Book .T7 r" ANTHROPOLOGY. DE. PAUL TOPINAED, PREPARATOR OF ANTHROPOLOGY AT THE ECOLE DES KAUTES ETUDES, CURATOR OF THE MUSEUM OF THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF PARIS, ETC. BY PROFESSOR PAUL BROCA. TRANSLATED BY ROBERT T. H. BARTLEY, M.D. LOl^DON: CHAPMAlSr AKD HALL, 193, PICCADILLY PHILADELPHIA: J. B. LIPPINCOTT AND CO. 1878. CHARLES DICKENS AND EVANS, CKYSTAL PALACi; PRESS. AUTHOR'S PREFACE. .NTHROPOLOGY^ of all branclies of natural science, was tlie ' ^;st to be developed ; nevertheless it is one wliicli now lays laim to bold the first place in the attention of the scientific /orld. For fifteen years this science, whose title even was .ot settled,, had but few adherents. Since 1749, the date at 7hich it was inaugurated by BufPon, there have been, in every generation, a certain number of learned men who have directed their attention to it, and among these have figured manytdistinguished anatomists and naturalists. But these men, devoted to studies whose utility was not as yet appreciated, formed, as it were, a staff without an army, and if they had a few select readers we may safely say they had not the public at large. A new era manifested itself in 1859, in consequence of the foundation of the Societe d^Anthropologie de Paris. The Ethnological Societies of Paris, and of London and New Yorkj which had preceded it, had not been able to extend their influence beyond a very limited area; some valuable works had been published, but the majority of the members vi PREFACE. remained indifferent. When, in 1848, tlie Societe Bthno- logique de Paris ceased to liold its meetings, no notice was taken of it; and when, eleven years later, some of its members resolved to found a society for the special study of Man, and of the races of mankind, it was with difficulty, after six months of parleying, that nineteen of the pro- moters could be brought together, of whom many were only members in name. This new society, founded with so much difficulty, obtained, however, rapid and unexpected success. Enlarg- ing all at once the programme of ethnology, by grouping around the study of the human races the medical sciences, comparative anatomy, and zoology, prehistoric archasology, palaeontology, linguistics, and history, and designating under the title Anthropology the science whose domain was thus largely extended, the new society opened its portals to all those who cultivated these numerous branches of human knowledge. Ethnology had remained, up to this period, a speciality prosecuted but by few; anthropology, on the contrary, addressed itself to learned men of every class. It attracted to it physicians, naturalists, arch^ologists, linguistics, happy to be able, each in his sphere, to lend his aid ; and soon these valuable auxiliaries manifested their desire to become pro- ficient by an assiduous devotion to its study. To the rapid accession of learned men to its ranks, and of others who became interested in it, are we to attribute the rapid diffusion of anthropological knowledge. This movement, which had its origin in France, rapidly extended to other countries. On all sides anthropological societies sprang up, which were founded on the same basis PREFACE. vii and worked on tlie same general plan. Anthropological conferences were organised, and in tlie greater number of general meetings for the advancement of science, anthro- pology has now its section the same as other sciences. These conferences have been remarkable from the number of members who have taken an active part in them, and from the still larger number of their adherents. The latter are no longer to be computed by hundreds but by thousands. For example, the only society of anthropology in Paris has now on its roll upwards of four hundred native members, while the members comprising the two English societies is nearly double that number. There is now a large and distinguished body of persons who fully estimate the importance of the science, who approve its objects, and who naturally interest themselves in them. This is the happy outgrowth of the extension of the general scheme of anthropology. Other results, still more fortunate, have been brought about. Works have become multiplied in proportion to the number of workers. Many questions of altogether a novel character have arisen ; many others have changed their aspects ; all have been elucidated by constant and patient research. Innumerable facts have been observed, discussed, verified ; and in the brief period of sixteen years greater progress and more important discoveries have been made in anthropology than at any period since its foundation. But the rapidity with which the development of anthro- pology is proceeding is a source of considerable difiiculty to those who are desirous of studying this science. No one can pretend to become conversant with all the subjects of general knowledge which it lays under contribution; to viii PEEFACE. master them with the depth and precision which imply a thorough acquaintance with them, he must abandon the idea of becoming a ferfect anthropologist. Division of labour is more necessary here than anywhere else. In this vast domain each one pitches his tent in the spot where his special tastes, his peculiar bias, and his particular know- ledge invite Mm. But in order that these researches, so multiform, may not run the risk of becoming discursive, and may be directed to one and the same end, it is necessary that all labourers in the work should early become ac- quainted with the general principles of anthropology, with its tenets, and with the whole of the facts which it has established. This want has been sensibly felt for some years. From all sides a demand has sprung up for an elementary treatise on anthropology — a systematic resume where questions might be studied which are the subject of discussion in our societies or treated of in original papers ; a work, in short, which should be at the same time a guide for students and a manual of reference for others. Such a work has not appeared up to the present time. The remarkable ^^ Le9ons sur THomme,^^ by Carl Vogt, embraced only the subject in a general way : they were published, moreover, twelve years since, and do not give the latest information on the science. The excellent little treatise of Omalius d'Halloy, " Sur les Eaces Humaines,''' is purely ethnological ; it embraces only one special part of anthro- pology, and does not supply the want to which we refer. An important gap had to be filled up. The founders of the Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines have felt it incumbent upon them to step in, and have confided to Dr. Topinard the difiicult task of elucidating, in a single PEEFACE. ix volume, a science of vast dimensions in process of rapid de- velopment, and one wliicli hitherto has not received sufficient attention. More than one had shrunk from attempting it. An individual devoting himself to original research, and engaged in duties to which he is anxious to give his undivided attention, is generally little disposed to employ his time in writing a work of a popular character. But M. Topinard is one who is thoroughly equal to the task. An appeal was made to his ardent love for anthropology, which appeal has not been made in vain. He has been most unwearied in his efforts, and has brought his work to a successful issue. He has rendered signal service to anthropology, for which, on behalf of the friends of the science, I cordially thank him. PAUL BEOCA. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. Whilst endeavouring faithfully to execute the task of clothing in English garb Dr. Topinard's work on Anthro- pology^ the translator wishes it to be understood that he does not necessarily endorse all the views of its talented author. Himself a pupil of the illustrious Prichard, he early became acquainted with that great man^s arguments in favour of Monogenism, so forcibly advanced in his work " Researches into the Physical History of Mankind." Sub- sequent thoughtful study has only tended to confirm him in the truth of those arguments, and in an entire belief in the authenticity of the Mosaic Records, which no sophistry on the part of the advocates of Polygenism has been able to shake. One or two matters of .detail contained in the original have been omitted, with a view to render the work more acceptable to the general reader, from whom, as well as from the professional reader, indulgence is craved for many conscious defects in the translation. ROBERT T. H. HARTLEY. Novemler 20, 1877. CONTEI^TS. PAGE Preface yii INTEODUCTIOK Definition of Anthropology — General Outline of the Subject — Its Relations to Medicine and Ethnology — Its Applications — History — Plan of the Work — Zoological Classification ... 1 PAET I, OF MAN CO:NrSIDERED i:Nr HIS E^^SEMBLE, AND IN HIS RELATIONS WITH A:N^IMALS. CHAPTER I. Physical Characters. Skeleton and Skull in General — Zoological Facial Angle — Cranial Capacity — Situation and Direction of the Occipital Foramen— Occipital and Biorbital Angles 29 CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. PAGE Yertebral Column — Sacrum — Pelvis — Thorax — • Sternum — Parallel between the Superior and Inferior Extremities — The Hand and Foot — Proportions of the Skeleton ... 61 CHAPTER III. Muscles — Organs of Sense — Yiscera — Larynx — Genital Organs — ^ISTervous System — Brain : its Structure, Convolutions, "Weight — Rudimentary Organs and Reversive Anomalies ... 91 CHAPTER lY. Physiological Characters — Development of the Body — Em- bryogeny, Sutures and Epiphyses, Teeth — Determination of the Age and Sex of the Skeleton — General and Special Functions — Psychical Manifestations, Faculty of Ex- pression 128- CHAPTER Y. Pathological Characters — Diseases — Facts of Teratology — Microcephalus — Hydrocephalus — Premature Synostoses — Artificial Deformations of the Skull — Conclusion as to Man's Place in the Class of Mammalia 158 PART II. OF THE RACES OF MANKmD. CHAPTER I. Species — Yariety — Race — Classification of Races — Physical Characters — Anatomical Description — Craniology — De- scriptive Characters — Processes of Blumenbach, of Owen, of Prichard — Craniometrical Characters— Principles and Methods of employing Craniometry 193 CONTENTS. CHAPTER II. PAGE Measurement of the Cranial Cavity — Straight and Carved Measurements — Cephalic, Yertical, Frontal, IS'asal, Orbital Indices — Facial Triangle 22& CHAPTER III. Projections — Horizontal Alveolo-condylean Plane — Auricular Radii — Prognathism — Craniometrical Angles of Jacquart, De Quatrefages, Broca, "Welcker 263 CHAPTER IV. Skeleton : its Descriptive and Osteometrical Characters — Its Proportions — The Yiscera — The Brain : its Weight ... 297 CHAPTER V. Physical Characters in the living Subject — Anthropometrical Characters — Proportions in Art — Stature — Measurement of the Head and Body 314 CHAPTER YI. Descriptive Characters — Colour of the Skin, Eyes, and Hair — Pilous System — Physiognomy — Form of the Face, ISTose, Mouth, and Ears — External Genital Organs — Tablier and Steatopyga 340' CHAPTER YII. Physiological Characters — Age — Menstruation — Crossing — Inheritance — Consanguineous Union 363 CHAPTER YIII. Influence of Milieux — Acclimation — Weight of the Body — Muscular Strength — Pulse — Respiration — Intellectual Functions — Pathological Characters — Causes of the Ex- tinction of Races,.. ... ... ^.., ... 385 CONTENTS. CHAPTER IX. PAGE Ethnic, Linguistic, Historical, Archaeological Characters : their Value — Prehistoric Eaces — Our Ancestors of the Rough and Polished Stone Period 417 CHAPTER X. Anthropological Types — Blonde and Brown European Types — Hindoo, Tschinghanian, Iranian, Celtic, Berber, Semitic, Arabian Types 442 CHAPTER XL Finnish and Lapp Types — Mongolian, Esquimau, Samoyed, and Malay Types — Polynesian Type — American and Pata- gonian Types — Red African Type 465 CHAPTER XII. I^egro, Kaffir, Hottentot Types— Papuan, I!Tegrito, Tasmanian Types — Australian Type — Conclusion of the Subject of Human Races 487 PART III. ON THE ORIGIN OF MAK CHAPTER L Monogenism of M. de Quatrefages — Polygenism of Agassiz — Transformism of Lamarck — Selection of Mr. Darwin — Their Application to Man, his Genealogy, his Place in Nature 515 ANTHEOPOLOGY. INTEODUCTIOK DEFINITION OP ANTHROPOLOGY GENERAL OUTLINE OP THE SUBJECT ITS RELATIONS TO MEDICINE AND ETHNOLOGY ITS APPLICATIONS HISTORY PLAN OF THE WORK ZOOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION. The Avord Anthropologij is of ancient date, and has ahvays signified tbe study of Man ; originally, of Man moral, and, later on, of Man physical. At the present time it comprehends both. We may almost say that Aristotle was the originator of it. He termed those AnthroxDologists who carried on dissertations upon Man. The word is found for the first time in the title of a work of Magnus Hundt, in 1501. It is frequently to be met with subsequently as synonymous with " a description of the soul," or of "a description of the body and soul, and of the laws which govern their union." In 1772, Diderot and D'Alembert defined it as "a treatise on Man." In 1778, Kant wrote a work on psychology, entitled "An Essay on Anthropology." Blumenbach takes it in the acceptation we give it at the present day. In 1838, Serres assumed, at the Museum, the title of Professor of Anthropology, or of the I^^atural History of Man ; and M. Edwards, in 1839, defined it as the knowledge of Man in his physical and moral relations. Here and there, however, we find it more or less misinterpreted. Physicians have published, under this title, encyclopaedias embracing at the same time anatomy, physiology, pathology, and hygiene. A B 2 INTRODUCTION. chapter in Professor Karl Schmidt's " Lettres Anthropologiques,"' written in 1852, is entitled " The Anthropology of the New Testa- ment, or Jesus Christ." Three years ago an author in the " Revue des deux Mondes " employed it as a synonym for the " Reproduction of the human figure on Grecian vases." But such differences of signification are no longer allowable. The Avord has a meaning, stamped upon it by the whole of Europe, which cannot be ignored ;.. it designates a science as well recognised and as definite as chemistry,, astronomy, or social economy. Definition. Anthropology is the branch of natural history which treats of Man and of the races of Man. It may be summed up in the following definitions : '' Anthropology is a science which has for its object the study of the human race, considered as a whole, in its separate individu- ality, and in its relations with the rest of nature." — Br oca. "Anthropology is a science pure and concrete, having, for its^ aim the thorough knowledge of the human group, considered :: (1) In each of the four typical divisions — as to variety, race, species — compared with each other, and in relation to their respective ex- ternal conditions. (2) In its ensemlle, and in its relations with the rest of the animal world." — Bertillon. " Anthropology is the natural history of Man, considered mono- • graphically, as a zoologist studying an animal would understand it." — De Quatrefages. Such is an outline of the subject for our consideration.. It com- prehends all the points of view from which the enlightened naturalist would look, who desired to give a complete history of any animal, and of its settled varieties. He examines (1) Its external form, and its internal organs after death. (2) The functions of these organs during life. He notes how the heart beats, the lungs respire, the brain thinks. He ascertains whether the animal is a biped or a quadruped ; how its functions of reproduction are pei- INTRODUCTION. 3 formed, what are the influences by which it is governed, what the character of its food, what its habits, its instincts, its passions. (3) Its particular mode of associating with those of its own species, such as the wandering life of the dingo of Australia, and the bison of America, or the sedentary life of the beaver and the ant. (4) Its method of conveying its meaning to a distance by more or less articulate sounds, as by the rapid friction of the wing-covers, or by the simple vibrations of the larynx. (5) Its migrations, whether voluntary or forced, periodical or spontaneous, owing to the pursuit of an enemy, or in consequence of a flood, or from change of climate. (6) Its numerous records. Archseology indeed gives us an insight into the habits of animals in bygone times, their migrations, the period at which they became domesticated by Man, and those species which have become extinct. The natm-alist, in this way, is enabled to give some sort of description of each group, and of each of its divisions, and to dis- tinguish them from those to which they are the most closely allied. Then, by synthesis, he establishes their respective position in the classification of animated beings, and the family, genus, species, or variety to which they belong. Having made himself acquainted with the relations which his object of study bears to the rest of the animal kingdom, he proceeds to enter upon the higher path of philosophical inquiry. Programme. The course which the anthropologist takes is equally clearly de- fined. His aims are the same, his method of proceeding is identical. His subject is a twofold one : (1) Man considered in his ensemUe, so far as the group to which he belongs differs from, or is analogous to, contiguous groups in the class of mammalia with which he is in nearest relation. (2) The varieties of mankind, commonly called races, a word which has but little present significance as compared with that which will be accorded to it at a later period. All the traits and characters with which the naturalist is occupied equally engage his attention, and even with greater 'intensity. B 2 4 INTRODUCTIO:fir. Certain characters of Ms embryo state, of but trifling interest in the animal, possess in him a very high degree of importance. These characters may be classified under four principal heads, viz. (1) Physical, whether studied on the dead body or on the living. (2) Physiological, which have a particular name assigned to them, according as they have reference to the brain, or to the intellectual faculties and phenomena. (3) Characters resulting from the social condition. (4) Those having reference to historj^, archaeology, language, &c. The mode of pursuing the investigation is precisely the same for Man as for animals. If our inquiries respecting the latter require the most rigid scrutiny, what shall we say when the subject of them is ourselves 1 Intuitive reasoning, a jJTiori reasoning, and other methods of a similar nature, should be altogether excluded. Whether we are determining Man's position on our planet, and the part which he plays at the head of organised beings ; whether he is the sole representative of a king- dom — the human kingdom — or is only the first of the order of Primates, the same processes of scientific investigation must be put in operation. M. de Quatrefages, one of the strongest defenders of human prerogatives, expressly tells us this : Man is an animal ; he comes into existence, reproduces his own species, and dies. Memento te hominem esse! was an exclamation to the conqueror of old. Method of Investigation. Man in his entirety — that is to say, in his physical and moral relations, to quote W. Edwards — is the subject of anthropology. ]N"o zoologist would dream of dividing the study of an animal into two portions, and of entrusting them to learned men of different orders, some limiting themselves to the anatomical and physio- logical characters of certain organs, others directing their attention only to the brain and nervous system. Neither should the study of Man, under the pretext that one portion possesses supreme importance over another, be divided between men of science and philosophers. Each would look at Man or animal from his INTEODtJCTION. 5 own particular point of view ; but tlie anthropologist and tlie naturalist should take a comprehensive view of the whole. To understand the working of a machine, one must study its system of wheels, and make ourselves acquainted with the mechanism and structure of similar machines. The organisation, whether animal or human, simple or complex, is governed by the same general laws, is constituted of the same elements, and performs similar functions. Men's mode of life, of thought, and of association, is as important to know as their mode of walking or breathing. The cerebral mani- festations, in their infinite variety, are as much characteristic of races as the volume and quality of the brain distinguish man from the brute : they are two orders of facts which are inseparable. If the structure of the organ indicates its function, so the function and its various manifestations indicate the organ. The body and the mind are as indissoluble as matter and its activity, or, as it used to be called, its properties. The field of anthropology, then, is immeasurably vast, and might be defined as " the science of Man and of mankind," according to James Hunt ; or " the biology of the human species," according to M. Broca. I^umerous and varied are the subjects of general knowledge which it lays under contribution ! Its more immediate domain is the comparative anatomy and morphology of Man and animals ; then the history of animals, and of mammalia in particular, and especially of the anthropoid apes ; then the different branches of medical science, notably physiology, of which psychology in health and disease forms part ; then that which has reference to nations, and' consequently to travel, as ethnography, geography, history, language, and, lastly, prehistoric archasology. This is not aU — law, the arts, literature, equally con- tribute their share. Leon Guillard, barrister and anthropologist, who died at Buzenval, demonstrated, eight months previous to his death, its intimate connection with the science of comparative law, a subject taken up by M. AcoUas in 1874."^ * " L'Anth.ropologie et TEtude dn Droit compare," by L. Guillard, in " Ball. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2iid series, vol. v. ; " L'Anthropologie et le Droit," by E. AcoUas, in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. ix. 6 INTRODUCTION. Tlie year previously, M. Cesar Daly had slioAvn, before tlie Societe d'Anthropologie, that architecture, in its elementary forms, varies according to the distinctive character of each race. Fetis, in 1867, suggested a classification of races, based upon their musical systems."^ Dances, songs, and national poems, like the heathen mythologies, serve to trace out their origin and affinities. The first attempts at anthropometry, for the purpose of determining the proportions of the human body, and craniometry, for analysing the physiognomy, are due to artists. We see, then, that anthropology appeals to all willing workers, whatever the direction of their studies or the nature of their pro- fessional occupations may be. All, with scarcely any preparatory study, may contribute to its progress j it is sufiicient to indicate to them its aim — the knowledge of Man. The mere word "anthro- pology " frightens many people, who imagine that it has to do with medicine. Medicine. The study of Man, relegated at first to the dissertations of philosophers, on assuming a real basis naturally became shared both by physicians and naturalists ; the former, however, had but little leisure to deal with the special questions which it involved, while the latter were reluctant to regard it in the same light as they did that of the brute creation, which was the special subject of their investigation. It was necessary that anthropology should be un- constrained. ■ Both at the Museum and in the Faculty of Medicine of Paris, it has its representatives and its classes, but it holds a thoroughly independent position there. While medicine has especial reference to the individual — to the human machine — anthropology studies the human group and its varieties. The former has but one aspiration, one aim — the prevention and cure of disease ; the latter studies Man, his origin, and his relations with other animated beings, without troubling himself about the manner * "La Classification des Eaces," by Fetis Sen., in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. ii., 1867. INTRODUCTION. 7 in which society in general may treat the question. Their method of looking at things is altogether different. Is it a question of anatomy] Medicine looks at the organ in relation to adjoining 23arts, as it bears upon surgical operations, or at its structure, the better to understand whether its performance is regular or dis- turbed. Anthropology finds in it only elements of comparison with animals or between races. Is it a question of physiology, of pathology, of hygiene, or of therapeutics 1 They still diverge. The one seeks in the brain the method by which thought is elaborated, and how it is transformed into action ; the other sees in it only different manifestations, varying according to race. Diseases are not alike in all latitudes. When it is a question of climate, it is specially in the , province of medicine ; when of race, it is for anthropology to step in. So with respect to the action of remedies, each regards the question from its own particular point of view. Lastly, hygiene has a bearing upon anthropology, owing to the part which it plays, or its influence on external circumstances, acclima- tion, or crossing. An acquaintance with the medical sciences, without being indis- pensable to every anthropologist, gives him a marked advantage. Eeciprocally, a knoAvledge of anthropology invests the physician with a certain pre-eminence. It augments his interest in anatomical and physiological studies, and is the climax of academic study. We are surprised, therefore, that instruction in it does not form part of the regular course in our principal faculties. Looking at it in connection with the healing art, it is indispensable that the medical men in our navy and mercantile marine, called upon, as they are, to practise among races the most diverse, should kno^v how to distinguish them, as well as to recognise the varieties of local circumstances under which diseases present themselves. Etlmograpliy. The word "ethnography" was employed at the commencement of the present century as synonymous with a description of nations. 8 INTEODUCTION. It was made use of in 1826 in the "Atlas Geograpliique " of M. Balbi, and was ratified under the influence of what was sub^ sequently termed linguistics. Wiseman, in 1836, defined it as "the classification of races by the comparative study of languages ;" M. Broca, as simply the description of each nation in particular. The word "ethnology" had its origin in the title of the Society of Ethnology of Paris, in 1839. It embraces, as set forth in the statutes of that society, " the physical organisation, the intellectual and moral character, the language, and hi-storical traditions which serve to distinguish races." It is used in the same sense in England hj Prichard, Lubbock, Logan, Brace, &c. In 1866, M. Broca ex- tended its meaning as follows : " The particular description and designation of these races, the study of their resemblances and dis- similarities as regards physical constitution, as well as intellectual and social condition. The inquiry into their actual afiinities, their distribution in the present and in the past, their history, their more or less probable, more or less doubtful relationship, and their re- spective position in the human series. Such is the purpose of that division of anthropology which Ave designate by the name of ethnology; the sources whence it gathers its inquiries are numerous, it borrows from ethnography, or a description of jieoples. . . . " '^ Ethnology. M. Littre confines the term " ethnology " to its etymological mean- ing. " Ethnology," he says, " treats of the origin and distribution of peoples, and ethnography of their description. According to M. Erederic Miiller, anthropology has reference to the study of races, ethnology to that of peoples. Latham had already described ethnology as the speculative, and ethnography as the descriptive part of the science of peoples. Eor ourselves, we regard anthropology and ethnology as two different aspects of the study of Man ; two distinct sciences, each * Lecture by James Hunt at the Anthropological Society of London, January 3, 1865 ; Article, " Anthropologie," in the " Dictionnaire EncvcL des Sciences Medicales," hj M. Paul Broca, vol. v. Paris, 1866. INTEODUCTIOK & having its own adherents, enjo}dng an independent existence, but always having a unity of design. The former occupies itself with Man and the races of mankind, which it succeeds in minutely unfolding. The latter only concerns itself with such peoples and tribes as geography and history hand over to us, and is divided into two parts — ethnography, which is the description of each people, of its manners, customs, religion, language, physical charac- teristics, and origin in history ; and ethnology, properly so called, which looks at these in their ensemble, and as appl3dng to all or to many peoples. It is the province of ethnology, then, to be engaged with con- stituent elements, with the origin and descent of peoples, and even to make a classification of them based upon their language. It makes use of the term " races " somewhat carelessly. But it is not within its province to determine the characteristics or to make a correct classification of the races of mankind. It does not possess the qualifications for such a task, which requires the combination of all the active powers of anthropology, and especially anatomical appliances and zoological experience, to which it is a stranger. The expression "races," as used by the ethnologist, is a permissive one. To the anthropologist, it is one of deep meaning. He looks upon it as synonymous with the natural divisions of the human group, however remote the period at which they were constituted. Cynology being the natural history of the dog, the inquiry into the primitive races which have produced its innumerable cross breeds would belong to cynology ; so the inquiry into the various human races constitutes anthropology, and not ethnology. Ethnology then, as its etymology signifies, is the general science of nations.* Nationalitij. The study of anthropology requires a calm and vigorous judg- ment, free from prejudice, Avith but one aspiration — that of truth. There is no more delicate subject to handle. We have all been "'• "Anthropologie, Etlmologie, et Ethnographie," in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," by Paul Topiuard. 1876. 10 INTRODUCTION. 'brought up with, preconceived notions, which, have saturated our brain substance, at a period when it was becoming fully developed, and was the better fitted to retain impressions.* Now anthropo- logical facts at times clash with certain matters of faith, which religious teachers have ever considered necessary for the best interests of mankind. On the other hand, our pride is ruffled ; it is not willing to descend from the pedestal on which it has reposed, intends to have nothing in common with the animals, and clamours when we tell it that there is no great gulf between them and our- selves. "VAHiat we do, what we think, is ever the high, the noble, the good, the true. Our physical type, as Europeans, is the nearest approach to perfection. Those who have the round head, or who imagine that they have it, affirm that it is the most intellectual. . With the Chinese, the flat face, the oblique eyes, and the hairy upper lip, are the very perfection of beauty. The negro looks upon black as the most beautiful of colours. In the in- tellectual world, our moral condition, our civilisation alone merit the title of beautiful. Our customs alone are dictated by reason, those of other nations are barbarous. The political passion misleads us in the same way. ISTationality, according to the Germans, is determined by language, a doctrine purely ethnographic and radically false ; as M. Abel Hovelacque has so forcibly put it, this is only " a social cause." Brought into being by a fortuity of cir- cumstances, rather than by the geographical disposition of places, it is afterwards maintained by a community of interests, of suff'er- ing, and of glory. Blood poured out in a common cause cements it ; hearts throbbing in unison with it from one end of a territory to the other are its characteristics, t Aj)plications. It is asked if anthropology has any application to real life, and * We shall have frequently to revert to this point, more particularly in our description of races. + " Langues, Races, Nationalites," by A. Hovelacque, editor of the "" Revue de Linguistique." Paris, 1872. INTRODUCTION. 11 what is its pretended aimi' But liad Aristotle, Liimeeus, Buffon no object in view when describing the animal kingdom ? ISTewton, when pondering over the problem of gravitation, and Cuvier, when investigating the characters of fossil species 1 Did Pasteur, when refuting the theory of spontaneous generation, contemplate the advantages Avhich patient industry would deduce from it 1 'No, true science, that which leads to the most brilliant results, is essentially disinterested. To know how to enlarge the field of human thought, and to satisfy a legitimate curiosity, such are its actuating principles. Anthropology, more than any other science, is capable of exer- cising an influence on our social organisations. Is not its object to lay open to our view Man as he really is, to unfold to us the secret of his acts, his passions, and his wants in the past, and possibly in the future 1 The first English society having any relation to anthropology was founded with a view to help forward the abolition of slavery, and did in fact powerfully contribute to this result. The first of any note in France had for its object to give currency to an idea which M. Edwards had gathered from the writings of Sir Walter Scott and of the two Thierrys — namely, that races and their temperaments play an important part in the existence of nations. History, elucidated by anthropology, thus assumes a new aspect ; causes and effects are more readily explained, and the anthropo- logical replaces the theological in our conceptions of past ages.* Civilised peoples are everywhere taking the place of savage races, or substituting for them races less warlike in character. To this end governments have to choose between two courses of action, either to destroy or to bring them together. The former, spite of certain recent examples, is not admissible ; the latter is only realisable by understanding the distinctive character of the vanquished nation, its capabilities, and the nature of its race. Our method of action * W. F. Edwards, " Des Caracteres Physiologiques des Eaces Humaines considerees dans leur Rapports avec I'Histoire." Letter to M. Amedee Thierry, in 1829, in " Mem. Soc. EtknoL," vol. i. 12 INTKODUCTION. cannot be too deeply penetrated with, this truth, if we would give its right position to the native race of Algeria, which is the Barhary, and ought not to he considered as the Arah race. Anthro- pology teaches us how to recognise them. Man inures himself to almost every climate, but only by dint of perseverance. One race dies out in a country, while another thrives in it. By following certain principles, the difficulties are more or less surmounted. The science of acclimation, therefore, is one department of anthropology. It has been said that races may be compared to countries in which diseases are variously developed, and which require different hygienic treatment. It is as necessary to be able to distinguish, races as in medicine to diagnose the arthritic, the herpetic, or the nervous temperament. In the sad expedition to Mexico the knowledge of one of the characteristics of the negro race led to a most happy result. Vera Cruz, where at first there was considerable mortality among the French troops from yellow fever, was afterwards garrisoned by black soldiers from Upper Egypt, who possessed an immunity from that disease. We are not now living in the time of Albert Diirer and of Eubens, when artists were satisfied with delineating the forms and features of those around them to represent those of foreign nations. Our annual exhibitions testify the progress which has been made in this direction. In the galleries of the Museum we sometimes meet with painters studying the varieties of the human head, and. at the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, the professor of anatomy knows that he must teach the different forms of the beautiful, as seen in every country and under every climate, and, therefore, must be an anthro- pologist. Whether we accept the modern doctrine or not, it is undeniable that Man, by a certain method of high breeding and well-managed crossing, is capable of being changed in successive generationsi, in his physical as well as in his moral character. According to the modes adopted, he will go on either degenerating or improving. Anthropology comes in here with the highest, and at the same time most practical aim, and its utility in this alone INTEODUOTIOK 13 should secure for it the encouragement and patronage of our learned .societies. Anthropology, be it observed, is far from being a science of luxury. At this very moment it is leading to most important results, and is throwing new light upon all the sciences bearing upon Man. j^aturalists, physicians, men of letters, artists, philo- sophers, lawyers, diplomatists, travellers, archaeologists, and linguists, are all carrying the material wherewith to build the edifice. To those who apply themselves closely to its study it is a somewhat arduous task, but to the great majority it is a recreation. History. This may be recited very briefly. The study of nature, and of Man in particular, may be traced back to the period of the earliest efforts of the human mind ; but anthropology as a special science, separate from natural history, is but of yesterday. Unknown up to the close of the last century, it has only started into life towards the latter half of the nineteenth century. Its rudiments are found scattered up and down in the writings of physicians and natu- ralists. The former by observing Man under all climates, the latter by placing him as the tyjDc of the perfectly organised being, accomplished for anthropology what M. Jourdain did for prose. Such were Hippocrates, who describes in his book, " On Water, Air, and Place," the character of "the Scythians and other no- madic tribes," as well as the cranial malformations of the Macro- cepliali on the other side of Palus-Meotidus ; Aristotle, who com- pares apes with Man, and speaks of human hybrids and of Ethiopians ; Pliny, whose frequently fantastic recitals have been justly criticised by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire ; Galen, who, while dissecting monkeys, prepared the Avay for human anatomy founded by Mundinus and Yesalius (1544). As to philosophers, they have had nothing to say with respect to Man's history, l^o doubt some, like Lucretius, have shown their acuteness of appre- hension of its facts; but those who long afterwards proclaimed 14 INTEODUCTION. the true method of observation have the greatest claim on onr gratitude. JSTatural History took its rise with Aristotle, and made no further progress. Belon, in 1655, was the first to compare the skeleton of Man with that of another animal — namely, a bird. Up to the eighteenth century, the chef-cVoeuvre of creation, to use a classical expression, Avas only studied by physicians. Linnaeus, in 1755, restored him to his place in his classification, and by applying to him his binary nomenclature, under the title of homo sapiens, obliged naturalists to accept him as belonging to them. About the same period Buffon devoted two volumes to the "Varietes- Humaines" (1749). The way was open. Almost simultaneously Daubenton, in 1764, published his memoir on "La Situation du trou Occipital dans THomme et les Animaux;" Blumenbach, in 1775, his inaugural thesis on " Les Variations du Genre Humain ; " Soemmering, in 1785, his " Memoire sur les iN'egres;" Camper, in 1791, his pos- thumous dissertation, " Sur les Differences que presente le Visage dans les Eaces Humaines;" White, in 1799, his work on "The regular gradation of Man and Animals." Many notable travels were undertaken about this period. On land we may mention those of Byron, Bruce, Lavaillant, Pallas, Barrow; on the sea, those of Bougainville, Cook, La Perouse, Peron. The Museum of Paris shone out in all its full lustre ; natural history made gigantic strides ; observations were going on quietly. By degrees, two rival schools sprang up : the one called the classique, represented by Cuvier, which confined itself to facts ; the other called the philosophical, or des idees, which Lamarck and Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire represented. Lamentable prejudices unfortunately came to be mingled with their wranglings. Linnajus and Blumenbach had spoken of mankind without attaching any definite importance to it. Lamarck maintained that species vary and are transformed. So far orthodoxy was not affected, but the danger appeared serious ; the younger men were carried away with the eloqu'ence of ^Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. A watch- word seemed to be sent forth : " The world was created in six INTRODUCTION. 15 (lays ; Adam and Eve are the progenitors of all living races ; the- universal deluge utterly destroyed everything hut the privileged pairs saved with ^N'oah." Science must bend before these articles of faith. The. first assault was concluded to the detriment of Lamarck^, who was too modest in presence of the imposing authority of Cuvier. The second was unfavourable to Etienne Geoffroy Saint- Hilaire : the transformation theory appeared to be vanquished. The third had all sorts of revolutions of fortune, and was prolonged up to about the year 1859, after the discovery of Boucher de Perthes : the ground was apparently shaken. The classical or orthodox school, then knoAvn by the name of monogenist, pleaded in favour of the unity of the human species, and of the variability of races under the influence of external circumstances and of cross- ings. The opposite, or polygenist school, maintained, on the contrary, the plurality of races, and the non-influence of external circumstances. In France, the former took shelter under the great name of Cuvier ; Yirey, Bory de Saint-Vincent, and A. Desmoulins Avere the partisans of the latter. But about the year 1813, a vigorous champion came forward in favour of the monogenists, in the person of Prichard. His most important arguments occupy five volumes, and are full of instruction, while they constitute, at the • present moment, a veritable vade-meeum for the anthropologist.* The work of Prichard was exclusive. Another, after the model of Virey's "L'Histoire Naturelle de I'Homme," in 1801, but more comprehensive in its character, appeared in London in 1817. It was entitled, " Lectures delivered before the College of Surgeons on the ISTatural History of Man," by Lawrence, and rather advocated the plurality of the human species, although pretending to uphold the monogenistic doctrine. These two works, to which we may add that of M. Desmoulins on "Les Paces Humaines," in 1826, prove that the researches on Man had lost nothing on an appeal to * The first edition of " Researches into the Physical History of Man," by Prichard, appeared in 1813, and was in one volume ; the second, n two volumes, appeared in 1826 ; and the third and last, in fire volumes, from 1836 to 1837. 16 INTEODUCTION. principles. Linguistics and ethnography, originally almost synony- mous terms, and human comparative anatomy, were in course of ; development. From Klaproth and Abel de Eemusat to Ecnan, Chavee, and Frederic Mtiller, the number of persons won over | to anthropology by the study of the comparative structure of ] languages was immense.^ The first ethnographical society of which there is any record was instituted in Paris in 1800, under the title of the '' Societe des Observateurs de THomme," and died of inanition during the war. The second was instituted in London in 1838, and was of an exclusively philanthropic character. The fact of the polygenists having declared that the black races are inferior to the vfhite, was used as an argument in favour of slavery. The society should have set its face against this doctrine, and it suffered the penalty for not doing so. The following year, M. Edwards founded the Societe Ethnologique de Paris, which has furnished some excellent works, at the fore-front of which is to be mentioned a pamphlet by its founder, " Sur les Caracteres Physiologiques des Paces Ilumaines considerees dans leur Papports avec I'Histoire." Some admirable works soon appeared, both in France and elsewhere, having similar ethnographical views, among which we may mention, ''L'Homme Americain," by Alcide d'Orbigny.f In comparative anatomy, the skull, to which the labours of the first anthropologists had been directed, continued to attract their attention. The " Decades " of Blumenbach were followed by others. Li 1830, Sandifort published the first volume of his "Tabulae Craniorum Diversarum Gentium." In 1839 appeared the best work of its kind, the " Crania Americana," by Morton ; and in 1844, his "Crania ^gyptiaca." In 1845, the "Atlas de Cranioscopie," by Carus ; in 1856, the first volume of " Crania Britannica," by Davis and Thurnam ; in 1857, the " Crania Selecta," by Von Baer, &c. Many others might be mentioned. * " La LingTiistique," by M. Abel Hovelacque. 2nd edition, Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines. Paris, 1876. f " L'Homme Americain de rAmeriqne Meridionale," by Alcide d'Orbigny. Two vols. Paris, 1839. INTEODUCTION". 17 At Heidelberg, Tiedemann, known by bis incomplete cubic measurements of the skull ; in Sweden, Eetzius, by bis division of skulls into long and short; in Holland, Yan der Hoeven; in Germany, Wagner, Huscbke, Lucse, &c. Tbe influence of such . authorities as these somewhat encouraged anatomists in France to enter upon so unpopular a path of study ; and, besides Daubenton, we may mention Bureau de la Malle, Dubreuil, Foville, Maslieurat- Lagemard, Pucheran, Lelut, Parchappe, Serres, Jacquart, Joulin. Anthropology, up to this time, did not exist as a separate science ; its efforts were of a restricted character ; it had no pro- gramme ; its name was mentioned only casually. It became of the utmost importance to centralise all the studies bearing upon the natural history of Man and his races. This was the task of the ^ Societe d Anthropologic, which was founded in Paris in 18f9, under the direction of Dr. Paul Broca, a professor of the Faculty of Medicine, by a few savants, among whom may be mentioned Isidore G-eoffroy Saint-Hilaire, De Quatrefages, Gratiolet, Dareste, Ernest Godard, Charles Robin, Beclard, &c. The society, con- ceived in the most liberal spirit, was composed of scientific men of every denomination, whether literary men or those devoted to the study of art, so that, if any question arose, it could be discussed by the highest authorities. Anthropology, which, in 1838, gave to the Museum the chair of the Natural History of Man, started on a new basis. Following the example of Paris, other cities founded societies bearing the same name : viz. London, in 1863 ; ^ew York, St. Petersburg, and Moscow, in 1865; Manchester, in 1866; Florence, in 1868 ; Berlin, in 1869 ; Yienna, in 1870 ; Stockholm and Tiflis, in 1874. The date of the foundation of the society of Paris was coincident with two events of the highest importance : the public confirmation of the discovery of Boucher de Perthes, who traced back the antiquity of Man to a remote period; and the publication of a work by Darwin on the " Origin of Species," which has contributed so much to give to the science of Man the impetus of which we are now the witness. It marks with distinguished significance the C 18 INTEODUCTIOK conimencemeiit of a new era. It is with, the facts and established opinions generally received at the present time that we propose to deal in this volume. Many names have been omitted in this brief historical outline, which we shall hope to have an opportunity of supplying as we proceed. Plan of the Work. The plan of this work is a necessary sequence from what has been stated. Of the two branches of the study of Man — the one anthropology proper, which has to do with Man and his races, the other ethnology, which treats of nations — the former will alone occupy our attention. Our subject naturally divides itself into two parts. (1) The study of Man considered as a zoological group. (2) The study of human races as divisions of that group. In the first part we shall con- sider the three series of characters — the physical, the physio- logical, and the pathological — upon which natural history depends ; and in the second part, more particularly those to be deduced from archseology, linguistics, and ethnography. In the first part we shall endeavour to show the relations which subsist between Man and animals, and shall consider a number of questions which have reference to medical studies, regard Man in his ensemble, and have an especial bearing on our subject. In the second part, after describing the characteristics which serve to distinguish races, we shall give a summary of the various physical types which the present improved state of science exhibits to us, and upon which the determination of races depends. In the third part we shall detail the various theories as to Man's origin. It will be necessary for us to say a few words, by way of intro- duction, as to the methods of zoological classification, and to give a description of the animals to which we shall frequently have to refer. Zoological Classification. When the naturalist looks off from matters of detail, and con- templates the animal kingdom in its entirety, he is struck with the 1 INTEODUCTIOK 19 small number of agencies at work to obtain the most diverse forms. He observes that in a general way there is a continual pro- gression from the simplest to the most complex organisms. He s]3eaks of it, in other words, as " the general harmony of nature," ^' the plan followed by nature," " unity of type, of agreement in form, or of organic likeness." He compares the succession of beings to a ladder (Bonnet), to a chain, or to a tree with many branches. He has an intuitive impression, whether formulated or not, that there is a succession and gradation in the different types of animals, as if some organic force were incessantly in operation, modifying and increasing the number and variety of species. Cuvier, who feared to soar above facts, maintained, on the contrary, the doctrine of successive creations. He then abandoned it, and finally maintained, with Isidore Saint-Hilaire, that existing species are not descended from those of a bygone age."^ Whatever may be the secret of the origin of animated beings, it is certain that appearances seem to favour the idea that they sprung originally from one another. Many gaps exist between them; but their number is daily decreasing, owing to unexpected dis- coveries in the bowels of the earth, in the depths of the ocean, or in some hitherto unexplored corner of the globe. It has been repeatedly said : " jS'ature does not make sudden jumps." There is a successiveness observable throughout, especially in minutiae. M. Ch. Martins and M, Durand (de Gros) have furnished us Avith examples of this.f The method by which the fin is transformed into the bent limb, having one direction, as in the tortoise, or an opposite one, as in Man ; how it becomes divided into a longitu- dinal shaft, which is enlarged or reduced in size, according as it goes to form the leg of the dog, the wild boar, the horse, or the gorilla, is truly marvellous. Agassiz used to demonstrate to his audience at JSTew York how """ "Vie et Doctrine de E. Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire." Paris, 18i7. t " Creation et Transformisme," by J. P. Durand (de Gros), in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop." 2nd series, vol. v., 1870 ; " Hommes et Singes," by L. Agassiz, in the " Revue Scientifique," 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 818, 1874. C 2 20 INTEODUCTION. " by twisting this, and elongating that," one might form a fish^ a reptile, a mammifer, or an ape, &c.* Hence the difficulties which naturalists experience in exactly- circumscribing the limits of the divisions upon which their classi- fications rest, and of giving to each the proper name which be- longs to it. That which is family in one becomes order in another ; that which is genus becomes species, and vice versa. All depends upon the point of view from which they are regarded, and the particular opinion formed as to their characteristic features. In order to account for the disputes which are going on about Man, and the place which he occupies relatively to other beings, it is necessary that this should be thoroughly understood. In some, classifications depend upon clearly defined natural groups, which are recognised, though they cannot be strictly demonstrated. In others they are based upon certain groups shading off into contiguous groups, " Methods of classification," writes Daubenton, " have one principal defect which it is impossible to avoid, namely, that art takes a larger share in their arrangement than nature." "Classi- fications," says Lamarck, " are artificial methods ; nature has not really formed either classes, orders, families, genera, or unvarying species — ^but individuals only." Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, on his return from Egypt, alluded to them in these terms : "A useful method^ doubtless, but necessarily imperfect in its resources, and incomplete in its aim; true science ought to have higher aspirations." The illustrious opponent of Cuvier, who was about to publish a cata- logue of the Museum, which was a veritable classification, gave it up, although the proof-sheets were in the press. l!f evertheless, classifications are valuable, and, indeed, indispen- sable. They assist study, bring together animated beings, generally in a natural way, and mark the measure of progress accomplished. In natural history we understand classification to mean the grouping together of beings according to their degree of probable relationship, based on the number and importance of their common characters. Thus, throughout the whole of the animal kingdom, one observes * " Hommes et Singes," by L. Agassiz, in the " Kevue Scientifique,"^ 2nd series, vol. iii. p. 818, 1874. INTRODUCTION. 21 one principal special feature wherelDy to establish, a primary division of four branches. From the presence or absence of a skeleton, whether internal or external, we distinguish Zoophytes, Mollusca, the Articulata, and the Yertebrata. We may remark, before going farther, that zoophytes approximate in their inferior forms to cryptogams of the vegetable kingdom, but that noAV a new kingdom has been placed between them, formed of organisms still more elementary, under the name of regne de protistes (Haeckel). From many characters, derived principally from the external covering, Yertebrata have been divided into four classes, viz. : Eeptiles, Fishes, Birds, and Mammalia. ]\Iammalia, again, are divided — according to the existence or non-existence of an external abdominal 23ouch, in which the yoimg pass through the second phase of their development — into two sub-classes — the Didelphs and the Monodelphs. So far, the chief characteristics present modifications so funda- mental in the arrangement of the princi^Dal apparatus of the organism that, by virtue of the law of subordination of characters, it is easy to confine oneself to a single one. The presence of an internal skeleton is proof of a special arrangement of the nervous system no less characteristic. Indeed we have no other choice than to divide Yertebrata in this way, and it is no less necessary as regards those next in the series. The more we descend in the sub- divisions of the former, the more the difficulty increases. We then have to consider many features in combination, and are not com- pelled to adopt any fixed plan. At each step the same uncertainty presents itself. AYhat is the general characteristic of the group % And is it really the proper one 1 Have we not created it ourselves, according to the distinctive feature we may fix upon 1 AD. scientific classification is provisional and arbitrary, as long as a science is in course of development. Its province is chiefly to introduce some order into the medley of individuals it has under its immediate notice, to set up beacons, the correctness of whose guidance time will either establish or annul. Two groiips being given, it is easy by laying hold of individuals the most dissimilar to distinguish two opposite types. But a certain nimiber of indi- 22 INTEODUCTION. viduals will always more or less deviate from them, and will be blended witli contiguous types altogether dissimilar. There are few secondary divisions in natural history which can be regarded as settled, and which might not be changed to-morrow. Thus, to the four classes of Yertebrata, many have added a fifth under the name of BatracMans, making them a distinct class from reptiles. So the Didelphs, one of the most correctly defined. of the sub-classes, from being based on their liaUtat, have been displaced and abolished, most of them being classed with the Edentata or the Rodents, the remainder becoming a distinct order under the name of Pedimana. Species is the convenient zoological unit. We will define it in due course. On the one side we have varieties ; on the other, genera, families, &c. A genus is the assemblage of many species presenting certain points of connection ; a family, the assemblage of many genera, and so on. Between the genus and the species we sometimes have sub-genera ; between the genus and the family, the particular tribe we are in search of ; between the family and the order, the sub-order, &c. The number of genera in a family, or of species in a genus, is indeterminate. Mammalia. ^N'ow, in the class of Mammalia, the Didelphs include the Mar- suxnals (kangaroo, opossum) and the Monotremes (echidna, orni- thorhynchus). The Monodelphs include (1) The Cetacea and Amphibia. (2) The Pachydermata and Ruminantia. (3) The Edentata, the Rodentia, the Garnivora, the Cheirojjtera, the Quad- rumana, and the Bimana — the Orders according to Cuvier. We cannot enlarge further on this subject. In a special work on Zoology, published in the Bibliotheque des Sciences Contem- poraines, will be found what the general opinion is as to these divisions. We have to do with the last two, and Ave shall discuss, them according to their relative importance. Linnteus associated Man, the monkey, and the bat, in one and the same order, under the name of Primates, This purely zoolo- INTKODUCTION. 23 gical arrangement, which placed Man at the head of the series of animated beings, greatly disturbed Blumenbach, Lacepede, Dau- benton, and Cuvier ; and in a spirit of reaction, as it would seem, Cuvier proceeded to isolate Man in a distinct order, and placed the monkey in another order, the bat in a third, &c. Two principal classifications are before us, in which the distance which separates Man from his nearest zoological connections is estimated differently. In one, Man forms a distinct order, in the same category as the ape or one of the Carnaria ; in the other, he forms merely one family in the order of Primates, the various divisions of the monkey tribe coming afterwards. Thus : Primates. First system of classification. — First Order : Man. Second Order : Apes. Tliird Order : Bats. Fourth Order : Dogs, Bears, &c. Second system of classification. — First Order : Primates. First Family : Man. Second Family : The higher Apes, or Anthropoids (the gorilla, the chimpanzee, the orang, and the gibbon). TJiird Family. The Monkeys of the Old Continent, or Pithecians (semnopithecus, guenon, magot, cynocephalus [baboon]). Fourth Family : The Monkeys of the N'ew Continent, or Cebians (howl- . ing monkey, atele [spider monkey], sajou, ouistiti [marmoset]). Fifth Family : The Lemurs, Macauco, Galseopithecus.* * We draw attention to tlie various names in this list, to which we shall frequently have to refer. In current language we sometimes speak of the Anthropoids as the great apes or monkeys, and the Pithecians and Cebians as the common or true monkeys. Frequently the epithet " Simian" will occur in like manner, as synonymous with monkey -like, particularly those of the first three families. Lesson united the Pithecians and the Cebians, under the name of Simiades ; so that he had in the first order, or Primates, five families : the Hommideae, the Anthropomorph^, the Simiadae, the Lemuriens, and the False Lemuriens. Huxley divides his families into seven — namely: the Anthropini (m^n), the Catarrhini, the Platyrrhini, the Arctopithecini, or Marmosets, the Lemurs, the Cheiromyini, and the Galseopitheci, or flying monkeys. Two of these appellations originated with Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, the Catarrhini, or monkeys of the Old Continent ; and the Platyrrhini, or 24 INTEODUCTIOK Second Order : The Cheiroptera, or Bats. Tliird Order : The Carnaria. First Family : The Plantigrades. Second Family : The Digitigrades, &c. Antliropoid Aioes. Yf e notice that the Lemurs, or inferior monkeys, form the transition between the common monkey and various genera scattered through the succeeding orders. For example, between the family of Anthropoids, the Gibbon forms the connecting link ^Yiih. the Pithecians j and some of the Cebians have a similar relation to the Lemurs. It is from these intermediate forms that we fill up the gaps in question. Which of these two systems of classification is the better 1 If we consulted only our own wishes, the answer would be an easy one. Each of us has the consciousness of being vastly superior to the highest class of apes, and would desire that the separation should be as wide as possible : but this is only a matter of feeling. It is a question of fact. Let us proceed then. The question re- solves itself into the following terms : monkeys of the New Continent, which are distinguished by the structure of the nose. Others have understood the word " Catarrhini " to mean those without a tail (Anthropoids), or with a tail (Pithecians). The second classification which we have above summarised is that which M. Broca has adopted in his memoir, '' Sur I'Ordre des Primates," in 1869. Among the Anthropoids, the genus Gorilla is limited to a single species, the Gorilla Savagii, whose habits have been described by Paul du Chaillti. — (" Voyages et Aventures dans I'Afrique Equatoriale." Paul du Chaillu. Paris, 1863. And " A Journey to Ashango Land," by the same author. London, 1867.) Of the Chimpanzee, or Troglodytes, there are at least six species : the black, the most common ; the Aubryi, a specimen of which was brought to France by Count Aubrey ; the Calvus, or bald ; and the Koolo- kamba, mentioned by M. du Chaillu ; the Schweinf urthii, from the rivers of the White Mle ; and the Livingstonii, or Soke, from the banks of Lake Benguela. With the exception of the last two, all are to be found from the Gambia to the 13th degree of south latitude. The Orang-outang, or Simia, or Satyrus, includes two species : the Rufus, or red-haired, of Borneo ; and the Bicolor, of Sumatra. Lastly, the Gibbon, or Hylobates, has numerous species, of which about ten have been described. The largest is the Siamang, or' Hylobates Syndactylus. INTKODUOTION. 25 What is the value of the characteristic points of difference be- tween Man and monkeys, and especially the anthropoid apes 1 Are these differences as great as those which separate two families or two orders *? The nature of the reply will be dependent on the facts we are about to set forth in the following chapter, and which M, Eroca proposes to call anthropologie zoologique.'^ * M. Broca, in the article in tlie " Dictionnaire Encycl. des Sciences Medicale," mentioned at page 8, divides anthropology as follows : (1) Zoo- logical anthropology, or the study of the human group considered in its relations with the rest of organised nature ; (2) Descriptive anthropology, or the study of the human group considered in its individual relations ; (3) General anthropology, or the study of the human group considered as a whole. On one occasion our esteemed master rehearsed to us his views somewhat as follows : Medicine studies individuals ; ethnography, peoples ; ethnology, races ; and general anthropology, man in his eyisemhle, and in his relations with animals — this last constituting a particular section as zoological anthropology. Our objection is, that the denomination " zoological " relates as much to the part which treats of the human races as to that which treats of Man in general, and that we proceed by the same methods in both, the pre-eminence attaching to anatomical characters. We wish that ethno- logy were taken, according to its etymological sense, to express the general science of peoples, according to Frederic Miiller's method, and that the study and description of primitive races, regarded as natural divisions of the humangroup, were left to anthropology proper. (See page 8.) M. Broca in his system has considered ethnology as merely a branch of anthropology, which consequently should enter into the plan of this work; whilst in ours, ethnology, though furnishing numerous materials to anthropology, preserves an entire independence, and requires a distinct volume. PAET I. OF MAN COJ^SIDEEED m HIS ENSEMBLE, AND IN HIS EELATIONS WITH ANIMALS. CHAPTEE I. PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. SKELETON AND SKULL IN GENERAL ZOOLOGICAL FACIAL ANGLE CRANIAL CAPACITY SITUATION AND DIRECTION OF THE OCCIPITAL FORAMEN OCCIPITAL AND BIORBITAL ANGLES. The characters of the human group are of two orders : some organic, to be studied on the skeleton and on the dead body ; others physiological, on the living. Among the former, those to be drawn from the skeleton occupy the first rank ; the skeleton, in fact, determines the general form of the body, serves for the attachment of muscles, and marks out the boundaries of the visceral cavities. Osteologlcal Considerations. The skeleton of Mammalia — the class of Vertebrata which will alone engage our attention — is composed (1) Of a central axis, con- stituted-by the bodies of the vertebrae ; (2) Of a series of osseous arcs directed backwards, to form, by their aggregation, a large canal, in which are contained the brain, the cerebellum, and the spinal cord; (3) Of a series of arcs directed forwards, bounding certain cavities which are occupied, above by the organs of vision, smell, and taste — then by the central organs of circulation and the lungs — lower down by the digestive apparatus — and lower still by the organs of reproduction; (4) Of the appendages to various segments called extremities, the anterior serving, in a general way, for prehension, the posterior for locomotion. Superior Maxillary Inferior Maxillary Thorax and Ribs Occipital. Cervical Ver- tebrae. 1st Dorsal Ver- tebrae. Omoplate. .Osiliacus of Pel- vis. Phalanges. Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 31 The skeleton is composed in Man of one hundred and eighty- eight bones, exckisive of the patella, a small bone developed in the thick part of the tendons of the principal extensor muscle of the thigh j that is to say, twenty-six for the vertebral column, eight for the cranium, fourteen for the face, thirty-two for each of the superior extremities, and thirty for each of the inferior, &c. The twenty-six bones of the vertebral column are divided thus : seven cervical vertebrae ; twelve dorsal ; five, and sometimes six lumbar ; five or six sacral bones, which, being anchylosed, form the sacrum ; and four or five caudal, which, more or less welded to- gether, form the coccyx. To speak correctly, the cranium is formed of three modified vertebrae, and is the true commencement of the vertebral column. Every vertebra, whether cervical, dorsal, or lumbar, consists (1) In the centre, of a foramen, through which the cord passes ; (2) Anteriorly, of a body, which is articulated to those of the ver- tebrae above and below by a fibro-cartilaginous disc, called the intervertebral; (3) Posteriorly, of a spinous process, bifurcated in the cervical region, simple in the rest of the column, the bases of which are called laminae ; (4) Of two transverse processes, attached to the body by two pedicles ; and (5) Of four articular processes, which serve to attach the vertebra to those above and below. The eight bones of the cranium consist of four middle and symmetrical — the occipital, the sphenoid, the ethmoid, and the frontal ; and two lateral pairs — the parietal and the temporal. The middle portions of the occipital, the sphenoid, and the ethmoid represent the body of each of three vertebrae. The large fiat portion of the occipital, temporal, and frontal is called the squamous portion, or ecaille (shell). These bones come under the denomination of flat bones. They have an internal surface, which looks towards the cranial cavity, called by M. Broca endocrdne, and an external surface. The body of the occipital (0, Fig. 2) is formed by the basilar process, which is united to the body of the sphenoid by an im- portant articulation, the basilar suture. Its surface is transversely divided by a semicircular ridge, for the attachment of the muscles 32 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. of the neck, the middle portion of which is occupied by the inion, or external occipital protuberance; the portion above, or sur- occipital, is separated during a part of intra-uterine existence, and exceptionally in the adult, and is designated the interparietal, or sub-occipital bone. The portion below has a second curved line, also for the attachment of muscles. Fig. 2. — F, Frontal bone ; P, Parietal ; 0, Occipital ; T, Temporal ; S, Greater wings of tte sphenoid : the body of the bone is underneath ; M, Superior maxiUa ; J, Malar or jugal bone ; N, Bones of the nose, or nasal bones ; A, Median portion of the arch, or superior alveolar border, called ^oint alveolaire ; E, Nasal spine, or 'point sous-nasal ; G, Root of the nose, the bottom of which is occupied by the naso-frontal suture, or point nasal ; V, Position of the centre of the coronal, or fronto-parietal suture of the cranium, or bregma ; L, Point where the parieto-occipital suture is united to that of the opposite side, and to the sagittal, or biparietal suture (not seen in the plate) , or lambda ; I, External occipital protuberance, or inion ; B, Mastoid processes ; V, Ex- ternal orifice of the auditory canal, also called trou, or point auriculaire ; Z, Zygomatic arch, formed, in front, by the malar bone, behind, by a process called the zygomatic, arising from the temporal bone ; D, Point where the four sutures unite-r^the coronal, the fronto-sphenoid, the temporo-sphenoid, and the temporo-frontal, or pterion i. C, Curved line or temporal ridge ; R, Point where this line crosses the coronal suture, or stephanion. AH the portion situated below the temporal ridge, marked by the letters S D T, constitutes the temporal fossa. At the union of the basilar process and the squamous portion is the occipital foramen, or foramen magnum of foreign authors, the middle, anterior, and posterior portions of which bear the names of basion and opisthion, the lateral portions being occupied by the occipital condyles, by which it is articulated with the first cervical vertebra, or atlas. Two irregularities in the bone sometimes exist^, CiTAP. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 33 namely, in front of the Lasion, an eniinence wliicli lias been called the third condyle of the occipital ; and on the external part of the ordinary condyles, an eniinence called the jngnlar process. The parietal hones (P) present nothing to particularise but a pro- jection in the centre, which marks the centre of ossification, and takes the name of parietal eminence. The frontal bone (F) is divided externally into two portions — the superior and the inferior. The superior, or squamous, has at the sides two curved lines, termed , temj)oral ridges, which give insertion to the temporal muscle ; and, nearer the median line, two projections, termed the frontal eminences. The inferior, or sub-cerebral, belongs to the face, and presents from without inwatds.v. (1) The external orbital processes, by which it is articulated with the malar bones, their sharp lower border forming the superior border of the orbits ; (2) Eidges, or superciliary arches, which correspond with the position of the eyebrows, and have a similar direction ; (3) A jDrojection, or glabella, on the median line. The median point, answering to the point of separation of the two cerebral and sub-cerebral portions, is called the point sus-orhitalrc, or ophryon. The surface of the temporal (T) is divisible externalLy^ into three portions : a mastoid portion, forming the mastoid processes (B), to which powerful muscles are attached ; a squamous portion ; and a zygomatic portion. The zygomatic is simply a horizontal process, which arises by a root, or longitudinal crest, surmounting the audi- tory or auricular opening. A fourth portion is especially seen on the inferior and intracranial surface, called the hard or petrous portion, in which is enclosed the auditory apparatus. The sphenoid (S), so called on account of its being wedged in between the bones at the base of the skull, consists of a body, which at birth is formed of two portions, called anterior sphenoid and posterior sphenoid ; of* two descending wings, or jjterygoid l^rocesses, which form the boundaries of the posterior iiares ; of two large ascending wings, of which the highest external portion is seen at S, Fig. 2 ; and of two lesser horizontal wings, which form part of the cranial cavity, where they separate -the middle and anterior cerebral fossce. Yiewed from above, that is to say from D 34 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap. i. the side of the cranial cavity, the body of the sphenoid presents an excavation, the sella turcica (L, Fig. 6), a transverse fissure, the optic fissure, and between the two a slight ridge, to which the Germans have given the name of ephippium. The ethmoid has special relation to the nasal fossae, and only has interest to the anthropologist from the side of the cranial cavity, where it impinges upon the median line between two portions Fig. 3.— 0, Supra-orbital, or supra-nasal point, in the centre of the minimum frontal width MM ; N, Nasal point in the centre of the naso-frontal suture ; E, Nasal spine, or sub-nasal point ; A, Middle point of the superior alveolar arch, or superior alveolar point ; S, Point of junction of the temporal ridge and the coronal suture, or stephanion ; B, Position of the frontal eminences ; D, Maxillary bones ; J, Malar bones ; G, Anterior nares ; Z, Zygomatic arches ; F, Mastoid processes. of the frontal, by giving attachment to the crista galli and the cribriform lamella, through which the filaments of the olfactory nerve pass from the cranial cavity into Ihe nasal fosste. The principal bones of the face are the nasal bones (N, Fig. 3), which unite with the frontal to form the naso-frontal suture at the root of the nose ; the superior maxillary bones (D), a prolonga- tion of which, called the ascending process, is articulated with the frontal at the sides ; the palate bones, which enter into the forma- tion of the roof of the palate behind ; the malar, or jugal bones (J), CiiAP. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 35 which project backwards, and at the side, at the jimction of the temporal, to form a sort of bridge called the zygomatic arch ; and the inferior maxillary bone. The superior maxillary bones are the principal bones of the face. At the sides they are articulated with the malar bones ; above, they form the inferior wall of the orbits ; internally they are united to the bones proper of the nose, and form the boundary of the anterior nares ; below, they form, by their union, the superior alveolar arch. At the point where the posterior border of the ascending process joins the frontal and the os unguis, is the particular S23ot for the application of the craniometer, or dacryon. On the median line of the part subjacent to the anterior nares, are tAvo other important points — the sulvnasal, which corre- sponds with the border of the nostril, occupied by an osseous point called the nasal s^^ine, and the alveolar point, situated in the middle of the alveolar arch, at its anterior and inferior portion. The inferior maxillary bone is composed altogether differently — of a body, of a vertical and posterior ramus, which forms an angle with it, and of a border or alveolar arch. As a matter of detail, we may mention the coronoid process and the articular condyle, which terminate, the one in front of, the other behind, the superior border of the posterior ramus ; then the mental eminence, and behind it, internally, the tubercles geni. The thorax comprises, besides twelve dorsal vertebrae, which close it in behind, the sternum in front (Fig. 1) and twelve ribs on each side. Seven, called the true ribs, are directly connected with the sternum by cartilages; and five false are only imited to it indirectly, the last two bearing the name' of floating. The abdomen has no bone, in the proper sense, belonging to it, but at certain points of its parietes are seen thick fibrous bands, which are the vestiges of ribs to be found in some mammalia, and especially in reptiles. The pelvic cavity, or pelvis (Fig. 10), is composed of bones which equally appertain to other parts, namely, to the vertebral column and the inferior extremities. Each extremity is composed (1) Of a base, Avhich is the shoulder in the one and the haunch in the other. The bones which com- pose it form, by uniting with those of the opx^osite side, an osseous D 2 36 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap, i, cincture at each extremity of the trunk. At the superior extremity these are the clavicle and scapula ; and at the inferior, the iliac, or coxal bone, formed of three primordial bones — the pubis, the ischium, and the ilium. (2) Of a first segment, the arm, formed by the humerus ; and the thigh, by the femur. (3) Of a second segment, the forearm, f ornied by the radius and ulna ; and the- leg, by the tibia and fibula. (4) Of a third segment, the hand, made up of eight bones for the carpus, five for the metacarpus, and three for each finger, except the first, which has only two ; and the foot, made up of seven bones for the tarsus, five for the metatarsus, and three for each toe, except the first, which has only two. Of the bones of the tarsus, the calcaneum, or bone of the heel, merits particidar notice. The femur, which we select as an example of a long bone, con- sists of (1) a shaft, or diaphysis, formed on its outer surface of a; layer of compact tissue, and on its inner of a medullary canal ; and (2) of extremities, or epiphyses. At the upper extremity are the- greater and lesser trochanter — processes for the insertion of muscles ; the neck, which is very long, and takes aii oblique out- ward direction; and the articular head. The lower extremity consists of an internal and external condyle, and an articular surface. The humerus consists, in like manner, of a shaft, two tuberosities at the upper extremity, a very short neck, and a head ; inferiorly, of two processes — an external and an internal condyle. The bones, Avhether long, short, or flat, are covered by in- equalities, tubercles, eminences, or processes, all having the same object — namely, to furnish points of attacliment for muscles and ligaments. It is to these several points we apply our instruments, as well as to certain edges and prominences, when making osteo- metric measurements. We ought to mention also the styloid process, at the outer side of the lower extremity of the radius ; and the internal malleolus, on the inner side of the lower extremity of the tibia, &c. The flat bones of the cranium are united together by sutures, the long bones of the extremities by articulations. The most interesting of these latter, as far as we are concerned, is (1) The scapulo-humeral, in which the head of the humerus is received into the glenoid cavity of the scapula, a sort of ligamentous Ohap. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 37 bag, in wliicli tlie t\yo surfaces are kept in contact, and at the same time are permitted to glide easily the one upon the other. (2) The coxo-femoral ' articulation, in which the head of the femur is received into the cotyloid cavity of the ilium. (3) The hinge-like articulations of the elbow and the ankle-joints, which only permit the movements of flexion and extension. (4) The superior articu- lation of the radius, so marvellously ada^Dted for free rotation in every direction, &c, Jjones, when first formed, consist of cartilage, the osseous matter being deposited at certain points, which afterwards coalesce. Later on, when the entire bone has become fully formed, and old age begins, those with sutures become soldered together edge to edge. Thus we have two orders of phenomena — the fusion of osseous points in one and the same bone, and the fusion of distinct and contiguous bones, which we must be careful not to confound, and upon which we shall have more to say presently. Variations of the SJieleton. The number of bones slightly varies in the mammalian series. All have seven cervical vertebrae, except the ai, or sloth, Avhich has nine, and the lamantin, or sea-cow, eight. Among long-necked quadrupeds, as the giraffe, they only increase in height. The number of dorsal vertebros, and of pairs of ribs which they support, is less constant — from eleven in the bat, they attain to nineteen or twenty in the elephant. The number of the lumbar vertebrai deviates but little, and varies generally from four to seven. The lamantin, however, has but one, while the dolphin has eighteen. These inconstancies do not, however, appear to have the importance which we might imagine. Genera far removed from one another have the same number of ribs or dorsal vertebrae : as the orang, the hare, the camel, the cat, and the kangaroo, which have twelve ; while contiguous species have a different number, as the ox of Europe, which has thirteen ; the aurochs, or wild ox, fourteen ; and the bison, fifteen — all three of the genus bos, Often the difference is merely that a liunbar vertebra becomes dorsal, or vice versa. When, in the hiiman subject, there is a thirteenth rib on one side 38 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap. i. only, or thirteen on both, a lumbar vertebra is the point of articu- lation. The nimiber of caudal or coccygean vertebrae varies in the monkey tribe — not including the anthropoid apes — from, one to four in the magot to tvrenty-nine to thirty-one in the baboon and some of the ateles ; and among the rest of mammalia, from two in the Egyptian tapir to sixty in the Cape rorqual. The bones of the head are constructed in animals after the same model as in Man ; certain parts of them are more or less developed ; the cells or sinuses interposed between their laminae are more or less large ; some sutures, by closing slowly, leave certain portions of the bone isolated ; while others, OAving to their becoming con- solidated early, diminish the numlDcr of bones. Hence the cause of the differences met with between them. Man, at his full develop- ment, has the smallest number of bones, and the rodents, at birth,, the greatest number. Among the latter, the squamous portion of the occipital bone is divided into two, while the i)arietal and frontal are cemented together into one. The anterior and posterior sphenoids, united in Man, are distinct in the greater number of mammalia. The squamous and petrous' portions of the temporal, on the contrary, remain distinct in the latter,, and perhaps, with one exception, are united in Man and the monkey tribe.* Moreover, we frequently observe in Man, as an anomaly,, the reproduction of normal arrangements in other animals, as if by a sort of reversion towards certain states v/hich its own organisa- tion might have gone through previously. Thus the fusion of the parietals into one — as among the rodents — the division of the frontal into two separate bones — common among mammalia — th© persistence of an interparietal bone, &c. The early fusion of the two bones proper of the nose, especially in the inferior races, and the tardy consolidation, on the contrary, of the intermaxillary with the maxillary, are other examples of the same kind. Bone-$ of tlie Nose. The bones of the nose proper remain separated on the median line up to an advanced age in the white ; their union is frequently * " Traite d'Auatomie Comparee," &c., by J. F. Meckel. Translated into Trench by Th. Schuster. Ten vols. 8vo. Paris, 1858. Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. 39 completed at twenty or twenty-five years in Hottentots. Of twenty- seven skeletons of adult men, taken at random by M. Broca, the fusion existed in five, all in negroes. In the chimpanzee they appear united at two years of age ; in the gorilla and the pithecians even sooner. But in the cebians their fusion is slow, so that these resemble Man in this respect more than the anthropoids. Camper has forgotten the tardy union of the intermaxillary with the maxillary bones, and having made their constant absence to be distinctly characteristic of Man, we must speak of them more at length. The intermaxillary bones, to the number of two, appear to be united in the form of a wedge, enclosed between the two superior maxillary, supporting the incisor teeth, and having above two processes which partly close in the anterior opening of the nasal f ossaa. Though easily seen up to the third month, their independent existence is brief, they commence to consolidate at that period at their external side, and become united with the maxillary about the third year. Il^evertheless their palatine sutures do not entirely disappear till towards twelve or fourteen years of age, according to M. Sappey, and were still visible in one hundred and four out of two hundred French skulls examined by M. Hamy. All the phases of their solidification would be retarded in the negro races. Intermaxillary Bones. In the majority of mammalia the intermaxillary bones continue on the contrary, beyond adult age, and remain distinct. The elephant, the dolphin, and the sheep are an exception, and resemble Man in this respect; so do the anthropoids — their intermaxillary suture should disappear about the end of the, first dentition, accord- ing to M. Vogt. In descending the scale in monkeys, the inter- maxillary generally partakes of the characters which it has in the generality of quadrupeds. In the extremities the general type of Man and mammalia varies but little, and is unimportant. Some bones, for example, wliich, owing to the habits of the species, are superfluous, become atrophied, or anchylosed together. Thus the clavicles are reduced to mere 40 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. vestiges in some carnivora, and disappear altogether in ruminants and ampliibions mammalia. Sometimes one of tlie bones of tlie forearm or tlie leg becomes reduced in size, or anchylosed to the adjoining one. The same phenomenon is observed even more fre- quently at their extremities. The metatarsal or metacarpal bones are four in number in the sloth, two in the stag, and one, called the cannon bone, in the horse. There is some relation between this number and that of the digits or toes. Thus the pig has only four digits, the rhinoceros three, the greater number of ruminants two, and the horse but one, called the hoof. In the horse the atrophy of other digits is manifest, the vestiges of them remaining at the sides in the form of needle-like roughnesses. An analogous absence, as if from want of use, occurs in the bones of the pelvis of amphibious mammalia, whose hinder extremities have become of little importance, or are wanting. The pelvis is only represented by certain osseous styles which are amalgamated with the soft parts, or is altogether wanting. This is to be noticed in the dugong, the porpoise, the whale, &c. Relations of the Cranium to the Face. The cranium is formed of two portions in all mammalia — the ■ cranium proper, the receptacle of the brain ; and the face, the . receptacle of the principal organs of sense and of the masticatory apparatus. Their development is in an inverse ratio, and their respective situation in relation to that development. In Man the cranium is large and placed above the face ; in quadrupeds it be- comes less, and recedes more and more backwards ; in monkeys the size and situation of the cranium and face are intermedial. These two characters thus gissume a considerable importance, and are the point cle depart of other subordinate characters, which, in their turn, assist in distinguishing men and animals. It is natural, therefore, that anthropologists should early have bethought them of some decided methods of estimating their value. Various methods have been proposed ; the one most in vogue is that of the facial angles. This was one of the hrst attempts of craniometry. This branch of anthropology, so cultivated at the present time, has been hitherto Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. 41 studied especially with reference to the comparison of races, and will consequently be treated at length in the second part of this work, which is specially set apart for that purpose. We will not now anticipate the subject further than by mentioning a few of the more striking characters which distinguish ]\Ian in general from animals. Facial Angles. The facial angles are four in number. The most ancient is the angle of Camper. It is formed by two lines^ one called the hori- Fia. 4.— HH', Horizontal of Camper; F F', Facial line of Camper; F A H', True angle of Camper ; F B K, Angle of Geolfroy Saint-Hilaire and Cnvier, its vertex at the edge of the incisors ; I G M, Angle of Jules Cloquet, its vertex at the alveolar border ; O D H', Angle of Jacquart, the sub-nasal point ; O D, Facial line of Jacquart. The most useful angle is that of Cloquet, with, its vertex at C, but whose facial line, C T, impinges, not at the most projecting point of the forehead, but imme- diately above the superciliary arches. zontal, H H', jFig. 4, which its author marked as a principal guide, over the auditory opening, and the inferior border of the nares ; the other, called the facial, F Y, tangent to the two most pro- minent points of the face — the glabella, or central point of the forehead, above; the surface anterior to the incisor teeth, below. 42 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap. i. The original intention of Pierre Camper^ was to give to artists- a method of comparing the heads of living persons with the skulls of different races and of different ages ; but in another work he extended its nse to animals. Cami^er^s Angle. Its apex was situated at the intersection of these two lines, at a point, A, Pig. 4, placed sometimes in front of the superior maxillary, as in negToes ; sometimes behind, as in many animals. — the dog, for example ; or at the nasal spine, as in the white races. " The angle which the facial or characteristic line of the face makes," says Camper, "varies from 70 to 80 degrees in the human species. All above is resolved by the rules of art, all below bears resemblance to that of apes. If I make the facial line lean forward, I have an antique head ; if backward, the head of a negro. If I still more incline it, I have the head of an ape ; and if more still, that of a dog, and then that of an idiot." The second angle was suggested by Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier in 1795, and afterwards abandoned, no doubt owing to the difficulty of taking it with accuracy on certain animals. The facial line of Camper was maintained, but the horizontal line became oblique, K B, passing across from the auditory opening to the border of the incisors, B, where the apex of the triangle is situated. The third angle is a mean between the two preceding ones. The facial line rests tangent superiorly 'at the most prominent part of the face, but stops short below, on a level with the superior alveolar border, I G. The horizontal line descends obliquely, like that of Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier, but terminates at the same alveolar border, G, which becomes the apex of the triangle. Jules Cloquet adopted it in 1821. The fourth angle, which moreover has enjoyed very considerable repute, was the result of a misconception. M. Jacquart, in adopt- ing it in 1856, thought to follow in the footsteps of Camper, or * " Dissertation sur les Differences reelles que presentent les Traits du Visage chez les Hommes de differents Pays et de differents Ages," by Pierre Camper. Posthumous work published by his son. Paris, 1791 (written in 1786). Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 43- rather in tlie i)riiici23les which had guided Morton in the construc- tion of his goniometer."^ One of these two lines is the facial line of Camper, terminating at the nasal spine, D, the other the hori- zontal line, but stopping short also at this point, D H'. Its apex therefore is always formed at the nasal spine, D. Our own measurements, made on more than eleven hundred human skulls, and on about a hundred skulls of animals, enable us to form a judgment as to the value of these four facial angles, t Jacquarfs Angle. The angle of Jacquart, at its aj)ex at the nasal spine, varies under five influences. (1) The degree of prominence of the nasal spine, very strongly marked, as M. Eroca has observed, in the white races, often not observable in negroes; (2) The degree of j)rominence of the giiibella, which, about one hundred and ninety- nine times out of i^YO hundred, is the superior point of the facial line ; (3) The difference of height of the auditory foramen rela- tively to the base of the skull; (4) The more or less marked elongation of the face, that is to say, the degree of prognathism ; (5) The amount of development forward of the anterior portion of the brain, as shown by calculations made among the hydrocephali, in Avhom the brain-case is very much enlarged, and among the microcephali, in whom it is very much diminished in size. Under all these various influences, it is very difficult to determine which has the greatest predominance, and consequently A\diich represents the angle of Jacquart. The angle of Camper diminishes or increases for the same reasons, except that ,it has no reference to the prominence of the nasal spine. It takes account, however, of the elongation of the face in its sub-nasal portion, which has by far the most influence ''^"Mensuration de I'Angie Facial et Gonionietres," by H. Jacquart, in " Mem. Soc. de Biologie," 1855 ; " De la Valeur de I'Os Epactal " (measure- ments of sixteen facial angles), by tlie same author, in "Journal Anat. et Physiol.," 1866; " Crania Americana," by S. G. Morton, Philadelphia, 1839.- f "Etudes sur Pierre Camper et sur 1' Angle Facial dit de Camper," by Paul Topinard, in " Revue d' Anthropologic," vol. ii., 1874. 44 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. on prognatliism in Man, and wliich. the angle of Jacquart altogether leaves out of consideration. Angles of G-eoffroy and Ctcvler. 4 The angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier also sets aside the nasal spine, and takes in, in the same way, the sub-nasal region of the face ; but at the same time exhibiting it in a more complete manner. Hence Ave shall accord to it the preference. Why, indeed, should we preserve the pretended horizontal line of Camper ? It does not exist in Man, and still less in animals. By intersecting with the facial line it more frequently has but one virtual apex, which .gives an unfavourable impression. The auriculo-dental line of Saint- Hilaire and Cuvier is, on the contrary, rational ; it passes along at ■the same extremity of the face, and does not lose one of the two portions which one desires to measure — the development of the face. Apart from these objections, which appertain to all the facial angles, the angle of Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Cuvier has ■one specially belonging to it, namely, the impossibility of accepting the line of the teeth as the extremity of the face. In a great many animals, in fact, the front teeth are either curved downwards, im- moderately elongated into offensive weapons, or are altogether wanting ; frequently, also, they fall out during life, or are lost after .death. Clogicet's Angle. The angle of Jules Cloquet has all the advantages of the pre- ceding, without this latter objection ; we consider, therefore, that it should have the preference. The principal objection which attaches to all the facial angles is the adoption of, not the most logical point for the superior extremity of the facial line, but the most prominent, which is always found to be, with the angle of Jacquart, and almost always with the others, the glabella, or the centre of the superciliary 'ridges. Tlie differences of prominence of these parts causes the facial angle in Man to vary several degrees ; that is to say, there is .as much difference as there is between the natural faculties of races the most opposite. In animals it is even more so ; and Cuvier Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 4S made up his mind, under all circumstances, to abide by the principle of Camper. What he very properly sought was the anterior limit of the brain at the lower part of the forehead — --the 2Joint siis-orhitalre of M. Broca. In a gorilla, for example, by taking the most prominent point, Avhich lies oyer the superciliary arches, the facial angle, at its apex at the nasal spine, would be about 49 degrees ; whereas in reality, that is to say at the supra- orbital point, it is only 37 degrees. Consequently it is always the anterior limit of the cranial cavity, whichever angle is preferred, and not the most prominent point, Avhich should be taken for the facial line superiorly. It is in this Avay that the following angles have been measured, for the purpose of showing the difference between the most divergent human crania we have met with, an anthropoid and a carnivorous animal. FACIAL ANGLES (eACIAL LINE AT THE SUPRA-OUBITAL POINt).* Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire. Native of Lower Brittany... 68'5 ... Namaquois negro ... ... 54*0 ... Male gorilla 29-0 ... Newfoundland dog... ... 25*0 ... The facial angle adopted for the comparison between Man and animals is that of Cloquet, the superior extremity of the facial line being transferred to the supra-orbital point. We shall give it the- name of " amjle fdcial zoologuiney The following table gives some- examples of its division : ANGLE OF CLOQUET (iTS YERTEX AT THE ALVEOLAR BOEDER AND THE FACIAL LINE AT THE SUPRA-ORBITAL POINT). Wiiite man, maximum ... ... ... ... 72 '0 N^imaquois negro, minimum ... ... ... ... 56*0 2 male chimpanzees ... ... ... ... ... 38*6 1 „ ,, 1st dentition ... ... ... 51*5 5 male gorillas 32'2 3 female gorillas ... ... ... ... ... 31'8 1 male orang ... .., ... ... ... ... 28'5 1 „ „ 1st dentition 50*5 * Tlie angles in this and the following table have been taken principally by projection, from drawings made with the craniograph of M. Broca. Cloquet. Jacquart. Camper, 72-0 . .. 85-0 .. . 81-5 560 . .. 62-5 .. . 59-0 31-0 . .. 320 .. . 31-5 24-5 . .. 250 .. . 250 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. 1 magot (pittecians) 36-5 2 macaques „ 37-4 3 baboons „ 32-3 2 howlers (cebians) 31-7 1 maki (lemurians) 26-5 2 badgers (plantigrades) 32-0 1 bear 30-5 2 elephants (proboscideans) 30.2 1 seal (amphibia) 28-0 1 phascalomys (marsupialia) 25-0 2 horses (equida3) 24-0 6 dogs (carnivora) 24-3 2 foxes „ ... 22-5 2 lions „ 22-5 2 pacas (rodentia) 22-2 2 sheep (ruminantia) ... 21-5 2 kangaroos (marsupialia) 20-4 1 wild boar (pachydermata) ... 10-0 It follows from this (1) That between the narrowest facial angle o an adult man, which is 56 degrees, and the widest angle in an adnl! anthropoid (one of our chimpanzees), which is 42 degrees, there exists an interval as great as these two extremes are exceptional ; (2) Tha between anthropoid apes, next in order, there is no such line oi demarcation ; (3) That by this characteristic, man is separated ii the most remarkable manner from the rest of the mammalia, in eluding the anthropoids. It has been argued, from the enormous angle in young anthropoids, that one must make the comparison iii the child and not in the adult man, and then the distance is quite as great. The facial angle, then, furnishes a primary characteristic of Mai in relation to animals. But it expresses less the relatiou of th( size of the face to the size of the cranium, than the absolute development of the former. It attains seventy-two degrees in Man because the face is small and short, and only ten degrees in th( wild boar, because it has considerable length and flatness. Metliod of Cuvier. Other methods lead to the same result. The most simple consists in estimating the importance of each part, and of com <:!hap. I.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. 47 paring tlieiii afterwards. Ciivier estimated, upon sections, tliat the '.cranium, in proportion to the face, was as follows : White man ... ... ... ... ... 1:1 Negro ... ... ... ... ... ... 4 : 1*25 Chimpanzee ... ... ... ... ... 3:1 Gibbon, sapajou, and macaque ... ... 2:1 Hedgehog 1:1 Porcupine ... ... ... ... ... 1:2 Hare 1:3 Horse ... ..; ... ... ... ... 1:4 Whale 1:15 or 20 Method of Second. M. Segond has proposed to measure, upon antero-posterior •sections, the various angles formed at the level of the anterior border of the occipital foramen, by lines draAvn from the principal points of the middle circumference of the head. On these sections lie applies a graduated circle, whose centre corresponds to the basion (B, Fig. 6), and upon which needles, or movable radii, are directed towards the points desired. The face is thus found intercepted by iiwo lines, the one separating it from the cranial cavity, and which meets at the supra-orbital point ; the other going to the inferior border of the jaw ; the cranium being included between the same line of separation and the long axis of the occipital foramen. These two angles have given us the following results, which satisfactorily (exhibit the relative development of the cranium and of the face : 2 European infants 6 ,, adults 3 adult negroes 1 chimpanzee 1 gorilla 4 orangs Otter Viscacha Dog Rat Fox Hippopotamus ... The process of Cuvier does not seem to have been applied but Cerebral angle. Facial angle. ... 158° ... ... 22° ... 159° ... ... 47° ... 152° ... ... 46° ... 116° ... ... 56° ... 108° ... ... 54° ... 108° ... ... 47° .. 105° ... ... 24° ... 100° ... ... 41° ,.. 97° ... ... 32° .. 95° ... ... 27° .. 82° ... ... 29° .. 76° ... ... 45° 48 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap, i. r very a2:)proxiniately ; that of M. Segond gives only one of tlie elements of comparison. It would be better to measure directly the base of the triangles, of which M. Segond only notices the angles, and to calculate their area ; or to obtain, on one side, the volume of the face by a sort of triangulation ; and on the other, of the cranium by the ordinary cubic measurement of its cavity. M. Assezat has commenced that part of the study which relates to the face in his " Eecherches sur les Proportions de la Face," communi- cated, in 1874, to the French Association for the Advancement of Science ; it rests with him to extend it to animals. The question as regards the cranium is not yet settled. Capacity of Cranial Cavity. The capacity of the cranial cavity is arrived at, as we shall see^ presently, by tilling this cavity with grains of different sorts, and preferably with small shot, in accordance with certain directions.. The figures giving the height, volume, or weight of the human- body, as compared with the volume of the brain in the mammalian series, Avould f onn a very instructive table, if observers had taken more care to give its either one of these three elements. Our object, however, being to give more particularly the comparison of Man with the anthropoid apes, the following data will suffice : Cubic centimetres.. Man, European male, in round numbers ... ... 1500 16 gorillas, males 531 3 „ females ... ... ... ... ... 472 1 gorilla, 2nd dentition ... ... ... ... 440 1 „ 1st „ 413 3 orangs, males ... ... ... ... ... 439 1 orang, female ... ... ... ... ... 41 8« 1 . ,, 2nd dentition ... ... ... ... 404 1 „ 1st „ 425 7 chimpanzees, males ... ... ... ... 421 3 ,, females ... ... ... ... 404 1 chimpanzee, 1st dentition ... ... ... ... 328> 2 lions ... 321 Ibcar 265' 1 wild boar 207 1 ram ... 150 1 Newfoundland dog ... ... ... ... ... 105< Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 49 Tims we perceive that the capacity of the cranial cavity, and consequently the volume of the organ it encloses, increases slowly and gradually in animals, but suddenly and to a prodigious extent as we pass to Man. ISTow all the animals except the last two or three are obviously of the same size as Man. If the three anthropoids are a little less in stature, their limbs, head, chest, and especially their abdomen, are much larger ; the gorilla, especially, is enormous, and ought, other things being equal, to have greater cranial capacity than man. The chimpanzee, however, has only 38-06 per cent.; the orang, 29-26; and the gorilla, 35-40, as com- pared with Man, while the extreme proportions among gorilla males are from 31-66 to 41-53 per cent. Moreover, the difference between the sexes is as in Man : the cranial capacity of the anthropoid male exceeds that of the female by about 50 cubic centimetres. M. Vogt has tabulated a number of cubic measurements of the skull, obtained by various methods other than our own, and amongst them that by the use of millet. They cannot be directly compared with ours, but their mutual relations merit consideration. Thus : Cubic centimetres. German skull, male ... ... ... ... ... 1450 1 gorilla, male 2 gorillas, females 8 orangs, males 7 „ females 3 chimpanzees, males. 1 chimpanzee, female 500 423 448 378 417 370 The conclusions deduced from these agree with preceding ones. By taking the mean, on the one hand, of all the anthropoid males of M. Vogt, and, on the other, that of all of ours, and comparing them with the corresponding mean in Man, we arrive at the follow- ing result ; Vogt's 12 cases. Topinard's 26 cases. Mean absolute capacity of anthropoids... 444 cub. cent. ... 490 cub. cent. Its proportion to that of man 30*63 per cent. ... 32-66 per cent. It is very evident from this that the three anthropoids in question have, cceteris paribus, three times less cranial cavity than Man. We do not hesitate to say that, taking into account the 50 PHYSICAL CHARACTEES. [Chap. i. bulk of the body, it is not three, but four and even five times less than is here stated. There seems to us to be a very fundamental distinction between Man and the animal most nearly resembling him. We have three or four times more brain — three or four times more thinking matter ! The supremacy which our very exalted intellectual faculties secure to us, is confirmed to us by the existence of an exceptional development of the organ which is its seat. Anatomy furnishes us, at the outset, Avith powerful characters sufficient to satisfy the most jealous defenders of human preroga- tive, and to console them under the difficulties they will meet with in matters of minor importance. We shall consider, shortly, the minimum and maximum variations observed in the capacity of the human cranium, and in the weight of its contents. But it may be useful to notice here these variations in the three great anthropoid apes. The three following series refer only to adults, and are the most significant that we have been able to bring together. In the first, the cubic measurement has been made by one and the same process — that of filling the skull with small shot ; in the two others the processes were different."^- TOPINARD. Capacity in cubic centimetres. 16 gorillas, males ... ... ... ... 475 to 623 3 „ females 395 „ 580 3 orangs, males ... ... ... ... 433 „ 478 7 chimpanzees, males .. , ... ... ... 382 ,, 482 3 „ females 387 „ 425 VOGT, ETC.f 3 gorillas, females ... 370 to 490 8 orangs, males 390 „ 400 7 „ females, and doubtful 335 „ 425 3 chimpanzees, males ... ... ... ... 390 „ 410 TVYMAN, ETC. 10 gorillas, males 424 to 535 4 „ females 385 „ 391 7 chimpanzees 294 „ 424 * The anthropoid apes and other animals we have measured were pro- cured from the Museum, and also from the Institut Anthropologique. We are also indebted to M, Tramont, the preparator of natural history at the Institut Anthropologique, and to M. Bouvier, special preparator, for the loan of a number of specimens, for which we beg to express our obligations, " Memoire sur les Microcephales," by Charles Vogt. Geneva, 1867. Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 51 The cranial characters in Man and animals, which we are about to examine, are partly the result of the difference of volume of their cranial cavity, and partly, and more especially, of the differ- ence of their natural posture. Man alone stands perfectly upright ; Fig. 5. — K, Anterior border of tlie occipital foramen or basion ; C, Its posterior border, or opistMon ; KG, Side view and plane of the occipital foramen; A, Alveolar point ; P, Inferior surface of an occipital condyle (articulating with the first cervical vertebra, or atlas) ; A P Q, Horizontal plane of the base of the skull, or alveolo- condylean ; I, Inion ; L, Lambda ; B, Bregma ; O, Supra-orbital point, or ophryon ; G, Glabella ; N, Nasal point ; E, Siib-nasal point ; A, Alveolar point. the anthropoid apes have an oblique or side movement in pro- gression ; the other mammalia have a horizontal attitude ; hence their name — quadrupeds. Attitude of the Body The head, in all the mammalian series, is articulated with the vertebral column by means of the condyles of the occipital, which rotate from before backwards, and from behind forwards, in cavities formed in the bodies of the first cervical vertebra, or atlas. Between and behind these condyles is the occipital foramen, through which the spinal cord enters the skull ; its middle and anterior point is the basion, and its posterior point, the opisthion, of which we have already spoken. In quadrupeds, the occipital foramen and its condyles are situated very far backward, and in some, as the horse, they no longer occupy the base of the skull, whose posterior surface E 2 52 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. becomes vertical. The muzzle is at the same time more or less elongated, as the zoological facial angle showed us just now. It follows (1) That the head is no longer in equilibrium upon the vertebral column, but falls forwards. (2) That its position has to be raised in order that the animal may see straight before him, the axis of the orbits being altered accordingly. In order to com- pensate for this excess of weight of the head in front, and to prevent its falling forwards, quadrupeds are furnished at the nape of the neck with a very powerful ligament, called the posterior cervical, known in ruminants by the name of nerf cle hoeuf {psixwax). It runs along the spine, becomes free at the level of the seventh cervical vertebra, and is inserted into the external occipital pro- tuberance, or into a depression which replaces it. The powerful muscles of the neck contribute, with it, to preserve the head more or less in position. Conditions of Equilibrium of the Head. In Man, on the contrary, the head is naturally in equilibrium upon the vertebral column. The occipital foramen occupies the middle of the base of the skull ; the weight of the portion in front of the basion, and that of the portion behind it, are sensibly equal, and the posterior cervical ligament is wanting, or is only represented by a simple aponeurotic interlacing. His position with regard to seeing, on the other hand, is horizontal; the axis of the orbits is directed forwards, and the back of the retina is anatomically arranged in accordance with this. Special physiologists demon- strate in the same way that man's organisation is such that he sees better in the erect posture. Another result of the position of the head is a certain horizontality of the plane of mastication of the molars as well as the incisors, as may be shown by inserting between the teeth a flat rule, placed parallel to the horizon. Situation and Direction of Occipital Foramen. The occipital foramen is situated in the European at an equal distance between the anterior and posterior portion of the entire Chap, i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 53 cranium. In the negro, it is a little more backward; in the anthropoid ape it is considerably so ; in the various quadrupeds it again recedes, and still more in the horse and the hippopotamus, in which it no longer forms part of the base of the skull. Its plane looks downwards and forwards in the white man, directly down- wards in the negro, notably downwards and backwards in the anthropoid ape, and still more so in quadrupeds. The fundamental characteristics of the occipital foramen are its situation and direction. The portion of the occipital wliich is behind the foramen is very nearly horizontal, if not convex downwards, in Man j whereas in animals it is more or less elevated from before backwards, and from below upwards. The foramen cannot there- fore be removed backwards, without its posterior border being elevated at the same time ; when still farther back, this part of the occipital shell is transformed, as it were, into another posterior and altogether vertical waU of the skull, which is the boundary above of a strong horizontal crest, situated upon the superior semi- circular line. These successive modifications of posture are oblique as compared with those of the biped, or, properly speaking, quadrupedal. The more the foramen is carried backwards, the more the equilibrium is disturbed, and the more the weight of the anterior part increases to the detriment of the posterior. It will be sufficient to measure one of the two terms ; for ex- ample, the inclination of the plane of the occipital foramen ; that is to say, the angle which it makes with a given line being taken as a term of comparison, to find the other, namely, the amount of dis- placement of the foramen. This is what was done by Daubenton, in 1764, by choosing the line D (see Fig. 6), passing from the posterior border of the occipital foramen to the inferior border of the orbit. The angle D A, looking forwards, thus determined was to 3 degrees in Man, 34 degrees in an orang-outang, 47 degrees in a macauco, about 80 degrees in the dog, and 90 de- grees in the horse. But Daubenton has never mentioned how he measured this angle; he appeared to be satisfied with a very doubtful approximation, to judge by his drawings. This measure- ment, the first attempt at craniometry, necessarily engaged the attention of M. Eroca. By means of his occipital goniometer, he 54 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. iJ at once demonstrated that tlie prolonged plane of tlie occipita. foramen was elevated occasionally, in the white man, above the lind adopted by Daubenton, which gave an inverted or negative angleJ which the latter had not foreseen. M. Broca was thus led to sub stitute for the line of Daubenton another passing from the samJ point, the opisthion, to the root of the nose, and at a later period Fig. 6.— Tlie anterior half represents the skull intact, in order to show the inferior horde of the orbit ; the posterior half represents the skull open for the purpose of showing the occipital foramen and its two median points, anterior and posterior. O, Opisthion or posterior border of the occipital foramen, hidden by the centre of the dial of the goniometer ; B, Basion ; D, Inferior border of the orbit, or anterior terminating point of the line of Daubenton ; N, Nasal point preferred by M. Broca ; D' D O D', Line of Daubenton ; A B O A', Plane of occipital foramen prolonged both ways ; A D, Oc- cipital angle of Daubenton ; A C, Occipital angle of Broca ; A B E, Basilar angle of Broca ; K, Basilar groove ; L, Sella turcica ; I, External occipital protuberance, or inion ; J, Internal occipital protuberance. to measure a second angle by transferring the apex of the first to the basion. ^ow we have three angles relating to the occipital plane. A first, D A, • or occipital of Daubenton, has its apex at the opisthion, and its sides formed by the occipital plane and by the opisthio-suborbital line ; a second, IT A, or occipital of Broca, has this same apex, and for its sides the same plane and the opisthio-nasal line ; and a third, ABE, or basilar of Broca, has its apex at the Chap; i.] PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. 55 basion, and its sides formed by the occipital plane and the basio- nasal line. The following table exhibits the results : Occipital angle Occipital angle Basilar angle of of Daubenton. of Broca. Broca. 25 human series from... 1° 5 to + 9° 3 10° 3 to 20° 1 14° 3 to 26° 3 4 chimpanzees 26° 2 35° 5 45° 5 8 orangs 31° 2 45° 2 55° 2 5 gorillas 32° 5 44° 6 53° 2 9 gibbons 31° 5 40° 6 51° 5 12 pitbecians 19°6to23°8 33° 3 to 35° 3 45° 6 to 49° * Thus the direction of the occipital foramen clianges somewhat abruptly in passing from Man to the anthropoid apes, and forms a line of demarcation between them which corresponds with their difference of posture. Between anthropoid apes and some others of the monkey tribe and the strictly mammalian quadrupeds, as the horse or the elephant, the deviation is still greater. The plane of the foramen is raised backwards to 90 degrees. Horizontality of Vision. Horizontality of vision in the living subject, and of the axis of the orbit in the skeleton, depends more exclusively still on the upright posture. M. Broca, to whose labours we shall have so frequently to refer, is now prosecuting this subject. Alveolo-condylean Plane. Of all the lines, or planes, used in craniometry, the most convenient, and, at the same time, the most physiological, is the alveolo-condy- lean plane, determined by three readily accessible points, viz. the alveolar, or middle point of the superior alveolar arch, and the most sloping points of the inferior surface of the occipital condyles. It is represented in Fig. 5 by the line A P Q, and in Fig. 7 by the line C C. It is in relation to this alveolo-condylean plane, wliich is also called the natural plane of the base of the skull, that IsL Broca measures the degree of inclination or of straight direction of vision, or, rather, of the plane passing through the two orbital axes. * We refer to the memoir of M. Broca, " Sur les Angles Occipitaux," " Eevue d'Antbropologie," vol, ii. p. 193, for the second decimals. More- over, we purpose in this volume confining ourselves generally to the first. 56 PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. i. The dihedral angle which they form by being prolonged is | called positive, or ordinary, when the plane of vision is raised, and the meeting of the two takes place backward ; and negative, when Fig. 7. — A, Horizontal axis of tlie orbit passing through the centre of the optic foramen behind and through the centre of the base of the orbit in front ; C, Alveolo- condylean plane, or plane of Broca (see A P G, Fig. 5). The other references are the same as in that figure. it is depressed, and the meeting is in front. In the following table the former has no sign before it ; the latter is accompanied by the sign — . The second column refers to another character which will come afterwards. In Eig. 7, the alveolo-condylean plane, C C, is. parallel, as we see, to the plane of vision, A. 43 men... 5 gorillas 1 orang 4 pitliecians . 5 cebians 1 maki 3 dogs 3 rabbits 2 horses 1 wild boar Orbito-alveolo- Biorbital condylean angle. angle. - 08 47° 47 19° 31 39° 04 28° 53' 45° 90 15° 44 52° 24 7°22 41° 59 23° 58 73° 72 24° 94 70° 51 31° 15 143° 43 36° 09 109° 19 4r6i 98° 94 Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 57 Tlius we find that the vision of Man is sensibly horizontal in relation to the alveolo-condylean plane, since it is not depressed even one degree in a mean of forty-three skulls, while it is raised in all the mammalia, including the anthropoid apes, from a mean of 7 degrees in cebians to 36 in the horse, and 47 in the wild boar. BiGrhital Angle. The divergence of vision furnishes another differential character to which M. Broca has given his attention, in his memoir " Sur le Plan Horizontal de la Tete," to which we refer the reader for the figures. The second column above gives some of them, under the head of biorbital angle. It is the angle, open in front, which the two visual axes form between them, or, in other words, their degree of divergence. It varies from 40 degrees to 50 degrees in Man, and from 33 degrees to 62 degrees in the monkey tribe ; is raised to 73 degrees in the lemur, increases enormously in quad- rupeds, and attains 143 degrees in the rabbit. This is how Man is commingled with the generality of hionkeys as far as the lemurs, and is separated from the mass of quadrupeds. The anthropoid apes, however, share his lot ; like him they have their orbital axes a little divergent. Teoivporal Fossa. Of all the mammalia, Man has the least development of the muscles of the jaw, and the smallest extent of surface for insertion of these muscles. What a difference between his small temporal fossa, bounded above by a curved line, which is at times clearly marked, and the deep fossa of the anthropoid apes ! l^ot only does the whole of the lateral surface of the skull in these latter give insertion to the fibres of the temporal — the masticatory muscle j:>ar excellence — ^but also on the median line in the male there is besides a large elevated crest, which allows of these fibres being increased to any extent. The elevation, too, of the temporal line, the extent of its curve, and its nearness to the median line, are, in the human group, marks of inferiority. In certain prehistoric skulls from Florida, and modern ones from ]N"ew Caledonia, the two lines^ ii 58 PHYSICAL CHAEACTERS. [Chap. i. distant normally from 8 to 10 centimetres, do not deviate but about 3 to 4 centimetres, thus showing a marked resemblance to the femal&^; anthropoids. The condyles of the inferior maxillary, and the glenoid cavitie^ in which they are received, are directed transversely in the carnivorous mammalia, from before backwards in rodentia, and are flat in the herbivora. In Man they have an intermediate direction, thus bearing testimony to his omnivorous functions. Teeth. The teeth, divided into incisors for cutting, canines for tearing, and molars for grinding and triturating, show still more clearly this aptitude of Man. Of his immediate zoological neighbours, the orang and the chimpanzee resemble him the most in this respect, particularly in their molars ; the gorilla, on the contrary, differs from him, and in the arrangement of his teeth somewhat resembles the carnivora. The canines are larger in the anthropoid apes, and have a length and size which entitle them to be regarded as offensive weapons, particularly in the gorilla. Between the canines and the upper lateral incisors may be noticed, among adult anthropoid apes, as in the greater number of the monkeys next in order, a gap, called diastema. This is, in great part, for the reception of the inferior canine, while the superior canine presses between the inferior canine and the first premolar, and so v.'-ears itself a place mechani- cally. Another characteristic of the teeth of anthropoid apes is the projection of the anterior incisors, which is more exaggerated than in the lowest races of the human group. Man, at least the white, has vertical teeth ; the canines, as well as the molars and incisors, are close together and smaller. His small permanent molars have two tubercles, and the larger four ; in this respect there is no difference between him and the anthro23oids. There are twenty temporary and thirty-two permanent teeth, exactly as in the four anthropoid apes, the pithecians, and the greater number of the lemurs. In the cebians, a small molar is added on each side, which raises their total number to thirty-six. Some Chap. I.] PHYSICAL CHARACTERS. 59 monkeys have a different dental formula ; tlie niacauco, for example, has thirty-eight. The progress of the eruption of the teeth in monkeys, and their periods of succession, are but imperfectly known. It is certain that the eruption is more rapid (cceteris paribus) in the anthropoid apes than in Man.* The superior alveolar arch in Man is generally in the form of an hyperbola with relatively short branches ; that of the three FiQ, S.— A, Jaw of the European ; B, Jaw of the Chimpanzee. principal anthropoid apes takes the form of a U with long and exactly parallel branches; that of the sajou and the macaque is elliptical. — (Broca). Other characters have been given as peculiar to Man j for example : * See " L'Homme et les Singes Anthropomorplies," by M. Magitot, in ^' Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 113. Paris. 60 PHYSICAL CHAEACTEES. [Chap, i The presence of a chin — that is to say, of a small trianguleJ surface, more or less projecting above the inferior border of the ja^ But this character has lost its value since its absence has beei noticed in a certain number of human specimens, among them the prehistoric jaw of the I^aulette, and some contemporaneous ones represented by MM. Quatrefages and Hamy. The existence of the tubercles geni, on the posterior surface of the inferior maxillary bone, which are replaced by a depression in monkeys. But exceptions of an opposite kind are met with con- tinually, such as tubercles in the anthropoid apes, the depression on the jaw of the Naulette, &c. The presence of a nasal spine. But some monkeys have one, whilst in many negroes it is so slight as to be almost invisible. Different Cranial Characters. The articulation of the greater wing of the sphenoid directly with the parietal. — [Given). But in a great many specimens of different races, especially the inferior ones, a bridge formed by the union of the temporal and frontal is interposed between the two preceding bones. M. Broca describes the first of these arrange- ments as usual in Man, under the name of pterion en H (see D, Fig. 2), and the second as usual in monkeys, under the names of 2^terion retourne, when the temporal and sphenoid are largely united, and of jpterion en K when they only touch each other. The size of the mastoid processes. This is a result of the development of the sterno-mastoid muscles which are attached to them, and have relation to the biped posture. There is no new cranial or facial character, however strongly marked, which can be drawn as a line of demarcation between Man and animals, but numerous cases will arise to efface or to weaken it. In the head, the transition to the anthropoid apes would be inappreciable, but for the five following characters of Man : (1) The increase of volume of his cranial cavity ; (2) The rela- tively inverse diminution of the face ; (3) The increase of the facial angle which arises from it ; (4) The situation of the occipital foramen below, and at the centre of the base of the skull, and the Chap, ii.] VEETEBRAL COLUMN. 61 horizontality of the two orbital axes, both dependent on the biped posture. But the first is of such pre-eminent importance that we would sum up by saying : The head of Man is only distinguishable from the head of animals by a single important character — the capacity of the brain-case. CHAPTEE II. VERTEBRAL COLUMN SACRUM PELVIS THORAX STERNUM PARALLEL BETWEEN THE SUPERIOR AND INFERIOR EXTREMITIES THE HAND AND FOOT PROPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON. Vertebral Column. The cervical region, which is in continuation with the head, does not materially differ in the mammalian series, except in the height of the vertebrae as before stated. M. Broca has, however, described certain variations in it. The spinous processes, bifurcated in Man, are simple in the -anthropoid apes and in monkeys ; but in some human skeletons of an inferior race they have been found simple ; and in the chimpanzee two of them are bifurcated, which establishes a transitional link between them. In the second place, the anthro- poid apes and Man have the superior siu'face of each vertebra bounded by two projections, which are wanting in the inferior monkeys, whilst they have no little appendix with transverse processes, as in the lemurs and carnivora. Their types, in con- sequence, have been disarranged by being separated from that of the next zoological groups. Conditions of the EquUihriuin of the Trunk. The differences which the dorso-lumbar region presents are very characteristic. Normally composed in Man of twelve dorsal vertebrae and of five lumbar, it has sometimes thirteen dorsal and only four lumbar, as in the gorilla and chimpanzee. There is not, 62 EQUILIBRIUM OF THE TRUNK. [Chap. ii. therefore, any very serious difference in this respect between these two and ourselves. The orang, on the contrary, loses one lumbar vertebra, and the gibbon gains one dorsal, Avhich brings up the total number of dorso-lumbars to sixteen in the one and eighteen in the other. In the pithecians generally, and in most of the cebians, there are nineteen, there being more lumbar in the former and more dorsal in the latter. In lemurs there is an increase in both regions, but especially in the lumbar. The slender loris has altogether twenty-three or twenty-four dorso-lumbar vertebra. The dorso-lumbar region presents other differences much more important, which have relation to the three kinds of posture or attitude of mammalia — the vertical, the oblique, and the horizontal. The human head is in natural equilibrium on the spine — well and good ; but the weight of the viscera contained in the thoracic and abdominal cavities tends to throw the whole trunk forward. To counteract this, two anatomical arrangements come in. Elastic ligaments, called yellow, are interposed between the vertebral laminas, and, by virtue of their structure, keep the body erect without fatigue. A number of ligaments and muscles, almost always more or less fixed at a right angle — that is to say, under the most favourable incidences, at the extremity of the spinous and transverse processes throughout the entire length of the column ' — conduce to the same end. In the second place, the vertebral column presents three alternative curvatures, which tend to preserve the line of gravity of the head and trunk in the axis of sustentation passing through the pelvis. By the first of these curvatures, the cervical, whose convexity looks forwards, the weight of the head is brought backwards ; the second, or dorsal, being directed the reverse way, brings the centre of gravity forwards ; while the third, or lumbar, with an anterior convexity, serves the purpose of keeping the whole column erect. In quadrupeds, on the contrary, there are only two curvatures, the one cervical, as in Man, the other dorso-lumbar, with the con- vexity looking backwards, like the dorsal region in Man — or rather looking upwards."' It follows that, if by any contrivance one * It is well to remark tliat in the vertical posture of Man, the postei-ior part of the column, and of the whole trnnk, looks backwards, and the Chap, ii.] CURVATURES OF THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN. 63 compelled the individual to stand uprigh.t, the line of gravity would be forcibly brought forwards, and the weight of the viscera would come to lean against the anterior wall of the thorax, or the inferior wall of the abdomen. CurvaUires of the Vertebral Colurim. Monkeys, in this respect, are divided into two groups : the pithecians, the cebians, and the lemurs, which have the dorso- lumbar curvature only, conformably with their quadrupedal attitude ; and the anthropoids, which appear under various aspects, more approaching, however, the human arrangement. Many gibbons have three very marked curvatures. In the chimpanzee, the lumbar curvature, distinctive of the human group, is only over the last two vertebrce, and in the orang, over the last. The gorilla, with his straight lumbar column, is farthest removed from Man, without, however, presenting the absolute organisation of the quadruped. The division of the trunk and of the vertebral column in mammalia in general into two series — the one anterior, the other posterior — and the absence of all distinction of this kind in Man, is more characteristic. Let us explain this, according to the views of M. Broca. A muscle is a fleshy mass, elongated, and more or less attached at its two extremities, which approach each other when the muscle contracts under the influence of the will. The more movable extremity is displaced, drawing along with it the lever to which it is attached, whilst the other, rendered immovable by other muscles, remains stationary. In any movement,' then, we must consider the action of a whole system of muscles, and not of one only. In Man, the muscles which indirectly contribute to locomotion, anterior part forwards ; whilst in tlie horizontal posture of quadrupeds, the former looks upwards and the latter downwards. In the same way the upper extremities of Man become anterior in quadrupeds, and the lower posterior. The anthropoid apes passing continually from one posture to the other, both orders of arrangement can be applied to them. "L'Ordre des Primates: Parallele Anatomique de THomme et des Singes," by M. Broca, " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 228, 1869. «4 ANTEVEESION AND KETROVEESION. [Chap. ii. Iby fixing tlie pelvis and the successive portions of the vertebral column wliicli furnish the point dJappui, are attached to the spinous and transverse processes of the vertebrae, and tend through- out their whole length to draw or bend them downwards in a direct ratio to the limited mobility of the whole column. The dorsal processes yield considerably, are bent down and imbricated ; those of the lumbar yield less. In quadrupeds the traction of the process is exerted, on the contrary, in the direction of the anterior extremity in the lumbar vertebrae, and of the posterior in the dorsal. These processes are inclined, then, in a contrary direction — the lumbar upwards and the dorsal downwards. The spot where the change of direction takes place establishes the division between the anterior and the posterior . series. It is situated in the carnaria, between the last dorsal vertebra but one — which is attached to the thorax by a costal cartilage — and the last, which only supports one of the floating ribs. The spinous process of the one is inclined upwards, that of the other downwards, and it is there that the two series become independent. Anteversion and Retroversion. Thus, by the appearance alone of a vertebral column, we recognise the habitual attitude of the individual. In Man, the processes are all oblique below, or in retroversion ; he has but one series. In quadrupeds, the dorsal processes are descending, excej)t the last, and the lumbars ascending, or in anteversion; they have two series. All the monkeys proper are in the latter category, generally in a very marked way in lemurs, less in cebians, less still in the higher species — the pithecians. " The scene suddenly changes as regards the anthropoid apes. All the characters indicating the func- tional separation of the series in front, and of that behind, have completely disappeared. The dorsal spinous processes, by their length, their great obliquity, and their imbrication, approximate to the human type much more than to that of the pithecians and other apes ; those of the false dorsal are obliquely inclined towards the Chap. II.] STYLOID PROCESSES OF THE VERTEBRA. 65 pelvis, as in Man; and those of the limibar have not the least tendency to anteversion ; far from it, for often they are rather inclined towards the pelvis." — (Broca). In the semnopithecus (Fig. 9), belonging to the family of pithecians, are represented the single dorso-lumbar curvature, with its convexity looking upwards ; the retroversion of the spinous processes of the dorsal vertebrae (except the last two), the ante- version of the lumbars, and the scarcely visible processes of the Fig. 9. — Skeleton of Semiiopitliecus Entellus, one of the Pithecians. last two dorsal, answering to the separation of the trunk into two series — the one anterior, the other posterior. Styloid Processes of Vertehne. The consolidation of each series into one compact whole is the last distinctive character of quadrupeds. The ribs and the sternum are the intermediary of this consolidation in the anterior series, which is a reason for the last dorsal with an independent F 66 SACRUM. [Chap. ii. rib being excluded from it. A special system of processes, called styloid, detached from the lumbar vertebrae, and wliicli does not exist in Man, nor in the anthropoid apes, has the same design in the posterior series. Sacrum and Coccyx. The mode of termination of the vertebral column — below in bipeds, behind in quadrupeds: — has been the object of careful studj^ by M. Broca. According to him, the vertebrse which are articulated with the coccyx form the true sacrum, while all the remainder appertain to the tail, which is divided into two segments ; the one basic, formed of true caudal vertebrae, in which the spinal canal remains; the other terminal, formed of false caudal vertebrae — that is to say, with their bodies reduced in size. All the inferior monkeys, with but few exceptions, have a sacrum of three vertebrae, all articulating at the sides with the ilium — that is to say, true sacral vertebrae. The tail, which forms the termi- nation, is composed of five true and twelve false caudal vertebrae' in the macaque ; of seven true and twenty-two or more false in the ateles paniscus ; of five to seven true, and twenty-four to twenty-six false, in the cynocephali generally; of five true and four false in the lori, &c. In the so-called tailless monkeys, the sacrum is formed, as in those above mentioned, of three anchylosed vertebrae ; but the remainder is either reduced in size in each of its two kinds of vertebrae — as in the cynocephalus ni^er, which is reduced to three true and three false caudals ; or more or less atrophied from the extremity to the base, as in the magot, which has no trace of false caudals, and has from one to four true. In Man the type is altogether different. His sacrum is composed of two parts, the one consisting of three vertebrae, as in the monkeys- mentioned above, which articulate with the ilium and constitute the sacrum necessaire ; the other of two or three vertebrae, free at their external borders and having a spinal groove, and which represent a sacrum su])plementaire, anchylosed with the former. The coccyx consists of four or five vertebrae — all false. Man, then, has a tail Chap, ii.] PELVIS. 67 formed of six or eight pieces, the first being at the basic segment and the last at the terminal segment, as in mammalia generally. The justice of this interpretation is confirmed by studying the extremity of the vertebral column in the foetus. To what type do the anthropoid apes approximate 1 "In all, the true caudal vertebrae are anchylosed with the sacrum, as in jNIan^ and the coccyx is composed of false vertebrae only, similar to those of the coccyx of Man — that is to say, more developed in width than in height^ and flattened from before backwards." — (Br oca). The supplementary sacrum of Man is formed, ioiu times out of six, of tliree vertebrae, instead of two ; and that of the anthropoid ape varies from two to four. Ought we to look upon this as a difi'erence ? Other morphological variations in the coccyx, of less importance, equally present themselves in both. In a word, Man and the higher apes resemble each other in the conformation of the tail, at the same time that they differ in this respect from monkeys proper. TliG Pelvis. The pelvis exhibits considerable differences between Man and quadrupeds, which arise from their different attitude. It is formed of two halves which originally consisted of three distinct bones — the ilium, the ischium, and the pubis, at the junction of which, externally, is the cotyloid cavity (c, Fig. 10). It is divided by a circular crest, called the superior brim, into two portions, termed the greater and lesser pelvis. The foetus lies, and is matured, in the former, and passes into the latter a short time previous to birth. In Man, the iliac bones are expanded, laterally, into two great wings, thin in the centre, and concave — admirably constructed to support the mass of the viscera, and in the female the weight of the foetus. Their external surface, or external iliac fossa, is, in consequence, convex, to give insertion to the muscles of the buttock In quadrupeds, on the contrary, the iliac bones are closer together, are elongated on each side of the lumbar portion of the column, and F 2 PELVIS. [Chap. ii. convex on their internal surface, the external becoming inversely concave. The iliac bones in Man therefore have somewhat the form of valves, which are composed of flat bones. They rapidly become long and tapering, on the contrary, in quadrupeds, as in the equidse, the hare, and the kangaroo, and are converted, as it were, into long bones. Between these two arrangements are seen all kinds of interinediary ones. The measurements which we have made upon two hundred and d c Fig. 10. — Tlie pelvis in Man : a, Portion of the base of the sacrum, which is articulated with the last lumbar vertebra 6, Iliac crest, or superior border of the ilium ; c. Cotyloid cavity, in which is received the head of the femur ; d, Symphysis pubis, or articulation of the two bones of the pubis ; e, Point where the ischium, which is to the outside, is united to the pubis, which is to the inside. seven different pelves, serve to throw light upon this subject, and may be thus summed up : * The maximum length, taken from the point of the ischium to the farthest point of the iliac crest, exceeds the maximum breadth taken from one iliac crest to the other in 23 per cent, of the ruminants examined, thirty-two of the carnivora, thirty- * " Sur les Proportions Generales chez rHomme et les Mammiferes," by Paul Topinard, in " Ball. See. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. x., 1875. Chap, ii.] THOEAX. 69 tlu?ee of the rodentia, thirty-seven of the niarsnpialia, and thirty- eight of the edentata. It is the reverse in Man — the breadth is as 28 "77 per cent, to the length. The anthropoids vary, bnt they come nearer to Man than to quadrupeds. The gibbons, like the other monkeys, have still the length greater than the breadth. In chimpanzees, the two are nearly equal. The gorillas and orangs are very nearly allied to Man. The breadth exceeds the length in 24 per cent, in the former, and in 16-50 in the latter. For certain physiological reasons peculiar to their group, the elephants and the mastodons have the pelvis of similar conformation to that of Man. Consequently the sacrum of quadrupeds is straight, elongated, a little hollow on its internal surface, and is in contrast with that of Man, which is v/ide at the base, thick, conical, and curved at the point. The sacrum of anthropoid apes holds a middle position, and frequently resembles that of some of the inferior races of Man, as the Hottentot, dissected by Jeffries Wyman, or the Bosjeswoman, by Cuvier. At the same time that the human pelvis becomes wider and diminishes in height, its antero-posterior diameter becomes shortened, relatively to that of the anthropoid ape and other mammalia. The promontory — that is to say, the projecting angle in front which the curve of the loins makes with the curve of the sacrum, is, on the other hand, stronger, in accordance with the requirements of the biped attitude. We may add that the tuberosities of the ischium are shorter, less widely separated, and less marked than in the anthropoid, and that the symphysis pubis is shorter. That which we remark in the pelvis may also be found at the other extremity of the trunk. The Thorax. The thorax, in Man, is more developed transversely; that of quadrupeds, on the contrary, is more so from before backwards, or from the sternum to the spine. The arms in the former have to move in all directions, and especially outwardly, and to this end ii 70 STERNUM. [Chap. iiJ are kept wide apart by the arches, which are the clavicles. In the quadrupeds proper, they only serve for locomotion, fall in a parallel way downwards, and remain apart. Thus the clavicle disappears" T and the thorax becomes flattened sideways. Monkeys, in this respect, hold an inferior position to quadrupeds, a superior one to Man. The lemurians, the cebians, and the pithecians have the thorax compressed laterally, the anthropoid apes rather from befort backwards. The volume of the chest could not furnish any special characteil Its development is enormous in the three great anthropoid apea Whilst the circumference was about ninety-four centimetres in a thousand and eighty Englishmen measured by Mr. Hutchinson, Fig. 11. — Anterior portion of the sternum in Man : St, Sternum, siiowing the thre divisions— the upper or handle, the middle or body, and the lower or xiphoid appendix ; R, Ribs ; R', Costal cartilages. it attained one hundred and fifty-seven in an immense gorilla measured by Du Chaillu. The Sternum. II The sternum in the same way, while broad and flat in Man. narrow and developed antero-posteriorly, or rather from below up- wards, in quadrupeds. In this respect the anthropoid apes come nearer to Man. The sternum is composed, speaking philosophically, of seven portions, corresponding to the seven ribs which are directly articu- lated with it, and of a xiphoid appendix. These are distinctly seen in the foetus, but at birth are reduced to two — exclusive of the 'Chap. II.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 71 appendix — namely, the handle and the body, the latter heing formed by the anchylosis of the six lower portions. The handle, or upper separated portion, exists in all the mammalia with clavicles ; the appendix also. The body is entire in Man; in the greater number of the monkeys proper it is composed of six distinct parts ; in one of the anthropoids, the gibbon, it is entire, as in Man, and in the other three it is divided into three or four. Thus we see that in this respect the anthropoid apes, and notably the magot, are between Man and the pithecians. The extremities, four in number in the majority of mammalia, are reduced to two, the anterior, in the whale and the porpoise. Their terminal segment bears the name of foot or hand, a denomina- 'tion upon which Blumenbach and Cuvier based their division of i;he order of Primates of Linnaeus into Bimana, comprehending Man, and Quadrumana, embracing the monkey tribe, a name which Tyson had given them in 1699. Tlie Hand and Foot. What then as to the hand and foot, and especially the hand % Cuvier says that which constitutes the hand is the faculty of opposing the thumb to the other fingers for the purpose of taking hold of the smallest objects. Agassiz terms the hand, "a limb having a certain number of fingers bending one way, another finger being opposed to them." He defines a foot as, " a limb terminated by digits all on the same level, and all having the same direction." The hand is recognised, according to Huxley, by the disposition of the bones of the carpus and of the metacarpus -, the foot by the presence of short flexor muscles, a short extensor of the digital appendices, and a long peroneal. All these definitions look only to one side of the question. M. de La Palisse's maxim is that it as their use which distinguishes the foot from the hand. The Foot M. Broca, with greater breadth of view, says : " A foot is an ■^extremity Avhich serves chiefly for standing or walking ; a hand is 72 THE FOOT. [Chap, ii an extremity wliich serves principally for prehension and toncliJ We might add that the fin is an extremity which serves principally for natation, &c. The hand is perfect when it answers the end foi which it was exclusively intended. The foot is perfect when i is only constructed for walking, Both are imperfect when the^ encroach on the functions which do not specially belong to them An anterior extremity may lose all its functions of prehension, and it would be only a foot. Various physiological variations, and oi different degrees, are noticed in the mammalian series. But if the sole of the foot bears directly on the ground, or if th< palm of the hand grasps objects, the whole extremity is, in reality, applied to its general function, all its parts are made conformable to the purposes for which it was designed. It is not, then, th( foot or the hand only, but the extremity as a whole, which we niusi examine to discover its function of prehension or locomotion. This has been already done by M. Broca. The anatomical conditions, which secure to the inferior extremity its function of locomotion, "may be reduced," says M. Broca, "to three: (1) The root of the extremity — that is to'say, the head oi the femur,* should be received into a deep hemispherical cavity, looking downwards and outwards, which allows the limb to move freely from before backwards, and from behind forwards, to execute the two movements of, progression, whilst the other move^ ments, and, in particular, adduction, are very limited ; (2) The two bones of the leg should be immovable the one on the other, and mor or less united together as a single bone, in order to bear the weight of the body, and so that the foot may not turn ; (3) The articula^ tions immediately^above the part touching the ground should only allow two movements — those of flexion and extension — and should be bent at a more or less right angle, in order to present to th ground a fiat surface, formed at the expense of the posterior surface of the extremity, now become inferior." Man, who exclusively rests on his two feet, realises all these conditions in the highest degree. His femur, retained in the "•'■ We refer the reader to page 30 and following for the anatomical expres- sions employed here, and elsewhere, with respect to the skeleton. Chap. ii.J THE FOOT. 73 cotyloid cavity by a virtual vacuum, is moved as a balance in two directions. The articulations of his knee and instep are hinge-like. His tibia and fibula are immovable, and fall perpendicularly on the A. B. Fig. 12. — A., Skeleton of th.e liand, the forearm as in supination (the radius outside, on the side of the thumb, the ulna inside) , and a part of the humerus of the gorilla. B, Skeleton of the foot, leg (fibula outside, tibia inside), and part of tha femur of the gorilla. crown of an elastic arch, which rests on the ground by the cal- caneum behind and the metatarsus in front. In the majority of mammalia, these arrangements are identical. 74 THE HAND. [Chap. ii. or analogous. Whether the constituent cokimns of the foot amounfe to four, three, or two; whether the individual bears on his phalanges, his metatarsus, or the entire sole of the foot, they are always adapted for walking and for support. The cheiroptera, which make use of their foot as a hook, and perhaps kangaroos, which are ahle to grasp in a slight degree, are the only animals having free movement of the two bones of the leg one upon the other. We shall speak of the monkey tribe presently. The Hand. The indispensable qualities for the regular performance of acts of prehension and touch, of which the upper extremity of Man offers the best example, are also three in number, (1) The articulation of the humerus with the scapula, or scapulo- humeral, should be movable in two directions, in order to allow the arm and hand play in every direction. Circumduction and adduction, if limited in the femur, are not neglected here. The presence of the clavicle, by widening the shoulders, favours the latter ; the glenoid cavity is small, ovoid, and looks outwards ; the axis of the humeral head lies perpendicularly. These last two features are sufficient of themselves, in doubtful cases, to enable one to recognise the character of the upper extremities. We are now about to show this. The arm is a thigh turned round, says Professor Ch. Martins.* The articular line of the knee and that of the elbow are both transverse, but while the flexion of the knee takes j)lace backwards, that of ■ the elbow is forwards ; the patella and olecranon, which are analogues, occupy inverse positions. In reptiles the two extremities are, on the contrary, symmetrical ; and, as M. Durand (de Gros) says, isomerous, flexion being exerted in the same direc- tion. How is this difference in mammalia to be explained ? In a very simple way. The part of the arm which is above the middle third has undergone, in the former, a twisting from behind for- * " Nouvelle Comparaison des Membres Pelviens et Thoracicjues," bv Cb. Martins, in " Mem. Acad, de Montpellier," 1857. Chap, ii.] THE HAND. 75 wards, and from within outwards, as if the bone had been turnedround. Proofs of this are visible upon the humerus in the shape of a groove of torsion. This is why the thumb, which is inwards in the foot, has become outwards in the hand. But this twisting, or rotation, has not the same extent in bipeds and quadrupeds, or rather in the humeri of the limbs, whether designed for prehension •or for locomotion. Fig. 13.— Skeleton of the forearm : A, In supination ; B, In pronation ; H, Humerus ; R, Radius ; U, Ulna. In the former case it is about 180 degrees, in the latter about 90 degrees. Moreover, in bipeds, as in quadrupeds, the forearm is bent upon the arm in a similar way relatively to the body. It is because the glenoid cavity of the scapula describes, in the latter, a complementary arc of a circle, equally from behind forwards and from without inwards, that so much of it is spared for the humerus ; consequently it looks forwards relatively to the axis of the body in these, and downwards in quadrupeds. The 90 degrees for the humerus and the 90 for the glenoid cavity, thus 76 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap, m give the, 180 degrees which, make of the arm a " tliigh turned round." The degree of rotation varies sometimes in both, and the part which the humerus takes in it is measured by the angle which the vertical plane of its head makes with the vertical and transverse plane of its inferior extremity. Thus an angle of torsion of the humerus of 180 degrees, and glenoid cavity looking outwards, are the characters which the scapulo-humeral articulation exhibits in the extremities destined principally for prehension. A similar angle of 90 degrees, and glenoid cavity looking downwards,"^' are, on the contrary, the characteristic of the function of locomotion. If the cavity, in this case, had looked outwards, the head of the humerus, instead ol resting upon it, would be driven back against the articular capsule, which by the least shock would be ruptured. (2) The radius should turn freely over the ulna, so that the hand, placed in pronation at its extremity, can be put in supination and lay hold of objects readily. Fig. 13 shows the differenci between these two positions of the arm. This rotation in Man li about 180 degrees. (3) The hand should be situated upon the prolonged axis of tlid forearm, the carpus being articulated Avith the radius in such a wa;^ as to have every kind of movement, and especially the most comJ plete flexion and extension. Everything which adds to the mobilitj^ of the phalanges, and facilitates especially the opposition of the! thumb to the other fingers, is favourable to this end. Thus mobility of the member in ^11 its parts is that which characterises the hand, sohdity that which marks the foot. The details of configuration is only a question of relative perfection in either case. Hand and Foot. The anterior extremities of Man exhibit aU the attributes above mentioned, which go to make up a perfect organ of prehension. Those of the carnivora and pachydermata differ from them entirely, ■* Downwards, because we are- thinking of quadrupeds ; but if we suppose tlie trunk vertical, it is forwards. Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 77 and are adapted in all their parts for locomotion. We find all terrestrial mammalia inclining towards one or other of these two types. In the kangaroo, the movement of pronation and supina- tion, the axis of his hand being in continuation with that of the forearm, the conformation of his five digits, everything, except that the glenoid cavity looks forward, '^^ goes to show that his anterior extremity is formed for prehension. In the dog, the anterior extremity, on the contrary, is better adapted for progression, and, therefore, the two bones of his forearm move one upon the other. It is scarcely necessary to enumerate the many rodentia, carnivora, and edentata which employ their front paws as hands to seize their prey, to carry it to the mouth, to burrow in the ground, to caress their young, to. carry them, &c. In the common monkeys the anterior extremities hang loosely at the sides of the body ; their angle of humeral torsion is that of quadrupeds. In the lemurs, the ouistiti, the atele, and the sapajou it is as high as 95 or 100 degrees; in the magot, 105 degrees; in the semnopithecus, 110 degrees. The amount of rota- tion of the radius is variable ; in some cebians and pithecians it does not exceed 90 degrees ; in the mone it attains to 100 degrees. When the common monkeys use the hand as a foot, it is held at an angle more or less approaching a right angle, and leans on the ground by the whole palmar surface, with the digits extended ; it has then all the character of a foot. But if they use it for seizing objects, or the limb is left to itself, as in the dead body, the axis of the hand is continued in a straight line with that of the forearm. It is, then, to all intents and purposes, a hand. With regard to their posterior extremity, it possesses all the characters which render it adapted for locomotion ; its terminal extremity is set at a right angle, and rests on the ground by the whole plantar surface. The digits are nevertheless longer, and the thumb more loosely attached and more spreading, than in Man ; the thumb is not opposed to the other digits, as we have said, but by its span it plays the part of one leg of a cramp-iron or pincers, * We say forwards because the kangaroo holds himself most freqaently in the standing position. 1^1 78 THE HAND AND FOOT. [Chap. ii. the four other digits forming the other leg. It is by this means that monkeys hang on to the boughs of trees as well by their feet as by their hands. In a word, the common monkeys have feet behind and hands in front, but they employ them subordinately, the former for climbing and the latter for walking. Properly speaking they neither belong to quadrupeds nor to the quadruj mana. In anthropoid apes all the characters proper to the organ prehension are developed in the same degree as in Man : there is the same independence of the limb — greater in the gibbon perhaps ;, the humeral angle of torsion is about 150 degrees, whilst that of the negro is 154 degrees, and that of the white man 168 degrees,, according to M. Gegenbaur; the movement of pronation and of supination of the radius is from 140 to 180 degrees, whilst that of Man is 180 degrees ; the axis of the hand is in continuation of that of the forearm ; the power of extension, that is to say, the move- ment which would, when required, make it serve for a foot, is less than in Man ; the configuration of the bones of the hand is identical with that of Man, except that the orang and some gibbons have an additional bone in the carpus, called the intermedium^ and that the thumb has greater span in the gorilla, and is some- what atrophied in the orang, and perhaps in the chimpanzee. As to the inferior extremity, the resemblance to that of Man is still more close, except that the orang has the great toe much smaller, and much more behind. In fine, the gorilla most nearly approaches to Man in the shape of his hand and foot, while the chimpanzee comes next. The anthropoid ape seizes the smallest objects with the thumb and fingers of his hand, which he opposes perfectly. In the foot the opposition is nil — it is not greater than that of Chinese oarsmen, Nubian horsemen, or painters without arms, who lay hold by bending the toes all together, or by making the second toe act as a thumb. His thumb and digits can only clasp the two sides of a bough, like the two legs of a cramp-iron, in the act of climbing. His ordinary method of progression is in an oblique direction, the legs close together, the arms extended and somewhat separated Chap, ii.] THE HAND AND FOOT. 79- when making a step ; the forearms in pronation, and the hands closed, resting altogether upon the inner border and the dorsal surface of the phalanges. The orangs which we have had an opportunity of seeing, walked with the toes turned under, and with the external border of the foot resting on the ground. It seems, nevertheless, that other anthropoids sometimes rest on the entire flat surface of the sole of the foot, and that they keep the toes extended. With regard to the erect position, the anthropoid ape assumes it frequently, but only by accident. Thus we have seen gibbons run along in the upright position, the arms elevated above the head, and thrown backwards, evidently in order to place their centre of gravity in a more favourable position. The gorilla generally runs away from Man, but if he suddenly finds himself in his presence, or has to cover the retreat of the female, he faces his enemy with the greatest bravery, holds up his head, strikes his chest, and comes forward in an upright position with the head erect. The chimpanzee frequently straightens himself in the same manner. The orang is so apathetic that he almost always walks along crawling. In a word, the anthropoid ape is a biped, but he possesses an arrangement of the feet which allows him to walk upon the branches of trees. He is bimanous, but he has the assistance of his hands in walking, as we ourselves should have if, with longer arms, we wished to imitate him. His attitude in progression is more nearly the vertical than the horizontal, and is sometimes that of Man and sometimes that of quadrupeds. To return to terrestrial mammalia. Their posterior extremities are always adapted for progression, the anterior sometimes 'for pre- hension, sometimes for progression, frequently for both. The four extremities should, in the main, be simply for support. The more or less perfect adaptation of the anterior to the act of touch and prehension is a characteristic of gradual development, and if one must establish a graduated scale in reference to this matter, the series would succeed each other as follows : the pachydermata and ruminantia, carnivora in general, kangaroos, ordinary monkeys, anthropoid apes, Man. 80 STATURE. [Chap. ii. Stature. Having considered tlie skeleton in detail, it remains for us to examine it in its ensemble. Height and size in comparative anatomy have a secondary vahie, the largest animals go side hi side with the smallest in contiguous genera. Among the gibbon^ for example, the siamang reaches 1'16 metre; the entelloid, 8G centimetres. The other anthropoids come nearer to Man than that." The chimpanzee is about 1'30 metre; the two or three species of orang from 1*10 metre to 1*60 metre ; the gorilla from 1*4:0 metre to 1*73 metre, and more. N'ow the height of an adult man (France) is about 1*65 metre, and this varies in every part of the globe from 1 *30 metre to about 2 metres. Among pithecians, the cynocephali are generally the tallest; the nasicus measures 1*10 metre, the miothecus, 30 centimetres; the cebians vary from 90 centimetres in the brachyuri to 20 centimetres in the ouistiti; the lemurs are small. So much for the approximate measurements. How can we compare animals, some of Avhich go on all-fours, and others in a semi-inclined attitude, with Man, who is perfectly erect ? Their general forms have more interest. Man varies so far as to merit the epithets tall and thin, or short and stout ; he is lean or fat, his neck is long or short, his abdomen draAvn in or prominent. In the anthropoid apes the differences are also great. The gibbon is slender, long in the body, and made for agility, in this respect approaching to the semnopitheci ; he only wants a tail to make him resemble them in his movements. The orang, on the contrary, is dull, apathetic, and squat ; he Avalks with measured steps. The gorilla is remarkable for his athletic figure; he is said to wrestle even Avith the leopard, and to have the best of it. Both the orang and the gorilla have monstrously prominent bellies, which belongs to their herbivorous or granivorous mode of feeding. The chim- panzee, though less muscular in his limbs, and not so stout, has, like the gorilla, considerable strength. Among the Gaboon species we would mention the koolokamba, which, to judge by his skeleton, ought to have slender limbs. Chap. II.] PEOPORTIONS OF THE SKELETON 81 ProiDortions of the Shdeton. The proportions of the skeleton have also much interest. Their study having hitherto afforded more results in the comparison between man and animals than in that of races between them- selves, we shall speak of them here in a general way. Osteometry. Osteometry, one of the most promising branches of anthro- pology, and one having an intimate connection with craniometry, is a study which has especial reference to the measurement of the facial angle and the direction of the occipital foramen, matters already considered. Osteometry itself is only a part of what should be called zoometry, which has to do with animals, in con- tradistinction to anthropometry, which has Man for its object of study. Are we to seek for the proportion of the body on the skeleton or on the living subject % This is the cjuestion which governs all osteometry. On the living subject one has the advantage of being able to refer each particular measurement to a unit of comparison, as stature, if we are dealing only with Man, or length of trunk or of the vertebral column, if we extend our examination to animals. But in spite of the greatest skill on the part of the preparator who mounts the skeleton, there is always somewhat of arbitrariness in the mode of articulating the bones, and of replacing the inter- vertebral substance with discs of leather. The bones are not found at all in the same condition when dry and Avhen in the fresh state ; in the former case the cartilages are dried up, and so reduced in size that it is impossible to form any proper comparison between one skeleton and another. If we take a single articular extremity, the retraction of its investing cartilage is slight, but if we take the twelve surfaces of the entire hand, which are found between the tip of the fingers and the wrist, it amounts to something con- siderable. On the living subject, it is true, the measuring 2:toints are sometimes difficult to recognise, or are altogether inaccessible. G 82 PROPORTION'S OF THE SKELETON. [Chap. ir. To take the length, of a femur, for example, as it is exhibited in the upright position, we place the two condyles fiat on the table, the bone takes its natural direction, and the length required is the projection comprised between the plane of the table and the plane which is parallel to it, passing through the highest point of its head. On the living subject we have no means of obtaining any- thing of the kind ; the head of the femur is out of view in the cotyloid cavity. Under these circumstances we are obliged to be satisfied with a different length, and we have recourse to other points of measurement — below, to the external side of the inter- articular space j above, to the point of the great trochanter, which is covered by a thick cushion of cellulo-adipose tissue, and the mass of fibrous tissue and tendons which have insertion in this tuber- osity, and whose consistence can scarcely be distinguished by the finger from the resistance of the osseous tissues. The same difficulties, although less in amount, are met ^vitli in the wrist, the elbow, and the shoulder. In a word, on the living subject we are enabled to make com- parisons of differences arising from stature, but from bad measur- ing points ; on the skeleton, to take perfect measurements, but to have no certain term of comparison. Another advantage of the measurements in the living subject is that they can be taken, by those interested in the study, in foreign countries, and upon a large number of individuals. Anatomists employ both methods. Some, taking care that the skeleton is properly mounted, give the particular length of each bone relatively to its height, or to the vertebral column. Others compare the bones directly together, without taking into account the height. For our own part we think the arbitrary mode in which the skeleton is mounted is exaggerated. The disposition of the articular processes of the vertebrae obliges the preparator to give, almost unconsciously, the proper thickness to the intervertebral discs ; his sources of error arise entirely from the drying up of the cartilages on the articular surface of these processes, amount- ing to fifty in the entire column. The skeleton of a gorilla, one of the tallest ever seen, mounted in America, was 1-650 Chap, ii.] PEOPORTIONS OF THE TRUNK. 83 metres in height ; the animal measured, immediately after death, 1*727 metres. Four goiillas were dissected in the Laboratory of Anthropology, and their skeletons, which were afterwards mounted by M. Tramont, were less by three centimetres. These remarks have no reference either to the head or to the pelvis, whose internal proportions alone we generally study, but simply to the trunk, the extremities, and their segments. Let us now proceed to results, referring the reader to Chapter IV. of Part IL for a description of the usual methods of proceeding in taking measurements. Proportions of tlie Jrunlc. The first element of comparison which it is necessary to know, is the relative proportion of the trunk to the height of the body. The length of the trunk can only be measured on the living subject, but the measuring points differ. The Americans, in their measure- ments made on a million individuals during the War of Secession, chose as boundaries the spinous, or prominent process of the seventh cervical vertebras, and the perinseum. In their four series of measurements, which were taken with the greatest care, in from 207 to 1,064 individuals, the mean length was from 362 to 394- thousandths of the stature. Quetelet takes from the clavicles above, and from the perinjeum below ; his mean is about 354-thousandths of the stature. In M. Seriziat's statistics, we have taken the interval between the biacromial line, or width of the shoulders, and the biischiatic line, or width of the seat| the mean was 362-thou- sandths. The length of the trunk in Man would then be more than one-third, and less than two-fifths of the stature. In the anthropoid apes there are less indications. In a gorilla killed by Du Chaillu, the distance from the seventh cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum was about 440-thousandths of the stature. In ^I. Broca's laboratory, we have compared the length from the seventh" cervical vertebra to the point of the sacrum in eleven skeletons of men, and one of the gorilla. Its relation to the stature was 366 in the latter, and varied from 292 to 340-thousandths in G 2 84 GEANDE ENYERGUEE. [Chap, ii, the former. The trunk of Man thus estimated would he shorter, hut only relatively/ hecause his lower extremities increase his height. We are precluded, from want of space, from giving here the proportions of the thorax, and especially its circumference in Man and the animal. Grande Enverrjure. The relation of the grande envergare to the stature deserves oui" consideration, Ey the name grande envergure we understand the distance from the middle finger of one hand to the middle finger of the other, with the arms extended at full length like a cross. This distance is ahout six centimetres shorter than that of the sum of the hiacromial diameter, and the leng-th of the two extremities, taken in the ordinary way, from the acromion to the middle finger^ hecause, in measuring the limh in an extreme state of ahduction, the head of the humerus is huried in the armpit, and the limh is. therehy shortened. The envergure exceeds the stature, in Man, variously from to 89 parts in the thousand. In a series of 10,876 American soldiers it was as 1'04:3 to 1*000. In the anthropoid apes, especially the gibhon and the orang, it is considerably greater. Its relation to the height was 1*654 in a gorilla, measured im- mediately after death, and about 1*428 in a chimpanzee of the bald species. We see m a moment the enormous difference between these and Man. The proportions of the extremities have been studied by White, Humphry, Leharzic, Broca, Huxley, Hamy, Weisbach, Quetelet, and Gould, in the adult man, and in some animals. We may now proceed to consider them both on the living subject and on the skeleton, but with the drawbacks we have mentioned. The first method for ascertaining the dimensions of the upper extremities, which exhibit the greatest difference between Man and the ape, is the grande envergure previously alluded to. The second, still more simple, consists in noticing the exact point to which the extremity of the middle finger reaches in the position of the soldier standing at "attention." This extremity was separated from the upper border of the patella by an interval of from seven to twelve centimetres I Chap, il] PROPOETIONS OF THE EXTREMITIES. 85 In the mean results obtained on soldiers of different races in the American army. According to Mr. Huxley, the hands reach the middle of the thigh in Man, below the knee in the chimpanzee, the middle of the leg in the. gorilla, the ankle-bones in the orang, and the ground in the gibbon. The direct measurements which we are about to mention are preferable. Frojyortions of the Extremities. The relation of the superior to the inferior extremities is different in Man and the anthropoid apes. It is easily obtained by measure- ments taken on the living subject, but the measuring points sadly vary among different observers. It is obtained still better on the dry bones, whose length is added, leaving out the hand and foot, which do not appear the same in the upright posture, the one •giving its long axis, and the other only its thickness. The first figures ye quote are those of Mr. Huxley, Avhich have no reference %o the stature, but to the entire vertebral column from the atlas to the point of the sacrum = 100. This is very useful for making the (Comparison with animals, and especially quadrupeds.* The two men are a European and a Bosjesman, the extremes of the group. Superior extremity- less the hand. Inferior extremity less the foot. 2 men 79 ... 113 1 chimpanzee m ... 90 1 gorilla 115 ... 96 1 orang 112 ... ■ 88 From this it appears: (1) That the upper extremity is shorter and the lower longer than the vertebral column, while this is the reverse in the anthropoid apes, with the exception of the upper extremity of chimpanzees; (2) That of the two extremities, the upper is shorter and the lower longer in Man, whilst this is the reverse in anthropoids. But the cases before us are not sufficiently numerous, and the measurement was made upon the mounted skeleton. * " Man's Place in Nature," bj T. H. Huxley ; translated into French by E. Dally. Paris, 1858. 86 PEOPOETIONS OF THE EXTEEMITIES. [Chap. ir. Dr. Humpliry^ has taken his measurements independently, and has made them bear relation, not to the column, hut to the entire height of the individuals examined. Of his fifty men half are Europeans and half negroes. His figures show the following, results, which exhibit the relation of the added lengths of the humerus and radius to the added lengths of the femur and tibia, the latter being taken as = 100 : H + R : F + T. 50 men 68-1 4 chimpanzees ... ... ... ... ... 103*5 2 gorillas ... ... ... ... ... ... 117"1 2 orangs ... ... ... ... ... ... 141'1 The result is similar to the preceding : the anthropoid apes have the upper extremities longer, and the inferior extremities shorter than Man, but we may still raise the objection that the height taken on the skeleton is not exact. Then we must compare the absolute length of the additional bones directly with each other. To this end we have measured eighteen anthropoid apes, the largest number upon which any one observer has practised. We will give their measurements together with those made on Man, published by M. Broca.f The following table shows the relation of the sum of the humerus and radius to the s]im of the femur and tibia, the latter being taken as = 100 : H + R:F + T. 30 men 68'9 8 gorillas lOl'S 9 chimpanzees ... ... ... ... ... 108'2 1 orang 140'4 The deductions are the same.' TVTiether, therefore, we compare the measurements in relation to the vertebral column to the height * "A Treatise on the Human Skeleton," hy G. M. Humphry. Cam- bridge, 1858. . f " Sur les Proportions dti Bras, de I'Avant-Bras, et de la Clavicule, chez les Negres et les Europeens," in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," vol. iii., 1862 ; and " Sur les Proportions Relatives des Membres Superieurs et des Membres Inferieurs chez les Negres et les Europeens," in "Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," 2nd series, vol. ii., 1867, by Paul Broca; see also the article " Membres," in *' Encycl. des Sciences Medicales," by M. E. Dally, Paris, 1873. I Chap, ii.] RELATION OF THE EADIUS TO THE HUMERUS. 87 or the absolute measurements, the result is the same. The upper extremity, from the wrist to the shoulder, is shorter in Man, longer in the anthropoid ape, than the lower extremity from the instej) to the articulation of the hip. The respective proportions of the two segments which enter into the constitution of each will throw further light on the matter. Relation of the Radius to the Humerus. The relation of the radius to the humerus, or of the forearm to the arm, first received attention in 1795, by White, who thus be- came the founder of osteometry as applied to Man. Ey measure- ments made on the living subject, and on the skeleton, he proved that the forearm of the negro is longer than that of the white races. His researches, which had long passed out of notice, were revived by Lawrence in 1817. Mr. Humphry again took up the question in 1858, embraced the lower extremities in his measure- ments, and extended the- comparison between Man and the anthro- poid apes. Lastly, in 1862 and in 1867, M. Broca casually touched upon the subject in the two memoirs before referred to.''" There are more or less marked shades of difference in the relative i dimensions of the bones of the extremities, and before inquiring into them it is well to bear in mind the general fact. The radius is always smaller than the humerus, and the tibia smaller than the femur in the human skeleton. It is the same in the gorilla and the chimpanzee. The same may be noticed in the tibia of the orang, while the radius is perceptibly equal to the humerus, which proves that the proportions are not the same in all the anthropoids, ■ and differ as in the human races. The following table gives the relative proportion of the radius to ' the humerus, 100 being taken as the length of the latter. The first , column has been calculated with the measures of Mr. Humphry [ \ * References to books occupy so mtich space that we can only give the ' more important ones. The researches of White are to be found in his [ memoir, p. 14 ; in Lawrence's work, p. 14 ; that of Humphry, p. 85 ; and that of M. Broca, p. 86. 88 RELATION OF THE TIBIA TO THE FEMUR. [Chip. ii. upon tlie 50 men and the 8 anthropoid apes previously alluded to, and the second with those of M. Broca upon 30 men of all races, and with our own upon 18 anthropoid apes : Humphry. Broca and Topinard. Man ... 75-1 ... 76-1 Gorilla ... ... 771 ... 79-8 Chimpanzee ... 90-1 ... ... 90-3 Orang ... 1000 ... 85-7 Setting aside some differences of detail pertaining to individual varieties, arising from the mode of proceeding, the general results agree in both columns. The difference between Man and the ape is not great, looking at the proportion between the upper and lower extremity, but it is not the less certain. In questions of proportion a slight matter materially alters the result. The radius is shorter compared with the humerus in Man than in the anthropoid ape. As the iiumber of gorillas and chimpanzees in the two lists amounts to 22, the question may be regarded as settled so far as they are concerned. It is less so as regards the three orangs, which, taken together, show the relative length of the radius to be 95 '2, pre- suming that we regard this bone as longer than in the two other kinds of anthropoids. The relative proportion of the tibia to the femur, the latter being taken as = 100, is given in the following table, in the same subjects as in the one preceding : Humphry. Broca and Topinard. Man ... 82-6 ... 80-6 Gorilla ... 84-7 ... 77-8 Chimpanzee ... 84-5 ... 78-7 Orang ... 86-6 ... 85-7 I The results appear to contradict each other. According to those of Mr. Humphry, the tibia would be shorter than that of the apes. According to ours, looking at the greater number of gorillas and chimpanzees, which makes the matter still more decisive, the human tibia would, on the contrary, be longer, our single orang being left out of consideration. Some of the differences in these J €hap. II.] PROPORTIONS OF THE FOOT AND HAND. 89 two lists are probably attributable to the method of calculating, M. Eroca and myself having left out the internal malleolus, and Mr. Humphry having probably included it. The main point is that each of us has proceeded in the same way in all the series. We admit that the second segment of the lower extremity is gene- rally shorter in the anthropoid ape, whilst that of the upper is longer. Might not tlie two conditions be explained in the same way '? The leg would be shortened in the ape because his lower extremity is less exclusively employed in progression; his fore- arm would be lengthened, on the contrary, because the upper extremity, in addition to its function of prehension, contributes to progression. The relative proportion of the humerus to the femur, the latter taken as = 100, has also been a subject of study. (3ur figures and those of Mr. Humphry represent it as follows : Humpliry. Broca and Topinard. Mail ... 711 ... 70-7 Chimpanzee ... 90-8 ... 100-5 Gorilla ... 110-2 ... 113-4 Orang ... 131-6 ... 128-6 With some minute shades of difference the conclusions arrived at are similar. The humerus is shorter in proportion to the femur in Man, and longer in the anthropoid apes. We may hence infer, by taking into consideration the greater length of the upper arm in the anthropoids, and the greater length also of the radius, that the two bones contribute, each in its degree, to the lengthening of the whole limb in these animals. Thus a long humerus, a still longer radius, a short femur, a still shorter tibia, such are simian characters, the more human being the very reverse. The relation of the foot and the hand to the stature, or to the rest of the corresponding limb, can only be examined on the living subject. Later on we shall give their relative lengths in the human races, tlic term of comparison failing us as regards the anthropoid apes. But, for want of a better, we shall give the 90 VAEIOUS CHAEACTEES. [Chap. ii. measurements relatively to stature taken on tlie skeleton "by Mr. Humphry : Hand. Foot. Man 11-82 16'96 Gorilla • ... 14-54 20-69 Chimpanzee 18-00 21-00 . Orang 20-83 25-00 The foot- and the hand are thus shown to become larger as we pass from Man to the anthropoids, and progressively so in the three mentioned above. We shall say nothing of the relation of the clavicle to the humerus, concerning which but little has been recorded. Such are the primary results with regard to the comparative proportions of Man and anthropoids. Can we say anything further as to the near affinity of one of them to Man 1 The question is only doubtful as between the gordla and the chim- panzee. In every instance recorded in our list the orang occupies the most remote position, except as regards the tibia in the single case in our list which the tAvo cases of Mr. Humphry nullify. The gorilla has the whole of the upper extremity, including the radius and the hand, more human, while in the chimpanzee the resemblance is only as regards the humerus and tibia. In considering only the two upper segments, each seems to have an advantage an its way, the gorilla by his shorter forearm, the chimpanzee by his shorter arm. The length of the upper extremity and of the hand have, however, the greater weight in the balance, and we should give it in favour of the gorilla. But in the long bones, as well as in the vertebral column and skull, there are characters besides the dimensions which as yet have been but little studied. Only to take one example : the greater obliquity of the femur, the greater angle Avhich its neck makes with the diaphysis, and the comparative slenderness of the entire bone give the advantage to the chimpanzee, and especially to the koolokamba species. It is indisputable that the proportions of the skeleton are very different in the four kinds of apes, although in theif general type there may be much similarity. "We Avill say more : they differ even in the species of one and the l! Chap, hi.] MUSCLES. 91 same genus ; which it behoves iis to consider, when, during the prosecution of these studies, we shall have more subjects at our command. We shall consider this relation of the anthropoid apes in general, as well as of men in general at a future time. CHAPTER III. MUSCLES ORGANS OF SENSE VISCERA — LARYNX GENITAL ORGANS NERVOUS SYSTEM BRAIN : ITS STRUCTURE, CONVOLUTIONS, WEIGHT RUDIMENTARY ORGANS AND REVERSIVE ANOMALIES. The study of the muscles naturally follows that of the skeleton. Their arrangement throughout the whole mammalian series is dependent on configuration, and on the various functions of movement. In no part of the organism is there to be found a more palpable demonsk^ation of the great physiological law that " use makes the organ," than in the wasting away of those parts which are not in use, and the hypertrophy of those constantly at AYork. i!ievertheless the type varies somewhat : the muscles are the same, but at one part a muscular fasciculus becomes strong or is reduced to a mere vestige ; at another a portion is detached, or subdivided, or its insertions are a little nearer or a little farther off. The muscles of the monkey are so like those of Man, that up to the fifteenth century, descriptions of them absolutely took the place of the latter. We are indebted to Andre Vesalius for having shown that the dissections of Galen were never carried on but upon monkeys. The resemblance is still more perfect in the anthropoid apes. We shall confine ourselves to mentioning some of the differences which we find among anthropoids. The cutaneous muscle which is so developed in the majority of mammalia, as well as in the ' ordinary monkeys, for the purpose of contracting the skin, is concentrated in the cervical region in the anthropoid apes, where f- 92 MUSCLES. [Chap. hi. its size is almost equal to that of Man. The whole of the cervical muscles, whose development in quadrupeds and in the inferior monkeys is in proportion to the necessity of maintaining the head in the horizontal jDOsition, have merely an importance in the anthropoid apes and in Man, commensurate with the oblique attitude in the former and the upright in the latter. The trachelo-acromialis muscle of Cuvier, which is met with in many of the mammalia, and especially in monkeys, is wanting in Man, as well as in the gorilla and the chimpanzee ; it seems to he merely a supplement to the elevator scapulae, which Man possesses also. The great rectus abdominis muscle, which has generally four aponeurotic intersections in mammalia (Cuvier), and seven in the cynocephali, has but five in man, in the chimpanzee, and in the gorilla. It is said that the anthropoid apes have a long abductor of the great toe more than Man, but it is merely a fasciculus of the tibialis anticus muscle. It is also said that they have a short extensor of the great toe, and an extensor digitorum with three tendons instead of four as in Man; but it|^ a misinterpretation of the same fact. The extensor of monkeys is in reality the counter- part of the same muscle so irregular in Man. So with regard to the black chimpanzee. It is said to have no proper extensor indicis. Two chimpanzees in M. Broca's laboratory, however, had it. Nevertheless, between Man and the anthropoid apes there are differences, though they are but slight. The situation and the inser- tions of the pectoralis minor vary in the two groups, and in that of the inferior monkeys ; but these variations are less recognised between the two former than between the anthropoid apes and the group next to them. The short flexor of the thumb, so powerful in Man, in anthropoids is atrophied, and blended with the deep flexor of the fingers, which is connected with the index. A tendon of this last, in the gorilla, is inserted into the thumb, and assists in the movement of flexion. The same tendon in the orang and the gibbon is furnished by the adductor of the thumb. In place of the proper extensor of the index and of the extensor Chap, hi.] MUSCLES. 93 of the little fihger, the orang and the ordinary monkeys have only one muscle, with four tendons supplying the four fingers, not taking into consideration the common extensor of the fingers in either case. In the foot the difi'erenc.es are not so great. The great toe, on whose pretended movement of opposition an entirely erroneous system has been hased, is supplied by the same muscles as in Man. Nevertheless, owing to its more lateral insertion into the meta- tarsus, it is found that the long lateral peroneal muscle contributes partially to its flexion. The transverse adductor of the great toe, rudimentary in Man, is well developed in monkeys. The flexors of the toes differ some- what in Man, and in the anthropoids; but what the movements gain in force and extent in the latter, they lose in independence and precision in the former. In the orang the long flexor of the great toe is entirely Avanting. The sole muscular peculiarity by which the anthropoid is really separated from Man and is brought into closer affinity with the ordinary monkeys, is the existence in the arm of a fasciculus called the accessory of the latissimus dorsi, which does not exist in Man, and is inserted superiorly into the tendon of the latissimus dorsi^ and inferiorly into the head of the humerus. It has also been observed in a rudimentary state in some negroes. Two features of the muscular system have been noticed as distinctive of Man and animals, especially monkeys. These are the prominence of the buttocks and of the calves of the legs, owing to the development of the gluteal muscles and of the triceps, to which is due the strength of the tendo achillis. Such is the fact, and is a result of the biped attitude. The use of the gluteal muscles especially is to keep the thigh extended upon the pelvis. But in both respects the gorilla, casts of whose muscles have been taken from the sub- ject, and reproduced in pasteboard by M. Auzou, is un(iuestionably more favoured than some negroes. Moreover all the minute, or at least the more important points, !which seem peculiar to the anthropoid, are found from time to time in Man, and especially in the negro race. M. Chudzinski, 94 ORGANS OF SENSE. [Chap. m. preparator to tlie laboratory of the Ecole des liaute's litudes, has already published two excellent memoirs upon this subject.* Organs of Sense. In these is included the cutaneous envelope which surrounds the 'body, protects it against external agencies, and is the seat of the function of touch. One of the characters which distinguish the class of mam- malia from that of birds, fishes, and reptiles, is the presence of hair upon the body. De Elainville proposed to substitute for his designation that oi jnliferes. Some, however, have the skin naked, as certain cetacese. The characteristic of man proposed by Lin- naeus, therefore, is anything but a correct one : ho7no nudus et inermis. Man really has hair not only on the head, on the face, under the armpits, and on the pubis, but over the whole of the body, and in certain races quite a thick crop on the chest, behind the shoulders, and on the limbs, resembling down, and masking the colour of the skin. The history of Esau is a most probable one. Compared with the majority of mammalia, and in particular of monkeys, Man is the least hairy ; the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet are alone without hair, which is to be accounted for by its having worn away. The smooth and indurated surfaces on the buttocks, called callosites fessieres in the pithecians, are wanting in the anthropoid apes, with the exception of certain gibbons, as well as in the cebians and lemurs. The nails, claws, and hoofs of mammalia are a secretion from the skin, like hah and horns. The presence of flat nails, not bent round, on the fingers and toes, has been given as a characteristic of Man. We must, therefore, associate the anthropoids with him. The orang alone forms a partial exception, having no nail on the great toe. Flat nails are found in the pithecians ; they are bent '■• " Contribution a I'Anatomie du Negre et Nouvelles Observations sur le Systeme Mnsculaire du Negre," by T. Chudzinski, in the " Revue d'Anthro- pologie," vols. ii. and iii. II Chap. III.] PALMAR WRINKLES. 95 round into claws in the cynocephali ; the flat nail and the transition to the claw are seen simultaneously in others. The ouistitis, some other cebians, and the arctopithecians have claws, except on the •great toe. In lemurs it is the reverse : the claw is found on the great toe, and nails on the other toes. The arrangement of the wrinkles and of the corpuscles of Paccini in the palm of the hand has reference to the function of touch.* In Man, there are two principal wrinkles in the hand, one pro- 'duced by the flexion of the last three fingers, the other by the flexion of the thumb, and passing round the eminence, ihemir ; a 'third, which is variable, and between the two, is joined at its ■external extremity with the latter, and is free, and nearly parallel with the former at its internal extremity. According to M. Alix, the fold of the thumb is wanting in the monkey tribe, and the other two are united to form one. The fact is evident in the three inferior groups, but doubtful as regards the first. If some anthropoids exhibit in consequence of this an inferior simian arrangement, Man is exceptionally in the same position. The corpuscles of Paccini, or tactile corpuscles, are little bodies situated in the direction of the nervous filaments of the palmar surface of the hand and fingers, and of the plantar surface of the foot. M. Kepveu has shown that their appearance under the microscope is alike in Man and the chimpanzee, whilst it is somewhat difi'erent in the common monkey, the baboon, and the sajou. The organ of vision is similar in Man, the anthropoid apes, the pitheeians, and the cebians. But in many lemurs, the fundus of the eye assumes a glittering appearance, -which in the cat and the ox has received the name of tapetum. A little muscular fasciculus ■also exists, analogous to the musculus choanoides found in the majority of quadrupeds. The nose, anatomically the same in Man and the monkey tribe, ■presents merely morphological changes. Sometimes projecting in the former, in a less degree however than in the nasicus, one of the pitheeians, it is at other times more or less flat, as in the generality of monkeys. The nostrils are usually directed downwards, as in the ••anthropoid apes and pitheeians, and sometimes sideways, as in VISCEEA. [Chap, hi. cebians ; two arrangements whicli liave suggested to GeoiFroy Saint- Hilaire his division of monkeys into catarrhini and platyrrliini. The septum is comparatively thin in the catarrhini, and thick at the anterior triangular border in the platyrrhini. The cartilage of the ear, Avhose form and length are so variable in different mammals, in monkeys is usually strong, having no fold behind ; it is sometimes square above, and rounded off, and is without a lobule. These arrangements are occasionally found in Man. On the other hand, the ears of the gorilla and the chimpanzee are often as well folded as those of Man. The pithecians have two pouches, named ahajoiis, which open in the mouth — the anthropoids, like Man, having nothing of the kind. Viscera. I The length of the alimentary canal is about six times the length of the body, or about eleven metres, according to M. Sappey. In carnivora it varies from two to eight times, and in solipeds and ruminants from ten to twenty-eight times ; in monkeys it is from' live to eight times, in the gibbon about eight. The stomach of all the monkey tribe is simple as in Man. The semnopithecians and the colobians are exceptions; their stomach if not multiple, is at least multilocular, resembling the herbivora in this respect. The commencement of the large intestine, or caecum, lies in the right iliac fossa, as in Man, and is covered in front by the peritoneum. In pithecians, the caecum is, on the contrary, enveloped by the peritoneum, which forms one of the folds of the mesentery behind, and is designed for the purpose of facilitating the mobility of that part of the intestine. In the anthropoid the peritoneum surrounds the caecum, as in Man. An appendix, the vermicular, is annexed to the human caecum. It exists also in anthropoid apes, but is wanting in the monlieys below them, with the exception of some lemurs. The liver of Man has, properly speaking, only two lobes ; in anthropoid apes it is similar. In the other monkeys, on the contrary, it is very much subdivided, as in the lion and the rabbit. J Chap, hi.] PEEITONEUM AND PEEICAEDIUM. 97 M. Broca in liis memoir, " Sur les Primates," has drawn attention to the variations of the peritoneum, the serons membrane which is reflected round the organs in the abdominal cavity, and has for its object to isolate them, and to allow them to glide smoothly upon one another. His opinion is, that the arrangement of the peritoneum does not perceptibly differ in Man and the anthropoid apes, whilst in passing to the pithecians it immediately exhibits marked differences. The distinction of mammalia into bipeds and quadrupeds may to a certain extent be recognised by the arrangement of their internal organs. The marked peculiarity of the peritoneum in its relation to the caecum may be specially mentioned. In the chest we see differences of the same description. The pericardium, or membrane surrounding the heart, is to this organ what the peritoneum is to the intestines. In Man it is altogether separated from the sternum and is attached to the diapliragm, a transverse muscular septum which separates tlie thoracic from the abdominal cavity. In quadrupeds it is firmly fixed to the sternum and to the articulations of the ribs, and is not attached to the diaphragm. In the former, indeed, the heart lies on the diaphragm, in the latter on the sternum, in accordance with the attitude of the animal. In monkeys the arrangement is inter- mediate; in lemurs the pericardium does not adhere to the diaphragm except to a very limited extent ; in cebians and pithe- cians the surface attachment increases in size. In the anthroi)oid apes the pericardium is as in Man. Similar changes occur in the direction of the heart, in the length of the vena cava inferior, and in the curve of the aorta near its origin. In quadrupeds a result of the non-attachment of the heart to the diaphragm, is the interposition between the two of a lobule of the right lung. This lobule, known by the name of iinpar, exists throughout the whole mammalian series, from the marsupialia to the carnivora, and is wanting in Man. In the lemurians and the cebians it is also developed. In the pithecians it becomes less ; in the gibbons it is almost nil; in the orang, the chimpanzee, and the gorilla there is not the slisrhtest trace of it. 98 THE LARYXX. [Chap. hi. Eroni the viscera we now pass to tlie vessels, wliere we shall always find a confirmation of the same fact — namely, that the organisation of anthropoids is a connterpart of that of Man, and differs widely from that of the other simian gronps. We shall say a few words respecting the larynx and the organs of reproduction hefore entering upon a study of the very highest importance — that of the brain. Tlie Larynx. The larynx, or organ of voice, is at the Tipper extremity of the windpipe, where the glottis is situated, through which the air is respired. It is composed, like the trachtea, of cartilages, though much larger. The two principal ones are the cricoid below and ! the thyroid above. It is closed at certain moments by another cartilage, which acts like a valve, and is called the epiglottis. ^ In all essential points this little apparatus is identical throughout the entire mammalian series, and notably in that of monkeys. Upon four points of its extent — that is to say, below the cricoid, between it and the thyroid, between the thyroid and the epiglottis, and between the vocal chords — are seen occasionally dilatations or ampullai, which have considerable importance in anthropoid apes; some median and single — giving rise to three primary anatomical varieties — others ' lateral and double, forming a fourth. The first, or tracheal variety of dilatation, is observed in the horse, the ass, and in the coaita, one of the monkeys of the cebian group ; the second in two other kinds of cebians ; the third in a lemur, a cebian, two pithecians, and a gibbon. The fourth variety exists in a rudimentary state in Man under the name of arrih-e-cavltc, or ventricle of the larynx, ''^ and attains with age, in the three higher anthropoids, an enormous development, especi- ally in the male, and is known in them under the name of air sac. In a young chimpanzee dissected by M. JJroca, it formed ■''■ M. Sappey closcribed it under the name of / ortiori verticale of the ventricles of the larynx. It is situated, he says, at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage, close to the hyoid bone, and in rarer instances reaches to the base of the tongue, and extends under its mucous membrane. J Chap, hi..] LARYNGEAL SACS. two littk lateral projections about the size of a pea, wliicli over- lapped above the superior border of the thyroid. In the aged gorilla and orang the projections become larger, and run under the sterno-inastoid muscles, under the trapezius, envelop the Fig.. 14.— Vertical and antei-o-posterior section of tlic face .incl neck : «, Bodies of the cervical vertebra? ; m, Basilar process, or body of tbe occij)ital bone ; /», Floor of the anterior cerebral fossa ; o, p, q, Superior middle and inferior sbeEs of the nasal fossaj ; I, Arch of the palate ; /, Velum of the palate ; k, Genio-glossal muscles of the tongue, attacked in front to the tubercles geni; situated at the posterior surface of the lower jaw ; b, Oisophagus ; c, Trachaja ; (f, Thyroid cartilage ; c, Epiglottis ; i, Os hyoides, serving as a point of attachment for important muscles of the tongue and larynx. The transverse slit v/hich is seen in the latter, and whose borders form the vocal chords, is the ventricle of the larynx, into which the urricrv-cacltc of Morgagni opens. clavicle, and reach down to the armpits. They are, in fact, veritable hernise. In a morphological point of view, these sin- gular organs establish an important difference between ]\ran and the anthropoids in question; but, in an anatomical point of view, the difference is nil ; it is the same organ, only of a dif- II 2 100 OEGANS OP EEPEODUCTIOJs'. [Chap, hi, ferent size. We may add, lastly, tliat tlie true air sac is absolutely "vvanting in all the other apes, so that this, which appears to establish a character between Man and the anthropoid, shows, on the contrary, their relationship, and the distance of the latter from others of the monkey tribe. Organs of Reprodndlon. The characters which they furnish are those to which we attach the greatest value in the various departments of natural history ; the class mammalia is, indeed, based upon them. All mammalia are viviparous — that is to say, bring forth their young alive — and all have teats. These glands var}' in number, generally being ecpial to that of the young which they bring forth at a birth, and they vary also in situation. The cat has 8; the bitch, 10; the agouti, 14 ; woman, 2, although generally she has but one child at a birth. They are abdominal in the carnivora and the marsupialia ; inguinal in solipeds and ruminants ; and pectoral in the woman, the elephant, and the lamantin. In this twofold- point of view, monkeys, including the anthi'opoid apes, are con- structed after the type of Man. Many lemurs have four teats- two pectoral and two inguinal, some macaucos having four peo toral ; all the others have two teats, attached to the breast. Among mammalia, a few, as the marsupials, have no placenta— that is to say, an intermediate lieshy substance between the embryc and the uterus ; others have one, called en zone, when it occupies a considerable surface of the internal parietes of the uterus, or e% disque when it occupies only a small portion. Man, the monkej tribe, the rodentia, the insectivora, and the cheiroptera belong tc this category. There is some difference between them howevei In Man the placenta is single, and the umbilical cord is composd of one vein and two arteries. In cebians it is still single, bit it is furnished with two veins and two arteries. In pitheciani it is double ; it has, however, only one cord, formed of one vein and two arteries. In which arrangement do the anthropoids ap- i Chap, iil] CEREBI10-SPI:N"AL AXIS. .101 proacli to them? The gibbon, which usually holds the transi- tional position "between them and the pithecians, has, like them, a double placenta. In the chimpanzee, on the contrary, it is single, as in Man (Oa-e?i). The orang and the gorilla have not been examined on this point. After the descent of the testis into the scrotum in Man, the peritoneal communication is obliterated ; in other mammalia it is j)ersistent. JN'othing is yet known as to this in anthropoids. The .-same may be said with regard to quadrupeds generally. The uterus in them has two cornua, and is divided into two cavities. That of woman is, as a rule, unilocular ; that of ordinary monkeys holds a aniddle position. Nervous System. In the Invertebrata it is composed of little masses of gray sub- stance interspersed through the viscera, and attached to them by nervous filaments. In the Vertebrata there is, in addition, another and a symmetrieai apparatus, consisting of an axis, called the •cerebro-spinal, of centrifugal nerves for movements, and of centri- petal for impressions. The essential differences between them are to be found at the superior or anterior extremity of the axis or encephalon, which we shall first describe as it exists in Man. Tlie spinal cord, called medulla oblongata at the level of the hrst cervical vertebra, passes through the occipital foramen, beneath the transverse fibres which unite the two lobes of the cerebellum under the name of pons varolii, and divides into two fasciculi called the cerebral peduncles, one to the right the other to the left ; they then spread out into two fan-like expansions of white fibres, pass upwards and outwards, bend down at the borders like a mushroom about its stalk, and go to form the cerebral hemispheres, on the surface of which is a layer of gray substance. The white portion is the conducting matter, the gray the sentient and reacting. At the internal contiguous borders of the hemispheres the white transverse fibres become bound together to form the corpus callosum. Each 102 ENCEPHALON. [Chap. in. is siirroiiiidcd by a canal, forming a series of cavities, of wliicli tlie- principal are tlie lateral ventricles, wliicli exhibit three cornua :. the anterior or frontal cornn, the inferior or teniporo-splienoidal„ and the posterior or occipital — the last presenting an elevation on its floor called hippocampus minor. The encephalon consists of (1) The cerehellnm; (2) The portion lying between its two lobes connecting the medulla oblongata with the brain — the pons varolii, or protnberantia annidaris; (3) The- brain proper, formed by the peduncles and the series of expansions^ which proceed from them — viz. the tubercula quadrigemina, thc' optic thalami, and the corpora striata — by the ventricles, and by the cerebral hemis})lieres, the surface of which exhibits sinuosities: The principal sinuosities are called convolutions, and the secondary ones, folds. The external surface of the brain occupied by these is divided into distinct portions or lobes by fissures, and the convolutions of which these lobes are composed, b}^ sulci. The communications 'oetween the lobes are called transition convolu- tions ( plis de ■passcuje), and those between one convolution and another in the same lobe, anastomoses. From the base of the encephalon arise the first twelve j^airs of nerves, or encephalic nerves. The first are the olfactory, the bulbous portion of which — called the olfactory bulb — lies longi- tudinally in a depression on the surface of the anterior lobe ; the second are the optic, whose decussation at the median line is called the chiasma. When we place the encephalon on its upper or convex surface, and remove the cerebellum and pons varolii by a trans-\^erse section passing between the junction of the latter with the cerebral peduncles, the vdiole inferior surface of the two hemispheres is exposed to view (I'ig. 15). At the junction of the anterior third with the posterior two-thirds is seen a deep transverse fissure, with its concavity looking backwards. This is the fissure of Sylvius (A, Tig. IG). The j)ortion in front is the inferior surface of the frontal or anterior lobe ; that behind is the inferior surface of the posterior lobe, Avhicli is separated into two Avell-marked EXTERNAL SUEFACE OF HEMISPHEEES. 103 Chap, hi.] and unequal portions, the one with its convexity looking for- wards and outwards, which is the inferior region of the temporo- FiG. 15. — Inferior surface of the encepLalon : A, Anterior or frontal lobe ; U, Temporo- sphenoidal portion of the posterior lobe : A and B are separated by a fissure with its cmcavity looking backwards — the fissure of Sylvius. C b, Cerebellum ; M, Section of the spinal cord where it joins the medulla oblongata ; VI, Annular protiiberance ~ at its anterior border are seen the two cerebral peduncles ; C C, Corpus callosum — the dotted line is on the median or inter-hemispherical line ; I to XII, The twelve pairs of encephalic nerves at their origin ; I, Olfactory nerve with its bulb ; II, Optic nerve, the union of which with that of the opposite side forms the chiasm a ; III, IV, VI, Nerves of motion of the globe of the eye ; V, Trigeminal, or fifth, supply- ing the muscles of expression-; XII, Hyiaogiossal nerve, the nerve of motion of the tongue. sphenoidal lobe, the other, posterior or concave, upon which the cerebellum lies. The superior or convex surface of the hemispheres may be viewed from above or laterally, the plates sometimes representing them 10 i FISSURE OF SYLVIUS. [Chap. hi. under one aspect, sometimes under another. We prefer tlie latter method. Each hemisphere has an internal surface, which looks towards the median line, and an external. The first thing which strikes the attention on looking at the external surface is the fissure of Sylvius, which has passed round the inferior border of the hemisphere, and whose external surface is shown at A, Fig. 1 6. It is divided into two branches, wMch unite in the form of a Y. The anterior and vertical is very short, and is lost in the anterior lobe ; the posterior is longer, and passes obliquely backwards and a little upwards, having below it a large elongated and very distinct cerebral lobe, which is the temporo- sphenoidal lobe already seen from underneath. The fissure of Sylvius corresponds on the skull with the superior Ijorder of the squamous portion of the temporal {Br oca). There is no mark of equal importance to this on the external surface of the brain, and it is asked how Ave contrive to make any other fundamental division. It is, however, in the midst of the sulci, apparently so complicated, that we take the fissure of Eolando (B, Fig. 16) as the line of separation of this surface into the imterior or frontal, and the posterior or parieto-occipital lobe. It is constant, and, in the foetus, the most clearly defined after the fissure of Sylvius. Its situation and direction are nearly the same in all healthy brains. It commences some millimetres above the fissure of Sjdvius, and passes vertically, or rather a little obliquely, backwards, reaching to within a few millimetres of the superior l^order of the hemisphere. Its obliquity and its situation are indicated by the two following relations : The total length of the brain being reckoned as 100, the portion in front is to that behind as 43*0 to 57*0 at the inferior extremity of the sulcus, and as 56*3 to 43 '7 at its superior. It follows from this that the middle por- tion should be equidistant from the two extremities of the hemisphere. M. Hamy calculates that the inclination of the sulcus in the adult is about 70 degrees. Gratiolet thought that the fissure of Eolando corresponds exactly, on the skull, with the coronal sutin^e. M. Broca was the first to notice that, in the European, it is always from 40 to 56 millimetres <:!hap. III.] CONVOLUTIONS. 105 liehiiid it at its upper part, 47 in the middle, and 15 at the lower part.'" A second fissure marks another division of the external surface of the hemispheres — namely, the external perpendicular fissure (E E, Fig. 16). It separates the posterior lobe into two, the parietal and the occipital lobe, and on the skull answers to the lambdoidal suture, being distant from it about two millimetres. In order to discover it, the student should look for it from its pro- . longation on the floor of the hemisphere, to a few centimetres from the posterior extremity, where it takes the name of internal per- pendicular fissure. It is so called because it exactly separates, from below upwards, the most remote part of the hemisphere, to form of it an occipital lobe. We have then (1) An anterior or frontal lobe, bounded behind by the fissure of Rolando ; (2) A middle or parietal lobe, included between the latter and the external perpendicular fissure ; (3) A posterior or occipital lobe, situated behind the perpendicular fissure ; and (4) An inferior or temporo-sphenoidal lobe, subjacent to the long branch of the fissure of Sylvius. Such are the important divisions on the external surface of the hemispheres. We shall now describe those of the internal surface, as well as its convolu- tions. Convolutions. The acts of transmission in the brain, Avliich have reference to altogether voluntary movements, to certain reflex movements, "to sensations, or to certain phases of intellectual operations, have for their seat the fibres of which the central white mass of the hemi- spheres is formed. The initiative acts of thought pass, on the contrary, through the gray substance Avhich constitutes the cortical portion of these hemispheres. Consequently, the greater the amount of gray substance, and of surface upon which it can be deA''eloped in a continuous layer, the more power the truly intel- lectual phenomena acquire. To this end, the surface is folded and ■"■ " Sur la Deformation Toulousaine du Crane," by Paul Broca, in " Bull. Soc. d'Anttrop.," 2nd series, vol. vi., 1871. 106 CONVOLUTIONS. [Chap. hi. contorted, so as to increase its extent. Sucli is tlie office of the convolutions, elongated and tortuous swellings, separated by sulci more or less deep. It was long thought that their arrangement was inextricable and the result of mere chance. This is an error : the complexity is only apparent. They consist of fundamental parts, or convolutions, properly so called, whose type is constant throughout the human series ; and of secondary parts or folds, which exhibit variations between one individual and another, similar to those which the features of tlie countenance present. The brain of the foetus at the beginning is smooth. The fissures appear first, then the sulci. At the seventh month the convolu- tions are simple but formed ; at birth it is the same with the folds. At a later period the whole is completed. The convolutions become enlarged and more complex as age advances, in proportion to the activity Avhich the organ exhibits. A convolution would be rectilinear in a subject of tolerable intelligence, as in the patient of BicOtre, Avhose brain we have now before us. In another subject of superior intelligence it would be tortuous, double, and altered in form, by the pressure of neighbouring redundant .convolutions. The sulci would be hidden, and the anastomosis betvfeen one convolu- tion and another, in a rudimentary state in the former, wliile in the latter it would be considerable, and would cause a change in the configuration of the primary convolution. This, which is called the richness of the convolutions — that is to say, their development in number and tortuosity, causes not only an absolute increase in the quantity of these convolutions, but also a reduction in size of each of them taken singly. Large and simple convolutions are thus a sign of idiotcy, or of weak intellect, in any race. Small convolu- tions with numerous foldings are a sign of large intellectual capacity. However, by carefully studying the brains of monkeys, of the foetus, of infants, and of idiots with simple convolutions, all this is explained. Desmoulins first drew attention to this subject. "^ The imaginative fancies of phrenologists, and some recent results in reference to the localisation of the faculties, have given it a ■'•■ " Anatomie du Systeme Nerveiix," by A. Desmoulins, vol. ii., 1825. Chap, hi.] CONVOLUTIONS. 107 new direction. IS^ow, thanks to tlie labours of Gratiolet, Owen, Turner, Bischoff, Broca, and Ecker, it has been made clear. All that we must do is to turn it to account in studying the science of comparatiye intellectual phenomena.* B Fig. 16. — Diagram of the external surface of the brain : A, Fissure of Sylvius ; B, Fissur© of Rolando J C, Parallel sulcus; D, Interparietal sulciis; E, External perpendicular fissure. 1, First antero-posterior frontal convolution, double ; 2, Second frontal convolution ; 3, Third frontal convolution ; 4, 5, 6, Convolutions of the orbital region of the frontal lobe; 7, Ascending frontal, or ascending anterior convokition ; 8, Ascending parietal, or ascending posterior convolution ; 9, Superior parietal convolution ; 10, Inferior parietal convolution, or curved fold; 11, 12, First and second temporo-sphenoidal con- volutions ; B, Third temporo-sphenoidal convolution in continuation vrith the third temporo-sphenoidal of the internal surface ; 14, The three storeys of the occipital lobe ; a and h. First and second pits ch 2Mssage, uniting the two parietal convolutions w^ith the occipital lobe ; c and d, Third and fourth 2)lis de 'jwssaf/c, uniting the last two temporo-sphenoidal convolutions with the occipital lobe ; e, Gyrus, belonging to the third transverse frontal convolution. The external or convex surface of the brain (Figs. 16 and 18), looked at in ])rofile, is that from which we shall commence our description of the convolutions. We shall consider first the fissure * " Sur la Structure des Circonvolutions." See " Eecherclies snr la Structure de la Cotiche Corticale des Circonyolutions," by M. Baillarger, in " Mem. Acad, de Medecine," 1840, vol. viii., and the article " Cervean," in tlie " Dictionnaire Encycl. des Sciences Medicales." 1'08 FEONTAL AND PARIETAL LOBES. [Chap. hi. of Sylvius— tiiat is to say, its base, and the parts below and above. The base only deserves mention as regards the point of the Y. By separating the two lips at this point we discover a well-marked tubercle, called insula of Eeil, and also central lobule, because it is situated in the exact line of the cerebral peduncles ; it is occupied by five or six shallow folds, which radiate from its inferior angle. The region below, or temporo-sphenoidal lobe, forms a large mass, obliquely directed from below upv-^-ards, and from behind forwards, and is traversed in the same way by a sulcus, which is parallel to the fissure of S^dvius, and which on that account is called the parallel sulcus (C). From its posterior extremity a small cul-de-sac passes to the centre of the parietal lobe, and sometimes a prolonga- tion towards the occipital lobe. A second sulcus is observed below, but of much less importance. The intermediate enlargements are termed the first, second, and third temporo-sphenoidal convolutions (11, 12, 13), the third or inferior appertaining also to the inferior surface of the brain. The region above includes both the frontal and the parietal lobes, separated by the fissure of Rolando, whose tAvo lips form two of the most distinct convolutions of the whole system of the external surface. Having the same direction as the sulcus which separates them, one belongs to the frontal lobe and takes the name of anterior ascending convolution (7), the other to the parietal lobe, and is called the posterior ascending convolution (8). The frontal lobe, so important in Man, since it is in it that his highest, faculties reside, consists of three regions : one, which we shall find on the external surface ; a second, which is seen on the inferior ; and a third, the most important of all. The second rests upon the roof of the orbit, and comprises three or four small convolutions of but little interest : one bound up between the sulcus of the olfactory nerve and the internal border of the hemisphere, and which forms the termination of the first frontal convolution; the other two being in continuation, in the same way, with the two frontals on the external surface. The frontal region proper of the anterior lobe comprises four convolutions : an anterior or frontal ascending, already mentioned, Chap, hi.] FEOXTAL LOBE. lOD* and three longitudinal and parallel, superposed in three storeys. The first, or superior frontal convolution, arises by one, and some- times by two roots from the superior extremity of the ascending, becomes double, skirts the superior border of the hemisphere, and is lost in the orbital region. The second, or middle frontal con- volution, arises also behind, by one root, and bifurcates occasionally to give an anastomosis to two adjoining frontal convolutions. The posterior part of the sulcus, which separates it from the third, cor- responds, according to M. Eroca, to the curved temporal line of the parietal. The third, or inferior frontal convolution, commences in the most sloping portion of the ascending frontal, forms a large gyrus round the small branch of the fissure of Sylvius, and loses itself in front, M. Broca's way of looking at it is somewhat difi'erent. He merely brings in the ascending frontal convolution to assist in ther description. According to him there are only tliree frontal convo- lutions, all antero-posterior and parallel, including, at the back, the portion of the ascending convolution where each takes its origin^ which must not be forgotten when discussing the localisation of the faculty of language. We know indeed that there is aphasia — that is to say, loss of speech ; or aphemia — that is, to say, loss of speech with preservation of the intellect, whenever an acute lesion occurs at the posterior part of the third frontal convolution of Broca wdien this lesion is on the left side. The faculty of language has its seat on both sides, but it is put in exercise from this side in the greater number of cases. Its surface has a vertical extent of about four centimetres, and an antero-posterior of from two to three and a half. Its form is that of a quadrilateral, bounded in front by the small branch of the fissure of Sylvius, and behind by the base of the fissure of Eolando. Its centre corresponds, on the external part of the skidl, with a point situated about one centimetre and a half behind the coronal suture, and three centimetres above the pterion."^ * " Stir ie Siege cle la Faciilte clu Langage Articule," by P. Broca, in " Bull. Soc. d'Anthrop.," Paris, 1861 ; and " Sur la Topographie Cerebrale, on sur les Eapports Anatomiques du Crane et du Cerveau," by the same, in " llevue d'Anthrop.," vol. v., 1876. no PAEIETAL AXD OCCIPITAL LOBES. [Chap. iii. The next, or parietal loLe, included between tlic border of tlie lieniispliere above, the fissiir^ of Sylvius, and the teniporo-sphenoidal lobe below, and the perpendicular fissure behind, is formed by three convolutions. The first, or posterior, ascending, has been described. The second, or superior parietal convolution (9), commences by one or two roots towards the middle and superior portion of the posterior ascending, describes a number of vertical flexures Avhich reach to the superior border of the hemisphere, and form a small lobule, which is very easily recognised. The third is below, and is sepa- rated from it . by a transverse sulcus, called the interparietal sulcus (D) ; it arises at the inferior part of the posterior ascending, in the angle which it makes with the fissure of Sylvius, turns round the end of this and ends in a group of vertical fiexures, which anastomose, sometimes with the first, sometimes with the second temporo-sphenoidal convolution, and sometimes with l)oth. This is the inferior parietal convolution, or curved fold of Gratiolet (10), so called, because the fold embraces in a simjDle or complex gyrus, not only the termination of the fissure of Sylvius, but also that of the parallel sulcus. Another ai-rangeihent is found. The termination of this parallel sulcus is bifurcated, and its posterior branch reaches the external perpendicular fissure, which it leaps over to become one of the transverse sulci of the occipital lobe. In this case, the gyrus which the curved fold forms is persistent ; but it goes to form what we shall presently call the second transition convolution, without anastomosing with the second temporo-sphenoidal convolution. M. Gratiolet has described on the side of the inferior parietal convolution, a superior marginal fold, and an inferior marginal fold, which are merely the folds bordering the extremity of the fissure of Sylvius. The former, indeed, is the part of the inferior parietal convolution, Avliich extends from its junction with the posterior ascending convolution, to the end of the fissure, and the latter is the continuation of the first temporo- sphenoidal convolution. The increased size of the flexures is of little importance, inasmuch as they constantly vary. The occipital lobe, the smallest of all, is formed of three storeys, which are bounded by tv/o antero-posterior sulci. The external I €hap. III.] INTEKNAL SURFACE OF HEMISPHERES. Ill perpendicular fissure separates it from the parietal lobe, and from "the temporo-splienoidal lobe ; a fissure somewhat difficult to trace out in Man, because it is partly filled up, or hidden by four folds of communication with the adjoining lobes, whose study affords considerable interest under the name oij)lis tie passage, or transition convolutions {a, h, c, and d). The first, or superior, of Gratiolet, comes from the superior parietal convolution; the second, or in- ferior, from the inferior parietal ; the third, lower down, from the second temporo-sphenoidal convolution ; and the fourth, concealed at the inferior border of the brain by the third temporo-sphenoidal .convolution. We shall say but little as to the internal surface of the hemi- sphere, which is in apposition with the falx cerebri on the median line (Fig. 17). When Ave harden and dry a brain by M. Eroca's process (nitric acid),"^' the organ shrinks more in the transverse direction, and that which formed the concave part of the interior surface behind, appears, Avhen looking at it sideways, to form part of the internal surface. . We shall study in this ■\^'ay the two surfaces united. In the centre is seen the corpus callosum, an elongated vault which covers in the ventricles, and is terminated in front by a swelling called r/cjw/i (knee), the most slanting point of Avliich is the hee (beak), and behind by another swelling called the lourrelet (cushion). Towards its exterior extremity is then seen a slit rendered gaping by the preparation, which is the internal perpen- dicular fissure already described. On this surface is a triangular lobule, forming a portion of the occipital lobe, looking from this .side, and which bounds the sulcus of the hippocampi below. All the portion situated beneath, and to the left of this sulcus in the figure, is the internal surface (at the lower part) of the temporo- sphenoidal lobe. A primary and well-detined transverse sulcus, ■and a smaller faint one which is parallel to it, divide this region into three convolutions (6, 7, and 8) ; the superior bending round .* *' Precede pour la Momification des Cerveaux," by M. Paul Brcca, in •'" Bull. Soc. d'Authrop.," vol. i., 18G5. 112 INTER:N'AL SUEFACE of hemispheres. [Chap. hi. ill a gyrus at its anterior extremity, to form tlie outline of the circumpeduncular fissure, and the inferior forming one with the third temporo-sphenoidal on the external surface. Fig. 17. — Diagram of the internal surface of the brain, a, Genoa of the corpus callosum ;: b, Bourreletof the corpus callosum ; c, The crura cerebri cut across ; A. Fronto-parietal fissure ; B, Internal perpendiciilar fissure ; S, Fissure of Sylvius : H, Sulcus of the hippocampi ; 1, 2, and 3, Internal frontal convolutions ; 1,. Portion in continuation with the first frontal of the external surface ; 3, Its oval lobule ; 4, Quadrilateral, or internal parietal lobule ; 5, Triangular, or internal occipital lobule ; 6 and 7, First and second Internal temporo-sphenoidal convolutions ; 8, Third internal temporo- sphenoidal convolution in continuation with the third on the external svirface ; 9, Convolution of the corpus callosum, or hem. In front of the triangular lohule is a well-marked quadrangular lobule (Foville), which is simply the internal side of the superior parietal lobe, lengthened out below as far as the corpus callosum, and bounded behind by the perpendicular fissure, and in front by a small oval lobule (Pozzi) — which we may leave for the present — which is situated in front of the quadrangular lobule, close to the superior border of the hemisphere. This lobule is formed by the junction, looking from the internal surface, of the two anterior and « ];)osterior ascending convolutions of its external surface. ■{ The remaining portion of the internal surface is divided into twa parts, the one superior and. anterior, which forms part of the frontal Chap, hi.] • CONVOLUTIONS. 113 lobe; tlie other inferior, and resting on the corpus callosum, to which we must consider it as attached. A fissure, however, divides them, which is called festonnee, or calloso-marginal, in its anterior four-fifths, and fronto-parietal towards its termination. It com- mences below the beak of the corpus callosum, turns round its knee, passes horizontally behind, and, separating the oval from the quad- rilateral lobule, reaches obliquely the superior border of the hemi- sphere. A single convolution, called the convolution of the corpus callosum, is concentric to it, and continues to follow this organ, to form the base of the quadrilateral lobule, and to anastomose with the first internal temporo-sphenoidal convolution. Another convolution, called the internal frontal, is eccentric to it, and has the form of an italic S. Its anterior gyrus is separated from the knee of the corpus callosum by the convolution and the fissure just mentioned, and its posterior gyrus forms the oval lobule. In the greater part of its length it is divided by an interrupted sulcus into two storeys, of which the first is in direct continuation with the first frontal convolution on the external surface. The number and distribution of the primary convolutions may be summed up as follows : External Surface. ! Orbital region , 3 convolutions in form of a star. Frontal region \ ^ ascending convolution. ( 3 antero-posterior convolutions. !1 ascending convolution. , , . \\ superior. 2 convolutions ] , . i^ . ( 1 interior. Occipital lobe 3 antero-posterior convolutions. Temporo-sphe- noidal lobe . 3 parallel convolutions. Internal Surface. Frontal lobe ... ... ... 1 convolution. Parietal lobe ... ... ... 1 quadrilateral lobule. ^ . ., , -J 1 T T, \ 1 triangular lobule. Temporo-occipito-spnenoidal lobe ] ^ ^ ^ , { 3 parallel convolutions. Lobe of the corpus callosum ... 1 convolution. One point in reference to the convolutions upon which M. Broca lays stress, is their want of symmetry on both sides in the best I 114 YARIA^TIONS OF CONVOLUTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. hi. selected individuals. Siinple convolutions, developed uninter- ruptedly, and alike • in Loth hemispheres, are characteristic of inferiority in Man, as well as throughout the mammalian series. Bichat then was wrong when, influenced by a statement of Tiedemann, he attributed intellectual aberrations to the asymmetry of the brain; his own autopsy proved the contrary. "^^ The difference between the encephalon of mammalia and that of Man is in the relative volume of the principal parts, in certain internal structural arrangements, in the absence or in the number of the convolutions, and in the weight of the organ. On viewing the whole encephalic system on its superior surface, we notice that the hemispheres in the marsupialia and monotremata exhibit in front certain swellings called olfactory bulbs, which, in the majority of mammalia, have the importance of lobes, and behind the greater portion of the tubercula quadrigemina, or optic lobes, and the cerebellum. In other animals, as the ant-eater, the rat, the hare, and the bat, the optic lobes cease to be visible, but the olfactory lobes and the cerebellum are more exposed to view. In others, and as far as monkeys exclusively, the former are concealed, while a more or less considerable portion of the cerebellum is visible. In lemurians, the cerebellum slightly projects beyond the hemispheres ; in pithecians and cebians it is more generally on a level with them. In the anthropoid apes and in Man, not only is it out of sight, but the hemispheres in their turn more or less pass beyond it. * On the subject of the convolutions, see " Traite de I'Anatomie Physiolo- gique et Pathologique clu Systeme Nerveux Cerebro- Spinal," by Foville, 1st part, Paris, 1844 ; " Memoire sur les Plis du Cerveau," by M. Biscboff, in " BuU. Soc. d'Antbrop.," 2nd series, vol. iv., 1869; "Memoire sur les Plis: Cerebraux de rHomme et des Primates," by Gratiolet, Paris, 1855, a memoir already mentioned in " Les Primates," by M. Broca, 1869 ; " The Convolution of the Human Cerebrum topographically considered," by Turner, Paris, 1866 ; " Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Piirchen und Windungen der Grosshirn-Hemispharen in Fotus der Menschen," by Ecker, in " Archiv f iir Anthrop.," 1868 ; " Etudes sur les Circonvolutions chez I'Homme et les Singes," by J. Gromier, Paris, 1874 ; Article " Circonvolutions," in " Diet. Encycl. des Sciences Medicales," by S. Pozzi, Isfc series, vol. xvii., 1875. I Chaimii.] divisions OF OWEN. 115 The brain is modified also as to form. In Man it is more or less elongated as a whole, and ovoid at its anterior extremity ; its frontal region is contracted occasionally, as though squeezed together, globular, and acquires its maximum of fulness. The last traces of this contraction are seen in front, at the point of the internal anterior and inferior angle of each hemisphere. It is more or less strongly marked in pithecians, less so in the anthropoid apes, and commonly not at all in Man. In these two relations, the anthropoids more nearly approach to Man than to the other monkeys. As regards internal structure, the first diff'erence is the absence of the corpus callosum in the marsupialia and the monotremata, as well as in the classes of vertebrata below, whilst it exists in all the other mammalia. The aqueduct of Sylvius, a simple canal perforating the corpora-quadrigemina in Man and the majority of the mammalia, is a cavity, or rather a supplementary ventricle in the kangaroo. The anterior and middle cornua of the lateral ventricles exist in all the mammalia ; the posterior • or occipital cornu is peculiar to Man, to the monkey, the seal, and the porpoise. Professor Owen thought that the absence in anthropoids of this cornu, of the hippocampus minor belonging to it, and of the occipital lobe in Avhich it is hollowed, constituted a distinct cha- racteristic separating the ape from Man. On more careful examina- tion, however, he altered his opinion. Man and the antlu^opoid ape in this respect are alike. A characteristic of Man has also been sought for in the pre- sence of the mammillary tubercles, little round bodies situated at the base of the brain, and whose use is unknown. Yain hope ! The chimpanzee, the orang, the gibbon, and the mone possess them. The convolutions are wanting in fishes, reptiles, and birds. They are absent in a considerable number of mammalia, are tolerably developed in others, and very much so in many, as the porpoise and the elephant. Mr. Owen has proposed to make them the basis of a fourfold classification: (1) Lyencephala, having the brain smooth and the optic lobes exposed ; (2) Lissencephala, having the I 2 116 CONVOLUTIONS IN MAMMALIA. [Chap. hi. brain smootli, but with, the optic lobes concealed ; (3) Gyren- cephala, with but few convolutions; and (4) Archencephala, in which Man alone is placed. But the other -features of the organisa- tion do not move in parallelism with these characteristics, and the fourth class is only hypothetical.* Erasistratus of old ^vrote that the convolutions are more numerous in Man, because he is supreme as the possessor of a mind and reasoning power. A. Desmoulins, in 1825, maintained that the number and perfection of the intellectual faculties in species as in individuals, are in proportion to the extent of surface of the hemi- spheres, and that this is in direct ratio to the number and depth of the convolutions. M. Dareste started another proposition : that the convolutions were developed in a direct ratio to the stature, and that the smaller species most frequently have the brain smooth. Gratiolet took upon himself to refute him. Man, and then the orang, the chimpanzee, the seal, the bear, the dog, the elephant, have the most complex convolutions ; whilst in the insectivora, the rodents, and the marsupials, generally less intelligent, they are scarcely visible. ^N'either the stature nor the volume of the body has anything to do with the question ; the smallest dog has more convolutions than the most gigantic kangaroo, the seal more than the ox. There are exceptions, but these are easily explained. The increased amount of the gray cortical substance of the hemispheres is what we must look for as evidence of a larger amount of activity. , We must look for (1) The increase of the cerebral mass, and consequently, cceteris jparihus, of its surface ; (2) The increase of the number of folds and windings, which allow of a much greater proportion of the gray substance being deposited in a given space; (3) The increase of the latter in thickness, and its improvement in quality. Unless we take account of all these elements we must not be surprised if there are exceptions, but the general fact remains — the amount of intelligence in mammalia is in proportion to the development of the convolutions. The consideration of the monkey tribe will now engage our * "The Anatomy of Vertebrates," vol. iii., "Mammals," by R. Owec. London, 1868. I Chap. III.] SIMIAN VAEIATIONS. 117 attention. From the ouistiti, the lowest of the cebians, which has the brain smooth and only a trace of the fissure of Sylvius, to Man, every variety is to he met with. In the sagouins, some convolu- tions are visible. Their number increases rapidly in the highest cebians and the pithecians. In anthropoids, suddenly and almost without transition, they have a simdar appearance to those of Man. All the principal convolutions are there, the type is the same, the difierence is only in parts of a subordinate character, and in the de- gree of convolutions, which varies also in Man and is peculiar to him. Fig. 18. — Brain of pithecian— the guenon or cercopithecus— seen on its external surface, F, Frontal lobe ; T, Temporo-sphenoidal lobe ; O, Occipital lobe ; S, Fissure of Sylvius ; E, Fissure of Rolando ; V, External perpendicular fissure A A, Ascending frontal convolution; a.i, 0.2^ aS, First, second, and third antero-posterior frontal convolutions ; B, B, Ascending parietal convolution, giving origin behind to the superior parietal and the inferior parietal or curved fold, the latter turning round the fissure of Sylvivis and the parallel sulcus, as in Fig. 16 ; ci and c-, First and second external temporo-sphenoidal convolutions, separated by the parallel sulcus. "Between the smooth brain of ouistitis and the marvellously complicated brain of chimpanzees and orangs there is a gap," says M. Broca, "while there are but faint shadows of difference between the latter and that of Man ; " and further : " The enormous and complex mass of convolutions in Man is composed of the same fundamental folds, united by the same connections, and separated by the same sulci. These primary convolutions, these essential parts, common and only common to all human brains, are 118 SIMIAN VARIATIONS. [Chap. iii. found without exception in the brains of the orang and the chim- panzee." That of the gorilla is but little known. "^^ A few words as to the changes which are exhibited as far as the inferior orders of cebians. The orbital region of the frontal lobe, which is flat in Man, is depressed in pithecians ; the sulcus of the olfactory nerve is want- ing ; the angle which terminates the third frontal convolution behind is rectilinear, which has interest with regard to the faculty of language. The first frontal convolution is simple, as in. the Hottentot Yenus of Cuvier, and the idiot studied by Gratiolet, while it is double in the orang and the chimpanzee, as in Man. The inferior parietal convolution should rather be called the curved fold, as it commences more in front and more distinctly curves round the terminations of the fissure of Sylvius and the parallel sulcus. The superior parietal convolution is very much reduced, particularly in the cynocephali. In the chimpanzee it forms a lobule as important as in Man. The external part of the perpen- dicular fissure is more open and more visible by the absence or the greater depth of the plis de passage of this region. It follows that • the occipital lobe throws up above it at its upper part an oper- culum, whose amount of projection is less characteristic of in*feriority. The central lobule, very smooth in Man, slightly so in the orang and chimpanzee, is smooth in the majority of pithe- cians and cebians, and is wanting in lemurs, as also in the other mammalia. The occipital lobe deserves especial notice. Its volume is generally in an inverse ratio to the number of the sulci and convo- lutions. Almost entirely smooth in cynocephali, its uniform sur- face contrasts so strongly with the rest of the cerebral surface in the macacque and the guenon, that Gratiolet compared it to a cap covering the posterior extremity of the brain. The contrast is less in some semnopitheci ; some gashes are seen, which are well marked in the gibbon, and become in the chimpanzees and the orang very nearly as complex as in Man. * Memoir already quoted, " Sur les Primates." Chap, hi.] PLIS DE PASSAGE. 119 Owen discovered a cerebral characteristic of Man in the structure of his occipital lobe ; Gratiolet, in his second ])li cle passage, from the parietal to the occipital lobe. It is not a question of two inferior ]plis cle passage, they always exist. Thinner in gibbons and pithecians, they are thick in Man and the great anthropoid apes, and entirely fill up the inferior (or external) portion of the external perpendicular fissure. It is otherwise as regards the two superior ^^/s cle passage. They are superficial, deep, or altogether wanting, according to four types. (1) In Man and the ateles — the highest in the order of cebians — they are both superficial, hence the difiiculty that students have in discovering the external perpendicular fissure which they traverse. (2) The first is super- ficial and the second deep in the orang, the gibbon, and the semno- pitheci. (3) The first is wanting and the second is deep in the chimpanzee, the macaque, and the cynocephalus (the gorilla has not been studied in this respect). (4) Both are deep in the guenons. The three anthropoid apes which have been studied differ, then, from Man, in that the second fold is deep. There is some doubt as to the first fold being absent in the chimpanzee ; it was present in the subjects studied by EoUeston, Marshall, and Turner. Notably, in two, the first fold was present on one side and not on the other ; while, by way of compensation, the second was deep on one side but superficial on the other : according to M. Eroca it should always exist on one side or the other. Moreover, in Man, even in individuals of sound mind, one of the superior plis cle passage may be deep on one side or wanting, and the other at the same time be feebly developed. Does not all this prove that these are only changes or gradations of development from the healthy man to the . anthropoids, the cebians, and the pithecians ? Eelative to anthro- poids we can only come to one conclusion, namely, that they are not more separated from Man by the character of their plis cle pas- sage than from the monkeys next in order, and that in this, as well - as in everything relating to the convolutions, they are found to take their place with Man at the head of the series. If the differences hitherto estabhshed in the morphology and . anatomy of the brain of Man, as compared with that of animals, are 120 WEIGHT OF THE BEAIN. [Ciiap. in. not sucli as we should have desired, what we are about to say with, respect to its weight and mass, and what we have aheady said on the subject of the cranial capacity, Avill be sufficient to satisfy the warmest advocates of human supremacy. The weight of the encephalon varies in the adult man of sound mind from 1,830 grammes, which was the weight of Cuvier's brain, to 872, which is that of a Bosjeswoman studied in England by Mr. Marshall : but these are exceptional cases. According to Huschke, its mean weight, at the age of 30 or 40 years, in the white race, and when the organ has attained its full growth, is about 1,410 in men, and 1,272 in women. The weight varies, moreover, according to height, sex, age, intelligence,, and occupa- tion. Let us rapidly run over the principal results obtained on these points, in order that we may not have again to recur to them.* The encephalon is heavier in tall persons than in short. In five men having a mean stature of 1 '74 metre, the brain was 96 grammes heavier than in five other short men, whose mean stature was 1*63 metre. The difference of weight was 6 per cent., and corresponded exactly with the difference of stature. The same result has been obtained in reference to women. The brain is lighter in the woman than in the man : the former weigliing 100, cceteris paribus, the latter would weigh 112, accord- ing to Huschke. This difference is only attributable to the fact that usually she is less in height. Parchappe has shown that the height of the woman is to that of the man as 9.2-7 to 100; whilst the weight of her brain would be as 90*9 to 100. The brain, then, is lighter in the woman, and we may add, that it is so at all ages. The tables constructed by Eroca, with materials furnished by * " Sur le Poids du Cerveau," by Lelut, in " Journal des Conn. Medico. Chirurg.," vol. v., Paris, 1837 ; " Eecherches siir I'Encephale," by Parcliappe, Paris, 1836 ; " Ueber die Typischen Yerschiedenlieiten der Windungen der Hemispharen und iiber die Lebre vom Hirngewicbt," by Eud. Wagner, Gottingen, 1860; "Discussion sur le Cerveau," by Broca, Gratiolet, Dareste, &c., in " Bull. Soc. d'Antbrop.," vol. ii,, 1861. Chap. III.] WEIGHT OF THE BEAIN. 121 Wagner, of the weight of 347 healthy brains, prove that this organ goes on increasing up to 40 years of age, that it remains stationary np to 50, and decreases afterwards. After the age of 60 years men had lost from 5 to 7 per cent, of maximum weight, and women from 4 to 7. Gratiolet has shown that the cranium of the- infant is more elongated at birth, that it enlarges subsequently in the temporal regions, and that it goes on developing in front : it ought to be the same with the brain. The brain increases, cceteris parihus, in proportion to the vas- cular activity of which it is the seat. This is the reason that the brain of certain criminals and lunatics is so large. But of all the kinds of activity, that which has reference to the special design of the organ has the most influence. Such is physiological acti^dty, of which intelligence is the result. The weights taken by Lelut, Parchappe, and Wagner, clearly show this. The labouring men studied by Parchappe had the head longer than his " distinguished men." So with the internes of the hospital of Bicetre measured by M. Broc^, relatively to the officers of the institution. The cranial capacity of Parisians from the twelfth to the nineteenth century, has increased to such an. extent that we may be allowed to attribute it to the progress of civilisation. The cranial capacity is greater, cceteris ]parihus, in the white race, less generally in the negro races, less still in the lowest among them. The brains of idiots, and of the insane in lunatic asylums, are smaller and lighter than those of the emxjloyes and ordinary sick, or of persons suffering from acute mania. The enormous Aveight of Cuvier's brain is in itself an argument, ^o less remarkable, though less largely developed, were the brains of Abercrombie, of Bruce, of Dupuytren, and other eminent persons, as recorded by Wagner. The reason that the brain of the woman is lighter than that of the man is that she has less cerebral activity to exercise in her sphere of duty. In former times it was relatively larger in the department of Lozere, because there the woman and the man mutually shared the burden of their daily labour. The truth is, that the weight of the brain increases with the use which we make of that organ, with the exercise of certain professions ; in a word, with the degree of intelligence. The absolute mean weight 122 EELATIVE WEIGHT OF THE BRAIX. [Chap. in. of the brain at its maxiiniiin of growth., in men, is, in round numbers, about 1,400 grammes, in women about 1,250. With some few exceptions it is the heaviest of the mammalian series. We wiU give the figures farther on. They would, however, be of little value as regards the majority of mammalia if we did not take account of the stature or weight of the body. M. Sappey estimates the weight of the brain of the elephant to be from 1,500 to 1,600 grammes, and that of the dolphin about 1,800; and then it would be in proportion to the weight of the body as 1 to 1,500 in the former, and 1 to 100 in the latter ; while in Man it is as 1 to 36, ac- cording to Cuvier, and 1 to 52 according to Colin. This may be so, but we do not think these figures are to be thoroughly relied on ; for the brain of a young Asiatic elephant in M. Broca's laboratory weighed double, that is to say, 3,080 grammes ; the greater reason why we should take into our calculation the stature of the animal. In the list published by Cuvier, the weight of the brain being 1, that of the body is from 48 to 105 in the ordinary monkeys; from 97 to 365 in the carnivora ; from 520 to 800 in marsupials ; from 750 to 800 in two oxen. In a gibbon, according to M. Leuret,* it was 48, and in another, in M. Broca's laboratory, 18 "7. Most fortunately, we are able to make a direct comparison between Man and the three higher anthropoids. If, on the average, they are a little less in stature, they are, on the other hand, stouter, so that the body, taken as a whole, agrees as nearly as possible. The anthropoid is generally a little more bulky, which, cceteris paribus, would necessitate his having rather a larger brain. It is true that we have not had an opportunity of weighing the brains of the great apes in a fresh state, but we may estimate the weight sufficiently accurately by the cranial capacity, f Mr. Huxley thinks that the Aveight of the brain of the gorilla may reach 567 grammes, .and M. Broca found that the weight of the one the cubic measure- * See " Anatomy of the Nervous System," by Leuret, vol. i., 1839, and tlie table at page 124. f Mr. Owen, however, weigbed tbe fresh brain of a gorilla : it was ! ounces = 425'19 grammes. €hap. III.] PROPOETIOX OP THE BRAIN. 123 iiient of whose cranium lie made with M. Alix, was 540 grammes. We ourselves should estimate that the mean, without reference to sex, would be below 475 in the gorilla, and much lower still in the orang and chimpanzee. Proportions of different Parts of the Enceplialon. M. Baillarger has attempted to estimate the absolute extent of isurface of the convolutions which is covered, by the gray substance. He found it to be 1,700 square centimetres in Man, and 24 in the Tab bit. M. Hermann Wagner calculated the amount of superficies in each lobe relatively to the total superficies of the brain. It is to be feared that the result of these efforts has not been of much im- portance, though they should be encouraged. The following are the mean proportions obtained by M. Wagner : Man. Orang. Frontal lobe 43-6 36-8 Parietal lobe 16-9 25-1 Temporal lobe 21-8 19-6 Occipital lobe 17-7 18-5 Total surface .. 1000 ... 100-0 We have more to expect from the relation of the cerebellum to the hemispheres. The weight of the former in the man is about 179 grammes, and in the woman 147 grammes, according to Par- chappe, and 176 in Man, according to Lelut. This weight being expressed by 1, that of the hemispheres would be 15*5 in the man, and 13 '9 grammes in the woman, according to Parchappe, and 15*5 also in the man, according to Lelut. It is the same with animals : in the saimiri it is 14 ; mone, 8 ; magot, papion, and coita, 7 ; ouistiti, 6-3; macauco, 4-5j gibbon, 4-4 grammes, among apes: and the hedgehog, 12; hare, 14-3; ox, 9; horse, 7; sheep, 5; mouse, 2, among the mammalia (Leicret). It follows from this that the human cerebellum is lighter in proportion to the weight of the brain, and if we put aside three of the 44 examples of Leuret, that Man would be found to have the advantage in this respect, as 124 PEOPOETION OF THE CEEEBELLUM. [Chap. hi. well as with regard to the entire weight of the encephalon. At- tempts have been made to compare the weight of the encephalon with that of the spinal cord =1*10, but the comparison has not been carried out in Man. The following figures, borrowed from M. Colin, have been drawn up in reference to this question, and to those preceding as to domestic animals : Weight of encephalon. Weight of the body. Encephalon = 1. Weight of the two hemispheres. Cerebellum = 1. Weight of the encephalon. Spinal cord = 1. 15 stallions . 633 633 6-9 2-3 15 mares . 598 583 7-4 2-3 17 dogs 83 212 8-5 .. ■ 4-7 5 cats 28 106 6-1 3-4 3 oxen . 509 648 8-2 2-4 4 ass|| 3 hogf . 368 332 7-2 2-9 . 123 659 7-5 2-3 One of M. Colin's conclusions deserves to be considered side by side with that arrived at by M. Dareste. He says the smaller species of animals have the brain more developed than the larger. The mouse, for example, has, in proportion to his body, more brain than Man, and thirteen times more than the horse, and eleven times more than the elephant. M. Dareste infers that the smaller species generally have the brain smooth. The two propositions mutually agree. The convolutions have less tendency to be developed in the smaller species, supposing the fact proved : because their brain is larger, this was superfluous. Thus the same result is arrived at by different methods of proceeding. Lastly, Soemmering has conceived the idea of comparing the brain with the nerves which proceed from it. The relative volume of the former would be considerably greater in Man; the apes would come next. " The largest horse's brain that I have weighed," . says he, " was one pound and seven ounces, and the smallest man's, two pounds five ounces and a quarter, notwithstanding that the nerves at the base were ten times larger in the former, although the difference in weight between the two brains was at least fourteen ounces and a quarter." Chap, hi.] MEASUREMENT OF THE BRAIN. 125 Measurement of tlie Brain. This has not yet been practised to any extent except on animals. Soemmering and Ebel have compared the width of the medulla oblongata, at its union with the protuberantia annularis, with the maximum width of the brain. Leuret has taken the relative dimensions and situation of the corpus callosum and the cerebellum. Cuvier has given the width, the height, and the maximum length of the brain in 38 mammals. Leuret applied himself to the width in relation to the length, taking his measurements, not on the brain, but on the interior of the cranial cavity. We can speak highly of this method, when we employ the special instruments invented by M. Broca, which allow of all the details being measured without injuring the skull by making a section. In a first group, including the kangaroo, the guinea-pig, and the beaver, the two diameters are equal ; in a second, consisting of the majority of the rodents, the elephant, the porpoise, and the whale, the trans- verse diameter is greater than the antero-posterior ; in a third, embracing the monkey tribe, the carnivora, the solipeds, and the juminants, the antero-posterior diameter is the longer, as in Man. The relation of these two diameters, the transverse and the :antero-posterior, is worthy, in our opinion, to have a place assigned to it in Zoological Anthropology, under the name of cerebral index. A few calculations from Leuret's tables are subjoined. Papio (mandril) ... Mandril Macauco (maki) ... Horse White bear Guinea-pig Phascolomys (wombat) . Porcupine... Whale 3 dogs 3 kangaroos 2 seals ... ... 3 bats 2 elephants 75-8 80-3 83-2 86-3 84-5 84-5 100-0 102-5 128-1 146-7 75-0 to 99-9 86-2 „ 100-0 97-5 „ 112-5 122-2 „ 125-0 136-9 „ 146-7 J 126 EUDIMENTARY ORGANS. [Chap, ir Three forms of hrain, then, would find place in the mammalian series, as there are three sorts of human crania — viz. the long, the intermediate, and the hroad. But here the lines of demarcation between each form would be changed. Those which we should call dolichocephali (long heads) would be beloAV 90, the mesati- cephali (middle heads), from 90 to 110, and the brachycephali (short heads), above 110. Rudimentarij Organs and Reversive Anomalies. In the necessarily rapid examination which we have just made of tfee characters by which Man differs from or approaches to- animals, we have only taken into consideration those which are constant and exist in all individuals. But there are others which unexpectedly make their appearance in all the races of Man, and more frequently in those reputed inferior, concerning which we ought to say a few words. We refer to what are called the rudimen- tary organs, and anomalies. In the hypothesis of a transformation by a certain process from forms relatively inferior into those of a. higher and more perfect character, they take the name of reversions, Avhich is meant to convey the idea of a relationship in the past between organisms now divergent, and bearing upon the question of the affinity of Man with the other mammalia. As examples of rudimentary organs in animals we may mention the germs of teeth in the foetus of the whale, and those of the upper incisors in ruminants, although these organs are never developed, and appear to be useless; the teats of all male quadrupeds; the eyes of sightless animals, or those species which pass their lives in dark caverns, or inhabit the fathomless depths of the ocean ; the two needle-like ossicles on the sides of the single metacarpal or metatarsal bone of the horse, which represent the other meta- carpals or metatarsals which have disappeared ; &c. Examples are numerous in Mail. • The semilunar fold at the internal angle of the eye, so marked in some persons, woidd repre- sent the remains of the third eyelid of marsupials, the walrus, &c. I CiiAP. III.] EEYERSIVE ANOMALIES. 127 The vermicular appendix of the large intestine, which seems useless^ and is occasionally the cause of death, is the representative of an organ which is enormous in herbivorous animals, and in the koala attains a length thre e times that of the body. The muscles of the ear, equally useless, although sufficiently developed in some indi- viduals to enable them to move the cartilage, are merely vestiges of a very well-marked apparatus in animals. The sub-vomerian bone of Eambaud, in like manner, is the remains of the organ of Jacobson, and is very much developed in the horse, as also in some apes, &c. Anomalies are still more frequent in Man. We may mention the bifid, and even the double uterus ; the former repeating, the horned uterus of the rodent, or the elongated and angular uterus seen in some ordinary monkeys and lemurs ; the latter the double uterus with two orifices of marsupials. We may mention the per- sistence in the adult of the suture which divides the malar bones into two, as in some apes and other mammalia ; that of the median frontal suture, as in the majority of the lower mammalia ; the ap- pearance, once in a hundred times, according to Mr. Turner, of the super-condylean humeral foramen peculiar to various animals, through which the principal nerve and artery of the limb pass ; the altogether simian conformation' of the cartilage of the ear ; &g. In the muscles especially reversions are common. Traces of the cutaneous muscle are seen in the armpits and on the scapulae, as Avell as on the head and face ; the sternal muscle of mammalia was seen in 18 out of 600 men; the ischio-pubic muscle, constant in the majority of male animals, was noticed in 19 out of 40 men, and in 2 out of 30 women ; the elevator claviculse of most apes in 1 out of 60. M. Chadzinski, in the " Eevue d' Anthropologic," has^ given many examples of simian arrangements in Man. Mr. J, Wood found in one individual as many as seven examples of muscles peculiar to certain apes. Whatever interpretation may be given to these facts, they estab- lish a link between the type of organisation of Man and that of animals. A third order of facts has been brought together, namely^ those which we term teratological, and of which we shall speak by- and-by. 128 DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY. [Chap. iv. CHAPTER IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS DEVELOPMENT OF THE BODY EMBRYOGENY, SUTURES AND EPIPHYSES, TEETH DETERMINA- TION OF THE AGE AND SEX OP THE SKELETON GENERAL AND SPECIAL FUNCTIONS PSYCHICAL MANIFESTATIONS, FACULTY OF EXPRESSION. Hitherto we have been engaged with anatomical characters, that is to say, with those relating to the organs as seen after death. We shall now consider the physiological, or those exhibited in the living subject, the result of the growth and development of those organs. Their history commences from the period when the first lineaments of organisation were planned, continues through the various phases of existence, and exhibits to us Man moving and thinking, up to the period when motion and thought cease. Development — Age. Our first entrance into life is unostentatious, and in no Avay differs from that of animals. Enclosed in an ovum of the same character as that of all the oviparous or viviparous mammalia, nothing then distinguishes the future monarch from the humblest pariah — the lord of creation from the ape or the kangaroo. The researches of Wolf in 1759, of Oken in 1806, of Baer in 1819, of Coste, &c., have put this beyond contradiction. The ovum at first is a simple cell, a microscopic point, which is composed of an albuminous substance, or vitellus, and of a nucleus, or germinal vesicle, enclosing within it a nucleolus, or germinal spot. Under this form it is thrown off from the ovaries, traverses the oviduct, passes into the uterus, and, if it becomes fecundated, is there developed. The cell then becomes divided into two, into four, and gradually into an infinite number of cells, which increase at the periphery and assume the form of a hollow sphere. At one Chap. IV.] DEYELOPMENT OF THE BODY. 129 point there afterwards appears an opacity, wliicli becomes elongated and divided into three leaflets. This is the rudiment of the future being, whether man or dog. The external leaflet will become the skin and cerebro-spinal axis, the internal the digestive mucous membrane, the middle the parenchyma from which the various organs are formed. The multiplication of cells continuing, a primitive line is drawn, which has at one of its extremities an en- largement, upon which before long are seen live ampullae. The line is the spinal cord, the enlargement is the brain, the anterior ampulla will be the hemispheres, the second the optic thalamus, the third the tubercula quadrigemina, the fourth the cerebellum, and the fifth the medulla oblongata. According to the variable development of these rudiments, results, by degrees, the special genus or species. At the fourth week the difference between the Man and the dog is inappreciable. The divergence only commences in earnest at the eighth Aveek. In the human foetus the anterior ampulla becomes larger, in the foetus of the dog the caudal extremity elongates. At birth the infant weighs from 3 to 4 kilogrammes, and is 50 centimetres in length; his pulse is 140 in the minute j a fine down covers his body; his pupils are generally open as soon as respiration becomes fully established ; the thymus gland, an organ exclusively foetal, atrophies. He takes the breast up to the second or third year, or rather until the sixteen or twenty milk teeth have appeared. During the period of infancy the pulse ranges from 100 to 110, the respiration becomes propor- tionately slower, its movements being in relation to the heart's pulsations as 1 to 3. At about 14 years, in our climates, puberty takes place in the boy ; his features become altered, the voice changes, the beard developes, and most important modifications take place in the genital organs. At the same time, in the girl, the breasts increase in size, the menses make their appearance. At 20 years adult age is attained ; growth still goes on ; the brain continues to be developed in proportion to its exercise, and attains its maximum of activity at or before 35 years. Soon decadence commences ; the faculty of reproduction in the man becomes diminished. In woman K 130 GROWTH OF THE BRAIN". [Chap. iv. the liair turns white and falls off ; the teeth become loosened from their sockets ; the crystalline lens is flattened, causing the eye to hecome presbyopic ; the senses become dull ; the lung is emphy- sematous, the heart hypertrophied ; the arteries become ossified; fat is infiltrated through the tissues, and death takes place naturally, without any struggle, from the moment that one of the three prin- cipal organs of organic life — the heart, the lung, or the digestive tube — loses the power to perform its function.''^ Except in some trifling particulars, this is the same as regards all mammalia. The organisation of Man, of the anthropoid ape, or of the carnivora, obeys the same physiological laws, and passes through three similar periods : one of groAvth, one of full development — during which the process of reproduction goes on^ — and one of decay. These periods are of longer or shorter duration — that is the only difference. Of all these phenomena, those which are exhibited on the skeleton have the greatest amount of interest for the anthro- pologist. It is by a thorough acquaintance with them that we determine with accuracy the age of bones, a problem not less im- portant for the antliropologist in his laboratory than for the archaeologist who is desirous of ascertaining the date of his fossils. A few words, however, as to the head. Its proportions relatively to the body during the earliest periods of embryonic existence, or even at birth, are not what they are at a later period. At the second month of intra-uterine life the head forms one-half, at birth one-quarter, and at adult age one-eighth part of the entire body. The same may be said as regards the contents of the brain- case. Groiutli of the Brain. Throughout the whole of the mammalian series this organ is * M. Broca divides tlie periods of human life as follows : First infancy from birth, to the end of the sixth year, when the first large permanent molar is cut ; second infancy, from 7 to 14 years, on the eruption of the second molars ; youth, from 14 to 25 years, when the basilar suture is ossified, or the wisdom tooth is cut; adult age, from 25 to 40, when the cerebral sutures begin to ossify ; ripe age, from 4 ' to 60 ; old age, beyond 60 years. In craniometry, we designate, in a general way, under the name of adult, crania in which the basilar suture is closed. Chap, iv.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CRANIAL SUTURES. 131 smaller relatively to the rest of the body at birth, than at the period of its complete development. In the newly-born marsupial, Mr. Owen says it is less large in proportion than in the upper classes of mammalia. The following figures of M. Welcker exhibit the cranial capacity in Man at different ages, and consequently the progressive volume of his brain : New-born infant.. At 2 months At 1 year At 3 years At 10 years From 20 to 60 years Men. Centimetres. Women. Centimetres . 400 ... ... 360 . 540 ... 510 . 900 ... ... 850 . 1080 ... ... 1010 . 1360 ... ... 1250 . 1450 ... ... 1300 In anthropoids the development is less rapid : we are ignorant as to their cranial capacity at birth, but during the first dentition, in eight orangs, it was found to be 322 cubic centimetres, while in 15 adults of the same species it was 413. Supposing, then, that their first dentition takes place at the mean age of two years, the cranial capacity would increase 31 per cent, in Man from this period to adult age, and 22 per cent, only in the orang. To obviate the numerous disorders to which so considerable a " development of the brain would give rise, owing to the resistance of the walls of the cranium, the sutures which unite the bones preserve their softness a much longer time in Man, and do not begin to ossify until a late period, when there is no longer any probability of the increase of the contents, and when cerebral activity is becoming less. This leads us to speak of the action of the sutures, and of the chief means of ascertaining the age of a cranium. Ossification of the Cranial Sutures. The bones pass through three phases, corresponding to the three periods of life. In the first, the bone is soft, then cartilaginous ; in the second, it is osseous, and continues so in every part ; in the K 2 132 OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTURES. [Chap. iv. thirdj or senile period, it becomes more dense, although lighter and more fragile, the diploe in the flat bones is more spongy, the medullary canal in the long bones is of greater diameter, and the cells at their extremities are larger. Between the first and second period there is one of transition, during which points or centres of ossification appear in the middle of the cartilage, which gradually become larger and larger, and at last occupy the entire bone. These points are of two descriptions — the principal ones for the body, or diaphysis ; the secondary for the extremities, or epiphyses, and the prominences or processes. In the skull, the points of ossification first appear in the centres which correspond with the bodies of the three cranial vertebrae — the basilar process of the occipital, the posterior sphenoid and the anterior sphenoid, then in the lateral bones and in those of the vault. It is well to know the period at which the secondary portions become united, so as to be enabled to judge, in certain circumstances, if the development has proceeded regularly. Thus : At the third month of fcetaL life the two superior points of the occipital shell become united to the two inferior. What we call the interparietal suture is closed. At the eighth or ninth month of foetal life the body of the anterior sphenoid is united to the body of the posterior sphenoid. About two months after birth, the false suture which separates the basilar portion of the occipital from the two condylean portions is closed. About the fifth or sixth months the body of the posterior sphenoid is united to the greater wings. About a year, the three portions of the temporal — the petrous, the mastoid, and the squamous — become anchylosed. The two halves of the frontal also. The suture which they form when they are persistent in the adult, is called the medio-frontal, or metopic. We have noticed this abnormal persistence in 58 out of 611 Parisian skulls which we have examined = 1 in 9-65. About the third or fourth year, the styloid process becomes united to the temporal, unless it continues separated from it during the remainder of life. i Chap, iv.] OSSIFICATION OF THE CRANIAL SUTURES. 133 About the fifth, or sixth year, the suture which separates the external occipital portion of the occipital shell is closed. The true sutures are the coronal, the sagittal, the lambdoidal, the temporal, and the spheno-parietal, spaces being formed at their junction, which are designated by the name of fontanelles. The exact period at which the process of ossification is completed at their edges is doubtful The sagittal and coronal sutures close very soon after birth, and before those of the base. The bregmatic fontanelle, except in cases of disease, is always closed before two- and-a-half years of age according to M. Bouvier, and sooner according to M. Eroca. The suture which unites the occipital to the sphenoid is sometimes wanting in animals, sometimes it remains persistent through the whole of life : in Man it passes immediately from the cartilaginous to the osseous state at from 18 to 22 years of age. All these data serve to determine the age, but it is at their third phase, when other parts of the body fail to give us any information, that the examination of the sutures becomes valuable. At this moment' the serratures become obliterated, the bones which are in contact become anchylosed, the suture is synostosed. This synostosis, one of the first signs of age in the skeleton, may in some cases be produced more quickly by disease. There is, then, no adult or stationary condition of the suture, and the younger the individual the more serious the disorders which result from it as regards the development of the cranium and the brain. We shall consider this subject further when speaking as to pathological characters. The spot where synostosis first appears during the progress of age varies. The most frequent is at a point on the sagittal, at the union of its posterior fifth with its anterior three- fifths, where the suture is clearly marked, ohelion. At other times it is at the extremities of the coronal, near the temporal ridge, or lower down, at the junction of the four sutures, in the form of the letter H. The second or third spot is on the lambdoidal suture, the synostosis appearing at first in the middle of one of its branches, or as an extension of the sagittal ossification. The fourth 134 OSSIFICATION OF THE CEANIAL SUTUEES. [Chap, iv, point is the coronal suture, close to the bregma. The fifth is on the squamous suture of the temporal.'* In a word, if the suture is entire, the individual is about 35 years of age or less. If the posterior sagittal point is commencing to close he is about 40 years. The ossification of the coronal suture close to the bregma would show that he was 60 or more. If the temporal suture is closed he would be 66 or more. As regards intermediate and subsequent ages we examine as to the extent to which complete closure has taken place at each spot, and also as to other matters, of which we are about to speak. The definite period of ossification of the sutures moreover varies very considerably. It sometimes takes place partially and very early in life ; at others it is retarded. The more the brain is exercised the more it is postponed, according to M. Broca. In idiots it takes place early. It varies according to race. In the white races the ossification generally proceeds from behind for- wards. In the negro races it is the reverse, according to Gratiolet, that is to say from before backwards. This latter statement is somewhat hasty ; and without going so far as to deny it, we should say it cannot be looked upon as universally the case. If the brain-case at the period of birth is very large, the face, on the other hand, is small, and makes increase, especially in the maxillary region, as is sho^vn by the enlargement of the facial angle and of the angle of prothagnism, from infancy to adult age. The development for the most part takes place in the alveolar arches, at the part corresponding with the molars of the second dentition ; they become elongated from behind forwards, and increase in height and thickness. A phenomenon the reverse of this takes place when the teeth fall out naturally in the progress of age ; the edges of the alveoli come nearer together and become absorbed, and the alveolar border loses its height and thickness. Two anatomical results are the consequence : (1) The mental foramen, situated in the adult at an * See " Eecherclies sur I'Etat Senile du Crane," by E. Saurage. Paris, 1870. Chap, it.] EVOLUTION OF THE TEETH. 135 equal distance from, or a little nearer to, tlie two "borders of the bone, appears in the old man gradually to come nearer to the superior, a circumstance of which M. Broca has taken particular notice in his interesting memoir, published in 1848, on the bones of Celestines. (2) The angle which the horizontal makes with the posterior branch of the lower jaw becomes widened, and has a tendency to return to that which it was in infancy. This angle at birth is from 170 to 160 degrees; it descends to 150 and 130 during the first dentition; then to 115 degrees during the second dentition ; approaches a right angle during the adult period, and returns to 130 and 140 degrees in old age {Humxjliry). Thence a series of characteristics which, even in solitary maxillae, enables us to ascertain approximately the age of the individual. Besides those furnished by the cranial sutures, there are others drawn from the eburnification, or the unequal atrophy of the malformed cranium, as well as those from the teeth : all appearances on the head, so probably indicative of the same fact as regards age, as to be looked upon as certainties. The maxillary apparatus is not the only portion of the face which assumes various alterations of phase during life. The brain cavities do the same in a less degree. Thus the frontal sinuses connected with the olfactory apparatus are rudimentary in the infant, very largely developed in the adult, and become atrophied in old age. All the sinuses of the face, moreover, including the mastoid cells, obey the same law — they do not arrive at their full development until after puberty. Evolution of tlie Teeth. Of all the methods in use for the purpose of determining the age of a cranium, particularly before the adult period, those derived from the examination of the teeth are the most satisfactory. Their evolution is divided into two periods, the more important to define, in that we have no other data from which to form an idea as to the relative age of the monkeys imported into Europe. The duration of the first period in Man is about 24 months, when the whole of the milk or temporary teeth are cut; that of the second is six 136 ERUPTION OF THE TEETH. [Chap. iy. years, when the permanent teeth appear. The wisdom teeth we do not take into consideration, as often they are not cut at all. The following tahle shows the mean period of the eruption of each tooth. It thus appears that from three to five years Man has the minimum nimiher of 20 teeth ; from seven to twelve, 24 ; from fourteen to sixteen, 28 ; and later on, the maximum number, 32, not reckoning anomalies in the shape of supernumerary teeth. Eruption of the Teeth in Man. Temporary or Deciduous Teeth = 20. Cruveilhier. Magitot. Incisors, middle lower 4tli to 10th month . 6 months „ „ upper A little after ... 10 „ „ lateral lower 8th to 16th month 16 „ „ „ upper A little after ... 20 „ Molars, first small, lower... 15th to 24th month 24 „ „ „ „ upper.. — — 26 „ Canine 20th to 30th month 30 to 32 „ Molars, second small, lower 28th to 40th month 28 „ ,, „ „ upper — — 30 „ Pj REMANENT TeETH = 32. Cruveilhier. Magitot. Molars, first large 7 years ... 5 to 6 years. Incisors, middle, lower . . 6 to 8 „ ... 7 „ „ „ upper .. V „ 9 „ ... — ,, lateral 8 „ 10 „ ... 8i „ Molars, first small 9 „ 11 „ ... 9 „ 11 „ „ second small 11 „ 13 „ ... 11 „ Canine 10 „ 11 „ ..- 11 „ 12 „ Molars, second large 12 „ 14 „ ... 12 „ 13 „ „ third large, or den es sa'pientia; 18„ 30 „ ... 18 „ 25 „ With the skull before us it is generally easy to determine the age before 18 years. Sometimes, in the interval between the two periods of eruption, search must be made at the bottom of the alveolus, or we must judge from the projection of the anterior sur- face of the alveolar border, as to the time when the tooth is about to make its appearance. In old age, when the teeth naturally fall Chap, iv.] CHARACTERS OF THE TEETH. 137 out, we should look to see how far the alveolus is closed or filled up. The molars fall out iirst. We may guess the probable age on the inferior maxilla by the number of empty alveoli, by the amount of absorption of the alveolar arches, and by the senile indications already mentioned. There is another method of ascertaining the age, namely, by examining the amount of wear and tear of the teeth. The deciduous as well as the permanent teeth wear out, but the latter more so, on account of their much greater length of use. The molars and canines are generally the most Avorn, but in the inferior or prehistoric races the incisors are frequently worn down one-half or four-fifths of their height. M. Broca lays do'wn four degrees of wear : in the first, the enamel is alone worn ; in the second, the tubercles of the crown have disappeared and the ivory is exposed ; in the third, some portion of the height of the tooth is reduced ; in the fourth, the wear has extended to the neck. The last is seen in old age, but it is more often the result of particular habits, as that of chewing the betel-nut, among the Malays, or working with the teeth on skins, among the Esquimaux. The tubercles of the first molar are soon worn down, occasionally by the commencement of adult age ; those of the second molar are more persistent. In a word, the determination of the age of a cranium is reduced to a balancing of probabilities : the condition of the sutures deciding the question in one way, the wearing away of the teeth or the character of the jaw in another : we should take the mean. At two or five years one can scarcely be deceived ; taking the period from 22 to 38 years it is more difiicult to decide. Distinctive Characters of the Teeth. We cannot conclude this chapter without stating the principles by the guidance of which the arch^ologist or the anthropologist may discover the alveolus to which any isolated tooth belongs. The teeth of the second dentition interest us most in this respect. The four kinds may be recognised as follows : the incisors are sharp at the edges, the canines have a single and conical point, the small 138 DISTINCTIVE CHARACTERS OF THE TEETH. [Chap, iv^ and large molars a fiat and tnberculated crown. The difficulty ia to know to wliicli jaw and to which, side of the jaw they helong. In a general way," the teeth of the upper jaw are larger thaa those of the lower, with the exception of the large molars, where 11 is often the reverse. The incisors may he recognised in the sam^ way ; the middle incisors of the upper jaw, and the lateral of the loAver, are the largest. The upper canines are not only larger but longer. The second character has a certain value. The curve which th( superior dental arch describes is wider than the inferior, and iti posterior branches are turned outwards, while those of the inferioi arch are turned inwards. It follows from this that the two archei do not exactly agree, the upper incisors passing a little in front ol the lower, and the crown of the upper molars overlapping, on the outside, the crown of the lower. The wearing away, then, of anj one or more molars begins on the inner side on the upper jaw, and on the outer on the lower. Hence, also, the plane of this wearing down is considerably oblique inwardly as regards the upper teethj and oblique outwardly as regards the lower. For the same reason the sharp border of the lower incisors is worn slopingly on the anterior surface, which causes them to be easily recognised. The third character has reference to all the teeth, but especi- ally to the incisors and canines, and then to the small molars. Of the two lateral surfaces of the tooth, the internal — when we are speaking of the front teeth — or anterior, when speaking of the side teeth — is relatively plane and vertical ; the other, external or posterior, is swollen and convex, and slightly maimnillated close to the crown. — (Golignon). The fourth character has sole reference to the molars, and is derived from the tubercles on their crowns — two on the small and four on the large molars. The largest tubercle on the small molars is on the outside ; the groove which separates them is somewhat deep in the upper, and is occasionally interrupted by the vestige of a third tubercle in the lower. The four tubercles of the large molars are separated by a cross-shaped sulcus, and sometimes a fifth tubercle is noticed. The wisdom tooth has usually only three Chap, iv.] DISTINCTIVE CHAEACTERS 0*F THE TEETH. 139 tubercles — two external and one internal ; or its crown presents the form of the letter S, the posterior branch of which commences on the inside, and the anterior branch terminates on the outside by doubling upon itself. In reality, its tubercles exhibit the same arrangement as the adjoining great molar, but are less definite, andy. as it were, rudimentary. The fangs furnish the last characters of which we shall speak. The small molars have usually but one, except the second upper,, which has frequently two. The large lower molars have two fangs,, an anterior and a posterior, which are curved slightly the one towards the other, and converge at the point. The upper have three fangs, one internal and two external, which diverge, because the inferior border of the maxillary sinus passes between them {Broca). In the large lower molars, the fang Avhich is behind is by far the larger ; in the upper, the intermediate one is the largest. The wisdom tooth has the same number of fangs as the adjoining molars, but they are generally consolidated into one or two. Lastly, the fangs of all the teeth, but especially those of the incisors, the canines, and the small molars, have their points curved outwards or backwards in the direction crossing the arch. — ( Colicjnon). We may add that the crown of the first large molar bears some- times a resemblance to that of a small molar, and the first small molar to a canine. The first large molar is the strongest, the third has the lowest crown. The milk teeth may be recognised by the following marks : they are bluish-white'in colour, and not of the yellowish-blue tint of those of the second dentition. The incisors and canines are smaller, and have shorter fangs. The two milk molars are larger than the two small permanent molars ; they are multicuspidate, and not bicuspidate, having three tubercles on the outside and two on the inside. They have more the appearance of large molars than of the small molars Avhich succeed them. If we take, then, the head alone, it is easy to determine the age ; if the rest of the skeleton, with the exception of one or two bones, we arrive at the same result. The indications are still derived from the evolution of certain parts. 140 OSSIFICATION OF THE LONG BONES. [Chap, iv^ Ossification of the Long Bones. At the end of the fourth week of intra-uterine life, the points of ossification of the clavicle make their appearance ; then those o| the lower jaw ; from the thirty-fifth to the fortieth day those ol the femur, the humerus, the tibia, the superior maxilla, tha vertebrae, and the ribs ; about the fiftieth day those of the cranium J and then — of which there is some doubt — of the scapula, &(| Ossification continues to go on; the points of the extremitieJ or epiphyses of the long bones, become united to one another, and then to the body or diaphysis. Of course the length of the bone furnishes some evidence of the age, but the following data are preferable. The periods indicated represent the mean of the variations observed and recorded by authors : About 5 years, the scaphoid, the latest formed of the bones of the tarsns, is ossified. „ 12 „ the pisiform, the latest formed of the bones of the carpus, is 14 „ the three portions of the iliac bone are united. 14 ,, the inferior extremity of the radius is united to the body of the bone. 15 „ the superior extremity of the ulna is united to the body of the bone. 15 „ the lesser trochanter of the femur is united to the greater. 15 „ the coracoid process is united to the scapula. 16 ,, the calcaneum is ossified throughout. 17 5, the greater trochanter is united to the head of the femur. 17 „ all the points of the inferior extremity of the humerus are united. 17 5, the epiphyses of the phalanges of the fingers are united to the body of the bone. 18 „ the superior extremity of the femur is united in its entirety to the shaft. 18 „ the inferior extremity of the humerus is united to the body of the bone. 18 „ the inferior extremity of the tibia is united to the body. 18 „ the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. 19 „ the epiphyses of the metatarsal bones are united to the body. Chap, iv.] DEYELOPMEJs^T OF THE FOEE-AEM. 141 About 19 years, the superior extremity of the humerus is united to the body. ,, 20 ,, the epiphyses of the m.etacarpal bones are united to the body. 20 ,, the inferior extremity of the femur is united to the body. 20 „ the inferior extremity of the radius is united to the body. 20 ,, the inferior extremity of the fibula is united to the body. 20 ,, the inferior extremity of the ulna is united to the body. 20 „ the body of the sphenoid is united to the body of the occipital. 20 ,, the patella is completely ossified. 20 „ the sacral vertebrae are anchylosed together. 45 „ the xiphoid cartilage is anchylosed to the sternum. 50 „ the coccyx is anchylosed to the sacrum. It is said that during foetal life the body is developed more rapidly than the head. The extremities, M. Sappey says, are formed from their free extremity to their root ; the greater part of the hand and foot appears in the form of buds attached to the trunk; then the fore-arm and the leg, the arm and the thigh, successively make their appearance ; the divisions into fingers and toes appear the last. When first fully formed the various segments have not the proportions which they have at a later period. The femurs, small at first in proportion to the body, afterwards become relatively large. The same with the humerus. M. Hamy, taking the measurements of Sue, Gunz, Liharzic, and others, has shown that about the fourteenth day of intra-uterine life, the fore-arm of the European is longer than the humerus ; while from about two months and a half it gradually becomes smaller. At this period the length of the fore-arm, in proportion to that of the humerus, is as 88 to 100; at birth this relation is 77; and from 5 to 13 years reaches 72, which it henceforth preserves. In the adult Il^Tegro this relation is higher ; from which M. Hamy concludes that the proportions of the fore-arm, relatively to the arm, are at first of the ISTegro character in the European, and assume their true character at a later period. Other modifications, some connected with evolution, others with the biped attitude, are exhibited in the inferior extremities. The pelvis at birth is relatively narrow, and, as a consequence, 142 DEVELOPMENT OF THE FEMUR. [Chap. iv. the great troclianters appear more projecting. The angle which the neck of the femur makes with the body of the bone is very wide, and the two femurs fall almost perpendicularly. At adult age the pelvis enlarges ; the trochanter femoris is less projecting ; the angle of the neck is less open — from 125 to 130 degrees in the man, and -approaching a right angle in the woman {Humphry) ; the shaft of the bone is very oblique, owing to the inferior extremity making an angle with the perpendicular, looking from above, of about 15 degrees. In old age the angle of the neck is still diminished, and in the man reaches about 110 degrees; the pelvis appears larger, and the great trochanters are less prominent ; lastly, the curve, with its concavity looking backwards, is increased. We may add, incidentally, that the angle of the neck is smaller, and the obliquity of the femur more pronounced in short men : it is the same in woman, according to Humphry. These two anatomical conditions of the femur — the obliquity estimated by the angle which its extremity makes with the vertical, and the wangle of its neck with the diaphysis — have been the subject of .special study by our colleague, Dr. Kuhff. His researches have been carried out upon twenty-four femurs, and the following are the mean results obtained in reference to these two points : Number. Angle of obliquity. Angle neck. Cavern of La Lozere 8 9°-7 .. . 125° Dolmens of La Lozere 5 .. 11 .. 122 Grottoes of La Marne ... 19 .. 11 .. . 129 Gallo-Eomans 6 .. 12 .. . 122 Carlovingians 4 .. 12 .. . 119 His maximum and minimum degrees of obliquity are 14 and 8 respectively, and of the angle of the neck, 140 and 117 degrees. The results agree very closely with those of Mr, Humphry. One of the causes of the diminution of the stature at an advanced age is the sinking of the neck. Another, still more important, is the subsidence of the intervertebral discs, which takes place for the most part anteriorly, whereby the whole of the trunk is bent forwards. Osseous vegetations are thrown out between the body Chap, iv.] DIFFERENCES IK THE SKELETON. 143 of one vertebra and that of another, which tend to strengthen the ■cokimn and to Ihiiit the incurvation. If the first task of the anthropologist, when called npon to give his opinion upon human remains, is to determine their age, his second is to ascertain the sex. Both studies concern Man in his ensemble, and not Man in his ethnic varieties. It is of the latter therefore that we shall speak in this place. Sexual Differences in the Skeleton. There is no appreciable difference in the skeleton in infancy, and lip to puberty ; its features are rather of a feminine character. At puberty, the line of demarcation commences, but the characters .are not thoroughly defined until 20 years of age and upwards. At about 45, or upwards, the distinctions of sex become less marked, and at advanced age are but trifling, though the general character of the skeleton is rather masculine. The principles which govern the sexual differences in adult age may be summed up in a few words. All the parts of the female skeleton are lighter and more frail; the general contour is more soft and graceful; the eminences, processes, or tubercules, are smaller and less marked. If there is one well-established physio- logical fact, it is this : that the asperities which serve for the insertion of muscles are developed in proportion to the activity of those muscles. , Less marked in the studious man than in the labourer, these asperities are still less so in the woman, especially in women residing in towns. This law is so exact that we can tell by the degree of prominence of the crests and processes, what muscles the individual was most in the habit of using, and hence judge as to his profession or calling. As a sequence of these prominences, the depressions, grooves, and marks are more distinct in the man. So the temporal ridge, which serves superiorly for the insertion of the temporal muscle, and the transverse ridges, which divide the internal surface of the scapula, and serve for the insertion of the subscapularis muscle, are more marked in the male ; the 144. SEXUAL CHAEACTEES OP THE SKELETON. [Chap. iv. groove of torsion of tlie humerus is more visible, and tlie two S-like curvatures of the clavicle are stronger. In the woman, on the contrary, the external protuberance of the occipital, and the two subjacent curved lines which serve for the insertion of the muscles of the nucha— the anterior tubercle of the tibia to which the triceps femoris is attached— the tuberosity of the radius which gives insertion to the biceps of the humerus, are less prominent — the curved alveolar borders are more regular — the borders of the malar bone are less thick — the canine fossa is less deep. In a word, it is tolerably easy to determine the sex by the appearance of a bone ; in the case of a long bone, we are rarely in doubt ; in a short bone, as the calcaneum, it is still possible to do so. But we must not be srirprised if we are occasionally at fault ; by making a comparison between one bone and another, the difficulty will be cleared up. Suppose we took the clean-shaved head of any individual, the beard being removed, or the hand, or foot, the rest of the body being concealed, anyone, particularly after a little practice, would be able to tell whether the part belonged to a man or a woman, though it might be sometimes difficult to do so. Both, whether spontaneously or by reason of the work in which they had been engaged, or owing to exposure to the air, would have all the appearances of the opposite sex. On the skeleton, a woman who had worked hard all her life would have the bony prominences and the processes for the articulations of muscles more developed, probably, than a man who had not worked at aU. Let us consider two organs only. The woman has the crests of the ilia larger and wider, in other words, the lips more prominent ; the subpubic foramen is of a triangular shape, while in the man it is irregularly oval ; the symphysis pubis is shorter, the subjacent arch is broad-pointed, while in the man it forms a very acute angle,, and the cotyloid cavities are more expanded. In a word, all the transverse diameters of her pelvis are increased, while in the man the vertical are the more so. In 113 male pelves, the maximum width to the length, or maximum height, was as 125*5 to 1000, and in the woman, as 135 to 1000. The mean relative width to the height of the individual in each sex, is as 160 to 1000 in the Chap. IV.] SEXUAL CHARACTEES OF THE SKULL. 145 man, and as 174 in the woman ; that is to say, fourteen-thoiisandths more in the latter. The head of the woman is smaller and lighter, its contours more delicate, the surfaces smoother, the ridges and processes not so marked. The superciliary arches are but little prominent; the external half of the superior orbital border is thin and sharp {Broca). .The forehead is vertical below, projecting above. The occipital condyles are small, as also the mastoid and styloid pro- cesses. The zygomatic arches are slender. The cranium in its ensemble is less high and longer. The subnasal portion of the face is more prognathous in the white races, less so in the black. The inferior maxilla is smaller, its posterior angles having no projecting roughnesses. The frontal sinuses are less developed, &c. Of all these characters the most important and the only ones easy to measure are the smallness of the head, the less capacity of the cranial cavity, and the relative lightness of the brain. Then the obliteration of the glabella, the throwing outwards of the superior orbital border, the smallness of the inion, the slight pro- jection of the occipital curved lines, and, lastly, the more abrupt angle, more nearly approaching a right angle, of the forehead at the level of the frontal iDrotuberanoes. Five times out of six we may decide the question with certainty ; M. Mantegazza says nine times out of ten."^ It may be asked. What skulls should be preferred upon which to study the races of Man 1 A^'ith Van der Hoeven, we reply, those of men. ]N'o one would be so bold as to say that ethnic characters- are best exhibited in the cranium of the infant; but the skeleton of the woman is intermediate between that of the infant and the adult man. Having considered the skeleton, we must take a brief glance at other questions in relation to age and function in Man and animals.t * P. Mantegazza, " Dei Caraterri Sessuali del Cranio Umano," in " Archio per I'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1872 ; A. Dureau, " Des Caracteres Sexuels dii Crane Hnmain," in " Revue d'Anthrop.," vol. ii., 1873. t See Colin, "Traite de Physiologie Comparee des Animaux." Two vols. Paris, 1871. 146 PHENOMENA OF EEPRODUCTION. [Chap. iv. The Temperature of the Body, Some degrees above zero (centigrade) in most animals termed cold blooded, as reptiles and fishes, is some degrees higher in birds and mammalia, which are both warm blooded. Moreover, it varies but little in the latter. The temperature of Man (in the axilla) is 37*8 centigrade ; that of the hare and squirrel is the same ; that of the horse is 38 ; of the ox, 38*5 ; of the bat and the whale, 38-8; of the tiger and panther, 39 ; of the ordinary monkeys, 39*7 (Nogues); of the wolf, 40-5. TJie Pulse Varies considerably. It is from 70 to 80 in the minute in the adult man ; from 25 to 28 in the elephant; from 36 to 40 in the horse ; from 45 to 50 in the ox ; from 70 to 80 in the pig, the sheep, and the goat ; from 90 to 100 in the dog ; from 120 to 140 in the cat ; 175 .in the dormouse ; 200 in the mouse. Phenomena of Reproduction. These exhibit still more marked differences. Three points here demand our attention, viz. the duration of gestation, the number of young, and menstruation. Generally speaking, in the mammalian series, the circumstances which are favourable to reproduction are in direct ratio to the shortness of life. The smaller species carry their young a shorter period than the larger, and have a greater number of young at a birth. In the following list we see the place occupied by Man. He has two at a birth more frequently than the monkey tribe, and exceptionally he has three or four. Period of Gestation. Weeks. Number of young. Mouse ... 3 ,.. 10 to 15 Hare ... 4 ... 3 or 4 Ferret ... 6 ... 6 to 8 Dog 9 ... 5 or 6 Lion 14 ... 4 „ 5 €l[AP. IV.] DUEATIOK OF LIFE. 147 Period of Gestation. Number of Weeks. young. Eoebuck... ... 24 .. 2 Macauco... ... 15 Macacus Rhoesus ... 26 Macacus Maimoi] ... 34 Stag ... ... 36 Seal ... 39 Woman ... ... 39 Cow ... • . ... 41 Mare ... 43 Camel ... ... 45 Giraffe ... ... 61 Elephant ..: 100 Menstruation is not confined to women, nor to the pitliecian monkeys. The phenomenon is identical with that called " rut " in animals. Duration of Life. The mean duration of ^ life in Man is at the present time, in France, about 40 years,* and the ordinary duration from 70 to 80. Some individuals, exceptionally, live beyond 100 years. Beraud says, one in 3100 in England. Prichard mentions that in the year 1799, Eastron had collected together 1712 cases of centenarians : of this number, 277 had attained from 110 to 120 years; 117 from 120 to 150; and eight from 150 to 180. He also gives a great number of other equally well-authenticated and not less extra- ordinary cases. With some e;xceptions, Man is the most highly favoured of the mammalia as regards longevity ; the reproductive faculty continues longer, and he enjoys a long old age. But is not this due to the care which he takes of himself? The average duration of life in Europe is increasing, while in coimtries where the people go about naked it is decreasing. Among animals, longevity is generally less in the smaller species. The pig lives to the^ age of 9 years, the dog from 15 to 18, the * " Sur le Pretendue Degenerescence de la Population Fran9aise," by M. Broca, in " Bull. Acad. Med." 1867. 148 GENEEAL FUNCTIONS. [Chap. iv. "bear from 20 to 25,* the horse and tlie ox to 20, the camel to 45, the elephant from 150 to 200 years. As regards the three higher anthropoids, the average duration of life is from 40 to 50 years. General Functions and Psychical Manifestations. Man inhahits every region of the globe, and inures himself to all climates and to all conditions of life. Whether at the pole or the equator, on the highest mountains or in the deepest valleys, in arid deserts or unhealthy swamps, nothing seems to daunt him. The Esquimaux are to he met with up to 80 degrees north. There are those who live and thrive in the Andes and the Himalayas, at an altitude of 4000 or 5000 metres and upwards ; and we find in- habitants even in those vast regions in which Livingstone travelled up to his middle in water. From 47 degrees cent. ( = 116*6 Fahr.) in the shade, as observed in Senegal, to 56 below zero ( = 100 degrees Fahrenheit below freezing-point) at the poles, are the extremes of temperature which he is able to support. Some animals readily adapt themselves to the most opposite conditions 'of climate, as the dog ; others are unable to bear such changes, as the reindeer, the bear, the lion, the whale. This is how the disappearance of certain geological species, as the megatherium, the mastodon, and. the mammoth, is to be accounted for. The anthropoid apes live in communities in certain circumscribed regions ; the gorilla and the chimpanzee on the west coast of Africa, at about 15 degrees north and south of the equator ; the orang in Borneo and Sumatra ; the gibbons in India, bordering on China and Malacca. M. Schv^^ein- furth has discovered a new species of chimpanzee on the banks of the Upper White Mle. Other species have been described, belonging to the tertiary epochs, in different parts of the globe, especially in France. We may remark that the anthropoids are only to be met with in hot countries. This power which Man possesses, of more or less readily accustoming himself to any climate, is to be accounted for from the fact (1) That he is omnivorous; * A bear cubbed in one of the pits in Berne, is said to have reached the age of 47 years. i Chap, it.] GENERAL FUNCTIONS. U9 and (2) that he knows how to clothe himself and to manufacture weapons and implements. The Esquimaux subsists on oil and the iiesh of seals; the Todas of the Mlgherries on milk and pulse. Some tribes live on fish and shell-fish, and take sea w^ater as a beverage. Others mix clay with their food, Avhile civilised nations obtain their supplies from all sources. Man cooks his food, but he does not despise the raw moUusk, or undressed fish, or the raw flesh of the mammalia. Unlike any other animal, he rears cattle and devotes himself to agriculture. He makes use of various animals, as the dog, the cat, the camel, and the reindeer, to .sub- serve his own purj^oses ; and even his fellow-creatures, be they black or white, are equally under his dominion. In this respect some animals imitate him — as the red ants in their treatment of the black ants. The majority of animals possess natural means of protection and defence. The gorilla has a fur peculiar to himself, powerful canine teeth, and a muscular system of extraordinary strength. Other mammalia possess agility and swiftness in running, which enables them to escape from enemies. Man has nothing of the kind. " JSTaked and without weapons," such is Linnreus's definition of him. All his various methods of operation he owes to his industry. From the remotest period he has made use of fire, and has manu- factured flint implements. The anthropoid ape has never known how to make use of a staff, to put up a fence, to make a fire, nor to construct a habitation which can be dignified by a higher title than that of a nest."^ The negroes of the islands in the Indian Ocean, who live in trees, or sleep under bundles of sticks laid against a rock, do so from indolence or indifference, rather than from incapacity. The lowest savages known have some notion of drawing ; they know at least how to make a cross or a round in imitation of objects which they see around them; and, for our part, we attach but little credence to the statement made by Old- field, that the aborigines of Western Australia are unable to ■•• Livingstone saw one of these enormous nests constructed by tlie soko, one of tlie chimpanzees. M. du Chaillu saw a sort of circular roofing in. trees, constructed by another chimpanzee, the troglodytes calvns. 150 FAMILY EELATIONS. [Chap, iy, distinguish, the jfigure of a tree from that of a ship. In the same region other travellers have observed, on the contrary, that they possess a certain amount of intellectual capacity. It would have been well if Oldfield had given some case in verification of his statement. Among all races of mankind there exists the desire to jjlease, or the love of dress. In civilised countries it is more developed in the woman, among barbarous tribes it is more so in the man. Some tattoo themselves, or suspend various ornaments to their ears, or to- the septum of the nose, while others dye their hair, or sharpen their' front teeth into points. Something analogous has been observed in domestic, monkeys. Many tribes cannot count above two,, and are less favoured in this respect than the magpie, which can count up to three, some say up to twelve. But all have some notion of number. A Bosjesman, however, although in- telligent in other respects, was incapable of adding one and one together. Man is not to be distinguished from animals as regards his family relations. He is monogamous or polygamous, and the Vv^oman is similarly polyandrous. The gorilla and the chimpanzee are mono- gamous, very jealous of the fidelity of their partners, and very devoted in their attentions to them. Man, likewise, attaches him- self without hesitation to those of his own kindred. He lavishes his care and love on his offspring beyond the period of lactation, and up to that when they are able to look after themselves. If this period should be prolonged beyond puberty it is owing to the customs of society. The ceremonies which among all savage tribes mark the progress from infancy to manhood also mark the period at which Man acquires his independence. Maternal affection, with all its evidences of blind devotion, is, with rarest exceptions, universal. The father exercises authority over the life of his children ; he practises infanticide openly at his will and pleasure, in the same way as the son, at a later period, disencumbers him- self from his parents who have become a burden to him. The Todas destroy in the cradle all their female children beyond a certain number, as being useless, in the same way as they kill Chap, iv.] SOCIABILITY. 151 all their male buffaloes but one, because tbey do not give milk. In a state of nature Man considers utility first, and refers every- thing to his wants, his family, and so on. It must be confessed that in the social condition there is much of this sort of thing under a less rough exterior. Selfishness is well known to be the moving principle almost universally, and is only limited in its action by a fear of the law, or by education. Man lives in society because he is compelled to do so, like many other animals. Being endowed with the faculty of language, and with exalted intellectual powers, he wants to exercise them, having in view also the more ready satisfying of his material wants, and the realisation of a larger amount of comfort. Emulation, which results from this, is the most powerful cause of progress in the physical, moral, and intellectual world. The larger the community, the greater the amount of rivalry ; and the more fierce the contest, the more rapid the progress. A great number of animals also seek the society of their fellow- creatures, and work in company, as the beaver, the buffalo, the Australian dog, the horse, the swallow, the bee, the ant. The soko, an anthropoid ape, lives in a troop of ten individuals on the banks of the river Lualaba. Many species of monkeys, like Man, select a chief, who directs their operations and to whom they submit. The howlers, or mycetes, belonging to the cebian family, hold meetings in which one of them speaks for hours at a time in the midst of general silence, succeeded by great excitement, which ceases as soon as the speaker gives the word of command. Other monkeys combine together to plan an incursion; divided into detachments, some plunder and tear up roots, others make a chain for the purpose of carrying them from hand to hand; others are placed as sentinels to keep watch. In unexpected danger, the sentinel gives the alarm and all decamp. It has been remarked that if it happens that the troop is surprised, owing to the fault of the sentinel, there is a grand hubbub in the neighbouring forest during the night, and on the morrow the body of one of the plunderers is found, to all appearance having been put to death by his companions. 152 EELIGIOUSNESS. [Chap. iv. It has been said that one of the characteristics of man is religious- ness, that is to say, ." the faculty of belief in something above human understanding." Would it not be better to define it as an internal impulse, which prompts us to individualise the unknown and to make him the object of adoration ? "^ Be it as it may, many, even among the most civilised, have neither this belief nor this impulse, and are satisfied to live without troubling themselves as to that which they do not comprehend ; they have neither fear, nor reverence, nor gratitude — the three causes of religious conceptions. There are nations and tribes with- out religion and without any mode of worship, and who believe only in wizards or fetich. It is true they make every form of superstition to subserve their religiousness. But some African or Melanesian tribes have not even superstitions.t Neither good luck nor misfortune affects them in any way. If, * It is impossible to take religion in its strict sense as the faculty of believing in a god ; if so, half of the population of the globe would be destitute of it. Taking Buddhism alone, there are three or four hundred million votaries of this " religion without God, founded on charity amount- ing to madness." — Lahoulaye. f Nothing requires such calm and impartial judgment as the inquiry into the moral and religious condition of savage tribes. Burchell, through his interpreter, addressed two or three questions to Bosjesmans, and im- mediately came to the conclusion that "they were brutes, because they did not answer the simple question : What is the difference between a good and a bad action ? " Cases of this kind are very common. Other travellers, less impulsive, perseveringly inquired into their beliefs and superstitions, and came to the conclusion that they had no conception of anything outside themselves, and were persuaded that they die in the same condition. Which are we to believe ? Such a thing is rare as a rule. All missionaries, to whatever church they belong, are impressed with the conviction that savages believe in a god, in the existence of a soul, and in the deluge ; while independent travellers arrive at altogether different conclusions. The fact is, the savage endeavours to please those from whom he is likely to gain something. He understands the wishes of the missionaries and satisfies them. It is absolutely imdeniable that the absence of all abstract ideas is a very common characteristic of savage tribes ; terror causes them to see evil spirits everywhere, and to create for themselves fetich, but the opposite feeling, the recognition of that which does them good, induces, them to i ceive of beneficent spirits. Chap, rv.] MORALITY. 153 after long abstinence, they get a windfall, they eat and think of nothing further. In this respect Man is inferior to the dog, which maintains a devoted attachment to the hand that brings him his daily food, to the master, who is to him as a God. Assuredly this animal has a belief in something above him. Say if those birds which warble their songs at the rising of the sun are not moved by an internal impulse to praise nature for the infinite pleasure which she bestows upon them ? This is but little removed from adoration. Man alone has an idea of duty — a morale. Is tliis certain? And of what kind of morality are we to speak first — of that of the peasant or of the noble — of the morality of the laws or of natural morality'? A very remarkable English work"* mentions that morality is essentially variable, progressive, and perfectible; that it is a reflex of wants, of usages, and of circumstances ; what is good here, is bad elsewhere — as to take care of one's infirm parent, or to bury him alive. Its radius, he says, has gone on enlarging for ages, from the inferior to the superior races ; at first consisting only of the family, it has since extended to the whole tribe ; that which was evil in one was good in other tribes. Thence it has spread far and wide and has become international. " Morality or ethics," says Mr. Tylor, "signifies the act of conforming to the manners [mores, rjdrj) of the society to which we belong. There are not two races in the world which have exactly the same code of morality, but each has its own, which is sanctioned by public opinion." At the present moment throughout Europe do not the rules of morality change in the event of war? Tylor's most approved criterion, " Do not to another that which you would not have done to yourself," applies to animals as well as to man. The dog knows that in order not to be bitten he must not bite, and acts accordingly : he has also liis morality. jMan possesses consciousness of that which philosophers call le moi, that is to say of himself, of his personality. It would be * " Primitive Culture," by E. B. Tylor. Second edition, London, 1873. Translated into French; Eeiswald and Co.'s edition. Paris, 1876. 154 MENTAL FACULTIES. [Chap, iv, strange if animals had it not also. Man lias the sense of the noble, of the jnst, though he has many ways of expressing it. He grasps the relations of cause to effect ; the animal does the same. He possesses spontaneity, will, the power of balancing probabilities : but is it not so with animals 1 Madness even is not peculiar to man."^ M. Houzeau has worked out this subject in a masterly manner in his two volumes on " The Mental Faculties of Animals." But Prichard, the most orthodox of anthropologists, had previously devoted a long chapter to the consideration of their psychical en- dowments [faculUs 2^sychiques). There is also a work in th& " Bibliotheque des Sciences Contemporaines," which treats of all these questions.t But to the anthropologist, or the unprejudiced naturalist, the I inference is obvious. Between Man and most animals there is no absolute radical difference in intellectual arrangement. All the j faculties of Man are to be found, without exception, in animals, but in a rudimentary state ; some are very highly developed, others J more so even than in ourselves. It is not the exclusive possession I of special faculties which gives us our supremacy, our judgment, ' our intelligence, our correctness of observation ; but the measure of these, and, better still, our holding them in perfect equilibrium. In a madman we continually notice a faculty of rising to a higher state than that which the sane man possesses. Keep this well in view, and the madman would appear to you to be a genius ; but at the same time other faculties are debased, there is a loss of balance, and consequently a less amount of reason. The intellectual characteristic of Man in general, and especially of the man of wisdom, is the exact equilibrium of all his faculties, and not the increase or exaltation of any. Another physiological character connected with the function of the brain, which anthropologists look upon as peculiar to man, is ^•' See " Traite de la Folie des Animatix et de ses Kapports avec celle de rHomme," by Pierquin. Two vols. Paris, 1839. f See also " L'Anatomie Comparee du Systeme Nerveux," by Leuret and Gratiolet, vol. i., cbap. " Eacultes des Mammiferes." Paris, 1839. Chap, iv.] FACULTY OF EXPRESSION. 155 the faculty of language, or that of uttering articulate sounds. Ac- cording to the doctrine of the derivation of Man from less perfect animal forms, Man would have taken his origin from the moment that he was put in possession of this faculty. Faculty of Language. Many, if not all, animals communicate to one another their thoughts relating to their usual life ; they have intonations and modulations of voice, each of which has a distinct and definite meaning. They variously express fear, joy, suffering, and hunger. They make themselves understood by those of their own species, of their own family, of their own young ; they warn them of the approach, of the nature, and of the amount of danger. But, as a general rule, they do not articulate. Some of them join together a few consonants to vowels, hut they repeat them without change. In this respect the notes of birds would better deserve the name of language. Let us explain. There exists in Man and animals, and common to them both, a general faculty called that of expression (Gaussin), or the faculty of connecting an idea with a sign. Its various- manifestations are the faculties of mimicry and of speech ; pro- bably also music and drawing. The mimic faculty evidently exists in animals. The dog which stands at game, and runs back to see if his master is in pursuit, or which scratches at the door to be let in, is a proof of this. It is not surprising that the animal does not possess the faculty of delineation, seeing that it has not the perfect hand of Man, nor has it been instructed. We can simply allude to . the hum of insects produced by the friction of their elytra, and pass on to the vocal faculty. There is not the slightest doubt that animals express their ideas in this way. M. Coudereau has taken great pains to analyse the language of the hen, and the numerous intonations corresponding to each order of ideas, which are pro- voked by the small number of feelings and wants in connection with its humble existence. But in this, and probably in that which is uttered by the howling monkey, are there not articulate 158 FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. [Chap. iv. sounds, or syllables more or less jumbled together, whicb deserve the title of language 1 We must remember that the primitive languages spoken by Man were monosyllabic. All philologists tell us so, and that very tew elementary syllables were sufficient at first to constitute an articulate language. The question then resolves itself into this : How many articulate sounds or simple syllables would be required to constitute a language, and where is' the line to be drawn between the relatively perfect language of some species of animals, and the primitive language of the lowest type of our own progenitors 1 Of course we are not referring to the parrot, which attaches no meaning to its utterances, but to monkeys, which make use of diff'erent syllables, each having distinct meaning. We will now analyse the mechanism of human speech. The air expired from the lungs enters into vibration in the larynx,! where the voice is formed, and passes through the mouth, where! articulation takes place. The muscles of the larynx modify the former, the muscles of the vault of the palate, of the tongue, of the! cheeks and lips, have to do with the latter. But these also contract] for other purposes, and are supplied by diff'erent nerves. The! stimulation of these nerves at their origin would only produce irregular contractions having no definite object. There are thenl besides special centres, having distinct functions, in which the! appropriate movements are co-ordinated, and to which the mental! impressions are conveyed. Thanks to the experience with whichl nature favours us in the living body, the centre, in relation not I only with articulation in general, but with each particular system,! is well known. When the quadrilateral "^ indicated by M. Broca,! at the posterior extremity of his third frontal convolution, especi-j ally on the left side, is affected by an acute lesion, the faculty of I articulating is disturbed or altogether suppressed, f * See page 109 on the Seat of the Faculty of Language. + In naicrocephales, who have never been able to learn to speak, the^ third frontal convolution has been found atrophied. It has been asked why! the faculty of language should appear to be localised, or rather is the more! Chap, iy.] FACULTY OF LANGUAGE. 157 The plienomenon reduced to its most simple expression is termed aphemia. The individual preserves his intellect, expresses his ideas loj gestures or by writing, moves his tongue and lips, and has power of voice, but is unable to articulate ; his general faculty of expression remains, but he has lost the power of speech. At other times the lesion is more extensive ; he has still ideas, but is incapable of committing them to writing or otherwise. Sometimes the lesion is still more considerable, and the intellect itself is affected. We see then the series of operations which language requires, and to which so many more or less distinct organs lend their aid : (1) Thought and will; (2) The general faculty of expression; (3) The particular faculty of articulating ; (4) The transmission by nerves ; (5) The execution by muscles. These functions are thoroughly in accord, and largely developed in Man, but is it not so in the animal *? The animal has ideas, he possesses the faculty of expression and of articulating sounds, but all this is in a rudi- mentary state. In Man, on the contrary, all have assumed gigantic proportions; his ideas have become multiplied in the course of ages ; his faculty of articulating has become perfected by use ; his nerves and muscles have learnt to obey him absolutely. And in the same way as an instrument gives out more harmonious sounds according as the fingers which play upon it acquire greater expert- ness, and the musical power which directs them greater force, so human language is the result of progressive development in the often exercised from the left side. Two explanations have been given; that of M. Broca is the one generally admitted. We are not right-handed, he says, by accident, but because the left hemisphere, which presides over the movements of the right side by the decussation of the nerves near their origin, has from the first a greater amount of activity. This excess of activity extends to all the functions of which this hemisphere is the seat, and notably of that of articulation. There ai-e exceptions, nevertheless; that is to say, there are persons who originally, or after a lesion in the left hemisphere, speak with their right ; in the same way as there are some people originally left-handed, and others who have become left-handed in conse- quence of having lost their right hand. 158 PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS. [Chap. v. course of ages from efforts at first weak and unpretending. But is it the multiplication of ideas wliicli originally gave birth to language, or language wliicli has given development to ideas'? This is the question.^ CHAPTER Y. PATHOLOGICAL CHARACTERS DISEASES FACTS OF TERATOLOGY MICROCEPHALUS HYDROCEPHALUS PREMATURE SYNOSTOSES ARTIFICIAL DEFORMATIONS OF THE SKULL CONCLUSION AS TO man's place in the class of MAMMALIA. Pathological conditions are merely deviations from the physio- logical state. They . affect living organs, and have reference also to man's life generally. The chapter on pathological characters, although important, is only a sequel of our general division o: physiological characters. The points on this horizon which inti rest the anthropologist, only looking at the comparison of Man with the other mammalia, are of three orders : (1) The number of diseases common to Man and animals, and the few peculiar to the one or the other ; (2) The disturbances in the regular de- velopment of the body, when they can throw any light on the problem of the origins of organisation ; (3) Particular alterations in the skeleton being capable of being confounded with the normal