to make the most of it. A recognition of play and of physical training as the first constant in education, and of games and athletics as the first constant in culture, would revolutionize the procedures of formal education in most communities and of formal culture in most colleges and universities ; but not in all. The light already shines in some places. Play is the seed-ground of Intelligence ; physical culture, that of Efficiency ; and games, that of Morality. And as has been displayed already in this argument. Science is the harvest of Intelligence; Art, of Efficiency; and Philo- sophy, of Morality. And, again, Science, Art, and Philo- sophy bring the body to health and the soul to integrity. 1 Bagley, T/te Educative Process^ p. 131. 2 ** No books in the world are as valuable as games for the direct devel- opment of character. The virtues engendered in the playing-field are of the most permanent and valuable nature." Hughes, The Making of Citi- zens^ p. 248. CONSTANTS AND ELECTIVES 425 By this dialectic of growth, man in civiHzation may come to hoHness. Another absolute constant in education is the study of the present world, — ■ Nature-study, geography, and all the natural and physical sciences in their due order and relation. Play, the first constant, is the approach to Nature as well as to human nature. " Outdoor life " ; what a reproach the phrase is to the ordinary life of man ! to our common sense ! to our foolish ambitions ! Play enlarges life, Nature-study prolongs it. For med- icine, hygiene, botany, field-roaming, camping-in-the- woods, and every other investigation and activity that takes one into deep and secret places, thrusts Death away for years and years from the individual and from the race. To know Nature fully is as impossible but almost as desirable as it is to know God ; and not one day in our lives may we rightfully neglect association with Nature any more than we may rightfully neglect the worship of God. A recognition of Nature-study and of science as the second constant in education and in culture would re- volutionize the procedures of formal education and cul- ture in most institutions of learning, would revolution- ize civilization itself by transforming, by returning, citizens into men. It is too much to expect ? So were the steam engine and the telephone before they were discovered. In that great day, Bruno, Bacon, Pestalozzi, Spencer, Hall will be justified. There is a third constant in education in every land for its peoples, the vernacular, not for its own sake, but that the soul of the individual may be able more and more completely and accurately to express itself. For the bet- ter understanding of the vernacular, the study of other languages is desirable. " He who knows no foreign lan- guages knows nothing of his own." ^ The vernacular as 1 Goethe, Sayings in Prose. 426 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION a constant in education includes vocabulary, reading, conversation, recitation, prose and verse composition, grammar, rhetoric, debate, oratory, philology, spelling, handwriting, typewriting, typesetting, phonography, and literature; the subject-matter of the native tongue, its constitution, sciences, and arts. There is for all the educable and cultivable ages of a man these three constants and but two more, less import- ant and therefore requiring but little comment, though vital, — music and drawing. The music includes indi- vidual and not merely class singing and voice culture, the acquisition of the technic of musical instruments, and the principles of composition. For every one .? Certainly. For those " born with musical gifts " as a matter of right ; for those born without musical gifts as a matter of social necessity. Music is the universal language, the soul of poetry, the keynote of Nature, the pathway to peace as well as to power. Drawing: the term here is synecdoche, for by it I in- dicate all modes of expression by representation, — draw- ing by outlines, in mass, in color, modeling, sculpture, painting, — whatever be the tools and material, whether chalk, lead, graphite, paper, wood, stone, water-color, oil, bronze. Mode and tool are matters of indifference ; the representation of reality — of reality often purer than the particular real thing — is the essential. While there are no other constants for all the educa- ble and cultivable ages, there are certain constants for particular ages. These vary for particular races of man- kind. In a paradoxical sense, an appropriate elective may be termed a constant for a particular individual, because his mental diathesis as indicated by a scientific diagnosis requires a particular regimen of thought or of physical activity. The Negro, no doubt, requires certain studies and exercises earlier and others later than the Teuton ; and the " colored man," — the CONSTANTS AND ELECTIVES 427 American mestizo y originally bastard, disowned and de- spised by fathers of the so-called superior race but tenderly nurtured by mothers of the inferior race/ — abnormal miscegenate that he is, goes to all extremes of precocity and of arrest, of variety and simplicity of powers. To each race, to each individual, belong the constants appropriate to his complete education. Arithmetic, both as the science of multitude of mag- nitudes and the art of computing them and as a mode of conveying information of the world, may fairly be termed a constant in the education of boys and girls from eight to sixteen years of age. Likewise, geometry may be considered a constant for children and youth from twelve to twenty years of age. And similarly, the algebraic equation. ^ But mathematics in their entirety belong to the mathematical specialist and to the phys- ical scientist. As such, the higher mathematics are properly elective. History in its exact sense cannot, upon philosophical grounds, claim a place as a constant before the time of adult maturity. Incomprehensible in its substance with- out the apperceptive materials of personal experience, history is a part not of the programme of education but rather of that of culture. The effort to reduce history to the gauge of childish and adolescent intelligence has emasculated it beyond recognition. Such has been its perversion in text-books and in popular essays and 1 Our Negro is literally " a new nation," a mixture, in some instances a blend, of many peoples. With a superb physical basis, this " nation " may yet achieve notable things in world-history. The beauty of some of the women, the unusual maternalism of all of them, and the precocity of the children indicate biologically singular promise for the future. ■2 The reforms scientifically indicated for the teaching of elementary mathematics in school are two : to postpone instruction in them until the pupils are able to comprehend their processes ; and to present them in the concrete so that they may be solved with the enthusiasm and facility engendered by interest. 428 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION narrative volumes, — by reason of prudery, of timidity, of sheer ignorance, of the authority and influence of libel laws for the living and respect for the memory of the dead, of civility and politeness, of national pride, of the illusions of things past, and of commercial interests of publishers, — that what little true history can be discov- ered and comprehended can scarcely be brought to Hght, and that history itself is in disrepute for recondite re- moteness from real life and for vague superficiality and general dullness. In this condition of the American mind, history at present cannot be redeemed. Therefore, history is a pageant,^ a panorama,^ rather than a revelation of men and of mankind. At the hands of most writers, biography is overshadowed by the same night. "To be a really good historian," said Macaulay, ** is perhaps the rarest of intellectual distinctions." ^ And to be a thoroughly appreciative reader of history, one must be of intellectual power and of social and personal experience equal to the writer of it. This criticism of superficiality is measurably true of all the sciences that draw upon history for their mate- rials or attempt to analyze society for what it really is and contains, — economics, political science, anthropo- logy, sociology, to cite the most notable. Upon the face of this presentation, it would appear that electives are generally but varieties of the constants. As such they become options, as, for example, French or German, geology or astronomy, psychology or philosophy. In a few instances, they are extensions of the constants into regions too remote or difficult for the needs of most men and women. In other instances, they are fascinating pursuits for "the elect," as, for example, sociology. In the final instances, they become the special themes of 1 Birrell, Obiter Dicta : Series ii, Muse of History. 2 Chancellor -Hewes, The United States : a History ; Preface, vol. i. ^ Essays: History. CONSTANTS AND ELECTIVES 429 professional inquiry, — theology, jurisprudence, thera- peutics, pedagogy, architecture, engineering. And obviously upon this analysis, it appears that the constants are more in evidence in youth than in matur- ity, in the process of education, the plowing, than in the process of culture, the planting, of the human mind. Some years ago, strong effort was made to group the stud- ies of school and college within the three terms, humanities, sciences, and arts. Under the spell of this trivium, — medi- aeval humanities, modern sciences, ancient arts, — I for one was led to argue in public speech and print that about one third of the time of every high-school pupil should be spent upon each of these subjects. The fallacy of this mechanical view — its essential traditionalism under the guise of modern technical precision — is self-apparent to the psychologist and to the educator. The determination of the true order of studies, of the particular course in particular subjects, is essentially a task for the philosopher. In history, he may proceed from myth to biography, to general world-views, to local history, to American history, to English, to modern, to mediaeval, to ancient history, to civil government, and he may end in political science ; or he may adopt some other order, as his reasoning directs. His purpose is to find the logic of the time-perspective, his problem is essentially philosophical. In mathematics, he may pro- ceed from numbers to arithmetic, to geometry, to alge- bra, to analytic geometry, to calculus, to quaternions, to mechanics : again, his purpose is to find and to follow the logical order. The determination of the appropriate age for the pupil to pursue a particular study is the task of the psychologist, whose business is with the genesis of powers, with the development of interests and with the discovery of needs. He studies the typical child of eight, the typical child of twelve, the typical child of six- teen years; and he studies also the individual boy and 430 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION the individual girl and by their peculiarities distinguishes them from the standard types. Knowing the types and the variations, he selects the subjects and the topics in the constants, — always, of course, retaining the logical essentials, but adding the particularly appropriate inci- dentals and collaterals, — as required for the education of the children or for the culture of the youth. To this task, few have devoted themselves; but the educational psychologists have come to stay and to increase.^ The determination of the programme by which courses and pupils are brought together year by year, day by day, is the task of the educator ; but it cannot be per- formed successfully until the philosopher and the psycho- logist have both accomplished their tasks and can display approved results. Therefore, an educational programmefor the specific grades is as yet unknown, though indicated.^ There are two most technical questions that concern us here. Of these, the one of greatest importance is whether a curriculum should be arranged vertically by subjects or horizontally by grades. It is almost useless to study a subject as a mass of information : it must be pursued in accordance with its own logic. ^ Therefore, there must first be a vertical sequence. But it is quite as useless to study a subject before one has the apperceiv- ing power.^ Therefore, the second task is to arrange the items of the day's work in proper association : this is horizontal correlation. The answer to the question is that the logical order, the logical sequence, the course of the particular subject is the necessary philosophical means to the pedagogical end. 1 The prospect is very encouraging. Educational Review: Bibliography for 1906, June, 1907, pp. 47-62. 2 Noss, The Fourth Year, The Fifth Year. 8 Ward, Applied Sociology, p. 308. * Bagley, 7he Educative Process, p. 106, and works there cited. CONSTANTS AND ELECTIVES 431 The second question, less important but not unessen- tial, is how much of the day's work in each particular grade shall be required, how much optional (a matter of choice between several topics), and how much elective — a matter of choice between work (or play) and nothing at all (or rest). '* Busy work " in the primary grades represents the entering wedge of electives for children at school as well as for youth at college. The answer to this question is practical. To place an eleven-year- old boy, because he is bright and quick, with fifteen- year-old average boys indicates failure to see that the precocious boy needs not to be pushed forward beyond the experiences of his soul, but to be given more work of the kind needed and enjoyed by eleven-year-old boys/ Hence, the suitable elective as extra work appropriate for eleven-year-old boys is the solution, not crowding the high school with children, and insulting the world with college graduates not yet come to manhood. If one col- lege "freshman" can do twenty hours of ''freshman" work while most freshmen do sixteen, let him do it ; but do not for that reason graduate him in three years instead of four : the same principle holds in high schools and in grammar grades. All elaboration of these principles belongs properly in texts upon school management : it suffices here to suggest the problems and to vindicate the principles for their solution. The argument of this chapter is not quite complete without note of a question previo.usly discussed in these pages. Does not the need of society properly influence, to an important degree, the presentation of certain sub- jects in the schoolroom ? Again, I answer, No. As I 1 " Never press a child to learn. The curiosity of children is a natural propensity, which comes before instruction. Conceit is always to be dreaded as a result of premature education." Fe'nelon, Traite de V Edu- cation des Filles ["Fragments": pp. 9, 13, 11, transl. by B. C. R.]. 432 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION have argued above, the emasculation of history for school purposes has made that subject contemptible and pre- vents in this generation in America a development of that respect for history which has always marked great and enduring civilizations. Our people do not know, and because of their school experiences are unwilling to inquire, what history really is and teaches. We cannot impart to children or instill into them what is essentially beyond their powers. Consequently, to teach out of proper order and time any subject or topic because society seems to require it — in other words, to yield to utilitarianism — is to do worse than fail ; it is to give offense. Already too many persons have learned the art of finance before mastering tJie fundamental principles of morality ; and too many have acquired the art of pol- itics before inquiring into the science of government} Not the school for society, not the boy for civilization, not the man for his country ; but all education for the most in the present, — which, closely analyzed, is the immediate future, — because the whole cannot be greater than the sum of all its parts, and mankind is temporal but each man eternal. 1 Cf. Woods, " Democracy a New Unfolding of Human Power," Studies ill Philosophy and Psychology. CHAPTER XXI RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS OF SOCIETY AND EDUCATORS God has lent us the earth for our life ; it is a great entail — Ruskin, Seve7i Lamps of Architecture, chap, vi, § 9. The wise man must remember that while he is a descendant of the past, he is a parent of the future ; and that his thoughts are as children born to him, which he may not care- lessly let die. — Spencer, First Principles 0/ Synthetic Philosophy^ p. 123. The animating spring of all improvement, in individuals and in societies, is not their knowledge of the actual, but their conception of the possible. — Maktineau, Spiritual Growth, vol. vi, p. S7. The rights of society against educators constitute the obHgations of the educators because of their profession of competence and of desire to educate. The rights of educators against society constitute the obHgations of society in accepting the services of the educators. The first right of society is vested in the child ; it is, therefore, the first obhgation of teachers to society. The child has the right to grow in knowledge at school, to improve in health and in morality, and to gain in efficiency. In a graded school, the obligation of the teacher is to take any class, good or bad, and in the course of the term to make it better as a class and to make as many as possible of its individuals better. The teacher who spoils a good class or discourages or con- fuses a good pupil has failed in his obligation, voluntarily assumed by his public profession. The child ' is in the world by fate, not by choice. The unborn babe is doomed to birth as is the adult to death. ^ And we who environ 1 ' ' The doom is on tis, as it is on yoUy That nothing can undo ; And all in vain you warn : As your fate is to die, our fate is to be bornr Howells, From Generation to Generation. 434 MOTIVES AxND VALUES IN EDUCATION the child are to him angels of heaven or fiends of hell until he has learned what this world really is. We need to remember every day that no child is re- sponsible for his inheritance. But we should not exag- gerate our own responsibility towards the child ; it does not exceed our own powers and opportunities. Within these limits, the teacher owes to the young stranger in this world a training to obedience, a discipline to intel- lectual effort, and abundant information. If for no other reason, teachers should be constant readers, that they may always have fresh and living knowledge to impart. If for no other reason, teachers should be constant scholars, persistent students, that they may not forget what it means to study. Any child is to be pitied who feels that his teacher is not intelligent, earnest, ambitious, and well-informed. A teacher may have a life certificate and a life appointment dated ten, twenty, thirty years ago ; the certificate itself will not save him from the searching eyes of the child anxious for intellectual nour- ishment. Much of the disorder in schoolrooms occurs at times when teachers are too tired to be giving out information. Quite as great as the responsibility of the teacher to the child is his responsibility to the mother of the child. The mother brought the child into the world in travail and in peril of death. In nine cases in ten, the food eaten and the clothing worn by children represent the personal deprivations of self-sacrificing mothers. Consider what it means to be the wife of a man who earns eight, ten, fifteen, tvv^enty dollars a week, and the mother of three, six, possibly ten children, eating three meals a day and wearing out clothing and shoes seven days in the week ! Consider the care of the father and of the children in sickness, and the anxiety when work is slack or wanting and the savings run low! Consider the moral responsi- bility of training the family ! Day-work, night-worry. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 435 even the strain of holiday-making, fear of rent-day and **of rainy days :" this is the price that the mother pays for the lives of her children. Behind every child in his class, the good teacher sees the mother and remembers what the child costs the mother in work and prayer and sacrifice. School-teaching is hard ; but there is no paid occupation so hard as taking care of a family of two adults and several children on ten dollars a week. No- thing else is quite so hard save combining these family duties and working in mill or shop or at the washtub to earn money for the family. The death-rate begins to take its heaviest toll at the point where the per capita family income is so low that the mother must '*go to work." The cemeteries are full of the graves of the babies and young children whose mothers worked in mills, of the mothers themselves and of the fathers. Here men, women, and children break under the agony of life. Teaching is a sacred profession because the greatest service one woman can render to another is to help her to rear her children well, — because teaching serves motherhood, which is wholly sacred.^ The father who earns the money used by the mother to keep the child at school has certain rights. Since all the fathers vote, we hear frequently about this right. In times past, the rights of fathers against their child- ren, against the teachers of their children, against even the mothers were grossly exaggerated. The slight ele- ment of truth is this : the father who is truly a good father and a good husband deserves to be forgiven for taking a wife and bringing the children into the world, 1 " Ah, none but she who has borne A child beneath her breast may know What wondrous thrill and subtle spell Comes from this wondrous woven band That binds a mother to her unborn child Within her womb." Finch, The Unborn. 436 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION and to be dealt with patiently and mercifully, that he may be able to go on living in the world and support- ing those for whom he is responsible. When he gives his life to the lives that he has brought into being, he is discharging his debt, though he can never gain a balance to his credit in respect to his wife and children. Much is said of the rights of the taxpa3^er against the teacher. Most of the taxes that go to the support of the teacher are raised by levies upon real estate ; and the small holdings are usually assessed nearer to their true values than the large. The owner of a homestead usually must earn from labor the money that he pays in taxes. Usually such a man has a family to support and his entire income is less than the amount that he might beneficially use for himself, his wife, his children, and other relatives naturally dependent upon him. In consequence, every dollar that he pays in taxes is a dollar that he might use to the direct advantage of his family. While all this is true, it is also true that his school tax, whether levied by state law or by municipal ordinance, represents a gain rather than a loss, for most school- teachers are worth to the taxpayers more money than they receive. It is right that this should be so. It is the duty of every teacher, of every artist, of every scientist, of every professional man, of every Christian to obey the law of good measure and running over. But the small taxpayer is not the only taxpayer. The entire tendency is toward the development of rich men and of many rich men, for the rich are growing richer and more numerous with every decade.^ The total pay- rolls of the teachers of American cities never equal the payrolls of the bartenders. Liquors, tobacco, amusements, advertising; each of these items is several times greater 1 Le Rossignol, Orthodox Socialism, a Criticism ; Mayo-Smith, Statis- tics and Economics ; Patten, The New Basis of Civilization ; Smart, The Distribution of Inco7ne. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 437 annually than the entire cost of American education, public and private. As Benjamin Franklin said, the heaviest taxes are not those of government, but those of the pleasures and amusements and vices. Again, the teacher is responsible to the teachers who taught him, to the world of education and of culture by which he himself has been made scholar and educator, to the saints and heroes and martyrs who have kept ideas alive in all ages. This responsibility may easily be for- gotten, for practical life, for ordinary dull daily life, is not a season of spiritual illumination and of spiritual exalta- tion, but of resolute, silent, patient absorption in the tasks before one.^ Finally, the nation in whose midst the teacher was born and reared, the State by whose laws, customs, and tradi- tions he exists, the Church which makes life sacrosanct, his life, his pupils' lives, and all the other social institu- tions that condition and environ him have rights against the teacher ; and he is under obligations to them all. Even the city whose officers collect taxes and pay salaries, its governing boards, its chief rulers, have a claim against the teacher that he perform honorably and diligently the tasks that he professes ability to perform. The complex civilization environing the schools compels an answering complexity within. When a community calls for professional men, housekeepers, stenographers, clerks, salesmen, it is cruel to send out only composition writers and computers of numbers. Every large city suf- fers from the diseases of a congested population, — pov- erty, over-competition of labor and capital, ignorance of hygiene, defiance of sanitation, crime, vice. The School should supply the best remedies known to modern culture for the overcoming of these diseases. It should 1 " Tasks in hours of insight willed Can be through hours of gloom fulfilled." Matthew Arnold, Morality. 438 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION be the antitoxin for civilization. It is the true antidote for the great city. The School is a mode of meeting the material development of society by effecting a cor- responding spiritual development. It is the fortune of every school superintendent to listen to the advocates of the thousand and one remedies of laymen and of educationalists for the evils and de- ficiencies of modern public education. A mere list of these remedies by title would fill the pages designed for this chapter. Each and all of them presuppose one condition, more money, which President Eliot of Harvard has happily emphasized in the title of a little book, big with meaning, " More Money for the Public Schools." The first effect of heavier expenditures would be to attract to the governing boards and to the teaching faculties of the schools a class of men and women superior to those now present. I observed several years ago^ that in a democracy ''extravagant" governments seldom dare to be corrupt. The general truth that very parsimonious governing boards and executive officers are comparatively safe in their various modes of benefit- ing themselves is not as well known and as well under- stood as it should be. Of course, in the essential facts any corrupt board is extravagant and any truly extra- vagant board is immoral ; but boards that spend freely arouse public interest by their appeal to the public im- agination as well as by their exciting the resentful enmity of the large taxpayer and the suspicious fear of the small taxpayer. On the other hand, the board that asks relatively light appropriations and spends relatively little money is welcomed by a very considerable portion of the population because it eases the tax-rate ; and many men and women still feel toward taxes the hatred inherited from centuries of feudal and royal oppression. To be sure, the margin between the light appropriation and 1 Our Schools, p. lOO. RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 439 the inevitably necessary expenditure is likely to be small ; but almost no one suspects that there is any margin at all that may be stolen. Nor is this the only evil. When expenditures are low, and the quality of result expected is consequently low, men of ability and spirit dislike to serve the institution in any capacity. The result is a low quality of governing con- trol and executive service. The officers often try to make up for their own small stealings or salaries by developing political power through petty manipulations of the posi- tions and personnel of the institution. In consequence, the institution becomes a labyrinth of illegitimate rights and influences, and cannot perform its proper social func- tions. When, however, expenditures run high, public ex- pectation is aroused ; and the quality of all the persons connected with the institution, whatever it be, — political, religious, educational, economic, — steadily improves. Whatever be the condition of any institution in any community, it tends to perpetuate itself by forming a circle, good or bad, as the case may be, — an excellent quality of control and service, generous appropriations, wise expenditures, honesty, impartiality, good reputation, high ideals ; or poor quality of control and service, par- simonious revenues, unwise expenditures, dishonesty, favoritism, bad reputation, no ideals. How, then, shall we break the present " vicious circle " of education ? By acquiring ideals. And if we could acquire them, how should we spend the increasingly generous revenues that would follow ? The answer is not merely theoretical, it is also practical, for we may see here in America many communities and institutions with steadily rising per capita expenditures. We must not deceive ourselves in this matter. Money has been depreciating steadily for ten 3'ears ; and merchandise and property have been rising in price. Unless the endowment and income of an institution under private control have 440 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION increased thirty or forty per cent in the past ten years, with the same number of students, the institution is now relatively poorer than it was then. Similarly with the appropriation for the public institution of education. He who shows that the per capita cost of education has risen ten or even twenty per cent in his own community has proven that relatively his schools have gone backward, for thirty dollars will buy no more education now than twenty-two or twenty-four dollars would buy ten years ago. Even worse. The average American possesses now thirty- five per cent more property than he did ten years ago and has had an even greater gain in income. Public and private education lags behind and cannot show even a proportional increase, whereas an even greater increase has been de- manded by the increasing social strain of civilization. We should recognize the State public school system as a hierarchy by establishing the best educator in the State as State Superintendent (or Commissioner of Edu- cation, the title matters not) actually in control of all municipalities and should pay him the salary appropriate to the position. In populous States, the leading physician receives an income that makes tv\^enty-five thousand dollars a year for the leading educator seem small. We should support the head of the State system by giving him an adequate force of competent associates, assistants, agents, inspectors, supervisors, examiners, and clerks. We should recognize the city superintendent as an officer charged v^ith a multitude of duties requiring a degree of executive ability so high as to make the educational qualifications secondary though essential, and should pay him fifteen or twenty thousand dollars a year. Physicians, lawyers, dentists, industrial managers of high repute get more. So would the city superintendent, if his legal powers equaled his actual responsibilities. Principals of large schools, supervisors of subjects and of departments, directors of popular lecture courses, and other general RIGHTS AND OBLIGATIONS 441 managers would receive three, four, five times as much as now, and would then receive only as much as principals of schools actually do receive in England, which we are so ignorant as to suppose behind us in real education. Class teachers in the public kindergartens, elementary and secondary schools, colleges, institutes, and universities would receive from one to five thousand dollars a year, averaging at least twenty-five hundred in even the lower schools, and four thousand in the higher. Why ? So as to attract the best talent to the work of developing human wealth, which is the only real wealth, and which is the cause of material, visible goods, and so as to sup- port this talent fitly at its work. Strange as it may seem to a few, this very stage is but a short distance ahead in communities that are progressing. We should increase greatly the number of teachers not only because education would be greatly prolonged and the number of children at school greatly increased, but also because we should give every class of thirty or forty pupils into the care of two teachers in association. We should greatly enlarge our school accommodations, allowing at least two rooms to every class, and several general rooms to every school. We should also increase the area of land set aside for school grounds. And we should multiply in variety and in value the studies, exer- cises, recreations, and interests to be afforded boys and girls and men and women. In short, the very increase of material supplies and of educational opportunities would increase the obligations of the profession. As it is now, we are ignorantly held to be responsible far beyond the possibilities of our achievement for want of legal rights and of material resources. Perhaps we ourselves have failed to see the vastness of our opportunity, considered theoretically, and the essential nature and the absolute necessity of our function in civilized society; and conse- quently have asked for too little. CHAPTER XXII THE NATURAL MAN : HIS MOTIVES, IDEALS, AND PRINCIPLES The poor man comes to us from yesterday's wrongs ; and he generates beings who are carrying into to-morrow the birth-marks of to-day 's evils. — Patten, New Basis of Civ- ilization, P- 7'- For where the argument of intellect Is added unto evil will and power, No rampart can the people make against it. Dante, Divina Commedia, In/eriio, canto xxxi, 55-57 (Longfellow, transl.). When good and evil alike are seen to grow out of assignable antecedents, by processes that calmly judging men can pretty closely foretell ; to rest on laws of growth and disease that apply to character as other laws apply to the physical organism ; to express the lack of imagination, or the low power of reasoning, that makes men hard, cruel, and unjust i or to flow from the over-excitement or insufficient satisfaction of physical impulses that make them a prey to lust or to alcohol ; then every thinking man is made to feel in a new sense that but for the grace of conditions that he has only partially controlled, there, where the criminal passes to disgrace and misery, goes he himself, — the juryman, the judge, the newspaper reader. — Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution, part i, p. 118. The natural man may be the man in complete sav- agery, — the primitive man of Nature; he may be the man without formal education, in the presence of a com- plex civilization, whose influences he cannot wholly es- cape ; or he may be the man who has resented formal education and opposed whatever else he could of the civilization environing him. Of the first type of natural man, we have some examples within the United States, but not enough for our serious consideration. Of the second type, we have millions of examples. Of the third type, we have thousands, — our criminals, vagrants, idlers, paupers, and parasites. It is the second type that we are to consider here, — the untaught man or woman strug- gling to live the human life in the thick of things that he certainly cannot understand. There is a significant confirmation that psychology and sociology make for the truths that each primarily displays. THE NATURAL MAN 443 Psychology discerns certain moods in man, — natural to him, appearing in due order as he progresses through life, self- evolved, genetic, normal, not in the least the product of any kind of formal education, on the contrary, often unfortun- ately repressed or distorted by pseudo-education. Socio- logy discerns certain moods in communities and societies, — natural to nations and peoples, appearing in due order as the society progresses in civilization, destined, genetic, nor- mal, not in the least the product of deliberate social willing, on the contrary, often unfortunately repressed or distorted by pseudo-science. To these personal moods or modes, psychology has given the special name of motives. To the corresponding social modes, sociology has given the special name of in- stitutions. Only in an advanced stage of culture, when one can summon the events of life in clear and complete retrospect, does one become conscious of past motives ; and never is one conscious of present motives. The phil- osopher knows why he did some past things : not even he knows why he is now doing present things. Similarly, in an advanced stage of civilization, when society has fully developed a self-conscious leisure class, it becomes possible to recognize those products of social motivation which history slowly develops and which we loosely classify as institutions, meaning thereby not special foundations (e. g. a hospital, a college, an asylum), but habits, customs, modes of thinking, feeling, doing. The primary and one absolutely essential motive in the individual man is to live. We may not properly speak of the desire to live as a motive, for there is a suggestion of definiteness in desire that lifts it above motive toward the clear consciousness of purpose. Motive is wholly uncon- scious, desire is subconscious, purpose fully conscious : stated otherwise, motive is pure will, desire is will and feeling, purpose is will and intellection. Motive has no object, desire sees an object, purpose sets out to attain 444 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION the object. But without motivation, there can be no de- sire ; and without desire, there can be no purpose.^ Motive expresses itself in impulse. Persistence in im- pulses of the same nature displays steady motivation, a health of body that is also strength. Surplus strength — abounding health — displays vitality beyond the require- ments of the internal machinery of .the body. It mothers impulses, manufactures desires, multiplies purposes. Such vitality imperils the soul ; for it tends to destroy memory, habit, integrity, identity, character. It leads to lusts of the flesh and to pride of life. Overflowing physical energy at once invites and be- trays psychical vitality. The invalid may think clearly, for consciousness consumes but little force : it is phos- phorescent : it is the light of universal mind reflected from the mirror of an individual body. The man of valor may think powerfully, feeding his consciousness with calorific combustibles till it burns and flares and shines and glows incandescent.^ Deficient physical energy also at once invites and be- trays psychical vitality. The soul tries to succor and rescue the body : for the soul built the body. (Other- wise, the growth of the body is inexplicable.) Often when the body is invalid or convalescent, the soul is submerged. The first mode pursued by the soul proposing to live is hunger, — for drink, for food, for sleep. This special motive in its three phases is seen in the newborn babe and in the convalescent invalid. To cross this motive, to fail in it, promptly induces insanity and death. 1 Intention is a concentration of the mind functioning as intellect upon a special object. It is the second power of attention. Intention is not to be confused with purpose, for it is not the issue of motive, but a highly developed form of consciousness. 2 Of the first type, Pope and Stevenson : of the second, Washington and Bismarck. THE NATURAL MAN 445 Very closely resembling the mode of hunger is the appetite for warmth (in too great cold) and for coolness (in too great heat). In civilization, we gratify this tem- perature appetite by clothing and housing, — near and distant shelter of the body, whose life is a flame flicker- ing upon matter between 94° and 108° Fahrenheit and comfortable only at 98.5° ^ Resultant from these modes are two, — the motive to pay out, to get clear of, excess vigor, and the motive to understand the means of supplying these appetites. To do things (to get action) and to know things (curiosity) are secondary motives, not primary, and yet by no means purposes, or even desires. The ignorant, immoral, ineffi- cient man of primitive energy, — of motivation, — does not care at all whether he expends his energy in run- ning, in fighting, in bearing burdens, in heavy labor, or burns it up in drunkenness or in lechery ; but expend it or burn it, he must. Unless he destroys it, this tre- mendous energy will craze him. He is the stuff of which the true king is to be made ; but he is far more likely to become a demon, a fiend, a brute,^ than a king-. The motive curiosity is the mother of intelligence and is therefore the beginning of the intellectual or rational life. But it is not that life. Motive can neither be inhibited nor educated, but it may be trained or schooled.^ The movement of motive 1 There is a discussion of life as a phase of or an identity with ioniza- tion in Duncan, The N'ew Knowledge, part vi. Also, Lodge, Electrons. 2 I use- these words apologetically. No creature of the imagination, no animal ancestor or cousin, of man can be as bad as the fearful man of blind " passion," — be he citizen or woodsman, sprung from slum or palace. Too much feeding, too little thinking ; and man sounds the uttermost depths of the abyss of hatred against all living things. ^ It may be transformed. In appearance, the transformation is a dis- placement. But the good lover is always a good hater. He is full of motive, has therefore many motives. Their forms and directions depend upon his ideas — his knowledge, his opinions. 446 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION is its gratification. Motive or appetite (its next higher phase) is sated by its own activity, which consumes it. The function of intellection in respect to motive is solely to channel it, and, in this sense, thereby to direct it. When we speak of motor-education, we mean digging channels (in psychological terms, "forming habits;" in pedagogical, " drilling ") through which motivation may expend itself facilely. Motivation measures energy, — it measures exactly that amount of energy which the body produces in excess of its own internal requirements. Motivation ceases in sleep. Then the body functions without motivation as it does without consciousness, purely (if the sleep be per- fect) as a physical mechanism. Rational processes can neither add to nor detract from motives. They can only express them. The primary motives of human life, manifest in the child, tend to its self-preservation. They have an air of self-regard which grows by the purification of the intel- lect into self-respect. Self-reliance, independence, free- dom, defiance, pride, avarice, insolence, arrogance, an- archy, and outlawry are all forms and powers of the motive to live. There are other primary motives, not manifest until adolescence sets in : these tend to self-reproduction. They have a note of ecstasy, a tone of auto-intoxication. Of these motives, the first is to please the other sex, not as individuals but as a kind or class. The second is the personal sex-motive, to continue life beyond death in a new generation. Vanity, conceit, egoism, lust, love, self-devotion, altruism, and self-sacrifice are all forms and powers of this motive to live again. The last of the primary motives manifest themselves in the established adult life and tend to race-continuance. They inhibit impulses in the interest of habits. They convert the play-spirit into working-force. They con- THE NATURAL MAN 447 serve what is, banking up vitality, as it were, in reser- voirs. They centre upon self, but swing a periphery through society. From an egotism not less real than that of hunger or that of sexual desire, they widen out into an altruism that establishes the family and maintains the nation as a society, and thereby continues the race. These primary motives well up in the soul of every healthy man and woman, and can scarcely be suppressed by even the worst system of formal education, so called. These primary motives spring out of mere life. Cer- tain other motives spring from life in excess of the pre- sent needs oi the body. Of these other motives, — which may be called, arbitrarily, "secondary" motives, — two are important. To get rid of surplus energy, we play. In order to acquire more upon which to use our surplus energy, we accumulate property. There are other ex- planations of the play-spirit and of the property-lust. These explanations are usually derived from intellectual or affective processes. But the true explanations are to be found in the motor-processes. We play lest we rack to pieces, burn up, with too much energy. We play in order to get tired. ^ Fighting is not so much universal animal motive as a special pre-human instinct. Often it springs from fear, which is a phase of the reverse motive to live. There is a love of fighting that springs from excess energy, the passion for adventure ; there is a fighting that is a purely atavistic gloating over blood ; there is a fighting 1 There is, it would seem, a physiological explanation of the need, and the natural instinct, to play. The body in its normal condition produces far more energy than it really needs. Heart, lungs, liver, have large mar- gins of safety. The cells and tissues, the blood-current, the corpuscles, the nerve-ganglia, the pm mater, and all other working and thinking parts exceed by two, by ten, times the actual requirement, if keeping alive were the sole object. The blood must be o.xygenated and intoxicated in order to reduce man below the peril of excessive, explosive, ecstatic, hysterical vigor. In childhood, play ; in manhood, work, solves the difficulty. 448 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION that witnesses simple self-reliance ; and there is a fight- ing that is the bitterness of pride. Outside idiocy and imbecility, an entirely uneducated soul cannot exist in civilization. The mere presence and visible activity of educated men in society educates the unschooled man. But to be essentially uneducated is to be the prey of motives, unenlightened by ideals, undi- rected by principles. That uneducated men live as nobly as they do is evidence of the essential worth of these simple human motives. Knowing nothing of values, rationally determined, they trust their motives to bring them to the goal of honor.^ The genetic progress of the natural man is to grow and to be strong, to eat, to sleep, to play, to acquire ; after puberty, to grow yet more, to delight in the other half of mankind, to desire, and to procreate ; and in full manhood to work, to love children, to desire the com- mon good, and to enjoy exhilaration that fatigue may give surcease of life in sleep.^ There is an air of automatism in all this, because reason in it is wholly subordinate to motivation, the intellect is a mere tool of desire, and affection is accidentally rather than intentionally, deliberately, and consciously gratified. Over such men the storm of the world passes un- known. They are as the deep water below the ocean waves. They know not any wind or the extreme cold ; but they know also little of the sunlight and of the warmth of life. For them, history and culture are almost as nothing ; but they have, in loin and womb, the future 1 It is a striking confirmation of the essential goodness of human nature that we distrust the morals of educated men far more than we do those of the uneducated. We expect the educated to act skillfully and to their own advantage, the uneducated to act foolishly but with intent for the general welfare. 2 " The strength of motive wanes when the protesting organism is forced to adapt itself to bad air, bad light, fixed position, and routine occu- pation." — Patten, New Basis of Civilization, p. 122. THE NATURAL MAN 449 of the body and brain of humanity. They appear in annal, chronicle, history as " the people ; " and so they are ; and so we are. In the last analysis, ideals, values, all manner of cultures constitute but little more than a veneer. The instincts, motives, habits of humanity are the solid timber. And these are they who build the city and multiply the citizens, totally failing to understand what the city is, but quickly appreciating by sympathy what the city may be. For between the real city and the ideal city of the plain natural man and of the dreamer, there is a terrible difference.^ The real city is a pulsating social neurosis, a fever of activity of soul and of body, a vast congeries of associated, concatenating, and opposing forces, — of tra- ditions, habits, ideals, desires, — a stormy welter upon the sea of humanity, an eddy growing into a maelstrom, at once the best and the worst of human products, but always centrifugal from God in Nature and centripetal of God in man. The real city is the torment of the in- dividual who would preserve his individuality and the torture of society that would preserve its solidarity, for it separates the sheep from the goats, overpays and over- punishes ; and it rings the peculiar man, be he good or bad, with its adamantine wall of conformity. The real city is the paradise of the parasitic classes, rich and poor, whose generations, however, it destroys that the normal man may prevail ; here the idler finds companionship which is happiness. And it is the Inferno (literally) of the producing classes, whom it confines at their tasks of wealth-creating and child-rearing ; it so confines them by visible bounds of distance and time to get beyond its limits, and by the invisible bands of the tradition that 1 This is said soberly. Terror is the mood of the countryman suddenly transported into and lost in the great city. It shocks him. Because Gorky is in soul a rustic and fears the metropolis, he hates New York and Lon- don. 450 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION human companionship — gregariousness — is the chief dehght of life, and of the law that rents, interests, and profits shall leave the laborer only the wages required for life itself.^ The real city is entirely artificial and mainly false.2 It is a flux of superstitions, gyrating upon a central truth, which is that by working together men can and do defeat the law of diminishing returns. Therefore, the natural men have established these immense workhouses. Not comprehending the social institutions, or human life at its best, they have totally neglected the interests of women and children, have indeed perverted women from their natural uses and have made of them house- animals and shop-slaves. The city proposes the defeat of all the laws of Nature. It ignores seasons and periods ; forever it is sowing, cul- tivating, reaping, harvesting. In the city, summer and winter, manufacture — the work of human hands upon raw materials — goes on ceaselessly, day and night, year in and year out. The city never rests. In the terms of human history, the city from Thebes and Nineveh to London and Chicago is the death-knell of physical humanity. But the city is destiny. It absorbs nation after nation, corrupts them, and dies when they die, and because they die. The city knows not patriotism : who can love the tenement of his nativity ? The city is the path by which every people passes forward to the gates of its own death. And why ? Because the city is in truth the imperishable, the unattained ideal of the human race, which would build somewhere at some time " the city of God." ^ 1 This law is challenged by modern economists. Cf. Le Rossignol, Orthodox Socialism; Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Economics. 2 Cf. Chancellor, "The Educational OxxWodk^'' Journal of Pedagogy, March, 1907. ^ We think that because America is an empire of great cities, it will not repeat the history of Italy, which evolved Rome only, of England with lis London, of France with its Paris. It is a strange delusion. The pre- THE NATURAL MAN 451 In the ideal city, there is no lost man, no lost child, no lost idea, no lost feeling, no lost goods. Whatever is, counts. Society spells sanity. The multitude specializes, assists, economizes. The human error in respect to the city has been in confusing it with the open country and in not seeing the entire incongruity between their conditions. The open country is for growing things, the city is for making things. Between the open country and the city there must be the village, whose-purpose is consuming things. The field and the factory are generally incompatible. Not less incompatible with either is the home. Before the millennial state is reached, we have yet much to learn of the city, of the hamlet, and of the field. There is no room for homes in any city as such. Nor should the environs, the suburbs, of the city be given over to homes. Nor can they be. Homes cannot be created in the atmosphere or neighborhood of factories and shops. The mongrel city structure — store below, dwelling above, stable for horses in the short back lot — is precisely the worst device of mankind for its own ruin via the ruin of the lives of women and of children. Tenement and flat advertise the incompetence and the indifference of humanity in respect to present morals and to future health. The saddest children I know are the toddlers confined to a room or two in city flats. And there are thousands of them, thousands and thousands. They are even sadder children than the little wayfarers in some remote, lost country districts, one house or less to the square mile. The plight of the man in the city — literally the civilized man — is worse than that of the man in the open country ; yet not much. Into the rural districts we are sending the sence of many cities but hastens the physicak degeneracy and the social devolution. True empire is always rural because it is always founded upon health and individual freedom. 452 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION mails with the newspaper, the insurance agent, the religious missionary, the politician, the tax collector, the book canvasser, and the telephone line. We are lifting the lost family into social relations, we are enlightening man, woman, and child with knowledge. The redemption of the countryman by science and by art is indeed a harder problem than the redemption of the city man. The latter problem is little more than a matter of dollars and cents — for the man of the city has learned the value of the wisdom of collective humanity and is respectful, if not reverent, of public opinion and of expert counsel. In the light of these simplest of suggestions regarding the average or typical natural man of city and of country, with no thought of seeking to expound the meaning of society and of solitude, I propose to cite wherein the uninstructed and the unintelligent (and therefore neces- sarily the inefficient, unmoral, and uneducated) absolutely fail in the presence of the institutions of civilization. My intention is to display in hard lines and in high lights why the ignorant prevent the success of the educated in promptly spreading civilization through all grades of humanity. I propose the problem of the resistance of humanity to culture. And my thesis here * is that genius and talent cannot convert humanity quickly to the best because dullness and mediocrity, their antipodes, actively (not passively) resist conversion and regeneration. Compre- hension of the conditions of a civilization in flux involves willingness to think as well as efficiency in thinking and ideas with which to think ; and willingness to think is pure motivation. In some, curiosity and reflection (that 1 My general thesis is in the nature of a plea for the abatement of edu- cational obscurantism and 'formalism, and for the alleviation of such imperfections of civilization as are remediable by education. The above minor thesis is the counter side or obverse of the main proposition. THE NATURAL MAN 453 is, willing to think) produce the thinking condition of the soul, while in others a civilized morality, a sense of social duty in the presence of others with needs and interests, produces thought. Natural powers lead to spontaneous thinking ; acquired powers (dug and cultivated out of incurious, immobile, indifferent wits) lead to artificial, deliberate thinking. In society, a few are really radiant ; many may acquire radiance ; ^ many others are neutral or resistant to radi- ance. The natural man in city and in country follows the line of least resistance : that is, expresses his instincts and functions psychically according to traditions and phys- ically according to habits. Lacking ingenuity save in its lowest form of deceit, ^ he neglects tool and method and moves directly, brutally (like a brute), to his desired end. 1 There are in Nature radio-active elements, whose radiance is due not to inherent quality but to the recent presence of radium. Their quality is a kind of pseudo-radiance by no means to be contemned, yet impermanent and unreliable. (Duncan, The New Ktiowledge, p. 112.) So in human so- ciety, we see men vitalized by the presence of a leader, who teaches them his ideas and charges them, as it were, with his own enthusiasm. The work of an educator differs from that of the leader in that the results of the former are permanent. To continue the analogy : The chemist finds in pitchblende the crystals of true chloride of radium, which is education ; while the physicist brings his baser materials near the crystals, which is inspiration. The leader inspires his followers, — breathes his breath into them, and they breathe well as long as he breathes for them and in them. The educator regenerates his disciples ; and they develop a new life in themselves, often a better life than he himself could live. 2 " Shrewdness, tact, policy, demagogy, diplomacy, strategy, are only so many applications of the one principle, only so many varying manifesta- tions of the primary intellectual faculty under correspondingly changed circumstances. . . . This idea lurks in all such words as cunning, crafty, artful, wily, arch, tricky, sly, astute, designing, intriguing, smart, shrewd, sharp. ... So much is deception the essence of the principle that, as a rule, the greater the deception the greater is the success. . . . The primae- val intellect was developed for no other purpose than as an instrument of protection from danger." Ward, Psychic Factors of Civilization, pp. 161, 163, 164, 165. 454 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION When obstacles turn him aside from his end, he does not see how to go around, but quits. When he does not quit, but persists by indirection and circuitousness, then it is that defeat may educate him. He may discover that victory is the issue of method. Defeat can educate only one who is potentially capable of education. Such an one is overcoming Nature and entering into human nature, which in its essence is victory over Nature. Nature projects the field and the camp,^ human nature erects the farm and the house and the city, all of them products of nurture and of culture. We may, for convenience, divide men into citizens and barbarians.2 The heathen^ and the pagan, ^ the rustics and the ruralists,^ have been in all ages and in all lands the subject for the ridicule, mockery, and scorn of the citizens ; and they have always looked with envy and with awe upon the more refined, the pohte*' denizens of the cities.^ Therefore, ''citizen" has become a password, an introduction, and '' barbarian " and " rustic " are bywords and warnings, though in truth the stout yet gentle, the just yet charitable, are always best when country-bred. But with the disappearance of walled towns and of passports, of serfdom, of guilds, and of lords and clients, the rustics have entered freely into the cities, to dwell there, to multiply, and not to perceive the manner and the necessities of city life.^ And with the appearance of 1 The tale of the Dark Ages is that of the war between camp and city, between horde and society. 2 " Foreigners," from fidpfiapoi, the heavy-witted, the non-Hellenes ; peoples not intelligible, the rude and weighted folk; the brave, savage, wild; the uncivilized, the non-citizens. 8 Heath from Aet/i, the waste land covered with shrubs and with weeds. ^ Pagics^ the fenced-out country. s Rus, the country, the space for field and for wood, the non-city. 6 \i6\is^ city, the centre, the many-in-one ; the strong State. ■^ The circled, consolidated, protected towns. s This, I believe, is the cause of the mournful conviction of Spencer, THE NATURAL MAN 455 capitalism and of wage-incomes, the privileged citizens " to the manner born " have encouraged the multiplication of these men forced to labor without equally promoting their intelligent adjustment to city conditions. At the present time, not a few prosperous citizens are moving out into the country for summer sojourn and for suburban residence, replacing the lost barons whose lord- ship disappeared with the feudalism of the old regime. It may be said that of that old re'gime, America knows no- thing. The South reproduced it in an extreme form ; and the freed colored slaves and their children are repeating the his- toric march of agricultural laborers into the cities. And every- where, North, South, and West, the old inherited mentality, persisting through generations, reproduces in this age the old characteristics of the citizens and of the barbarians, for the souls of men are general and historic, not special and new- created. Moreover, there is a persistent devolution of character, a tendency to revert, in us all : behind every man, though his city ancestry be of five or fifteen generations, there are the hundreds of generations before ever cities were. At last, there is something of atavism, of barbarism, of savagery, of purest animalism in us all. What, then, are the motives, the ideals, and the prin- ciples of the barbarian in the city in the presence of the social institutions ? ^ The deepest motive is to live, to enjoy living. The barbarian, the natural man, would get immediately, would seize quickly, whatever offers most plainly the pleasures of life. He desires not work for wages, not even wages for expressed in 1902, that "the world is returning to barbarism," is indeed proceeding " to universal decay." Loliee, S/wr^ History of Comparative Literature,^. 2^\. Similarly, because we are now trying to educate all, the clever and the dull, some educators think that either humanity is be- coming inferior or teaching is growing poorer. It is an illusion of imper- fect social knowledge. The error of Spencer was due to the decline of his powers. 456 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION work, but thematerial things themselves. And hereaches for them vigorously, violently, to the full measure of his strength and for so long as his strength persists. The barbarian child v^^ishes to be a man speedily ; and the barbarian father wishes to throw off as early as possible the burden of his child. From this motive to live as easily and as exuberantly as possible spring all manner of crimes and of sins.^ By reason of these offenses against morals, certain of our barbarians degenerate into savages. Of all dangerous men, the city savages are the worst. These are not merely slum-denizens : they are the slum-makers, the producers of the vices and of the diseases because of which the word " slum " breathes horror. The ideal of the ** citi- savage " is " to live easy : " he admires *' the powers that prey : " he becomes such a power. His very thought and forethought make him terrible. He who challenges this ideal of enjoyment without desert is a critic to be ignored and avoided : he who fights it is an enemy to be destroyed. The country can produce no man so dangerous as this "citi-savage," who perverts the advantages of society to its own destruction. The rural savage can do but little harm compared with him who is ensphered in a crowd. What is the meaning of the social institutions to the barbarian ? Absolutely nothing except the immediate concrete service that these agencies can render in time of need. The barbarian wants property, — gets it, neg- 1 We think that we have solved some, if not all, of the problems of the city. In the concrete instance of the horse (for example), we are partly savage, partly barbarous. We drive him on hard and slippery pavements, shoe him with iron, torture him with check-rein, overload him, and tie in stalls, often for days at a time, this roaming, browsing, play-loving crea- ture. In the country we cage him behind city-manufactured barbed-wire fences, careless of accident, pain, and maiming. This is a trifling matter, perhaps; but it is an incident to the general historic demonstration that the city for residence, for manufacture, for art, for commerce, has presented an insoluble problem. THE NATURAL MAN 457 lects it, squanders it. He wants a wife ; but in the hour of stress deserts her and the children and betakes him- self elsewhere. He wants religion, — when he is sick; but he is no supporter of church or of charities. He for- gets that there is a hospital or a dispensary, until in the •hour of emergency it supplies his own need. He wants government and the police when overtaken by a stronger or a shrewder man ; but he fights taxation. As for all the remoter and subtler institutions, — occupation, edu- cation, culture, aesthetic amusement, art, science, — the true barbarian must be drafted into them ; for they call for what he does not possess, trained intelligence, social efficiency, tested morals. Abolish this barbarian, and the supply of and the de- mand for strong drink, drugs, police-service, prostitution, alms, cease together. Products that sell for money are not synonymous with the arts of civilization. Only barbarians make and sell things that work harm to others, or things that in their making injure the makers.^ Only the civilized can see that every act or product that is good is good upon the test of its quantity of service to the lives of one's fellow men, now or in the years to come. The test is the amount of living and the number of lives that the act or product helps. What are the genuine barbarian principles ? We all 1 We hear much these days of " the exploitation of the poor by the rich " and of " the expropriation of the product of labor by capital." These are Socialist phrases, maxims of the cult that may yet become a "religion." Far worse than these conditions are imagined to be is the perversion of labor and of capital to the production of things — drinks, dramas, vices — that destroy mankind. This deliberate turning of men to their own destruction by means of their own labor and wealth is precisely the worst feature of the modern yet passing economic regime. For it, both rich and poor, employers and employed, are responsible. It is no more true that a poor man must work for wages in such an enterprise lest he die, than that the rich man must use his capital for profit in the enterprise lest it die. Let them both die. They cumber, they corrupt, the ground. 458 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION know them. To try to do right is to make war upon the barbarism in ourselves. Parasitism is a barbarian principle : to get as much and to give as little as possible. Ecstasy is a barbarian principle : to feel too happy or to be too angry to be able to think. Indolence is a barbarian principle : to care not whether this world of our inheritance be set in order. Childlessness is a barbarian principle : to live indiffer- ent to the succession of humanity upon the earth. ^ Indifference is a barbarian principle : to ignore the possibility of truth and the obligation to promote the knowledge and the efficiency of truth. Fear is a barbarian principle ; ^ and the desire to create fear, likewise. Fear contemplates consequences, not duty. All sense-gratifications, "the lust of the eye," "the pride of life," have in them barbarous colors and are perilous. There are other barbarian principles : impatience that cannot wait for events and work for results ; remorse that regrets the irrecoverable past ;^ obstinacy that pre- fers to will and to stand rather than to think and to move ; superstition that mistakes habits of ideation for laws of truth ; particularism that fixes attention upon items ; and diffusiveness that dissipates attention and refuses to organize experience. The barbarian is essentially half- 1 Not mere physical parentage, but the true parentage of loving women and children and building families. To be a parent is not an event, but a life. There are true parents vi^hose parentage is purely spiritual, to whose ministry millions owe their souls. 2 " Perfect love casteth out fear, because fear hath torment. He that feareth is not made perfect in love." John, I Epistle, iv, i8. " True no- bility is exempt from fear." Shakespeare, II Henry VI, iv, i, 129. 3 More clearly than any other thinker, Goethe saw the importance of the faith in regeneration — that " men may rise," as Tennyson said, "on step- ping-stones of their dead selves to higher things." It is the characteristic ethical belief of modern times, the essential meanincr of Faust. THE NATURAL MAN 459 civilized, incompletely educated, neither wise nor foolish. The idea controls the savage ; while the civilized controls and chooses ideas. The intermediate barbarian has ob- session and persistency of ideas with haphazard varia- tions that bewilder him. The savage is not bewildered : he is wild. The civilized is not bewildered : he is serene.^ All these barbarian principles contribute to the love of warfare, the universal barbarism. Fighting is savagery ; war and preparation for war, militant patriotism, and the lust of dominion are barbarism, which is deliberate, organized, purposeful where savagery is impulsive, hap- hazard, blind. The city is more in danger from barbarians to-day than is the open country itself. The city millionaire cannot be wholly a barbarian, because he values property, which is the beginning of civilization. When he spends no more of his income upon himself than is good, really good for himself, when he cherishes his family, when he spends, gives, or invests the rest of his income for the profit of other men, he is substantially civilized. The country farmer cannot be wholly a barbarian, for a well-kept farm is the reduction of the field to the use of men : good farming is applied science. When to the order in which he tries to set his part of the earth he adds national support of the social institutions, though he be isolated in the body, from the city, he is a true citizen of the nation. The true barbarian has but a short life. In the city, his presence, his activity, his sickness, and his death men- ace the lives of his fellow men. To abolish him is the mission of education. The half -barbarian, who multiplies his offspring when 1 The principle within these propositions is that his ideas, not his ex- ternal conditions or even his individual manifestations, cause the savage. I have seen Kaffirs from Africa converted into Americans within but a few years by the substitution of ideas. No doubt the savage or barbarian in the Americanized Kaffir is only asleep ; but while the old ideas sleep, there is a new active personality. 46o MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION he has no property to employ in caring for them and no culture to transmit by inculcation or by heredity, is not so much a menace to society as an invitation for the in- telligent and the virtuous to be active in completing his redemption from barbarism. To complete his civilizing is the mission of education. As for the civilized, the price of their continuance in civilization is persistence in education and in educational service. The civilized must deal, however, with men who are worse than the barbarians, the uncivilized, for there are present in civilization the perverters of all for which at its best civilization stands. These perverters of the good, these anti-civilized, these enemies of humanity and of in- dividual men, these destroyers of themselves turn life to its own ruin, make it hateful. These are not barbarians forerunning a gentle folk of later times ; but gentle folk themselves turning what is good in their natures into evil. They manifest characteristic sins that require in- telligence, activity, skill, even certain moral qualities for their entire accomplishment. Their deeds are incredible to the truly civilized because incomprehensible by them : between the vulgar and the polite and gentle, there may be sympathy ; but between the bad and the good, there can be and is only antipathy. These characteristic sins of the impolite and anti-civil are lying, promising, betraying, seducing, assassinating ; ingratitude, oppression, arrogance, pride, luxury, — all the miserable and horrifying tale to be found in the Pentateuch, in the Inferno, and in certain modern litera- ture, for Moses,^ Dante,^ Shakespeare, and Goethe saw the depravity of souls.' * This is not to assert that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, which indeed records his own death ; but that he revealed the motives of the basest men, the anti-human. Cf. Leviticus, xviii-xx. 2 Dante represents falsifiers and traitors as maniacs, as fever victims, THE NATURAL MAN 461 It does not appear that education or religion can ever cure tlieir ills and make them good. Denunciation has no language strong enough to name their frauds and hatreds as they deserve. It may be that their sin is the Scriptural "blasphemy against the Holy Ghost," which cannot be forgiven.^ Sometimes their crimes are against masses of men, whole communities, whole nations. Whatever their pro- fessions, whatever their reputations, whatever glory and splendor attended them in life or followed them after death, the civilized and gentle may not rightfully be de- ceived by the apparent success of the plotters against life. These uncivilized, these incivil, these unnatural, innatural, obnatural, take certain of the methods and ma- terials of civilization and for their own satisfaction (sel- dom really for their own benefit) use them to the injury of society and to the destruction of civilization. In consequence, it appears that the refined and gentle folk of civilized society in order to maintain and to im- prove humanity must convert the natural and oppose and destroy the unnatural : in other words, civilization itself is a warfare between good and evil, between intelligence and ignorance (which is superstition, not vacuity)^ be- tween invention and tradition, between charity and mal- ice, between industry and wantonness, between virtue and viciousness. This warfare originates in motives, proceeds by intentions, develops purposes, displays ideals, and ends in and is determined by principles quantita- tively and physically represented in persons. It can be understood only in the terms of a concrete psychology.^ as scale-clad, as ice-bound, their bodies tenanted by fiends, and devoured by the " Emperor of the kingdom dolorous." Cf. cantos xxx, xxxii-xxxiv. 1 Jesus, Luke, Gospel, xii, 10. Literally, "false speaking of the sacred breath [of life.]" 2 e. g. Royce, Outlines of Psychology ; "Ward, Psychic Factors in Civil- ization. 462 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Its conflicts arise whenever the natural man goes into the city or the citizen proceeds into the country ; when- ever any man adds to his Hfe a new social relationship ; whenever a new institution is established or a new ex- ample of an old institution ; whenever a reform is taking place in an individual or in an institution or in a com- munity, or an injury is being done ; they appear and reappear with births and deaths, with changing health, with accidents. And the more the conflicts and the severer, the greater is the likelihood of progress, which is conditioned by changes and collisions of persons and of things. No nation will ever challenge history and win perman- ence until it establishes not merely a genuine economic surplus but also a genuine cultural surplus. It must have cities for manufacture, for mining, and for trade ; but no more for habitation than for agriculture. Envi- roning the cities and nucleating the open country, it must have hamlets and villages for neither manufacture nor agriculture, but for habitation. It must have the open country for forestry and for agriculture, but not for hab- itation. The wood and field will provide raw materials, the city will manufacture them, and the village will con- sume the products. In that nation, the political economy will concern itself not less with the consumption than with the production of goods ; and the centre of the civ- ilization will be the end of the economic process, the home, which will draw about it the nourishing and supporting institutions of school and church. This is not to assert that the home v^^ill continue to be a scene of food-preparation and of petty household labor by every mother, house-confined and soul-starved. But it is to assert that every family must have a separate house and "close," a true God's acre, isolated from neighbors, where any child can play in safety in the hours when it does not care to play in group or "gang." There will be village playgrounds THE NATURAL MAN 463 and communal gymnasiums ; but there must also be the child's own garden, pet animals, growing trees. These hamlets will be the clearing-houses, as it were, between ruralists and citizens, to the end that whatever is good in open country and in the city may be reconciled and preserved, and whatever is bad be reduced to smallest measure. It is the fancy of some that in the golden age of the future several of the old historic institutions — family, propert}^, religion — will disappear as anachronisms. But the contrary is the case ; they will benefit all, basing the lives of all, hu- manizing all in any " golden age." There will be more homes, more goods, more churches than ever. The function of education now becomes clear ; it is to lift as many as possible to the highest planes possible. We begin in savagery, enter into barbarism, proceed through its successive stages, reach civilization, and pro- ceed in it as far as we may. The best possible education in childhood up to primary adolescence may bring the boy out of savagery into barbarism. The best possible education in adolescence may bring the youth into civil- ization, which in the terms of the individual life is abil- ity to contribute to the social institutions and willingness to receive from them. CHAPTER XXIII THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN A good man, through obscurest aspiration, Has still an instinct of the one true way. Goethe, Faust, Prologue, Taylor, transl. To rule the vast kingdom of Nature is the absolute duty and ultimate destiny of man ; at present, only the will to possess and to administer is alone wanting to this half-hearted meddler in great affairs. — Lankester, Kingdom of Man, p. 31 (abridged). The four great objects of all success are : Health, Love, Honor, Power. These desires are of the essence of Man. To achieve them, we move upon a line of strategy, deter- mined by a constant and a variable. The indispensable constant is Education. Savoir c^est a pridire. — R-EicH, Success in Life, pp. 9, 18, 19, 35 (abridged). The purpose of education is not to inculcate in individual men the ways and notions of civilization that these may endure, but that each one may become all that he is capable of becoming. To say that logically, therefore, education might develop the evil in man as well as the good is to expose two premises, clearly false to the faith of man in himself as the highest example he knows of the works of God. The first premise is that the soul of man is at least partly evil, the second is that there is such a thing as education in evil. Against the dualistic philosophy of the first premise, which postulates two gods,^ the history of human thought protests ; against the cynicism and shallowness of the second premise, reason and love of life protest. Education is not induction into conformity with the conventions and ideals of society ; it is not adjustment to 1 Ahriman and Ormuzd of the ancient Persia, God and Satan of medi- aeval Christendom, Baldur and Loki of the primitive Teutons. " Mani- chaeism may be disavowed in words. It cannot be exiled from the actual belief of mankind." Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eight- eenth Century, p. 15. THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN 465 civilization.^ It is the discovery of the deepest reaUties of the soul, which lie nearest to the Source whence all souls spring. In a paradoxical sense, education is evolu- tion out of conventions and common ideals by passing through and above them. The well-educated man knows what the half-educated multitudes know and more, far more. Mastering their prejudices, he escapes out of them into freedom of thought. Certainly Moses, Socrates, Jesus, Bruno, Kant did not conform in thought to their times. The end of formal education is to produce the well- educated man, whom we shall know by his qualities. The well-educated man is completely educated, rounded out, built up solidly from the foundation of him to the top. 2 He knows how to see things and what he sees : more- over, he can see through appearance to realities.^ He remembers what he has seen and can compare the new with the old. He means to penetrate behind all disguises in himself and in others to the inmost truth, for he has the habit of truth-seeking : therefore, he turns away from dissemblers and simulators.^ He interprets his own experience in the light of the experience of others ; therefore, he is anxious to know who other men are, and reads biography and fiction; 1 Per contra, vide Sterrett, The Freedom of Authority ; Dewey, School and Society ; O'Shea, Education and Adjustment, — e. g. Education must seek to adjust the individual in the most harmonious way to society {op. cit. p. 286). We must prepare him for his particular needs determined by the particular offices he will fill in society (p. 287). 2 "Too many men build as cathedrals were built — the part nearest the ground finished, but that part which soars toward heaven, the turrets and the spires, forever incomplete." Beecher, Life Thoughts. 3 " Science is teaching the world that the ultimate court of appeal is observation and experiment, and not authority ; she is teaching it to esti- mate the value of evidence." Huxley, Lay Sermons, p. 118. 4 '• Hateful to me as are the gates of Hades is he who, hiding one thing in his heart, utters another." Homer, Lliad. 466 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION and to know what other men have done and why they have done it, and reads biography and history. He desires to enter into the life of the race and to live in the life of others, and reads history, geography, and sociology. He desires to understand ever more and more clearly the movements of societies of men, and reads ancient and foreign literatures. He reads not only for the delight in reading, but also for the experience that it gives him at second-hand to be converted to his own uses. His literacy is not only passive and receptive, but also active and aggressive ; and he expresses himself ade- quately and freely in language competent to convey his meaning. He can do what he knows, for he can express his thought not in words only but in deeds as well.^ He has brought his body into subjection to his will, and has educated his will to conformity to his ideals ; therefore, his ideals function as motives. He is quick to act and thorough to perform. He is too proud to live without producing wealth (ma- terial economic goods) or performing services as valuable to society as any forms of wealth, that he may equal at least the laboring man. He acts upon plan and method to realize an end, and thereby economizes his energy and secures results by his living and working.^ He apportions his time intelligently, a little to little things and much to great things,^ meaning to neglect nothing that is intrinsically important. 1 " Bodily activities parallel mental life at every point." Judd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers, p. 315. '■^ " Unqualified activity, of whatever kind, leads at last to bankruptcy." Goethe, Sayings in Prose. ^ " Those who apply themselves too^nuch to little concerns commonly become incapable of great deeds." La Rochefoucauld, Rejlections. THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN 467 He does not merely dream, but acts and achieves.^ Whatever he does, he does carefully; many things he does not attempt to do ; he knows that a thing ill done is worse than not attempted.^ He desires nothing that he does not need, and, there- fore, confines his activities to fixed purposes ; that is, thinking before and when he acts, by forethought and care, he reaps the harvest of his sowing. He holds his knowledge ready and available for use. His every act is either to his own good without dam- age to his fellows or to the good of his fellows without reference to himself. He is careless of personal distinction or favor, but ex- acting in matters of personal rights and relations, know- ing that society does not progress because of trampling upon the honest, industrious, and kindly disposed indi- vidual. He has grown from obedience to persons into obedi- ence to public opinion, and from obedience to public opinion into obedience to the principles established through ages and maintained by reasons of the general human good. His only fear is that he may not fear cowardice toward men and toward the affairs of Time, fearing only God and Eternity. His delight is in achievement above his own, his sor- row for every failure of his fellows, his pain for every sin, for he sees in each man a brother and in woman a sister, and realizes that he himself is a failure and disposed to sin. He insists that his conduct must conform to his sen- 1 " Every man feels instinctively that all the beautiful sentiments in the world weigh less than a single lovely action." Lowell, Rotcsseaii and the Setttimentalists. 2 " Want of care does us more damage than want of knowledge." Frank- lin, Poor Richard'' s Almanac. 468 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION timents, holding himself rigidly and loyally to perform- ance as nearly as possible according to aspiration.^ In his own life, he repeats as completely as possible the achievement of man in the redemption of soul from flesh, realizing the ideals of chastity, monogamy, paternity, fihal piety, honor, honesty, and brotherly love. He is just before he is generous, but is always gener- ous, first being just. He is patient to the uttermost.^ He rejoices in the excellencies of others and grieves in silence over their faults, never running publicly and noisily to forgive them. He is never forward save for a worthy cause ; for that he is willing, if need be, to die. He will die, if need be, for friend or for country or for the truth that he believes ; that is, for the faith that is in him. He knows that sin is "the eternal outlaw,"^ and that sin, if begun, may be persisted in, and that, if persisted in, it will outlaw him. He lives openly because he can afford to do so ; and his openness is as natural as is the shining of the sun.^ He has, indeed, in his own nature a charity like " the natural charity of the sun."^ 1 "To professional honor must be added the habit of the veteran." Birdseye, Indiistrial Training in Our Colleges, p. 334. 2 " The inspired soul but flings his patience in, And slowly that outweighs the ponderous globe ; One faith against a whole world's unbelief, One soul against the flesh of all mankind." Lowell, Columbus. 3 Milton, On Divorce. 4 " Openness is the sweet fresh air of our moral life." George Eliot, Daniel Deronda, chapter xxxiii. "Certainly the ablest men that ever were have had all an openness and frankness of dealing and a name of certainty and veracity." Bacon, 0/ Sitmdation a7id of Dissimulation. ^ Browne, Religio Medici, part ii, § ill. THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN 469 He holds near and dear the friends of his youth as long as God spares them, and adds new friends as the years go by ; eager for new friends, he is even more eager to keep those whom he has.' He lends no ear to calumny, but answers it with an angry countenance,^ pitying the frailty of others who err, but rebuking whoever delights in the tale of error, for he knows that even a good and honest man may be misled by plausible hearsay or by the report, it may be, of his own senses.^ He repeats no tale of evil save upon necessity, and judges no man unless not to do so might lead to yet greater evil.^ When courage avails naught to go forward, he stands upon the solid ground of fortitude. He has the intelligence to conceive, the will to exe- cute, and the heart to desire things good for himself and for others.^ He is glad to confess his sin ; ^ he confesses and repents. ■^ 1 " If a man does not make new acquaintances as he advances through life, he will soon find himself left alone. A man, sir, should keep his friendships in constant repair." Johnson, in Boswell, Life of Doctor Sam- uel fohnson. 2 Proverbs, xxv, 23. 3 «' In my opinion, the best of all characters is his who is as ready to pardon the moral errors of mankind as if he were every day guilty of such errors himself, and at the same time as careful not to commit a fault as if he never forgave one." Pliny, Letters, book viii, 22. * " If thou hast heard a word, let it die with thee ; and be bold, it will not burst thee." Ecdesiasticus (Jesus son of Sirach), xix, 10. ^ Cf. Junius, Letters, xxxvii. 6 " The purifying influence of public confession springs from the fact that by it the hope in lies is forever swept away, and the soul recovers the noble attitude of simplicity." George Eliot, Romola, chapter ix. ' " He who repenteth truly is greatly sorrowful for his past sins : not with a superficial sigh or tear, but with a pungent, afiflictive sorrow, — such a sorrow as hates the sin so much that the man would choose to die rather than act it any more." Jeremy Taylor, Holy Living, chapter iv, § ix. 470 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION His greatest interest is in that enterprise in which he is personally disinterested, for he conceives society as his true and larger self ; therefore, he wins. ^ He loves to give and grudges to receive, fearing lest he has not given full measure, running over ; ^ he desires always to give, and never to get, something for nothing : moreover, he is always ready to give away, caring not whether " the bread cast upon the waters " ever return ; yet he knows that God, the infinite spendthrift, gives only of His own ; nor does he take counsel whether the receiver deserves the gift, for God sends His rain upon the just and the unjust alike. He listens to no wanton tales,^ but seeks spiritual de- lights ; and his own speech is of the aspirations of the soul.^ Manifesting thus in every act, in every word, in every disposition, and even in his silence, the evidences of intel- ligence, of efficiency, and of morality, the well-educated man proceeds to acquire the powers, the arts, and the graces of culture : he has built him a mansion, and would furnish it as a suitable residence for his soul. He needs the goodly furniture of the sciences, and the adornments of art : he needs to set in order within and without, in the gardens and in the galleries, all things that he has acquired : he needs philosophy. And not for a moment may he neglect the tenant of his body, which is his soul, nor the tenement of his soul, which is his body. He will value truth and seek to acquire all truth in 1 *' To be disinterested is to be strong, and the world is at the feet of him whom it cannot tempt." Amiel, Journal. 2 " Be charitable before wealth makes thee covetous, and lose not the glory of the mite. If riches increase, let thy mind hold peace with them." Sir Thomas Browne, Christian Morals, part i, § 5. 3 " That wanton word will set a wanton heart on fire which a sober heart doth hear with pity as a kind of bedlam of speech." Richard Baxter, Christian Ethics, p. 368. ^ " Cure fleshly desires and delights by spiritual desires and delights." Op. cit. p. 261. THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN 471 relation and exactly ; above truth, he will value beauty ; and goodness above beauty/ aspiring after holiness as the farthest stage upon the journey toward perfection that finite man can reach. Upon reason, he will always preserve the faith that hope may triumph over experience ; ^ and he will never despair of the victory of right over wrong, of principle over expediency. He will become pleasing in his excellencies, and not displeasing even in his faults. He will rate wealth as fundamental, but only as that, never as final. He will learn not to confuse fame with reputation or power with applause or property with personal desert or popular favor with genuine support, or indeed any thin or false appearance with the real fact or truth. Because he is but one, he will not shuflfle off responsi- bility, but will do what he can and all that he can, and calmly leave the event to God ; rather because he is but one, he will really be one, integral, self-dependent, forth- going, and substantial.^ He will learn that since God alone is finally respon- sible, even for himself, he is not to take too seriously the circumstances and events of life, for there is a cosmic weather beyond human control.^ Ignoring democracy, he will obey his real superiors, will advise and receive the advice of his equals, and will rule his inferiors, and, ignoring aristocracy, will seek to hold all men at their particular values. 1 " Beauty is part of the finished language by which goodness speaks." George Eliot, Komola, chapter xix. 2 Johnson, in Boswell, Life of Doctor- Samuel jfohnsoii. ^ '' Be substantially great in thyself, and more than thou appearest unto others : and let the world be deceived in thee, as they are in the lights of heaven." Sir Thomas Browne, Christian Morals, part i, § 19. * " One on God's side is a majority." Wendell Phillips, Brooklyn Speech, Nov, i, 1859. 472 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION He will fight evil in the world, whether it directly affects himself or not, knowing that the sorest evil of all evils is to become indifferent, insensible, callous. He will forever believe that " somehow good shall be the final goal of ill ;"^ and will try so to interpret each evil ; but he will never allow this belief to dull his own will to do right and to forestall and to overthrow wrong. He will understand that life is a battle in which "the Son of man goes forth to war," ^ and will not rejoice until the hour of peace after victory. He will know that most desired results are the issue of long processes, and will gladly pay the price by labors in science to accumulate truth and in art to acquire skill ; he will pay cheerfully the price in waiting also and in self-denial ; he will measure his progress or his retro- gression in this life of scientific research or artistic endeavor by the numbers and the quality of the diffi- culties upon his way. He will play his part in every social institution, desiring to make his soul a microcosm of the cosmos, a true image of the world, and to find his own self in all the society of men : therefore will he belong to Family, to Church, to School, to State, even to Business, and in the hour of defense to War ; and upon occasion such 1 The line is from Tennyson; cf. Longfellow: — " It is Lucifer ; The son of mystery ; And since God suffers him to be, He, too, is God's minister And labors for some good By us not understood." Cf. also Shakespeare : — " There is some soul of good in things evil, Would men observingly distil it out." Henry V, iv, i, 4. 2 Luther, Hyntfi, first line. THE WELL-EDUCATED MAN 473 lesser institutions as serve the whole purpose of human- ity ; for he has eschewed narrowness to preserve growth, and will not dissipate his energies upon haphazard, but will centre them upon the enduring movements of the race. He will love his wife^ and his children beyond himself, finding his self-respect in entire devotion to those whom God has intrusted to him ; moreover, he will love his kindred and his neighbors with an affection beyond any concern or interest for himself : and thus will he go about in the world a free man and unashamed. Whatever light he gets he will use by taking it forward into the greater darkness.^ He will recognize discouragement as either physical fatigue or as *' the sin of Lucifer." ^ Whatever seems to him righteousness, that he will serve."* And he will live beholding death before him not as an evil, because it cuts off hope ; ^ nor yet as a mockery ; ^ 1 " And they twain shall be one flesh." Jesus, Mark, Gospel, x, 8, 9, quoting Genesis, ii, 24. 2 "The light that we have gained was given us, not to be ever staring on, but by it to discover onward things, more remote from our knowledge." Milton, Prose Works, vol. ii, p. 89. 8 " Discouragement is but disenchanted egotism." Mazzini, Works, vol. vi, p. 25. * " Who is there that in all things serveth righteousness with so great care as the world and its lords are served withal } " Coit, after Thomas h Kempis, Imitation of Christ, II, ii, 2, 3. ^ Hazlitt, Characteristics, no. 35. 6 " I dare not guess ; but in this life Of error, ignorance, and strife, Where nothing is, but all things seem, And we the shadows of the dream, It is a modest creed, and yet Pleasant, if one considers it, To own that death itself must be. Like all the rest, a mockery." Shelley, The Sensitive Plant, Conclusion. 474 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION but as a consolation ; ^ yes, as a victory ;2 and he will not die, but will be ready to pass into the different life, in the faith that it will be larger, fuller, and better. 1 " Dark mother, always gliding near, with soft feet, Have none chanted for thee a chant of fullest welcome ? Then I chant it for thee ; I glorify thee above all ; I bring thee a song, that when thou must indeed come, Come unfalteringly." Whitman, Leaves of Grass, p. 260. 2 Isaiah, xxv, 8 ; Paul, I Corinthians, xv, 54. CHAPTER XXIV THE LINE OF MARCH And I believed the poets ; it is they Who utter wisdom from the central deep, And, listening to the inner flow of things. Speak to the age out of eternity. Lowell, Columbus. But to him that knoweth not the port to which he is bound, no wind can be favorable. — Lkighton, Works, vol. iv, p. 194. The indwelling divinity that shapes the ends of human living appointed freedom to be the goal of human progress. — Horne, Philosophy of Education, p. 135. Upon the northern side of a lake in the heart of Maine there is a forest that in a significant manner reminds the city visitor of the civilization whence he came. One reaches this pathless tract of the woods by boat or canoe across the lake. Going ashore, one enters a thicket of little birches, pines, hemlocks, beeches, and chestnuts, the trees standing of all heights from shoots just out of the ground to saplings of ten or twelve feet. So dense is the thicket that one cannot see ten feet in any direc- tion. The beauty of the green and yellow masses of young life in the sunshine of a summer's day is exhil- arating. The very ground seems to exult in life. Over all shines the unbroken blue of the sky. Breasting one's way forward through the maze for a half-mile beyond the lake, one reaches a second wood. The scene is strangely transformed. Here are tall pines and hemlocks, clumps of chestnuts and of birches, and an occasional triumphant beech ; and here are thousands of dead trees still standing, visible evidence that the warfare of the leaves for sunlight and of the roots for water has not been without victims as well as victors. As one looks about, the sadness of the forest life is oppressive. Upon 476 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION the ground, here and there, are patches of turf, where the sunhght of heaven still flickers down. A mile of this wood of the dead and the living, and one reaches the oldest wood. Here travel is free among the giant trees. Above, the sky is scarcely visible even in spots ; Jpelow is a soft carpet of moss. Brooks and rivulets are edged with ferns. Now and then one passes a ruin ; an old, overgrown, and rotted pine or chestnut or beech had caught the storm upon its mighty head, and had fallen in the death struggle. That handbreadth of open sky up there marks where this great white birch stood before the March gale uprooted it and threw it here. Its emulous brethren of the forest will soon fill in that sky- space. This wood is the last chapter of the warfare: the little dead trees of a century ago are but the rich mould that makes the ground soft to the tread of beast or man. What caused these woods ? Great fires ate up this and that stretch of the forest ; and seeds and spores in the ground came to life. The first wood is but four years old, the second is thirty, the third is older than the memory of man. Like the trees in the woods are the men of the grow- ing, spreading American town and city. In the early days of the city, upon some fortunate site by sea or lake, upon river or railroad, there are space, sunlight, food, and water for all, for there is equality of opportunity. But, after forty, ninety, two hundred years, there are classes of supreme individuals, — capitalists, landlords, profes- sional men, politicians, — and masses of dependents, — tenants, wage-earners, parasites. The lords grow and grow. The serving-men cannot rise to the higher plane where the sunlight pours in floods. This is literally true. Imprisoned by the wage-rate, the price-range, and the standard of living, the proletarian cannot grow. The third state of the city is the worst. We do not yet see it in America ; but Rome saw it in the Decline and THE LINE OF MARCH 477 Paris saw it in the Revolution. The city is ruined utterly when it oppresses its provinces and colonies, over- shadowing their lives and draining their food-supplies without return. It will make no difference whether the oppression takes the mode of political taxation and con- fiscation as it did in Rome, or the mode of seignorial and ecclesiastical exactions as in France, or the mode of economic exhaustion by rents and profits as it may yet do in America. The doom of a people is sealed when it is no longer profitable and joyous to live in the free air upon one's own land, eating the fruits of labor. We must get from the open country constant acces- sions of vigorous boys and girls, men and women ; or perish. Wage-starved farm-laborers upon the machinery- cultivated farms of great capitalists cannot breed and rear competent American citizens. Such a day, when our cities shall be composed of privileged millionaires living in parks and palaces and of proletarians crowded into tenements, and when the country shall be a waste, is, of course, far off : it may never come. But it will come as certain as history is certain, unless we can solve the hitherto unsolved problem of securing in each generation saecula saecitlonim a sufficient number of persons to maintain the civilization. It may be the will of God that no people shall ever solve the problem. It may be that it is best for mankind that, freed from all traditions, the light of culture shall move from people to people, until humanity itself shall pass utterly away. However this may be, it still remains the duty of every thinker,, of all the righteous, of the free in soul, to de- sire and to urge, whatever be the present social condi- tions, such an organization of society as encourages the development of perfect, not blighted, not starved human beings. The lone tree in the pasture, spreading vast branches into the sunlight, into the rain, into the gale, spreading into the soil vast roots that grip the rock, 478 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION typifies what every family should be. And how can such a family grow save by life upon land ? But in the real world of American men and women, hov/ different is the typical condition of the family ! How little has Nature, how much has Civilization or- dered its life ! When wages are high and work is steady, marriages increase and the birth-rate rises. ^ We owe our wives and our husbands, our children, our own lives, to the social milieu. The Acts of Congress, the decrees of the Church, the processes of trade, scientific discov- eries and technical inventions, wars, heroisms, mostly silent, — these caused our being and condition us now. By them, we live ; and by them, we die. A city of nearly four hundred thousand souls lay at the junction of railroads and steamship lines. The earth quaked ; and its buildings of steel or stone or wood fell like houses of cards. Fire, the transformer, the great- est blessing, the most terrible curse of man, came and ate up the ruins and what the earth-powers had spared. And four hundred thousand people were desolate. Tell the story to the men of ancient Nineveh ; and they answer, *' How save them .? " and " Why save them } " How } By the thousand inventions of man since the people of Nineveh rotted away, leaving their houses and temples to be buried in the sands from the deserts. Consider these inventions, — iron, steel, tools, machinery, steam, electricity, telegraph, telephone, typewriter, the public army, federal government, medicine, credit. Why save the San Franciscans } Because in three thousand years these inventions have developed human gregari- ousness into world-wide social sympathy. This cosmo- 1 Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Sociology^ p. 74. This fact is carefully to be discriminated from the more important fact that as communities and classes rise in culture both death-rates and birth-rates decline ; and from another fact that poverty without hope is reckless in all respects, — mar- riage, births, diseases, deaths. THE LINE OF MARCH 479 politanism has transformed the rivalry of many cities into commonwealth and enlarged into vast empires the regions of domestic peace. To the city inhabitant of three thousand years ago as to the country primitive of to-day, the rescue of the San Franciscans would appear to be the work of superhuman beings, and the motives as well as the methods would be unintelligible. What we are very apt to forget is that the past and the primitive persist in the present so that to millions and millions of modern men, women, and children, the advanced life of the modern world is not understandable ; and because it is not understandable, it is to them unknown. Only one of imaginative intel- lect can comprehend a tale or an exposition or a picture of that which one has not personally experienced. There follows from this a practical application in edu- cation. The motive in education is to develop power to understand modern human life. This is the motive both of the pupil and of the educator. The pupil aspires to grow, the educator intends to nourish the growing soul of the pupil. In respect to the pupil, the material that is to be developed is his own soul ; in respect to the educator, the materials to be supplied to the pupil are the facts and principles, that is, the truth, of the world of Nature and of the world of humanity that environ him. Most of the facts of the latter world and many of those of the other, some of the principles of human nature and most of those of the natural world are unworthy of in- telligent, energetic, righteous, and merciful men and women. True civilization is progress away from Nature.^ The survival of the fittest, warfare, brute force, sex- promiscuity, and uncounted other displays of the brute, civilized man is slowly discarding. Egoism is not dying, but is developing altruism, its counterpart, its mate. These are obverse and reverse of the solid shield. By 1 "Man is Nature's rebel." Lankester, Kingdom of Man, p. 26. 48o MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION their interaction, these forces generate humanity, and all its most active powers of mind and soul. Not merely as a matter of abstract principle, but also, and very definitely, in the concrete actions and disposi- tions of individuals must Nature be rejected by sound human morality. I have seen in civilization so much of the bitterness of life, its cruelty, its brutishness, its piti- lessness, its crass ignorance and vain pride, its abomina- tions worse than any possible degradation of animalism ; that at times civilization seems to me a refinement of the worst rather than of the best in man. Need I specify ? I have known child-bearing wives to be beaten by hus- bands, fathers merrily carousing in dining-rooms when their own babies lay in caskets in parlors, children cuffed into insensibility and beaten with lead pipe into idiocy, elegant women luxuriating on the avenues upon the rents of slum tenements, and even of dens of infamy, city councils debauched that rich men might be yet richer and poor men be transformed into scoundrels, widows robbed by smug hypocrites, ambitious boys blocked in their progress, lovely girls ruined in ways beyond num- ber and imagination, parents and near relatives aban- doned to the cold mercy of the public ; and what not ? Nineveh has come again in New York and Chicago, and Sodom reappears in many a city. These things I know : I have not only read them in books, in newspapers, or in histories. The Boston of the eighteenth century would not know the morals of the Boston of to-day. All the world is changed. And we must face the crucial question, — Shall we leave the issue of virtue against vice to laissez faire, or shall we interfere } The old personal morality is not enough to solve these new ques- tions. It may be that for his own soul's welfare, a Car- negie, a Rockefeller, a Vanderbilt, a Gould, a Field, or any other multimillionaire or millionaire, or for that mat- ter any rich man, should sell all that he has and give to THE LINE OF MARCH 481 the poor ; * but to do so would only ease his own burden of responsibility and convert a necessary callousness into a genuine tenderness toward humanity, for the mis- ery of the world has become too great to be relieved by even a billion dollars or by a billion dollars' worth of goods. The ethical problems of to-day cannot be solved in this wise : perhaps they cannot be solved at all ; but if they can be solved, it must be by operation of the entire social machinery, by the effective functioning of all the social institutions, and by the development of yet new institutions. Persons are no longer enough. Particular societies and corporations are no longer enough. We need for the redemption of man all the vital, intel- lectual, emotional, and moral resources of society, di- rected by the institutions of Family, Church, State, School, all Arts and Cultures. From what is man to be redeemed ? From the renewed private feudal wars now known as Business, from all public wars of nations, and from the rebarbarization to which every generation inevitably tends from mere atavism and congenital ignorance. Let us not forget that minds and souls are wrecked by financial insolvencies and by financial plethoras, that bodies are destroyed in millions by pov- erty and rotted in thousands by luxury, that every "war sets back the hands upon the clock of progress, and that sighings and tears and white, silent griefs are not yet gone out of the earth. There is still evil for the sake of ends ; and, worse, there is evil in sheer malice. Why ? Because, as every one knows, the agencies of good have not yet triumphed in the world over the agencies of evil ; to use theological terms, Christ has not yet over- come Satan. There is a love of God, a desire to return into the bosom of the Father, a longing of the finite to be- come once more a part, as I believe, a self-understanding and self-directing part, of the Infinite that can and does 1 Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, xix, 21. 482 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION overcome the natural in man, for the spiritual is higher than the natural and can reduce and absorb it once more into itself. How? By regeneration as by conversion of individuals and by revolutions of peoples ; and what is regeneration but return once more into the spirit ? In social conditions of ignorance and poverty, the fer- tile soils of the natural vices, and in social conditions of congested property in wealth, the fertile soil of the arti- ficial vices, the ignorant and the poor multiply so fast as to endanger the stock of the race by reducing its quality while the intelligent and the rich persistently decrease in numbers; therefore, the masses increase and the leaders decrease. The chaos that sets in is lit only by hatreds and by ideals : which together generate thought and action. This road leads down into the hell of social revolution.^ In this relation, education becomes the cure for civilization, and effects its cure in a variety of ways. The road of education, therefore, is the only road upon which a nation can travel safely forever ; it is a true line of march. What is this road ? To develop by educa- tion and to utilize by culture in civilization all the powers of every individual and to let nothing whatsoever inter- fere with so doing ; this is a strait and narrow road, "the strait and narrow way" that leads to life, to ever more life. It means at once energy and restraint, faith and doubt, courage and caution, speech and silence, ego- ism and altruism, knowledge of this world and a sense of a world beyond, all things in just balance ; in short, wisdom, health, and holiness. Few have found this way: no nation has ever followed it long. But those who find and follow it, of course, live forever; and the nation that finds and follows it will live as long as grass grows upon the earth. * " When the emotions take side with the intellect, then comes the moral earthquake that destroys the existing order." Stephen, History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century, p. 17. THE LINE OF MARCH 483 We need not speak of this supreme matter altogether wholly in generalities. It means a low birth-rate, that ev'ery child may be well cared for, and a low death-rate, that all the possible good of each life shall be realized for other lives ; but it means also a higher number of births than of deaths ; that as long as the earth bears fruit abundantly, there shall be an increasing population to spur us on to effort. It means, in this particular matter, the redemption of women from too frequent child-bearing and too prolonged and too harassing care of children, that, in their full maturity after forty years of age, women as well as men may be free to contribute wealth and culture to the general store of riches and of knowledge. It means the reconstruction of criminals by education, and the prevention of criminals by the proper feeding, housing, and schooling of children. It means universal homes. It means the subordination of government, of business, and every other social activity of the present adults to the higher race interests of the young. ^ It means the conquest of the human mind by a new ideal, the highest as yet conceived, — the employment of this life as the means to a later, larger life ; in another phrase, education as religion ; and in yet another phrase, man as always the offspring of God. For it converts life into a university, a school of exceeding many and various opportunities radiating from one idea, — the possibility of a "far-off divine event " for each one of us. This is no new idea. It is not a new ideal. It is, how- ever, a most noteworthy illustration of the truth that seers prevision the ages of the remote future, for this ideal of Moses, of Isaiah, of Ezekiel, of Amos, and of 1 " The greatest single factor in the development of the social and emo- tional aspects of morality is the natural selection of stocks that show increasing care for offspring." Tufts, " On Moral Evolution," in Studies in Philosophy and Psychology (Carman Memorial). 484 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION Jesus has now become the common opinion of men : the thinkers have at length converted the multitude. We do not ask now whether an age of righteousness is desirable or how it is obtainable ; we know that it is desirable and that it is obtainable by education. Our inquiry is solely how to bring universal education, which is universal religion, into reality. For this extraordinary age is a con- geries of the heavens of which men have been dreaming in various lands throughout all history. The American is living in a new Jerusalem come down out of the heaven of spiritual life upon the earth of material things. It is not a perfect Jerusalem, for the perfect is ever before us, beckoning. And the great discovery is that there never was chaos, but always an eternally evolving cosmos.^ The most substantial are the immaterial principles, — the laws, the forces, the processes by which the earth is ribbed with rocks, the stars proceed in their courses, and the minds of men search after God. This procedure, therefore, — by which the physical is transformed into the psychical, by which the bodily activity of men becomes intelligent ; their intelligent activity becomes efficient in the production of material things, the necessaries, comforts, and luxuries of life ; their material wealth necessitates morality ; their moral disposition involves them in serious, scientific inquiry into the realities of Nature ; their science persists until it bases and bulwarks their arts ; their life of art becomes self-conscious in philosophy ; and their philosophy directs them to desire wholeness and unity of conduct, of soul, of the life personal and social, — this procedure from ignorance to wisdom is a formal and the normal evolu- tion of man, which evolution is education. Man becomes, then, his own supreme art-product, the maker of himself. Nature, which produces man and de- stroys him accidentally, it would seem, and recklessly, is * Duncan, The New Knowledge, part vii, chapter v. THE LINE OF MARCH 485 conquered. There is no more death, but only life after life. Reason, which is the true nature of the soul, its reality, is the victor over all the enemies of life. " This world is God's workshop" ^ wherein He makes men for life elsewhere. To know this is to enter here upon the life eternal. 1 Beecher, Proverbs from Plymouth Pulpit : Manhood. CHAPTER XXV THE MEANING OF LIFE Life is a warfare and the sojourn of a stranger. — Marcus Aurelius, Thoughts., ii, 17. Not to look onwards to the ideal life of man is to deny our birthright of mind. — Jefferies, Pageant of Summer. Adjustment has two sides. In one respect, it relates to the modification effected in the individual in order to suit itself to the external conditions of its environment. In the other respect it relates to the modifications effected in the environment to suit it to the individ- ual. — Harris, Preface, p. vi, in Judd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers. The only thing that is good is the Living Love that wills the blessedness of others. This is the true Good-in-itself , sought by all men. All things else — resolves, sentiments, actions, tendencies — share with this only derivatively the name of Good. Neither a realm of Truth nor a realm of Worth is prior as the initial reality. To finite cognition, the one unfolding movement of this reality appears in the three aspects of the good that is its end, the constructive impulse by which this end is attained, and the conformity to law that keeps the impulse in the path to that end. All the moral commands that, as sharply defined maxims, attract our attention are but a mechanism devised for its own realization by Creative Love. To this mechanism belong the universal, the class, and the state of things, — mere schemes for the establishment of truth and of order. Where we cannot reconcile the goodness and the omnipotence of God, there our finite intelligence has come to the Hmit of its tether; yet we may believe a solution exists, though we may not under- stand it. The true reality is and forever ought to be not Matter, and still less Idea, but the living personal spirit of God and the various personal Spirits of His creation. — LoTZE, Microcosmus (abridged, Hamilton-Jones's translation), pp. 717, 721-727. ** Glad to go hence." Such is the verdict of most of thepersonswho have sat at the bedside of the dying, the verdict in all ages and lands, the verdict of ministers, physicians, counselors, and friends upon both men and women, " Glad to go hence." Here surely is matter for reflection and conclusion. Few men are afraid of death ^ as the battlefields and workshops of the world attest. Still less do women, staking life at every birth, fear death. 1 " For the fear of death is indeed the pretense of wisdom, and not real wisdom, being a pretended knowledge of the unknown ; and no one knows whether death, which men in their fear apprehend to be the greatest evil, may not be the greatest good. Is there not here conceit of knowledge, which is a disgraceful kind of ignorance 1 " Plato [Socrates], Apology, i, 327 (after Jowett). THE MEANING OF LIFE 487 But we do not desire it* We have accepted as a matter of common sense, of religion, and of philosophy alike the maxim of Bias, **So ought we to mete out this life as those who will live both much and little." Born without choice, we accept life as fate and are happiest in our reconciliation to our fate, whatever be its form.^ This acceptance is not confined to the working masses or to the leisure classes, but is common to all men ; and it is as desirable as it is common. It must not be con- fused with any proposed acceptance of some particular lot in life, which is neither common nor desirable. In this distinction lies the entire problem of education, both personal and social, for as there is an education of the individual, so by the way of the education of many individuals is there also an education of society. Usually caught and fastened inextricably in the insti- tutions, customs, conditions, and traditions of environ- ing humanity, the individual sees in death release from all his difficulties. It becomes to him, as it were, an abso- lution. Moreover, he sees in death the possibility of a new start, for he has learned that to escape from the snares, the traps, and the pitfalls that Nature and hu- manity set in the way of every man, one needs powers beyond those actually possessed. In the life after death, he sees the possibility of possessing these greater pow- ers, for men are not blind to the fact that success is merely a balance between difficulties and skills. Life is a battle, — he fails who cannot defeat circumstances, whose powers do not match his opportunities, for every situation is an opportunity. Consequently, our desire is not for easier situations, but for more insight, skill, en- ergy, endurance, courage, in dealing with them ; for more 1 The last words of Henry Ward Beecher were, " Now comes the mys- tery." This expresses the common sense of millions who, conscious, die in peace. 2 Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education, final chapter. 488 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION income, not for less expenditure ; for more life, not for less experience. Therefore, as soon as we know what education is, we desire it : knowing that undeveloped talent is like iron in the ore under ground and hoping that in us is the talent waiting discovery, development, and use. By its faith that in most men are talents awaiting dis- covery, development, and preparation for use, — the iron to be made into structural steel and the gold into cur- rent coin of exchange, — democracy celebrates human- ity, is the religion of humanity ; and establishes the school as the church or temple of this religion. But democracy is not yet fully self-conscious, or entirely es- tablished, or altogether victorious over its foes. There- fore, the school is incomplete, imperfectly evolved, not . yet transformed from the image in which it was origin- ally built. Nor as yet have enough able men worked out the solution of the problem of how much universal education really should accomplish. Nor does democracy quite understand or perfectly support the school in which this education is to be accomplished. Nor do we yet comprehend that for each one of us the entire meaning of life is education, nothing else being comparably worth while. Life is the end-in-itself, a centre with a circumference beyond the horizons of finite vision, a centre of a circle whose limits may no man set, a centre of a sphere revolving yet permanent in the universe of God ; but all the while an end-in-itself, all the while both forth- looking and introspective, the eternal contradiction of getting by giving, because this is the manner of life fashioned and followed by God Himself, of whom we know nothing whatever more than this, that because He is whole, one, perfect. He made us like Himself, being unable to do otherwise. This, then, is education, to reach out, to go forth, to THE MEANING OF LIFE 489 give ; and thereby to grow. And, therefore, we hate what- ever confines us, often failing to see that such confine- ment may very well be for the purpose of causing us to develop in the round, harmoniously, completely, rather than to grow narrow, discordant, incomplete. Prohibi- tion, inhibition, sorrow, struggle, self-examination : these are the price of self-consciousness, of personality, of the education of the spirit. The method of God in making a man is evidently to be thorough ; to make not a mist or a shadow, but a solid. By none of the foregoing am I to be understood as defending for a moment or by a single word the evil that I know in the world ; or even to say that in the par- ticular instance, I understand it. Nor do I underestimate it, being inclined to see evil rather than good. But I will not disfigure these pages with the catalogue of these evils under the sun. There is iniquity that literally is infamous, not to be spoken, certainly not to be printed.^ I am entirely unable to understand the callous willing- ness to be rich amid poverty, innocently good amid vice, cheerfully learned amid ignorance ; but I can imagine that for reasons sufficient to Himself God establishes this present order of human society as a necessary stage toward a higher order. " It must needs be that offences come ; but woe to that man by whom the offence Cometh." ^ To assert that the whole world is but a school and that the entire meaning of life is education is not at all to assert that all life is to be spent in school or even in education directly by others : but it involves asserting ^ The warning of Paul of things not to be named set a new example in the world : true to the psychology of suggestion and true to the neces- sary progress of mankind in decency and in charity. Romans^ Corinthi- ans^ passim. 2 Jesus, Matthew, Gospel, xviii, 7. Particularly did the Master condemn one who sins against " little ones " : — " better that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and he were drowned in the depth of the sea." 490 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION that the importance of the School is far greater than even democratic society yet realizes. Education directed in schools short-circuits experience, anticipates and pre- pares for difficulties, and elevates as well as solidifies the soul for larger and higher usefulness ; but it cannot develop non-existent power, nor can it serve as substi- tute for the realities of the life outside of School, the life in the School being, however, as much a reality as any other. In this view, the School is a continuing institution : one no more "leaves off" education than religion or government. As the courts of government are always open for civil litigation and for criminal trial; as legisla- tion is periodical, and administration continual ; as the churches of religion hold regular and frequent sessions ; as every other social institution is for adults as well as youth : so the schools of education and of culture, its second power, will always be open, and to them from time to time men and women will resort for special pre- paration for the new opportunities of society or for larger preparation for the old. The individual will go in and out of the School when occasion offers, as matter of course, realizing, not merely knowing or perhaps but imagining, that in this manifold, multiform civilization, which progresses in complexity and in specialization with a rapidity beyond the dreams of yesterday,^ the useful man must in education equal the demands and the priv- ileges of his times. And the schools of education will multiply their forms, their courses, and their buildings, and will improve their methods, their personnel, and their organization to meet the social needs. Especially will the higher and the special schools — the universities, the institutes, the trade schools — improve and increase. Ever the rate of increase will grow until education catches up with civilization and conforms to the full 1 Bryce, American Commonwealth, vol. i, p. 2. THE MEANING OF LIFE 491 requirements of society : that State, Church, School, Family, Industry, and Culture shall be equal and coor- dinate universal institutions, and that each individual shall be fully prepared to do all really that he was born with the possible ability to do for God and for human- ity. It is this that is coming to pass, this that is break- ing up the present transitional economic regime, this that is the noblest aspiration to keep men alive and joyous in an age of vast trouble, of excessive change, and of straining readjustment ; for this enters into the heart of the meaning of life, which is that, in this pass- age in Time and Space, Society and Nature shall help the individual on his way through the eternities and the infinities. The meaning of life may be explicated by reviewing the cyclorama of its institutions and the history of its processes. Taking the facts as they are as evidence that so God wills them to be, and believing that as far as they injure neither the individual nor society they must be good, we must agree that the true life is always the life that shares most largely and freely in all their good.^ Such a review has been attempted in these pages, with an evaluation of the good things of life. The review and evaluation are suggested as logical consequence of "the idea of universal education. All the world is being created, corrected, and de- veloped by ideas. Each new idea is a revelation. Plato, who appears to have discovered this truth, made thereby a most important contribution to the thought of man. These truths express the infinite and are, therefore, essentially incomprehensible by the finite. They are not, however, for this cause incredible. From the finite as from a window, the human spirit looks out upon the infinite. In this book is organized an idea not wholly new. By 1 Henderson, Education ajid the Larger Life, p. 370. 492 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION bringing the latent into apparent reality, the potential into manifest power, education converts the possibility of each human being into actuality, lifts the child, otherwise a mere instrument of the natural forces of body and of soul, to the higher levels of personal and social culture, and thereby maintains civiUzation. A sound civilization tenderly cherishes education as its life-blood. Education that achieves its end, which is pre- paration for living at one's best, is formal and independ- ent and can be realized only by a formal and independent social institution, performing this function in a certain isolation from all other social institutions. In this form, the School constitutes a complete idea ; and the idea it- self takes on a certain newness that this book endeavors to explain. The idea of education as a perfectly differentiated, completely integral, and absolutely independent social institution appears rational and therefore authoritative. Making no appeal to sentiment, emotion, or enthusiasm, this idea seems to possess the intellectual power of organizing the disorganized facts, principles, customs, and traditions as expressed in the various schools of to- day. It appears to be critical only that it may be con- structive. Moreover, it withdraws from the field of conflict between those varied confused interests of man- kind which are not yet integrated as social institutions, our most precious interests, — our concern for posterity, and our desire that our own product and record shall not perish. And it seems also to interpret the true re- lations of education to the good and to the evil of civil- ization: the good it repeats and multiplies, the evil it encysts, corrects, or destroys. Again, this idea crowns with appropriate dignity what should be for civilized mankind a universal enterprise. History warrants the opinion that, in the absence of such dignity, education has failed to do for earlier civil- THE MEANING OF LIffE 493 izations a work absolutely essential to their preservation. This work is to conspire with Nature in developing a sufficient number of sufficiently competent persons to maintain the particular civilization. And yet again this idea conforms to the modern faith that it is possible to find and to develop in youth many powers of body and of soul not suspected, even denied, by merely superficial observers. In other words, the idea is generally demo- cratic and, therefore, appeals to the highest article in the faith of man in humanity developed through genera- tions of undiscoverable number. By the universal, inde- pendent, systematic school, democracy intends seriously to help each and every individual to realize the most of himself, society the most of itself, and humanity as much as possible of its inherited, inheritable, and attainable likeness to God. Finally, the idea permits an evaluation and apprecia- tion of the motives, methods, and machinery of education that is impossible while the School is conceived as but a partial, dependent, subordinate, mediate, and in a certain aspect despised affair that concerns children only.^ By unity, the School assumes force and develops energy ; it therefore becomes plainly what hitherto only a few have desired, the copartner with religion, government, and family in establishing the intelligence, activity, and morality of mankind. This School is as yet only an idea, and we cannot criticise its actual working. However, it is a noteworthy and highly estimable quality of every idea that it antici- pates reality and interprets it in the light of the truth that shall be. In the ideal worlds of the novelist, of the poet, and of the philosopher are set forth and solved ^ This other, old idea is the familiar one of the books. I am not writ- ing a polemic : if I were, I would cite a score of such books. I desire only to present an argument, — a white reasoning. If it gives light, I shall be glad : I hope that it gives no heat. 494 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION many human problems ; and the solutions are more clear than those of actual life, and quite as final. Moreover, such solutions save many experiments. As Plato taught us, without the idea no thing and no relation of things have ever been or ever possibly can be. It is this, that, as Aristotle showed, lifts ideal truth above actuality and constitutes metaphysics as the cause of all the physical. Not less does modern thought assert that the p^y^ical or spiritual in man, Nature, and God transcend, con- dition, and create the physical or material. As for the working-out of the idea into actuality, what is offered here is only by way of suggestion and prognostication. The idea is already very common. Ten thousand minds are working it over; all the millions who are living in civilization are making it into history. This book at most brings the theme into the conscious- ness of many for consideration, discussion, and deliberate action. I have endeavored to reduce to concrete terms many opinions that otherwise would be general and therefore vague, basing my effort upon the law of Delboeuf, which may be summarized as follows : " Any phenomena, not translated into numbers, always leave on the mind the effect of mysticism." ^ I have endeavored also to express my opinions in accordance with the law of Lotze, which he stated in these terms : "How absolutely universal is the extent, how entirely subordinate the mission that mechanism plays in the world." In short, I have tried to show that complete education prepares for a com- pletely organized society with an increasing number and variety of social institutions and relations. The individual as a man must not be subordinated (helplessly adjusted) to society as an institution, but by exercise in it must be made sufficiently superior to society to be able to contribute to its life and progress. 1 Quoted by Titchener, Experimental Psychology, vol. ii, title-page. THE MEANING OF LIFE 495 The typical period for such education is from ten to twenty years of age and must be observed for all. The missing factor in all former civilizations (which have uniformly perished) has been universal education of the youth, both boys and girls, some for leadership, most for intelligent and hearty fellowship and following. That factor we should supply. All studies, exercises, and regimens must be evaluated in terms of their con- tributions to the building of the bodies and of the minds (or souls) of men for work and for happiness as social beings on this earth and as individual lives passing from eternity to eternity. Intellect, emotion, will, the three modes of mind, may be likened to a line of wire, forming a triangle ; through the wire passes life like an electric current ; at each angle, a relay battery (as it were of vitality from the body) sends new life into the circuit. The losses of life along the intellection stretch are due to incomplete or abandoned ideas ; along the emotion stretch, to diffused or rejected affections ; along the conation stretch, to in- herited or dissipated impulses. This mechanical analogy permits ideas to be considered as passing into affec- tions ; affections into intentions; intentions into ideas; ideas into intentions ; intentions into affections ; affec- tions into ideas. It also (mechanically) relates body to mind. Again, the doctrine here of the psychophysical parallelism is substantially this : Bodily vigor is a cur- rent of water, as it were, flowing at varying rates, in vary- ing widths and depths, while mental activity is a current of air, as it were, above the bodily current, resting upon it, and moving at varying rates, frictionally influenced in consciousness, in subconsciousness, and in unconscious- ness by the current upon which it rests. From concep- tion to death, soul and body are continually associated ; nor does man know which current is originally sprung from the other, or whether or not in origin and in end 496 MOTIVES AND VALUES IN EDUCATION they are or are not one. At death, the bodily force may pass with the spiritual from the material body ; as in- deed both forces may enter at conception. One may not deliberately take partial views of educa- tion and retain the integrity of his soul. In this book, therefore, I have spoken freely of political, religious, eco- nomic, and cultural society, and of the conditions of the personal life. It is valueless to think of education save in terms of the ideal. To educate for society as it is is not to educate, but to habituate, and, at least in some part, to inoculate with the virus of indifferentism.^ One who is so instructed as to beUeve that everything that is in himself, in others, and in society is right, must be im- mune to virtues, to ideals, and to righteousness, and cal- lous towards pity and charity. Against the stoicism of the educational schools that accept this world as their lord, I raise this protest.^ In the terms of ideals, I cite six as absolute : intelli- gence, efficiency, morality, science, art, and philosophy ; these seem to form an ascending scale. The first three seem to be absolutely essential to education, the last three to culture. As the physician discharges his patient when cured, so the educator should discharge his pupil only when educated. Moreover, as the physician is ready always to prescribe and to care for his patient, so the educator should always be ready to receive and to assist his pupil. The graduation of the School must be made syn- chronous with the completion of the formal education, i " The first task of every school is to educate the child, not to prepare for life." Hughes, The Making of Citizens, p. 391. 2 The world as lord is the standard of hypocrites and of men-of-the world alike. They masquerade in all guises : but they uncover to one test. •' Now is the accepted time [for reform] : now is the day of salvation." And they (whom Jesus perfectly understood) reply, "Yes, things should be better, but — " And thereby they lose their own souls. And sincere men and men-of-all-time can only grieve for them and pass on to duty. THE MEANING OF LIFE 497 but it should not be synonymous with complete education, a thing impossible before senility sets in. Such an achieve- ment over the poverty, the ignorance, and the malice of many means yet a long campaign, with hard fighting. Incidentally, all lay boards of control for educational affairs will be done away ; and the School under profes- sional control will rise coordinate with the Church. A similar change will take place in the State, in which the laity will control only in financial matters. Legislation as well as education is an affair for experts to devise ; and for the people to accept or to reject by accepting or reject- ing the legislators themselves, as they accept or reject physicians, lawyers, and ministers in the free churches. The School differentiated from other social institu- tions and so integrated can face seriously the question, " Whether among national manufactures that of souls of a good quality may not at last turn out a quite leadingly lucrative one. " ^ It will enable society to free itself from the lost " little ones," who are a " misery to them- selves, a misery to the community, a disgrace to civiliza- tion, and an outrage on Christianity," ^ and who degen- erate into the criminals, the prostitutes, the adventurers, the paupers, and the lunatics, perilous to themselves and to all of us. The more we do for the school, the more we shall ex- pect from it : and the more we expect from it, the more we should do for it. American society has now reached the question whether many of its evils have become too great to be considered negligible any longer or are re- mediable by education extended far beyond the present range. Remedied they must be, unless the decline be allowed to set in. 1 Ruskin, [Into this Last, § 40. In the light of all our "new know- ledge," this proposition is no longer fanciful, but has become obligatory as the first business of mankind. 2 Dickens, The Uncommercial Traveller. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY The following works are suggested to emphasize either by agree- ment or by opposition the various propositions and accessory con- siderations of the text. In this sense, and in this only, they constitute a bibliography of the subject. Only a few books in foreign languages are included. Scholars able to handle a complete bibliography irrespective of language will not require even this brief list. These few are included as suggestions of a great body of European authorities. It should be obvious that certain familiar standard works are cited merely to record explicitly what line of reasoning I have pre- ferred to follow: others are cited because they are the significant curiosities of their respective fields. The brevity of the list seems to render unnecessary more than one citation of a work. I. NATURAL SCIENCE I. Theory. Baldwin, Development and Evolution. Collins, Epitome of [Spencer's] Synthetic Philosophy. Darwin, Origin of Species. Descent of Man. Expression of Emotion in Man and Animals. Drummond, Ascent of Man. Natural Law in the Spiritual World. Duncan, The New Knowledge. Fiske, Outlines of Cosmic Philosophy. A Century of Science. Howison, Limits of Evolution. Jordan, Footnotes to Evolution. Lank ester, The Kingdom of Man. Le Dantec, The Origin of Life. Mivart, Contemporary Evolution. Morgan, Animal Life and Intelligence. Animal Behavior. Habit and Instinct. Saleeby, Evolution the Master-Key. Schmidt, Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism. Mammalia in Primitive Times. 502 BIBLIOGRAPHY Spencer, Synthetic Philosophy. Steiner, Scientific Papers. Strong, Lectures on the Methods of Science. Tyler, Whence and Whither of Man. Vignoli, Myth and Science. Wallace, Darwinism. Applications and Extensions. Bagehot, Physics and Politics. Draper, History of the Conflict between Science and Religion. Huxley, Science and Culture. Methods and Results. Lay Sermons. * O'Shea, Education as Adjustment. Shaler, The Individual. Spencer, Education. White, A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology. II. SOCIAL SCIENCE History. Acton, Study of History. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages. Baring-Gould, The Tragedy of the CcBsars. Breasted, History of Egypt. Ancient Records. Bryce, History of Latin Christianity. Buckle, History of Civilization in England. Crozier, History of Intellectual Development on the Lines of Evolution. Draper, The Intellectual Development of Europe. Droysen, Principles of History. Eggleston, The Transit of Civilization. Ely, Evolution of Industrial Society. Featherman, Social History of the Races of Mankind. Garvey, Manual of Human Culture. Hilquit, History of Socialism in the United States. lies. Flame, Camera, and Electricity. Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums. Lubbock, Origin of Civilization. Maspero, Dawn of Civilization. Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria. Morgan, Ancient Society. Pitt-Rivers, Evolution of Culture. Rand (editor), Economic History since 1763. Ratzel, History of Mankind. BIBLIOGRAPHY 503 Schouler, Americans of 1776, Simcox, Primitive Civilization. Starr, Some First Steps in Human Progress. Toynbee, The Industrial Revolution. Wallace, The Wonderful Century (19th). Webb, History of Trades Unionism. Wright, Man and the Glacial Period. 2. Social Institutions. a. Property. Commons, Distribution of Wealth. Hadley, Economics ; an Account of the Relations between Private Property and Public Welfare. Laveleye, Primitive Property. Letourneau, Property, its Origin and Development. Pollock, The Land Laws. Proudhon, What is Property ? Spahr, Present Distribution of Wealth in the United States. Systems of Land Tenure, Cobden Club Lectures, h. Family. Besant, Marriage. Birney, Childhood. Brandt, Five Hundred and Seventy-four Deserters and Their Families, Report, New York, 1905. Chamberlain, The Child: A Study in the Evolution of Man. The Child and Childhood in Folkthought. Devas, Studies of Family Life. Finck, Romantic Love and Personal Beauty. Howard, History of Matrimonial Institutions. Martin, The Luxury of Children. Parsons, The Family: an Ethnographical and Historical Outline. Riberolles, Du Divorce par Consentement. Schouler, Treatise on the Law of the Domestic Relations. Spargo, The Bitter Cry of the Children. Starcke, The Primitive Family in Origin and Development. Thwing, The Family : an Historical and Social Study. Westermarck, History of Human Marriage. c. Church. Carroll, Religious Forces of the United States. Lippert, Allgemeine Geschichte des Priesterthums. Mathews, Social Teaching of Jesus. Prall, State and Church. Schaff, Church and State in America. 504 BIBLIOGRAPHY d. State. Amos, Science of Law. Science oj Politics. Aristotle, Politics. Bluntschli, Theory of the State. Butler, True and False Detnocracy. Greenleaf, Law oj Evidence. Hart, Actual Government. Hobbes, Leviathan. Holmes, The Common Law. Holt, On the Civic Relations. Lecky, Liberty and Democracy. Maine, Ancient Law. Pollock, Science of Politics. Seeley, Introduction to Political Science, e. School. Butler, The Meaning of Education. Dewey, The School and Society. Dopp, Place of Industries in Elementary Education. Elslander, Education au Point de Vue Sociologique. Henderson, Education and the Larger Life. Hughes, The Making of Citizens : A Study in Comparative Education. Taylor, Public School Laws, 1892. /. Occupation. 1. Industrial. Channing, Elevation of the Working Classes. George, Progress and Poverty. Oilman, Human Work. Mallock, Labor and the Popidar Welfare. Progress of the Century (19th), New York, 1901. Smiles, Self -Help. Webb, Industrial Democracy. 2. Cultural. Congress of Arts and Sciences (St. Louis), Boston, 1904. Hamerton, The Intellectual Life. Harper, The Trend in Higher Education. McKenna (editor), Education and Professions of Women. Mitchell, The Past in the Present : What is Civilization ? Veblen, Theory of the Leisure Class. Youmans (editor). The Culture demandedby Modern Life. g. Business. Banks, White Slaves. Cadbury, Matheson, and Shaun, Women^s Work and Wages. BIBLIOGRAPHY 505 Campbell, Women Wage -Earners. Carnegie, Empire of Business. Ghent, Our Benevolent Feudalism. Gibbin, Economic and Industrial Progress. Gilman, Methods of Industrial Peace. Mayo-Smith, Statistics and Economics. Rae, Sociological Theory of Capital. Veblen, The Business Man. Walker, Political Economy. General Theory. Abbott, The Rights of Man. Bohm-Bawerk, Karl Marx and the Close of his System. Bosanquet, Aspects of the Social Question. Brooks, The Social Unrest. Bryce, The American Commonwealth. Carpenter, Civilization, its Cause and Cure. Cooley, Human Nature and the Social Order. De Brath, Foundations of Success. De Tocqueville, Democracy in America. Engels, Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State. Forrest, Development of Western Civilization. Giddings, Principles of Sociology. Gumplowicz, Outlines of Sociology. Hauser, U Enseignement des Sciences Sociales. Kidd, Principles of Western Civilization. Lane, Level of Social Motion. Le Bon, Psychology of Socialism. Essais et Melanges Sociologiques. Maine, Early History of Institutions. Dissertation on Early Law and Custom. Mallock, Aristocracy and Evolution. Patten, New Basis of Civilization. Theory of Social Forces. Posada, Theories Modernes sur les Origines de la Famille, de la Societe et de VEtat. Ross, Social Control. Small, General Sociology. Spencer, Social Statics. First Principles. Descriptive Sociology. Stein, Die Sociale Frage im Lichte der Philosophie. Tarde, Social Laws. Tylor, Anthropology: Introduction to Study of Man and Civilization. 5o6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ward, Psychic Factors in Civilization. Outlines of Sociology. Dynamic Sociology. Applied Sociology. Wright, Practical Sociology. i. Sex Theory. Ellis, Man and Woman. Forel, Die Sexuelle Frage: Eine Naturwissenschaftliche, Psychologische, Hygienische und Sociologische Studie fiir Gebildete. Thomas, Sex and Society. j. Social Pathology. Bloch, The Future of War. Davenport, Hill, and Fowke, Children of the State. Drahms, The Criminal: A Social Study. Ellis, The Criminal. Ferri, Sociologia Criminate. Folks, Care of Destitute, Neglected, and Delinquent Children. Gross, Criminal Psychology. Henderson, Dependents, Defectives, and Delinquents. Hunter, Poverty. Ingersoll, Crime against Criminals. Kellor, Experimental Psychology ; Delinquents. Out of Work. Lombroso, Delitti Vecchi e Delitti Nuovi. Lydstone, Diseases of Society. Morrow, Social Diseases. Morselli, Suicide. O'Dea, Suicide. Russell and Rigby, The Making of Criminals. Schrenck, Kriminal Psychologische und Psychopathogische Studien. Warner, American Charities. White, Problems of a Great City. Wines, Punishment and Reformation. k. Urban and Rural Life. Booth, Life and Labor in London. Emerson, Society and Solitude. Fairchild, Rural Wealth and Rural Welfare. Graham, The Rural Exodus. Howe, The City the Hope of Democracy. Riis, How the Other Half Lives. Smith, Village Life in China. Chinese Characteristics. BIBLIOGRAPHY 507 Williams, The Middle Kingdom. Woods (editor), The City Wilderness. Americans in Process. Zueblin, A Decade of Civic Development. I. Races. Commons, Immigrants in America. Deniker, Races of Men. Lefevre, Race and Language. Ripley, Races of Europe. Sergi, The Mediterranean Race. Sinclair, Aftermath of Slavery. Washington, Future of the American Negro. III. HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY a. Theory. Campbell, Differences in the Nervous Organization of Men and Women. Cunningham, Textbook of Human Anatomy. Donaldson, Growth of the Brain, a Study of the Nervous Sys- tem in Relation to Education. Foster, Textbook of Human Physiology. Foster and Balfour, Elements of Embryology. Geddes and Thompson, Evolution of Sex. Hibbert, Life and Energy. Loeb, Physiology of the Brain. Lourbet, Le Probleme des Sexes. McMurrich, Development of the Human Body. Martin, The Human Body. Morris, Human Anatomy. Oppenheim, Development of the Child. Rowe, Physical Nature of the Child. Shafer (editor), Human Physiology. Walker, Human Physiology. Warner, Nervous System of the Child. Study of Children. Wilson, The Cell in its Development and Inheritance. b. Pathology. Gould, Biographical Clinics. Ireland, The Blot on the Brain: Studies in History and Psy- chology. Through the Ivory Gate : Studies in History and Psy- chology. Mental Affections of Children. Mitchell, Nerve Paralysis. Neurasthenia. 5o8 BIBLIOGRAPHY Ranney, Eye-Strain in Health and Disease. Sachs, Nervous Diseases of Children. c. Psychophys.ics. Calderwood, Relations of Mind and Brain. Carpenter, Mental Physiology. Dresser, Health and the Inner Life. Manaceine, Sleep : its Physiology, Pathology, Hygiene, and Psychology. Marwedel, Conscious Motherhood. Maudsley, Physiology of Mind. Pathology of Mind. Responsibility in Mental Disease. Prayer, The Senses and the Will. Rogers, Parallelism of Mind and Body. Scripture, The New Psychology. Strong, Why the Mind has a Body. d. Hygiene. Abbott, Hygiene of Transmissible Disease. Blaikie, How to Get Strong. Curtis, Nature and Health. Hancock, The Physical Culture Life. Hutchinson, Food and Dietetics. Lagrange, Physiology of Bodily Exercise. Le Bosquet, Personal Hygiene. Lusk, Science of Nutrition. Mackenzie, Medical Inspection of School Children. Marcy, Movement. Parke, Hygiene, with American Supplement. Sedgwick, Principles of Sanitary Science and the Public Health. Shaw, School Hygiene. Uffelman, Domestic Hygiene of the Child. e. Heredity. Guyau, Education and Heredity. Horrige, Dynamic Aspects of Nutrition and Heredity. Patten, Heredity and Social Progress. Weismann, Essays on Heredity. Woods, Heredity in Royalty. f. Therapeutics. Diefendorfer, Clinical Psychiatry (based on Krapelin, Lehrbuch der Psychiatrie). Hare, Practical Therapeutics. Mitchell, Doctor and Patient. g. Applications. Halleck, Education of the Central Nervous System. BIBLIOGRAPHY 509 Maclaren, Physical Education. O'Shea, Dynamic Factors in Education. Thompson, Sex in Education. Tyler, Growth and Education. IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY See also Human Physiology : Psychophysics Ladd, Elements of Physiological Psychology. Morgan, Introduction to Comparative Psychology. Sanford, Experimental Psychology. Titchener, Outlines of Psychology. Experimental Psychology. - Wundt, Human and Animal Psychology. V. PSYCHOLOGY a. General. Angell, Psychology. Baldwin, Mental Development. Bowne, Introduction to Psychological Theory. Calkins, Introduction to Psychology. Davis, Elements of Psychology. Dewey, Psychology. Galton, Inquiry into Human Faculty. Halleck, Psychology and Psychic Culture. Herbart, Textbook of Psychology (Smith, transl.). Hobhouse, Mind in Evolution. Hudson, Evolution of the Soul. James, Psychology (advanced course). Kiilpe, Outlines of Psychology. Royce, Outlines of Psychology. Stout, Groundwork of Psychology. Analytical Psychology. Sully, Outlines of Psychology. Thorndike, Elements of Psychology. Witmer, Analytic Psychology. b. Epochal. Compayre, Intellectual and Moral Development of the Child. Later Infancy of the Child. Hall, Adolescence : its Psychology and its Relations to Physio- logy, Anthropology, Sociology, Sex, Crime, Religion, and Edu- cation. King, Psychology of Child Development. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study. 5IO BIBLIOGRAPHY Sully, Studies oj Childhood. Tracy, Psychology oj Childhood. c. Special. Adams, The Esthetic Experience : its Meaning in a Function. Carrel, Analysis of Human Motival Psychology. Gallon, Hereditary Genius. Jastrow, Psychology of the Unconscious. McCosh, The Emotions. Maeterlinck, The Buried Temple. Marholm, Psychology of Woman. Norton, Studies in Philosophy and Psychology : The Intellect- ual Element in Music. Rosmini, Origin of Ideas. Scripture, Thinking, Feeling, Doing. Sully, Sensation and Intuition: Studies in Psychology and JEsthetics. Weininger, Sex and Character. d. Application. Bagley, The Educative Process. Baldwin, Psychology applied to the Art oj Teaching. Betts, Mind and Education. De Garmo, Interest and Education. Dexter and Garlick, Psychology in the Schoolroom. Harris, Psychological Foundations of Education. Home, Psychological Principles of Education. James, Talks to Teachers on Psychology and Life's Ideals. Judd, Genetic Psychology for Teachers. Le Bon, Psychologic de V Education. McClellan, Applied Psychology. Marion, Legons de Psychologic appliquee a V Education. Mulliner, Application oj Psychology to Education. Miinsterberg, Psychology and Lije. Psychological Revival : Educational Values, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1896. Thorndike, Educational Psychology. Human Nature Club. VI. PHILOSOPHY a. History. Erdmann, History oj Philosophy. Hoffding, History oj Philosophy. Kiilpe, Introduction to Philosophy. Perry, Approach to Philosophy. Rogers, Student's History oj Philosophy. BIBLIOGRAPHY 511 Turner, History of Philosophy. Ueberweg, History of Philosophy. Weber, History of Philosophy. Windelband, History of Philosophy. b. General Theory. Bacon, Novum Organon. Caldwell, Schopenhauer's System in its Philosophical Signifi- cance. Calkins, The Persistent Problems of Philosophy. Cousin, Lectures on the True, the Good, and the Beautiful. Dewhurst, The Investment of Truth. Dorman, Ignorance. Fiske, Through Nature to God. Griggs, The New Humanism. Hoffding, The Problems of Philosophy. Hyde, Practical Idealism. Knight, Varia : Studies on Problems of Philosophy and Ethics. Lotze, Microcosmus. Naden, Induction and Deduction. Otto, Naturalism and Religion. Perrin, Evolution of Knowledge. Plato, PhcBdo. Crito. Republic. Laws. Royce, World and Individual: Nature, Man, and the Moral Order. Seth and Haldane (editors). Essays in Philosophical Criticism. Sturt, Personal Idealism. Tyler, The Whence and Whither of Man. Ward, Naturalism and Agnosticism. W^atson, Philosophy of Kant (abridged). c. Logic. Baldwin, Thought and Things: Genetic Logic. Fichte, Science of Knowledge. Miiller, Science of Thought. d. Ethics. Alexander, Moral Order and Progress : Ethical Definitions. Aristotle, Ethics. Baldwin, Mental Development: Social and Ethical Interpre- tations. Bosanquet, Psychology of the Moral Self. Brentano, Origin of the Knowledge of Right and Wrong. Coit (editor), The Message of Man. 512 BIBLIOGRAPHY Duprat, Morals : A Treatise upon the Psychological Bases of Ethics. Fite, An Introductory Study of Ethics. Gore, Scientific Basis of Morality. Hobhouse, Morals in Evolution. Ladd, Philosophy of Conduct. Levy-Bruhl, Ethics and Moral Science. Mezes, Ethics Descriptive and Explanatory. Mill, Utilitarianism. Moulton, The Moral System of Shakespeare. Muirhead, Philosophy of Life. Nash, Genesis of the Social Conscience. Nietzsche, Gettealogy of Morals. Thus Spake Zarathustra. Uebermensch. Paulsen, System of Ethics. Pearson, Ethic of Freethought. Royce, Studies of Good and Evil. Schmidt, Ethik der Alten Griechen, Scott, Heredity and Morals. Seth, Study of EtJucal Principles. Sheldon, Duties in the Home. Taylor, The Problem of Conduct. Thilly, Introduction to Ethics. Watt, Study of Social Morality. Wundt, Ethics. e. ^Esthetics. Bascom, ^Esthetics : or the Science of Beauty. Bosanquet, History of JEsthetic. Day, Science of ^Esthetics : Nature, Kind, LawSj and Uses of Beauty. La Brouste, Philosophic des Beaux Arts. Lotze, Outlines of Esthetics. Saintsbury, History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Eu- rope. f. Application. Home, Philosophy of Education. Rosenkranz, Philosophy of Education. g. Speculative. Alden, A Study of Death. James, Human Immortality. McConnell, Evolution of Immortality. Meyers, Human Personality and its Survival of Bodily Death. Ostwald, Individuality and Immortality. BIBLIOGRAPHY 5^3 Royce, The Conception of Immortality. ^ Stockwell, Evolution of Immortality. Stone, A Practical Study of the Soul. VII. RELIGION a. History. Beecher, Conflict of Ages. Blanchard, Twentieth Century Church in Early Christian Conditions. Fisher, History of the Christian Church. Hyde, Fro7n Epicurus to Christ. Menzies, History of Religion. b Theory. Adler, A Religion based on Ethics. Baxter, Christian Ethics. Browne, Christian Morals. Religio Medici. Clifford, Ethics of Religion. Decline of Religious Belief. Ethics and Religion, A Collection of Essays, London, 1900. Fichte, Critique of Religion. James, Varieties of Religious Experience. Martineau, A Study of Religion. Spiritual Growth. Miiller, Science of Religion. Sterrett, The Freedom of Authority. Taylor, Holy Living. Tolstoi, My Religion. World's Parliament of Religions, Chicago, 1893. c. Criticism. Adams, Church and Popular Education. The Bible in the Public Schools. Cincinnati, Report, 1870. Mathews, The Church and the Changing Order. Rauschenbusch, Christianity and the^Social Crisis. Selleck, New Appreciation of the Bible. Waring, Christianity and its Bible. d. Application. Barrow, Resist not Evil. Herman, Faith and Morals. Peabody, Jesus Christ and the Social Question. Stevens, The Teaching of Jesus. 514 BIBLIOGRAPHY VIII. EDUCATION a. History. 1. General and National. Boone, Education in the United States : its History. Brown, The Making of Our Elementary Schools. Browning, Introduction to History of Educational Theories. Compayre, A History of Education. Davidson, A History of Education. Dexter, A History of Education in the United States. Kehr, Geschichte der Methodik. Martin, The Chinese : their Education, Philosophy, and Let- ters. Monroe, Textbook of the History of Education. Sourcebook of the History of Education. Painter, A History of Education. Schreiber, Das Buch vom Kinde, ein Sammelwerk fur die ivichtigsten Fragen der Kindheit. Thwing, History of Higher Education in America. 2. Epochal and Special. Butler (editor), Education in the United States, 1900, Davidson, Education of the Greek People. Oilman, Launching a University. Johnson, Old Time Schools and School Books. Magnus (editor). National Education, a Symposium ; Es- says toward a Constructive Policy {British). Rashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages. Rice, Public School System of the United States. Spiers, School System of the Talmud. Woodward, Education during the Renaissance. Zimmer, Methods of Education in America. h. Description and Criticism. Adams, Some Famous American Schools. Birdseye, Individual Training in our Colleges. Educational Policy of the State of India. Report, 1900. Klemm, European Schools. Hughes, Schools at Home and Abroad. Parsons, French Schools through American Eyes. Paulsen, German Universities. Seeley, Common School System of Germany. Smith, Rural Schools, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1884. Thirteen Essays on Education by the XIII. London, 1891. Thomas, History and Prospects of British Education in Ger- many. BIBLIOGRAPHY 515 Washington, Tuskegee and its Work. Whewell, Principles oj English University Education. Winch, Notes on German Schools, e. Theory. I. General. Barnard, Pestalozzi and his Educational System. Blow, Symbolic Education. Boone, Science oj Education. Bosanquet, Education 0} the Young in the Republic oj Plato. Buchner, Kant's Educational Theory. Burnet, Aristotle on Education. Clarke, Selj-Cidture. Demolins, VEducation Nouvelle. Dewey, The Child and the Curriculum. Hadley, Education oj the American Citizen. Hanus, Educational Aims and Educational Values. Henderson, Jefjerson's Views on Public Education. Herbart, Science oj Education. Holman, Education : Introduction to Principles and Psycho- logical Foundations. Keating, Great Didactic oj Comenius. Lowell, Rousseau and the Sentimentalists. Mason, School Education. Maurice, Learning and Working. Milton, Tractate on Education. Nettleship, Theory oj Education in the ''Republic'' oj Plato. O'Shea, Education as Adjustment. Dynamic Factors in Education. Palmer, The New Education. Parker, Talks to Teachers. Sargent, Physical Education. Scott, Organic Education. Search, An Ideal School. Spalding, Means and Ends oj Education. Welton, Logical Bases oj Education. 2. Epochal. Barnard, The Kindergarten and Child Culture. De Garmo, Principles oj Secondary Education. Gilman, University Problems. Gordy, A Broader Elementary Education. Hyde, The College Man and the College Woman. Jacobi, Primary Education. Keith, Elementary Education. Peabody, Lectures to Kinder gartners. 5i6 BIBLIOGRAPHY Thwing, College Administration. Wiggin and Smith, The Republic oj Childhood. 3. Special. Britton, Intensive Study of the Causes oj Truancy. Burstall, Education oj Girls in the United States. Ham, Mind and Hand, Manual Training the Chiej Factor in Education. Hecker, Scientific Education. Herrick, Meaning and Practice oj Commercial Education. Industrial Education: U. S. Department of Labor, 1893. MacArthur, Education in Relation to Manual Industry. Scott, Nature Study and the Child. ^ Tadd, New^ Methods in Education. Vanderlip, Education and Business. Ware, Educational Foundations oj Trade and Industry. Warrington, Agricultural Science : its Place in a University Education. Woodward, Manual Training in Education. d. Social Aspects. Adams, Three Phi Beta Kappa Addresses. Ashbee, A Few Chapters in Workshop Reconstruction and Citi- zenship. Button, Social Phases oj Education in the School and the Home. Eliot, More Money jor the Public Schools. Gilbert, The School and its Lije. Hanus, A Modern School. King, School Recreations and Amusements. Palmer, Higher Education and a Common Language. Royce, Deterioration and Race Education. Vincent, The Social Mind and Education. IX. THE ARTS a. General Theory. Barnard, Science and Art. Caird, University Addresses (on science and art). Clarke, Art and Industry. Guyau, L'Art au Point du Vue Sociologique. Nisbet, Where Art Begins. Noyes, The Gate oj Appreciation. Ruskin, Unto This Last. Crown oj Wild Olive. Munera Pidveris. The Eagle's Nest. BIBLIOGRAPHY Si7 Stevenson, The Gate Beautiful. Sturgis, A Study of the Artist's Way of Working. Tolstoi, What is Art ? b. History. Gross, Beginnings of Art. Haddon, Evolution of Art. Hirn, Origins of Art. Waldstein, Study of Art in Universities. c. Literature. 1. Language. Trench, Study of Words. Whitney, Life and Growth of Language. 2. AppHcation. Arnold, Culture and Anarchy. Lanier, Principles of Poetry. Loliee, Comparative Literature. Posnett, Comparative Literature. Stedman, Poets of America. d. Music. Parry, Evolution of tJte Art of Music. Henderson, Story of Music. Modern Musical Drift. e. Painting, Sculpture, and Architecture. Eidlitz, Nature and Function of Art, especially Architecture. Morris, Architecture, Industry, and Wealth. Robinson, Modern Civic Art. Ross, Theory of Pure Design. Ruskin, Modern Painters. Principles of Art Education. Seven Lamps of Architecture. Van Pelt, A Discussion of Composition as applied to Architecture. /. AppHcation. Morris, Signs of Change. X. WORLD AND AGE Addams, Newer Ideals of Peace. Beecher, Life Thoughts. Proverbs from Plymouth Pulpit. Birrell, Obiter Dicta. Bosanquet, Essays and Definitions. Carlyle, Sartor Resartus. Donald, Expansion of Religion. BIBLIOGRAPHY Emerson, Man the Reformer. Conduct oj Life : Fate. Francke, German Ideals of To-day. Gordon, Social Ideals of Tennyson. Jefferies, The Story of my Heart. Lowell, Democracy. Miinsterberg, The Atnericans. Nordau, Degeneration. Sterling, Essays and Tales : Thoughts and Images. Wendell, American Ideals. XI. BIBLIOGRAPHY Columbia University Btdletin, Books on Education. Educational Reviezv, Annual Bibliographies, New York State Library Annual Reports. Encyclopcedia Britannica (ninth and tenth (combined) editions). Hall, Bibliography of Education. Monroe, Bibliography of Education. Poolers Index to Periodical Literature. Reports, National Educational Association. Reports, United States Bureau of Education. INDEX i INDEX Abraham, 72. Academic freedom. See Freedom, aca- demic. Academy, the word, 116, Acquired characteristics. Sefe Charac- teristics, acquired. Activity, perils of unintelligent, 243- 245 ; desire of children for productive, 252, 253 ; result to home, from loss of industrial, 253. Acton, Lord, the notes to his Study of History, 329 n. ; quotation from, 377; his Study of History, quoted, 407. Addison, Joseph, his Cato, quoted, 70. Administration, school, 183; dangers in, 191, 192. Adolescence, secondary, 15,16; changes of, 375, 376; primary motives man- ifested in, 446. Adults, primary motives manifested in, 446. Advice, sources of good, 81. ^schylus, 72. Alexander the Great, 71, 249. Altruism, egoism and, 479, 480, Ambition, intensified by poverty, 98. _ America, temper of the present age in, out of harmony with historical educa- tion, 139, 140 ; delusion regarding her many cities, 450 n., 451 n. Americanization of immigrants, 44. Amiel, Henri Fred6ric, his Journal, quoted, 470 n. Animal spirits, as a bar to education, no. Animals, educability of, 4. Anthropology, certain facts of, beyond our knowledge, 61, 62. Apperception, 209. Appropriations, school, limits set to, 134 ; increase in, necessary, 438-441. Aristotle, 26, 72, 72 n., 142, 352, 353. Arithmetic, moral teaching of, 392 ; not a proper study for children, 405, 406. Arnold, Matthew, his Sick Man of Bokhara, quoted, 13 ; his The Better Part, quoted, 74 n .; quotation from, 437 "• Art, Plato's distinction between skill and, 136 n.; relation between science and, 141, 412, 413 ; subjects belonging to, 165 ; subdivisions of, 165 ; purpose of the school arts, 165-167 ; its rela- tion to efficiency, 265, 392, 424 ; dis- tinction between occupation and, 302 ; vastness of the field of, 329, 330, 413 ; the world not concerned with, 330 ; tyranny of, 331; coalescing of one with another, 332 ; its originating force, 332, 334 ; without individuality, 334; Its relation to life, 334, 335, 336, 337; the duty of society towards, 335, 336 ; training for women in, 336 ; democracy of, 337 ; elements entering into the technique of, 338, 339 ; triumphs of, higher than those of science, 339 ; the test of pseudo-art, 340 ; a mental quality or method, 385, 386 ; modesty of, 402 ; inappropriateness of, in the formal education of children, 412 ; difficulty of classifying, 413 ; the lesser, suited to children, 414, 415; higher values of, 416. Artist, the, relation between the arti- san and, 302, 332, 333 ; obligations of, 329, 330 ; method, of, 333, 334 ; crea- tive moods of, 339. Athens, the morality of, 278. Augustine, St., quoted, 82; his Hom- ilies, quoted, i59n. . _ Automobiles, French and American, 335- Avarice, 159 n. Bacon, Francis, his contribution to phi- losophy, 353 ; quotation from, 383. Baldwin, James Mark, his Mental Development, quoted, 2, 58 n. Ball, W. W. R., his History of Mathe- matics, quoted, 355. Balliet, Thomas M., quoted, 229 n. _ Barbarians or rustics, their invasion of the cities, 454, 455 ; tendency to revert to condition of, 455; their desire for prosperity and ease of life, 455,456; their ideals, 456, 457; their principles, 457-459; a menace to the city, 459; so characterized by their ideas, 459, 460 ; city millionaire and country farmer somewhat above, 459 ; the half-barbarian, 459, 460. Baxter, Richard, his Christian Ethics, quoted, 470 a 522 INDEX Beauty, a matter of the heart, 29; meaning of the word, 141 n. Beecher, Henry Ward, his Life Thoughts, quoted, 82, 465 n. ; quoted, 485 ; his last words, 487 n. Biography, defects of, 428. Biology, its importance in the science of education, 142. Birdseye, Clarence Frank, his Individ- ual Training in our Colleges, quoted, 423, 468 n. Bismarck, 71, 444 n. Bluntschli, John Kaspar, a sentence from his Theory of the State consid- ered phonically, 234. Boards of education, composed of lay- men, 1 19 n. ; constitution and jurisdic- tion of, in American public schools, 131, 134, 186, 187, 187 n. ; mem- bers of, influenced by their powers, 133 ; election of, in Colorado and St. Louis, 135 n. ; one justification of their policy, 169; disadvantages of large membership in, 198, 199. Boards of Trustees, constitution and power of, 128, 128 n., 129, i29n. ; sel- dom controlled by educators, 128, 129. Body, training of the, 5, 6, 29 ; impor- tance of knowledge concerning, 206; conditioned by the mind, 245, 246, 248, 495 ; periodicity of, 281, 2S2. Book of the Dead, 70. Brook, his Ye Cannot Come, quoted, 163. Brotherhood of man, results accom- plished by the idea of, 377. Brown, Elmer Ellsworth, his Making of our Middle Schools, quoted, 115, Brown, John, aboliticmist, jt,. Browne, Sir Thomas, his Religio Medici, quoted, 468; his Christian Morals, quoted, 470 n., 471 n. Browning, Elizabeth Barrett, 247 n. ; her Aurora Leigh, quoted, 203 ; her Cry of the Children, quoted, 304. Browning, Robert, his Rabbi Ben Ezra, quoted, 370. Bruno, Giordano, philosophy of, 353. Bryant, William Cullen, his Forest Hymn, quoted, 19. Buddha, his comprehension of the world-spirit, 162. Burke, Edmund, his theory regarding the State, 293, 294. Burns, Robert, his Is there for Honest Poverty? 105 n. Business, when it tends to domestic peace of society, 34 n. ; its struggle with the State for control of society, 43 ; its relation to culture, 46 ; delu- sions regarding, 46, 47, 47 n.; a war- fare, 46, 47, 310 ; the theory oi, 47, 48 ; morality gaining upon, 48 ; good and evil features of, 51 ; failures in, yy ; the training demanded by, 135, 136; masters of, not result of this training, 136; sins of, 304, 305; distinction between occupation and, 307, 308 ; characteristic purpose of, 309, 311; ethics of, 310; truth and promise- keeping would wreck, 310, 311. Business schools. See Commercial schools. Busy work, 431. Butler, Nicholas Murray, his Meaning of Education, quoted, 2, 386 n. Byron, Lord, 72, -j^- Caesar, Caius Julius, 71, J^ ; his failure, 274. Caldwell, William, his Schopenhauer's System in its Philosophical Signifi- cance, quoted, I43 n., 349 n., 350 n. Calumny, attitude of educated man to- ward, 469. Canvassing agents, 309. Capital punishment, 50. Carlyle, Thomas, his essay on Labor, quoted, 383 ; his Sartor Resartus, quoted, 59 n. Caste, 99, 100. Catherine, Empress of Russia, 33, Cave, Plato's use of, as illustration, 3. Celibacy, of Roman Catholic priests, effect of, on scholarly class, 126, 127 ; women teachers compelled to, 170, 183; a bar to successful teaching, 170. Census, desirabihty of adopting eco- nomic distinctions in, 307, 308. Changes, physical, before birth, 375 ; at adolescence, 375, 376 ; in social in- stitutions. 376, 376 n., 377, 380. Characteristics, acquired, 26 n., 32, 32 n. ; classification of human, 87 ; possessed by a community, 87, 88. Charity, a moral law of culture, 300. ' Charlemagne, 249. Chicago School of Education, 253. Children, Society's endeavor to pro- tect, 9; natural aspirations of, 122, 123 ; qualities of, persisting in men of genius, 123 ; should own property, 251 ; their desire for productive activ- ity, 252, 253 ; the church and, 256, 257; their training for efficiency in government, 259, 260 ; for economic efficiency, 269, 270 ; for military serv- ice, 270, 271; their relation to the family, 289; training of powers of ob- servation in, 386, 387 ; regimentation not to be required of, 3S6, 387, 388 ; moral training of, in the school, 389- 393 ; arithmetic not a proper study for, 405, 406 ; history as such not suited to, 407, 408, 429, 432 ; sciences INDEX 523 as such not suited to, 409, 410 ; minds of, compared with the adult, 409, 410; materials of science belong to, 410; country-life the right of, 410, 411 ; inappropriateness of the higher arts in formal education of, 412 ; lesser arts suited to, 414, 415 ; lack of coordination in, 414, 415 ; physical education of, 416-419, 422 ; primary motives manifested in, 446. Christ, the variety of his experiences, 162; his comprehension of the world- spirit, 162 ; sinless, but not complete, 274- Church, the, auns of, primarily per- sonal, 35 ; not synonymous with reli- gion, 35 n. ; self-abnegation inculcated by, 39, 40; origin of, 39 ; disintegration of, 43 ; subordination of the American State to, 45, 45 n.; dependence of the School upon, 126-128 ; expansion of rehgion through disintegration of, 255 ; children and, 256, 257 ; deprived of its economic functions, 256, 258 ; its relation to religion, 290-293; ne- cessary to the preservation of religion, 292 ; its duty to the individual, 292, 293- Citizens, or natives of the city, 454, Citizenship, preparation for, not the paramount aim of the School, 44, 103 ; training for, in a democracy, 259, 260 ; girls given no preparation for, 261 ; moral laws of, 295. City, three proper functions of, 410; health incompatible with life in, 421; reaction against, 421, 422 ; its ar- tificial nature, 449, 450 ; character of the ideal, 450, 451, 462 ; impossibility of homes in, 451 ; movement from the country toward, 454, 455 ; in danger from the barbarian, 459. Civilization, immaterial requirements of an enduring, 10 ; necessity for a leisure class in, 11-13, 36, 93; dependent upon education, 52, 89, 90 ; its me- chanical processes, 53 ; definitions of, 54 ; cyclical character of, 54 n. ; its quality depends upon its morality, 54, 55, 59, 90; good and bad, 68,69; three perils of, 227, 228 ; health and, 359-364 ; forces arrayed against, 460; the warfare of, 461 ; its progress by conflict, 462 ; analogy between growth of forests and, 476, 477 ; progress away from nature, the true, 479, 480 ; abominations of modern, 4S0 ; cure of, 481, 482 ; specific conditions attend- ant upon true, 483 ; failure of educa- tion to maintain earlier forms of, 492, 493, 495. Classes, infertility of the, 91, 92 ; kept up by variants from the masses, 91 ; maintenance of, essential, 92. Cleanliness, the duty of personal, 279. Cleopatra, Tt^. Clergy, restrictions placed upon, by Ro- man Catholic Church, 33. See also Priests. Clifford, William Kingdon, his Ethics of Religion, quoted, 8 n.; his Decline of Religious Balief, quoted, 8 n.; his Essays, quoted, 23 n. Coit, his Christian Ethics, quoted, 6 n. Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, his Aids to Reflection, quoted, 37. College, purpose of, 116. See also Uni- versity. Colorado, election of boards of educa- tion in, 135 n. Columbus, Christopher, 73. Commerce, schools of. See Commercial schools. Commercial schools, 135, 136. Communities, responsibilities of, 373, 374 ; the individual moulded by, 374. Compulsory education, 15, 135, 135 n., 183, 184. Conscience, nature of, 8, 8 n., 57. Consciousness, evolution of, 156, 156 n.; the first evidence of psychical pro- gress, 158, 159. Consciousness of kind, a fundamental principle of sociology, 272, 374. Constants, in education, 424-428. Constitutional conventions, 181, 181 n. Copernicus, ^i- Corporations, democratic, future possi- bilities of, 48. Cost, threefold, of education, 106-108. Cost of living, increase in, 439, 440. Country, Ufe in, the right of childhood, 410, 411 ; educative influences now reaching, 451, 452 ; seat of agriculture and forestry, 462. See also Villages. Courage, a test of culture, 299; the basic virtue, 299 n. Covetousness, 159, 159 "• Crime, its relation to sin, 150; com- mitters of, 152, 153. Criminals, sane and insane, 50 n.; duty of education toward, 94 ; civilization and, 483. Criminology, has much in common with pedagogy, son.; its importance to the science of education, 149, 152; the three functions of, 151, 152. Critics, 264, 264 n., 265 n, Croesus, 73. Cromwell, 71 ; his failure, 275. _ Culture, its modes of expression, 45 ; self-development the motive of, 46: its relation to education, 46, 88, 89, 342 ; to Property and Business, 46 ; relation of individual to racial, 65 ; 524 INDEX failure of most persons in, ']'] ; its imperfect control of the university, 128, 129 ; may be distinguished from pseudo-culture, 145 n. ; dependence of civilization upon, 227 ; moral laws of, 298-302 ; seven ideals of, 367. Curiosity, 445. Curriculum, arrangement of, by subjects or grades, 430. Cycles, the method of progress, 155. Dante, 41 n., 71, 160; a failure to his contemporaries, 74, 75 ; his Inferno, quoted, 442 ; his representation of falsifiers and traitors, 460 n. Dartmouth College case, 130 n. Darwin, Charles Robert, 142 n., 354 ; his Origin of Species, quoted, 180. Davidson, Thomas, his History of Edu- cation, quoted, 13S, 196 n. Death, in the eyes of old age, 369, 370 ; attitude of the educated man toward, 473, 474 ; common attitude toward, 486, 487 ; quotation from Plato re- garding, 4S6 n. Defeat, education by, 454. Defective classes, duty of education to- ward, 94. Definition, importance of, 239, 240, 241. Delboeuf, quotation from, 494. Democracy, education and, 2, 140, 186, 187, 488, 493 ; the constitutional con- vention the fundamental legislature of, 181. Demosthenes, 124. Depravity, an evidence of incomplete education, 175, 176. Descartes, Rene, 353, 355. Development, physical, the limit reached, 61, 63; likeness of educa- tional to the typical human, 156; psychical, of the individual, 156-160. De Vries, Hugo. See Vries, Hugo de. Dewey, John, 253. Dickens, Charles, his Uncommercial Traveller, quoted, 497. Disease, humanity's indebtedness to, 149. Disraeli, Benjamin, Earl of Beacons- field, his Manchester Speech (1866), quoted, 31. District of Columbia, disfranchised citizens of, 259 n. Divorce, 76. Domestic science and art, schools for training in, 125. Dowry, ^Z n. Drama, ignored by the School, 272, 273- Drawing, a constant in education, 426. Dryden, John, his Oliver Cromwell, quoted, 105 n. Duality of man, education and, 5, 22 n. Educability, climactic years of, 14, of animals, 4 ; unaffected by physical conditions, race, sex, or time, 62, 63 ; of adult men, 67. Education, democracy and, 2, 140, 186, 187, 48S, 493 ; conscious creatures capable of, 4 ; nature of, in the genius, 5 ; perfection of, impossible, 5 ; pur- poses of, in respect to the duality of man, 5, 6, 22 n. ; progress of the in- dividual, the aim of, 7 ; must provide for the work of the world, 10; when it should begin and end, 13-16; both society and solitude necessary factors in, 17-20 ; terms used in, often re- flect methods, 20, 21 ; must seek truth, 23, 24, 121, 122,124, 226 ; recapitu- lation theory in, 24-28 ; orderliness the proper manner of, 29, 29 n. ; its relation to culture, 46, 88, 89, 342 ; to teaching, 52 ; essential problem of, 60 ; the theory that it is never con- sciously achieved, 60 ; character the final test of, 61 ; results of, in the race, 63, 64, 65; inevitable, 65, 66; voluntary, 66 ; familiar evidences of, 67 ; good and bad, 67-69 ; must de- velop a successful life, 70 ; must dis- criminate between success and failure, 81 ; its readiness to propagate new ideas, 88 ; its purpose toward the in- dividual and the community, 89; must help to maintain the classes, 92 ; its task with the masses, 93 ; its obliga- tion toward genius, 94 ; toward the defective and criminal classes, 94 ; its duty in evaluation, 94, 95 ; social motives in, 97, 98 ; education toward ends unwarranted, 99-104 ; dis- belief in the reality of, 104; in the possibility of, 85, 105 ; objection to cost of, 106-108 ; personal causes for failure of, 108-110; system of, in the Roman Catholic Church, 126, 127, 129; social forces necessary to produce a formal system of, 137 ; changes in the mechanism of, 138, 139, 140; an art or a science? 141, 142 ; bases of the science of, 142-155 ; purposes of, 163; materials and exer- cises employed by the formal system of, 164-167; some probable fea- tures of, if conducted by educators, 175-179; the problem of habit in, 231 ; the arts in, 265, 412-416; effi- ciency in, 265, 266 ; ideals of, 367, 384, 392, 393, 483, 484 ; method of, depends on purpose of, 394-396 ; true method of, psychological, 396 ; pseudo-methods in, 396, 397 ; place of literature and language in, 397- 404, 425 ; of mathematics, 404, 427, 427 n. ; of history, 407-409 ; of INDEX 525 science, 409-412, 425; of health, 416- 419, 422; of play, 424; of nature- study, 425 ; of music and drawing, 426 ; electives in, 428, 429 ; motive of, 479; as the cure of civilization, 482, 492, 493 ; its failure to main- tain earlier civilizations, 492, 493, 495. See also Compulsory education ; School. Educationist, use of the term, 118. Educators, use of the term, 118; boards of trustees seldom controlled by, 128, 129; seldom on boards of education, 132 ; results of large powers delegated to, 133 ; the School should be con- trolled Ijy, 298 ; moral law for, 298 ; their duty to Society, 433 ; adequate salaries for, 440, 441 ; analogy be- tween leaders and, 453 n. See also Teachers. Efficiency, relation between morality, literacy and, 217, 218, 221, 223, 226, 227, 230, 231, 264 ; as an ideal in edu- cation, 219 ; economic nature of, 220, 221 ; method of attaining, 221, 222 ; mental attitude toward, 243 ; condi- tioned by intelligence, 243-245 ; relation of health to, 245-247 ; rela- tion of art to, 265, 392, 424 ; in ed- ucation itself, 265, 266 ; development of economic, in the United States, 267 ; early appearance of economic, 268, 269 ; the School unable to prepare for economic, 269, 270 ; attainment of, through play, 388, 389, 392 ; physical culture the seed-ground of, 424, Egoism, altruism and, 479, 480. Egypt, nature of the temple and priest in ancient, 116, 117. Election to office, illusion concerning, 93, 94- Elective studies, 428, 429. Eliot, Charles William, his More Money for the Public Schools, quoted, 44 n., 97, 203. Eliot, George (Marian Evans), 33, 71 ; her Romola, quoted, 469 n., 471 n.; her Daniel Deronda, quoted, 468 n. Elizabeth, Queen of England, 33. Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 62 ; his Society and Solitude, quoted, 18, 19 ; his Concord Ode, quoted, 24 ; his Nature, quoted, 2i7 ', his Character, quoted, 60 n. ; his Terminus, quoted, 369 ; his Boston Hymn, quoted, 105 n. Emotion, a mode of mind, 495. Energetics, 249 n. Energy, physical, and psychical vitality, 444 ; excess of, 445, 447, 447 n. England, morality of, 278. Environment, as a bar to education, no. Esperanto, 23^ n. Ethics, their relation to morals, 58, 59. Euripides, 72 ; his Phrixas, quoted, 97. Evaluation, of studies and exercises, 383-385, 386, 393- Evans, Marian. See Eliot, George. Evil, attitude of the educated man toward, 472 ; necessity for, 489 ; law of suggestion applied to, 489 n. Evolution, definition of, 42 n. See also Development. Exercise, current notions regarding, 246. Failure, in accumulating property, 75 ; in religion, 75, 76; in domestic life, 76, "jy ; in education and culture, jy ; in government, yj ; in business, yj\ tests of, 79. Family, the, characteristic motive of, 2,^ ; secondary purpose of, 39 ; disin- tegration of, 43 ; subordination of the State to, 45, 45 n. ; dependence of the School upon, 125, 126; moral laws of, 288-290 ; decline of family affection, 290 ; persistence of, in the future, 463. Fathers, rights of, 435, 436. Feelings, manifestations of the, 146. Fenelon, 11 on. Fighting, 447, 448. See also War. Finance, principles of morality should precede knowledge of, 432. Finch, quotation from, 435. Fiske, John, adaptation from his Through Nature to God, 373. Food, 205, 205 n. ; evils due to lack of suf^cient, 280, 280 n. ; adulteration of, 305- Forests, analogy between civilization and, 476, 477. Fornication, 305. France, morality of, 378. Franklin, Benjamin, 72, 437 ; his say- ing in regard to war and peace, 49 n. Free will, an evidence of, 160 n. Freedom, the goal of man, 23, 24 ; aca- demic, 43 ; in endowed, and in State universities, 43 n. ; influence of, upon economic activity, 46, 46 n. French Revolution, a cause of, 10. Fromentin, Eugene, his old Masters of Belgium and Holland, quoted, 334. Froude, James Anthony, his Short Studies, quoted, 412. Galileo, 58, 72. Games, the seed-ground of morality, 424. Genealogies, paternal, 261. Genius, descendants of, 91, gin.; the duty of education to, 94; childlike qualities persisting in, 123; attitude of the logical mind toward, 410. Geography, text-books of, 167. Gibbon, Edward, title and thesis of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Em- pire, 54 n. 526 INDEX Gilder, Richard Watson, quotation from, 350. Oilman, Charlotte Perkins, her Human Work, quoted, 57n. Girls, private schools for, 125 ; church schools for, 128 n. Gladstone, William Ewart, 71. God, nature of, 213, 214. Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 72 ; quoted, 324 n. ; his Schiller, quoted, 8 ; his Torquato Tasso, quoted, 201; his Sayings in Prose, quoted, 235 n., 425, 466 n. ; the essential meaning of his Faust, 458 n. ; his Faust, quoted, 464. Golden Rule, the, 57 n. Good, as antithetical to harm, 79 ; that which promotes life is, 325. Goodness, a matter of the will, 28. See also Holiness; Morality. Gore, Rt. Rev. Charles, Bishop of Bir- mingham, definition of the educated man in his Birmingham Address, 103 n. Gdrky, Mdxim (pseud, of Alexis Mak- simovitch Pieshkov), 449 n. Government, not synonymous with State, 35 n. ; popular ignorance of, "j"] ; doctrine of monarchy, aristocracy and democracy regarding three de- partments of, 144 n.; training for efficiency in, 259-263; by teachers or by pupils, 263, 264. Grammar, function of, 237, 239 ; im- portance of, 241 ; motive for study of, 401 ; stage at which this study should come, 4C1, 402. Great men, possibilities of human na- ture revealed by, 8; the failures of, 274, 275. Gregory, St., quotation from his Homi- lies, 359. Guizot, 54. Habits, the problem of, in education, 231; psychology of, 231 n., 232 n. ; instincts and, 358 ; of individuals, 374 ; of communities, 374 ; of social in- stitutions, 376, Tj-]'] ; form most of life, 378 ; of the school, 379, 380. Hall, Granville Stanley, his Adolescence, quoted, 9n., 164. Hand, development of the, 61. Handwriting, legible, a moral duty, 392. Hans, the educated German horse, 209 n. Hanus, Paul H., his Modern School, quoted, 97. Harmony of all the powers, the object of education, 29, 29 n. Harper, William R., his Trend in Higher Education, quoted, m. Harris, William T., quotation from, 486. Hartmann, Eduard von, 57, 208 n. Health, its relation to success, 78 ; some disadvantages of perfect, 149; its re- lation to efficiency, 245-247 ; prosper- ity a condition of, 246, 246 n. ; supera- bundant, 249 ; civilization and, 359- 364 ; nature's efforts to restore, 360 ; sin and, 361 ; labor and, 362 ; poverty and, 363 ; evidences of, 364 ; partly a matter of will, 365 ; of work, 365 ; re- lation between holiness and, 366-368, 420, 422 ; highest ideal of education, 384 ; its place in education, 412-416 ; an end in itself, 416, 418 ; means of se- curing, 418 ; motive for seeking, 419; art of, 420 ; city life antagonistic to, 421. Heredity, 24 n., 26 n. ; modifications of, 32 ; weight of opinion regarding, 32; cross-functioning in, 66 ; a bar to ed- ucation, 108, no. See also Charac- teristics, acquired ; Recapitulation theory. History, as edited for school use, 167, 427, 428, 432 ; definitions of, 406, 407 ; as such, not the concern of children, 407, 408, 427 ; as literature, 408 ; mo- tive for the study of, 409 ; superfi- ciality of the sciences depending upon, 428. Hobhouse, Leonard T., his Morals in Evolution, quoted, 442. Holiness, relation between health and, 366-368, 420, 422 ; old age and, 368 ; man's dream of, 393. Holmes, Oliver Wendell, his Chambered Nautilus, quoted, 30. Home, the, failure of, 76 ; result to children from loss of industrial ac- tivities in, 253; restoration of, 255; the true place for, 451, 462; the func- tion of, 462. Homer, his Iliad, quoted, 465 n. Homestead land, 332 n. Hopkins, Mark, 19; quotation from, 402. Home, Herman H., his Philosophy of Education, quoted, 475. Horse, our treatment of the, 456 n. Hours of labor, 305. HoweUs, Wilham Dean, on the artist, 33° "• Hughes, R. E., his Making of Citizens, quoted, 164, 196 n., 424 n. Hugo, Victor, 72. Human nature, no complete science of, 180. Humanities, subjects belonging to the, 164. Hume, David, his Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, quoted, 203 n. INDEX 527 Hunger, 444. Huxley, Thomas Henry, his On Evo- lution, quoted, 138 ; his Lay Sermons, quoted, 465 n. Ideals, the seven, of education and cul- ture, 367. Ideas, assimilation of, 86 ; three senses in which the word idea may be used, 87 n.; attitude of society, education, and culture toward new, 88, 89 ; power of, 377 ; separation of men by differences in, 378, 379 ; teaching of Plato regarding, 491, 494. Idiom Neutral, 233 n. Ignorance, its menace to civilization, 227; method of procedure to wisdom from, 484. Immigrants, attempts to Americanize, 44. Immortality, 7, 7 n. Impulse, motive expresses itself in, 444. Individual, the, more important than Society or social institutions, 7, 38 n.; his claims against Society, 283, 284, 289, 494. Individuality, its relation to personality, 346. Individualization, causes of American, 266. Industrial revolution, 304, 305. Infancy, prolonging of, 9. Ingersoll, Robert G., his Crime against Criminals, quoted, 70. Insane, educability of the, 4. Instincts, and habits, 358. Institutions, source of new, 84. See also Social institutions. Instruction. See Teachers. Instructor, use of the term, 118. Intellect, manifestations of, 146 ; a mode of mind, 495. Intelligence, sense-knowledge the basis of, 205, 206 ; attainment of, through observation, 206, 207, 208, 386-388, 392 ; science the harvest of, 392, 424 ; play the seed-ground of, 424. Intention, not to be confused with pur- pose, 444 n. Intolerance, when a political necessity, 42. _ Intuitions, 122. Italy, morality of, 278. James, William, his Talks on Psycho- logy and Life's Ideals, quoted, 61. Jefferies, Richard, his Pageant of Sum- mer, quoted, 486. Johnson, Dr. Samuel, quotation from, 469 n., 471 n. Judd, Charles H., his Genetic Psycho- logy for Teachers, quoted, 466 n. Kant, Immanuel, 57, 62,71, 144 n., 355 ; quotations from, 59 n., 203 n., 396 ; fol- lowers of, 346. Keats, John, 72. Kempis, Thomas Jl, quotation from his Imitation of Christ, 473 n. Kindergarten, dangers of the, 13 ; func- tion of, 387, 392 ; spirit of, should be continued, 3S8. Kipling, Rudyard, on the artist, 330. Knowledge, growth of the race in, 63, 64; much has perished, 63, 64 ; results of diffusion of, 140; three kinds of use for new, 145, 146 ; unorganized, 356; functionings of, 357, 358. Labor, results of unjust distribution of products of, 152 n. ; not the source of wealth, 155; organization of, 306 ; con- notations of, 365. Land, private ownership in, 284-287; right of the individual family to, 377 n. Language, intellectual progress depend- ent upon, 208; deficiencies of, 210; impedes thought, 212, 213; condenses thought, 213, 214; mastery of, a con- dition of genius, 214; Tailure to un- derstand, 215, 216 ; desirability of a universal, 233, 233 n. ; four great questions of, 233-240 ; advantages of acquiring a foreign, 235, 235 n., 236, 237, 241, 403, 404 ; advantages of written over spoken, 238 ; literature and, the most important tools in edu- cation, 397-404; motive for the study of, 398 ; as a medium for poetry and philosophy, 402, 403 ; point at which it fails, 403; a constant in education, 425. Lankester, Edwin Ray, his Kingdom of '' Man, quoted, 464, 479 n. Law, theory and administration of the, 27. Laymen, in control of culture, 128 ; au- thority of, in educational matters, pernicious, 199, 200 ; control of, a factor in the undue conservatism of the School, 381; should not control in School or State, 497. Leaders, analogy between educators and, 453 n. Lee, Robert Edward, 73. Legislation, school, importance of, 1S2 ; incompetent or malicious, 183 : that proposed for private (parochial) schools, 184 ; embarrassment of elab- orate, 198. Legislators, qualification tests for, 15:; ; incompetency of, in school matters, 183. Legislatures, intention of, in a demo- cracy, 179 ; the constitutional conven- tion the first form of, iSi. 528 INDEX Leighton, Rt. Rev. Robert, Archbishop of Glasgow, quotation from, 475. Leisure, schools for education dedicated to, 115; necessary to growth of the mind, 115. Leisure class, function of, 11-13, 36; who should constitute, 304. Life, an end in itself, 174, 488 ; large- ness of, 109 ; meaning of, 491. Life insurance investigations, New York, 245. Lincoln, Abraham, 15, 71; his Sanga- mon Address, quoted, 82 ; his fail- . ure to comprehend the world-spirit, 161 ; his course in regard to slavery, 224. Literacy, elements in, 209-218, 232, 233; relation between efificiency, mo- rality and, 217, 220, 223, 226, 227, 230, 231 ; uselessness of, and remedy for, mere literacy, 221, 222, 228, 229 ; action sometimes wholly unaffected by, 230 ; process of acquiring, 240, 241 ; its relation to observation, 242 ; its relation to science, 317. Literature, as edited for school use, 167 ; language and, the most im- portant tools in education, 397-404 ; motive for the study of, 398 ; reason for neglect of Oriental, 404. Locke, John, 19. Longfellow, Henry Wadsworth, his To Agassiz, quoted, 326 ; his sonnet on Giotto's Tower, quoted, 337, 338 ; quotation from, 472 n. Lotze, Rudolph Hermann, his Microcos- mus, quoted, 113, 115, 486, 494. Louisiana, state centralization of edu- cation in, 190, Lowell, James Russell, his Columbus, quoted, 20, 468 n., 475 ; his A Parable, quoted, 57n., 303; his Present Crisis, quoted, 84 ; his Glance behind the Curtain, quoted, 121 ; his disregard of phonics, 399, 400. Luther, Martin, 71; quotation from, 472. Macaulay, T. B., quotation from, 428. Mackenzie, Rev. Alexander, 160 n. Maecenas, 73. Man, the anti-civilized, sins of, 460, 460 n., 461. Man, civilized. See Civilization. Man, the natural, primary motives of, 443-447, 455; secondary motives of, 445, 447; genetic progress of, 448 ; our trust in the morals of, 448 ; the future of humanity determined by, 449 ; the builder of cities, 449, 450 ; his resist- ance to culture, 452 ; follows the line of least resistance, 453. Man, the well-educated, his qualities, 465-474. Mann, Horace, quoted, 423 ; his Educa- tion, quoted, 52. Marcus Aurelms, quoted, 486. Marriage, best time for, 16 ; civil, in- vented by the Family, 45 n. ; self- alienation enforced by, 1 70 ; forbid- den to women teachers, 170, 183 ; often a bar to men teachers, 170, 171, 172. Martineau, James, his Ethics and Re- ligion, quoted, 59 n. ; his Essays, quoted, 163 ; his Spiritual Growth, quoted, 433. Masses, variants from the, 91, 92,93; the task of education among, 93 ; lim- itations of, 93. Mathematics, constitute pure science, 318; place of, in education, 404 ; study of, does not belong to childhood, 405, 406 ; motive for the study of, 406 ; as a constant in education, 427, 427 n. Maxwell, William H., his Report to the Board of Education, N. Y., T906, 109 n.; his article on Education for Efficiency, quoted, 115. Mazzini, Joseph, quotation from, 473 n. Mechanics, seldom become criminals, 152, 153, 154- Mechanism, mission of, 113, 358. Mediocrity, tendency to revert to, 92 ; educability of, 212. Melancholy, induced by civilization, 347- Mental phenomena, classifications of, 67 n. Mestizos, educational attempts among, 120, 121 ; cases of superabundant health among, 249 n.; intellectual ex- tremes among, 427. Method, educational, depends upon the purpose of education, 394-396 ; psy- chological, the true, 396 ; definition of, 396; pseudo- methods, 396, 397. Michael Angelo, 72, 329. Middle classes, qualities of, in America, 120. Military service, no general preparation for, in American schools, 270, 271. Mill, John Stuart, 54 ; quotation from his System of Logic regarding rela- tions of art and science, 412. Millais, Sir John, 107. Milton, John, quoted, 138, 423, 468, 473 n- Mind, conditions the body, 245, 246, 248, 495; regular exercise of, 248 n.; biolo- gical origin of, 346 n. ; three modes of, 495- Mitchell, Arthur, his Past in the Pre- sent, quoted, 54. Monarchy, education in, for efificiency in government, 259, 260. Money, of restricted usefulness, 46, 47 ; INDEX 529 what one has a right to do for, 306 ; decrease in purchasing power of, 439, 440. Monogamy, ideals developed by, 2SS. Morality, largely a matter of the in- tellect, 27, 28 ; its gains over war and business, 48 ; social, 55 ; popular, 55 ; historical, 55 ; national, 56 ; com- parative, 56, 57 ; ideal, 57, 58, 59 ; its relation to ethics, 58, 59 ; that of the community changes with that of the individual, 88 ; the essence of civiliza- tion, 90; of rulers and ruled, 119, 120; relation between literacy, efficiency, and, 217, 218, 223, 226,227, 230,231; a neglected mode of education, 219; standards of, 224-226 ; decline of, a menace to civilization, 228 , social machinery and qualities to promote, 276, 277 ; some evidences of, 278, 279 ; physical laws of, 279-282 ; laws of, as applied to property, 283-288 ; to the family, 288-290 ; to the church, 290- 293 ; to the state, 294, 295 ; to the school, 296-298 ; to culture, 298-302 ; to occupation, 302-306 ; to the pro- fessions, 307; to society, 312; differ- ence between that of the family and that of the school, 389-393; part of the will in, 390, 391 ; philosophy the harvest of, 392, 424 ; games the seed- ground of, 424. Morgan, Conway Lloyd, his Habit and Instinct, quoted, 373. Mothers, proposition to pay salaries to, 47, 47 n. ; seldom become criminals, 152, 153, 154; support of children by, 171, 172; responsibilities of teachers to, 434f 435- Motives, ideals, values, and, 143-145 ; primary, 443-447 ; secondary, 445, 447 ; training of, 445, 446. Miinsterberg, Hugo, 250 n.; his The Americans, quoted, 31. Museums, should furnish material for all science studies to city children, 41 1, 411 n. Music, importance of, in education, 265 ; a constant in education, 426. Mystery, power of, 40. Napoleon I, 71, 161 ; his failure, 274. National Educational Association, Pro- ceedings (1905), quoted, 115. Nature, acquaintance with, the purpose of instruction, 7 ; lessons of, 19, 20; the search of science for truth in, 320, 321 ; results of this study on human economy, 323 ; on the student, 323, 324 ; more than science, 326 ; love of, a late development, 327 ; civilization is progress away from, 479, 480. Nature-study, value of, 386, 387 ; an absolute constant in education, 425. Negroes, education of, 120, 120 n., 121, 426 ; cases of superabundant health among, 249 n. ; possibilities of, 427 n. Neighbor-religion, 57, 208 n. New Commandments, 57 n. New Jersey, differentiation of the School from the State in, 181, 182, Newspapers, public opinion manufac- tured by, through fictions, 160 n. Nietzsche, Friedrich, 119 n., 149 n.; neighbor-religion ridiculed by, 57, 208 n. ; his theory regarding the moral qualities of rulers and servants, 119 n. Nutrition, varying degrees of, in soul and body, 91 n. Observation, to acquire power of correct, 206, 207 ; its relation to literacy, 242 ; its relation to science, 318 ; the path- way to intelligence, 386, 387 ; training the power of, in children, 386, 387. Occupations, variety of, practiced in this country, 267, 268 ; moral laws of, 302- 306 ; distinction between arts and, 302 ; between business and, 307, 30S. Office-holders, illusions concerning, 93, 94. Oklahoma, Constitution of, 134 n. Old age, holiness and, 368 ; blessedness of, 369 ; life in the eyes of, 370. Order, the badge of senility, 410. Orderliness, the manner of education, 29, 29 n. Orient, its attitude toward efficiency, 243- Oriental literatures, reasons for neglect of, 404. O'Shaughnessy, Arthur, his lines on the power of the poet, 10, ri, O'Shea, M. V., his Education as Adjust- ment, quoted, 383. Ovid, quotation from his Metamorpho- ses, 359. Pain, progress due to, 149, 149 n. Painting, importance of, in education, 265. Parasitism, economic, 223. Parentage, self-alienation enforced by, 170; should be a condition of all teachers, 170, 171, 172. Passions, tyranny of, no n. Pathology, its importance to the science of education, 147, 148, 149. Patriotism, psendo and real, 51. Patten, Simon Nelson, his New Basis of Civilization, quoted, 442. Pedagogue, a useless term, 118. Pedagogy, has much in common with criminology, 50 n. ; four questions in. 530 INDEX regarding studies and exercises, 423. See also Teachers. Pennsylvania, local autonomy in regard to education in, 190. Pericles, 72. Periodicity, of the body, 281, 282. Personality, the School must insure development of, 208 ; its relation to individuality, 346. Phillips, Wendell, quotation from, 471 n. Philosophers, Plato's conclusion regard- ing, 95- Philosophy, vulgar, 33, 34, 34 n.; its dependence upon biology, 142, 142 n. ; its relation to science, 318 ; its rela- tion to moraUty, 341 ; likened to old age, 342, 343 ; purpose of a system of, 343 ; contributions of ignorant men to, 343. 344; definitions of, 344, 345; the essence of, 345, 346 ; reflects the color of the individual soul, 346, 347 ; adds neither knowledge nor skill to man, 347, 348 ; its adjustment to new truth, 348 ; relation of individual, to histor- ical, 348, 349, 351 ; dangers of, to the inexperienced, 350 ; development of historical, 351-354; its differentiation from science and psychology, 352 ; ! the great questions of, 354, 355 ; func- tion of, in education and culture, 356; a mental quality or method, 385, 386 ; the harvest of morality, 392, 424 ; its demands upon language, 402, 403; 1^ motive for studying, 420 ; its relation to religion, 420. Phonetic signs and sounds, 210, 211. Phonics, one of the great questions of language, 233-235 ; its place in liter- acy, 241 ; importance of, 398-400. Physical culture, its place in education, 416-419, 422 ; the seed-ground of effi- ciency, 424. See also Exercise ; Play. Physiology, its importance to the sci- ence of education, 147; the new, 206. Plato, I44n., 352, 353; his illustration of the Cave, 3, 4; his distinction between art and skill in the Gorgias, I36n.; his failure to comprehend the world-spirit, 161; interpreter of So- crates, 346 ; quotation from, regarding fear of death, 486 n.; his teaching re garding ideas, 491, 494. Play, attainment of efficiency through, 388, 389 ; an absolute constant in education, 424, 424 n. ; physiological necessity for, 447, 447 n. Poe, Edgar Allan, 72. Poet, the necessity for, in a great civiliza- tion, 10. Poetry, its demands upon language, 403. Political economy, its importance to the science of education, 154 ; the true, 154 ; the current, 154. Politics, knowledge of science of gov- ernment should precede art of, 432. Pollock, Sir Frederick, his Science of Politics, quoted, 31, 52. Polyglottism, value of, 235-237, 403, 404. Pope, Alexander, 444 n. Population, fundamental laws of, 90- 92 ; civilization and, 483. Poverty, destruction of causes of, 38 ; ambition intensified by, 98 ; a bar to education, 108 ; a barrier but not a bar to opportunity, 212; a factor in the undue conservatism of the School, 381. Power, progress of the spirit delayed by, 106 ; the source of wealth, 155. Practical experience, meaning and value of, 168, 169. Pragmatic philosophy, 58 n. Precocity, two kinds of, 410; treatment of, in education, 431. Presidents, college, as presidents of boards of trustees, 128 n. Priests, the precursors of the Church, 39; revelation proclaimed by, 40 ; nature of, in ancient Egypt, 116, 117 ; effect of celibacy of, on scholarly class, 126, 127. See also Clergy. Professions, moral law of the, 307. Professor, use of the term, 118. Progress, nature of, 138, 139. Property, and wealth, not synonymous, 35. 35 n.; significance of, 36, 1,7, 40; strength of the instinct for, 39; threats of the State to overthrow, 43 n. ; sub- ordination of the State to, 45, 45 n. ; its relation to culture, 46 ; failure of most people to accumulate, 75 ; a great servitude, 106; dependence of the School upon, 125; theory regard- ing holding of, by minors, 250; chil- dren should hold, 251 ; prescriptions of the moral law regarding, 283-288 ; persistence of, in the future, 463. Property-sense, development of, 156, 157, 159- Prosperity, a condition of health, 246, 246 n. ; vital statistics and, 478, 478 n. Prostitution. See Social Evil. Protestantism, children neglected by, 256, 257. Psychology, its importance to the science of education, 142, 147 ; phy- siological, 147, 147 n. ; genetic and biogenetic, 147, 148. Punctuation, 237, 238. Pupil-government, 263, 264. Race, educability unaffected by, 62. Raphael, 72. INDEX 531 Reading, purpose of, 387, 388. See also Literature. Recapitulaiion theory, 24, 25, 26, 27; social aspect of, 28. Receptivity, danger of persistency in, 116. Regeneration, the part of education in, III, III n. Regimentation, should not be required of little children, 386, 387, 3S8. Reich, Emil, his Success in Life, quoted, 464. Religion, not synonymous with the Church, 35 n.; our failure in, 75, 75 n., 76, 255, 258; expansion of, through disintegration of the Church, 255 ; moral laws of, 290-293 ; relation of the Church to, 290-293 ; forms of, in the United States, 291 ; essential agreement between science and, 321 ; its relation to philosophy, 420 ; persist- ence of, in the future, 463. See also Church. Repetition, value of, in education, 145 n. Reproduction, general misconception of functions of, among mammals, 76 n. Rights, of the individual, 283-285 ; progress of society depends upon re- duction of, 285. Robertson, Frederick William, his Ser- mons, quoted, 70. Roman Catholic Church, doubtful wis- dom of its attitude toward the clergy, 33 ; educational system of, 126, 127, 129 ; influence of, in politics, 255, 256. Roosevelt, Theodore, his thesis as to a man's first duty, 36 n. Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 19. Rulers, morals of, 119, 120. Ruskin, John, his Munera Pulveris, quoted, 180 ; his Sesame and Lilies, quoted, 215 n. ; his Crown of Wild Olive, quoted, 383 ; his Modern Paint- ers, quoted, 415 ; his Seven Lamps of Architecture, quoted, 433 ; his Unto this Last, quoted, 497. Russia, a cause of revolution in, 10 ; present general conditions in, 228 n. Rustics. See Barbarians. St. Louis, election of board of education in, 135 n. Salaries, of educators and teachers, 134, 170, 171, 174, 191, 192, 297, 298, 440, 441. San Francisco earthquake, 478, 479. Savage, Minot J., his My Birth, quoted, III n. Savages, of the city, 456. Scholarship, something more than mere liceracy, 228, 229 ; mission of Ameri- can, 371. School, the, aims of, primarily personal, 35; result of its alliance with the State, 43, 44, 44 n.; its subordination to the State, 103, 130, 131, 1S5, 186; comparative cost of , 107,436,437; its relation to the university, 116; its dependence on other institutions, 119; its subordination to Property, 125 ; to the Family, 125, 126; to the Church, 126-128 ; symptoms of subordination of: its board of education, 131-133 ; its finances, 134; symptoms of change in this relation, 134, 135 ; desiderata of the ideal, 137; inventions of, 165 ; purpose of the arts of, 165-167 ; of the future, 175-179; differentiation of, from the State, in New Jersey, iSi, 182 ; legislation for, 182, 183 : ad- ministration of, 183-192 ; the school system in cities, 188, 189; in states and counties, 188; tendency toward state rather than municipal control of, 189 ; advantages of state control of, 189; advantages of local autonomy to, 189, 190; national control of, ad- vocated, 190, 191 ; supervision of, 192 ; industrial training provided by, 253, 254 ; possible future functions of, 254 ; unable to prepare for eco- nomic efficiency, 269, 270 ; opposition of, to secret societies, 272 ; ignores the drama, 272, 273, moral laws of, 296- 298 ; results of its failure to prepare for domestic life, 296, 297 ; must be controlled by educators, 298 ; conser- vatism of, 379-382, adequate support for, 438-441 ; increasing demands upon, 440 ; an institution continuing through life, 490 ; considered as an independent social institution, 492, 493> 497- See also Education. School century, 254 n. Schoolhouses, cost of building and equipping, 191, 192. Schools, for education, dedicated to lei- sure, 115; for training, 115, 135 ; need of new name for training, 116 ; train- ing, in the university, 117 ; endowed and private, 125, 126; church, 126- 128, 128 n. ; constitution and power of boards of education in American pub- lic, 131 ; parochial, freedom of, from state control, 183 ; proposed interfer- ences with, 183, 184 ; national appro- priations for normal, 190 n.; mischief done in grammar and high, 216 ; col- lege-trained teachers in grammar, 216 n. ; scientific and technical, 267; need for more special, 490. Schopenhauer, Arthur, 57, 144 n., 208 n. Science, its mediation between spirit and mechanism, 113; its relation to art, 141,412, 413 ; subjects belong- 532 INDEX ing to, 164 ; its relation to literacy, 317; to philosophy, 318, 325 ; to ob- servation, 318; its method of proce- dure, 318, 325 ; its essential agreement with religion, 321 ; vastness of the field of, 329, 330 ; entrenching of one, upon another, 331, 332; the duty of society toward, 335, 336 ; training for women in, 336 ; a mental quality or method, 385, 386 ; the harvest of intel- ligence, 392, 424 ; as such, not suited to children, 409,410 ; materials of, be- long to the child, 410, 411 ; motive for study of, 412 ; classilication of, 413 ; higher values of, 416 ; limitations of, 417,418. Scientific method, fields invaded by,3i7. Secret societies, in China and America, 271; opposition to, in American schools, 272. Seelye, Julius H., 160 n. Self-abnegation, inculcated by the Church, 39, 40. Self -alienation, 168, 169; marriage and parentage enforce, 170. Self-consciousness, 158, 158 n. Self-control, the apotheosis of will, 392. Self-direction, 158, 161. Self-made men, 15, 168. Self-realization, the characteristic mo- tive of Property, 36, 40. Self-sacrifice, the characteristic motive of the Family, 38. Self-surrender, the rewards of, 41. Seminary, meaning of the word, 116. Sense, knowledge of, the second stage in psychical development, 159; temptations of, 159, 160. Senses, the, all knowledge derived from, 203, 203 n. ; popular ignorance con- cerning, 204, 205 ; the multitude of, 205, 205 n. ; training of, the basis of intelligence, 206, 207, 208. Servants, morals of, 119, 120. Sex, educability unaffected by, 62 ; problems of, 206 n. ; single moral standard demanded in matters of, 289. Shakespeare, 72, 415; his Romeo and Juliet, quoted, 400 n, ; his Henry V., quoted, 472 n. Shelley, Percy Bysshe, Ti ; his Adonais, quoted, 6 n. ; his Sensitive Plant, quoted, 473 n. Sin, its relation to crime, 150; com- mitted only by the imperfectly edu- cated, 150, 151 ; absurd evaluations and punishments of, 152; nature of great sms, = 53) 153 "•; most dreadful forms of, 160, 161, Skill, Plato's distinction beween art and, 136 n. Slander. See Calumny. Slavery, Lincoln's course in regard to, 224. Sleep, a moral duty, 280, 281. Social control, 158, 161. Social evil, 2S9. • Social institutions, the eight great, 31 ; largeness of life dependent upon identification with, 31, 34; four of these, primarily personal, 34 ; servants attaching to these, 34, 35 ; profes- sions attaching to the others, 35 ; dependent upon Business or Property for revenue, 42 ; habits of, 376, 376 n., ■^,^^^ 380 ; incompleteness of, 377 n. ; duty of the educated man to, 472, 473. Socialism, State, 44. Society, the individual paramount to, 7 ; its endeavor to protect the child, 9 ; contact with, a necessary part of education, 17-20, 84 n., 85 ; new in- stitutions developed by, 84 ; motives of, in organizing education, 97, 98 ; its duty to the individual, 283, 284, 289, 494 ; moral laws of, 312 ; its re- lation to the educator, 433. Sociology, importance of, in the science of education, 142. Socrates, 16, 27, 58 n., 'ji^ 141, 162, 352, 353 ; his failure to comprehend the world-spirit, 161 ; as interpreted by Plato, 346. Solitude, a necessary factor in educa- tion, 17-20. Solomon, 72. Sophocles, 72. Soul, education of the, 5, 6, 6n., 8, 9; sins of the, 160, 161. Spanish-American War, how it might have been averted, 49 n. Specialization, of social functions, tendency toward, 44. Speech, a sentence is a, 237 ; parts of, 238. Spellmg, function of, 233 ; amoral duty, 392. Spencer, Herbert, failure of his philo- sophy as a science of sciences, 329 ; his definition of desire, 336 n.; his First Principles of Synthetic Philoso- phy, quoted, 433; his conviction re- garding universal decay, 454 n., 455 n. Spenser, Edmund, his Hymn in Honor of Beauty, quoted, 359. Spirit. See Soul. Starvation, unknown among savages. State, the, its usurpation of functions, 35, 36, 36 n., 42, 44, 48; personal legislation by, vicious, 35 ; not syn- onymous with Government, 35 n.; its double function, 41, 42 ; its conspicu- ous weaknesses, 42 ; its sources of revenue, 42, 43; its struggle with INDEX 533 Business for control of society, 43 ; result of its alliance with the School, 43, 44, 44 n. ; its subordination to other institutions, 44, 45,45 n.; dictates of Property and the Church to, 45 n. ; the School controlled by, 103, 130- 134, 185, 186 ; character of the modern American, 130, 131; differentiation of the School from, in New Jersey, 181, 182; the paramount social in- stitution, 293, 295; Burke's theory re- garding, 293, 294 ; moral laws of, 294, 295 ; its regulation of wages, 303. Stephen, Sir Leslie, his History of Eng- lish Thought in the Eighteenth Cen- tury, quoted, 376 n., 464 n., 482 n. Sterling, John, 402 n. Stevenson, Robert Louis, 444 n. Stirner, Max, his The Ego and His Own, quoted, 218 n. Stoicism, 352. Story, William Wetmore, his lo Victis, 105 n. Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 23- Studies and exercises, evaluation of, 383-385,386,393; four questions re- garding, in pedagogy, 423 ; constants in, 424-428 ; elective, 428, 429 ; group- ing of, under humanities, sciences, and arts, 429 ; true order of, 429 ; proper age for particular, 429. Success, a matter of standards and defi- nitions, 70 ; not always a matter of general accomplishment, 71 ; compat- ible with personal immorality, 72, 73 ; not always a matter of contem- porary recognition, 72 ; seldom evi- denced by property, 73 ; fame no proof of, 73 ; tests of, 74, 75, 78, 79 ; de- pendent upon goodness, 79 ; of edu- cated men, 104, 104 n., 470. Suffrage, denied to women, 258 ; argu- ment for equal, 262, 262 n. Superintendent of schools, legislation regarding, 183; functions of, 187, 188 ; disadvantages of many county, 198; relation of, to boards of educa- tion, 198, 199. See also Educators. Superstitions, 319, 320. Supervision, school, necessity for, 193, 194 ; dangers from incompetent, 195 ; disadvantages of elaborate system of, iq8. Swinburne, Algernon Charles, his Songs before Sunrise, quoted, 313, 399. Sympathy, development of social, 478, 479- Talent, native and educated, 92, 92 n. ; popular notion concerning, 105 ; recog- nizable early in life, ^84. Talents, parable of the, 80 n. Tarda, George, classification of mental phenomena by, in his Social Laws, by n. Tariff, protective, a bribe to business, 43 n-» 45 n. Taxes, confiscatory nature of, 43 n. Taxpayers, rights of, against teachers, 436 ; attitude of, toward school appro- priations, 438. Taylor, Jeremy, on the ills of life, 347 ; his Holy Living, quoted, 469 n. Teachers, reasons for growing require- ments of, 10 ; number of, in America, 108 ; use of the term, 118 ; effect of boards of education on, 132 ; salaries of, 134, 170, 171, 174,191, 192, 297, 298, 441 ; education of the typical, 169 ; their misdirected efforts, 169, 170; celibacy prescribed for women, 170, 183; objections to married women as, 171-173; natural, 194; function of, 195, 196; dangers of incompetent, 195-197 ; college trained, in grammar schools, 216 n. ; training of, 216 ; need of efficiency in, 222 ; government by, 263, 264 ; persistence of men of aver- age ability among, 381 ; obligations of, to the child, 433, 434 ; to the mo- ther of the child, 434, 435 ; to the taxpayer, 436 ; to their own teachers, 437; to the social institutions, 437; need of increased number of, 441. Teaching, its relation to education, 52. Temperature-appetite, 445. Temple, nature of, in ancient Egypt, 116, 117. Tennyson, Alfred, quotationfrom,458n., 472 ; his Locksley Hall Sixty Years after, quoted, 17 ; his In Memoriam, quoted, 51, 109 ; his Princess, quoted, 213. Testimony, "hearsay," rejected in English and American courts of law, 240. Text-books, editing of, 167 ; factor in conservatism of the School, 380. Theatre, fascination of, for the young, 273, 273 n. See also Drama. Therapeutics, new system of, 206 n. Thirlwall, Connop, his Remains, quoted, 64. Thwing, Charles F., his History of Higher Education in America, quoted, it6 n., 371. Titchener, Edward B., his Experimental Psychology, quoted, 138. Toleration, religious, in America, 45 n. Tolstoi, quotation from, 37. Trades. See Occupations. Tradition, education has followed the lines of, 168. Transportation of goods, 309. Trust-estates, victims of, 250, 251. Truth, the price of freedom, 23, 24 ; 534 INDEX a matter of the intellect, 28, 29 ; new, comes through individuals, 57, 58, 83; the goal of education, 121, 122, 124 ; encouragement of, in the child, 207 ; business of culture and education regarding, 226 ; science a search for, 318-321; history of the publication of new, 380 ; advantages of controversy concerning new, 380. Tsi An, Empress of China, 243. Tufts, James Hayden, quotation from, 483 n. United States, individualization in, 266 ; economic efficiency in, 267 ; early appearance of this efficiency in, 268, 269 ; no general preparation for military service in schools of, 270, 271. Universities, advocacy of national, 190. University, academic freedom in the endowed and in the state, 43 n. ; pur- pose of, 116, ii6n., 117; imperfect control of, by culture, 128, 129. See also College. Values, false perspective regarding ethical, 72 n. Variability, progress through, 24, 66 ; typical instances of, 99, 100. Variants, from the masses, 91, 92, 93, 127, 135- Viciousness, evidence of incomplete education, 175, 176. Victoria, Queen of England, 33. Village, the place for habitation, 462, 463- Virgil, 73. Vital statistics, prosperity and, 478, 478 n. Vitality, psychical, and physical energy, 444. Volapiik, 233 n. Voltaire, 72. Vries, Hugo de, 354. Wages, right of the State to regulate, 303- War, defensive and offensive, 41, 42, 49 n.; morality gaining upon, 48; evidences that it will cease, 49 ; ad- missible precautions against, 49 n.; no war righteous upon both sides, 49 n. ; evil features and influences of, 49-51 ; some good results of, 51 ; pre- paration and training for, 270, 271. Ward, Lester Frank, his Psychic Fac- tors of Civilization, quoted, i52n., i8on., 334n., 453 n. ; his Applied So- ciology, quoted, 423. Washington, George, 71, 161, 444 n. Wealth, not synonymous with property, 35) 35 "• ; product not of labor but of power, 155 ; decrease of, a menace to civilization, 227, 228. Weber, Alfred, his History of Philo- sophy, quoted, 355. Webster, Daniel, 62, 71 ; his Speech at Plymouth (1820), quoted, 42 n. ; quo- tation from his second Bunker Hill oration, 373. Weininger, Otto, neighbor-philosophy reviled by, 208 n. White, Andrew Dickson, his Autobio- graphy, quoted, 129 n. Whitman, Walt, 72; his Brooklyn Ferry, quoted, 102 ; his Song of My- self, quoted, 322 ; his Leaves of Grass, quoted, 474 n. Wife-beating, 285. Will, manifestations of the, 146 ; sig- nificance of weakness of, 219; de- velopment and strengthening of, 389 ; a mode of mind, 495. William, Emperor of Germany, 250 n. William the Conqueror, 249. Wisdom, relative to tasks and opportu- nities, 384 ; the apotheosis of intel- lect, 392 ; method of procedure from ignorance to, 484. Woman, position of, in historical civili- zation, 31 ; progress of, advantageous to humanity, 32, 33; vulgar philo- sophy regarding, 23 ; modern legis- lation in behalf of, 38 n. ; employment of, in the public schools, 134, 174; celibacy imposed upon, as teachers, 170, 183; without political influence in America, 258 ; result of their dis- franchisement, 260, 261 ; no training for citizenship given to, 261 ; argu- ment for suffrage for, 262, 262 n. ; American, less efficient than man, 266 ; difficulties in the way of scien- tific or artistic training for, 336 ; effect of conservatism of, upon the School, 380 ; economic freedom of, 483- Words, choice of, 400 ; fitness of, 401. Wordsworth, William, his Poems writ- ten in Youth, quoted, 17; his Mis- cellaneous Sonnets, quoted, 18 ; his Ode to Duty, quoted, 59 n.; his Inti- mations of Immortality, quoted, 80 ; his Tintern Abbey, quoted, 321, 322. Working class, who should constitute, 304- World-spirit, comprehension of, 161 ; Christ's understanding of, 162. CAMBRIDGE • MASSACHUSETTS U . S . A CT 11 ^^'-^ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 792 908 A