m tjft' \Wl\ m^ im m ': ;i:jt| (iJJ- Glass O.M /tJ^yt Pnnk V 6 fi / v\V'' 5>^ / "— ~— UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 354 Contribotion from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. October 20, 1916 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE AND THEIR PHYSICAL AND ECONOMIC ENVIRONMENT By LOUIS S. MURPHY, Forest Examiner In Cooperation with tlie Goyernment of Porto Rico Board of CommlaaioiMra of Agriculture. John A. Wilson, Temporary President, Succeeded by Tulio Larrinaga, President CONTENTS Page Introduction 1 Physical and Economic Features: Geograpliic Situation 2 Physiography and Soils g Drainage 7 Climate 7 Land Distribution, Utilization, and Taxation 9 Population 16 Transportation Ig The Forest : Forested Condition and Distribution 21 Page The Forest— Continued Forest Formations 23 Forest Influences 36 Commercial Aspects 39 Forest Industries 44 Forest Products 46 Forest Problems 46 Insular Forest Policy 61 The Luquillo National Forest . . . fiS Appendices: I. Trees of Porto Rico 66 n. BIbUography »8 *»^ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICB 1916 ^"''^^T^/J/I D. of D. NOV 18 1916 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 354 ,„,^,,„ ^^jf ^- JjSi ^ Contribution from the Forest Service, '^^i^^'S/a^ .^^l^*^S^^ HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester J^ Ilerrera (see lybliography) describes the Luquillo as follows: "Ten leagues East-South-East from the City of Puerto Rico is a very high and great Mountain, with three Breaks on it, call'd del Luquillo, or of the little Madman, on Account of a revolted Indian [that withdrew to it. The highest Point of it is call'd Eurzidi, a Name given by the Blacks, signifying a place always clouded, and the third is call'd of the Holy Ghost." 'U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Chart 920, issued July, 1910. 3 These two together appear to be given the name " El Cacique " (The Indian Chief) by Gifford. De also names the round mountain to the west "El Toro" (The Bull), and the moimtaui next to it on the south "El Carnero" (The Sheep). Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate F„ Opening in Virgin Stand of Mixed Tropical Hardwoods. Near La Isolina (Arecibo). Rain-Forest Formation FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 5 elevation of 1,341 meters (4,398 feet), while "Mt. Guilarte," com- monly considered second to El Yunque, is 1,204 meters (3,950 feet). The many lateral ridges which diverge from the central mountains, mostly from the north side, are commonly very steep-sided and nar- row-crested, and the valleys are deep, V-shaped, and almost devoid of level bottom land. Rock outcrop is generally infrequent, except toward the outer portion, wliere the ridges are often capped with hard limestone. The central mountains are composed largely of black or other dark- colored igneous rocks, which occur in the form of tuffs, conglomerates, silts, and an occasional dike of diorite. Their volcanic forms have been destroyed by erosion. The material thus worked over into sedi- ment in prehistoric ages now occurs in well-defined strata. Two rela- tively inconspicuous limestone formations also occur, one black, bi- tuminous, and shaly, and the other light gray and crystalline. As a result of the almost uninterrupted action of an abundant pre- cipitation, a high relative humidity, and a warm temperature, rock weathering at the higher elevations is more rapid than erosion, as shown by a soil mantle of unusual depth and almost no bare indurated rock here. The characteristic soOs are deep, reddish clay loams and tenacious red clays. So cohesive, unctuous, and compact are these soils that they are able to maintain themselves in an almost vertical position. Cultivation, in consequence, is in many places carried on to the very tops of the ridges and on the steepest slopes, yet evidence of excessive erosion and landslides is surprisingly inconspicuous. At the lower elevations the sandy character of the soil and the more common occurrence of outcrop show that the rate of rock erosion has exceeded that of weathering. THE CORAL LIMESTONE BELT. The belt of coral Hmestone is several miles wide in places and on its interior border overlaps the igneous rocks. This area is of sedimen- tary origin. Where rock solution has been the most active agent of decay, it retains the general form of a table-land. Wliere erosion has been the most active only isolated conical hills remain. In certain parts of the island the limestone extends directly to the water's edge, where it terminates in steep scarps, often 100 feet or more in height, notably on the south coast west of Ponce and on the north coast west of Quebradillas. Elsewhere on the island the rem- nants of this formation stand as steep, sloping, solitary mounds or domes, which rise singly or in chains above the coastal plain. Along the junction of the central mountains and the limestone belt is a distinct line of weakness marking the former shore line. Strong valley lines are developed there, separating the two physiographic regions. These ' ' parting valleys " are especially well developed on the G BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. south side of the island in the valley of the Guanajibos at Sabana Grande, and on the north side at the junction of the Don Alonso (or Linion) and Arecibo Rivers. An uninterrupted block of Hmestone formation, known in places as the Pepino Hills/ occurs along the north side of the island from Ciales nearly to Aguadilla, and is some 6 to 10 miles wide from north to south. It offers a marked contrast to the low rounded limestone hills which flank it to the north, because of its greater elevation, rough, angular topography, pitlike valleys, bare rock outcrops of chalky whiteness, and subterranean drainage. Wherever the large rivers, such as the Rio Grande de Arecibo and the Manati, cross this area they have cut deep canyonlike valleys whose sheer cliffs of con- siderable height occasionally rise directly from the water's edge. Otherwise the area is strikingly devoid of surface drainage features. The hills are very closely packed together, their connecting ridges hardly more than rocky septums separating the disconnected pitlike valleys. The steep-sided depressions show, on a tremendous scale, to what an enormous extent rock solution takes place under tropical conditions. The region, if viewed from above, would look hke a honeycomb. Not infrequently the "sinks" are 100 feet and occasionally 200 feet or more deep. The larger pits sometimes contain an acre or more of bottom w^th a very fertile soil, commonly under cultivation to such crops as coffee, bananas, and ground provisions. The bottoms of others are occupied by bogs or small lakes. The crags and summits are almost invariably wooded. Caves, which mark the early stages of pit formation, are common. Travel here is extremely difficult. Roads are out of the question and the trails are not numerous and are extremely rough. There is no alternative Ijut to cross the pits in succession, descending to the bottom of one and then climbing to the rim of the next almost straight down and straight up again. THE COASTAL PLAIN. The sandy ridge fronting the coast forms a barrier between the sea and a narrow low-lying area scarcely above tidewater level, and partly marine and partly alluvial in origin. On the north side of the island there are many swamps and lagoons covered with a thick growth of mangrove bushes. The most typical are the Cafio y Laguna de Tiburones between Arecibo and Barceloneta, Laguna del Tortuguero north and east of Manati, and the string of lagoons east of and cormected with the harbor of San Juan. On the south side, I The term "pepino" (cucumber) undoubtedly refers to the appearance of the elongated mammillary summits of the hills. An eciuaUy characteristic term, "cockpits," applied to a similar formation in Jamaica is descriptive of the valley bottoms. I FOEESTS OF POETO EICO. 7 the mangrove is only slightly developed, but there are in places extensive saline plains too low and wet for cultivation, where rank grasses, a few scattered acacias, or low, succulent, salty herbs con- stitute the oply vegetation. The coastal plain proper is elevated but a few feet above the sea, and has but a slight gradient toward the mountains. It termmates rather abruptly at the foothills, except in the valleys of the larger rivers. These plains are entirely sedimentary, having been laid down when the island stood at a somewhat lower level than now. The coast-plain hills are isolated, low, and dome-shaped. Some have been nearly buried by the alluvial deposits of the rivers ; others rise 100 feet or more above the level of the plain. The soil, except on the hills, is largely a fine, rich alluvium, sandy in places, and is almost entirely under cultivation or in pasture. DRAINAGE. It would be difficult to find another country of its size so well watered as Porto Rico. Within the mountainous area are many swift-flowing streams which have cut for themselves deep, steep- sided valleys. In their upper courses they traverse steep, angular gorges, where numerous cascades and cataracts are to be found, par- ticularly in the Sierra de Luquillo. The peculiarity of the drainage system where it passes from the central mountain into the limestone region has already been described. Within the coastal plain the valleys are broad, with considerable areas of bottom land through whcih the rivers pursue a meandering course. The streams flowing liorth from the main divide are much more numerous and longer than those from the south side, and they likewise carry a much greater and more constant volume of water. The island is reported to have upward of 1,300 named streams, of which the Rio de la Plata is con- sidered the longest, about 45 miles. None of the rivers is naviga- ble, except for small boats, and then chiefly in their tidal reaches. They, nevertheless, are of tremendous importance as a source of domestic water supply, and their power possibiUties are also very considerable. CLIMATE. Though Porto Rico is well within the Tropics, it has an equable and comfortable climate, for the modifying influences of the ocean are accentuated by its position in the direct path of the North Atlantic trade winds. These counteract the enervating effect of the high temperature and humidity, the occasional periods of sultry and oppressive weather invariably occurring when they fail. They vary in direction from northeast to southeast, usually coming from east or east-southeast. Their average velocity from month to month is 8 BULLETIN S'A, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. remarkably constant, rarely varying more than a mile from the annual average of 11 miles per hour, excepting in July, when the velocity rises to 13 miles, and in October and November, when it falls to 8 or 9 miles. Hurricanes whose centers pass over the island are rare; in the past 40 years there have been but three, the most recent as weU as the most destructive being that of August 8, 1899. The recorded stonns of this character for the entire West Indies average about one a year and occur chiefly during the months of August, September, and October. TEMPERATURE. The temperature throughout the year is uniform. The records of the United States Weather Bureau for a period of more than 10 years show a combined average annual temperature for over 40 stations in the island of 76°; during the coolest months of winter the average is 73° and during the warmest months of summer 79°. The daily range is much more than the seasonal range; thus at San Juan the difference between the afternoon and early morning temperature is 10° or 11° and at an inland station may be as much as 20° or 25°. In the afternoon the temperatures along the coast rise to an average of 84° in the winter months and to 89° in the summer months and in the early morning fall to 66° and 73°. In the hills and mountains of the interior the average daily maximum is about 81° in whiter and 87° in summer, while the corresponding minima are 61° and 68°, respectively. The extremes of temperature recorded during the past 10 years do not differ greatly in different portions of the island. At the more elevated stations the maximum range is between 90° and 95° and along the coast and in the vaUeys 95° and 100°. The extreme maxi- mum has reached 100° only three times during the 10 years, at one time reaching 103°. The minimum temperatures range between 50° and 55° except for stations on the immediate coast, where the tem- perature seldom goes below 60°. The lowest recorded temperature is 43°, and it is probable that on the highest elevations it goes some- what lower. It is, however, extremely doubtful if it ever approaches very near to the frost line. RAINFALL. The average annual rainfall is much more variable than the temperature. The average for a 12-year period from 44 stations shows 77.30 mches; for the year 1901 it was 93.72, and for 1907 but 64.18. The geographic distribution of rainfall shows a still wider variation. The heaviest is recorded in the Sierra de LuquiUo, which is exposed to the fuU sweep of the moisture-laden trade winds. Tlie average annual rainfall here exceeds 135 inches, with a maximum FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 9 record in 1901 of 169 inches. There are two other well-defined areas where the average annual rainfall exceeds 100 inches, namely, the peaks about Adjuntas and the mountains surrounding Las Marias and Maricao, San Sebastian, and Lares, in the central and west-central portions, respectively, of the Cordillera Central. These centers of heavy precipitation are likewise centers of heavy forestation. Except for the Luquillos, the forests are artificial ones, being largely coffee plantations, yet their influence on climate is in all respects similar. While abundant rain and the absence of protracted droughts char- acterize conditions on the nortli side of the island, the reverse obtains to the south, where several months may elapse with little or no rain. Here precipitation is not only scanty but unevenly distributed through- out the year. The average annual rainfall for the stations along and near the south coast is 45 inches. The minimum average annual rainfall of 37 inches is recorded at Guanica, while 21 inches in 1907 is the absolute recorded minimum of recent years. The rainfall on the whole island increases from 11 inches in the winter months (February being the lightest) to 16 inches during the spring, 23 inches during the summer, and 26 inches during the fall. The maximum generally occurs in September on the east coast, in October along the south coast, and in November along the north coast. The rainfall is largely in the form of showers, which, although fre- quently very heavy, seldom last over 10 or 12 minutes. Rain for a day or more at a time is comparatively rare. Rain falls practically every day in the year over some portion of the island, except possibly a few days in February. For the island as a whole the average number of days in a year with rain is 169, the minimum and maximum frequency are 28 at Guanica on the south coast in 1907 and 341 in the Sierra de Luquillo in 1900, respectively. The average humidity for the island is about 78 per cent, the minimum in the driest month, 75 per cent, and the maximum in the most humid, 81 per cent. land distribution, utilization, and taxation. Land Distribution. The land policy of Spain appears to have been conceived in a spirit of gi'eat liberahty. It not only provided for the usual extensive grants to the gi-andee and to the soldier of fortune, but also offered encouragement to the bona fide settler of small means. The first law,^ promulgated by Ferduiand V under date of June 18, 1513, a scant 20 years after the discovery of America, granted settlers free title to holdings of something in excess of 170 acres, upon compliance with i"Law First" (See Recapitulation de Leyes de los Reinos de las Indias, Book 4th, Title 12th). Translation by Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Department. 10 BULLETIN 354, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. certain requirements concerning residence and cultivation, resembling very strikingly our own national homestead act, passed 350 years later. GOVERNMENT LANDS. By 1830 the Government had disposed of approximately half of the island, and between that time and the Spanish-American War had given away about nine-tenths of the remainder. The rest of the Cro%\ai lands, which, by the Ti'eaty of Paris, December 10, 1898, became the property of the United States, amoimt, as nearly as can be ascer- tained from the records,^ to 147,971 acres, of which 7,400 acres are classified as swamp land. Tliese lands, except a small amount reserved for Federal use, were ceded by act of Congress approved July 1, 1902, to the people of Porto Rico. Some 3,000 acres in addi- tion have reverted to the local government in defaidt of taxes. Thus the entire public domain, including Federal and insular lands, amounts to less than 151,000 acres. By far the greater part of this land lies in the mountains. Except for a few of the more accessible tracts, comparatively little is known about its present condition, or even its location, smce in only one or two instances has any survey or detailed examination been made. General information gathered in the vicinity of some of the larger tracts indicates that only a very small amount of this land supports a productive forest, except a tract in the Sierra de Luquillo. Tlie greater part is at present an idle, unproductive, grass or brush covered waste. In some few instances it is so situated as to be suitable for coffee culture, but in the aggregate it is of slight agricultural value, though it has a large potential value as forest land. PRIVATELY OWNED LANDS. Figure 2^ indicates for the years 1828, 1900, and 1912 the compara- tive areas of public lands and of private lands under cultivation to different crops, under pasture, and midcr forests. In 1828, while slightly over half of the island, was privately owned, scarcely more than 3 per cent was under cultivation. Agriculture was then carried on largely for the production of home staples. Thus plantains, Indian corn, and rice covered more than half, while the commercial agricultural staples of to-day, cane, coffee, and tobacco, together covered scarcely one-fourth of the whole cultivated area. Between 1828 and the end of the Spanish regime the area under culti- vation had increased to about 13 per cent. Nearly half of this was in coffee, and somewhat more than one-fifth of the remainder in cane. I See report of the Commissioner of the Interior for Porto Rico, 1909. 2 Compiled from Fliiiter's "Porto Rico," containing the ofTicial returns for 182S, from Knapp's "ARri- cultural Resources and Capabilities of Porto Rico," and tlic summary of tax assessment (corrected to Aug. 10, 1912) in Report of the Govenior of Porto lUco, 1912. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 11 fB28 3.38% During the same period the area of so-called pasture land had more than doubled, so that it exceeded in extent all the other land classes combined, and privately owned forests had mcreased slightly. Private owner- ship was thus almost doubled, having absorbed nearly 05 per cent of the total land area. During the period of American occu- pation the cultivated area has nearly doubled, amounting m 1912 to 23.28 per cent,^ Of this area cane covers a trifle more than two-fifths, coffee more than one-third; minor fruits about a fifth, and tobacco, coconuts, oranges, and pineapples, in the order named, the remainder. This agricultural ex- pansion has been carried on about equally at the expense of "pasture" and "timber and brush" lands. On account, however, of the much greater area of pasture lands, these were rela- tively little affected in the aggregate, while the forest lands were reduced nearly two-fifths. There is no information available showing the average-size holdings in the various classes of property or in what proportion the economically de- veloped lands are held in conjunc- tion with the waste and forested lands. The data upon which the dia- grams (fig. 3) are based most nearly approach this information by showing for the assessment area analyzed the proportion of the total, "by num- ber" and "by area" of the farms in certain acreage groups. "^otJ^ PUBLIC LAND tZm PRIVATE LAND CULTIVATED LAND Fk^ PASTURE \ [TIMBER AND BRUSH mmilD UNCLASSIFIED *■ (1912 ONLY)- Fig. 2.— Land in Porto Rico. The changes from public to private ownership and the main uses to which it is put. 1 This figure differs from the one (56 per cent) given in the Register of Porto Rico for 1910, which also varies from the so-called ''improved area" (75.3 per cent) given by the Thirteenth Deceimial Census (1910). Both of these percentages have included in them a considerable area of so-called "pasture" land. The grass land in the low country might be considered "improved," because it is used part of the time as pasture and is then plowed up and put into cane, but it is impossible to conceive of more than one-fourth to one- half of the total of land classified as "pasture" as being thus alternately cropped and pastured. This would make the "improved" acreage aggregate 35 to 50 per cent of the total territorial domain. The remaining one-half to three-fourths of the land classed as " pasture ' ' could more properly be classed as waste land or "ruinate, "-as is done in Jamaica and elsewhere, because it serves no productive economic use. 12 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wo find 91.34 per cent of all farms have an area less than 100 acres each, wliich would indicate a wide popular distribution of the land in small holdings. But the average area per farm in this group is only 21.4 acres; so that by far the greater number of individual holdmgs must be much less than 20 acres.^ It is not surprising, therefore, that the remaining 8,GG per cent of the whole numl^er of farms covers 55 per cent of the total farm area, or that these farms have an average of about 280 acres per farm. With 93 per cent of the land in private ownership, the success of any reforestation work attempted by the Government will depend in a large measure upon the cooperation which can be secured from the private landowner. The conditions are the most unfavorable in the mountain region, where there is a considerable proportion of Acreage Groups . I to too Acres (9f.34-%) ^ /O/ to 200 Acres (S.02%) 201 to500 Acres (/.63%) 20 /to 500 Acres (l.l4-%) 50lto/500Acres( .87%) and over Acreage Groups I to /GO Acres (44.72%) ^ -Number of Farms - Percent 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 10 Area of Farms -Percent 20 30 40 50 60 70 SO 90 /GO fOI to 200 Acres (/6.26%} ^^ 201 to500Acres(9.l9%) 201 to400 Acres (5.56%) 40/ to500Acres(4.67fo) ^ 501 to/OOOAcres (/0. 27%) P /OO/ to l500Acres(4. 22%) ^ (5.09%)^ 1501 and over Fig. 3.— Distribution of land ownership in Porto Rico by acreage groups and number and area of farms. From data compiled by bureau of property taxes, Government of Porto Rioo. small holdings, from which as a class very little cooperation can be expected. In addition to the small farms, there are a few coffee and tobacco plantations. Much of the land, however, is not even under smaU-farm cultivation. Vast stretches of it are nothing more than grass land, which is classed for assessment purposes as "pasture." In the coastal country the holdings are larger and offer better possi- bilities for cooperation. Many of the coast hiUs are already wooded, while others have been cleared for pasture. Here the need for forests on account of their protective influence on water and soil is not of importance, but the demand for wood is obviously urgent. Forests are needed in this particular section also as a refuge for birds, which are an important factor in controlling msect pests in the cane fields, besides beino; of esthetic value. 1 According to the census of 1890, 51 per cent of all farms were less than 5 acres in extent, wliile the Thir- teenth Deceimial Census (1910) reports 72 per cent of all farms less than 19 acres in extent. ■17 30 ii==4^ 5515 Or^/,S.„^r/ THE NOKRIS PETERS CO.. WASHINCTON. O. C. PORTO RICO AND CONTIGUOUS ISLANDS UNDER ITS JURISDICTION er THE //AR DEPARTMe C A R I B B E A .r,.ntE|.,„,„„rfp, FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 13 Land Utilization. Porto Rico is essentially an agricultural country and wiU undoubt- edly continue as such. Of its commercial staple crops — sugar, coffee, and tobacco — only the first two are important competitors of the forest from an acreage point of view, tobacco occupying less than ] per cent of the insular area. Coffee cultivation is a most satisfactory form of agriculture for the steep mountain slopes where it is carried on and its replacement of the forest is usually justified, for it exerts many of the beneficial influences of the forest and few of the detrimental ones of the field crops. Sugar might be said to offer little economic competition with forests, because it usually occupies the more level and strictly agricultural soils. Cattle raising was early taken up, and there was formerly a very considerable export trade in live stock, hides, and tallow. The total live stock now on the island amounts to not more than 350,000 to 400,000 head, and there is no export trade whatever. Cattle and horses make up nine- tenths of the stock (cattle alone three-fourths), the larger part of which is work stock. These are, to a considerable extent, used in the low country and are grazed in the 'pastures there. There seems, therefore, to be little economic justification for any longer retaining the bulk of the cleared uplands in pasture. Their partial or complete reforestation would add materially to the pro- ductive wealth of the island. It is in the cultivation of native ground provisions — rice, yams, and the like — that agriculture comes into closest contact with the forest. From time immemorial, not only in Porto Rico but through- out the Tropics the world over, the same primitive agricultural prac- tice has prevailed. Wherever it is in operation the "conuco," or by whatever other name ^ the method is Ivnown, is essentially the same. Upon the area which it is desired to cultivate all the trees are felled and set on fire. Sometimes the larger ones are killed by girdling and allowed to remain standing. Clearing is most apt to occur during the dry season, when conditions are most suitable both for burning and for planting the new crop. Little or no care is taken to control the fire and it often burns over a far greater area than is wanted for cultivation. The beans, rice, or other ground provisions are planted immediately following the burning, the ashes having enriched and sweetened the soil. Little or no cultivation is given the crop, and cropping seldom continues for more than 3 years. Eventually, as the fertility of the soil decreases and grass, weeds, and other volunteer growth get the upper hand, the area is aban- doned and a new clearing made. > What is known as the "conuco" in Porto Rico and other of the Spanish West Indies is known in the Philippines as caingin, in India variously as jhum, kumri, and khil, in Burma as juangya, and in Ceylon as chena or hena. The same practice is also reported from the Sudan, Central America, and many other parts of the Tropics. 14 BULLKTIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The best types of forest are invariably the on(\s first selected, because they give the richest ash and arc less difHcult to clear than areas of small, thorny growth. Thus for a meager crop of native provisions a vahial)le timber crop is destroyed, which it will require a generation and more to reproduce. Where the amount of available land is scarce an area may be successively cut over several times at intervjds, the parts cleared becoming naturally reforested again between cuttings. WTiere, how- ever, climatic, particularly moisture, conditions are not favorable it may be difficult or impossible for the forest to reestablish itself in competition with a grass cover. In such cases the succeeding forests may grade from a dense thorny growth through chaparral and low brush, or a very fragmentary scattered tree growth, to open savanna and even desert. It is almost certain that the vast and almost totally unproductive area of so-called pasture land in the central mountain section is the direct result of this practice, which is even now being extensively carried on in all its primitiveness. The total lack of property survey, lax title registration, and the free and unmolested operation of. the prescriptive right have made it easy for this devastating practice to thrive. Legislation can and ought promptly to be undertaken to eliminate these contributory causes. But the government must go farther. There must be a serious educational campaign combining, unifying, and extending the work of the public-school system, the agricultural experiment station, and any other agencies working for rural betterment, until there can be instilled into the mind of the "conuco " farmer a proper regard for the fimdamentals of economic agriculture, by which con- tinuous cultivation under a suitable rotation of crops will be substi- tuted for the present nomadic system. To give force and effect to that campaign the government must, of course, provide these people with the means of acquiring the land and other essentials to the practice of such improved agriculture. Taxation. The same archaic provisions are in force in Porto Rico for the taxa- tion of forest property as are to be found throughout the United States. The system of taxing the forest annually is unjust and dis- criminatory, encouraging forest destruction. In a country'- like Porto Eico, with practically no forest resources, it becomes proliibitory as well. Certainly few will elect to plant new forests or apply forestry to improve the productiveness of forests already there if by so doing they merely invite an increased assessment and taxes. The system, in fact, offers a distinct incentive to the owner to destroy what timber there is, so that there will remain but the bare land to tax. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 15 Under these circumstances the law should make it possible for the forest to bo classed as a crop. The growing of a forest is no less desirable to encourage than the growing of a crop of sugar cane, coffee, or tobacco; yet these latter are exempted entirely from taxation, while the forest is classed as an "immovable" and taxed annually at its full value. There is little wonder, under these circumstances, that no effort is made to practice forestry, which would inevitably increase the extent and value of the forest; or that the value of this class of property has decreased regularly from year to year, and for the fiscal year 1912-13 amounted, both timber and land together, to but 3.3 per cent of the total assessed value of all real property. The law should at least provide that the land and timber be classi- fied, assessed, and taxed independently of one another. The average forest crop requires several years, often decades, to mature. During tliis period it yields little or no revenue whatever. It is only fair to the producer of such a crop that his taxes be arranged to fall due in large part at the time when the crop matures and is sold. This, may be accomplished in one of three ways. If the owner pays throughout the entire period a tax based on the full productive value of the bare land, then the timber should be exempted entirely. At most it should be taxed but once — on its sale value as it stands in the forest in the year that it is cut. The rate in this case should be the same as that applied to all other real and personal property for that particu- lar year. A second method is to defer collecting any tax on the land until the timber is cut and then to take both the land and timber tax out of the sale value of the standing timber in that year. The rate in this case would, of course, have to be considerably higher than the general property tax rate and would properly be graduated accord- ing to the length of the period since the previous tax was paid. Ji. combination of these two methods, modified according to circum- stances, though less just to the landowner, would be at once an advance over the present plan and the most likely to be acceptable to the community. Thus an annual tax on the land would be levied either at the full general property rate on a nominal fixed value for the bare land or at half or other fractional part of the general prop- erty rate on the full productive value of the bare land. Then when the timber was cut, it, too, would be taxed, but at a rate corre- spondingly higher than the general property rate, say 10 per cent. Porto Rico is fortunate in that it has no constitutional obstacles to remove before it can proceed to a change. Neither the organic act nor any of the subsequent acts of Congress puts any specific restric- tions on taxation. It is only necessary, therefore, in order that this unjust discrimination against forests and forestry may be removed, to induce the legislative assembly to amend the present law. 16 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A docidotUy favorablo feature of the present taxation system of the island is its centralized organization. The insular government assumes the responsibility for the assessment and collection of all taxes, general and municipal, thus reducing the chances of inequali- ties being introduced between urban and rural properties, and be- tween similar classes of property in different muntcipalities. Until, however, there can be effected a complete caJjtstral survey of the island, makmg possible the enforcement of compulsory title regis- tration and the assessment of land values based thereon, any system of taxation, no matter how adequate, must, as now, be a dead letter in its real property provisions; and the present practice of "distrain- ing personal property for all taxes due and only proceeding on real property when no personal property exists" must continue. POPULATION. Porto Rico has had a steady increase in population since Columbus found 30,000 native Indians ^ on the island, except in the early years of settlement, when through confhct, disease, emigration, and slavery, the native population was rapidly reduced to a state approaching extinction. Although it was reported in 1543 that but 60 Indians remained on the island, it is probable that relatively pure Indian stock persisted in the mountainous sections up to comparativelj^ recent times.^ Here, too, the aboriginal type of feature is readily discernible to-day and the primitive method of "conuco" cultivation is most commonly encountered. Because of extensive slave importations almost from the beginning of settlement and the correspondingly slow colonization up to the middle of the eighteenth century, as late as 1820 the negro popu- lation outnumbered the white by 5 to 4. At present, however, the white race dominates all others by more than 7 to 4. Except for . Cuba, there is no other island in tlie West Indies where this condition is even closely approximated, all but two showing 10 per cent or less of white people. Porto Eico has also a smaller proportion of negro population than most of the southern seaboard States. The density of population in Porto Rico is phenomenal, particularly as there is a great preponderance of rural inhabitants. It is exceeded in but few of the other West Indies, is 1 per cent more than in China, and slightly more than in Japan. Porto Rico, with 325.5 persons per square mile (79.9 per cent rural), ranks fourth among the political subdivisions of the American territory,^ after Rhode Island with 508, Massachusetts with 418.8, and New Jersey with 337.7. On the 1 Fewkes, Jesse Walter, "The Aborigines of Porto Rico," 25th Annual Report, Buieau of Ethnology, 1907. 2 Flinter (see bibliography) remarks that there were in 1832 Indian families living m the niountamous interior. 8 Thirteenth Decennial Census (1910), FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 17 basis of rural population alone, Porto Rico, with 260 country people per square mile, outnumbers its nearest competitor, New Jersey, by more than 3 to 1, and Rhode Island by 17 to 1. Furthermore, Porto Rico's rural population density alone outranks the total popu- lation density of any but the three States mentioned (fig. 5). The distribution of population in Porto Rico is remarkably even, and the centers of area and population are less than 5 miles apart tlOOM One Mi///on 900M eoo*f 700M 600M SOOM 400M JOOM BOOM ZOOM JOM / / r ? y / I y / ■ V .f ' ! p / <9 ^ 1 /^ o'k/'^ rtTTTnTf ill ^ y c4 m ■1 / There is authentic information concerning one cedro cut within the last 6 years from the south side of the range, the stump of which yet remains and measures 18 feet in circumference (5J feet in diameter). Several attempts are reported to have been made before a purchaser could be found for this tree because of its size and the difHculty of felling it and moving it away with the ordinary means at hand. Another, still standing at the present time, measures 25 feet 5 inches in circumference. » An instance called to the attention of the writer relative to one of the secondary peaks visited by him in 1912 toward the south side of the range (elevation 3,000 feet) suggests the possibility of the hurricane of 1898 being at least a contributory cause of the low cover found on these exposed sites and led to the selection of the name " hurricane hardwood " type to designate this growth. An American resident said that at the time she took up residence there in the winter of 1899-1900 this peak was stripped entirely bare of all vege- tation and that it remained so for 2 to 3 years afterward. Gradually it showed patches of green and eventually became entirely covered. The present stand is a dense young growth of yagrumo, palma de sierra, and other of the poorer quality hardwoods. It may be significant that Dr. George Eggar, quoted by Hill, does not remark on the presence of such a growth at the time of his exploration of El Yunque iu 1887, when a more normal growth may have been present. 32 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. moisture by the clouds, which leave the suininits of these mountains only intermittently during a considerable part of the year. Although commercially of no value whatever, this scrub growth is tremendously important hi protecthig the exposed slopes from erosion. Palma de sierra occurs throughout the uplands and in places in sufhcient numbers to dominate the stand, forming what may be called the "sierra palm" typo. This occurs alike on the exposed easterly slope and in the protected basins, often where the land is rough and stony and windfall most likely. Consequently it is quite likely a temporary type brought about through windstorm or other accident to the original stand. In the protected locaUties the associated species comprising the more valuable hardwoods are numerous and usually well developed, so that the growth is not without commercial value and future possibihties. At present these two types — the " hurricane hardwood " type, of no commercial value, and the "sierra palm" type, only partially merchantable — aggregate about half the forested area and dominate the mountain tops and exposed uplands of the Luquillo. ^ KAIN FORESTS OP THE EASTERN TROPICS. Many valuable species, including the great natural order of the Dipterocarpaceae, find their homes in the luxuriant rain forests of the Philippines, the other East Indies, and the neighboring mainland. The different trees of this order by the variety of their woods, varying from those resembling our soft pine to the heaviest and hardest cabinet woods, are suitable to almost every conceivable use. Several are gregarious and form more or less pure forests, as for instance the eng (Dipterocarpus tuherculatus) of Burma, the hora {D. zeylanicus) of Ceylon, also Vatica obscura and V. roxburghiana of Ceylon. Other forests are dominated by members of this natural order. Thus, in the moister forests of Ceylon there are portions composed almost entirely of different species of Doona, freely mixed with Dipterocarpus, Shorca, Stemonoporus, Hopea, and along rocky gullies Valeria. In the Philippines 70 per cent of the total stand of timber is said to consist of trees of this family. Economically, therefore, this natural order is a verj' important one, for besides its major timber products it yields many A-aluable minor products, as camphor from Dryabalanops aromatica, gum resin and dammar from several species of Shorea, Doona, and Dipterocarpiis, and so on. The tribe of the bamboos also finds in these wet tropical forests its greatest development. Besides the above there are many species of value both in the East Indies and on the mainland, in Africa, and tropical Australia and Queensland. This region, not to mention the resources of tropical America, affords opportunity for almost infinite selection for introduction by which to repair any deficiencies in commercial qualities of the Porto Rican tree flora. Dry Deciduous Forests. The dry deciduous formation known in others of the West Indies and in Central America and Mexico as chaparral was in pre-Colum- bian times the second most extensive. Typically a formation of the semiarid region, it dominated the south coast lands, foothills, plains, and lower slopes of the central mountains from Patillas to Hormin- Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate V. Fig. 1.— South Slopes of Luquillo Mountains. Cleared almost to the summit. " La Florida," the fruit farm in the foreground, is in the southeast corner of the Forest on the Rio Blanco. The elevation here is about 100 feet while the peak in the background, scarcely 2 miles distant, is 3,000 feet above sea level. ^'«r"?e:E| «fc.- FiQ. 2.— Luquillo Mountains from the North. Valley of Rio Maneyes in foreground. El Yunque, elevation 3,483 feet, at the right. Smoke in the middle ground probably from the burning of cane refuse after the harvest. LOQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST. Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VI. ^ ..'- FiQ. 1.— The Wooded Summit of El Yunque, from Las Piedras, a Rock Bald Close to the Summit. Note the sierra palms mixed groupwise in the hardwood stand. F-20022A FiQ 2 -Vi^w TO the East from El Yunque, Showing the Outline of the East Coast from Cape San Juan Southward. The greater part ci the forested tract in the foreground belongs to the insular governmenl Note thc^smoke in the right center from a charcoal pit or conuco clearing, doubtless. LUQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 33 gueros (not far from one-fourth the area of the island), as well as Vieques, Culebra, Mona, and the other outlying islands. It still occupies to a large extent the thin-soiled, rugged limestone hills, and has extended itself on the poorer soils of the north coast, principally at the expense of the dry tidal woodlands and moist deciduous forests of the limestone formation. In both situations, however, its compo- sition is somewhat modified through the persistence of some of the more tenacious species of the formations displaced. On the deeper soils of the more gentle slopes and plains of the south coast country back from the streams the dry deciduous forest has in large meas- ure been displaced by agriculture — nomadic agriculture originally which burned and destroyed the forests and planted on their ashes. This land once cleared and then abandoned reverts to a forest growth with extreme difficulty, if at all. The open grass-covered savanna is the general result, with but here and there a tree where a particu- larly large individual escaped destruction or local conditions favored its getting a start and enabled it to compete with the turf. A tran- sitional form of forest which might be called the "savanna forest" may occasionally be met with where the open savanna and the true forest join. Here the most hardy and drought-resisting varieties of trees form open stands in the grassy waste. Although the dry deciduous forests vary from the closed chaparral form to that of the open savanna, they have certain well-defined characteristics. They are more or less leafless during the several months of the dry season and have a generally brown and parched appearance, evergreen trees such as the pajuil (86) being rare. Grass and other herbaceous growth under and between the trees is almost always present. Lianas are small and slender and absent entirely from the more open parts of the formation. Tillandsia (Spanish moss) festoons many of the trees and is the most conspicuous and most common among the epiphytes, here known collectively as pinuelas. There are a few other bromeliads and an occasional orchid. Exceedingly characteristic also of the formation are the pitajaya (120) and tuna (120), the tree cactuses and opuntias. The trees themselves, rarely over 30 feet high, are short and thick- bodied, have a thick, fissured bark and a light, open, feathery crown which in the open is very apt to be flat-topped and umbrella-shaped, or to have its branches and foliage arranged in tiers. Leguminous trees with thorny branches and fine, usually firm-textured compound leaves, are particularly characteristic. Among the more common of these are guava (36), guama (37), tachuelo (54), cobana negra (44), algarrobo (45), campeche (50), moca (58), and many others. The wood of many of these trees is extremely heavy, hard, and durable. 21871°— Bull. 354—16 3 34 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Among nonloguminous trees are guayacan (60), jobo (87), almacigo (70), tea (64), guano (107),ucar (126),qucbra hacha (94), and a host of others. The ceiba (105) is a conspicuous tree of the open savanna.' Old Field Growth. The old field type is an incidental and temporary one, in many places in a formative state. It varies considerably from place to place, the designation having been selected for all situations where there is a manifest tendency of land formerly cultivated and now more or less covered witli grass to revert to forest. This tendency is at present general except on some dry south coast situations. The palm-studded hills most strikingly display this effort of nature to restore the balance. Palms, through their ability to grow in dry situations, are to that extent admirably adapted to assume this pioneer role. Their poor reproductive capacity, with the possible exception of the palma de sierra, renders them less aggressive than they othei-wise might be. Another conspicuous old field pioneer growth is the poma rosa (133). The ''pomarosa" type is very con- spicuously developed on the uplands between Cayey and Guayama and in the vicinity of Aibonito. Natural reforestation even by this apparently more aggressive tree is slow. This may be due in part to a practice of successive clearings rotating this volunteer wood growth with intermittent cropping to rice, beans, and the like. Clot- ting for charcoal and for other uses also undoubtedly interferes. Cultural Forests. A description of the forests of Porto Rico would be incomplete without mention of its cultural forests. They not only cover a con- siderable acreage and are uniformly developed and kept up, but they are the most conspicuous forest growth on the island taken as a whole. coconut palm groves. The palma de coco (4), or simply coco, is of imcertain origin,^ but, however that may be, it has by one means or another been distributed I One especially notable tree of this species near Ponce measures, according to Cook and Collins, 36 meters (118 feet) in circumference 4 feet from the ground, following the sinuosities of the trunk. Herrera says of the ceiba that it "has so great a shade that a strong man can not throw a stone across it. The tree is so big that a carpenter whose name was Pantaleo made a chapel of one hollowed out, being so thick that 15 men holding hand in hand can not grasp it. " ' Cook ("The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm," by O. F. Cook, Contributions from the National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2) scouts the currently accepted opmion that this species originated in the Indian Archipelago and concludes: "The original habitat of the coco palm is to be sought in South America, the home of all the other species of cocos and of most of the closely related genera." He likewise controverts the common notion that the coconut originated as a strand plant, that the thick husk is an adaptation to enable the dispersal of seed by ocean currents, and that even the seeds thus transported have the ability to germinate and maintain themselves in competition with the other strand vegetation. " The coco palm," he says, "is unable to maintain an existence when subjected to the competition of the wild vegetation of tropical shores and forests." And, finally, "the idea (that they can not thrive in undisturbed nature) is recognized in the Cingalese proverb, ' The coconut will not grow out of the sound of the sea or of human voices,' and in the belief held among the same people that the trees will not thrive unless 'you walk and talk amongst them.' " FORESTS OP PORTO RICO. 35 widely throughout the maritime regions of the Tropics. How long it has been cultivated can only be surmised, but sufficiently long at any rate for the development of many varieties. These varietal forms are mostly found in the islands of the Indian Ocean and the Malay region, little attention haviag been given to improvement by selection in tropical America. These groves line the shore in many places and, when well cared for, are a profitable source of income. As yet the nut is the only product exported from the island.^ There were, according to the 1912 tax assessment list, 6,556 acres of land under coconuts, having a total value of $663,710, and an average value per acre of $101.24 (maxi- mxmi $269.45 in Anasco and minimum $24 in Comerio). THE COFFEE FORESTS. Coffee will grow without difficulty at sea level, but it thrives best in the upland district above 2,000 feet elevation. Because of this adaptability to soil and climatic conditions more or less unfavorable to crops requiring clean cultivation, its extension throughout the uplands of the interior was readily accomplished. Whether or not the coffee bush was ever cultivated in the open here, as in Brazil, it is now considered necessary to grow it under shade. ^ Wliile areas of virgin forest were available these were used for coffee culture, the overwood being thinned and the underwood cleaned out and replaced by the coffee tree. In the absence of a natural forest growth the leguminous trees guava (36) and guama (37), and to a less extent bucare (59), are planted instead. The shade trees and coffee bush are planted at the same time, the former by their naturally rapid growth reaching a size to afford the requisite protection by the time the coffee tree comes into bearing. The coffee forests are of interest from the forestry standpoint chiefly because of the protection which they afford to the steep mountain slopes, although, on accomit of the relatively thin cover and the small amount of cultivation they get, a certam amount of soil erosion necessarily occurs. CACAO PLANTATIONS. Practically no cacao is now cultivated commercially, although formerly it was to a limited extent. It is a semiforest crop growing 1 The coconut yields in addition "coir," a fiber obtained from the husks and used in the manufacture of cordage and for many other purposes; "copra," the dried meat of the nut, which when pressed yields coconut oil and a "cake" ; besides the various uses of the wood. (See AppendLx 1, imder "Coco.") *The advantages which may be attributable to the shading of the coffee, particularly when leguminous trees are used for this purpose, are as follows: The trees hold the soil In place, at the same time protecting the superficial roots of the coffee tree, require little care or replanting, discourage by their shade the growth of weeds, diminish the cost of cultivation, and lessen the bad effects of drought, act beneficially in breaking the force of the strong trade winds and of the pelting of the torrential rain, and enrich the soil. The actual shade itself, however, is said to be unnecessary and even prejudicial. The use of leguminous shade trees is said to be a remnant of a prehistoric agricultural practice employed in the cultivation of both cacao (choco- late) and coca (cocaine) by the natives of Central and South America before the advent of Europeans and is still in favor among them. 36 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMEXT OF AGRICULTURE. under a forest-tree shade, like coffee, but, unlike coffee, it does best in the low country at elevations below 500 feet. It is chiefly of interest here as offering a suitable means of restoring a forest cover and providing an agricultural crop on some of the less fertile cane lands,* where a forest cover is particularly desirable because of its influence on bird life so necessary to the control of insect pests. FOREST INFLUENCES.2 Forests make their presence felt tlu-ough their influence on climate, on stream flow, and on soil erosion. In a country as abundantly watered as is Porto Rico whether the forests cause slightly more rain in the aggregate matters little. Within the forests, particularly those in the mountainous interior, the temperature of the air is appreciably milder and the humidity relatively higher than in the open. One effect of this may be observed in the formation during the dry season of clouds above the forests of El Yunque and vicinity, when none exist elsewhere. These rapidly disappear as they pass on to the westward and come in contact with the columns of heated air rising from the open slopes and cultivated valleys toward Juncos and Caguas. The modifymg influence is likewise manifested in the cool air which descends after sundown into the open cultivated valleys from the wooded slopes of the coffee district. The most important influence of the forests is in the checking of floods and erosion, though the conditions in Porto Rico are such as to make control of floods by forestation alone impossible. Through- out a greater part of the year the forest soils, except those of the limestone hills, are nearly, if not quite, saturated with moisture. Steep slopes and rain in the form of brief but torrential downpours are the rule and complete a combination favorable to most rapid run-off. These make it necessary to supplement forestation by a 1 Cacao undoubtedly could be grown as profitably in Porto Rico as in Granada (British West Indies), where conditions of conflgairation, rainfall, soil, trade winds, etc., are very similar and where an even greater density of population prevails. According to a " Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indies" (by Daniel Morris, assistant director Royal Gardens Kew, in Kcw Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series 1, 1S9S) cacao was first planted in Granada on moimtain lands as it formerly was in Porto Rico, the lowlands being entirely in sugar estates. But later it was tried on the lowlands and found to rival sugar in productiveness. In 1S95 Granada was said to be the only West Indian colony of Great Britain that was independent of sugar. An especial feature of the cultivation of cacao is that it can be raised to advantage on small holdings. 2 Of more than passing interest in this connection are the following observations by Col. Flinter (see Bibliography), wiitten in 1834: "The government has most wisely ordered that three trees should be planted for every one cut down. It is to be hoped that this order may be rigorously enforced; for, in the first place, wood is the great and principal agent in the atmosphere for the attraction of the clouds, * * * If these laws on this head are carried into force by the local magistrates the island ^nll always have on it an inexhaustible source of timber; but if, on the contrary, these useful precepts are not followed, water will become scarce; the rivers will dry up; the fields will become scorched savannas for want of moisture; the cattle will find neither food nor shade from the noonday sun; and this beautiful and fertile island will at once be deprived of its enchanting verdure, its fertiUty, and its riches. This is not the dream of imagination or the ridiculous prognostication of ideal ills. I am aware that this can not happen before the expiration of a century; but it is the duty of governments and individuals to look forward to posterity. It is their duty, by wise and prudent measures, to foresee and prevent at the present day the ills which may be inflicted on future generations by undue considerations or concessions of temporary interests." (Italicizing is the author's.) Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VII. taoSaOo 9 g a> I" n'Z Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate VIII. 5 tiJ "I EOEESTS OF PORTO EICO. 37 succession of reservoirs and a cleaning up of the channels if any noticeable reduction of the eroding effects of floods is to be had. Forests aid in conserving the water in the soil. The trees both aid the water in getting into the soil and then help the sod to hold on to it. In the first place, the trees break the beatmg force of the rain, which in the Tropics is considerable, and thus help to keep the surface layers of the forest soil from bemg beaten down and rendered compact and impervious like the soil in the open. Then the roots of the trees make the soil more open and accessible to percolatmg water. The roots and such ground cover and litter as there are impede the progress of surface run-off and afford the soil more time to absorb the water. With more water gettmg into the forest soil than in grassland soil, both bemg of a retentive character, there will be more water to find its way to springs and be gradually poured out into the rivers to sustam them during the periods of little rain. The forest influences erosion in two ways: By reducing the force and interruptmg the passage of the surface run-off in the catchment areas around the headwaters of the streams it slows up the washing away of the surface layers of the soil and greatly impedes gullying. At the same time the ability of the run-off to transport eroded ma- terial is very considerably lessened. A grass cover, if it forms a firm, well-knit sod, is also quite effective in resisting the erosive action of surface run-off. When, however, the grass grows in bunches and is mterspersed with patches of bare ground or with tender, succulent herbage that dies out m dry weather, leaving the soil exposed, erosion and run-off is little affected. This is often the condition on the upper and drier slopes on the south side of the island. That these open slopes are not scored more deeply than they are is undoubtedly due m large measure to the tenacity of the soil. 'It is when the run-off is gathered mto the streams of the island and reaches the foothills country, where the character of the soil changes from the heavy clays of the interior to the lighter and more readily eroded coast soils, that the greatest damage is done. The rivers are generally too short to choke up and overflow, as would otherwise more frequently happen. Yet they are continually widening and shiftmg their channels, cuttmg off islands from adjoin- ing fields, and undermmmg their banks. Frequently it is not so much the water that creates the havoc as the material which it picks up and transports. Besides the finer soil particles and gravel, large bowlders are dislodged and roUed along with great destructive force. Thus the volume of water which comes from the hills may in the course of its passage to the sea be doubled by the material trans- ported by it or dumped into it from caving banks. A fringe of forest growth along the banks will materially lessen the liability to this kind of erosion. Certain of the bamboos are par- 38 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ticularly suitable for this purpose and formerly were plentiful along the water courses in Porto Rico. But since sugar cane has become the all-important crop in tlie lowlands, the bamboo has been sacrificed to secure a few more feet of land or because it shaded the cane planted near the edge of the field. The folly of this procedure can be seen in places where the extra feet of cane rows thus secured at the sacrifice of bamboo and several more with them have been subsequently undermined by flood and dumped into the river.* The close relation of forests to stream flow and erosion is not difficult to observe in Porto Rico. Compare, for instance, the lower reaches of the north coast rivers, particularly those rising in the coffee district or the Luquillo, with the south coast rivers, as, for instance, the Portugucs. The former have relatively few abandoned channel beds and less spreading stream bottoms, are obstructed only by sandy or gravelly bars and relatively small bowlders, and show a reasonable flow of water even in the dry months. The Portugucs and other south- side rivers, which are largely fed by the rains falling on the steep grass slopes of the Cordillera Central, have wide, dry bottoms showing often no less than six different channels separated by low islands, and many shoals, remnants of a former river bank. The bowlders, which are everjnvhere strewn about, are several times the size of those in the north coast rivers, the banks are often steep and undermined, and the stream is of almost inconceivable insignificance on the midst of surroundings indicative of such destructive power. The many streams and waterfalls in the heart of the interior flow from the wooded slopes (even when swollen by heavy rains) practically clear, carrying but little sediment; on the other hand, the waters of the south coast embayments at the mouths of the rivers are red-brown in the flood season with the soil brought down by the rushing torrents. Many examples might be found in the Tropics of serious injury resulting from destruction of the forest or of benefits following its restoration. Owing to reforestations effected on a large scale, the rainfall on the island of St. Helena has actually been doubled since the time of Napoleon I ; and in Lower Egypt, where in the eighteenth cen- tury rain only fell on from 10 to 12 days in the year, the number of rainy days nowadays reaches from 30 to 40. On the other hand, in Syria and Palestine there are numerous regions which were formerly in a flourishing condition but have become arid and waste in consequence of the destruction of forests. ^ In the West Indies themselves, the experiences of Martinique are particularly instructive. Here as early as 1843 the man- 1 The. following, which bears closely on this situation, is quoted from the 1907 report of Lorrin A. Thurston, chairman of the committee on forestry of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association: " In the past the subject of forestry has been largely treated by this association as an interesting incident, hut not as one of direct concern or of possible immediate benefit or profit to its members. Within two years I have heard of trees bounding fields being cut out because the shade injured the adjoining cane. " In all earnestness I urge upon the association that the time for this view of forestry and its possibilities In Hawaii has passed, and that the preservation, propagation, and utilizing of forests and forest products should from this time forth be made one of the leading features of the efforts of the planters' association, both by it as an organization and through the individuals and corporations which give it its strength." (Italicizing is the author's.) 2 General report by C. CapoUetti, of the proceedings of the Navigation Congress at Milan in 1905. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 39 ufacture of charcoal was recognized as the most serious single cause of the forest de- struction which resulted in timber shortage, interruption and impairment of stream flow, soil wastage, damage to valuable agricultural lands through erosion, and shortage in the supply of water for power and other purposes. To remedy this situation the ex- portation of charcoal was prohibited, and stringent measures were adopted to regulate its manufacture, sale, and distribution. Most important of all, however, a forestry association ^ was formed which is supported by the Government. It has not only made a beginning in experimental reforestation, but is working through the schools, the celebration of Arbor Day, and the distribution of forest-planting stock at cost to arouse public interest in forestry. The subject of conserving the forests for their influence on the water supply has not been without consideration in Porto Rico, since there appears in the "law of waters" this very significant language: ''The colonial secretary shall also direct that a study be made of the portions of the basins and watersheds which it is advisable to keep wooded in the interest of a control of the water supply." ^ Like many another good piece of Spanish legislation, it remained legis- lation to the end. It is still, however, a part of the laws of the realm to-day and awaits as formerly official action. So much and more should be imdertaken without delay. COMMERCIAL ASPECTS. In the larger commercial sense the forests of Porto Rico are insignificant. Leaving out of consideration coconuts and coffee, there is not a single article of export which is in any sense a forest product. The forests are, however, of tremendous importance as a source of domestic wood supply. Local Timber and Wood Supply. The estimated present resources of those forest lands capable of yielding saw logs are placed at 96,442,500 cubic feet (1,155,000 cords). Of this amount, however, there are only 4,592,500 cubic feet (27,- 500,000 feet, or 55,000 cords) of saw-log size, the great bulk being chiefly suitable for fuel, small house logs, and piling, posts, and tlie like. There are about 110,000 acres of such lands on which it is believed the average yield will not exceed 876.7 cubic feet (10.5 cords) per acre, of which 41.7 cubic feet (0.5 cord) will be found suit- able for saw logs. On another 333,000 acres, comprising small wood and brush lands, including mangrove, the produce consists largely of fuel, house piling, and other small materials, averaging scarcely 334 cubic feet (4 cords) per acre. This will add another 111,222,000 cubic feet (1,332,000 cords) to the general resources. The total present supply is, therefore, 207,664,500 cubic feet (2,487,000 cords). 1 "La Societe Martiniquaise des Amios des Arbres" was founded in November, 1909. 2 Art. 59 of the Spanish law of June 13, 1879, which was extended over Porto Rico by Royal decree of Feb. 5, 1886, and reenacted and amended by the Legislative Assembly of Porto Rico, Mar. 12, 1903. 40 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Stated in one lump sum it seems considerable, yet it is equivalent to scarcely 185 cubic feet per capita — less than the annual per capita consumption of the United States or Canada. The value of this resource is $6,780,000, on the basis of 3 cents a cubic foot for all material except timber, which is estimated at 15 cents. The value of any by-products and the far more important soil protective value are, of course, left entirely out of account. The wood value alone, however, if invested at 5 per cent, would yield in interest approximately $340,000. The expenditure through an appropriation from the insular treasury of less than 6 per cent of this latter amount, or about $20,000, for a forest service to protect and improve the principal, would seem, therefore, to be a fully war- ranted, sound, and businesslike policy. Lumber and Timber Imports. Commercial expansion during the last few years has created a heavy demand for building lumber, timbers, and the like, which, because of the scarcity of suitable native woods, have been imported. Naturally most of this material has come from the United States, the Gulf ports more particularly. Imports of forest products from the United States for the fiscal year 1911 totaled $1,308,579, an increase of 225 per cent over those of 1909. Besides this the United States supplied furniture and other manufactures of wood amounting to $684,560. Foreign lumber, timber, and manufactures to the amount of $131,623 were imported, of which material worth $14,616 came through the United States. The gross value from all sources was thus $2,124,762, of which lum- ber, timber, etc., exclusive of naval stores or manufactures of wood, amounted to $1,382,506. The quantity of wood imported, exclusive of such products as shingles, box shooks, etc., amounts to 9,120,872 cubic feet (54,616,000 feet b. m.), including 8,382,064 cubic feet (50,192,000 feet b. m.) in lumber, scantling, and sawed timber from the United States, and 738,808 cubic feet (4,424,000 feet b. m.) from abroad. In addition, there was imported from the United States 26,717 cubic feet in hewed timber. Thus the grand total of wood imports amounted to 9,147,589 cubic feet, or about 8.2 cubic feet per capita. Demands for Wood. The demands for wood products are about half for commercial and half for domestic uses. Most of the commercial demands are supplied by imports. The commercial demands supplied by native- grown wood come chiefly from power development, which takes 3,633,336 cubic feet (43,513 cords) each year, equivalent to 3.25 FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 41 cubic feet per capita/ The raw materials for the manufacture of furniture and novelties, native carts, ox yokes, and the like, also railroad ties, for narrow-gauge roads principaDy, posts and heavy structural timbers, in the aggregate probably amount to less than 1 cubic foot per capita. Probably not less than 11,180,000 cubic feet (133,892 cords), equivalent to 10 cubic feet per capita, is consumed for domestic purposes. This means that an average family of five persons con- sumes only a little more than half a cord of wood each year. The demand for house piling, rafters, flooring, and the like is at the present time inconsiderable — not more than 2 cubic feet per capita (2,236,000 cubic feet) — because of the great scarcity of wood over most of the island and the prevailing low standard of living, especially among the rural population. The various present demands for wood, aside from the manufac- tures of wood, may thus be summarized: Character of de- mand. Source of supply and uses. Per capita. Total. Commercial. Domestic . . . Imports, building material, etc Local, fuel only Local, fuel House pilings, and poles, posts, etc Total Net total, excluding imports Cubic feet. 8.2 3.25 10.00 2.00 Cubic feet. 9,147,589 3,633,336 11,180,000 2,236,000 23.45 15.25 26,196,925 17,049,336 Note. — The domestic demand is entirely an estimate; the commercial demand is based on the census and customs reports for 1910 and 1911, respectively. The present status of the supply and demand is graphically repre- sented in figure 7, which shows that the present per capita supply, at the rate it is now being consumed, will be exhausted in about 12 years. Yet at the present rate of production it will require more than 45 years to produce a similar supply, or nearly four times as 1 Manufactures, Porto Rico; Bulletin of the Thirteenth Census, 1910: "Closely related to the question of kind of power employed is that of the fuel used in generating this power. * * * Porto Rico has no mineral fuel, and its wood supply is being depleted as manufactures increase. The following table shows the quantity of each kind of fuel used in 1909." Industry. Anthra- cite coal. Bitumi- nous coal. Coke. Wood. Oil, includ- ing gaso- line. Others. All industries Tons. 946 Tms. 41,988 Tons. 368 Cords. 43,513 Barrels. 1,036 Tom. 520 Bread and other bakery products 5 128 200 6 234 13, 444 2,846 737 19,656 76 33 Coffee, cleaning and polishing 1,293 2,712 31,808 790 5,385 Liquors, distilled Sugar and molasses 365 17 546 275 Tobacco manufactures All other industries . 613 128 6,830 245 42 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. long to produce as to consume it. New growth, however, during the period will extend the supply to slightly more than 16 years. It is, however, not to bo expected that the island will be denuded of all woods at the end of this period. Experience teaches us that what actually happens in such cases is that consumption decreases as more Fig. 7. — Per capita supply, production, and consumption of wood in Porto Rico, showing the rate at which present merchantable wood supply is being drawn on each year to meet domestic need, and the rate of its replenishment through new growth. The large circle represents the present per capita wood supply (185 cubic feet) exclusive of imports. The small circle rcpresents-per capita of wood production in one year (4 cubic feet), and the dot and dash circles the corresponding production per decade. (Based on a present annual growth of 10 cubic feet per acre per annum, equivalent to 4 cubic feet per capita.) and more people are unable to pay the advancing prices. In the present instance it simply means a progressively increasing privation. TREND OF FUTURE DEMANDS. Education and the establishment of a more permanent form of agriculture will inevitably raise the standard of living among the lower classes and increase correspondingly the demands on the forests for both building materials and fuel, and besides these is the normally increasing demand occasioned by increased population. Kerosene and denatured alcohol can not, at least for a long time, FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 43 take the place of wood. The change would necessitate not only the displacmg of the customs of centuries, but an investment in stoves and burners, which the average person can not afford. The domestic per capita consumption of fuel can therefore be expected to rise from year to year. The sugar mills are now the largest commercial users of native wood. Under present unproved methods the refuse cane fiber, known as "bagasse," is burned under the boilers, which effects a considerable wood saving. Some wood is still required to sustain this "bagasse" fuel, but as one "central" has already substituted crude oil for this purpose with satisfactory results, it is possible that in time all the larger mills at least may likewise adopt that fuel. It is thus probable that the maximum demands on the native wood supply have been reached by this industry. A gradual decline may consequently be expected. The bakeries are the second largest commercial consumers of wood, and they demand cordwood of regulation size. The possi- bility of their changing to oil or other substitute fuel seems remote at the present time. The business is conducted on a small scale, with too limited a capital to justify such an outlay. The Army bakeries also consume a relatively large amount of cordwood. Any imme- diate decrease in demands of these or other industries where wood is largely used in the generation of power is thus hardly to be looked for. BALANCING SUPPLY AND DEMAND. Everything points to a sustained or an increased demand for wood. Commercial expansion can and will be taken care of by an increased volume of imports. But local and domestic needs accommodate themselves less readily and less promptly to new sources of supply. With production falling behind consumption, hardship and depriva- tion must be the inevitable consequences. This condition promises to grow more serious unless relief can be had through increased pro- duction. Two ways are open to effect this — -planting new forests and improving the existing woodlands. The restoration of a reasonable balance between cleared lands and forests is necessary. One-half million acres under prime forest growth will scarcely more th^ meet the situation. At present a large part of the 443,000 acres of timber and brush land yields not more than 10 cubic feet per acre a year, worth, at 3 cents per cubic foot, about $135,000. The improvement of these and the planting to new forest growth of 100,000 acres besides would provide approxi- mately one-half acre of productive forest per capita, which is about the minimum required by a people to meet their own needs. A con- servative estimate of the average annual growth to be expected on such area under forest management would be 30 cubic feet per acre, 44 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. worth in the aggregate approxhnately $490,000. Accordmgly, to neglect to adopt a constructive forest policy for the future will mean the loss of a possible income from wood products of $355,000 per annum. forest industries. Charcoaling. One could hardly expect that with depleted forests there would be many or very flom-ishing industries.* The charcoal industry is prob- ably the leading forest industry of Porto Rico, as of many other of the West Indies. Charcoal is the fuel most generally used, particu- larly for domestic purposes. It is the only fuel of the poorer classes in the cities and is still in use to a great extent among the better classes also. Generally speaking, the charcoal is of exceedingly poor quality and small size. Some is scarcely larger than pea coal. Such stuff, the good and the bad indiscriminately, sells in San Juan for as high as 25 cents a can.^ A sack holding about 2 bushels sells for from $1 to $1.25.3 The manufacturing part of the industry is carried on in a crude and haphazard way. All sizes of material, even to brushwood and small limbs scarcely one-half inch thick, and all kinds of wood are fired in the same heap. Because of its crookedness the wood is cut into short lengths — 4 to 6 inches. The kilns are of poor and crude construction, and the fire control consequently is ineffective. Too rapid combustion is thus apt to occur and great waste results through the complete consumption of part of the wood, or incomplete com- bustion may leave some of the wood only partially carbonized, which renders the product very variable in burning and heating qualities. The sources of supply are numerous. Most of the material comes from the clearing of land for agricultural use, but the mangrove swamps and the south coast hills furnish considerable. In some instances the charcoaling is done by contract with the bona-fide owners of the land, especially of land being cleared for the cultivation of sugar cane. In this case the large material is frequently cut and sold at from $1 .50 to $2 a ton ^ to the " central." The charcoal opera- 1 The census (1910) reports 8 establishments classed as "lumber and timber products" industries, having atotalpersormel of 171— 26 proprietors, 22 clerks, and 123 laborers. These industries represent a combined capital of $113,392 and handle a product valued at $268,719, of which $90,301 is the value added by manu- facture. ' Since the advent of the automobile the 5-gallon gasoline containers have become very plentiful and have been adapted to a variety of uses, one of which is as a unit of measure for the retailing of charcoal. ' A small amount of charcoal is brought in from Santo Domingo, but only one instance is known to the writer of any being brought from the mainland. The sale of this, however, under adverse market condi- tions yielded a slight profit and shows not only the high price of the native product but the possibility of developing a successful and profitable competition with it. * The wood is thrown loosely into the car and is of varying lengths and frequently crooked. Under these conditions a car having a capacity of 1,000 cubic feet weighed 22,548 pounds, or about 22 J pounds per cubic foot. Making an allowance for the condition of the wood in the car, 150 cubic feet seems a fair equivalent of a properly cut and stacked cord. On this basis a cord would weigh about 3,400 pounds. Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of , Plate IX. H^HE^^^^^^BSK^B>^S!^S^^^HIi^^.<< L'/'^'^^H m ^^^■^^^^^K^mm c O ^2 Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. cf Agr Plate X. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 45 tor may be given the material for clearing up the land or he may pay the owner a stipulated amount per sack of charcoal yielded. Often the charcoaling is not even done '^by your leave," since it is an adjunct to ''conuco" farming. When the squatter finds a piece of woodland which he wants to cultivate he may first cut such mate- rial as is suitable and make charcoal from it, or a charcoal burner may cut over a piece of land for charcoal without having an intention of subsequent cultivation. The public lands have by this process been largely despoiled of their forest growth. Lumbering. As an organized business lumbering hardly exists at all. Probably the nearest approach to it is in the Sierra de Luquillo, where a few lumbermen or woodcutters are to be found. They own their own implements and log on contract > that is to say, if any one wants a piece of ausubo for an ox yoke or bull cart or any other special mate- rial these men will go in and get it out for him. Their method of lumbering is a very gradual process of culling. Having found a suit- able tree, they fell it and cut it into logs of the desired length. The log is squared with an adz, then a knob is fashioned at one end, to which a rope may later be made fast to drag it out by. Finally the log is placed on a rudely constructed scaffolding of poles erected on a hillside and sawed by the world-old pit-saw method. If they may be skidded directly from the pit, the planks are not sawed through the whole length of the log, but the log is left intact for a short distance back from the knob end to facilitate handhng. Otherwise each plank is entirely severed from the log and carried out by hand to a place accessible to oxen. There the separate planks are assembled as they were in the log, a rope is made fast to the knob, and they are skidded the rest of the way to their destination or to where they can be loaded on a cart. The smaller logs and pole and post timbers are skidded singly or sometimes several at a time. Skidding is accomphshed by oxen on slopes where such work seems impossible. Grade appears to receive scant consideration, the skid- ding trails in places descending straight down the slope. Frequently these are hollowed out, whether intentionally or by the wearing of the logs is not evident, and stakes are driven at the side, where they turn sharply around a shoulder or follow obUquely down the hillside. After a time erosion supplements the wearing of the logs and the trails become so deep in places that they have to be abandoned. Wood- WORKING Industries. With this system of lumbering there is, of course, no need for sawmills.^ What few mills there are — ^located principally in the 1 riinter (see Bibliography) reported one water sawmill on the island in 1830 nearCamuy. 46 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seaport cities, San Juan, Mayaguez, and Ponce — resaw American lumber. Some of these carry a small stock of native logs which they saw on order for special work. One of the largest manufactories on the island, located near San Juan, is devoted to tlie making of cigar boxes. The stock, cedro (71), for this factory is entirely imported, in large measure if not wholly, from Cuba. It comes in strips already cut to the proper thickness, namely, ^ inch and j-q inch. The annual consumption amounts to about 2,000,000 superficial feet, or something less than 1,000,000 feet b. m. A box of the size to hold 50 cigars contains about 1^ square feet of material. The trunk and match industries use considerable wood, but it is all imported. Furniture and other cabinet work and novelties, of which very little is produced, are to a large extent the product of hand labof. Native woods are« almost exclusively used. The furniture is very excellently made, and, though of a style some- what different and considerably more ornate than our furniture, is very attractive and pleasing. It especially brmgs out the beauties of the native woods, which, though practically unknown to com- merce, possess very desirable qualities of both grain and color. The native furniture trade is unfortunately doomed to extinction, because of its inability to meet the competition of cheap machine-made furniture from the mainland. FOREST PRODUCTS. The forests of Porto Rico yield a large variety of gums, resins, fibers, coloring and dyeing materials, edible fruits, and the like, hav- ing a decided commercial value if systematically developed. Some of these are well-known articles of commerce, as anatto, fustic, and other coloring and dyeing materials. Although none are produced in sufficient quantity for export, most of them are to be found on sale in the public markets. It is doubtful if the various products and their still more varied uses have ever been completely catalogued. Many of the more important uses are given in Appendix 1, where, however, the wood uses are the ones chiefly considered. FOREST PROBLEMS. Every acre of land best suited, either temporarily or for all time, to forest production should be devoted to that use. Every acre of land around the headwaters and along the banks of the rivers on which a forest cover would offer a protection superior to the present cover against erosion and soil wastage should be forested. All for- ested lands and those to be forested should be so managed as to yield a maximum of the products most needed by the local communities and industries. The forestry program should also provide suitable FOEESTS OF PORTO RICO. 47 protection to the birds, live stock, and even man himself in the form, respectively, of small groves at intervals throughout the cane and tobacco districts, open cover in the pastures, and shade trees along the roadsides. Of scarcely less importance than these phases of the practice of forestry are painstaking investigations and a thorough campaign of educational propaganda. Planting. The planting of new forests is by far the most important, in point of magnitude at least, of the forestry work to be done in Porto Rico. Tree planting figured rather conspicuously in the early Spanish laws. "Law First "1 of ''Laws of the Indies," which concerned the allot- ment of lands to settlers, provided ''two 'huebras' of land for orchard, and eight for planting other trees," while "Law Eleventh" promulgated by Emperor Charles in 1536, provided even more explic- itly for the planting of ' ' willows and trees," so that in addition to other purposes "it be possible to use the timber (wood) which might be necessary." As the Indies were generally well wooded, these laws, it may reasonably be inferred, were merely Spanish laws devised to meet conditions in Spain and more or less perfunctorily extended over the new possessions. Certain it is that they were never given force or effect in Porto Rico. The need for reforesting the headwaters of the streams has aheady been mentioned. In most cases, however, protection can be as well supplied by the forests managed from the standpoint of wood pro- duction. It will not often be necessary to refrain from any cutting whatever. A system of harvesting the wood crop which will expose the soil on the steep slopes as little as possible to the unbroken force of the sun, wind, and rain, will usually be sufficient. For planting work along the streams to prevent the banks from washing, it may be necessary to adopt special material, such as bamboo. But with proper «are even this could be harvested without impairing its useful- ness as a soil binder. In planting for the production of a wood crop the first consideration is, what products are most needed. Many would plant mahogany, ebony, rosewood, and all the other valuable cabinet and dye woods solely because they are valuable. Some time in the future it may be good forestry to try producing these woods for export, but that time will not come until the virgin supply of Santo Domingo and other coiuitries is much nearer exhaustion and the growth quahties of these woods is much better known than now. In the meantime the home market is urgently in need of attention ; its requirements are known, and it can be profitably supplied. Those trees which will produce fuel wood in the greatest abundance, the shortest time, and the most I See p. 9. 48 BULLETIN 354, IT. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. suitable quality should unquestionably be the ones most extensively planted. What the species are that wiU best fulfill those require- ments is now unknown and must be determined by experiment and investigation.^ The discovery of the best varieties of woods for the manufacture of charcoal is also of the utmost importance. Second only to the need for fuel is that for an increased supply of suitable woods for various native uses. At present the demand is more or less irregular and speciahzed. Particular kinds of wood have particular uses and there is practically no demand for wood for native house construction except for underpinning, sills, and the like. The advancement of civilization on the island will necessitate the improve- ment of housing conditions in the interest of public health, sanitation, and morality; and universal education through the public schools will inevitably set up a standard and a demand which will not tolerate present conditions. To meet this demand the properties of the vari- ous woods will have to be closely studied and very likely the intro- duction of some such species as the pine will be found desirable. There is at least one native industry of large proportions that might possibly produce its own box material through the practice of for- estry — the cigar industry. At present the cedro used by the Porto Rican trade comes almost exclusively from the virgin forests of Cuba. This wood is particularly prized for its lightness, clearness of grain, and strong yet pleasant aromatic odor. It is, of course, largely conjectural how far these properties would inhere in the wood of a planted growth. The cedro (71) is a rapid grower imder favorable conditions of soil and chmate. Undoubtedly many trees could be planted which would yield products of bark, leaf, or sap for use as the basis of new industries.^ The achiote might be set out on a steep hillside, several acres of it together. The gathering of the seed coats and the extraction of their coloring matter would furnish light labor for a number of persons at certain seasons of the year, if not the year round. Then there is the > One such species undoubtedly is the Acacia palida (41), stands of which, according to investigations of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry, will yield over 13 cords per acre in 2 to 3 years. It is splendidly adapted for the reforestation of grasslands wastes either as a permanent crop or as a pioneer and nurse crop for subse- quent plantations of more valuable but less hardy and aggressive species. It may also he planted to advan- tage on worn-out agricultural lands and, after one crop of firewood is harvested, the twigs and tops plowed into the soil as a green manure. (The author is indebted to Mr. H. M. Curran, formerly of the Philippine Bureau of Forestry, for calling his attention to the work done by that bureau and its published report concerning this tree, entitled " Ipil-Ipil— A Firewood and Reforestation Crop," by D . A. Matthews, Bulletin No. 13, Philippine Bureau of Forestry.) 2 Dr. Seaman A. Knapp, mhis "Report on Investigations of the ,\gricultural Resources and Capabilities of Porto Rico" (Senate Doc. 171, 56th Cong., 2d sess.), emphasizes the need of new industries. He says: " The early establishment of a number of minor industries closely related to agriculture is of vital importance to future prosperity. The object of such industries is to give profitable employment to the wives and children of farm laborers, so that the earning ability of the home may be doubled, and in some cases quad- rupled. * ♦ * Manv philanthropic Porto Ricans suggested that the farm laborers on the coffee and tobacco plantations scattered upon the mountains * * * could never derive the full advantage of free education * * * until they were gathered into small villages and became amenable to society." Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XI. ■05 O O Bui. 354, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Plate XII. FiQ. 1.— A Section of the Comerio-Barranquitas Road, Entirely Devoid of Shade OF Any Kind. HB ■S^fil^H — r=^^ — ^8,*^ ■ -> ^?:. .-■. -■- vr« .^m| fii^ .. ..1^ y ' V •' V^l^^ftl Ks^^-^ i f -— ■ , ^■' r .'? ,,■■-«■■' A^"* • .■ . ,,>■■.; ■>"• > ' ''"■'•' ■* •..; /■ •■;;.^-;5^ •"'■'^- ■•■taijr^^ ■'?!' 1 ■. "' - •fv:.4»^.^,.■*^^^^feg ^ TjSlfe'iltr ■ V r ^* > _ ^-tH t' r m \m l#il % WM iiMr"1 "*' ''' :P 't?= f^^^«.S^*S^- _^!r F-27954A Fig. 2.— The Famous Military Road. This stretch of roadway just outside of CaRuas is attractively shaded by overarching flamboyan. IMPROVED ROADS. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 49 emajagua, wliich might be planted as a soil protector and yet be so managed as to yield a regular amount of fiber and fagots each year. The poma rosa could be made to furnish a continuous supply of hoop material for baling tobacco, fruit boxes, and the like, as well as fagots. The growing and tapping of tabanuco for its resinous sap likewise has possibilities. These and many others, the bamboos especially, are worthy of careful study and consideration While recognizing the larger and more purely economic aspects of tree planting, it will not do to neglect esthetic and utihtarian con- siderations. No country can afford to be ugly or to neglect the comfort, both physical and mental, of its own or a visiting people. The roads of the island, particularly those through the lowland country, are usually hot and unattractive for lack of proper shade. There are some notable exceptions to this, but their occurrence serves rather to heighten the discomfort after they are passed. Such a one is the avenue of flamboyan bordering the military road between Caguas and Cayey. The kind of tree is of nearly as much importance as the fact that there are trees at all. Thus the almacigo and jobo, to mention two of the most common, have little to recommend them for roadside planting, except their ease of propagation and rapidity of growth. In the open country, trees that are tall and carry their branches high on a straight, clean trunk offer little obstruction to the view or to the circulation of air, yet they protect the roadway during the midday hours from the beating sun, and relieve the monotony of cultivated fields and pastures. There is much concern about the scarcity of bird life in the cane country and the consequent prevalence of destructive insects. An occasional grove of trees would help this situation by furnishing the birds a refuge and nesting place; yet what few patches of woodland there are are constantly being cleaned up to get a few more square feet in cane.^ Systematic tree planting could be carried on in the pastures, even those which are actually utihzed for grazing. There are several of the leguminous trees the pods of which are very nutritious and very 1 In this connection the followiag from a letter of the U. S. Biological Survey to the Board of Commis sioners of Agriculture published in its second annual report is of interest: " In connection with the increase of island liirds Mr. Wetmore suggests the great desirability of providing them with more shelter than they now have. The grackles and yellow-shouldered blackbirds, for instance- nest and roost in the palms. Can not the individual owners of plantations be sufficiently interested in the matter to plant royal palms along the roads leading through the cane fields? The island kingbirds appear to be very useful, and they need small perches from which to watch for insects. Bamboo planted along the streams and the drainage ditches would not only favor the three species mentioned above, but would also provide shelter from the sun for the green heron and the anis. For mocking birds, small brushy areas are essential, but these need not be of any great size, and if hUltops imfit for cane or other crops bo left and not denuded of brush they will answer well the purpose. "Mr. Wetmore further suggests that along the coast restrictions should be placed upon the total clearing of areas of mangroves by the charcoal burners, and special care should be taken not to disturb the rookeries of herons — the snowy, little blue, and little green species," 21871°— Bull. 354— IS 4 50 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. much sought after by stock. These trees, besides affording food and shade for the cattle and naturally enriching the soil and improving the grass crop, could be cut at intervals for fuel. Management. The problems in forest management arc those first of all which concern the protection of the present forests, such as the regulation of "conuco" farming, charcoal burning, and wood trespass in gen- eral, which alone will undoubtedly yield ample returns. Yet these little more than open the way to the real problems. The need for the improvement and conservative management of the mangrove has already been referred to. The insular lands, too, and to a large extent the privately owned lands which still remain forested, should not only be kept so but should be improved under systematic man- agement. The nature of such management will depend on a variety of circumstances. Its fundamental purpose, however, will be to favor the growth and reproduction of those trees best suited to the needs which the particular forest is intended to serve. If the most suitable species do not occur in the original growth, it will be neces- sary to introduce one or more of them by planting; but careful inves- tigation will usually discover among even those commonly thought to be useless quahties of excellence undreamed of. Investigation. In a country like Porto Rico, where so little is known about the native trees, their habits and requirements, it would be folly to ignore the needs for scientific study and research. The forest crop grows and matures comparatively slowly, and it accordingly takes several years for a mistake to become fully manifest. It thus will not do to go ahead bhndly and plant large areas with httle-known species, to find later that they are not suitable. Provision for inves- tigative work is therefore indispensable to the practice of forestry. Education. One can not expect those who aU their Uves have been engaged in wasting and destroying what has come to them without exertion to see unaided the advantages of turning about and putting exertion into its production. Educational work of a very thorough and earnest sort is necessary to induce a people to support a tree-planting or other forestry campaign because usually the benefits are either obscure and indirect or are obtainable only by a future generation. There are many educational means by which forestry can be car- ried to the people. The pubhc-school system is, of course, one of the first and most effective means to be considered. Then the more ad- vanced thinkers may be formed into forestry associations for dis- cussion and propaganda, and others may be reached through popular pubhcations, lectures, and the press. FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 51 Already a considerable interest is manifested by different branches of the insular government in improving forest conditions. Several of the sugar companies are also interested in planting up waste lands and in the open planting of leguminous trees in their bull pastures to provide green forage, improve the grass crop, and furnish shade for the stock. They are also planting for ornament about their grounds, along the roads, and bordering the cane fields. INSULAR FOREST POLICY. It must be evident that a program wliich has for its fundamental purpose the improvement of conditions affecting both directly and indirectly the interests of a whole people can not be left to private initiative. It must be undertaken and directed by the insular gov- ernment itself. An efficient and well-equipped insular forest admin- istration ^ should, therefore, be provided, and a forest pohcy be estab- lished which would make effective the following work : A campaign of education, investigative work in forestry, the care and management of the most suitable parts of the insular domain as insular forests, and cooperation with private individuals, municipalities, and others interested in the practice of forestry. The practice of forestry and forest experimentation is a distinctly long-time operation. In scarcely less than 10 years are any practical results forthcoming, unless an experiment results in conclusive and disastrous failure. Only when fuel wood or other small-sized material is the object of production can any conclusive results be obtained even in 10 years. For larger products 30 or more years will ordinarily be required. The necessity for taking a long look in advance and the desirabihty of fixing by permanent legislation the organization and scope of the work are thus apparent, stabihty, permanence, and continuity being indispensable conditions. In weighing the advisability of taking such a step, the conditions and tendencies of the world supply of forest products can not be overlooked. The time is not far distant when the countries which produce the great bulk of the world's supply of the common economic woods wiU cease to have any considerable amount of timber to export. In anticipation of these conditions many of the producing countries have seriously set about making ' definite provisions for the future. If countries like the United States find it necessary to undertake the organized practice of forestry as a measure of self- protection, how much more necessary is it for Porto Rico to do so ? Tlie Phihppines, too, maintain a technical forest organization, which 1 Previous attempts to provide a forest administration were made in the Regulations for the Payment of Fees to the Technical Personnel of Public Works, Mines, Forests, and Telegraphs of the Island of Porto Rico, issued 1879, which provided, among other things, for the "inspection of forests for the forma- tion of plans for their use." The Political Code for Porto Rico of 1902 (sec. 134) provides for "a chief of lands and forests which shall have charge of all matters relating to lands and forests.'; Neither of these Jaws, however, jdelded any tangible results. 52 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not only cares for their vast resources, but is undertaking the reforest- ing of tho grassy wastes which have resulted from the same destruc- tive agricultural practices that have devastated the Porto Rican forests, "conuco" cultivation. Hawaii for the last 10 years has maintained an active forest organization which has given special attention to watershed protection, and, although one-fourth of the total land area is still forested and largely permanently reserved and carefully protected, has done much forest planting besides. In fact, forest planting has been carried on by private enterprise in Hawaii for nearly a generation. There is no country of aU of these more favorably situated than Porto Rico to undertake the practice of forestry. Local market conditions can hardly be equaled anywhere. The forest soils are generally well isolated, and well and centrally located, and are thus admirably adapted to serve easily and at a minimum of expense the general needs of the surrounding population, at the same time affording protection to the headwaters of the more than a thousand streams of the island. Needed Legislation.' Laws concerning the forests and trees are no new thing to Porto Rico. Mention has previously been made of the early land laws, which required tree planting as a condition of the grant; of the "Law of Waters," providmg for the study of the watersheds which it was advisable to keep wooded; of the "regulations" of 1879 concerning pubhc works, which provided an apparently elaborate forest admmistration intrusted with "the inspection of forests for the formation of plans for their use"; and lastly to the provision in the Pohtical Code of 1902 for a "chief of lands and forests." It is not known that these various works and officials ever existed except on paper, but certainly no tangible results from them have come down to the present day. More recently, by the act of March 9, 1911, the legislative assem- bly created a Board of Commissioners of Agriculture ^ which has interested itself in forestry. The supervisory machinery is thus already in existence and its interest in the work already aroused. 1 A forestry law was drafted along the lines discussed in these pages for inclusion herein as an appendix. It was, however, omitted as the bulletin was going to press and referred instead to the committee recently created by joint resolution [J. R. No. 3, approved April 3, 191G] of the legislative assembly "for the study of the forestry needs of Porto Rico." This committee is composed of the President of the Board of Com- missioners of Agriculture, the Commissioner of the Interior, the Commissioner of Education, and the Special Agent in Charge of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station at Mayaguez. * The president ex officio is a head of department designated by the governor. Of the other six members one must be a member of the House of Delegates and be designated by the speaker, while each of the commercial associations — Associacion de Puerto Rico, Associacion de Productores de Azucar, Associacion de Productores de Cafe, Associacion de Productores de Tabaco, and Associacion de Productores de Frutas— nominate one of the five remaining commissioners. FORESTS OP PORTO RICO. 53 It is now only necessary to have the designation and powers of the board ^ extended to include the subject of forestry. The law giving the board charge and direction of forestry work should also provide the teclinical machinery for carrying it into effect. A provision of first importance is one creating the position of insular forester and defining the qualifications for this office so as to insure the work being developed under a forester not only of hberal technical training but of practical experience as well. It is also essential to make the office strictly nonpohtical. This. can best be done by setting a high standard of technical quaUfications and making the incumbent subject to removal only upon his failure to measure up to the standard set or because of improper conduct. The position would thus come virtually under the classified civil service, as is the case in the Federal Forest Service, The insular for- ester would have immediate charge, directi(?n, and control of all for- estry matters, subject to the supervision and approval of the board. Much requires to be done in a scientific way to learn the distribu- tion, properties, and habits of the various trees suitable for forest planting and management. It would therefore be advisable to pro- vide for the establishment of a forest experiment station. Here, in addition to other work, forest tree nurseries could be maintained and experimental tree planting done. In connection with such a station an arboretum might be developed where all the different trees of the island could be set out. Such an experimental garden would be of immense educational value. The data and experience of the station staff should be made available to the public through publications and lectures and cooperation with landowners in carrying on forestry work. The insular government has at different places scattered over the island tracts of vacant land, much of which is now idle and unproduc- tive, and generally located in out-of-the-way places. Some of it wiU always be most profitably utihzed for growing timber. It would accordingly be extremely desirable to have all of these tracts carefully examined with the. view to determining their adaptabihty to forest or agricultural use. As much as is unquestionably best suited to the growth of a forest cover or is not now available for other uses could very profitably be reserved for demonstration and experiment, permanently or otherwise as circumstances might warrant. Lands so reserved might very properly be constituted Insular Forests, and the power to set them aside by proclamation be reposed in the governor. After their creation they ought to be subject to the exclusive control of the insular forest service, which would have 1 An amendment would also be desirable providing for a longer term for each of the five commissioners nominated by the different associations, the terms to be so arranged that not more than two would expire in any one year. This would insure a greater stability and continuity in the controlling policy and pro- vide a long enough term to make it worth while for a member to familiarize himself with the work of the board. 54 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the right to make and enforce all necessary niles and regulations for their protection and management, and to sell or lease under limited permit any products or uses. In justice to a municipahty in which an insular forest might be located, provision ought to be made that it receive a certain per- centage of any revenue of such forest as recompense for loss in taxable income caused by the presence of tax-free government land. This method has been adopted by the Federal Government in reimbursing States on account of National Forests. A second method which aims to accomplish the same purpose and is now in effect in some of the States is for the State to pay to the county or town in which a State forest may be located a fixed sum annually, generally from 1 to 4 cents an acre, in place of taxes exempted from these lands. During the first few years the work of the insular forest service would yield only such revenue as could be reaUzed from the sale of seeds or seedlings which it seemed desirable to the board to dispose of. After the organization of the insular forests there would be some revenue from leases and other special uses, and later on a regular income from the mature timber. During the formative period, at least, it would be extremely desirable to cover into the insular treasury all revenues from forestry sources, to be constituted a special fund available for expenditure for any forestry purpose. It is desirable to make the law as comprehensive as possible at the outset in order to outline in advance the full scope and significance of the work. The initial annual appropriations need, however, provide for only the few essentials required to get the work under way. An appropriation of $5,000 should be sufficient to cover the salary of the forester, his necessary field and office expenses, and the hire of any assistants he may need for nursery and investigative work. When it comes to establishing the experiment station, a special building and equipment fund of $10,000 will be necessary and an additional maintenance fund of $3,000 annually. There are other considerations than those concerned strictly with forestry which merit legislative attention. The regulation of the indiscriminate and nomadic cropping of ground provisions and the equally indiscriminate practice of charcoal burning are of first importance. The most permanent and logical means are education and the definite establishment of land titles. A cadastral survey of the island has been repeatedly urged by the principal government officials, both present and past, who have come in contact with the land situation in any of its phases. The difficulties in levying taxes and in knowing what are and what are not government lands have already been mentioned. The further difficulty, and the one with which we are particularly concerned here, is the enforcing of the poHce powers against unlawful trespass on both pubhc and private property. It is obvious that it must be known with certainty who FORESTS OF PORTO RICO. 55 owns land before it becomes possible to enforce trespass laws with any degree of assurance. The establishment of the bounds of each man's lawful property by survey would remove this present difficulty and many others. A temporary expedient to meet the "oonuco" and the charcoal situation is to require a license. In the case of the ''conuco" it would only be possible to carry out a definite plan of licenses or permits with respect to the public lands. In the case of charcoal burning the method of regulation employed in Martinique offers a favorable means of control. This law^ provides in brief that before a man can manufacture any charcoal he shall declare his intention at the mayor's office and state also where he is to make it and in what quantity. The vendor of charcoal other than the manufacturer must also have a license. To secure such license the vendor must present a certificate from the mayor showing that the manufacturer has complied with the requirements of manufacture. Parties trans- porting charcoal for their own use or that of another must have a certificate from the police or mayor giving the residence of the person from whom it was bought, his license number, and the number and residence of the buyer. Retailers are prohibited from buying their supplies in other than the regular markets of the island, and appro- priate penalties are provided for violating any of these provisions. Such a law as this properly enforced in Porto Rico would go a long way toward preventmg indiscriminate charcoal burning. THE LUQUILLO NATIONAL FOREST. Upon the transfer of the island to American sovereignty the Span- ish Crown lands in the Sierra de Luquillo ^ became the property of the Federal Government. Originally supposed to aggregate some 40,000 acres ' and to embrace a considerable amount of practically virgin forest land which was rapidly being cut and destroyed, these lands were constituted the Luquillo Forest Reserve (now National Forest), by presidential proclamation January 17, 1903.* Recently completed siu-veys covering all but a smaU part of the central moun- tain area, however, indicate a reduction in acreage to not over 15,000 acres, including probably the entire "hurricane hardwood" type. Thus the timber producing possibilities of a considerable portion of the area are not very promismg, judging from present knowledge of conditions. Nevertheless, for the present at least, these lands will be retained in public ownership and whatever forest growth there may be on them will be protected. — — ■ — ■ ^ * ^ — — — — 1 A digest of this law has been referred to the committee mentioned in the note, p. 52. * For forest description of this region see p. 31. * Based on official records in the archives of the Division of Public Lands, Department of the Interior, Porto Rico. * The recommendation that this be done was made by Dr. Walter H. Evans, Chief of Division of Insular Stations, States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, while the exploratory survey upon which the boundary proclamation was based was made by Mr. O . W . Barrett, at that time Botanist of the Porto Rico Agricultural Experiment Station. APPENDIX I. TREES OF PORTO RICO. By W. D. Brush, Scientific Assistant, and Louis S. Murphy, Forest Examiner, Forest Service; and C. D. Mell, formerly Assistant Dendrologist, Forest Service. INTRODUCTORY NOTE. Mucli has been published concerning the flora of Porto Rico, yet little of it is avail- able for general use, particularly concerning the trees. Hill in his bulletin on the For- ests of Porto Rico (Bui. 25, Forest Service) listed some 60 different kinds of trees, and the woods of 15 of these were described by Sud worth. The work of Gifford and Bar- rett (Bui. 54, Forest Service, "The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico") has already been referred to. As to arrangement and nomenclature particularly, the principal reliance in preparing this present compilation has been Ignatius Urban's Symbolse Antillanae Seu Funda- menta Florae Indiae Occidentalis. Scientific equivalents have been given only in cases where they appear to be in well-established popular usage, as, for example, Roy- stonia borinquena for Oreodoxa caribaea. Acknowledgment is also due to the authors of the above-mentioned Forest Service bulletins. Cook and Collins (Economic Plants of Porto Rico), W. Harris (The Timbers of Jamaica), John T. Rae (West Indian Timbers), and numerous other authorities for descriptive data concerning the uses of the wood and other products of the trees listed. Special acknowledgment is due to Miss J. S. Peyton for painstaking work in the prepa- ration of the index and comparing the spelling of both common and scientific names in the final copy of the manuscript with the original authorities. The microscopic descriptions of wood structure of the species marked with an asterisk, thus (*8. Chlorophora tinctoria) are based on examination by Messrs. Mell and Brush of wood samples in the Forest Service wood collection. It has been the intention of the authors to include all erect woody plants which attain a height of 15 feet or over, including the tree cactuses and opuntias. The heights and diameters, it should be remembered, represent the extreme sizes which the species have been reported to attain, and are thus often considerably larger than those commonly met with. For convenience in reading, the technical wood descriptions, the less important species, and all but the most common exotic spe- cies have been subordinated to the general text. Little-known species and species and genera of very minor importance have been combined where possible and sub- ordinated into notes, yet for completeness have been included. Following is a synopsis showing the families represented, 57 in all, and the number of genera and species in each family. The genera total 172 and the species 292: Family. Genera. Species. Family. Genera. Species. Family. Genera. Species. Palmae 4 1 1 6 1 1 1 4 6 1 1 1 2 22 1 4 2 3 5 5 1 1 9 8 1 2 9 17 1 2 1 3 30 2 14 2 3 9 Malpighiacese Euphorbiacese.. . Anacardiaceae. . . Aquifoliaceae Celastraceae Staphyleacese.... Sapindaceae Sabiacese Rhamnaceae Elaeocarpaceae... Malvaceae Bombacaceae — Sterculiacese TernstrcEmiacese Guttiferse Bixaceae 1 9 2 3 4 2 11 5 2 1 1 6 2 2 1 3 »• 2 5 5 1 2 8 8 Thymelaeaceee.. Rhizophoraceae. . Combretacese — Myrtacefe Melastomataceae. Araliacese Myrsinaceae Sapotacese Ebenaceae Symplocaceae — Styracaceae 1 2 5 5 4 2 1 7 2 1 1 1 2 1 5 3 11 1 1 2 Juglandaceae Ulmaceae Moraceae Polygonaceae Nyctaginaceae... Magnoliaceae Anonaceae Lauraceae Hernandaceae.... Cappardiacese... BruneUiaceae — 2 5 13 10 3 2 17 2 5 1 1 Apocynaceae Barraginaceae... . Verbenaceae Bignoniaceae Rubiaceae Caprifoliaceae — Gramineae 2 Leguminoseae... Zygophyllaceae.. 6 6 6 Simarubaceae Burseraceae Meliaceao Winteraceae Flacourtiaceae. .. Cactaceae 16 1 1 56 TREES OF PORTO RICO. 57 INDEX TO TREES OP PORTO RICO. No. Abejuelo 100 Abelluello. 100 Acacia Amarilla 39 Acacia nudiflora 40 Acacia nudosa 40 Acacia pjalida 41 Acacia riparia 40 (note) Acajon 74 Acaju 86 Acana 139, 145 Aceite, Palo de 68 Aceitillo 66 Aceituna 148 Aceituna Blanca 148 Aceituna Cimarrona 148 Aceituna, Palo de 80 (note) Achiote 115 Achiotillo 81, 100 Achote 115 Achras zapota 138 Acrista monticola 3 Acrodiclidium salicifolium 30 Adenanthera pavonina 42 Aguacate 25 Aguacate Cimarron 29 Aguacatillo 99, 100 Aguaytardn 100 Albizzia lebbech 39 Alchornea latifolia 81 Alchorneopsis portoricensis 81 Aleh'-.. 151 Aleli Cimarron 151 Aleurites moluccana 82 Aleurites triloba (gee 82). Algarrobo 45 Alilaila 73,73 (note) Alligator Apple 22 Alligator Pear 25 Almdcigo 70 Almendra 123 Almendrillo 34 Almendron 34, 123, 142 Almond, Indian 123 Aloe Wood 153 (note) Amomis caryophyllata 129 Amomis caryophyllata var. grisea.. 129 (note) Amor Platonico 39 Amortiguado 78 Amyris balsamifera 64 (note) Amyris maritima 64 Anacardiace^, XXII (85-89) Anacardium ocddentale 86 Anastaaio, Palo de 75 Anatto 115 Andira jamaicensis 58 Angelin 58 An6n 22, 23, 24 Anona montana 23 (note) Anona muricata 21 Anona palustris 22 Anona reticulata 23 (note) Anona squamosa 23 Anonace^, VIII (18-24) No. Anonde Escamas 23 Antirrhoea coriacea 167 Antirrhoea obtusifolia 166 Antirrhoea sintenisii 167 (note 1) Apocynace^, LI (151, 152) Aquifoliace^, XXIII (90, 91) Aralia arborea (see 135). Araliace^, XLIV (135, 136) Arbol Madre 59 Ardisia glauciflora 137 Ardisia guadalupensis 137 (note) Arnatta 115 Arroyo 99 Artocarpus communis (see 9) . Artocarpus incisa 9 Ausu 130 Ausu Guayavita 129 Ausubo ■ 141, 145 Auzu --:---.-; 129 Avicennia nitida 157 Avispillo 26, 26 (note), 28, 78, 93 Avocado 25 Avocate 25 Ayua - 61 Bdculo 53 Badula 137 (note) Balata 145 Balsa Wood 107 Balsam Fig 114 Balsam Tree 114 Balsamo 154 Bambu 172 Bambusa vulgaris 172 Bamboo. . . .' 172 Barbasco 116 Bartaballi 138 (note) Bastard Cabbage-bark 58 Bastard Cedar 110 Bauhinia Icappleri 47 Bay Berry Tree 129 Bay Rum Tree 129 Bergamota 65 (note( Bertero - 160 (note) Bignoniace^, LIV (158-161) Biji 115 Birch, West Indian 7o Bixa 115 Bixa orellana 115 Bixace^, XXXV (115) Black Lancewood 18 Black Mangrove 157 Blue Mahoe 102 Bois de Lait 151 Bois Grisgris 126 Bois Immortelle 59 Bois Liege 107 Boje 167 Boje Quina 167 Bombacace^, XXXI. . ^ . . . . (105-108) BoRRAGINACEiB, LII (153) Boxwood, West Indian 159 Boyo, Palode 59 Bread Fruit 9 68 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. Bread Nut 9 Brigueta Naranjo 90 Brunellia comocladifolia 33 Brunelliace^, XII (33) Bucago 59 Bucare 59 Bucaro 126 Buchenavia capitata 124 Bucida buceras 126 Bullet Tree 138 Bullock's Heart 23 (note) Burra Cimarron, Teta de 35 Burra, Teta de 35, 144 Burro 17 (note), 32, 32 (note) Burro Blanco 32 Burro Prieta, Palo de 32 (note) Bursera gummifera (see 70). Bursera simaruba 70 BUR.SERACE^, XVIII (68-70) Butter Pear 25 Byrsonima lucida 77 Byrsonima spicata 76 Cabbage Tree 58 Cabbage-bark, Bastard 58 Cabo de Hacha 75 Cabra, Palo de ' 6 Cacaillo 27, 99, 101 Cacao 108 Cacao Bobo 99 Cacao Motilla 101 Cacao Otillo 101 Cacao Roseta 101 Cachimbo 152 Cactace^, XXXVIII (120) Cafe 168 Caf6 Macho 168 Cafeillo 80, 80 (note), 119, 170 Caf eillo Cimarron 119 Cafetillo 119 Caguani 141 Caimitillo 140, 144 (note) Caimito 143 Caimito de Perro 144 (note) Caimito Morado 143 Caimito Verde 144 (note) Cainito 143 Cajuil 86 Calabash 161 Calambrenas 15 (note) Callicarpa ampla 154 (note) Calocarpum mammosum 138 (note) Calophyllum calaba 113 Calycogonium hiflorum 134 ^note 2) Calycogonium squamulosum.. . 134 (note 2) Calypthranthes sintenisii 131 Camasey 134, 134 (note) Camasey Blanco 134 (note 1) Camasey Colorado 134 Tnote 2) CamasQj^ de Costilla 134 (note 1) Camasey de Oro 134 (note 2) Camasey de Paloma 134 (note 2) Cambr6n 163 Campeche 50 Campeche, Palo de 50 Canafistula 48 No. Caflafistula Cimarrona 49 Candela, Palo de 118 Candle Wood 69 Candleberry Tree 82 Candlenut 82 Canela 25 (note), 27, 30 Canelillo 30 (^anelon 27 Caoba 72 Cap4 153,155 Capd Amarillo 155 Capd Blanca 155 Capd Cimarron 153 (note) Capd de Sabdna 155 Capa de Sabina, Palo de 155 Capd Prieta 153 Capd Rosa 154 (note) Capd Sabanero 155 Cappardiace^, XI (32) Capparis jamaicensis 32 (note) Capparis portoricensis 32 Caprifoliace^, LVI (171) Caracolillo 75, 117, 119 Carubio 62 (note) Casearia arborea 119 Casearia bicolor 119 Casearia decandra 119 Casearia guianensis 119 Casearia sylvestris 119 Cashew Tree 86 Cassia fistula 48 Cassia grandis 49 Cassipourea alba 122 (note) Castana 9 Cayur 22 Cayures 22 Ceboruquillo 94 Cecropia peltata 12 Cedar, Bastard 110 Cedar, Cigar-box 71 Cedar, Spanish 71 Cedar, West Indian 71 Cedrela odorata 71 Cedro 71 Cedro Hembra 71, 93 Cedro Macho 29, 81 Cedro Prieto 89 Ceiba 105 Ceiba pentandra 105 Celastrace^, XXIV (92) Cenizo 61 Central American Oak 91 Cereus peruvianus 120 Cereus quadricostatus 120 Cereus sivartzii (see 120). Cereus triangularis 120 Cereus trigonus 120 Cereza 119 Cereza Amarilla 78 Cereza Cimarrona 153 (note) Cerezas 78, 153 (note) Cerezo 117 Cherimolia 23 Chiflede Vaca 157 China 65 China Berry 73, 73 (note) TREES OF PORTO RICO. 59 No. China Dulce 65 China, Naranja 65 Chione venosa 167 (note 2) Chirimoya 23 Chlorophora tinctoria 8 Chrysophyllum argenteum 144 (note) Chrysophyllum bicolor 144 (note) Chrysophyllum cainito 143 Chrysophyllum oliviforme 144 Chrysophyllum paucifiorum . . . 144 (note) Chupa-callo 116 Chupa Gallo 166 Cichimbo, Palo de 170 Cidra 65 (note) Cieneguillo 121, 130 Cigar-box Cedar 71 Cinnamodendron macranthum (see 116). Ciralillo 99 Ciruela 88 Ciruela del Pais 88 Citron 65 (note) Citrus aurantium 65 Citrus bigaradia 65 (note) Citrus decumana 65 (note) Citrus hystrix subsp. acida 65 (note) Citrus Limetta 65 (note) Citrus limonum 65 (note) Citrus medica 65 (note) Githarexylum caudatum 154 (note) Citharexylum fruticosum 154 Citharexylum quadrangulare (see 154). Clammy Cherry 153 (note) Cleyera albopmiQiata Ill Clusia acuminata (see 114 note). Clusia krugiana 114 (note) Clusia rosea 114 Cobana 44 Cobana, Negra 44 Cobano 44 Coccoloba diversifolia 15 (note) Coccoloba grandifolia P 15 Coccoloba laurifolia 15 (note) Coccoloba nivea 15 (note) Coccoloba obtusifolia 15 (note) Coccoloba rugosa ^3 Coccoloba urbaniana 15 (note) Coccoloba uvifera 14 Coco 4 Coco Pakn 4 Coco, Palma de '4 Coconut 4 Cocorron 92 Cocos nucifera 4 Cocotero 4 Coffea arabica 168 Coffee 168 Cojoba 38 (note), 40, 43 Cojobana 38 (note), 40, 43 Cojobillo 43 Cojobo 43 Colubrinaferruginosa 100 ^Colubrina reclinata 100 (note) COMBRETACE^, XLI (123-127) Gonocarpv^ erecta 125 No. Contrevent 139 Copal 68 Coral Wood 59 Coralitas 42 Corazon 23 (note) Corazon Cimarron 22 Corcho 16, 22, 107 Cordia alliodora . 153 Cordia borinquensis , 153 (note) Cordia collococca 153 (note) Cordia gerascanthoides (see 153). Cordia gerascanthus (see 153). Cordia nitida 153 (note) Cordia sebestena 153 (note) Cordia sulcata 153 (note) Cork Wood 22, 105, 107 Coscorron 92 Cotorrerillo 119 Cotorro, Palo de 163 Cotton Tree 105 Courbaril 45 Crescentia cujete 161 Cresta de Gallo 53 Cucubano 15 (note) Cucubano, Palo de 165 Cuero de Sapo 90 Cupania americana 96 Cupania triquetra 96 Cupei 114 (note) Cupeillo 114 (note) Cupey 114,114 (note) Cupey, Palo de 114 Custard Apple 23 (note) Dacryodes excelsa 69 Dajao 169 Dajao, Palo de 169 Daphnopsis caribaea 121 Daphnopsis philippiana 121 Didymopanax morototoni 136 Diospyros ebenaster 147 Dipholis salicifolia 142 Dipholis sintenisiana 142 (note) Doncella #. 97, 97 (note) Doncella, Palo de 77 Doncella, Sangre de 77 Down Tree 107 Drypetes alba 80 Drypetes glauca 80 (note) Drypetes lateriflora 79 East Indian Walnuj; 39 Ebenace^, XLVII (146,147) Elaeocarpace^, XXIX (101) Elaeodendron xylocarpum var. co- rymbosum 92 Elm, West Indian 109 Emajagua 102 Emajagua Brava 121 Emajagua de Sierra 121 Emajaguilla 103 Eriodendron anfractuosum (see 105). Erythrina corallodendron 59 Erythrina glauca 59 Erythrina micropterix 59 Escambron 163 60 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. Espejuelo 142 (note) Espinillo, Palo de 163 Espino 61,62 (note) Espino Rubial 61, 62 (note) Espinoso, Pinon 59 Eugenia aeruginea 132 Eugenia Jloribunda 132 (note) Eugenia jambos 133 Eugenia sintenisii 132 (note^ Eugenia stahlii 132 (note) Eugenio 93 EUPHORBIACE/E, XXI 78-84 Exothea panniculata 98 Fagara caribaea 62 (note) Fagara flava 62 Fagara martinicensis 61 Fagara monophylla 62 (note) Fagara trifoliata 62 (note) Faramea occidentalis 170 Ficus laevigata var. lentiginosa sub- var. subcordata 11 Ficus lentiginosa (see 11). Ficus nitiaa 11 (note) Ficus sintenisii 11 (note) Ficus stahlii 11 (note) Fiddle Wood 155, 156 Fig, Balsam 114 Flacourtiace^, XXXVII.... (117-119) Flamboyan 39, 51 Flamboyan Blanco 47 Flambovan Colorado 51 Flame Tree 51 Florida Plum 79 Forte' Ventura . 56 Frangipanic Blanc 151 Fromager 105 Fustic 8 Gaita 75, 98 GalUto 53 Gallo, Cresta de 53 Gangulin, Palo de 135 (note) Garrocha ^ *. 106 Garrocha, Palo de 106 Garrocho 106 Gateado ■. 15 (note) Geiger Tree 153 (note) Genip Tree 95 Genipa americana 164 Genipe 95 Geno 56 Geno-Geno : 56 Gia Mansa 119 Gia Verde 119 Cf-ilibcrtia arborea 135 Gilibertia laurifolia 135 (note) Ginep 95 Glateado 15 (note) GongoU, Palo de 122 (note) GongoUn 91 Gramine^, LVII (172) Grana, Palma de 2 Granadilla Cimarrona 134 (note 2) Granadillo 124 Gfape Fruit 65 (note) Grayume 136 No. Grayume Macho 136 Grayumo 136 Greenheart, West Indian 100 Grosella 78 Grosella Blanca 78 Guaba 36 Guacaran 98 Gudcima 109, 110 Gudcima del Norte 109 Gudcima del Sur 110 Guacimilla 6 Guaita 75 Guajacum officinale 60 Guajacum sanctum 60 (note) Guamd 37 Guandbana 21 Guanavana Cimarrona 23 (note) Guango 38 Guano 107 Guara 94, 96 Guara Blanca 96 Guaraguaillo 74 (note) Guaraguao 74 Guaraguao Macho 74 (note) Guarea ramiflora 74 (note) ' Guarea trichilioides 7 Guarema 67 Guarumbo 12 Guasdvera 132 Guatteria blainii 20 Guava 36, 128 Guayaba 128 Guayabacoa 114 (note) Guayabac6n 130, 132 Guayabota 132 (note), 147 Guayabota-nispero 146 Guayacdn 60 Guayacdn Blanco 60 (note) Guayacancillo 60 (note) Guayarote 92 Guayava 128 Guayava Pera 128 Guayavacon 75, 130 Guayrote 99 Guazuma guazuma (see 109). Guazuma Plum 109 Guazuma tomentosa 110 Guazuma ulmi/olia 109 Guazymillo 6 Guenepa 95 Guettarda Icrugii 1 65 (note) Guettarda laevis 165 (note) Guettarda ovalifolia 165 (note) Guettarda scabra 165 Guiana Plum 79 Guitardn 100 Guitarra, Palo de 154 Gumbo Limbo 70 GUTTIFER^, XXXIV (112-114) Hacana 139 Hacha, Cabo de 75 Hachuelo 54 Hackia 169 Haematoxylum campechianum 50 Haemocharis portoricensis Ill TEEES OF PORTO EICO. 61 No. 164 Hagiiey 11 (note) Hat Palm 1 Hat Palm, Porto Rican 1 Hau 102 Havarilla 84 Havillo 84 Haya 20 Haya Blanca 19 Haya Minga 20 Haya Prieta 18 Hediondilla 41 Henriettella fasdcularis 134 (note 2) Henriettella macfadyenii 134 (note 2) Henriettella viembranifolia . . 134 (note 2) Hernandia sonora r. . . . 31 Hernandiace^, X (31) neterotrichum cymosum 134 (note 2) Hibiscus elatus (see 102). Hibiscus tiliaceus 102 Hieronymia clusioides 81 Hierro, Palo de 169 Higuerillo 78, 154, 154 (note, 156 Higuero 11 (note), 161 Higuillo 78 Higuillo Preto 11 (note) Hincha-huevos 81 Hippomane mandnella 83 Hirtella rogosa 35 Hirtella tiandra 35 Hog Plum 87,89 HojaMenuda 130,131 Homalium racemosum 117 Hucar Blanco 126 Huesillo 150 Hueso 67, 80 Hueso Blanco 150 Hueso, Palo de. . . . 67, 90, 122 (note), 150 Hueso Prieto 67, 90 Hufelandia pendula 29 Hura crepitans 84 Hymanaea courbaril 45 Hypelata paniculata (see 98). Icacillo 35 Ilex dioica (see 90). Ilex nitida 90 Ilex sideroxyloides var . occidentalis . . 91 Indian Almond 123 Indian Walnut : 82 Inga laurina 37 Inga vera 36 Ink Berry 163 Inodes causiarum 1 Inodes glauca 1 Ironwood 100 Tronwood, West Indian or Mar- tiaique 169 Ixoraferrea 169 Ixpepe 6 Jacana 139 Jagua 164 Jaguey 11, 11 (note) Jamaican Walnut ,.,.,., 5 No. Jambosa jambos (see 133). Jaqueca, Palo de 103 Jatoba 45 Javillo 84 Jicara 161 Jiguerillo 11 Jobillo 75, 88 Jobo 87 Jobo Frances 88 JUGLANDACE^, II (5) Juglans jamaicensis 5 KopakTree 105 Laguncularia racemosa 127 Lancewood 24 Lancewood, Black 18 Lancewood, True 18 Lancewood, White 19 Laurace^, IX (25-30) Laurel 11 (note), 17, 26, 26 (note), 27, 28, 29 Laurel Amarillo 28 Laurel Avispillo 27 Laurel Blanco 28 Lam-el Bobo 26, 27 Laiuel Canelon 28 Laurel de India. 11 (note) Laurel Espada 119 Laurel Geo 27, 28 Laurel Geo-geo 26, 27, 28 Laurel Macho 28 Laurel Roseta 28 Laurel Sabino 17 Laurel Sassafras 27 Laurel Savino 17 Laurelillo 28 Leche Prieto 140 Lechesillo 11, 81, 144, 144 (note) Leguminos^, XIV (36-59) Lemon 65 (note) Leucaena glauca 41 Lignum Vitae 60 Lilaila 73 Lilaililla 93 Lima 65 (note) Lime 65 (note) Lim6n 65 (note) Limon Dulce 65 (note) Limoncillo 129, 129 (note), 131, 132 (note) Limoncillo de Monte 131 Linociera domingensis iSiO Lizard Wood 156 Llagrume 136 Llagrume Macho 136 Llagrumo 12 Locust Tree 45 Xog Wood 50 Lonchocarpus domingensis 56 Lonchocarpus glaucifolius 56 Lonchocarpus latifolius 56 Lora, Negra 10, 20 Lucuma multiflora 139 62 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. Maba sintenisii 146 Mabi 100, 100 (note) Machined 83 Madre de Cacao 59 Maga 104 Magar 104 Magas 104 Magnolia portoricensis 17 (note) Magnolia splendens 17 Magnoliace^, VII (17) Mago 31 Mahagua 102 Mahoe, Blue or Mountain 102 Mahogany 72 Mahot 102 Mahot-franc 102 Majagua 102 Majagua Quemadora 121 Malagueta 129, 129 (note) Malpighiaoe^, XX (76, 77) Malvace^, XXX (102-104) Mamey 112 Mamey Sapote 138 (note) Mameyuelo 137, 137 (note), 145. Mammea 112 Mammea americana 112 Mammee Apple 112 Mangifera indica 85 Mangle 122, 125 Mangle Blanco 127, 157 Mangle Bobo 127, 157 Mangle Bot6n 125 Mangle Botoncillo 125 Mangle Colorado 122, 125 Mangle Sapatero 122 Mang6 85 Mangrove, Black 157 Mangrove, Red 122 Mangrove, White 127 Manzanillo 81, 83 Mapurito 62 (note) Maraiion 86 Maria, Palo de 113 Marias 113 Maricao 76, 111 Martin Avila 167 (note) 2 Martinique Iron wood 169 Masa 68 Masa Colorado 68 Mastic 141 Mastichodendron (see 141). Matayaba apetala 97 (note) Malay aba doming ensis 97 Mato 42.52 Mato Colorado 42 Mato, Palode 42,52 Mauricio _ 17 (note) Mayepea domingensis (see 150). Melastomatace^, XLIII (134) Melia azedarach 73 Melia azedarach umbraculifera . . 73 (note) Meliace^, XIX (71-75) Melicocca bijuga 95 Meliosma herbertii 99 Meliosma obtusifolia. 99 No. Melon, Palo de 161 Melon Tree 161 Metopium taxiferum 89 Miconia Quianensis 134 (note 1) Miconia impetiolaris 134 (note 1) Miconia prasina 134 (note 1) Miconia tetrandra 134 MicrophoUs curvata 140 Micropholis garcinifolia 140 Millo 78 Millo, Palode 78 Mimusops duplicata 145 Mimusops globosa (see 145). Mimusops nitida 145 Moca 58 Moca Blanca 58 Molinillo. 75, 84 Monkey's Dinner Bell 84 Mora 8 Mora, Palo de 8 Morace^, IV (7-12) Moral 153 (note) Moral de Paz 153 (note) Moralon 15 Motillo 101 Mountain Mahoe 102 Multa 122 (note) Muneca 135, 153 (note) Muneca, Palo de 153 (note) Muneco, Palo de 152 Murta 132 (note) Musk Wood 74 Mycropholis chrysophylloides 140 Myrcia deflexa 130 Myrcia leptoclada 130 Myrcia f pagani 130 Myrcia splendens 130 Myroxylon huxi folium, (see 118). Myroxylon schwaneclceanum (see 118). Myrsinace^, XLV (137) Myrtace^, XLII (128-133) Naceberry 138 Naranja 65 (note) Naranja China 65 Nectandra, coriacea 28 Nectandra hrugii 28 Nectandra mem branacea 28 Nectandra patens 28 Nectandra sintenisii 28 Negra Lora 10, 20 Nemoca 27 Nino de Cota HI Nispero 138 Nispero Cimarron, Palo de 148 Nogal 5 Nopalea coccinellifera 1 20 Nuez 82 Nuez de India 82 Nuez Moscada 27 Nuez Moscada Cimarrona 27 Nuez Moscada del Pays 27 Nuez, Palo de 5 Nutmeg 27 Nyctaginace^, VI , (16) THEES OF PORTO RICO. 63 No. Oak, Central American 91 Ochronia lagopus 107 Ocotea cuneata 27 Ocotea fiorihunda 27 Ocotea leucoxylon 27 Ocotea moschata 27 Ocotea portoricensis 27 Ocotea wrightii 27 OLEACE.E, L (150) Olive Wood of Jamaica, Wild 126 Opuntia catacantha 120 Opuntia guanicana 120 Oreja, Palo de 122 (note)" Oreodoxa caribaea 2 Oreodoxa regia (see 2). Orme d'Amerique 110 Ormosia krugii 52 Ortegon 13, 15 (note) Otaheite Gooseberry 78 Oxandra lanceolata 18 Oxandra laurifolia 19 Pajuil 86 Palicourea alpina 170 Palm, Coco 4 Palm, Hat 1 Palm, Porto Rican Hat 1 Palm, Royal 2 Palma Costa 2 Palma de Coco 4 Palma de Grana 2 Palma de la Sierra 3 Palma de Sierra 3 Palma de Sombrero 1 Palma de Yaguas 2 Palma Real 2 Palmacte 2 Palm.?;, I (1-4) Palo Amargo 152 Palo Blanco 80 (note) 119, 150, 167 (note 2) Palo Blanco de la Costa 122. (note) Palo Bobo 15 (note), 16,33 Palo Cachumba 135, 135 (note) Palo Colorado 29, 111, 118 Palo de Aceite 68 Palo de Aceituna 80 (note) Palo de Anastasio 75 Palo de Boyo 59 Palo de Burro Prieta 32 (note) Palo de Cabra 6, 148 Palo de Campeche 50 Palo de Candela 118 Palo de Capa de Sabana 155 Palo de Cichimbo 170 Palo de Cotorra 81, 163 Palo de Cucubano 165 Palo de Cupey 114 Palo de Dajao 169 Palo de Doncella 77 Palo de Espinillo 163 Palo de Gallina 81 Palo de Gangulin 135 (note) Palo de Garrocha 106 Palo de Gongoli 122 (note) Palo de Guitarra , 154 No. Palo de Hierro *169 PalodeHueso 67, 90, 122 (note, 150 Palo de Jaqueca 103 Palo de Maria 113 Palo de Masa 68 Palo de Mato 42, 52 Palo de Melon 161 PalodeMillo 78 Palo de Mora 8 Palo de Muneca 153 (note) Palo de Muneco 152 Palo de Nispero Cimarron 148 Palo de Nuez 5 Palo de Oreja 122 (note) Palo de Pan 9 Palo de P^ndula 156 Palo de Polio 55 Palo de Quina 167 Palo de Tea 64 Palo de Toro 122 (note), 170 Palo de Vaca 135 (note) Palo de Vaca Blanco 80 Palo Hediondo 56 Palo Mabi 100 (note) Palo Polio 55 Pana 9,135 Pana Cimarrona 136 Papayo 89 Paritium tiliaceum (see 102). Pasilla 73 Pendola 15 P^ndola Cimarron 154 (note) P^ndula 154, 156 P^ndula Blanco 156 Pendula Colorado 154 Pendula, Palo de 156 Peronia 52 Peronilas 42 Persea americana 25 Persea gratissima ( see 25). Persea krugii 25 (note) Petitia domingensis 155 Phoebe elongata 26 Phoebe montana 26 (note) Phyllanthus distichus 78 Phyllanthus nobilis var. antillanus . 78 Picramnia pentandra 67 Pictetia aculeata 54 Pictetia aristata (see 54). Pilocereus royeni 120 Pimienta 129 (note) Pimienta Malagueta 129 Pinon Espinoso 59 Piptadenia peregrina 43 Piscidia piscipnla 57 Pisonia subcordata var. typica 16 Pitajaya 120 Pithecolobium arboreum 38 (note) Pithicolobium saman 38 Pleodendron macranthum 116 Plum, Florida, or Guiana 79 Plum, Guazuma 109 Plum, Hog 87, 89 Plumiera alba 151 Poinciana regia 51 Poisou Wood ,,,..,..,.,.,, 89 64 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. No. Polisandro 44 PoLYGONACEiE, V (13-15) Poma Rosa 133 Pomelo 65 (note) Porcupine Wood 4 Porto Rican Hat Palm 1 Prickly Ash 61 Prince Wood 153 Pruniis occidental-is 34 Pseudolmedia spuria 10 Psidium guajava 128 Psychotria brachiata 170 Pterocarpus officinalis 55 Pumu 2 Purio 19 Quapinole Jutahy 45 Quararibea turbinata 106 Quenepas 95 Quiebra Hacha 94 Quina 167,167 (note) Quina, Palo de 167 Quitardn 100 Rabo Rat6n 119 Rabojunco 119 Rain Tree ,. 38 Rama Menuda 130 Ramon 7 Ramoncillo 7, 75 Randia aculeata 163 Raton 97, 100 Rauwolfia nitida 152 Ravenia urbani 63 Red Bean Tree 59 Red Mangrove 122 Retamo 75 RhAMN ACE.E, _XX VIII (100) Rheedia portoricensis 114 (note) Rhizophora mangle 122 RmzoPHORACEiE, XL (122) Roble 158, 159, 160, 160 (note Roble Blanco 159 Roble Colorado 158 Roble Prieto 160 Rollinia mucosa 24 Rondeletia portoriceasis 162 Rosacea, XIII (34) Rose Apple 133 Rose Wood 64 (note) Roseta 118 Royal Palm 2 Roystonea borinquena (see 2). Rubia 62 (note) RuBiACE^, LV (162-170) RUTACE^, XVI (61) Sabiace^, XXVII (99) Sabino 17 Saman 38 Sambucus intermedia var. insularis . 171 San Bartolome 153 (note) Sand-box Tree 84 Sangre de Doncella 77 Sangninaria 100 Santa Maria 103, 113 No, Santa Olalla 167 (note 2) Sapinuace^, XXVI (94-98) Sapium laurocerasus 81 Sapo, Cuero de 90 Sapodilla 138 Sapotace^, XLVI (138-145) Sapote 145 Sapote de Costa 145 Sarna de Perro 119 Saruma 12 Sassafras 27 Satinwood 62 Satinwood, West Indian 66 Saiico 171 Sauco Cimarr6n 93 Sea Grape 14 Sebucdn. 114 (note), 120 Seburoquillo 94 Seplina 47 Serillos 99 Serrasuela 165 Sesbania grandiflora 53 Sideroxylon foetidissimum 141 Sideroxylon mastichodendron (see 141). Sideroxylon portoricense 141 (note) Siete-cueros 78 Silk-cotton 105 Simaruba tulae 66 Simarubace^, XVII (66, 67) SirisTree 39 Sloanea berteriana 101 Snakewood 100 Sour Orange 65 (note) Soursop 21 Spanish Cedar 71 Spanish Elm 153 Spanish Plum 88 Spondias lutea (see 87). Spondias mombin 87 Spondias purpurea .• 88 Stahlia monosperma 44 Staphyleace^, XXV (93) Star Apple 143 Sterculiace^, XXXII (109, 110) Styracace^, XLIX (149) Styrax portoricensis 149 Sugar Apple 23 Sweet Lemon 65 (note) Sweet Orange 65 Sweetsop 23 Sivietenia mahagoni 72 Symplocace^, XLVIII (148) Symplocos lanata 148 Symplocos latifolia 148 Symplocos martinicensis 148 Symplocos micrantha 148 Symplocos polyantha 148 Tabanuco 69 Tabebuia rigida 158 Tabebuia schumanniana 158 Tabeiba 81, 146, 151 Tabloncillo 141 (note), 142 Tabonuco 69 Tachuelo 54 TREES OP PORTO RICO. 65 No. Talaiitr6n : 119 Tamarind 46 Tamarindo 46 Tamarindo Cimarron 40 Tamarindus indica 46 Tea 64, 64 (note) Tea Cimarrona 97 Tea, Palode 64 Tecoma haemantha 160 (note) Tecoma leucoxylon 160 Tecoma pentaphylla 159 Temante 161 Terciopelo 134 (note 2) Terminalia catappa 123 Ternstroemia heptascpaln Ill Ternstroemia luquiUcnsis Ill Ternstroemia peduncularis Ill Ternstroemiace^, XXXIII. . . . (Ill) Tetade Burra 35,144 Teta de Burra Cimarron 35 TetaPrieta Ill Tetragastris halsamifera 68 Theobroma cacao 108 Thcspesia grandiflora 104 Thcspesia populnm 103 Thouinia striata 94 Thymelaeace^, XXXIX (121) Tigulate 161 Tintillo 163 Torchwood 64 (note) Toronja 65 (note) Tortuga 141 Tortugo Amarillo 141 Tortugo Prieto 63, 141 Tortuguillo 166 Tostado 117 Tovomita ellipiica (see 114, note). Trema micranthuvi 6 Trichilia hirta 75 Trichilia pallida 75 Trichilia triacantha 75 Trophis racemosa 7 True Lancewood 18 Trumpet Tree 12 Tuna de Espafia 120 Tuna Mansa 120 Turpinia panniculata 93 TJcar 126 Ucar Blanco ; . . . 126 Ulmace^, III (6) Umbrella China Tree 73 (note) Uva del Mar 14 Uverillo 15 (note) 21871°— Bull. 354—16 5 No. Uvero 14 Uvillo 15 (note) Varietal 47 Varital 79, 80 (note) Ventura 57 Ventura, Forte 56 Verbenacp^, LIII (154-157) Vibona 135, 135 (note) Vitex divaricata 156 Vomitel Colorado 153 (note) Walnut, East Indian 39 Walnut, Indian 82 Walnut, Jamaican 5 Walnut, West Indian 5 West Indian Birch 70 West Indian Boxwood 159 West Indian Cedar 71 West Indian Elm" 109 West Indian Greenheart 100 West Indian Ironwood 169 West Indian Satinwood 66 West Indian Walnut 5 White Lancewood 19 White Mangrove 127 Whitewood 79, 160 Wild Cinnamon 116,129 Wild Olive Wood 126 Winterana canella 116 WiNTERANACEiE, XXXVI (116) Woman's Tongue 39 Xylosma buxifolium 118 Xylosma schwanecheanum 118 Yagrume 136 Yagrume Hembra 12 Yagrume Macho 136 Yagua 2 Yagua del Monte 3 Yaray 1 Yaya 19 Yaya Blanca 19 Yellow Sanders 124 Yellow Wood 62 Yobillo 81 Yuquillo 78 Zanthoxylum (see 61, footnote). Zapote Negro 6 Prieto 147 Zarza 40 (note) Zipote 145 Z YGOPHYLLACE^, XV (60) 66 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES. 1. PALMiE. 1. Inodes caimarum Cook. Yaray; Porto Rican hat palm (Br. W. T.) . Inodcs glauca Urb. Damm. Palma de sombrero; Hat palm (Br. W. I.). Two palms more or less common on the western end of ihe island, usually along the shore on the coral sand. The leaves are held in high repute in Porto Pdco for making hats, immense quantities of which are manufactured every year. The center of this industry is at Joyua, just south of Mayaguez. 2. Oreodoxa caribaea (Spreng.) Damm. & Url). (=Rorjstonca borinqucna Cook?=0. regia Bello?). Palma real, Yagua, Palma de yaguas, Palraa costa, Palma degrana; Palmacte, Pumu (Sp. W. I.); Royal palm (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to more than 80 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, found throughout the island, the West Indies, and southern Florida. One of the most con- spicuous ol:)jects in the Porto Rican landscape. The most useful part is the sheathing base of the leaf called "yagua," which is used for roofing and siding of huts, and for a great variety of other piu^?oses, especially by the poorer classes. The outer portion of the trunk is used for boards, posts, poles, piles, etc. The leaves are used for thatch- ing roofs. The royal palm has more economic uses than any other tree in the West Indies. 3. Acrhta monticola Cook. Palma de la Sierra, Palma de Sierra, Yagua del Monte. Tree from 30 to 80 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, closely allied to the royal palm {Oreodoxa caribaea). The Porto Rican species is coniined chiefly to the mountain regions. The outer portion of the trunk, spht into bpards, is used for making huts, and the leaves for thatching roofs. 4. Cocas nucifita L. Palma de coco, Coco, Cocotero (Sp. W. I.); Coconut, Porcupine wood. Coco palm (Br. W. I.). Tree usually from 40 to 50 feet tall and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter, found everywhere along the coast in Porto Rico, the West Indies, and the Tropics generally. Extensively planted and of great economic importance. The "milk" of green fruit is in great demand locally. It is drunk directly from the nut, which is then thrown away. The ripe fruit is exported in large quantities. The wood is used for walking sticks, uml)rella handles, posts, piles, and for other purposes requiring strong and durable material. The fiber of the husk, known as coir, and the dried meat of the nut, known as copra, both important articles of export from the East Indies to Europe, have no commercial value in Porto Roco. The wood is somewhat similar to that of the royal palm, very hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very dui'able in contact with the soil. II. JuGLANDACEyE. 5. Jnglans jamaicenns C. DC. Nogal, Palo de nuez; Jamaican or West Indian walnut (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occurring only at high altitudes on the island. The wood is similar to that of our native Butternut {Juxjlans cinerea L.) but is seldom used except occasionally for furniture. III. UlMACE/E. 6. Trema micranihum (L.) Bl. Palo de cabra, Guacimilla, Guazymillo; Ixpgpe (Mexico). Tree from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring here and there throughout the island. Wood little used. Wood light brown, moderately fin§ grained, capable of a good polish, but rather soft, light, and weak. Pores small, isolated, or in groups of two to five or more, and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. TEEES OF POETO EICO. 67 IV. MORACE.E. 7. Trophisracemosa(L.)'Urh. Ramon/ Ramoncillo. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the northwestern part of the island, chiefly of importance on account of the leaves, which are used as fodder for cattle and horses. Its wood is good for all purposes except in exposed situations. *8. Chlorophom tinctoria (L.) Gaudich. Mora, Palo de mora. Fustic. Tree from 45 to 65 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occm-ring mostly in the southwestern part of the island. The wood is used locally for shelving in country houses and for spokes of wheels; also for furniture and wherever great strength and durability are required. This tree, which occurs throughout the West Indies and Central America, furnishes one of the most important dyewoods of commerce. Wood 2 a handsome brownish-yellow, very fine-grained. Pores small, isolated or in gi-oups of two to four, more or less connected by short wavy tangential lines of wood parenchyma, which are conspicuous on a transverse siuface. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Wood takes a fine poUsh, hard, heavy (about 44 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and durable. *9. Artocarpus incisa L. {=Artocarpus communis Forst.). Pana, Palo de pan, Castana; Bread fruit, Bread nut (Br. W! I.). Tree from 40 to 60 feet high, introduced from the East Indies, now growing spon- taneously in many parts of the island, particularly the north side. The fruit is very large with numerous large seeds resembling the Spanish chestnut, whence the common name "castana." These seeds are an important article of native food. Wood, though little used, is said to be highly appreciated for furniture and for building houses. Wood is yellowish-grajr in color; rather light and soft, but strong, resistant, and elastic. Its specific gravity is given as 0.495 (C. & C). 10. Pseudolmedia spuria (Sw.) Griseb. Negra lora. Tree frorn 25 to 50 feet high with a limited distribution on the island. It is of very little use except for fuel and charcoal. *11. Ficus laevigata var. lentiginosa subvar. subcordata (Warb.) Urb. (=F. lentiginosa Vahl.). Jagiiey, Jiguerillo, Lechesillo. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 4 to 5 feet in diameter, occurring quite gen- erally in the mountainous regions. It is at first semiepiphytic and often destroys, trees on which it grows. It is used in making fishing canoes. Wood light gi'ay with narrow brown lines of softer tissue, fine, and straight-grained moderately soft and Light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, solitary or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Tangential lines of wood-parenchyma fibers visible on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays very narrow and indistinct. Note. — Similar to the above in the uses and properties of their wood are Ficus smtenisii Warb. (Jagiiey, Higuillo preto) and Ficus stahlii Warb. (Hagiiey, Jagiiey) trees, 15 to 60 feet high, wliich occur in the mountainous regions. Several other species of Ficus kno\vn locally as "Higuero " are reported as being generally distributed throughout the island. These are small trees averaging from 10 to 20 feet high and from 4 to 6 inches in diameter. The wood, which is very little used, is white, soft, light (about 43 pounds per cubic foot), and not strong nor dui'able in the soil. Another species F^cits nitida Thumb. (Laurel de India, Laurel), introduced from Asia, is a beautiful tree from 45 to 65 feet high and has been planted on the island for ornamental purposes. The wood is not used. 1 Thistreemustnotbeconfused with the bread-nut tree (Brosmwrn alicastrum Sw.), whirti is also called "Ramon" throughout the West Indies and Yucatan. The latter is a native of Jamaica but has not been reported from Porto Rico. 2 See pp. 12-14, Forest Service Circular 184. 68 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12. Cecropia peltata L. Yagrurae hembra, Llagnimo. Trumpet tree; Guanimbo, sariima (Mexico). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring in moun- tainoTis re,. (Toronja, Pomelo, Grapefruit); Citrus hystrir, subsp., acidu (Roxb.) Bona\'ia (Lima, Lime); Citrus limonum Risso (Limon, Lemon); Citrus medica L. (Toronja, Cidra, Citron, Citrus limetta, Bergamota, Limon dulce, Sweet lemon). > See pp. 10 and 11, Forest Service Circular 184, "Fustic Wood: Its Adulterants." TREES OF PORTO RICO. 77 XVII. SlMARUBACE^. *66. Simaruha tulx Urb. Aceitillo; West Indian satinwood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in moun- tain forests from the Luqiiillos to Maricao. It is reported formerly to have been plen- tiful on the limestone uplands north of Lares, in associat-on Avith moralon and capa . blanca, and to have been cut into lumber for building purposes. Now so scarce as to be no longer of any importance. Elsewhere in tropical America it is considered one of the rarest and most expensive ornamental woods for furniture and interior finish, being so much sought after that the stumps are often dug up and cut into veneer. Wood Ught yellow, very fine, and often wavy-grained, taking a high polish, hard, heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, not visible to the unaided eye. 67. Picramnia pentandra Sw. Guarema, Hueso, Hueso prieto, Palo de hueso. Tree from 15 to 35 feet, high and from 15 to 25 inches in diameter, occuning quite generally on the island. Wood used in house building. Wood dark colored, fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and very heavy (about 76 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays nari'ow, inconspicuous. XVIII. BuRSERACEiE. 68. Tetragastris balsamifera (Sw.) O. Kuntze. Masa, Masa Colorado, Palo de aceite, Palo de masa; Copal (Guatemala). A common forest tree from 20 to 70 feet high and from 16 to 20 inches in diameter, found in the mountainous parts of the island. This tree yields a very d.esirable wood for interior work of houses. Wood rose-colored or yellowish, beautiful, fragrant, and fine-grained, moderately hai'd, light, strong, and very durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. 69. Dacryodes excelsa Vahl. Tabanuco, Tabonuco; Candle wood (Br. W. T.). A tree from 60 to 75 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter, found quite generally in the mountainous regions, especially in the Luquillos, where it often occiu's in large stands. One of the most valuable trees on the island for lumber, because of its large size, straightness of bole, and occurrence in close, pure stands. A resin obtained from the gum is used extensively by the natives for candles and torches, as incense, and medicinally. The wood is used for flooring, ceiling, etc., and is often stained and sold as mahogany. Wood brown, sometimes cross and fine gi'ained, often giving a "satiny" appearance. It is similar in physical properties to om yellow poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera L.), lumber dealers of this country placing them in the same class. Tabanuco is, however, handsomer and finer grained than yellow poplar and capable of a higher polish. It is moderately hard, heavy, strong, and not durable when exposed. Pores small, soli- tary, or in gi'oups of two or two or three, and evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. *70. Bursera simaruha (L) Sarg. {=B. gummifera, Jacq.). Almdcigo; Gumbo limbo. West Indian birch (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 40 feet high, very common on the island. This is the largest tree of the chapan-al forests on the limestone hills of the south side of the island. Like the jobo {Spondias Intea), it is readily propogated from cuttings, even from stakes of large size. It is therefore used for "Live" fence posts and is one of the commonest trees to be seen along the roadside, where it also serves, though poorly, for the purpose of shade. The wood is of little value. _ Wood light brown, ofteii with dark discolorations, fine grained, very soft, spongy, light, weak, and very liable to decay. Pores numerous, small, isolated or in groups of two or three, sometimes more. Pith rays very inconspicuous. 78 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. XIX. Meliace^. *71. Cedrela odorata L. Cedro, Cedro hembra; West Indian cedar; Spanish cedar; Cigar-box cedar (Br. W. I.). Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 4 to 6 feet in diameter, formerly common to all parts of the island, but now rare except in the inaccessible places. Spanish cedar is one of the most highly esteemed woods in the West Indies and is used for more purposes than any other. Its principal use, however, is for cigar boxes. The wood is pale reddish-brown, but varies considerably from very light to very dark, depending upon the age and the kind of soil in which it grows. It has a general appearance similar to that of mahogany and pos.s(;.sses a characteristic fragrant odor. It is moderately soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, somewhat tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores are rather large, not numerous, solitary, or often in small groups distributed evenly throughout the wood. Pith raye few, narrow, and indistinct to the naked eye. *72. Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. Caoba; Mahogany (Br. W. I.). Tree from 50 to 100 feet high and from 3 to 5 feet in diameter; This tree has not been reported from Porto Rico by recent botanical explorers. There is some evidence, however, that mahogany occurred at one time on the island. It is the most highly esteemed wood for furniture and interior finish. No other wood has such a wide range of uses and so many substitutes. Wood light or dark brown, with a very pleasing appearance when polished. It is fine and cross grained, works rather easily, hard, heavy (varies from 35 to 67 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable. Pores are moderately large, often filled with white or brown substance (tyloses), and arranged singly or in small groups; pith rays inconspicuous to the unaided eye. *73. Melia azedarach L. Alilaila, Lilaila, Pasilla; China berry (Br. W. I.) Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 8 to 15 inches in diameter, cultivated and growing spontaneously in various parts of the island, including the Cordillera Central and the limestone formation of the western and southwestern coast. This tree has been introduced from Asia and is now very common throughout tropical and sub- tropical parts of the world for shade and ornament. The wood is sometimes used by the country people for tool handles and the like. Wood mahogany colored, with a coarse and straight grain, moderately soft, light, weak, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores rather large in early wood, which ren- der the boundary of the annual rings of growth usually very conspicuous; the pores in the late wood are much smaller and inconspicuous. *NoTE.— An umbrella variety of the alilaila, Melia azedarach umbraculifera Sarg. (Umbrella China tree, China berry (Br. W. I.), which was developed in Texas in about 1880, is planted in Porto Rico merely for shade and ornament. The wood has characteristics similar to the one above. *74. Guarea trichilioides L. Guaraguao, Acajou; Musk wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and sometimes 6 feet in diameter. It occtu-s in mountain forests from the Luquillos to Maricao and is one of the leading woods of the island, being very highly prized by the natives. Because of the great demand it is now rather scarce. Its principal uses locally are for strong wagons and carriages, farm imple- ments, and general carpentry. The wood resembles mahogany and Spanish cedar and is useful for the same purposes. Wood light reddish-brown, sometimes streaked with lighter and darker shades, hard, moderately heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact Avith the soil. It has in a general way the appearance of dark-colored mahogany and an odor resem- bling musk. Pores small, very numerous, and connected by fine tangential lines of softer tissue which are scarcely visible to the unaided eye. Pith rays very narrow, numerous, and inconspicuous. *NoTE. — Another and little-known species of this genus is G. ramiflora Vent. (Guaraguaillo, Guaraguao macho), a tree usually under 25 feet and rarely TREES OF PORTO RICO. 79 60 feet high, occurring in the forests, widely distributed, but not plentiful, throughout the uplands from the Luquillos to Mayaguez. Wood similar to the one above. 75. Tricliilia. Three species of this genera occur in Porto Rico: Tricliilia pallida Sw. (Caracolillo, Gaita, Ramoncillo, Cabo de hacha); Trichilia hirta L. (Cabo de hacha, Guaita, Jobillo, Molinillo, Palo de anastasio, Retamo, Guayavacon) ; and Trichilia triacantha Urb., trees from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring principally in the mountainous regions of the island and to some extent in the limestone hills of the south coast. Wood, though very similar to that of G. trichilioides, is seldom used except for fuel. XX. Malpighiace^. *76. Byrsonima spicata (Cav.) L. Gl. Rich. Maricao. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, occurring quite generally in forests throughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and house building. The bark is astringent and is used for tanning. Wood dull reddish brown, moderately fine grained, taking a good polish, moder- ately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. *77. Byrsonima ludda (Sw.) L. CI. Rich. Palo de doncella, Sangre de doncella. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, quite widely distributed on the island. The wood ia highly esteemed for furniture and interior finish. Wood dark brown, very fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. XXI. EUPHORBIACE^. 78. Phyllanthus. Two species of this genera are found in Porto Rico, one a native (Phyllanthus nobilis var. antillanus (Juss.) Miill. (Amortiguado; Avispillo, Higuerillo, Higuillo, Millo, Palo de millo, Siete-cueros [mas.], Yaquillo [fem.]) is a tree from 30 to 60 feet high, widely distributed on the island; the other Phyllanthus distichiis (L.) Miill. (Grosella, Groseila blanca, Cerezas, Cereza amarilla,_ Otaheite gooseberry), introduced from India, is a tree from 15 to 30 feet hi^h, cultivated for the sake of its fruit. Wood of both ia but little used, although very beautiful, white, hard, strong, and tough. *79. Drypetes lateriflora (Sw.) Kr. et Urb. Varital; Florida or Guiana plum, White- wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 5 to 10 inches in diameter, found principally near Bayamon. It is also common in southern Florida and on the islands of the West Indies. Wood rich dark brown, very fine and cross grained, hard, heavy (about 58 pounds per cubic foot),_ not strong, brittle, and liable to check in drying. Pores small, solitary, or in short radial rows, mth numerous very fine tangential lines of softer tissue present. Pith rays very numerous and inconspicuous. 80. Drypetes alba Poit. Cafeillo, Hueso, Palo de vaca bianco. Tree from 15 to 60 feet high found in the mountain forests of the Sien-a de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. The wood is often used for hubs of wheels, and also for fuel and charcoal. Wood light yellow, with irregular, thin, yellowish-brown streaks, fine and cross grained, taking a high polish, hard, moderately heavy, strong, tough, and difficult to split. Pores rather small, solitary or in short interrupted radial rows, evenly dis- tributed. Pith rays very nan-ow, but plainly visible on a smooth surface under the hand lens. Note. — Another species of this genera of slight importance, yielding a wood of inferior quality which is seldom used except for fuel and charcoal, is Drypetes glauca Vahl. (Palo bianco, Cafeillo, Varital, Palo de aceituna), a tree from 20 to 50 feet liigh and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, generally distributed throughout the mountain forests and somewhat in the woodlands along the south coast. It ia also common throughout a number of the islands of the West Indies. The wood is of inferior quality. 80 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 81. A group of unimportant genera of this family, each represented by a single species, comprises Ilieroni/mia clusioides (Tal.) Mull. (Cedro macho), a tree from 45 to 100 feet liigh, occurring in the western parts of the island. Native also to other of the West Indies. There are no recorded uses for the wood nor descriptions of its characteristics. Alchorneopsis porloricensis Urban. (Palo de gallina), tree from 30 to 50 feet high, kno^vn only from the Luquillo, and central regions of the island. It yields a soft wood of little use. Alchornca latifolia S\v. (Achiotillo, Palo de cotorra, Yobillo), a tree from 25 to 60 feetlugh, qiute \\'idely distributed, yielding a wood mth properties similar to that of Palo de gallina. Sapium laurocerusus Desf. (Hincha- huevos, Lechesillo, Mauzanillo, Tabeiba), a tree from 15 to 50 feet high, widely dis- tributed in mountainous regions on the island . *82. Aleuritcs moluccana (L.) Willd. (= A. triloba Forst.). Nuez,, Nuez de India; Candleberry tree, Candlenut, Indian walnut (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 40 feet high. Introduced from tropical Asia and the South Sea Islands and planted here and there throughout Porto Rico. It is useful mainly for sliade tlu"oughout the Tropics and for the nuts it bears, which are called "kukui" nuts in the Sandwich Islands. Wood Little used . Wood very light yellow, soft, light, weak, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to five, radially disposed, and evenly distrib- uted. Pith rays minute and very inconspicuous. *83. Hippomane mancinella L." Manzanillo, Macliineel. Tree from 15 to 50 feet in height, occurring in the coastal regions. It has a poisonous acid sap wliich necessitates considerable care being taken in felling and in thoroughly seasoning the wood before working. The wood is suitable for furniture and is used lai^ely for veranda floors and weatherboarding because of its durability when exposed. Wood yellowish brown, with darker stripes, beautiful, slightly fragrant, straight and very fine grained, resembUng in general appearance and textiu'e the boxwood of commerce {Buxus sempervirens L.). It takes a high polish, is hard, varies from light to heavy (from .36 to 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, very durable, and very easy to work; in all these qualities this wood resembles mahogany. The pores are minute, numerous, solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, scarcely visible to the unaided eye on a radial smface. 84. Hura crepitans L. Javillo, Molinillo, Havillo, Havarilla; Sand-box tree, Mon- key's dinner bell (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 2^ feet in diameter, introduced from South America. It is planted extensiA^ely throughout the island for shade, because of its spreading crown. The acid irritant sap necessitates careful felUng and season- ing of the wood before working. The wood is valued locally for making canoes and for interior work in houses. In some parts of the West Indies the trunks are often hol- lowed and used extensively for holding cane sugar. Wood very light brown, with darker brown stripes, fine and straight grained, taking a fine polish. It is soft, light (about 31 pounds per cubic foot), extremely brittle, and is said to resist the action of water. Pores very small and evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth. Pith rays very inconspicuous. XXII. ANACARDIACEiE. *85. Mangifera indica L. Mango. A cultivated and sparingly naturalized tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, native of southern Asia or the Malay Archipelago. It yields a very common but highly prized frmt of the Tropics, comparable in quaUty and value with the apple or the orange, though entirely different from either in texture and flavor. The wood is useful for the same purposes as om* common ash (Fraxinus), gunstocks, tool handles, window frames, etc. Wood grayish brown, fine grained, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and elastic. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 81 86. Anacardium occidentale L. Pajuil, Cajuil, Acaju, Maranon; Cashew tree ('Br. W. I.). A wild and cultivated tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 9 to 12 inches in diameter, occiuring in all parts of the island. It is used largely in boat building, for carriage hubs, yokes, and farm utensils. Its principal use in Porto Rico is for char- coal and fuel. The nuts are edible when roasted, and yield oils which are useful for many purposes. An acrid irritant substance contained in the soft shell of the nuts necessitates care in handling them. This is driven off as poisonous fumes in roasting. Wood pinkish, fine grained, hard, moderately heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and dvnable. Pores small, isolated or in gi'oups of two to fom-, evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. 87. Spondias mombin L. (=5. lutea L.). Jobo; Hog plum (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter. Very common throughout the island, particularly along roadsides. It is much used for stakes and fence posts, which are very durable because they take root and Uve. It is probably due to this property, as with the almacigo (Bursera simaruba), more than to any specially favorable quality as a shade tree that they are so commonly found along roadsides. It is one of the trees commonly pollarded for fuel wood and bears an edible fruit which is much esteemed. Wood yellowish brown, fine gi'ained, soft, light (about 30 pounds per cubic foot), and moderately strong. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. 88. Spondias purpurea L. Ciruela, Ciruela del pais, Jobillo, Jobofrances; Spanish plum (Br. W. I.). A tree or shrub from 20 to 30 feet high, occm-ring in mountainous regions. It is often cultivated for its fruit, which is considered superior to S. mombin. Wood in all respects similar to S. mombin. 89. Metopium toxiferum (L.) Krug. et. Urb. Cedro prieto, Papayo; Poison wood, Hog plum (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, with a short trunk sometimes 2 feet in diameter. It has a limited distribution in the southwestern part of the island, and occurs through- out the West Indies and on the keys of southern Florida. Wood rich, dark brown streaked with red, fine and straight grained, resembling the wood of our native sumacs. It takes a fine poUsh, is easily worked, moderately hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), not strong, and only moderately tough. Pores small, very numerous, and evenly distributed throughout the wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. XXIII. Aquifoliace^. 90. Ilex nitida (Vahl.) Maxim. (=7. dioica Griseb.) Cuero de sapo, Brigueta naranjo, Hueso prieto, Palo de hueso. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 10 to 15 inches in diameter, occurring in the mountain forests of the Luquillo region and generally throughout the island. The wood is, used for fuel and for hut building. Wood light-colored, fine-grained, hard, and heavy. SI. Ilex sideroxyloides var. ocddentaUs (Macf.) Loes. Gongolin; Central American oak (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring in the mountain forests of the Luqiiillo region. Wood of little use. Wood flesh-colored, hard, and heavy. XXIV. CELASTRACEyE. 92. Elseodendron xylocarpum var. corymbosum (Vahl.) Urb. Cocorron, Coscorron, Guayarote. Shrub or tree from 10 to 30 feet high, occiuring quite generally along the seacoasts of the island. Wood fine-grained. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow but conspicous. 21871°— Bull. 354—16 6 82 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. XXV. Stapiiyleace^. 93. Turpinia paniculata Vent. Avispillo, Cedro hembra, Eiigenio, Lilaililla, Sauco Cimarron. Tree from 30 to 60 feet or more high, occurring in the mountains and waste places. The wood, which is used for fuel and charcoal, is somewhat similar to that of out blad- der nut {Staphylea trifolia L.). XXVI. Sapindaceje. 94. Thouinia striata Radlk. Ceboniquillo, Guara, Quiebra hacha, Seburoquillo. Tree from 25 to 65 feet high, occurring generally throughout the island, usually in the drier situations. No uses are reported for the wood, doubtless because of its extreme hardness. Wood light-colored , very fine-grained , with many fine light iines. giving a pleasing figure. It takes a fine polish and is extremely hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores minute, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 95. Melicoccabijuga L. Guenepa, Quenepas; Genip tree, Genipe; Ginep(Br. W. I.). A cultivated and semiwild tree from 25 to 60 feet high and up to 3 feet in diameter reported from the east, south, and west parts of the island. It is native of tropical America and is found throughout the West Indies. It is cultivated somewhat for its fruit and is also suitable for ornament and for roadside shade. Wood is said to be heavy and hard and useful for all purposes except in exposed situations. No local uses are reported. *96. Cupania. There are two species of this genera represented in the tree flora of Porto Rico, namely, Cupania americana L. (Guara, Guara blanca), and Cupania triquetra A. Rich. (Guara). Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, quite widely distributed locally, and occurring gener- ally throughout the West Indies. The woods of all are alike and are used largely for posts. Wood very light brown, with a conspicuous wavy grain. It takes a high poUsh, is soft, moderately Ught, and brittle. Pores solitary or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, very inconspicuous. *97. Matayaba domingensis (DC.) Radlk. Doncella, Tea cimarrona, Raton. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 8 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring chiefly in Luqiullo and central mountain regions. It is found also in the other Greater Antilles. No local uses for the wood are reported. Wood red, fine and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish and resembling dark- colored mahogany. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores rather large, solitary, and evenly distributed ; pith rays are narrow and more or less indistinct except under the hand lens. Note.— Another species Matayaba apetala (Macf.) Radlk. (Doncella) is also reported from the same localities. Size and uses are not noted, although in Jamaica it is reported as attaining a height of from 40 to 60 feet and a diameter of 2^ feet and as being a most useful hardwood, suitable for all purposes and especially for exposed situations. 98. Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk. { = Hypelata paniculata Camb.). Guacdran, Giita. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in the Limestone hills of the western part of the island. Wood used occasionally for cabinet work. Wood white, moderately hard , heavy, and strong. XXVII. Sabiace^. 99. Meliosma. Two species of this genus occur in Porto Rico: Meliosma obtusifolia Krug. and Urb. (Guayi-ote arroyo. Aguacatillo, Cacao bol)0, Cacaillo, Ciralillo, Serillos), and Meliosma herbertii Rolfe." (Aguacatillo, Cacao bobo). Trees from 30 to 60 feet high, generally TEEES OF PORTO RICO. 83 distributed throughout the mountainous interior from the Luquillos to Maricao and Anasco. Reported also from several other of the West Indies. No local uses for the wood are reported. Pores of wood small, isolated, or in groups of from two to eight or more. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. XXVIII. Rhamnace^. 100. Colubrina ferruginosa Brongn. Abelluelld, Abejuelo, Achiotillo, Aguacatillo, Aguaytaran, Guitaran, Quitaran, Mabi, Raton, Sangmnaria; Snakewood, Iron- wood, West Indian groenheart (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, quite generally dis- tributed throughout the island. The wood is used for bxiilding and occasionally for piling on account of its resistance to decay in water. Wood light yellowish -l)rown, very fine and wavy-grained, taking a very good pol- ish, very dural)le in contact with the soil, hard, heavy (about 60 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Pores very small, somewhat more numerous in the early wood than in the late wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. *NoTE. — Another species of little economic importance is Colubrina reclinata (I'H^r.) Brongn. (Main, Palo mabi). a tree 15. rarely 30, feet high from the south- western part of the island. Wood Similar to the preceding. XXIX. Elo^carpace^. 101. Sloanea berteriana Choisy. Cacao motilla. Cacao otillo. Cacao roseta, Cacaillo, Motillo. Tree from 25 to 90 feet high and sometimes over 2 feet in diameter, occurring chiefly in mountain forests. The wood is used locally for fuel and building purposes. Wood white, taking a high polish, very hard, hea^^. strong, tough, and very durable in exposed situations. XXX. Malvace^. *103. Hibiscus tiliaceus L. (=Hibiscus elafus 8w.=Paritium, tiliaceum A. Juss.) Emmajaqua, Emajagua, Majagua, Mahagua; Blue or mountain mahoe (Br. W. I.); Mahot, Mahot franc (Haiti); Hau (Hawaii). Tree from 10 to 30 feet high, growing in moist situations, widely distributed through- out the uplands of the island. Common also in the other West Indies and tliroughout the remaining tropical world. The bark furnishes a strong and flexible fiber com- parable to jute, which is often used in making cordage. Nearly all the ropes in Porto Rico are made from this tree. It has also been highly recommended as a raw material for paper making. The wood makes handsome furniture, cabinetwork, and flooring, and is used largely for shingles and railway sleepers. Wood dark bluish green, with dark and light streaks, (about 47 pounds per cubic foot), straight and fine-grained, taking a fine polish, hard, lieavy, beautiful when pol- ished, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores small or in groui>s of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 103. Tliespesia populnea (L.) Soland. Emajaguilla, Palo de Jaqueca, Santa ^Maria. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high, occurring on the north and west coasts in moist situations. It is a common tree on the seashore of most eastern tropical countries and throughout the West Indies. The inner bark of the young branches yields a tough fiber which is used for cordage. The wood is little used locally, but elsewhere in the Tropics is used for cabinetwork, building, and a variety of other purposes. Wood dark brown, tinged with red, beautiful, "satiny," fine-grained, resembling in general appearance our black walnut {.luglans nigra L.). It is hard, heavy, tough, and very durable, especially in water. Pores small, solitary, or in grouj)S of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow, distinct, clearly visible on a polished radial surface, where they appear as light flecks and give a pleasing appearance. 84 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *104. Thespesia grandijlora P. DC. Maga, Magar, Magas. Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and from 1 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring quite gen- erally throughout the island. The wood is highly esteemed for furniture, flutes, guitar pegs, etc. It is also used largely for shelving and for foundations, house piling, etc., because of its durability in the ground. Wood rich chocolate-brown, beautiful, fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy (12 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores solitary or occasionally in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays inconspicuous. XXXI. BOMBACACE^. *105. Ceiba pmtandra (L.) Gaertn. {=Eriodcndron anfractuosum DC). Ceiba; Silk-cotton, Cotton tree, Kopak tree, Cork wood (Br. W. I.); Fromager (Haiti). Tree from 60 to 100 feet high and sometimes from 8 to 10 feet in diameter, most com- mon in the south and west coast regions, particularly on limestone soils. It is also widely distributed throughout the Tropics and usually present in open plains and cul- tivated fields. The wood is used for making boats, dugouts, rafts, tubs, and basins. Boards and shingles are often made of this wood after treating it by immersing the loga in limewater. In West Africa its chief commercial value lies in the "floss" or "ko- pak"^ as it is known to commerce, which is a cottony substance surrounding the seeds. Wood white or light brown, coarse and straight-grained, very soft, light (about 28 pounds per cubic foot), rather strong, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores laro'e, evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of growth; the latter are not always clearly marked. Pith rays conspicuous. 106. Quararibea turbinata (Sw.) Poir. Garrocha, Garrocho, Palo de Garrocha. A shrub or tree from 25 to 30 feet high, common in all parts of the island. *107. Ochroma lagopus Sw. Gtfano, Corcho; Bois Liege (Haiti); Cork wood, Down tree (Jamaica); Balsa wood (of commerce). Tree from 30 to 60 feet liigh and 1 foot or more in diameter common on the limestone soils and along the shore directly behind the mangrove in the north and west coast ret^ions and generally throughout the south coast and south slopes of the Central Mountains. Particularly common along the roads. It is a tree of the open country, like the ceiba. The wood, because of its extreme lightness, is sometimes used as a substitute for true cork, for stopping bottles, as floats for fish nets, and for other pur- poses where a light wood is required . The bark yields a chestnut-brown fiber suitable for rope making, and the seed envelopes yield a soft cotton or down extensively used for stuffing pillows and mattresses and to a limited extent for making into garments. The bark is also used locally for the tannin it contains, and both bark and roots are used medicinally. The wood is nearly white or slightly tinged with red, showing practically no dis- tinction between heartwood and sap wood. It has a silky texture, loose structure, and soft tissue easily compressible under the thumbnail, and is very fibrous and diffi- cult to work. It is said to be the lightest of all woods, ha\dng a specific gravity varying 1 This floss of the ceiba is exported in large quantities from the East Indies and West Africa; the variety from Java is regarded as a fiber of great merit, and is used for stufTing pillows and sofas. Itslightness, soft- ness, and elasticity render it superior to the best qualities of feathers, wool, or hair. This material has been employed also as a buoyant material for packing life belts and for making hats and bonnets, and has even been suggested for the manufactiu-e of paper and guncotton. It is too short in st.^ple and too weak to be spun into yarn. Unfortunately the silk cotton from the West Indies is accounted of little value at present, but it only remains for some one to start its collection here and ship it to American markets. It has been estimated that the average yield of silk cotton from a single tree in the West Indies and Mexico is approxi- mately 100 pounds. Many thousands of bales of silk cotton might be collected annually in the West Indies and turned to economic use. In 1907 alittle over 20,000,000 poiuids of silk cotton was exported from Java and Sumatra, and of this quantity about 3,000,000 pounds were consumed in the United States for a great variety of purposes. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 85 from 0.120 (or about 7^ pounds per cubic foot) to 0.240. Pith rays quite conspicuous on a transverse section; they are also plainly visible on the radial surface and give fissure to the wood, resembling the character of beech or sycamore, only they are more numerous. *108. Theobroma cacao L. Cacao. A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 12 to 30 feet high occurring locally on the north and west sides of the island. It is native to tropical America and is grown commercially in a number of the West Indies. It is said to grow best under thor- oughly tropical conditions of moisture and warmth at or near sea level (below 500 feet). It is commonly grown under the shade of some one of the leguminous trees, usually Eryihrina micropteryx (or E. umbosa). XXXII. Sterculiace^. *109. GuazuTua ulmifolia Lam. (=Guazuma guazuma Cock). Gudcima, Gudcima del norte; West Indian elm, Guazuma plum (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 15 to 18 inches in diameter, very common throughout the island, the Antilles generally, and on the continent. Wood used for oars, posts, staves, fuel, and charcoal. Wood light grayish-brown, fine and straight-grained, rather soft, light (35 pounds per cubic foot), moderately weak but tough. Pores small, solitary or in groups of two or three, rarely more, evenly distributed. Pith rays distinct, but rather inconspic- uous, plainly visible on a smooth radially cut surface. 110. Guazuma tomentosa H. B. K. Guacima, Guacima del sur; Bastard cedar (Br. W. I.); Orme d'Amerique (Fr. W. I.). Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, very common along the southern coast of the island and distributed quite generally throughout tropical America. In Jamaica the wood is said to be used largely f jr staves of sugar hogsheads, and the best of the young shoots is used extensively for cordage. Wood light or grayish-brown, rather fine and straight-grained, fissile, taking a fairly good polish, moderately soft, light, rather tough and durable in exposed situa- tions. Pores small, solitary or in radial rows of from two to three. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. XXXIIl. TERNSTROEMIACEiE. 111. Represented in Porto Rico by three genera and five tree species, none of wliich are commercially important. These are Temstroemia peduncularis P. DC, from 20 to 30 feet high; Ternstroemia heptascpala Krug et Urb., from 15 to 25 feet high; Ternstroemia luquillensis Krug et Urb. (Palo Colorado), from 30 to 60 feet high; Cleyera albopunctata (Griseb.) Ivjug et Urb. (Teta prieta), from 25 to 30 feet high; and Haemocharis portoricensis Ki'ug et Urb. (Maricao, Nino de cota), from 15 to 60 feet high; all common in the Sierra de Luquillo, the second last extending through the Cordillera Central to Maricao. XXXIV. GUTTIPER^. *112. Mammea americana L. Mamey, Mammea; Mammee apple (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter, common in all parts of the island. Its fruit ig very highly regarded by the natives and it is very gen- erally planted on this account here and elsewhere throughout the American Tropics. The tree also produces a medicinal gum. The wood is well adapted for house build- ing, posts, and piles. Wood reddish brown, beautiful, wavy, and fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy (61 pounds per cubic foot), resinous, and very durable in damp situations. Pores small, solitary, or occasionally in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, very inconspicuous. 86 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *113. Calophyllum calabaJacq. Marias, Palo de Maria; Santa Maria (Jamaica). Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter (in Jamaica said to attain a height of 150 feet and a diameter of 5 feet and over), rather common in the humid north, east, and northwest sections and occasionally along the banks of the streams in the semiarid southcoast region. Common also throughout the West Indies. The wood is said to be greatly prized locally for carpentry work, and for canoes when the trunk is large enough. Elsewhere it has a variety of uses, such as construction work, shipbuilding and heavy machine work, posts, furniture, fellies of wheels, and shingles. Seeds yield an oil said to be used in lamps. Tree is suitable for ornamental planting. Wood white or reddish in color, hard and durable. Reported to Aveigh about 46 pounds per cubic foot. *114. Clusia rosea Jacq. Cupey, Palo de Cupey ; Balsam Fig; Balsam tree (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 18 to 24 inches in diameter; commonly starts as a parasite on the branches of other trees, although it may start directly on the ground. It is quite generally distributed on the island and throughout the West Indies. The wood is used largely for posts and fuel. Wood reddish-brown with brown and white streaks, very cross and fine grained, hard, heavy (55 pounds per cubic foot), and durable. Pores small, soUtary or in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays moderately narrow, distinct, but not conspic- uous. Note. — Other incidental and unimportant trees in this and a closely related genus are Clusia krugiana Urb. (Cupey, Capei, Cupeillo), occurring in the Lu- quillo region, and Rheedia ■portoricensis Urb. (=Clusia acuminata Spreng= Todo- mita elliptica C. & C.) (Guayabacoa, SebucAn), growing along the soacoasts, shrubs or trees from 10 to 60 feet high, with wood resembling that of Clusia rosea. XXXV. BiXACE^. 115. Bixa orellana L. Achiote, Achote, Bixa, Biji, Arnatta, Anatto. Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and about a foot in diameter, occurring in the interior. It is planted in many parts of the island. The wood is little used. A coloring matter extracted from the arillus of the seed is much used locally for coloring rice, soup, etc. ; and as the "anatto" of commerce is widely used for coloring cheese, chocolates, and butter, also by varnish makers for imparting a rich orange tinge to some grades of their products. Wood nearly white in its natural state, but when polished turns slightly yellowish or reddish. On a radial surface it has narrow lines of slightly darker color, which correspond with the annual rings of growth clearly visible in transverse sections. It is very soft, light (about 25 pounds per cubic foot), weak, brittle, and not durable in contact with the soil. Pores rather conspicuous in the early wood, rendering it somewhat coarse and open-grained. XXXVI. WlNTERANACE^. 116. Represented by two genera, each with one tree species, neither one of which is of importance. Winterana canella L. (Barbasco, Wild cinnamon), a tree from 25 to 45 feet high, of rather general distribution along the coast and throughout the West Indies, with a pale, orange-colored, aromatic bark which is used as a*touic; and Pleodendron macran- thujn (Baill.) v. Tiegh. ( = Cinnamodendron viacranthum Baill.) (Chupa gallo, Chupa- callo), a tree from 20 to 30 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo, with a white, hard, and heavy wood. XXXVII. Flacourtiace^. 117. Homalium racemosum Jacq. Tostado, Caracolillo, Cerezo. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the island. The wood is very useful for building and carpentry. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 87 Wood light-colored, fine-grained, moderately hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute, numerous, isolated or in groiips of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays numerous, minute, inconspicuous. 118. Xylosma. Two species very similar as to their wood and uses and neither of any great'impor- tance are Xylosma schwaneckcanum Krug. & Urb. {=Myroxylon schwa necheanum Krug. & Urb.) (Palo de candela, Palo Colorado), and Xylosma buxifolium A. Gray { — Myroxylon buxifolium Kriig. & Urb.) (Roseta), trees from 15 to 35 feet high and 1 foot in diameter, the former found chiefly in the Luquillo region and the latter through- out the southwestern part of the island and the West Indies generally. The wood has no uses except for fuel and charcoal. Wood light brown, turning darker with age, straight and fine-grained, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores numerous, very small, arranged singly or in short radial rows. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. 119. Casearia. Five species attain tree size, namely, Casearia guianensis (Aubl.) Urb. (Cafeillo, Cafetillo, Palo bianco), from 15 to 30 feet high; Casearia bicolor Urb. (Talantr6n, Cotorrerillo?),45 feet high; Casearia decandra Jacq. (Garacolillo, Cereza, Ootorrerillo, Gia mansa, Palo bianco), from 18 to 25 feet; Casearia arborea (L. CI. Rich.) Urb. (Gia verde, Rabojimco, Rabo ratdn), from 15 to 45 feet high; and Casearia sylvestris Sw. (Cafeillo cimarron, Laurel espada, Sarna de perro), from 25 to 60 feet high. Tliese trees are most common in the calcareous foothills and along the coast in all parts of the island, except the last two, which are reported well distributed through- out the interior moim tains from the Sierra de Luquillo to Maricao and Mayaguez. They are also widely distributed throughout the West Indies, except C. bicolor, which is reported only from Porto Rico (Utuado). Wood of C. guianensis reported to be yellow, hard, and heavy (about G5 pounds per cubic foot), and to be used for lumber, for building native huts, for fences, and for similar uses. XXXVIII. Cactace^. 120. Represented in Porto Rico by four genera (one exotic) and eight species (two exotic). These have an erect form and attain tree proportions, or at least are designated "Pitajaya" (meaning tree-cactus) by the natives, although they do not all have a true woody structure and are consequently not real trees, namely, Cerciis quadrico- status Bello (Pitajaya, Sebucan"), from 6 to 30 feet high; Cereus triangularis (L.) Haw. (Pitajaya); Cereus trigonus Haw. ( = C. triangularis Stahl. C. & C.) (Pitajaya), from 3 to 9 feet high; Cereus peruvianus (L.) Mill, a continental species from 15" to 25 feet high, occasionally cultivated in gardens; Pilocereus royeni (L.) Riimpl. { = Cereus swartzii Stahl. C. & C.) (Sebucan), 9 feet high; Opuntia catacantha Lk. et Otto, 15 feet high; Opuntia guanicana K. Schum. (Tuna), from 12 to 15 feet high; and Nopalea coccinellifera (L.) Salm-Dyck (Tuna de Espana, Tuna mansa), a tropical American and West Indian species 12 feet high, occasionally cultivated in gardens. Their natural distribution is limited largely to the semiarid south coast region, including the small adjacent islands, as Culebra, etc., though they occasionally are found on the limestone hills along the north side of the island. All, except C. quad- ricostatus and Opuntia guanicana, which are strictly local in occurrence, are more or less common to the other islands of the West Indies and tropical America. XXXIX. Thymel^ace^. 121. Daphnopsis. Two species attain tree size in Porto Rico: Daphnopsis caribaea Griseb. (Emajagua de sierra), from 15 to 45 feet high, found chiefly in the Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central and widely distributed throughout the West Indies; and Daphnopsis philip- iana Krug et Urb. (Cieneguillo, Emajagua brava, Emajagua de sierra, Majagua quemadora), from 8 to 25 feet high, occuning throughout the mountains from the Sierra de Luquillo to the Cordillera Central. 88 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. XL. RHIZOPUORACEiE. *123. Rhizophora mangle L. Mangle, Mangle Colorado, Mangle sapatero. Red man- grove (Jamaica). Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and from 1 foot to 3 feet through, growing in tidewater swamps. Wood used for making hogsheads and for knees and ribs of boats and other small craft, also for charcoal and fuel. The logs are used for posts and piling and occasionally cut into boards for flooring and interior finish. Wood light red or reddish brown with darker, often nearly black, streaks, fine and cross grained, taking a good polish, very hard and heavy (about 70 pounds per cubic foot), strong and durable. Pores very small, numerous, isolated or in groups of two to five or more, evenly distributed. Pith rays visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface of the wood. Note. — Cassipourea, a closelj^ allied genera, is represented by a single species, Cassipourea alba Griseb. (Multa, Palo bianco de la costa, Palo de gongoli, Palo dehueso, Palo de oreja, Palo de toro), a shrub or small tree of from 15 to 30 feet high, with a rather general distribution in various parts of the central mountain area, as well as on the limestone foothills. XLI. COMBRETACE^. *123. Terminalia catappa L. Almendra, Almendr6n; Indian almond (Br. W. T.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet liigh and about 2 feet in diameter. This is a species intro- duced from the East Indies, but naturalized and now a very common tree through- out the West Indies, especially in the lowlands. The wood is similar to mahogany and is used for furniture and house building. Wood is brownish, coarse and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, moderately hard and heavy (about 40 pounds per cubic foot), brittle and not strong. Pores of moderate size, evenly distributed, and connected by niunerous tangential lines of soft tissue. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. *124. Buchenavia capitata (Vahl.) Eichl. Granadillo; Yellow sanders (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 80 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter. This is a very common tree tliroughout the island. The wood is used for furniture and fancy carpentry work. Wood fine and often wavy grained, satiny, taking a beautiful polish, moderately hard, heavy, strong, and tough. This wood has a very wavy grain. Pores moderately large, evenly distributed, solitary or sometimes in small groups. Pith rays narrow and inconspicuous. *Vi5. Conocarpus erecta L. Mangle, Mangle bot<5n, Mangle botoncillo, Mangle Colorado. A shrub or small tree from 6 to 25 feet high, growing in the tidewater swamps. Wood used for making charcoal and for fuel. *126. Bucida buceras L. Ucar, Ucar bianco, Tlucar bianco, Bucaro; Wild olive wood of Jamaica; Bois grisgris (Haiti). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It is found cliiefly near the coast. The wood is used for shelves in houses and for mallets, wooden cogs, and shingles. It was formerly used for knees in boat buihling. Wood white or ashy brown, fine and cross grained, remotely resembling the wood of American elm. It is hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable in water. Pores very small, numerous, occurring solitary, and evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow but distinct. 137. Laguncularia racemosa (L.) Gaertn. Mangle bianco, Mangle bobo; WMte man- grove (Jamaica). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high, growing in the tidewater swamps. Wood used for making charcoal. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 89 XLII. Myrtace^. *128. Psidium guajava L. Guayava, Guayaba, Guayava pera; Guava (Br. W. I.). Tree from 15 to 25 feet ia height and from 6 to 8 inches in diameter. It is culti- vated throughout the ishxnd and in the Tropics generally and is well known on account of its fruit. The wood is used for making agricultural implements for structures where strength and elasticity ai'e required, and for posts, fuel, and charcoal. Wood brownish gray, tinged with red, comj^act, fine and straight grained, with a mottled and often very beautiful appearance. It is hard, heavy (about 45 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Pores very small, not numerous, and distributed in rather wide inconspicuous zones, visible only under the hand lens. Pith rays very inconspicuous. *139. Amomis caryophyllata (Jacq.) Krug et Urb. Auzu, Ausu, Guayavita, Limon- cillo, Malagueta, Pimienta malagueta; Bayberry tree, Bay rum tree, Wild cinnamon (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 45 feet high and about 2 feet in diameter, occurring in mountainous parts of the island and throughout the West Indies. The wood is suitable for car- pentry, cabinetwork, posts, sills, cogs, rollers, and other millwork, and was formerly exported. The leaves have the taste and odor of lemon, and an essential oil of bay or bay oil is obtained by distillation. Wood dark, mottled, compact, fine and occasionally cross grained, takinga beautiful polish. It is very hard, heavy (about GO pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable. Pores very small, numerous, evenly distributed throughout the wood. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. *NoTE. — A variety of this species is also recognized, Amomis caryophyllata var. grisea (Kiaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Limoncillo, Malagueta, Pimienta), a tree some- times 50 feet high in mountainous regions, the wood of which is very similar to that of the preceding. 130. Myrcia. The genus is represented in Porto Rico by the following four species, wMch attain tree size: Myrcia leptoclada P. DC. (Guayabac6n, Guayavacdn); Myrcia splendcns (Sw.) P. DC. (Rama menuda, Hoja menuda); Myrciaf pagani Krug et Urb. (Ausu); and Myrcia defiexa (Poir.) P. DC. (Cieneguillo, Guayavacon). Trees from 15 to 60 feet high, found in the mountainous regions of the island. The wood is used very little except for fuel and chaicoal. Wood reddish brown, hard, heavy, and strong. 131. Calyptranthes sintenisii Kiaersk. Hoja menuda, Limoncillo, Limoncillo de monte. Tree from 15 to 25 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occumng in the Luquillo region. The wood is used in carpentry and for fuel and charcoal. Wood fine and straight grained, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores small and nmneroua. Pith rays inconspicuous. 133. Eugenia aeruginea P. DC. Guasavera, Guayabacon. Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 1 foot to 2 feet in diameter, rather widely distributed on the island. Wood light brown or chestnut colored, fine and straight gi-ained, beautiful when polished, hard, heavy, strong, and flexible. Pores A'ery small and arranged singly or in radial rows of from two to three between the very narrow inconspicuous pith rays. Note. — Other species of this i^enus very similar to the above but of slight importance are Eugenia stahlii (Kiaersk.) Krug et Urb. (Guayabota, Limoncillo), tree from 15 to 60 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter; Eugenia sintenisii (Kiaersk.) Ki'Ug et Urb., from 45 to 60 feet high; and Eugenia floribunda West (Mur_ta)_ 30 feet high. All are common throughout the island and their woods are similar to the preceding. 90 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *133. Eugenia jambos L. { = Jambosa janibos Millsp.). Poma rosa; Rose apple (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and from 1 to 2 feet in diameter, introduced from the East Indies and now largely naturalized throughout the island. The wood is used for barrel hoops, poles, fuel, and charcoal. It also furnislies material from which large baskets are made. Wood grajash brown, fine and straight grained, hard, lieavy, strong, and tough. Pores small and arranged in irregular tangential lines. Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens. XLIII. Melastomatace^. 134. Miconia tetrandra (Sw.) D. Don. Camasey. Tree from 30 to 50 feet high and about a foot in diameter, common in the moun- tains of Porto Rico and found on all the islands of the West Indies. The wood is used for poles, fuel, and charcoal. Wood light brown, fine and straight grained, hard, moderately heavy, strong, flexible, and diu-able in the soil. Pores small, numerous, and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Note 1. — Three other species in this genus similar in size, distribution, and uses are Miconia guianensis (Aubl.) Cogn. (Camasey, Camasey bianco, Camasey de Costilla); Miconia impetiolaris (Sw.) D. Don (Camasey, Camasey de costilla) and Miconia pmsina (Sw.) P. DC. (Camasey). Note 2. — Three other genera and six species in this family attain tree size, though they are of but slight local or general importance, namely, Calycogonium squamulosum Cogn. (Granadilla cimarrona), from 15 to 30 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo; Calycogonium bijlorum Cogn., from 25 to 30 feet high, from near Barranquitas; Heterotrichum cymosum (Wendl.) Urb. (Camasey Colorado, Camasey de paloma, Terciopelo), from 25 to 30 feet high, from various parts of the island; Henriettella macfadyenii (Triana), 60 feet liigh, from Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central, found also in Jamaica*; Henriettella meinbrani/olia Cogn., 30 feet high, from Lares; and Henriettella fascictilaris (Sw.) Ch. Wright (Camasey de oro, Camasey de paloma), from 25 to 30 feet high, from various places on the island, also throughout the Greater Antilles. XLIV. Araliace^. 135. Gilibertiaarborea (L.) F,. March {=AraliaarboreaL.). Muneca, Palo cachumba, Pana, Vibona. Tree from 30 to 60 [feet high, quite common throughout the island, and found in all parts of the West Indies. The wood resembles boxwood (Buxus sempervirens L.) and should make a suitable substitute. Wood light or pale yellow, very fine grained, taking a good polish, very hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores very small, numerous, scarcely visible under the hand lens, and evenly distributed. Pith rays very narrow and inconspicuous. Note. — Another species in every way similar to the above is Gilibertia lauri- folia E. March (Palo cachumba, Palo de gangulin, Palo de vaca, Vibona). *136. Didymopanax morototoni (Aubl.) Dene et PI. Yagrume macho, Yagrume; Grayiune, Grayume macho, Grayumo, Pana cimarrona, Llagrume, Llagrume- macho. Tree from 40 to 60 feet high and about a foot in diameter, very common in the mountains and distributed quite generally tliroughout tropical America. The wood is used for boards and beams in house building, and has been suggested as a good material for making matches. Wood light olive brown, fine and straight grained, moderately hard, heavy, brittle, and not strong. Pores small, very numerous, and more or less evenly distributed throughout the annual rings of gi'owth, which can be readily distinguished by means of the hand lens. Pith rays very conspicuous. TREES OF PORTO RICO. 91 XLV. Myrsinace^. 137. Ardisia glaucijlora XJrh . Mameyuelo. Tree from 15 to 25 feet high, occurring in the Luquillo region. The wood is used for fiuTiiture. Wood white, beautifully marked with fine lines, fine-grained, taking a good polish, hard, and heavy. Pores minute, isolated or in groups of two or tliree, evenly dis- tributed. Pith rays numerous, broad, very conspicuous. Note. — Another species, Ardisia guadalupensis Duchass. (Badula, Mameyuelo), attains a somewhat larger size and wider distribution on the island. Its wood is similarly used and has the same structural characteristics as the above but is a light reddish brown instead of white. XLVI. Sapotace^. *138. Achras zapota L. Sapodilla, Nispero^; Naceberry, Bullet tree (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 45 feet high and about a foot in diameter. It is cultivated and wild on the island, having been originally introduced from Venezuela, and widely planted for the sake of its fruit. It is said to yield a gum similar to "gum chicle," principally obtained from Mivmsops globosa and Sapota zapotilla. The wood is adapted for inside work, cabinetmaking, and furniture. "Wood light red with darker stripes, fine and straight grained, susceptible of a high polish, difficult to work on account ot its extreme hardness, heavy (about 74 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores very small, numerous, and arranged in more or less distinct radial rows between the narrow pith rays. Note. — Closely related to the above is Calocarpum mammosum (L.) Pierre (Mamey Sapote; Bartaballi, [Br. Guiana]), a tree irom 30 to 40 feet high and of limited occurrence on the island. 139. Lucumamultifiora k. DC. Acana, Hacana, Jacana; Contrevent (Br. W. I.). Tree from 40 to 90 feet high and irom 2 to 3 feet in diameter, found quite gener- ally on the island and throughout tropical America. It yields very excellent timber which is used for mill rollers, frames, furniture, and house building. Wood light colored, fine and straight grained, beautiful when polished, hard, very heavy, strong, tough, and dm-able. Pores small and arranged in radial rows. Pith rays narrow and indistinct. 140. Micropholis. There are three tree species in this genus, Micropholis gardnifoUa Pierre (Caimi- tillo), from 45 to 60 feet high; Micropholis curvata (Pierre) Urb. (Leche prieto), from 30 to 60 feet high; and Micropholis chrysophylloides Pierre (Caimitillo, Leche prieto),' from 60 to 75 feet high, the former in the Sierra de Luquillo chiefly and the others in the Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central. The wood, particularly of the last named, is very hard and heavy, similar to that of Achras Zapota and is regarded locally as a first-class wood. *141. Sideroxylon foetidissimum Jacq. (=S. mastichodendron Jacq.). Ausubo,^ Tortuga, Tortugo amarillo, Tortugo prieto; Caguani (Cuba); Mastic (Fla.). Tree from 30 to more than 50 feet high and from 2 to 3 feet in diameter, occurring on the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throughout tropical America 1 This should not be confused with the true medlar, Mespilus gcrmanica L., to which the Spanish "nis. pero" most commonly applies, nor with the Japanese medlar orloquat {Eriobotryajaponica Lindl.), neither of which are known to the Porto Rican public (C. & C). 2 Two species, Sideroxylon fattdissimum and Mimusops nitida are both known as "ausubo." Of the former Gifford and Barrett say, that it is "probably the most valuable wood per cubic foot in Porto Rico." although they admit that "possibly two species are included imder this name," which is more likely. According to Urban, Sideroxylon fatidissimum is not reported from the Sierra de Luquillo or other parts of the interior, while Mimusops nitida is. Acocrding to Femow and Taylor, however, this Sideroxylon is widely distributed in the Sierra Maestra (Cuba). 92 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the West ladies, rankin;» as a very valual)le timber. The wood is "used locally for all purposes requiring great strength and durability, such as beams and rafters, also for all parts of wheels, axles and other parts of native bull carts, for ox yokes and other native uses, and somewhat for furniture. Wood maroon-red, very fine and straight grained, susceptible of a good polish, easily worked (considering its hardness, and very durable in the Tropics; in the temperate climate it is less durable. Wood hard, heavy (about 65 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Moderately conspicuous ducts in short detached long and short chains (single lines of cells) evenly diffused; chains usually between two medullary rays. Medullary rays very numerous, minute, indistinct. Wood fibers slightly interlaced and appearing straight-grained. Resembles somewhat a fine- grained teak. (Hill and Sudworth.) Note. — Another species of very limited distribution is Sideroxylon portoricense Urb. (Tal)loncillo), a tree from 75 to 90 feet high, reported only from the vicinity of Utuado and Lares. Wood similar to that of Sideroxylon /(rtidissimum, and probably similarly used. *143. Dipholis salidfolia (L.) A. DC. Almendron, Tabloncillo. Tree fi'om 30 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, occurring in dry Umestone soils near the coast. It is common in southern Florida and throughout the West Indies. The wood is used locally principally for fuel and charcoal. Wood dark brown-red, fine and straight grained, taking a beautiful polish, hard, heavy (about 55 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and tough. Note. — Another rather incidental species is Dipholis sintenisiana Pierre (Espejuelo), a tree from 60 to 70 feet high, from the northwestern part of the island, having a wood similar to that of D. salidfolia. *143. Chn/sophyllum cainito L. Cainito, Caimito, Caimito morado; Star apple (Br. W. I.)'. Tree from 45 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. It is a cultivated and wild tree and found in most parts of the island. The wood is suited to a variety of uses and particularly in exposed situations. Wood red or reddish-brown, very fine and curly grained, taking an excellent poKsh, hard, hea\n,', strong, tough, and very durable in contact with the soil. Pores very small and arranged in short radial rows between the rather inconspicuous pith rays. *144. Chrysophyllum oliviforme L. Teta de burra, Lechesillo. Tree from 30 to 40 feet high and about a foot in diameter from the southwestern part of the island. It is distributed throughout the West Indies and southern Florida, but is nowhere common. Wood light brown tinged with red, fine and straight grained, taking a good polish hard, heavy (about 58 pounds per cubic foot), very strong, and tough. Pores small and arranged in short radial rows, which are easily seen on a smooth transverse surface under a hand lens. Note . — Other species of this genus are Chn/sophyllum bicolor Poir. (Caimitillo, Lechesillo), from 30 to 50 feet high, occurring very locally and in Porto Rico only; Chrysophyllum argenteum Jacq. (Caimito verde, Lechesillo), from 25 to 60 feet high, occurring rather widely distributed throughout the island and others of the West Indies, and Chrysophyllum paudflorum Lam. (Cairnito de perro), from 40 to 60 feet high, reported only from the southern part of the island. Wood of each is similar to that of the above. 145. Mimusops. Two species of this genus occur in Porto Rico, Mimusops nitida (Sess(5 et Moo.) Urb. (Acana, Ausubo '), a tree from 20 to 50 feet or more high, occurring in nioun- tainous regions; and Mimusops duplicala (Sesse et Moc.) Urb. (= M. globosa Griseb.) (Mameyuelo, Sapote, Sapote de costa, Zipote, Balata), from 40 to 60 feet high, occur- ring along the north coast. Both are local species. ' See footnote under Sideroxylon fcetidissimum. TKEES OF PORTO RICO. » 93 Wood of these two species is dark brown, fine and straight grained, taking a splendid polish, hard, heavy (about GO pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and very durable in contact with soil and water. Pores very small, and arranged in more or less oblique radial rows which are visible under the hand lens. XLVII. Ebenace^. 146. Maba sintenisiiKrug. etJJrh. Guayabota-nispero, Tabeiba. Tree from 25 to 30 feet high, of uncommon occurrence, reported from only two localities on the island. Wood very light brown, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, very hard, heavy, strong, tough, and durable. Pores very minute, numerous, and arranged in indistinct radial rows. Very fine tangential lines of soft tissue are visible under a strong hand lens. *14:7. Diospyros ebenaster Retz. Guayabota; Zapote negro 6 prieto (Mexico). Tree about 30 feet high, of infrequent occurrence in the mountains. It is native of the West Indies, Mexico, and Malay Islands. It has a black bark and heartwood. This tree attains much larger size in Mexico than it does in Porto Rico, where it is used only for fuel and charcoal. XLVIII. Symplocace^. 148. Symplocos. Genus represented in Porto Rico by five tree species, namely, Symplocos lanata Krug et Urb. (Palo de nispero cimarron), from 24 to 30 feet high, from Adjuntas and Peiiuelas; Symplocos micrantha Krug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from 20 to 50 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central; Symplocos martinicensis Jacq. (Aceituna, Aceituna blanca, Aceituna cimarrona), from 10 to 30 feet lugh, from Bayamon and Afiasco; Symplocos polyantha Ki-ug et Urb. (Palo de cabra), from the Sierra de Luquillo; and Symplocos latifolia Krug et Urb. (Aceituna), from 25 to 45 feet high, from Sierra de Cayey and Cordillera Central. Except for the third of these, which occurs generally throughout the West Indies, all are local species. Their woods, wliich are alike, are apparently very little used. The wood of S. martinicensis is white, hard, moderately heavy, and strong. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in groups of two to four, evenly distributed. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. XLIX. Styracace^. 149. Styrax portoricensis Krug and Urb. Tree apparently little known even locally. Reported as being from 30 to 60 feet high and occurring only in the mountain forests of the eastern part of the island. L. Oleace.e. 150. Linodera doming ensis (Lam.) Knobl. (=Mayepea domingensis Klrugand Urb.). Hueso bianco, Palo'de hueso, Huesillo, Palo bianco. Tree frorn 30 to 45 feet high, quite generally distributed throughout the northern part of the island. Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles. Wood light colored, moderately fine grained, hard, and moderately heavy. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two or three, evenly distributed. Pith "rays nar- row, inconspicuous. LI. Apocynace^. 151. Plumiera alba L. Aleli, Aleli cimarron, Tabeiba; Frangipanic blanc, Bois de lait (Fr. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 10 inches in diameter, occurring along the coast, very common throughout tropical America. The wood is used for carpentry work, and as a substitute for true sandalwood {Santalum album, L.). Wood yellowish-white or light grayish-yellow, marked with niunerous irregular undulating lines, gi\'ing the wood a very pleasing appearance. It is very compact and fine grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. 94 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 152. Rauwolfia nitida Jacq. Cachimbo, Palo amargo, Palo de mufieco. Tree from 30 to GO feet high, common to the sandy coast soils. Common also to other of the West Indies. LII. BORRAGINACE^. 153. Cordia alliodora (R. & P.) Cham. ( = C. gerascanthus Jacq. and C geruscanthoidea C. & C.) Capd, Capd prieta; Prince wood, Spanish elm (Jamaica). Tree from 30 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, found commonly in the mountainous interior. Although now rather scarce, this wood is very liighly prized locally because of a variety of good qualities. In Jamaica it is considered one of their best woods. It is used for furniture, flooring, doors, Venetian blinds, beds, interior finish, carriage building, posts, and cooperage. Wood rich light brown with dark streaks, fine grained, taking a good polish, mod- erately hard and heavy (about 36 pounds per cubic foot), strong and durable. Pores small, numerous, isolated or in groups of from two or three, evenly distributed. Annual rings of growth visible on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays narrow but conspicuous, visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. Note. — Other species of this genus are Cordia sebestena L. (Vomitel Colorado, San Bartolomc; Aloe wood [Br. W. I.]; Geiger tree [Florida Keys]), from 20 to 35 feet high, occurring along the eastern, southern, and western coasts. It is often planted as an ornamental tree in tropical gardens. Wood brown, fine grained, moderately hard, and heavy. Cordia collococca L. (Cereza cimarrona, Palo de muiieca; Clammy cherry [Jamaica]), from 1.5 to 30 feet high, occurring in the south- western part of the island near the coast. Used for barrel staves in Jamaica, having a wood which is soft, brittle, and not durable. Cordia nitida Vahl. (Cere- zas, Cereza cimarrona, Muneca), from 15 to 60 feet high, occurring in the southern part of the island. Cordia sulcata DC. (Moral, Moral de paz ), from 30 to 60 feet high, found in the interior mountain forests. Wood little used. *Cordia borin- quensis Urb. (Muneca, Palo de muneca, Capa cimarron), from 20 to 60 feet high, found in interior mountain forests, having wood light yellow, fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately heavy, and hard. LIII. Verbenace^. 154. Citharexylum fruticosum L. ( = Citharexyhini quadrangulare Griseb.). Pendola; Pendula, Pendula Colorado, Palo de guitarra, Balsamo, Higuerillo. Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, occurring near the eastern and southern coasts. It is, used for furniture and in house building. The natives make their guitars from it. Wood Ught red, moderately fine-grained, fairly hard, heavy (about 46 pounds per cubic foot), and strong. Note. — Incidental species in this and a closely allied genera are Citharcx;/bim caudatum L. (Higuerillo), from 15 to 60 feet high, from the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central, also occurs in the other of the Greater Antilles, the Baha- mas, and Mexico; and Callicarpa ampla Schauer (Capd rosa, Pendola cimarron), from 25 to 50 feet high, occmring only in mountainous regions of Porto Rico. *155. Petitia domingensis Jacq. Capa, Capd blanca, Capa sabanero, Capd de sabdna, Capa amarillo, Palode capade sabdna; Fiddle wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 50 feet high and 2 feet or more in diameter, occurring chiefly in the interior. 'Common also to the other islands of the Greater Antilles. The wood is used locally for making rollers in coffee-hulling mills and is suitable for cabinetwork, inte- rior finish, and general building purposes where a hard, tough wood is required. Wood light to dark brown, streaked with a decidedly beautiful wavy grain, moder- ately fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, and heavy. Pores small, isolated, or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Pith rays niinute, inconspicuous. Struc- turally similar on the radial section to the American beech. TEEES OF PORTO RICO. 95 156. Vitex divaricata Sw. Higuerillo, P^ndula, Palo de pendula, Pendula bianco; Lizard wood, Fiddle wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 30 to 60 feet Hgh and from 20 to 30 inches in diameter, found in mountain- ous regions, common to many of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. Used locally for shelves, boards, framework of houses, in cabinetwork, and suitable for all inside and outside work. Wood white, moderately fine grained, hard, heavy (about 50 pounds per cubic foot), strong, and durable. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. *15'J'. Avicennia nitida Jacq. Chifle de vaca. Mangle bianco, Mangle bobo; Black mangrove (Br. W. I.). Shrub or tree from 40 to 70 feet high and from 12 to 24 inches in diameter, found in tidal swamps. Widely distributed throughout the West Lidies, and the shores of the American and African continental Tropics. The wood is used locally for foundations, underpinning for houses, fence posts, drains, and for charcoal and fuel. Wood dark brown, rather coarse grained, with conspicuous tangential lines visible on a transverse surface, hard, heavy, and very durable in damp situations. Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five, arranged largely in radial lines. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. LIV. BlGNONIACE^. 158. Tabebuia. This genus embraces two local species, first described by Urban in 1899, of very lim- ited distribution, namely, Tabebuia rigida Urb. (Roble), from 20 to 60 feet liigh from the Luquillo region, and Tabebuia schumanniana Urb. (Roble Colorado), from 30 to 50 feet high, ©ccm'ring in the mountains near Utuado. Wood light brown, fine grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard and heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. Pores small, numerous, arranged in conspicuous tangential lines visible to the unaided eye on a smooth transverse surface. Pith rays inconspicuous. *159. Tecoma pentaphylla (L.) Jnss. Roble, Roble bianco; West Indian boxwood. Tree from 20 to 60 feet high, quite common throughout the island, particularly in the limestone hills, and found in the Antilles generally. The wood is used in Porto Rico and throughout tropical America for ox yokes, piles, for house and boat building, and for general purposes. Wood white and fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (about 52 pounds per cubic foot), and strong. _ Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenly distributed. Faint tangential lines of soft tissue may be seen with a hand lens. Pith rays minute, inconspicuous. 160. Tecoma leuycoxylon (L.) Mart. Roble, Roble prieto; White wood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 60 feet high most commonly found in the limestone hills of the south coast and less frequently in the SieiTa de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. Not an important tree in Porto Rico, but in other parts of tropical America it yields a wood used for f m-niture, house building and sounding boards, and musical instruments, also for posts, piles, and other purposes in exposed situations. Wood resembles somewhat that of the preceding. Note. — Another species of little importance is Tecoma haemantha (Bertero) Griseb. (Roble), from 25 to 30 feet high, from the coast hills and interior valleys. *161. Crescentia cujete L. Higiiero; Calabash (Br. W. I.); Jicara, Tigulate, Temante, Palo de melon, Melon tree (Mexico and Central America). Wild and cultivated tree from 10 to 45 feet high and from 12 to 18 inches in diameter, widely distributed tlu-oughout the island. The wood is not known to be used locally, but the rind or bony outside covering of the fruit, like the shell of the coconut, finds a multiplicity of domestic uses for cooking utensils and tableware. The wood is used 96 BULLETIN 354, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in Jamaica for tool handles, carriage parts, felliea of wheels, saddles, and chairs. It is also employed for sliip's knees and cabinetwork in Mexico and Central America. Wood light brown, coarse grained, taking a good polish, moderately hard, heavy (about 54 nounds per cubic foot), very tough, flexible, and durable in the ground. Pores small, isolated or in groups of two or three, evenlv distributed. Alternating tangential wavy lines of hard and soft tissue are barely vikilde to the unaided eye on a smootlily cut tranverse surface. Pith rays narrow, inconspicuous. LV. RUBIACM!. 163. Rondeletia portoricensis Krug & Urb. A recently described tree from 20 to 60 feet high and from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, occurring in various places in the Sierra de Luquillo and Cordillera Central. *163. Randia acuhaia L. Tintillo, Palo de espinillo, Palo de cotorra, Cambr6n, Escam- bron; Ink berry (Br. W. I.). Tree from 20 to 30 feet high and from 6 to 9 inches in diameter, widely distributed throughuot the island. Wood little used. Wood dark brown, fine, close and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, tough, and very durable. It resembles the true lignum-vitse in general appearance. Pores exceedingly small and indistinct. Pith rays very narrow and scarcely visible under the hand lens. *164. Genipa americana L. Jagua, Ilagua. Tree from 30 to 60 feet liigh and from 15 to 20 inches in diameter, widely distributed throughout the island and the West Indies generally. The wood is suitable for pack- ing boxes, shoe lasts, barrel hoops, and wherever strength and elasticity are required. Wood light brown, tinged with red, very fine grained, moderately hard, heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot), strong, tough, and durable; in these qualities it resembles the ash. Pores small, isolated, or occasionally in pairs, evenly distributed. Pith rays numerous, narrow, inconspicuous. 165. Guettarda scabra (L.) Lam. Palo de cucubano, Serrasuela. Tree from 20 to 40 feet high and from 8 to 12 inches in diameter, occurring in the coast hills cliiefly, and sparingly in the interior valleys. The wood is used principally in building nat've huts. Wood ash-colored, moderately fine grained, rather hard and heavy (about 54 pounds per cubic foot). Pores small, isolated or in groups of from two to five or more, and evenly distributed. Pith rays small, inconspicuous. Note. — Other less important species with very limited distribution and wood similar to the above are G. krugii Urb., G. ovalifoUa Urb., and G. Isevis Urb., which attain a height of from 30 to 60 feet and occiu" chiefly in the coast liills and shore woodlands. 166. Antirrhoea obticsifolia Urb. Tortuguillo. Tree from 25 to 45 feet liigh, found in the mountains of the Luqmllo region and Yabucoa. The wood is apparently little used, although suitable for structural and cabinet work. Wood light reddish-brown, straight and fine grained, taking a good polish, hard, heavy, and strong. Pores minute, evenly distributed tliroughout the annual rings of growth, which are easily visible to the unaided eye. 167. Antirrhoea coriacea (Vahl.) Urb. Quina, Palo de quina, Boje, Boje quina. Tree from 40 to 50 feet high and sometimes 2 feet in diameter, chiefly occurring in the northern part of the island. Occurs also in several of the islands of the Lesser Antilles. The wood is used for carpentry work, fiurniture, cabinetwork, and frame- work of houses. TREES OF PORTO EICO. 97 Wood yellowish, very fine and straight grained, taking a very good polish, hard, heavy, strong, though brittle, and very durable in contact with the soil. Note 1. — Antirrhoea sinlenisn Urb. (Quina) is a tree sornetimes 45 feet high, described from the limestone hills in the vicinity of Utuado, Lates, and Manali, and yielding yellowish wood similar to that of Antirrhoea corincea. Note 2. — Chione, a closely related genus, is represented by one species of little known importance. Chione venosa (Sw.) Urb. (Martin avila, Palo bianco, Santa olalla), a tree fi'om 20 to 50 feet high reported from the Sierra de Luquillo, Siena de Lares, and the vicinity of Bayamon and Toa-Alta. Found also in several other of the West Indies. Wood is said to be made into lumber. *168. Coffea arabica L. -Caf^, Cafe macho; Coffee (Br. W. I.). » A cultivated and seminaturalized tree from 10 to 20 feet high and from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, grown in plantations at all elevations but doing best in sheltered locations at or above 2,500 feet on the northern and western parts of the island. Native of Arabia. Coffee is one of the most important articles of export of Porto Rico. The wood is often used for walking sticks. Wood white, very fine grained, taking a fine polish, hard, heavy, strong, and tough. Pores minute, very numerous and evenly distributed. Pith rays minute and incon- spicuous. *169. Ixoraferrea (Jacq.) Benth. Palo de hierro, Dajao, Palo de dajao, Hackia; West Indian or Martinique ironwood (Br. W. I.). Tree from 15 to 30 feet high, occurring quite generally in the limestone hills and somewhat on the slopes of the interior mountains. Elsewhere in the West Indies and in the northern part of South America it sometimes attains a height of from 30 to GO feet and a diameter of from 1 foot to 2 feet. The wood is not reported as being used locally, but in the other countries where it occurs it is used largely for cogs, shafts, and furniture. Wood dai'k brown, taking a very beautiful polish, exceedingly hard, heavy, very strong, and tough. 170. Other genera of this family represented by tree species. Psychotria brachiata Sw. (Palo de cichimbo), usually a shrub or small tree, but occa- sionally 45 feet high; Palicourea alpina (Sw.) DC, shrub or small tree from 15 to 30 feet high; and Faramea occidentalis (L.) A. Rich (Cafeillo, Palo de toro), from 15 to 45 feet high, all rather widely distributed locally as well as generally throughout the West Indies. LVI. CaprifoliaceyE. 171. Sambucus intermedia var. insularis Schwerin. Saiico. A cultivated and seminaturalized tree occurring in various places throughout the island. Introduced firom Central America and found in many of the other West In- dian Islands. LVII. Gramine^. 172. Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. Bambd; Bamboo. This bamboo (although the bamboos belong to the grass family and are not trees at all) has an erect wood stem which attains a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 4 inches, and is rather commonly distributed over the island, particularly along the watercourses and throughout the West Indies. It is a native of Java. The bamboos, of which there are many species, ai'e adapted to a wide variety of uses and their planting should be greatly extended in Porto Rico. , 21871°— Bull. 354—16 7 APPENDIX II. BIBLIOGRAPHY. UST OF THE BOOKS CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS WORK. Abbad y Lasierra, Fray Inigo. Historia geogrdfica, civil y politica de la Isle de S. Juan Bautista de Puerto Rico. Madrid, 1788. Areas of the United States, the States and the Tereitokies. Bulletin 302, U. S. Geological Survey. Barrett, 0. W. The Fall of Porto Eican Forests. In Plant World, Vol. V, No. 6, June, 1902. and GiFFORD . (See Giff ord . ) Britton, N. L. Recent Botanical Explorations in Porto Rico. Journal New Yorl^ Botanical Garden, May, 1906. H. Broun, A. F. Silviculture in the Tropics. MacMillan, 1912. • BuRxs-MuRDOCK, A. M. Notes from the Federated Malay States. Indian Forester, Vol. XXX No. 10, October, 1904. Caine, Thomas A. {See Dorsey.) Capolletti, C. General Report of the Proceedings of the Navigation Congress. Milan, 1905. Census of Porto Rico 1899. Taken under the direction of the U. S. War Depart^ ment. Census, U. S., Thirteenth Decennial, 1910. Clifford, George, 3d Earl of Cumberland. The Voyage to Saint John de Porto Rico. In Purchas, his Pilgrimes, pt. IV, 1625. Collins, G. N. {See Cook.) CoGGSHALL, George. 36 Voyages to Various parts of the World between 1799 and 1841. Cook, O. F. The Origin and Distribution of the Coconut Palm. Contributions from U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. VII, No. 2. . Shade in Coffee Cultui-e. Bui. 25, Division of Botany, XJ. S. Dept. of Agriculture. . Vegetation Affected by Agiicultiu'e in Central America. Bui. 145, Bureau of Plant Industry. and G. N. Collins. Economic Plants of Porto Rico. Contributions from the U. S. National Herbarium, Vol. VIII, pt. 2, 1903. DoRSEY, Clarence W., Louis Mesmer, and Thomas A. Caine. Soil Survey from Arecibo to Ponce, Porto Rico. Field Operations, BtU'eau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1902. Export op Farm and Forest Products, 1909-1911. Bui. 96, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fassig, Oliver L. The Climate of Porto Rico. Unnumbered Circular, Weather Bureau, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fernow, B. E. The High Sierra Maestra (including a list of trees and botanical notes by Norman Taylor). Forestry Quarterly, Vol. IV, No. 4, December, 1906. Fewkes, Jesse Walter. The Aborigines of Porto Rico and Neighboring Islands. Part of 25th Annual Report Bureau of American Ethnology. Washington, 1907. Flinter, Col. G. D. An Account of the Present State of the Island of Porto Rir-o. London, 1834. Gazetteer of Porto Rico. Bui. 183, Series F, Geography. U. S. Geological Survey, 1901. Gifford, John C. The Luquillo Forest Reserve, Porto Rico (with appendix. Trees of the Luquillo Region, by John C. Gifford and O. W. Barrett). Bui. 54, Bureau of Forestry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1905. 98 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 99 Haeris, W. The Timbers of Jamaica. Bulletin, New Series, Vol. I, No. 1, Depart- ment of Agriculture. Jamaica. Harshberger, John W. Phytogeographic Survey of North America, being a part of Die Vegetation der Erde, by Engle and Drude, 1911. Hearn, Lafcadio. Two Years in the French West Indies. New York, 1890. Herrera, Antonio de. The General History of the Vast Continent and Islands of America * * *, translation by Capt. John Stevens. Vol. IV. London, 1726. HrLL, Robert T. Notes on the Forest Conditions of Porto Rico, Bui. 25, Division of Forestry, TJ. S. Department of Agriculture, 1899. Imports of Farm and Forest Products, 1909-1911. Bui. 95, Bureau of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Inioo, Fray. {See Abbad y Lasierra.) K-NAPP, Seaman A. Report on Investigation of the Agricultural Resoiu^ces and Capabilities of Porto Rico. Senate Doc. 171, 56th Cong., 2d Sess. Ledrue, Andre Pierre. Voyage aux iles de Teneriffe, La Trinite, Sainte Thomas, Sainte Croix, et Porto Rico, etc. Vol. II. Paris, 1810. Leyes de Los Reinos de las Indias. Recapilacion de. Book 4, title 12, Trans, by Bureau of Insular Affairs, War Dept. Mesmer, Louis. {See Dorsey.) Morris, Daniel. Report on the Economic Resources of the West Indies. Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, Additional Series, I, 1898. Murphy, Louis S. A Preliminary Report on the Forest Problems of Porto Rico. First Report Board of Commissioners of Agriculture of Porto Rico, January 1, 1912. North American and West Indian. Gazetteer, 1778. Oviedo y Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de. Historia General y Natural de las Indias, Vol. I. Philippine, Director of Forestry. Annual Report of 1912. Porto Rico. Reports of the Governor of, from 1899 to 1913. . The Registers of, for 1901 and 1910. Rea, John T. West Indian Timbers. Indian Forester, Vol. XXVIII, No. 12. Dec, 1902. Robin, C. C. Voyages dans I'interieur de la Louisiana, de la Florida, occidentale, etc. * * * pendant les annees 1802-6, Vol. I. Schimpee, a. F. W. Plant Geography upon a Physiological Basis (Trans, by W. R. Fisher). Oxford, 1903. Summary of Transactions in U. S. Customs District of Porto Rico for the fiscal years 1909, 1910, and 1911. Taylor, Norman. {See Fernow.) Thurston, Lorrin A. Report of. Chairman of Committee on Forestry of Hawaii Sugar Planters' Association, 1907. Trade with Non-contiguous Posssessions in Farm and Forest Products, 1901-1903, 1904-1906. Buls. 31 and 54, Bureau'of Statistics, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Underwood, L. M. Report on a Trip to Porto Rico. Journal New York Botanical Garden, November, 1901. Weyl, W. E. Labor Conditions in Porto Rico. Bui. 61, Bureau of Labor, Depart- ment of Commerce and Labor, November, 1905. Wilson, H. M. Water Resources of Porto Rico. Water Supply Paper No. 32, U. S. Geological Survey, 1899. Woodward, Karl W. Informe sobre las Condiciones Forestales de la Republica Dominicana. Santo Domingo, 1910. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBUCATION MAY BE PROCURED FEOM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY ^^^