'- %^^^ iS ^^ s .r.^^ ius, Asdrubal was sent into Italy to the uid of his brother Hannibal, but was defeated by the consul Clau- dius, and slain in battle. Scipio, triumphing in Spain, passed over into Africa, and threatened Carthage itself. In this situation of affairs, Hannibal was recalled from Ital}. But the battle of Zama decided the fate of the war, and the Carthageoians sued for peace. This was obtained only on the most severe conditions. 7. The Subjugation of Macedonia and Greece, hy the Romans, followed not many years after the conclusion of the second Punic war. We may date the termination of the kingdom of Ma- cedon at 167 years B. C. and of the indepen- dence of Greece at 21 years after. The people of Ktolia, attacked by the Macedonians, so- licited the aid of the Romans, who, in their eagerness to obtain this country, readily complied with their request. The reduction of Macedonia was the consecfuence. Per- seus, its last sovereign, was led captive to Rome. From that time the conquest of all Greece was no long- er a matter of difficulty. By fomenting dissensions be- tween the states, the Romans gained over many of the principal Greeks to their views. They wanted nothing more than a pretext for drawing the sword, and that was easily found in ?=ome insult which the deputies of Rome are said to have received from the Achajan states. With this as the foundation of the quarrel, Metellus marched his legions into Greece, and commenced the work of slaughter. Mummius, the consul, completed it. conquering the whole of Greece, which, from that period, became a Roman province, under the name of Achaia. ALEXANDER, 356, TO CARTHAGE, 146 B. C. 57 DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD VIII. 1. Alexander the Great, conqueror of most of the world known to the ancients. 2.* Plato ^ an eminent Grecian philosopher, called the divine. 3. Demosthenes^ the prince of orators. 4. Aristotle^ the ablest logician and philoso- pher of antiquity. 5. Euclid^ the greatest master of mathemat- ical science. 6. Tkeocritns, the father of pastoral poetry. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD VIII. I. Learning and the fine arts flourished in Greece a considerable period after the spirit of liberty and patriot- isnn was extinct. The curiosity and taste of the Greeks required an object, and they found it in these intellectual and elegant accomplishments. Under Alexander and his successors, learning made great progress, particularly under the Ptolemies of Egypt. Philological learning flourished chiefly at Alexan- dria. The mathematics was cultivated by the Platonists; but Euclid was the great master of this science. Archime- des was a celebrated successor of Euclid. Philosonhy, during this period, was carried by Aristotle io a degree of perfection, to which it had never before at- tained. The various sects in philosophy had their lead- ers, as, for instance, the Stoics followed Zeno, the Epi- cureans the philosopher Epicurus, and the Sceptics, Pyrrho. 2. Among the Romans, during the latter part of this period, the dawning of literature appears. Several wri- ters arose, who improved and polished the language, part- ly by original compositions, and partly by translations from the Greek. Among these were Livius, Andronicus, Plautius, Ennius, Caccelius, and Terence, all of whom flourished in this period. The Romans, it is said, had no natural taste in the fine arts. The productions of the masters poured in among" 58 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD VIII. them upon the conquest of Greece, but the excellence of these productions was not at first duly appreciated. Philosophy made its appearance at Rome, in the latter part of the period under review, viz. in the interval be- tween the war with Perseus and the third Punic war. A few learned Achasans, banished from their country, and arriving in Italy, diffused a taste for literature, and the education of youth. Fearing foreign manners with foreign studies, the sen- ate banished the Greek philosophers from Rome. But an Athenian embassy arriving soon after, brought thither Carneades and Critolaus, who revived the taste for the Greek philosophy. 3. Libraries, though scarce, were not unknown in these times. Besides the libraries established at Athens by Pi- sistratus, and at Heraclea by Clearchus, there was a ce- lebrated one at Susa, in Persia. The library of Alexandria, in Egypt, was however the richest. Previously to its being burnt in the time of Pom- pey, it contained 400,000 volumes. But some modern li- braries much exceed this, particularly in Frauce. 4. The manners and customs of ancient nations, it must be very interesting to know ; but we have not that par- ticular information on this subject concerning several na- tions, which it is desirable to possess. Those of the Greeks, and especially of the Romans, are the best known. During this period, the Greeks attained to a high de- gree of polish and refinement, although there was a con- siderable diversity, in this respect, among the different states. The Athenians led the way in ease and polite- ness of manners, and in external accomplishments in ge- neral. The severer institutions of Sparta comported less with an attention to exterior graces. The Beotians were pro- verbially rude and boorish. The domestic habits of the Greeks must have wanted, however, much of the gentle- ness and humanity which characterize modern civilized nations, inasmuch as women, who are the principal means of infusing a virtuous delicacy and refinement into human manners, were among the Greeks little better than slaves. The Romans, in the early ages of the republic, were characterized by a spirit of temperance, of frugality, and ALEXANDER, 356, TO CARTHAGE, 146 B. C. 59 probity. The patricians, when in the country, forgot the distinctions of rank, and laboured in the cultivation of their fields, like the meanest plebeians. Presented to us are the examples of Cincinnatus, Curious, the elder Cato, and Scipio Africanus. The town was visited only on the ninth day, which was the market day. In those times, says one of their histori- ans, good manners were cultivated both in peace and war. But when the Romans had extended their dominion, they imported the taste, manners and vices of the nations which they conquered, A notice of these will be given in some of the succeeding periods. 5. The true religion, during this period, was still pro- fessed by the Jews, and for the first part of it, they enjoy- ed their privileges without much molestation. This was especially the case during the reign of Alexander, who granted to the Jews the rreedom of their country, laws, and religion ; and exempted them from paying tribute ev- ry seventh year. But with him expired the prosperous state of Judea. It was successively invaded and subdued by the Syrians and Egyptians, and the inhabitants were reduced to bondage. As the Jews refused to fight on the Sabbath, Ptolemy, king of Egypt, taking advantage of this circumstance, entered Jerusalem on the sabbath, and carried away 100,000 captives. About eighteen years after this event, the sacrifices ceased, and there scarcely existed any external signs of religion, in consequence of another invasion by Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. This persecution roused the Jews to drive the Syrians from Judea, which they glori- ously effected under Judas Maccabeus. 60 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. FBRXOD XX. THE PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR BE- TWEEN MARIUS AND SYLLA, EXTENDS FROM THE DESTRUCTION OF CARTHAGE, 146 years B. C to the time of Julius Ccesar, 80 years B. C. The length of this period is 66 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD, IX. Five principal events are recorded in this pe- riod. FiM, the Destruction of Carthage : Second, the Defeat of Jugurtha : Third, the Mithridatic War : Fourth, the Civil War between Marius and Sylla : Fifth, the Dictatorship of Sylla. The most conspicuous people of this period are the Ro- mans, whose history is interwoven with that of almost ev- ery other nation, and whose records are alike interesting and authentic. I . The Destruction of Carthage occurred 1 46 CARTHAGE, 146, TO JULIUS C^SAR, 80 B. C. 61 years B. C. It put an end to the third and last Funic war. The Carthagenians were massa- cred, and their city burnt to the ground. An unsuccessful war with the Numidians, had very much reduced the Carthag-enians, and the Romans, seiz- ing- this opportunity, invaded Africa. The Carthaj^eni- ans, knowing- their utter inability to meet their foe, offer- ed every submission. The Romans demanded three hundred hostages for the performance of those conditions which the senate should enjoin. The hostages were delivered ; but it appearing thgt the condition required was, that Carthage itself should be razed to its foundation, the miserable inhabit- ants, in despair, made a determined effort for their safety. All however was in vain. Carthage was taken by storm, and converted into a pile of ruins, with the extinc- tion of its population. 2. The Defeat of Jugurtha was effected by Marius the consul, 1 08 years B.C. In one of the engao;ements 90,000 of thcNumidian army were slain, and ,Tugurtha, being betrayed, w-as deliv- ered into the hands of his enemies, and brought in chains to Rome. Jugurtha sought <.o usurp the crown of Numidia, by de- stroying his cousins, the sons of the last king. The elder brothers he murdered, and the younger, applying for aid to Rome, failed of success, since Jugurtha bribed the sen- ate, who decreed to him the sovereignty of half the king- dom. Instigated by ambition, he made war upon his cousin, and finally put him to death. Going to Rome, and plead- ing his own cause, he again, by bribery, secured the fa- vour of the senate. A repetition of his base conduct, how- ever, drew upon hira the vengeance of the Romans, and having, by the treachery of his father-in-law, been put into their hands, he graced the triumph of Marius, in chains, and was finally starved in a dungeon. 8. The Mithridatic War commenced 89 years B. C. It ended in the defeat of Mithri 6 62 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. dates by LucuUus, 72 years B.C. In the mean time the sources of those civil feuds which soon distracted Rome, arose. Miihridates wa? a very powerful monarch of the East, his duminions extending over several countries. He could bring into the field several hundred thousand men, besides many armed chariots. The Romans were anx- ious to attack him, and they wanted no other pretext than his having invaded some states that were under the pro- tection of Rome. Sylla, to the great disappointment of Marius, was ap- pointed to the command of the expedition against Mithri- dates. Archelaus having been sent by this monarch to oppose Sylla, he was defeated near Athens with the loss of an incredible number of his forces. After another battle, the Roman general recovered all the countries that had been usurped by Mithridates, so that both parties were now inclined to an accommodation ; Mithridates induced by his losses, and Sylla by a desire of taking vengeance on his enemies in Rome. 4. The Civil War between Marius and Sylla, commenced 88 years B. C. These men being leaders of the repubhc, became rivals and ene- mi<^s, and carried on a most inveterate warfare against each other. It was attended with the most horrible massacres of the citizens. While Sylla was engaged in the Mithridatic war, Ma- rius, having been previously driven from Rome by Sylla, returning to Italy, and joining his forces to those of Cinna, laid siege to Rome, and compelled the city to absolute sub- mission. After putting to death all whom they consider- ed their enemies, they assumed the consulship. But Ma- rius, in a fit of debauch, died a few days after. Sylla soon returned to Italy, victorious over his foreign enemy, and, joined by Cethegus and other leaders, gave battle to those Romans who had been opposed to him, and entirely defeated them. A most dreadful massacre and proscription followed, which had for their object the ex- lermioation of every one of his enemies in Italy. CARTHAGE, 146, TO JULIUS C^SAR, 80 B.C. 63 5. The Dictatorship of Sijlla is dated 82 years B. C. He invested himself with this of- fice for an unlimited period ; but after a course of capricious tyranny, he voluntarily resigned. From this time, Rome, though nominally a re- public for a number of years, never actually re- covered its freedom. Sylla, as perpetual dictator, was without a rival in au- thority, and absolute master of the government. He amused the people with a show of their former govern- ment, but he took care that none but his own creatures should be elected to any office. Every thing was done as he exacted. The least oppo- sition aroused his vengeance. The people saw nothing before them but the prospect of hopeless slavery. It was at this juncture, however, that, contrary to all expecta- tion, Sylla laid down the dictatorship, having held it not quite three years. He retired in safety, though not without reproach. In- numerable multitudes had he injured beyond reparation; and it seems strange, after his retirement and defenceless state, that he escaped the effects of public or private re- sentment. The reason of his abdication cannot be well ascertained. He died soon afterwards of a most loath- some disease. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD IX. 1. Polybins^ a learned historian, w^ho wrote the histoiy of the Greeks and Romans. 2. Apollodortis, a Greek grammarian. 3. Liicilius, an early Roman poet. 4. Sylla, an able general, eminent for his success and cruelty in war. 5. John Hyrcanus, liberator of the Jews, and father of the Asmonean dynasty. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD IX. 1. The state of the Jewish polity and religion, during this period, may be given in few words. The brothers of 64 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. Judas Maccabeus, pursuing the course bej^iin by their fa- ther and brother, completely eslablishei' the indepen- dence of their country, and changed its republiban gov- ernment to a vigorous and flourishmg monaichy John Myrcanus, son of Simon Maccabeus, united in his persori the office of high priest and generalissimo of the army, subdued the enemies of his country, and is cele- brated for liis many valuable qualities. His sons assumed the regal title. His descendants are distinguished in the history of tlie Jewish nation by the appeiiation of the Asmoiuan dynas- ty^ which continued about 126 years. Notwithstaodin* the present security of the Jews, vital religion was doubt- less at a low ebb. 2. During this period, literature and philosophy among the Greeks were greatly on the decline. Some eminent historians, however, then flourished. A taste for the fine arts continued to be cultivated, though few or no master artists arose. The learned men of Greece, after the con- quest of their country by the Romans, became the ia- striictors of the latter in these elegant pursuits. The Romans made some progress in the same during this period, and were evidently preparing for the splen- did era which immediately follows. That era shone forth suddenly, and lasted in its perfection, less than a cen- tury. 3. In the agricultural art, as well as in the art of war, the Romans were particularly well versed. Their greatest men, after their successes in war, retired to the peaceful occupations of husbandry. This practice, however, was soon laid aside, and successful generals became at length governors of provinces, as will afterwards appear. To their knowledge of the art of war, and to their exact discipline, as well as to their bravery, we must attribute the success of the Roman arms. From the constant prac- tice of athletic exercises the Romans were inured from infancy to hardiness and fatigue, and bred to that species of life which a soldier leads in actual warfare. The levies were made every year by the tribes called out, and divided into their respective number oi cen- turies, each century presenting by rotation as many sol- diers as there were legions to be raised. The number of CARTHAGE, 146, TO JULIUS C^SAR, 80 B. C. 65 the soldiers in the legion was various at different periods. It was from 3000 to 10,000 and 1 1 ,000. The Roman tactics are supposed to have been at their highest pitch of excellence during the Punic wars. Han- tiibal was a master of the science of tactics. From him the Romans acquired important information, in view of his practice. The naval military art was far less perfect in these than in modern times. Their gallies consisted of one or more banks of oars. The combatants assailed at a distance with javelins, missile combustibles, &c. The serious at- tack was made in boarding, in which event the vessels were grappled by means of a crane let down from the prow. 4. During so short a period, the character and manners of a people do not in general materially alter: yet those of the Romans underwent a material change. From the time of the destruction of Carthage, virtue and freedom began to sink among this people. An historian of their own assigns the cause : "Before the destruction of Carthage, the fear of their enemy kept the people in the practice of virtue : but when the re- straint of fear ceased to influence their conduct, they abandoned themselves to profligacy and arrogance, the usual concomitants of prosperity." Avarice and ambition now began to be the chief mo- tives of the Roman conquests; and the nations of the east and south, sunk in luxury, or wasted with contention, be- came an easy prey to a. people who were destined from the beginning to be the masters of the world. 6* vjO chronology FERIOD X- THE PERIOD OF ROIVIAN LITERATURE, EXTENDS FROM THE FIRST CAMPAIGN OF JULIUS ^ ESAR, 80 years B. C. to the J\cUivity of Jesus Christ, or the commencerfient of the Christian era. — This period embraces 80 years. Jesus Christ is supposed to have been born four years before the commencement of the vulg-ar era. The 10th period therefore comes down to the year 4 of the Chris- tian era, IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD X. This period includes seven principal events. First, the Taking of Jerusalem by Pompey : Second, the Banishment of Cicero from Rome : Third, the Invasion of Britain by Caesar : Fourth, the Battle of Pharsalia : Fifth, the Assassination of Caesar : Sixth, the Battle of Philippi : Seventh, the Battle of Actium, and the end of the Roman Commonwealth; JULIUS CiESAR, 80 B. C. TO CHRISTIAN ERA. 67 During the latter part of this period, Rome passed from a republic to a despotism, and rapidly mutiplying its con- quesis, it held the fairest portion of the civilized world un- der its sway. The records of this period, therefore, are peculiarly Roman, embracing however the annals of the surrounding, nations. 1 . The Taking of Jerusalem hy Pompey^ hap- pened 63 years B. C This event was connect- ed with the restoration of Hyrcanus to the gov- ernment of Judea, and the subjection of that country to the Romans. After the termination of the Civil war between Marias and Sylla, and of the Mithridatic war, Ponipey and Caesar began to figure on the stage of the Roman wcJrId. Other eminent men, it will be seen, were associated with them. Pompey being chosen consul, was engaged in wars on account of the republic. After conquering various coun- tries, he turned towards Judea, and laid siege to Jerusa- lem. This venerable place, which had been so often be- sieged and taken, being naturally strong from its position, sustained the siege for some time, but was at last captur- ed, and 1200 of its defenders slain. After restoring Hyrcanus to the government, he took Aristobolus, who had usurped it, to grace his triumph up- on his return. This triumph, which lasted two days, is said to have been the most splendid that pver entered the gates of Rome. The names of no less than fifteen con- quered kingdoms were exposed. Judea from this time became tributary to Rome. 2. The Banishment of Cicero from Borne, was accomplished by the partizans of Caesar, who dreaded Cicero's abihties.' The pretence of it was the illegahty of certain measures pursued in suppressing CataUne's conspiracy. It is da- ted 58 years B. C. Cicero, the greatest man perhaps of all the RomanS;, had been the instrument of saving his country, by disclo- sing and defeating the execrable conspiracy of Cataline* 63 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. The highest hooours had heea accorded to him on aiccouDt of his agency in this concern. Soon, however, Clodius the Tribune, instigated by Cae- sar, procured Cicero's banishment into Greece. He bore it with the greatest impatience. Pompey had abandoned him ; but in the wane of that general's reputation, he be- came desirous to prop himseli by the abilities of Cicero. He accordingly interested himself in procuring his re- call from exile, and Cicero returned in high honour after an absence of sixteen months. The death of Crassus, one of the Triumvirate, soon after left Cocsar and Pompey with the Roman world before them as the prize of ambition ; while Cicero endeavoured in vain to sustain the falling liberties ot his country. 3. The Invasion of Britain by Ccesar, occur- red 55 years B. C. Having obtained several advantages over the natives, he withdrev^ to Gaul on the approach of winter. The next summer he returned, and reduced a considera- ble portion of the Island under the Roman do- minion. it was not until Ctr^sar had conquered the whole of Gaul, that he turned his arms towards Britain. The in- habitants of the island at that time were savaget, and wholly unacquainted with the arts of civilized hfe. They were, however, brave and warlike. Landing at Deal, Caosar attacked them, but he was op- posed with equal zeal and courage. The disciplined le- gions of Rome were, however, more than a match for the irregular skill and bravery of these savages. He bound the Britons to submission during his absence to Gaul. After a winter's residence there, he returned; and, ad- ding one victory after another, he so prostrated the Bri- tish strength, that most of the island fell under the Roman 8wav. But the pressure of affairs in Italy induced Cae- sar's speedy return to Rome. The Battle of Pharsalia^ w^as gained by Ca3- sar over the forces of Pompey and of the repub- lic. It took place 48 years B. C. Pompey soon JULIUS CiESAR, 80 B. C. TOCHRISTIAN ERA. 69 after miserably perished, and Caesar acquired an accession both of popularity and power. Caesar, io his attempt to deprive Pornfjey of his govern- ment, was opposed by force of arms. The consuls and a great part of the senate were the friends of Pompey. On the side of Caesar were a victorious army and the body of the Roman citizens, whom he had brought over by bis li- berality. Passing the Rubicon, Caesar entered Rome before Pom- pey had time to collect an army, who, with many of the senate, immediately left Rome. Having there possessed himself of supreme authority, he marched directly to at- tack Pompey's lieutenants who were in Spain. Having subdued these, and being in the mean time appointed dic- tator, and soon after consul, he had the right of acting in the name of the republic. By this time Pompey had raised a numerous army, and Caesar, anxious to bring him to an engagement, met him in the field of Pharsalia, and entirely defeated him. Of Pompey's army 15U00 were slain, and 24000 surrendered themselves prisoners. Pompey's end was most miserable. Fleeing into Egypt, he was basely taken by Ptolemy and murdered. He was stabbed in the sight of his wife, and after his head was severed from his body, the latter was thrown naked on the sand. By this deed Ptolemy hoped to conciliate the favor of Caesar. 5. The Assassination of Coesar took place in the senate house 44 years B. C. As he had trampled on the liberties of his country, a body of the senators, 60 in number, entered into a conspiracy to deprive him of life. He fell pier- ced with many wounds. Caesar having subdued the remains of Pompej 's party, in whose interest C?ito and Scipio were engaged, began to turn his attention towards the improvement of his coun- try. Ambitious as he was, he manifested considerable moderation and clemency. His person was at length de- clared to be sacred, and the title of irwperator was given him. 70 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X, The lovers of liberty were however dissatisfied. Band- ing together with Brutus and Cassius at their head, they formed the design of freeing Rome of its master. On the Ides of March, taking his seat in the senate-house, he was suddenly assailed by the conspirators. He warded off their daggers for some time, till, seeing Brutus, whom he had greatly loved and befriended, he faintly exclaimed, " And you, loo, my son !" Then cover- ing his face with his robe, he resigned himself to his fate. 6. The Battle of Pfiilipjn was fought 42 years B. C. It was gained by Octavius Caesar and Antony over the forces of the conspirators against Julius Caesar, headed by Brutus and Cassius. This decided the fate of the empire. Octavius, Antony and Lepidus, had formed a triumvi- rate tor their mutual benefit, though the two former were Tiv uls, and alike desirous of supreme authority. To gra- tify '^ach other's wishes, each consented to sacrifice some of \i»e best of his friends to the vengeance of his associate. In this way the great Cicero was given up by Octavius to the resentment of Antony. In this manner three hun- dred senators and three thousand knights were put to death. Octavius, being grand nephew of Julius Caesar, and his adopted heir, though destitute of military talents, had gained the senate to his interest, and divided with Antony the favour of the people. As soon as the conspirators were overtaken, Octavius and Antony gave them battle. This hi>ppened at Phi- lippi, in Thrace, and Antony obtained the victory. Bru- tus and Cassius escaped the vengeance of their enemy, by a voluntary death. 7. The Battle of Acti?im, and the end of the Roman Commonwealth^ took place 31 years B. C. The battle was fought between the naval forces of Octavius, and those of Antony, in which the former was victorious. Octavius be- came the sole master of the Roman world. Antony had excitt d the ind'on.djun of the rornaji peo- ple, on account of his profligacy, and expenditure of the JULIUS CiESAR, 80 B. C, 70 CHRISTIAN ERA. 71 public resources. And having divorced Octavia, bis wife, who was sister to Octavius, war between them became inevitable. The object at stake was the empire. An immense armament chiefly naval (the land force be- ing merely spectators) came to an engagement near Ac- tium on the coast of Epirus. The conflict was decisive. Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, to whom Antony was in- famously attached, deserted him with her gallies, in the midst of the engagement. Such was his infatuation that he immediately followed her, leaving his fleet, which, after a contest of some hours, yielded to the squadron of Octavius. Antony and Cleo- patra perished miserably, while Octavius was now left without a rival, with the government of Rome in his hand^. Egypt which had existed a kingdom from immemorial ages, from this time became a province of Rome, The empire had now become the largest which the world had ever seen ; and Octavius, now named Augus- tus, holding the principal offices of the state, became the absolute master of the lives and fortunes of the Roniaa people. During a long administration he almost obliterat- ed the memory of his former cruelties, and seemed to coo- sult only the good ot his subjects. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD X. 1. Lucretius^ a Roman didactic poet. 2. Julius Casar^ a successful^ warrior, and el- egant writer. 3. Cicero^ the prince of Roman orators and philosophers. 4. Varro^ the most learned of the Romans. 5. Virgil^ the prince of Roman poets. 6. Horace, the greatest of the Roman lyric poets. 7. Sallust, the first philosophical Roman his- torian. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD X. 1. The human mind made a wonderful advance during this period, for although in a great measure, the glory had departed from Greece, it shone in all its brightness 72 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. on Rome. The Augustao age of Roman literature has probably never been exceeded. In philosophj' and polite learning the names of Cicero, Virgil and Horace will ne- ver be forgotten. To tlie Greeks, in tl>e era of their literature, must be ' asciibed the praise of originality and invention; but Mie Romans were successful imitators, and in some instances mu-^t be said to have improved upon their models. Philo- sopliy and the various kinds of poetry, history and fine writing were cultivated with great success. The cultivation of physics, or natural philosophy, seems to have been but little attended to by Ihe Romans, or by the Greeks before them. We know of no Roman authois of this period who seem to have bestowed much attention on nature^ but Varro t.xcept a few fragments, his works have perished. 2. Many of the useful arts had long been understood by the Asiatic nations, and some of those arts were under- stood in great perfection. These nations attracted but little attention at this time except through the medium of the Romans. Their wealth tempted the masters of the woild to attack them, and their luxury, profligacy and su- pirioness, made them, in general, an easy prey. Among the most distant nations of the east, even the Chinese, many of the arts of life were duly cultivated. Concerning that people in particular, we know little ex- cept the fact, tiiat they had a regular government under different dynasties, and that they wevQ partly civilized, and together with an acquaintance with several useful arts, they were not btrangers to certain sciences, particu- larly astronomy. In the art of war, however, the Romans exceeded all the nations of antiquity. We have not time to give any account of it here, onfy we would remark that Julius Cae- sar m particular was a great adept in it. The art of in- trenchment he carried to perfection. Many important arts with which we are acquainted, were however un- known to the ancients. 3. The system of education among the Romans was excellent. The utmost attention was bestowed in the ear- ly formation of the mind and character. The Roman matrons themselves nursed their children. Next to the JULIUS CESAR, 80, TO CHRISTIAN ERA. 73 care bestowed upon {lj<^ir morals, a remarkable degree of aKention seems to have been given to the language of children. The attainment of a pure and correct expression was a great object. The honours of the state were the pri^e of eloquence. Tl)e politeness which characterized the Ro- mans shewed itself particularly in their speech and ges- ture. 4. The manners and customs of antiquity were, in ma- ny respects, different from those which now prevail. In the Bible we may perceive frequeat allusions to habits and practices which appear very strange to us. During the period now under review, the Roman manners were well established. Their national character had fully de- veloped itself. The day was spent at Rome briefly as follows : — The morning was passed in visiting the temples, or in attend- ing the levees of the great The clients waited on their patrons, and the patricians visited one another. From the levee they proceeded to the forum, either for business or pleasure. When the hour of dinner arrived, which was at noon, they partook of a very slight repast. After dinner the youth repaired to the Campus Martius, where they were engaged in athletic exercises and sports till sunset. The elder class engaged in repose, literary conversation, the- atrical amusement, or the shows of the circus and am- phitheatre, according to their respt'iive tastes and incli- nations. After these occupations it was customary to. go to the baths. From these they went immediately to supper, which was their principal meal, and far exceeded modern luxury in eating and drinking. Cookery became a sci- ence : and ihe number and costliness of their dishes were scarcely credible. At table it was their practice to re- cline on couches. 3. The morality of nations is apt to decline with the increase of their wealth. This was eminently the case with tlie Romans. They became, at length, when their poverty and freedom had departed, a most vicious and abandoned people. Among the Jews, the true religion had, for a long time 7 74 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD I. run \o\7. But it was at the extremest point of its degra- dation, immediately previous to the coming of our Saviour into the world. By the favor of the Romans, the Jewish monarchy had been re-established. Herod the great was placed on the throne of David. This prince rebuilt the temple in a very magnificent manner. His reign was splendid, but was stained with almost every crime. At this time an event took place, than which none more important in its nature and consequences, was ever recorded in the histo- ry of religion, or of the world, viz. the birth of jesus CHRIST. MODERN CHRONOLOGY extends from the Nativity of Jesus Christ to the present time. This portion of Chronology may be divided also into Ten Periods. GENERAL DIVISION. PERIOD I. will extend from the Nativity of Jesus Christ to the Reign of Constantine the Great, 306 years A. C. This is the period of the Ten Persecutions of Christians. PERIOD II. will extend from the Reign of Constantine, 30fi years A. C. to the Extinction of the Western Iiimpire, 476 years A. C. This is the 'period of the Northern Invasions. PER2i:OD III. will extend from the Extinc- tion of the Western Empire, 476 years A. C. to the Flight of Mahomet, 622 years A. C. This is the period of the Justinian Code, and of the Wars of Belisorius. PERIOD IV. will extend from the Flight of I Mahomet, 622 years A. C to the crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 years A. C. This is the period of the Establishment of the Sara- ' en Dominion. i GENERAL DIVISION. 75 PERIOD V. will extend from the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 years A. C. to the First Crusade, 1095 years A. C. This is the period of the New fVestern Empire. PERIOD VI. will extend from the First Cru- sade, 1095 years A. C. to the Founding of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C. This is the period of the Crusades. PERIOD VII. will extend from the Found- ing of the Turkish Empire, 1299 years A. C. to the Taking of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C. This is the period of the Papal Schism. PERIOD VIII. will extend from the Taking of Constantinople, 1453 years A. C. to the Edict of Nantes, 1598 years A. C. This is the period of the Reformation. PERIOD IX. will extend from the Edict of Nantes, 1598 years A. C. to the death of Charles 1 2th of Sweden, 1718 years A. C. This is the period of the English Commonwealth. PERIOD X. will extend from the Death of Charles 12th, of Sweden, 1718 years A. C. to the final Restoration of the Bourbons, 1 8 1 5, A. C. This is the period of the American and French Revolution. \ CHRONOLOGY PERIOD I. PERXCD Z. THE PERIOD OF THE TEN PERSECU- TIONS OF CHRISTIANS, EXTENDS FROM THE NATIVITY OP JESUS CHRIST, to the Reign of Constantine the Greats 306 years A. C. The length of this period is 306 years, IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD I. We may notice six principal events in this period : First, the Birth of Jesus Christ : Second, the Commencement of the Persecu- tion of the Christian Church • Third, the Destruction of Jerusalem by Titus : Fourth, the Victories of Trajan in Dacia and the Eagt : CHRIST TO CONSTANTINE, 306 A. C. 77 Fifth, the Defeat of the Persians by Alexan- der Severus : Sixth, the Partition of the Roman Empire by Diocletian. Modern chronolog-y, in its application to history, is much more clear and definite than most portions of an- cient chronology, particularly its earlier portions, and those that relate to nations which were but little known. Ecclesiastical and civil records furnish us with abundant and authentic materials. 1 . The Birth of Jesus Christ, may be dated, according to the best authorities, 748 years from the founding of Rome, and 4 years before the common date of the Christian era. He was " (iod manifest in the flesh," and came into the world to make expiation for sin. He was cruci- fied in the 33d year of his reign, and 3d of his divine ministry. The particulars of the life of Jesus Christ, of his doc- trine, of the effects of his ministry and death, of the la- bors of his apostles, and the system of religion which they taught under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit, are given in the several bo(>k3 constituting the New Testament. To this record, we refer for iutormation on these impor- tant topics, since they can not here be detailed. The reader need not, perhaps, be told, that they are the most inl cresting and momentous of all human narratives. — Their veracity and authenticity are not, at this day, to be questioned. The effects of the Saviour's appearance in the world, were, from the beginning, decisive. Considering the hos- tile inclinations of man, his religion, under the ministrj"- of the apostles, spread with great rapidity. Reformation of moral character was its aim, object, and result. Its effects ever have been great, and such they will be to the end of time. The appearance of Jesus Christ on earth, has had an influence on all subsequent history among civilized na- tions. It is the great era from which we reckon events* 78 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD I. It has altered the aspect of all human affairs, and will al- ter them more and more, as his religion hecomes more prevalent. In many events to be noticed in this part of our work, we shall perceive the relation between them and this cardinal, all-important occurrence. 2. The Commencement of the Persecution of the Christian Church, took place under Nero, 64 years A. C. This persecution was repeated in ten successive instances, under the Roman emperors that followed, down to the time of Constantine, thus continuing more than two centuries. The sufferings and loss of life, which were the consequence, exceed calculation. The emperors under whose r< igns this persecution was raised and carried on, were Nero, Domitian, Trajan, An- toiiiiius, Severus, Maximinus, Decius, Valerian, Aurelian, and Diocletian. At'ter Rome became an empire under Augustus, its sovereigns were, for the most part, monsters of vice and cruelty. As sotne of the persecuting emperors were esteemed virtuous men, it must be attributed, partly to the spirit of the times, partly to the form of t!ie Roman government, but chiefly to the opposition of the human heait to the re- ligion of Jesus CHirist, that such dreadful persecutions were waged against the christians. The sufferings of the christians, the capricious tortures they endured, and the various forms of death whicli they underwent, need not here be described. Under the se- cond persecution, 40,000 were supposed to have suffered martyrdom. The seventh persecution under Decius, is said to have been the most dreadful ever known. Christians were in all places driven from their habita- i lions, stripped of their estates, tormented with racks, j fire. &c. In the last persecution, which continued ten | years, the amount of suffering- was immense — the loss of j life almost incredible. In Egypt alone, no less than 144,- 000 christians died by the violence of their persecutors, besides 700,000 that died through the fatigues of banish- ment, &c. 3. The destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, oc- '< casioned the extinction of the Jews as a nation. CHRIST TO CONSTANTINE, 306 A. C. 79 and their dispersion throughout the earth. It hap- pened 70 years A. Christ, who had repeatedly predicted the event. Nearly 1,500,000 Jews perished on this awful occasion. The Jews, for some time, had beeo governed by Herod, as viceroy under Augustus. Archelaus, Herod^s son, vas banished on account of his tyranny; and Judea, from that period, was in the ordinary condition of a Roman province. As the Jews rebelled on every slight occasion, Vespa- sian was sent by Nero to reduce them to order, but being soon re-called to assume the government of the empire, Titus his son was left to prosecute the expedition. Will- ing to spare the city, he made many efforts to persuade the Jews to surrender : but he did not succeed. With a spirit of singular infatuation, they rushe4 on their own ruin. After a blockade of six months, Jerusa- lem was taken by storm, the temple reduced to ashes, and tlie city buried in ruins. This miserable people, who had crucified the Lord of glorj% received the punishment due to their crimes. Innumerable butcheries were made by the Roman sword, and by their own, upon themselves. Frotn this time the nation was no more. Many of them left Judea forever. These sunk into the greatest de- grcidalion. Vespasian ordered all the Jewish lands to be sold for his own use, and imposed a tribute of half a she- kel on all the Jewi within his empire. 4. The Victories of Trajan in Dacia and the East, greatly enlarged the boundaries of the Roman Empire ; but they were not permanent- ly useful. The conquered countries soon re- appeared in arms. Trajan commenced his vic- torious course 102 years A. C. The Dacians, claiming a trbute from the Roman peo- ple, Trajan suddenly appeared in arms on the frontiers, and awed them at once into a treaty of peace. As, how- ever, this was soon after violated, he entered the hostile country, obtained a complete victory, though with a pro- digious slaughter of his troops, and Dacia became a Ro- man province. 80 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD I. The emperor then turned his arms eastward, and spee- dily rednced Mesopotamia, Chaldea, Assyria ; and took Ctesiphon, the capital of the Parlhian empire. Still pursu- ing his conquests in the East, he subdued nations till then unknown, and it is reported, that arriving- at the confines of India, " he lamented, with a sigh, that his advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown of the son of Philip. '» 5. The Defeat of the Persians hy Alexander Sevenis, occurred in a decisive engagement which he had with that people. The Roman empire, by this defeat of the Persians, was re- stored to its former limits. It is dated 226 years A. C. ,. In the intWFal between Trajan and Alexander Severus, some of the wnquered province? of the F^mpire threw off the yoke. Persia was one of them. The effbi ts of Alex- ander, who was a soldier, brought many of them again within the pale of the empire. But such was the corruption of the times, it became im- possible that so mighty a structure as the Roman Empire could be preserved entire. At the period of Trajan's death, it comprehended the greater part of Britain, all Spain, France, the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, Egypt, Baibary, Bildulgerid, Turkey in Europe and in Asia, and Persia. Alexander stayed the progress of its decay, only in ap- pearance. His slaughter of the Persians, in a single en- gagement, was immense, and the ciiies of Ctesiphon and Babylon were once more taken. The empire, however, was exhausted by this exertion of its remaining strength, and it became but little more than a splendid rum. 6. The Partition of the Roman empire by Diocletian, is dated 292 years A. C He divi- ded it into four governments, under as many princes, two of them being emperors, each call- ed Augustus, and two Caesars. Thus a new CHRIST TO CONST AXTINE, 300 A. C. 81 system of adminstration was formed, though it did not long continue. Maximian shared will) Diocletian the title of A(%ustus ; and Galerius and Constantius were declared Caesars. All were nominally supreme, though iu reality directed by Diocletian. The measure was doubtless unwise, since its efficacy depended on the ability of an individual. Diocletian and Maximian, in pursuance of their plan, retired from the sovereignly, and left the government in the hands of the Caesars. But Constantius dying soon after, and his son Constantine beJag proclaimed emperor, though Galerius did not acknowledge him, Maximian resumed again the purple. ♦ On the death of Maximian and Galerius, Constantine had no other competitor than Maxentius, the son of the former, and the contest between them was decided by the sword. Maxentius perished, and Constantine remained sole master of the empire. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD I. 1 . Livy^ the prince of Roman historians. 2. Seneca^ a Roman morahst and philosopher. 3. Pliny 2c^, the earliest writer on Natural History, whose works are extant. 4. Tacitus^ an eminent philosophic historian. 5. Plutarch^ the principal biographer of anti- quity. 6. Quinctilian^ an eminent Greek critic. 7. Origen and > learned christian writers, 8. Cyprian, \ commonly calledya^Aers. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD I. 1. At the commencement of this period, sprang up the Christian Religion, which was grafted on Judaism, and derived from the same divine source. By the divine ap- pointment, Judaism was superseded by Christianity, as types and shadows were no longer of any use, after the substance was come. From the time of our vSaviour's ascension, his religion began to make its way among the nations. The labors 82 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD 1. and sufferings of the apostles, and other early christian teachers, were almost incredible, in accomplishing this object. It prevailed, notwithstanding the prejudices and lusts of the liuman heart. The opposition which the Christian religion met with, never hindered its progress. The awful persecutions which were raised against tlie christians, weve the means of exciting the attention of mankind to the subject of their religion. Notwithstanding all the attempts to put it down, it fiqally prevailed throughout the Roman empire, and reached, at last, the throne of the Caesars. It is noi to be concelled, however, that many false no- tions, foreign to the puje gospel, became incorporated with it. Primitive Christianity, before the conclusion of this period, was considerably corrupted by the Pagan phi- losophy, tbvs giving rise to the sects of the Gnostics and Ammonians, and the Piatonising christians. In the third' century it was exposed, in addition to the fires of persecution, to the attacks of infidel philosophers, as Porphyry, Philostratus, &c , but was ably defended by Origen, Dionysius, and Cyprian 2. Succeeding the Augustan age, there were many men of superior erudition and intellectual powers ; but whatever pertains to polite and elegant literature, began to decay. A pompous, affected, and false style of writing, chiefly prevailed. No works so finished as those of Vir- gil and Horace were produced after the Augustan age, though there were some writers, perhaps of superior ge- nius, to those of that renowned age. Yet the princes who succeeded Augustus were friends of literature, and were somewhat learned themselves. — But they were despots. Genius being indulged at the risk of life, (for no offence could be safely given to the throne) was cramped within narrow bounds. Eloquence was abandoned to pedants. Sophists occupied the chair of philosophy. Until the destruction of Jerusalem, the Jews had schools in Judea, particularly at Bethhoron, Jerunia, and Tibe- rias. In the schools of Egypt, the chief of whicii was Alexandria, were taught the Greek philosophy, mathe- matics, jurisprudence, medicine, magic and astrology. In Greece, the schools of Athens still flourished, and at Rome and in Italy they were first endowed from the pub- CIIllIST T^ CONSTANTINE, 306 A. C. 83 lie treasury by Vespasian. The principal school, next to that of Rome, was at Milan. 3. Tlie population of the Roman empire, during- this period, was exceeding-Iy large. It has been computed to be no less than / 20,000,000, one half of whom were slaves. The capital alone contained more than 6,000,000 of in- habitants. Innumerable, also, were the hordes of barbarians to the north and north east, by whom the Roman empire was at length o^^erpowered. Their numbers seemed not to be at all exhausted, notwithstanding the immense slaughter which was made of them by lonarfjontinued wars m On the whole, though many ofthe arts of life were then l^undiscovered, and the moderns* have many conveniences which the ancients had not, this period, especially the'for- mer part of it, in population, splendor, and DflM'er, stands conspicuous on the records of the world. J^^ During the latter part of this period, hovf^^, the mag- nificent structure of the Roman empire was ready to fall into ruin, and long ages of darkness, ignorance, and im- becility, were approaching. 4. Except the barbarous nations by which the empire was surrounded, and except India and China, of whicli we hear little during this period, but one form of govern- ment prevailed ; and that was the government of imperial Rome. For she held, under her sway, all the civilized world, which was at that time known. Some ofthe forms of free institutions were observed in the empire, but they were merely forms. The emperor was master of the lives and fortunes of his subjects. In room of the ancient republican institutions, which were founded chiefly on personal merit, a rigid subordina- tion of dignities now went through all the orders of the state. Tl^e magistrates were divided into three classes, distinguished by the titles of I, the illustrious; 2, the re- spectable ; 3, the clarisimi. These titles, however, vfere without meaning, and mere- ly matters of parade ; and the state of society was an al- most constant interchange of oppression on the part of the great, and of servility on the part of the poor. CHRONOLOGY PERIOD II. FERZOD x:. THE^FftlOD OF THE NORTHERN ^^ INVASIONS, -V EXTENDS FROM THE REIGN OF CONSTANTINE THE GREAT, 306 years A. C. to the Extinction of the f4^estern Empire^ 476 ijears A. C The length of this period is 1 70 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD II. Six principal events*dt'e comprised within this period : First, the Toleration of Chrisdanity through the Roman Empire : Second, the Removal of the Seat of the Ro- man Empire to Constantinople : CONSTANTINE TO EXTINCTION W. E. 476 A. C. 83 Third, the Sack and Burning of Rome by Alaric : Fourth, the Comniencement of the kingdom of the Vandals in Africa : Fifth, the Ravages of Attila, the Hun, in the Roman Empire : Sixth, the Arrival of the Saxons in Britain^ The Roman Empirey'which comprises the history of the whole civilized world, during this period, as also during the last, excites a strong interest in connexion with Christianity. Both civil and ecclesiastical records, not- withstanding the decay of genius, are abundant. 1. The Toleration of Christianity^ through the Roman Empire^ took place under Constan- tine the Great, 306 years A. C. The pubHc persecutions of the Christians then ceased ; and, though some of the succeeding emperors were hostile to the cause, it completely triumph- ed over Paganism under Theodosius, about 80 years after its first toleration by Constantine. As Constantine fought under the banner of the cross against his enemies, and was successful, he felt disposed to express his gratitude to the divine Author of the chris- tian faith. He soon issued edicts, declaring that the christians should be eased of all their grievances, and re- ceived into places of trust and authority. Thus, the religion of the Saviour, which had stood the ordeal of ten persecutions, was seen at once to prevail over the whole Roman Empire. In a few years Constan- tine established it on a solid basis. He comnuinded, that in all the provinces, the orders of bishops should be ex- actly obeyed ; a privilege of which they afterwards made a bad use. Reassembled also a general council of these fathers at Nice, in order to repress the heresies, that had already crept into the church, particularly that of Arius. The tenets of the heresiarch were condemned, and he and his associates were banished into a remote part of the empire. 8 36 cnaoNOLOGY — period ii. In the lime of Theodosius, 384 A. C. the cause of Chris- tianity and Paganism was solemnly debated between Am- brose, the champion of the former, and Symmachus, the defender of the latter Christianity was triumphant, and the senate issued a decree for the abolition of paganism, the downfall of which, in the capital, was soon followed by its extinction throughout the empire. 2. The Removal of the Seat of the Roman Empire, to Constantinople, was effected by Con- stantiae, 329 years A. C. It was a measure, which hastened the downfall of the empire. The ancient name of Constantinople was By-*i zantium. Whatever were Constantine's motives in removing the seat of the empire, the step was highly impolitic. It weak- ened, exceedingly, the already tottering empire. The latter, after this event, never resumed any sliare of its former lustre. The new seat of empire seems to have been designated in the following manner: — Constantine had made choice of a situation at Chalcedon, in Asia Minor, but we are told that in laying out the ground-plan, an casjle caught up the line, and flew with it over to Byzantium, a city which lay upon the opposite side of the i3osphorns. Here, therefore, it was thought best to fix the seat of empire ; and Constantine, after having euilt a capitol, an amphitheatre, many churches and other public works, and jnany magnificent edifices, and after having dedicated the city to the God of martyrs, repaired thither with his whole court. t» The effect of this measure was not immediately felt. The first sensation was not so great as might have been expect- ed. But in a few years, and especially after the govern- ment was apportioned among tiie emperor's sons, there was such a division of the forces of the empire, that the northern barbarians, who fonght with superior numbers, and were often defeated, began now to prevail, 3. The Sack and Burmn^ of Rome, by Aln- ric, happened 410 years A. C. The pilla£;e last- ORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD III. The principal events of this period are five. F'irst, the Taking of Rome by Odoacer, prince of the Heruh : Second, the Reign of Theodoric the Great> in Italy : Third, the Defeat of the Vandals in Africa, by Belisarius : 54 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD 11. Fourth, the Subjugation of the Ostrogoths in Italy, by Behsarius : Fifth, the Conquest of Italy by the Lombards. The dark ages, as they have been commonly called, commenced with this period. At least the darkness now begins to be particularly apparent, and we shall find it prevailing over the nations, though witli some intervals of light, nearly 1000 years. Records, however, of the times, and of the state of the human mind, are found both in ci- vil and ecclesiastical writers. 1 . The Taking of Rome hy Ocloaccr, prince of the lieruli, put an end to the Western Ro- man Empire, 476 A. C. The length of time which it had existed as an empire, viz. from the Rattle of Actium, was 507 years. The whole period from the building of the city was 1224 years. The Eastern empire of Rome continu- ed several ages after this date, though in com- parative weaknessv The extinction of the Western empire took place dur- ing the reign of Romulus, surnamed Aufcustiilus, the son of Orestes. Odoacer. having tuhdued Italy, and taken its capital, spared the life of Augustulus, on condition of his resigning the throne. This feeble youth was directed to signify his lesignatiou to the senate; while that body humbly requested Zeno, the emperor of the East, to invest Odoacer with the ad- ministration of the diocese of Italy. To Augustulus was assigned a splendid income to support him in a private station, at a villa in Campania. Writers have not failed to remark that the empire be- gan ia Augustus, and ended in a prince, called by a di- minutive of that name, meaning " Little Augustus." The ruin of the Roman empire was the result of iU greatness, connected with its moral corruption. The di- vine perfections are concerned in effecting by natural causes, the extinction of enormously guilty nations. — Rome, having become a mass of luxury, weakness and EXTINCTION OF W. E. TO MAHOMET, 622 A. C. 95" profligacy fell an easy prey to the barbarians who poured in upon its dominions. 2. The Reign of Theodoric the Greats in Italy, commenced 488 years A. C. Having wrested the sovereignty of that country from the hands of Odoacer, by means of several engagements, he enjoyed the possession of it for a number of years, with credit to himself, and with the ap- probation of his Roman subjects. The Herulian dominion in Italy, under Odoacer, lasted but a little beyond 20 years. The whole nation of the Os- trogoths attended the standard of Theodoric, their prince, who had obtained permission of ll)e Eastern ernp< ror, to attempt the recovery of Ilnly, and a promise of its sove- reignty as the reward of his success. After a severe struggle, Odoacer surrendered all Italy to the conqueror. Tlie happiness enjoyed by the Romans, under Odoacer, was not at all diminished, but rather in- creased, by their change of masters. Tiieodoric has the reputation of having been an able and virtuous prince, though he was doubtless too partial to the Arian heresy, and though some acts of cruelty marked the conclusion of his reign. 3. The Defeat of the Vandals in Africa, hy Belisari^LS, occurred 534 years A. C. By that event, Africa was recovered to the empire. The army of the Vandals under Gelimer, a succes- ' sor of Genseric, vastly exceeded that of the Ro- mans ; but the fate of Africa was soon decided, by the valor of the Roman general. 'The hero Belisarius, who revived the fainting glory of Rome, was born among the Thracian peasants, and had gradually risen to military command in the army of Jus- tinian. Great was his merit as a warrior and citizen, and though the ornament of Justinian's reign, he was often shockingly ill-treated by the latter. In the expedition to Africa he encountered many dan- D6 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. . gers, but meetinj^, soon after he landed, the army of Geli- mer, he defeated it in a general engag-ement. Gelimer, collecting his scattered forces, was soon join- ed by his brother Zano, and before he had arrived from the fields of Bulla to Tricameron, his army exceeded ten times that of the Romans. Belisarius, however, conscious of the superior merit of his troops, permitted the barbarians to surprise him at an unseasonable hour. But the battle was won by the Romans with scarcely any loss on their part, and the Vandal king was carried a prisoner to Con- stantinople. 4. The Subjugation of the Ostrogoths in Ita- ly ^ by Belisarius i restored that country to the em- pire. This event took place 537 years A. C. The restoration, however, w^as temporary : for, after various turns of success and defeat, during 30 years, Italy was abandoned to the barbarians. After taking various places in Italy, Belisarius ap- proached the ancient capital of the empire. Vitiges, who bad been raised to the head of the Gothic government, by a singular policy determined to delay offensive opera- tions, and 'eft Rome to its fate. Having recruited his forces, the Gothic monarch advanced to the capital, now occupied by Belisarius ; but with 100,000 men he failed of his object, and was entirely defeated. Six years after this event, Totila, the Goth, attempted the recovery of Italy from the Romans, and succeeded. Belisarius, who had been called away from the theatre of action, returned to Italy, but he was at first unable to pre- serve the capital. Totila took it, and began the work of destruction. Warned, however, by Belisarius, who appealed to the barbarian's sense of glory, he forbore to execute his threat of changing Rome, into a pasture for cattle. Totila, soon leaving the city, to proceed to other conquests, and post- ing an army in its vicinity, Belisarius suddenly cut his way througli the opposing enemy with only 1000 horse, and erected his standard on the capitol. At this juncture, he was cruelly called away, through the jealousy of Justinian, and Narses, the eunuch, was despatched to prosecute the advantage already obtained EXTINCTION OF W. E. TO MAHOMET, 622 A. C. 97 by Belisarius over the Gothic forces. The eunuch entire- ly succeeded. But he followed the fate of Belisarius, for he was ungratefully recalled by the successor of Justin- ian, after he had governed italy with great ability for 13 years. To avenge his injuries, he invited the Lombards to invade the country. 5. The Conquest of Italy hy the Lombards, was accomplished under their leader, Alboin, 568 years A. C They expelled the Ostrogoths from the country, and were masters of the great- est portion of it, for 206 years. They had a succession of 21 kings, the last of whom was defeated and imprisoned by Charlemagne. The I-.ombards have given a permanent name to a por- tion of Italy, viz. Lombardy. The occasion of their en- trance into this country, was the invitation of Narses, the eunuch, to avenge his wrongs. In five montlis after the departure of Alboin from Pannonia, Milan wzs invested by his forces, and from the Tarentine hUls to the gates of Ravenna and Rome, the inland parts of Italy submitted without a siege or a battle. Some attempts were made by Maurice, the Eastern em- peror, assisted by several barbarian chiefs, to expel the Lombards. Little, however, was effected, except some political changes, and during a period of more than 200 years, Italy was unequally divided between the kingdom of the Lombards, and the exarchate of Ravenna. Charle- magne, as will hereafter appear, put an end to their sove- reignty. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD III. 1 . Proclus, a learned Platonist and unbeliever. 2. Boethius, a Roman poet and Platonic phi- losopher. 3. Procopi?is, a Roman historian, and last of the classic writers. 4. Cassidorus, the historian of Ravenna, and tutor to Theodoric, the Gothic king. 9 98 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD III. 5. Belisarius, a heroic and successful general of Justinian. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD III. 1. The majesty of the Roman empire shone out, for a short time, under the auspices of Justinian, by means of the successes of Belisarius. Italy, however, was essen- tially lost to the empire, notwithstanding the temporary dommion regained over it by the Eastern emperor. The blow had been struck which was destined to sink the world, for ages, into barbarism, and ignorance, and crime. The civilized nations, bound up together in one mightj and unwieldly community, had been prepared, by a vari- ety of causes, for the catastrophe which awaited them. The Northern invaders did not originate ; they scarcely hastened this catastrophe. As much of crime and barba- rism as they brought with them, they became, upon their settlement in the sou-th of Europe, as reputable, at least, as the native citizens themselves. Without the agency of the Northern invaders, dark- ness and barbarism would have visited the Roman world, so long as such monstrous abuses of human right, and es- pecially of the divine religion of the Gospel, were suffer- ed to exist. 2. As a consequence of this state of things, the arts and sciences fell rapidly during this period. The lights of human nature were seen in tar less numbers, and shone with far less splendor than formerly, in the intellectual horizon. The classic authors end with this period ; yet it is distinguisiied as tlie era of the Justinian Code. The review of the Roman jurisprudence iu this work, and also in the pandects and instUutes, is a noble monu- ment of Justinian's spirit and industry. The domestic in- stitutions of Europe acknowledge the public reason of the Romans, and the laws of Justinian still command the respect and obedience of independent nations. It was towards the latter part of this period that the Latin tongue ceased to be spoken in Italy. 3. Christianity, during this period, was considerably extended, particularly in Gaul, Britain, and Scotland, and among some barbarous tribes beyond the Danube. But many of the conversions were doubtless only in name, EXTINCTION OF VV. E. TO MAHOMET, 622 A. C. 99 since the Gospel seemed to have very little control, in general over those who professed to embrace it. Religious error and corruption manifestly advanced du- ring this period. The declension of science and of religion reciprocally accelerated each other. The Arian heresy very considerably prevailed, and the monastic life came more and more in repute. After the subjugation of Italy by the Lombards, the christians in that country were severely persecuted, for several years, by these new invaders But in the year 587, Authasis, the third monarch of the Lombards, embra- ced Christianity as professed by the Arians, and his suc- cessor, Agilutf, adopted the tenets of the Niceue Catholics. The labors of Augustin, the monk, in Britain, were pe- culiarly successful. Six Anglo-Saxon kings, who had hitherto remained in their pagan state, were converted, and Christianity, at length, was universally embraced throughout Britain. Many of the British, Scotch, and Irish ecclesiastics, travelled among the Batavian, Belgic and German nations, and propagated Christianity among them. 4. After the fall of the Western empire, commerce was long at a stand in Europe. It was not greatly ex- tended previously to that event. The most adventurous voyages were the circumnavigation of Britain. The an- cients did not know that Africa was almost circumnaviga- ble. They had so limited a knowledge of the earth, that tliey believed both the torrid and frigid zones were unin- habitable. Their commerce was chiefly confined to the Mediter- ranean. When Attila was ravaging the empire, the Ve- neti took refuge in the small islands at the northern ex- tremity of the Adriatic, and there founded Venice, which began very early to equip small fleets, and trade to the coasts of Egypt and the Levant, for spices and other mer- chandize of Arabia and India. Genoa, Florence and Pisa, imitated this example, and began to acquire wealth ; but Venice retained her supe- riority over these rival states, and gained from the oppo- site coasts of Illyricum and Dalraatia, considerable terri- toiies. 1X)0 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IV. PERIOD ZV. THE PERIOD OF THE ESTABLISHMENT n OF THE SARACEN DOMINIONS, EXTENDS FROM THE FLIGHT OF MAHOMET, 622 years A. C. to the Crowning of Charlemagne at Rome, 800 years A. C. The duratiun of this period is 178 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD IV. We may enumerate six principal events dur- ing this period. "First, the Flight of Mahomet from Mecca to Medina : Second, the Siege of Constantinople by the Saracens : Third, the Conquest of Spain by the Sara- cens : MAHOMET TO CHARLEMAGNE, 800 A. C. 101 Fourth, the Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel : Fifth, the Termination of the kingdom of the luombards in Italy : Sixth, the Assumption of the Imperial power in the East by Irene. During this period, the light of science, became far more dim, than during the preceding, and both writer and reader must " walk amidst assassins and executioners, without scarcely finding objects less dreadful on which they may rest their eye." 1 . The Flight of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, was occasioned by the opposition he met with in propagating his religion. It happen- ed 622 years A. C. At Medina he was joined by Omar, and returning to Mecca, he took it by force of arms. In this manner, his impos- tures, which have been continued to the present time, in many countries of the East, were first imposed upon mankind. Mahomet was born at Mecca, on the Red Sea, in 569. He was of mean parentage and education, but a man of genius, which was enlarged by intercourse with mankind, and quickened by ambition. The religion of which he was the author, was a system of Asiatic voluptuousness and Arabian superstition, graft- ed partly on the morality, of the Gospel, and partly on some of the rites of Judaism. The Koran, which he wrote in detached parcels, imbodied the substance of his reli- gion, and is the sacred book of the Mussulmans. From the time that he took Mecca, he never laid down his arms, till he had subdued all Arabia and a part of Sy- ria, imposing his religion wherever he extended his con- quests. In the midst of his successes he died, at the age of 61, A. C. 632. Under his immediate successors, Abubeker, Omar, Ot- man, and Ali, in the space of 50 years an empire was erected, more extensive than what remained of the Ro- 9* 102 CHRONOLOGY.. ..PERIOD IV. man. It included Arabia, Syria, Phoenicia, Mesopota- mia, Chaldoea, Persia, Egypt, Lybia, Munudia. Bactriaua, and a part of Tartary. The name of Saracens, or Moors, is given to those suc- cessors of Mahomet who extended their empire through North Africa, South Europe, and the islands of the Me- diterranean. The last of this race is the present emperor of Morocco. 2. The Siege of Constantinople, hy the Sara- cens, occurred 672 years A. C. It proved to be ineffectual, though the preparations made by the Saracens were vast, and their expectations of success undoubted. The result of this siege raised the reputation of the Roman* arms. Mahomet, in his life time, had asserted that the sins of the first army which besieged Constantinople should be forgiven. This circumstance inspired the Saracen lead- ers and their troops, with singular enthusiasm. Their fleet passed through the unguarded channel of the Helles- pont, and the troops were disembarked 7 miles from the city. But their enthusiasm was in vain. The solid and lofty walls of Constantinople were well defended, and the Arabs were dismayed by the strange and prodigious ef- fects of artificial fire. They withdrew to puss the winter at some distance from the capital, but repeated their at- tacks during the six following summers, (ill the loss of 30,000 Moslems, compelled them to relinquish the enter- prize. * This result of the Saracen Expedition induced a truce of 30 years, which was concluded between the two em- pires, and the commander of the faithful was reduced to submit to the payment of a heavy annual tribute. This badge of servitude, however, was soon shaken off, and the future emperors were unable to enforce it. 3. The Conquest of Spain, hy the Saracens, was achieved under Muca, general of the Calif * We apply the appellation of Greek or Roman indif ferently to the Eastern Empire. MAHOMET TO CHARLEMAGNE, 800 A. C. 103 Walid, 71 3 years A. C. The conquerors, satis- fied with the sovereignty of the country, left the Goths who had long been masters of Spain, in possession of their property, laws, and religion. By the marriage of Abdallah, the Moor, with the widow of the Gothic king, the two nations formed a perfect union. The Saracens had lately founded in Africa, the empire of Morocco,. which was governed by the general or vice- roy, Muca. Muca sent his general Tariff into 8pain, who, in a single memorable engagement, stripped the Gothic king, Rodrigo, of his crown and life. Ope small part of the country of Asturia alone adhered to its christian prince, Pelagius, who, maintaining his lit- tle sovereignty, transmitted it inviolate to his successors. The preservation of this independency contributed after- wards to the deliverance of the north of Spain from the Moorish yoke. In the south of Spain, however, for the space of two centuries, the kingdom of the Moors flourished in full vigor. Abdalrahman fixed the seat of his government at Cordova, which became a place of the utmost splendor and magnificence. The Moorish princes gained the high- est reputation both ia arts and arms, of all the nations of tlie West. 4. The Defeat of tlie Saracens, hy Charles Martel, occurred 732 years A. C. They threat- ened all Europe with subjugation to the Ma- homedan dominion and religion; and but for their providential defeat by Charles Martel, might have been, to this day, the masters of the civilized world. Charles Martel was mayor of the palace^ so called, un- der Thierry, king of France. The king, however, was only the nominal, Charle.^ was the real sovereign. Undei* his administration, the Saracens penetrated from Spain into France. The duke of Aquitain they defeated, and they were about to march into the heart of the kingdom. j04 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IV. But Martel, whose Fig^orous genius alone could have rescued the empire from tlestruction, brought them to a general engagement, between Tours and Poitiers. In spite of the ability of Abdarame, their chief, vvho disputed the ground with the utmost bravery, tliey were defeated, and compelled to retreat. They afterwards rallied, but were again defeated. By this event, the terror with which they had inspired Europe, was diminished. Martel, soon afterwards, be- queathed the government of France, as an undisputed in- heritance to his two sons, Pepin and Carloman. Pepin, however, soon succeeded to the sole administration, and was acknowledged by the Pope as king. With him began the second, or Carlovingian race of kings in France. 5. The Termination of the kingdom of the Ltomhards^ in Italy^ was brought about by the agency of Charlemagne, 774 years A. C. At the request of the Pope, and in discharge of the obhgation of his father Pepin, to the holy see, Charlemagne took the field against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, and having defeated him, put an end to the Lombard dominion in Italy. Charlemagne had married the daughter of Desiderius. The latter, however, having very indiscreetly afforded too open a protection to the widow and children of Carloman, brother to Charlemagne, with ambitious views, the French monarch divorced his wife. This Desiderius highly re- sented. Applying to the Pope to favor his projects, and failing in the attempt, he attacked the Papal territory, and en- deavored lo seize on rhe person of the Pope. Charle- magne, however, coming seasonably to his assistance, met the Lombard king in battle, and taking possession of his sovereignty, was declared by the Pope king of Italy and patricia of Rome. 6. The Assumpion of the Imperial poiver, in the East ^ by Irene, who was mother of Constan- tine VI. commenced 788 years A. C. It was MAHOMET TO CHARLEMAGNE, 800 A. C. 105 connected with the cruel murder of her son. She enjoyed tlie fruits of her enormous crime only a few years. Irene was the widow of Constantine Porphyrogenitu?, and constituted Regent durinj^ her son's minority. She kept the latter in entire subjection, even making- him a prisoner in the apartments of his palace. Constantine, however, at length obtaining- iiis liberty, assumed the go- vernment of the empire, and imprisoned his mother in re- turn. As, howe' er, he continued to visit her, she acquired a peculiar ascendency over him, probably by encouraging his vices, and thus rendering him odious to his subjects. This afFqrded a pretext for her cruel machinations. Be- ing left with the army in Bythinia, she despatched several officers to depose her son. They arrived at Constantinople, without being suspect- ed of such a design, and put out the emperor's eyes in so barbarous a manner, that he died three days afterwards in the most excruciating pain. Nicephones, the great trea- surer, had, in the mean time, made a party against his mis- tress, and obtaining the purple, he secured the riches of Irene. This being accomplished, he banished her to the isle of Lesbos, where the want of a decent provision obliged hec to earn a scanty subsistence by the labors of the distaff. Here she died of vexation, having enjoyed her ill-gotten power but six years after the murder of her son. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD IV. 1 . Mahomet^ an Arabian impostor, and founder of the religion which is called by his name. 2. Bede^ a venerable English historian. 3. Charles Martel^ the father of a race of kings, and conqueror of the Saracens. 4. John Damascenus, a christian writer strong- ly tinctured with the Aristotleian philosophy. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD IV. 1. Scarcely any writers, or men of genius worthy of note, appeared during this period — a striking and melau- 106 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IV. choly contrast to the days of Grecian and Roman glory, which the world had once seen. The sciences suffered great decay. Taste was extinguished. A sort of attention was paid to learning", but with scarce- ly any effect. The common course of studies in all the schools was grammar, logic, rhetoric, music, arithmetic, geometry and astronomy. The first three were called Trivium, or trifling studies : the last four Quadrivium, or high studies. A vain and ideal philosophy had begun uni- yersally to infect the minds of men. 2. The Feudal System came more notoriously into use during this period. By this expression is properly meant, that lenure on which the proprietors of land held their possessions, viz. an obligaiion to perform military service, whenever required by the chief to whom they owed alle- giance* Some have supposed that it originated with the Franks Trho conquered Gaul, but it is probably derived from a remoter source. Among the people, during the race of the Merovingian kings it came very generally into use, and by degrees extended itself over most of the nations of Europe. It subsisted among the Romans, who, to check the in- roads of the barbarian nations, and to secure their distant conquests, were obliged to maintain fixed garrisons on their frontiers. To each officer in those garrisons, it was cuy'o.nriary to assign a portion of land as the pledge and pay of his service. These gifts were termed beneficia, or fiefs. These fiefs were at first revocable by the sovereign, and reverted to him, on the death of the vassal. But the pos- sessors of fiefs, under the Merovingian kings, at length obtained independency and security of property. It was a consequence of a fief becoming hereditary, that it should be capable of being given out in portions, and that the vassal himself holding his land of the sove- reign by the tenure of military service, should be able to create a train of inferior vassals, by giving to them parts of his estate to be held on the same condition, of follow- ing his standard in battle, rendering him homage as their lord, and paying, as a symbol of their subjection, a small annual present. MAHOMET TO CHARLEMAGNE, 800 A. C. 107 3. The Empire of the East retained a vestige of its ancient splendor during this period. Il had lost its Afri- can and Syrian provinces, and wa^. plundered by the Sara- cens on the eastern frontier, and ravaged on the north and west, by the Abari and Bulgarians. The capital was splendid and refined, but presented a coDstaot scene of rebellions and conspiracies. The imperial family itself exhibited a series of the most horrid crimes. One emperor was put to death in revenge of murder and incest ; another was poisoned by his queeo ; a third was assassinated in the bath by his own domestics ; a fourth tore out the eyes of his brothers ; the empress Irene, whose talents commanded respect, was infamous for the murder of her only son. The times were remarkable, indeed, for profligacy, and for misery, its concomitant. 4. The Church partook of the degeneracy, or rather by its corruption, became the cause of it. Pure Chris- tianity was but little known, amidst futile forms and cere- monies, and external pomp. Worldly ambition had ta- ken possession of the pretended vicegerents of Christ. The popes now began to acquire a temporal authority, from the donations of territory made by christian princes, and they were gradually extending a spiritual jurisdiction over all the christian kingdoms. It was not long before they attained to the height of their power, a circumstance which will be noticed in the next period. It was during this period, as we have seen, that Mahom- etanism arose, whose author conceived the bold project of subverting the Cliristra«^ religion aiid the Roman power By artifice and force he so far succeeded during his life time, as to impose his opinions on multitudes in Arabia and in the adjacent regions. After his decease, his fanatical followers, aided by the Nestorian christian8,,extended their conquests throughout the East, and the whole of the extent of the northern coast of Africa. The mahomelan religion spread wher- ever their sword made way for it. The cause of Chris- tianity was thus trampled upon in the East and in Africa, and was beginning to lose ground in Europe, but here, aj we have seen, the Saracen dominion was checked. JNotwithstaadingthe sway of Mahometauism in the East 108 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD V. Christianity wns externally advanced in Europe. Several pagan nations received its lif^ht, particular ly the Germans, Bavarians, Swiss, Belgie, Saxons and Huns. PISRXOB V. THE PERIOD OF THE NEW WESTERN EMPIRE, EXTENDS FROM THE CROWNING OF CHARLEMAGNE, AT ROME, 800 years A. C. to the first Omsade] \mb years A. C. The duration of this period is ^'^3 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD V, We may assign to this period five principal events. v CHARLEMAGNE, 800, TO FIRST CRUSADE, 1 095. 109 First, the Crowning ofCharlemagne at Rome; Second, the Union of the Saxon Heptarchy under Eabert : Thirdrthe Defeat of the Danes, or Normans, by Alfred the Great : Fourth, the Reign of John Zimisces, Empe- , ror of the East : Fifth, the Landing of Wilham the Conqueror in Britain - The Roman Empire, which has filled so large a space in the eyes of mankind, at this era had fallen very consid- erably from its emiuence ; while other nations and sove- reignties began to make a figure on the stage, and to at- tract a portion of public attention. With the decay of the Roman empire, and the corruption of the Christian religion, was connected the increasing darkness of the times. 1. The Crowning of Charlegmane atRome^^OQ years A. C. as Emperor of the West, was per- formed by Pope I^eo III. It was during his last visit to Italy that Charlemagne was estab- lished in this august sovereignty. It is thought by some, that if he had chosen Rome as the seat of his government, and at death had trans- mitted an undivided dominion to his successor, the fallen empire must have been once more re- stored to prosperity and greatness. Charlemagne was accustomed to pass annually from the Pyrenees into Germany, and thence to Italy. la ap- proaching Rome for the last time, the Pope despatched a messenger to meet him with the keys of tl'e confession of St. Peter, and the standard of the city of Rome. From this union of religious and militaiy attributes, it was evi- dent that Charlemagne w.is on the eve of becoming em- peror Accordingly on Christmas-day, which was then the day of the nQw year, being present at the service of the mass, iO 110 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD V. and on his knees before the altar, the Pope came sud- denly behind him, and placed on his head the crown of the Caesars. This act was followed by loud acclamations. An august title which had lain dormant for several cen- turies, was thus revived. It did not however restore Rome to its ancient splendour Charlemagne had no fix- ed capital, and divided, even in his life-time, his domin- ions among his children. The New Western Empire suh;» sistc. only in name among the successors ofCharlemagnei 2. The Union of the Saxon Heptarchy under Esi;bert, was effected 827 years A. C. nearly 400 years after the first arrival of the SaxotiS in Britain. This is properly the commencement of the kingdom of England. The seven dis- tinct sovereignties, which constituted the Hep- tai : hy, becoming one, were from this time gov- erned by one king. As there was no established rule of succession, the Sax- on princes adopted the barbarous policy of putting to death all the rivals of their intended successor. Owing to this cause, connected at the same time with the passion for celibacy, the royal families were nearly extinguished in the kingdoms of the Heptarchy. Egbert, prince of the West Saxons, remained at length the sole surviving descendant of the Saxon conquerors of Britain. His ambition was excited by this favourable circumstance, and in attempting the conquest of the Hep- tarchy he entirely succeeded in the enlerprize. An un- ion of all the separate states into one great kingdom was the effect of his victorious arms, and judicious policy. 3. The Defeat of the Danes hj Alfred the Greats was several times repeated, before the effect was produced of suspending their depre- dations. I'hey were, for a long time, an inces- sant scourge to the English coast. Alfred ac- complished his heroic enterprize, 890 years A. C. l^hea Alfred ascended the throne, be found the king- Ill dom reduced to extreme wretchedness. The Normans, or Danes, had, dunng fifty years, ravaged the coasts of the island Alfred in one year gained over them eight battles; ^ut a new irruption of their countrymen forced him to solicit a peace, which these pirates frequently io- terrupted by fresh hostilities. At this juncture Alfred was compelled to secure his person by retreating into an obscure part of the country. Here he staid many months, until the diso^-ders of the Da- nish army offered a fair opportunity for attacking tliem, which he embraced with great effect. Instead of entire- ly destroying them, as he might have done, he incorpora- ted many of them with his English subjects. This clemencj' however did not prevent their country- men from attempting a new invasion. They were terri- bly defeated, and met with so severe a treai-nent, that they were intimidated, and for some time ceased to mo- lest the island. 4. The Reign of John Zimisces, Emperor of the East^ commenced 969 years A. C. It v. as signalized by the success of his arms against tiie Russians and the Saracens, the one on the Dan- ube, and the other on the Tigris. His general, Bardes, with 1 2,000 men, routed an army of 300,000. John Zimisces was a noble Armenian by birth, of un- common stature, strength, and beauty, aud of an heroic soul He was duly proclaimed after the demise of his predecessor, in accomplishing whose fate he is said to have been concerned. A just Providence, it would seem, awarded him, however, a similar treatment. The success of his wars against the Russians and Sara- cens|had acquired for him the title of conqueror of the East, and saviour of the empire. On his return, howev- er, from these conquests, observing the princely estab- lishments of the eunuch Basil, who had greatly enriched himself, during the preceding reigns, with the blunt sin- cerity of a soldier, he exclaimed, " What, roust the Ro- man empire be abandoned to the rapacity of an insolent eunuch ?" 112 CIIRONOLOCV PERIOD V. This expression cost him his life: a cup of poison was administered to him. Zimisces employed the short space that intervened hetween (he fatal draug-ht and his disso- Itition, in acts of piety and political regulations. He di- ed universally lamented, in the 9th year of his reign. 5. The handing of IVilUam the ConqiLeror in Britain, occurred 1066 years A. C. With 60,000 men he defeated the Enghsh under Har- old in the field of Hastings, and soon afterwards took possession of the throne of hlngland, which had been previously bequeathed to him by king Edward the Confessor. William was Duke of Normandy, and a prince whose great abilities and personal prowess had rendered his name illustrious throughout Europe. Edward, the Eng- lish king, upon his decease, made him his heir, with a view to defeat the progress of Harold, son of the earl of Wessex, who aimed to usurp the crown. On the death of Edward, Harold actually took posses- sioQ of the throne, which the intrepid Norman determined immediately to regain as his rightful inheiitance. His preparations were very formidable, and he was aided ia this romantic age, by many .sovereign princes, and a vast body of nobility from the different kingdoms on the conti- nent. A Norwegian fleet of 300 sail entered the Humber. The troops were disembarked, and, after one successful engagement, were defeated by the English army in the interest of Harold William landed his army on the coast of Sussex, and the English, flushed with iheir recent success, hastily advanced to meet him. They were how- ever totally routed and discomfited. The Conqueror^s possession of the throne was the consequence of this vic- tory. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD V. 1, Charlemagne, a successful warrior and able sovcjeign. 2. P/totius, a learned Christian writer and philosopher CHARLEMAGNE TO FIRST CRUSADE, I 095 A. C. 113 3. Alfred^ a wise, learned and virtuous prince. 4. Avicenna, an Arabian philosopher and physician. 5. Suidas, a Greek lexicographer. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD V. 1. Literature, science and taste, w^ere words but little known and used during: this period. Persons of the high- est rank, and in the most elevated stations, could not read or write. Many of the clergy did not understand the bre- viary which they were obliged daily to recite ; some of them could scarcely read it. The human mind, neglected, uncultivated and depress- ed, sank into the most profound ignorance. Charlemagne and Alfred the Great, by their superior genius, endea- voured to dispel this darkness, and to give their subjects a short glimpse of light. But the ignorance of the age was too powerful for their efforts and institutions. The dark- ness returned and prevailed throughout Europe more or less, till the 15th century. The scarcity of books in those times, and the nature of their subjects, as legends, lives of the saints, &c. account in part for such a state of things. What of learning was possessed was confined to a few ecclesiastics. The only national exception to the profound ignorance of the age, were the Aralaians. That part of Europe which they held, viz. Spain, was much more enlightened than any of the other states. The caliph Haroun Alraschid made Bagdat illustrious by the successful cultivation of the arts and sciences. It was during this period that the Arabians introduced figures into Europe. 2. The state of the mechanic arts was very low in Eu- rope at this time : the Saracens had made more progress in them. The fine arts, particularly sculpture and paint- ing, were preserved from absolute extinction, only by the existing remains of ancient art. Charlemagne appears to have been anxious for the im- provement of music, and the musical gamut was about this time invented. The Italians are said to have in- structed his French performers in the art of playing on 10* 114 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD V, Iheorg-an. Architecture was cultivated in a.style term ed tbe Gothic, which admits of great beauty and inagnifi- cenro. During these times, there were no inns in Europe, un- less in great cities. Every man was obliged by law to give accommodation to travellers. The chief towns were built of wood. The art of war seems not to have been much altered or improved. In the New Western Empire, cavalry were not numerous, twelve farms being taxed to furnish only one horseman with his armour and accoutrements. The engines for the attack and defence of towns were, as in former times, the ram, the balisia, catapulta. tesludo, &lc. 3. Commerce and navigation gradually increased in this age. Charlemagne had his iihips of war stationed in the mouths of all the larger rivers. He bestowed great attention on commerce. The merchants of Italy and the south of France traded to the Levant, and exchanged the commodities of Europe and Asia. Venice and Genoa were rising into commercial opulence. Manufactures were then not unknown. Those of wool, glass and iron, were cultivated with considerable success in many of the principal towns in the south oflEurope. 4. in the laws and manners of the Northern nations, there were some striking peculiarities, as, for instance, the pecuniary fines for homicide, the ordeal or judgment of God, and judicial combat. The magistrate interfered not to punish, but to recon- cile contending parties, and was satisfied, if he could per- suade the aggressor to pay, and the injured to accept, the moderate fine which was imposed as the price of blood, and the measure of which was regulated according to the ank, the sex, and the country of the person slain. In the ordeal or judgment of God, the criminal was or- ered, at the option of the judge, to prove his innocence, y the trial of cold water, of boiling water, or red hot ron. He was exposed to drowning, scalding and burn- ng, in a manner which we should necessarily suppose would be fatal to hrm ; and yet if we were to credit ac- counts of the experiments made, we should believe that the supposed culprit often escaped without hurt or suffer- jug- The judicial combat, though sanctioned by high autho- CHARLEMAGNE, 800,'tO FIRST CRUSADE, 1095. 115 rity, even so late as the last century, in France and Eog-- land, was a bloody and iniquitous custom, which to this day may be traced in the practice of duelling-. For the most part, the state of the Church was ex- tremely low during- this period. The darkness and cor- ruption of the times were so g-reat, that but few enlight- ened and consistent believers could be found. Christian- ity was dishonoured both by the principles and practices of its teachers. All ranks of the clergy were characterized by ambition, voluptuousness and ignorance. Benefices were publicly exposed for sale, so that the lowest and most profligate men often obtained them. The popes generally extended their temporal authori- ty, and. together with the rest of the clergy, engrossed a share of influence in the administration ot civil govern- ment, altogether inconsistent with their sacred functions. Ecclesiastics became^ temporal rulers ; and kings, and princes, and nobles, shut themselves up in cloist,ers, and spent their lives in penances. The separation of the Greek from the Latin Church took place at this era. a circumstance which severely wounded the''popedom, when it seemed to have re-ached its greatest height. This event was brought about in consequence of a long standing difference between the Greek and Latin bishops, relating to several points of practice and disciphne, but more especially in conse- quence of the ambition of rival pontiffs. Apostacies to tlie Saracen religion took place in con- siderable numbers, and yet during this period the Gospel was disseminated, and in some instances by very pious missionaries, among the Moesians, Bulgarians, Sclavoui- ans, Russians, Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, and several other nations and tribes. 116 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD VI. PERIOD VZ. THE PERIOD OF THE CRUSADES EXTENDS FROM THE FIRST CRUSADE, 1095 years A. C. to the Founding of the TurkisI Empire, 1299 years A. C The length ofthi period is 204 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD VI. This period presents to us six principal events First, the Commencement of the Crusades tc the Holy Land : Second, the Signing of Magna Charta, by John, king of Flngland : Third, the Termination of the Saracen Em- pire: FIRST CRUSADE, 1095, TO FOUNDING T.E. 1299 117 Fourth, the Recovery of Constantinople, by the Greeks : Fifth, the Conquest of China, under the Mo- gul Tartars : Sixth, the Expulsion of the English from Scotland, under William Wallace. This period, in addition to the g-eneral darkness of the middle ag-es, was marked by some peculiar characteris- tics, as the passion for pilgrimages, the exploits of chival- ry, and the production of romances. The lights of science were very rare, and barbarism and turbulence reigned over most of the nations. 1 . The Commencement of the Crusades^ to the Holy Land, is dated 1095 years A. C. The Crusades were religious wars, waged by Chris- tian Europe, chiefly against the Turks or Ma- hometans, with a view to recover Palestine from their hands. There were five expeditions of the kind, which, during two centuries, drained from Europe most of its life- blood, and treasures. They failed entirely as to their ultimate object, though some of their results w^ere important. The Turks, or Turcomans, a race of Tartars, having, in. 1055, taken Bagdat, and thus overturned the empire of the caliphs, came into possession of the countries which these caliphs had governed, and the caliphs themselves, instead of temporal monarchs, became sovereign pontics of the mahometan faith. Palestine and Jerusalem were, of course, under the sway of the Turks and their religion. In this situation of things, the resort of pilgrims, to the tomb of our Saviour, was necessarily rendered vexatious to them — a circumstance, in those superstitious times, of sufficient magnitude to arouse all Europe for the deliver- ance of Jerusalem from the infidels. The Roman pon- tiffs were principal instigators of these desperate adven- tures. In the first crusade, an army of 80,000 men, led by Pe- ter, the hermit, was destroyed ; but the army that follow- 118 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD VI. ed, coQsistiDg of several hundred thousands, under God- frey, had the good fortune to conquer Syria and Palestine, which they held for several years. The crusaders, how- ever, weakened their power, by dividing their conquests into four separate stales In this situation, they found it necessary to solicit aid fron) Europe, and accordingly another crusade, in 114t), set out from the West, amounting to 200,000 men, under Hugh, brother to the French king. But these met with the same fate which attended the army of Peter. An* other army of 300,000 soon followed, and were soon dissi- pated and destroyed. In the mean time, the infidels, under Saladin, had re- covered Palestine from the christians. Europe feit the indignity, and France, England, and Germany, each sent forth an army, headed by its own sovereign. On the lion- hearted Richard I. ol England, the weight of the contest at I'?ngth rested, and he defeated the illustrious Saladin, on the plains of Ascaion. Richard, however, was at length obliged to escape from the East, since hunger and fatigue had so greatly reduced his army, that he was unable to retain his conquests. The fourth crusade, in 1202, was directed not against the infi- dels, but against the Greek empire. Constantinople was taken, and held by the crusaders, consisting of the French and Venetians, for a number of years. The result we shall soon learn. The object of the fifth crusade, was to lay waste Egypt, in revenge for an attack on Palestine, by its sultan. Tnis expedition was like the rest, ruinous in the end. The crusades are, by some, thought to have benefited Europe on the whole. But neither their benefits nor their disad- vantages can here be detailed. 2. The Signing of Magna Ckarta, hy John^ king of England^ took place on the 19th oil June, 1213. This Charter is the foundation and bulwark of ICnglish liberty. It was yielded to the nation through the importunity and firmness of the barons. jc John had made the pope his enemy, by appropriating, to h his own purposes, some of the treasures of tiie churchy jc FIRST CRUSADE, TO FOUNDING T.E. 1 299 A. C. 119 and he met the lull extent of the papal vengeance. At first obstinate, he was fiually intimidated into submission, and, after several personal concessions, he agreed to hold his kingdom tributary to the holy see. His subjects thus trampled upon and sold, felt it neces- sary to vindicate their rights. The barons assembled, and bmding themselves by an oath, to a concert of mea- sures, demanded, from the king, a ratification of a charter of priviiegres, granted by Henry I. John refused till resort was had to the sword. That produced a compliance, and at Runymede, at the time above mentioned, he signed that famous charter, which ha*, had so propitious an effect on the liberty of the En- glish, and ihrongh them, on that of several other states and nnirons since 3. The Termination of the Saracen Empire, is dated from the taking of Bagdat, by the Tar- tars, 1258 years A. C. The Tartars were led by Halaku, their general : and after the capture of the city, which contained immense treasures, he gave it up to his troops, to be pillaged seven days. Mostasem, the last of the caliphs, was put to death. The later Ci;ii,jhs,in the decline of the Saracen empire, were not the warlike sovereigns, which their predecessors had been. They thought only of securing their ease and pleasure. Mostasem exceeded all the caliphs in ostenta- tion and pride. When he appeared in public, he usually wore a veil, the more effectually to attract the respect of the people, whom he considered as unworthy to look at him. On those occasions, nothing could exceed the eagerness of the multitude, to see him, by crowding the streets, and hiring the windows and balcoiiies, at the most exorbitant prices. Mostasem was deceived by his visier, and accordingly made a very inefficient attempt to oppose the enemy. Ha- laku, having made a few assaults, became master of the city ; and taking the luxurious caiiph, and confining him in a leather sack, dragged him about the streets of the city, till he expired. 1^0 ClmONOLOGY-^-PERIOD VI. 4. The Becovcry of Constantinople, by the Greeks, was accomplished under Michael Pa- laeologus, 1261 years A. C. It iuid been taken by the French and Venetian crusaders about j 60 years before, and governed, in the mean time, \ by their own sovereigns. The Greek emperors established a distinct sovereignty in Asica, at some distance from Constantinoj)le. The Latin empire of ConsJanlinople, is (o be consider- ed as fixed to that city, and circuinscribed within a great- tr or less extent, according- to the successes or reverses of the Greeks, Turks, and Bulg^atians, and even tlie Latins, who assailed it in all quarters. The first emperor among the conquerors of Constanti-i nople, was Baldwin, count of Flanders, and llainauh. — The last of their emperors was also one of the same name, in his rei<^n, the former and ancient sovercij^ns of Con stantinople determined to retake the seat of the empire. Faloeologus possessed the requisite ambition [lis de sii^-ns were promoled by the Genoese, the rivals of th( V< n«>lians. The Latins had been p-fadiTally driven frori thoir l-.'.si f)Osye.-isim)s h\ Thraee ; and a{ a time when tb< bravest of the Freu Masters of painting among 3. M. A7igelo, I the moderns. 4. Erasmus, a Dutchman, eminent in philo- sophy and general literature. 5. Copernicus^ a Prussian astronomer, and dis- coverer of the true system of the universe. 7.' ci? I^-Minent reformers. 8. Tflsso, prince of the Italian poets. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD VIII. 1. Literature, at the commencement ot this period, sprang into new life. Classical learning, criticism, poet- ry "knd history, made a rapid progress in most of the king- doms of Europe. The dispersion of the Greeks, upon the fall of Constantinople, difi'used a taste for polite literature throughout the West. Dramatic composition began to be regular towards the conclusion of this period, feome finished epics were pro- 138 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD VIII. diiced by the Italians, particularly the Orlando Furioso of Arioslo, and the Gerusalem Delivered of Tasso. Lyric poetry was cultivated in Italy, France and Eng- land, but not with so much success. History began to be written with considerable spirit and judgment. Ma- chiavel particularly excelled in this department of com- position. Science and philosophy did not al first keep pace with literature. Aristotle ruled over the schools till the 17th century, and had even modified the doctrines of theology. The dominion of this truly great man over the human mind was, however, destined soon to be broken by the great Bacon, lord Verulani. 2. The fine arts past suddenly from obscurity to splen- dour. Sculpture aud painting were at tlieir lowest ebb, in the middle ages. They revived a little in the 13th and 14th centuries. A few painters there were who imitated nature with some fidelity, but they were altogether desti- tute of grace or elegance. Towards the end of the 1 5th century, however, Raphael carried the art of painting to perfection. The master-pie- ces of antiquity were his model. Others of great distinc- tion, particularly M. Angelo and Titian, flourished under a succession of enlightened pontiffs. Italy most excelled in the art of painting, but Germa- ny, Flanders and Switzerland were not undistinguished. The most eminent of the schools were those of Rome, Florence, Lombardy and Flanders. These several schools were characterized by peculiar attributes, which it is here unnecessary to describe. 3. Commerce and manufactures received a vast im- pulse from the discoveries of foreign regions, made dur- ing this period. The Portuguese led tlie v/zy in this no- ble enterprize. In 14'2011ie> discovered the island of Ma- deira ; and soon after Columbus had discovered the Nev7 ^Vorld, they doubled the Cape of Good Hope, under Vas- co de Gama, thus finding a passage to the Indies The elFect of these discoveries on the commerce of Eu- rope was wonder tul. Manufactures were aUo propor- tionally advanced. Wealth flowed in upon the great marts of the West and North. Lisbon, Bordeaux, Ant- werp and Amsterdam were peculiarly distinguished. CONSTANTINOPLE, 1453, TO NAJ.TES, 1593. 139 After these events, however, the Venetians lost their influence as a commercial people. They made an at- tempt to cut through the isthmus of Suez, but tliis failing, they endeavoured to interrupt the commerce ofthePortu- guese, by their fleets stationed at the mouth of the Red Sea and Persian Gulph. The Portuguese however, were not to be diverted or driven from their purpose, and they were every where victorious. In the space of half a century, they were masters of the whole trade of the Indian Ocean, and of a larfi:e extent of territory in the East. The British were by no means inactive in these times. The causes which operated in producing- a commercial spirit among thetn, were peculiarly powerful, and have ever since continued so to be. The Reformation had a very favourable effect in this respect among the inhabit- ants of Britain. Henry VII. gave the most liberal encouragement to trade and manufactures, particularly the woollen, by in- viting foreign artists into his dominions. From about that period, the commerce and manufactures of the British isles have .been uniformly progressive. 4. During this period, the face of the Christian world was changed. The thick darkness, which had overspread it, had begun to be dispelled, by the revival of litera- ture and philosophy ; but at the glorious era of the Re- formation, the light of moral and religious truth shone forth wjth renewed lustre, and produced the most impor- tant effects. Christianity, however, was not extensively propagated during this period, among distant nations. The attention of the European world was too much absorbed in the dis- putes which were carried on between the Reformists and Papists, to embark in so god-like an enterprize. Still the Protestant princes did something in this work. It is certain that, in 1556, fourteen missionaries were sent from Geneva to convert the Americans, although it is not known, by whom this design was promoted, or with what success it was attended. The English, also, sentcoloaies into the northern parts of America, by which the Chris- tian faith was gradually extended among the aborigines. Much more, however, was attempted by the Papists, 140 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. though from very corrupt motives. The progress of the Reformation, in Europe, cutting off their hopes in that quarter, they turned their attention to unenlightened na- tions. In the execution of this design, the celebrated so- ciety of Jesuits was established. Large numbers of this society, under the sole direction of the pope, were employed in the conversion of the Afri- can, American, and Indian heathens. Francis Zavier was the most eminent among this order of men, and exe- cuted his mission to the Indies with singular zeal and suc- cess. PERIOD ZX. THE PERIOD OF THE ENGLISH COM- MONWEALTH, EXTENDS FROM THE EDICT OF NANTES, 1598 years A. C to the Death of Charles 12/^, of Sweden^ 1718 years A . C. This period is 120 years in length. EJDICT OF NANTES, 1598, TO CHARLES 12, 1718 141 IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD IX. The principal events to be noticed in this pe- riod, are eight in number. First, the Edict of iVantes : Second, the Enghsh settlemehts in North America : Third, the Union of the Protestant princes, against the emperor of Germany : Fourth, the Revolution in China, by the Tar- tars : Fifth, the Restoration of Monarchy in Eng- land : Sixth, the League of Augsburgh against France : Seventh, the Successes of the Duke of Marl- borough against the French : Eighth, the Battle of Pultowa. We come to an era in which the human mind put forth its mightiest efforts, and in which the foundation was laid for the improvements that have since been made in sci- ence, philosophy, literature, and the useful arts. The im- portant events of this, and the subsequent period, are very numerous. They can only be hinted at. Voltaire remarks, that " the long-esl life would not suffice for a per- son only to read the hist rical works composed in Europe, relating to the events of the 17th century.'* 1. The Edict of Nantes, tolerating the Pro- testant religion in France, was granted by Hen- ry 4th, 1598 years A. C. This celebrated de- cree was the dictate of a wise and benevolent policy, and destroyed the germs of sedition in that country. It continued in force till the time of Louis 14th, when that prince very unwisely revoked it, in 1685. Henry was educated a protestant ; but with a view to 142 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. conciliate his Catholic suhjects, he abjtired the protestant relig-ion, and embraced papacy. This important measure was highly displeasing to his protestant subjects, and had but a weak tendency to conciliate the esteem of the ca- tholics. It was not until after several years, both of war and ne- gotiation, that he gained the whole of his kingdom. — Among the most efficacious of the means he employed, and in which his fortitude and magnanimity, and his gra- titude to his former friends and defenders were conspicu- ous, was the Edict of Nantes, by which he granted, to all his subjects, ^ull liberty of conscience. During the minority of Louis 14th, however, this edict was revoked by cardinal Mazarine, since which time, the protestantshave often been cruelly persecuted in France. 2. The English Settlements, in North Ameri- ca, became effectual and permanent, 1607 years A. C. The settlement, first formed, was at Jamestown, in Virginia. Thirteen years after- wards, a colony of Enghsh puritans landed at Plymouth, and began the settlement of New- England. These and other English settlements in iNorth America, are extremely important from their connexion with the civil and rehgious liberty of mankind. it was near'ly a century after the discovery of the North- ern portion of the American contment, by Cabot, before the English made any attempts to colonize the country. The first project, of tliis kind, was undertaken by Sir Walter Raleigh, but it proved unsuccessful. Under the patent of James I. of England, a Company, called the London Company, sent Christopher Newport to Virginia, with 105 persons, to settle the island Roanoke. By stress of weather, however, they were driven north of their place of destination, and entered Chesapeake Bay. Here, up a river, which they called James river, they commenced the settlement of Jamestown. The first settlement in the northern district, (for Vir- ginia was divided into northern and southern Virginia) EDICT OF NANTES, TO CHARLES 12, 1718 A. C. 143' was made in 1620. A number of puritans, having, a few years before, left England, to free themselves from a per- secuting hierarchy, and found an asylum in i Holland, set sail for America, which they reached on the 22d of De- cember, in the above named year. Other parts of the country were soon settled in succes- sion, and out of these colonies, through many wars and perils, grew at length the United States of America 3. The Union of the Protestant Princes,, against the Emperor of Germany^ was formed 1726 years A. C. It owed its origin to the in- fluence of cardinal Richelieu, who was anxious to humble the Austrian greatness. As the de- struction of the protestant religion was the em- peror's obj ct, the protestants naturally took the alarm. The ambition of the emperor, induced even the Catholics of France to embark in the cause of humbhng him. Richelieu, the French minister, with a daring object in view, excited the public inquietude, at the manifestTition of Ferdinand's ambitious projects. Encouraged by some successes in war, Ferdinand no longer dissembled his de- sign of suppressing protestantism, and extinguishing the liberties of the German empire. Richelieu's plans were attended with complete success. The Protestants and Catholics, laying aside their theolo- gical disputes, conspired together for the diminution of Ferdinand's power ; the courts of France and England embarked in the same cause ; the Danes, also, took up arms, and Gustavus, king of Sweden, rushed, like a tor- rent, upon Germany. The protestant interest, which had been declining ia Germany, now began to prosper. Guatavus completely- humbled the emperor ; and though the former was slain in the battle of Lutzen, the war was successfully prose- cuted by the Swedish generals. In the succeeding reign of Ferdinand III. the German protestants continued to receive supports, both from the Swedes and French. The peace of Westphalia was con- 144 CHRONOLOGY... .PERIOD IX. cluJed in 1648, the provisions of which were so salutary, that they lair! the foundation of tfcie future prosperity of the German empire. 4. The Bevolution in Chinct^ hy the Tartars^ occurred 1641 years A. C During a war with the eastern Tartars, a rebel dethroned the em- peror; upon which, the Chinese general made peace with Tson-gate, the Tartar prince, and invited him to assist in punishing the rebel. — Tson-gate, however, seized on the Chinese throne for himself; and it has ever since remain- ed in his family- The Chinese had quietly submitted to the Tartar de- scendants of Gengiskan, diiring- eig-ht successive mon- archs ; but the chatarter of the ninth was so odious, that a rebellion was excited, which ended in the expulsion of the Tartars, and the re-establishrnent of their own princes during- 276 years. At the end of this term, the event occurred, whicli we have noticed above. The emperor shut himself up in his palace, and after putting to u^;ath all his family, conclu- ded the tragedy, by hanc^inff himself. The last emperor, Kien-Song-, an amiable and wise prince, reigned 63 years, and was succeeded by Ka-hing the present emperor ; who reigns over his people in peace, and does not disturb his neighbors by his ambition or in- terference. 5. The Restoration of Monarchy^ in Eng- land, 1660 years A. C. was an event rendered agreeable to the English nation, from their hav- ing suffered so much by the civil commotions which preceded it. During eleven years, the functions of royalty ceased ; the government changed from a monarchy to a republic, though during the greatest part of that period, the exe- cutive authority was usurped by Oliver Crom- weM. EDICTOF NANTES, 1598, TO CHARLES 12, 1718. 145 Charles I. quarrelJed with the parliament, and attempt- ed to raise money without their sanction, contrary to the rights of the people. These and other tyrannical, and unconstitutional measures, led to a civil war, which com- menced in 1642; and Charles was tried and condemned for high treason, and beheaded before Whitehall, Janua- ry 30, 1649. Within a little more than four years after a republican form of government was established, under the directioQ of parliament, the army wrested the power out of their hands. Cromwell, who had the command of the army, assumed the supreme authority for eight years, under the title of Lord Protector. On the death of this extraordinary man, his son Rich- ard succeeded to the protectorship ; but being destitute of ambition, he could not retain it. By means of general Monk, at this crisis, Charles II., son of Charles 1., was restored, May 29, 1660. The character of Charles was not, however, in the highest degree favorable to the hap- piness of his people, though his reign was an era of taste and genius. 6. The League of Augsburg, against France, 1686 years A. C. was brought about by William, prince of Orange, the inveterate enemy of Louis 1 4th, As a consequence of this, war was wa- ged against France by Germany, Spain, Eng- land and Holland. The French arms were, however, for some time successful. The ascendency of France, under the celebrated Louis 14th, had been long feared. His war with Hoiiand had betrayed his ambition. The splendor of his designs could not but excite the envy or jealousy of his neighbors, though his glory is greatly tarnished by the revocation of the edict of Nantes, by which he lost more than 500,000 of his best subjects. Victory attended his standard against the leaguers. — Luxemburg defeated the prince of Orange in the battles of Steenkirk and Norvvinden ; Noailles was victorious in Spain ; and an army of 100,000 French ravaged the Pala- tinate, and took many ot the most important towns on the 13 146 CHRONOLOGY — ^PERIOD X. RliiDe. This was the era of bis glory. Sad reverses were in reserve for him. His extensive military enterprizes had been attended with enormous expenses. The finances had fallen into disorder, and the persevering efforts of bis enemies oblig- ed him to conclude the peace of Kyswick in 1697. The war, however, was soon renewed. 7. The Successes of the Duke of Marlborough, ogamst the Frfnch, weakened, essentially, the power of Louis 14th, and teiniinaled in the fa- vorable peace of Utrecht. Marlborough first distinguished himself, in his victorious career, in the battle of Blenheim, 1704 years A. C. With him was associated Prince Eugene, the commander of the Imperial forces. V^ ith the avowed object of putting the house of Austria in possession of the throne of Spain, war was declared against France and Spain, by England, Holland, and the empire. Louis had passed his prime, and lost his greatest ministers and generals; while the armies of his enemies were commanded by the ablest generals of the age, and supported by the treasures of tlie united powers. The war was carried on with manifest advantage on the part of the allies. The battle of Blenheim cost the French :20,000 men. By land and bv sea the allies were victorious. Marlborougli gained, besides the battle of Blenheim, those of RanuIies,Oudenarde, and IVlalplaquet. One or two victories, on the part of the French and Span- ish, prevented Philip, king of Spain, from abandoning his possessions in Europe. Louis sued for peace, and even proposed very humilia- ting terms ; but as they were rejected, and the inhuman condition of dethroning his grandson, Philip, was insisted on, he made one more despenite eiFortin battle, in which he was so far successful as to preserve Philip on the throne. The change in queen Anne*s cabinet, gave facility to propositions for peace, in which the English and Dutch secured many valuable acquisitions. 8. The Battle of Pultowa, which was gained EDICTOF NANTES, 1 598, TO CHARLES 12, 1718. 147 by Peter the Great, over Charles 12th, of Swe- den, was fought June 30, 1709 years A. C. This battle decided the fate of Russia, Sweden, and Poland. The army of Charles was nearly all destroyed. Here he was effectually check- ed in that career of conquest which alarmed all Europe. Charles 12th, of Sweden, was one of the bravest and most excentric of mankind. His dominions were atf pok- ed on three sides, by Russia Poland, and Denmark ; and he, although then only a boy of 17 years, successively took the field against these powers, and signally defeated them. Poland he humbled in the dust. A negotiation having been begun by the czar, Charles abruptly terminated it, and declared that he would nego- tiate only at Moscow. The rigor of a Russian winter, prepared his army for the defeat which it so terribly re- ceived at Pultowa Augustus, whom Charles had previously deposed, wias restored to the throne of Poland, and the czar took pos- session of Finlq^pd and Livonia. Charles fled into the Turkish dominions, where his conduct seemed the result of phrenzy, rather than that of a calculating warrior. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD IX. 1. Gallileo, an Italian, distinguished for his discoveries in Mathematics and Astronomy. 2. Shakespeare^ the greatest of dramatic poets. 3. Cervantes, a Spaniard, the celebrated au- thor of Don Quixotte. 4. Bacon, Lord Verulam, English philoso- pher, an universal genius. 5. Grotius, a Dutch writer of various and profound learning. 6. Pascal, an eminent French philosopher and theologian. 148 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. 7. Milton, the greatest of epic poets anioiig the moderns. 8. Corneille, the prince of the French drama- tic poets. 9. Dryden, an eminent EngUsh poet. 10. Locke, the greatest among the Enghsh metaphysicians. 1 1 . Leibnitz, an acute German philosopher and mathematician. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD IX. 1. The most profound researches were made in sci- ence, philosophy, and. literature, during" this period. The period, as such, is distinguished for inventive genius, ori- ginality of thought, depth of investigation, and solid ac- quisitions. If we include Addison and Newton, who flourished dur- ing this period, but died near the beginning of the next, Tve are presented with an array of genius and learning, probably not equalled in the history of the world hitherto. Philosophy had been tramelled by th^ schools, till the beginning of the 1 7th century, when Bacon disenthralled the human mind, and taught the sure method of advanc- ing knowledge, by experiment and the observation of na- ture. The progress of philosophy was not, however, rapid at first. ■^Tuch of theorizing and conjecture remained, even in Gassendi and Des Cartes. Newton, however, arose, towards the conclusion of this period, and completely dis- pelled the illusions with which youth had been infatuated for more than 2000 years. Numerous were the produc- tions of taste and genius in all the departments of litera- ture. Shakespeare, Milton, and Addison, in England ; and Corneille, Racine, and Pascal, in France ;. produced works which will be as lasting as the languages in which they are written. 2. The fine arts continued to be cultivated with success during this period. The old school of painting, with Ra- phael and Angeloat their head, it cannot be expected will ever be surpassed, in the essential perfections of the art. Belonging to that school, under the former part of the EDICT OP NANTES, 1 598, TO CHARLES 1 2, 1 7 1 8. 1 49 present period, were Albano, Guercbino, Guido, Poussin, Rembrandt, Rubens, and other eminent painters. The art of engraving on mezzotinto, which has enlarg- ed the dominion of the fine arts, was an invention of this period. Prince Rupert, in 1650, was its author. It is characterized by a softness equal to that of the pencil. Many inventions connected with the advancement of the sciences, are dated from this era ; as for instance, the thermometer, the air pump, the barometer, the microme- ter, &c. The useful and mechanic arts, also, were greatly mul- tiplied during the period under review. Hundreds of con- veniences and luxuries, which were unknown to antiqui- ty, sprung into use ; though many others, which distin- guish modern times, owe their origin to one or two of the preceding periods. 3. The spirit of commerce and navigation was greatly excited and fanned in the 17th century. Connected with this, was the spirit of adventure and settlement in distant regions, particularly those of the American continent. Almost every considerable part of this continent was colonized during this, and tlie latter part of the preceding period. The central and southern parts of the Atlantic coast of America, were all settled within the compass of the 1 7th century. The fathers of the United States were gener- ally, driven to those regions by the persecutions which more or less then prevailed in Europe, on account of reli- gion. The circumnavigators of the globe, during this era, were among the English; Cowley, Dampier, and Cooke ; among the Dutch, Le Mairc and Tasman ; among the iapaoish, Quiros. 4. Much was done to advance the interest of religion in the form in which it is professed by the Catholics, though it was done generally in a very unjustifiable man- ner, especially by the Jesuits. In 1622, was founded at Rome, the celebrated College '' De progapanda fide," which was endowed with the most ample revenues. Other institutions of a similar kind were also founded ; and from them, a great number of missionaries were seni forth, to different parts of the world, to propagate the Ro- man faith. The religious orders which chiefly distinguish 13* 150 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD IX. ed themselves in these missions were the Jesuits, the Do- minicans, the Franciscans, and the Capuchins. Many of the protestant princes, from their peculiar sit- uation,'could do but little in spreading the Gospel. The English and Dutch, who were more favorably situated, made some eflScient and successful attempts. The puri- tans, who settled New-England, not only carried Chris- tianity into their own societies, but propagated it with some success among the Indians. Mayhew, Shepard, and Elliott, particularly the last, distinguished themselves in this most benevolent enterprize. The efforts of the Dutch were successfully directed to the islands of Ceylon and Formosa, the coast of Malabar and other Asiatic settlements, which they had acquired or conquered. No sooner, also, were they settled in the In- dies, than they found the means of converting numbers of the Hindoos to the Christian faith. CHARLES XII. 1718, TO BOURBONS, 1815. 161 PERIOD X. THE PERIOD OF THE AMERICAN AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION, EXTENDS FROM THE DEATH OP CHARLES XII. OF SWEDEN, 1718 years A.C. to the final Restoration of the Bourbons^ 1815 years A. C The extent of this period is 97 years. IMPORTANT EVENTS IN PERIOD X. We select during this period nine principal events. First, the Death of Charles XII. of Sweden : Second, the Conquest of the Mogul empire by Kouli-Kan : Third, the Confederacy of Russia, Austria and France against Frederick the Great, of Prussia : ^ 152 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. Fourth, the Dismemberment of Poland by Russia, Prussia and Austria : Fifth, the Declaration of Independence by the United States of America : Sixth, the Execution of Louis XVI. king of France : Seventh, the Crowning of Napoleon emperor of France : Eighth, the Burning of Moscow : Ninth, the Battle of Waterloo. The events of this period are singularly important, as connected with the establishment and progress ofcivil and religious liberty, and free institutions. The moral improvement of man, and the diffusion of true religion in the world, may be expected to advance more and more, with the means which have been put in operation for so important an end. The future is unknown to us, but it seems to teem with great events. 1. The Death of Charles XIL of Sweden, which occurred Dec. 11th, 1718, was apparent- ly a benefit to Sweden, and to Europe generally. Sweden gained a reformation of her govern- ment, and Europe was saved from the ravages which his ambition would have made. In be- sieging a Norwegian fortress, he was killed by a cannon ball. The czar and the king of Denmark ravaged Sweden, while Charles remained in Turkey. Returning in dis- guise, he immediately conceived the design of wresting Norway from Denmark. This he soon abandoned, iu consequence of failing in the outset. A project was then formed, in which the czar united with him, of dethroning George II. and of placing the pretender James on the throne of Britain. The death of Charles frustrated the plah, and saved Europe from con- fusion and blood. * ilfter the death of this madman, (so Charles has been ♦ CHARLES XII. 1718, TO BOURBONS, 1 815. 153 called) the arbitrary power of the Swedish sovereigns ex- perienced a salutary limitation, and the states made peace with all the hostile powers. 2. The Conquest of the Mogul Empire by Kouli Kan, took place 1 739 years A. C. It was not however a complete conquest The empire was so far ruined, that after that period, the viceroys ceased to obey the authority of the Mogul ; and India fell an easy prey to the Eng- lish East-India Company. In taking Delhi, the capital of India, Kouli Kan acquired im- mense wealth, and committed the most horrible excesses. Konli Kan, previously to his invasion of India, had usur- ped the throne of Persia. The posterity of Tamerlane, who established themselves in that country, had beea supplanted by the Sophia family, the last of whom was dethroned by Kouli Kan, who was his general. This oc- curred in 1735. Invading- India in 1739, every obstacle disappeared be- fore him, and soon reaching Delhi, he took possession of it, with all its treasures. Upon some provocation he recei- ved, he delivered the city to the fury of his soldiers. la about seven hours, 120,000 of the citizens were butchered. Before his return into Persia, 200,000 of the inhabit- ants had perished by his sword, and the loss sustained by the Mogul, in jewels, treasures, &c, amounted to 125 millions sterling, more than half which Kouli Kan and his soldiers carried away. This nr\onster took the title of emperor of the Indies, and returning into Persia, he attempted to change the religion, and strangled all the priests; after which, in self-defence, he was murdered in his tent by his own offi- cers, in 1747. 3. The Confederacy of Russia, Austria and France, against Frederick the Great of Prussia, was formed. 17 56 years A. C. This is called the " seven years' war," during which Frede- 154 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. •rick maintained his giound against his powerful enemies, sometimes conquering, and sometimes conquered. This was an extremely sanguina- ry contest. The ambition and military spirit of the Prussian mon- arch had become sufficiently manifest by the manner in which he had wrested Silesia from Austria, to excite the alarm of the neighbouring states. Accordingly Russia, Austria and France concluded a treaty of defensive alli- ance against him. The success of the war was various. Frederick gain- ed several important battles, but he lost several also, and his affairs at length became so critical, from his diminish- ing resources, and increasing enemies, that he began to act solely on the defensive. The death of the Russian empress, however, at this time, relieved him in a great measure. Her successor made peace with the Prussian king, and being joined by the Russian troops, with whose help he oblained an important victory, he was enabled to secure an honourable peace with ail the powers with which he had been at war. The glory which Frederick acquired from this protracted contest, was a trifling compeDsatioD to his subjects for their sufFerings. 4. The Dismemberment of Poland by Riissia, Prussia and Austria, 1772 years A. C. has been stigmatized as one of the most unprincipled acts recorded in history. The greatest part of Po- land was at that time divided among these pow- ers. In 1795 they secured the remainder of it, and thus Poland was erased from the list of na- tions. Frederick of Prussia is said to have been the prime mover of this infamous measure. Of the claims set up for Poland, that of Frederick, it has been asserted, was best founded. But of three such claims it is ditficult to determine which was best, or rather which was most ini- quitous. Stanislaus-Augustus, who had been elected by the in- tHARLES XII. 1718, TO BOURBONS, 1815. 155 tervention of Russia, was, at this time, on the throne of Poland. He was obliged, much against his wishes, to as- sent to the dismemberment of his dominions, and to give the act the form of legislative sanction. Russia, Prussia and Austria, completing their great po- litical crime in 1795, by seizing on the remaining part of Poland, and expunging it from among independent na- tions, have since enjoyed the fruits of their robbery. At the Congress held at Vienna in 18I5, part of Poland was united to the Russian empire, with the preservation of its own constitution ; and on this event, Alexander, empe- ror of Russia, assumed the title of king of Poland. 5. The Declaration of Independence hy the United States of America, was made on the 4th of July, 1776 years A. C. This measure, which w^as so auspicious to the interests of the United States, was forced upon them by the injustice and oppressions of the mother country. The act was passed by the Continental Congress, assembled at Philadelphia, and by the people was supported with such spirit and success, that it was at length acknowledged by the na- tions of Europe. 1 be causes of disagreement between the Colonies and Great-Britain cannot here be recited. They related principally to the subject of revenue and taxation, m which the former conceived themselves to be unjustly and injuriously treated. Opposition being made by the colonies to the acts of the British Parliament on this subject, troops were sent to America to enforce submission to the laws. Hostili- ties of course commenced. The first blood was spilt at Lexington, Massj^chusetts, 19th of April, 1775. Previously to the Declaration of Independence, Con- gress had appointed George WashixNgton Commander in Chief of the American armies, under whose virtue, talents and bravery, the United States succeeded in the arduous struggle for liberty. In the height of the contest, France acknowledged the 156 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. independence of the States, and broug-ht aid to their cause. In 178J, a definitive treaty of peace was conclu- ded, by which his Dritannic Majesty ackoowiedged the same. In 1789, the government of these States was organized, conformably to the Federal Constitution, and Washing- ton was inaugurated the First President. With the ex- ception of one war between the United States and Great- Britain since, the former have enjoyed a bright period of peace, happiness and prosperity. 6. The Execution of Louis XFI. King of France^ constituted a momentous part of the French revolution. It took place 1793 years A. C. on the 21st of January, and followed the abolition of monarchy in France. Louis, after being long detained as a state prisoner, and un- dergoing a mock trial, was brought under the guillotine, to the astonishment of all Europe. With a view to retrieve his finances, Louis called aNa- tional Assembly, which claimed more liberty than he ciiose to grant The consequence of this was, that the Bastiie was demolished, and a new constitution establish- ed on the basis of the equal rights of man. In 1790 the King swore to maintain the constitution ; but the next year he fled from Paris. In 1792, France was invaded by the Prussians and Austrians, to restore the king. They were repelled. After the execution of Louis, all the kings in Europe leagued against France, and a most tragical external and internal war took place, in which the French performed prodigies of valour. A form of government was afterwards settled by the Convention; but the powers of Europe being still io league against France, and the new government being unsuccessful in the field, the executive power was, ia 1799, vested in three consuls, of whom the first was Napo- leon Bonaparte. The energy of the government was by this means re- stored, and Bonaparte, as head of the nation, under the title of First Consul, having gained the victory of Maren- go, in Italy, forced Austria to conclude the treaty of CHARLES XII. I7I85 TO BOURBONS, 1815. 15? Luneville in Feb. 1801 ; and concluded the treaty of Amiens with England in October of that year; thus re- storing" peace, for a short ti(ne, to all Europe. 7. The Crowning of Napoleon Emperor of France^ took place 1804 \. C. It was per- formed by the Pope. The next year he was crowned king of Italy. These and other mani- festations of his ambition, excited the disquiet- ude of Europe, and were the occasion of renew- ed and desolating wars His successes put it into his power to dispose of several European kingdoms, and to make his four brothers kings. The peace of Amiens lasted buthttlelong'er than one year. Great-Britain, Russia and Austria, confederated against the French emperor, with a view to restore the balance of power in Europe. The English met with success on the ocean, Lord Nelson entirely defeating the combined fleets of France and Spain at Trafalgar. Bonaparte, however, was entirely successful on land. He routed the Austrians and Russians with a terrible slaughter at Austerlitz. Pursuing his conquests with un- exampled rapidity, he almost annihilated the power of Prussia by the celebrated battle of Jena He gained al- so the battles of Eylau and Friedland over the Russians, and forced them to sue for peace. The French emperor was now master of all France, Italy, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Holland, and the greater part of Germany. One of his brothers he made king of Holland, another of Naples, and a third of West- phalia. He soon projected the conquest of Spain, and placed a fourth brother on the throne of that country. In this project, however, he was not successful. He sent his generals into Spain, and though at first victori- ous, they were at length beaten, and driven from the country. In this contest, the English, under the Duke of Wellington, distinguished themselves. 8. The Burning of Moscow^ the ancient capi- tal of Russia, was the work of its patriotic in- habitants, who sought by this means the de- 14 158 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. ' struction of their French invaders. It was completely successful. The French, being de- | prived of winter quarters, were obliged to com- \ \ mence a precipitate and ruinous retreat. The burning of Moscow took place in the month of' September, 1812 A. C. 1q 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia with an army of 500,000 veterans, commanded by able and experienced generals. This was the first step of his downfall. The Russians foug-ht with the most obstinate courage, though j they lost several battles. , Moscow was taken by the French, but they took it a pile of ruins. Three quarters of it, its inhabitants had 1 burnt to the ground. Its stores and provisions were de- stroyed, and the French had no other alternative, than to remain there without quarters, and without food, or to retreat. They chose the latter ; and history, it is believed, does not record so great a disaster, or more appalling scene of suffering. The exasperated inhabitants, but more espe- cially the rigours of cold and liunger, almost totally anni- hilated an army which presented the proudest array of hu- man strength, that ever one man led to battle. According to the Russian statement, the French, in their invasion of Russia, lost, in killed, more than 200,000 — in prisoners, nearly 240,000 — in cannon taken, 1 131 pieces — in muskets, 100,000— in ammunition waggons, 27,000 — in colours and standards, 63 pairs. 9. The Battle of Waterloo decided the fate of France and of Europe. It was fought on the 18th of June, 1815 A. C. The French force, led by Napoleon in person, consisted of 150,000 men — that of the English and Prussians united, of 1 70,000. The English were commanded by the Duke of Wellington — the Prussians by Prince Blucher. With this event ended the dy- nasty oi Napoleon. The disasters of the campaign in 1812 united Great- CHARLES XII. 1718, TO BOURBONS, 1815. 159 Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria and Sweden, with a view to dethrone Bonaparte, and restore liberty to the conquered states. Bonaparte was at first successful, but losing- the battle of Leipsic, the allies poured in upon France from the north, while Wellington invaded it from the south. In this situation of things, he renounced the throne of France and Italy, and was permitted to retire to the isl- and of Elba. In the mean time the family of the Bour- bons returned to France, and Louis XVIII. was placed on the throne. Bonaparte, however, soon quitting Elba, landed in France, and, the whole army flocking to his standard, he entered Paris in triumph, the royal family fleeing before him. This occurrence brought the allies again to act, and the consequence was, the victory of Waterloo. Louis was again placed on the throne, and Bonaparte, delivering himself up to the English, was sent to the isl- and of St. Helena, where he died Majch 5th, 1821. Eu- rope has since enjoyed peace, with the exception of the struggle which the heroic Greeks have been making for their liberties, and the invasion of Spain by the French, in furtherance of the views of the infamous misnamed holy alliance, formed between Russia, Austria, Prussia and France, against the progress of free institutions. DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS IN PERIOD X. 1. Marlborongh, an English duke, and an ac- complished and successful warrior. 2. Addison, an elegant English essayist and poet. 3. Newton, a most profound mathematician and philosopher. 4. Pope, an eminent Enghsh poet. 5'. Linnmis^ a Swede, the father of botany. 6. Chatham, a distinguished statesman and orator. 7. Johnson, an eminent lexicographer, critic, and essayist. 160 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. 8. Franklin^ an American, a distinguished electrician and philosopher. 9. Washington^ an eminent stateman and warrior, and father of the American republic. 10. Co7vper^ a celebrated English poet. 11. M. ae Siael. a learned and accomplished French female writer. 1 2. Napoleon^ a renowned warrior, conqueror and statesman. MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS ON PERIOD X. 1. The present period is perhaps less distinguished than the preceding, for profound attainments, and original works in science and literature. This arises rather from the force of circumstances, Ihan from any other cause. Most subjects of human investigation had been forestal- led ; yet the improvements which have been made, JQ every department of knowledge, have been great. Discoveries have not been wanting, and where the genius of former ages has not exhausted research, re- search has been made. Within this period some sciences have been created, and others have been greatly advan- ced. By a course of observation, agreeably to the Ba- conian philosophy-, the great principles of chemistry, min- eralogy, electricity, geology, &c. have been fixed on si firm basis. 2. The fine ?.rts have been cultivated with much suc- cess during this period. Painters and sculptors have re- ceived a patronage worthy of their merits. West in painting, and Canova m sculpture, are nnmes destined to immortality. American talent has been conspicuous in the former art. 3. In the mechanic arts, and in improvements by which the conveniences and comforts of life are extended and multiplied, this period has probably exceeded any other. The numerous inventions which are designed to aid the various branches of manufactures, and the application of the power of steam to the same and many other objects, are the glo^y of the age. It is calculated that in England alone, stt the present CHARLES XII. 1718, TO BOURBONS, 1815. 161 time, the steam engines in use represent the power of 320,000 horses, equal to that of 1 ,920,000 men, which be- ing in fact managed b}? 3600 only, adds actually to (he power of the population 1,884,000 men, 4. Commerce and navigation have made rapid advan- ces during the last and present century. Of many na- tions, the wealth and power consists essentially in their means and facilities for maritime war^and for navigation. Great-Britain, with her 1000 armed vessels, has long ruled the ocean, and made her power to be felt on every shore, and on every country accessible by water. By means of the wealth derived from her amazing commerce, she was enabled to subsidize almost all Europe at one time against the power of Napoleon. The growing navy and immense commerce of the Uni- ted States of America have given them a consideration of the highest importance among other nations, and enable them almost to compete with Britain herself, on her own element. The application of steam to the purposes of navigation, forms an era in its history. The Americans first made the application, and the power of steam is now extensive- ly employed in propelling vessels on rivers and inland seas, both in Europe and America. 5. The establishment and progress of free institutions have also marked the period under review. The inde- pendence of the American States forms an era in the his- tory of the political world; and it has generated a spirit among the nations which, sooner or later, will crumble into dust every fabric of tyranny. The efforts of the Holy Alliance can not always keep this spirit down. Light is in its nature progressive, and light has begun to shine. France, during her revolution, and Spain, more recently, were unhappy in their efforts ; circumstances were not in their favour. But Greece still maintains her heroic and lofty struggle, and Mexico and the South American States are free. 6. Christianity and its heavenly influences have, on the whole, been more visible during this period, than during several that preceded it. This has been the fruit of the Beformation. Much has been the vice and flagitiousness of the reformed nations— much has been Iheir unbelief; 14* 162 CHRONOLOGY PERIOD X. and at one time the reign of infidelity seemed almost uni- versal, but its reign was ephemeral. Ji better spirit has succeeded it, and for the last thirtj^ years the Gospel has enjoyed peculiar triumphs in revi- vals of religion, and in the propagation of its tenets among the heathen tribes. Many islands of the sea have been evangelized, and some portions of benighted Asia and Africa. Civilization has followed in the train of Chris- lianity. QUESTIONS. These questions only relate to those parts of the work which are in larger type; the teacher can make his ex- amination more minute, by adding such inteorrogatories respecting the matter in smaller type^ as he chooses. How may Chronology be divided ? What is the extent of ancient chronology ? What is the extent of the^rs^, (^second, third, &c.) period, and for what is it distinguished ? Repeat this question on every period. PERIOD Z. How many principal events are included in this first period 1 What are they 1 Repeat these questions on every period. 1. What length of time did the work of creation occupy ? What appointment did God make respect- ing the seventh day 1 When did creation commence 1 2. Where is contained the account of the fall of man ? When did it probably take place 1 3. What was one of the first fruits of the apos- tacy 1 When did Cain murder Abel ? On what ac- count did he murder him 1 4. Why was the deluge predicted to Noah ? When was this prediction communicated 1 For what pur- pose was the deluge threatened l 5. What distinguished characters were there in this period ] Repeat this question on every period. 164 CHRONOLOOr. PERIOD ZZ. 1. How much of the globe did the deluge cover 1 What was the destruction occasioned by it ] When did it occur ? 2. When was the Tower of Babel built ? Where was it commenced 1 What divine judgment ensued 1 3. When and by whom was the Assyrian empire founded 1 What is said of the separate state of the Assyrian and Babylonian empires, and what of their union 1 4. When was the first dynasty of the Chinese emperors established ? What was it called, and how many succeeded it ? 6. Who founded the kingdom of Egypt, and when was it founded 1 What did Menes do ? PERIOD III. 1. What was the object of the calling of Abra- ham ? What is the date of this event 1 2. Why were Sodom and GomOrrah destroyed ? When did this event occur ? Who interceded for them '? 3. With what event was the arrival of Inachus in Greece connected 1 When did he arrive there ? 4. What was the occasion of the Selling of Jo- seph 1 How did God overrule it ? What is the date of this event 1 5. By whom were the Israelites persecuted 1 When did their persecution commence ? What end was in view in this persecution ? PERIOD IV. 1 . When and by whom was Athens founded ^ With what was this event connected 1 2. In what manner did the Israelites retreat from (iUESTIONS. 165 Egypt l When did this event take place 1 With what was it connected ? 3. When and by whom were letters introduced into Greece ? What was the effect produced 1 4. What was the first foreign enterprize of the Greeks 1 By whom was it conducted 1 What was its destination ? 6. When was Troy taken by the Greeks 1 What was the length of the siege ? What is said of this enterprize ? 6. When was monarchy established among the IsraeUtes 1 What was the occasion of their change of government ? pehzod v. 1. When was Solomon's temple dedicated ? By whom and in whose presence was this dedication performed 1 2. What is said of the introduction of Homer's poems into Greece ? When were they introduced ? 3. When did Lycurgus reform the republic of Lacedemon ? What means were employed in this reformation ? W^hat was the result 7 4. When and by whom was the kingdom of Mace- don founded 1 What was its character at first ? 6. When did Dido build Carthage 1 What do we know of its early history 1 What of its later ? 6. When did Jonah preach to the Ninevites ? What was the object of his preaching 1 PERIOD VX 1. When and by whom was Rome founded ? With what was this event connected ? With what description of persons was Rome first peopled 1 2. What was the consequence of the carryino- 166 CHRONOLOGY away of the ten tribes of Israel ? When did thia event occur ? * 3. What length of time intervened between the destruction of Samaria, and the taking of Jerusalem 1 When and by whom was Jerusalem taken 7 4. What terminated the Babylonian empire ? How was Babylonia afterwards situated 1 When did this event happen 7 5. By what means were the Jews restored from their captivity 1 Who permitted their return ? When did this event take place 1 6. What occasioned the abolition of the regal government at Rome 7 When did this event happen ? Who were the chief agents in this transaction ? PERIOD VIZ. 1. Between what powers was the battle of Mara- thon fought ? Who were defeated ? Who led the respective armies ? When did this event occur ?' 2. What is said of the destruction of Leonidas and his band ? What force did Leonidas resist ? What is the date of this event ? 3. When was Cincinnatus dictator of Rome ? How long did he hold this office ? What did he ac- complish ? 4. What is said of the retreat of the 10,000 Greeks ? When did it take place ? By whom was it conducted and described ? 5. When did the Gauls take Rome ? Who was their leader ? What was the issue of their enter- prize ? 6. When did the war between Thebes and Spar> ta commence ? What is said of this occurrence ? PSZRODVZXZ. 1. When was the battle of Cheronea fought? QUESTIONS. 167 What was the result of it ? What was the interest at stake ? 2. When did Alexander overthrow the Persian empire ? How long had it subsisted ? In what bat- tle was its fate decided ? 3. When did the partition of the Macedonian em- pire take place ? Who made this partition ? 4. When was Pyrrhus defeated by the Romans ? What was the consequence of this event ? 6. When did the first Punic war commence ? What is said of it ? 6. When did the second Punic war commence ? Who begun this war ? Who led the Carthagenians ? 7. What event followed soon after the conclusion of the second Punic war ? When did the kingdom of Macedon, and the independence of Greece be- come extinct ? PERIOD ZX. 1. When was Cartha^^e destroyed ? How were the Carthagenians treated ? 2. By whom was Jugurtha defeated ? How ma- ny of the Numidian army were slain ? What be- came of Jugurtha ? 3. When did the Mithridatic war commence ? In what did it end ? 4. When did the civil war between Marius and Sylla commence ? What is said of these men ? What was the consequence of the war between them? 6. What is the date of the Dictatorship of Sylla ? What course did he pursue ? What was the effect on Rome ? 168 CHRONOLOGY. PERIOD Z. 1. When was Jerusalem taken by Pompey ? With what was this event connected ? 2. By whom was Cicero banished from Rome ? What was the pretence for this measure ? When did it take place ? 3. When did Cresar invade Britain ? What was his success ? 4. By whom was the battle of Pharsalia gained ? When was it fought ? What took place in regard to Pompey and Caesar afterwards ? 5. When was Caesar assassinated ? Who assas- sinated him, and for what was he assassinated ? 6. When was the battle of Philippi fought ? Who gained that battle ? What was the effect of it ? 7. When did the battle of Actium, and the end of the Roman commonwealth take place ? Between what forces was the battle fought ? What was tlie consequence in regard to Octavius ? QUESTIONS ON MODERN CHRONOLOGY. What is the extent of modern chronology ? Into how many periods may it be divided ? What is the extent of the first, {second, third, &c.) period, and for what is it distinguished ? Repeat this question on every period. PERIOD I. How many principal events are included in the first period ? What are they ? QUESTIONS. ni the East ? By what means did she assume it ? How long did she retain it ] PERIOD V. 1. At what time, and by whom, was Charlemagne crowned at Rome 1 Did he restore the Roman Em- pire to its former prosperity ? How did he fail here- in? 2. When was the Saxon Heptarchy united ? When did the kingdom of England properly commence 1 How many separate sovereignties became united ? 3. When did John Zimisces begin to reign 1 By what was his reign signalized 1 4. When did Wilham the Conqueror land in Brit- ain ? What followed his landing ? PERIOD in. 1. What is the date of the Crusades 1 What were the crusades ? How many were there ? What was their success 1 2. When did John sign the Magna Charta ? What was the use of this charter ? By what means was it obtained ? 3. When did the Saracen empire terminate ? In what way did it terminate 1 What became of the last of the cahphs ? 4v When did the Greeks recover Constantinople ? Brwhom and how long had it been held in captivi- ty V In the mean time, where did the Greek empe- rors retire 1 6. When did the Mogul Tartars complete the con- quest of China 1 Who had subjugated a considera- ble portion of it before ? 6, What feat did Wilham Wallace perform ? When 172 CHRONOLOGY. did he perform it ? At Sterling what took place be- tween him and the English ? PERIOD vn. 1. How was the Greek empire affected by the Turks ? When did they found their empire 1 Who was the first sultan ? 2. What gave rise to the establishment of the Swiss republics ? When did this event take place ? 3. When was the battle of Poictiers? Who gained it, and what happened to John, king of France ? 4. When did the schism of the double popes be- gin ? How long did it continue ? From what arose so singular a state of things ? 6. When did Tamerlane take Bajazet prisoner ? Of what battle was this the result ? How many men fought in this battle ? 6. When did the French recover from the English power ? How was this change effected ? PEXUOD VXZZ. 1. What put an end to the Eastern Empire of the Romans ? How long had it subsisted ? Who was the leader of the Turks on this occasion ? 2. What was the effect of the union of the houses of York and Lancaster 1 How did Henry VH. unite the rights of both families ? 3. When did Columbus discover the continent of America ? What did he discover previously to this ? Of what importance was the discovery of America 1 4. When and where did the reformation in reU- gion begin ? What was its progress ? How did it af- fect papacy ? 5. What is said of Charles, and his abdication ? QUESTIONS. 173 When and to whom did he resign his dominions ? What became of him ? 6. When did the repubUc of Holland commence ? What forced the states to unite ? How many pro- vinces were concerned in this measure ? 7. How is the character of Queen Eiizabeth af- fected by her conduct towards Mary ? When and how was Mary deprived of her life ? PEHZOD IZ. 1. What is the date of the edict of Nantes ? What was the character of this edict ? How long did it continue in force ? 2. When were permanent English settlements made in North America ? Which was the first settle- ment ? Which was the next ? Of what importance were they ? 3. When did the protestant princes unite against the emperor of Germany ? To whose influence was this junction owing ? What was its object ? 4. When did the Tartars revolutionize China ? Give an account of this event. 5. When was monarchy restored in England? How was it received by the nation ? How long was the royal power suspended ? Who usurped the su- preme authority ? 6. What is the date of the League of Augsburg ? Who brought it about ? What was a consequence of this measure ? 7. What was the effect of Majlborough's succes- ses in France ? When did Marlborough first distin- guish himself ? 8. When was the battle of Pultowa fought ? What was its effect ? 15* 1 74 CHRONOLOGY. PEHZOD X. 1. When occurred the death of Charles XII. ? What consequences resulted from it ? How did he die? 2. When did Kouli Kan conquer the Mogul em- pire ? Was it an entire conquest ? What is said con- cerning his taking of Delhi ? 3. When did Russia, Austria and France confed- erate against Frederick the Great ? How did Fred- crick stand his ground ? Was this a very bloody con- test ? 4. When and by what powers was Poland dis- membered ? What is the character of that act ? 6, When did the United States of America de- • clare their independence ? What drove them to this act ? How was it at length received by the nations of Europe ? 6. What was a signal event in the French revolu- tion ^ When was Louis executed ? What followed his execution ? 7. When was Napoleon crowned Emperor of France ? When King of Italy ? What was the con- sequence of this and other manifestations of his am- bition ? What was his success 1 8. Who burnt Moscow ? What effect did it pro- duce on the French ? What is the date of this event ? 9. What effect did the battle of Waterloo pro- duce ? When was it fought ? What forces were en- gaged, and who commanded them ? ADVERTISEMENT. HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. By Rev. C. A. Goodrich. On a New Plaji, particularly adapted to Youth, and calculated to render the study inter' esting, at the same time that the subject is strongly impress- ed on the memory, 0^ This work is recommended to Parents, and Teachers, as one of the best School Books in use. It has received the sanction of the first Teachers, and is beUeved to merit an introduc- tion into every School and Family in the Uni- ted States- ADVERTISEMENT. AN OUTLINE OF BIBLE HISTORY, WITH NOTES AND OBSERVATIONS; Adapted to the minds of Youth.. ..Designed for Sabbath and other Schools.... With Engravings. OCT This work is recommended by the Con- necticut Spectator — the Rehgious Intelligen- cer — the Christian Secretary — the Boston Re- corder and Telegraph, and other papers — and by several eminent persons, as a work of very distinguished merit. ADVERTISEMENT. New and Interesting School Books. IN PREPARATION, A SERIES OF HISTORIES, FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS, On a plan calculated at once to enliven the study, while the subject is deeply stamped on the mind and memory of the pupil. It is confidently believed that these works will be far superior to any ^chool Books on History, yet offered to the public. They are all constructed on a new plan, and will be entitled, BLAIR'S OUTLINES OF HISTORY. The following are in hand, and will appear soon: 1. Outlines of Ancient History. 3. Outlines of Modern History. 3. Outlines of the History oi Greece, 4. Outlines of Ecclesiastical History. The Histories of Rome, of England, and France, will be added to the Series. 0:;;7= The attention of Teachers is particularly in- vited to these Works, when they shall appear, as it is believed they are written on an excellent plan, and are better adapted, in thought, style, and ar- rangement, to the minds of youth, than any works extant. The great aim, in these Works, is to attain a just medium between too much extension on one hand, and too great an abridgement of them, on the other. By presenting too much to the memory of the pu- ADVERTISEMENT. pit, little or nothing is retained; by presenting^a mere skeleton of facts and dates, no ideas are gain- ed, the learner feels no interest in the study, and of course neither comprehends nor remembers it. To avoid these difficulties, and at the same time impress the memory, and excite the interest, a few bold commanding outlines are sketched, to be com- mitted to memory. Lively and interesting details, anecdotes, adventures, and observations, connected with these outlines, are there introduced. The whole is arranged on principles of classification and association. The style in which these Works arei written, is simple, and studiously adapted to the ca- 1 pacity of Youth. * ^^-W^ rcR I 2 ^851 /% ,s'<- / L^^^%^ . ^^.^^ ^ " Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces *^^ Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide "^ Treatment Date: /^pR 20C I PreservationTechnologie A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATK 111 "niomson Pari^ Drive Cranberry Township. PA 16066 (724)779-2111 - lY/m^- ^^^ lV Q> \^^^ aH Q, ^-\„.# - ■•\.^^ ♦'' -.\ t.. . ^ -^^ O" .