K* V Nf- • 9 ++# **\^.\ c«*..^t.% .4*.<&&\ ** .-" \ T .6*' 'V'**^* '% ^ v \ fX • ? /^ '."SHE*" ^ "-.^li^ ; * Ho * r. # HAND-BOOK CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY, CHRONOLOGY, MYTHOLOGY, AND ANTIQUITIES. PREPARED FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, T. P. ALLEN and W. F. ALLEN. BOSTON: SWAN, BREWER, AND TILESTON 131 Washington Street. 1 8 G 1. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1861, by T. P. ALLEN AND W. F. ALLEN, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. V I £ s University Press, Cambridge : Stereotyped and Printed by Welch, Bigelow, & Co. PREFACE This work was undertaken in order to meet the want, which we had long felt, of a series of lessons in Ancient Geography, which should contain whatever was absolutely essential to the student, and no more. We have gradually enlarged our plan so as to comprise Chronology, Mythology, and Antiquities, always aiming to avoid the extremes of over-fulness and meagreness. Some portions, it will be seen at once, are designed only for reference. The geo- graphical lessons contain also brief historical sketches, suf- ficient, we believe, to show the connection of each state with Universal History. They may be used with any good set of maps ; — the references are to Long's, but there are a few names that will not be found in his Atlas. In preparing this, we have of course made constant use of Smith's series of Dictionaries, and the Oxford Chrono- logical Tables ; but in all cases of doubt we have had re- course to the best and latest authorities within our reach. Our chief authority in Geography has been Kiepert ; in Chronology, Grote and Mommsen ; in Literature, Bern- hardy ; in Mythology, Preller ; in Greek Antiquities, Grote and K. F. Hermann ; in Roman Antiquities, Becker, Mar- quardt, and Mommsen. We would also express our great indebtedness to Professor Goodwin of Harvard College, who has kindly looked over the proof-sheets, and made many valuable suggestions. ABBKEVIATIONS. M. Mountain. G. Gulf. ■ Str. Straits. K. King. d. died. R. River. Pr. Promontory. S. Sea. Cf. compare. m. married. L. Za/ce. Id. Island. C. Cape, b. 6om. da. daughter. *^* Modern geographical names are in italics, indicates a battle. The dagger (t) CONTENTS. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. PAGE I. Northern Coast of Africa 7 II. Egypt and ^Ethiopia 8 III. Arabia, Babylonia, Assyria, Armenia, etc. ... 8 IV. Media, Ariana, Scythia, etc 9 V. Palestine, Phoenicia, Syria 10 VI. -VIII Asia Minor 11 IX. Islands in the iEgean Sea 13 X. Thrace, Macedonia, Epirus 13 XI. -XIV. Greece 14 XV. Islands West of Greece 17 XVI. Sarmatia, Dacia, Illyrfcum, etc. . . . .. .18 XVII. Germany, Britain 18 XVIII. Gaul 19 XIX. Spain 20 XX. -XXIII. Italy 20 XXIV. Rome 23 The Roman Provinces arranged Chronologically . . . .24 ANCIENT CHRONOLOGY. I. Oriental Period . . .27 II. Grecian Period 30 III. Roman Period 34 IV. Roman Empire 38 Outlines of Ancient Chronology, by Centuries . . . . 42 vi CONTENTS. MYTHOLOGY. Grecian Mythology. 1. Theogony 45 I. Olympian Gods. 2. Zeus 45 3. Hera 46 4. Hephsestus 46 5. Athena, or Pallas 46 6. Apollo, or Phoebus. — Phaethon, Hyacinthus, Daphne . 46 7. Artemis. — Endymion. — Hecate 46 8. Ares 47 9. Aphrodite. — Adonis, Eros, Psyche 47 10. Hermes 47 11. Hestia 47 Lesser Deities of Heaven. 12. Iris, Hebe, Nike 47 13. The Hours, Astrsea 47 14. The Graces .' . . . 48 15. The Muses 48 16. Asclepios. — Hygiea, Ilithyia 48 17. The Fates, Nemesis 48 18. Mollis, Eos 48 19. Momus, Morpheus, Plutus, Hymen 48 II. Marine Gods. 20. Poseidon. — Amphitrite, Triton, Polyphemus . . .49 21. Proteus, Glaucus 49 22. Nereus, The Nereids 49 23. Ino (Leucothea). — Melicertes (Palsemon) ... 49 24. The Sirens. — Scylla and Charybdis . . . . .49 III. Clithonian Gods. 25. Cybele. — The Curetes and Corybantes . . . .50 26. Dionysus or Bacchus. — Ariadne, The Thiasos (Pan, Priapus, Satyrs, Sileni, Centaurs, Nymphs, etc.), Narcissus, Echo . 50 27. Demeter. — Proserpine, Triptolemus . . . . 51 28. The Cabiri 51 CONTENTS. vii IV. The Lower Regions. 29. Pluto 51 30. The Rivers of Hades. — Cerberus, Charon ... 51 31. The Judges of Hades. — Tantalus, Ixion, etc. . . .51 32. The Furies 52 V. Heroes and Demigods. 33. Prometheus, Epimetheus, Pandora 52 34. Deucalion, Pyrrha, Hellen 52 35. Orpheus, Eurydice .53 36. Argos. — Io, Danaus, Perseus 53 37. Heracles 53 Thebes. — Cadmus, Eurdpa, OEdipus, Antigone . . 54 Athens. — Cecrops, Philomela, Theseus . . . .55 Sparta. — The Dioscuri 55 Tantalus, Pelops, Atreus, Niobe 55 Marriage of Peleus and Thetis 56 Trojan War 56 JEneas, Ulysses, Agamemnon 57 Argonautic Expedition. — Jason, Medea . . . .58 The Amazons. — Hippolyte 58 Meleager . . .58 Bellerophon. — The Chimaera .59 Admetus. — Alcestis 59 The Lapithae 59 Amphion and Zethus. — Dirce 59 Atalanta 59 Daedalus 59 Marsyas 59 Roman Mythology. 55. Janus 60 56. Jupiter. — Spolia Oplma 60 Mars. — Bellona. — Ver Sacrum 60 Quirinus 60 Juno. — Luclna 60 Minerva 61 Diana 61 Neptune. — Consus 61 Vulcan or Mulciber 61 vm CONTENTS. 64. Liber Pater 61 65. Ceres 61 66. Mercury, Terminus 61 67. Venus 61 68. Vesta. — Vestal Virgins 61 69. The Penates, Genius 61 70. Saturn, Ops 62 71. Vejovis, Diespiter ......... 62 72. Mater Matuta, Bona Dea, Aurora 62 73. Apollo Soranus, Dius Fidius 62 74. Pales, Picus, Faunus, Silvanus, etc 62 75. Orcus, Dis Pater. — Manes, Lares, Lemures, Parcas . . 62 76. Dii Indigetes 63 77. Pavor and Pallor, Libertas, Fors Fortuna, etc. . . .63 78. Juno Sosplta 63 79. Apollo. — Sibyls 63 80. Cybele or Idtea Mater . . . . . . . 63 81. iEsculapius 63 82. Hercules, Castor and Pollux 63 83. Bacchus 64 84. Isis, Serapis, Mithras 64 Egyptian Mythology. 85. Ammon 65 86. Osiris. — Isis, Typhon, Apis 65 87. Horus, Harpocrates, Anubis ....*. 65 88. Phthah, Neith, Bubastis, Thoth, etc 65 ANTIQUITIES. Grecian Antiquities. I. Athens. 89. Early Institutions. — Tribes, Phratria?, Gentes . . .69 90. Institutions. — Trittycs and Naucraries .... 69 91. Reform of Solon. — Timocracy, Classes . . . .69 92. Reform of Clisthenes. — Ten Tribes, Demes ... 70 93. Metics, Slaves, etc. 70 94. Archons 70 CONTENTS. ix 95. Ephetse 71 96. Senate of Areopagus 71 97. Dicasteries. — Helioea 72 98. 99. Senate of Five Hundred. — Prytanes, Proedri . . 72 100. Assembly. — Ostracism 73 101. Nomothetae, Nomophylaces 74 102. Later Changes. — Four Hundred, Thirty . . . .74 103. Liturgies. — Choregia, Trierarchy . . . . . 75 104. Finances . . .75 II. Sparta. 105. Spartans, Periceci, Helots. — Syssitia 76 106. Kings 76 107. Ephors 76 108. Council 76 109. Assembly 77 110. Education 77 111. . . . III. Amphictyonic Council . . . .77 IV. Games and Festivals. National. 112. Olympic Games. — Pentathlon 78 113. Pythian Games 78 114. Nemean Games . . 78 115. Isthmian Games 79 Local. 116. Athenian Festivals 79 117. Other Parts of Greece 79 118 V. Colonies 80 VI. Military. 119. Athenian 81 120. Spartan 81 121. Macedonian Phalanx 81 Roman Antiquities. I. Divisions of the People. 122. Patricians, Plebeians, Quirites, Populus . . . .82 123. Patrician Tribes, Curia? 82 1* x CONTENTS. 124. Thirty-five Tribes 82 125. Reform of Servius Tullius. — Classes, Centuries . . 82 126. New Aristocracy, Equestrian Order 83 127. Gentes. — Names 83 128. Patron, Clients, Libertini, etc 83 129 II. Magistrates .... 84 1. Greater Magistrates. 130. Consuls. — Interrex, Proconsul, Lictors . . . .85 131. Praetors 85 132. Censors 85 133. Dictator. — Magister Equitum 86 2. Lesser Magistrates. 134. jEdiles 86 135. Quasstors 86 136. Tribunes of the People. — Viators .... 86 137. Triumviri Capitales, Apparitores . . . . . 87 3. The Empire. 138. PrEefectus Urbi, Prasfectus Prastorii . . ' . . .87 III. Assemblies. 139. Senate 87 140. Comitia Curiata, Comitia Calata 88 141. Comitia Centuriata 88 142. Comitia Tributa 89 IV. Priesthoods. 1. The Great Colleges. 143. Pontifices 89 144. Epulones 89 145. Decemviri sacris faciundis 90 146. Augurs. — Haruspices 90 2. The Patrician Colleges. 147. Rex Sacrificulus .90 148. Elamens 90 149. Salii. — Ancilia 90 150. Fetiales. — Pater Patratus 91 CONTENTS. xi "V. Colonies, etc. 151. Soman Colonies 91 152. Latin Colonies 91 153. Municipia, Praefectura, etc 91 154. Provinces. — Senatorial and Imperial .... 91 VI. Military Affairs. 1. Before Marius. 155. The Legion. — Hastati, Principes, Triarii, Velites . . 92 156. Maniples, Centuries, Turmaa 92 157. Armor 93 2. Reform of Marius. 158. The Cohort 93 159. Praetorian Cohort 93 160. The Camp ...... ... 93 160£. Triumph, Ovation 9-1 VII. Law. 161. Civitas. — Caput 94 162. Provocatio, Appellatio 95 163. Laws of the Twelve Tables 95 164. Matrimonium — Confarreatio, Usus, Coemptio. — Manus 95 165. Patria Potestas 95 166. Mancipatio . 96 167. Nexum, Addictus, Mutuum 96 168. Agrarian Laws 96 169. Sumptuary Laws 97 170. Parricidium, Proclitio, Perduellio 97 171. Courts. — QuEestiones Perpetuas, Centumviri, etc. . . 97 172. Revenue. — Tributum 97 VIII. Festivals. 173. Ferias Stativas 98 174. Feriae Conceptlvee 99 MISCELLANEOUS. 175. 176. The Ship 100 177. The House 100 X.U CONTENTS. 178, 179. The Temple . . . . . . . .101 180. The Theatre 102 181. The Amphitheatre 103 182. The Plough 103 183-185. Dress 103 TABLES. 186, 187. Measures of Length 105 188, 189. Measures of Surface . . . . " . . 106 190, 191. Measures of Capacity 107 192-194. Weights 107 195. Money 108 196, 197. Grecian Money 109 198-200. Roman Money . 109 201-204. Grecian Time Ill 205 - 209. Roman Time 112 210. Dies Fasti, Comitiales, etc 114 211. The Winds ... 115 212. Roman Praenomens 115 GENEALOGIES. 213. Family of Acrisius 116 214. Family of Tantalus 116 215. Family of JEacus 116 216. Family of Deucalion 117 217. Family of Dardanus 117 218. Kings of Persia 117 219. Alcnueonidae 118 220. Family of Miltiades 118 221. Spartan Kings 118 222. Families of Antigonus and Antiochus . . . . 119 223. The Maccabees and Herods 120 224. Families of L. iEmilius Paulus and Scipio . . . 121 225. TheMetelli 122 226. The Carbos 122 227. The Scaevolas 123 228. Family of Augustus 123 ANCIENT. GEOGRAPHY. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. I. Northern Coast of Africa. (Map 23.) Mauretania. Ruled by Bocchus in alliance with Rome, and afterwards by Juba II. Made into two Roman prov- inces, Tingitana, Morocco, and Caesariensis, Algiers, by Claudius. Conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, A. D. 429. — M. Atlas. — R. Multicha. — Fretum Ga- ditanum, Strait of Gibraltar. — Columns of Hercules. — Masssesylii. Nlimidia, part of Algiers. Famous for its cavalry. Under K. Masinissa, 2d cent. B. C, in close alliance with Rome. His grandson, Jugurtha, vanquished by Marius, B. C. 106. Made a Roman province by Caligu- la. — Cirta. — Massylii. Africa, Tunis. Originally subject to Carthage, a colony of Tyre. Made a Roman province by Scipio JEmilianus, B. C. 146. — Carthage. Utica. Zama.f Thapsus.f Regio Syrtica or Tripolitana, Tripoli. — Leptis Magna. — Greater and Lesser Syrtis. GsBtulia. Libya. Cyrfinaica, Barca. — A Greek colony, ruled for two cen- 8 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. turies by the dynasty of the Battiada?, then a republic (about B. C. 450). Afterwards a dependency of Egypt. United with Crete to form a Roman province. — Cyrene. II. Egypt. (Maps 25 and 3.) The narrow valley of the R. Nile, which at its mouth divides and forms the Delta. The monarchy was founded at a very remote era. Conquered by Cambyses of Persia, B. C. 525. After the death of Alexander, Egypt was ruled by the Greek dynasty of the Ptolemies. Made a Roman province by Augustus, B. C. 30. Upper, or Thebais, — Thebes, or Diospolis Magna. Syene. Abydus, or This. Berenice. — Id. Elephantine. Philae. Middle, or Ileptanomis. Memphis. Heracleopolis. Arsinoe or Crocodilopolis. Hermopolis. — L. Moeris. — Pyramids. Lower. — Alexandria. Naucratis. Sa'is. Pelusium.t Heliopolis. — Arabian G., Red Sea. Ethiopia, Nubia. Probably a colony of Egypt. — Meroe. III. (Maps 3 and 22.) Arabia. (Petrsea. Deserta. Felix.) Made a Roman province by Trajan. — Petra. — Persian G. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 9 Babylonia. Empire founded by Nabopolassar, B. C. 625 ; overthrown by Cyrus, B. C. 538. — Babylon. Seleucia. Cunaxa.t — R- Tigris. Euphrates. Assyria. Empire established in the 13th cent. B. C. ; overthrown by Cyaxares of Media, and Nabopolassar, B. C. 625. — Nineveh. ArDela. Gaugamela.f Mesopotamia. O s r h o e n e . — Edessa. Carrh^.f Armenia. Ruled by the native dynasty of the Arsacidse from the 2d cent. B. C. until A. D. 428. — Tigranocerta. M. Ar'arat. Taurus. — R. Araxes. — Sophene. Colchis. — M. Caucasus. R. Phasis. Iberia. Albania. R. Cyrus. IV. (Maps 22, 3, and 2.) Media. Revolted from Assyria, 7th cent. B. C. — M. Zagros. Orontes. — Caspian Sea. — Atropatene, Azer- bijan. — Susiana. Susa. — R. Choaspes. — Ecbatana. Persis. Revolted under Cyrus, and conquered Media (B. C. 559). — Persepolis. Pasargadse. Ariana, Afghanistan and Beloochistan. Parthia. The Empire of the Arsacidse, founded in the 3d cent. B. C. Overthrown by Artaxerxes, or Ardishir, who founded the new Persian monarchy of the Sassanidae, A. D. 226. — M. Paropamisus, Hindoo Koosli. Car mania. Gedrosia. Bactriana. Sogdiana. Margiana. Hyrcania. Scytllia, Independent Tartary. — M. Imaus, Beloortayh. — R. Oxus. Jaxartes. — Oxian Sea, S. of Aral. 10 ANCIENT GEOGKAPHY. India, — M. Emodi, Himalaya. — R. Indus. Hydaspes, Jeloom. Hyphasis, Sutledge. Ganges. (Maps 21 and 20.) Palestine. The kingdom of Solomon was divided, 10th cent. B. C, into those of Judah and Israel. The king- dom of Israel conquered by Assyria, B. C. 721 ; Judah by Babylon, B. C. 568. Afterwards subject to Syria ; conquered by Pompey, B. C. 63, and finally by Titus, A. D. 70. Galilee. — Nazareth. — L. Tiberias. Samaria. — Sychem. — R. Jordan. — M. Carmel. Judaea. — Jerusalem. Bethlehem. — L. Asphaltltes, Dead Sea. Peraaa. Phoenicia. Of early commercial importance. Dependent on Persia, afterwards subject to Syria. — Tyre. Sidon. Ptolemais, Acre. Syria. Conquered by Assyria. After Alexander, an independent Greek kingdom under the Seleucidas ; made a Roman province by Pompey, B. C. 64. — Antioch. Seleucia. Palmyra or Tadmor. Heliopolis, Baalbec. Da- mascus. Thapsacus. — R. Orontes. — M. Libanus. Anti- libanus. — C oe 1 e s y r i a . C o m m a g e n e . Made a Roman province by Vespasian. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 11 VI. Asia Minor I. (Map 20.) Mostly subject to Lydia, then to Persia, 6th cent. B. C; after the overthrow of the Persian empire, divided into numerous states. PontUS. A powerful kingdom. Mithridates VI. carried on war with Rome, B. C. 88-63, until subdued by Pom- pey. Partly united with the Roman province Bithynia ; the rest made a province, Pontus Polemoniacus, by Nero. — Zela.f — R. Thermodon. Halys. — Pontus Euxinus, Black Sea. Paplllagonia. Subject to Pontus. Bithynia. Ruled by native kings ; made a Roman prov- ince, B. C. 74. — Nicomedia. Nicaea, Nice. — R. San- garius. Thracian Bosporus, Strait of Constantinople. Galatia. Colonized by Gauls, about B. C. 200 ; made a Roman province by Augustus. Cappadocia. Ruled by kings generally in alliance with Rome ; made a Roman province, with Lycaonia, by Ti- berius. — Armenia Minor. Lycaonia. Iconium, Konieh. Lystra. — Isauria. VII. Asia Minor II. (Maps 20 and 19.) Cilicia. Infested by pirates ; made a Roman province by Pompey, B. C. 64. — Soli or Pompeiopolis. Tarsus. Issus.f — R. Cydnus. Pyramus. 12 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. Cyprus. An island, subject to Egypt under the Ptole- mies ; made a Roman province by Augustus. — Paphos. — M. Olympus. Pamphylia. Made a Roman province, with Lycia, by Augustus. — R. Eurymedon.f P i s i d i a . Lycia. — M. Climax. — R. Xanthus. Caria. Belonged to Roman province of Asia. — R. Maeander. Lydia. A powerful kingdom, comprising most of Asia Minor ; conquered by Cyrus, B. C. 546. After Alex- ander, subject first to Syria, then to Pergamum. After- wards part of the Roman province of Asia. — Sardes. — M. Tmolus. — R. Cayster. Hermus. Pactolus. — Pr. Mycale.f Phrygia. — Ipsus.f VIII. Asia Minor III. (Map 19.) Mysia. Belonged to the kingdom of Pergamum, after- wards to Rome (province of Asia). — Ilium. — M. Ida. — R. Granicus.f Scamander. — Propontis, S. of Marmora. Hellespont, Dardanelles. JEge'an Sea, Archipelago. Pergamum. A kingdom founded by Eumenes in the 3d cent. B. C, closely allied with Rome, and embracing most of the western part of Asia Minor. Attalus III. bequeathed his dominions to Rome, B. C. 133, which were formed into the province of Asia, B. C. 129. Greek Colonies. Doris. — Halicarnassus. Cnidus-t — Ionia. — Magnesia on Moeander. Miletus. Ephesus. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 13 Smyrna. Phocaea. Magnesia near Sipylus.f — .ZEolis. — Adramy ttium. — On the Northern Coast. — Abydus. Lampsacus. Cyzicus. Calchedon. Heraclea. Sin ope. Cerasus. Trapezus, Trebizond. IX. Islands in the JEgean. (Map 19.) Thracian, Icarian, Myrtoan, Cretan, Carpathian S. Thasos. Samothrace. Imbros. Lemnos. Tenedos. Scyros. Belonging to JEolis. — Lesbos, Mytilene. Belonging to Ionia. — Chios. Samos. Lade.f Belonging to Doris. — Cos. Rhodes. Carpathus. Cyclades, — Delos, M. Cynthus. Andros. Paros. Naxos. Melos. Sporades, — Thera. Patmos. Crete. Famous for its archers. Made a Roman province with Cyrene, B. C. 67. — Cnossus. — M. Ida. Dicte. EllbOBa, Negropont. — Chalcis. Eretria. — Pr. Arte- misium.f — Euripus. -^gina. Salamis.f Cythera. X. (Maps 14 and 15.) Thrace, Rumilia. Made into a kingdom by Lysima- chus, after Alexander's death ; afterwards annexed to Macedonia. Made a Roman province by Claudius. — Ly- simachia. Abdera. Byzantium. Sestus. -3ilgospotami.t 14 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. — M. Haemus. Rhodope. — R. Hebrus. — Thracian Chersonesus. Macedonia. At the height of its power under Alexan- der, B. C. 330. Conquered (under K. Perseus) by L. JEmilius Paulus; — made a Roman province, B. C. 146. — Pella. Pydna.f Thessalonica, Salloniki. Olynthus. Amphipolis. Philippi.f — M. Athos. Olympus. Cam- bunii. Pindus. — R. Strymon. — Thermaic, Strymon'ic G. — Chalcidice. Paeonia. Pieria. Epil'US, Albania. Flourished under K. Pyrrhus, about B. C. 300. Made a part of the Roman province Achaia ; in 2d cent. A. D. became an independent province. — Ambracia. Dodona. — M. Ceraunii. — R. Acheron. Co- cytus. Arachthus. — Pr. Acroceraunium. — Chaonia. Molossia. Thesprotia. Athamania. Dolopia. XI. Greece I. Hellas. (Maps 15 and 16.) Made a Roman province, Achaia, B. C. 146, by L. Mummius. Thessaly. The tyrants of Pherae held great power early in the 4th cent. B. C. Made part of the Roman province of Macedonia. — Larissa. Pharsalus.f Cynoscephalre.f Demetrias. Pheraa. — M. Othrys. (Eta. Ossa. Pelion. — R. Peneus. Sperchius. — Pagassean, Malian, G. — ■ Vale of Tempe. — Magnesia. Perrhcebia. Acamania. — R. Achelous. — Pr. Actium.f ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 15 Jltolia. Of little political importance until the forma- tion of the iEtolian League, 3d cent. B. C. — Calydon. ■ — R. Evenus. — Pr. Antirrhium. Doris. Locris. Opuntii. Epicnemidii. Ozolse. — Nau- pactus. Thermopylse.f PhOCiS, — Delphi. M. Parnassus. Boeotia. A confederacy under the presidency of Thebes, whose power was at its height about B. C. 370. — Thebes. Orchomenus. Platasa-f Leuctra.f Coro- nea.f Chasronea.t Aulis. — M. Helicon. Cithaeron. — R. Cephissus. — L. Copais. XII. Greece II. Attica. (Maps 16 and 17.) The territory of Athens, which was the leading state of Greece, about B. C. 450. — Eleusis. Marathon.! Phyle. Piraeus. Munychia. Phalerum. Decelea. Brauron. — M. Parnes. Pentelicon or Brilessus. Hymettus. Lau- rium. iEgaleos. — R. Cephissus. Ilissus. — Pr. Sunium. — Saronic G. — Pedion. Paralia. Mesogsea. Diacria. Thriasian Plain. Athens. — Acropolis. (Propylcea. Parthenon. Erech- theum. Athena Promachos.) — Areopagus. (Mars Hill.) Pnyx. Museum. — Theatre of Dionysus. Agora. The- seum (Temple of Theseus). Olympieum (Temple of Jupiter Olympius). — Ceramicus. Academy. Lyceum. Stadium. M. Lycabettus. 16 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. XIII. Greece III. Isthmus and Peloponnesus. (Map 18.) Megai'is. — Megara. Nisaea. — M. Geranea. Corillthia. — Corinth. — Acrocorintlius. Sicyonia. — Sicyon. Phliasia. — Phlius. Al'golis. Consisting of cities over which Argos had a nominal supremacy. — Argos. Mycenae. Tiryns. Ne- mea. Epidaurus. Troezen. — R. Inachus. — Id. Calauria. — Pr. Scyllaeum. — Argolic G. Acliaia. Of little political importance until the formation of the Achaean League, comprising all the Peloponne- sus except Elis, 3d cent. B. C. — iEgium. Patrae. — Pr. Rhium. — Corinthian G. Elis. Important from its presidency over the Olympic Games. Generally allied with Sparta ; afterwards belonged to the iEtolian League. — Elis. Pisa. Olympia. Pylos. — R. Peneus. — Triphylia. XIV. Greece IV. Peloponnesus. Arcadia. Disunited states, without a head until the building of Megalopolis by Epaminondas, about B. C. 370. — Mantinea.t Tegea. Orchomenos. Megalopolis. Phi- galia. — M. Erymanthus. Cyllene. Lycaeus. Maenalus. — R. Alpheus. — L. Stymphalis. Messeilia. Conquered by Sparta, 8th cent. B. C. ; restored ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 17 to independence by Epaminondas. — Messene. Pylos. Ithome. Stenyclarus. — R. Pamisus. — Pr. Acritas, C. Gallo. — Id. Sphacteria.f — Messenian G. Lacoilia. The territory of the kingdom of Sparta, which had the hegem'ony about B. C. 400. Ruled by the tyrant Nabis, about B. C. 200 ; afterwards joined the Achaean League. — Sparta. Amyclce. Sellasia.f — M. Taygetus. Parnon. — R. Eurotas. — Pr. Malea, C. St. Angelo. Tae- narum, C. Matapan. — Laconic G. XV. Islands West of Greece. (Maps 15, 12, 9, and 4.) In the Ionian Sea. — Zacynthos, Zante. Cephallenia. Ithaca. Leucas, Santa Maura. Corcyra, Corfu. — Stro- phades Ids. Sicily. Colonized by the Greeks, and long contended for between Syracuse and Carthage. Made the first Roman province after the first Punic "War, B. C. 241. — Syracuse-! Messana. Himera.f Agrigentum. Panormus. Selinus. — M. iEtna. Eryx. — Pr. Pelorum. Pachynum. Lilyba3um. Sardinia. — Made a Roman province, together with Cor- sica, B. C. 238. Corsica. Ilva, Elba. Melita, Malta. Liparian Ids. .iEgates Ids.f Pityusas Ids. Baleares Ids. — Famous for slingers. Conquered by Rome, B. C. 123. 18 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. XVI. (Maps 2, 3, 14, and 25.) Sai'lliatia, Russia, fyc. — R. Tanais, Don. Rha, Volga. Bo- rysthenes, Dnieper. — Palus Moeotis, Sea of Azof. — Tau- ric Chersonesus, Crimea. — Cimmerian Bosporus, Sir. of JEnikdle. Kingdom of Bosporus. — A Greek kingdom winch flourished several centuries ; the chief granary of Greece. — Panticapasum. Dacia, WallacMa. Made a Roman province by Trajan. — R. Tibiscus, Theiss. Tyras, Dniester. Danubius or Ister. MffiSia, Bulgaria. Paillionia, part of Hungary, Sclavonia, &c. — Vindobo- na, Vienna. — R. Dravus. Savus. Noricum, Austria, Styria, Carinthia, &c. — Noric Alps. RlltEtia, Tyrol. — Rhaetian Alps. — L. Yenetus, or Bri- gantlnus, Constance. — Vindelicia, Bavaria. Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg. * # * The last four were made Roman provinces by Augustus. Illyricum. A chief seat of pirates. Made a Roman province, 2d cent. B. C. — Scodra. Epidamnus or Dyr- rhachium. — Liburnia. Dalmatia. — Mare Adriaticum or Superum. XVII. (Maps 25 and 5.) Gcrmailia. Inhabited by wild and independent tribes, whom the Romans never wholly subdued. Two prov- ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 19 inces, Upper and Lower, erected on the Rhine by Augustus. — Hercynian M. — R. Vistula. Viadus, Oder. Albis, Elbe. Rhenus, Rhine. — Saltus Teutoburgensis.f — Cimbric Chersonesus, Jutland. — In g a3.v ones. Istaevo- nes. Hermiones. — Boii. Suevi. Cherusci. Britannia or Britain. First invaded by Julius Cassar, B. C. 55 ; conquered .by Agricola, A. D. 84 ; abandoned by the Romans, A. D. 410. — Londinium. Yerulamium, St. Albans. Eboracum, York. — R. Tamesis, TJiames. Sa- brina, Severn. Abus, Humber. — Pr. Cantium, N. Fore- land. — Walls of Hadrian and Severus. — Id. Orcades, Orkney. Mona, Man. Mona, Anglesea. Hibernia, Ire- land. — Fretum Gallicum, Str. of Dover. — Oceanus Ger- manicus. — Trinob antes, Essex. Brigantes, York. Iceni, Norfolk and Suffolk. Silures, S. Wales. XVIII. Gallia or Gaul. (Map 6.) The southern part was made a Roman province, Nar- bonensis, 2d cent. B. C. ; the rest was divided by Au- gustus, after the conquest by Cresar, into three provinces, Aquitania, Lugdunensis, Belgica. Lugdunum, Lyons. Massilia, Marseilles. Narbo, Nar- bonne. Aquse Sexti£e,f Aix. Tolosa, Toulouse. Lutetia, Paris. Colonia Agripplna, Cologne. Nemausus, Nismes. M. Jura. Vosegus, Vosges. Cebenna, Cevennes. R. Mosella, Moselle. Mosa, Meuse. Scaldis, Scheldt. Sequana, Seine. Matrona, Marne. Liger, Loire. Ga- rumna, Garonne. Rhodanus, Rhone. Arar, Saone. 20 ANCIENT GEOGEAPHY. L. Lemanus, Geneva. Armonca, Brittany and Normandy. — Allobroges, Viennois. Arverni, Auvergne. iEdui, Burgundy. Helvetii, Switzerland. Sequani, Franche Comte. Be mi, Champagne. Nervii, Flanders. XIX. Hispania. (Map 7.) Conquered by the Romans from the Carthaginians, and made into two provinces, Citerior or Tarraconensis, and Ulterior or Baetica, B. C. 205. Lusitania, Portugal, made a province by Augustus. Tarraco, Tarragona. Saguntum. Carthago Nova, Car- tagena. Numantia. Gades, Cadiz. Munda.f Corduba, Cordova. M. Pyrena^i. R. Iberus, Ebro. Durius, Douro. Tagus. Anas, Gua- diana. Baetis, Guadalquivir. Cantabri. Celtiberi. Ilergetes. Turdetani. Oceanus Cantabricus, B. of Biscay. Mare Atlanticum. Mare Internum, Mediterranean S. XX. Italy I. (Map 8.) Liglirift. — Graian Alps. — Sinus Ligusticus, G. of Genoa. — Alpes Maritime made a Roman province by Au- gustus, Alpes Cottice by Nero, Alpes Pennine later. Gallia Cisalpina, Lombardy, Emilia, fyc. Made into a ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. 21 Roman province [ace. to Momrasen] by Sulla. Mediola- num, Milan. Placentia, Piacenza. Brixia, Brescia. Cre- mona. Mantua. Mutina, Modena. Bononia, Bologna. Ravenna. Vercellae.f (Campi Raudii.) — Lepontine Alps. — R. Padus, Po. Ticinus,t Ticino. Trebia.t Athesis, Ad'ige. Rubicon. — L. Verbanus, Maggiore. Larius, Como. Benacus, Garda. — Lingones. Ceno- mani. Insiibres. Boii. Sen ones. — Via ^Emilia. Venetla. — Verona. Patavium, Padua. Adria. Aqui- leia. — Carnic, Julian Alps. — Tergestmus Sinus, G. of Trieste. — I s t r i a . XXI. Italy II. (Maps 8 and 9.) Etl'liria, Tuscany, nayy Bov\r). The Court of Areopagus was established, or at least remodelled, by Solon, to try cases of wilful murder, etc., which had before probably belonged to the Ephetse (§ 95). It was composed of ex-archons (§ 94), who, on completing their term of office without disgrace, became members for life. Before the time of Pericles, and after the Pelopon- nesian War, it exercised also a censorial power (cf. Cen- sors, § 132) over the private life and religious customs of the Athenians, and was always regarded by them with peculiar reverence, its influence being felt as a check upon the democratical tendencies of the state. 72 GKECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 97. DlCASTERIES. Each year the archons drew by lot the names of 6,000 citizens, of over thirty years, 600 from each tribe ; which body, called the Helifta, was divided into 10 sections of 500 each, called Dicasteries, 1,000 being kept in reserve to sup- ply vacancies (one of these being also added to each dicas- tery in order to make an odd number). In important cases, two, three, or even more dicasteries often sat together as a single court. Almost all judicial questions, except those belonging to the Areopagus (§ 96), came in the course of time to be intrusted to these dicasteries. Each dicast re- ceived three obols (§ 197) a day. Senate of Five Hundred, 'h BovKtj. 98. Established by Solon, consisting of 400 members, 100 from each tribe (§ 89). By Clisthenes the number was in- creased to 500, 50 being taken by lot from each of the new tribes (§ 92). This constituted a natural division into ten sections, the members of which, all belonging to the same tribe, were called Prytanes, irpwdveis. Each section in turn had (by lot) the presidency in the Senate (hence it was called the prytanizing tribe) for one tenth of a year, called a prytany ; and every day the Prytanes chose an Epistales from their own number to preside in the Senate or the Assembly (§ 100), and keep the keys of the treasury and archives. It was the duty of the Prytanes to meet every day (except festival days) during their prytany, but the Senators from the other tribes might be absent. In later GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 73 times the Epistates selected one member from each of the non-pry tanizing tribes, nine in all, called Proedl'i, to repre- sent these tribes in the Senate ; and from these Proedri a second Epistates was chosen as their representative, to preside in both Senate and Assembly. 99. The primary office of the Senate was to prepare matter for the action of the Assembly, in the form of jrpo(3ov\evfxa.Ta, or preliminary bills. When any such was charged with being illegal, the person making it was in- dicted by ypatyrj napavoixcov. — The Senate was the chief executive power in the state, had the regulation of finance, and decided on the qualifications of magistrates. Each member received a drachma (§ 197) a day. 100. Assembly. 'EKKX^o-ia. Four regular meetings of the Assembly were held during each prytany (§ 98), — either in the Agora, the Pnyx, or later the Dionysiac Theatre, — and extraordinary ones at other times. It was the duty of every citizen twenty years old to attend. All subjects of general interest — public expenditures, taxes, alliances, appointment of state officers, matters of religion, etc. — legitimately came before the Assembly, the vote after discussion being taken generally by hand. It also exercised certain judicial functions, but its legislative power was limited, as it could only pass temporary decrees, ^(^tV/xara, upon matters presented to it by the Senate (§ 99). — To the people in their assembly belonged the right of banishing an obnoxious or dangerous citizen for ten, afterwards five years, by Ostracism, in which 74 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. they voted with oyster-shells or potsherds inscribed with the name of the person to be banished ; 6,000 votes were necessary to condemn. — Three obols (§ 197) a day were received by every person attending the Assembly. 101. NOMOTHET^E, &C. At the first public assembly of each year it was lawful to propose any changes in existing laws, which were then left to a judicial committee, vofiodeTat, taken from the He- liaea (§ 97), and probably presided over by the Thes- mothetae (§ 94). The question was argued before them as before a court, and they had full power to preserve or repeal. — The ^o^ocpvXaKes were persons intrusted by Pericles with the power, which had previously belonged to the Areopagus, of testing the legality of amendments to the 7rpo/3ovXev/LiaTa before they were brought before the Assembly. 102. Later Changes. During the Peloponnesian War, B. C. 411, an aris- tocratical reaction placed the power in the hands of a committee of Four Hundred, while an assembly of five thousand wealthy citizens, which, however, never was called together, was to take the place of the Assembly. After four months the Democracy was restored. — After the power of Athens was crippled by the battle of iEgos- potami, B. C. 405, the Spartans gave the government to a committee of Thirty, who were overthrown by Thrasybu- lus, B. C. 403. GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 75 103. Liturgies. These were personal services rendered to the state by the wealthy citizens. The most important of the ordinary ones were the CllOregia, or duty of providing the chorus for festivals and dramatic exhibitions, and the Gymnasiarcllia, or duty of bearing the expenses of gymnastic exhibitions. — The Trierarchy was an extraordinary one, and consisted in the duty of fitting out and commanding a public ship. The original method was for a single wealthy individual to undertake this charge ; but a new system was adopted early in the 4th cent. B. C, by which 1,200 of the richest citizens were divided into 20 SyiMIlorics, and each of these into four companies, o-i/ireXetcu, each of which companies of fifteen men supported one ship, and provided a com- mander. This plan was superseded by that of Demos- thenes, which imposed the expense of a single ship upon every ten talents (§ 197) of taxable property. 104. Finances. The Senate (§ 95) had the control of the revenues, but the direct management was in the hands of a Superin- tendent, chosen by the people for a term of four years ; this office was held by Aristldes. The revenue consisted in rents, duties, tribute from subject states, fines, liturgies (§ 103), and on extraordinary occasions in a direct tax, elfxoTiai. Each of these divisions contained cava\ry as well as infantry ; their strength when in actual service seems to have varied. There were also 300 knights, 'nrnSs, forming a body-guard for the king. 121. The Macedonian phalanx was distinguished by its immobility. V*ry long spears were used, those of the fifth rank projecting three feet in front of the first rank. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. I. DIVISIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 122. The Patricians were citizens in full rigli 7 ; the Ple- beians were inferior, and, to a certain extent, subject, until equality was established by the Licinian Laws. B. C. 367. The Roman people in their civil capacity wer« called Qui- rites. The body of citizens, originally the Paricians alone, were called Populus (cf. Arjpos, § 90). 123. The Patricians were originally dhided into three tribes, — the Ramnes (Latin), Tities (Sabiie), and LUCCIXS (perhaps Etruscan), — but these divisions were of no his- torical importance. Each tribe was divided into ten Curift, at the head of each of which was a Cirio. 124. The city was also divided hto four local tribes, Suburana, Esquilina, Collina, and Palaina. As the territory was extended, thirty-one country trbes were added. The city tribes were the least respectnole. 125. For military purposes, thi citizens were divided by King Servius Tullius into five CliSSes (cf. § 91), according to wealth, and these into 193 CeitUl'ies, the whole people thus forming the army (cf. § 12-)). The census of the first ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 83 class was 100,000 asses (§ 198), and of the others, 75,000, 50,000, 25,000, and 11,000 asses. The first class contained 80 centuries, the fifth 30, the others 20 each ; half of these centuries consisted of senior es (over 45 years of age), the rest of juniores. There were also 18 centuries of Equites equo publico (having a horse assigned by the state), who had the census of the first class ; four centuries of workmen ; and one of poor citizens, capite censi. 126. After the equalization of the Patricians and Ple- beians, a new aristocracy grew up, of the Nobtles. The JVovi homines, of whom were Marius and Cicero, were those none of whose ancestors had held curule office (§ 129). — The Optimates and Populares were the members of the conservative and radical parties. — The Equestrian Order, Ordo Equestris, was an aristocracy of wealth, brought into existence by the legislation of C. Gracchus (§ 171), B. C. 121, and generally hostile to the Senate. 127. The people were also divided into Gentes, the mem- bers of which claimed a common origin, and had common sacra, or sacred rites. The nomen of every man was that of his gens, which always ended in ius (except a few Etrus- can names in na) ; the proenomen was the individual name, the cognomen that of the family; the agnomen was a personal name acquired by some exploit; e. g. Publius Cornelius Scipio Africanus. Women were called simply by the name of the gens, as Cornelia ; the daughters being distinguished as prima, secunda, &c. 128. There was also a peculiar personal relation be- tween a patrician or nobleman as Patron, and his Clients. 84 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. The patron was the legal representative and the defender of life clients, who in turn owed him aid and service. — Manumitted slaves were called Liberti in relation to their former master, or Libertilli as a class ; they continued to owe service to their former master as patron. Legally, slaves could hold no property, but they were permitted by usage to keep a part of their earnings, called Peculium. II. MAGISTRATES. 129. After the expulsion of the kings, B. C. 509, Rome was a Republic. The magistrates were chosen annually, with the exception of the Censors and Dictators. They are divided into Greater and Lesser, according as they possessed the greater or lesser auspices (§ 146). — The Clll'llle Magis- trates had the right to use the Sella curults, or curule chair of ivory; all of these were Greater Magistrates (Majores), except the Curule iEdiles (§ 134). — All of these magis- trates were absolute, each in his sphere, during their term of office, but liable to be called to account at its close. They received a religious consecration, and could not le- gally be deposed. The same person might hold civil, mili- tary, naval, judicial, and religious offices. The word facer e was used of the people, creare of the magistrate who presided at the comitia when the choice was made. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 85 1. Greater Magistrates. 130. Consuls. Two in number, having the chief executive power. They went into office, in the 3d cent. B. C, on the Ides of March, but after B. C. 153 (inclusive), on- the Kalends of January. 43 was the legal age for holding the office. Each Consul was preceded in public by 12 Lictors with axes in bundles of rods (fasces). If the term of office of the Consuls expired before their successors were elected, the Patrician part of the Senate chose an Interrex, whose office lasted only five days, when he created a second, whose duty it was to hold the election. Sometimes several inter- reges succeeded before a Consul could be chosen. After the term of office of the Consul expired, he was often sent as Proconsul to govern a Province ; and by Sulla (B. C. 82) it was made the law that the Consuls should be so sent, while during their year of office they should remain in Italy. 131. PrSBtors. At first one, afterwards two, then six in number, increased by Sulla to eight ; they must be 40 years of age. They exercised judicial powers ; the Prcetor Ul'ba- nUS between citizens, the Peregrinus (cf. Archon Polemarch, § 94) for foreigners ; the others originally held command in the Provinces, but afterwards presided over special courts, Qucestiones (§ 171). They were sent as Tropraetors to rule the Provinces after their term of office expired. 132. Censors. Two in number, chosen once in five years, for a term of eighteen months. They held a census of the people in the Campus Martius, decided upon their citizen- ship, made out the list of the members of the Senate, and 86 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. had a general supervision of the morals of the state, with power to inflict disgraceful punishments (see § 161). They also farmed out the public revenues (§ 172), and conducted the most important public works, such as the building of aqueducts and military roads. 133. Dictator. Appointed in time of need for a term of six months, and possessing kingly powers in full: the Ma- gister Equitlim was his second in command. He was accom- panied by twenty-four Lictors. After the second Punic war the office disappeared, its place being taken by the dictatorial powers conferred by the Senate upon the Consuls, in the formula, Videant consuks ne quid respublica detri- menti capiat. 2. Lesser Magistrates. 134. JMileS. Two Curule and two Plebeian, forming one board, with the general superintendence of the police, the public buildings, the games, &c. The Curule ^Edileship could not be held before the age of 37. 135. QuftStors, The number was gradually increased from two to forty; they had the charge of the finances. The Treasury, uffirarium, was in the Temple of Saturn. 136. Tribunes Of the People. Five, then ten in number; entering upon office the fourth day before the Ides of Decem- ber. The office was established at the first secession of the Plebeians, B. C. 494, to defend them (Auxiliuni) against the arrogance of the Patricians. The Tribunes were invio- lable, sacrosancti, and practically irresponsible. They had the Intercession or right of "Veto" upon any action of a ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 87 magistrate within the city (except the Dictator), the power to fine or imprison factious opponents, and the right of holding the Comitia Tributa (§ 142), agere cum plebe ; they also acquired the right of sitting in the Senate. Their powers were greatly reduced by Sulla, but afterwards in a measure restored. Their attendants were called Viators. 137. Triumviri Capitales or Nocturni. The police officers of the city. — The attendants of the magistrates were called ApparitOlTS, including Lictors (§ 130), Viators (§ 136), Heralds, Scribes, &c. 3. The Empire. 138. Under the Empire the magistrates of the Republic continued as mere forms ; the chief executive officers, ap- pointed at will by the Emperor, were: — 1. tafectUS Mi, who had the charge of the public order, acquiring in time the whole criminal jurisdiction. 2. PrftfeclUS Pnetorii, generally two in number, having command of the Praetorian Cohorts (§ 159). The Imperial Treasury was called Fiscus. III. ASSEMBLIES. 139. The Senate, at first an advisory body, came to be the ruling power in the state, the Consuls being only its instruments. All matters of finance, of war, of provincial administration, and the initiative in legislative action, be- longed to it. The members were chosen by the Censor- 88 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. from among those who had held curule offices, but by Sulla's laws the holding of the Qusestorship and any higher office entitled to a seat for life. The normal number was considered 300 ; but after Sulla it varied with the number of those who had held magistracies. The leading man in the Senate, as determined by the Censors, was called Prin- ceps Senatus. A vote passed by the Senate was called Auctoritas ; when drawn up in legal form, Senatus-consultum. It usually met in the Curia Hostilia, or in some temple. 140. Comitia Cliriata, or Assembly of the Curia? (§ 123). These were early superseded in their political functions by the Comitia Centuriata (§ 141), but were kept up until late times for Patrician purposes, such as Adoption, Arrogatio. The Imperium, or military power, could be conferred only by them, in the Lex Curiata de Imperio, for which purpose they were represented by 30 Lictors. — The Comitia Calata were also organized by Curiae, but were entirely passive, being called together by the pontifices (§ 143) to witness wills, be present at the inauguration of the rex (§ 147) and flamens (§ 148), &c. 141. Comitia Centuriata, or Assembly of the Centuries (§ 125), held in the Campus Martius, (because, being the army, it could not meet within the city walls,) and presided over by the Consul. Most of the legislation, and the elec- tion of the chief magistrates, belonged to this assembly. In the 3d cent. B. C. a reconstruction of the centuries took place, by which, probably, each class (§ 125) received equal power, having two centuries (one of seniores, one ofjimiores) from each of the 35 tribes (§ 124). The authority of the ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 89 Senate was necessary in order to propose a law (rogare or ferre legem), which, until passed, was called rogatio ; the people voted with tablets marked U for uti rogas (yes) and A for antiquo (no). 142. The Comitia Tributa were the Assembly of the 35 Tribes (§ 124), each of which had an equal vote. They chose the Lesser Magistrates, later also the Priests, and acquired by degrees a large share of legislative power. A law passed by this assembly was called Plebiscltum ; after B. C. 286 a Plebiscltum had the force of a Lex. IV. PRIESTHOODS. 1. The Great Colleges. %* These, with the exception of the Epulones, were at first restricted to the Patricians, but afterwards thrown open to the Plebeians also. 143. The Pontifices, eight in number, increased by Sulla to fifteen ; at their head the Pontifex MaximilS. They formed the most important of these bodies, being the acknowledged head of the Roman religion, and having authority over all the other priesthoods. They had power to decide on the legality of any measure or proceeding, and a control over the ritual of the state. 144. The Epulones, originally three, increased by Sulla to seven. They had the charge of the sacred feasts, the chief of which was that of Jupiter Capitolinus (§ 173). 5 90 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 145. The Decemviri sacris faciundis, increased by Sulla to fifteen (Quindecimviri). They had the care of the Sibylline Books, which they consulted in all public exigencies. 146. The AuglU'S, nine in number, made fifteen by Sulla. They had the interpretation of the Auspices ; viz. ex ccelo (thunder and lightning) ; ex avibus (called oscines when they sang, allies when they flew) ; ex tripudiis (from the feeding of chickens) ; ex quadrupedibus ; and ex dirts (from prodi- gies). The auspices (greater or lesser) "belonged to the magistrates (see § 129), but were interpreted by the augurs, who thus acquired great political influence, being able even to break up the Comitia, or declare their action void. — The Haruspices were an inferior body, originally Etruscan, who examined the entrails of the beasts sacrificed, and explained prodigies and lightning. 2. The Patrician Colleges. 147. The Rex Sacrificulus (cf. King Archon, § 94) had the highest rank in the state, but no political power. He was appointed after the expulsion of the kings, to perform the religious rites which had belonged to them. 148. The Flamens were priests devoted to the service of some special deity. They were fifteen in number, at the head of whom stood the Flamen Dialis (of Jupiter), Mar- tialis (of Mars), and Quirinalis (of Quirinus). 149. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradlvus (§ 60), twelve in number, having charge of the Ancilia or sacred shields. They made an annual procession (§ 173), leaping, singing, and beating the shields with rods. KOMAN ANTIQUITIES. 91 150. Fetiales (§ 71), twenty in number, the chief being called Pater Patratus. They had the care of the public faith, performed the ceremonies at the declaration of war, &c. In later times, Plebeians of high rank seem to have been admitted into the College. V. COLONIES, &c. 151. Roman Colonies were composed of Roman citizens, who were provided with land (from 1£ to 7 jugera, § 189) in a conquered country, without losing their citizenship. 152. Latin Colonies were military posts, composed of Latins or of Romans who were willing to lose a portion of their civic rights in consideration of a grant of land. They had a quasi independence, but stood in a relation of inferiority. Only four were sent out after the Second Punic War, their place being then taken by Roman Colonies, which had before fallen into disuse. 153. Municipia. These were Italian towns which re- ceived Roman citizenship (§ 161) in whole or in part. In the last century of the republic the term was applied also to colonies. — The Prarfectura was a town whose laws were administered by a Prefect sent out by the Roman Praetor. — Villages and smaller towns were called Fora (market- towns), Conciliabula, Vici, and Castella. 154. Provinces. These were conquered countries, ruled as subject, paying tribute, and governed at first by Prae- 92 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. tors, afterwards by Proconsuls and Propraetors (§§ 130, 131). Augustus divided them into Senatorial and Impe- rial, the latter being those which required military adminis- tration (see p. 24). VI. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 1. Before Marius. 155. The Legion consisted of 4200 men, — 1200 hastati, young men; 1200 principes, middle-aged men; and 600 triarii, or veterans; to whom were added 1200 veliles, or light- armed: there were, besides, 300 equites, or cavalry. The hastati formed the front line, the principes the second, while the triarii were a reserve. The command of the legion was held by six tribuni militum, two months by each in turn. 156. The infantry of each legion w r as divided into 30 ma- niples, ten to each line, each maniple consisting of two centu- ries, among which the velites were equally distributed, 20 to each century. Thus, of the hastati and principes each maniple contained 120 heavy-armed soldiers and 40 velites, forming 20 in front and 8 deep (the century having 10 men in front) ; while the maniple of the triarii contained only 60 heavy-armed soldiers and 40 velites. Each century was commanded by a centurion, the centurio prior (of the right- hand century) commanding the whole maniple. The centu- rion of the first (right-hand) century of the triarii was called primiptlus. — The equites were divided into 10 turma?. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 93 157. The heavy-armed soldiers were clad in the brazen helmet (cassis), shield (scutum), cuirass (lorica or thorax), and greaves (ocrece) ; they carried the short two-edged Span- ish sword (/xdxaipa), and a javelin (pilum), in place of which last, the triarii carried a spear (hasta). The velites wore a leathern helmet (galea), and carried a buckler (parma), Spanish sword, and several darts (hastce velitdres). 2. Reform of Marius. 158. This consisted in substituting the organization by Cohorts for that by maniples. The division into hastati, &c. (§ 155) was given up, and the legion contained only in- fantry, the cavalry being furnished by the allies as auxil- iaries. The legion consisted therefore of 10 cohorts of three maniples each. Each maniple had 20 men in front by 10 deep, so that the cohort contained 600 men, the legion 6,000. All the legionary soldiers were in full armor, carrying the Spanish sword and the pilum. The silver eagle was now made the standard of the legion. 159. The Praetorian Cohort was a select body of men acting as body-guard to the commander. Under the Em- pire the Praetorian Cohorts formed a standing army stationed at Rome, where they had an immense camp. It came in time to be the ruling power in the state. 160. The camp was made in the form of a rectangle, with two streets running at right angles through the middle point, groma. At the points where these touched the walls 94 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. were the four gates, the decumana, turned from the enemy, the prSEtoria, towards the enemy, and the principalis dextra and sinistra, at the right and left hand; the front part of the camp being where the legionary soldiers were posted, — towards the decumana. The PrSBtorium, or bead- quarters, was in the same part, in the middle of the chief street. 160^. After a successful campaign in a legitimate war, justum helium, against foreign foes, in which the dominion of the state had been extended, and 5,000 of the enemy slain in & single battle, the Imperator received by decree of the Senate the honor of a Triumph. He entered the city in a splendid procession, at the head of his army, and proceeded to the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus to offer sacrifice. — The Ovation was an inferior kind of Triumph. VII. LAW. 161. Civitas. Full citizenship, Jus Quiritium (§ 122), consisted in, — 1. Public rights, i. e. (1.) Jus Suffragii, the right of voting; (2.) Honor um, of holding office; (3.) Provocations (§ 162); and 2. Private rights, i. e. (4.) Connubii, of intermarriage, and (5.) Commercii, of trade. — The civil condition of a man was called his caput ; capitis deminutio was any loss of citizenship in whole or \n part. In tabulas Gcerltum referri, or to become an ^Erarius, was to lose the right of suffrage ; tribu moveri seems to signify ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 95 to be transferred to a less honorable tribe (§ 124), a punish- ment often inflicted by the Censors (§ 132). 162. Provocate. The right of appeal to the people from the decision of any magistrate (except in early times the Dictator, § 133), in cases in which the punishment was death, scourging, and afterwards heavy fines. This was looked upon as the bulwark of Roman liberty. Appellatio was the appeal to one magistrate from the decisions of another. 163. Twelve Tables. The laws made by the Decemvirs, B. C. 451, after an examination of Grecian institutions. These formed the foundation of Roman law; many ame- liorations of the ancient severity were introduced (see §§ 164, 165). 164. Matrimonium. The Patrician marriage was by con- far reatio, in which a cake made of spelt, far, was car- ried before the bride. The wife came thus into the manus or unlimited power of the husband. — By the laws of the Twelve Tables (§ 163), marriage by usus, or cohabitation, was made valid; but by passing once a year a space of three nights (Tvinoctium) out of her husband's house, the wife avoided the manus. — Another method was c o e m p t i o , or purchase by mancipatio (§ 166). 165. Patl'ia Potestas. The son as well as the wife was in the manus (§ 164) of the Paterfamilias, which gave power of life and death. By the Twelve Tables (§ 163) he could escape the manus by being thrice sold as a slave and emancipated (manu mittere) ; the first two times he returned into his father's manus, the third he remained free. 96 KOMAN ANTIQUITIES. This Patria Potestas extended to all sons, with their families, and all unmarried daughters. 166. Mancipatio. A formal sale, made in the presence of five or more witnesses. It was employed in the sale of res mancipi, i. e. real estate, slaves, cattle, and children ; other property being res nee mancipi. By this process Qui- ritarian ownership (dominium ex jure Quiritium) was con- veyed. 167. NeXlim. A contract for debt, entered into by for- malities similar to those of mancipatio (§ 166), by which on non-payment, with interest commonly at ten per cent, the debtor came into the creditor's power, who could make him work for him, keep him in chains, sell him into foreign lands {trans Tiberim), or put him to death. An Addictus was one who came into the relation of servitude to his creditor by regular process of law. The Nexus and Ad- dictus were not slaves, but in a servile condition. — MutUMll was a contract for debt resting on the mere transfer of money from one to another. 168. Agrarian Laws. The public land obtained by con- quest was under the management of the Senate, and usually divided among its members for a low rent. This was called Occupatio; the property of the land still remained in the state, but the occupiers came in time to consider it as their own, and it was bought and sold as such. The object of the various agrarian laws was to give the public land, in patches of generally seven jugera (§ 189), to the poorer citizens; this was called Assign atio. Tiberius Gracchus carried such a law, B. C. 133. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 97 169. Sumptuary Laws. Laws passed at various times to check the growth of luxury, by prohibiting display and lavish expenditures. 170. Parricidium, originally the murder of a parent, came by degrees to signify any murder. — ProditiO, treason, was aid given to a foreign enemy. — Perduellio, such hostile ac- tions as endangered the institutions of the state, such as usurpation of kingly authority (Sp. Cassius), interference with the rights of the Tribunate (Ti. Gracchus), &c. Such crimes came under the laws de Majestate (i. e. anything touching the sovereignty of the state). 171. Courts. The Praetors (§ 131) conducted trials, as well criminal as civil. Qucestiones Perpetuce, or special criminal courts, were established, the first for Extortion (Res Repetundm), B. C. 149 ; others for Bribery, Treason, Adultery, Counterfeiting, &c. — The court of the CentUDlviri (three from each tribe, § 134) had jurisdiction in cases of inheritance. — The judges (judices) in the Quastiones, ordi- nary or special, were originally taken from the Senators ; by a law of C. Gracchus, B. C. 121, from the Equestrian Order (§ 126) ; Sulla restored the privilege to the Senators; and a law, B. C. 70, enacted that they should be taken equally from Senators, Equites, and Tribuni Mrarii (§ 172). — Diem dicere signified to charge a person with any crime, and appoint a day for bringing the matter to trial. The judges voted with tablets marked A for absolvo, C for con- demno, and N L for non liquet. 172. Ee venue. This was derived chiefly from the prov- inces, and was managed by the Censors (§ 132). The 5* 98 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. public domain, consisting of arable and pasture lands and mines, metalla, was let. (The rent of the pasture-lands, pascua, was called scriptura.) Besides this, the provinces paid a fixed sum, stipendium, to the treasury. But Sicily and Asia, instead of the stipendium, paid vectigalia, con- sisting chiefly of the tithes, decuma, on agricultural produce: the collecting of these was let out to publicani. — The Tl'i- blltum was an extraordinary property tax (cf. eiV^opa, § 104) on Roman citizens, paid back when the exigency was passed. It was raised in the Tribes (§ 124), by officers called Tribuni- JErarii. The Vicesima was a tax of twenty per cent on inheritances and manumissions. The harbor duties were called Portorium. VIII. FESTIVALS. 173. Feri^: Stativ^e. Fixed Festivals. Mar. 1.— Kal. Mar. — Procession of the Salii (§ 149) to Mars Gradlvus (§ 57), continuing several days. " 17. — 16 Kal. Apr. — Libcralia, to Liber (§ 64), toga virilis (§ 184) assumed. Apr. 21.— 11 Kal. Mai. — Palilia, to Pales (§ 74); found- ing of the city. May 1.— Kal. Mai. — Festival of Bona Dea (§ 72) by the women. [ Ambarvalia; Procession of the " 17. — 16 Kal. Jun. or « 27.— 6 " Fratrcs Arvales to bless the fields. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 99 July 6. — Prid. Non. Jul. — Ludi Apollinares, lasting 8 days. " 15. — Id. Jul. — Transvedio Equitum, annual pro- cession of the knights (§ 125) in honor of Castor and Pol- lux (§ 82). Aug. 21. — 12 Kal. Sept.— Consualia, to Consus (§ 62). Rape of the Sabines. Sept. 15. — 17 Kal. Oct. — Ludi Romani or Maxirai (Circen- ses) ; for five days. Nov. 14. — 18 Kal. Dec — Epulum Jovis in Capitolio (§ 144). " 15. — 17 Kal. Dec. — Ludi Plebeii (Circenses), lasting 3 days. Dec. 17. — 16 Kal. Jan. — Saturnalia, to Saturn (§ 70), lasting 3 days. Feb. 15. — 15 Kal. Mar. — Lupercalia, feast of purification (§ 74). " 17. — 13 Kal. Mar. — Quirinalia, the disappearance of Romulus. » 23. — 7 Kal. Mar. — Tcrminalia, to Terminus (§ 66) ; riginally the end of the year ; boundaries re-estab- lished. " 24.— (§ 206.) — Regifugium, to celebrate the ex- pulsion of the kings. 174. The FeriSB Latillffi, an annual ceremony of great solemnity, were Ferice Conceptivce, i. e. on a day appointed by the consuls. The Ludi Ssculares, in honor of Apollo, were celebrated once in a hundred years. MISCELLANEOUS * # * We present a general view of the parts of the ship., house, dress, &c., giving the Greek and Roman names side by side. 175. Ship, Navis, NaOs. Prow, prora, 7rp6jpa. Stern, puppis, Trpvpvr). Beak, rostrum, ep,j3okos. Rudder, gubernaculum, 7rt]bd\iov. Mast, malus, ?9. 178. The principal apartment of the Temple was the Cella, Nao'y ; in large temples there was also a vestibule, Upovaos, and chamber in the rear, SmaOodoiios, in which the treasures were kept. Temples, like houses (§ 177), were usually lighted by an opening in the roof, vnaiOpov ; hence called hypcethral. Th'ey commonly had columns in front, at both ends, or all around (a peristyle), when they were called peripteral. The number of columns in front was regularly even, from two to ten in number ; on the side, the Greek temples had twice as many columns as in front, and one more ; e. g. the Parthenon (100 feet wide), being octa- style, had 17 columns along the side. Roman temples, on the other hand, had twice as many intercolumniations on the 102 MISCELLANEOUS. side as in front; thus, an octastyle temple, having 7 in- tercolumniations in front, had 14 on the side, and con- sequently 15 columns. There were also circular temples. Temples usually faced east or west. 179. There were properly three orders of architecture : the Doric, distinguished for massiveness and simplicity ; the Ionic, for grace ; the Corinthian, for richness of ornamentation. The gable was called the Pediment, and the space between the pediment and columns the Entablature, which was divid- ed into the Cornice, jutting out just below the pediment, the Frieze, usually adorned with- sculpture, and the Architrave, resting immediately on the column. The frieze was in the Doric order divided by perpendicular mouldings, triglyphs, into spaces called metopes. — The Tuscan order was a modi- fication of the Doric ; the Composite, an inelegant mixture of Ionic and Corinthian, used in Rome during the Empire. Theatre. 180. The Theatre was divided into the Stage, Orchestra (corresponding to our parquet), and Cavea, koiKov. The Scena, o-ktjvt}, was the wall back of the stage, on which was the scenery of the play, the curtain rising immediately in front of it. The stage proper was called Proscenium, and was always in view of the spectators. The Orchestra was used in Greek theatres for the chorus, and contained the 6vfj.eXrj, an altar of Dionysus. In Roman theatres it was occupied by Senators and other distinguished persons. The Cavea was formed of concentric rows of seats, rising one above another, with parallel passages called prcecinctiones, MISCELLANEOUS. 103 8ia£a>naTa, and divided by transverse stairways into wedge- shaped compartments called cunei. In the Grecian theatre the orchestra formed a complete circle, in the Roman, only a semicircle. 181. Amphitheatres were elliptical in shape, the cavea beinsr divided in the same general manner as in theatres. The central part was called the arena, and was used for gladiatorial combats ; sometimes it was flowed with water for the exhibition of mock sea-fights. -It was surrounded by a massive wall of masonry : above this was a balcony, called the podium, where the Emperor and other distin- guished persons sat. — When the people wished the life of a vanquished gladiator saved, they turned their thumbs down ; when one was wounded, they cried out, " Habet." 182. Plough, Aratrum, "Aporpov. Yoke, jugum, £vy6v. Mould-boards, aures. Pole, te?no, pvp.6s. Coulter, culler. Share, vomer, vvvis- Share-beam, dentcde, %\vpa. Handle, stiva, e'xeVX?; (held with the right hand). Plough-tail, buris, yvrjs (with the left). Dress. 183. The chief article of dress was the tunic, x«w; the Doric chiton had no sleeves, and reached about to the knees ; the Ionic had sleeves, and reached to the feet. The tunic was fastened round the waist with a girdle, zona, (wvrj; long tunics and sleeves were thought effeminate. 184. The peculiar Roman dress w r orn over this was the 104 MISCELLANEOUS. toga {gens togata), a long rounded shawl, thrown over both shoulders, but in such a manner that it could fall down in front, its folds forming the sinus, and leave the right arm free. The toga virllis, assumed by young men at the age of 16 (§ 64), was of the natural color of the wool ; while that of candidates for office, toga Candida, was whitened artifi- cially. The toga prcetexta had a broad purple border, latus clavus ; it was worn by children and the higher magistrates. Matrons wore the stola, reaching to the feet, instead of the toga. The Greeks wore in its place the pallium, I/jlcltiov, which was rectangular, or the xAa/zu's (scarf), which was oblong, and more delicate than the pallium. — The paluda- mentum was the military cloak worn by officers, the sagum being that of the common soldiers and of the northern nations ; the pcenula was a travelling-cloak. 185. Braccce (trousers) were only worn by barbarians {Galli braccati). — Sandals, solea, or sandalium, , = 1 — furlong. 30 Stadia = 1 Parasang, JJapaadyyijs , = 31— m. *#* The span was originally the distance from the tip of the thumb to that of the middle finger ; the cubit, from the elbow to the tip of the middle finger; the dpyvid, between the outstretched arms. 106 TABLES. 187. Roman. The true Roman subdivision of the foot was duodecimal, into 12 inches; but the Grecian measures, the finger-breadth (digitus) and palm (palmus), were also employed. 12 Inches, Uncia, = 1 Foot, Pes, == 11.65 in. 18 Inches = 1 Cubit, Cubitus, = 11- ft. 21 Feet = 1 Step, Gradus, = 21— ft. 5 Feet = 1 Pace, Passus, = 5— ft. 10 Feet = 1 Decempeda = 10— ft. 120 Feet = 1 Actus = 120— ft. 000 Paces = 1 Miliarium (Mille p lassuum) = l — mile. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 188. The Grecian unit was the Plethrum (the square of the linear Plethrum, § 186) ; the Roman, the Jugerum (twice the square of the Actus, § 187). Grecian. 100 Square Feet = 1 " kicaiva. = 100-j- ft. 25 "AKaivciL = 1 "Apovpa == 91-}- rods. 4 "Apovpai 1 UXedpov 189. Roman. = 1 — rood. The Actus Simpl 'ex was a strip of land 120 feet by 4. 5 Actus = 1 Uncia = 8-|- rods. 1| Unciae = 1 Clima = 1 2— j— rods. 4 CMmata = 1 Actus Quadratus = 1-}- rood. 2 Actus Quadrati (12 Uncia-) = 1 Jugerum = 2-j- roods. 200 Jugera = 1 Centuria = 124-f- acres. TABLES. 107 MEASUKES OF CAPACITY. 190. The Grecian and Roman measures correspond so nearly that we give them side by side. The Oi/athus, KCa6os (i gill), is common to all. 6 Cyathi Liquid. 1 Hemina, KotuXt;, • = V-Pt- 2 Heminae = 1 Sextarius, Eeo-TT/s, == 1— pt. 6 Sextarii = 1 Congius, Xovs, = 3— qt. 8 Congii = 1 Roman Amphora = 6— gal. 12 Xoes 1 'A/xcpopevs, or MerpjjT?)?, 191. Dry. 9— gal. 6 Cyathi = 1 Hemina, KotuXt;, = |-Pt- 2 Heminae = 1 Sextarius, Ee'orqs, = 1-pt. 2 SeVrat = 1 XoIvi£ (only Greek) = 1-qt. 16 Sextarii = 1 Modius, 'Ektcvs, = 1 — peck 6 'Enrels 1 Mefii/xi/os (only Greek) WEIGHTS. \\— bu. 192. The Roman pound, Libra, was about equal to three fourths of the Attic Mina. The values are given in terms of the Avoirdupois scale. 6 Oboli 100 Drachmae 60 Minae Grecian. 1 Drachma 1 Mina 1 Talent = 2-{- dr. = 1- lb. = 57 lb. 108 MONEY. 193. This table is that of the Attic silver weights, the Drachma = 66.5 Troy grains. This was the system most in use during the flourishing period of Greece. The values can be reduced to either of the other principal systems, according; to the following; ratios : — J c 3 : 5 72 : 100 6 : 5 Attic (Solonian) : JEginetan (Babylonian) Attic : Eubdic (Old Attic Ante-Solonian) JEginetan : Eubdic 194. Roman. The unit was the As or Libra, divided into twelve ounces, Uncice. The aliquot parts of the As are the Sextans, Quadrans, Triens, Quincunx, Semis, Septunx, Bes, Do- drans, Dextans, and Deunx ; equivalent respectively to 2, 3 &c. Uncice. 24 Scrupula = 1 Uncia = 1 — oz. 12 Unciae = 1 As or Libra = 12— oz. MONEY. 195. As money was originally reckoned wholly by weight, the denominations of weight (§§ 192-194) were also applied to the money system of the Greeks and Romans, and con- tinued to be so employed even after changes in the standard. The Drachma was the unit in the Grecian currency, the Sestertius (Sesterce) in the Roman. In comparing Roman with Grecian money, the Denarius (= 4 Sestertii) was considered equivalent to the Drachma ; it was really equal MONEY. 109 to f Drachma. As, in antiquity, silver was worth nearly a half more in relation to gold than at the present time, the value of the gold coins in the following tables is not reck- oned from the silver currency, but given absolutely as com- pared directly with American gold. 196. Grecian. 7 Lepta (Aenrov) = 1 Chalcus, XoKkovs, = $ 0.004— 8 Chalci = 1 Obol, 'OfioXos, = .03+ 6 Obols = 1 Drachma, Apax^tj = .18+ 20 Drachmas = 1 Stater, ^Tartjp, = [5.33] (§ 195) 100 Drachmae = 1 Mina, Mra, = 18.00+ 60 Mina3 = 1 Talent, TdXavrov, = 1080.00+ 197. The Lepton and Chalcus were copper coins; the Obol and Drachma, silver; the Stater (= the Persian Dari'c), gold; the Mina and Talent were not coined, but were denominations of value. Probably no gold was coined in Greece until the time of Alexander, but the Persian daric was extensively used. Roman. 198. The money of the Romans was in early times wholly copper, the unit being the As. This was nominally a pound, but actually somewhat less, in weight, and was divided into twelve Uncice. In the 3d cent. B. C. the As •was reduced by degrees to one twelfth of its original value. At the same time silver coins were introduced ; the Dena- rius = 10 Asses, and the Sestertius, or Sesterce (semis 110 MONEY. tertius, represented by IIS, or HS, == duo et semis) = 2£ Asses. The Sestertius, being probably introduced at a time when it was equal in value to the original As, came to be used as the unit (hence nummus was used as equivalent to Sestertius) ; afterwards, by the reductions in the standard, four Asses became equal to a Sesterce. Gold was intro- duced later, the Aureus being equal to one hundred ses- terces. — Sestertium (M) =1000 Sestertii was used as an expression of value, not as a coin. 199. -In the statement of sums of money in cipher, a line above the number indicated thousands ; lines at the sides also, hundred-thousands. Thus HS. DC. = 600 Sestertii. HS. DC. = 600,000 Sestertii, or 600 Sestertia. HS. JDCJ = 60,000,000 Sestertii. With the numeral ad- verb, hundred-thousands are also understood; as decies, decies HS., or decies sestertium, that is, decies centena millia sestertium, or ten times a hundred Sestertia = 1,000,000 Sestertii. 200. The following table applies to the last two centuries B. C.: — 4 Asses = 1 Sestertius = $ 0.04-}- 4 Sestertii = 1 Denarius = -16—}— 25 Denarii = 1 Aureus = [5.15] (§ 195) 1000 Sestertii = 1 Sestertium = 40.00-j- [Decies Sestertium = $ 40,000.] TIME. Ill TIME. Grecian. 201. The Greeks computed time by Olympiads of four years, following the celebration of the Olympic games (§ 112), which began each Olympiad. The celebration of the games in B. C. 776 was the first one employed for this purpose ; in order, therefore, to reduce Greek dates to years before Christ, the number of whole Olympiads past (i. e. the date diminished by one) must be multiplied by four, and the product subtracted from 71$. This will give the first year of the given Olympiad. E. g. the third year of the 79th Olympiad : 78 X 4 = 312 ; 776 — 312 = 464. B. C. 464 being the first year, the third will be 462. This is the only method which was universal in Greece ; indi- vidual states also reckoned by their magistrates, as the Archon in Athens (§ 94), and Ephor (§ 107) in Sparta. 202. The division into months was very various. The Athenian year began at the summer solstice, and was divided into twelve months, half of them full, i. e. of 30 days, half hollow, of 29 clays. Thus in an eweaeTrjpU, or cycle of eight years, there would be a loss of ninety days, which were inserted as intercalary months in the 3d, 5 th, and 8 th years of the cycle. 203. The Attic months were: — 1. 'EKaro/M/Satcoj/, 30 days, July; 2. Merayeiri'tcoi', 29 " August ; 3. BoqSpo/Aicoi/, 30 " September ; 4. Ilvave-^n&v, 29 5. MatpaKTeptav, 30 6. Hoaeidecov, 29 7. TaflT)\l.r](3o\ioiV, 30 10. Movwxiwv, 29 11. Qapy-qkujiV, 30 12. 2Kipo(j)opia)V 29 112 TIME. 29 days, October; November ; December ; January ; February ; March ; April ; May ; June. The intercalary month was inserted after noi/, and called Poseideon second. 204. The month was divided into three decades, which were called respectively larapeuov prjvos, pecrovvros pyvos, and co B .& a IS CO 5 CO , c — J B O O H 55 IS »T t 3 ^ H , O 55 '.2 h- 1 _., n CO & << CO B M ce CO 0J CO B P p 5 gn >— i M hH Is 3 , 3 O O n H 8 "as CO o e3 B B B CO 55 Pm > s a P 5 d CO o3 £ 2" 06 ,5 CD PR O CO o 1 J? 1 a £0 B B J co a n 5 cj o T3 CJ c5 3 09 g -i§_ - CB O -O- J > CO ^ O o bp la Ph B o- 1 CM 3 o I s p s Ph CM "e3 .2 s © "o a5 «4— o3 a CD fe. ° (N • CN » &JD s_ ^ • Cm o - bo •i-t 1 M co B — 5 b — ■ 5»» o CO fit — EJ ^ 1 s O B B -, rd O CO ,o CD o •II- 'h on pi P* o co 3 ~ 5 s O g _ CD co CO -3 CO * _2 ( pi 1 3 Ph « 2 6 o o "£ ^ » a d> d c? c? W * U o s pq a § c* 03 03 3 C? — £ go £8 a? . SO Sg ,"0 ESj n a" O to .SO l\ 1 : |pq U co •2 s Pi 1 ri Ph B 00 O WS to S Ph pq P- PS CO 83 Si c^ P-i OJ (N O 03 O CO PS — -! 23 "p. ci Ph d 13 co d 0? a O P. pq P- 6 «J§ f. • -a a n 3- _opq co _ ; •/ I g a .5Ph '3 *Cco bl ?; u3 o < c O 09 "o3 x 6 'aj 9. I' 3 s c }< 5 a W 8 ^ V*y.4l ,• y\ l WW. : /\ 5% • *& .i»»- ' A WORLO LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION f ■S?^ •:. ° 111 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111 H^" , *"* 4> - * • o. .4 O. i0^. .4 o.