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THE
WHEAT PLANT:
ITS ORIGIN, CULTURE, GROWTH, DEVELOPMENT,
COMPOSITION, VARIETIES, DISEASES,,
ETC., ETC.
TOGETHER WITH A FEW REMARKS ON
INDIAN CORN, ITS CULTURE, ETC.,
/
BY JOHN H. KLIPPART,
i»
Corresponding Secretary of the Ohio State Board of Agriciilture ; Member
of the Acttdemy of Natural Sciences, Cleveland; Honorary Member
of Western Academy of Natural Sciences, Cincinnati, and
Corresponding Secretary of Columbus
Scientific Association.
ONE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.
CINCINNATI:
MOORE, WILSTACH, KEYS & CO.,
25 West Fourth Street.
I860.
"^
W5 K^^^
Entered
according
to Act of Congress
, in the year
1859,
BY
MOOKE, WILSTACH,
KEYS
& CO
.,
In the
Clerk's
Office of the
District Court of the
United
States
for the Southern
District of Ohio.
Gift
Mrs. Hennen Jennings
April 26, 1933
^^
PREFACE
Several years ago I became aware of the fact that wheat —
the staple crop of Ohio — was annually diminishing in its
yield per acre ; that in less than fifty years the average pro-
duct was reduced from thirty to less than fifteen bushels per
acre. I also learned that, in Great Britain the yield had in-
creased from sixteen bushels to thirty-six per acre during the
same period. A knowledge of these facts induced me to
investigate the subject of wheat culture, as well as the col-
lateral subjects, in order to ascertain the cause of the decrease
on the one hand, and the increase on the other, as well as to
learn what remedy, if any, might readily be applied to restore
our soils to their former productiveness. The result of this
investigation is embodied in the present volume.
I am not aware that any apology is necessary for introduc-
ing this volume imperfect as it necessarily is, to the agricul-
tural public. To me it has been a matter of surprise that no
American has produced a treatise on the wheat plant ; and
more than all that, even professional agricultural writers have
been content to leave the " scattered fi'agments of thought"
on so important a topic as the physiology, culture, varieties,
diseases, etc., of the wheat plant dispersed through a
multitude of journals or serial publications. That portion of
the present volume published in the Ohio Agricultural Re-
port, for 1857, caused the entire edition of 20,000 copies to
be absorbed in less than sixty days from the date of publica-
tion. The urgent solicitation of personal friends, in the cor-
rectness of whose judgment I have the utmost confidence,
IV PREFACE.
again indicated to me a want, which I had previously seriously
felt, of a work which should embrace all that is known rela-
tive to the wheat plant. Such a work I have endeavored to
produce; and this work is now presented to the public witli
the assurance that there is no other work in the English
language so complete on all subjects relating to this indis-
pensable cereal.
In Germany, Metzger, in the early part of this century,
wrote a concise natural history of the European cereals ; in
1836, llev. F. W. Krause published an elegant and profusely
illustrated work on Grerman Wheats, Rye, Barley, and Oats ;
and within the past ten years, a Mr. Koenig published a small
work on Cereals and German Forage Plants.
John Le Couteur, some thirty years ago, published a work
on wheat, in which most of the British varieties, which at that
time were cultivated, are described.
But these transatlantic works are of suggestive value only
to American agriculturists, because not a single variety grown
in England, Germany, or France, has been successfully intro-
duced into the United States ; and the system of culture
practiced in those countries differs as widely as does the
climate.
The study of the wheat plant is the study of a lifetime. I
have endeavored to trace the origin and history of this most
important cereal, and it is much to be regretted that the origins
of all the cereals are hidden under such an impenetrable veil.
So far as the growth, the physiology of the plant is con-
cerned, I have been careful either to verify every statement
which is contained in this book, or else obtain it from such
authority as to render verification unnecessary, excepting
always the experiments of Salm Hortsmarr, which consisted
entirely in growing plants in artificial inorganic soils, — those
of Gilbert and Lawes, and those of Liebig. I had instituted
a series of experiments similar to those of Sir Sidney Godol-
phin Osborne, when, fortunately for me, his report to the
PREFACE. V
Microscopical Society of London came into my possession ;
since which time nearly all of his experiments have been re-
peated by me. In describing the growth of the wheat plant, I
was necessarily obliged to discuss vegetable physiology, and
notwithstanding this portion of the book may appear dull and
uninteresting, and hypothetical only, yet it is one of the most
important subjects to the agriculturist.
On all doubtful points I have consulted the best author-
ities to which I could obtain access, and have availed myself
of the advantages offered by a constant and close attention
to the best American, English, German, and French agricul-
tural periodicals. No one can be more sensible than the
writer, that much matter obtained from these sources has
been too hastily digested for publication.
The origin, composition, condition and management of soils
naturally present themselves from many standpoints, in all
of which it is necessary to discuss them ; so that from the
very nature of the case it is impossible to prescribe on a
single page the precise method to be pursued in any given
case, as a physician would prescribe for the measles ; but it
has been deemed more practical to examine the constituents
of soils and plants, and the action of soils on plants, and that
of plants on soils. Having thus stated the proposition, every-
one will discover how far the examinations and results are
applicable to his own estate.
The descriptions of wheats in Ohio were obtained from
prominent practical agriculturists throughout the State ; and
the engravings of wheat heads were drawn from actual speci-
mens now in the Cabinet in the State Agricultural Hooms.
The descriptions of insects affecting the wheat plant were
obtained from all accessible authentic sources, many of them,
especially the engravings from Morton's Encyclopedia of
Agriculture. To the best of my knowledge that portion
relating to the diseases of the wheat plant, whether by vege-
table or animal parasites is the most complete compilation
VI PREFACE.
accessible. There are many who, no doubt, desire greater
simplicity of language, or freedom from technicalities or
scientific terms. On that account I have endeavored to
express every idea in as simple and concise a manner as
possible ; at the same time scientific and technical terms are
almost indispensable.
Finally, if this work will induce our agriculturists to adopt
an improved system of culture, so that the average product
shall again attain its former maximum, the most sanguine
wishes of myself, publisher and. friends, will be fully realized.
JOHN H. KLIPPART.
State Agricultural Rooms, |
Columbus, 0., Sept. 10, 1859. j
CONTENTS.
Page.
Prkface 3
Introduction 9
CHAPTER I.
General View of the Organic World 17
CHAPTER ir.
Cereals and Grasses 36
CHAPTER III.
History of the Wheat Plant 59
CHAPTER IT.
Origin of the Wheat Plant 92
CHAPTER V.
Structure and Composition of the Wheat Grain 107
CHAPTER VI.
Germination of the Wheat Plant 126
CHAPTER VII.
Origin and Constituents of Soils 153
CHAPTER VIII.
Nutrition of the Wheat Plant 176
CHAPTER IX.
Experiments of Salm Horstmarr on the growth of Plants in Inor-
ganic Artificial Soils ; also, those of Weigmann and Polstorff. 210
CHAPTER X.
Experiments of Gilbert and Lawes 239
7
b CONTENTS.
Paoe.
CHAPTER XI.
Growth of the Wheat Plant 26ft
CHAPTER XII.
Botanical Description of the Wheat Plant 280
CHAPTER XIII.
Wheat Regions of the World 290
CHAPTER XIV.
Culture of Wheat 330
CHAPTER XV.
Exhaustion of Soils 352
CHAPTER XVI.
Management of Soils 389
CHAPTER XVII.
Improvement of Soils 426
CHAPTER XVIII.
Description and Classification of Varieties of Wheat 479
CHAPTER XIX.
Wheats in Ohio 512
CHAPTER XX.
Diseases and Enemies of Wheat 557
CHAPTER XXI.
Animal Parasites affecting the Wheat Plant 592
CHAPTER XXII.
History of Corn 641
Index 693
THE
WHEAT PLANT.
. It has frequently been asserted that the enactment of laws
and the institution of schools were unmistakable evidences of
civilization. True it is that these can exist only in societies
that are not only civilized, but are also in a greater or less
degree enlightened and refined ; but even many of the
barbarous nations and savage hordes have laws of their
own making, and many civilized communities were innocent
of schools.
But there is an evidence of civilization other than social
institutions and mental development, an evidence grasped
from Nature, and with her kind assistance, and fostering care,
perpetuated by civilized man only.
That true and unequivocal symbol of civilization, and
consequent enlightenment and refinement is, the WHEAT
PLANT. As truly as did flocks of sheep in the primitive ages
lead the shepherds to the threshold, of that truly magnificent
science. Astronomy, just so certainly did the wheat plant in
yet earlier ages induce man to forget his savageism, abandon his
nomadic life, to invent and cultivate peaceful arts, and lead a
rural and, consequently, peaceful life. There is not on the vast
expanse of the face of the globe a savage, barbarous, or semi-
(ix)
X INTRODUCTION.
civilized nation that cultivates the wheat plant. In the set-
tlement of New England, the Indians called the plantain the
" Englishman's foot," and in the infancy of society wheat
may have been similarly regarded as springing from the foot-
steps of the Persians or Egyptians. Our Aborigines fully
appreciated the influence of the wheat plant on society, if the
following anecdote, related by Grevecceur, the old French tra-
veler, has any foundation in fact ; The chief of the tribe of
the Mississais said to his people, " Do you not see the whites
living upon seeds, while we eat flesh? That flesh requires
more than thirty moons to grow up, and is then often scarce.
That each of the wonderful seeds they sow in the earth re-
turns them an hundred fold. The flesh on which we subsist
has four legs to escape from us, while we have but two to pur-
sue and capture it. The grain remains where the white men
sow it, and grows. With them winter is a period of rest,
while with us it is the time of laborious hunting. For these
reasons they have so many children, and live longer than we
do. I say, therefore, unto every one that will hear me, that
before the cedars of our village shall have died down with age,
and the maple trees of the valley shall have ceased to give us
sugar, the race of the little corn (wheat) sowers will have ex-
terminated the race of the flesh-eaters, provided their hunts-
men do not resolve to become sowers."
The ancients, who had burst the bonds of savageism, and
scarcely more than escaped from the confines of barbarism,
and through the magic influence of the fruit of the wheat
stalk barely reached the threshold of civilization, retained a
grateful memory of the plant, which was the prime cause of
their amelioration; they erected temples and instituted an ap-
propriate rite for the worship of the goddess Ceres, who was
INTRODUCTION. XI
by them regarded not only as the patron goddess of the crops,
but the propitiator of sound morals, and the promoter of
peace and peaceful avocations.
In their traditions of the wars of the giants, the ancient
Germans have a legend, the purport of which is, that Thor,
the agriculturist, obtained possession of the soil from Winter,
who had depressed, brutalized, scattered, and destroyed the
inhabitants with his chilling blasts and storms of sleet and
snow, and drenching showers of rain, upon condition that he
would introduce harmony, peace and fellowship into social
life by the culture of straw-producing plants.
The culture of the wheat-bearing plant compelled the cul-
tivator to abandon the wild or nomadic life which it is not
unreasonable to suppose he must have led, and the time which
otherwise would have been spent in roaming through the
forests, was now spent in contriving indispensable imple-
ments ; first and prominent among these were the plow and
harrow — rude beyond question in mechanical structure, and
uncouth in appearance, yet they were the first peaceful, and
at the same time utilitarian products of civilization.
These implements compelled man to employ the physical
strength of animals, which have ever since been his constant
companions. First, the ox was domesticated, and to labor
under the yoke became his daily task ; next, the horse, that
noblest of quadrupeds, was not only tamed and taught to come
at the call of his master in the morning, but to endure the
heat and fatigues of the day. Thus, a great work accom-
plished, and the second great step taken toward ultimate
civilization, as well as the superiority of man over the beast
and brute fully established when the sheep, the ox, the cow,
and the horse retired together to rest at twilight in the rude
XH INTRODUCTION.
shed, or open field, and the faithful watch-dog sought his ac-
customed post as sentry.
Thus has the culture of this straw-growing plant caused
savages to abandon their barbarous customs — has fixed in
friendly communion many nomadic and rival hordes — inaugu-
rated the greatest era the world ever saw, the era from which
the human race may date its incipient civilization, the era of
labor. The continued culture and increase of this plant has
from the very commencement called into action all the re-
sources of civilized nations. After the invention of the plow
and harrow, man's inventive genius was tasked to produce a
reaping hook or sickle, and successively during the many ages
of the historic period has this plant called into existence the
scythe, the grain cradle, winnowing machine, sowing machine,
thrashing machine, and within our own day and generation,
the reaping machine. The prolificacy of this plant has brought
into existence the cart and the wagon in the earlier ages of
society, but in more recent ones it has demanded the construc-
tion of turnpikes, and macadamized roads through the pathless
wilderness ; that canals be dug to unite the waters which flow
to the Northward with those which flow to the equator ; that
boats be constructed, and ships with wide-spreading canvas
were found to be indispensable ; and lastly, the steamboat,
steamship, railroad and steam flouring-mill were as loudly and
as earnestly demanded in our day as was the rude plow in the
first days of civilization.
There is not in the entire catalogue of plants another one
which has been as instrumental in the development of me-
chanical ingenuity, and the intellectual faculties, as has been,
and is, the wheat plant. It is true that fiber-producing plants
and prominently among these flax and cotton, have exercised
INTRODUCTION. xiii
considerable influence in the development of mechanical in-
ventions, but upon strict examination it will be found that very
many of the principles of mechanical structures and combina-
tions of powers had already been called into requisition by
the fiber produced by the sheep, and the thread produced by
the silk-worm.
In countries where the agricultural art, or rather the cul-
ture of the wheat plant, has fallen into disuse, there has civ-
ilization also retrograded ; and were it not for commerce with
enlightened and refined nations, several countries would
speedily relapse into all the horrors of absolute barbarism.
Were the wheat plant " blotted out of existence," society
would of necessity revert to its original state. In vain would
the miner delve in the bowels of the earth to bring forth the
dark and heavy ore to make iron ; no iron would be wrought
because there would be no use for plows, and coiisequently
no use for the thousand mechanical contrivances for sowing,
harvesting, thrashing, cleaning, transporting and grinding
wheat. Is it not astonishing to reflect on the number of per-
sons engaged in the culture of the plant, the number engaged
in constructing and improving machinery to gather and pre-
pare the seed, the number engaged in transporting the grain
from place to place, as well the number engaged in the manu-
facture of flour, and the preparation of bread. Truly is not
the wheat the plant, the corner-stone of civilization, and
would not the destruction of it overwhelm society with dark-
ness blacker than the storm cloud at midnight. Does the
extreme cold of winter destroy the germ of the stalk in the
plant — have the rains been too frequent and too abundant^
or has a pitiless and heartless hail-storm leveled it to the
earth ; then how many are the thousands to whom is brought
XIV INTRODUCTION.
suffering, and sorrow, and hunger. In the grave of the past
are buried revolts and insurrections, wild as hordes of savages
in their demonstrations, and terrible in their course as the
lava current bursting from the bowels of the earth, which
have been the lamentable results of an unpropitious season or
seasons, in which the straw of the wheat plant failed to attain
a proper maturity and perform its natural functions. Brute
force has been called into requisition, plunder and even mur-
der has been committed by the sufferers, who know no law
other than necessity, when the cereals fail.
While the hands of industry are busily employed in secur-
ing the product yielded by the wheat plant, every one is
eagerly and earnestly shaping his demand for a pro rata of
the results. This one has closeted himself, and buried him-
self in the study of law ; that one has seized the pencil or the
chisel; another has taken to the jack-plane; a fourth has
mounted the fearful locomotive ; a fifth has entrusted himself
to the treacherous waves of the briny deep ; a sixth has
picked up the sledge, whose uses wei*e taught to mankind by
Vulcan, and from sun to sun strikes the patient anvil ; all, all
having a single and identical object in view, namely, that of
exchanging the fruits of their labors for the fruits of the wheat
plant ; thus is the action of society kept in a continual round
of exchange like a bark on a sluggish eddy, forever departing
from the shore only to be forever arriving at it, and forever
arriving only to be forever departing. The pearl-fisher dives
fearlessly into the fathomless deeps of the ocean for the ani-
mal product found among the rocky polyp-trees ; the miner
excavates the subterranean shaft for gold, the artists produce
articles of the most exquisite workmanship, and like a beast
of burden the porter tenders the services of his physical
INTRODUCTION. XV
Btrengtli in order to obtain a proportion of tlie products of the
wheat plant. All that we see or hear, all that is done, all that
is spoken, written or thought, is performed directly or indi-
rectly on account of the fruit of that plant, which introduced,
developed, and to-day maintains civilization.
It may be said that this is claiming too much for a cereal
whose origin has scarcely ceased to be a matter of controversy.
With a map of the world before you, point, if you can, to the
country or nation enjoying civilization and enlightenment,
that does not cultivate the cereals, or point to a country or a
nation in a state of eavageism or barbarism that does culti-
vate the wheat plant; then reflect for a moment on the num-
ber of persons in our country whose occupation would be
gone ; how many millions of capital would have been uselessly
invested, how many machines and implements would be left
to decay in inglorious idleness, and how much calamity, moral,
political and social would ensue, were the wheat plant to be
suddenly and universally annihilated.
A TREATISE
ORIGIN, GROWTH, DISEASES, VARIETIES, ETC., OF
THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER I.
GENERAL VIEW OP THE ORGANIC WORLD,
As barbarism and ignorance gave place to civilization and
enlightenment, new fields of investigation, and consequently
new sources of enjoyment presented themselves, and attracted
the attention of the learned in all ages. Prominently among
the most interesting of these fields of research and investiga-
tion, were natural phenomena, and at a very early period in
the history of mankind do we find great attention paid them.
From the many ferocious, and at that time uncontrollable wild
beasts, the study of the animal kingdom engaged the attention
of the learned. In the ages of greater comparative refinement
in the history of civilization, we find the greatest attention
bestowed on the vegetable kingdom ; it has attracted the
attention of all classes ; as much, perhaps, from the beautiful,
variously tinted and fragrant flowers with which it fascinates,
as from the more substantial elements of food which it
furnishes.
In the enlightened, or present scientific age — l.he age of
scrutinous investigation — the age in which the microscope
has revealed to us the wonders of the miniature world, as did
the telescope, in a former age, the Planetary world — the age
"2 (17)
18 THE WHEAT PLANT.
■which, when future historians record its events, may truth-
fully say, that during this period, every organic and inorganic
substance within the reach of man was submitted to chemical
analysis, and the elements composing them determined even
in almost infinitesimal detail — this age was the first to devote
any special attention to the mineral kingdom.
Among the various and manifestly distinct races of animals,
naturalists observed that many analogous characteristics ex-
isted between individuals, which evidently were the offspring
of separate and widely distinct progenitors. A very strong
resemblance in external conformation — the structure of the
hoof as well as the shape of it — the tail — head — hair or cov-
ering, etc., were observed in the Horse, Ass, Zebra, and Quag-
ga. Because of this resemblance, naturalists at a very early
day placed all these animals just mentioned into one group,
and called it the Horse, group, or genera, and every animal
belonging to this group is said to be of the Horse kind or
genus. The Lion, Tiger, Leopard, Cat, and other animals
with long stiff hairs on the upper lip — the foot divided into
toes, and that crouch and spring upon their prey, are said to
be of the Cat kind, or genus. In this manner have natural-
ists arranged in groups all the known animals in the world.
The groups like the Horse group or Cat group are named
Genera, and the individual varieties or kinds composing the
group are named species. In cases where several genera have
analogous characteristics, they form a grand group which is
named Order or Family; then analogous Orders are arranged
into Classes.
In the vegetable kingdom a similar arrangement into classes,
orders, genera and species has obtained, founded, however, on
qualities and characteristics differing in kind only from those
of the animal kingdom. Botanists make two grand divisions
of the entire vegetable kingdom : — the one is composed of all
the flowering or Pha3nogamous plants, and the other of the
flowerless or Cryptogamous ones. The flowers of the flowering
VEGETABLE AND MINERAL KINGDOMS. 19
plants serve as the basis of a system of classification into
genera and species. No one wlio has observed can fail to
notice the great similarity that is presented by the flowers of
the radish, cabbage, mustard, turnip, candy-tuft, pepper-gi'ass,
and horse-radish ; all these and many more are called the
Turnip Family, or Cruciper^. Not only is there a great
resemblance between the flowers of the pea, the bean, vetch
and lupine, but the fruit of each of these is encased in a sim-
ilar pod or legume; hence these plants are by botanists placed
in the same group, and called the Pea Family, or Leguminosae.
In a similar manner have all the known plants been classified
by Linnasus, and other botanists.
The vegetable kingdom is further divided, or rather subdi-
vided into Exogens and Endogens, or those plants which
increase by annual layers between the bark and heart wood,
as the oak, hickory, etc., and those which do not so increase,
as the Indian corn, wheat, oats, etc. These two divisions are
further subdivided into Monocoti/Iedonous, or plants whose seed
is an entirely solid mass, as a grain of wheat, rye, or corn ;
and Dicotyledonous, or plants whose seed are composed of two
portions, as the bean, acorn, chestnut, etc.
So, also, has the mineral kingdom been analyzed and classi-
fied ; the distinguishing feature of the groups being a pre-
dominance of a certain mineral, metal or earth in the compo-
sition of any individual of the group. Alabaster, Plaster of
Paris, Epsom Salts, Satin Spar, Marl, etc., belong to the Lime
Family, because lime predominates in their composition ; the
Topaz, Ruby, Emerald and Alum are arranged under the
head of Alumina, on account of the predominance of the last
named mineral in the composition ; and Quartz, Agate, Jas-
per, Amethyst, Sand and Onyx under that of Silica, because
Flint is the basis of these gems.
It is now claimed by one party of theorists, that including
the fossils of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, there may
be traced a series of progressive forms of development, com-
20 THE WHEAT PLANT.
mencing with the simplest crystal on the one hand, and be-
coming theneefbrwai'd not only more complex, but more
highly organized as the series progresses, till man is produced,
who at once is the most complex, most highly organized, and
the crown of the series of organic creations. The reader is
respectfully referred to a work entitled the " Vestiges op
Creation," for a full exposition of this singular theory.
Geology and Palseontology teach us to regard our planet as
a body subject to changes not dissimilar to youth, manhood
and age — subject to an almost organic system of development.
In this respect there appears to be somewhat of a parallel be-
tween organic and inorganic worlds. The inorganic was first
in point of time — oi'ganic existence could necessarily take
place only after the inorganic was created. In tracing the
progress of development of organized matter, we are led to
conclude that primitive vegetation was at all events aquatic,
if not actually marine ; but in process of time there were dis-
tinct land, as well as distinct water or aquatic plants. The
remains of plants, which we find in the lowest series of rocks
containing fossils, are therefore the earliest types of tbe vege-
table kingdom, and strange to say, from the very limited
number of plants found fossil in comparison to those now in
existence, the fossil ones present the chief types of the pres-
ent vegetable kingdom — the monocotyledons only are wanting.
In the fossil coal we find faint indications of them; but in
the subsequent Geological periods, the New Red Sandstone for
example, we find a plant belonging to the class of Restiaccce —
a class allied to the Rushes — Mr. Brogniart has named this
plant Polceoxyris regularis. In the Kemper formation we find
a plant Polasoxyris Munsteri, which greatly resembles the
former one.
It is in the Lias, however, that we find the first true grasses :
Poacites Arundo. Paspalum and Nardus ; of the Cyperaceae
or sedges, we find cyperites scirpoides, caricinus, and typhoides.
In the Miocene formation we find Culmites anoraalus,
PRE-ADAMITE PLANTS. 21
Brogn., and C. G5pperti, and Baniliusum Sepultum, Ung. ; and
finally, in the Pliocene, we find Culmites arundinaceus, Ung.,
and Cyperites tertiarius, Cfng.
The limited number of the above exceedingly rare species
•which have been found, are undoubtedly but a mere fraction
only of the species which existed during those respective
periods of the earth's history.
What a singular history could be written did we know all
the genera and species of plants which existed during the
entire pre- Adamite history of the globe! Possessed of this
knowledge, we would be able to trace with certainty the his-
tory of each particular species ; indicate in an unerring man-
ner the nativity of each plant, and classify with greater
precision.
But we know sufficiently of the order of creation as indi-
cated in the rock formations of the earth, to feel certain that
the primitive plants were of the Algee tribe ; then followed the
Ferns, sigillariae, asterophyllae ; then succeeding them came
conifera3 and cycadae ; while in our time the dicotyledonous
plants preponderate.
There is a singular order of development in the vegetable
kingdom viewed as a whole, those of a simpler organization
appearing first, and the more complex ones appearing at a
later period. Among the monocotyledons the grasses at pres-
ent predominate, while the compositas present the greatest
number of species of dicotyledonous plants. There is good
reason to infer from this fact, that the several families of
plants did not and do not exist independent of each other
without a specific purpose, and that the entire vegetable world
is an unit, and its development in the different periods of cre-
ation is in accordance with an immutable law — the vegetation
of the various epochs have a certain relation and connection
with each other.
Prof, linger has elaborated a beautiful hypothesis with re-
lation to the vegetable world, in which he compares the exist-
22 THE WUEAT PLANT.
euc« of a species with that of an individual plant. Even as
an individual plant has a period of commencement, a period
of perfect development, as well as a period of decay ; so, also,
does a species have a period of commencement, a point of cul-
mination in development, and a period of termination. Thus
far we may adopt, with perfect security, the theory advanced
by Prof. Unger, because it is corroborated by researches in
paliBontology or fossil geology ; but, when he asserts that
" the plant is subject to a period when it may produce a new
species, similar to the impregnation and development of seed
in a single individual," it is best to hold assent in abeyance.
It is by no means difficult to demonstrate where the miner-
al kingdom terminates, and the vegetable or animal kingdom
commences, because the transition from inorganic to organic
forms must necessarily be very abrupt ; but naturalists assert
that it is an exceedingly difficult task to draw the line of de-
markation between the vegetable and animal kingdoms. Many
species of Radiata or the lowest types of the animal kingdom
are now classed as Anthozoa, especially the campaniilaria and
alci/onitnn, and more recently the entire class of Porifera or
Sponges have been regarded as belonging to the vegetable
kingdom. If the series of progression are as regular and as
perfect as theorists assert, then must all the intermediate links
between any specified points in the series also be perfect; and
upon this hypothesis of perfection in the series it is claimed
that nature endeavors to prevent the propagation of mules or
hybrids, in the animal kingdom, by regarding them as excres-
cences, and withholding from the reproductive organs the per-
formance of their proper functions.
In the vegetable kingdom, although there is considerable
conflict between the different systems of classification, so far
as genera and species are concerned, yet, as a whole, it is
claimed that there exists as perfect a chain of progressive de-
velopment as in the animal ; — from the simple cell of the Red
Snow or Pmtococcm up to the most elegantly and highly or-
CHANGES IN FORMS OP PLANTS. 23
ganized Phaenogamia. Hence it is confidently asserted, that
although the vitality in plants is very distinct from, and lower
in the scale of organization than that of the animal kingdom ;
and although in their most highly organized forms, plants are
susceptible of being wrought upon and greatly changed by
man's interference, such as inarching, budding, and grafting
not only different varieties of the same species upon each
other, but upon widely different species themselves, have these
operations proved successful ; yet, notwithstanding the tenacity
of life in the lowest orders of the animal kingdom, success
has never crowned any experiments v^here different species
have been attempted to be grafted upon each other, although
polyps of the same species have been engrafted on each other.*
Much has been accomplished as man has become more famil-
iar with the laws of nature, but more especially with physio-
logical laws, in the improvement and more perfect develop-
ment of individuals, by special care and attention to the
natural wants and habits of plants and animals, and by modi-
fying conditions of temperature, climate and nutriment, in
* If the head of a polyp, with all its tentacles, be cut off from the
trunk with scissors, it will presently develop a new trunk and base,
while the headless trunk begins to shoot out new tentacles ; and thus,
in a little time, two perfect animals are formed. If one of these be cut
in three, four, or half a dozen pieces, each piece supplies the wanting
parts, and so many animals are made, all as perfect and active, and en-
dowed with the same functions as the first. Nor does it signify in what
direction the mutilation is made ; a longitudinal, a diagonal, or a trans-
verse division is equally successful ; nay, even a small portion of the
skin soon grows into a pol^'p. It was from this power of perpetual re-
production that this singular animal received the name of Hydra, by
which it is known among naturalists; as if it realized the ancient mon-
ster of fabulous story, whose heads sprouted anew as fast they were cut
off by Hercules.
Most curious monstrosities were produced by the experimentsof philoso-
phers on these animals, especially by partial separations. If a polyp be slit
from the summit to the middle, one will be formed having two heads, each
24 THE WHEAT PLANT.
accordance with tlie laws governing the respective kingdonas.
In the natural state the ox measures in girth from five to six
feet, and weighs from ten to twelve hundred pounds ; but,
by attention and conformity to physiological laws he has been
so improved (?) as to measure from nine to ten feet in girth,
and to weigh upward of three thousand pounds. By a
strict adherence and obedience of these laws, certain desirable
characteristics have been obtained and perpetuated, insomuch
that these qualities obtained by cultivation have given rise
to artificial varieties in the horse, ox, sheep and hog. The
fleetest racer, as " Flora TempU" or " Lady Suffolk," as well
as the heavy and uncouth Norman draft horse, may trace its
parentage through many lapses of time, perhaps, and countries,
until it centers in one and the same progenitor ; but they owe
their distinctness and modification of form to climate, care and
conformation, to natural and physiological laws. So the Short-
horns, Longhorns, Herefords, Devons, etc., are undoubtedly
the ofi"spring of one and the identical progenitor; but cli-
mate, locality, and attention have modified and molded them
into remarkably distinct artificial varieties.
There is no difficulty in proving that the original Saxony
sheep was a very coarse-wooled and uncouthly formed animal,
and now owes its present fineness of wool entirely to man's
agency ; and to the same cause are due the various qualities
of wool and artificial varieties of sheep. The China, Berk-
of which -will capture and swallow food. If these again be slit half a doz-
en times, as many heads will be formed surmounting the same body. If
now all of these be cut off, as many new ones will spring up in their
place, while each of the severed heads becomes a new polyp, capable of
being in its turn, varied and multiplied ad infinitum, — so that in every re-
spect our little reality exceeds its fabulous namesake. Polyps may be
grafted together. If cut off pieces be placed in contact, and pushed to-
gether with a gentle force, they will unite and form a single one. The
head of one may thus be placed on the trunk of another.— /.j/c ; by
P. H. Oosu.
MULES AND HYBRIDS. 25
shire, Essex, Suffolk, Grass Breed and other varieties of the
hog, owe their peculiarities to man's instrumentality, and are un-
doubtedly the modified offspring of one common pair of
parents.
The improvements above named may with great propriety be
termed " developments^'' foi* there is no doubt each individual in
the animal kingdom above mentioned was innately susceptible
of these improvements, and all that was necessary to make
them manifest was to be surrounded by the proper condition
and influences.
But man has, in some instances, endeavored to make an im-
provement in another direction. He observed that the pro-
duct of the sj'mmetric thorough-bred horse upon the massive
draught or Norman horse, was an animal less symmetric than
the one, yet lighter than the other ; slower than the one, yet
fleeter than the other ; in a word, the characteristics of both
were blended and united in this offspring. This new animal
then became the progenitor of a new sub-variety of horses.
Finding that the cross thus produced realized the most san-
guine anticipations, a ci'oss was determined on between the
horse and the ass, the result was the mule ; but it could not
propagate its species. In the many attempted improvements
by crossing, the following law was discovered : That a cross
between two individuals of the same species, although of dif-
ferent varieties, is a mongrel, partaking of the form and
characteristics of both progenitors, and is capable of repro-
duction, as in the case of the cross of the turf and draft horse
just stated ; but the product of two animals of different species
or zoologic circles is a mule, partaking in a greater or less
degree of the paternal or maternal type, but entirely deprived
of reproductive powers.
In the vegetable kingdom the results are precisely analo-
gous to those in the animal. The individual plants which
participated in the crossing may be distinctly traced in the
hybrid. The varieties obtained by crossing affiliated plants or
26 THE WHEAT PLANT,
flowers produce fruits which have fecundating powers,
familiar instances of which may be found in corn, portu-
laccas, convolvulus or morning-glory; while the hybrids
or crosses produced by the artificial impregnation of flow-
ers produce no fruit, or at most, if fruit is produced,
the seeds are sterile. Flowers appear to possess a much
stronger attraction for the pollen or fecundating property
of the male portion of the plant, of their own varieties,
than for that of different species; hence, in order to be
successful in hybridizing, it is not only very essential that a
large quantity of the pollen be employed, but it is also
necessary that the flowers be closely allied ; crosses
between individuals of different genera, or different species
although of the same genera, produce no result. It is also
useless to attempt to produce crosses with those plants whose
seeds never mature in this climate.
It may not, in this place, be irrelevant to say a few words
in detail of the hybridization of plants. The earliest record
we can find of hybrids is in the writings of Camerarius, in
1694. Linnaeus wrote his " Dmrfation ch plantis I{i/bri(Ns"
in 1751, and eight years later Kolreuter commenced
and succeeded in producing hybrids by artificial fecun-
dation : from this last named period to the present time
numberless species and genera of plants have been submitted
to the process of hybridization, which in itself is exceedingly
simple.
This process consists in bringing the pollen which is con-
tained in the anthers of the one flower into contact with the
stigma of the pistil of the flower intended to be impregnated.
As the parts of plants will frequently be referred to in the
course of the work, it will not, in this place, be very inappro-
priate to explain the process of hybridization, as well as the
parts or anatomy of flowers.
Fig. 1 represents a glume or husk of wheat, magnified six
diameters, containing the m.ale and female parts of the flower
in their natural although immature positions. Fio. 2 ropre-
ANATOMY OF SEXUAL APPARATUS.
27
sents a glume magnified twelve diameters, and in a
more advanced stage, d is the ovule, or unimpreg-
nated seed or body destined to become a seed^ or,
perhaps, more properly, the young wheat grain, e e
the pistils, or female part of the flower. Many
flowers, as the convolvulus or morning-glory, have
one pistil only ; the family of grasses to which wheat
belongs has, as a general thing, two pistils ; the com-
mon elder, sumach, etc., three ; the elatine, or water-
wort, four, etc., etc. The pistils are always in the
center of the flower, and are attached or surmounted on the
ovule or ovary, to which they serve as ducts for the pollen
grains, ace are anthers, or the male part of the flower, and
contain pollen grains, which latter contain a fluid that im-
pregnates or fecundates the ovulo ; that
portion marked h is termed filament or
thread, from its thread-like form, and
connects the anther to the ovule or
glume, as the case may be. The entire
organ a 6 is called a Stamen.
When the anthers arrive at a, Fig. 3,
or c, Fig. 2, they become ruptured, and
shed the pollen grains upon the pistils of
the glume which they are leaving ; but
do not shed their pollen upon other
glumes after they have escaped from the
parent glume, as has erroneously been
asserted. One antlur only escapes at a
time. Figs 3, 1, and 2, were drawn from
nature ; 1 represents the interior condi-
tion of the glume at the proper time for
hybridizing, i e., before its own anthers
* Fig. 1. Glume of wheat exhibiting pistils and anthers in situ.
tFiG. 2. Glume of wheat in bloom, magnified twelve diameters,
and in a more advanced stnge. a. Ruptured anther, b. b. Filaments.
c. c. Anthers not yet extruded, d. Ovarium, or youne: srrain of wheat.
e. Pistil, f. /-. niumo. Joe
28
THE WUEAT PLANT.
have shed their pollen. Fig. 2 exhibits the glume after one
anther {a) has escaped, and another (c) partially extruded,
while Fig. 3 represents the two anthers as having escaped
Fio. 39.
Pro. 40.
and emitted their pollen, while a is partially extruded.
Hence, since one anther only escapes at a time, it would be
impossible for the anthers of one glume to fecundate the
germs in a neighboring glume ; except, indeed, it be demon-
strated that the sides of the glume remain apart for such
purpose. Those who may be disposed to take the pains to
examine will find that the sides of the glumes are in such
exceedingly close proximity as to exclude even the finest par-
ticles from entering. The exit of the anthers always takes
* Fig. 3. Glume of wheat exhibiting the sexual apparatus of the flower.
a. Anther partially ruptured and extruded, b. Anthers entirely ex-
truded and ruptiircd. e. Filaments. (/. Ovarium. ' c. Anthers as tliey
appear V)efore extrusion commences. fi^^The pistils are removed in
this figure, to avoid confusion.
tFiG. 4. A porUon of the pistil highly magnified, f-ff- Pollen
grains.
X Fig. 5. A small portion of the pistil very highly magnified, h. c.
Portion of Pistil, a. Main cavity or duct le.iding from extremity of
pistil to ovariMw. d. A pollen grain penetrating a branch of the main
duct.
IMPREGNATION OF PLANTS. 29
place at the upper portion of tlie glumes, so that the pollen,
by its own gravity, falls directly upon the pistils.
After a pollen grain has fallen among the tufted portion of
the pistil, as at /, Fig. 4 (which represent a portion of the
pistil, e, Fig. 2, highly magnified), it soon becomes exceed-
ingly plastic. The pistil as well as the pollen grain is covered
with an exceedingly thin coat of mucilaginous matter,
which causes them to adhere when once in contact. The fim-
bria of the pistil contain ducts through which the pollen
grain finds its way until it reaches the ovule, where it finds
bodies having a greater afiinity for its contents, which are
soon commingled with the surrounding parts. Fig. 5 repre-
sents a portion of the pistil very highly magnified, with a
pollen grain, d, penetrating a branch of the main duct, a.
There are certain conditions, however, which must be strict-
ly observed, otherwise there can be no successful impregna-
tion : the flowers with which it is proposed to operate, must
have obtained the same degree of advancement, because
impregnation can not be efiected on others than those flowers
which expand or bloom at about the same time. The pollen
grains are a very flne dust contained in a very delicate envelop
in the anther of a stamen — the color of the pollen varies
with the species, but as a general thing is of a pale yellow
tint — those of the morning-glory are of a pearly white, while
those of the cucumber family are a deep yellow. Each pollen
grain contains, within an exceedingly delicate, transparent
membrane, a mucilaginous material, which is inodorous, and is
the fecundating substance of the male organ. The pistil
ordinarily has a small spongelet surrounding the center of the
style, called the stigma, which is lubricated by a serous liquid,
which has in an eminent degree the power of absorption. If,
upon the extremity of this stigma, a small drop of colored
liquid — for example, in the morning-glory the pistil is white,
use a liquid colored with carmine — the absorbing powers man-
ifest themselves very strikingly, for the style will be colored
down to its base. Now the passage which thus becomes
30 THE WHEAT PLANT.
colored, is the duct which the pollen enters and traverses in
the phenomenon of fecundation.
When it is desired to obtain a hybrid from hermaphrodite
flowers, the first thing to be done is to remove the anthers ;
this is best performed early in the morning, because the dew
has swollen the anthers and prevents the opening of the little
sac, which contains the pollen ; the simplest method of
removing the anthers is to use a pair of very small scissors
or forceps. Then at, or toward noon, carefully remove the
anthers from the flower with whose pollen we wish to impreg-
nate, and shake them gently so that the pollen dust may fall
upon and adhere to the stigma of the flower from which the
anthers had been removed in the morning. The heat of the
day produces a dilatation of the pollen, and thus facilitates
its dispersion.
In order, then, to hybridize, it is necessary to take the
heads of wheat which are intended to be the parents, both male
and female, when they have arrived at that state of maturity
indicated by Fig. 1, or hrfore any of the anthers have escaped
from the glume. Suppose a cross is intended to be consum-
mated between the Genessee Flint, as male, and White Blue
Stem, as female. Then, on a dry and warm day — this state
of weather seems to be necessary, as at such times impregna-
tion not only more readily takes place, but appears to be more
successful — between 10 and 12 o'clock, hold the head of the
Blue Stem downward, and carefully open the glumes ; then
with a very sharp pointed scissors, cut ofiF the anthers (a c c,
Fig. 2), and let them fall to the ground ; great care must be
taken that no anther is permitted to touch the pistil of the
same head, either before or after separation of the filaments
(b b, Fig. 2); this is perhaps the most delicate part of the ope-
ration. After the anthers have been removed, pollen -grains
from the anthers of the Genessee Flint must be immediately
applied to the pistil of the glumes from which the anthers
have been removed.
In order to preserve the heads thus impregnated, from
D. J. Browne's view op impregnation. 31
injury by insects or birds, tliey may be enveloped in a hood of
gauze, or Swiss muslin, but no caution whatever, is necessary
to guard against the accidental introduction of pollen-grains,
as Mr. D. J. Browne intimates in the Patent Office Report
for 1855, page 184, viz :
" The three males are designed to impregnate the stigma of
the one female, or pistil, which is situated in the center of the
anthers. From these anthers, a powder, or pollen, is emitted,
which adheres to, or is absorbed by, the stigma, and is con-
veyed by it down to the berry, or seed, at its base, and thus
eflfects the work of fecundation. So decided is the preference
of the pistil for the pollen of its own stamens, that it is often
impossible to impregnate it with that of any other head,
while a particle of this is near. Impregnation takes place
best when the weather is dry and warm, as a peculiar warmth,
and a certain electric state of the atmosphere prepare the
parts for this process, which always occurs on a dry day.
The opinion, indeed, has been expressed, that the pollen of
the male conveys hydrogen to the ovules of the female, that
oxygen is received from the atmosphere, and carbon, in the
form of carbonic acid gas, from the roots ; and that, when the
pollen is destroyed by the rain, or from any other cause, the
carbon alone is found in the ear, and this is the well known
e town," a white wheat, of long ear and straw,
and fine grain, and ''Piper s Thickset" a coarse, red wheat,
with thick clustered ears, a stiff straw, and very prolific, but
liable to mildew. The hybrids thus obtained, were interme-
diate between the two parents — the ears are shorter than in
the "Ho^etovn/' and larger than in the "Thickset."
36 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER II.
CEREALS AND GRASSES.
Op all the plants now so universally diffused over the sur-
face of the globe, the grasses are of the first importance to
man. From them he derives all the essentials of life. The
cereals, embracing a portion only of the family of grasses, are
to man in his civilized condition more important than the
other classes of the grasses. They contain the elements to
form, bone, muscle and fat. Almost every family of plants
contain some which are deleterious in their effects when
eaten, from which general rule the ceralia are not exempt.
One plant, the Loliura temulentum, is said to be poisonous.*
As nothing can be uninteresting which is connected with the
habits of a tribe of such vast importance to man, T extract
the following account of the geographical distribution of
grasses by Schouw, from Jameson's Philosophical Journal for
April, 1825 : " The family is very numerous ; Persoon's
Synopsis contains 812 species, one twenty-sixth part of all the
plants therein enumerated. In the system of Roemer and
Schulres there are 1,800 ; and, since this work, were it brought
to conclusion, would probably contain 40,000 in all, it may be
assumed that the grasses form a twenty-second part. It is
more than probable, however, that in future the grasses will
increase in a larger ratio than the other phanerogamic plants ;
and that, perhaps, the just proportion will be as one to twenty,
or as one to sixteen. Greater still will be this proportion
to vegetation in general, when the number of individuals is
taken into account; for, in this respect the greater number,
nay, perhaps, the whole of the other classes are inferior ; with
regard to locality in such a large family, very little can be
* For a detailed account of this plant see Burnett's Outlines of Botany.
TROPICAL GRASSES. 37
advanced. Among the grasses there are both land and water,
but no marine plants. They occur in every soil, in society
with others, and alone ; the last to such a degree as entirely
to occupy considerable districts. Sand appears to be less favor-
able to this class ; but even this has species nearly peculiar to
itself. The diifusion of this family has almost no other lim-
its than those of the whole vegetable kingdom. Grasses
occur under the equator, and Agrostis algida was one of the
few plants which Phipps met with on Spitsbergen. On the
mountains of the south of Europe, Poa disticha and other
grasses ascend almost to the snow line ; and, on the Andes,
this is also the case with Poa malulensis and dactyloides,
Deyeuxia rigida, and Festuea dasyantha.
" The greatest differences between tropical and extra tropical
grasses appear to be the following: 1. The tropical grasses
acquire a much greater hight, and occasionally assume the
appearance of trees. Some species of Bambusa are from fifty
to sixty feet high. 2. The leaves of the tropical grasses are
broader, and approach more in form to those of other families
of plants. Of this the genus paspalpus aflPords many exam-
ples. 3. Separate sexes are more frequent in the tropical
grasses. Zea, Sorghum, Andropogon, Olyra, Anthistiria, Is-
chaemum, jEgilops, and many other genera, which only occur
in the torrid zone, and are there found in perfection, are
monoecious or polygamous. Holcus is, perhaps, the only
extra tropical genus with separate sexes. 4. The flowers are
softer, more downy and elegant. 5. The extra tropical grasses,
on the contrary, far surpass the tropical in respect to the
number of individuals. That compact grassy turf which,
especially in the colder parts of the temperate zones, in spring
and summer, composes the green meadows and pastures, is
almost entirely wanting in the torrid zones.
The grasses there do not grow crowded together ; but, like
other plants, more dispersed. Even in the southern parts of
Europe, the assimilation to the warmer regions in this respect,
is by no means inconsiderable. Arundo donax, by its hight,
38 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
reminds us of the Bamboo, Saccliarum RavennoB, S. Tenerif-
fae, Imperata Arundinacea, Lagura Ovatus, Lygeum Spartum,
and the species of Andropogon, .^gilops, etc., by separate
sexes, exhibit tropical qualities. The grasses are also less
gregarious, and meadows seldomer occur in the south than in
the north of Europe. The generality are social plants.
The distribution of cultivated grasses is one of the most in-
teresting of all subjects. It is not merely governed by climate,
but depends on the civilization, industry and traffic of the
people, and often on historical events. Within the northern
polar circle, agriculture is found only in a few places. In
Siberia, grain reaches at the utmost only to 60°, in the eastern
parts, scarcely above 50°, and in Kamstchatka there is no
agriculture even in the most southern parts (51°). The polar
limit of agriculture, on the northwest coast of America,
appears to be somewhat higher ; for, in the more southern
Russian possessions (57° to 52°), barley and rye come to
maturity. On the east coast of America, it is scarcely above .
50° to 52°.
Only in Europe, namely, in Lapland, does the polar limit
reach an unusually high latitude (70°). Beyond this, dried
fish, and here and there potatoes, supply the place of grain.
The grains which extend furthest to the north in Europe are
barley and oats. These, which in the milder climates are not
used for bread, afford to the inhabitants of the northern parts
of Norway and Sweden, of a part of Siberia and Scotland,
their chief vegetable nourishment. Rye is the next which be-
comes associated with these. This is the prevailing grain in
a great part of the northern temperate zone, namely, in the
south of Sweden and Norway, Denmark, and in all the lands
bordering on the Baltic; the north of Germany and part of
Siberia. In the latter, another very nutritious grain, buck-
wheat, is very frequently cultivated. In the zone where rye
prevails, wheat is generally to be found ; barley being here
chiefly cultivated for the manufacture of beer, and oats sup-
plying food for the horses. To these there follows a
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTIIIBUTION OF CEREALS 39
zone in Europe, and Western Asia, where rye disappears, and
■wheat almost exclusively furnishes bread. The middle, or the
south of France, England, part of Scotland, a part of Ger-
many, Hungary, the Crimea and Caucasus, as also the lands
of middle Asia, where agriculture is followed, belong to this
zone. Here the vine is also found ; wine supplants the use of
beer; and barley is consequently less raised. Next comes a
district where wheat still abounds, but no longer exclusively
furnishes bread, rice and maize becoming frequent.
To this zone belong Portugal, Spain, part of France on the
Mediterranean, Italy and Grreece ; further, the countries of the
east, Persia, Northern India, Arabia, Egypt, Nubia, Barbary,
and the Canary Islands ; in these latter countries, however,
the culture of maize or rice toward the south is always more
considerable, and in some of them several kinds of sorghum
(douhra) and Poa Abyssinica come to be added.
In both these regions of wheat, rye only occurs at a consi-
derable elevation ; oats, however, more seldom, and at last
entirely disappear ; barley affording food for horses and
mules. In the eastern parts of the temperate zone of the old
continent, in China and Japan, our northern kinds of grain
are very unfrequent, and rice is found to predominate. The
cause of this difference between the east and the west of the
old continent appears to be in the manners and peculiarities
of the people. In North America wheat and rye grow as in
Europe, but more sparingly. Maize is more reared in the
western than in the old continent, and rice predominates in
the southern provinces of the United States. In the torrid
zone, maize predominates in America, rice in Asia, and both
these grains in nearly equal quantity in Africa. The cause
of this di-stribution is, without doubt, historical ; for Asia is
the native country of rice, and America of maize. In some
situations, especially in the neighborhood of the tropics,
wheat is also met with, but always subordinate to these other
kinds of grain. Besides rice and maize there are, in the tor-
rid zone, several kinds of grain, as well as other plants, which
40 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
supply the inhabitants with food, cither used along with them,
or entirely occupying their place. Such are, in the new con-
tinent, yams (Dioscorea alata), the manihot (Jatsopha
manihot), and the batatas (convolvulus batatas), the root of
which, and the fruit of the pisang (Banana nusa), furnish
universal articles of food. In the same zone, in Africa,
doura (sorghum), pisang, manihot, yams, and Asachis
hypogaea. In the East Indies, and on the Indian Islands,
Elusine coracana, E. stricta, Panicum frumentaceum ; several
palms and Cycadeal, which produce the sago; pisang, yams,
batatas, and the breadfruit (Artocaspus incisa). In the
islands of the South Sea, grain of every kind disappears, its
place being supplied by the breadfruit tree, the pisang, and
taeca pinnatifida. In the tropical parts of New Holland
there is no agriculture, the inhabitants living on the produce
of the sago, the various palms, and some species of Arum.
In the highlands of South America, there is a distribution
similar to that of the degrees of latitude. Maize, indeed,
grows to the bight of 7,200 feet above the level of the sea,
but only predominates between 3,000 and 6,000 of elevation.
Below 3,000 feet it is associated with the pisang and the
above mentioned vegetables ; while, from 6,000 to 9,260 feet,
the European grains abound ; wheat in the lower regions, and
rye and barley in the higher; along with which Chinopodium
quinoa, as a nutritious plant, must also be oiumerated. Pota-
toes alone are cultivated from 9,260 to 12,300 feet. To the
south of the tropic of Capricorn, wherever agriculture is
practiced, considerable resemblance with the northern temper-
ate zone may be observed.
In the southern parts of Brazil, in Buenos Ayres, in Chili,
at the Cape of Good Hope, and in the temperate zone of New
Holland, wheat predominates; barley, however, and rye make
their appearance in the southernmost parts of these countries,
and in Van Dieman's Land. In New Zealand the culture of
wheat is said to have been tried with success; but the inhabit-
ants avail themselves of the Acrostichum fuscatum as the main
WHAT CEREALS MOST IN USE. 41
article of sustenance. Hence, it appears that, in respect of
the predominating kinds of grain, the earth may be divided
into five grand divisions, or kingdoms. The kingdom of rice,
of maize, of wheat, of rye, and lastly of barley and oats. The
first three are the most extensive ; the maize has the greatest
range of temperature, but rice may be said to support the
greatest number of the human race. It is a very remarkable
circumstance, that the native country of wheat, oats, barley,
and rye, should be entirely unknown ; for, although oats and
barley were found by Col. Chesney, apparently wild, on the
banks of the Euphrates, it is doubtful whether they were not
the remains of cultivation. This has led to an opinion, on
the part of some persons, that all our cereal plants are artifi-
cial productions, obtained accidentally, but retaining their
habits, which have become fixed in the course of ages.
The uses of this most important tribe of plants, for fodder,
food, and clothing, require little illustration. The abundance
of wholesome faecula contained in their seeds, renders them
peculiarly well adapted for the sustenance of man/; and if the
Cereal Grasses only, such as Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oats, Maize,
Rice, and Guinea Corn, are the kinds generally employed, it
is because of the large size of their grain, compared with that
of other Grasses; for none are unwholesome in their natural
state, with the exception of Lolium temulentum, a common
weed in many parts of England, the efi'ects of which are un-
doubtedly deleterious, although perhaps exaggerated ; of Bro-
mus purgans and catharticus, said to be emetic and purgative ;
of Bromus mollis, reported to be unwholesome, and of Festuca
quadrudentata, which is said to be poisonous in Quito, where it
is called pigonil. To these must be added Molinia varia, inju-
rious to cattle, according to Endlicher; and a variety of Pas-
palum scrobiculatum, called Hureek in India, which is perhaps
the Ghrhona Grass, a reputed Indian poisonous species, said to
render the milk of cows that graze upon it narcotic and drastic.
It is however uncertain, how far the injurious action of some of
these may be owing to mechanical causes, which, in the case
4
42 THE wiip;at plant.
of the species of Calamagrostis and Stipa seem to be the cause
of mischief in consequence of their roughness and bristles.
In their qualities the poisonous species seem to approach
the properties of putrid wheat, which is known to be danjrer-
ous. Among corn-plants less generally known, may be men-
tioned Eleusine cosacana, called Natchnee, on the Coromandel
coast, and Nagla Ragee, or Mand, elsewhere in India ; Pha-
laris canariensis, which yields the canary-seed ; Zizania aquat-
ica, or Canada Rice ; Paspalum scrobiculatum, the Menya, or
Kodso of India, a cheap grain, regarded as unwholesome ;
Setaria Germanica, or Hungarian grass; Pariscum furmen-
taceum, called Shamoola, in the Deccan ; Setaria italica, culti-
vated in India under the name of Kala kangnee, or kora kang;
Panicum millaceum, a grain called Warree in India ; and P.
pilosum, called Bhadlee ; Penscillaria spicata, or Bajree ; An-
dropogon sorghum, or Durra, Doora, Jowarree. or Jondla;
and Andropogon saccharatus, or Shaloo, are also grown in In-
dia for their grain. A kind of fine-grained corn, called, on
the west of Africa, Fundi, or Fundungi, is produced by Pas-
palum exile ; and finally, both the Teff and Toccusso, Abys-
sinian corn plants, are species of this order ; the former Poa
Abyssinica, the latter Eleusine tocusso. Even Stipa pennati
is said to produce a flour much like that of Rice. The value
of grasses, as fodder for cattle, is hardly second to that of their
corn for human food. The best fodder grasses of Europe are
usually dwarf species ; or at least such as do not rise more
than three or four feet above the ground — and of these the
larger kinds are apt to become hard and wiry. The most
esteemed are Lolium perrenne, Phleum and Festuca pratensis,
Cynosurus cristatus, and various species of Poa and dwarf
Festuca, to which should be added Anthoxanthum odoratum,
for its fragrance. But the fodder grasses of Brazil are of a
far more gigantic stature, and perfectly tender and delicate.
We learn from Nees von Esanbeck, that the Caapim do An-
gola, of Brazil, Panicum spectabile, grows six or se>en feet
high ; while other equally gigantic species, constitute the field
IMPORTANT GRASSES. 43
crops on the banks of the Amazon. In New Holland the
favorite is the Anthistiria australis, or Kangaroo Grass ; in
India, the A. ciliata, is also in request. But the most com-
mon Indian fodder grass appears to be Doorba, Doorwa, or
Ilurryalee, Cynodon Dactylon. Gama Grass, Tripsacum dac-
tyloides, has a great reputation as fodder in Mexico ; and
attention has lately been directed to the Tussac Grass of the
Falklands, Festuca flabellata, a species forming tufts five or six
feet high, and said to be unrivaled for its excellence as food for
cattle and horses. The fragrance of our sweet vernal gi-ass
(Anthoxanthum), is by no means confined to it. Other spe-
cies are Hierochloe borealis, Ataxia Horsfieldii, and some
Andropogons ; their odor is said to be owing to the presence
of benzoic acid. The most famous species are Andropogon
Iwasancusa and Schoenanthus — the latter the Lemon Grass of
English gardens ; A. calamus aromaticus, which Dr. Royle
considers the plant of that name described by Dioscorides, and
the " sweet cane " and " rich, aromatic reed, from a far coun-
try," of Scripture; and the Anatherum muricatum, called
Vetiver, by the French, and Khus, in India, where its fragrant
roots are employed in making tatties, covers for palan-
quins, etc.
This fragrance is connected with aromatic secretions, which
hart^e, in part, recommended grasses to the notice of medical
practitioners. The last mentioned plant (Anatherum muri-
catum) is said to be acrid, aromatic, stimulating, and diapho-
retic ; another species, A. Nasdus, is called, because of its
quality, Ginger Grass, or Koshel. The roasted leaves of
Andropogon Schoenanthus are used in India, in infusion, as
an excellent stomachic. An essential oil, of a pleasant taste,
is extracted from the leaves, in the Moluccas ; and the Javaoc
ese esteem the plant much as a mild aromatic and stimulant.
The former is one of the Grasse Oils of Nemans, called, in
India, Ivasanensa, and described in Brewster's Journal.
Many others partake of the same qualities. But it is not
merely for their aroma that grasses are used medicinally. A
44 THE WHEAT PLANT.
cooling drink is employed, in India, from the roots of Cyno-
don Dactylon. The hard, stony fruits of Coix lachryma (Job's
Tears), have been supposed to be strengthening and diuretic;
and the latter quality has been recognized in many others,
especially the common Reeds, Phragmites arundinacea, and
Calamagrostis, in Europe ; Perotis latifolia, in the West Indies,
and the Brazilian species of Gynesium. A decoction of Eleu-
sine indica is employed, in Demarara, in the convulsions of
infants, according to Schomburg. Donax arundinacea is
astringent and subacid. The creeping roots of the Quitch, or
Quick Grass, Triticum repens, of Tr. glaucum and pinceum,
and Cynodon Dactylon and lineare, have some reputation as a
substitute for Sarsaparilla. A decoction of the root of Gyne-
rium parriflorum is used, in Brazil, to strengthen the hair.
Sugar is a general product of grasses. Gynerium saccha-
roides, a Brazilian grass, derives its name from that circum-
stance. It exists in great quantity in the sugar-cane (Saccha-
rum officinarum); maize so abounds in it that its cultivation
has been proposed in lieu of the sugar-cane ; and it is probable
that the value of other species for fodder depends upon the
abundance of this secretion.
For economical purposes grasses are often of much import-
ance. The strong stems of the Bamboo are employed instead
of timber and cordage. The Arundo arenaria, and Elyraus
arenarious (Marrum Grasses) are invaluable species for keep-
ing together the blowing sands of the seacoast, by their
creeping suckers, and tough, entangled roots. The first is
employed in the Hebrides for many economical purposes, being
made into ropes for various uses, mats for paoksaddles, bags,
hats, etc. Some of the reeds of Brazil, called Taquarussa, are
living fountains ; they grow from thirty to forty feet high,
with a diameter of six inches; form thorny, impenetrable
thickets and are exceedingly grateful to hunters, for, on cut-
ting oflF such a reed, below a joint, the stem of the younger
shoots is found to be full of a cool liquid, which quenches the
most burning thirst. Reeds, and other coarse species, furnish
RYE AND ITS VARIETIES. 45
in Europe, the materials for thatching. The reeds (sometimes
sixteen feet long), from which the Indians of Esmeraldi form
the tubes whence they blow the arrows, poisoned with the
deadly Urari, or Woorali, are single internodes of the Arun-
dinaria Schomburghii. A coarse but good sort of soft paper
is manufactured in India from the tissue of the Bamboo, and
the very young shoots of that plant are eaten, like asparagus.
Besides these things, the inorganic products are remarka-
ble. That the cuticle contains a large proportion of silex is
proved by its hardness, and by masses of vitrified matter being
found, whenever a haystack or heap of corn is accidentally
consumed by fire. In the joints of some grasses, a perfect
siliceous deposit is found, particularly in a kind of jungle-grass
mentioned in a letter from Dr. Moore to Dr. Kennedy, of
Edinburg. It is also said, that wheat-straw may be melted
into a colorless glass, with a blow-pipe, without any addition.
Barley-straw melts into a glass of a topaz-yellow color. The
siliceous matter of the bamboo is often secreted at the joints,
where it forms a singular substance, called tabasheer, of which
see a very interesting account in Brewster's Journal. It was
found by Turner, that the tabasheer of India, consisted of
silica, containing a minute quantity of lime and vegetable
matter. Sulphur exists, in combination with difiierent bases,
in wheat, barley, rye, oats, maize, millet, and rice.
A brief sketch of the most prominent cereals, other than
wheat, may not be inappropriate in this place.
Rye. (^Secede cereale.)
This plant is extensively cultivated in continental Europe,
where it forms the food of perhaps one-third of the entire pop-
ulation. It is not much cultivated in England, and is now
less cultivated in Ohio, and other States, than formerly. It
has been supposed to be a native of the island of Crete,* of
Candia,f and many other eastern portions of the globe. Karl
••'Heiman Wagner. tRlnnd's Vegetable Kingdom.
46 THE WilKAT PLANT.
Koch* asserts very dotiiuatically, that he found it growing
undoubtedly wild in the mountains of the Crimea, especially
all around the village of Dshimil, on granite, at the elevation
of from five thousand to six thousand feet. In such places
its ears are not more than one to two and a half inches long.
But it nowhere has been observed in a truly wild state, away
from the possibility of escape fiom cultivation, being sown by
the agency of man. The Sccale montanum has a brittle, hairy
rachis, glumes with a short point, and root fibrous. It is
found on the gravelly mountains in Sicily. In France is
found the Sccale villosum, also a European species of rye.
From the fact that Sccale fragile, and S. anatoUcum were
found in Armenia, as well as in Asia Minor, some have sup-
posed it to be a native of those places.
There are two varieties, only, in general cultivation : viz., the
winter, and the spring varieties. In England three suh-
varieties are grown, viz :
I. Tyrolcse, or Giant Rye, a kind recently introduced, and
coming into use a week or ten days earlier than the common
rye. It is, however, considered by some farmers, that the
produce is not equal to, nor the feed so lasting, as that of the
common ; but its earliness more than compensates the flock-
master for this defect.
II. The Si. Johns Day, or Midsummer llye ; so called from
the time of sowing. It is considerably later in running to
ear and ripening, and produces far more root-foliage than the
common kind. In France it is often sown at the end of June,
and eaten down with sheep in the autumn months, and spring
till the latter end of April, when it is allowed to run to seed,
and considered to produce an equal or better grain crop, by
being so treated, than if cultivated in the usual manner.
III. Cooper s Early Broad-leafed Rye, was introduced some
twelve or fifteen years ago into England by Mr. Cooper.
This sub-variety appears far more productive of early feed
than any of the others.
* Mortons Kncjfclopfedia of Agriculture.
RYE AND ITS USES. 47
Two centuries ago rye flour, either alone, or mixed with
wheaten flour, formed the common bread of the country.
Now, this mixture is only partially used. At present, rye is
cultivated by our farmers principally that they may draw from
it a supply of green food for their flocks.
For this purpose the plants, which are sown in November,
are eaten early in the spring before they begin to spindle,
which they will do before the first of March. After this
stage of the growth has taken place, the succulent quality of
the blade is impaired, it becomes coarse and harsh, and is no
longer agreeable to animals. When rye is left to ripen its seeds,
these are, for the most part, applied in this country to pur-
poses distinct from human food ; one of the uses to which
the grain is put being the preparation of a vegetable acid, to
be employed by tanners in an operation which they call
raising, and whereby the pores of the hides are distended, so
as to dispose them the more readily to imbibe the tanning
principle of the oak-bark, which is afterward applied. Rye,
when parched and ground, has been recently used as a sub-
stitute for cofi'ee.
It would be difiicult, however, to convince any one accus-
tomed to the use of this grateful beverage, that the grain of
home production is ever likely to take the place, at least to
any extent, of the fragrant Mocha bean.
In fact, rye contains neither the aromatic nor stimulating
properties which render cofi'ee so grateful. It was formerly
usual to sow rye together with an early kind of wheat. The
harvested grain, thus necessarily intermixed, was termed
meslin, from miscellanea ; it also obtained the name of
mung-eorn, corruptly from monk-corn, because bread made
from it was commonly eaten in monasteries. With the excep-
tion of wheat, rye contains a greater proportion of gluten
than any other of the cereal grains, to which fact is owing its
capability of being converted into a spongy bread. It con-
tains, likewise, nearly five parts in every hundred of ready-
formed saccharine matter, and is, in consequence, easily
48 THE WHEAT plant.
convertible into malt, and thence into beer or ardent spirits;
but the produce of this last is so small in comparison with
that of malted barley, as to offer no inducement for its
employment to that purpose. Rye has a strong tendency
to pass rapidly from the vinous to the acetous state of fermen-
tation, and whenever that circumstance has intervened, it would
be vain to attempt either to brew or to distil it. Unmalted rye
meal is mixed in Holland with barley malt, in the proportion of
two parts by weight of the former, with one part of the latter,
and the whole being fermented together forms the wash
whence is distilled all the grain spirit produced in that
country, and known throughout Europe as Hollands, Geneva.
There must, however, be some circumstances of a peculiar
nature connected with the process, as conducted by the Dutch
distillers, since no attempts made elsewhere have ever been
successful in obtaining a spirit having the same good quali-
ties. Rye is the common bread-corn in all the sandy dis-
tricts to the south of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf of Finland,
furnishing abundance of food for the numerous inhabitants of
places which, without it, must have been little better than
sandy and uninhabited deserts. In these districts it not only
forms the chief article of consumption, but furnishes a material
of some consequence to the export trade of the Prussian ports.
The peasantry in Sweden subsist very generally upon rye
cakes, which they bake only twice in the course of the year;
and which, during most part of the time, are consequently as
hard as a board. Linnajus observed a curious practice in
Lapland. One part of rye and two parts of barley being
mixed together, the seed is committed to the ground as soon
as the earth is capable of tillage in the spring. The barley
shoots up vigorously, ripens its ears, and is reaped ; while the
rye merely goes into leaf without shooting up any stem, its
growth being retarded by the barley, which may be said to
smother it. After the barley is reaped, the rye advances in
erowth ; and, without any further care of the cultivator,
yields an abundant crop in the following year.
BARLEY. 49
Barley. (^Hordeum.)
Some writers are of opinion that barley originated in
Northern Asia, and do not hesitate to assert that the shores
of Samara, in Orenburg, are its primitive home. Other
writers, who cite Disdones as authority, indicate its place of
nativity in Northern Africa, Certain it is, that at a very early
period it was used as an article of food by the Egyptians and
Arabians, as well as those occupying Palestine. Col. Chesney,
on his return from the Euphrates to England, took with him
several kinds of wild barley, as well as some from the ruins of
Persepolis. These specimens were of the two-rowed kind —
which is the only kind ever observed in a wild state ; the four
and six-rowed varieties being the result of domestication. The
assertion the barley grew wild on the Island of Sicily appears
to be unfounded ; but no doubt the JEgilops ovata, to which
full reference will be made in the next chapter, and which is
found in great abundance on the shores and islands of the
Mediterranean, has been mistaken for wild barley. All
accounts with respect to the origin of barley must be received
with a considerable degree of allowance, because the hardiest
varieties have never been known to propagate themselves for
two successive years without the direct agency of man. The
seeds of cultivated barley, when adventitiously sown, produce
plants truly ; but these plants very rarely, if ever, produce
seed which will germinate. Botanists have placed some
grasses in the same genus with barley, which somewhat resem-
ble the latter in many respects ; but, notwithstanding the
highest degree of culture yet bestowed upon them, they
can not be brought into use as daily food for mankind, nor
be made to exhibit any marked degree of improvement.
Barley has a greater geographical range than any other
cereal in general use ; it is susceptible of being cultivated not
only in the central portions of Africa and Asia, but yields
good harvests on the Orkney, Shetland, and Faroe Islands, in
latitude ranging from 61° to 62^° N. It does not, however,
5
50 THE WHEAT PLANT.
ripen in Iceland, 63^° N. latitude, but in Lapland its north-
ern limit is near the parallel of 70.°
There are, altogether, perhaps thirty varieties and sub-vari-
eties of barley in cultivation in Europe and America.
In one respect, barley is of more importance to mankind
than wheat, from the fact that it is susceptible of withstand-
ing the effects of heat and drought better, growing upon
lighter soils, and coming so quickly to maturity, that the short
Northern summers, which do not admit of the ripening of wheat,
are yet of long enough duration for the perfection of barley.
It is the latest sown and the earliest reaped of all the summer
grains. In warm climates, such as Spain, the farmers can
gather two harvests of barley within the year, one in the
spring from winter-sown grain, and the other in autumn from
that sown in summer. Barley sown in June is commonly
ready for the sickle in three months from the time of the seed
being committed to the ground ; and in very Northern cli-
mates, the period necessary for its growth and perfection is
said to be of still shorter duration. Linnaeus relates, in his
tour in Lulean Lapland, that on the 28th of July, he observed
the commencement of the barley harvest, and although the
seed was sown only a few days before midsummer, that the
grain was perfectly ripe, the whole process having thus occu-
pied certainly not longer than six weeks. The property of
not requiring moisture admirably fits barley for propagation
in those Northern countries, where the duration of summer
is limited to a very few months in a year, and where wet is of
very rare occurrence from the time when the spring rains are
over, at the end of May or beginning of June ; after which
period the seed-time commences, till the autumnal equinoxes,
previous to which the harvest is reaped.
Oats. (Avena.)
The native country of the oat is entirely unknown, but from
its hardiness it is supposed to be of Northern origin. It can
be successfully cultivated, even to the arctic zone. In Scot-
OATS AND ITS USES. 51
land it is cultivated north of 58^° North latitude, or, in other
words, in a parallel of latitude nearly 1,200 miles north of
Columbus, Ohio. But after the most diligent search, botanists
assure us that no trace of it has been found in a wild state.
Some suppose it to be a domesticated variety of some wild
species, and Prof. Lindley indicates that the wild species re-
ferred to may be the Avena iSlrigosa, or the bristle pointed
oat, which, he says, would become the common oat by a slight
alteration of the form and divisions of its palaes, and the loss
of one of its awns — changes much less consicjcrable than are
known to have taken plac^ in other cultivated plants. Its
place of nativity has been variously ascribed, as to Persia, the
banks of the Euphrates, etc.
Oatmeal, prepared by various processes of working, com-
poses at this day a large proportion of the food of the inhabi-
tants of Scotland, and particularly of the better fed portion
of the laboring classes. Oaten cakes, too, are much used in
Lancashire.
The wild oat, which is certainly indigenous to this country,
is found to be a very troublesome weed. It is said that the seed
will remain buried under the soil during a century or more,
without losing its vegetating power ; and that ground which
has been broken up, after remaining in grass from time im-
memorial, has produced the wild oat abundantly. The Anglo-
Saxon mouks of the abbey of St. Edmund, in the eighth cen-
tury, ate barley bread, because the income of the establish-
ment would nol. admit of their feeding twice or thrice a day
on wheaten bread. The English laborers of the Southern and
midland counties, in the latter part of the eighteenth century,
refused to eat bread made of one-third wheat, one-third rye,
and one-third barley, saying, that " they had lost their rye-
teeth." It would be a curious and not unprofitable inquiry,
to trace the pi-ogress of the national taste in this particular.
It would show that whatever privations the English laborer
may now endure, and whatever he has endured for many gen-
erations, he has succeeded in rendering the dearest kind of
52 THE WHEAT PLANT.
vegetable food the general food of the country; this single
circumstance is a security to him against those sufferings from
actual famine, which were familiar to his forefathers, and
which are still objects of continual apprehension in those
countries where the laborers live upon the cheapest substances.
Wages can not be depressed in such a manner as to deprive
the laborer, for any length of time, of the power of maintain-
ing himself upon the kind of food which habit has made ne-
cessary to him ; and as the ordinary food of the English
laborers is not tte very cheapest that can be readily obtained,
it is in his power to have recourse*for a while to less expensive
articles of subsistence, should any temporary scarcity of food,
or want of employment, deprive him of his usual fare — an
advantage not possessed by his Irish fellow-subjects, to whom
the failure of a potato crop is a matter not of discomfort
merely, but of absolute starvation.
The common oat, Avena Sativa, is that which is most gen-
erally cultivated. One writer (John Haxton, of Fifeshire)
enumerates thirty-four varieties of white oats of the miiva
species, and six black, dun, red, or parti-colored of the same
species. Altogether he enumerates fifty varieties of oats.
The Tartarian oat is by some considered a distinct species,
but it is doubtful whether it can be regarded as any thing
more than a variety of A. Satha. Botanists call it A. Orien-
talis ; but its native country seems as uncertain as that of the
last.
A. Hicda, or naked oat, so called because its grain is loose
in the husk, is found wild in many parts of Europe, and by
some is thought to be a mere degeneration of the common oat.
It is common in Austria, where it is cultivated for its grain,
which is, however, small, and not much esteemed.
A. Chinensis, or Chinese oat, is another species, the grain
of which is loose in the husk. It is said to have been pro-
cured by the Russians from the north of China along with
their tea. This species is the most productive of all the kinds
known, every flower producing from three to five grains,
ANIMAL OATS — CORN. 53
which are large and of excellent quality. It is, however, said
to be difficult to harvest on account of the grains not adhering
to the husks, but being very easily shaken out.
Animal Oats. — Besides the species cultivated for the corn
which they yield, there is another that deserves to be noticed
on account of its remarkable hygrometrical action. This plant,
the Animal Oat of gardeners, the A. Sterilis of systematic
writers, is something like the common oat when young ; but
when ripe, its grains are inclosed in hard, hairy, brown husks,
from the back of which rises a stout, bent and twisted awn.
Usually, two such husks grow together, and separate from the
stalk by a deep oblique scar. Taking the sear for the head
of an insect, the husks with their long, stiff, brown hairs
resemble its body, and the two bent awns represent its legs.
In this State fishermen use a smaller, but nearly allied spe-
cies, called heavers (vl. Fatna)^ instead of artificial flies, for
catching trout. When the animal oat is ripe it falls out of
its glumes, and in warm, dry weather may be seen rolling and
turning about on its long^ ungainly legs, as they twist up in
consequence of their hygrometrical quality. It necessarily
advances as it turns over, because the long stiff hairs upon its
body catch against every little projecting point on the surface
of the soil, and prevent its retreat.
Nothing can be more curious than to see the path of a
garden-walk covered with these things, tumbling and sprawl-
ing about in different directions, till their awns are so twisted
that they can twist no further. They then remain quiet till the
dews fall, or they are moistened by a shower, when they ra-
pidly untwist, and run about with renewed activity, as if
anxious to get out of the wet.
Corn. {Zea Mays.)
Botanists have, by general consent, applied the generic term
zea to our Indian corn, no doubt presuming that it was either
identical with the Greek zeia, or that it was a species of that
54 THE WHEAT PLANT.
genus; but the Greek plant was a species of wheat or barley,
and not at all agreeing with the present genus, which is en-
tirely American.
Some writers assert that there is one species only -•- ; others,
that there are twof; others again describe three. The
common maize is a native of North America, and was culti-
vated by Indians when the continent was first discovered ; it
is also cultivated in most countries of Southern Europe.
Like the species of Triticum, or wheat, those of this genus
present almost innumerable varieties from the cultivation to
which they have been submitted. It is found growing wild
in many of the West Indian islands, as well as in the central
parts of America.
Zea Oiiragua, or Chili corn, or Valparaiso corn, is distin-
guished by its serrated leaves. It is smaller in all its parts
than the other species, and is a native of Chili. A sort
of religious reputation is attached to this plant on ac-
count of the grains, when roasted, splitting into the form
of a cross.
A chapter or two will be devoted to this cereal in the course
of this volume, in which the varieties, culture, chemical com-
position, etc., will be fully discussed.
Some writers, with great reluctance, admit that the Indian
corn was first discovered in America ; it will not, therefore,
be irrelevant to give in this place a brief history of its intro-
duction into Europe. One fact, which really amounts to
strong presumptive evidence of its American origin is this,
that previous to the discovery of America it was unknown in
Europe. The Spaniards were the first to introduce it on the
continent, and the first published account of it was by OviEDO
in 1525. In his description he states that he saw it growing
in fields in Andalusia. It was cultivated in very few locali-
ties during the reign of Philip II. (1555 to 1598). It is
* Rhind. f English Cyclopedia.
RICE. 55
stated that tlie Spaniards introduced it into Sicily in 1560, and
hence it was called Spanish, Sicilian, or Turkish corn. At the
close of the sixteenth century, it was extensively cultivated in
Italy. According to Leonard Fuchs, it was introduced into
Grermany in 1545, from Grreece or Asia, but was cultivated as
a curiosity in gardens. It appears to have been known in
Hungary as early as the first half of the sixteenth century ;
from thence it was taken to Russia, and in the seventeenth
century into Styria.
Rice. (Oryza.)
The true rice plant {Oryza Satlva) is confined to warm and
marshy districts ; hence it is never found cultivated in high
latitudes. There are two varieties — the one just referred to,
and another called in India the hill or mountain rice. The
latter has frequently been introduced into England and
France, but its cultivation has never been successful ; and
Prof. Lindley doubts whether some of the crops reported to
have been grown in Europe were rice at all. M. Vilmorin, a
celebrated French agriculturist and horticulturist, asserts
that when he asked for evidence concerning crops of
mountain rice, he has uniformly received the Fetfj/ Spelt, or
Triticum Monococaan. The 0. Sativa is cultivated to a
considerable extent in Lombardy, and some other Italian
states.
In Venezuela and Brazil, it is cultivated to a considerable
extent. One variety, the 0. Sativa, was the only variety that
was cultivated during a period of many years ; but A. von
Humboldt discovered another species in New Granada, which
is called by the natives Arozilla, but which is described by
Desveaux as 0. Latifulia. Martins found rice growing wild
in the interior of Rio Negro as well as in Paro, in Soujh
America. This circumstance indicates that it is a native of
both hemispheres, although the culture of it was introduced
into North America by the Europeans. Some time previous
56 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
to the year 1701, a brigantinc from the island of Madagascar,
happened to put in at Carolina, having a little seed rice left,
which the captain gave to a gentleman of the name of Wood-
ward. From part of this he obtained a very good crop, but
was ignorant for some years how to clean it. It was soon dis-
persed over the province, and by frequent experiments and
observations they found out ways of producing and manufac-
turing it to so great perfection, that it is thought to exceed
any other in value. Some time afterward, a Mr. Dubois, of
the East India Company, sent to that country a small bag of
seed rice ; from these two introductions it is possible that the
two sorts, the red and the white, had their origin in this
country.
It is chiefly cultivated in Carolina and Louisiana, and some
others of the Southern States. The extent to which it is cul-
tivated in the United States is exhibited in the fact, that in
the year 1850, the quantity exported amounted to $2,631,557 ;
in 1854 the exports amounted to ^2,034,127.
In the genus Oryza botanists have placed numerous plants,
some of which are mere grasses in the commoii acceptation of
that term. The 0. Satica, or the rice of commerce, is still
found in a wild state in and about the borders of lakes in the
Rajahmundry circars of Hindostan, though never cultivated,
because the produce is said to be small compared with that of
the varieties in cultivation. In 1790, Dr. Buchanan found
the 0. Coarctata growing indigenously in the Delta of the
Ganges, but was not found to be applicable to any useful
purpose.
As an item of interest to agriculturists, it may not be irrel-
evant to give a short, brief description of the culture of rice.
In Carolina and Georgia, a low swamp is selected which may
readily be irrigated or overflowed. The swamp has earthen em-
bankments so as to retain the water as long as may be
necessary, and has also sluice ways, drains and canals, for the
purpose of expelling the water when necessary. Considerable
CULTIVATION OF RICE. 57
diversity prevails in the mode of cultivating the rice crop.
Some planters plow all the grounds every year ; those who
follow this system give a light furrow in the beginning of
January, and afterward make shallow furrows or drills, fifteen
inches apart, to receive the seed, which is sown broadcast in
April ; two to three bushels of seed are used per acre. A
small quantity of water is then admitted for a day or two till
the grain sprouts. But the most approved and general mode
of cultivation is, when the fields are free from weeds to sow
without plowing. A negro makes a rut with a hoe between
the rice rows of a former crop, although sometimes a small
drill plow is used. Either of these methods produce a recep-
tacle for the seed, which is either covered with a rake, or the
water is admitted at once and covers it by washing down the
soil. In all cases the water is admitted on the field as soon
as the seed is sown ; and when the young shoot appears above
ground, it is drawn ofi". In the course of a week the crop
receives another watering, which lasts from ten to thirty days,
according to circumstances. This watering is chiefly used for
the purpose of killing land weeds that make their appearance
as soon as the ground becomes dry. On the other hand, when
the field is under water, aquatic weeds grow up rapidly, and to
check their growth the field is once more laid dry, and the
crop is then twice hand-hoed. By the first of July the rice
is well advanced, and water is again admitted and allowed to
remain on the fields till the crop is ripe. This usually takes
place from the 1st to the 10th of September. The water is
drawn off the day previous to the commencement of reaping.
The rice is cut by the sickle, and the stubble is left from a
foot to a foot and a half in length, according to the rankness
of the crop. The average produce of the unhusked rice is
estimated from forty-five to fifty-five bushels per acre ; yet
from seventy to eighty bushels are sometimes obtained from
old fields.
The rice plant adapts itself in a most wonderful manner to
the most opposite conditions in respect to moisture ; in this
68 THE WHEAT PLANT.
respect there is no cultivated plant that bears any resemblance
to it. The same variety which grows on the upland cotton
soils and on tlie dry pine barrens, grows in the tide swamps,
where the land is laid under water lor weeks at a time ; and
even in the lower part of the delta of the Mississippi, where
the fields are under water from the time of sowing to that of
reaping.
HISTORY OF THE WHEAT PLANT. 69
CHAPTER III.
HISTORY OF THE WHEAT PLANT.
The wheat plant is at least co -extensive with civilization,
and its fruit beyond a doubt, was used as food by the human
race for ages anterior to any historical records. So far back
into the dark vistas of time, as authentic history consents to
be our guide, do we find that wheat has been cultivated, and
aside from animal food, formed the chief alimentary article of
all civilized nations ; but as the wheat plant has no where
been found wild, or in a state of nature, the inference has
been drawn by men of unquestionable scientific attainment,
that the original plant from which wheat has been derived,
was either totally annihilated, or else cultivation has wrought
so great a change that the original is by no means obvious, or
manifest to botanists.
There are many circumstances, both in history and in sci-
ence, more especially in botany, which indicate that we are
indebted to Persia for the wheat plant, because it is yet found
springing up in spots not only at very great distances from
human habitations, but out of the usual routes of traffic
employed by the natives. It is a well known fact that wheat
docs not reproduce spontaneously in any place where the
grain is cultivated. According to a rule adopted both by
Robt. Brown, and Baron Humboldt, to determine the native
country of a cultivated species, when that country is unknown,
it is within proper bounds to regard that as the probable place
of nativity where the greatest number of known species,
belonging to the same genus are found indigenous. This
rule would indicate Persia, as well as some portions of India,
as the place of nativity. " Isis and Osiris discovered wheat,
barley and the vine, wild in the valley of the Jordan, and
transported them into Egypt, and taught the culture of them.
60 THE WHEAT PLANT.
It was at Nysa, also that Isis discovered wheat and barley pre-
viously, growing wild in a country among other plants unknown
to man."* Strabo, whose writings are, perhaps, the most pre-
cise of any of antiquity, asserts that wheat was found groveing
spontaneously in the Persian province of Mazenderan,f and
in the country of the Musicans, to the north of India, as
well as on the banks of the Indus.
Some writers, whose opinions are entitled to the greatest
respect, assert very confidently, that to India, and not to
Persia, are we indebted for the wheat plant; modern botanists,
however, know so little comparatively, of the region of India
indicated, as to be unable either to corroborate or successfully
controvert the statement. There is no doubt that the genus
Triticum is sufiiciently spread over the whole of Asia, as to
render Strabo's statement highly probable, according to the
rule adopted by Humboldt in such cases, which has just been
cited.
In a paper addressed by Sir Joseph Banks to the Horticul-
tural Society, in the year 1805, he speaks of having received
some packets of seeds from a lady, among them was one labeled
" Hill Wheat," the grains of which were hardly larger than
those of our wild grasses, but which, when viewed through a
magnifying glass or lens, were found exactly to resemble wheat.
He sowed these grains in his garden and was much surprised,
on obtaining as their produce, a good crop of spring wheat,
the grains of which were of the ordinary size. Every inquiry
that was made to ascertain the history of these seeds proved
fruitless; all that could be established with regard to the
place of their production, was that they came from India, but
as to the particular locality, or the amount of cultivation they
had received, or whether the grain was indeed in that instance
a spontaneous offering of nature could not be ascertained.
The explorations of modern travelers conducted as they are
»Diod. Sic. n c Hand 27.
fMichaud found Triticum Spclta growing wild on a mountain four
days' travel distant from Hamadan, in Persia.
WHEAT IN ANCIENT EGYPT. 61
with much more system, as well as with most of the advantages
which science in its present state can confer, are of greater im-
portance, than those of by-gone centuries, and have in conse-
quence, brought to light many important facts, which, for
ages, were among the things unrecorded by previous genera-
tions, and unknown to the present, relative to the state of
perfection to which many of the sciences and arts had been
brought by the Egyptians and other Eastern nations. In the
sarcophagi of many of the Egyptian kings or nobles, were
found in vessels perfectly closed, good specimens of common
wheat, so perfect indeed that not only the form, but even the
color was not impaired, although it must have been inclosed
many thousands of years. It is well known to every one
conversant with the history of Egypt, that the culture of
wheat there has long since been abandoned, and no wild plant
in any respect resembling the wheat plant is found, but from
engravings on ancient tombs at Thebes of the details of plow-
ing, sowing, harvesting and garnering this grain, there is no
good reason to suppose it has not been cultivated in Egypt
from the earliest dawn of this nation's civilization. After
wheat was grown in Egypt, it would readily find its way into
Persia, and vice versa, and might have been cultivated for cen-
turies and then abandoned, while in some secluded spots it
has continued to reproduce itself unaided by human inter-
vention, and thus we find it growing there spontaneously at
the present day. But this circumstance alone does not prove
that wheat is indigenous either in Persia or Egypt.
It has been claimed that wheat is indigenous on the island
of Sicily, and that from here it spread along the northern
shores of the Mediterranean into Asia Minor and Egypt, and
as communities advanced it was cultivated not only to a greater
extent, but with greater success.
The Goddess of agriculture, more especially of grains, who
by the Greeks was called Denieter and by the Romans Ceres,
was said to have her native place at Enna, which was situated
in a fertile region of Sicily, thus indicating the source from
62 THE WHEAT PLANT.
■which the Greeks and Romans derived their Ceralia. Homer
mentions wheat and spelt as bread — also corn and barley, and
describes his heroes as using them for fodder for their horses,
as the people in the south of Europe do at present. Rye was
introduced into Greece from Thrace, or by way of Thrace, in
the time of Galen.
In Caesar's time the Romans grew a species of wheat which
was enveloped in a husk, similar to our barley, and which was
by them called " Far" and appears to have been best adapted
to moist and low lands, while the true wheat was grown on
the dry or uplands.
During the process of excavation in Herculaneum and Pom-
peii, were found in numerous places charred grains of genuine
wheat.
Hon. Anson Dart, Superintendent of Indian Affairs in
Oregon, states that he found wheat and flax growing sponta-
neously in the Yackemas country in Upper Oregon, about
eighty miles north of the Columbia river ; he found it in
patches varying in size from a few rods to an acre or more. The
straw and head he found to be generally very large, and the
berry unusually so ; the berry is very plump, and weighs from
65 to 70 pounds per bushel. There is no doubt that both the
wheat and flax were introduced at a very early period into
Oregon by the Hudson's Bay, or other Fur Companies.
Dr. Boyle, of Columbus, Ohio, informed the writer that
when in California he found wheat growing spontaneously in
the Carson Valley. He is confident that the wheat he found
there growing had no attention from the hand of man, because
the grain was not so well developed as the cultivated grain —
because for miles it was scattered in " patches " too thin to have
been the work of any one attempting the cultivation of the
plant.*
♦Statement of Dr. Boyle. — Mr. Klippart: — At your request, I will
give you a short description of a few plants observed by nieon my route
to California, overland.
1st. In the valley of Carson's river, just east of the Sierra Nevada, we
WHEAT IN MEXICO. 63
When the Spaniards visited Mexico, in the sixteenth cen-
tury, the cereal grasses proper were in cultivation amono- the
Mexicans. In 1530 one of Cortez's slaves found several wheat
grains, which had accidentally been mixed with some rice.
The careful negro planted these few seeds and their produce
for several successive years, and from this small commence-
ment have sprung all the subsequent wheat crops of Mexico,
and most undoubtedly to this source may be traced that growing
spontaneously in Carson Valley.
Turn to whatever quarter of the globe we may, we find that
"wherever the foot of civilization has trod, the wheat plant
passed through large fields of what seemed to be common beardless wheat,
just ripe for the harvest, but upon examining this wheat carefully, I
could not find any thing but a very shriveled berry, smaller in diameter
than a wheat berry, but in other respects very similar to the poorest
berry screened from the wheat in our mills.
2d. In many places I saw specimens of oats, ripe and full, which I
could not distinguish from the better varieties of our common cultiva-
ted oats.
3d. I found flax in blossom resembling, in all essential particulars, our
cultivated flax, but not quite so high.
4th. In California I found frequently a plant like a diminutive bearded
wheat stalk, but covered by a downy or woolly cuticle, while the wheat
stalk is smooth, or nearly so. This plant presented several varieties, all
diminutive when compared to wheat, not being more than ten or twelve
inches high, but having a better developed berry than the wheat-like plant
of the other or eastern side of the Sierra Nevada, and these diminutive
plants I have since thought to be species of ^gilops. And my opinion
always has been, that by cultivation, they might be brought to such per-
fection as to supply the place of, if they did not prove to be wheat.
Besides these mentioned, I observed many other plants, either just
like our common cultivated plants, or like these would be if left to chance
for propagation, and become degenerated ; and the idea presented itself
to my mind, that most probably the regions of country in which these
were found, now almost without an inhabitant, had formerly been inhab-
ited, and that these various plants had been left to themselves by the
removal or extirpation of a former agricultural people, and had in the
lapse of ages, become degenerated for want of man's fostering care.
C. E. BOYLE.
64 THE WHEAT PLANT.
has monument-like perpetuated the memory of the event;
but nowhere do we find the plant growing " toiM."
One class of theorists assert that the character of any plant
can not be permanently changed by the agency of man, and
insist that it is a matter of notoriety that young plants inherit
even the most trifling peculiarities of their parents. There is
no doubt that the varieties in cultivated crops owe their exist-
ence chiefly to this physiological law. The Hunter's wheat
of which so many thousands of acres are now cultivated in
Scotland, have all sprung from one single plant found acci-
dentally by him years ago, and all of it that has since been
grown has exactly lesembled its first parent. So also the Lam-
bert wheat and other varieties in this State. In like manner
the valuable Potato Oat had its origin in one oat plant found
in a potato field ; and to this day the variety is distinguished
by the long straw, the large spikes and the early maturity of
its ancestor. The Turnip, the Cabbage, the Cauliflower, the
Broccoli, the Kail and others are all descended from difi"erent
accidental varieties of the Brassica oleracea, and each variety
keeps up in our gardens its peculiarities, thus establishing the
hereditary transmission of qualities in plants. There are
however many exceptions to this rule, at least to a certain ex-
tent. If we take the finest pippin and plant its seeds, we are
almost certain to raise the wild crab-apple tree ; all the broc-
colis, cauliflowers, turnips, etc., if left for a time to a state of
nature, sow seeds which produce the insignificant wild sea-kail;
and as for wheat, if not cultivated it ceases to exist ; hence
these theorists further assert that in cases wherein changes
have been produced, except the exciting cause of the change
be unremitted in its application, that the plant would degen-
erate and revert to the original type, and indicate the " volun-
teer rice " as an example. Lest the reader may not under-
stand the term volunteer in this case I will endeavor to explain
it : The rice seed that are shed when the crop is cut, and lie
over the winter, produce an inferior quality of grain, for
under these conditions they appear to revert to their original
ORIGIN OP CULTIVATED PLANTS. 65
or natural state. Notwithstanding the husk of the volunteer
rice is of the same light yellow color as that of the finest
quality, the kernel is red. This class of theorists advocate the
permanency of species in nature. Hence it is by no means
surprising that they should insist that wheat is a permanent
species, and point for corroboration of their position to the
fact that wherever it has been found growing spontaneously
that it preserves all the characteristics of the cultivated
varieties.
The opposing class of theorists assert that it is a well estab-
lished fact that from a veritable pigmy — a small plant with
scanty leaves, weighing altogether scarcely half an ounce, has
been produced the monstrous cabbage ; a diminutive little root
growing wild in Chili has been metamorphosed into the ines-
timable potato ; the sweet, juicy Altringham carrot, weighing
from five to six pounds, is, in a wild condition, a dry, slender
root, unfit to eat ; the delicate, well flavored Vienna Glass Cauli
Eapi, as large as a man's fist, is, when wild, a slender, woody,
dry stem ; the cauliflower in its natural locality is a thin
branched flowering stem, with little green, bitter flower-buds ;
that the luscious peach has been derived from the hard shelled
almond can no longer be successfully denied ; and that the
small black sloe has been transformed into the juicy and golden
yellow Gage is equally indisputable. The most delicious Spit-
zenbergs and Pippins owe their origin to the diminutive,
acrid crab-apple.
Professor Henslow's experiments rather confirm the doc-
trine held by the advocates of the '^^progressive development "
theory, or rather those who hold that species are not immuta-
ble, but are susceptible of being changed and more fully
developed by man's agency, climate, soil, and position. In a
paper which he read before the British Association, he proved
that the Centurea nigra. Black Knapweed, and C. Nigrescens,
Dark Knapweed, could be so cultivated as to pass completely
into one another. He cited instances also proving that the
species of Rosa, Primula, Primrose and Angallis Pimpernelle
6
66 THE WHEAT PLANT.
passed completely one into the other; so that instead of three
species, there should be three varirties of one species. It is
now a demonstrable fact that the garden daisy is none other
'than the wild or woodland daisy cultivated; although the
botanists yet retain the specific terms of Bellis perennis and
B. S7/Ivestris, as though there really were (as was formerly
supposed) two species. Future botanists will in all proba-
bility demonstrate that raspberries, blackberries and dewberries
are after all not three distinct species, but merely three vari-
eties of one and the same species.
If, then, such astonishing results, as the changes just enu-
merated certainly are, have been effected through the agency of
man, climate, and locality, is there any good reason for sup-
posing that wheat, through cultivation and consequent influ-
ences, may not have become so transformed, and yet so per-
manent and characteristic in its transformation as to render it
exceedingly difl&cult, even to the skillful and accomplished
botanist, to distinguish it on the same soil as the legitimate
offspring of those plants which formerly grew there spon-
taneously ?
It is not claimed by either party of the theorists alluded to
in the foregoing paragraphs, that an onion, by any means now
known, can be changed into an apple tree ; or that cherries
can be grown on currant bushes ; but while the one party
denies that soil, climate, position or culture, or all these com-
bined, can produce any thing more than temporary alterations
in form, the opposing party unhesitatingly declare that soil,
climate, position and culture are capable of producing perma-
nent changes, and that the plants so changed have the power
of transmitting the acquired characteristics.
VARIETIES OF WHEAT.
There is perhaps no fact connected with the wheat plant
better established, than that it, by climate, soil and culture,
may be much modified or changed. It would be requiring
greater credence than the public are prepared to allow, were
CHANGES IN PLANTS AND ANIMALS. 67
we to assert unqualifiedly that red, bearded wheat could be
changed into white, smooth wheat ; yet incredible as this ap-
pears to be, it is nevertheless true. There are instances on
record of red wheat being changed into white, and of beard-
less having been derived from bearded ; — these changes or
modifications are not sudden, or the freaks of nature, but are
the result of the continued influences of surrounding circum-
stances. The wheat plant is not the only plant whose quali-
ties are affected by climate, soil and culture, neither is the
vegetable kingdom alone subject to these influences. While
it is an indisputable fact that Europeans have lived for many
generations among the Kaffirs and Hottentots, as well as with
African tribes nearer the equator, yet hundreds of years have
failed to change the delicate carnation on the Circassian's
cheek into the ebony of the negro — or to metamorphose the
long, straight, dark brown hair into the black wool. The
Dutch families who settled in Southern Africa 300 years ago,
are now as fair, and as pure in Saxon blood as the native
Hollander ; the slightest change in structure or color can at
once be traced to intermarriage ; but Saxon sheep being re-
moved to the torrid zone, in a few generations the fine, soft,
compact and valuable fleece is supplanted by a coarse, sparse,
shaggy hair ; and it is now generally admitted that the orig-
inal Saxon sheep were exceedingly coarse. In Mexico, the
dog and the horse, both, in the course of several generations,
become almost hairless, and instead of the hair have a skin
not very unlike that of the elephant. In the torrid zone the
bee does not lay up a store of honey — it provides sufficient
only to feed the new brood.
There is reason to believe that plants, through the influences
of soil (their food) and climate undergo as great changes as
does the animal kingdom ; one of the best established evi-
dences of which is, that cotton grown in a certain district in
China is of a nankin color, but when the seeds are brought
to America and planted they produce the usual white cotton.
68 THE WHEAT PLANT.
It is said that the peach in its original soil was a virulent
poison, and that the Persian warriors brought to Persia some
of the seeds and planted them for the purpose of poisoning
the points of their arrows, so as to render wounds caused by
them to be fatal, but a change of climate and soil produced a
fruit which is not only luscious, but is esteemed exceedingly
healthy.*
It is a tolerably well established fact that continued culture
of the same variety of wheat in the same place, will consider-
ably modify or improve its qualities. f The instance related
by a gentleman, of red Mediterranean wheat changing into
white is not the only one of the kind which has come to my
knowledge, but is, perhaps, the best authenticated.
An excellent farmer communicates the following :
" I regard the Mediterranean wheat as earlier than most
other varieties, especially when grown on heavy soil. I have
known it to ripen more than a week earlier than the red bald
or the Canada flint, and think it less liable to the ravages of
the weevil. I am aware that it does not yield as greatly as
some other varieties, when we are fortunate enough to have
them to do well ; but as a general thing, I think it by far the
safest for a crop. Three-fourths, if not nine-tenths of the
wheat raised in this county is the Mediterranean variety. As
to its value 7iow, I view it as quite different from what it twos
when first grown here. I have the testimony of our millers as
well as my own experience, to sustain me in saying that this
wheat yields a greater and better quality of flour than it did
ten years ago, in this section at least."
Modifications of this kind, requiring many years to consum-
mate them, may no doubt have been observed by others who
have never communicated their observations in such a manner
as to find their way into print; while, on the other hand, very
* Transactions of the Russian Economical Society.
t See Old Red C/tfi/T— bearded, in list of varieties of wheats.
"DOES WHEAT TURN TO CHEAT?" 69
many statements, purporting to be observations, have found
their way into print much to the -prejudice of the progress of
agricultural science.
There is uo doubt that culture, climate and soil, will modify
the appearance of plants, to such an extent, in many cases,
that the casual observer may be persuaded that an entire me-
tamorphosis has taken place. From hasty observations,
equally hasty inferences are generally made, and false conclu-
sions are the result. One of these pseudo observations is the
supposed transformation of wheat into chess or cheat, or,
botanically, Bronins secalinus.
The advocates of this supposed metamorphosis claim that
excessive moisture, and cold in the spring months, produce
the change ; another party of supposers claim that pasturing
in the spring will cause the change ; while a third party claim
that hauling with a wagon over the field, after seeding, will
change into chess every grain which has been so unfortunate
as to have been passed over by any one of the wheels. It re-
quires a greater faith in the susceptibility of species to be
transmuted than I ever have been favored with, and requires
more evidences than yet have been corroborated by examples
in the vegetable kingdom, to induce me to believe that under
any conceivable circumstances wheat can be transformed into
chess. I will, in as brief a manner as possible, state my reas-
ons for withholding assent to the clieat doctrine.
I. Although climate, soil and culture may modify or im-
prove given species of plants or animals, yet it does not
change one species into another. The pine of Norway, when
removed to Mexico, does not become a chestnut, nor the Saxon
sheep become a goat, although the character of both pine and
sheep are modified ; yet when the sheep is returned to Saxony
it re-assumes its original characteristics ; and although wheat,
in all probability, is derived from JEgilops, there is a far
greater identity in the general, as well as in the botanical
characteristics of both these plants, than there is between
wheat and any other plant.
70 THE WHEAT PLANT.
II. Cucumbers, melons and pumpkins have more general
and botanical characters in common than wheat and chess,
yet who has ever claimed that cucumber-seed produced mel-
ons, and that these melons in turn produced pumpkins V There
is no well authenticated case on record of as complete a
transformation of one species into another as is claimed in the
case of wheat changing into chess.
III. Like produces like; climate, soil and culture may in-
crease the size, or improve the quality of this product, but
generic character can never be changed. The improved short-
horn bull of to-day is an animal differing in outline perhaps
from the ^^ ring-streaJced and ajitckled" cattle of antiquity; but
he can not be changed into a giraffe, elk, deer, nor horse.
There is far greater resemblance between oats and chess, than
between wheat and chess. The wheat produces a head or
spike, chess produces a diffuse and spreading top or panicle,
as distinct and different from the wheat-spike as is a Morgan
horse from a Uocky Mountain goat. There is no well authen-
ticated case on record of any parent producing so unlike a
progeny ; neither is there any record of so great a transforma-
tion having taken place by the most exact conformity to
known laws, and the most unremitting care and attention
during a century, as is claimed by the wheat-transmutation
advocates.
IV. The law, influence, or circumstances, must necessarily
affect all within its reach — if it can possibly change a single
one, it must operate on all similarly situated to the one
changed. In Ohio we have generally about eight inches of
rain in April and May ; in 1858 we had eight and a quarter
inches in the month of May alone, and fully half as much in
April ; if, then, excessive moisture is the cause of the trans-
mutation, the entire wheat crop of 1858 in Ohio should have
been transmuted. But the advocates of the theory may claim
that so extensive an application is taking too great a license
with their doctrine ; we will, therefore, confine ourself to a
square foot of ground which is perfectly level, and the soil is
WHEAT DOES NOT CHANGE TO CHESS. 71
of the same quality, as well in mechanical as in chemical com-
position, as possibly may be found anywhere on a similar
area. On this square foot was found wheat and chess growing
in the following; order :
c.
w.
w.
c.
w.
c.
w.
w.
c.
w.
w.
w.
w.
w.
w.
w.
c.
c.
c.
c.
w.
c.
c.
w.
w.
w.
c.
w.
w.
w.
To be sure they did not grow in such precise regularity as
above indicated, but they all grew on the area above men-
tioned, and in the relative position, as marked by the initials
above — C. being Chess and W. Wheat. What law in nature
could possibly transmute one-half of the wheat stalks in the
upper-line, one-sixth of the second row, one-third of the
third, two-thirds of the fourth, and one-third of the fifth,
when the topography was precisely the same, the soil the
same, the moisture and atmospheric influences precisely the
same ? The truth is, no transmutation ever took place ; all the
chess found in grain fields is the direct product of chess seeds.
This announcement may possibly startle some of those who
hold that chess is deaf, or produces husks or chaff only ; but
they have never examined the flower of the chess, nor sub-
mitted the reproductive organs of this plant to microscopic
investigation. Chess has as perfect a flower as wheat has,
and produces a grain capable of germination, and thus re-
produces and perpetuates its species. The husk or chaff
of chess is very thick, and protects the albuminous body
for several years from decay when it is too deep in the earth.
- Every farmer must have observed in spring time, in pasture
fields or meadows, where cattle had been during the autumn,
that wherever there were droppings from the cattle, the grass
appeared to have a thriftier growth, so much so that the num-
ber of droppings could be counted as so many green hillocks
many rods distant. All the plants, whether clover, timothy,
72 THE WHEAT PLANT.
red-top, June or orchard grass, whose seeds or roots came
within the influence of the dropping, were afifected by it; they
all grew larger and greener than the grasses not so afifected ;
but the clover was not converted into timothy or red-top, nor
June grass into clover or timothy. Neither does the manure
affect the timothy and not other grasses, but affects all alike.
Therefore, if any influence operated upon the square foot of
soil above referred to, it must have changed allihe wheat on it
into chess, if it possibly could have changed a single grain.
Chess requires considerable moisture to induce it to germi-
nate, hence it is found most abundantly in moist places ; here
it grows more rankly than wheat does, and in a short time
overshadows and chokes the wheat, and the careless observer
seeing chess abundant about harvest where wheat plants ap-
peared in the spring, concludes that the one has been trans-
formed into the other.
The thick hull or chaff of the chess protects the albumin-
ous body from the operation of digestion in the craw of birds,
or stomachs of horses or cattle. Birds passing over wheat
fields may drop chess seeds, and from the droppings of horses
and cattle, chess seeds may germinate ; hence it is not uncom-
mon to find chess growing about stumps and logs in newly
cleared lands.
A late revival of the transmutation controversy induced
Benj. Hodge, Esq., of Buffalo, N. Y., to offer a premium of
one hundred dollars to any one who should prove that wheat
had turned to chess — the premium to be awarded under the
supervision of a committee appointed by the N. Y. State Agri-
cultural Society. The premium was claimed by Samuel David-
son of Grreece, Monroe Co., New York. The Society appoint-
ed a committee of investigation consisting of Prof Dewey,
Rochester, N. Y., Chairman, who reported the following as the
result of the examination ;
" The experiment to prove the transmutation was the fol-
lowing. A quantity of earth was passed through a fine
sieve, to separate all chess seeds. It was placed in a pan and
REPORT ON WHEAT TURNING TO CHESS. 73
several heads of wheat planted in it. When the wheat came up
it was subjected to all the hard treatment that usually produ-
ces winter-killing, viz. : flooding with water and alternately
freezing and thawing for several times. Late in the spring
the whole contents of the pan were removed and set out in the
open ground. When the plants of wheat threw out their
heads there appeared chess heads also. This mass of wheat
and chess plants was brought in and placed before the com-
mittee. Stalks of chess were shown, the roots of which were
found to proceed directly from the planted heads of wheat
which yet remained entire, and in some instances they were
found to issue from the half decayed grains of wheat them-
selves.* This was looked upon as conclusive.
" The roots were taken by the committee and first soaked in
water and afterward gently washed, by moving them back-
ward and forward slowly through it. They were then care-
fully examined by microscope. The roots of the chess were
now perceived to issue, not from near the end of the grain of
wheat as is usual in sprouting, but from the side^ and in
fact from almost any part. Further examination showed
that they merely passed through crevices in the decayed
wheat grains, and that they were separated from the
grains without tearing, being merely in contact, without
adhesion or connection. Some of the more minute chess
fibers were observed by an achromatic microscope to ex-
tend over the inner surface of the bran, where they had
gone in search of nourishment (which is known to abound
just within the bran) in the same way that grape roots have
been observed to spread over the surface of a rich decaying
bone. But they easily separated and had no connection with
the bone. It was satisfactorily proved that the chess plant
could not have come from these grains, by the fact that the
* When the wheat is in head no trace of the original grain can be
found — the contents of the wheat grain are entirely consumed by the
young plant at the expiration of 30 days from the time of sowing. Prof
Dewey is evidently mistaken in the above statement. — Klippart.
7
74 THE \vui:at rr,ANT.
same single stalk of chess was thus connected with five or six
different grains which could no more have originated it, than
five or six cows could have one calf. The examination
therefore did not prove any thing in favor of transmutation,
and as there were many possible ways in which the chess
might have been scattered on the soil, the whole experiment
was admitted by all parties to be inconclusive."
If farmers will habitually sow clean seed, there is little dan-
ger that they will be troubled with chess.
There is another fact which it would be well to remember
in^eontroversies on subjects of this nature, viz. : all species,
and not unfrequently genera which are allied will hybridize,
that is, will produce ofi"spring partaking of the nature of both
parents, yet not resembling either in every respect ; thus the
horse and ass are allied species of the Equine genus, they hy-
bridize and produce the mule.* Wheat and chess ic'dl not
hybridize, thus proving conclusively that there is neither spe-
cific nor generic affiliation existing between them.
Wheat may at different periods have been produced from
the iEgilops in various countries ; in India, Persia, Egypt,
Greece, California, South America, etc., and the difierent vari-
eties may have been derived from the originals from the various
localities having been modified by soil, climate and culture.
Experience teaches that by high culture red wheats change
into white ones, and although we have no direct evidence that
bearded or awned wheat changes into beardless, yet the French
Journal d'Agriculture Pratique, speaks very highly of a beard-
ed wheat which loses all its beards the moment it ripens.
Mr. Daniel has introduced on the farm of Barliere (Haut
Loire) a variety of white wheat from Russia, which merits
attention. A small sheaf of it was on exhibition at the
World's Fair. It is said to be very productive, and to make
an excellent quality of second-rate bread, such as is in gen-
eral use by the agricultural population.
* See Chapter I, where hybridization is more fully discussed.
CLIMATE PRODUCES CHANGES. 75
The spike or head of the wheat is stout and long, the awns
or beards are very long, and drop ofiF the very moment that the
grain is matured. The chatf is thick and coarse, and protects
the grain from many attacks to which the thinner chaffed va-
rieties are subjected. The grain is large, white, and very
heavy. It is cultivated by the farmers in the vicinity of
Brionde, without extraordinary manuring, or other care, and
the harvest generally yields 38 to 44 bushels per acre. It
succeeds best in good soil, but is not susceptible of withstand-
ing great extremes of cold, more particularly the cold of
humid and insalubrious districts ; although it appears not to
have been affected by the cold of last December. The straw
is long, heavy, and of a remarkable whiteness.
It is by no means improbable that in some localities, the
Mediterranean has, since its introduction into the United
States, lost the awns or beards, and is now known as the
beardless, or smooth, red Mediterranean. In localities where
climate and soil more readily affect changes than culture, the
smooth, red Mediterranean may have become white. If the
same variety of wheat were sent to Canada, Central Ohio,
Tennessee, and California, from Norway or Denmark, and the
wheat thus sent be cultivated on the same farm for a period
of fifty successive years in each of the localities just men-
tioned, there is no doubt that at the expiration of this period,
if a comparison were to be instituted, the varieties would be
found to differ greatly from each other, and all differ from the
original, not only in appearance, but in quality. And, more
than all, while that in Canada ripens there the first of August,
that in Tennessee the first of June, that in California the
tenth of May, that in Central Ohio will not ripen before the
firsWof July. If, then, imports be made of the identical va-
riety to Ohio from Canada and Tennessee, and sown side by
side with that already acclimated in Ohio, it will be found
that that from Canada will ripen a few days earlier^ and that
from Tennessee a few days later than that of Ohio. Even in
the limited extent of latitude embraced between Lake Eric on
76 THE WHEAT PLANT.
the North, and the Ohio river ou the South, there is an ap-
preciable modification in the same variety of wheat. A spike
of Mediterranean grown in Trumbull county diflfers as much
in appearance from a spike of the same variety grown in Law-
rence or Scioto, as it does from a spike of " old red chaff" or
of " Quaker wheats
So well is this fact understood by botanists, that Prof John
Lindley remarked of the wheats on exhibition at the Crystal
Palace in 1851 :
" I have already said, that among the wheats produced in
the Exhibition, that from our South Australian colonies is
the best — that it is much the best. And here let me make a
remark on that subject. It has been suppo.«ed that all wo
have to do in this country, in order to obtain on our English
farms wheat of the same quality as this magnificent Australian
corn, is to procure the seed and sow it here. There can not
be a greater mistake. The wheat of Australia is no peculiar
kind of wheat ; it has no peculiar constitutional characteris-
tics by which it may be in any way distinguished from wheat
cultivated in this country; it is not essentially difi"erent from
the fine wheat which Prince Albert sent to the Exhibition, or
from others which we grow or sell. Its quality is owing to
local conditions, that is to say, to the peculiar temperature,
the brilliant light, the soil, and those other circumstances
which characterize the climate of South Australia, in which it
is produced ; and, therefore, there would be no advantage
gained by introducing this wheat for the purpose of sowing it
here. Its value consists in what it is in South Australia, not in
what it would become in England. In reality, the experiment
of growing such corn has been tried. I myself obtained it
some years since for the purpose of experiment, and the result
was a very inferior description of corn, by no means so good
as the kinds generally cultivated with us. And Messrs. Heath
and Burrows, in a letter which I have received from them
this morning, make the same remark. They say, ' For seed
purposes it has been found not at all to answer in England,
CLIMATIC INFLUENCES.
77
the crop therefrom being
ugly, coarse, and beard-
ed.' The truth is, as was
just observed, the pecul-
iarities of South Austra-
lian wheat are not consti-
tutional, but are derived
from climate and soil. It
appears, therefore, that
wheat may be affected by
climate, independently of
its constitutional peculi-
arities ; but it does not
follow that wheat is not
subject to constitutional
peculiarities like other
plants. There are some
kinds of wheat which, do
what you may with them,
will retain a certain qual-
ity, varying but slightly
with the circumstances i^ Fi^;. 7.
under which they are produced ; as, for example, is proved by
some samples here, especially of Revitt wheat, of a very fine
description, exhibited in the building by Mr. Payne, and
which is greatly superior to the ordinary kinds of Revitt that
appear at market. This clearly shows that Revitt wheat of a
certain kind and quality is better than Revitt wheat of a dif-
ferent kind, both being produced in this country ; so that,
Fig. 7. Section of a wheat grain highly magnified.
a. a. cellular layers of the first seed skin.
5. same of the second.
c. the third or innermost skin.
d. cells of gluten.
e. the cellular tissue of the albumen with grains of starch meal.
/. grains of starch.
78 THE WHEAT PLANT.
circumstances being equal, we have a different result, owing
to some constitutional peculiarity of race."
The principal difference between red and white wheat exists
in the amount of gluten and silex, or cortaceous (bran) sub-
stances. Gluten (tZ. Fig. 7.) is found to be two or even three
times as thick in some varieties, as in others. It is thinnest
in white wheat, medium in amber, and thickest in coarse,
heavy red wheats. The skins (a. a. b. Fig. 7) abound in silex
to a greater extent in red than in white wheats. But climate,
soil and culture, modify the amount of gluten and silex, as
well as other characteristics • of the plant, and thus produce
new varieties.
There are many varieties of wheat now cultivated in this
State which owe their origin to some peculiar, and perhaps
local influence. There are several cases on record where the
same variety has been habitually cultivated on the same farm
for many years, when suddenly a strange head is found mak-
ing its appearance in the field. This head not unfrequently
is larger and presents other indications of being an excellent,
if not superior variety of wheat. Where did it come from ?
The farmer has not been changing the variety of wheat, and
why is there a single head only, or half a dozen heads at
most ? If there were a square yard or more covered with the
new variety, one might suppose that the product of any entire
head had been sown, or by some fortuitous circumstance had
found its way there. It is idle to suppose that birds of pas-
sage might have dropped it in their migration ; because, in the
first place, it is probable that the germinating qualities would
be destroyed at least, if not the entire grain be digested ; but
because, if birds did convey it there, they must have obtained
it somewhere, within a few days' flight of the place where it
was dropped, and the variety of wheat would be recognized as
coming from the North, South, East or West. Notwithstand-
ing the improbability of new varieties being introduced in the
manner just mentioned, the theory is entitled to due consid-
eration. The advocates of this theory assert that the birds
THE VARTOT'P THEORIES.
79
which convey the grains, proceed from the North to the South,
and bring the grain from the North. The Northern varieties
are more hardy than those acclimated here, and not so readily
digested by the birds. The birds wing their way to the South
at the approach of winter, when deep snows cover the ground
and thus hide their accustomed food, in the far North ; and
the seeds dropped by them on our grain fields germinate
before the cold of winter has actually set in.
It is true that any variety of wheat taken South any con-
siderable distance from its accustomed locality, will not only
increase in size, but present a more vigorous and hardy ap-
pearance than that already acclimated. Hence the plausibility
of the " bird theory."
Another party of theorists assert that the grain or grains
which produce new and superior varieties, have accidentally
fallen in places the soil of which is of peculiar chemical com-
bination, or whose mechanical structure diflfers from the
remainder of the soil, upon the same principle that grass
growing under the droppings from animals in pasture fields,
obtains elements and ingredients if not different in combina-
tion from those in the soil generally, yet in much greater
proportion ; that these incidental peculiarities of soil, produce
characteristic changes in the structure and appearance of the
plant. The advocates of this theory refer to the experiments
of Salni-Horstniarr^ which are given in another place in this
book, as being collateral, if not conclusive evidence, of the
correctness of their position.
A third party ascribes the origin of varieties to hybridiza-
tion. It is very evident that wheat does not naturally hybrid-
ize, because if it did " mix " as readily as can corn, sorghum
sacchartiiiun, or loUum percnne^ the agriculturist could produce
at pleasure, the most desirable varieties in vast quantities in a
single year. Were it true that wheat hybridizes in the field
without the agency or interference of man, then, to find
grains of a dozen different varieties in the same head or spike
of wheat, might be regarded as the rule, and a head in which
80 THE WHEAT PLANT.
the grains were all of the same variety would be the exception^
yet how often do we find half a dozen varieties of wheat,
sowed in the same field and growing side by side for succes-
sive years, preserving and perpetuating their characteristics,
without the least appreciable change due to hybridization.
It must be obvious that wheat harvested in an unequal state
of ripeness, can not be the best for the purpose of making
bread, as when the greater part of the grain has been cut in
the state the farmer considered fitted for the miller, while the
lesser part has been either in a milky state, or much over-ripe,
or some in all possible stages of ripeness.
The greatest quantity of flour is not obtained from wheat
cut in this manner, but would be obtained when every ear
produced that fine, plump, thin-skinned, cofi"ee-like looking
germ, and a delicate, transparent, thin-coated bran. Hence
it is assumed, that to have the best bread from any variety of
wheat, is to have it so pure, that, supposing it to be grown on
a level space, with one exposition, it will all ripen at the same
time ; slight diff'erences being allowed for variation of soil,
sub-soil, or accidental unequal distribution of manure ; but,
that as a general thing, it will ripen equally. I must here
observe, that the cause why so much wheat appears to have
many shriveled, lean, ill-grown grains in it, arises often from
the unequal growth of the many varieties that lurk in the
purest crop. No writer has yet, I believe, directed the atten-
tion of the agricultural world to the cultivation of the pure
sorts, originating from one single grain. It is contended that
this has been the root of all evil ; many have attempted to
begin well, but few, if any, have thought of commencing from
the original, and persevering and keeping it pure.
I am well aware that many may consider this project vision-
ary and unattainable. It has been asserted that if even a
pure crop were sown, the bees would mix the farina, mice
would mix the grains, birds would do the same, and more
than all, if it had been feasible, it would have been done
long ago.
EFFECTS OF HYBRIDIZING. 81
It is of paramount importance to ascertain and keep note
of the period of flowering of each variety to be cultivated, on
extensive farms, which will tend more to keeping up a pure
sort than any other method.
So far as actual experiments in hybridization with wheat
are concerned, I can do no better than to quote from the
excellent lecture of Prof. John Lindley, referred to in a pre-
ceding page :
" But this leads to a question which I think of the highest
interest, and one which has been more distinctly brought out
in the exhibition that has just closed than it has ever been
before. We all know the effect of hybridizing, or cross-
ing the races of animals ; and we also know that within cer-
tain limits, this may be done in the vegetable kingdom. We
are all aware that our gardeners are skillful in preparing by
such means those different varieties of beautiful flowers and
admirable fruits which have become common in all the more
civilized parts of Europe ; but no one has paid much atten-
tion to the point as regards cereal crops. Yet it is to be sup-
posed, that if you can double the size of a turnip, or if you
can double the size of a rose, or produce a hardy race of any
kind from one that is tender, or the reverse, in the case of
ordinary plants, you should be able to produce the same efi"ect
when operating on cereal crop. It so happens, however, that
the experiment has not been tried except on the most limited
scale, and to what extent it may be carried, has been more
brought out in this exhibition than it ever was before. In the
last treatise on this subject by Dr. Gasrtner, a German writer,
who has collected all the information it was possible to pro-
cure relating to the production of hybrids in the vegetable
kingdom, the author declares that, as to experiments on cereal
plants, they can hardly be said to have had any existence.
The exhibition has, nevertheless, shown us that they have
been made, and some examples will tell with what result. I
have no very good means here of explaining such experi-
ments, but I must advert to them, because they prove dis-
82 THE WHEAT PVANT.
tinctly that you may operate upon il-.c constitutional peculi-
arities of wheat, just as you may upon those peculiarities in
any other plant. For instance, Mr. Kaynbird, of Laverstoke,
who obtained in IS'iS a gold medal from the Highland Society
for experiments of the kind, sent to the exhibition this box,
which contains a bunch of Ilopetown wheat, a white variety,
and a bunch of Piper's Thickset wheat, which is red. The
latter is coarse, and short-strawed, and liable to mildew, but
very productive. Mr. Raynbird desired to know what would
be the result of crossing it with the Hopetown wheat, and the
result is now before us in the form of four hybrids, obtained
from those varieties.
" If you will take the trouble to examine them, you will
see that beyond all doubt the new races thus obtained are in-
termediate between the two parents — the ears are shorter than
in the Hopetown, and longer than in the Thickset wheat; in
short, there is an intermediate condition plainly perceptible
in them throughout. And it appears from the statement of
Mr. Raynbird that these hybrid wheats, which are now culti-
vated in this country, have succeeded to a satisfactory extent,
yielding forty bushels an acre. But in, this instance, as in
some others which I am about to mention, I do not at all
attach importance to that circumstance. The essential part
of the question is not the number of bushels produced per
acre, but to show that you may aflfect the quality of cereal
crops as you may aflfect animals and other plants. Mr. Maund,
a very intelligent gentleman residing at Bromsgrove, in War-
wickshire, has done much more than Mr. Raynbird, for he
has obtained a greater variety of results, which he exhibits
this evening. Mr. Maund has been occupied for some years
past in the endeavor to ascertain whether something like an
important result can not be produced upon wheat by muling,
and he exhibited the specimens before us in evidence of what
may be done. You will observe that sometimes his hybrids
are apparently very good, and sometimes worse than the
parents, as we know is always the case. When you hybridize
WHEAT HYBRIDS. 83
one plant with another, you can not ascertain beforehand with
certainty what the exact result will be ; but you take the
chance of it, knowing very well that out of a number of
plants thus obtained some will be of an improved quality. If
you examine this glass case you will at once see the results ob^
tained by Mr. Maund. In each instance the male parent is
on the left hand, the female on the right, and the third speci-
men shows the result of combining the two kinds ; a better
illustration could not be desired. Here is a hybrid consider-
ably larger than the parents, and in the next instance one
considerably shorter and stouter. In another example you
see a very coarse variety gained between two apparently fine
varieties; that is, perhaps, a case of deterioration. In another
instance you have a vigorous wheat on the left, and a feeble
one on the right, while one, much more vigorous than either,
is the result. On the other hand we have some anomalous
cases, in which the effect of hybridizing has been to impair
the quality.* Now, I think this is a very important case, well
made out, because the moment you show that by mixing corn,
as you mix other things, you obtain corresponding results,
there is no reason to doubt that an ingenious person, occupy-
ing himself with such matters, will arrive at the same im-
provements in regard to varieties of corn as have already been
obtained in the animal kingdom, and in those parts of the
vegetable kingdom which have been so dealt with."
The same law of transmission of qualities from parent to
offspring appears to obtain in the vegetable, as in the animal
kingdom. It is well known to all cattle breeders that the off-
spring bears a much greater resemblance to the sire than to the
dam, while the disposition of the dam rather than that of the
sire is transmitted. Mr. Maund in his series of experiments
in hybridizing found that a strong sire and weak female pro-
duced a much better result than a weak sire and strong female.
All of No. 8 in the above list were of this latter character.
* See Chapter I., near the close.
84 THE WHEAT PLANT.
The new varieties thus artificially produced, usually prove to
be of earlier development and maturity, as well as more pro-
lific and better adapted to withstand the extreme vicissitudes
of the climate than either parent.
The entire practicability of producing new varieties of
wheat at will, being thus demonstrated, we trust it is not indul-
ging in too sanguine expectations when we predict that ere
many years the farmers of Ohio will by this method produce
the best varieties that the world ever saw.
There is no doubt that the cultivation of Mediterranean
wheat would at once be abandoned in Ohio, were there a vari-
ety of white wheat which would as successfully resist the
various diseases caused by fly, midge, rust, etc., and which
would withstand the cold and drought as well. Such a variety
can undoubtedly be produced by hybridization ; and as an ex-
periment in the proper direclion we would sugge;4 that a cross
be produced between an early plant of the white blue stem,
and an early one of the Genessee flint, or the Quaker wheat.
It often happens that the first cross is not what is desired, then
a cross between this first hybrid and one of the parent races, or
even a second, or some cross of this kind may result in this
quality. To demonstrate more fully, suppose a hybrid with
Genessee flint as male, and white blue stem as female, is pro-
duced, which we will call the Genessee blue stem, but is not
desirable, having too much of the characteristics of the orig-
inal blue stem. Then produce a cross with the same former
male upon this hybrid, and name the result hybrid No. 2.
Suppose this result to partake yet too much of the blue stem
characteristics ; produce another hybrid with the same male
as in the other cases, but with hybrid Xo. 2 as female, and
name the product hybrid No. 3 ; this result may now have more
of the Genessee qualities than are desirable. Then a hybrid
between No. 2 and 3, will ])erhaps produce the desired qualities.
Sometimes it happens that the varieties from which new va-
rieties are sought to be obtained, will not hybridize with each
other ; as for example should it prove that the Mediterranean
IMPORTANCE OF HYBRID WHEATS. 85
would not cross witli Soules wheat, but that a cross from these
two varieties would combine desirable qualities. When such
a case occurs, the cross must be made with such as will cross
with both the Mediterranean and the Soules. The Soules may
be crossed upon the Genessee Flint, and this product be
called No. 1, or Soules Genessee, then Mediterranean may be
crossed upon the Genessee and the product called No. 2, or Med-
iterranean Genessee ; then No. 1 (as male) crossed upon No. 2,
(as female) will produce a hybrid which will be one-half Gen-
essee, one-fourth Mediterranean and one-fourth Soules ; this
will be No. 3. This last hybrid will cross with the original
Soules, and produce a variety that will be three-fourths
Soules, one-twelfth Mediterranean and one-sixth Genessee ;
this hybrid will be No. 4. Then No. 3 crossed upon the Med-
iterranean will produce a variety, being three-fourths Medi-
terranean, one-twelfth Soules, and one-sixth Genessee ; this
will be No. 5. Now a cross between the hybrids Nos. 4 and 5,
will produce a hybrid being five-twelfths Mediterranean, five-
twelfths Soules, and one-sixth Genessee Flint. This No. 5
may be crossed back upon either of the parents, and the con-
sequent hybrids crossed upon each other until all of the Gen-
essee Flint taint is bred out; and then the result will be a
hybrid of two varieties which originally would not hybridize
with each other.
There is no doubt that these hybrids are constitutionally
more susceptible to the influences of heat than the parent vari-
eties, hence their earlier maturity. There is no reasonable
doubt that by hybridization many excellent varieties may be
produced, which, in Northern Ohio, will ripen in ordinary
seasons not later than the 20th of June, and in Southern
Ohio, as early as the 10th of June. Were such a variety pro-
duced, the ravages of the weevil would be set at defiance, the
rust could not injure it, and many inconveniences experi-
enced at present would be avoided.
When the agriculturist deems it advisable to change the va-
rieties of wheat which he has been cultivating, the new varie-
86 THE WHEAT PLANT.
ties should be imported from the north. The reason of this
is very manifest; the north being colder, requires a longer
period of time to mature and ripen the grain than it does
here, consequently the new variety when grown here will ar-
rive at a maturity and ripen earlier than in the north ; whereas
in the south a greater degree of warmth obtains and wheat
ripens earlier than here ; consequently when southern wheats
are introduced here, they seldom succeed, or are continued by
the cultivator, but most generally after one or two trials, are
abandoned. For this reason many of the wheats introduced
from Europe, through the Patent Office, do not succeed in
Ohio — they are generally found to be too tender for our win-
ters, and more liable to "winter-killing," rather than any
other malady. The following, from an esteemed correspon-
dent, is in strict confirmation of the views advanced. The
extract will be better understood when it is known that the
Isothermal line of Turkey, and all the northern shore of the
Mediterranean, is the same as that of Tennessee, Arkansas, etc. :
" In September, 1855, sowed a package or two of Turkish
Flint Wheat — mostly winter-killed — harvested a little more
than the seed sown — this was sown in September, 1856. It
looked well up to the falling of snow ; that went off early in
February, and every plant was winter- killed, while the Gen-
essee Flint Wheat, sown by the side of it escaped entirely.
During the past two seasons, having experimented with five
kinds of imported winter wheat, received from the Patent
Office, I found none of them comparable with the Genessee
Flint. I trust, however, that they have done better further
south, as some of the samples were very fine.* There was one
variety (from Japanf) with a very red chaff, short chaff, short
* But even if these varieties were acclimated at the south and proved
to be excellent varieties, they might not be desirable in Ohio; they cer-
tainly would mature and ripen late, thus becoming liable to rust, midge,
and other maladies incident to the late varieties, as well as being liable
to winler-kill, and otherwise deteriorate.
■j- The Isothermal line of Japan is about the same as that of Tennessee.
HISTORY OF " MEDITERRANEAN " WHEAT. 87
head and straw, that blossoms some ten days earlier than any
other kind I have grown, but it has been mostly winter-killed.
If it were hardy and productive (and may it prove so further
south) it would be an invaluable variety for cultivation in
those sections of country where the midge prevails — from its
earliness it would escape their ravages."
All the varieties imported from Europe which have become
standard in Ohio, were brought from high latitudes. The
most popular wheat at present in Ohio, is the Mediterranean,
so called, which is of Danish or Norwegian origin, from
whence it was introduced into Holland, and from the latter
kingdom into the United States, under the name of " German
Wheat :^^ in a short time it was known as the German Fly-
proof Wheat,^ then by the singular but indefinite cognomen
of " Fly-proof Wheat," and lastly, it is now extensively
known as the Mediterranean variety. The following, from one
of the " old " volumes of the American Agriculturist, furnishes
the history of its introduction into the United States :
"Severnl years ago (about 1819), an American gentleman
who was traveling in Holland, while one day dining with a
number of Hessians, was asked why, with our fine climate
and soil, we had so often failed in having good wheat crops ?
He replied that it was doubtless in a great measure attributa-
ble to an insect which it was supposed was introduced into
the United States in the wheat sent from Holland during the
Revolutionary War, for the subsistence of the British army,
which was known in this country as the Hessian Fly. The
Hessians admitted that some kinds of wheat in that country
were liable to injury by insects, but that there was a species
in very general use that resisted their attacks. The American
gentleman was presented with some of this, which he brought
to this country and sowed upon his farm in Delaware. It
* Fly-Proof ov German Wheat. — A gentleman who was supplied by us
with a part of the lot received from Virginia, informs us that there has
been a great improvement in the appearance of the grain since its in-
troduction on his farm. — Ainerican Agriculturist.
88 THE WHEAT PLANT.
was subsequently introduced into Virginia by James H. Tali-
aferro, Esq., and its ability to resist the attacks of the fly
successfully tested. The name Mediterranean, given to this
wheat has no applicability whatever." *
The agriculturist will be disappointed in the best variety of
wheat, if the crops are not kept pure. Not unfrequently is
there grown in the same field white and red, as well as smooth
and bearded, side by side. Early and late varieties are mixed
together, and while one is " dead ripe " and is shedding its
grains, another variety which occupies perhaps an equally
large area, is just in the '■'■milky " state. It is very manifest
that the flour from this mixture can not possibly be as desira-
ble as that of either variety when pure, and harvested at the
proper season.
As there are so many varieties of wheat of similar external
appearance as even to bafile the most experienced eye, there
seems to be but one secure method to insure the growth of
pure sorts of wheat, namely, to grow them from single grains,
or from single ears, and to follow up the plan, by afterward
sowing only the produce of the most productive, so as to form
a stock. A curious but satisfactory proof, which repeated ex-
periments have confirmed, is that the grains of wheat when
sown thickly, impart a certain degree of warmth to each other
'and to the soil, which hastens their growth two or three days
earlier than a single grain.
A knowledge of the precise moment of flowering may prove of
♦Several years since, Mr. M. B. Bateham, of Columbus, Ohio, in-
troduced several of the choicest varieties of wheat from England, but
none of them succeeded, because the change in climate was entirely
too great; the change in the aolual amount of heat could, perhaps, have
been withstood, had there been no diminution in moisture, but our cli-
mate is dry as well as hot, while that of England is cool and moist. If
these varieties had been taken to Canada, where the climate is dry and
cool, and the temperature the same as in England, there is no doubt
that they would readily acclimate, and then, when acclimated, if trans-
ferred to the United States, would perhaps prove a desirable acquisition.
PURITY OF CROPB. 89
the greatest importance to an intelligent farmer, there being an
interval of a week or ten days in the period of flowering of some
of the sorts. Hence, a judicious selection, with due care as to
the time of sowing the variety that will soonest come into
flower, would enable him not only to keep his crops pure, but
as they would ripen in succession, enable him also to bring in
his crops in rotation, as each variety ripens, without being
hurried by his whole crop being fit for harvesting at the same
moment, which is now too often the case.
A single grain picked up on the high road by chance, and
perceived to be of an entirely diff"erent form and larger in size
than is generally seen, though sown a week later than the
other varieties, was the first to ripen and was cut a week earlier
than other varieties.
" Two years ago," writes John Le Couteur, " a farmer re-
quested me to view a very lyure crop ; there was no mixture in
it! In merely walking round the crop, which, in fact, was
both pure and fine, in common parlance, I selected from it ten
varieties." A crop of this variety, the Duck's Bill, then origi-
nally procured from Kiel in the Baltic, which I saw this year
as a second year's produce, is so intermixed as to make it dif-
ficult to pronounce what variety it is intended for. The
Duck's Bill is very subject to shake out from the ear if it is
over ripe ; and has proved to be only fit for making pastry, as
it is too tenacious for the purpose of making household bread ;
hence the necessity of not only having wheat crops pure, but
of knowing their particular qualities and properties.
It is very extraordinary that some sub-varieties have a pre-
disposition to sport, or alter their appearance.* A fine red
* The following detail is copied from Le Couteur's woi-k ou the wheat
plant :
But it h.ad escaped him to consider it in its properties, with relation to
the food of man. This practical view the author took of it, and he de-
termined to attempt to discover which were the most farinaceous and
productive varieties, by comparing their characters and produce one with
another. The usual mode with the generality of farmers is to procure
any seed, that any neighbor, enjoying the reputation of being a good
8
90 THE WUEAT PLANT.
sort was sown with others, pure apparently, and of three hun-
dred and fifty ears, the produce of forty-six grains, there were
farmer, may have to sell. A more intelligent class take care to procure
their seeds from a distance, to require that it is fine, perhaps even pure;
they also have thought of changing or renewing their seed occasionally.
A still more intelligent number having procured the best seed they could
obtain, of those sorts which observation and experience, have led them
to know as being best suited to their soil and climate ; having further
observed, that mixtures in their crops prevented their ripening at the
same moment, and having endeavored to remedy this defect, by making
selections by hand, of those varieties which appeared to them to be sim-
ilar and thus have greatly improved their crops in produce and quality.
A few farmers have proceeded a step further, and from having observed
a stray ear of apparently unusually prolific habits, have judiciously set
it apart, and have raised a stock from it. Hence the Hedge Wheat,
Hunter's, Hickling's and twenty more that might be named ; but it is con-
tended that it is not sufiicient merely to have grown them pure for a short
time; it is necessary to keep them permanently so, if after a compara-
tive examination as to their relative product in grain and meal, they shall
be proved to be the best; or otherwise to discard them for more valuable
varieties.
This was the chief consideration which led rae to make comparative
experiments in order to obtain the best seed. Hence, as a first step to-
ward improvement. Professor LaGasca having shown me four ears of
those he considered the most productive, I sorted as many as I could
collect, of precisely the same varieties, judging by their external
appearance. Such was my anxiety to attempt to raise a pure crop, that
in the month of November, 1852, I rubbed the grains from each ear, of
all the four sorts I had selected, throwing aside the damaged or ill-look-
ing, and reserving only the plump and healthy.
The first selection was apparently one wholly of a Dantzic sort — white
and smooth eared. In the process of rubbing, I was surprised to find
that, though most of the grains were white, they diifered greatly as to
form, some being round, some oval and peaked, some plump but very
small, some more elongated, some with the skin or bran much thicker
than others. There were also many with liver-colored, yellow, and dark
grains, among the white.
The second sort was from a square, compact variety of wheat, the
grains very plump, round, of a coffee-like form, very thin-skinned and
white. There was a i)ale red inferiority among it, much thicker skinned,
but without any perceptible external appearance in the ear.
LE couteur's kxperiments. 91
two hundred to the original sort, which were a red, compact,
hoary or velvety kind, twenty-one ears of a smooth red,
eighty-six of a whitish, downy appearance, and forty-three
smooth-chaflfed white ears.
The third was a downy or hairy variety, one of the •' Velovtes" of the
French, and "Triticum Coeleri " of Professor LaGasca; a velvety or
hoary sort, which is supposed to be very permanent in its duration, as
relates to keeping J^a^e. I found, however, that there were a few red
grains, some yellow, and some liver-colored sorts among this, in small
proportions it is true, but being of prolific habits, subsequent experience
has taught, that they would soon have destroyed the purity of the crop
if cultivated without constant attention.
The fourth selection was from a variety of red ear with yellow grains
more peaked than the "Golden Drop; " these were all plump and well
grown, but though of productive habits, afforded less flour and more bran
than the white wheat varieties. I discovered a red variety among it
bearing white grains, which I suspect to be very prolific and hardy. I
gave a sample of it to Sir John Sinclair, who greatly encouraged me to
prosecute my researches, as being of the highest importance. There
were also red ears bearing liver-colored grains, but these were chiefly lean
and ill grown. I generally, but not invariably, found that the grain of
white wheat was the plumpest, or possessing the greatest specific gravity,
or largest quantity of meal. The aspect of the grain in that dry season
led me to thiuk that white sorts of wheat will succeed best on dry soils
and in warm climates, and that red and yellow, or the darker colored,
prefer wet seasons or moist soils.
The care I took in making these selections, and the great number of
sorts I found, of all shades and colors, forming varieties and sub-varieties,
that are named by Professor LaGasca, confirmed my conviction that
the only chance of having pure sorts, was to raise them from single
grains or single ears. It is but fair to add, that even the pains I took iu
making those first selections, amply rewarded my labors, as the product
of my crops was increased from an average about twenty-three or
twenty-five bushels an acre to thirty-four, and since I have raised wheat
from single ears or carefully selected sorts, I have increased my cro])S to
between forty and fifty bushels the acre. Hence, I have no doubt, that
with extreme care, in obtaining the best and most suitable sorts of wheat,
land in high tilth, with fine cultivation, may be had to produce sixty
or seventy bushels the acre.
92 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER IV.
ORIGIN OF THE WHEAT PLANT.
In Sicily, there is a wild grass known to'botanists by the
name of jEjilops ovaia. It has been asserted that the seeds
of this plant may be changed into wheat by cultivation ; and
that the ancient worship of Ceres, which considered the fields
of Enna and of Trinacoria as the cradles of agriculture, had
its origin in this transformation of the native grass.
The ^gilops are liard, rough-looking grasses, and there
are several species of them. (See A, a, plate I).
The rough spiked ^gilops is a native of the Levant, and
is the only perennial one.
The Cretan iEgilops is a native of Candia.
The cylindrical JEgilops is a native of Hungary, while the
oval spiked and long spiked are natives of Southern Europe
— mostly, however, from the northern shores of the Mediter-
ranean — the oval spiked abounds in Italy. The seeds of the
oval spiked or M. ovata very strongly resemble the seeds or
grains of wheat, but are much smaller. In the Levant the
jEgilops is gathered in bunches and burnt, and the roasted
seeds are used as an article of food.
It had frequently been asserted that wheat and ^Egilops
were identical sjxxus, but no botanist, of any respectability,
for a moment entertained the belief, from the fact that the
latter is a miserable grass growing to the hight of nine or ten
inches only, and in its general appearance, leaves so little
resemblance to the former, that botanists have unhesitatingly
classified them as belonging not only to different species, but
to different genera ! Pal de Beauvois, in 1812, in his valuable
work on the genera of grasses, said that he could discover no
difference between Triticura (wheat) and the -^gilops.
.ilOILOPS TRIUNCIALIS. 93
Three kinds of ^gilops are frequently met with in the
south of France, and in other parts of the Mediterranean dia-
triet, viz. : ^jilops triuncialis, L. ; jE. ovata, L. ; and ^iJ.
triaristaia, Willd. M. Requien has stated that there is a
fourth, which he calls M. triticoides ; but this, as will be
shown hereafter, is only a peculiar form of JE. ovata and trm-
risiata, both of which produce it.
1. JEi. triuncialis is distinguished from the others by its
more slender and elongated cylindrical cars. The glume con-
sists of two equal valves, one with three, the other with two
awns. The nerves of the valves are seven to ten in number,
and are, like the awns themselves, covered with asperities. The
valves of the florets (pale«)), also two in number, are mem-
branous and ciliated at their edge; one of them is terminated
by three abortive awns.
The following stems are from thirty-five to forty centim.*
high ; the leaves are never so long as the spike. The ear
itself is from ten to tw(^-lve centim. in length, and is composed
of from five to seven spikelcts, of which the three lowest are
fertile, and the rest sterile. The glumes of the spikelets pre-
sent projecting whitish ribs, varying in number with that of
the awns which terminate them.
When the number of these awns is two, the number of the
ribs of the glume is six or seven ; when the glume has three
awns, the number of ribs is commonly ten, five strong alter-
nating with five slender.
The asperities which have already been stated to cover the
sides of the glume, and the awns render both rough to the
touch.
The seed or grain of this species are one centim. in length,
horny, slender, not being more than three millim. in circum-
ference at this largest part. Their upper end is terminated
by a tuft of whitish silky hair. These grains are of a fine
yellow color, and become brown when dried ; they are a little
* 1 millimeter = 0.039 inch, or less than half a Hue. 1 centimeter
= 0.393 inch, or nearly four-tenths of an inch.
94 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
flowery when broken. When germinating, only two radicles
are usually produced ; three are rare.
The plant is glaucous all over. Of all the species we shall
have to notice, this is capable of being the most highly de-
veloped. It never produces varieties.
2. > ChaflF 11.5 10.36 4.82
3. Produce, and mineral matter of an acre — Mineral matter.
Grain 22.16 43.5
Straw 25.94 120.4
ChafiF. 4.11 57.6
Removed from an acre.
4. Analysis of the ash of the grain — lbs. oz.
Silica 3.20 1 6.6
Phosphoric acid 44.44 19 6.0
Sulphuric acid trace.
Carbonic acid none.
Lime 8.21 3 9.2
Magnesia 9.27 4 3.3
'I 57.70
ANALYSIS OP STRAAV AND CHAFF. 121
Peroxide of iron 0.08 0.9
Potasli ^. 32.14 17 13.8
Soda '.. 2-14 1 8-8
Chloride of sodium none.
99.97 43 9.7
5. Analysis of the straw and chaff — Removed from an acre.
Silica 67.10 119 6.8
Phosphoric acid 6.05 12 8.7
Sulphuric acid 5.59 91 5.2
Lime 4.44 7 14.4
Magnesia 3.27 5 13.0
Peroxide of iron 1.54 2 11.8
Potash 10.03 17 13.6
Soda 0.85 1 8.6
99.97 177 11.5
The foregoing extract, exhibiting the proportions of water,
grain, composition, etc., of an English variety of wheat, has
been copied for the purpose of comparison with wheat of New
York growth. A comparison can be made by any person
who feels an interest in this matter. I do not, therefore, pro-
pose to enter upon a detail of difference or similarity ; observ-
ing, however, that in the statement respecting the phosphates
and phosphoric acid, I have given the phosphates of the
earths and phosphates of the alkalies, by which it will be
perceived that the earths, the lime and magnesia, as well as
iron, are in combination with phosphoric acid. This fact
does not appear in the extract which is given.
The real composition of wheat appears only when an anal-
ysis is made of its parts, as bran (which is the cuticle), and
its flour. Time, however, has not permitted me to make
those analyses. I can, therefore, make only the following
very brief statement :
Shorts, which is mostly a coarse bran, gives.
Ash..-. 5-115 per centum, which contains
Silica 0-140
Phosphates of magnesia, lime
and iron 2-380
11
122 THE AVUKAT PLANT.
Fine midillings lost in a wa-
ter-bnth 12.78 of water.
Bran 12.37 water.
Which proportions are rather greater than that given by
wheat.
The specimen of winter wheat furnished by Mr. Peters... 9.72 water.
Summer wheat 9.(52
Proportion of ash and water in sfraic of/oiir varieties of wheat.
Mineral matter in
a ton of straw.
Indiana, water 3.50
Ash 4.40 99.90 lbs.
Old red-chaff, water 7.50
Ash 5.22 117.00
Improved white-flint, water 9.50
Ash 4.50 160.80
Talavera, water 8.00
Ash 5.4G 122.30
STRUCTURE OF THE WHEAT GRAIN.
For all practical purposes, however, the grain may be said to
consist of two parts only — the husk and the flour. The husk
in grinding is separated from the body of the grain, and is
called " bran," meaning that which is torn off or rent from the
main body. The body of the grain after the husk has been
removed, consists of a white, opaque, inodorous and tasteless
mass, and may be regarded as a mass of starch.
If a grain of wheat is cut across through the middle, the
" husk" " bran" or outer skin will appear as a narrow brown-
ish line inclosing the entire mass — this skin bending inward
forms the furrow which runs lengthwise on the grain. The
hairy or tufted end of the grain is the upper or end opposite
to that in which the embryo is enveloped. After having cut
the grain across, if now a very thin slice cut in the same di-
rection be placed under the microscope, the thin, brownish
skin will be found to consist of three layers or rinds, like
peels of an onion ; the first of which is the outer skin (Fig.
STRUCTURE OF THE GRAIN.
123
7), a a, consists of two
layers of thick walled,
porous cells, whose short-
est diameter is thus ex-
posed to view, the walls
of which contain slight
hollows or little canals.
The middle layer h con-
sists of cells similar to
those of the first layer,
but with this diflFerence,
namely : the cell walls
are not so thick, and the
pores are much more dis-
tinct than in the first :
this layer has its longest
axis at right angles to
that of the first. The
third layer is an exceed-
ingly delicate and soft
layer c, difficult to be
properly defined with our
;/
Fig. 7.
ordinary microscopes, or described because of its indistinct
definition. Immediately beneath this last described layer are
the gluten cells (Fig. 7), d. -The gluten in the cells appears
to be a faint yellowish substance, very small grained, oily to
the touch and smell. The cells in which it is formed are
rather larger than any of the cells of the three layers just
described, the walls of which are perhaps more delicate than
of any others in the entire grain.
The entire portions just mentioned, and figured at a a, b,
c and d, are the portions which before the recent inventions
in milling machinery were considered as " bran."
Directly under the gluten cells d, lies the albuminous por-
tion of the seed. This consists of hexagonal prismatic cells,
which are filled with ovoid granules of starch " e." These
124 THE WUEAT PLANT.
starch granules,/, Fig. 7, arc enveloped in several layers of
cellulose or cell membrane, which, when heated to excess in
water, bursts and exudes the starch contained in them.
Wheat or flour is valuable just in proportion to the quan-
tity of gluten it contains. In some varieties of wheat the
gluten is more tough and fibrous than in others ; flour dealers,
but more particularly bakers, determine the quality of flour
by making a paste of a small quantity of it, and the
tenacity of the dough, or the length of "f/trmcZ" to which
the dough may be drawn, determines with them the value of
the flour.
Several of the organic constituents of wheat may be ob-
tained as follows :
Moisten a handful of wheat flour with sufficient water to
form a stifi" paste when triturated in a mortar ; inclose it in a
piece of thick linen, and knead it frequently, adding water as
long as the liquid which runs through continues to have a
milky appearance. After standing some time, a white powder
will settle from the turbid water : this is ivheat starch.
Starch is one of the principal constituents of flour, as in-
deed of all sorts of meal ; the second constituent remains
behind in the cloth, mixed with vegetable fiber, and is a vis-
cous, tough, gray substance, which has received the name of
gluten (vegetable fibrine). The gluten swells up only, in
water without being completely dissolved ; in its constitution
it corresponds exactly with albumen, and, like it, contains
nitrogen. When the water decanted from the starch is boiled,
it becomes turbid, and when partially evaporated yields a floc-
culent or flaky precipitate ; thus wheat meal contains also
^^vcgrwhk aJhumen." If this flocculent precipitate is sepa-
rated by filtration or draining, and the clear liquid running
through the filter on which the albumen is collected, is now
evaporated to a thick sirup, the addition of alcohol will
separate this sirupy residue into two parts — into gum, which
is left insoluble behind, and into sugar, which dissolves in
alcohol, from which it can be obtained in a solid form by
CELLULOSE. 125
evaporation. Neither tte gum nor sugar are thus obtained
pure ; both contain a small amount of saline matter, and the
latter, besides, traces of fatty matters.
There is a certain intermixture of these organic substances
— gluten, albumen, cellulose and starch — throughout the
body of the seed, but are, notwithstanding, found greatly in
excess in the parts indicated in Fig. 7.
The walls of the hexagonal or six-sided prismatic cells are
composed of a material known to physiologists as cellulose ;
it is always an organic substance, and is distinguished by its
insolubility in water, alcohol, ether, dilute alkalies, and acids.
Vegetable wool, the pith of plants, and bleached paper, may
be regarded as pure cellulose. Its chemical composition is
the same as that of starch, namely : carbon twelve, hydrogen
ten, oxygen ten parts.
126 THE WHEAT plant.
CHAPTER YI.
GERMINATION OP THE WHEAT PLANT.
Having briefly explained the composition and illustrated
the structure of the several parts of the wheat grain, the next
important subject to be considered is the germination of the
wheat plant. In all seed-bearing plants, germination is the
first manifestation of vitality. This action invariably takes
place whenever the necessary external conditions are suflSci-
ently favorable ; these conditions may be embraced in the
following : a proper degree of heat or warmth, light, or rather
the effect of light, or perhaps the vicinity of light, moisture,
and access of atmospheric air. When seeds are so situated as
to enjoy these four conditions in a proper degree, germination
invariably takes place in the healthy seed, or seed in a normal
condition. If a seed is so situated as to enjoy the proper
cflfects of light, moisture and atmospheric air, but is yet de-
pri'ved of all warmth, although it may not be really frozen,
it will not — can not germinate. Water congeals at 32° to 31°
Fahrenheit; a few degrees more of cold will burst stout glass
bottles filled with water ; by the action of frost, rocks are very
frequently rent asunder, and it is related that at an armory
in England, a cannon filled with water and the muzzle
planted into the earth, was burst asunder by the action of
frost, although the metal of the cannon was two inches thick.
Quicksilver freezes at 40° below zero, Fahrenheit, or 72° below
the freezing point, being a degree of cold which is met with
only in such regions as those visited by the youthful and
hardy, and much lamented Dr. E. K. Kane. The organism
of the human system would be seriously aff"ected under the
influence of such a degree of cold, were the person not well
protected by furs, fire, and other means. But the small seed
PLANTS IN HIGH TEMPERATURES. 127
grain, less than a rain drop in size, which, judging from its
delicate structure and tissues, as illustrated in figure 7, one
would suppose that the first hard frost would burst the cell-
walls and decompose the grain, as is not unfrequently the case
with the flesh of potatoes and apples. But not so the wheat
grain, it is tenacious of life, and yields its vitality only to an
(artificial) cold of 58° below zero, or 90° below the freezing
point !
The wheat grain is much more sensitive to heat than it is
to cold. Almost all cultivable plants require a warmth vary-
ing from 50° to 70° Fahrenheit. All require a heat between
32° and 100°— under 32° none will germinate, above 100° all
are destroyed. There are, however, exceptions to this general
rule. Carpenter mentions a hot spring in the Manilla islands
which raises the thermometer to 187°, and has plants flourish-
ing in it and on its borders. In hot springs, near a river of
Louisiana, of the temperature of from 122° to 145°, have been
seen growing, not merely the lower and simpler plants, but
shrubs and trees. In one of the Geysers of Iceland, which
was hot enough to boil an egg in four minutes, a species of
chara has been found growing and reproducing itself. One
of the most remarkable facts on record, in reference to the
power of vegetation to proceed under a high temperature, is
related by Sir Gr. Staunton, in his account of Lord Macart-
ney's embassy to China. At the island of Amsterdam a spring
was found, the mud of which, far hotter than boiling water,
gave birth to a species of Liverwort. A large squill bulb,
which it was wished to dry and preserve, has been known to
push up its stalk and leaves, when buried in sand kept up to
a temperature much exceeding that of boiling water.
Plants require a certain amount of external heat, but the
amount varies very much in difi'erent plants. Wheat will not
mature at a lower temperature than 45°. Potatoes require
52°, barley 59°, while the larch pine can live when the ther-
mometer is often, at mid-day, 40° below zero. On the other
hand, the vine does not mature its fruit in Scotland ; the In-
128 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
dian corn does not certainly ripen in England, and most of
the Euphnrbiaccai can only exi^t in tropical climates. Mem-
bers of the same species of plants attain difierent ages, chiefly
in consequence of different amounts of heat which surrounds
them. Wheat in Scotland lives one hundred and eighty days,
at Truxillo one hundred, and at Venezuela only ninety. Some
plants become annuals in this and other countries, while in
their native habitats they enjoy a perennial existence. Thecroton
oil plant is an example of the kind ; in India it is perennial.
If a wheat grain be steeped, during fifteen minutes only, in
water having a temperature of 122° Fahrenheit — a temperature
but little above blood-heat — the germinating principle will be
totally destroyed. In dry atmosphere the grain will, perhaps,
endure a temperature of 170° Fahrenheit, without being seri-
ously injured. This sensitiveness to heat may be the chief
cause why wheat does not prove profitable as a crop in the
tropics, where the heat of the soil frequently is found to be
190° Fahrenheit. Warmth, in a certain degree, is just as essen-
tial to the seed, in the process of germination, as it is to the
egg during incubation, yet if the other agents or external
conditions are not supplied, warmth alone will not cause the
act of germination to be called into activity. If seeds can be
so placed as not to be aflected by the moisture, elevation of
temperature will not excite the germinating powers ; it is
necessary to bear this fact in mind when packing seeds to be
sent to California, or other tropical regions. As a general
thing seeds are packed in cases, and these are stowed away in
the hold of the ship, as soon as the tropics are reached the
temperature of the cases is increased, this is attended by the
formation of vapor from the moisture of the packages, and as
a necessary consequence germination commences, but as there
is nothing to maintain it, it ceases, and after germination once
stops it can not again be excited to activity. There will be no
risk attending the transportation of seeds if they are put in
sacks, and kept in a place where the air can have free access
to them.
REQUISITES OF GERMINATION. 129
Moisture is absolutely essential in germination, not only to
promote it, but to maintain it when once called into action.
The moisture penetrates the husk or outer covering of the
wheat through pores or canals and ducts (see figure 7), and
finds its way through the layers a, 6, c, and d ; when it reaches
the starch cells e, it causes a great change to take place in the
starch cells, which will be more fully explained. Although
wheat and many other seeds will germinate when deposited on
the surface of the soil ; yet there is no doubt that they receive
a better supply of moisture when covered with soil to the depth
of about two inches. On the surface of the soil the seeds are
not only more liable to be destroyed by insects, birds or small
quadrupeds, but the direct rays of the sun seriously interfere
with the supply of the requisite amount of moisture. Not-
withstanding many eminent botanists declare that light is not
only prejudicial, but that darkness is absolutely essential to
consummate the act of germination, I have succeeded in ger-
minating wheat and bunch beans on the surface of the soil cov-
ered with a pane of ordinary window glass, in about the same
period that others germinated when regularly planted or sowed.
Subsequent to these experiments I have learned that the Hon.
Sidney Grodolphin Osborne, of England, succeeded in growing
the wheat plant to the length of two to three inches in glass
jars on perforated plates of zinc suspended over water, in some
cases With, and others without, soil, from which the plants
were transplanted to glass tanks on the stage of the microscope
in order to examine the process of development and growth.
Atmospheric air is absolutely necessary to germination ; this
air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen gas, while water is
composed of oxygen and hydrogen gas. Notwithstanding
almost all seeds will germinate in water, and none will germ-
inate without it, yet they all require atmospheric air. No
seeds will germinate in pure nitrogen, hydrogen, or carbonic
gas; but all will readily do so in oxygen. The seeds of all
aquatic plants germinate under water, and this circumstance
might lead some to suppose that the presence of air was not
130 THE WliKAT PLANT.
indispensable; but it must be remembered that there is no
water — except when artilicially rendered so — that is free from
atmospheric air. The seeds of aquatic plants therefore ger-
minate just like fish live in water, even though it is covered
with ice, by virtue of the oxygen dissolved in it. It is said
that Saussure failed to cause seeds to germinate in water which
was boiled long enough to expel all the air from it.
The conclusion then is irresistible that air is indispensable
to germination.
Experience has taught that from two to three inches is the
proper depth to sow wheat. At this depth, in a properly
prepared soil, it receives an abundant supply of moisture ; is
secured against the depredations of birds and insects ; it is
sufficiently in contact with the atmosphere, and receives the
necessary influence from solar light and warmth. The follow-
ing statement may be found in almost every agricultural jour-
nal, or treatise on agriculture ; it purports to be an experiment
by Petri, made half a century since, with wheat ; but as Petri's
experiment was with rye, and not wheat, it is probable that
the experiment stated may not have been made by him, or else
may not apply to wheat ; certain it is thllt it was made in
Europe and not in America :
Seeds sown to the depth of Came above ground in No. of plants tliat came up.
J inch 11 days 7-8
1 " 12 " all.
2 " 18 " 7-8
3 " 20 " 6-8
4 " 21 " 4-8
5 «' 22 " 3-8
6 " 23 " 1-8
But 1 can not learn at what season of the year the experiment
was made. This statement, then, is only of comparative value ;
it teaches that no more than 1-6 as many plants germinate at
six inches depth as would at three inches. On the 3d day of
October IS;")?, I sowed some wheat on the surface of the soil,
some at the depth of 1, 3, 4, and 7 inches. That on the sur-
face and at 1 inch germinated and came above ground in six
EXPERIMENTS IN GERMINATION. 131
days ; at 3 inches in eight days ; at 4 inches in ten days ; at
7 inches in eighteen days. Unfortunately my arrangements
to ascertain the proportion at each depth that came above
ground of the whole number sowed, was interfered with, but
there were two or three only out of a hundred at seven inches
that came above ground, and they perished during the few
cold days in November. My impression is that about three-
fourths of that sowed at four inches came up ; all of that at
three inches, and all at one inch ; all that on the surface not
destroyed by birds germinated.
A German writer states that wheat sowed from one to four
inches deep germinated the deeper the better, but from four
to seven inches, the deeper the less successful was germina-
tion ; at eight inches the seed did not germinate at all. It is
reasonable to suppose that at the depth of eight inches it was
deprived of the proper supply of oxygen gas, or rather atmos-
pheric air. The warmer the air and the soil are, the sooner
will germination be consummated. In Sweden, wheat sown
on the 28th of April required eighteen days to come above
ground ; that sown on the 21st of May required eight days
only ; while that sown on the 4th of June required no more
than six days.
Light certainly is an indispensable agent in exciting into
activity the germinating principle, as is abundantly proved by
the following experiment and discovery of Mr. Robert Hunt,
author of " Researches on Light:" " Some seeds being placed
in the soil, in every respect in their natural conditions, duly
supplied with moisture, and a uniform and proper temperature
maintained, we placed above the soil a yellow colored glass, a
cobalt blue glass, and a glass colored deep blood red, and allowed
one portion to be exposed to all the ordinary influences of the
solar rays. The result will be, that the seeds under the blue
glass will germinate long before those which are exposed to
the combined influences of the sunshine ; a few of the seeds
will struggle into day under the red glass, but the process of
germination is entirely choked under the yellow glass."
132 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Edinburgh, 1, George the Fourth's Bridge, ")
September 8, 1853. J
My Dear Sir : — I am favored with yours of the 5th, relative
to my practical experience in the effect of the chemical agency
of colored media on the germination of seeds and the growth
of plants.
I must first explain that it is our practice to test the ger-
minating powers of all seeds which come into our warehouses
before we send them out for sale ; and, of course, it is an ob-
ject to discover, with as little delay as possible, the extent that
the vital principle is active, as the value comes to be depreci-
ated in the ratio it is found to be dormant. For instance, if
we sow 100 seeds of any sort, and the whole germinate, the
seed will be the highest current value ; but if only 90 ger-
minate, its value is 10 per cent, less; if 80, then its value falls
20 per cent.
I merely give this detail to show the practical value of this
test, and the influence it exerts on the fluctuation of prices.
Our usual plan formerly was to sow the seeds to be tested
in a hot-bed or frame, and then watch the progress, and note
the result. It was usually from eight to fourteen days before
we were in a condition to decide on the commercial value of
the seed under trial.
My attention was, however, directed to your excellent work,
" On the Practical Phenomena of Nature," about five years
ago, and I resolved to put your theory to a practical test. I
accordingly had a case made, the sides of which were formed
of glass colored blue or indigo, which case I attached to a
small gas stove for engendering heat; in the case shelves were
fixed in the inside, on which were placed small pots wherein
the seeds to be tested were sown.
The results were all that could be looked for : the seeds
freely germinated in from two to five days only, instead of
from eight to fourteen days as before.
I have not carried our experiments beyond the germination
THE EMBRYO OP WHEAT.
133
of seeds, so that I can not afford practical information as to the
effect of other rays on the after culture of plants.
I have, however, made some trials with the yellow ray in
preventing the germination of seeds, which have been success-
ful ; and I have always found the violet ray prejudicial to the
growth of the plant after germination.
I remain, my dear Sir,
Very faithfully yours,
CHARLES LAWSON.
If we place a grain of wheat on the table
with the ^^furroived" side down, and the
^^ hairy" eijd to the left, we will find con-
cealed under the two thin skins, a a, fig. 7,
at the right end of the grain, and under a
little depression or shield, the embryo, e, fig.
10. The perisperm or albuminous body a
is the storehouse containing the nourishment
for the embryo ;^uring the process of germ-
ination the roots proceed downward from the
radicle "c," and the stalk or halm upward
from the plumule or feather " 6." As soon
as moisture has found its way through the
canals in_ the husks or skins (a, a, and layers b, c, and d, fig.
7), so as to be in contact with the starch cells e, fig. 7, the
moisture or water penetrates the cell-walls of the seed and its
embryo, and there forms a strong solution. The seed has now
the power of decomposing water — the oxygen combines with
some of the carbon of the seed and is expelled as carbonic
Fio. 10. — Grain of wheat (magnified) showing the embryo.
a. Amylaceous body.
b. plumule.
c. radicle.
h. and d. first and second seed-skins.
e. prominence from which the main root issues.
/. and ff. prominences from which issue the true roots.
134 XllK WHEAT PLANT.
acid. The presence of moisture and oxygen induces putrefac-
tion of a portion of the albuminous matter in the cells; this
putrescent matter becomes an actual ferment — exhales car-
bonic acid gas, generates heat and converts the insoluble starch
stored up in the cells into soluble sugar — the whole remaining
albuminous matter is speedily rendered soluble. The cells,
instead of starch, are now filled with a strong solution of
sugar, albumen and salts. The cells become more diatcnded
and those of the embryo having been stimulated into action
are being developed acccording to the laws of vitality with
which they were impressed at their formation.
The substances deposited within the seed, that is the starch,
cell-walls or cell-membrane (cellulose), were undoubtedly de-
signed to furnish food to the young plant until it can provide
for itself, for it is nevertheless true that the young plant, like
the young babe, is dependent for its nourishment upon the
bosom of the parent that bore it, and requires during child-
hood a diflferent food from that in maturity. In wheat, starch
is the most important ingredient of this food ; but as starch is
insoluble in cold water, it could not unaided attain the proper
degree of fluidity, to be transferred from the albuminous body
to the embryo. It has been observed that when moisture acts
on the albuminous body of the seed, that carbonic acid is
evolved : this evolution causes in some manner as yet un-
known to scientific investigations, the formation of a substance
known as diastase. The diastase is allied in its general prop-
erties to gluten, and converts the starch of seeds into gum and
sugar for the nutrition of the embryo.
Most persons are familiar with the process of malting bar-
ley. Barley is soaked until it has absorbed about one-half its
weight of water, the grain is then thrown upon the malt floor,
where it is kept in a heap in a layer about a foot thick.
While in this condition the process of germination soon com-
mences, and much heat is developed, which in a short time
would destroy the grain were it not now spread out into thinner
layers. When the young shoot on these grains of barley has
DIASTASE. 135
attained the length of the grain itself, then the germinating
process is terminated by removing the barley to a kiln heated
nearly to blood-heat. Every one knows how sweet and mucil-
aginous malt is to the taste ; in malt the starch of the barley
has been changed into sugar by the formation of diastase,
which latter, according to Persoz, does not exceed the one five-
hundredth part of the malt, but notwithstanding this quantity,
Liebig says that the amount of diastase contained in one pound
of malt is capable of converting five pounds of starch into
sugar; and that one part of diastase will convert 2000 parts
of starch into dextrine and sugar. The experiments made by
Gruerin, to determine the influence of temperature upon the
action of diastase are exceedingly interesting. He found that
77.64: per cent, of sugar, and 12.25 of diastase were produced
from 100 parts of starch paste at the temperature of 68°. The
paste was liquefied, and 12 per cent, of sugar produced in it at
32°, or freezing point; although the parts were liquefied by
diastase at the temperature of 15 to 20°, dextrine only, and
no sugar was the result. This fact offers one explanation why
plants can not grow at a low temperature, namely, the starch
of the seed can not be converted into sugar, and the plant is
thus left destitute of the essential aliment of growth.
If a paste be made by boiling starch with water, and while
it is yet hot, we add (in a saucer), say twenty drops of sul-
phuric acid, with constant stirring ; then place the saucer on
a steam-bath till the paste has become semi-transparent and
liquid; then add prepared chalk till there is no more acid
reaction — this chalk has a great affinity for the acid, and with
it forms plaster of Paris or gypsum — after having filtered the
mass from the gypsum, leave the former to evaporate in a
warm place. The residue is a gum perfcxtly soluble in water.
As starch digested with sulphuric acid forms dextrine or gum
and becomes soluble in water, may not the evolution of car-
bonic acid in germination perform the same office?
If we boil, say about two and a half ounces of water, and
add to it twenty drops of sulphuric acid, and then add one
136 THE WHEAT PLANT.
ounce of starch in the form of a paste, but in small quanti-
ties at a time so that the boiling may not be interrupted ; when
all the starch has been added let the mixture boil for some
moments, then neutralize the acid by chalk as in the preced-
ing experiment, and evaporate the liquid to a thick sirup ;
this sir\ip is starch sirup, and consists of a solution of sugar
and water, from which a beautiful article of solid white sugar
may be prepared. In neither of these experiments has any
portion of the sulphuric acid been decomposed, neither has
any of it combined with the organic substance, because, in
the gypsum thus artificially formed, we obtain precisely the
same quantity of sulphuric acid that had originally been
employed.
Make a paste of a quarter of an ounce of starch and two
ounces of water, add to this (by rubbing) diastase equal to
one-fourth the paste, submit it to a temperature not exceeding
150 ° Fah., till the paste is formed into a thin transparent
liquid — boil this mixture for some time — then strain through
a cloth, and evaporate in a warm place. The mass is dextrine
or gum, soluble in water like that formed in the first experi-
ment, or like that formed in the germinating wheat grain.
Repeat this process, with this difference, that is, take three
times the amount of diastase that was employed in the last
experiment, but prolong the heating to several hours, but be
careful that the heat does not exceed 170 " Fah. This pro-
cess produces, like the last, dextrine, but by boiling this is
soon changed into starch sirup as in the second experiment,
from which starch sugar may be obtained.
Notwithstanding, we can not observe the changes while
they are taking place in the wheat grain, as well as we can in
the artificial processes with starch just enumerated ; yet there
is no doubt that in its turn the imbibition or sucking up of
moisture and absorption of oxygen causes the liberation of
carbonic acid gas, the formation of diastase which causes the
conversion of starch into dextrine, and the dextrine into starch
sirup. This starch sirup or sugar is what the young plant
CELL PRODUCTION. 137
feeds upon. That this is really the case is proved by the fol-
lowing observation stated by Henfrey :
" The cell-walls are formed of a modification of the com-
pound of which all vegetable cell-membranes are formed.
Within the cells exists nitrogenous matter in the condition
of protoplasm, that is, a tough mucilaginous fluid, colorless,
or with a yellow tinge, and frequently of more or less granu-
lar character, which increases with the age of the cell. The
increase of the plant is dependent on the assimilation of sub-
stances requisite for the production of new cell-membranes,
and of other substances to furnish new nitrogenous contents.
When no material for forming cellulose exists, the plant can
not grow ; but in solution of pure sugar, in the absence of
any nitrogenous substance, the plant will multiply its cells
for a certain time, the protoplasm of the old cells being trans-
fer-red into the new ones as they are successively evolved.
But under these latter circumstances the cells become gradu-
ally smaller, and ?,t length cease to multiply ; a portion of the
nitrogenous matter being wasted in the reproduction, till it
becomes insuiScient to carry on the growth ; but just as soon
as nitrogenous matter is added, which can be assimilated to
form cell-membrane, the growth (fermentation) goes on."
Diastase then converts the entire contents of the seed into
a tough, mucilaginous sirupy mass, which forms the food or
cell-contents and cell-membrane for the young plant, till it
can assimilate nourishment from the soil. In germination
diastase is formed in the neighborhood of the embi'yo, but
not in the body of the mass of the wheat grain.
I have no data from which to detei'mine accurately how long
the contents of a seed will nourish the young plant. On the
25th of December, 1857, no trace of starch, or starch sirup
m the wheat grains that were sown on the 3rd of October,
could be found, although it was tolerably abundant during
November. Herman Wagner states that on the 1st of July
all the amylaceous (starch) substances had disappeared from a
barley grain that was sown on the 15th of May.
12
138 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Gum, and dextrine were mentioned as being synonymous
terms, I did so in order to convey to the non -scientific reader
a clearer idea of the matter under discussion ; but every
chemist is well aware that the most important diflference exists
between vegetable gum and dextrine, namely, dextrine is sus-
ceptible of being converted into grape sugar by sulphuric
acid or diastase, while gum is incapable of undergoing any
such change. In the animal economy dextrine may very
appropriately be classed with those substances which enter
into the blood; the gastric juice converts all the starch re-
ceived into the stomach into dextrine. Gum, on the other
hand, is not taken up into the circulation, and is apparently of
very little importance as an article of food, although its
chemical constitution is isomeric, that is, it is composed of
precisely the same elements, and in the same proportion, as
starch and dextrine, namely :
Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen.
Starch 12 10 10 Loewig.
Dextrine 12 10 10 "
Gum 12 10 10 "
Gluten 12 10 10
Cellulose 24 21 21 Encyclopedia.
Cane Sugar 12 10 10 plus H. 0. Loewig.
Grape Sugar 12 12 12 plus 2 H. 0.
Having stated thus much of the chemical process of ger-
mination, it may not be inappropriate to mention that many
physiologists regard the process of germination as being a
process of combustion or slow burning. They have been led
to make such an inference from the fact that oxygen is ab-
sorbed and carbonic acid gas evolved or exhaled ; but the
experiments of De Saussure are direct evidence that the
amount of carbonic acid given out is in proportion to the
mass and not the number of seeds, proving that the carbonic
acid is produced from the decomposition of the starch as a
chemical process, and not from the growth of the embryo as
a process of life. It is further proved that the relation be-
osboune's experiments. 139
tween the oxygen consumed and the carbonic acid evolved is
not the same in all plants, but these proportions should be
constant if the theory of combustion is correct. Boussingalt
discovered that the processes were in activity in the albumin-
ous body after germination has taken place, and the young
plant capable by its development of radical, or root" and
plumule, or young stalk, of an independent existence, which
were supposed to be peculiar to that process only.
On the 24th of June, 1856, Hon. Sidney Godolphin Os-
borne read a paper before the London Microscopical Society,
on '' Vegetable cell-structure and its formations, as seen in
the early stages of the growth of the wheat plant," in which
many new facts in relation to the germination of wheat are
stated. Mr. Osborne contrived to have wheat grains germinat-
ing on the stage of the microscope, and by this means was
enabled to observe every change which took place.
The first symptom of germination in a seed of wheat
consists in the liberating from its surface a species of fila-
mentous or threadlike network, somewhat similar to the mycel-
ium or roots of many of the fungi (toadstools, mold or mush-
rooms) which infest vegetables ; nearly at the same time the
whole seed is seen to swell, and become as to its external cover-
ing transparent. At the germinating point of the seed there now
appears a very small wart-like projection of tough white mat-
ter ; this puts forth one cone of the same substance, pointing
upward — the future plumule ; and several others projected in
a straight line, soon to curve downward and become the roots,
Fig. 8. These cones of protruded substance soon burst their
outer cell-texture (/i.) At this early stage a root cone be-
comes a very interesting object under a high power of the
microscope. At its apex (E E E, Fig. 8) there are what may
with propriety be termed free capsules of cells, somewhat
lozenge or diamond-shaped at extremity, b, c, Fig. 9, but be-
coming longer and more narrow toward the base. This free
capsule envelopes the inner apex of the growing root, but
there is a clear cell-less space between its base and the part
140
rilK WHEAT PLANT.
Fig. 8.
of the apex which it there
covers, lieneath this cellu-
lated cone or capsule, the
growth of the root takes place,
by the development of cells
at the extremity of the inner
apex of the root. At a certain
period of growth every root
puts forth rootlets or suckers
e e, Fig. 8. These consist of
long, narrow, cell-like struc-
tures which put forth from
the region of the fibro-vascu-
lar bundles of the main root.
In order to determine the function of the capsule (Fig. 9),
Mr. Osborne grew wheat roots in distilled water, in a solution
of alum, in spring water colored with carmine, with vermillion
and indigo. He treated the waters in which they were grow-
ing with various fertilizing matters ; he succeeded in growing
a wheat plant so as to produce a foliage of fourteen inches in
length in a strong solution of prussic acid and cyanide of
potassium. From these experiments he concludes that the
epidermic plasm does absorb moisture from the soil ; in fact,
it requires moisture to preserve its ela.«ticity, combining in
the formative matter it secretes some of the matters presented
Fio. 8. — A grain of germinating wheat magnified.
A. Cellular tissue, the original covering of embryo blade.
B. Seed, starch, gluten, etc. [amylaceous body].
C. Main root.
D. Hard Cellular matter, the bivse of growth of root and stem.
E. E. E. Free cones of cells at the points of roots.
F. F. Lateral roots.
a. Plumule — future stalk.
d. Course of bundle of dotted fiber.
c. e. e. Suckers.
/. Course of spiral fiber.
h. h. h. Cellular tissue, original covering of the embryo root.
WHEAT CAN GROW IN POISON. 141
to it, in whatever medium it may grow, still the great sources
of plant, health and strength are obtained by means of the
capsules or spongioles, the fermiims of every root and rootlet,
and also by the absorbent cells ever found at the extremities
of the numberless suckers ; for it is at these points that he
found the cell structure ever greedily taking in whatever of
foreign matter he succeeded in introducing into the media in
which the plants were grown. There can be no doubt that
the plant requires not only certain chemical constituents to
secure its health, but that these must be offered to it, when
growing in a medium, allowing the utmost freedom to the
capsules of the roots, rootlets and suckers. There is no doubt
that a highly pulverized poor soil would grow better plants
than a close, hard, tenacious soil, however fertilized. When
it is considered what a wheat root has to do, how it has to
force its way and introduce its lateral branches through all
manner of crevices, and among all kinds of material in the
soil, we are struck with wonder at the beavity of the contriv-
ances by which the spongioles or capsules, constructed of
highly elastic material, cati float their onward way ; consoli-
dating as they grow, and having within them the growing
organism of a scaffolding sufficiently strong to bear up in its
deposited order, all the necessary structure in any course it
may be compelled to take, however tortuous.
There is a " circulation " in every one of the long suckers
put forth from the roots, which can be plainly seen along the
outer edge of each sucker, running from the root toward the
blunt point, but no current has yet been traced returning to-
ward the root.
In order to ascertain whether the roots of the wheat plant
take in nourishment for the plant, from the medium in which
they grow by means of their capsules and those on their root-
lets, Mr. Osborne made the following experiment: "Wishing
to make some experiments on the action of poisons, I grew a
small crop in a strong solution of prussic acid, with cyanuret
of potash added to it — this gave a very vigorous growth to
142
TIFF, WIIKAT I'LANT.
roots and leaves. Just as the root had-acquired about four
inches of leiiuth T applied my coloring matter to the Huid in
which they grew ; I wished to see whether this would be taken
up any where but at the point of attachment of the capsules
to the apex of the root. The result is that it was not; the
parenchyma or outer cell-texture is colorless ; that the capsule
cells are strongly painted ; that as they have pushed on, noth-
ing has been left in the natural cells colored but very small
nuclei, excepting only along the whole course of the vascu-
lar bundle ; here, what I call the pith tubes, were seen to have
imbibed the pigment, and it can be traced along their whole
course, i. c, along the whole course of the growth made since
the solution was colored."
There is a
physiol ogical
phenom e n o n
connected with
the growth of
roots, which
was omitted in
the proper
place ; namely,
shortly after
the radicle C,
Figure 8, has
burst through
the integu-
ment lateral
roots F F, also
developed o n
S|.on-inl.., (.!• fioc cone of root E. ^Oth sidcS of
the main root. The main root " C," Fig. 8, dies away soon
after the lateral roots F F, are developed sufficiently to
elaborate nutriment from the soil, or media in which they
are growing, and are developed from the protuberances /, ^,
Fig. 10, which may distinctly be traced in the embryo.
PHYSIOLOGY OF THE ROOTS. 143
They are in immediate connection or communication with the
base of the first leaves. These lateral roots in their young
state prove to be sheaths only (h h h, Fig. 8), from which at
a later period the true roots F F, protrude. This method of
root growth is characteristic of and peculiar to the cereal
plants, and is by botanists designated as endorrhizal.
There is no subject connected with vegetable physiology
which more nearly concerns the practical cultivator, as well as
the man of science, than the precise nature of the action of
roots; for on them more than on any other organ of a plant
depends the health of crops of every kind, without one single
exception. That the subject has not received more attention
is one of the curiosities of science. It is true there are many
statements of variable character and value, yet even more
speculations respecting the manner in which roots behave —
theories of excretion — assertions regarding the chemical action
roots are said to exercise on dead matter ; but the quiet
practical man who reads these beyond the atmosphere of sci-
ence, is far from being satisfied with what he finds in books.
The question as to whether the roots of plants are or not
endowed with any special excretory functions is one which
has occupied the attention of many naturalists, as being one
of considerable importance as well to the vegetable physiolo-
gist as to the agriculturist in its application to the principles
of alternation of crops. No absolute conclusion has as yet been
come to, the affirmative as well as the negative having been
respectively maintained, either from general induction, or
more rarely from direct observation and experiment. The
opinion, however, that no such excretions take place has been
the most generally adopted.
The impossibility of closely following under the microscope,
in their natural circumstances, vegetable phenomena which
take place under ground, and consequently in the dark, and
in an opaque medium, is obvious. As a nearest approach to
it, Gasparrini has caused the seeds of various plants to ger-
minate under glass, in water, or in well-washed sand, in the
144 THE WIIKAT PLANT.
dark or under diffused liglit, and thus examined their roots
without disturbance in various stages, and at various seasons.
He also raised plants for the purpose in vases of sand well
pulverized and washed, so as to be able to free the roots for
examination at a more advanced period with the least possible
injury. His numerous experiments appear to have been con-
ducted with the most scrupulous care, for which, moreover,
his well known success in analogous researches offers a suffici-
ent guarantee.
It has long been known that roots absorb the nutriment
necessary for the plant, by means of the young fibers which
form the ultimate ramifications of the roots ; that these fibers
are terminated by a short portion of a loose and soft texture
called by botanists the spongiole. Fig. 9 ; that this spongiole
is the point of growth of the fiber, usually bearing at its ex-
tremity a kind of cap of a harder and drier texture, called the
pileorhiza, a, Fig. 9, which is pushed forward by the fiber as
it grows; and that, immediately below the spongiole, the fiber
is usually more or less invested with a short down consisting
of small spreading hairs. Gasparrini shows that the spongiole
itself seldom takes any part in the absorption of the nutriment
for the plant, but is nothing more than the young as yet im-
perfect part of the fiber, consisting of cellular tissue in the
course of formation ; that the pileorhiza is a portion of the
epidermis or covering of the fiber which, after a period of com-
parative rest, is torn from the remainder of the epidermis and
pushed forward by the growth of the spongiole under it, and
is ultimately cast off to be reproduced by similar causes the
following season ; and that in the great majority of vascular
plants the nutriment is either entirely or chiefly absorbed by
the root hairs formed on the young fibers at the base of the
spongiole, and which he on that account denominates suckers.
fJach of these root hairs or suckers consists of a sub-cuti-
cular cellule of the epidermis, more or less lengthened out into
a cylindrical hair-like form. It is at first \iniformly smooth
and straight, but at a later period either the extremity or the
FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS. 145
upper portion or rarely nearly the whole length becomes vari-
ously deformed by club-shaped dilations, or irregular ramifi-
cations. The length of the suckers, and the shapes of these
irregularities, are often more or less aifected by the obstacles
they meet with in the earth, but not entirely so, for when
grown in water perfectly free from an impediment there is
very great irregularity in both respects. Internally, however
much ramified, the cell remains entire with one continuous
cavity from the base to the extremity of all its branches. Its
walls also consist of a single membrane, no chemical reagent
having disclosed any distinction between the walls of the cell
and an external cuticle.
These suckers appear to absorb the alimentary juices by
endosmose over their whole surface. Like leaves on the young
aerial shoots, they are formed on the young shoots of the
roots; like leaves also they die and disappear after a longer
or shorter season, leaving the old roots entirely without them.
When fully formed, and before they decay, these suckers
become more or less covered in their irregular branching por-
tion (rarely in their basal cylindrical part), with viscous papillae
or adhesive globules, forming granular masses, to which the
surrounding earthy particles strongly adhere. Are these vis-
cous masses excretions from the roots, or are they the residue
of substances contained in the earth and chemically decom-
posed by the roots in the absorption of such elements only as
might be suited for the nutriment of the plant? It is to the
solution of this question that Grasparrini's experiments are
chiefly directed, and he concludes that they are entirely ex-
uded from the suckers.
In the first place he adduces several experiments in refuta-
tion of those who believe that the tender fibers of roots pos-
sess some chemically dissolvent properties, and that it is by
such means that they are enabled to penetrate into masses of
hard substances, whether inorganic or organic, such as the
woody tissue of living plants. In the case of the common
Mistletoe growing on a Pear-tree, he followed the radical fibers
13
14G THE WHEAT PLANT.
of the parasite from the woody tissue through the alburnum
and the parenchyma of the bark eonietimes to the length of
half an inch. They could be clearly traced their whole length,
although forming an intimate cohesion with the tissue of the
matrix, except the spongiole at the extremity, which was al-
ways free ; but he never saw the slightest indication of any
morbid alteration in the tissue thus penetrated.
In the case of the young plants of wheat, rye, barley, rape-
seed, and others which had been caused to germinate under
glass, the process of excretion was readily observed. Previous
to the formation of the adhesive globules on the surface the
suckers were full of a fluid in which floated a granular sub-
stance showing clearly a circulation in two currents, the one
ascending, the other descending; after a time the suckers
opened at the extremity and discharged the greater part of the
granular substance they contained, the discharge being pre-
ceded by a peculiar motion analogous to that of pollen grains
before they burst. The contact of a drop of warm water ac-
celerated the discharge, and if the-fiber was cut through at its
base the motion of the sucker was sudden and convulsive, and
the contents discharged with considerable elasticity.
In the roots grown naturally within the earth, the circula-
tion of the fluid contents of the suckers, when observed, was
slow and feeble. Those which yet retained the granular sub-
stance withinside were as yet free from the external papillae,
while those covered with the viscous masses outside were nearly
empty internally, but in these cases the excretion appeared but
rarely to have been effected by the bursting of the extremity,
but usually by exudation, through the membrane forming the
walls of the cavity, and that in a manner whicli could scarcely
be explained by endosmose alone, but by some other force
unknown to us, and which must be included in the mysteries
of vital action.
With regard to the effects produced by these exudations on
the capabilities of the soil for the nutriment of other plants
at the same time, or in succession, there is nothing to show
PHILOSOPHY OF ROTATION OF CROPS. 147
that they possess any acid, caustic, or saline properties likely
to act prejudicially on other roots. Whether the matter be
compared to the fecal excretions or to the residue left bj'^ in-
sensible p(^rspiration on the skin of animals, it can well be
imagined that it can not serve for nutriment if reabsorbed by
the same plants, nor probably if absorbed by others until de-
composed, but owing to its extreme tenuity the decomposition
takes place very readily, and as recent detritus of vegetable
matter, its quantity is very small in comparison to that of the
decayed sucker and pileorhizas, and of the numerous fibers
which perish from natural or accidental causes. If in the
relative eflfect of different plants on the impoverishment of the
soil the radical excretions have any effect, it can only be caused
by the difference in the quality left in the soil by different
species. Some of the plants known to exhaust the soil in the
highest degree, such as Flax and Box, have few or no suckers
to their roots and leave scarce any exudations. Rye and many
other Grasses deposit very little in comparison with Crucifers
and Cichoracese. Hemp on the other hand, which is a great
exhauster, exudes a great deal by the roots; so do Wheat and
Barley, but the exhausting effects of these plants mny be traced
to other causes. Thus, then, although from these experiments
the fact of absorption and excretion from the surface of or-
gans of temporary duration on the young shoots of roots is
clearly demonstrated, we do not possess any data sufiicient to
affirm that the matter excreted produces any effect whatever
on the capability of the soil to supply nutriment to other
plants grown in it.
One of the experiments made by Gasparrini is very instruc-
tive as to the noxious effects of vegetable manures in those
first stages of decomposition which are so favorable to the de-
velopment of molds. In the month of January he sowed
seeds of Triticum spelta, or as it is more conlmonly called
Spells, in a number of small garden pots filled with well washed
Vesuvian sand. In one pot he placed a piece of young dead
wood of Ailanthus glandulosus, in another a piece of bread, in
148 THE WHEAT PLANT.
another a portion of a green potato, in a fourth a portion of a
radish root, in a fifth some parings of kid's hoofs and bits of
nutshells, in the sixth nothing, for the sake of comparison.
The pots were all watered with common drinking water, ex-
posed by day to diffused light, and in clear days for a few
hours to the direct light of the sun, and placed under cover by
night. At the end of a month each pot contained three
plants, all, even those in the pot without any organic sub-
stance, equally healthy and luxuriant, about a span high, and
with two leaves each.
In the pot in which was the piece of bread, the roots of the
spelt were much branched, the fibers almost all turned toward
the sides of the pot ; the numerous suckers were as yet
scarcely modified, or had only slight gibbosities toward the
extremity, no circulation was perceptible, the granular mucous
substance inside was more or less abundant, and many were
sprinkled externally toward the extremity with similar mucous
granular masses. A few fibers approached within a certain
distance of the bread, but none had penetrated within it. The
bread had become a soft, putrid, spongy mass, covered exter-
nally with white branching filaments spreading from it into
the sand in every direction, and already in many places
having nearly reached the sides of the pot, and here and
there a commencement of fructification seemed to show that
these filaments belonged to a speciiis of Botrytis. The
spongy mass of the bread was also almost entirely occupied
by a violet colored mycelium which appeared to be that of a
PeniciUium ; the filaments of this mycelium had also spread
from the bread in various directions. Some had descended to
the bottom of the pot, where they had attacked and produced
a morbid alteration on one side of a bit of the rhizome of
Smilax aajxrn, which had been placed over the hole of the
pot. In another direction the mycelium of this PnikUlinm
together with a few filaments from the Bitiri/ti's, had reached a
fiber of the Triticnm^ had encircled it for the length of half
an inch. The portion of fiber so attacked was soft, livid and
PLUMULE,
149
dead ; and the extremity toward the spongiole was shriveled
and also dead. In the livid portion the suckers were but
little developed and mixed with the Botrytis filaments ; but it
was evident that the chief injury to the roots was produced by
the Peiucillium, whose filaments adhered firmly to their epider-
mis. In none of the other pots had the roots of the Spelt
come into contact with the organic substances deposited in
the soil.
PLUMULE.
Having thus briefly described the process of germination,
and the formation, function, and growth of the roots, the plu-
mule or future stalk next merits attention. A section made
with care through the white
substance, from which the plu-
mule and roots protrude, gives
a beautiful view of the early
formation of the plumule.
Several layers of an oval-
headed cell structure are seen,
one longer than the other, i. e.
more advanced in growth, the
shortest or youngest being
very small. When detached
from each other their outline
is that of a blunt spear head
(Fig. 11, A,) at this stage their
substance consists of a cellular texture of which the cells are
very small as to their actual area, with rather thick walls of
plasm. Toward their base, in the center of each, is the well
defined indication of an upward line of spiral fiber — these are
the embryo leaves. They have the same epidermic plasm as
*FiG. 11. Young stalk of wheat (the extreme point of a, Fig. 8, mag-
nified ) ; it is seen to possess free capsule of cells and epidermic plasm,
closely identical with those of the root.
150
TtlE WHKAT PLANT.
the roots, and into it arc seen to project small points, the
future hairs on the leaf of the plant. They have capsules,
so far as yet can be determined, identical in structure with
those of the root, although adhering more closely to the sub-
stance covered, and the component cells do not separate in the
way they do in that part of the plant. As the young leaves
prepare to enter the outer world, they fold themselves longitu-
dinally into a very small compass. Fig. 11, A, and carry on
with them, until they have obtained an inch or so of growth,
a straw-colored cellular envelop of stout texture, Fig. 11,
A, B, (Fig. 12, a portion of the same highly magnified),
this appears intended to protect them as they force their way
through the soil, and on their first exposure to the weather in
the outer world. At this stage of growth chlorophyll or
green coloring matter is found existing in the leaves.
There can be no reasonable doubt that the cellular envelop
A, B performs a similar function to the capsules of the roots
Fig. 9, that is, it exerts a chemical influence on the soil which
lies immediately above it, rendering the
soil exceedingly pliable, so much so
) that the tender plumule can readily
' penetrate it. The writer remembers
having seen the young wheat plant
force its way from a depth of several
inches, through a compact clay soil
over which a farm wagon had passed so
often as quite to obliterate all the tra-
ces left by the plow or harrow.
As soon as the plumule has penetrat-
ed through the soil an inch or more,
it then gives birth to the first true
leaves, while the central bud is destined
to become the future stalk. The first
experiment of the young plant is to form a joint or knot
* Fio. 12. A portion of (Fig. 11, from A to 15) the edge of the young
leaf of wheat, highly niaguified.
FUNCTION OF PLUMULE. 151
immediately beneath the surface of the soil, and another one
just above it. The upper one of these two joints or knots is
the true commencement of the stalk ; the joint immediately
beneath the soil becomes the point from which emanate the
so-called crown-roots, and which are the chief laboratory for
the preparation and distribution of the future nourishment of
the plant.
Th« plumule is of great importance to the existence of the
plant, and by it may be readily demonstrated how dependent
each organ of a plant is on the other, and how harmoniously
the whole silently performs its destined function. If the
" heart " or plumule of the wheat plant is pulled out, it will
not be replaced by a new one, as is a spider's leg or snail's
head ; but the plant will form a new shoot and put forth a
new plumule. If, however, all the plumules are pulled out of
a bunch or multiplied wheat stalk in the spring-time, the
plant will die, fiom the fact that the dotted cell-tissue, Fig. 8,
d and /, from which both the roots and plumule grow, will
have been severed ; this cell tissue appears to be as import-
ant to the vitality of the plant as is the spinal marrow in the
animal kingdom. If a section is carefully made through this
substance, in a direction which will include the lower part of
the plumule and the commencement of the roots, we get a
view of the basis of the whole vascular svstem. A larae
number of pitted cells are seen, some passing downward to
branch out into bundles, one to every root; others branching
upward to the leaves.
Having stated the composition and structure of the wheat
grain, as well as both the chemical and mechanical changes
which take place during the process of germination, it may
not be irrelevent to recapitulate the principal phenomena.
The seed, when planted in the earth, was to all appearances
an inert, inodorous, and tasteless mass. In a short time it pre-
sented unmistakable manifestations of vitality, in the develop-
ment of plumule and radicle ; as soon as the latter made their
appearance, it was demonstrated that the starchy which is
152 THE WHEAT PLANT.
insoluble in water, had become solvent, and was converted first
into gum and then into sugar to feed the young germ ; the
cell walls of the hexagonal prisms were dissolved to form new
cell walls in the plumule and radicle.
As grain after grain of starch in the immediate vicinity of
the plumule was converted into sugar, or rather a step beyond,
for the nourishment of the plumule, the cells in the central
and posterior portion of the grain were also undergoing the
fermentative process, and as fast as required, the pabulum,
undoubtedly impelled by chemical or electrical affinity, finds
its way to the new plant. In the course of fifteen or twenty
days, the entire store of food contained in the starch will have
disappeared, and the young plant is now ready to enter upon
the "trials of life" upon its own account, and in the very
out-set the young roots find, that like the genus homo, "they
are obliged to labor for their bread."
It will now be necessary to give a brief description of the
elements by which the rootlets are surrounded, and from what
substances and in what manner they derive their nourish-
ment. The nutrition of plants involves within its province
the entire field of Scientific Agriculture, but in this essay it
is proposed to discuss that which relates to the cereals only,
and taking wheat as the generic type.
VALUE OF ORGANIC MANURE. 153
CHAPTER VII.
ORIGIN AND CONSTITUENTS OP SOILS.
So LONG as the young plant had in store organic materia
which was provided for its growth by the parent plant, so long
were all its energies and capacities not fully called into action ;
but, with the disappearance of the last granule of mother
starch,- the plant finds itself compelled to elaborate and assim-
ilate elements from the inorganic substances by which it is
surrounded, or perish. The first inorganic substance with
which it comes in contact in its first search for food, is in all
probability clay. What qualities has inorganic clay in com-
mon with organic starch ; what does it contain that the tender
rootlet can elaborate and assimilate so as to form from it not
only materials for new walls or cells, but materials to fill the
cells, material to form the sharp leaf, the firm stalk, the circu-
lating sap, the head with its wonderful structure of chafi",
beards, and young grains of wheat? It may be argued that
the wheat plant derives its nourishment from the organic
manure which the prudent farmer has committed to the bosom
of the earth ; but suppose reference is made to a crop of
wheat on new and virgin soil, on which no manure has been
placed? In such a case, replies another, the nourishment may
be derived from decaying vegetable matter. Were it not for
the patient investigation of physiologists, the last named posi-
tion might be assumed as the true one, but experiments have
demonstrated that plants can be grown to full and perfect
maturity without a single particle of organic matter.* If
* Tull's System of Culture, as also the more recent Lois-Weedon
System, as well as facts developed by underdraining, incontestably
establish the fact that as good crops cau be grown without as with
organic manure.
164 THE WHEAT PLANT.
plants did not assimilate inorganic matter, there would be no
ashes left after burning them ; these ashes, as was demonstrated
on a preceding page, consist entirely of inorganic substances.
Much of the qualities as well as of the constituents of clay
may be determined by tracing it to its origin. Possibly it
may cause a little surprise to state that the soft and plastic
clay is derived from granite, which is proverbial for its
unyielding hardness and firmness.
Granite is composed of three and sometimes four distinct
substances, namely : a white lustrous mineral named fihlspar ;
a white, generally opaque, one, known as quartz, and one
whose luster is more or less pearly, and color varying from a
transparent white to a dark olive green, and is susceptible of
being divided into thin flexible laminae; this latter is known
as mica ; and a dark bottle-green mineral, known as hornblende.
With the exception of quartz and oxide of iron, feldspar is
the most generally diffused mineral. Klaproth made an anal-
ysis of it and found it to consist of —
Silica 64.50
Alumina 19.75
Potassa 11.50
Oxide of Iron 1.75
Water 75
Lime a trace.
98.25
Quartz is nearly pure silicic acid. The fine white sand
found in the beds of streams is quartz ; that which is whitest
is the purest ; many sandstones are nearly pure quartz, but
more generally are mixed with oxide of iron, lime, etc. Flint
and rock crystal are quartz, the latter being pure silica, that
is, silicon (the base) united with oxygen in the proportion of
one of silicon to three of oxygen. Silicic acid combines with
the bases of metals and minerals forming silicates; almost all
rocks and minerals consist of these silicates, more especially
those of alumina, lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, potash and
PROPERTIES OF ALUMINA. 155
soda, all of which, except those containing an excess of the
stronger alkalies, are insoluble in water. The silica is ren-
dered soluble by the action of potash and soda in the soil, so
that it may be absorbed by the plant, as it is a necessary in-
gredient in forming the outer coat of the stalk of wheat and
corn, by which these plants obtain their solidity and stiflfness.
Plants, whose length and thinness of stalks or stems are
exposed to destructive influences require both solidity and
stiffness to support them in an erect position, and this in all
probability is the reason why the stems of the cereals rather
than any other class of plants, contain so large a quantity of
silica deposited in the stem and chaff, scarcely any in the
grains. It always exists in a free state in plants, and does
not participate to any important extent in the direct nutrition
of vegetable life.
Alumina, or pure clay is every where found in great abun-
dance. The sapphire and ruby are crystallized forms of
alumina, and emery is a more massive as well as crystallizable
form. Alumina forms the chief ingredient of all clays, and
of most of the slaty rocks from which, through disintegration,
the clays are chiefly derived. Pure alumina, however, is a
fine white powder, quite unalterable in the fire. We fre-
quently meet with it in chemical laboratories, precipitated
from its solution in acids by alkalies ; it forms in this condi-
tion a very bulky gelatinous hydrate, which when dried at a
gentle temperature, is found to consist of aluminum 2 equiva-
lents, oxygen 3, and water 6. When dry alumina is mixed
with water, it forms a plastic mass which admits of being
molded. This plasticity is imparted to the clay by the alu-
mina , but were it absent, no potter could produce earthen-
ware or porcelain.
Aside from imparting tenacity and firmness to the soil of
which it constitutes a part, it absorbs moisture from the atmos-
phere, and with ammonia forms true salts. It also acts either
as an acid or an alkali, because like an acid it unites with the
alkaline bases of potassa, lime, and baryta ; like an alkali by
156 THE WHEAT PLANT.
forming salfs with an acid. Our red and yellow clays are sili-
cates of alumina and the peroxide of iron, united with lime,
magnesia and sometimes with potash.
Potassium is a metal of a bluish white color, and has a
metallic luster in a very high degree. If a portion of this
metal is placed in a vessel and covered with naptha (a trans-
parent mineral fluid, containing no oxygen whatever), and
then a gentle heat applied, it will be found that it melts at a
temperature considerably less than that of boiling water; and
while in this state it much resembles quicksilver or mercury.
It is lighter than water, and consequently floats on it. Po-
tassium has so great an affinity for oxygen that unless kept in
a vessel under naptha, it is in a short time converted into a
white solid oxide, in which latter state we know it best.
Every one is familiar with it under the name of Potash ; com-
bined with nitric acid, potash forms the saltpetre of com-
merce. In consequence of the strong affinity which Potassium
has for oxygen, it readily decomposes the oxides or chlorides
of aluminum, as well as silicic acid.
Oxide of Iron, or Iron Eust, is perhaps the most widely
disseminated of all metals. There is scarcely a mineral, a
soil, or a rock which does not contain, in a greater or less
quantity, the oxide of iron. Chalybeate waters are so called
because they contain in solution the carbonate of Iron. Iron
has a strong affinity for oxygen.
Iron not only constitutes a portion of the food of plants,
but acts as a concentrator or condenser of gases from the
atmosphere which form a part of the food. Peroxide of Iron
and alumina, says Liebig, are distinguished from all other me-
tallic oxides, by their forming solid compounds with ammonia.
The precipitates obtained by the addition of ammonia to salts
of alumina or iron are true salts in which the ammonia is
contained as a base. Minerals containing alumina or oxides
of iron also possess in an eminent degree the remarkable
property of attracting ammonia from the atmosphere and
retaining it. Soils therefore containing the oxides of iron
PROPERTIES OF MICA. 157
and burned clay, must absorb ammonia, an action which is
favored by their porous condition ; they further prevent by
their chemical properties the escape of the ammonia once
absorbed. Such soils act indeed precisely as a mineral acid
would do if extensively spread over their surface. The am-
monia absorbed by the clay of ferruginous oxides is separated
by every shower of rain and conveyed in solution to the roots
of the plant.
Mica occurs confusedly crystallized as one of the constitu-
ents of granite, at other times it is found in large hexagonal
or six-sided plates in porphyry and primitive limestone. It
is commonly called Isinglass, from its remarkable transpa-
rency. The analysis by Klaproth gives —
Alumina 20.00
Silica 47.00
Oxide of Iron 15.50
Oxide of Manganese 1.75
Potassa 14.50
All these ingredients have just been described with the excep-
tion of the manganese, which is not always found in soils and
yet more rarely found in plants, so rarely as not to be indispen-
sably necessary to the growth or luxuriance of the plant. It
is always found in some compound form, never as a pure metal.
When artificially produced the metal is hard, brittle, of a
grayish white color ; as a metal it is not applied to any useful
purpose ; but the various oxides are extensively used in chem-
ical manufactures — one preparation of manganese, the sul-
phate, is extensively used in calico printing.
The remaining undescribed ingredient of the granite rock
is hornblende — this occurs crystallized with the feldspar and
quartz. The crystals are confused and aggregated ; some-
times however, they are long flat and hexagonal and pris-
matic — exhibiting fibers which are tough and rather difficult
to break. According to Klaproth it contains —
158 THE WHKAT PLANT.
Silica 42.00
Alumina 12.00
- Lime 11.00
Magnesia 2.25
Oxide of Iron 30.00
Ferruginous Manganese 25
In the hornblende wc find two substances, Lime and Mag-
nesia, which have not yet been noticed.
The metal mentioned by metallurgists and chemists as cal-
cium or lime, is very little known, but is described as being a
metal of a dark gray color. The metal rapidly oxidizes in the
atmosphere ; in this state it is known to all as quick-lime.
Lime in the form of a carbonate is very abundant, and in this
form we recognize it as marble, common limestone, chalk,
oyster and muscle shells. Sulphate of lime is gypsum or
plaster of Paris, so also is alabaster — this latter is much finer
however than the gypsum. Common limestone or marble,
when burned, becomes quick-lime. The phenomenon of slack-
ing quick-lime is familiar to all — in this process every ton of
limestone absorbs one fourth of a ton of water, which becomes
a part of the stone itself. The action of lime in the soil is
not yet thoroughly understood ; but some writers assume that
it promotes the decay of organic matters contained in the
soil, hastening their conversion into carbonic acid and am-
monia, from which they assert that plants derive their food.
Lime is generally present in larger quantities in the ashes of
plants than magnesia. The cereals contain, perhaps, the
smallest quantities of lime; in the ashes of the grain, about
3 per cent, is found ; in the straw of winter wheat and rye
about 5 per cent., while that of the summer cereals contains
from 7 to 9 per cent. The probability is that the carbonate
of lime is requisite to form a portion of the product itself,
and that it assists in decomposing minerals containing pot-
assa, and converting it into a soluble form for the nouri^^hment
of the plant. The ashes of potatoes contains 2 per cent, only
of lime, while the tops contain from 30 to GO per cent. The
PROPERTIES OP LIME. 159
turnips contain from 6 to 12 per cent., while the tops contain
15 per cent. When lime contains a certain proportion of clay
it becomes a cement. Limestones containing 8 to 12 per
cent, of clay, furnish a hydraulic lime, which hardens under
water in 15 to 20 days; when 18 per cent, of clay, it hardens
in 8 days ; if 25 per cent, it will harden in 3 or 4 days ; Ro-
man cement contains 35 to 40 per cent, of clay, and hardens
in an hour.
SuJphife of Lime is a compound containing one equivalent
of sulphuric acid less, and two equivalents of water more
than gypsum, and has recently been very successfully employed
in the extraction of sugar from beet root ; this substance pre-
vents the pulp from changing color by exposure to the air and
the loss of sugar by fermentation.
Sulphate of Lime, or gypsum, if allowed to remain when in
solution in a state of contact with organic matters is reduced
to sulphide of lime, which, under the influence of water and
carbonic acid, is converted into carbonate of lime. Nearly all
the plant-ashes contain this substance, it is therefore of great
importance to the plant.
Phosphate of Lime, an ingredient so essential to the cereal
plants as well as to the animal frame, is found in the mineral
kingdom.
Traces of phosphoric acid are found in a great number of
rocks and stones in the soil, in almost all plants and in ani-
mal matters. It never occurs free, or uncombined, but always
in combination with a base — most generally with lime. Phos-
phate of lime is always found in wheat, and all the vegetable
substances which constitute part of the food of man and ani-
mals ; and we find it in a very considerable quantity associated
with carbonate of lime in coprolites (or fossil manure of ex-
tinct animals), and other forms of fossil manures, which of late
have been much talked of, but is by no means abundant in the
latter. When bones are burnt, there remains, after the con-
bustion of all the organic matter which they contain, about
three-fourths of their weight of earthy substances; this is
160 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
phosphate of lime, together with a small portion of carbonate
of lime ; bones consist of phosphate and carbonate of lime,
cemented together as it were with gelatine and a little albu-
men — they also contain a small quantity of oil. Phosphate
of lime is insoluble in water, but readily dissolves in solutions
containing a little free acid.
Magnc&ium is a silver white metal, but as a metal is rare
and is not employed in any useful purpose. Liiie most of
minerals and metals, it readily unites with oxygen, forming
oxide of magnesia or common magnesia. In the drug shops
it is sold as a white powder. When united with sulphuric
acid it forms the ordinary epsom salts of commerce. Magne-
sia is found in the ashes of many plants, but what action it
has upon other ingredients of the soil is not understood suffi-
ciently to warrant an expression.
These ingredients, being the chief jones of the soil, are all
derived from granite through disintegration by the incessant
action of the elements, of rain, dew and frost during the lapse
of untold ages. These have served to comminute and separate
the original ingredients from each other, and to recombine
them so as to form new compounds. Granite undoubtedly is
the primary rock in the geological series, that is to say, it is
the base from which all other rocks are derived. The first
stratified rock is gneiss, which is nothing more than granite,
which always occurs in shapeless masses, decomposed under
great pressure, perhaps under some vast ocean — the gneiss
strata became upheaved, the bed of the ocean changed, and
the gneiss, now in its turn is decomposed, and the particles
separated — the feldspathic portion forming the various slates,
the lime being held in solution, is deposited in separate strata,
the mica forming the mica schists, and in combination with
the feldspar, forming the mica slates. These secondary or
derivative rocks in turn undergoing decomposition, forming
new combinations more recent rocks and strata, until at length
the feldspar has been resolved into clay, the quartz into sand
rock, the lime universally diffused, and in jilaces deposited in
PROPERTIES OP SILICA. 161
ledges of rocks, often measuring thousands of feet in thick-
ness, and many miles in extent. The action of the rains,
frosts, etc., acting on granite and other rocks, and disintegra-
ting them, is called mechanical disintegration ; but nature has
adopted and employed yet another means of reducing rocks,
which is recognized as chemical disintegration or decomposi-
tion. Those minerals which contain metallic sulphurets, be-
come, by the gradual absorption of oxygen converted into
sulphates, which are not only soluble in water, but absorb
moisture from the air, and thus crumble down. In the
disintegration of silicious minerals the process is equally sim-
ple. Silica is insoluble in both hot and cold water ; it unites
with alkalies and forms the saline compounds known as sili-
cates which have been previously mentioned ; the silicates of
potash, soda and lime, are neutral couipounds, and as this
property of neutralizing metallic oxides and alkalies belongs
to acids, only silica has received the name of silicic acid ;
this acid is, however, very feeble, for all tlie soluble silicates
can be decomposed by carbonic acid. The action of water
containing carbonic acid becomes very manifest on quartz.
Liebig mentions an experiment in which some white sand was
thoroughly cleansed by boiling in nitro-muriatic acid, and
after completely removing the acid by washing the sand with
water, the sand thus purified was exposed to the action of
water saturated with carbonic acid. After a lapse of thirty
days this water was analyzed, and found to contain in solu-
tion, silica, carbonate of potash, lime and magnesia; thus
proving that the silicates contained in the sand were unable
to withstand the continued action of water containing carbonic
acid, although the same silicates had resisted the short action
of the nitro-muriatic acid.
So also in nature, feldspar, as well as the minerals and rocks
containing silicates of alkaline bases, can not resist the con-
tinued solvent action of carbonic acid dissolved in water ; and
in this way, either in the form of soluble silicates or a hydrate
of silica, this important ingredient, in some plants, is taken
U
162 THE WHEAT PLANT.
up by the roots. It may perhaps be objected by some that
feldspar could not furnish the amount of potash necessary for
the growth of dense forests as well as the cereal and other
cultivated crops. Liebig, who is perhaps the best authority
on all subjects connected with physiological chemistry, says
that a cubic foot of feldspar will furnish the necessary amount
of potash to supply an oak copse covering a surface of nearly
one acre, for five years. About ten per cent, of the heart
wood, and 13 1-2 per cent, of the sap wood of oak is potash.
In addition to the mineral earths and metals already men-
tioned, there are other ingredients formed in soils; among
these are :
Sodium is a silver white metal, having a very high luster,
and is perhaps more abundant than any other, for it consti-
tutes two-fifths of all the sea salt existing in sea water, in the
water of springs, rivers and lakes, in almost all soils, and in
the form of rock salt. Sea salt is a compound of sodium
with chlorine — sodium also occurs as oxide of sodium or soda
in a good many minerals, and more especially in the forms of
carbonate, nitrate and borate of soda ; these forms of this
•metal are undoubtedly to be attributed to the process of
chemical disintegration of primitive rocks.
Soda or sodium is a necessary constituent of the soil, in
which it performs a part not much unlike potash, for which it
may be substituted to a great extent.
Phosphoric acid is of equal if. not more importance than
silicic acid, is found in all rocks of primitive origin. In the
animal kingdom it is found as phosphate of lime, magnesia
and ammonia ; the fact that it is found in the ashes of all the
cultivated plants, is sufficiently indicative of the part it per-
forms in the vegetable economy — it contributes about ten per
cent, of the ashes of the roots of the red beet ; about forty
per cent, of the ashes of the grain of Indian corn ; about fifty
per cent, of the ashes of buckwheat grains.
Notwithstanding, a soil may produce a large and rank
growth of straw, unless phosphoric acid is present in sufficient
SULPHURIC ACID. 1G3
quantity, and in a proper form for the plant to assimilate it,
there will not be a corresponding yield of grain. Hence in
soils in which this condition of things is manifest, the agri-
culturist may increase the quantity of grain by the applica-
tion of manures containing this ingredient.
Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, occurs in large quantities
in the mineral kingdom, in combination with various bases,
such as the alkalies and alkaline earths. In New Granada,
in South America, this acid has been discovered in the un-
combiued state in a thermal spring. In the soil sulphuric
acid acts rather as a solvent of other ingredients than as a
food for plants, although it is found in various combinations
in the ashes of plants. It exists most abundantly in the tops
of turnips, potatoes, and plants of this class, amounting to five
to ten per cent, of their ashes. There is more of it contained
in the straw than in the grain of the cereals ; it is most
abundant, however, in the ashes of oil-producing seeds.
The foregoing constitute the tangible ponderable bodies
(that is, the bodies that are considerably heavier than com-
mon air) which are contained in the soil, and that are absorbed
and assimilated by the plant. The soil not unfrequently
contains other substances from which the plant can derive no
nourishment, and which proves an injury rather than other-
wise, to the plant ; such are, for example, oxide of lead, cop-
per, etc. There are four gases, however, whose presence is
as absolutely necessary to the successful growth of plants as
that of any of the ingredients of the soil, these four gases
are named carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. All that
portion of the plant not derived from the ponderable bodies
of the soil, as well as the whole atmosphere of the globe, all
the water, and a very considerable portion of the solid rocks
which compose this earth consist of one, two, three, or all of
these gases combined in diflFerent proportions. Carbon is
generally found as a solid, but the remaining three occur as
pure gases in nature.
164 THE WHEAT ri/ANT.
Carbon.
In its pure and crystalized state, carbon is the most highly
valued of all precious gems — the diamond. Incredible as it
may appear, common charcoal and the diamond are composed
of precisely the same elements. All the mineral or fossil
bituminous coal, cannel coal, anthracite coal, are chiefly car-
bon ; it occurs in many minerals in combination with oxygen,
and in this form is known as carbonic acid. As it forms
nearly fifty per cent., or one-half of all vegetables, it follows
that it is one of the most important ingredients in vegetable
economy. It possesses the peculiar property of absorbing
several of the other gases ; hence its great utility in prepar-
ing or solving other ingredients for the benefit of the plant.
It has a great aflinity for oxygen, and combines with it in the
proportion of one equivalent of carbon with two of oxygen ;
in this combined state it is known as carbonic acid, and is
readily absorbed by water, imparts to it a lively, sparkling
appearance, and a slightly sour taste. In the decomposition
of animal and vegetable matter, it is evolved or taken out,
and as it is heavier than the atmosphere, it not unfrequently
collects in low places, and is known as choke damp, in wells,
which so often proves fatal to those who incautiously venture
into such places.
When carbonic acid gas is combined with hydrogen, it
forms the gas which is used in cities and towns for illuminat-
ing purposes. This combination is found in nature, and is
the product of the decomposition of vegetable matter under
water ; hence it is almost always present in the vicinity of
stagnant pools of water, and is known as "mars/t gas^ In
coal mines it frequently accumulates in large quantities, and
is known by the miners as "Jirc-da7np" and when approached
with an unprotected lighted candle or lamp, not unfrequently
explodes, causing serious consequences.
Oxygen.
Oxygen is a gas which is colorless, tasteless and inodorous,
and is the most extensively diffused element in nature. It
PROPERTIES OF OXYGEN. 165
constitutes about one-fifth of the entire atmosphere, the remain-
ing four-fifths being nitrogen. It forms about eight-ninths
of all the water on the globe ; it enters as a constituent into
nearly all the earths and rocks, and with few exceptions com-
bines with all the metals. Oxygen is the acid or sour princi-
ple in nature ; hence the German chemists have termed it
" soiir siiiff." It was called "oxygen" (meaning the sour
principle) by Lavoisier (although it was discovered almost
simultaneously in 1774 by several others), because all known
acids at that time were supposed to contain this element. At
the present time chemists enumerate quite a number of acids
which are destitute of oxygen, and many circumstances tend
to favor the view that hydrogen is the real acidifying princi-
ple. Oxygen is a restless, unconquerable element, and among
the whole catalogue of simple bodies or elementary substances,
there are none that seize, attack, change and destroy so much
as it does. It unites with almost all other bodies with which
it comes in contact, and changes or destroys them ; and as it
forms a portion of the air, and most of the water, what can
escape its presence ? When it combines with any body, the
combination is called oxidation or rusting ; when it combines
with iron, as is the case when iron is wet or damp, or heated to
a white heat, we say the iron is rusted — the chemist says it
oxidizes. But notwithstanding the eagerness of oxygen to
seize upon and destroy every thing, there is an agent whose
services are indispensable, and without whose aid oxygen en-
tirely fails to accomplisi< any thing. This agent is warmth.
If we desire to secure any object against the destruetiveness
of oxygen, all that is necessary to be done is to deprive that
object of all warmth, and the object is accomplished ; it is some-
what upon this principle that fruits put up in cans retain
their freshness for a great length of time. The fruits so put
up must be deprived of all contact with oxygen, sealed so
tight as not to permit the admission of the least particle of
air; then placed where the temperature is near 32° Fahr.,
and the fruit is safe. In proof of the necessity of the absence
166 TllK WllKAT I'l.ANT.
of warmth to secure against the attack of oxygen, one circum-
stance may bo deemed sufficiently conclusive. There are por-
tions, and in some cases entire bodies of elephants imbedded
in the ice in the northern portion of Siberia, and have been
thus imbedded for thousands of years. Several years since a
scientific corps from France visited the mouth of the river
Lena, where the imbedded elephants are, and removed several
entire carcasses. They found the flesh in an excellent state
of preservation, retaining even its color in a remarkable de-
gree ; and as soon as it became sufficiently thawed, the dogs
that accompanied the corps ate it with great avidity. So long,
then, as oxygen was kept at or below the freezing point, it
could not with any success whatever attack the flesh, but as
soon as warmth was added, all its energies were called into
activity.
Napoleon III. conceived the idea that flour could be com-
pressed into a smaller space than it generally is by millers.
A series of experiments were instituted to determine whether
any economic advantages could be gained. The result was a
complete confirmation of the principles taught by chemistry,
namely, the flour which underwent the greatest compression
contained the least atmosphere, and would consequently be in
a better state of preservation for a greater length of time —
other things being equal — than that put up in the ordinary
manner. The pain from a fresh wound is chiefly to be attri-
buted to the fact that oxygen insinuates itself into every part
of the wounded surfiice. If, when a wound is first received,
it is immediately covered with a piece of court plaster, it will
heal without either pain or suppuration. The plaster does
not heal the wound, but it keeps the wounded parts in juxta-
position, and at the same time excludes the oxygen, and pre-
vents it from irritating the afi"ected surfaces, thus affording
nature, or the vital force of the system, an opportunity of
uniting the severed portions, or supplying that which was torn
away ; hence the superiority of one salve, ointment or plaster
over another is its better adaptation to exclude oxygen only.
COMBINATIONS OP OXYGEN. 167
When oxygen combines with iron, the result is a harmless
combination — one which may be handled with the nude fin-
gers with impunity ; but when oxygen combines with sulphur,
the resultant combination is not quite so harmless, but is
known as sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, which " eats " iron,
copper, wood, and clothing of all descriptions.
When oxygen combines with metallic bases, the resultant
compounds are called oxides, and are recognized by chemists
as alkaline bases. But when oxygen combines with non-
metallic bases, then the result is an acid ; thus, when oxygen
combines with sulphur, the product is sulphuric acid ; with
silicon, silicic acid ; with carbon, carbonic acid, etc. When
an oxide combines with an acid, the resultant compound is a
salt, as, for example, when oxide of iron combines with sul-
phuric acid, the result is a green salt, known as green vitriol,
or copperas ; when oxide of copper combines with sulphuric
acid, the result is sulphate of copper, or blue vitriol. Salt-
peter is a combination of oxide of potassium and nitric acid ;
the elements of the same acid combined in a diflferent propor-
tion constitute our atmosphere. Acids are excellent agents
to clean oxydized or " rusted " metallic surfaces, because the
acid combines with the oxide and forms a salt which is readily
removed.
Oxygen will combine with other bodies, as before stated,
by the agency of heat only ; but during the combination heat
is evolved, which is a preparatory step toward forming a new
combination. No oxygenized substance contains as much
heat as the non-oxygenized. In every oxydation heat is
evolved, and the greater the heat, the larger the amount of
matter that combines with oxygen. Oxygen is a gas, and if
the combining body is gaseous also, then the combination
may take place instantly, and heat to such a degree be evolved
as to emit light ; this preparatory combustion is called hu7-7i-
ing, and the light of the heat is called fire; hence it is evident
that the combination of any body with oxygen is a combus-
168 THE WHEAT PLANT.
tion. because the oorabining body becomes changed and heat
has been evolved, not at all times, and in some instances at
no time to such a degree as to be lighted or ignited ; but the
process is nevertheless a slow burning. Oxydized iron is ac-
cording to this view nothing more than iron slov?ly burned;
decayed wood is wood slowly burned ; and decomposing flesh
is nothing more than flesh being slowly burned. Oxygen is
the factor which returns all substances to the earth whence
they were taken, and the process by which materials are re-
turned or converted into their original elements is combustion.
Oxygen is indispensably necessary for supporting respira-
tion, animal heat and life being dependent upon a gradual
combustion in the system.
Nitrogen.
Niti'ogen is a transparent gas, without color, odor or taste.
It is distinguished for its negative properties, that is, it will
neither support life nor combustion, but appears to act simply
as a diluent to the oxygen of the atmosphere, of which latter
it appears to constitute about four-fifths. It is not inflamma-
ble, but on the reverse, if a lighted taper be plunged into it,
the taper will immediately be extinguished. It is a little
lighter than atmospheric air. It will not support vegetation
alone, and animals soon die when placed in it. It is, however,
an essential ingredient of all animal tissues, and of all such
vegetable products as can be converted into blood in the ani-
mal body ; also of the vegetable bases and other vegetable
compounds, such as indigo, etc. It can not be made to unite
directly with any element, and only forms combinations when
one or both elements are in the nascent state. It is, therefore,
unlike the other metalloids, in a high degree chemically in-
different or neutral. But under favorable circumstances, it
does combine with most of the metalloids and with several
metals. However, its most important compounds are those
with oxygen, and with hydrogen. Among the latter, the
HYDROGEN AND CHLORINE. 169
most prominent is ammonia, a substance with wliich all are
familiar, by smell at least, who have had occasion to go to
stables or places where animals, more especially horses, are
kept and littered at night. The smell arising from the urine
of animals is peculiar, affecting the nostrils not only in a
pungent, but in a pricking manner. Others are familiar with
it under the name of spirits of hartshorn, or volatile alkali,
which is ammonia combined with water. It possesses strongly
alkaline or basic properties, and neutralizes the strongest
acids J hence it is of great importance to the agriculturist.
Hydrogen.
Hydrogen is a gas, colorless, tasteless, and when quite pure,
devoid of smell, but as it does not exist uncombined in a
state of nature, it must be prepared from substances which
contain it in considerable quantities. It forms eleven per cent,
of water by weight, and is found in many minerals, all ani-
mals, and all vegetables. It is eminently combustible, but
will not support either combustion or animal life. Hydrogen
gas is not absorbed by water, neither does it combine so readily
with other bodies as oxygen does. It may be made, however,
to combine with most of the metalloids, and with a few of the
metals.
Chlorine.
This element was discovered in 1774 by Scheele. It is
never found free, but in combination with some other element
only ; it is a very poisonous, corrosive, yellow-colored gas,
causing very great irritation when breathed, even when largely
diluted with common atmosphere. It is now extensively used
in bleaching establishments, but as it is a very powerful
agent, if not carefully used, the texture of the goods will be
destroyed, and become quite rotten. From this cause com-
mon writing paper is often found to be quite useless, the rags
from which it was made having been too strongly saturated
with chlorine while in the bleaching process. Chlorine readily
combines with the metals, and most of the other elements to
15
170 THE WHEAT PLANT.
form a series of compounds, called chlorides. When com-
bined with hydrogen, it loses all these peculiar powers, and
forms a strong acid — the muriatic — which, by combining with
bases, forms a series of salts called muriates.
Chlorine is especially found in the straw or leaves of our
cultivated plants. Its quantity is also considerable in the
stalks, leaves and roots of the bulb-producing plants. In the
ashes of the grains or seeds of our cultivated plants, it sel-
dom exceeds one per cent. Way, however, found six to eight
per cent, in the ashes of the barley straw.
Ammonia.
Ammonia is the next important substance essential to the
growth and development of the plant. Ammonia is a com-
bination of hydrogen and nitrogen, and occurs in the atmo-
sphere as carbonate of ammonia, in mineral waters as chloride
of ammonia — it also occurs in brook, spring and rain-water;
the common yellow clay will yield ammonia when heated after
having been exposed to the action of the atmosphere. Am-
monia is found in animal secretions and excrements ; in fact,
carbonate of ammonia was at first verj extensively manufac-
tured in Egypt from Camel's dung.*
Competent chemists state that there is a sufficient amount
of ammonia contained in rain-water to supply the growing
crops ; but should the supply fail from drought, then the sup-
ply is undoubtedly obtained from the soil, either from the
barn-yard manure, the clay or the lime; for there is scarcely
a limestone in existence which will not, under certain chemi-
cal processes, yield ammonia. Decaying animal bodies emit
* Ammoniacal liquor or gas liquor is extensively obtained in the con-
densing vessels of coal-gas works. Some agriculturists who were aware
of the importance of ammonia in the growth of vegetables, have been
impressed with an idea that the application of gas liquor to growing
crops would have a favorable effect. I know of no instance in which
the hopes of the experimenter were realized. Gas liquor contains car-
bonate, hydrocyanate, hydrosulphate and sulphate of ammonia.
AMMONIA IN THE SOIL.
171
ammonia, that is, ■whenever the decomposition of animal sub-
stances is effected with the assistance of water, their nitrogen
is invariably liberated in the form of ammonia. Liebig says
this is a fixed rule without any exceptions, whatever may be
the causes which produce the decompositions. All organic
compounds evolve the whole of their nitrogen in the form of
ammonia when acted on by alkalies. It is well known that
all "wheat" and "potato" soils contain alkalies; hence,
whenever nitrogenous manures are introduced, there is speedi-
ly as much ammoniacal salts produced as the growing vege-
tation may require. In 1846, Dr. Krocker, of Germany,
examined a number of soils to determine the amount of am-
monia which they contained. Annexed are the results of his
investigations in tabular form :
TABLE OF THE AMMONIA CONTAINED IN THE SOIL.
BY DR. KROCKER.
Sons Examined.
Clay soil, before manuring ,
Clay soil
Surface soil, at Hohenheim
Subsoil of the same field
Clay soil, before manuring
Clay soil, before manuring
Clay read}' to be sowed with barley..
Clay soil, before manuring ,
Loamy soil, before manuring ,
Loamy soil, before manuring ,
Earth from America, never manured.,
Sandy soil, never cultivated ,
Loamy earth, dug out
Sandy soil, never cultivated
Nearly pure sand
Marl .
Ammonia in
ino parts of"
Earth drieJ
in the Air.
0.170
0.1G3
0.1 ')6
0.104
0.149
0.147
0.143
0.189
0.135
0.133
0.116
0.096
0.088
0.056
0.031
0.0988
0.0955
0.0768
0.0736
0.0579
0.0077
0.0047
Specific
Gravity.
2.39
2.42
2.40
2.41
2.41
2.41
2.44
2.41
2.45
2.45
2.18
2.50
2.50
2.51
2.61
^ 2.42
Ammonia in
a stratum of
solid Matter
0.25 meter
thicit, on 1
hectare, in
pounds.
20314
19728
18730
12532
17953
17713
17446
16749
16537
16292
12644
12000
11000
7028
4045
11952
11552
9288
8904
7004
931
568
172 TlIK WHEAT PLANT.
Porous substances have the power, as a general thing, of
condensing ammonia ; hence soils condense and retain it till
called into action by water or carbonic acid to be assimilated,
and form a portion of the growing plant. It is capable of
undergoing quite a number of transformations when in con-
tact with other bodies. When pure it is extremely soluble in
water ; it forms soluble compounds with all the acids, when in
contact with certain other substances it is capable of assuming
the most various and opposite forms, in which one would not
suspect so Caustic an alkali was participating. Chemistry
teaches that formate of ammonia, under the influence of a
high temperature, changes into hydrocyanic acid and water,
without the separation of any of its elements. Ammonia
forms urea, with cyanic acid, and a series of crystalline com-
pounds with the volatile oils of mustard and bitter almonds.
IIUMUS.
Much has been written upon the influence of humus upon
the growth of plants, and it is highly probable that very little
is absolutely known of its importance, or manner of action.
Humus has been defined by chemists to- be vegetable sub-
stances in a state of decay, as roots of crops, dead leaves, etc.
Those who have paid especial attention to its action, and have
conducted experiments with no other object in view than to
ascertain the part it plays, have reluctantly concluded that, in
the form in which it exists in the soil, it does not yield the
least particle of nourishment to the plant. It is well known
that vegetable mold forms a rich soil, and that plants grow
rapidly and attain a much greater size in spots whore much
vegetable matter has decayed, or is in an advanced state of
decay ; investigators, therefore, were much disappointed when
they found that humus yielded no nutriment directly to the
plant. But it is of the utmost importance as a constant
source of carbonic acid. Woody fiber, chips, roots of crops
or decaying leaves, when moist, convert the oxygen gas with
which they come in contact into an equal volume of carbonic
HUMIC ACID, 173
acid. Very few soils which contain vegetable matter, are so
compact as to exclude the atmosphere ; there is thus a con-
stant conversion of oxygen into carbonic acid, and it is not
improbable that in compact soils the plant itself absorbs oxy-
gen from the atmosphere, for the purpose of having it con-
verted into carbonic acid, by bringing it into contact with the
vegetable matter. When we loosen the soil which surrounds
the young plants, we favor the access of air, and as a matter
of course we accelerate the formation of carbonic acid ; in
this consists the great benefit of "hoeing" or "cultivating"
plants.
Humic substances all contain, naturally, water and ammo-
nia in various proportions, and occur in black turfs, soil and
root. From humus is obtained an acid called humic acid,
which has a great tendency to absorb ammonia, and holds it
so firmly that even by boiling with carbonate of soda it does
not escape. The best agricultural chemists are, however, of
opinion that no humic acid is found in the soils. The action
of humus then is merely to furnish a supply of carbonic acid,
and hasten the development of the plant; as it is a law in
vegetable physiology, that when the food of a plant is in
greater quantity than its organs require for their own perfect
development the superfluous nutriment is employed in the
formation of new organs, that is, new roots and fibrils, new
branches, leaves, etc. Hence wheat tillers or stools most
when sown in good soil, and protected by a good covering of
snow.
The position that humus, as such, is of no importance
whatever, or that very excellent crops can be grown toithout
it, is strikingly illustrated by the fertile soil around Napjes,
Those who have traveled there state that the farms and villa-
ges are situated from eighteen to twenty-four miles from one
another, there being no roads leading from the one to the
other, consequently there has been no transportation of
manure. The cereals have been cultivated there for many
hundreds of years — perhaps thousands, without any restora-
174 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
tion being made to tho soil of any part of tliat which has
been removed from it. And yet these lands are famous for
the abundant crops they bear, while there is no proof positive
that any humus was ever contained in the soil. On the other
hand, wheat does not thrive in many parts of Brazil, where
the soils are particularly rich in this substance ; or in our
own climate where soils are formed of moldered wood, that
its stalk under these circumstances attains no strength, and
droops prematurely. It is well known that the strength of
the stalk is due to silicate of potash, and that wheat, as well
as all other cereals, require certain phosphates which are not
found in a soil containing humus in a great proportion.
Therefore, wheat grown in soils rich in humus have tender
stalks, diminutive heads and no seeds.
Humus is said to be absolutely insoluble in pure cold
water, but is soluble when combined with oxygen, and in that
condition is taken up by water as carbonic acid.
Mulder includes among the substances which fix the ammo-
nia in a rich soil, the five acids which he discovered in the
humus, namely ulmic, humic, geic, crenic and apocrenic acids,
The acids which are formed during the decay of animal as
"well as vegetable substances, decompose the carbonate of am-
monia which i.s conveyed to the soil by rain, and having thus
become soluble, are transferred, in the form of ammoniacal salts,
to the roots of plants, where they are rapidly decomposed
(even in the extreme end of the root fibrils) and are convert-
ed into other bodies.
When any of the above mentioned acids are found in the soil,
they are generally united with bases, especially with ammonia.
They should perhaps be regarded as the products of different
stages of decay, because as the process of decay does not cease,
organic constituents are subject to a constant change ; thus by
the oxidation of ulmic acid arises humic acid ; from humic
acid geic acid, and in like manner, by the oxidation of geic
acid, crenic acid may be formed. The constitution of these
matters is expressed by the following empirical formulae:
COMPOSITION OF ACIDS. 175
Ulmin C. 40 H. 16 0.14
Ulmicacid 0.40 H. 14 0.12
Humin C. 40 H. 15 0.15
Humic acid C. 40 H. 12 0.12
Geic acid C. 40 H. 12 0.14
Crenicacid C. 24 H. 15 0.19
Apocrenic acid C. 48 H. 22 0.24
Of tliese substances crenic acid is soluble in water ; apo-
crenic, ulmic, and humic acid dissolve in alkalies ; ulmin and
humin are insoluble in water and in alkalies ; but to a certain
extent they can be made soluble by being changed into ulmic
and humic acids.
176 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER VIII.
NUTRITION OF THE WHEAT PLANT.
This brief description of inorganic substances, enumerated
in the preceding chapter, most all of which are invariably
found in the ashes of the wheat plant and its fruit, has been
deemed necessary, from the fact that those most deeply inter-
ested in the culture of the wheat plant, have the least oppor-
tunity to become familiar with elements whose operations they
witness daily, and whose individual functions can not be de-
termined by simply plowing and seeding.
A description has now been given of the constituents of the
wheat plant, as well as hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen as
organic elements, and silica, alumina, potash, soda, lime, mag-
nesia, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid and chlorine as inor-
ganic elements. By what process has the plant extracted these
diiferent elements from the soil? By what intelligence or
instinct is it guided in selecting the proper and rejecting the
improper elements ? These and similar questions are ever
demanding our attention, but physiological chemistry is not
sufficiently xaatured to furnish positive intelligence upon the
points necessarily involved, notwithstanding great, nay, really
giant strides have been made in this direction by Liebig and
his co-laborers, yet in many eases conjecture is obliged to
supply the place which should be occupied by certainty.
These conjectures may prove of great service to the agricul-
turist if he will accept them as conjectures only, and not re-
gard them as ascertained facts, upon which he may rely with
certainty, in his practical operations. It may not be inappro-
priate to state what is known with certainty, and what methods
have been adopted to ascertain not only the functions per-
formed by the different portions of the plant, but the processes
CELLULOSE. 177
of growth and assimilation of the earthy, mineral, and other
substances which constitute a part of the plant.
In Chapter VII. I have endeavored to state clearly and fully
the entire process of germination, chemical and physical, to-
gether with functions performed by the roots and other parts
of the plants, until it arrived at that stage when the parent
store of food was exhausted, and it was obliged to seek the
nourishment, for its future growth and existence, from the
surrounding inorganic substances. The present, and two suc-
ceeding chapters, will be devoted to some of the phenomena
of the growth of plants, and experiments of growing plants
in artificial or entirely inorganic soils.
Every day observation teaches, and experience confirms, that
in order to live and grow, plants must obtain nourishment.
An opinion was long prevalent that plants existed and assimi-
lated nutriment from the atmosphere, and that the inorganic
elements found in the ashes of plants were purely " accidental."
" Plants," says Berzelius (Ilandbuch, 1839, p. 77), " obtain
the material for their growth from the earth and the air, which
are both alike indispensable to them. The earthy part ap-
pears to exert on plants no other influence except only a
mechanical one."
" According to the doctrines advocated by De Saussure and
Sprengle, which were prevalent up to 1840, vegetable and ani-
mal life depended on the circulation of organic matter, formerly
endowed with vitality. When all the remains of dead plants
and animals in cultivated land had been set in motion, brought
into the circulation, and in this way rendered available, an
increase of produce by cultivation, beyond this limit, was no
longer possible, nor an increase of the population conceiv-
able." — Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society.
But these "accidental" occurrences, like Hamlet's madness,
seemed to have a method or uniformity about them which led
to the promulgation and adoption of the theory that plants
possessed the power of changing, or converting one substance
into another, for example, that they could extract silica, and
178 THE WHKAT PLANT,
convert it into potash, where silica abounded in the soil and
potash was deficient, and that on the contrary they could eon-
vert potash into silica, when silica was deficient. This theory
was found untenable when it was discovered that the most
abundant crops could not be grown on all descriptions of soil.
Were the powers of the plant such as this theory supposes, then a
soil composed of pure clay, or of pure sand, must be equally as
fertile as a soil containing all the inorganic elements found in
the wheat plant. But experience proves that every inorganic
element found in the ashes of the wheat plant is essentially
necessary to the proper growth and full development of the
plant. Although lime forms less than one pound of the ashes
of one thousand pounds of the wheat grain, yet this almost
infinitesimal amount is just as essential, and of as much abso-
lute importance to the health, growth and maturity of the
plant as is the silica which is found to be almost five times the
amount of the lime. As already stated, the plant has not the
power of supplying deficiencies of the soil ; and to this one
fact may in a great degree be attributed the necessity for the
various species, genera, order and families of plants. When
the soil does not contain the necessary and appropriate ele-
ments for a certain plant, it fails to grow ; but some other
plant, to whose growth and development the wanting element
is of no importance, will flourish on that spot. The reason
why pitch pine and the sugar maple do not flourish on the
same soil, is very obvious from an examination of the inor-
ganic constituents of their respective ashes :
MAPLE. PITCH PINE.
Silica 0.40 Silica 7.50
Potash 4.62 Potash 14.10
Soda 2.90 Soda 20.75
Lime 41.33 Lime 13.60
Magnesia 6.42 Magnesia 4.35
Phosphate of Iron 78 Phosphate of Iron 11.10
Phosphate of Lime 4.64 Phosphate of Lime 2.75
Phosphate of Magnesia 0.74 Phosphate of Magnesia 90
Sulphuric acid 1.22 Sulphuric acid 8.45
Carbonic acid 35.90 Carbonic acid 17.50
INORGANIC ELEMENTS IN PLANTS. 179
While the maple requires less than one-half of one per
cent, of the amount of its ashes of silica, the pine requires
seven and a half per cent.; nearly half of the ashes of the
maple consist of lime, while little more than one-eighth of the
pine ashes are of the same element. But the pine assimilates
fourteen times as much phosphate of iron as does the maple.
The vine will not jlourish where there is no lime in the soil,
while wheat requires a soil rich in phosphates. Tobacco, the
walnut tree and celery leaves, contain saltpetre. Shoeph ob-
tained four grammes of crystalized saltpetre, from one hun-
dred grammes of coarse stems of the tobacco plant. There
are many facts which might with propriety be introduced to
prove the absolute necessity for inorganic elements ; as well as
the peculiar influences which some inorganic elements exer-
cise over some of the plants grown upon soils containing
them. Carbonate of lime is found to exist in the superficial
cells of some varieties of chara. * On the Galmei Hills, near
Aix la Chapelle, is found the Viola lutea caUmtnaria, which
owes the peculiar color of its flowers to the presence of zinc, f
The reason why the tea grown upon the island of Java is not
pleasant nor of so good a quality is because of the excessive
amount of salts of iron in the soil. Several attempts have
been made to grow the tea plant in the southern portions of
the United States, but the failure to produce as good an arti-
cle as that from China must be attributed to the soil. | It is
a well known fact that in China the cotton is naturally of the
color known as "nankin " — a light orange, caused by the salts
of iron in the soil ; seeds from the Chinese cotton plant have
been planted and grown in the United States, but the cotton
* Ballingrodt. f Payen.
:j: This is undoubted true so far as quality is concerned, but lea culture
can not be made profitable in the United States, for the reason that labor
is too expensive. In China a tea gardener receives wages at the rate of
about one dollar per month, and "boards himself." Any person, whether
male or female, free or slave, competent to be a tea gardener can obtain
a better remuneration for services than obtains in China.
180 THE WHEAT PLANT,
had exchanged its " nankin " color for that of the cultivated
Carolina cotton. In experiments conducted by Mr. Daubeny,
he states that he found barley would assimilate three times as
much potash as it would soda, notwithstanding many com-
pounds containing soda in excess were added to the soil. A
heath plant .(^rj'ca cameo), growing abundantly in the plains
in the valley of the Lech river, is remarkable for the great
proportion of lime which it assimilates, while another heath
plant (calhina vulgaris), closely related, but of a different spe-
cies from the former, growing on the hill-sides of the Lech is
equally remarkable for the amount of silica which it contains.*
Struve found 100 parts of the ashes of equisetum hyemale to
consist of 97 parts of silicic acid. If further proof were needed
that plants require inorganic substances as their chief source
of nutrition, a reference to the example of the lichen, or moss
growing on the bare rock, may with propriety be made. The
moss obtains its nutriment entirely from the rock which it de-
composes, except it shall be demonstrated that plants receive
nutritive substances or elements from the atmosphere. Saus-
sure and others have proved that the seeds of beans, Phaseo-
lus vulgaris, of peas, and of garden cresses, germinate and
even grow to a certain extent in moist sand or moistened horse
hair; but the plants began to droop as soon as the mineral
substances contained in the seeds were exhausted ; and not-
withstanding some of them even bloomed, they could not pos-
sibly produce seeds, for the reason that the constituents essen-
tial for the formation of seeds were entirely absent.
"When we reflect that no plant can exist independently of
certain mineral constituents, and that these occur only in cer-
tain definite quantities, and that some bases only, such as soda
or potash, lime or magnesia occur in plants — and when finally
we observe that these mineral substances are accumulated in
very different proportions in the various organs of plants, and
in accordance with the different periods of their development,
* Roethe.
now DO PLANTS GROW? 181
although they present tolerably uniform relations under simi-
lar conditions and in identical organs — we are necessarily led
to the idea that these substances exert a definite influence
upon the life of the whole plant, and upon the origin of its
organic constituents from carbonic acid, water and ammonia."
— Lehman.
Plants undoubtedly have the inherent or vital power to im-
bibe and exhale the atmosphere, or in other words plants breathe;
but this breathing process is by no means a nutritive one to
either plants or animals ; yet it is essentially necessary to both
to enable them to assimilate substances for nutritive purposes
which have been received within their respective organizations.
How does the plant obtain its nutriment from the soil ; and
if it is nourished by inorganic or mineral substances only,
how or by what process are these rocky and earthy substances
dissolved and liquefied so that they may be absorbed by the
plant?
A summary abstract has already been given of Mr. Osborne's
observations and experiments ; but it must be borne in mind
that his experiments extended no further than the growth of
the plant, until the period of the exhaustion of the albumin-
ous body, or the amount of nutriment prepared by the parent
plant for the existence and development of the embryo, until
it had attained sufficient growth to elaborate nutriment from
the soil. His observations and experiments extend no further
then than the period during which the embryo or foetus re-
ceives its nourishment from the parent through the umbilical
cord. The plant must now be considered as having the um-
bilicus severed, and commencing life on its own account —
dependent for its nourishment — its daily bread — on its own
industry.
By what process do the roots absorb moisture or liquids
from the soil? Physiological botanists are divided in opinion
upon this question. While the one party affirms that the
plant is endowed with vitality, and that this vitality is suffici-
ently powerful and manifest to absorb by inspiration (mean-
182 THE will: AT plant.
ing a vitalized capillary attraction), another party as confidently
asserts that the plant receives its nutriment from the soil by
cndosmosis (inside impulsion), thus practically denying to the
plant all vitality, because the process of the endosmosis and
exosmosis is a purely mechanical one. It may not be inap-
propriate in this connection to detail the process and experi-
ment of endosmosis and exosmosis. Take a glass tube of any
convenient length, and firmly tie a piece of bladder over one
end of the tube ; if the tube be now partially filled with a
strong solution of common table salt, it will be found that the
solution will not penetrate through the epidermis, in case the
tube is suspended in the air. But if the tube be inserted
into a vessel containing pure water, the solution of the salt
will be found to have permeated the bladder and impregnated
the pure water with a saline taste ; at the same time the vol-
ume of the solution in the tube will have been augmented by
the pure water penetrating the bladder and commingling with
the saline solution. The act of the pure water, or outside ele-
ment finding its way through a membrane or integument so as
to commingle or be assimilated with the inside element is
termed endosmosis ; while the reverse act (although simultane-
ous) is termed the exosmosis; but both these actions are purely
mechanical, because they may be successfully performed by
substances entirely devoid of any vitality.
The doctrine of endosmose has undoubtedly obtained con-
siderable support from the well known fact, that plants absorb
indiscriminately all substances held in solution in water; but
then they give off through their roots (Liehi[/, Mulder, Leh-
man), or through other parts, all matters which may injure
their vital activity. If plants possessed the power of select-
ing or absorbing such substances only as were essential to
their growth and development, the problem of nutrition would
be one of comparatively easy solution ; but as they do not
possess this power the problem is exceeding complex, and with
the most diligent research, assiduous investigation and obser-
vation our knowledge of the relations existing in the nutritive
PLANTS UAVE A VITAL FORCE. 183
process of vegetable organisms is so very circumscribed and
imperfect " that it is much less easy to establish a convincing
refutation than to adduce a strict proof."
It is, however, a fact established beyond successful contra-
diction that the roots of plants absorb moisture and liquids
from the soil, and that the functions of the roots are other
than a mere support to retain the plant immovably, and in an
upright position. The fluids are unquestionably drawn from
the soil by the roots under the influence of a vital force or
power, and not a mechanical one, for were the doctrine of en-
dosmosis correct, it is not very obvious that there could be any
annual plants, or that roots would decay, without being re-
moved from the place where they grew.
Isert^ a Danish physician, discovered that in a vessel filled
with water, in which the tropical plant Pistia Stratiotes was
growing, evaporation took place six times as rapidly, or rather it
evaporated six times as much water, as did a vessel of water of
the same size in which no plant whatever was growing. This
then is proof positive that plants absorb water, and that it is
exhaled by them. Moleschott in his "Circuit of Life," says
that this evaporation is one of the most powerful causes of
the absorption of elements in solution, by the roots of plants.
Liebig says, " From the surface of young plants a constant
evaporation of water takes place, the amount of which is in
proportion to the temperature and surface. The numerous
fibers of the roots supply the water which is evaporated, just
as if they were so many pumps ; so that as long as the soil
continues moist, the plants receive, by means of water, the
necessary constituents of the soil. A plant with double the
surface of another plant must evaporate twice the quantity of
water that the latter does. The water thus absorbed is ex-
pelled again in vapor, but the salts and constituents of the soil
introduced to the plant by its agency still remain there."
I have never been fully persuaded that the view taken by
Moleschott, Liebeg or Lehman, in this relation, is correct.
It has always appeared to me that evaporation from surfoces
184 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
of plants was a consequence, rather than a cause — that it was
the method adopted by nature to relieve the plant of an ex-
cess of moisture as well as a means by which effete matter is
removed. How can evaporation take place from plants which
have no evaporating surfaces? It is well known that the
green parts of plants, leaves, buds and flowers are the only por-
tions from which evaporation takes place ; how then can evap-
oration in spring-time before the buds have swollen, be the
cause of absorption of fluids from the soil by the roots, so as
to cause the flow of sap? so as to cause grapevines if injured
to bleed? But so far as the wheat plant is concerned, is it an
established fact that evaporation takes place from the leaves,
before the roots have absorbed fluids from the soil?
This theory of evaporation as the cause of absorption of
fluids by the roots of plants advanced by Liebig, amplified by
Moleschott, and partially although evidently hesitatingly in-
dorsed by Lehman, while it is more plausible and really less
objectionable than the theory of e7idosmosis, is perhaps equally
distant from the truth, because it ignores any and all vital
actions or participancy by the plant itself.
Considering the use that has been made of the known phys-
ical forces for explaining the absorption of liquids from the
soil, the ascent of the sap, and also its descending course,
Monsieur Trccul was surprised that no analogous experiment
bad been made in order to account for the absorption of the
gases drawn from the atmosphere. Nevertheless, this latter
faculty of plants, which authors have been content with indi-
cating, is not less important than the absorption of liquids by
the roots. But it has not been capable of explanation by the
ordinary laws of physics. He attempts to prove that the inspi-
ration by the roots, and the movements of liquids in plants,
can not be effected under the influence of the physical forces
to which such an important part is still ascribed, namely cap-
illarity and endosmose. Even those physiologists who ascribe
a great part in the ascent of the sap to capillarity, and espe-
cially to endosmose, are compelled to admit that they are
ENDOSMOTIC THEORY UNTENABLE. 185
incapable of raising liquids to the bight of our trees, without
the aid of the evaporation which takes place in the leaves, and
which, as they say, draws the liquids toward those organs. If
evaporation causes the liquids to rise, it must prevent them
from descending : now they descend after arising ; therefore
evaporation does not assist in their elevation. I also think
that Nature never makes use of insufficient causes like endos-
mose capillarity ; and on the other hand, the part attributed
to endosmose is incompatible with the constitution of plants.
Suppose for a moment, with the physiologists, that it is en-
dosmose which causes liquids to rise by the ligneous mass, and
afterward to descend by the bark. In order that this phe-
nomenon should be accomplished, the density of the juices
must constantly increase as they rise (this is what has been
observed) ; and this density must also increase in passing
through the leaves from the ligneous mass to the bark and in
descending from cell to cell in the interior of the cortical tissue.
We could not, moreover, recur exclusively to gravitation, see-
ing that there are pendent branches as well as erect ones.
The botanists who admit the endosmotic theory have not
remarked that they have thus, side by side, two currents of
liquids of different densities ; they have not noticed that the
ascending sap, being less dense than the descending, would
necessarily be attracted by the latter, as the membranes are
permeable ; they have not considered that throughout the
whole length of the trunk there would necessarily be a hori-
zontal, centrifugal current, until an equilibrium of density was
established, and that then the double ascending and descend-
ing current could not exist. As this is not the case, the en-
dosmotic theory is erroneous. A force distinct from endos-
mose must therefore preside over the absorption of the liquids
drawn from the soil, as well as over that of the gases taken
from the atmosphere. And thus there are in plants other
movements than that of the ascending and descending sap.
This sap, in its course, gives off into all the cells the
16
186 THE WUEAT PLANT.
substances necessary for their nutrition. These cells assimilate
the elements which they require, and reject those which are
useless to them. The rejected elements are taken up by the
laticiferous vessels, or collected into peculiar reservoirs, like
the essential oils, etc. These reservoirs, however, do not con-
tain a liquid of greater density for which these essential oils
have an affinity. Here again, therefore, endosmose has no
part in the movement of the liquids.
The tendency to admit purely physical causes to explain
physiological phenomena is again observed with regard to the
spongiole ; for this extremity of the root has been compared
to a sponge, as is indicated by its name. Let us see, there-
fore, how far this comparison is exact.
The young tissues, the formation of which causes the
elongation of the roots, are protected during their develop-
ment by a sort of little cap, which for this reason are called
pileorhiza. It actually envelopes the extremity of the root
like a cap. This organ may be easily observed, especially
upon the roots of aquatic plants, because in these the devel-
opment is more rapid than in most other plants. This cap
adheres to the extremity of the root by the interior of its
apex ; it is from this point that it is renewed, while its outer
part, which is oldest, becomes destroyed. The external cells
becoming disaggregated, could alone have given the idea of a
little sponge. With regard to the power of absorption, which,
at least in certain plants, is much stronger at the extremity
of the root than in other parts of that organ, it evidently can
not be assimilated to the capillary phenomena which cause
liquids to rise in a sponge. The word spongiole, therefore,
gives a false idea of that which really takes place in roots.
Some botanists who admit the spongiole, have nevertheless
recognized the existence, on the surface of many roots, of
prominent cells to which they attribute a share in absorption.
In trees with a vigorous vegetation, such as the Pauhncnia,
it has been observed in the spring, that the dead part of the
bark was impregnated with a considerable quantity of liquid.
CIRCULATION IN PLANTS. 187
f
which would probably be yieldod to the living parts of the
root.
The liquids absorbed by the roots, by the agency of that
force which we only know by its effects, namely, life, are con-
veyed into the ligneous mass of these organs, and thence into
that of the stem. These juices rise into the leaves, and then
they descend toward the roots describing a sort of circle. As
they pass through the whole extent of the plant, I think it
would be advisable to call this the great circulation, and to
give the najne of venous circulation to that which, by the la-
ticiferous vessels, conducts the substances which the cells have
not assimilated to the true vessels. There is also an intracel-
lular movement which has been observed in many vegetables.
This movement has received the name of rotation, because the
juices appear to turn upon themselves, with more or less
regularity, in the interior of each coll.
During the life of a plant all the liquids are in motion in
each of the utricles of which it is composed, either to carry
into these the elements necessary for their gi-owth, or for the
formation of the amylaceous, saccharine or albuminoid princi-
ples, etc., to which they give origin, or to remove from them
those substances which have become useless, and which
require to be eliminated, or those which have to be carried to
other parts of the plant to serve for the multiplication of the
cells and the growth of the individual. It is this general
movement that constitutes the circulation ; but this name is
usually given to definite currents, more perceptible than this
general intracellular movement, which traverse the plant
through its whole length from top to bottom, and from the
bottom to the top.
It is to this double current that the name of the great cir-
culation is given. The vtnous circulation takes place, as above
stated, in the laticiferous vessels.
The great circulation is observed in all vascular plants ; but
the laticiferous vessels have not yet been detected in all plants
which possess vessels.
188 THE WIIKAT. PLANT.
The great circulation, therefore, consists of an ascending
current of the sap, and of a descending current. The ascend-
ing current takes place in the vessels which receive and
elaborate the juices drawn from the soil by the roots. When
this ascent commences, all the cells are at work. The nutri-
tive substances which they contain arrange themselves by
assimilation. Starch, dissolved, no doubt, by diastase, and
converted into sugar, as has been stated on a previous page, is
carried to the parts where the cellular multiplication is to
take place. The starch of the base of the buds serves for the
alimentation of the latter ; that of the bark passes into the
internal cells of that part of the plant, which very probably
also receives some by the medullary rays. It is under the
influence of these nutritive materials that the increase in
diameter by the multiplication of cells commences. This
multiplication at starting really takes place without the aid
of the sap elaborated by the leaves, for in many of our trees
the layer of young cells (generative layer, also called cam-
bium) acquires a considerable thickness before the appearance
of the leaves.
These first phenomena make their appearance with the ascent
of the sap. This, in rising, undergoes an elaboration with which
we are not sufficiently acquainted to speak of at greater length ;
I shall content myself with indicating the beautiful experi-
ments of M. Biot, which have shown us the changes which
sugar undergoes during the progress of this sap. During it»
ascent it already contains assimilable principles which may
assist in the nutrition of the leaves and buds (in which the
spiral vessels make their appearance from below upward) ;
but in the spring these buds are indebted for their first devel-
opment, especially to the alimentary substances amassed in
the neighboring cells.
The sap, which on its way takes part in the nutrition of
the first organs developed, arrives in the leaves, in the green
parenchyma of which it is submitted to a fresh elaboration,
or in the chlorophyll-cells of the stem of the fleshy plants
ABSORPTION OF SAP. 189
destitute of leaves. The carbonic acid of the air is absorbed
and then decomposed during the day ; its carbon is retained
by the sap, and its oxygen in great part rejected. The sap,
thus modified under the influence of respiration, takes its
course through the cortical cells which it nourishes. It then
aids in the multiplication of the cells of the generative layer,
which are produced in horizontal series. A portion of these
cells thus horizontally multiplied forms a new layer of bark,
the woody fibers and medullary rays ; the others are converted
into vessels in the following manner. The excess of the de-
scending sap which is not employed in the nutrition of the
newly formed cells, or in thickening those first developed,
descends through certain of the newly formed cells ; it dilutes
them, perforates them, and makes them take all the characters
of vessels, so that these cells, which, during the first phase
of their development, resembled all the others, appear subse-
quently to be of a totally different nature.
It is this vascular formation which takes place, as we see,
from above downward, at the expense of cells originating
from a multiplication in horizontal series, that has led the
authors of the theory of descending fibers to believe that
these vessels, of which they did not recognize the nature,
were true roots of the buds or leaves.
But all the sap absorbed by the old or new cells, whether
for their increase in size or thickness, or for the production
of starch, albuminoid substances, etc., which are to serve for
subsequent growth, is not used up by the cells. These only
assimilate a part of its elements and reject the rest. It is
this caput mortuum which, in the form of resins, essential oils,
etc., is collected in peculiar reservoirs, from which it is after-
ward thrown outwards ; * or the unassimilated matters are
taken up by the laticiferous vessels, which carry them back
* It is undoubtedly emissions of this nature and of this origin that
constitute what are called the excretions of the roots, which agriculture
seeks to turn to account in the rotation of crops.
190 TlIK WIIKAT I'JiANT.
into the vessels properly so called (this is the venous circula-
tioii). There these substances, which are usually destitute of
oxygen, are elaborated and oxidized by the action of the
oxygen derived from the air, which penetrates even to the
vessels by intercellular passages ; they become again fitted for
assimilation. It would be from their oxidation, as I have
already stated, that the carbonic acid rejected by plants during
the night would be produced; that which is produced during
the day being decomposed on its passage into the leaves under
the influence of light, its oxygen is poured out into the atmo-
sphere, together with that arising from the decomposition of
the carbonic acid taken directly from the air by respiration.
All these facts prove evidently that it is the circulation which
produces the vessels, that is to say, it is the function which
creates the organ.
Since the circulation exists before the vessels, when there
are only simple cells through the walls of which the sap filters,
the objection made by some anatomists to the existence of
the circulation in the laticiferous vessels, an objection founded
on the cellular structure of these vessels in certain plants,
does not possess the importance which they assign to it, as we
see the dotted and striped vessels, etc., formed by a current
of sap pre-existing through imperforate cells ; and, moreover,
these anatomists should consider that there is not a living cell
which is not tnxversed by juices, although the great majority
of these cells do not present any perforation visible by means
of our most powerful microscopes. And then there are latici-
ferous vessels which are evidently composed of superposed
cells, the transverse partitions of which present very wide
apertures.
What is the precise function of the main root (C, fig. 8),
whose appearance is the first obvious evidence of successful
germination, is not known ; but it is tolerably well ascertained
that it is entirely absorbed immediately after the rootlets have
commenced the process of absorption. From the discoveries
fully stated on a previous page (see ante, on Germination), it
THE SOLVENT FLUID. 191
is highly probable that the rootlets convey to the capsules (E
E E, fig. 8), a. solvent fluid, or vegetable gastric juice, which
fluid solves such inorganic substances as can not resist its
solvent properties, and the new mass is then taken up by the
capsules or spongioles which are found at the termini of every
root and rootlet, and also by the absorbent cells ever formed
at the extremities of the numberless suckers, for it is at these
points that Mr. Osborne found the cell structure ever greedily
taking in whatever of foreign matter he succeeded in intro-
ducing into the media, in which the plants were grown. Mr.
0. distinctly states that he could not trace any circulation in
the roots toward the Cfown or origin of the root, but distinctly
traced a circulation toward the capsule on the extremity of
the rootlet.
This gastric juice or solvent fluid may consist chiefly of
carbonic acid, which is very essential to the growth of plants
and has been fully detailed in the chapter on germination, is
found to exist in the albuminous body of seed immediately
after germination has commenced. A statement has already
been made enumerating the diff"erent inorganic or elementary
substances which enter into the composition of the wheat
plant ; in order to exhibit the tenableness of the solvent fluid
hypothesis, it will be necessary to illustrate the affinity for or
solvent power of carbonic acid over the elementary sub-
stances.
The air which we inhale is composed of oxygen and nitro-
gen, but what we exhale, or which is returned from the lungs,
is composed of carbon and oxygen, or carbonic acid. Car-
bonic acid is given off" from various substances in the course
of decay, and it exists in the atmosphere as a product of com-
bustion — for the burning of coal, wood, or any other sub-
stance produces carbonic acid. It exists in very considerable
quantities in the mineral kingdom, combined with metallic
oxides ; also in all spring and river water, either in combina-
tion with earthy and alkaline bases, or dissolved in the water
in an uncombined state. In volcanic districts carbonic acid
192 THE WHEAT PLANT.
issues from the ground from the fissures or crevices caused by
eruptions or earthquakes.
Carbonic acid is also the production of fermentation and
putrefaction. Carbonic acid being thus generally diffused
throughout nature, is continually being introduced into the
soil by rains. Substances containing a large proportion of
carbon are excreted by the roots and absorbed by the soil ; in
this manner the soil receives the greater part of the carbon it
had yielded as food to the young plants in the form of car-
bonic acid. After the removal of a crop of annual plants,
their roots remain in the soil, and there undergo putrefaction,
thus furnishing a substance which will yield carbonic acid to
a new vegetation. The decay of woody fiber converts a
volume of oxygen gas into an equal volume of carbonic acid ;
• — the " woody fiber in a state of decay is the substance called
HUMUS," and is a continued source of carbonic acid. Humus
or vegetable mold therefore does not nourish plants by being
assimilated in its soluble state, but by. furnishing a gradual
and continual source of carbonic acid, which is the chief nu-
triment to the roots of plants, and is renewed as long as the
soil admits the free access of air and moisture — these condi-
tions being necessary to effect the decay of vegetable matter.
The sources just enumerated furnish an ample supply of
carbon for all the pui'poses of vegetation. A contrariety of
opinions have long prevailed as to the manner in which plants
are supplied with carbon. It is a favorite theory with some
vegetable physiologists to attribute the supply as having been
received entirely from the atmosphere, through the medium
of the leaves. However plausible such a theory may be, it
does not explain all the phenomena of vegetation which its
advocates claim for it. It is very evident that young and
growing plants have obtained their full proportion of mineral
substances from the soil, from the fact that equal quantities of
young plants yield twice the amount of ashes that matured
plants do. Saussure found that wheat one month before blos-
soming yielded j^jon ' wl^en it blossomed j^/,,p but after the
HYDROGEN AND CHLORINE. 193
ripening of the seeds it yielded only one-half this quantity
of ashes. If, then, the theory be correct that plants obtain all
their carbon from the atmosphere, it will be difl5cult to explain
how plants should be affected by drouth, since they have al-
ready received all they require, according to this theory, from
the soil, and carbonic acid is rather more abundant — in the
opinion of another set of advocates — before than after storms
or rains, so that the plant can inhale or absorb from the at-
mosphere all the carbon, nitrogen and oxygen requisite to
elaborate and assimilate the mineral food. Lehman, the cele-
brated physiological chemist, says: "The first origin of carho-
hydrates which we meet with in their more advanced stages of
development, as dextrine, sugar, starch, and cellulose, has, with
apparent correctness, been referred to the decomposition of
carbonic acid under the influence of light." But experience
teaches that however abundant carbonic acid may be, if there
is a long continued absence of rain, that plants droop, wither
and die, and will not produce the starch, sugar, etc., in the
seeds, which they would under the influence of genial rains,
and an adequate supply of carbonic acid, from and through
the roots. Liebig, however, is not perfectly satisfied that
plants receive more than one-fourth of the necessary amount
of carbon from the atmosphere; for he says: "Young plants,
when dependent on the air alone, can only increase their
amount of carbon according to their absorbing surfaces. But
it is obvious, if their roots receive, by means of humus, three
times the amount of carbonic acid absorbed by their leaves in
the same time, their increase in weight will be four-fold, on
the assumption of the existence of all the conditions for the
assimilation of the carbon. Hence four times the quantity of
stems, leaves, and buds must be formed ; and by the increased
surface thus obtained, the plants will receive in the same de-
gree an increased power of absorbing food from the air." In
the case of drouth affecting the plants, the diificulty will not
be removed, when it is asserted that notwithstanding the plants
receive all their carbon from the atmosphere, they receive
17
194 TliK WHEAT PLANT.
nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen from the roots ; because it must
be apparent to every one that it is more probable that these
last named gases are absorbed from the atmosplierc than that
carbonic acid is ; and it is somewhat inconsistent to assert that
the heaviest gas is absorbed by the leaves from the atmosphere,
while the lighter one are absorbed by the roots from the soil.
Finding the theory of supplying the plants with carbon
from the atmosphere untenable, Prof. Henfrey * offers the fol-
lowing, no doubt in a spirit of conciliation : " Since it is evi-
dent that if the different external organs, such as the leaves,
stems, and roots, can all exercise (wy of the functions of veg-
etable life, the general anatomy or study of external form can
be of little use in guiding us, and we must make ourselves
acquainted with the characteristics of the elementary tissues
of which any given organ is composed. To illustrate this, we
are not liable to mistake when we say that in man and the
higher animals respiration is performed by the lungs. We
could not say in the same general way that the leaves consti-
tute respiratory organs of plants, for this function is not only
ordinarily performed in part by the green shoots of the stem,
but in some cases, as in the Cacti, the leaves are represented
by hard spines, and the stem assumes entirely the respiratory
function ; and yet the Cactacea; belong to the higher class of
plants. Again, the stomach and intestinal canal of animals
in general are the organs for the absorption of food ; and this
function is only combined with others when the whole organ-
ization is very low in the scale ; but in plants we not uncom-
monly see the roots assuming additional or different functions,
even in the highest forms of vegetable life ; for in the turnip,
oarrot, and other analogous plants, the root becomes the organ
not simply of absorption, but for the deposition and temporary
preservation of assimilated food."
This statement, from the pen of Prof. Henfrey, is the more
valuable because he is not only Professor of Botany in King's
Royal Agricultural Journal, Vol. XVII.
CARBONIC ACID OBTAINED FROM THE SOIL. 195
Collego, London, but is one of the best vegetable physiologists
of the present day.
With the reluctant admission of Liebig that three-fourths
of the carbonic acid required by the plant is obtained through
the roots, and the positive statement of Henfrey that the
leaves are not always the respiratory organs, and even if they
were, respiratory organs are not organs of nutrition ; there
is little hazard in asserting that the chief source of carbonic
acid, of which the plant directly avails itself, is that obtained
from the soil. But if there are any who think the assertion
heterodox, and not sustained by any respectable authority, I
will again quote Liebig. " A soil in which plants vegetate
vigorously, contains a certain quantity of moisture indispen-
sably necessary to their existence. Carbonic acid, likewise, is
always present in such a soil, whether it has been abstracted
from the air, or has been generated by the decay of vegetable
matter. Rain and well water, and also that from other
sources, invariably contains carbonic acid. Plants, during
their life, constantly possess the power of absorbing by their
roots moisture, and, along with it, air or carbonic acid."
Besides, it is an incontrovertible fact, that plants require
mineral substances as food and these are furnished it through
the roots in the form of solutions. On a previous page men-
tion has been made of the formation of clays from feldspar; it
is a well ascertained fact that water saturated with carbonic
acid readily solves feldspar, so also, all minerals and rocks con-
taining silicates of alkaline bases, are incapable of resisting
the continued solvent action of carbonic acid dissolved in
water. The alkalies with lime and magnesia will either dis-
solve alone, or the former will enter into solution along with
silica, while the alumina remains behind, mixed or combined
with silica. Phosphate of lime is soluble in water containing
carbonic acid. Carbonic acid in the soil then, is capable of
solving and holding in solution potash, soda, magnesia, lime,
silica and alumina. Is it not, therefore, exceedingly probable,
if not absolutely certain, that because carbonic acid solves
196 TnE WHEAT PLANT.
these elements and holds them just in the condition to be
absorbed and assimilated by the plant through the roots, that
the roots at the same time absorb the necessary amount of
carbonic acid ? What evidence is there that the roots absorb
the minerals in solution and reject the carbonic acid, when it
is not denied by any vegetable physiologist, that the roots
absorb indiscriminately every fluid substance presented to
them ?
It is -well Lnown that the seeds of all cereals are chiefly
composed of starch, that is, carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, as
organic elementH. If plants derived their carbon from the
atmosphere, there would be no diflaculty in obtaining perfect
seeds from plants grown in water ; but experience does not
confirm this supposition, for however well the plauts may grow
in water, they rarely bloom, and when they do, they never pro-
duce seed. Liebig says : " The food contained in the atmos-
phere does not suffice to enable these plants to obtain their
maximum size in the short period of their life. If the object of
this culture is to be obtained, there must be present in the
soil itself an artificial atmosphere of carbonic acid and ammo-
nia, and this excess of nourishment which the leaves can not
get, must be conveyed to corresponding organs existing in the
soil."
The chief arguments which have been presented to sustain
the position that plants derive their carbon directly from the
atmosphere, through the agency of the leaves, are rather in-
ferential and negative than otherwise. One of them is, that
because plants exhale carbonic acid at night, thoy consequently
inhale it during the day, but it might, with the same pro-
priety be inferred that because the moon shines or gives out
rays of light at night, that it absorbs or collects them during
the day, to dispense again at night. The fact is that it
requires light to fix the carbon in the plant, which has been
absorbed by the roots and leaves or other green parts. When
daylight ceases then the decomposition of the carbonic acid is
interrupted — during daylight carbon was retained and oxygen
FIXATION OP CARBON IN PLANTS. 197
given off (it will be remembered that carbonic acid consists
of carbon and oxygen), but when darkness takes the place of
light, then the carbonic acid is not decomposed, but escapes
every moment through the leaves, and as soon as daylight is
again ushered in, the decomposition commences and the car-
bon is retained and fixed by the influence of light — similarly,
perhaps, in many respects as the shadoto is fixed on the sensi-
tive plate in the daguerrean's hands — while the oxygen is
excreted.
Another argument presented by the theorists who hold that
plants obtain all their carbon from the atmosphere through
the leaves, is the well-known experiment of a plant having
been grown in a tub filled with soil, and at the end of a cer-
tain time the plant grew to be a tree weighing considerably
more than the entire soil did at the commencement of the
experiment, while the soil itself appeared to have diminished
in weight a few pounds only. Now this experiment fails to
prove that for which it was instituted. The plant was not
watered with distilled, but with spring or brook water, neither
was the soil so inclosed as to exclude dust, insects, and
excrements from birds, etc., from accumulating on it. The
plant received from rain and by artificial watering, all the
alkalies which were not in the soil, or which had been exhaust-
ed, as well as the necessary amount of carbonic acid. Sea water
contains less than one ten-thousandth part of its weight of
carbonate of lime, and the phosphate of lime in sea water is
so small that its amount can not be determined in a pound of
the water, yet this exceedingly minute quantity, seems to be
an ample store, and furnishes the material for the habitations
of the myriads of marine mollusca and corals, and for all those
phosphates found in the flesh and bones of all the living ani-
mals of the ocean. It is almost superfluous to repeat here
that the v.'ater of brooks and springs, as well as well water,
contains many alkalies as well as carbonic acid in solution ;
and that the roots of the plants are constantly engaged in
198 THE AVIIKAT n.ANT.
absorbing tbem. Hence the carbon as well as alkalies, of
which the tree in question was composed, were conveyed to
the roots in solution in water, and the experiment affords no
proof whatever that the carbon was inhaled through the
leaves.
On a previous page it was mentioned that the pungent smell
in stables, in which horses and cattle were kept, was entirely
due to ammonia. If the places where the urine and manure
drop from the animal in the stable be occasionally sprinkled
with plaster of Paris the offensive smell will vanish, while
none of the ammonia will be lost, but will be condensed by
the plaster of Paris. The ammonia in stables is always found
in combination with carbonic acid; — the ammonia enters at
once into combination with the sulphuric acid contained in
the gypsum, or plaster of Paris, forming sulphate of ammonia,
which is identical in composition with a substance which oc-
curs native, and is known as ninscagninr, and which is an
efflorescence upon recent lavas — its composition being sulphu-
ric acid 53.28, ammonia 22.81, water 23.91. The carbonic acid
of the ammonia combines with the lime and forms a carbonate
of lime. These newly formed compounds are entirely desti-
tute of volatility and consequently of smell.
Every clay that turns red when burned contain.s ferruginous
or iron oxides; the ammonia absorbed by clays of this char-
acter, is separated by every shower of rain, and conveyed in
solution to the soil, in which form it is imbibed by the roots
of the plants. When ammonia in the form of salts as mas-
cagnine above described, or other salts, is applied to the soil
not the least portion of it is lost to plants, because it is soluble
in water, and hence readily imbibed and assimilated. jMulder,
however, conjectures that ammonia passes into plants in com-
bination with organic acids.
It has long been suspected that ammonia yielded nitrogen
to plants, but since ammonia has been found to exist in every
portion of the plant, this view has become somewhat modified.
COMPOSITION OF GLUTEN. 199
It exists in beet roots, in tte sap of the maple tree, * and in
all blossoms and fruit in an unripe condition.
On a preceding page a statement has been made of variable
quantities of gluten found in different varieties of wheat, as
well as in the same varieties grown under different circum-
stances. Gluten is found by analysis to consist of —
Carbon 53.27.
Hydrogen 7.13.
Nitrogen 16.04.
Sulphur 23.62.
Proust found wheat to contain 12.5 per cent, of gluten ;
Vogel found Bavarian wheat to contain 24 percent.; Davy
obtained 19 per cent, from winter and 24 per cent, from sum-
mer wheat. He found that wheat from Barbary contained 19
per cent., and that from Sicily 21 per cent, of gluten. Bous-
singault found that wheat grown in Alsace contains 17.3 per
cent.; that in the " Jardin des Plantes" 26.7, while the stand-
ard winter wheat contained 33 per cent, of gluten. It once
was thought that the different proportions of gluten found in
plants was entirely an inherent quality of the particular vari-
ety of wheat, but more recent investigations and experiments
seem to warrant the conclusion that it is due to the different
methods of cultivation and soils, rather than being an inherent
quality in varieties ; although, perhaps, each of the causes
enumerated, contribute toward producing such a result. It is
* In the year 1834, I was engaged with Dr. Wilbrand, Professor of
Botany in the University of Giessen, in an investigation respecting the
quantity of sugar contained in different varieties of maple trees, growing
upon unmanured soils. We obtained crystalized sugars from all, by
simply evaporating their juices, without the addition of any foreign
substance; and we unexpectedly made the observation, that a great
quantity of ammonia was emitted from this juice when mixed with
lime, in the process of refining, as practiced with cane sugar. The ves-
sels which hung upon the trees in order to collect the juice were watched
with the greatest attention, on account of the suspicion that some evil
disposed persons had introduced urine into them, but still a large quan-
tity of ammonia was again found in the form of neutral salts. — Liehig.
200 THE WHEAT PLANT.
a well known fact in agricultural chemistry, that animal man-
ure not only increases the number of seeds, but produces a
most remarkable difference in the proportion of nitrogenous
substances, one of which is gluten.
Liebig gives an account where " One hundred parts of
wheat grown on a soil manured with cow dung (a manure
containing the smallest quantity of nitrogen), afforded only
11.95 parts of gluten, and 62.34 parts of amylin, or starch;
while the same quantity grown on a soil manured with human
urine, yielded the maximum of gluten, namely 35.1 per cent.,
or nearly three times the usual quantity. The conclusion is,
that it is an ammonia which yields nitrogen to the vegetable
albumen, which is the principal azotized constituent of plants.
The vast importance of nitrogen may be inferred from this
fact, namely, we may furnish a plant with carbonic acid, with
humus ; in short, with all the necessary elements, but if ni-
trogen is withheld, it will not attain complete development ;
an herb will be produced, it is true, but it will not produce
any flowers, but even if it does produce flowers it will not
produce seeds, and although starch and even sugar may be
produced, it will be found that gluten is entirely absent.
Notwithstanding the importance assigned to nitrogen in
agricultural chemistry, there are occasional indications observ-
able among leading authorities of dissatisfaction with the ni-
trogenous theory, that is, the universally received views of the
part borne by nitrogen in the economy of plants derived from
observation of the indisputable use and necessity of ammonia
in vegetable nutrition. Hence it seems to be assumed that
nitrogen is the one indispensable element of ammoniacal
manures on which their intrinsic value depends; and to such
an extent has tliis idea occupied the ground of scientific dis-
cussion, that the terms ammoniacal manures and nitrogenous
manures arc aliuost used as convertible terms. But these view3
are found to be attended with certain awkward and untracta-
ble anomalies, and the facts of nature refuse to accommodate
themselves to the preconceived opinions of men. One of the
WHAT DOES NITROGEN PERFORM? 201
eminent agricultural authorities expressed on one occasion
the conclusion his observation led him to in these words:
" Wheat is a great waster of ammonia." The proposition, no
doubt, was a consistent and legitimate consequence of his
views as an advocate of the nitrogenous theory ; for it ex-
pressed the only conclusion he could draw from the fact, that
the wheat refused to account for all the nitrogen it had some-
how made away with ; but it sounded strangely impugnatory,
as if Nature, which does nothing in vain, had constituted
wheat, or any other plant, with a strong avidity for ammonia,
for the useless purpose of wasting it or of taking it in, only
to decompose and give out again. More lately Mr. Lawes and
his coadjutors in the same field of agricultural science have
come forward, and by a precise and philosophical deduction
from carefully conducted experiments, have helped to confirm
and extend the anomalous and inexplicable circumstances
connected with the nitrogenous theory ; for they tell us, as
the result of their experiments, that while some plants failed
to account for more than a small portion of the nitrogen that
had been consumed, or otherwise disposed of, there were
others which returned (in their composition, I presume) more
nitrogen than had been supplied to them. Facts like these
can not be otherwise than perplexing and inexplicable on the
prevailing views of the part borne by nitrogen in vegetable
economy ; but they are quite in accordance with, and might
be legitimately deduced from opinions expressed on the use
and purposes of ammonia in vegetable economy, the purport
of which was to prove that the appetence or avidity for am-
monia, characteristic of vegetable life, is due, not to the nitro-
gen so much, as to the hydrogen of the ammonia, which all
plants require to form, in conjunction with carbon, the sub-
stance of their physical structure ; in other words, to form
vegetable fiber, or hydro-carbonaceous matter, which is the
basis of every part of the vegetable structure, root, stem,
leaves, flower, fruit, seeds, and their envelopes of every form
or variety ; while nitrogen is only a variable and partial ele-
202
THE WHEAT PLANT.
ment in plants, not entering at all into the chemical composi-
tion of vegetable fiber, and scarcely found in some vegetable
substances, and more abundant in others; dependent entirely
on the idiosyncrasy, so to speak, or physical peculiarities of
each class or kind of plants, as bestowed on them by Nature
for special purposes. Hence the requirements of plants for
nitrogen will be as various as their physical peculiarities, and
will be indicated and measured by the amount of nitrogen
found in the composition of their substance and products,
while all will exhibit pretty nearly an equal avidity or capacity
for ammonia; and hence this discrepancy between the uni-
versal capacity of plants for ammonia, and their partial, and,
generally speaking, very limited requirements of nitrogen,
the first showing that there is something in ammonia they can
not do without, and the other that that something is not ni-
trogen.
It appears to me that nothing more is necessary to arrive
at a satisfactory solution, and at just views of the primary use
and purpose of ammonia in vegetable economy, than to com-
pare the chemical constituents of plants with the acknowl-
edged sources or materials of vegetable aliment. The.so, with
phosphorous and mineral substances, are water, carbonic acid,
and ammonia, and humic acid, containing the lour elements
of the two latter substances. The following are a lew of the
most common and abundant substances in plants, with the
proportions in which the elements of carbonic acid and am-
monia are found in them :
Lignin, or vegetable fiber
Stiircli
Gum
Sugar
Wax
Ghiten or vegetable albumen.
Oxygen.
Carbon.
Uydrogon.
Nitrogen.
42.25
52.00
6.75
00.00
49.G8
43.55
6.77
00.00
50.84
42.23
6.93
00.00
50.63
42.57
6.90
00.00
5.48
82.19
12.33
00.00
25.13
53.40
0.80
14.67
NECESSITY OF AMMONIA. 208
The first conclusion to be drawn from the above is, that
plants require no nitrogen for the formation of vegetable
fiber, the substance or basis of their comm.on structure. This
then is a very extensive reason, embracing by far the largest
portion of vegetable matter, why plants, generally speaking,
must fail to return or account for the nitrogen which has dis-
appeared in their consumption of ammonia, and it is irrespec-
tive of a large and abounding class of vegetable products, as
starch, gum, sugar, wax, oils, etc., which have net a particle
of nitrogen in their composition, and therefore do not require
it for their production. The next conclusion is suggested by
the regular occurrence in certain proportions of hydrogen in
all vegetable substances, not excluding gluten itself, the chief
storehouse of nitrogen in the vegetable world ; and it seems
to point out very clearly what use is primarily made of am-
monia by plants. When an eminent agriculturist made the
observation before adverted to, that wheat is a great waster of
ammonia, was there really any waste of it? A great deal of
nitrogen had certainly disappeared, but had the hydro-carbo-
naceous matter of the entire plant cuntained in the vegetable
fiber, the starch and gluten itself been estimated, instead of
the partial amount of nitrogen in the latter substance, it must
have been apparent that the wheat had made a very good
use of the ammonia, though in a difi'ereut direction from what
his mind had been contemplating.
There is a somewhat remarkable circumstance connected
with the chemical constitution of vegetable substances, which
deserves the attention of those who consider the production
of vegetable fiber, sugar, etc., as a chemical combination of
carbon and water ; from the circumstance of oxygen and hy-
drogen existing in those substances, in the same, or nearly
the same proportions as in water. This view may be dis-
proved by other arguments ; but the point to which I now
advert is, that a more steady and intimate relation subsists
between the proportions of carbon and hydrogen, than be-
tween those of any other two constituents of vegetable sub-
204 THE WHEAT PLANT.
stances. This will be seen by referring to the above list, and
is more particularly exemplified in the case of wax, oils, resin,
etc., in which, while the proportion of carbon rises to nearly
double of what it is in sugar, starch and gum, the hydrogen
rises along with it in nearly the same proportion, and an
equivalent amount of oxygen is displaced. Again, in gluten
it will be seen that while the carbon and hydrogen exist in
proportions not materially different from what they do in
vegetable fiber, the nitrogen is interposed at the expense of
the oxygen. Now, setting aside the consideration that we
have no proof that plants chemically decompose water, and
that they appear merely to absorb it in its natural state, as
the solvent and' vehicle of those alimentary particles from
which their substance and products are formed, should we not
expect if vegetable fiber, sugar, etc., be really produced from
a chemical combination of water and carbon, that there
should be as close and constant a relation between the propor-
tions of oxygen and hydrogen in all other substances of vege-
table origin, as in these ? Should not the type of relationship
in vegetable substances be hydro-oxygenous rather than
hydro-carbonaceous, as we see that it is. Or, to avoid this
difficulty, must we resort to the still more untenable position,
that though vegetable fiber, sugar, etc., are formed by a
chemical combination of carbon and water, other vegetable
substances are formed in some other way ? The hydro-car-
bonaceous relation, for such it really is, which is characteristic
of substances having a vegetable origin, when taken in con-
nection with the admitted requirements of plants for carbonic
acid and ammonia, presents a much more natural and satisfac-
tory explanation of the sources and manner of their produc-
tion, in agreement with their chemical constitution, and with
known facts in vegetable physiology. In the two substances
just mentioned we have the four elements, which enter into
the composition of vegetable substances. Two of them, car-
bon and hydrogen, are universally necessary, and are found
combined in proportions varying from eleven to twenty parts
CARBONIC ACID AND AMMONIA. 205
of hydrogen to one hundred of carbon in different substances.
Of the other two, oxygen appears to be universally present in
vegetable substances, but in strongly unequal qualities, vary-
ing from nearly twelve parts of oxygen to ten of carbon in
sugar, down to one part of oxygen to fourteen of carbon in
wax. Nitrogen, though stored up in considerable quantities
in particular parts of various plants, forms a component part
of comparatively few vegetable substances, the chief being
gluten, and something very nearly the same, frequently termed
in chemical analysis as vegeto-animal matter: in gluten, nitro-
gen stands in the proportion of about twenty-seven parts to
one hundred of carbon. If one might draw a distinction be-
tween the relative places and functions of these constituent
elements, the two former, carbon and hydrogen, might be re-
garded as the fundamental or constructive elements of vegeta-
ble matter, and the two latter, oxygen and nitrogen, as their
modifying elements ; the diversified qualities of vegetable
substances appearing mostly to depend on the extensively va-
rying proportions in which these two elements enter into their
composition, and little on variations in the proportions of car-
bon and hydrogen, which, as we have seen, are limited to a
very small range. When carbonic acid and ammonia are pre-
sented to plants in conjunction with water, and the presence
in the soil of mineral and other substances suited to their
nature and requirements, the latter are in a condition to de-
compose them, and by a new arrangement of their component
elements, to convert them into the materials of their own sub-
stance and structure, and of the various products, which an
all-wise and beneficent Creator has conferred on them the
power of elaborating. But they can only do this by combin-
ing these elements in certain definite proportions; and both
carbonic acid and ammonia contain more oxygen and nitrogen
than the requirements of plants, generally speaking, render need-
ful ; consequently, while they make use of the entire carbon
and hydrogen which these substances contain, there is much
of the oxygen of the carbonic acid and of the nitrogen of the
206 THE WUEAT PLANT.
ammonia which they can not usefully a'ppropriate : they, there-
fore, reject or give out the excess of these elements, •which mix
with and form component parts of the atmosphere. This is
consistent with what has long been known respecting plants
giving out oxygen ; and the experiments and researches of M.
Ville, establish the fact that plants also respire or give out
nitrogen.
Gluten, or vegeto-animal matter, represents the most com-
mon form or combination in which nitrogen occurs in plants;
and it exists in them in very variable quantities and in partial
states ; perhaps entirely wanting in some, in others a mere trace
of it, and in others again more or less abundant : not generally
found diifused through every part of a plant, but concentrated
or stored up in some particular parts or products, as in the
seeds of wheat, peas, beans, lentils, acorns, chesnuts, etc., in
various fruits, and sometimes in the leaves of plants, as cab-
bage, cress, etc. ; and it mostly occurs in those plants and their
products which constitute the food of man and animals, show-
ing its obvious use and intention. From the partial existence
then of nitrogen in plants and vegetable products, aTid, speaking
generally, the very limited capacity they have of appropriating
it, it is only to be expected that plants should ordinarily fail
to return the amount of nitrogen supplied to them either
through the medium of ammonia or in any other form ; at the
same time, this is not inconsistent with the supposition, that
there are plants exceptionally endowed with an unusual capa-
city for appropriating nitrogen ; and in these cases a greater
amount of it may be retained in their composition than can
be readily accounted for by special experiments, as seems to
have been the result in Mr. Lawes' investigations.
The subject is one, not of merely speculative interest, but
of practical importance. I believe considerable sums of money
have at times been expended and thrown away from erroneous
views of the primary use of ammonia in vegetable economy,
proceeding on the supposition that nitrogen is the only or
special element in it that renders it useful to plants ; hence
NITROGEN IN THE WHEAT PLANT. 207
nitrate of soda, and perhaps other merely nitrogenous sub-
stances, have been often applied in agriculture at considerable
expense, where at best they must have been useless, if not
hurtful.
The following summary of results of examinations of win-
ter wheat are condensed from " Jahrbuch der Akademie zu
Tharand," by a A. Stockhardt, and exhibits clearly the part
played by nitrogen :
1. Roots.
The watery contents decrease continually, during the devel-
opment of the plant, being smallest in quantity at the time
of flowering.
The nitrogenous contents increase at first, then decrease, but
with considerable fluctuations, and are greatest about the time
of the formation of the head (2.6 per cent.), and smallest at
the time of ripening (1.15 per cent.)
The ashy contents increase until flowering, and decrease
thenceforth until harvest-time ; they are greatest at the time
of flowering (16.4 per cent.), smaller at the time of ripening
(11.02 per cent.)
2. Stalks.
The watery contents decrease continually, and are smallest
in quantity about the time of flowering.
The nitrogenous contents increases at first, but from the
time of flowering, when they have attained their tnaximum (3.1
per cent.), they decrease regularly until harvest, at which
time they amount to 1.15 per cent.
The ashy contents correspond with the nitrogen in varia-
tion, being greatest at the time of heading (7.5 per cent.), and
least at maturity (3.7 per cent).
3. Heads.
The watery contents decrease continually, most slowly at
the time of flowering, most rapidly in the latter periods of
208 THE WUEAT PLANT.
vegetation, and much more rapidly in the chaff (empty heads),
than in the grains.
The nitrogenous contents diminish continually until after
flowering, and are consequently greatest in the young heads
still inclosed in the involucre (3.5 per cent). This diminu-
tion continues in the chaff after flowering (1.6 per cent), but
on the contrary the grains become somewhat richer in nitro-
gen until maturity (2.4 per cent).
The ashy contents increase somewhat regularly until after
flowering (6.4 per cent). This increase continues in the chaff
until harvest (9.4 per cent.), while a very considerable decrease
occurs in the grains (1.9 per cent).
4. The Different Parts of the Plant collectively.
Every part of the plant shows at the beginning of the pro-
cess of heading out, its maximum of nitrogen ; the stalks con-
taining the most, the ears less, and the roots the least. About
the time of maturity, the different parts follow each other in
regard to their content of nitrogen, thus : grains, chaff, stalk,
root, the latter two being nearly equal.
The best refutation which I have seen of the theory that
plants derive not only their carbonic acid, but their nitrogen,
from the atmosphere, is the following, which is taken from
an Essay on Agricultural Chemistry, published in the Jottrnal
of the Royal Agricultural Society^ written by Liebig, in 1856,
in defense of his views as misinterpreted by Messrs. Gilbert
and Lawes, of England.
" Experience demonstrates that the produce of two fields in
the same district are very unequal. One meadow yields twice,
thrice, four times as much hay as another meadow of equal
surface, under the same external circumstances. An acre of
clover in one field yields twice, thrice, or four times as much
clover as an acre of another clover field. There are fields,
nay, entire districts, on which clover does not grow or grows
but poorly. What is the cause of this unequal fertility! The
surface of the fertile, and that of the unfruitful field, are in
NITROGEN NOT SUPPLIED FROM AIR. , 209
contact with a precisely equal volume of air; to both, there-
fore are presented by the air and by the rain, precisely equal
quantities of carbonic acid and ammonia ; it is therefore plain
that the cause of the difference of produce must be sought
for, not in the atmosphere, but in the soil ; this cause must
be the inequality of the soil, while the external conditions are
the same.
In the fertile soil, twice, thrice, or four times as much of
the terrestrial elements of nutrition have entered into the
plants, than in the unfruitful one. There have, therefore,
been more of these terrestrial constituents present, either
absolutely or as regards their capacity of assimilation (their
power of entering into the plant, from their existing in avail-
able chemical forms) in the one soil than in the other. The
amount of produce in these cases is unquestionably propor-
tional to the quantity of mineral elements of nutrition pres-
ent in the soils, and not to the quantity of carbonic acid and
ammonia, for the atmosphere has supplied to both an equal
quantity of these materials , but in the one soil the condi-
tions of their conversion into organic compounds were effi-
cient, or operative, or greater in quantity, during the same
time than in the other.
18
210 . THE AVUEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER IX.
EXPERIMENTS OF THE DUKE OF SALM HORSTMARR ON THE
GROAVH OP PLANTS IN INORQANIC ARTIFICIAL SOILS.
Much has been written on the function which inorganic
matter has been supposed to perform in the growth of the
plant ; — many chemists have endeavored by the analyses of the
ashes of difi'ereut parts of the plant to determine precisely the
purpose and office of each compound. It occurred to the Duke
of Salm Horstmarr of Brunswick (Europe), that a more correct
method would be to compose a soil of inorganic elements, all
of which should as far as possible be prepared in an artificial
manner — then by omitting in consecutive experiments a single
element in each experiment, it was presumed that a more cor-
rect knowledge of the importance and special functions of
each element would be obtained.
The following which I have translated from the German,
embodies his experiments and results on the nutrition of
plants. " In order to ascertain the inorganic nutrition of
plants, it becomes necessary to select a medium which should be
entirely free from any admixture of other inorganic elements.
For this reason the carbon which I selected was obtained from
the purest crystallized sugar ; and to avoid any admixture of
inorganic substances, it was thoroughly heated in a platlna
vessel. The experiments of Gfcrtner suggested the idea to me
that plants would grow well in carbon. Small tin cups with-
out any aperture in the bottom and coated on the inner surface
with beeswax were the vessels used in the following scries of
experiments. The plants were watered with distilled water ;
the place in which the experiments were conducted was an
uninhabited chamber, facing to the south ; the plants were
HORSTMAHR's EXPER1MKNT8 WFTII OATS. 211
placed on a fixture at the window, so as to enjoy tlie noon-
day sun.
EXPERIJIENTS WITH WhITE OaTS.
The first experiment, the following composition and in the
following proportions, viz. :
The silicate of Potash
was dissolved in 40
gi-ms.of water.
Carbon (of sugar) 2^ ounces.
Silicic acid 0.075 grras.
Potash 0.03 "
Nitrate of ammonia 0.05 "
Nitrate of magnesia 0.03 "
Carbonate of lime 0.5 "
Carbonate of magnesia 0.05 "
Phosphate cf lime 0.1 "
Sulphate of lime 0.1 "
In this composition the plant attained a hight of 25 inches,
had five flowers which produced five imperfect fruit, incapable
of germination. The blossoms were very delicate ; the leaves
of a pale color — yellowish green. The plant when dried
weighed 0.37 grammes. I will now proceed to give the
results of the first twenty-nine experiments with white oats :
Results.
In all these experiments made with a carbonaceous inor-
ganic soil or rather a soil composed of inorganic elements,
entirely devoid of all nitrogenous substances or ingredients,
it was found that the plant not only grew, but actually grew
better than with the addition of nitrogenous ingredients —
besides the plant weighed four times as much in the
former as in the latter case. But the plant in both cases was
a frail pigmy, whose regular formation was very remarkable.
2. In that series of experiments in which no inorganic nor
nitrogenous ingredients were added, a well-proportioned
dwarf plant was the result ; but in the experiment where
nitrogenous ingredients were added, and other inorganic ones
withheld, the plant was not well proportioned, but had leaves
212 THK WHEAT T'LANT.
of a very lively green, and were extraordinarily long ; a single
flower (blossom) was produced. Both plants when dry had
the same weight.
3. In that series of experiments wherein certain inorganic
ingredients were added, combined with nitrogenous ones, the
plants were very thrifty. In an experiment with the same pro-
portion of nitrogen, but an omission of the other inorganic in-
gredients, the plant died in the first leaf. When any one of the
inorganic ingredients mentioned in the experiments which pro-
duced thrifty plants were omitted, then the plants died in an
early stage of development; or if they lived beyond it, were
very feeble, pale in color and their entire formation abnormal.
4. When a greater proportion of certain inorganic ingredi-
ents were added to the carbon of sugar, or coal dust of sugar,
without reducing the amount of nitrogen mentioned above,
the result was a powerful assimilation and increase of blos-
soms. From these experiments we were led to conclude that
inorganic ingredients in combination with nitrogenous ones,
must exist in the soil to produce normal and powerful plants,
and that certain inorganic elements are essential to the plant
as nutriment.
5. If we combine with the enumerated inorganic ingredi-
ents silicic, phosphoric and sulphuric acid, and potash, lime
and magnesia only (together with the nitrogenous salt),
we find that the plant grows more rapidly than without them,
but it remains very pale, feeble and abnormal.
6. But if we combine with this mixture a very small quan-
tity of oxide of iron, then we find its efi"ect upon the plant to
be very surprising indeed — the plant now assumes a normal
dark -green color, the leaves are of a luxuriant growth and
proportionate strength ; the whole plant has a healthy stifi"-
ness and robustness, and its weight is more than double that
of one grown without the iron. Upon the whole the plant
was abnormal ; traces of dry spots were very manifest in the
center of the leaves ; the stalk and capsule gave indications
of abnormal condition. An excessive proportion of iron
SALM HORSTIMARR's EXTERIMENT!?. 213
increased tlie desiccated spots iu the leaves, and prevented
the formation of flowers.
7. When a small proportion of carbureted oxide of man-
ganese was added to the above named composition, a powerful
plant was grown, which exhibited no signs of desiccation on
the dark green leaves, but had a normall}' developed stem and
powerful joints. Manganese appears to increase the assimila-
tion of the plant; at all events the plant grown with manga-
nese and iron weighed considerable more than without. But
manganese produces an abnormity in the structure in the
sheath of the last leaf, inasmuch as the latter appears to have
turned on its axis, so as to render the breaking through, or
expansion of, and the full development of the panicle diffi-
cult. In the stools or side shoots this abnormal condition was
not manifest; hence the inference that it is caused by the
quantity of manganese.
8. These experiments do not decide that soda is an essential
ingredient, although its presence appeared beneficial, more
especially when there is an excess of manganese, inasmuch as
it removes the abnormity caused by the manganese in the
sheath of the last leaf. But if there is no potash in the mix-
ture, then the opposite result takes place, inasmuch as the
soda not only strengthens the turning of the last leaf sheath,
but makes the leaf itself appear wound or twisted.
9. Up to a certain point, soda appears to neutralize the pot-
ash, although uniformly at the expense of the plant.
10. Magnesia can not neutralize lime.
11. When phosphoric acid was omitted in the mixture, but
silicic and sulphuric acid, potash, lime and magnesia retained,
it was found that nitrogenous salts were much more effective,
than when sulphuric acid was omitted and phosphoric added
to the mixture. But in both these cases, although the plant
was well proportioned, yet it was exceedingly weak. The one
which was grown without phosphoric acid, by some extraor-
dinary freak produced a perfect seed ; on the contrary, the one
which was grown with phosphoric acid, but the sulphuric
214 TIIK. WIIKAT PLANT.
omitted, produced no fruit, although this acid enters very
minutely into the composition of the plant or fruit. This to
me indicates the importance of both these acids in relation to
the assimilation of the nutrition of the plant. The import-
ance of the sulphuric and phosphoric acids are more manifest
when we compare the weights of the plants produced in these
several experiments. The weight of the plant is found to be
four times greater when both are present than when either is
omitted.
12. AVhen silicic acid was omitted, the plant did not stand
erect, but reclined; it was a very smooth, pale, well propor-
tioned dwarf.
When lime was omitted, the plant died in the second leaf.
Without soda or potash, it attained the length of three inches.
Omitting magnesia, the plant remains feeble and couchant.
The plant was very weak and tender, although erect and
normally formed when phosphoric acid was omitted.
It was weaker, although erect and well proportioned, but
without fruit, when the sulphuric acid was omitted.
Without iron, the plant is pale, feeble and abnormal.
It will not attain its full strength, neither will it bloom pro-
fusely, without manganese. From these experiments with the
carbon of sugar, it appears that: silicic acid, phosphoric acid,
sulphuric acid, potash, lime, magnesia, iron, and manganese,
are the ash -producing ingredients essentially necessary to pro-
duce the oat plant.
13. These experiments do not determine whether chlorine
is, or is not essentially necessary in the production of this
plant; although the carbonate of sugar was washed and the
inorganic ingredients free from chlorine (except in the case
of the experiment made with sal. ammoniac), yet in
two cases in the water which was extracted from the plants
grown in the sugar coal dust, there were decided traces of
chlorine, although too small in quantity to be measured. This
chlorine was not derived from that of the seed, for the rea-
son that there is a still smaller quantity in the seed. The
COMPARISON OP EXPERIMENTS 215
distilled water witli wliich the plant was watered was distilled
rather rapidly.
I will state in conclusion another experiment made with the
coal dust of sugar, namely, an experiment which was con-
ducted in a east iron vessel, and therefore contained oxide of
iron and manganese. The inorganic ingredients were the
same as in the first experiment, with this exception — to the coal
dust was added some soda and chloride of soda. This experi-
ment showed what ingi-edients were wanting in the others ;
hecause in this the plant was not only very vigorous, deep
green, but bore five perfect seed grains, which successfully
withstood the germinative test. Soda as well as iron, there-
fore, appear to be necessary in the formation of the oat fruit.
Comparison of Experiments with White Oats, which
WERE not grown IN COAL DuST, WITH THE TOREGOINO
Experiments :
These experiments were suggested by Alexander von Hum-
boldt. They were made in the purest brook sand heated to a
glowing heat, and combined with artificial silicic acid, and
finally with rock crystal, so as to approximate somewhat to the
natural soil. The inorganic additions were the same as in the
preceding experiments, and the experiments themselves were
conducted in the same manner — always omitting one of the
component ingredients in order to test its efiect or necessity.
And here I would remark that basic-phosphorous oxide of
iron, nitrate of soda, chloride of sodium, and nitrate of pot-
assium, were added in several special experiments.
Cups made of filtered white wax, without any orifice in bot-
tom or sides, were the vessels in which the experiments were
made.
The result of these experiments may in brief be stated as
follows :
1. In pure, well heated sand, without any inorganic or ni-
trogenous additions, the oat plant grew with normal structure
and proportions, yet very small and tender.
21G THE WHEAT PLANT.
V 2. The number of fruits were reduced to a solitary one,
although the sand was not entirely free from silicates and
traces of phosphorous oxide of iron. In the absence of nitro-
genous combinations, the assimilation of all atmospheric in-
gredients is greatly retarded.
3. With the addition of nitrogen — but without any other
inorganic ingredient — to this sand, which contained traces of
silicates, the plant grew higher, bore one blossom and one
fruit more than in the preceding case, but the stalk lost the
power to stand erect. The same experiment in every respect
made in pure, natural quartz, instead of brook sand, produced
a plant with scarcely any stalk, and no flowers — the assimila-
tion being apparently entirely prevented.
4. When nitrogen was omitted, but the following seven arti-
cles combined, viz., silicic acid, potash, lime, magnesia, oxide
of iron, phosphoric acid, and sulphuric acid, the plant remained
very small and feeble, as in the first experiment, the flowering
force much reduced, and the capacity for producing fruit ceased
entirely; but instead thereof there appeared to be a disposi-
tion to produce another stalk by the side of the first. The
result of vegetation in this case is therefore abnormal. As-
similation goes on very slowly — is scarcely perceptible.
5. When these seven inorganic ingredients were combined
with a nitrogenous one, and administered as nutriment to the
plant in a proper manner, then was the growth of the plant
not only normal, but vigorous, and the flowers very much
increased in quantity, but a normal termination of vegetation
did not take place, notwithstanding a great propensity to grow
side shoots. In this experiment it was found that assimilation
went on very rapidly ; thus demonstrating that the conditions
of its success have been discovered.
6. When any one of the above enumerated seven inorganic
ingredients was omitted, although the nitrogen was combined
with the remaining six, it was found that the proper develop-
ment was disturbed in a greater or less degree, in the follow-
ing manner: When lime was omitted, the plant died in the
WHAT INORGANIC SUBSTANCES ARE ESSENTIAL. 217
second leaf, without giving any indication of forming a stalk.
Without magnesia, the stalk was not erect but couchant,
feeble, color abnormal, the structure of the flowers changed,
and the flowers deformed and without fruit.
Without potash the stalk was very short, feeble, couchant,
color abnormal ; flowers, reduced to a solitary one, and it very
defective.
Without soluble silicic acid and without potash, the growth
of the stalk was reduced to three inches, color abnormal, the
leaves dying prematurely, and no flowers.
Without phosphoric acid, the stalk was very frail, couchant,
color pale, flowers reduced to a solitary perfect one, no fruit,
but a disposition to throw out side shoots.
Without sulphuric acid, no stalk formation — the plant died
in the third leaf; a shoot was thrown out, but shared the
same fate.
Without iron, the green color is wanting in a greater or
less degree ; the plant appears as though it were grown in a
dark place — no flowers are formed, or else are very much
deformed, and very defective. (When aluminum was supplied
the plant seemed to suflfer the loss of iron in a less degree —
the clay, however, may have contained traces of iron.)
7. From this it appears that the above named seven inor-
ganic substances are essentially necessary to the growth and
development of the plant, even to the formation of the flowers,
provided that the proper nitrogenous ingredients are present.
These experiments do not, however, confirm the necessity of
chlorine — in these experiments every accidental admixture
with chlorine was carefully avoided by rinsing and cleansing ;
while the plants were watered with double distilled water ;
notwithstanding all this care, there were evident traces of
chlorine in the plant, which could not possibly have proceeded
from the seed, since there is not in a single seed sufficient
chlorine to be detected.
These seven inorganic substances failed to produce fruit.
19
218 THK WHKAT I'LA.NT.
8. Sodium does not appear to possess the properties neces-
sary to neutralize the potassium.
9. The greater portion of these results of experiments made
in quartz and quartz sand, correspond very nearly with the
results of experiments made with sugar coal. At the same
time it must be remembered that the sand contained silicates,
and contained very small proportions of phosphate of iron ;
the sugar coals on the other hand, were not altogether free
from traces of inorganic substances, as subscfjuent investiga-
tions proved.
The experiment with the sugar coals, omitting all inorganic
substances other than nitrate of ammonia, proved to be very
different from a similar experiment with quartz sand. It is
very evident from the roots of the plant, that in the sugar coal
experiment, entirely too much nitrate of ammonia was em-
ployed. Experiments with both the above bases prove that
the results are greatly influenced by the proportion of iron
which enters into the composition.
10. Manganese does not appear to be essentially necessary
for the formation of fruit, especially when too much iron has
not been employed. The question of the essentiality of man-
ganese was exceedingly difficult to be decided in the sugar
coal experiment, while the more powerfully absorbing qualities
of iron in moist coal dust, render the proper determination of the
relative proportions yet more intricate ; thus in all the coal
dust experiments, manganese appeared to be essentially
necessary on account of the presence of the iron. (For
the same reason is manganese necessary in a soil which has a
comparatively large per centage of iron. In some soils it is
found not unfrequently amounting to fully one per cent.)
11. When iron is in excess, the growth of the stalk is ab-
normal, the leaves become dried with brown spots (iron spots)
in various places (corresponding with the experiments in coal
dust, with this difference, that in the latter experiment the
color of the spots was varied). The flowers are imperfect and
INORGANIC ELEMENTS IN PLANTS. 219
dwarfed, and the fruit undeveloped. That iron is an essen-
tial ingredient in the soil, and that the plant requires an ex-
ceedingly small proportion of it, is manifest from the analysis
of the ashes of a vigorous, normal and fruitbearing plant, pro-
duced in brook sand, which had been heated to A red heat,
then digested in muriatic acid, and the necessary inorganic
ingredients added afterward, with the exception of iron, a
sufficient quantity of which was in the sand.
12. Phosphate of iron is found to be an excellent source of
iron for the plant. When brook sand is employed oxyhydrate
of iron may be added ; the quartz will soon be found to be
tinged with a greenish cast, caused by microscopic algce, which
announce the operation of the oxyhydrate.
13. Fluate of lime dwarfs the growth of the plant, and pre-
vents flowering, even when added in very small quantities.
14. But when the above named seven inorganic ingredients
were combined with the nitrogenous ingredients and added to
the quartz, it did not produce a normal growth of fruit. It
was in the test experiment only, with heated brook sand di-
gested in muriatic acid that proved an exception to the gene-
ral rule, and proves also that the failure of the former to pro-
duce fruit, is by no means attributable to the season, for the
reason that' both experiments were conducted at the same
time. This test experiment proves also, that the seven ingre-
dients, together with the nitrogenous elements in this case did
produce fruit — they should, therefore, have produced the same
result in the quartz, but as they failed to accomplished it in
the latter case, we must conclude that the brook sand con-
tained an inorganic substance essentially necessary for the
formation and development of fruit which was not contained
in any of the added ingredients.
15. Alumina appears to be such a fruit-forming and devel-
oping ingredient as above mentioned ; at least several experi-
ments indicate such results. The experiment with hydrate of
alumina produced two germinating seeds; that with artificial
silicate of potassium and alumina produced two seeds having
220 TIIK V/ilKAT PLANT.
germinating^ properties; so also resulted the experiment with
feldspar from Baveno. The experiment with scolecit from
Iceland — composed of silicic acid, lime, alumina, and water,
soluble in a dilute acid — containing no trace of sodium, pro-
duced no fruit, which impairs the stress laid on the importance
of silicate of alumina.
IG. The experiment with three decigram, clay from Alme-
rode (slightly heated) which, although it produced five ger-
minating seeds, appears to have contained other and essen-
tially necessary ingredients for the growth and development
of the fruits, as the clay contained only about six centi-
grammes of alumina, and was not certainly any more soluble
after being heated than was the hydrate of alumina in one of
the former experiments, which produced fewer perfect fruits.
The washed clay from Almerode contains, according to Forch-
hammer, aside from silicate of alumina, about 13 per cent,
of potassium, manganese, iron, and traces of chalk, and un-
doubtedly traces of sodium. In 0.3 grm. of washed clay of
Almerode, I found 0.0047 potassium and 0.0013 of sodium,
therefore I am led to conclude that the sodium is the import-
ant agent.
17. The side-shoots or suckers merit special attention, as
they appear to have an important relation to thrc formation
and development of fruit. Whenever side-shoots made their
appearance, it was invariably found to be after the vegetating
period, as well as after the appearance of the fruit. They
originate always either immediately before, or co-incident with
the sterile flowers in all these experiments.
In the experiment with hydrate of alumina, as well as in
the one with silicate of potassium and alumina, also in the
one with the feldspar from Baveno, in each of which experi-
ments two germinating fruits were produced, the side-shoots
made their appearance after the plants were in bloom ; and in
the experiment which produced five perfect fruits, they attained
a respectable size. On the other hand, in the experiment with
three decigram, of clay from Almerode, which produced five
SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS, 221
perfect fruits, and singular as it may appear, two small pro-
jections made their appearance as side-shoots after the fruit
had fully ripened. But finally it must be observed that in all
test experiments in brook sand, which produced six, eight, or
nine perfect fruits, there were no traces of side-shoots. Now,
if we take into account the proportion of flowers to the per-
fect fruits, in connection with the number of sidi;-shoots, as
follows :
Experiment. Elowers. Fruits. Side-shoots.
1. Hydrate of alumina 7 2 2
2. Clay of Almerode 8 5 2 smallest.
3. Feldspath from Baveiio 4 2 2
4. Artificial silicate of potassium and alumina, 6 2 2
5. Test experiment in brook sand 9 8
6. Same 8 8
7. Brook sand digested in muriatic acid 11 9
We find the proportion of Flowers in the 2nd case to be as 8 to 5
" " " " " Fruits " " 6th " " " " 8 to 6
The proportion in these two experiments are so nearly
equal as to be remarkable, and to excite some surprise that in
the ease of the brook sand all vegetation ceases with the
ripening of the fruit, but in the experiment with the 3 deci-
gram, of clay from Almerode, mixed with quartz, vegetation
did not cease with the ripening of the fruit, but produced
after the ripening period two small side-shoots.
From this it would appear that the three decigrams of c'ay
from Almerode, aside from the alumina, contained one or
more inorganic substances which were essentially necessary to
the formation of fruit, but not in sufficient proportion or
abundance to produce a sufficient amount of fruit which
should exhaust the normal vegetative power coincident with
the ripening of the fruit.
18. The experiment with the three decigrams of washed
clay from Almerode, which was heated in the open air, is one
of singular as well as peculiar importance. It furnishes us
222 THE WHEAT PLANT.
with the extreme proportion of inorjriinic substances contained
in three decigrams of clay essentially necessary to perfect
fruit — under these conditions. It is very clear that the ener-
gy or force of the elements were not exhausted in forming
and perfecting the five fruits, from the fact that suflScient veg-
etative force and material yet remained to form two small
side-shoots. If there had been a suificient surplus of vitality
or vegetative force, it would have found its way to, and have
perfected the remaining two flowers; by referring to experi-
ment 7, it will be seen that sufficient of the other inorganic
elements were present.
19. A very singular phenomenon was exhibited in an ex-
periment in well heated brook sand, which in addition to the
usual addition of inorganic ingredients, contained chloride of
potassium and carbonate of sodium. In this case the side
shoots made their appearance at a peculiar period, namely,
before the stalk which bore the fruit panicle was developed.
This is precisely what takes place in practical agriculture when
the oats are sowed on a rich and strong soil, and it is also
found by experience that the fruit increases in proportion to
these side-shoots.
From this it is very evident that 0.005 grms. of chloride of
potassium, and 0.001 of carbonate of sodium, either singly or
combined, produced fruit and side-shoots, because a cotempo-
raneous experiment was conducted in brook sand without
these ingredients, in which the phenomenon of fruit and side-
shoots did not take place. This experiment is important
inasmuch as it serves to show that in either the chloride of
potassium or carbonate of sodium the necessary elements for
the formation and development of fruits are contained. But
which of these two ingredients supplied the necessary mate-
rial for fruits, future experiments must determine. It is
remarkable, however, that when the experiment was conduct-
ed in pulverized flint, even with the addition of the above
named two ingredients, no fruit was produced.
20. The appearance of side-shoots coincident with the
THE DROP ON THE FIRST LEAP. 223
flowering period, or after the maturity of the fruit, is indica-
tive of a total or partial want of the proper ingredients to
form fruits. If this exponent were not strictly observed, the
1st and 2d experiments might serve to mislead rather than
guide us correctly ; because in these experiments we might
be inclined to ascribe the fruit formative elements to the
alumina; but upon a more minute examination it will be
seen that the alumina is entirely inessential to this end. It is
however, not only possible, but highly probable that a trace of
sodium was contained in the alumina, or silicate of potassium
and alumina, which alone was the cause of the formation of the
fruit. No traces of sodium could be found in the ashes of
the plants which were grown in alumina, from which all other
elements had certainly been expelled.
As an annual plant, the oat must cease vegetating the
moment its fruit has ripened, and when we shall have discov-
ered the exact proportion as well as the precise number and
quality of the ingredients to produce this result, we shall have
attained the object of these experiments.
21. A small, clear drop or globule resembling dew was
formed on the end of the first leaf, at the time of its first appear-
ance, but as the leaf became more fully developed the glob-
ule disappeared. It was found on the first leaf only. It
made its appearance daily just after sunset, but during the
night increased somewhat in size, but evaporated the next day,
except when the air was moist and damp ; it then remained the
entire day. It contained a large percentage of gum ; in the
experiments conducted in sugar coal dust, without the addi-
tion of any inorganic ingredients other than 0.004 grm. of
nitrate of ammonia, the globule was remarkably abundant
in gum. This globule made its appearance on the end of the
first leaf in every ex2>crimcnt.
After the evaporation of the drop, a gummy substance as
residuum may be seen at the extremity of the leaf during the
day-time. That this phenomenon is independent of the soil
in which the plant is grown, is certainly evident from the fact
224 THE AVIIEAT PLANT.
that it was observed on the plants grown in sand, as well as
those grown in brook sand, in rjuartz, and in the sugar coal
dust. The fruit which was obtained from an experiment
made in sand with nitrate of ammonia, without any other
inorganic substances, was planted in the same ingredients, and
the first leaf again produced the globule, which remained
longer during the day-time than the others. The entire phe-
nomenon is sometimes completed in two days.
22. A singular phenomenon occurred during an experi-
ment to test the gerrainative properties of fruits grown in
hydrate of alumina ; there was an abnormal development of
the first leaf, as it came forth from its sheath ; it retained,
although fully an inch long, its tubular or cylindrical form
without spreading at the end. This abnormality is indicative
of a disturbance in the development of the roots, which did
not occur in testing the vegetative properties of the five fruits
grown in the Almcrodo clay.
23. There were 0.02 grm. of nitrate of ammonia diluted
in 15 grms. of distilled water, and added to a plant which
had developed its first and second leaves in pulverized quartz,
to which were added the usual inorganic ingredients. The
result was the destruction of the plant, after becoming cov-
ered with yellow spots. Whatever inorganic elements it is
intended to furnish the plant from ammonia, must be intro-
duced into the soil before germination commences, or else di-
lute it in the proportion of .01 grm. of nitrate of ammonia to
50 grms. of distilled water; apply in sprinkling the com-
pound, answering the place of soil, otherwise the organism,
particularly in the development of the roots, becomes dis-
turbed.
24. Since the plant itself is the best analyst of the soil, and
by its development testifies to the condition of the soil much
more correctly than any artificial analysis by chemists possibly
can determine, it certainly is desirable that practical agricul-
turists adopt some method similar to this series of experiments,
that is, take a number of water-tight vessels, fill them with
EXPERIMENTS WITU SPRING BARLEY. 225
soil from the same spot, then add a dijfferent inorganic ingre-
dient to each vessel, plant seed therein and note the diflferences,
and observe the eifect of the ingredient added.
25. Experiments in silica, prepared from silicate of potas-
sium, thoroughly washed and heated to a white heat, has failed
to produce a plant. Even with the addition of all the inor-
ganic substances usually employed, it produced a very weak
and dwarfish plant only. It appears that the fine laminae of
the silica are entirely too light, the roots elevating them in
every direction, while the roots themselves appear to be little
else than elongated air bladders, which soon collapse and the
plant dies.
26. More recent experiments indicate that sodium is of
essential importance in the formation of fruit in the oat plant.
27. With regard to iron, it is necessary to remark that in
the ashes of a plant grown in a basis containing phosphate of
iron, there was no great difficulty in tracing iron in combina-
tion with sulphuric acid in the ashes of the plant; but chem-
ical analysis would never have indicated the essential part
performed by iron in the formation and development of fruit,
if the synthetic system had not been adopted.
Experiments with Spring Barley.
The experiments with this plant were conducted solely to
determine the requisite inorganic ingredients to produce and
develop fruit. They were conducted in waxen vessels, and in
all other respects conducted as were the experiments with the
oat plant. The composition of the artificial soil is here re-
peated, so that the reader can see how it compares with the
preceding ones :
65.000 grms. well heated brook sand, fully oxydized, but
not washed.
0.1 grm. carbonate of lime.
0.04 " tri-phosphate of lime.
0.03 " sulphate of lime.
0.02 " carbonate of magrnesia.
226 THE WHEAT PLANT.
nitrate of potassium ^
• i- . -IN f In 15 erins. of dis-
silicic aciu ) T 1 J y '^
. -dissolved ( tilled water,
potassium ) J
0.02 grm. nitrate of potassium
0.018
0.009 " potassium j
The development of the plant was normal. The stalk was
nineteen inches long, produced eight blossoms, each one of
which produced a perfect fruit, which possessed all the re-
quisite gerrainative properties. This experiment served as
a test.
The composition of an artificial soil, in which sodium is en-
tirely omitted, is here presented :
65.000 grms. coarsely pulverized mountain crystal, (or
quartz) carefully washed.
0.50 grm. carbonate of lime.
0.06 " tri-phosphate of lime.
0.03 " sulphate of lime.
0.05 " basic phosphate of iron, heated with mountain
crystal.
0.02 " nitrate of potassium dissolved in 15 grms. dis-
tilled water.
0.001 " cai'bonate of magnesia.
The seed planted in this composition was obtained from a
barley plant which was grown entirely without sodium, but
most certainly in cleansed brook sand. The stalk was twelve
inches long. The ear or spike, remained sheathed in the up-
per leaf, was undeveloped ; bore neither blossom nor fruit. It
must be remarked, however, that in the experiment which
produced the seed employed in tlie above experiment, chloride
of sodium was so intimately combined with the brook sand, as
not to be entirely inseparable, even after the most thorough
treatment. It would then appear that the chloride of sodium
in the preceding experiment served the purpose of forming
and developing the fruit. Two more experiments with this
plant appear to be worthy of notice :
First. — Without sodium. The same composition with moun-
tain crystal as in the preceding experiment. Stalk nine
inches long, the ear or spike not visible, without flowers and
EXPERIMENTS WITH WINTER WHEAT. 227
without fruit. Although it was regularly watered, the plant
gradually died. No side shoots.
Second. — With sodium. The same inorganic composition
as in the last experiment, with the addition of four miligrams
of nitrate of sodium. Stalk sixteen inches long, normal, the
entire ear visible, with long beards but without pollen sacs,
without blossoms, and consequently fruitless.
Results.
From the fourteen experiments which were made with bar-
ley, it appears that another ingredient aside from sodium, is
necessary for fruit formation and development, which the
plant found in brook sand, because in this latter it bore fruit
— the essential ingredient was a chloride. Later experiments
prove most ineontestably that iron is absolutely necessary in
the structure of the stalk.
Experiments with Winter Wheat.
In well-heated brook sand, but not washed, digested or tri-
turated, but with the addition of the usual inorganic ingredi-
ents, together with nitrate of potassium, fruit was produced.
In carefully washed brook sand, which was afterward di-
gested in boiling dilute sulphuric acid, to which the usual
ingredients were added, but sodium and chlorine omitted, the
stalk was weak and decrepid, and produced neither flowers
nor fruit.
In the same artificial soil, with sodium added, the stalk
attained the length of twenty-one inches, produced thirty -four
leaves, bore three flowers and two perfect fruits.
No globule or dew-drop was found on the wheat plant, as
was on the oats and barley, in the experiments with them.
The experiments with the wheat plant indicate the necessity
of sodium for the formation and development of fruit.
Eighteen experiments were made in the wheat plant, all, how-
ever, in brook sand, digested in sulphuric acid ; the most im-
portant of these experiments are the following :
228 the wheat plant.
Experiment First — Without Soda and without
Chlorine.
65.000 grms. crystallized quartz — the finest powder removed
by washing.*
0.02 grms. nitrate of potassium dissolved in fifteen grms.
of distilled water.
0.1 nitro-carbonate of lime.
0.05 " tri-phosphate of lime.
0.02 " sulphate of lime.
0.02 " carbonate of magnesia.
0.04 " basic phosphate of oxide of iron heated with the
quartz.
0.001 nitro-carbonate of the oxide of manganese.
The plant died while in the sixth leaf, without any stem or
flowers, thus showing the necessity of sodium.
For the sake of brevity in the following experiments, the
annexed names of six salts will be designated by that of "the
usual salts," viz. :
Nitrate of potash, carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime,
sulphate of lime, carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of manga-
nese.
Experiment Second — with Nitrate of Sodium.
One milligram of nitrate of sodium dissolved in fifteen
grms. of distilled water " the usual salts," added when the
plant was in the third leaf. The plant died, in the seventh
leaf without stem. The last three leaves had the appearance
of bristles rather than any thing else. The roots were ex-
ceedingly delicate.
3d Experiment, with five milligrams of nitrate of sodium,
together with " the usual salts." The plant died without
* The finest powder of the pulverized quartz was necessarily removed,
in order to remove as far as possible all the chloride of potash and chlo-
ride of soda, which is inherent in the crystallized quartz. These
chlorides have invariably been found in German, French and American
crystals.
SODIUM, IRON AND MANGANESE NECESSARY. 229
forming any stem, and the last leaves were again like bristles.
The cause in this case may be attributed to the fact that the
plant germinated in a compound destitute of sodium.
4th Experiment, with same substances and the " usual
salts," with the addition of one milligram of chloride of
sodium. Plant died without forming stalk — it had germinated
in a compound destitute of sodium.
The last three experiments do not indicate the necessity of
the presence or absence of sodium, probably because they
were made in an inverted manner ; yet these experiments pos-
sess a scientific interest, as they seem to demonstrate the influ-
ence which the sodium exerts upon the activity of the
component ^parts of the germinating seed.
5th Experiment, without nitrate of sodium, with chloride
of sodium. The chloride of sodium was in this case added
before germination took place, and from this cause, it is pre-
sumed, that the stalk attained the hight of fourteen inches.
It bore no perfect blossom, the flowering portion of the de-
fective ear consists of two bearded chafi"-like scales. The
plant had fifteen leaves, was abnormal, but important. The
" usual salts " were, of course, added.
6th Experiment, omitting iron, but substituting five milli-
grams of nitrate of sodium and one milligram of chloride of
sodium, together with the " usual salts." The stalk was
without an ear, delicate, sent out two suckers in the early part
of its existence, but which produced no stalks. The com-
pound was completed before the seeds were put in to germi-
nate. The absence of iron is here readily discernible.
7th Experiment, omitting iron and manganese. Five milli-
grams of nitrate of sodium, and one milligram of chloride of
sodium were in the compound, together with the "usual salts."
The plant remained without stalk and without bloom. The
leaves were of a lively green. The necessity of manganese
for the growth of the stalk in this case, seems very manifest.
The elongation of the first sprout consumed an extraordinary
amount of time.
230 THE WHEAT PLANT.
8th Experiment, omitting iron, manganese, sodium, chlo-
rine, but with the "usual salts." The plant produced seven
green leaves, but produced neither stalk nor bloom.
9th Experiment, with the addition of iron, manganese and
the " usual salts," together with three milligrams of nitrate
of sodium and one-half milligram of chloride of sodium.
This plant exhibited extraordinary tardiness during the stalk
formative period ; it remained absolutely in statu quo during
six weeks, when there was added one-fifth of a milligram of
sulphate of iron dissolved in fourteen grms. of water. In a
remarkably short period of time the stalk "shot up" to the
hight of nine inches ; but the plant died of defective water-
ing. It was, however, manifest that no flowers were to be
formed.
Results.
From the contradictory results in the foregoing experiments,
it is very manifest that another ingredient is essential to this
artificial soil in order to produce flowers ; and the disparity in
these results can be fully understood and investigated when
the undetermined ingredient shall have been discovered. Ox-
ide of iron, oxide of manganese and chloride of lime appear
to be essential, but yet not sufficient to produce the flowers.
Experiment with Spring Wheat.
The quartz in this experiment was digested in muriatic
acid, because it appeared to be of a slightly ferruginous
nature ; — it was afterward washed very carefully and dried.
Omitting iron and chlorine.
65.000 pjrms. quartz,
0.03r, Silicic acid >,. .. , , , , 1
f\f\^ort4. • > liquified bv beat,
0.018 Potassium ) ' . i
0.02 Nitrate of potasb,
0.005 Nitrate of sodium,
0.002 Nitrate of ammonia,
0.1 Carbonate of lime,
0.05 Tri phosphate of lime,
0.03 Sulphate of lime,
0.02 Carbonate of magnesia.
dissolved in 15 grs. distill-
ed water.
EXPERIMENTS WITH WHEAT AND RYE. 231
The plant was normal and green, thirteen inches long, bore
five flowers without anthers, and conseqvicntly without fruit.
Notwithstanding the severe trituration and digestion of the
quartz in muriatic acid it yet contained inclosed within its small
particles, glimmerings of iron, hence this experiment is im-
portant as serving to show that very little iron is sufficient to
produce the desired result.
Experiment with Winter Rye.
This plant conducted itself strangely, according as it was
placed to enjoy the morning or noon-day sun only.
There were several experiments made with fine brook sand,
the other ingredients being the same. Two of the experi-
ment vessels were so situated at a window as to enjoy the
morning sun only; while two others were placed at another
window so as to enjoy the noon-day sun only. These plants
all bloomed ; those which enjoyed the noon-day sun produced
fruit while those placed at the east window produced none.
These experiments I have repeated several times, and always
with the same results. The cause is not very manifest for this
singular phenomenon, if it is not to be found in the fact of
polarization of light by the glass in the window, and the
additional fact that the chemical or actinic rays prevail to a
much greater extent at noon than in the morning.
In all these experiments with winter rye as well as with the
winter wheat, no drop was apparent at the extreme point of
the young leaflet, as there was in the oats and barley.
The ingredients were nitrate of potassium, carbonate of
lime, phosphate of lime, sulphate of lime, carbonate of mag-
nesia, basic phosphate of oxide of iron, carbonate of manga-
nese. This composition contained no sodium. In all the other
experiments with mountain crystal, with the addition of
nitrate of sodium, chloride of sodium, phosphate of oxide of
iron, as well as when the oxide of iron and nitrate of sodium
were omitted, and also when nitrate oi' sodium and chloride
of sodium were mingled, I obtained no flowers at all.
232 tue wheat plant.
Experiments with a view op ascertaining what inor-
ganic INGREDIENTS ARE NECESSARY TO BE ABDED TO THE
BARREN VIRGIN SOIL OP WesTPHALIA TO MAKE IT FERTILE.
The virgin sandy soil for experiment was obtained from
immediately beneath the depth attained from the surface by
the forest weeds. The quantity necessary for experiment, was
carefully dried and then thoroughly mixed, then sixty-five
grammes were placed in each of the wax-coated vessels for
experiment, after having been thoroughly mixed with ingredi-
ents to be added. The plant selected for experiment was the
white oat.
A single grain was all that was retained in each experiment ;
that one which germinated the best was the one used ; distilled
water was the kind used. 1st. Without any of the artificial
compounds it produced a very weak and delicate plant. 2nd.
When 0.01 grm. of carbonate of ammonia was added, it pro-
duced a plant which died in the second leaf. 3d. When 0.05
grm. of phosphate lime was added to the ammonia named in
the preceding experiment, a very tender and sickly plant was
produced, in which one leaf died as fast as another was pro-
duced. 4th. When 0.02 grm. of nitrate of potassium was
substituted for the carbonate of ammonia, but the other ingre-
dients the same as the preceding experiments, an exceedingly
weak plant was produced, the fourth leaf of which became
yellow spotted. 5th. With 0.01 grm. of nitrate of potassium
only, the plant attained the length of three inches, but was
very feeble. 6th. With 0.02 grm. nitrate of potash and 0.03
grm. sulphate of lime, the plant produced was very weak.
7th. AVith 0.05 grm. superphosphate of lime, 0.03 grm. of
sulphate of lime and 0.02 grm. nitrate of potash a very vigor-
ous plant was produced, with broad dark green leaves and
strong stalk. 8th. With 0.1 grm. of carbonate of lime, 0.05
superphosphate of lime, 0.01 sulphate of lime and 0.02 nitrate
of potash, the plant was very vigorous. 9th. With 0-05 grm.
superphosphate of lime, 0.03 sulphate of lime, 0.02 carbonate
WIEGMANN AND POLSTORP's EXPERIMENTS. 233
magnesia and 0.02 of nitrate of potash, a very vigorous plant
was produced. The result of these experiments indicate that
not only is phosphate of lime wanting to make this barren
soil fertile, but that sulphate of lime and potash are equally
essential.
These experiments are very interesting, inasmuch as they
prove most conclusively that superphosphate or phosphoric
acid is not the only ingredient necessary to fertilize the soil.
After all, the plant itself is the best chemist to analyze the
soil, and for the practical agriculturist (with his present know-
ledge on the subject) is certainly the most unerring.
It may not be inappropriate in this connection to insert the
following, referred to by Liebig in his Agricultural Chemistry :
Experiments of Weigmann and Polstorp.
The composition of the artificial soil used in the experi-
ments of Wiegmann and Polstorf, on the organic ingredients
of plants, was as follows (Preischrift. p. 9) : —
Quartzy sand 861.26
Sulphate of potash 0.34
Chloride of sodium 0.13
Gypsum (a)ihydrous) 1.25
Chalk (elutriated) 10.00
Carbonate of magnesia 6.00
Peroxide of manganese 2.50
Peroxide of iron 10.00
Hydrated alumina 15.00
Phosphate of lime 15.60
Acid of peat, with potash* 8.41
" " soda 2.22
" " ammonia 10.29
" " lime 3.07
" " magnesia 1.97
" " peroxide of iron 3.22
" '• alumina 4.64
Insoluble acid of peat 50.00
*This salt was made by boiling common peat with weak potash ley,
and precipitating, by means of sulphuric acid, the dark colored solution.
20
234 THE WHEAT PLANT.
The following experiments were instituted in pure sand,
and in the artificial soil :
ViciA Sativa.
A. — III Pure Sand. — The vetches attained by the 4th of
July a hight of ten inches, and seemed disposed to put out
blossoms. On the Gth of the same month, the blossoms un-
folded ; and on the 11th they formed small pods, which, how-
ever, did not contain seeds, and withered away by the 15th.
k^imilar plants, which had already begun to have yellow leaves
below, were drawn with their roots out of the sand, the roots
washed with distilled water, and then dried and incinerated.
B. — In Artijivial Soil. — The plants reached the hight of
eighteen inches by the middle of June, so that it became
necessary to support them with sticks ; they blossomed luxu-
riantly on the 16th of June ; and about the 20th put out
many healthy pods, which contained, on the 8th of August,
ripe seeds, capable of germinating. Similar plants to the
above were taken with the roots from the soil ; they were then
washed and incinerated.
HORDEUM VULGARE.
A. — In Pure Sand. — The barley reached on the 25th of
June, when it blossomed imperfectly, a hight of 1^ foot, but
it did not produce seed ; and, in the month of July, the points
of the leaves became yellow ; on which account, on the 1st of
This precipitate is that termed Torfsaeure (acid of peat), in the above
analysis. The salts of this acid, referred to in the analysis, were ob.
taiued by dissolving this acid in potash, soda, or ammonia, and by evap-
orating the solutions; the salts of magnesia, lime, peroxide of iron, and
alumina, were obtained by saturating this solution with their respective
bases, by which means double decomposition was eflFected. HtiMUS is
the substance remaining by the decay of animal and of vegetable mat-
ters, which are seldom absent from a soil. This was replaced by the acid
of peat in the experiments of Wiegmann and Polstorf. When the
acid of peat is boiled for some time with water, it passes into an insoluble
modification, denoted above as insoluble acid of peat.
EXPERIMENTS WITH OATB AND BUCKWHEAT. 235
August, we removed the plants from the soil, and treated them
as before.
B. — III Artificial Soil. — The barley, by the 25th of June,
had reached a hio;ht of 2\ feet, by which time it had blossomed
perfectly; and yielded, on the 10th of August, ripe and per-
fect seeds ; upon which the plants, together with their roots,
were taken from the soil, and treated as formerly.
AvENA Sativa,
A. — In Pure Sand. — The oats, on the 30th of June, were
1^ feet in hight, but had blossomed very imperfectly ; they
did not produce fruit; and, in the course of July, the points
of their leaves became yellow, as in the case of the barley ; on
which account the stalks were removed from the soil on the
1st of August, and treated as formerly.
B. — In Artificial Soil. — The oats reached 2^ feet on the
28th of June, having blossomed perfectly. By the 16th of
August they had produced ripe and perfect seeds; the stalks
and roots were, therefore, removed from the soil, and treated
as above.
Polygonum Fagopyrum.
A. — In Pure Sand. — The buckwheat, on the 8th of May,
seemed to flourish the best of all the plants grown on pure
sand. By the end of June, it had reached a hight of 1^ feet.
and branched out considerably. On the 28th of June, it be-
gan to blossom, and continued to blossom till September, with-
out producing seeds. It would certainly have continued to
blossom still longer, had we not removed it from the soil on
the 4th of September, as it lost too many leaves ; it was treated
as before.
B. — In Artificial Soil. — The buckwheat grew very quickly
in this soil, and reached a hight of 2^ feet. It branched out
so strongly that it was necessary to support it with a stick; it
began to blossom on the 15th of June, and produced perfect
seeds, the greater number of which were ripe on the 12th of
236 THE WHEAT PLANT.
August. On the 4th of September, it was taken from the
soil along with the roots, and treated as before, on account of
losing too many leaves from below ; although it was partly
still in blossom, and with unripe fruit.
NiCOTIANA TaBACUM.
A. — In Pure Sand. — The tobacco plant sown on the 10th
of May did not appear till the 2d of June, although it then
grew in the normal manner; when the plants had obtained
their second pair of leaves I removed the superfluous plants,
leaving only the five strongest specimens. These continued
to grow very slowly till the occurrence of frost in October,
and obtained only a bight of five inches, without forming a
stem. They were removed along with their roots from the
sand on the 21st of October, and treated as the above.
B. — III Ariijicial Soil. — The tobacco sown on the 10th of
May came up on the 22d of the same month, and grew
luxuriantly. When the plants obtained the second pair
of leaves, I withdrew the supeifluous plants, and allowed only
the three strongest to remain. These obtained stems of above
three feet in hight, with many leaves ; on the 25th of July
they began to blossom ; on the 10th of August they put forth
seeds; and, on the 8th of September, ripe seed capsules, with
completely ripe seeds, were obtained. On the 27th of Octo-
ber, the plants were removed from the soil, and treated as
above.
Trifolium Pratense.
A. — In Purr. Sand. — The clover, which appeared on the
5th of May, grew at first pretty luxuriantly, but reached a
hight of only 3 1-2 inches by the 15th of October, when its
leaves became suddenly brown, in consequence of which I
removed it from the soil, and treated it as above.
B. — In Artificial Soil. — The clover reached a hight of ten
inches by the 15th of October ; it was bushy, and its color
was dark green. Tt was taken from the soil, in order to com-
1
ASHES OP PLANTS. 237
pare it with the former experiments, and was treated in the
same way.
Constituents op the Ashes op the Seed.
100 parts of dry seeds yield —
Soluble in
water.
Vicia sativa 1.562
Hordeum Vulgare 0.746
Avena sativa 0.465
Polygonum fagopyrum ....0.823
Trifolium pratense 1.218
Soluble in
muriatic aciU.
0.563
Silica.
0.442
Ashes in
100 parts.
= 2.567
0.563
1.123
= 2.432
0.277
2.122
= 2.864
8.547
0.152
== 1.522
3.187
0.282
= 4.087
Constituents op the Ashes op the Plants grown in
Pure Sand and in the Artificial Soil.
Insuliible in water
Soluble in Soluble in and muriatic acid,
water, muriatic acid. (Silica.) Ashca.
Viciasativa, ISgrms. I In sand 0.516 0.375 0.135 = 1.026
plantsdriedinair.j In artificial' soil.0.693 0.821 0.320 = 1.834
H o r d e u m vulgare, ) Sand 0.123 0.195 0.355 = 0.673
12.5 grms. plants. 3 Soil 0.167 0.226 0.487 = 0.880
Avena sativa, 13 j Sand 0.216 0.024 0.354 = 0.594
grms. plants J Soil 0.225 0.030 0.461=0.746
j Sand(r2gr. I^Qgg ^ ^^^ 0.045 = 0.225
Polygonum fagopy- plants J
rum ( ^"'^(^"^•'^ Sr-l 0.148 0.226 0.133 = 0.507
plants /
1 Sand ( 4 grms I Q 223 0.252 0.031 = 0.506
I plants J
Nicotiana tabacum ... \ n^w (^9 r, 1
Lboil [U.o li_i46 2.228 0.594 = 3.923
J plants J
Trifolium pratense, | Sand 0.522 0.350 0.091 = 0.963
14.5 grms. plants, f Soil 0.6.59 0.943 0.082 = 1.684
The preceding numbers express the unequal weight of min-
eral nutritive substances taken up from the sand and artificial
soil by equal weights of the different plants mentioned. The
absolute and not the relative weight of the component parts
of the ashes is given. For example, the five tobacco plants
grown in sand gave 0.506 gr. in ashes, while the three which
grew in the artificial soil gave 3.923; five would, therefore,
238
THE WIIKAT I'LANT.
have given 6.525 gr. The proportion of the mineral ingredi-
ents taken up by five tobacco plants from the sand, anV
•v
a>
n
CD
a
n>
ro
p £-
'i.^
°2
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1845
5545
33.1
90.1
56.7
80.8
1.91
2.25
7.06
[).92
1846
4114
43.1
93.2
63.1
84.3
1.96
2.15
6.02
3.67
1847
5221
36.4
93.6
62.0
2.30
5.56
0.73
1848
4517
36.7
89.0
58.5
80.3
2.02
2.39
7.24
0.78
1849
5321
40.9
95.5
63.5 •
83.1
1.84
1.94
82.6
6.17
0.82
1850
5490
33.6
94.3
60.9.
84.4
1.99
2.15
84.4
5.88
0.87
1851
5279
38.2
92.1
62.6
84.2
1.89
1.98
84.7
5.88
0.78
1852
4299
31.6
92.1
56.7
83.2
2.00
2.38
82.6
6.53
0.79
1853
3932
25.1
85.9
50.2
80.8
2.24
2.35
81.0
6.27
1.20
1854
6803
35.8
95.6
61.4
84.9
1.93
2.14
83.7
5.08
0.69
Means.
5053
35.4
92.1
59.6
82.9
1.98
2.20
83.2
6.17
0.82
24G THE WHEAT PLANT.
It will thus be seen that the preceding table affords a sum-
mary view of a really enormous amount of experimental result,
and we ought to be able by its means to discover, at least the
broad and characteristic effects of varying seasons, upon the
composition of the crop.* This, indeed, is all we could hope
to attain, in such a mere outline and general treatment of the
subject as is appropriate to our present purpose.
Leaving then out of view aJl minor points, and confining
ourselves to our already defined object — namely, that of ascer-
taining the general direction of the influence of variation of
season upon the composition of the wheat crop — we can not
fail to see, that wherever the three items indicating the quality
of the produce markedly distinguish the crop as favorably
developed, we have a general tendency to a high percentage
of dry substance, and to a low percentage both of mineral
matter, and of nitrogen in that dry substance. This general-
ization is more especially applicable to the grain ; but with
some exceptions, mostly explicable on a detailed consideration
of the circumstances and degree of its development, it applies
to a great extent to the straw also.
Let us take in illustration the extreme cases in the table.
The seasons of 1846, 1849, and 1851, with, in the cases of
the two latter, large produce also, give us the best proportion
of corn in total produce, more than the average proportion of
dressed corn in total corn, and the highest weight per bushel,
a very significant character. With this cumulative evidence
as to the relatively favorable development and maturation of
these crops, we find the grain in two of the cases, to be among
the highest in percentage of dry matter; and in the third
(1849) though not so high as we should have expected, it is
* It should be stated, that up to 1848 inclusive, the description of wheat
was the Old Red Lammas; from 1849 to 1852 inclusive, it was the Red
Cluster, and since that time the Rostock. The variations, according to
season, both in the character and composition of the produce, are, how-
ever, very marked within the period of growth of each separate de-
scription.
EFFECTS OF SEASONS. 247
Btill above tbe average. The percentages of mineral matter
and of nitrogen in the dry substances of the grain are at
the same time in these three cases, the lowest in the series.
The seasons of 1850 and 1854 again, with large amounts of
produce, yielded also very fairly developed grain ; and coinci-
dently they afford a high percentage of dry substance, and
lower percentages both of mineral matter, and of nitrogen, in
that dry substance, than the cases of obviously inferior matu-
ration. With some exceptions, it will be seen, that the straws
also of these five better years, give a tendency to low percent-
ages both of mineral matter and of nitrogen in their dry sub-
stance.
Turning now to the converse aspect, the season of 1853,
shows itself in the general characters of the produce, to have
been in every respect the least favorable to the crop ; and it
should be added that in this instance (as well as in 1845, to
which we shall next refer) the seed was not sown until the
spring. In 1853 the produce of grain was small, as well as
very bad in quality ; and with these characters, we have in
the grain nearly the lowest percentage of dry matter and the
highest percentage of ash and of nitrogen in that dry matter.
In the straw, too, the dry matter is low, the ash somewhat high,
the nitrogen much the highest in the series. In 1845, another
year of spring-sowing, and at the sdme time of very bad
quality of produce, we have nevertheless a large amount of
growth ; a fact which tends to explain some of the differences
in composition as compared with 1853. Thus, 1845 gives us
low percentage of dry matter, but not very high, either ash or
nitrogen, in the grain. The straw, however, gives high per-
cents both of ash and of nitrogen ; it being in the latter
point next in order to 1853. The seasons of 1848 and 1852
again show low characters of produce. The former has coin-
cidently the lowest percentage of dry matter in the grain in
the series ; and both have high percentage of ash and nitro-
gen in the dry substance of the grain. In the straw, the ash
is in 1848 the highest, and in 1852 above the average ; the
248 THE WHEAT PLANT.
nitrogen in dry matter of straw being however in neither
instance high.
In several of the cases there cited, there are deviations from
our general assumption on one point or other. But an exam-
ination in greater detail, would in most or all of them clear
up the apparent discrepancy. When indeed, we bear in mind
how infinitely varied was the mutual adaptation of cliuiatic
circumstances to stage of growth of the plant, in almost every
case, it would indeed be anomalous, did we not find a corres-
ponding variation on some point or other, in the characters
or composition of the crop. Still, we have the fact broadly
marked, that within the range of our own locality and climate,
high maturation of the wheat crop is, other things being equal,
generally associated with a high percentage of dry substance,
and a low percentage of both mineral and nitrogenous con-
stituents. Were we, however, extending the period of our
review, and going into detail as to varying climatic circum-
stances, interesting exceptions could be pointed out.
It may be observed in passing, that owing to the general
. relationships of the amounts of corn to straw, and the gener-
ally coincident variations in the percentages of nitrogen in
each, the tendency of all these variations is in a degree so to
neutralize each other, as to give a comparatively limited range
of difi"erence in the figures, representing for each year, the
percentage of nitrogen in the dry substance of the total pro-
duce — corn and straw together.
The tendency of maturation, to reduce the percentages of
mineral matter, and frequently of nitrogen also, is not
observable in corn crops alone. We have fully illustrated it
in the case of the turnip ; and our unpublished evidence in
regard to some other crops, goes in the same direction. The
fact is indeed very important to bear in mind ; for it consti-
tutes an important item in our study of the variations which
are found to exist in the composition both of the organic sub-
stance, and of the ash, of one and the same crop, grown undei
INFLUENCE OF MANURES. 249
diflferent circumstances. We may particularly observe, that
the obvious reduction in the percentage of nitrogen in wheat
grain, the more, within certain climatic limits, the seed is per-
fected, is in itself a fact of the highest interest ; and it is the
more so, when we consider how exceedingly dependent for
full growth, is this crop upon a liberal supply of available
nitrogen within the soil.
Bearing in mind, then, the general points of relationship
which have been established between the characters of the
crop as to development and maturation on the one hand, and
the percentage amounts of certain constituents on the other,
let us now see — what is the general influence of characteristic
constituents of manure, upon the characters and composition
of our wheat crop, which is allowed to remain on the land
until the plant has fulfilled its highest function — namely, that
of producing a ripened seed?
In illustration of this point we have arranged in Table III.,
the same particulars as to general character of the crop, and
as to the composition of the produce, from several individual
plots during the ten years ; instead of the average of the
series in each year, as in Table I. The cases selected for the
comparison are : —
1. A continuously unmanured plot ;
2. A plot having an excess of ammoniacal salts alone every
year;
3. The average of several plots, each having the same amount
of ammoniacal salts as the plot just mentioned, but with it a
more or less perfect provision by manure, of the mintral con-
stituents also.
It would be impossible to give the detail supplying all the
results collected in this Table ; but perhaps it is only proper
that we should do so, so far at least as the percentage of nitro-
gen in the dry substance of the grain is concerned.
250
THE WUEAT PLANT.
TABLE II.
Determinations of Nitrogen per cent, in the Dry Matter of Wheat Grain
grown at Rolhamsted.
Harvests.
EXPERIMENTS.
Mean.
Unmancred.
1845
2.28
2.11
2.11
2.3.3
1.85
2.07
1.80
2.31
2.26
2.06
2.21
2.12
2.08
2.34
1.83
l.'7'4
2.23
2.06
2.33
2.'22
2.32
1.91
2.10
1.89
2.38
2.33
1.98
2.30
2."22
2.37
2.07
1.70
2.31
2.38
1.96
2 28
1846
1847
2.11
2 16
1848
2 34
1849
1 86
1850
2 08
1851
1 80
1852
2 31
1853
2 32
1854
2 01
Manured with Ammoniacal Salts and Mineral Manure.
Plots.)
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
1851
18.'J2
1853
1854
Manured with
Ammomacai
Salts
Only
1845
2.18
2.18
2.35
2.39
1.89
2.13
2.15
2.41
2.43
2.31
2.29
2.12
2.29
2.41
2.12
2.50
2.-J8
2.22
2.22
2.29
2.42
2.39
2.04
2.08
2.09
2.44
2.37
2.31
2.23
2.19
2.32
2.49
1.22
2.19
2.25
2.58
2.44
2.37
2 23
1846
2 19
1847
2 34
1848
2 42
1849
1.95
1850
2 13
1851
2.15
1852
2.48
1853
2 43
1854
2.30
(Mixed
2.20
2.i'4
2.14
2.34
2.38
2.40
2.42
2.44
2.36
240
2 42
2.48
1.96
1.97
2.10
2 07
2.10
2.28
2.25
2.25
2.00
1.98
2.02
1.92
2.43
2.34
2.31
2.40
2.32
2.30
2.34
2.29
2.28
2.16
2.12
2.07
2.16
2.40
2.41
2.02
2.23
1.98
2.36
2.30
2.12
MODE OF DETERMINING THE NITROGEN. 251
It is necessary to make a few remarks in reference to this
Table of more than one hundred nitrogen determinations.
They were made by the method of burning with soda-lime,
and collecting and weighing as platinum salt in the ordinary
way. Few, perhaps, who have only made a limited number
of such determinations, then, only on pure and uniform sub-
stances, and who have not attempted to control their work at
another period, with fresh re-agents, or by the work of an-
other operator, will imagine the range of variation which is
to be expected when all these adverse elements are to have
their influence. It is freely granted, that the variations shown
in the Table between one determination and another, on one
and the same substance, are sometimes more than could be
desired. The following, however, are the circumstances un-
der which they have been obtained. Experiments one and
two were pretty uniformly made by the same operator, but not
all consecutively, or with the same batch of re-agents. It was
thought, therefore, that independently of any variations be-
tween the two determinations, it would be desirable to have
results, so important in their bearings, verified by others.
Accordingly, samples of each of the ground grains were given
under arbitrary numbers, to two other operators, |nd their
results are recorded respectively in columns three and four ;
and where a fifth determination is given, it is a repetition by
one or other of the experimenters last referred to. We
should observe, that we have found it almost impossible to
procure a soda-lime that will not give more or less indication
of nitrogen when burnt with an organic substance not con-
taining it ; and hence we have at length adopted the plan of
mixing one-half per cent, of non -nitrogenous substance in-
timately with the bulk of soda-lime, igniting it in a muffle,
moistening and reheating it gently. After this treatment the
soda-lime is free from ammonia-yielding matter. It should
further be remembered, that a ground wheat-grain is by no
means an uniform substance. Indeed, as we shall show further
on, some of the particles of which such a powder is composed,
252 THE WHEAT PLANT,
may contain half as much again of nitrogen as others ; and thus
any inefficiency in the grinding, or error in taking the portion
for analysis, may materially affect the result. Notwithstanding
all these circumstances, and the admitedly undesirable range
of difference in the several determinations in some cases, it will
be observed, that generally three at least of the numbers agree
sufficiently closely, and in some cases the fourth also. In fact,
after all, a study of the detailed table must give considerable
confidence, at least in the direction of the variations between
the mean results given in Table III., and in their sufficiency for
the arguments founded upon them. With these remarks on the
data, let us proceed with the discussion of the table itself.
A glance at this Table III., shows that the quantity of pro-
duce varies very much indeed in one and the same season,
according to the manuring. With these great differences in
the quantities, dependent on manuring, we have far less marked
differences in the quality of this ripened crop, dependent on
the same causes ; and this, with some few exceptions, is the
same whether we look to the columns indicating the general
characters only, or the composition of the produce. That is
to say, the same general distinctions between the produce of
one seas(jn and another are observable under the several vary-
ing conditions of manuring in each, as have been exhibited in
Table I. of averages alone. In fact, season or climate varia-
tions are seen to have much more influence than manuring,
upon the character and composition of the crop.
We have said that, other things being equal, the percentage
of nitrogen in our wheat grain was the lower the more the
seed was perfected ; and we have also said, that nitrogenous
manures greatly aid the development of the crop. But, an
inspection of the columns of Table III. (on next page), which
give the percentages of nitrogen in the dry substances of the
grains produced under the three different conditions of man-
uring specified, shows us that there is almost invariably a
higher percentage of nitrogen, where ammoniacal salts alone
have been employed, than where the crop was unmanured.
ANALYTICAL TABLE.
253
CT in ;.i V :--! t^ 4- ** +- ■
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s
2.2
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1.9
2.1
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W3 .
25t THE WHEAT PLANT.
We also see that, almost invariably, there is a higher per-
centage of nitrogen where mineral manures as well as ammo-
niacal salts have been used, than in the produce of the cor-
responding unmanured plots. A closer examination shows,
however, though the indication is not uniform, that there is,
nevertheless, an obvious tendency to a lower percentage of
nitrogen, wher6 the mineral constituents also have been em-
ployed, than where the ammoniacal salts have been used alone ;
and with this there is, on the average, a somewhat higher
weight per bushel, indicating higher degree of maturation.
Then, again, what are the circumstances of these experiments,
under which an increased percentage of nitrogen in the fixed
substance of the produce, is obtained by a supply of it in
manure? The unmanured plot, with its low percentage of
nitrogen in produce, is shown by the field experiments, to be
greatly exhausted of the annually available nitrogen, rcktively
to the annually available mineral constituents required by the
wheat crop. The plot, with the ammoniacal salts alone, is
shown by the field results to be defective in the requisite and
available minerals, relatively to the available nitrogen, and
hence the crop is grown under a relative excess of the latter.
Again, the plots with mineral manures and ammoniacal salts
together, received so far an excess of the latter, as to yield,
with the minerals, a larger crop than the average of the lo-
cality under rotation, and larger also than the average of sea-
sons would ripen healthily. It is then, under these artificial
and abnormal circumstances, of the somewhat unnaturally
low percentage of nitrogen, from obvious defect of it in rela-
tion to the developing and maturing capabilities of the season
on the one hand, and the obviously relative excess of it on
the other, that we got an increased percentage of nitrogen in
wheat-grain by the use of it in manure. Even under these
extreme conditions, the range of variation by manuring is
very small ; and there is nothing in the evidence that justifies
the opinion, that, within the range of full crops and healthy
maturation, the percentage of nitrogen in wheat-grain, can
AMOUNT OF MATTER DEPENDS ON MATURITY. 255
be increased at pleasure by tbe use of it in manure. That
very opposite extremes of condition of soil-supply, may
directly influence the composition even of wheat-grain, is
however illustrated in the percentages of mineral matter, as
well as those of nitro";en, civen in the table. Thus, taking:
the mean results only, we have, with the relative excess of
mineral constituents on the unmanured plot, the highest per
cent, in the produce; with the greatest relative defect on the
plot with ammoniacal salts only, the lowest per cent, in the
grain ; and with the medium relation in the other plots, the
medium per cent, in the produce. Excepting, however, ab-
normal conditions, as already remarked, variation in climatic
circumstances, has much greater influence on the percentage-
composition of wheat-grain, than variation in manuring.
Let us now turn to the composition of the ash of wheat-
grain. Independently of the defect of a sufiicient number of
published analyses of wheat-grain ash, a dozen years ago,
when we took up the subject, it was then generally believed
that the composition of the ash of vegetable produce, would
vary considerably with the supplies of the difi"erent constitu-
ents in the soil ; it was thought, indeed, that according to the
abundance of their presence, one base might substitute an-
other, as for instance, soda, potash, and so on. About the
same time that we undertook a series of wheat-ash analyses,
the ashes of various succulent vegetables were also analysed.
This latter investigation led us to conclude, that the fixity of
the composition of the ash of such substances, depended very
much upon the degree of maturation of the produce ; and in
fact that some constituents — soda and chlorine for instance —
occun-ed in much larger quantities in the more succulent and
unripe, than in the more elaborated specimens. It seemed to
be perfectly consistent with this experience, to find in the ash
of a comparatively perfected vegetable product like wheat-
grain, a considerable uniformity of composition — such indeed
as the analyses now to be recorded will indicate.
These analyses were made ten years ago by Mr. Dugald
256 TUE "SVIIKAT I'LANT.
Campbell, and the late Mr. Ashford. And as, since that time,
the methods of ash-analysis have in some points been im-
proved upon, it will be well to give an outline of the plan
then adopted : especially as it is by a consideration of the ten-
dencies to error on some points, that we must interpret the
bearings of the actual figures given. On this point we need
only add, that Mr. Campbell fully concurs in the tenor of our
remarks.
Method of Analysis : — Three portions of ash were taken.
No. 1. In this the sand, silica, and charcoal, phosphate of
iron, phosphoric acid, lime, and magnesia, were determined.
The ash was dissolved in dilute hydrochloric acid, evaporated
to perfect dryness, moistened with hydrochloric acid, boiled
with water, and the insoluble matter collected and weighed,
as — sand, sih'ra, and charcoal. To the filtrate, acetate of am-
monia was added after digestion, the precipitate separated,
dried, ignited, and weighed — as phosphate of iron. To the fil-
trate now obtained, a solution of a weighed portion of pure
iron dissolved in nitro-hydrochloric acid was added, then
acetate of ammonia, and the mixture digested until the whole
of the iron was precipitated as phosphate of the peroxide with
excess of peroxide from which was calculated the phoi^phiric
acid. From the solution filtered from the phosphate of iron
and oxide of iron, the lime was separated as oxalate and
ignited as carbonate ; and from this last filtrate, the magnesia,
by phosphate of soda and ammonia.
No. 2. A second portion of ash was put into a carbonic acid
apparatus, the acid, if any, evolved by means of nitric acid,
and determined by the loss. The solution being filtered, sul-
phuric acid was separated by nitrate of baryta ; and afterward
chlorine by nitrate of silver.
No. 3. To a solution of a weighed portion of the ash in
hydrochloric acid, caustic baryta was added in excess, and the
precipitate separated by filtration ; the excess of baryta was
then removed by carbonate of ammonia, and the filtered solu-
tion evaporated to dryness, the residue heated to redness and
PROBABLE ERRORS AS TO BASES. 247
weighed ; water added, any insoluble deducted, and the re-
mainder taken as chlorides of potassium and sodium ; a solu-
tion of chloride of platinum was now added to separate the
potash ; the soda being calculated from the loss.
It is now admitted, that the separation of phosphate of
iron from the earthly phosphates by acetates of ammonia as
above described, is unsatisfactory ; and it is probable the
amounts given in the tables as phosphate of iron are too high,
and if so, part of the difference should obviously go to the
earthy bases. For a similar reason, it is possible that the
phosphoric acid determinations may be somewhat too high —
also at the expense of the earthy bases. Then, again, it is
well known that in practice the process for potash and soda is
one of some delicacy ; and that the tendency of manipulative
error is to give the soda somewhat too high. We conclude
upon the whole, that our phosphoric acid determinations may
be somewhat high ; our phosphate of iron pretty certainly so ;
and probably the soda also ; the other bases being, on this
supposition, given somewhat too low.
The wheat-grain ash -analyses, twenty-three in number, and
referring to the produce of three separate seasons, and of
very various manuring, are given in the following tables —
numbered IV., V., and VI. respectively.
22
258
THE WHEAT PLANT.
00
^
w
1-1
e
pq
CS
<
H
g
%
s
m
kC U5 1 CO •* CO t~ 1— CO 1 i-T 1
C3
(M_ •'l^ C£> 1 1-H C5 CO i-l Tti 1 '— 1
S
CO 7^" cr^ im' 06 ■ i-H CO ' (N 02
S
Tt. CO CO
(N .-H
I--
CO oco«>ooocc?o I'm!
«
As 10, in Bape Cake,
CO 'M, 05 C<\ I- -; CO ■* r; I-
'>\\
154 Iba.
CO c ca oc ?i ^' CO = 1-i 1 ~ 1
■* COQO
•^ 01 rl
\^\
«
As IT), with soda and
CO eo ■>* CO » —
00 kO CO ■* 1.-5 CO CO cc
'- 1 '^ 1
•»*< cr
Sulphate Ammonia,
co" (m' co' c^' ^" (m' cc ' r-' co' ' !-<■ I cc I
Go lbs.
T*. CO 00
lO (N r-l
K-
ir.
Suiterphosphate Lirae,
Pota;-h, ani! iMagne.sia,
050i-;o cooqqoq.-;ox
-T
and Silicate Potasli.
CO (N co' (M* CO C5 ' CO * .-
X
•^ CO 00
lO 9< 00
1
IN r^ --O 'T OJ r-
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tT i "r:
>,
q CO q q X CO .-« | — |
Im
"3 '"'
SS 35 " CO ' C>)
1 ^-
a
<
"* !N —1
1 ■
Superphosphate Lime
cc
ooooiNOi-HiNu.':
X
Ti< q CO oc
■*. ■■; "*. ""i ^ '". '-'^ "'■
X
r-
700 lbs. Kape Cake,
CO* 05 oi I-
oi r-: ,-! IN ■ c
a:
150 lbs.
•*< 10 00
r« IN ^ ^
05
^-v^-^
,/
C-(N
a a
0) ' ' a
rj C C
-73 t3 5i
's
:
cS Q
3 ;^ B >
■>
a
haracters of the Prod
Per Cent. Corn in T(
Weight per bushel
Per Cent. Dry Substa
•
2
a.
£
ol
1
s
c
£i
S c
a
2
'0
f
c
a
s
c
IS
= £
4
C
Z
c
s
■r
«
a
1
:
:
a
< S
U
TABULAR STATEMENT OP EXPERIMENTS.
259
I C^ l-< 2 CO 'T3 *t3 TJ
D- =■ g* ° 2. ^ '^^
D *^ "^ S! "^ p
^ 1^ 1-1 2 1 ?"
t>0'^ o «>
i (> '-»5
►;• CO
B C^E"
52. CO
3 O-
o
■D
P
0{
n
IsS
cr :
K';
Y" :
s
CO _ ?* t^ . 00 to 00
CO tC bi Cn O en OS '05
SDO^IOOOCOI-'CO
CO CO Oi ■:© CO en
to OO 0-» 00 *. ■
CO IsSi-iCOO tCll-'O
>-» I to § CO o o k) o to
00 O ~a k^
CD to Ol -4
•saoa
•pajnuBraufi
OO Oi CO
t-i I— ' -J ^
bo I-' bi CO
•paanaBiaaji
CD CO to en
(•uo q
-niog) ■Biuora
-uiy aq^uoqjBQ
CO -^ -J CO
00 en CO
H-i p ;-J *>■
CO CO bi to
00 Oi CO
H-* p en en
CO OS '-4 Ifi.
■sqi 095 ani'o 8*183;
■sqi SlI ■Biuoiurav
equqding '-sqi gn
'amjl eqBdsoqdaadng
■sqi fZZ 'Binoui
-tny ejuqdins •sqi
tZZ PPV oiJOiqoojp
-jCh •sqii'ZS qsu-auoa
<^'^s ^ 3 =
to S a to 3-
s
^
1^
u-
<1
^
QO
CO O to CD to CD
00 Cn CO
h-1 p p »(^
CO CO CD H-*
to h-i --I CO
260
THE WHEAT PLANT.
CO
t§
H
.s
1-1
?
CQ
i;!5
<
e
H
g
"s-
•2
-^
1
O.
O CO C<1 O X -^ l^
o
-*
DO
CO CO i-< Ci
CO -rfi-,— f~ 00 ^-ir
Ol
CO CO T)< i-I
ai ^ di ' o CO 'in
a>
Tfi CD 00
■* (M r-
02
r«
r- cj js^"-!
T-H
COCDOOO-^C-It-O
o
?. < 3 o .a
I-- (M_ o; C5
p p ^ p CO (Tj .-< p
C:
n
■=" .£ ,2 s a M
CO CO Co' r-J
O CO CJ ' O -*; ■ CO
d
,_,
.c u M -r; » £
TJ( to cc
»0 (M 1-t
O
■ ■ ^
£.H£-5
o
CO (M O C 0? rl 00 CI
i-i
li-iii
CO o CO 05
t-;CDOO-^CO gcD
t~;
C^ CO ■^' 1-H
00 c] p CO C >-
>-C
or
Un manured.
■^^i CO Tj<' im'
ci i-H d ' d (m' i * ^
x'
tone.
■* CD CO
lO CO r-l «-
Ci
"^o :
S^ :
• o - .
pro
ress
e in
ubst
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g-^O "CC
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5
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,a
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:
E
o
.5
racter of the P
er Cent. Corn i
"eight per busln
er Cent. Dry Sii
er Cent. Ash in
stituents of As
hosphoric Acid
hosphate of Iro
c
1
a
_c
'Z
c
c
e
C
e
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•
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r H
c
JCnlSCkPH
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►^ '^
PHOSPHATES ESSENTIAL TO WHEAT. 261
It is at once seen, tliat this ash may be reckoned to contain
neither sulphuric acid, carbonic acid, nor chlorine. The latter
at least occurred only occasionally, and then in such small
quantities as to lead us to the supposition that its presence is
accidental, or at any rate not essential, in the ash of a per-
fectly ripened grain. From the frequent absence of soda
again, and from the uncertainty in its determinations as above
alluded to, we are led to look at it as an equally unessential
ingredient in the grain-ash of perfectly ripened wheat. Ex-
eluding then the chlorine, the soda, the iron of the phosphate
of iron, and that portion of the matter collected as insoluble,
which may have been soluble silica — the whole of these, on the
average, amounting to a very few per cent. — the ash of wheat-
grain is seen to consist essentially of phospTiaies only; the
bases being potash, magnesia and lime. The potash amounts
to nearly one-third of the whole ash ; the magnesia to rather
more than one-third of the potash ; and the lime to about one-
third of the magnesia.
If we now compare with one another the analyses of the
eight different ashes in 1844, those of the seven in 1845, or of
the six in 1846, having regard to the manures by which the
crops were grown, it is impossible to say that these have had
any direct and well-defined influence upon the composition of
the ash of the grain. Thus we find, looking at the Table for
1844, that several of the plots manured with super-phosphate
of lime, yield a grain-ash having no higher percentage of
phosphoric acid than that of the unmanured plot. Again,
where potash is added (plots 15, 16 and 18), the percentage
of it in the ash is not greater than the average of the cases
where it was not employed. And again, in the only case
where soda was employed (plot 16), there is none of it found
in the ash ; nor, lastly, is the percentage of magnesia ob-
viously increased by the use of it in manure. A similar de
tailed consideration of the composition of the ashes of the
seasons of 1845 and 1846, would, as already intimated, lead to
a similar conclusion. In fact, the variations in the composi-
262 THE WHEAT PLANT.
tion of the ash of this supposed ripened product, according to
the manure by which it is grown, seem to be scarcely beyond
the limits of error in the manipulation of the analysis ; thouj^h,
one case at least of the duplicate analysis of the same ash —
namely, that of No. 9, 1844 — indicates the range of variation
from this cause to have been but small; in the other (No. 17,
1845), it was somewhat greater.
Although the accuracy of the analyses may not be such as
to show the difference in composition, if any, dependent on
manure^ yet it is found to be quite adequate to indicate the
marked differences in the degree of deveJopment and maturatiem
of the grains, dependent upon season. Before calling atten-
tion to the figures illustrating this point, it should be re-
marked that the season of 1845 was the worst but one, and
that of 1846 nearly the best, for ripening the grain, during
the thirteen years of our continuous growth of wheat. And
we shall find, consistently with this, and with the conclusions
arrived at in connection with Tables I. and III., that the
variation in the composition of the ash is, comparing one year
with another, much the greatest in the produce of the bad
ripening season 1845, and much the least in the good ripening
season 1846. This point, and some others are illustrated in
the following Summary Table, No. VII.
TABULAR STATEMENT OF ANALYSES.
263
o •j_,
O
o
o
ty
COOOCCIrlV'COhJiTlMa
M M
aracters o
Per Cent.
Weight p
Corn
§
arbonic
hlorine,
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P
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ii
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[3
264 THE WIIKAT PLANT.
Looking at the first Division of this Table VII., it is seen
that in the item of p/ios/>/w;-iV acid^ the variation in the per-
centage among the several cases in each year, is the greatest
in 1845, and the least in 1846 j in the phosphate of iron, it is
the greatest in 1845 ; in the potash, it is the greatest in 1845,
much less and about equal, in 1844 and 1846 ; in the soda, it
is much the greatest in 1845, and much the least in 1846 ; in
the magnesia, it is again far the greatest in 1845, and it is the
least in 1846. In the ease of the lime, we have an exception
to this general indication, dependent on the two low amounts
of it given for Nos. 2 and 3, 1846; but if these are really in
error in the direction suggested at the foot of Table VI., the
indication would be the same as for the other constituents.
We have then in the circumstances of the seasons, and in the
comparative characters of the produce coincident with these
variations, the evidence that for one and the same description
of grain, in a perfectly matured condition, the composition of
the ash will be, within certain narrow limits, constant.
So far as the constituents of the ash of the entire grain of
wheat is concerned, we have only further to call attention to
the three other Divisions of this Summary Table No. VII.
In these are shown, side by side :
In the second Division of the Table, the mean composition
of the ashes for each of the three separate years ;
In the third Division, the mean composition for the three
years together : (a) of the grain-ash from the unmanured
plot— (i) of that from the farm-yard manured plot — (c) of the
grain -ashes from all the other manures during the three years,
including 17 cases ; and
In the fourth and last Division, the mean composition of
all our own wheat grain-ashes analyzed, 23 in number, by the
side of the mean of 26 analyses of the grain -ashes of wheat,
of different descriptions or grown in different localities, pub-
lished by Mr. Way.
We will go into very little detail discussions of these mean
results, as the points they illustrate have most of them already
CONCLUSION OP EXPERIMENTS. 265
been alluded to. We may first remark, that the mean percent-
age of lime is the least in the bad year 1845, and the greatest in
the good year 1846. Again, it is greater in the average from the
manured plots, than in that from the unmanured. We may
perhaps here anticipate by saying, that this is at any rate con-
sistent with what we shall afterwards have to record, namely,
that the ash of the finer flour — of which there is a grcatci
proportion in the grain of the seasons of best maturation — •
contains more lime than that of the coarser and more branny
portions of the grain.
Lastly, in reference to this Summary Table, we would call
attention to the mean composition of wheat-grain ash yielded
by the twenty-six analyses given by Mr. Way, by the side of
that of the twenty-three specimens grown at Rothamsted.
Mr. Way's analyses, equally with our own, show that wheat-
grain ash essentially consists of phosphates of potash, mag-
nesia, and lime. He, however, if we exclude silica, gives
higher percentages of base, and a lower one of acid, than our
own analyses indicate. Mr. Ways' average amount of phos-
phoric acid is indeed nearly five per cent, less in the ash than
ours. His series, however, included many descriptions of
wheat, and our own only one — the Old Red Lammas. In
several of his cases, too, we observe that the percentage of
this acid very closely approximates to our own average."
23
266
THK WHEAT I'LANT.
CHAPTER XI
GROWTH OF THE WHEAT PLANT.
Having discussed the chemical doctrines of vegetable life,
so far as the wheat plant is concerned, in our preceding re-
marks, we will now proceed to describe the process of germin-
ation, development, aiid maturation during, and hy the agency
of which, those inorganic elements, destined for the food of
men and animals, after preparation by means of the plants,
are collected and combined. It is the especial province of
plants so to combine and arrange the inorganic elements of
which all animal bodies are composed, as to fit them for recep-
tion into, and assimilation in these organisms, and every mat-
ter connected with such important functions can not fail to be
an interesting subject for investigation.
The ripe, well-formed, and fully developed wheat grain,
magnified to six times its average size, is seen in figure 10.
The appearance of such a grain is so fam-
iliar as to require only a passing notice.
At one end of the berry, which is some-
what egg-shaped, with a longitudinal groove
in one side, a number of short hairs or bris-
tles are seen, and at the other, the scar or
point at which the grain was attached to the
parent stem. Near this point on the convex
side of the grain, is a spot marking the
position of the embryo or organs of germin-
ation, or the germ itself, known in common
parlance as the " chit.'" This germ spot may
■'■"":• 1'^- be studied by the aid of Fig. 10, which is a
ma-aiitied view of a wheat c;rain with the bran removed from
where it covers the germ externally, a marks the body of
GERMINATION OF PLANTS. 267
the grain where the greater portion of the starch or flour is
deposited, h the edge of the outer covering of the grain, d the
proper envelop of the germ, e c e is the germ, and as the
use of this is a subject of interesting inquiry, we will dwell
upon its form and office for a moment. The same principle
which obtains in the germination of a grain of wheat obtains
also in the germination of all other seeds, and the only dis-
coverable diflference between the germs of one plant or seed
and those of another, is a slight difference of anatomical
arrangement, which has given rise to the grand division of
plants, by botanists, into monocotyledonous and dicotyledon-
ous classes.
The cotyledon is best studied perhaps in the bean or pump-
kin, and is in the seeds of these and many other plants made
up of the halves of the seeds which adhere to the plumule, or
first sprout, which emerges from the ground in the form of
thick, green, ovate leaves, and being two in number, they give
origin to the name dicotyledon. The use of these cotyledons
is to give nourishment to the developing germ until able to
draw its food from the earth. Plants, among which is wheat,
having no division of the seed into halves as the bean, acorn,
etc., are styled monocotyledons, from this fact — but whether
the cotyledons be single or double, it has physiologically the
same purpose to accomplish, that is, supplying the germ,
which represents in itself the yet to be perfect plan, with the
nutrient materials stored away in the form of starch, gum, oil,
etc. in the grain or seed, and upon the perfect performance of
which function the health of the new plant mainly depends.
The germ Fig. 10, e e e, representing the future plant, con-
sists of three principal parts. First, the portion yet to be de-
veloped as the plumule or ascending sprout e, 6 ; second, the
part e e, from which the radicle or first rootlet is developed ;
and third, a band bisecting the germ, which is the crown of
the roots, or division line between the roots and stalk, and
which in some plants represents the stem or trunk of the
future tree. /, e, g, is that part which becomes developed as
268
THE WHEAT PLANT.
a root, first c^ the radicle, which after a short life, having served
its purpose as a root, is generally re-absorbed, being a rudi-
mentary part and then /,
'IIIK WIIKAT i'r,.\Nr.
FlO. H.
cicntly developed to furnish the parent
and young plants with the requisite
kind and amount of nutriment, then
the original or seminal roots are ab-
sorbed and disappear. This fart is
denied by Mr. D. J. Browne of the
Agricultural Department of the Pat-
ent Office in his report for 1857, but we
can not conceive how we possibly can
be mistaken in our observations, be-
cause we have examined the plant
sown at all depths from one to seven
inches, and have never found any
tillers at a greater depth than from
£ one-half to three-fourths of an inch
B- from the surface, although we have
- found seminal roots at the depth of
r. five inches on the same plant which
tillered at the depth of half an inch.
This was uniformly the case in all our
observations ; we were not led to expect
to find tillers at any point except at
the seminal roots, and to us at least
the fjxct was new that the plant threw
out two sets of roots; and for this
reason we made extensive observations,
because at first we supposed the coronal
roots to be adventitious or accidental,
and not the uniform law which we
found it to be. In the spring time or
even late in the fall when the plant
has tillered, it presents the appearance
represented in Fig. 15 — that is the
multiplied stalks proceed from roots
in no case exceeding an inch from the
surface of the soil. The seminal
REMARKABLE POWER TO TILLER.
287
roots entirely disappear after tillering has fairly commenced,
and we are certain that the plant does at no time after tillers
have been formed depend
upon the seminal roots
for existence. If it did,
how will Mr. Brown ex-
plain the fact that not
unfrequently are the sem-
inal roots severed by up-
heaval caused by frost in
winter? Or how will he
explain the following fact
if the life of the plant
depends on the seminal
roots ? :
In the " Philosophical
Transactions " it is record-
ed that Mr. C. Miller, of
Cambridge, the son of the
eminent Horticultu-
rist, sowed, on the 2d of
June, a few grains of
common red wheat, one
of the plants from which
had tillered so much, that
on the 8th of August he
was enabled to divide it
into eighteen plants, all
of which were placed
separately in the ground.
In the course of Septem-
ber and October so many
had again multiplied their
stalks, that the number of plants which were separately set
out to stand the winter was sixty-seven. With the first growth
of the spring the tillering again went forward, so that at the
FiQ. 15.
288 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
end of March and beginning of April, a farther division was
made, and tlie number of plants now amounted to 500. Mr.
Miller expressed his opinion that before the season had too far
advanced one other division might have been effected, when
the number might have been at least quadrupled. The 500
plants proved extremely vigorous, much more so than wheat
under ordinary culture, so that the number of ears submitted
to the sickle was 21,109, or more than forty to each of the
divided plants ; in some instances there were one hundred ears
upon one plant. The ears were remarkably fine, some being
six or seven inches long and containing from sixty to seventy
grains. The wheat, when separated from the straw, weighed
forty-seven pounds and seven ounces, and measured three
pecks and three quarters, the estimated number of grains
being 570,840. Such an enormous increase is not of course
attainable on any great scale, or by the common modes of
culture ; but the experiment is of use as showing the vast
power of increase with which the most A'aluable of vegetables
is endowed, and which by judiciously varying the mode of
tillage may possibly in time be brought into beneficial action.
The divisions above referred to must have been made from
the coronal roots — they could not possibly have been made
from the seminal roots; because the seminal roots produce o?(e
stalk only— that the new stalks proceed from the coronal roots
only must be evident to every one who has ever made any
examination of the subject. The seminal roots in short can
no more produce two or half a dozen stalks direct from them-
selves, than two or half a dozen cows can produce one calf
and each one have an equal share in the maternity.
A writer in the (British) Farmer's Magazine insists that the
tillers proceed from the seminal roots entirely, and says of
the coronal roots that "so ftir from being an essential appen-
dage to the plant are entirely accidental in their formation ! "
But in the course of his article he says " the establishment
of this fact (that the plant is nourished entirely by the semi-
nal roots) greatly strengthens the argument in favor of deep
PROCESS OF TILLERING.
289
sowing, by which the chance of the formation of a joint
below the surface is rendered more certain, which also insures
the formation of coronal roots." Query. — If the coronal
roots are " accidental " and subserve no purpose in elaborating
nutriment for the plant, xoJiy is it desirable to 'produce them?
Nature makes no mistakes ; and has in the wheat plant
provided the coronal roots as a means of multiplying the
plant, in order that the
grains may be produced in
the greater abundance. Fig.
18 represents the tillers of a
mature stalk and I will ven-
ture the assertion without
fear of successful contra-
diction that no one ever Fia. is.
found such a union of stalks at a depth of five or six inches
from the surface of the ground during the life-time of the
plant — neither have any roots ever been found above the place
from whence these united stalks proceed.
25
290 THE WHEAT PLANT.
\
CHAPTER XIII.
WHEAT REGIONS OP THE WORLD.
Notwithstanding cereals other than wheat are in general
use as a staple article of food among the laboring classes in
Europe, Asia and South America, yet considerable wheat is
grown in all these countries. Wheat is extensively grown in
New South Wales ; at the Cape of Good Hope, is grown to
some extent in the African Barbary States and Egypt, in
Asia Minor, in Europe generally, in Arabia, Persia, etc. It
is also grown in Chili, La Plata, New Grenada, Ecuador, and
other South American States.
Summer and winter varieties are grown in almost all these
regions ; but both the polar and equatorial limits necessarily
difi'er somewhat, although this difference is not definitely as-
certained, because travelers, and even botanists, very seldom
allude to the distinction. In Scotland wheat is cultivated
north of Inverness in Latitude 58"^, in Norway, at Dvonthciui,
latitude 6-1°, in Sweden to latitude G2°, in Western Kuss^ia in
the environs of St. Petersburg to latitude 60° 15', while the
polar limits in Central Russia are at 59°. Wheat is here
almost an exclusive cultivation, especially in a zone which is
limited between the latitude of Tchernigov, latitude 51°, and
Ecatherinoslav, in latitude 48°.
In central and western Europe wheat is cultivated chiefly
in the zone between latitude 36° and 50° ; further north rye
is generally preferred. South of this zone, new combinations
of heat, with humidity and the addition of many other cul-
tures, very sensibly diminish the importance of the wheat crop.
In Chili and the United States of Rio de la Plata, the cul-
tivation of wheat is very productive. On the plateau of South-
EUROPEAN WHEAT REGION. 291
ern Peru, Meyen saw most luxurious crops of wheat at a
hight of 8,500 feet, and at the foot of the volcano of Are-
quipa at a hight of 10,600 feet. Near the Lake Titicaca,
which is situated at an elevation of 12,846 feet, and where a
climate of constant spring prevails, wheat very seldom ripens,
in consequence of the coldness of the summer nights.
It is not known with any degree of certainty how far north
on the American continent wheat may be grown. At Cumber-
land House, which is situated in latitude 54° N., long. 102°
20' W., the oflficers of the Hudson's Bay Company have estab-
lished a prosperous agriculture. Capt. Franklin found fields
of barley, wheat, and even Indian corn, growing there, not-
withstanding the extraordinary severity of the winter. The
polar limits of the cultivation of wheat are the more import-
ant, since, during a part of their course, they coincide with
the northern limits of those fruit trees which yield cider, and
in some parts also with the limit of the oak, agriculture and
forests both undergo a sudden and remarkable change of ap-
pearance on approaching the isothermal line, or line of equal
summer temperature of 57° 2'.
The physical condition of the polar limits of wheat in
countries where the cultivation has been carried to its utmost
extent is as follows :
Mean Temperature in Fahrenheit.
CouNTKiES. Latitude. Year. Winter. Summer.
Scotland (Inverness) 58° 46° 35° 57°
Norway (Droutheim) 64° 40° 25° 69°
Sweden 62° 40° 25° 59°
West Russia (St. Petersburg) ... 60° 15^ 38° 16° 61°
This table shows how little influence winter cold has in
arresting the progress of agriculture toward the north ; and
this is confirmed in the interior of Russia, where Moscow is
much within the limits of wheat, although its mean temper-
ature is, according to Schouw, 53° 2'.
The isothermal curve of 57° 2', which yppears to be the
minimum temperature requisite for the cultivation of wheat,
passes, in North America, through the uninhabited regions of
292 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Canada. The isothermal curvo (or line of places having an
equal winter temperature) of 68° or G9°, which appears to be
the extreme limit of the possible cultivation of wheat, toward
the equator oscillates between latitude 20° and 23°.
In Europe the cultivation of wheat is carried to a greater
extent than in any other quarter of the globe. Annexed is a
table showing the average product for a series of years in
European countries. Of Russia and Turkey the amount ex-
ported only could be ascertained ; but we are in possession of
no facts by which the amount produced could be determined
with any degree of certainty : —
Wheat Produced in Continental Europe.
Austrian Empire 27,735,508
British " 145,800,000
Fiance 191,422,248
Russia (exported) 18,921,776
Belgium 13,349,100
Denmarli 2,902,748
Holland 3,597,888
Portugal 5,499,280
Sardinia 19,975,000
Spain 40,914,800
Sweden and Norway 1,100,784
Turkey (exported) 4,028,720
Two Sicilies 04,000,000
Canada (North America) 60,470,184
The following table, compiled from authentic sources, ex-
hibits the amount that Great Britain imported from other
countries during a period often years, ending in 1852. From
this table will be seen how very little wheat is imported from
the United States by England ; the average amount^ as shown
by the above table, is 5,154,245 bushels annually. This is
less, by more than half a million of bushels, than one-fourth
of the amount that Ohio annually produced, from 1850 to
1857, inclusive : —
BRITISH IMPORTS OF AVHEAT.
293
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294 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Wheat Trade of the B/he, e/c— Next to Dantzic, Hamburg
is, perhaps, the greatest grain market in the North of Europe,
being a depot for large quantities of Baltic corn, and for the
produce of the extensive countries traversed by the Elbe.
The exports of wheat from Hamburg amounted, at an aver-
age of the eleven years ending with 1841, to 210,871 quarters
a year. The price of wheat is frequently less in Hamburg
than in Dantzic ; but this lowness of price is altogether
ascribable to the inferiority of the Holstein and Hanover
wheats, which are generally met with in great abundance in
Hamburg. Wheat from the upper Elbe, is of a better quality.
Bohemian wheat is occasionally forwarded by the river to
Hamburg; but the charges attending its conveyance from
Prague amounts to full 15s. a quarter, and prevents its being
sent down, except when the price is comparatively high. In
1841, the shipments of wheat from Hamburg amounted to
507,400 quarters,' of which 460,900 were for England.
French W heat Trade. — It appears from the account given
by the Marquis Garnier, in the last edition of his translation
of the Wraith of Nations, that the price of the hectolitre of
wheat at the market of Paris, amounted, at an average of the
nineteen years, beginning with 1801 and 1819, to 20 francs
53 cent., which is equal to 30 francs 80 cent, the septier ; or,
taking the exchange at 25 francs, to 45s. 6d the quarter.
Count Chiiptal, in his valuable work, Sitr V Induatre Franf^oise,
published in 1819, estimates the ordinary average price of
wheat throughout France at 18 francs the hectolitre, or 428.
lOd. the quarter. The various expenses attending the impor-
tation of a quarter of French wheat into London, may be
taken at a medium of 6s. the quarter. France, however, has
very little surplus produce to dispose of; so that it would be
impossible for her to export any considerable quantity without
occasioning a great advance of price.
The mean of the different estimates framed by Vauban,
Quesnny, Expilly, Lavoisier, and Arthur Young, gives 61,-
519,672 septiers, or 32,810.000 quarters, as the total average
WHEAT IN FRANCE. 295
growth of the difl'erent kinds of ^rain in France (Penchet
Statistique Eileinentain). We, however, take occasion to
observe that there can not be a doubt that this estimate
was a great deal too low : and the more careful trans-
lations of the late French staticians fully confirm this
remark.
The annual produce of the harvest of France was lately
(1843) estimated, from returns obtained under official author-
ity, at 69,558,000 hectolitres of wheat, and 112,958,000 ditto
of other sorts of grain ; making in all 182,517,000 hectolitres,
or 62,740,000 imperial quarters. Of this quantity it is sup-
posed that about sixteen per cent, is consumed as seed, nine-
teen per cent, in the feeding of different species of animals,
and two per cent, in distilleries and breweries.
The foreign grain trade of France was regulated, till within
these few years, by a law which forbade exportation, except when
the home prices were below certain limits, and which restrained
and absolutely forbade importation, except when they were
above certain other limits. The prices regulating importations
and exportations differed in the different districts into which
the kingdom was divided. Latterly, however, importation has
been at all times allowed under graduated duties, which, like
those recently existing in England, become prohibitory when
the prices sink to a certain level. The frontier departments
are divided into four separate districts, the prices iu each dis-
trict governing the duties on importation into it, so that it
sometimes happens that grain warehoused in a particular port,
where it is not admissible except under a high duty, has been
carried to another port in another district, and admitted at a
low duty. An official announcement is issued on the last day
of each month, of what the duties are to be in each district
during the succeeding month.
iSpatiish Grain Trade. — The exportation of grain from Spain
was formerly prohibited under the severest penalties. But in
1820, grain and flour were both allowed to be freely exported,
and in 1823, this privilege was extended to all productions,
296 THE WHEAT plant.
(fnifos) the growth of the soil. There is now, in fact, no
obstacle whatever, except the expense of carriage, to the con-
veyance of grain to the seaports, and to the foreigner.
Owing, however, to the grain-growing provinces being prin-
cipally situated in the interior, and to the extreme badness of
the roads, which renders carriage to the coast both expensive
and difficult, the exports are comparatively trifling; this diffi-
culty of carriage frequently gives rise to very great differences
of prices at places in all parts of the country, only a few
leagues distant.
Grain Trade of Odessa. — Odessa, on the Black Sea, is the
only port in Southern Europe from which any considerable
quantity of grain is exported. We believe, indeed, that the
fertility of the soil in its vicinity, has been much exaggerated ;
but the wheat shipped at Odessa is principally brought from
Volhynia and the Polish provinces to the south of Cracow, the
supplies of which are susceptible of an indefinite increase. Ow-
ing to the cataracts in the Dnieper, and the Dniester having a
great number of shallows, most part of the grain brought to
Odessa comes by land-carriage. The carts with grain are
often in parties of 150 ; the oxen are pastured during the
night, and they take advantage of the period when the peas-
antry are not occupied with the harvest, so that the charge, on
account of conveyance, is comparatively trifling.
Both soft and hard wheat are exported from Odessa ; but
the former, which is by far the most abundant, is only brought
to England. Supposing British wheat to sell at about GOs.,
Odessa wheat in good order would not be worth more than
52s. in the London market ; but it is a curious fact, that in
the Mediterranean the estimation in which they are held is
quite the reverse ; at Malta, Marseilles, Leghorn, etc., Odessa
wheat fetches a decidedly higher price than British wheat.
The hard wheat brought from the Black Sea comes princi-
pally from Taganrog. It is a very fine species of grain ; it
is full ten per cent, heavier than British wheat, and has less
than half the bran. It is used in Italy for making maccaroni,
/
WHEAT REGION IN TUB UNITED STATES. 297
vermicelli, and all things of that sort ; little of it has found
its way to England.
The voyage from Odessa to Britain is of uncertain duration,
but generally very long. It is essential to the importation of
wheat iu good condition, that it should he made during the
winter months. When the voyage is made in summer, unless
the wheat is very superior, and be shipped in exceedingly
good order, it is almost sure to heat, and has sometimes, in-
deed, been injured to such a degree as to require to be dug
from the hold with pickaxes. Unless, therefore, means be
devised for lessening the risk of damage during the voyage,
there is little reason to think that Odessa wheat will ever be
very largely imported into Britain. The entire expense of
importing a quarter of wheat from Odessa to London, may be
estimated at from 16s. to 18s. The exports of wheat from
Odessa, and other ports on the Black Sea, to Constantinople,
the Levant, Italy, the south of France, etc., have latterly
been very large indeed. In 1846, the exports from Odessa
only amounted to 1,276,502 quarters, and in 1847 to 2,016,-
692 ditto ; the latter being, we believe, the largest exportation
that ever took place in a single year from any single port
Owing to the scarcity in England, about 400,000 quarters of
the above quantity were shipped for that country, but the
speculation entailed a heavy loss on the importer. The price
free on board at Odessa considerably exceeded 40s. a quarter.
Eacydopedia Brittanica.
WHEAT REGION IN THE UNITED STATES.
A failure of the wheat crop in England affects the ex-
changes of the whole world ; and a scarcity in France gener-
ally brings about a revolution.
In a country so extensive as ours, we need not fear a fail-
ure ; but the boast so often made, that " we can feed the
world from our surplus," is vain boasting. Beyond feeding
our own great and constantly increasing population, we shall
298 THE WHEAT PLANT
not, generally, have any great surplus. We too often think
that all our wild land is wheat land. This is far from being
true. The land properly adapted to wheat, is limited to ten
degrees of latitude, and twenty of longitude — embracing only
about half of the States. Outside of this belt, wheat is
raised, but it is generally a poor article of spring wheat, no
better than northern rye.
To show that our wheat region is not capable of producing
so,great a surplus as we imagine, we have only to look at facts
instead of fancies. We may take, perhaps, as the average
crop of wheat produced, that of 1848— which was 126,000,000
bushels — and our population 22,000,000, which gives a trifle
over five and a half bushels to each inhabitant. Now the
consumption of wheat in England is 166,000,000 bushels an-
nually, which gives six bushels to each inhabitant — about
half a bushel more to each person than we should have if we
consumed our whole crop. It is true we have a surplus that
will average ten or twelve million bushels a year for export,
but that is produced by the substitution of corn for wheat,
as an article of bread. Cut off this substitute and we
should be our own consumers of all our wheat and
there would be a scarcity besides. As our exports have
scarcely, if ever exceeded twelve million bushels, we may
safely take that as the average surplus. Besides guarding
against a partial failure of a crop of corn or wheat, we have
also to look to the constant flow of population to our shores
from abroad, as well as to the natural increase at home. The
foreign tide setting to our shores may be put down at 400,000
annually : all of whom must be fed, for the first year at least.
But it is estimated that our population will double in twenty-
five years ; and if our wheat-growing sections are fixed, and
stationary in quantity, we must increase the ratio of wheat
to the acre, or our surplus will, by the next census, be meas-
ured by the algebraic quantity of Minus.
The following tables of wheat grown in each State, were
compiled from the census returns of 1840 and 1850 :
AMOUNT OF WHEAT GKOWN IN EACH STATE. 299
1840. 1850.
Alabama 838,52 294,044
Arkansas 105,878 199,639
California 17,228
Columbia,Districtof. 12,147 17,370
Connecticut 87,009 41,992
Delaware 316,165 482,511
Florida 412 1,027
Georgia •.... 1,801,830 1,088,534
Illinois 2,335,393 9,414,575-
Indiana 4,049,375 6,214,854
Iowa 154,093 1,530,581
Kentucky 4,803,152 ' 2,142,822
Louisiana 60 417
Maine 848,166 296,259
Maryland 3,345,783 4,494,680
Massachusetts 157,923 31,211
Michifran 2,157,108 4,925,889
Mississippi 196,626 137,990
Missouri 1,037.366 2,981,652
New Hampshire 422,124 185,658
New Jersey 774,203 1,601,190
New York 12,286,418 13,121,498
North Carolina 1,960,855 2,130,102
OHIO 16,571,661 »14, 487,351
Pennsylvania 13,213,077 15,367,691
Rhode Island 3,098 49
South Carolina 968,354 1,066,277
Tennessee 4,569,692 1,619,386
Texas 000 41,929
Vermont 495,800 535,956
Virginia 10,109,716 11,212,615
Wisconsin 212,116 4,286,231
Minnesota, 1,401
NewMexico 196,516
Oregon 211,943
Utah 107,702
Total 88,513,270 100,585,844
»Crop of 1849— the crop of 1850 was 28,709,139.
300 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Our Agriculturists do not appear to be sufficiently aware
of the facts — or at least manifest great indifference with re-
spect to them if they arc — namely : the limited area of wheat
land and the necessity of properly managing it so as to produce
the greatest possible amount of wheat with the least possible
exhaustion of the soil — let us examine the different sections
of our country, and see the extent of those adapted to the rais-
ing of wheat.
The State governments of New England have, by the offer
of premiums, encouraged their farmers in the production of
wheat ; but though much labor may produce small crops, we
believe all will agree that New England is not, and can not
be, a wheat-producing section. The States south of North
Carolina, or say latitude 33°, never have, and never will be
wheat-growing States. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Missouri
are best adapted to corn, and wheat can never be regarded as
the great staple of either. Cotton is the staple of Tennessee ;
hemp and tobacco of Kentucky and Missouri. Kentucky and
Missouri, too, are unsurpassed as grazing sections, and for
raising stock ; and there is no reason to suppose that they
will change the agriculture best suited to their condition, for
wheat culture.
Indiana, Illinois, and " The Far "West," are painted to us as
the great wheat regions, to which we are to look for the wheat
to supply the world. The common idea is, that this whole
region is peculiarly adapted to wheat ; but this, like many
other popular theories, may not be strictly correct.
The prairie sod — the virgin soil of the West — when first
broken up, generally produces good wheat. So it will be in
New England. But virgin soil will not always last — like
virgin beauty it becomes old and fades with age. The prairie
sod consists of friable mold, and when, by cultivation, and
exposure to the atmosphere, it becomes completely pulverized,
and then covered with surface water, as much of it frequently
is, the frost will heave the wheat out of the ground, and it is
winter-killed. If the plants are so fortunate as to escape
DETERIORATION OP WHEAT SOILS. 301
winter-killing, this friable mold, when dry, is an almost im-
palpable powder, and the high prairie winds will blow it from
the roots of the plants, exposing them to the dry and parching
rays of the sun, and what the winter has spared the summer
kills. These effects will not always follow, but the older these
prairie lands become the more subject will they be to them.
It is a melancholy truth, and one that reflects much on the
skill and foresight of American farmers, that, while the wheat
crop of England has increas"ed at least fifty per cent, in the
last century, that of the United States has fallen off in nearly
the same proportion. A century ago, New England, Delaware,
and Virginia raised wheat as an ordinary crop ; now a wheat-
field is a rarity in these States, and they may be considered as
no longer wheat-producing regions. Portions of New York,
that formerly produced thirty bushels to the acre, now seldom
average over eight bushels ; and Ohio, new as she is, with
her virgin soil, does not average over thirteen bushels to the
acre.
If we go on as we have for the past century, from bad to
worse in our tillage, the lands in Ohio, in half a century from
this time, will not produce wheat enough to supply our own
wants. It is less than that time since Vermont was a large
wheat-exporting State; now she does not export a bushel,
but imports at least two-thirds of all the flour consumed in
that State. Instead of increasing the productiveness of our
wheat land, as is done in England, our wheat region is dimin-
ished more than one-half, and the productive quality of what
is still used has diminished in equal proportion.
This is a practical, matter-of-fact view of the case, and one
that addresses itself seriously to the common sense of the
farmer and national economist.
To look at facts : Illinois, high as she stands in reputation,
as a wheat-growing State, is behind cotton-growing Tennessee,
and hemp and tobacco-growing Kentucky, in the production
of wheat. Illinois produces less than seven bushels of wheat
to each inhabitant, while Tennessee produces nine bushels,
302 THE WHEAT PLANT.
and Kentucky produces seven bushels and a half to each
inhabitant.
Illinois no doubt feels highly flattered at the account of
the fertility of her soil as stated by James Caird, a member
of the British Parliament, who journeyed through that State
in the autumn of 1858, and published a work (in May, 1859)
on " Prairie Farming in the West." In that work he
says of Illinois:
" The characteristic soil of this State is that of the prairies,
of which it chiefly consists, and to which alone my attention
was directed. They comprise many million acres of land,
more or less undulating — in their natural state covered with
grass, which is green and succulent in May, June, and July,
shoots up in autumn from three to six feet in bight.
" How the prairie formation originated it is unnecessary
here to inquire. It is sufficient to know that we have a soil
evidently of great natural fertility, which, for thousands of
years, has been bearing annual crops of grass, the ashes or
decayed stems of which have been all that time adding to the
original fertility of the soil. So long back as we have any
knowledge of the country, it had been the custom nf the In-
dians to set fire to the prairie grass in autumn, after frost set
in, the fire spreading with wonderful rapidity, covering va.st
districts of country, and, filling the atmosphere for weeks with
smoke. In the course of ages a soil, somewhat resembling an
ash-heap, must have been thus gradually created, and it is no
wonder that it should be declared to be inexhaustible in fer-
tility. In Europe such tracts of fertile country as the plain
of Lombardy, are known to have yielded crops for more than
two thousand years without intermission, and yet no one says
that the soil is exhausted. Here we have a tract naturally as
rich, and with the addition of its own crops rotting upon its
surface, and adding to its stores of fertility all that time. It
need occasion no surprise, therefore, to be told of twenty or
thirty crops of Indian corn being taken in succession from
SOILS OP II-LINOIS. 303
the same land, without manure, every crop, good or better,
according to the nature of the season.
" Externally the prairie soil appears to be a rich black mold
with sufficient sand to render it friable, the surface varying in
depth from twelve inches to several feet, lying on a rich but
not stiff yellow subsoil, below which there is generally blue
clay. This drift surface lies on rocks consisting of shales,
sandstones, and limestones, belonging to the coal measures.
" Its chemical composition has been ascertained for uie by
Prof. Voelcker, consulting chemist to the liuyal Agricultural
Society of England, to whom I sent four samples of prairie ,
soil for analysis, brought by me from different and distant
points of the lands belonging to the Illinois Central Kailway
Company. They bear out completely the high character for fer-
tility which practice and experience had already proved these
soils to possess. The most noticeable feature in the analysis,
as it appears to me, is the very large quantity of the nitrogen
which each of the soils contains, nearly twice as much as the f
most fertile soils of Britain. In each case, taking the soil at
an average depth of ten inches, an acre of these prairies will
contain upward of three tons of nitrogen, and as a heavy
crop of wheat with its straw contains about fifty-two pounds
of nitrogen, there is thus a natural store of ammonia in this
soil sufficient for more than a hundred wheat crops. In Dr.
Voelcker s words, ' it is the largest amount of nitrogen, and
the beautiful state of division, that impart a peculiar character
to these soils, and distinguish them so favorably. They are
soils upon which I imagine flax could be grown in perfec-
tion, supposing the climate to be otherwise favorable. / have
never before armli/sed soils which contdined so miieh nitrogen, nor
do I find any soils richer in nitrogen than these.' "
If the nitrogen doctrine were the correct one — that is, that
nitrogen in the soil is the only indispensable element to insure
abundant crops of wheat, then we should expect these prairie
soils to be the most prolific ones in the world. But there are
304 THE WHEAT PLANT.
other elements as well as nitrogen indispensably necessary, of
which more mention in detail will be made in a subsequent
chapter.
To avoid the evils of winter-killing in the culture of wheat,
in Illinois, they have resorted to the culture of spring wheat,
sown on the land where the fall-sowed crop had been winter-
killed. This increases the quantity at the expense of the
quality, for every one who has observed the quotations of
wheat in New York, must have observed the depreciation" in
Illinois wheat. Even the spring wheat, as such, is of an in-
different quality. But the honorable member of Parliament
himself is of opinion that these prairie soils are not adapted
to wheat, although " rich in nitrogen^ He says, in continu-
ation :
" Though these soils are so rich in nitrogen, they seem to be
too loose for wheat, which is undoubtedly a precarious crop
upon them. The open prairie country is so wind-swept in
winter that the snow seldom lies long to any depth, and the
young wheat is thus left unprotected to the frost. Should it
escape that, it is liable to be thrown out by the rapid changes
of weather in spring — and if it is fortunate enough to escape
both, it is sometimes destroyed, as it was last year, by its en-
ormously rapid growth in forcing summer weather, growing,
as it does, almost on a muck heap. In such a season as the
last, the prairie wheat crops of Illinois were injured precisely
in the same manner as our own in this country sometimes
suffer from a too heavy dose of guano, in a warm, moist sum-
mer. The growth is too rapid, the vesicles of the stem burst,
and the ear does not fill. I can not doubt that Prof. Voelcker
indicates the proper remedy for this in the application of
lime, in which these soils are comparatively deficient. It
would consolidate the soil, render the wheat less liable to be
hoven, and help to strengthen the straw, and render the
growth less rank. There is abundance of lime in the country,
so that the remedy is at hand, and will undoubtedly be applied
under a more scientific system of agriculture.
DEFICIENCIES IN WESTERN SOILS. 305
"Autumn wheat is the most valuable corn, but it is also
the most difl&cult to be grown, for it has to withstand the un-
protected severity of the winter. The earlier it is sown after
the 1st of September, the more likely is it to succeed, and it
is generally successful when sown on the first and second
crops of a newly-plowed prairie which had been broken in
proper season. If any of it should have been destroyed by
frost, the ground is sown in spring with spring wheat, and this
seldom fails.
"The geological survey of Iowa and Wisconsin, carried on by
order of Congress, gives the reasons why those Western States
can not be permanently first-rate wheat lands. The report
states that 'a striking feature in tlie Iowa and Wisconsin
soils (and the same remark applies to the Illinois prairies) is
the entire absence, in most specimens, of clay, and the large
proportion of silex.' "
Now silex, or sand, and calcareous earth, and humus, are
necessary for wheat ; but it also requires a considerable mix-
ture of clay.
An agricultural writer, the late Mr. Coleman, states that
" The soil preferred fur icheat, in Uiiglarul, is a strong soil, with
a large proportion of clay." The absence of this clay is
what renders the prairie soil so friable, and is the great
desideratum in the soil to make it a permanently productive
wheat soil.
Henry L. Ellsworth, of Indiana, an extensive farmer, and
able agricultural writer, says : " After a full consideration of
the subject, I am satisfied that stock raising, at the West, is
much more profitable than raising grain. The profits of wheat
appear well in expectation, on paper, but the prosj^ect is blasted
by a severe winter — appearance of insects — bad weather in
harvesting, in threshing, or transporting to market — or, last,
a fluctuation in the market itself."
Solon Robinson, a prominent agricultural writer, says : " In
southern Indiana, Illinois, all of Kentucky, Tennessee, and
northern Missouri, it [wheat] is afi'ected by the rust. It is
26
306 THK WHEAT PLANT.
the most precarious crop in the West, and altogether unsafe
for the farmer to rely on."
These parts form the belt of ten degrees of latitude, and
twenty degrees of longitude, as the wheat-growing section of
the United States. Much of this section, even, is now, by
continued cropping, exhausted and unproductive. Maryland,
Virginia, and Delaware, are worn out, and although naturally
adapted to wheat growing, must remain unproductive until
restored by nature, or a kind of culture difl'erent from that
furnished by slave labor.
The natural, and permanent wheat region, lies between lati-
tude 33° and 43° North. Wheat can be produced North and
South of this belt, but cotton, sugar, and tobacco will ever be
more profitable South, — and even a part of the territory within
these bounds is better adapted to cotton, tobacco, and hemp,
than it is to wheat. A part of it is exhausted ; and a part of
it, for want of clay in the soil, will, by cultivation, become
friable — a black mud that will freeze out the plants in winter,
and an impalpable dust that will blow away and leave the roots
bare in the summer.
This wheat section embraces Ohio, the south parts of Michi-
gan and New York, the whole of Pennsylvania, Maryland,
Virginia, and Delaware; and in these States we find where is
raised, or has been, the greatest wheat production. Ohio
stands at the head of all the wheat-growing States, in the
aggregate of her production. Her crop in 1850, was twenty-
eight million bushels, being nearly sixteen and a half bushels
to each inhabitant. The geological survey of the State gives
the reason, and confirms the statement, that "a large nn.rfure
of clay in (he soil is ncccssaiy to the perfect (jroicth of uJaat,"
and that the absence of it, from the soil of the prairies of the
W^est, would prevent them from ever becoming permanently
good wheat-producing sections.
Thus, the reports of the geologicpl survey of Ohio ehows
the soil to be "clayey," "clayey loam," and "clay sub-soil,"
and it produces sixteen and a half bushels to each inhabitant,
OHIO WHEAT SOIL. 307
wliile Indiana, with a richer soil, produces only eight and a
half bushels, and Illinois, with a still richer soil, produces
only seven bushels to each inhabitant. Virginia, Maryland,
and Delaware, as well as New York, were formerly great wheat-
producing sections. But many parts of New York, that for-
merly produced twenty-five bushels to the acre, do not now
average over five bushels ; and many parts of Maryland, Vir-
ginia, and Delaware, that formerly produced abundantly, will
not now pay the cost of cultivation. Exhaustion is written
all over them, in language too plain to be uiisunderstuod.
Ohio has reached her maximum of wheat production, and,
if not retrograding, is at least stationary. Thirteen bushels
to the acre, may be set down as an average production, and
this average must continue to grow rapidly less, till, like the
exhausted lands of Virginia, her soil will not produce enough
to support the cultivator, unless an improved system of hus-
bandry is introduced to increase its fertility. One great
source of deterioration in exhausting our soils, has been in
the manufacture of potash, and the export of it to foreign
countries, or to our manufactories. In this way our soil has
been robbed of an ingredient, without which no plant can
mature, and no cereal grain form. As our forests have dis-
appeared, this source of deterioration must be cut off, but
a serious injury has been inflicted, which nothing can cure but
the re-furnishing of the potash to the soil. How it can be
done, is the great inquiry for our fjirniers.
The export of our flour has been another source of exhaus-
tion to the soil, in taking away from it the phosphate of lime
that is necessary /to give plumpness to the kernel.
This exhaustion can be more easily remedied by the appli-
cation of bone dust. For many years the English farmers
have carried on a large traffic in old bones, paying five dollars
a ton for them. This has stimulated many to gather them
up, and even rob the battle-fields of Europe of the bones of
their brave defenders, to enrich the wheat fields of P^ngland.
By this course, the fields of England have been made more
308 THE WHKAT PLANT.
productive, while the countries from which the bones are
taken have been permanently injured by their loss.
The English, too, have .sent to every i.sland oi South Amer-
ica to procure vitve.^ in the form of guano, to fertilize their
fields, while the Americans not only import little or none, but
negligently waste that which nature forces on them.
The idea of skinning the soil of our wheat-growing sections,
with a view of abandoning them soon and going west to pro-
cure new and fertile wheat land, must itself be abandoned, as
we are on the western verge of the permanently good wheat
producing section.
Our only resource now is to preserve our wheat lands where
they are not exhausted, and to restore them where they are.
Under judicious and scientific tillage, the lands of England,
that have been under cultivation for hundreds of years, now
produce twenty-five bushels to the acre. This is done by a
liberal use of lime, plaster, clover, and a judicious rotation
of crops. In wheat-raising, this rotation is clover and corn.
Peas, beans, turnips, beets, and carrots, all furnish a good
rotation, and furnish good food for sheep, which arc good on
wheat land. In fact the culture of wheat and raising of sheep
should go together. The rotating crops furnish food for the
sheep, and the sheep furnish the best of manure for wheat
land. All the manure derived from the sheep should be care-
fully preserved for enriching their land. It is highly concen-
trated, and prepares the land for a generous crop of whea^at
a small expense. The manuring agent consumes the crop
that gives the land rest from wheat culture, and prepares the
soil for another crop of wheat.
In order that the capacity of Ohio for wheat-growing, as
well as other crops, may be more fully understood, the follow-
ing table, exhibiting the entire amount of land owned by
individuals in each county, as well as the quantity and quality
.of each description of land — that is, the amount of plow land,
meadow land and forests in each county, have been compiled
with — I 'Tl 00 03
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TABLE OF ACRES SOWN IN OHIO.
318
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314
THE WHEAT PLANT.
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BUSHELS OF WHEAT GATHERED IN OHIO.
319
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320 THE WHEAT PLANT.
The crop of 1857 was greater iu area and more prolific than
that of the preceding year. From the preceding statistical
table, it will be seen that the wheat crop has gradually been
decreasing, not only in the area devoted to it, but in the quan-
tity produced per acre. The crop of 1850 was sown on
1,658,106 acres, yielding upward of seventeen bushels per
acre, on an average, throughout the State. In 1855, there
were more than 250,000 acres less in wheat, producing less
than fourteen bushels per acre. In 1854, the average pro-
duction was less than eight and a half bushels per acre, owing
to the depredations committed by the red weevil, or midge
(Cecidomyia tritici) in some portions of the State, and to
freezing out, or winter-killing in other portions. The next
year, 1855) however, almost 70,000 acres less (than in 1854)
produced about seven and a half million bushels more of wheat.
If the wheat cultivators of Ohio had practiced a general
system of underdraining their clayey soils, and had thoroughly
understood the natural history of the midge, a loss of nearly
ten million bushels of wheat in 1854 could have been avoided.
Owing to the depredations of the midge and other insects,
and owing, also, to " winter-killing," or " freezing out," the .
fiirmers of Ohio have lost nearly twenty million bushels of
wheat during the five years last past. From 1850 to 1853,
both inclusive, the crops averaged 14.6 bushels per acre ; the
crop of 1854 then should have been 21,548,651 bushels, instead
of which, it was 11,819,110 bushels only, being a decrease
from the average aggregate of 9,729,541. The crop of 1856
was less than the average from 1850 to 1853 by 6,247,357;
the losses attributable to destructive insects, want of under-
draining, etc., may be stated as follows :
1853 8,640,348 bushels.
1854 9,729,541 "
1856 6,247,357 "
Total I9,6r7;2i6
Or about 14 per cent, of the entire amount produced from
1850 to 1856, both inclusive, or 30 per cent, of the amount
produced during the four years from 1853 to 1856.
WHEAT DISTRICT CHANGING.
321
There is no industrial pursuit in the State other than that
of agriculture which could sustain such extensive losses with-
out seriously embarrassing, not only those immediately con-
cerned, but the entire industrial community.
There appears to be a gradual change taking place in the
locality of the wheat region of Ohio. From the completion
of the Ohio canal wheat has been the great staple of export
in the following counties, viz., Belmont, Coshocton, Mus-
kingum, Fairfield, Guernsey, Jefferson, Harrison, Holmes,
Stark, Tuscarawas and Wayne.
Of all these counties, Stark appears to be the only one which
retains its former position as a wheat-growing county — all the
others having greatly degenerated in this respect; while on
the other hand, the great corn counties of the Miami and Sci-
oto vallies have taken the position formerly occupied by them.
The counties of Butler, W&rren, Preble, Clermont, Hamil-
ton, Dark'e, Brown, Highland, Ross, Pickaway and Franklin
raised more wheat in 1857 than in 1850, which was the year
of the largest crop, and more than was ever raised in one year
by these counties. These counties lying in the southern half
of the State seem to suffer much less from the ravages of in-
sects ; and thus their crops correspond more nearly to the num-
ber of acres planted. The relative amount of wheat raised
in these counties in 1850, 1855 and 1857 is thus expressed :
Counties.
1850.
1855.
1857.
Brown
360,093
529,390
317,400
447,813
378,928
370,478
159,133
444,172
265,760
356,764
429,681
438,440
338,574
479 882
Butler
789 569
Clermont
Darke
557,757
495 ''12
Hamilton
380;224
756 571
Highland
495,392
294,162
338,829
471,605
359.046
447,042
Franklin
443 641
Pickaway
Preble
631,442
670 484
Ross
Warren
666,000
603 095
Aggregate
3,947,143
6,373,877
322
THE WHEAT PLANT.
The following were the products of wheat in the same num-
ber of counties, in what was called the wheat region :
Counties.
Belmont
Coshocton ...
Fairfield ....
Guernsey....
Jefierson ....
Muskingum
Harrison ....
Holmes
Stark
Tuscarawas.
Wayne
Aggregate 7,531,757
1850.
667,311
862,809
690,089
564,787
616,180
1,003,096
632,778
640,459
1,071,177
883,071
1855.
555,548
184,367
403,808
293,613
280,398
482,042
224,610
132,161
923,102
489,238
426,746
4,395,633
1857.
403,566
182,552
582,137
176,483
205,987
324,011
190,666
309,300
997,790
390,435
650,280
4,413,207
These tables are very significant. In eleven counties in the
southern part of the State, the wheat crop of 1857 was
2,426,734 bushels greater than in 1855. In eleven counties
of what is called the " Wheat Region," the reduction is
3,118,550 bushels since 1850. In fact, a close analysis shows
that almost the entire reduction in the wheat crop of Ohio is
in a few counties only. The doctrine of a rotation of crops —
or at least of not raising wheat as a continual crop, appears
to be very clearly indicated from the above tables and state-
ment.
Plow deep, then; bring up the phosphates from below, and
then apply your manure. Soils must be plowed deep to pro-
duce good wheat — ^first, to get the phosphates, and, secondly,
to give the roots of the wheat plants a chance to run deep.
One acre plowed twelve inches deep will produce more wheat
than four acres plowed six inches deep.
Again we say — plow deep — save all your manure, and use
it freely; apply your lime, clover, and plaster; rotate your
crops; and instead of thirteen bushels to the acre being an
average crop of wheat, you will just as easily get an average
of twenty -five. Turn your attention to renovating your lands,
DIMINUTION OF THE WUEAT DISTRICT. 323
instead of dreaming of the fertile West, and make Ohio what
she was intended to be, the granary of the Union. Unless
our farmers turn their attention, and very soon too, to the
renovation of their wheat lands, even Ohio will soon he among
the non-producing ichcat lands. That portion of Canada, w^hich
is included in the wheat region, is no longer profitably culti-
vated with wheat, and has fallen off, in wheat production,
from 22,981,244 bushels to 942,835 bushels in a year. This
falling off of over twenty-two millions of bushels of wheat in
the annual crop was gradual, but took place between 1827 and
1844. This has curtailed the product of the crop in the
wheat-growing regions immensely, and Canada may be left out
of the wheat region.
Wheat requires " a large mixture of clay in the soil for its
perfect growth," for want of which the territory west of Ohio
can never be a permanent wheat-growing region, and Vir-
ginia, Maryland, and Delaware, and most of New England,
are exhausted by long continued cropping without renovation.
It will be seen, then, that the wheat region is narrowed down
to very confined limits, and, what is more lamentable, these
limits are becoming less productive. It is on this account
that we call attention to this all-important subject. Unless
our farmers are roused up to this subject, the small remaining
wheat region will be so nominally only ; or, like Illinois, must
soon be turned to the production of spring wheat.
In a work called "American Husbandry," published in
England in 1775, the writer says: "Wheat, in many parts of
the province of New York, yields a larger produce than is
common in England. Upon good lands about Albany, where
the climate is the coldest in the country, they sow two bushels
and better to an acre, and reap from twenty to forty. The
latter quantity is not often had, but from twenty to thirty
bushels are common, and with such bad husbandry as would
not yield the like in England, and much less in Scotland."
Such was the productiveness of the wheat lands of New York
eighty years ago.
324 THE WHKAT PLANT.
In 1845, the average per acre of that same wheat land, in
Albany county, was only seven and a half bushels ; in Dutch-
ess county, only five bushels ; Columbia county, six bushels ;
Rensselaer, eight bushels ; and West Chester, seven bushels
per acre. In northern Ohio we believe we may safely place
the average product of wheat at thirteen bushels per acre.
Now, after a cultivation of about half a century, our yield of
wheat has decreased about one-half per acre. The process of
diminution is still going on, and unless soon arrested by the
application of proper manures, and a better system of tillage,
our average product, like those parts of New York to which
we have referred, will soon be between five and eight bushels
per acre.
In England, where the land has been in cultivation for
centuries, the average yield is thirty-six bushels per acre ; in
Scotland, thirty bushels ; and in England crops have been
raised as high as eighty-eight bushels to the acre.
Now it may be laid down as an axiom that, climate and
local circumstances being the same, what one soil will pro-
duce, another, by scientific cultivation, may be made to pro-
duce ; and that the farmer, from a like amount of skill and
labor in the cultivation of the soil, may anticipate the same
results that have attended like efforts in other countries. If
they pursue the exhausting process that has impoverished Vir-
ginia and some other States, they will reap an abundant crop
of poverty and exhaustion. The work is going on- rapidly.
The estimated loss, by exhaustion, in the United States, is,
annually, $30,000,000. This is equivalent to a loss of
^500,000,000 capital, at six per cent. If, by scientific culti-
vation and manuring, our farmers will arrest this system of
exhaustion, they will restore this capital ; and these lauds
that now produce from five to thirteen bushels of wheat to an
acre, can be made to produce as they do in England — twenty,
forty and eighty bushels.
As we have so long looked at the vast West as an inex-
haustible wheat region, it is hard to bring ourselves to a
THE WEST NOT A WHEAT REGION. 325
belief that it is not such^ and still more so to believe that it
is mostly a desert, incapable of producing anything, much
less good wheat crops. That our farmers may know that
what we say is literally true, we quote from Professor Henry,
secretary of the Smithsonian Institute. He says :
" We are nearer the confines of the healthy expansion of
our agricultural operations over new ground, than those who
have not paid definite attention to the subject could readily
imagine. The whole space of the West, between the 98th
meridian and the Rocky Mountains, denominated the great
American Plains, is a barren waste, over which the eye may
roam to the extent of the visible horizon, with scarcely an
object to break the monotony. From the Rocky Mountains
to the Pacific, with the exception of the rich but narrow belt
along the ocean, the country may also be considered, in com-
parison with other portions of the United States, a wilderness,
unfitted for the use of the husbandman.
" In traversing this region, whole days are frequently passed,
without meeting a rivulet, or stream of water, to slake the
thirst of the weary traveler. Between the parallels of 32°
and 33°, occurs the great Colorado desei't, extending to the
river of the same name, which empties into the Gulf of Cali-
fornia. The entire district is bare of soil and vegetation,
except a few varieties of Cactus. Over the greater portion
of the northern part of Sonora, and the southern part of
New Mexico, sterility reigns supreme.
" We have stated that the entire region west of the 98th
degree of west longitude, with the exception of a small por-
tion of western Texas and the narrow border along the
Pacific, is a country of comparatively little value to the agri-
culturist — and this line, which passes southward from Lake
Winnepeg to the Gulf of Mexico, will divide the whole sur-
face of the United States in two nearly equal parts."
It will thus be seen that comparatively all the wheat region
is in the eastern half of the United States ; that all west of
longitude 98°, which is a line from the west side of Lake
326 THE WHKAT PLANT.
Winnepeg to the west end of the Gulf of Mexico, may be set
down not only as a non-wbeat-producing region, but also as
mostly an unproductive desert.
In this manner we see that " one-half of all the territory of
the United States " is unproductive. Of the bulanee, Mary-
land, Virginia, Delaware, and New England may be said to be
exhausted — much of New York nearly so. Tennessee is de-
voted to cotton, Kentucky to tobacco, and Missouri to hemp,
narrowing down the area of the wheat region to a compar-
atively small territory.
Of this small territory, which we have designated as the
wheat region, Ohio may be said to be the western verge of the
real vfhestt-producing section. As this is contrary to the views
of most people, who think the rich prairies of Illinois are
great wheat-producing regions, we will give an extract from
" Emery's Journal of Agriculture, '' published at Chicago, the
ereat wheat market of Illinois.
" South of [Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, and Michigan],
the want of the snow coming to protect the young plants
from the almost constant freezing and thawing of winter, and
drying winds of March, make it, in most seasons, a very
uncertain crop. We have known good crops of winter wheat
on sod land, in the district indicated, but these are exceptions
to the general rule ; nor do we believe that winter loheat, nn an
average, has ever paid the expense of its culture in the section
now noticed. From the fact that its culture in that section is
generally abandoned, and spring wheat largely cultivated in
its place, we think the question is fully settled."
This authority, we think, fully sustains our position, that
Ohio is the most westwardly State in the wheat-producing
region. Indiana and Illinois are better adapted to other crops,
or to spring wheat, than to the choice winter wheat of Ohio,
Pennsylvania, and western New York. This narrows down
the wheat region to a small territory, and instead of the vain
boast that we can feed the world from our surplus wheat, indi-
cates that we must husband our resources, and stop the dete-
OHIO THE CENTER OP THE WHEAT REGION. 327
rioration of our soil by the liberal application of manure and
better tillage, or we shall soon be importers of wheat instead
of exporters, The most desirable portions of our territory-
have changed owners, and now belong to individuals instead
of the government. If these are exhausted the like can not
be again purchased.
Our farmers, then, must look to it. They must preserve
those wheat lands that are not exhausted, and renovate those
that are, or we shall soon be out of the pale of the wheat-
producing section, though in the natural wheat region. The
tide of population that is moving westward must soon stop, as
they will reach the verge of not only the wheat region, but
of the agricultural region. It must soon return eastward in
search of the wheat-producing region ; and to enable them to
find it a different system of tillage and manuring must be
pursued.
The following statement will, to say the least, be a matter
of interest and for future reference. Therefore, we have choset
it as an appropriate conclusion of this chapter.
328
THE WHKAT PL.4NT.
STATKMENT
Shorving the Annual Average Export Price of Flour at New
York from 1800 till June 30, 1855 ; also, The Annual
Average Price of Flour in the Cities of Boston, New York,
Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Orleans, and St. Louis, from
1800 till June 30, 1855.
1800
1801
1802
1803
1804
1805
1806
1807
1808
1809
1810
1811
1812
1813
1814
1815
1816
1817
1818
1819
1820
1821
1822
1823
1824
1825
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
1831
1832
1833
w
cs
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'ri
o
n
►73
^
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O
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3
k;
>Ti
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'3
i
pr
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$10.00
$11.00
$ 9.38
$ 9.75
13.00
12.10
10.14
10.85
9.00
8.17
6.19
6.94
7.00
7.55
6.01
6.75
7.75
8.97
7.15
7.81
13.00
11.25
9.59
10.15
7.50
8.25
7.13
7.15
8.25
7.73
6.76
7.10
6.00
6.25
5.15
5.59
7.50
7.63
6.79
6.43
8.25
9.42
8.77
9.87
10.50
10.42
9.05
10.40
10.75
10.90
9.08
9.95
13.00
14.67
7.76
9.29
14.50
14.57
7.76
7.67
9.25
8.95
8.17
8.68
7.37
9.40
9.34
9.75
14.75
12.27
11.72
12.12
10.25
10.50
9.42
9.85
8.00
7.70
6.79
7.19
5.37
5.25
4.81
4.94
4.25
4.42
4.85
4.92
7.00
6.94
6.39
6.48
7.75
7.34
6.93
6.90
6.62
6.07
5.93
5.62
5.37
5.57
5.19
5.00
5.25
5.24
5.00
4.69
8.00
5.64
5.14
5.27
5.50
6.14
5.50
5.29
5.00
6.81
6.54
6.25
7.25
5.26
5.03
4.83
5 62
6.05
5.84
5.82
-5.87
6.29
5.87
5.62
5.50
6.11
5.70
5.85
$11.42
11.42
7.00
6.50
7.33
12.08
7.33
7.50
5.75
6.50
9.40
10.67
10.12
10.17
8.50
7.92
8.67
10.31
9.59
6.56
4.65
4.64
6.36
6.89
5.54
4.88
4.78
5.15
5.48
6.37
4.86
5.61
5.79
5.69
$13.50
9.00
9.00
9.30
12.50
10.83
9.62
6.20
6.28
5.75
6.68
6.25
4.91
4.49
5.12
5.36
7.20
4.98
5.47^
6-84
5.23
$4.93
TABULAR STATEMENT OF EXPORTS.
329
^
p
o
C3
o
CO
'2,
CD
h3
51
to
!2;
3
o
$5.21
B
o
9
O
•-5
P
O
£2^
1834
$ 5.50
$ 5.42
15.07
$4.99
$5.19
$4.50
1835
6.00
6.42
6.00
5.75
5.84
6.35
6.25
1836
7.50
8.50
7.78
7.44
9.92
8.55
8.00
1837
10.25
10.18
9.69
9.75
9.43
9.10
9.12
1838
9.50
8.25
8.02
7.81
7.84
8.67
7.37
1839
6.75
7.20
7.40
6.89
6.65
6.57
7.19
1840
5.37
5.51
5.17
5.22
5.00
4.93
4.98
1841
5.20
5.77
5.39
5.34
5.31
5.33
4.75
1842
6.00
5.67
5.67
5.47
5.20
4.54
4.56
1843
4..50
4.87
5.07
4.60
4.36
4.18
3.75
1844
4.75
5.13
4.61
4.34
4.31
4.44
4.50
1845
4.51
5.32
5.00
4.69
4.63
4.83
4.93
1846
. 5.18
5.53
5.19
4.79
4.53
4.38
4.50
1847
5.95
7.17
6.80
6.02
6.21
5 54
4.93
1848
6.22
6.43
5.71
5.67
5.52
4.76
5.25
1849
5.35
6.00
4.96
4.84
4.83
4.61
5.43
1850
5.00
6.00
4.86
4.97
4.89
5.31
6.25
1851
4.77
5.25
4.19
4.38
4.18
4.00
4.88
1852
4.24
5.20
4.96
4.23
4.26
4.10
5.23
1853
5.60
6.27
5.51
5.47
5.39
5.48
5.08
1854
7.88
9.25
8.02
8.14
8.13
7.60
6.09
1855
10.10
10.25
9.06
9.62
9.57
9.36
7.83
Amount and Value of Expoi'ts of Wheat and Flour from the
V. S. at Decennial Periods.
Date.
WHEAT.
FLOUR.
Bushels.
Value.
Bbls.
Value.
1790
1,018,339
239,929
216,833
25,821
40S.910
868,585
1,026,725
619,681
1,102,444
1,445,012
1,056,119
1,806,525
1,515,817
2,202,33-5
1800
1810
1820
1830
1840
1850
20,925
523,270
822.881
1,025,732
4,298,043
9,938,458
7,759,646
10,524,331
Note. — The price of Flour for New Orleans and St. Louis could not be obtained for
earlier years than thone respectively given.
28
330 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER XIV.
CULTURE OF WHEAT.
Soil. — The culture of the soil is the chief characteristic
of civilization as distinguished from barbarism or savage-
ism, and the culture of the wheat plant more especially marks
this difference. In the early periods of the history of the
human race, herds and flocks were pastured on perennial
grasses which grew on the hill-sides and in the woodlands, but
mankind did not then suflSciently understand the laws of
Nature to reproduce by his own care and attention the plants
which his herds and flocks had exterminated ; therefore as
soon as the pasture became scanty by constant cropping, new lo-
cations were sought — habitations became temporary and tribes
of mankind were neces.sarily nomadic. But a new era dawned
upon the history of mankind when it was discovered that plants
could be reproduced by culture ; when for the first time it was
proclaimed that if the seeds of plants were carefully placed in
the soil appropriately prepared and at the proper season, the
plant would spring up from the seed as a Phoenix from its
ashes. In commemoration of this important discovery the
ancients instituted rites and ceremonies which were religiously
observed. The discovery produced a demand for implements
with which to scarify or scratch the surface of the soil and to
prepare a ^^ seed hexV for the seed; — to produce these imple-
ments required skill and labor, and thus was inaugurated a
branch of industry which from that day until the present has
been unable to supply the demand. The progress of Agricul-
ture — the introduction of better and more efficient implements
belong rather to the History of Agriculture, than a Treatise
on the Wheat Plant; it may therefore not be pertinent to
PHYSICAL PROGRESS. 331
enumerate any of the many changes which have been made.
The first im2>lements were necessarily exceedingly rude in con-
struction, uncouth in appearance and unwieldy to the opera-
tor. The primitive plow ! spade ! and sickle ! What a theme
for an antiquary ! And yet who shall dare deny that the rude
plowj^ shod perhaps, by some ruder son of Vulcan, the sickle
ill-favoredly forged, and the spade made ruder than either,
have not determined the fate, secured the happiness and civil-
ized the one half of mankind?
The culture of the soil although it has engrossed the con-
stant attention of at least one-fourth of the civilized portion
of mankind from the days of the first Thinite King of Mane-
tho's Egyptian Dynasties down to the present time, remains
almost as much an unsolved problem as in the days of the Pto-
lemies. Since the days of the last Egyptian King, a new
continent has been not only discovered but peopled ; — the little
islands which Caesar found sparsely inhabited by a race but
little superior to savages have become the most densely pop-
ulated portion of the globe, and produced works of art un-
surpassed by any thing of antiquity. These little islands
have grown mighty in power, and the sun never sets on their
dominions ! The Printing Press, Mariner's Compass, the ap-
plication of steam as a motive power both to machinery and in
navigation has been successfully consummated; the lightnings
have been converted into '■'■ mail-carriers ;'' the size and distance
of the planets have been accurately determined ; the telescope
and microscope invented, and the wonders of the planetary
and microscopic world revealed ; the composition of most of
the substances found in Nature has been determined by the
magic hand of the analytic chemist. Yet with all the pro-
gress made in arts and sciences, during the past two thousand
years, we have made no progress whatever in ascertaining pre-
cisely how the plant elaborates organic from inorganic sub-
stances — we know very little more of the process by which the
wheat plant prepares starch and gluten drawn from the earthy
substances in which it grows and deposits them in its grains,
332 THK WHEAT PLANT.
than was known in the days of Moses — to he sure we know
that the roots receive the nourishment from the soil — possibly
this was known to the ancients, and probably they believed the
function of the roots to be no other than merely to fix the
plant in its locality. Look at the long list of vegetable phys-
iologists of the present and past century — men who have devo-
ted not only a few months, but an entire lifetime in the
endeavor to determine the structure and function of the diifer-
ent parts of plants ; then turn to the list of names which
shine the brightest in chemistry, and ask if any one of them —
commencing with Black and ending with Liebig, have been
able to produce any organic substance from inorganic ones by
any chemical process? Can any of them from the same soil
on which the wheat plant thrives and flourishes produce by
any chemical process even a grain of starch, which is com-
posed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only? No, no.
Cbemistry has not yet penetrated the arcana of Nature, and
the little wheat plant has never yet revealed to man how or
by what mysterious process it elaborates starch from the soil.
Is then the science of Agriculture so simple and can any
one who runs, read it surely and correctly? Chemistry and
physiology aided by untiring investigations and observation
have placed the world in possession of many facts, from which
innumerable hypotheses and "y?»c spun'' theories were elabo-
rated."
When the chemist analyzed the diflPerent portions of the
wheat plant, as the stalk, chaff, grains, etc., it was very natural
to suppose that if substances containing the elements absorbed
by the plant were added to the soil, not only would its fertili-
ty not deteriorate, but the crops would absolutely be increased ;
the inference was rational as well as natural, but practice has
not confirmed the hypothesis. The theory has not been borne
out by practice for the reason that chemists as well as empirical
agriculturalists forgot that the ingredients added to the soil
miylit form new combinations with substances already there;
form combinations which to say the least would not be favora-
MINERAL MANURES NOT ALWAYS FERTILIZERS. 333
ble to the growth of the plant. Thus if a soil is strongly
■ impregnated with oxide of iron, and it receive a dressing of
gypsum or Plaster of Paris, the sulphuric acid contained in
the latter will combine with the iron, and form sulphate of
iron, or " copperas," which is exceedingly deleterious to the
growth of plants.
Chemists and agriculturists seem to have taken it for granted
that the plant would take up each element as it was placed in
the soil, and in cases where several elements were in combi-
nation that the plant would analyze or separate them. Some
combinations are readily separated or analyzed, while others
with the utmost difficulty only can be made to sever their
union. For example, in a mixture of clover seed, mustard
seed, flax seed, white sand and saw dust, a complete separation
of the several substances is readily effected, and each particu-
lar seed, or grain of sand or saw-dust withdrawn from the
combination ; but in a mixture of flour, milk, sugar, water
and yeast, the separation is infinitely more difficult — especi-
ally if the mixture (bread) is baked. The former of these
mixtures is a mechanical combination, while the latter is a
chemical one. Thus in the case referred to in the preceding
paragraph they would not be affected by the sulphuric acid, or
oxide of iron separately, but by the new combination, or cop-
peras, and the result would be that instead of the Plaster of
Paris acting as a fertilizer, it in that case at all events would
act very injuriously.
"If we submit," says Leibig in his last work on Agricul-
tural Chemistry CApril, 1859), " to a close scrutiny the com-
portment of the salts of ammonia, nitrate of soda, and com-
mon salt toward soils, we find that not one of these salts acts
in the same form in which it has been added to the ground.
The salts of ammonia are immediately decomposed by the
soil ; the ammonia is retained, while the acid enters into com-
bination with lime, magnesia, alkalies, or, in short, with any
basic substance in immediate contact, and capable of combin-
ing with it. The action of these salts is therefore of a two-
334 THE WHEAT PLANT.
fold nature. On the one hand, they enrich the soil with
ammonia; on the other, their acid gives rise to new com-
pounds which come into operation. The alkalies and alka-
line earths which combine with the acid acquire thereby a
greater degree of solubility, and are more readily dilluscd
through the soil. If the ground is rich iu magnesia or lime,
the salts of these bases are formed ; but their influence, with
the exception of that of gypsum on certain plants, can not be
estimated very high. The use of sal ammonia, instead of sul-
phate of ammonia, gives rise to chloride of mygnesium and
chloride of calcium, which acts rather unfavorably than other-
wise on vegetation. That salts of these bases are generated
by the action of soils on salts of ammonia, and that the new
salts exert no particularly favorable influence on the increase
of produce, are facts on which no doubt can rest. '
When chemists announced to the world that wheat grains
had been analyzed, and the component substances fully deter-
mined, both in a quantitative and qualitative sense, there were
not wanting those who reasoned from eifect to cause, and
sought to find in the soil the elements which gave rise to the
combinations and elements found in the plant and grain.
This class of theorists regarded the plant as a mechanical
machine, and appeared to take for granted that if certain
substances in certain quantities were added to the soil the
plant would mold them into wheat; it did not occur to them
that the plant was a laboratory, and operated in a chemical,
rather than in a mechanical manner.
The chemist announced that the ash of the grain was com-
posed of silica, phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, carbonic acid,
lime, magnesia, peroxide of iron, potash and soda. It then
was very natural to infer that these substances were withdrawn
from the soil, and to insure continued fertility must be
replaced. But as almost every soil contains these substances
and elements in greater or less proportion, one would as nat-
urally infer that all soils were wheat-producing soils. Tht"
next step to be consummated was to obtain an analysis of soils
ANALYSIS OF SOILS NOT llELIABLE.
335
in order to supply in an intelligent manner the materials in
■which the soil was deficient. This step undoubtedly was one
in a right direction, but too much was presumed upon the
ability of chemistry to determine. The quantity of some of
the elements essentially necessary are so very small that it is
difficult to determine whether they exist in too large or too
small quantities. Of some, a single grain by weight in a
pound of soil is all that is absolutely necessary, yet it is ex-
ceedingly difficult for the most expert chemist to determine
whether one-fourth of a grain, a single grain, or ten grains
exist in the pound of soil which he has analyzed. It is ex-
ceedingly difficult to determine from even a very correct
analysis of soils, which is fertile and which is otherwise, as
the following table, compiled from authentic sources, will
exhibit at a single glance : —
Silica and siliceous sand
Alumina
Peroxide and protoxide of
iron '
Peroxide of Manganese ...
Lime
Magnesia
Fotash
Carbonate of Soda
Piiosplioric acid, combined
with lime
Sulphuric acid, combined
with lime
Chlorine
Ilumus soluble in alkalies
Nitrogenous organic matter
Ilumus, insoluble
Carbonic acid
Organic matter
No. 1.
No. 2.
No. 3.
No. 3 a
No. 4.
70.900
79.538
87.143
94.261
80.68
6.996
7.306
5.666
1.376
6.55
6.102
5.824
2.220
2.336
{ ^-^
0.200
1.320
0.360
1.200
2.218
0.619
0.564
0.243
0.35
3.280
1.024
0.312
0.310
1.53
0.130
0.200
0.120
f
1.40
6.-556
0.024
0.025
■ 0.240
trace
0.53
1.362
1.776
0.060
0.05
0.149
0.122
0.027
0.034
0.05
0.067
0.03t5
036
trace
0.540
1.950
1.304
0.000
0.236
1.011
1.500
1.072
0.53
5.76
No. 5.
85.11
4.51
[ 3.15
0.77
0.63
0.74
0.22
0.12
0.06
0.31
4.38
No. 1 is an analysis of a very barren field. (Liehig). Yet
it has all the elements and combinations which are found in
No. 2. Lime, magnesia and soda are especially abundant in
it. No. 2, surface .soil of alluvial land in Ohio, remarkable
336 THE WHEAT plant.
for its great fertility. (Lirhig). No. 3^ surface soil of a
mouutaiiious district in the vicinity of the Ohio river, also
distinguished for its great fertility. (Licbig.) Who will say
that there is a closer agreement in the analyses of Nos. 2 and
3 than there is between Nos. 1 and 2? Yet No. 1 is sterile,
while Nos. 2 and 3 are remarkable for their fertility. No,
3 a is an analysis of the subsoil of No. 3. No. 4 is an
analysis of the prairie soil in Illinois (Voelker), and No, 5 is
an analysis of good wheat soil of England. The difference
between Nos. 4 and 5 is absolutely less than between Nos.
2 and 3, and yet on the prairie soils of Illinois winter wheat
can not be grown, while in England on soil of analysis No. 5,
the best wheat in the world is produced.
No absolute guide as to the fertility or barrenness is obtained
by a chemical analysis of the soil ; nevertheless chemical
analyses of soils should not be discouraged — they furnish
many data from which important results are obtained. The
fertility of the soil depends entirely on the amount of soluble
matter it contains — or rather the soluble condition of the in-
organic elements. The analyses of two soils may show that
they are composed of precisely the same elements and in the
same proportions, but the appropriate materials for the nutri-
tion of plants may in the one have been in a proper, while in
the other they were in an improper condition ; — no one can
judge from the analysis of a loaf of bread whether it was
'^ light" and palatable, or whether it was "saJ," and heavy
and unpalatable ; and yet the value of the bread depends
entirely upon the condition in which it was.
The best exponents of the fertility of the soil are the indi-
genous trees and plants which are found upon it. "Where
nature is the planter wo may rest assured, that the seeds are
placed in the soil most appropriate and congenial for them.
A soil in which the common beech tree flourishes is always
sure to retain considerable moisture, and as a general thing is
a heavy, stiff clay ; the pines and chestnut on the contrary are
found flourishing in a light sandy soil. The observations of
FOREST TREES EXPONENTS OP THE QUALITY OP SOIL. 337
all SO strongly confirm this view that it may be accepted as a
rule or law of nature. The organization of a plant is so deli-
cate, and for its proper. growth and development requires the
materials of the soil to be so precisely adapted to its wants, that
it can not flourish where any of the elements required by it
are either wanting, or not in a proper condition of solubility
in the soil. But as we do not know the j^^'cf^ise requirements
of each of the various species of trees and plants, we must
take it for granted that the tree or plant itself, where it is
fully and properly developed has found the requisite qualities
and conditions; and from this fact we are enabled to deter-
mine many nice distinctions in the soil, when their general
appearance of color, consistency, etc., are apparently identical.
The smallest indigenous plant that carpets the soil is just
as much an exponent of the soil as the giant oak, and indi-
cates the precise quality and condition just as much more
definitely as its structure and organization is more delicate
than the former. It is no argument that some plants are
found growing on very different soils — this only proves that
the plants^ have great tenacity of life, and great capacity of
adapting themselves to the different circumstances in which
they are placed. If, then, we rely upon plants of this char-
acter as exponents of the soil, we must be governed in our
judgments more by their size than by their presence. Thus
the common daisy thrives on a poor soil, but a thriving daisy
is not necessarily an evidence of a poor soil. It naturally
loves a good rich soil, but other plants may choke and smother
it, and it may be found flourishing upon good land when from
any cause even the grasses have failed.
Forest trees and indigenous plants may be regarded as
exponents of the physical condition of the soil, rather than
of its chemical composition. This assertion is amply con-
firmed by numerous facts. A soil on which oak, hickory and
tulip, or yellow poplar are the principal trees of the native
forest, is most suitable for the growth of wheat. Maple ^nd
beech producing soil is better adapted to spring or summer
29
338 THE WHEAT PLANT.
crops — such as barley, corn and potatoes. The adaptation of
"white oak soil" to winter wheat, and the beech and maple
to spring crops, shows that it is the plnj^icul condition that
determines the fitness of the soils for cultivnted crops ; for we
have only to bear in mind that winter wheat, barley, oats and
corn are identical in chemical composition. In both varieties
of soil the chemical constituents which are necessary to the
growth of beech, maple, oak, poplar and hickory, wheat, bar-
ley, corn and potatoes are present, but the physical condition,
or mechanical texture of the two is different. This difference
in the texture of soils seems to have a corresponding influ-
ence upon the healthy functions of certain kinds of trees
and cultivated crops with that which an undrained and marshy
soil is well known to have in this respect.
The following indications of soil from the character of trees
found growing on it is compiled from Michaux's American
Sylva :
White Oak (Quercus alba). This oak is not common on
lands of extraordinary fertility, like those of Tennessee, Ken-
tucky, and the Genessee Valley in New York. He relates
that he has traveled whole days in the spacious valleys watered
by the western rivers without seeing a single stock. The
White Oak is found in every exposure and on every soil
which is not extremely dry or subject to long inundations;
but the largest stocks grow in humid places, whore it compo-
ses entire forests. Where the surface of the country is undu-
lating, the soil yellow, consisting partly of clay with a mixture
of calcareous stones, abundant crops of wheat are produced.
From this we are led to infer that the White Oak flourishes
best on second rate soils— and also that wheat does best on
second rate soils. In confirmation of this view a short quo-
tation from "Agriculture in North America," by Robert
Russell (1857), may not be inappropriate. " Iji many of the
rich valleys of the State of New York — such as the Mohawk
— Indian corn is often cultivated on the same land for many
years in succession. On these soils it is said to produce, on
SOILS INDICATED BY OAKS. 339
the average of years, double, or even triple the number of
bushels on an acre that wheat will do, for the latter is a most
uncertain crop on all rich and loamy soils. Indeed through-
outHhe American continent, wheat only grows well upon soils
of moderate fertility, and such as are rather'deficient in veget-
able matter. The inferiority of the climate of America for the
growth of wheat upon rich soils, is counterbalanced, however,
by the superiority of its growth upon second-rate ones."
We believe it is the general experience that wheat in Ohio,
grown upon very rich soils, is much more liable to mildew,
rust, and to have tender straw, than upon soils of moderate
fertility only.
The Post Oak {Quercus^ ohtusiloha) is found wherever the
soil is dry, gravelly, and unsubstantial ; it forms a considera-
ble portion of the forests which are composed principally of
Black, Scarlet, Spanish, and Black Jack Oaks, Dogwood, etc.
Water White Oak (<2. lyrata) requires a more con-
stantly humid soil than any other species of this genus in
the United States — it is found exclusively in great swamps on
the borders of rivers. In these gloomy forests it is united
with the large Tupelo, White Elm, Wahoo, Plane tree. Water
Bitternut Hickory, and Water Locust.
Swamp White Oak (^. primis discolor) is found only on
the edges of swamps, and in wet places exposed to inundations,
and not in forests at large. A thorough system of under-
drainage will destroy all the Swamp and Water White Oaks,
wherever it is practiced — the fact that even surface drainage
is practiced to a considerable extent may account for the fact
that forest trees, such as Beech and Elm, which depend for
nutrition on the labors of the lateral roots, are rapidly dying
out in many parts of this and other States.
Chestnut White Oak {Q. prinns palustris) always chooses
spots that are rarely inundated, where the soil is loose, deep,
constantly cool and luxuriantly fertiie. The Yellow Oak (^Q.
primis acuminata') indicates a loose, deep, fertile soil. Rock
Chestnut Oak {Q. mnntana) indicates a rocky soil. The small
340 THE WHEAT plant
Chestnut Oak (^Q. prhncs cJiinra piu') indicates a barren soil
The Jack Oak, or Laurel Oak indicates a cool, humid soil.
The Black Jack Oak (Q./erruginea) is found on soils com-
posed of red, argillaceous sand, mingled with gravel. Ihe
Bear Oak (Q. Barrister^) is never found [naturally] mingled
with other shrubs in the forest, but always in tracts of several
hundred acres, which it covers almost exclusively — it is found
on dry, sandy lands, mingled with gravel. The Black Oak
(^Q. tiiicfo7-a) grows in any soil, but will flourish where the
soil is lean, gravelly and uneven ; is found in company with
Post, Spanish and Scarlet Oaks, with Mockerput Hickory, and
Yellow Pine. The Red Oak (Q. riihra) requires a fertile soil,
and cool climate.
Black Walnut (^Juglans nigra) grows in rich soil — not in
sandy or wet — grows with Honey Locust, Red Mulberry,
Shellbark Hickory, Black Sugar Maple, Hackberry, and Red
Elm. All these trees indicate the richness of- the soil in
which they grow. The Butternut {J. calluirticd) requires a
good soil. Michaux says that sugar has been manufactured
from the sap of this tree. The Bittcrnut, or Swamp Hickory
(«/. amara) requires an excelleTit soil, constantly cool and
inundated.
The MocKERNUT Hickory, or White-heart Hickory (J. To-
mentosa), requires a deep rich soil ; it grows mingled with the
Sweet Gum, Poplar, Sugar Maple, and Black Walnut. The
Shellbark Hickory {^J. squarrosa), grows almost exclusively in
wet grounds which are inundated for weeks together; it is
found in company with the Swamp White Oak, Red Flowering
Maple, Sweet Gum, Buttonwood, and Tupelo. The thick
Shellbark Hickory requires a similar soil. The Pignut Hick-
ory (J^. porcina) requires a moist but a better soil than the
Mockernut.
The White Maple (Acer ertocarpvm) is found on the
banks of such streams only as have limpid waters and a grav-
elly bed ; it is never found in swamps or other wet grounds
inclosed in forests, where the soil is black and miry. The
BOILS INDICATED BY FOREST TREES. 341
Ked or Soft Maple (A. Ruhruni) requires a wet and frequently
overflowed situation. The Sugar, or Hard Maple requires a
moist yet fertile soil. The Box Elder (J., negimdd) indicates
a deep, fertile, and constantly moist soil. The Dogwood
(^Cornus Florida) flourishes in a gravelly soil. The Cucum-
ber tree (^Magnolia acuminata^ requires a deep, fertile soil,
and a moist atmosphere.
The Pawpaw (^Anona triloha) is indicative of a soil luxu-
riantly fertile. The Yellow Poplar, or Tulip tree (Lirio-
(lendron tuUpifera)^ grows in deep, loamy, and extremely
fertile soils, which are neither too wet nor too dry. The
Sycamore (^Platanus occidcn falls) grows in moist, cool grounds,
requires loose, deep, and fertile soil — it never grows on dry
lands, nor among White and Jled Oaks.
The Crab Apple (3Ialus Coronaria) requires a fertile soil,
and cool, moist place. The White Birch (Betttla pajmlifo-
lia) grows in scanty forests, and indicates a dry and meager
soil. The Red Birch (5. rubra) grows with the White Maple
and Sycamore. The Yelloio Birch (^B. luU'.a) indicates a cool,
rich soil — it grows with Ashes, Hemlock, Spruce, and Black
Spruce. The Common Locust (^Rohinia pseudo-acacia) re-
quires a mild climate, and very fertile soil. Laurus Sassa-
fras grows on all soils except those too wet or too dry.
The Wild Cherry (^Cerasus Virginiana) requires a rich
soil ; it grows with the overcup White Oak, Black Walnut and
Red Elm. The Ohio Buckeye (Pavia Ohioensis) requires a
loose, deep, and fertile soil — cool and humid climate — hence
it is generally found on river banks. The Cottonwood tree
(^Populus Canadfnsis, P. Argenfea) is indicative of a deep, unc-
tuous soil. The Aspen (P. tremuloidcs) indicates lands of a
middling quality. The White, Gray, or Hickory Poplar (P.
caiirscciis) most generally indicates a moist soil. The Chest-
nut (^Castanca vesca) indicates a light, gravelly soil. The
White Beech (Fagns sylvestris) indicates a deep, moist, and
cold soil, while the Red Beech {F. ferruginea) indicates
lands more dry — soils which are excellent for corn. The
342 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Hackberry or Hoop-asli (Celds crasKifolla),{ii found in deep,
fertile soils. It grows with Black Walnut, Butternut, Linn,
Black Maple, and Elm. The White, Red, Green, Blue, and
Black or Water Ashes (Fraxinus') are indicative of a deep,
rich, yet very moist soil. The White Elm and Wahoo
(^l/hnus Americana) are found in low, humid, but very sub-
stantial soils, in company with the Red Maple and Sha<:bark
Hickory ; but the Red Elm is seldom found with the White,
and indicates a soil free from moisture. The Linn, or Bass-
wood ( Til ia Amei-icana^, groyvs with Sugar Maples and the
White Oak. The Pines, Cedars, and Junipers, indicate a soil
which is warm, dry, often sandy or gravelly, and is easily
exhausted.
These observations were made by the Messrs. Michaux
(father and son) more than half a century since. They are
the more valuable because the forests were then in a very
great degree undisturbed, and the trees grew where nature
had planted them.
It may be laid down as a general rule, that a rich and va-
ried natural vegetation, trees as well as plants, is indicative of
a soil of good capacity; one which not only contains all the
elements necessary for the growth of most cultivated plants,
but free from any noxious substances, and in that physical
condition to allow of its profitable cultivation ; while on the
other hand, a scanty vegetation, embracing few species only,
indicate the absence of some important element, or some
physical imperfection.
The class of farmers that emigrated from Pennsylvania to
Ohio during the first thirty-five years of the existence of the
State invariably selected very heavily timbered " white oak "
lands as the best wheat lands.
The soil of Stark county may be divided into three distinct
classes, and the settlement of these classes of lands is perhaps
the criterion of the value of the empirical method of deter-
mining the value of lands for fiirming purposes. The first of
these divisions embraces all the heavily timbered, white oak,
BEECH AND PLAINS LANDS IN STARK CO. 343
rolling lands. These lands occupy the greater portion of the
county. The second division comprises a large district in the
north-east portiou of the county, known as the " hecch lands."
The third division is a strip, varying from three to four miles
in width, passing through th« center of the county, known
as the '■'■ j^lains^
The lands comprised in the first division were first settled,
cleared and cultivated — they are composed as a general thing
of a " clayey loam " for surface soil, and a stiff clay subsoil.
The Tulip tree. Linden, Poplar, and Walnut are very com-
mon on these oak lands.
The beech lands are low and level ; scarcely any other than
Beech timber is found on them ; occasionally, however, an
Elm, Water Ash, and Hickory are met with. The soil is a
heavy, compact clay, in its natural state retaining excessive
moisture nearly all the year, but when cleared is liable to
"bake." Ditching and surface draining, however, have ren-
dered these lands valuable for corn rather than wheat,
although they are better adapted for meadows and grazing.
They were settled next after the oak lands, and were then
considered second-rate lands.
The Plains are a comparatively level district, composed of
sandy and gravelly loam — the gravel in places [Charity School
at Kendall] is one hundred feet deep. Wells have bi;en sunk
to the depth of sixty-six feet through fine gravel only [near
Richville]. The first settlers of the country relate that these
plains were entirely destitute of shrubs or trees, and produced
nothing other than some perennial and very hardy annual
plants. In 1820 they were covered with '■'■Scrub Oaks" from
three to five feet in hight. The timber on them now is As-
pen, Black Jack Oak, Pin Oak, White Oak, Burr Oak, and
Hazel bushes. The farmers could not be induced to purchase
any of these lands prior to 1830, at even a slight advance on
Government prices. About 1833 a number of Bostonians.
organized a company at Massillon, Stark county, under the
name of the " Massillon Rulling Mill Company^ This
344 THE WHEAT PLANT.
company purchased many thousands of acres of the '■'^plaiKS,"
cleared off the Scrub and other Oaks, introduced '^bull"
plows, which required three to four yoke of cattle to operate
them, through the many roots left in the ground.
To the utter astonishment of all the Pennsylvania " oak-
land " farmers, these plains produced abundant crops of most
excellent wheat; and many of these "plains" farms are at
present among the very best wheat farms in that county.
From all that we have been able to learn of the Dorhy
Plains and Pickaway Plains, we should not be surprised to
learn that they are as good wheat lands as the plains in
Stark county.
Speaking of the soils in the United States, Robert Russel
Bays : " In the township of Caledonia (in Western New York),
which is chiefly farmed by Scotchmen or their descendants,
the soil is light and gravelly, and wide piles of stones lie
around the borders of many fields, monuments to the industry
of the owners. Notwithstanding appearances, I was told that
wheat and clover are as sure crops in that township as in any
other within the State; and I can bear testimony that the
young layers of clover were truly beautiful. The farmers here,
as in Scotland,, have learned to judge of the character and qual-
ity of the land by the kind of stones that are strewed over it.
In the Genessee country, hard and flinty stones are regarded
as indicating that the soil is well suited for the production of
wheat and clover. Soils which are derived from the boulder
clay are capable of growing the largest crops of wheat and
barley, but they require a great deal more labor to cultivate
them. These clay soils are by no means rich in vegetable
mold, but have a fine, healthy red tinge, derived from the
oxide of iron, which the eye of practical men look upon as
being associated with something that promotes the healthy
growth of every crop that is cultivated."
The above indications may be valid for Western New York,
but may mislead in Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, or Kentucky.
It may not be inappropriate in this place to present a brief
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
345
classification of soils, which will in some degree assist in deter-
mining the kind of crop to be grown upon it. It is not pro-
posed in ihis essay to treat of soils in detail, and we shall be
content in the chapter on the treatment of soils to confine
ourself to a wheat soil only.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS.
Sand may contain:
Silica,
Oxide of Iron,
Lime.
In Small
Quantity
Limestone or Calcareous matter
may contain :
Lime,
Silica,
Alumina,
In Small J Oxide of Iron,
Quantity. ) Potash,
Soda,
rhosphoric Acid,
Sulphuric Acid.
Clay may Contain:
' Silica,
Alumina,
Lime,
In Smaller
Quantities.
Potash,
Soda,
Phosphoric Acid,
Sulphuric Acid.
Organic Matter, or Decaying
Vegetable and Animal Matter may
contain:
Humus,
Other Vegetable Remains,
Animal Remains.
In Small
Quantity, Silica,
(butinafine
state of div-
ision, and
well incor-
porated, the
mineralcon-
stituents of
former gen-
erations of
vegetables
or crops). [
Potash,
Soda,
Phosphoric Acid,
Sulphuric Acid,
Chlorine.
According to the preponderance of one or more of these
compounds, soils are arranged in the following classes : Veg-
etable molds, clay soils, sandy soils, calcareous soils, marly
soils, and loamy soils. Let us now briefly consider the lead-
ing character of each of these classes of soils.
Vegetable Molds. — All soils that contain a large quantity
of vegetable matter, either in the shape of humus or other-
wise, are included in this class. Here we find two distinct
346 TIIK WIIKAT PLANT.
varieties of soils, viz., fertile molds and peaty pr boggy soils.
By a large quantity of vegetable matter is meant more than
five or six per cent.,* which is the quantity usuallji found in
ordinary soils. In garden molds there is generally about 9
to 10 per cent, of organic matter ; in peaty and boggy soils,
often as much as 70 per cent. Hence we see the amount of
organic matter is no ei-iterion of fertility. The superior
quantity of garden mold, as compared with the soils of our
fields, is due not so much to the organic matter or humus it
contains, as to its finely-divided and well-worked condition,
and to the more complete mixture of its constituents.
In boggy and peaty lands it is this excess of vegetable mat-
ter that renders them unproductive. Hence the proper course
toward their improvement consists in employing the most
efficient means at our disposal for getting rid of. or altering
the condition of this vegetable matter; in most cases, burn-
ing and the liberal use of lime, will effect this object.
Clay Soih. — Soils of this description are distinguished by
their cold, dense qualities, and are well known as " heavy
soils," for the reason that the successful cultivation of these
soils can only be accomplished by the expenditure of a great
amount of labor, strength, and capital. We have already no-
ticed the peculiar retentive quality of clay, and have remarked
upon the usefulness of this property of clay. But in soils
that consist almost entirely of clay, this quality becomes too
much of a good thing, and constitutes the chief obstacle that
the tiller of clay soils has to encounter. For this reason,
little can be done with clay soils until they are thoroughly
drained. Another operation, often found very successful in
the reclamation of unproductive clay land, is burning; liming
also is a valuable means of bringing into cultivation soils in
which an excessive quantity of clay is the cause of infertility.
The subsequent treatment in the management of clay soils,
*In stating the quantity of soils, we generally speak of this composi-
tion in one hundred parts, or say so much per cent, of a substance.
SANDY AND CALCAREOUS SOILS. 347
consists in working them in as complete a manner, and as
often as the state of the ground will permit.
With a great amount of labor and expense clay soils become
exceedingly fertile, and return a good profit to the cultivator,
since they require less in the shape of manure than most
other kinds of soil. This is because many clays contain inex-
haustible quantities of the mineral substances required by
plants, and only require proper management to yield these
materials in an available form. Hence, clay soils are particu-
larly adapted for the production of grain crops, especially
wheat.
Sandy Soils are those that contain from 70 to 90 per cent,
of sand. They are distinguished by characters the reverse of
those possessed by clay soils. They are light, porous, deficient
in retaining moisture; they never sufi"er from drought, and by
heavy rains are deprived of the little valuable matter they
may originally contain. The chief defect of these soils is
this want of retentiveness which allows the rain and water to
wash out the valuable portions of any manure that may have
been supplied, before the roots of the plants have had time to
take up these substances. Hence the term " hungry " ap-
plied by farmers to this sort of soil.
For this reason, if at all practicable, the manure should be
added in small and frequent doses. It is for the same reason
that the system of liquid manuring succeeds on soils of this
description. The improvement of such soils obviously con-
sists in adding clay, marl, etc., if such materials can be pro-
cured at a price at all consistent with the benefit they are
likely to produce.
Calcarcuvs, or Lime Soils. — This is a most extensive class of
soils, including soils of most diversified characters. To this
class belong all soils in which carbonate of lime forms the
greater part of the bulk, or that contain more than 20 per
cent, of lime ; but since the rocks from which these soils are
formed vary most widely in their composition and physical
348 THE WHEAT PLANT.
character, it follows that soils of every degree of fertility are
included in this division.
Lime soils are generally light soils, and easy to work ; the
greater number are poor, thin soils ; some of them, however,
are exceedingly good soils, and remarkable for their fertility.
Lime soils of all descriptions are particularly adapted for the
growth of leguminous crops, as clover, peas, etc.
Marly Soils are those that consist of a mixture of clay and
lime, and contain from 5 to 20 per cent, of lime, and whose
qualities are of course intermediate, between clay and calcare-
ous soils. These soils are subdivided into clay marls, chalk
marls, sandy marls, etc. Marls of diffeient kinds are often
used as manures, and generally with good results. The eS'ects
produced by marls are usually more striking than those which
follow the application of other calcareous matters. This
superiority is mostly due to the phosphoric acid which many
marls contain.
Loiimy Soils are intimate mixtures of sand, clay, lime, and
organic matter. They are subdivided into clay loam, sandy
loam, etc. These are probably the richest sorts of soils, next
to the better sorts of vegetable molds. Like vegetable molds,
they contain a fair proportion of clay, sand, lime, etc., and
the whole in a friable, well-mixed condition ; and it is to
this fact, that the superior quality of loamy soils is mainly
due.
In order to convey a better idea of the composition of soils,
we annex the following table, which includes analyses of each
class :
COMPOSITION OP SOILS.
349
CONPOSITION OF SOILS.
Organic Matters, Humus,
etc
Oxide of Iron
Alumina
Lime
Magnesia
Potash ■»
Soda I
Phosphoric Acid
Sulphuric Acid
Chlorine
Insoluble Silicates (clay
and sand)
Carbonic Acid and loss.
10.08
6.30
9.30
1.01
.20
.01
.13
.17
72.80
>
.49
3.19
2.65
.24
.70
.12
.02
.07
trace.
trace.
92.52
(sand.)
3.38
8.82
6.67
1.44
.92
1.48
1.08
1.51
trace.
72.83
1.87
11.24
4.87 >
14.04/
.83
1.02
2.801
1.43/
.24
.09
.25
63.19
100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
6.33
9.31
Car.lime
54.56
trace.
1.03
trace,
trace.
28.77
10.50
11.92
19.92
.25
.71
.38
.04
.76
55.52
This classification is usually adopted ia the description of
cultivated soils. The general composition of a soil, and its
connection with one or other of the above classes, may in some
measure be judged by examining it in the ordinary manner,
by its color, texture, the character of the stones it may con-
tain, the quantity of organic matter, etc. But to be able to
speak positively on this subject, it is necessary to ascertain
the precise composition of the soil. This can only be done by
a chemical analysis. It is the business of the analytical
chemist to do this in such a manner that each constituent of
the soil may be separated, and its proportions determined.
An approximate analysis of this sort is not difficult to make,
350 THE WHEAT PLANT.
and might perhaps be performed by any one so disposed ; but
since a chemical analysis is of very little use unless it is com-
plete, that is to say, unless every thing contained in the soil
is separated, and the potash, phosphoric acid, and other more
valuable parts of the soil are accurately determined ; and as
these operations require much care even in the hands of an
experienced chemist, we do not think it desirable to describe
in any way the process for the chemical analysis of a soil.
Another kind of analysis, often of great service in judging
of the capabilities of a soil, is called a mechanical analy.sis,
and requires much less care and accuracy in its performance
than a chemical analysis. This kind of analysis has for its
object the determination of the relative amount of organic
matter, sand, clay, and lime, and in many cases is all that is
necessary to decide important questions in the practical man-
agement of soils.
The value of chemical analysis in deciding agricultural
questions is often very great, and in many cases at once de-
termines whether a proposed scheme for improvement is cal-
culated to succeed or not. For instance, in the important
question of subsoiling, we can at once learn whether it is de-
sirable or not to turn up the subsoil, by making a complete
analysis of it: from the result of this analysis we can decide
whether this admixture with the surface-soil is likely to pro-
duce improvement or injury. Subsoils often contain poison-
ous substances, which, if turned up, will of course exercise an
injurious effect upon the surface-soil; on the other hand,
valuable fertilizing materials often lie hidden in the subsoil,
which might greatly enrich the surface. Again, the infertility
of a soil is often explained by an analysis. The soil may be
suffering from the want of some material indispensable to the
growth of plants, or it may contain something poisonous to
plants ; in either case chemistry is generally able to enlighten
us. and to point out the means for remedying the evil. Of a
soil whose fertility is impaired, we can all pronounce that it
wants manuring ; but with the assistance of an analysis we
HOW TO TEST LIME IN A SOIL, 351
may also learn in what substance the soil is deficient — or what
kind of manure it wauts. With this knowledge we may
restore its fertility in the most economical manner, by sup-
plying those materials only that are required, and leaving out
all the others, in this case useless materials, always present in
compound manures. Perhaps the most frequently occurring
instance of practical benefit conferred by chemistry upon
asriculture, is manifested in the assistance it renders in con-
nection with the question of liming. Chemistry tells us in
the readiest manner, whether a soil wants liming or not, and
points out the best plan of proceeding if it does. If, as often
happens, we have a choice of two or three sorts of lime at our
disposal, it will also tell us which sort is likely to produce the
best effect. Limestones and marls vary most widely in their
fitness for use in this way : many of them contain an excessive
amount of magnesia, and on this account are dangerous to use.
Others may contain appreciable quantities of the valuable
phosphoric acid.
On all these points chemical analysis will enlighten us. We
may ascertain in a very ready manner if there is enough lime
in a soil as follows : Place a little of the soil in a wineglass,
and add some muriatic acid (this acid is well known, and can
easily be procured by the name of spirits of salt). If the
earth now bubbles up, or effervesces, we may assume that
plenty of lime is present in the soil ; but if no effect is per-
ceptible, we may infer that the soil is deficient in lime.
The lime in soils usually occurs in the shape of carbonate
of lime: this, as we have seen, consists of lime and carbonic
acid gas in a fixed or solid state. On adding to this combi-
nation muriatic acid, the lime unites with this acid, and libe-
rates its former companion — carbonic acid. This gas, in
escaping from the mixture, gives rise to the bubbling up, or
effervescence. This test, it must be remembered, is but a very
rough one, and by no means conclusive as to the presence or
absence of lime in a soil, yet it will often be found useful as
a general test for lime.
352 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER XV.
EXHAUSTION OP SOILS.
This chapter is taken entire from Liebig's recent (April 2,
1859), work on Modern Agriculture. It so completely des-
cribes the process and rationale of exhaustion, while at the
same time it is so very suggestive of the course to be pursued
to retain the fertility of the soil, that no abstract, abridgment,
or condensation of the original appeared to us satisfactory,
and for that reason the chapter is introduced entire.
The experiments of Kuhlmann, Schattenmann, and Lawes,
agree in showing, that the salts of ammonia exert a most favor-
able influence on the evolution of straw and leaves ; and if
this influence extends in like manner to the underground or-
gans, the roots, then it ought to follow, that the action of am-
monia promotes the development of those organs destined for
the absorption of food, and that these salts, applied at the
proper time increase the number of the leaves and roots.
This circumstance explains the favorable action exercised
in spring by ammoniacal manures, while in summer their in-
fluence under otherwise similar circumstances is but trifling.
If the plant, in fact, has produced, during the first period
of its growth, a suflEicient number of leaves and roots, an addi-
tional supply of ammonia can be of no great use to its further
development, where the other constituents of food in the soil
are not deficient; for the leaves can now receive from the air
the nitrogenous food necessary to the formation of seeds. In
summer there is more watery vapor in the air than in the
colder spring; and as the quantity of ammonia in the air,
according to the observations of all experimenters, increases
with the temperature and moisture, plants must necessarily
EFFECTS OF NITBOGENOUS MANUEES. 353
find more ammonia in tlie air in summer than in spring. We
may as a rule hold, that in the colder seasons of the year,
plants are more dependent on a supply of ammonia from the
soil, than in the warmer ; or in other words, that the employ-
ment of nitrogenous manures in spring is most advantageous
to plants.
In England and Scotland it is the result of general experi-
ence, that the earthy phosphates are not always sufficient
for a good and certain crop of turnips. When sown in
May they require the addition of a nitrogenous manure,
while, if this take place in the middle of June, they thrive
generally as well with phosphates alone, as when combined
with ammonia.
We can hence tolerably well define the cases in which am
monia is hurtful ; for while nitrogenous manures promote the
growth of the leafy cabbage, they impede that of the roots of
turnips. The latter plant is frequently observed to shoot out
only stem and leaves when growing on spots upon which ma-
nure heaps have lain. Mangold-wurzel, in a similar case,
produces the largest roots. The flowering time of these plants
is delayed by this manure.
To produce flowers and seeds, it appears to be a necessary
condition in many cases, that the activity of the leaves and
roots should reach a certain limit — a period of rest. It is
only from this period that the vegetative activity appears to
take a decidedly new direction, and that the sap, when no
longer required for the production of new leaves and roots, is
applied to the formation of flower and seed.
With many plants, want of rain, and of the consequent sup-
ply of food, limits the formation of leaves, and promotes the
production of flowers. Dry and cool weather hastens the for-
mation of seeds. In warm and moist climates, the cereals,
when sown in summer, bear little or no seed ; and root crops
flower and bear seed more readily on a soil poor in ammonia,
than on one rich in this substance.
In the employment of nitrogenous manure, the agriculturist
80
354 THE WHEAT PLANT.
must consequently have distinctly before him the object which
he wishes to attain. He must act with plants as with animals.
When he wishes to fatten the latter, and at the same time to
preserve their health, he gives them daily no more food than
they can digest.
Manures must always be of such a nature as to furnish
plants with their suitable food at each period of their growth.
Plants which have a longer period of vegetation, require con-
sequently no supply, or, at least, a much smaller one of nitro-
genous manures than those whose period of existence is short.
For such as possess the shortest period of vegetation, and which
grow rapidly and with vigor, the concentrated manures are
preferable to those which give up their active constituents
only slowly. In dry localities, winter wheat thrives after clo-
ver without further manuring; while, as a rule, the applica-
tion of Peruvian guano or Chili-saltpetre (top dressing) is
most beneficial to wheat sown in spring.
The continuous cultivation of the same plant on the same
field does not necessarily unfit this field for its production, if
it is amply provided with the chemical conditions for the
growth of the plant, and possesses physical properties of a
right kind. If, after the third or fourth year, the plant no
longer thrives on such a field, the reason manifestly does not
lie in any deficiency of its vital conditions (for we have
assumed that these are present), but in the accumulation of
causes which injure its healthy growth.
The food of plants consists of chemical compounds, which,
in virtue of their chemical properties, produce certain effects
on the substance of the cells and the most delicate portions of
the frame of the leaves and roots, by which plants ap;)ropriate
their food. Their chemical action increases with their quan-
tity ; and if presented to plants beyond certain limits, they
sicken and ultimately die.
In air in which free ammonia is present in excess, even
though it be to only a most minute extent, many plants die as
if struck with a poisonous blast. Carbonic acid acts in a sim-
ORGANIC MANURES CAUSE DISEASES IN PLANTS. 355
ilar way, thougli ia a less degree ; and weak solutions of free
alkalies or alkaline earth and their salts, in a soil, produce
the same effects on other plants.
In nature we find a wonderful provision exists in the chem-
ical and physical properties inherent in the soil, for completely
obviating the chemical action of the nutritive matters on the
absorbent rootlets. Free ammonia, the free alkalies, and alka-
line earths, are fixed by the soil, and with their loss of solu-
bility they also lose those chemical properties which are
hurtful to plants. Plants can then select what is necessary
to their existence, without any hindrance from extraneous
influences which may endanger their proper growth.
It is evident that the soil must possess such a neutral chem-
ical character as the most important condition cf the healthy
structure and functions of the roots. The different species of
plants require, however, special conditions for the growth of
each. One species requires the constituents of fresh spring
water ; another flourishes only in bogs ; others in carbonaceous
and sour soils; others, again, only in ground which abounds
in alkaline earths.
By cultivation the character of the soil is modifled, not
only by the removal in crops of a portion of its active in-
gredients, but also by the addition to it, by means of many
plants, of a greater amount of carbon and nitrogen substan-
ces, in the form of the remains of roots. The enrichment
of the soil in organic matter appears to be a cause of disease
and death to many plants. Clover and many of the turnip
tribe will no longer grow on such a soil, and several species
of grass quickly disappear from it.
It has been frequently found in England that turnips,
when grown on the same field at too short intervals, become
subject to a peculiar disease, which manifests itself in an un-
usual development of the roots. Instead of a round, fleshy
head, weighing several pounds, from which filamentous roots
spread out into the ground, the tap-root splits into a great
number of hard, woody, stem-like roots of the thickness of
356 THE WHEAT PLANT.
the finger (finger and toe disease). This disease, which is
owing to the peculiar character of the ground, is removed by
a large dose of quick-lime. It is certain, however, that the
lime does not act in this case, because there was previously a
deficiency of it in the soil, for a supply of it to the field at
seed time, like other manures, produces no eflect, for the
latter is apparent only after one or two years. To produce a
favorable change in the quality of the field, the lime must
manifestly penetrate to a certain depth, and this recjuires a con-
siderable time. By the simple application of superphosphate
of lime, to the complete exclusion of organic manures, Lawes
succeeded iti raising nine successive crops of turnips on the
same land, and in the ninth year obtained 187 cvvt. of roots
per acre.
Rain water, in slowly filtering through a soil rich in or-
ganic matter, extracts a substance which communicutes a
brown color, and at times an acid reaction to the water. An
addition of burnt lime to this soil destroys the solubility of
the organic matter in water, and its power of diffusion in the
soil. The lime decomposes the organic substances, and by
its presence converts the process of putrefaction, which is
hurtful to plants, into one of decay which is advantageous
to them.
The presence of organic matter in a soil rich in silicates,
enables water in percolating through the soil to dissolve a
much larger quantity of hydrated silicic acid than is con-
ducive, in many plants, to the process of absorption taking
place in the roots. Lime destroys this property, and, by its
direct action on the silicate, potash is ultimately set free, and
rendered fit for distribution in the soil. Sainfoin continues
to flourish on fields rich in lime. It is certain that the pres-
ence of the lime in such a soil is not advantageous to this
plant, because it requires more lime for its vital purposes than
other plants which flourish luxuriantly on land much poorer
in lime ; but the cause for the necessity of this excess of
lime must be sought for in the fact, that it destroys certain
NECESSITY OF ROTATION OP CROPS. 357
injurious matters which gradually accumulate by the con-
tinuous growth of this plant on the same soil.
As a matter of course we understand, that, in a number of
cases in which the same plant will no longer grow on the
same soil, the cause just indicated is not alone in operation,
but deficiency of food generally, or in the proper proportions,
must be regarded as the proximate cause of the failure. The
necessity for taking into consideration so many causes which
impede or promote the growth of plants, makes the practice
of agriculture one of the most difficult of pursuits.
In fields bearing perennial plants, with roots which pene-
trate to no great depth, similar injurious matters gradually
collect, which are hurtful to the growth of future generations
of plants. The irrigation of meadows appears to accomplish
the important object among others of removing these injur-
ious matters by the oxygen and by the carbonic acid dissolved
in the water, which penetrates the ground, and brings it into
a condition similar to that produced by careful ploughing.
An analysis of the water flowing from the meadow would
probably show that it removes as much mineral matter and
ammonia as it brings to it. We do not, of course, here
speak of meadows to which liquid manure has been applied,
or which have been irrigated with rich sewerage water from
towns ; for in these cases two causes are in operation to aug-
ment the produce, one of which (a supply of mineral food
and ammonia) is almost excluded in the case of spring and
river water.
The culmiferous, turnip, and tuberous plants which the
agriculturist cultivates, comport themselves in a most peculiar
manner in the absorption of their mineral food. While sea-
plants receive their whole supply of these substances in a
state of solution from the surrounding medium, the water
which percolates through cultivated soils, brings to the roots
of land plants none of the three most important and most
essential elements of food, viz., phosphoric acid, potash, and
ammonia. Water alone withdraws from the soil none of
358 THE WUKAT PLANT.
these substances ; their passing into the organism of plants
must therefore be directly effected by the organs of absorp-
tion in the ground, with the co-operation of water. The roots
extract these substances from those portions of the soil, pen»
etrated with water, which are in direct contact with their
absorbent surfaces; and such portions of soil must contain
the whole quantity necessary for the complete development
of the plant, since the roots can receive none of them, except
from the particles of earth with which they are directly in
contact.
If the food of plants in the soil can not move toward the
roots, it is evident that the roots must spread about to look
for food.
Plants can not obtain from the soil more food than it con-
tains. Further, its fertility is not to be measured by the
whole quantity present in it, but only by that portion of the
whole quantity which exists in the smallest particles of the
soil. For it is only with such portions that the rootlets can
come into close contact.
A piece of bone weighing about 30,000 milligrammes (one
ounce) in a cubic foot of earth, produces no mai'ked effect on
its fertility. But if these 30,000 milligrammes of phosphate
of lime be uniformly distributed throughout the earth, it will
suffice for the nourishment of 120 wheat plants. Ten thou-
sand milligrammes of food, having a surface extent of 100
square millimetres, are within the same given time not more
effective than ten milligrammes having the same surface ex-
tent. Of two fields with the same amount of food, one may
be very fertile, and the other equally unfruitful, if the food
is more uniformly distributed throughout the former than the
latter.
The common plough breaks and turns up the soil without
mixing it ; it only displaces, to a certain extent, the spots on
which plants have already grown. But the spade breaks,
turns, and mixes it thoroughly.
A potato, turnip, or wheat plant can not thrive on the spot
FOOD OF PLANTS NOT IN SOLUTION IN SOILS. 359
in which the same kind of plant has grown in the preceding
year, if the portions of soil with which the rootlets were in
contact, contain no more, or only an insufficient residue of
food. The roots of the succeeding plants find in all these
spots either no food or only a deficient sijpply. Every other
spot contains more.
As the smallest portions of food can not of themselves
leave the spot in which they are held firmly fixed by the soil,
we can understand what immense influence must be exerted
on its fertility by its careful mechanical division and thor-
ough intermixture.
This is the greatest of all the difficulties which the agri-
culturist has to overcome.
If a field is to produce a crop corresponding to the full
amount of food present in it, the first and most important
condition for its accomplishment is, that its physical state be
such as to permit even the finest rootlets to reach the spots
where the food is to be found. The extension of the roots
in every direction must not be obstructed by the cohesion of
the soil. Plants with thin, delicate roots can not grow on a
tenacious, heavy soil, even with abundance of mineral food.
These facts explain in a very simple manner, one of the many
favorable effects of green manures on such soils, and enable
us to understand the reasons of the preference given in many
cases, by agriculturists, to fresh over rotten farm-yard manure.
The mechanical condition of the ground is, in fact, remark-
ably altered by the plowing in of plants and their remains.
A tenacious soil loses thereby its cohesion ; it becomes brittle,
and more readily pulverized than by the most careful plow-
ing; and, in a sandy soil, a certain coherence is introduced
among its shifting particles. Each stem of the green-manure
plants plowed in opens up by its decay a road by which the
delicate rootlets of the wheat plant ramify in all direc-
tions to seek their food. With the exception of their com-
bustible elements, the ground receives from the green-
manure plants nothing which it did not previously contain ;
360 THE WIIKAT PLANT.
and these of themselves would have no effect on the increase
of the crop, without the presence in the soil of the necessary
mineral food.
None of the three most important constituents of food
exists, by itself, in It soluble form in the ground, and none of
the means employed by the agriculturist to make them avail-
able to his plants, deprives the soil of its power of retaining
them ; or, if dissolved, of withdrawing them from this solu-
tion. The principal end gained by the means he employs is
only a uniform distribution of the food throughout the soil,
so as to put it within the reach of the roots of his plants.
A 2^ acre field (= 1 million square decimetres) of good
wheat soil produces an average crop of 2000 kilo. (= 4411
lbs.) of grain, and 5000 kilo. (= 11,028 lbs.) of straw; the
two contain together 250 kilo. (=:551 lbs.) of mineral sub-
stances. Each square decimrtre (=: 10,000 square millime-
tres or 15.5 square inches) of this field yields 250 milli-
grammes (= 3.85 grains) of ash constituents to the plants
growing upon it. Each square millimetre (= .00155 square
inch), from the surface downward, must contain a quantity
of food corresponding to the wants of each individual root-
let. If the food is wanting in any one particular particle of
the soil, then this portion can not contribute to the nourish-
ment of the plant. The amount of food in each portion of a
transverse section of ground, in each square millimetre from the
surface doiv)ncard,is the measure of its capaciii/ for j^roduction.
Each rootlet absorbs, according to its diameter, the food with
•which it comes in contact on its way downward.
If we suppose that the sectional area of the roots of the
whole wheat plants which grow on a square decimetre amounts
to 100 square millimetres, or that upon the same surface there
exists a wheat plant with two or three stems, and with a hun-
dred roots each of a square millimetre sectional area, then
must each of these rootlets receive 2^ milligrammes of mineral
food in order to supply the plant with 250 milligrammes.
Each of the 10,000 square millimetres (= one square deci-
PRODUCTIVENESS OF SOILS — HOW ESTIMATED. 361
metre), from the surface downward, must contain these 2i-
milligrammes ; which would give a total quantity of 25,000
milligrammes (= 25 grammes = 386 grains) to the square
decimetre, calculated to a depth of 10 inches ; or 25,000 kilo.
(24-|- tons) to the hectare (2^ acres), i. e., somewhat more
than ^ per cent, of the whole soil.
A hectare which, from the surface downward, contains no
more than 250 kilo. = 550 lbs. of mineral matter (of which
50 kilo. = 110 lbs. are potash, and 25 kilo. = 55 lbs. are
phosphoric acid) would, nccording to this calculation, be com-
pletely unsuitable for wheat; for even though each wheat
plant possessed, instead of one hundred, one thousand roots,
each of the thickness of a hyacinth root, it would neverthe-
less not be able to receive by these more than a tenth part of
its wants from the soil.
According to our assumption, which probably barely reaches
the full amount really present, a hectare must contain, from
the surface downward, in order to yield an average crop of
wheat, at least 5000 kilo. (= 11,000 lbs.) of potash and 2500
kilo. (= 5500 lbs.) phosphoric acid.*
If an average wheat crop of 2000 kilo. (= 4400 lbs.) of
grain and 5,000 kilo, of straw, has removed one per cent, of
the mineral food from the soil, the latter remains still pro-
ductive for new wheat crops in the following years ; but the
amount of produce diminishes.
If the soil has by mechanical means been most carefully
mixed, the wheat plants of the second year on the same field
will find at each spot one per cent, less food, and the produce
* If the mineral food, so very small in proportion to the whole mass
of soil (2 grains in a cubic inch), were present in chemical combination
with it, it is impossible to form an idea how it could be distributed in
this state everywhere in the soil, so as to be reached by the roots. The
comportment of soils of the most diflFerent kinds toward solutions of
these elements, shows that they are present and fixed in a way somewhat
similar to coloring matter in dyed stuffs, or in charcoal which has
been used to decolorize a fluid; in these cases a very small quantity in
weight is sufficient to cover an extraordinary extent of surface.
362 THE WHEAT PLANT.
in corn and straw must in the same proportion be smaller.
Under similar conditions of weather, temperature, and tail of
rain, only 1980 kilo. (= 4356 lbs.) of grain, and 4950 kilo.
(== 10,890 lbs.) of straw, will be reaped in the second year;
and in each following year the crop must fall oft in a fixed
ratio.
If the crop of wheat removed in the first year 250 kilo,
(= 550 lbs.) of mineral constituents, and a hectare (2^ acres)
of soil to the depth of 12 inches, contained one hundred
times this quantity (25,000 kilo., or 24^ tons), there will
remain in the soil at the end of thirty years of cultivation,
18,492 kilo. (= 18 tons) of food.
Whatever then may have been the variations in the amount
of produce from this field, in the intervening years, caused by
different conditions of weather, it is evident, that if there has
been no replacement of the mineral matters removed, there
can be obtained in the thirty-first year, under the most favor-
able circumstances, only J-|g = 0.74, or somewhat less than
three-fourths of an average crop.
If these three-fourths of an average crop do not yield to
the agriculturist a sufficient excess of income over expendi-
ture, if they merely cover his expenses, then the crop is no
longer remiincrotivc He considers the field to be now ex-
hausted for wheat crops, although it still contains seveuty-four
times more food than an average crop yearly requires. The
effect of the total quantity of the mineral food in the soil has
been, that in the first year each root found in those portions
of the soil with which it came in contact, the requisite quan-
tity of these substances for its complete development; and the
result of the subsequent continuous crops has been, that in
the thirty-first year only three-fourths of this quantity is found
in these portions.
A field exhausted for wheat cultivation, will produce rtmu-
nerndvc crops of rye.
All average crop of rye (= 1600 kilo., or 3520 lbs. of grain,
:ind H800 kilo., or 8360 lbs. of straw) extracts from the
REMUNERATIVE CROPS. 363
ground per hectare only 180 kilo. (= 396 lbs.) of mineral
matter. Under similar circumstances, one rye plant takes up
only 180 milligrammes (= 2.77 grains).
If a soil must contain 25,000 kilo, of mineral matter, in
order to produce an average crop of wheat, a soil in which
there are only 18,000 kilo, of the same substance, is rich
enough for an average crop of rye, and will yield a number of
such crops which shall be remunerative.
According to our calculation, a field which is exhausted for
the cultivation of wheat, still contains 18,492 kilo, of mineral
matter, which in their properties are identical with those
required for rye.
If we now inquire, after how many years of continuous rye
cultivation will the average crop fall to one of three-fourths
the amount, we find — assuming that this amount is no longer
remunerative — that after twenty-eight remunerative crops, the
field will be exhausted for the cultivation of rye. The min-
eral matters still remaining in the ground amount, however,
to 13,869 kilo. (= 131 tons).
A field on which rye can no longer be cultivated with profit,
is not necessarily unsuitable for oats.
An average crop of oats (2,000 kilo, of grain and 3,000 kilo.
of straw per hectare) withdraws from the soil 310 kilo. (= 682
lbs.) of mineral matter, being 60 kilo. (== 132 lbs.) more than a
wheat crop, and 130 kilo. (= 286 lbs.) more than a rye crop.
If the absorbent root surface of the oats were the same as
that of rye, then oats following rye would not be a remunera-
tive crop ; for a soil which furnishes 310 kilo, out of a stock
of 13.869 kilo, for a crop of oats, loses thereby 2.23 per cent,
of its amount of mineral constituents ; while by our calcula-
tion the roots of the rye extract only one per cent. This can
only happen if the root surface of the oats exceeds that of the
rye 2.23 times.
According to the above, the oat crops will exhaust the soil
most rapidly. After 12f year? the return of produce must
sink to three fourths of its oi'iainal amount.
36-t THE WIIKAT PLANT.
None of all the causes which may diminish or increase the
amount of a crop, has any iutluenco on this law of exhaustion
of the soil by cultivation. When the sum of the food has
reached a certain point of diminution, then the soil ceases to
be productive, in an agricultural sense, for a cultivated plant.
If by incorporating with it atmospheric food, organic materials
and salts of ammonia, the produce has been augmented for a
number of years, the state of exhaustion will then occur sooner.
On the other hand, any obstacle to the free absorption of food
diminishes the amount of produce, and the limits of exhaus-
tion are consequently reached at a later period.
J^or each cultivated jthint there exists a similar law.
This state of exhaustion inevitably happens, even when there
has been withdraion from the soil by a course of crops only one
of all the different mineral substances necessary for the nourish-
ment of plants ; for the one ichich is awanting, or exists in defi-
cient quantity, renders all the others inefficient, or deprives them,
of their activity.
With each crop, each plant, or portion of a plant, taken
away from a field, the soil loses a portion of the conditions of
its fertility ; that is, it loses the power of again produciing this
crop, plant, or portion of a plant, after the expiration of a
number of years of cultivation. A thousand grains of corn
require from the soil a thousand times as much phosphoric
acid as one grain ; and a thousand straws, a thousand times as
much silicic acid as one straw ; if, therefore, there is a defi-
ciency of a thousandth part of the phosphoric or silicic acid
in the soil, then the thousandth grain and straw will not be
formed. A single corn straw removed from a cornfield, makes
this field bear one corn straw less.
If it is true that the mineral constituents of the culmiferous
plants are indispensable for their growth, and must be sup-
plied by the soil, if the plants are to flourish ; if it is true
that among these mineral matters potash, phosphoric acid, and
silicic acid, are not conveyed to the roots in a state of solution,
then it necessarily follows that a hectare (2^ acres), contain-
GRADUAL EXHAUSTIOiN OF SOILS. 365
ing 25,000 kilo. (= 24^ tons) of the constituents of the ashes
of wheat, uniformly distributed through it, and in a state
quite fit for assimilation bj the roots, can to a certain point
yield a series of remunerative crops of difterent species of
straw plants, without any replacement of the minerals re-
moved in the grain and straw, if a uniform state of mixture
of the soil has been maintained by careful plowing and other
suitable means. The succession of such crops is determined
by this, viz., that the plant cultivated the second year shall
take away from the soil less than that of the first ; or that it
contains a greater number of roots, or, in general, a greater
absorbent root surface than the first. From the average crop
of the first year, there would be a diminution of produce from
year to year.
The agriculturist, to whom uniform average crops are ex-
ceptions, and varying returns caused by changing states of
weather is the rule, would most probably not have noticed
this constant diminution, not even though his field had in
reality possessed such favorable chemical and physical condi-
tions as to have enabled him to cultivate on it for seventy
years successive crops of wheat, rye, and oats, without re-
placing any of the mineral matters withdrawn from it.
In favorable years, good crops approaching nearly to an
average one, would have alternated with bad crops in other
years, but the proportion of unfavorable to favorable crops
would have constantly increased.
The greater number of European fields under cultivation
do not possess the physical character which has been
assumed in the case just under consideration.
In most fields all the phosphoric acid necessary for plants
is not distributed in the state in which it is readily available
to the roots. One portion is simply dispersed throughout it
in the form of little granules of apatite only (phosphate of
lime), so that even though the soil may altogether contain
more than a sufiicient proportion, yet in its various portions
there may exist in some too much, in others too little, for the
3(J6 THE WHEAT PLANT.
wants of plants. The mechanical preparation of the soil
would displace these granules, but would not cause their
thorough distribution and incorporation with it. To effect
this requires the co-opcrad'on of a chemical (ictioji.
After each rye or oat crop there remains in the soil a con-
siderable quantity of roots, which after one or two years
entirely disappear. We know that these organic matters have
undergone decay; that their constituents have united with
oxygen ; and that the carbon has formed carbonic acid, which
has accumulated in the air contained in the porous soil, as
analysis shows us.
When rain falls on this soil, it dissolves the carbonic acid,
which thereby acquires the power of taking up phosphate of
lime. This carbonic acid water does not withdraw from the
soil the phosphate of lime contained in it, but wherever it
meets with the granules of apatite or phosphorite, it dissolves
a certain portion ; for in these granules there exists no cause
of resistance to the action of the water ; and except the
cohesion between its own particles, no other extraneous influ-
ence prevents its solubility in water.
Under these circumstances, a solution of phosphate of lime
must consequently be formed, which spreads in all directions
around each granule. Wherever this solution comes in con-
tact with soil not already saturated with phosphate of lime,
the soil will take up and retain a certain portion of this salt.
The portion of soil nov) saturated with phosphate will oppose
no further obstacle to the wider diff'usion of the solution.
The same process is found to take place in the diffusion of
the silicic acid and potash in the soil, when the latter contains
silicates which can be decomposed by carbonic acid. There
is then formed around each particle of silicate a solution of
silicate of potash, the constituents of which are always again
iixed, in the first place by the nearest lying, and then by the
more remote portions of the soil.
A certain time is required for the distribution of the food
throujihout the soil in the manner above described.
DISTRIBUTION OF SILICATES TIIIIOUGIIOUT SOILS. 367
If we suppose that our field had contained 25,000 kilo, of
the ash-constitueuts of wheat, distribuled in the most uniform
manner through it; and in addition to this, but unequally dis-
trihutrd^ five, ten, or more thousand pounds of the same food,
the phosphoric acid as apatite^ the silicic acid and potash as
easily decomposed silicates ; — if we further suppose that every
two years a certain quantity of the last-named substances had
been rendered soluble, and capable of distribution in the soil
in the manner above mentioned, and in such proportions that
the roots should have found every where in the soil these ele-
ments of food in the same proportions as in preceding years
of cultivation — a sufficient amount, therefore, for a full aver-
age crop ; then should we, under these circumstances, have
obtained during a series of years full average crops, if zve had
interposed a year of fallow between each year of cultivation.
Instead of thirty constantly-diminishing crops, we should in
this case have obtained, during a period of sixty years, thirty
full average crops, if the additional portion of minerals in
the soil had proved sufiicient during that time to replace every
M'hore the phosphoric and silicic acids, and the potash, re-
moved annually by the crops. With the exhaustion of the
additional proportion of minerals in our field, the period of
diminishing crops would commence; and the further interpo-
sition from thiji time of falloxo years tcould not then exercise the
slighteM iiiflacnce on the increase of produce.
In the case under consideration, had the supposed additional
quantity of phosphoric and silicic acids, and potash, not been
unequally but uniformly distributed throughout the field, and
every loJiere completely accessible to the roots of plants, and in
a state fit for absorption, then thirty fxdl crops would have
been reaped in thirty successive years, without the interposition
of a year of fallow.
Let us return to our field, in which we assumed that there
were 25,000 kilo, of ash constituents of wheat, thoroughly
dispersed throughout it, and in a state fit for absorption, and
that it was sown each year with wheat ; let us now suppose
368 THE WHEAT PLANT.
that in each crop the ears only were cut from the straw, and
that the entire straw was left on the field and immediately
plowed in ; then must the loss of minerals be less in this year
than before, for all the constituents of the straw and the leaves
have remained in the ground ; we have only removed from the
field the mineral constituents of the grain.
Among the substances which the straw and leaves have
obtained from the soil, are found all the constituents of the
seed, but only in altered proportions. If we express by the
number 3, the whole phosphoric acid removed by the grain
and straw together, the loss would be represented by the num-
ber 2, if the straw remains in the ground. The decrease of
produce in a field in a succeeding year bears always a definite
proportion to the loss of mineral substances by the preceding
crop. The following crop of grain will be a little larger than
it would have been, had the straw not been left in the ground.
The produce of straw will be nearly the same as in the pre-
ceding year, for the conditions for the formation of straw
have been but slightly altered.
By thus taking less from the field than formerly, we thereby
increase the number of remunerative crops, or in other words,
the total amount of grain produced in the whole series of corn
crops. A portion of the straw-constituents is converted into
corn-constituents, and in this form is now removed from the
soil. The period of exhaustion will always come, but under
these circumstances it occurs at a later date. The conditions
for the production of grain go on constantly decreasing, for
the minerals removed by it have not been replaced.
This relation would still have remained the same, had the
cut straw been carted about the field, or been plowed in after
serving for litter to cattle. What has been supplied to the
field in this way, had been originally taken from it, and can
not therefore rurivh it. When we reflect that the combustible
elements of straw are not furnished by the ground, it is clear
that in leaving the straw in the ground, we really leave only
the constituents of its ash. The field was thereby enabled to
DECREASE IN CONDITIONS FOR FORMING GRAIN. 369
yield a little more than it otherwise would have done, simply
because less had been taken from it.
Had we also along with the straw plowed in the grain or its
ash-constituents; or instead of the wheat grain returned to
the field a corresponding quantity of another seed, rape-dust
(that is, rape- seed freed from its fatty oil), which contains the
same ash-constituents, the composition of the soil would have
remained the same as before, and the same amount of pro-
duce would have been obtained as in the preceding year.
If after each crop, the straw is always returned in this man-
ner to the field, the further result then is, an inequality in the
composition of the active constituents of the soil.
We have assumed that our field contained the mineral mat-
ters of the whole wheat plant in the right proportions for the
formation of straw, leaves and grain. By leaving the straw-
constituents in the soil, while those of the grain were con-
stantly removed, an increase of the former took place, vfhen
compared with the proportion of grain-constituents still re-
maining in the field. The field retained its productiveness
for straw, but the conditions f(^ the formation of grain de-
creased.
The consequence of this inequality is an unequal develop-
ment of the whole plant. So long as the soil contained and
supplied, in the proper proportions, all the necessary mineral
matters for the uniform growth of all parts of the plant, the
quality of the seed and the proportion between straw and
grain in the diminishing crops remained uniform and unal-
tered. But in proportion as the conditions for the formation
of straw and leaves became more favorable, so did the quality
of the seed deteriorate as its quantity diminished. The sign
of this inequality in the composition of the soil, as a conse-
quence of cultivation, is the diminution in weight of the
bushel of corn. While at first a certain portion of the con-
stituents of the returned straw (phosphoric acid, potash, mag-
nesia) was expended in the formation of grain, at a later
period the reverse of this takes place, and demands are then
370 THE WHEAT PLANT.
made on the grain-constituents (phosphoric acid, potash,
magnesia) for the formation of straw. We may imagine that
when there exists in a field this inequality in the conditions
for the formation of grain and straw, a culmiferous plant may,
under conditions of temperature and weather favorable for the
production of leaves, yield an enormous crop of straw with
empty ears.
Vine-dressers and gardeners prune trees and vines in order
to obtain larger fruit and in greater quantity, by thus limit-
ing the formation of twigs and leaves; and in many districts,
as in Lower Bavaria, it is often considered advantageous to
cut down or feed off the corn when half grown. It is found
that by this proceeding a larger amount and a better quality
of grain are obtained. In tropical regions many culmiferous
plants bear no seed, or but a small quantity, because the soil
does not contain the proper proportion of conditions for the
formation of seed and leaf.
The size of the seed in many plants, is in inverse propor-
tion to the development of the leaf. Tobacco, poppj', and
clover have proportionably smaller seeds than the culmiferous
plants.
The agriculturist can influence the direction of the vege-
tative force only through the soil ; that is, through the pro-
portion of the elements of food which he supplies to it. For
the production of the largest crop of grain it is requisite that the
soil contain a preponderating j^roportion of food necessary for
the formation of seeds. For turnips, Icofj/ and tuberous plants,
this condition is reversed.
An average crop of turnips with leaves contains five times,
a clover or potato crop twice, as much potash as the grain and
straw of a wheat crop from an equal surface. A clover and
a potato crop together remove from two fields of a hectare
each, as much phosphoric acid as the grain of three wheat
crops from three fields of the same size.
It is therefore evident, if we cultivate potatoes and clover on
our field which contains 25,000 kilo, of the mineral constitu-
GRAIN AND LEAFY PLANTS. 371
ents of wheat, and remove the whole produce of tubers and
clover, that we withdraw from the soil of these two fields as
much phosphoric acid, and three times as much potash, as by
three wheat crops. It is certain, that this removal from the
soil, by another plant, of these important mineral substances,
produces a great effect on its fertility for wheat; the yield and
the number of the wheat crops diminish.
If, on the other hand, during a period of two years, we
had cultivated on the field, wheat in the first year, and pota-
toes in the second, and had plowed in the whole of the
potato crop and the wheat straw, and had continued to do this
for sixty years, we should not by these means have in the
least degree altered or augmented the produce in grain, which
the field was capable of yielding. The field has neither
acquired nor lost anything by the cultivation of potatoes, for
these were always left in the field. When the grain crops
taken from the field have diminished the store of mineral
matters to f of their original quantity, then this field ceases
to furnish a remunerative crop, if f of an average return no
longer yield any profit to the agriculturist. We arrive at tlf6
same results, if, instead of potatoes, we had interposed crops
of clover, and had in the same way each year plowed it in.
We have assumed that the physical condition of the soil was
most favorable, and consequently, could not be improved by
incorporating with it the organic matters of the clover and
potatoes. Even had we removed the potatoes from the field,
mown and dried the clover, and then carted the potatoes and
hay back to the field, or made them first pass through the
cattle stalls, or made any other use of them ; had we in this
way returned to the field the whole sum of mineral matters
in both crops, we should not by all these operations have
produced from it in thirty, sixty, or seventy years, a single
grain more than would have been obtained without all these
changes. During this whole period the conditions for the
production of grain have not increased, but the cause of de-
crease in the crops has remained the same.
372 THE WHEAT PLANT.
The plowing in of the potatoes and clover could produce
a beneficial effect only on those fields, in which a favorable
pl^^sical state did not exist ; or in which the mineral matter
wAs unequally distributed, and was partly inaccessible to the
yoots of plants. But an action of this kind is just the same
/as that of green manuring, or of one or more years of fallow.
By the incorporation with the soil of the clover and or-
ganic substances, the amount of decaying matters and of
nitrogen in it is increased from year to year. All that these
plants received from the atmosphere remained in the ground,
but the enriching of the soil with these otherwise useful
matters can not eflfect the production of more grain than
formerly ; for this depends on the proportion of the minerals
in the soil, and these have not been increased, but on the
contrary, have constantly decreased, in consequence of the
removal of the corn. By the increase of nitrogen, and of
decaying organic matter in the soil, the produce might pos-
sibly be augmented for a number of years, but the period at
which such laud would no longer produce a remunerative
C^op, occurs in such circumstances only so much the more
quickly.
If we cultivate on three different wheat fields respec-
tively, wheat, potatoes, and clover, and plows all the potatoes
and clover yielded by the other two into the wheat field,
from which the grain alone is removed, we shall by these
means render the latter more fertile than before, for we have
enriched it by the whole amount of minerals which the pota-
toes and clover had extracted from the other two fields. It
has received three times as much phosphoric acid, and twenty
times as much potash, as the grain has carried away.
This wheat field will now be able to produce in three suc-
cessive years, three full grain crops ; for the conditions for
the production of straw have remained unchanged, while
those for corn have been increased threefold. If the agri-
culturist in this manner raises in three years as much corn
as he would have done in five on the same fields, without the
PROGRESSIVE EXHAUSTION OF THE SOIL. 373
co-operation of the mineral constituents of the clover and
potatoes, then lias his profit noio evidently become greater^ for
he has reaped with the seed for three crops as much as he
•would have done in the other case, with the seed for ^up.
But the other two fields have lost in fertility as much as the
wheat field has gained; and the final result is, that loith less
cost of ciiltioation and with more profit than before, the agri-
culturist has in his three fields anticipated the period of ex-
havstion which would inevitably have overtaken them by the
continued withdrawal in grain of the mineral constituents of
the soil.
The last case that we have to consider is, when the agri-
culturist, instead of potatoes and clover, cultivates turnips
and lucerne, which, by means of their long and deep pene-
trating roots, extract a large quantity of mineral matter from
the subsoil, which is not reached by the greater number of
the roots of the cereals. Where the fields possess a subsoil,
favorable to the growth of these plants, we double, as it
were, the extent of surface capable of cultivation. If the
roots of these plants received the half of their mineral matters
from the subsoil, and the other half from the arable soil, the
latter will lose by the crops only half so much as they would
have done, had the ivJiole of the mineral food for these crops
been obtained from the arable soil alone.
The subsoil, considered in the light of a field apart from
the arable soil, thus furnishes to the turnip and lucerne crops,
a certain quantity of mineral matter. If we suppose that in
harvest the whole of the turnip and lucerne crops had been
plowed under in the wheat-field, which had yielded an av-
erage crop of grain, and in this way as much and more min-
eral matter had been returned than the grain had removed;
then by these means, this wheat-field can be maintained at the
same degree of fertility at the expense of the subsoil^ just so long
as the latter continues productive for turnips and lucerne.
But since turnips and lucerne require for their growth a
37-4 THE WHEAT PLANT.
very larize quantity of mineral matter, the subsoil will be the
soooer exhausted, in proportion to the smaller quantity of
the«e substances it contains. Now, as the subsoil is not in
reifiity separated from the arable soil, but lies beneath it, it
cAn scarcely receive back any of the substances it has lost,
because the arable soil retains that portion of them which has
been added to it. It is only that part of the potash, ammo-
nia, phosphoric, and silicic acids, which has not been taken
up and fixed by the surface soil that can penetrate to the sub-
soil.
By the cultivation of these deep-rooting plants, super-
abundance of food can consequently be obtained for all those
which derive their nourishment chiefly from the surface soil.
This supply will not, however, be of any duration ; for, in a
comparatively short time, many fields will cease to produce
these plants, because the subsoil is exhausted, and its fertility
is only restored with difficulty. In the first place, lucerne no
longer grows, and turnips are only now produced in so far as
they are able to obtain their full supply of minerals from the
surface soil. Potatoes, which derive their supplies from the
upper layers of the surface soil, endure the longest.
The quantity of food which a plant receives from the ground
is not alone dependent on the quantity which is present in
the finest particles of the surface soil, but also on the number
of organs which extract this food from the ground. Two
roots will obtain twice as much as one.
The crop is partly dependent on the first root formation.
A grain of wheat or barley contains within itself so large a
quantity of food, that it stands in no need of the soil in the
first period of its growth. The seeds of these plants when
simply moistened, produce ten or more rootlets from six to
eight lines in length. The heavier the grain, the stronger
and more vigorous is the formation of roots. The seed corn,
without receiving anything from the ground, extends in all
directions its organs of absorption, by which it procures its
FOOD ABSORBED PROPORTIONAL TO ROOT SURFACE. 375
food from a comparatively great distance. Hence the agricul-
turist attaches great importance to the careful selection of
seed.
Small seeds, such as those of tobacco, poppy, and clover,
require a richer or more thoroughly prepared surface soil, to
prevent the loss of a large proportion ; because the soil in
the immediate neighborhood of the seed must at once supply
it with food after germination. Hence, as the agriculturists
say, such plants are more difficult to raise.
The seeds of the cereals may be compared to a hen's egg,
which contains within itself all the necessary elements for
the development of the young animal. Husbandry would
certainly_ assume quite another form, if for every single cereal
plant, as many seeds should be lost, as is the case with pop-
pies, tobacco, and even clover.
The quantify of food which a plant obtains from one and the
same soil is in proportion to its absorbent root surface. Of
two species of plants which require the same quantity and a
similar relation of mineral food, the one icilh double extent of
root surface takes up double the quantity of food.
If it is true that the constituents of the ash of plants are in-
dispensable to their life and growth, it is evident that what-
ever else may exert a favorable influence on their growth,
must be subordinate to t.he law, that the soil, in order to be
fertile in an agricultural sense for a cultivated plant, must
contain the constituents of the ash in sufficient quantity, and
in a state the most suitable for absorption.
The agriculturist has to do with the soil alone ; it is only
through it that he is able to exercise an immediate influence
on plants. The attainment of all his objects in the most
complete and profitable manner, pre-supposes the exact knowl-
edge of the effective chemical conditions for the life of plants
in the soil; it further pre-supposes, perfect acquaintance with
the food of plants, and the source from which it is derived,
as well as with the means for rendering the soil suitable for
376 THE WHEAT PLANT.
their nutrition, combined with experience and skill in em-
ploying them in the proper w.iy, and at the right time.
It is evident from the above statement that the cultivation
of plants tends to drain or to render a fertile soil unproduc-
tive. In the produce of his fields, destined for the food of
man and beasts, the agriculturist sends away that portion of
the active ingredients of his soil which contributes to the
growth of this very produce. The fertility of his fields con-
tinuously diminishes, whatever may be the plants he culti-
vates or the rotation he adopts. The export of his produce
is nothing else than a spoliation of his soil of the conditions
for its reproduction.
A field is not exhausted for corn, clover, tobacco, and tur-
nips, so long as it still yields remunerative crops without re-
quiring restoration of the minerals which are removed. It is
exhausted from the moment that the hand of man is needed to
restore it to the failing conditions of its fertility. The great
majority of our cultivated fields are in this sense exhausted.
The life of men, of animals, and of plants, is connected in
the closest manner with the return of all the conditions which
promote the vital process. The soil by its constituents con-
tributes to the life of plants ; its continuous fertility is incon-
ceivable and impossible without the return of those conditions
which have rendered it productive.
The mightiest stream, which sets in motion thousands of
mills and machines, fails, if the streams and brooks run dry
which supply it with water ; and these streams and brooks in
their turn dry up, if the myriads of little drops of which
they consist do not return in the form of rain to those spots
from which they have their source.
A field which has lost its fertility by the successive cultiva-
tion of different plants, acquires by the application of farm-
yard maiiure, the power of producing a new series of crops of
the same plants.
But what is farm-yard manure, and whence is its origin?
THE NATURE OF MANURE. , 377
The land of the husbandman is the source of all this manure.
Manure consists of the straw which has served for litter, of
the I'emains of plants, and of the fluid and solid excrement
of man and animals. The excrement is derived from the
food.
In the bread which a man daily receives, he consumes the
ash-constituents of the seeds of the cereals whose flour has
served for the preparation of the bread ; in flesh, the ash-
constituents of flesh.
The flesh of herbivorous animals, as well as its ash consti-
tuents, are derived from plants. These ash-constituents are
identical with those of the seeds of leguminous plants; so
that if a whole animal were burnt, the residual ash would not
differ from that of beans, peas, and lentils.
In bread and flesh, man consequently consumes the mineral
matters of seeds, or of the constituents of seeds, which the
agriculturist obtains from his land in the form of flesh.
But a very small fraction of the large amount of mineral
substances received by man in his food during a lifetime
remains in his body. The body of an adult does not increase
in weight from day to day ; it therefore follows, that all the
constituents of his food have passed again completely out of
his body. Chemical analysis demonstrates that the ash of
bread and of flesh exists in his excrement very nearly in the
same quantity as in his food. The comportment of the food
in his body is just the same as if it had been burnt in a fur-
nace. The urine contains the soluble, and the fteces the in-
soluble mineral matters ; the bad smelling ingredients are
the smoke and soot of an incomplete combustion. With
these are also mingled the undigested and indigestible remains
of food.
The excrement of swine fed on potatoes contains the ash-
constituents of potatoes ; that of the horse, the mineral mat-
ters of hay and oats ; that of cattle, the ash of turnips, clover,
etc., which have served for their food. Farm -yard manure
consists of a mixture of all these excrements together.
:i2
378 THE AVIIEAT PLANT.
By farm-yard ra:inurc, the fertility of a field which has
been exhausted by cultivation, is completely restored. This
is a fact which the experience of thousands of years has es-
tablished. In farm-yard manure the field receives a certain
quantity of organic, that is, combustible matter, and the ash-
constituents of the consumed food. We have now to consider
what part was played by the organic and inorganic matter in
this restoration of fertility.
The most superficial examination of a cultivated field shows,
that all the combustible matter of plants which are reaped
from the field are derived from the air, and not frvm the soil.
If the carbon of only a portion of the vegetable matter in
the crop were derived from the soil, it is perfectly clear, that
if the latter contained at first a certain amount of this element
before the harvest, this quantity must become smaller after
each crop. A soil poor in organic matter would be less pro-
ductive than one in which it is abundant.
Observation, however, shows, that a field under continued
cultivation does not in consequence become poorer in organic
or combustible matter. The soil of a meadow, which during
ten years has yielded a thousand cwt. of hay per hectare, is
not, after this period, poorer, but richer in organic substances.
A clover field, after a crop, retains in the roots remaining in
the soil more organic matter, and more nitrogen than it or-
iginally possessed ; but it has become unproductive for clover,
and yields no longer a remunerative crop.
A wheat or potato field is in like manner, after a crop, not
poorer than before in organic matter. In general the soil is
enriched hy cidtiratlon with comhtistihle const itmnt^, hut its fer-
tility nevertheless steadily diminishes. After a number of con-
secutive remunerating crops of corn, turnips and clover, these
plants are found to flourish no longer on the same soil.
Since, then, tlie pres-nce af decaying organic matter in a soil,
does not in the slightest degree retard or arrest its exhaust ion by
cultivation, it is imj>ossihle that an increase of these substances
can restore the lost capacity for productio7i.
FARM-YARD MANURE. 379
In fact by incorporating with the soil of a field completely
exhausted, boiled saw-dust, or salts of ammonia, or both to-
gether, we can not restore to it the power of yielding a second
or third time the same series of crops. If these substances
improve the physical character of the soil, they will exercise
a favorable influence on the produce ; but after all, their
action still consists in accelerating the exhaustion, and ren-
dering it more complete.
Farm -yard manure, however, restores thoroughly the power
of producing the same series of crops, a second, third, or a
hundred times. It arrests fully, according to the quantity
employed, the state of exhaustion ; its application may render
a field more fertile ; in many cases more so than it ever has
been.
The restoration of fertility by farm yard manure can not
have been caused by the presence of combustible matters
(carbonaceous and nitrogenous substances). If these pro-
duced any good eff"ects, they were of a subordinate nature.
Tlic, actiiHi. of farm-yard manure df.peitds most undoubted /i/ on
the amount of the invomhustible ash-constitucnts vf plants in it,
and is determined by these.
la the farm-yard manure the field received back in fact a
certain quantity of all the minerals which had been withdrawn
by the crops. The decrease in its fertility stood in exact re-
lation with the removal and the restoration of the fertility
with the rvstitntion of these mineral substances.
The incombustible elements of cultivated plants do not of
themselves return to the soil like the combustible in the atmos-
pheric sea from which they are derived. By the hand of man
alone are the conditions of the life of plants given back to
the soil. By farm-yard manure, in which these conditions
are fulfilled, the agriculturist, as if by a law of nalurc, re-
stores to his field its lost powers of production.
A rational practice maintains the circulation of all the
conditions of life ; and empirical practice breaks the chain
which binds man to his home, by robbing the soil of one con-
380 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
dition after another of" its fertility. Though the emj)iric
kiioWfi that the soil is diiiereiit to-day froui what it was yes-
terday, he nevertheless believes that it will be to-morrow what
it is to-day. Fouiidiag on (he. txpericiice of yesterday^ he
teaches that the fertile soil is incxhaustihle ; but science,
guided by laws, shows that the productiveness even of the
most fertile soil, has its end, and that the very soil which
appears inexhaustible, is txhausted. Because nature was kind
and gave abundantly to the father, the empiric thinks that the
son may also take abundantly and without any care tor the
future. On the I'act that man has a home, and that the spot
of earth, from which he toils with the sweat of his brow to
gain his subsistence, is his home, depends the development of
the human race. The continuance of his existence in his
home is dependent on the law, thai force is expended by use
and maintained by supply.
[We add a paper on that particular modification of TuH's
method of wheat cultivation, which is due to the llev. S.
Smith, of Lois-Weedon, Northamptonshire, England, in order
to prove that the great thing to be done in farming is to pul-
verize the soil — that a poor soil well pulverized is as produc-
tive as a good soil indifferently managed. That the principles
of TuU were sound, as far as they went, there is now no reason
to question. But because they halted when they should have
gone forward, and because the details of the practice which Tull
found indispensable for duly carrying his principles out, were a
bar to the attainment of such an amount of produce as would
satisfy the just demands of the farmer, his special husbandry
for the growth of wheat, with the exception of a few experi-
n)ents here and there, soon died away. For, a close and care-
ful examination of the only continuous and authenticated
balance sheets which are in existence, of average crops of
wheat grown on Tuil's plan, or on any modification of it, by
his best disciples, such as De Chateauvieux and Du Hamel, or
in the clever experiments in Yorkshire, reported in the Ap-
now TO GROW WHEAT WITH PROFIT. 381
pendix to ^lill's Husbandry, will discover a result of less than
sixteen bushels per acre, while the blind and unauthorized
rrManoe of that system on organic food alone, for the support
o:' the plant, must have led, more or less speedily, to utter
exhaustion of the land and total failure. The broad distinc-
tion, then, between TuU's system of growing wheat and that
proposed by Mr. Smith, and carried out at Lois-Weedon, is
this, that by certain alterations in practice, the latter has,
without manure, raised the average produce from sixteen to
thirty-four, and that he is enabled, by the principles on which
that change of practice is founded, to insure on wbeat lands,
that is, on the great majority of clay and heavy loam, a suffi-
ciency of every element of fertility, inorganic as well as
organic, for an indefinite succession of wheat crops on the
same acre of land.
The process by which the scheme is carried out, is a very
simple one, and is given in detail in his pamphlet, entitled
"A Word in Season, or How to Grow Wheat with Profit."
Briefly, it is this : " I divide my field," says the author, " into
lands five feet wide, in the center of each land I drop or drill
my seed in triple rows, one foot apart, thus leaving a fallow in-
terval of three feet between each triple row. When the plant
is up I trench the intervals with a fork, easily taking my
spits about three inches from the wheat, and at spring and
during summer, I clean them with the blades of the sharp
cutting-horse hoe, and keep them open with the tines of scuf-
fles. Every year, in fact, I trench and cultivate two and a
half feet out of the five for the succeeding crop, and leave the
other two and a half for that which is growing. One moiety
of each acre is thus in fallow, and the other moiety wheat, and
the average yield is thirty-four bushels, grown without diffi-
culty or danger in the execution, and surpassing the yield of
a whole acre on the common plan. It will here be seen at a
glance how I difi"er from Tull in practice ; how the fork takes
the place of the plow, and does better work on a narrower
compass; how the fallow is reduced from four-fifths of the
382 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
land to only one-half, and how in consequence the produce
is more than doubled at once."
With regard to the number of rows of wheat, Tull ended
with two. '• Upon experience," he says, " I find the double
row much preferable to the triple." The principal reason for
this preference was, that he found the middle row inferior to
the outside rows, which stood nearer to the pulverized inter-
vals ; and, certainly, on Tull's plan, the middle row always
will be inferior, for his rule was never to go below the staple.
And so, in some slight degree, will it be at the outset on
Mr. Smith's plan, till the soil is not only dug but pulverized
from fourteen to twenty inches deep ; because till then the
roots of the middle row are unable, with ease, to reach the
intervals, after passing beneath the roots of the outer rows.
Accomplish that depth, and there will be no diiference between
them. So Mr. Smith has found it, in his early piece of deep-
tilled wheat, and so Tull asserts in his 11th chapter : •' Where
any inner or middle row has a competent number of plants,
standing on a competent thickness of sufficiently pulverized
earth, and its outside row the same, whereunto the hoe-plow
has gone deep and very neat, such middle rows equal the out-
side row. But where any of these circumstances are wanting,
the middle row falls short more or less, in proportion as more
or fewer of them are wanting." The reasons against only two
rows, according to Mr. Smith, are, that without the "alloy"
of the middle row they would become too luxuriant from
excess of food, and especially because the more frequent
recurrence of the fallow interval would, in all probability,
greatly reduce the bulk of the crop. In favor of the double
row, is the greater ease with which the growing crop can be
cleaned.
Such, in brief, are the details of the practice at Lois-
Weedon ; and considered only as mere mechanical operations
on the soil, they are perfect in their tendency to promote
healthy vegetation in the plant. But, while the free exposure
of the rows to the influence of the sun and air is thus emi-
PULVERIZATION OF THE SOIL. 383
nently conducive to the health and vigor of each separate
plant, and while this process of disintegration of the clods
of the earth enables the roots to penetrate the soil with ease,
in search of their food, the fallow intervals brought into this
state of cultivation are actually providing the food itself.
For it does not appear to admit of a doubt, in the present
state of chemical investigation and analysis, that, supposing
the staple of wheat land — the clay and loamy soils spoken of
by Mr. Smith — to be exhausted, there is underneath the
staple, in the subsoil of such land, a supply of inorganic
food for the plant, which, even at a depth easily attainable by
the implement of cultivation, is practicably inexhaustible.
Bring up by degrees, then, a portion of this subsoil as it is
required ; bring up before winter, and lay rough on the sur-
face, just so much, and so much only, as can be decomposed
and mellowed by the annual alternate fallow, and the process
will render soluble a supply of mineral substances adequate
to the demand of each alternate crop. Nor does it now seem
doubted that the atmosphere contains a sufficiency of every
organic ingredient which is required by the wheat plant.
And here again, is displayed that harmony which runs through
and accompanies each process of the plan. For when the
clay or loamy soil has thus been deepened and pulverized,
and so far enriched, it is filtered for its other important office;
it has become a retentive absorbent of the riches of the atmos-
phere, which drop unrepelled into its bosom, and are there
reserved, either for the use of the growing plant, or to accu-
mulate for the succeeding crop. There are yet other collateral
advantages, of great and acknowledged importance, attending
this pulverized depth of soil between the rows of the growing
wheat. For in the driest season, it holds a never-failing
supply of necessary moisture for the plant, and in the wettest
year it enables all injurious moisture to filter and di'ain away.
The result of this scheme of wheat-growing has been an aver-
age produce of about thirty-four bushels per acre, dating
back from this present July, 1854; the scheme was com-
384 THE WHEAT PLANT.
menced, between nine and ten years ago, with hand-labor,
alone, on a small portion of a field, under all the dirjudvan-
tages of being fresh broken up. For so far from that being
a profitable condition for land in wheat — on this plan at
least — it is positively injurious, tending, as it does, to over-
luxuriance, and its frequently fatal effect. For the first five
years the average outlay was as follows :
Oue double dieduct outlay, 6 18 6
Net profit with wheat at 40s., £-3 6.
This straw is introduced into the account, since it is clearly
as much the produce of the soil as the grain itself. And it is
charged as profit, because on this plan — unlike the ordinary
mode of farming — it is not returned to the wheat field in the
shape of manure. As a (juestion beyond a doubt, therefore,
the produce of the straw is to be taken like the grain, and
charged at its value. •' That value to myself is clear," says
the author, " for I purchase straw, and charge for it at the
price I give. The value also to my neighbor who farms on
my plan, is clear, for he sells it. The value to others will
vary ; but take the judgment of any three intelligent farmers :
tell them their opinion will be published, and their names
EFFECTS OF OVER-LUXURIANCE. 385
given ; and when they have well considered its vise, cither as
chaflF or as litterj and then manure, it will be found, I appre-
hend, that their decision as to its value, to those good farmers
who do not sell their straw, will differ but little from those
who do."
This, then, was the first stage of the scheme, when all the
operations on the land were performed by hand-labor alone.
But it was objected that, however successful this plan of grow-
ing wheat might be, it was only success on a very small scale ;
and that the plan, therefore, was valueless as a model for the
farmer. It was objected, too, that as the crops were taken
from land lately brought under tillage, as a criterion of the
plan, they were inapplicable and useless. But, if Mr. Smith's
principles are sound, the latter objection is evidently futile.
For if the subsoil of wheat land contain an inexhaustible
supply of inorganic food, and the atmosphere provides a suf-
ciency of organic matter for the wheat plant, nothing more is
required. Nay, if the land be full of nourishment in itself,
and to this be added that competent and continuous provision
from above, the fear is, in reality, surfeit and sickness to the
crop from over-feeding. In common fiirming, what is more
difficult in the growth of wheat than to hit the point between
parsimony and profusion? And, with our variable climate,
how true to general experience are the telling words of our
cautious and far-seeing instructor in agriculture, that " if wheat
be over-fed in a wet season, it goes down, or in a dry, cold
May, it is mildewed?" "Last August (1849)," says Mr.
Pusey, " I observed beyond mistake, on a close examination,
that the better the land the more the wheat was mildewed ;
the better farmed was the same land, the more was it also
mildewed."
In order, however, to try the soundness of the two objec-
tions referred to, and to put them to the intelligible and un-
erring test of practice, the author states that he took in hand
a four-acre field, exactly suited to his purpose : for it was
what is usually deemed exhausted. It had never known a
386 THE WHEAT PLANT.
bare fallow in the memory of man. Four years before it had
been manured for Swedes, which were carted oflF the land. It
had no dressinjj for the three following crops, the rotation
having ended with a crop of wheat sown broadcast. Tn this
condition, the stubble standing, he entered upon the field in
October, 1850. lie then simply plowed the field an inch
deeper than it had ever been plowed before, cleaned and lev-
eled it, and so without further preparation, got in his seed.
After this, on the first appearance of the plant above ground,
he sent in his spadesman to trench the intervals two shallow-
spits deep, for a fallow for the succeeding crop. The produce
from the four acres was twenty-one and a half quarters of
Bristol red wheat ; and when it had been disposed of, the
result in outlay and profit, with wheat at 40s., was found to
be this :
Paid for plowing (Os. the half portion of each of the four
acres), £ 14
Harrowing, leveling, and cleaning the foul stubble (10s.
ditto), 2
Pressing the channels for the seed (Is.), 4
Dropping the seed into the channels by hand (Ss.), 1
Four pecks and one gallon of seed (5s. per bushel), 5 7^
Rolling (Gd.) * 20
Hoeing between the rows (3.s.), scarifying the intervals
(3s.), bird-keeping (4s.) 2
Reaping (9s.), carrying to barn and unloading (Os.), 3
Thrashing and winnowing 20.] quarters (at 2s. 11 Jd.), 3 OJ
Rates and taxes (4s. 8d.), and interest on £20, for oiitlay,
implements, etc., 1 18 8
Total outlay, £14 14 ! 17
Deductoutlay, H 14 6
Total amount of profit to proprietor, £37 3 0.
HAND LABOR INDISPENSABLE. 387
" The result, then," says the author, " may be stated thus :
One moiety of each of these four acres in wheat, and the other
moiety fallow — the land exhausted — no manure — little more
than a peck of seeds to each half acre — and yet the yield 20^
quarters. I very respectfully ask the farmer's attention to
these facts; and would bid him reflect, that there is nothing
whatever in the operations which were so successful here, to
prevent their application elsewhere."
This is the second stage of the scheme, in which the greater
economy of horse-power is introduced, and the hand-labor
confined to the usual hoeings and the trenching before win-
ter. For hand-labor can not be dispensed with altogether at
present; since no implement at present can trench. Nothing
but the spade or the fork has yet been found able, within the
limited space of thirty inches, to tuMi up the subsoil from the
required depth, and place it uppermost, in such a form as to
receive the full benefit of the frosts of winter and the scorch-
ings of summer ; that exposure of the subsoil is indispensa-
ble, providing as it does the necessary and never-failing sup-
ply of inorganic manure for the wheat crop.
There is yet a third stage in prospect to accomplish the
digging and the burning up of the subsoil by machinery.
This would certainly increase the profits of the scheme, by
reducing very considerably the expense of cultiv^ation, and
would relieve the mind from the fear of the want of hands;
a fear, however, not entertained by the author himself, though
many alluring outlets have been opened for the superabundant
labor of the country.
After the foregoing statement, little need be said of the
profitableness of the scheme itself: for if out of an arable
farm of 400 acres, 100 acres be set apart for wheat on this
plan, and, with wheat at 40s., the profits of these 100 acres, at
a gain of £5 per acre net, be £500 to the renting farmer,
the thing speaks for itself.
The remaining 300 acres — supposing them to be farmed on
the common plan of rotations — would tell their own tale, and
388 TllK W!1KAT TLA NT.
if they told it truly, they could scarcely be silent on the sub-
ject of that unneed straw from the 100 acres of wheat. The
advantap;e of having on the spot say 150 tons of straw,
although accounted for at its value, would be acknowledged
by them at once.
Such is the j)vofitable scheme of wheat-growing proposed
by Mr. Smith, and carried out at Lois-Weedon ; but, emi-
nently profitable as it is, it is quite clear from the details,
that very great nicety of cultivation is required in order to
insure success. So precise, in fact, are the conditions, that
on the first two years of trial, in various parts of the country,
several signal failures have taken place. To say, however,
that much care, and much attention, and much energy, are
all in requisition here, is only to assert a recognized law of
nature, that nothing omirTently good is ever attained but by
strenuous exertion. To pulverize the trenched soil, to keep
it clean, to sow early, are all indispensable to entire success ;
and it is unfortunate that the two untoward seasons during
which these two successful trials were made, were less dusty,
more uncleanly, and less fitted for early sowing, than were
probably ever known in the memory of man. Still there
were some experimenters who, bad as was the sticking place,
screwed their courage to it, and did not fail, and the author
of the scheme declares, with the utmost sincerity, that " he
never knew an unsuccessful case where he knew the conditions
of the scheme had been strictly carried out."]
MEDIUM SOIL TO BE SELECTED. 389
CHAPTER XVI.
MANAGEMENT OF SOILS.
There is no doubt that the culture of wheat is annually
becoming more and more precarious in Ohio. Notwithstand-
ing there are great improvements made in agricultural imple-
ments and machinery, and these generally well distributed
throughout the State ; yet the products per acre, do not in-
. crease in proportion to the amount expended for machinery
and labor. It is evident then that our soils are manifesting
indications of less fertility than in former years. The great
question in Ohio is what shall be done to retain even the
present condition or state of fertility, and if possible increase
it? The man who will furnish to the farmers in Ohio a prac-
tical solution of this problem — who will inform them how it
may be accomplished, by incurring a very slight expense, or
such expenditure as the small farmers can readily afford, may
well be regarded as a benefactor to our agricultural com-
munity.
It is by no means certain that farmers always select the
lands best adapted to the growth of wheat, for the culture of
that plant. Instances are not wanting where the attempt has
been made for a number of successive years to grow wheat, on
soils not adapted to it. The attempts have invariably result-
ed in disappointment to the grower.
Soils of a medium quality should be selected. Those
which are too rich, such as the black mold, or black sandy
soils of the river and creek banks, or low places, should never
be selected for wheat. They are unquestionably better adapt-
ed for corn and potatoes. The soils on " bottom lands " as
they are generally termed, consist in too great a degree of
organic matter — of humus, aad decaying or decayed vegetable
390 THE WHEAT PLANT.
matter, to grow wheat to any advantage to the grower. They
lack the proper cdrthi/ materials, or if they possess them, they
are not in a proper chemical condition for the purposes of the
plant. It is a generally admitted fact, that on such soils the
wheat grows very rank, producing straw of enormous growth,
but the heads are invariably small, even of the best varieties
of wheat, and produce very few and indifferent grains of
wheat. Aside from this, wheat grown on low places is more
liable to suffer from frosts, mildew, rust and insects, than that
grown upon higher grounds; it is also as a general thing
much more liable to fall or lodge than that on more elevated
places.
The best lands for wheat are those in which the principal
ingredient is clay, — either red, yellow or white, of which the
white however, is always the poorest. There is no doubt that
more labor must be expended on & pure clay soil than on al-
most any other ; yet when properly managed it yields more
uniformly, and yields larger crops of wheat than any other
soil. The first thing to be done after clearing a piece of clay
soil, is, to have it thoroughly drained, before it is " broke up."
Clay retains more moisture than any other kind of soil ; but
when it loses its moisture, it becomes drier and harder than
any other. A new clay will shrink or contract fully one sixth
in sun-drying or " baking " ; it is easy to imagine what effect
this shrinkage will have upon the tender rootlets of the
plants.
Lime in considerable quantities should be applied on new
clay lands, to neutralize the excess of acidity with which they
are almost universally impregnated. Straw, or barn-yard
manure can not be too plentifully plowed in, on such lands —
not for the purpose of acting as manures, but as a means of
converting the clay into a loam. Lime, straw, or barn-yard
manure if plentifully applied, will also prevent the soil from
baking, because the introduction of any foreign substance
between the particles of clay prevents the latter from cohering.
It is very evident that the ofteiier the soil is stirred, the more
FREQUENT PLOWIXGS NECESSARY. 391
reduced in size will the particles become. If a piece of new
ground is plowed four times in succession, it is reasonable to
suppose that the particles of its soil are four times as much
reduced, and that barn -yard manure or straw is four times as
thoroughly incorporated as that which has been plowed once
only.
The Roman farmers in olden times plowed their wheat
lands from six to eight times before seeding, and they seldom
or never failed in being fully rewarded by the more abundant
crop for their additional labor. Tradition says that the
ancient Egyptians seldom or never plowed their wheat lands
less than six times.
It is very evident that every time the earth is broken by
any sort of tillage, new surfaces of the soil become exposed,
not only to the atmosphere, but to the action of the roots of
the plant. Now it is this new surface from which the plant
obtains or elaborates its food, as is proved by the fact that no
plant will grow in precisely the same place where a similar
plant grew before. In a peach orchard, the old trees were
removed and young ones put in the precise spot occupied by
the old ones — they died in the third year, apparently without
cause ; but when planted on the intermediate spaces, between
the old trees, they grew luxuriantly, and bore excellent crops
of fruit. Twenty successive good crops of wheat 'may be
grown on the same soil, '■'■provided always" as the attorneys
say, that each new crop has new surfaces of soil to act upon.
This fact was well understood by Jethro Tull, more than one
hundred years ago. Mr. Tull was the inventor of the first
drill, and one part of his work is a treatise on making and
using drills and plows, and horse hoes.
In his chapter on " Tillage " he says :
" Tillage is beneficial to all sorts of land. Light land be-
ing naturally hollow, has larger pores, which are the cause of
its lightness. This, when it is by any means sufficiently
divided, the parts being brought nearer together, becomes for
a time, bulk for bulk heavier, i. c, the same quantity will be
392 THK -WHEAT PLANT.
contaiucd in less room, and so is made to partake of the
nature and benefits of strong land, viz., to keep out too much
heat and cold, and the like.
" But strong hnid being naturally less porous, is made for
a time lighter (as well as richer) by a good division ; the sep-
aration of its parts makes it more porous, and causes it to
take up more room than it does in its natural state, and then
it partakes of all the benefits of lighter land. When strong
land is plowed, and not sufficiently, so that the parts remain
gross, it is said to be rough, and it has not the benefit of till-
age ; because most of the artificial pores (or interstices) are
too large, and then it partakes of the inconveniences of the
hollow land untilled. For when the light land is plowed but
once, that is not sufficient to diminish its natural hollowness
(or pores) and for want of more tillage, the parts into which
it is divided by that once (or perhaps twice) plowing, remain
too large, and cont^equently the artificial pores are large also,
and in that respect are like the ill-tilled strong land. Light
land having naturally less internal superficies, seems to require
the more tillage or manure to enrich it. * * "-f: >!= Artificial
pores can not be too small, because the roots may the more
easily enter the earth that has them, quite contrary to natural
pores; for these may be and generally are, too small and too
hard for the entrance of all weak roots, and for the free en-
trance of strong roots. Insufficient tillage leaves strong land
with its natural pores too small, and its artificial ones too
large. It leaves light land with its natural and artificial pores
both too large. Pores that are too small in hard ground, will
not easily permit roots to enter them. Pores that are too
large in any sort of land, can be of little other use to roots,
but only to give them passage to other cavities more proper
for them, and if in any place they lie open to the air, tliey
are dried up and spoiled before they reach them. For fibrous
roots can take in no nourishment from anj cavity, unless they
come into contact with, and press against all the superficies
of that cavity which includes them : for it dispenses the food
FREQUENT PLOWINGS NECESSARY. 393
to their lacteals by such pressure only. But a fibrous root is
not so pressed by the superficies of a cavity whose diameter is
greater than that of the root.
" The surfaces of great clods form declivities on every side
of them, and large cavities, which are as sinks to convey what
rain and dew bring too quickly downward to below the plowed
part. The first and second plowings with common plows
scarcely deserve the name of tillage ; they rather serve to pre-
pare the land for tillage. The third and fourth, and every
subsequent plowing, may be of more benefit and less expense
than any of the preceding ones; for the finer the land is
made by tillage, the richer it will become, and the more plants
it ^ill maintain. It has often been observed, that when part
of a ground has been better tilled than the rest, and the whole
ground constantly managed alike, afterward for six or seven
years successively, this part that was but once bettei' tilled
always produced a better crop than the rest, and the difier-
ence remained very visible every harvest. One part being
once made finer, the dews did more enrich it ; for they pene-
trate within, and beyond the superficies whereto the roots are
able to enter. The fine parts of the earth are impregnated
throughout their whole substance with some of the riches car-
ried in by the dews, and there deposited, until, by new tillage,
the insides of those fine parts become superficies ; and as the
corn drains them they are again supplied as before ; but the
rough large parts can not have that benefit ; the dews not pen-
etrating to their centers, they remain poor."
It must be obvious to every one that a finely comminuted
seed-bed will produce much more thrifty plants than a coarsely
comminuted one will. For this reason when lands are plowed
when not too wet, they always produce better than wet plowed
ones. A garden deeply spaded and finely worked always pro-
duces better than a shallow, cloddy one.
If an entire field for wheat could be as finely coraniinuted
in its particles as a garden the product would astonish the
proprietor.
394 THE M'llEAT PLANT.
All soils have what is termed ^'■capillary attraction'' that is,
the power to suck up, or elevate to the surface mineral matters
in solution from the subsoil, and the finer the soil is pulver-
ized the stronger is the capillary attraction. In proof of this
position the following, from the pen of J. H. Salisbury, an
agricultural chemist of New York State, is here inserted :
" From numerous observations which have been made at
diflFerent times on the j)eculiar appearance of the surface of
soils, clays, etc., during the warm summer months, and the
fact that they, when covered w^ith boards, stones, or other
materials, so as to prevent them from supporting vegetation,
become in a comparatively short time much more productive
than the adjacent uncovered soil ; we have been led to the
belief that the soil possessed some power within itself aside
from the roots of plants, of elevating soluble materials from
deep sources to the surface.*
"To throw some light upon the subject, in May, 1852, I
sunk three boxes into the soil — one 40 inches deep, another
28 inches deep, and a third IG inches deep. All three of the
boxes were 16 inches s(|uare. I then plated in the bottom of
each box three pounds of sulphate of magnesia. The soil
which was to be placed in the boxes above the sulphate of
magnesia, was then thoroughly mixed, so as to be uniform
throughout.
" The boxes were then filled with it. This was done on the
25th of May, 1852. After the boxes were filled, a sample of
soil was taken from each box, and the percentage of magnesia
which it contained accurately dctermineil. On the 28th of
June another sample of surface soil was taken from each box,
and the percentage of magnesia carefully obtained as before.
" The result in each case pointed out clearly a marked in-
* Dr. Alex. H. Stephen?, of New York, wa.s, I tliink, tlic lir.st to siip:p;cst
this idea. He speaks o\ it in%is address, delivered before the State
Agricultural Society of" New Yoik, on the Food of Plants, in January,
1848. No accurate experiments were performed, however, to fi.x it with
a degree of certainty, till these were made which appear in this paper.
CAPILLARY ATTRACTION OF SOILS.
395
crease of magnesia. On the 17tli of July, a sample of sur-
face soil was taken a third time from each box, and carefully
examined for magnesia; its percentage was found to be very
perceptibly greater than on the 28th of the preceding month.
On the 15th of the months of August and September follow-
ing, similar examinations severally were made, with the same
evident gradual increase of the magnesia in the surface soil.
" The followin"; are the results as obtained :
Percentage of Magnesia.
May 25th .........
June 28th
July 17lh
August 15th ....
September 15th
Box 40 in. deep. Box 28 in. deep. Box 10 in. deep,
0.18
0.25
0.42
0.47
0.51
0.18
0.30
0.46
0.53
0.58
0.18
0.32
0.47
0.54
0.61
" Before the middle of October, when it was intended to
make another observation, the fall rains and frosts had com-
menced ; on this account, the observations were discontinued.
The elevation of the magnesia, as shown in the above experi-
ments, evidently depends upon a well-known and common
property of matter, viz., the attraction of solids for liquids, or
what is commonly denominated capillary attraction. This
may be clearly illustrated by taking a series of small capillary
glass tubes, and insert one extremity of them in a solution of
sulphate of magnesia or chloride of ammonium, and break or
cut off the upper extremities just below the bight to which
the solution rises. Expose them to the sun's rays; the water
of the solution evaporates, and the fixed sulphate of magnesia
will be deposited just on the upper extremity of the tube. As
the solution evaporates, more of it rises up from below, keep-
ing the tubes constantly full ; yet no sulphate of magnesia
passes off: it all, or nearly all, remains at, or rises just above,
the evaporating surface. Just so in the soil ; as the water
evaporates from the surface, more water, impregnated with the
soluble materials from below, rises up to supply its place. As
396 THE WHEAT PLANT.
this evaporation goes on, it leaves the fixed materials behind
in the surface soil at the several points of evaporation.
"This explains why we often find, during the months of
July, August, and September, a crust of soluble salts covering
the surface of clay deposits which are highly impregnated with
the alkalies, or any of the soluble compounds of the metals,
earths, or alkaline earths. Also the reason in many instances
of the incrustations upon rocks that are porous and contain
soluble materials. It also helps to explain the reason why
manures, when applied for a short or longer time upon the
surface of soil, penetrate to so slight ii depth. Every agricul-
turist is acquainted with the fact that the soil directly under
his barn-yard, two feet below the surface (that is, any soil of
ordinary fineness), is quite as poor as that covered with boards
or otherwise, two feet below the surface in bis meadow; the
former having been for years directly under a manure heap,
while the latter, perhaps, has never had barn -yard manure
within many rods of it.
" The former has really been sending its soluble materials
up to the manur.e and surface soil ; the latter to the surface
soil and the vegetation near or upon it, if uncovered.
" The capillary attraction must vary very much in different
soils; that is, some have the power of elevating soluble mate-
rials to the surface from much deeper sources than others.
The pores or interstices in the soil correspond to capillary
tubes ; the less the diameter of the pores or tubes, the higher
the materials are elevated. Hence one very important con-
sideration to the agriculturist, when he wishes nature to aid
him in keeping his soil fertile, is to secure soil in a fine state
of mechanical division, and of a highly retentive nature.
" Nothing is more common than to see soils retain their
fertility with the annual addition of much less manure than
certain others. In fact, a given quantity of m;iuuro on the
former, will seem to maintain their fertility for several years ;
while the latter, with a similar addition, quite lose the good
effects of the manure in a single season.
SOIL MUST BE COMMINUTED.
397
" The former soils have invariably the rocks, minerals, etc.,
which compose them in a fine state of division ; while the
latter have their particles more or less coarse."
The great desideratum, then, is, to find some method by which
the soil may be as perfectly pulverized or comminuted as may
be. When a field has been pastured during several years the
surface becomes very compact, from its natural "settlings," as
well as from the trampling of cattle, and when broken up by
the plow the furrow slices are little else than parallelograms of
earth inverted from their former position. Many fields of
this description which the writer has seen present an appear-
ance very like the annexed cut (Fig. 20), the furrow slices
turning over in many instances several rods in length, with-
out a single break in them. Such lands should be plowed,
cross-plowed and replowed at least, before being seeded in
wheat. The soil is more coherent, from the roots of grasses
and from the trampling of cattle, than that of fallow fields,
consequently requires more labor to comminute it.
The soil of a stubble field, when plowed with the ordinary
plow, presents an appearance as in the subjoined cut (Fig.
21). In this it will be observed that the furrow slice crum-
bles as it is turned over, and although three plowings would
be highly advantageous to such soil, yet, if plowed and cross-
398
THE WHEAT PLANT.
plowed only, will yield as much as a pasture plowed three
times — other things being equal.
• ii;ili;,|;i||||i;|||uii;|ii ii':iriiiii.i-i.''iiiH|t;|:|UMIIililllll!!!",llllllllimillllUllili'
Fig. 21.
But the most effective soil-comminuter which the writer
has yet seen in the shape of a plow, is the Columbus Double
Plow, a representation of which will be found on the opposite
page. The work done by this plow is illustrated in the
annexed cut. A furrow measuring from seven to eleven
inches deep, and from seven to fifteen wide, can be plowed
with it with a draft of from five to seven hundred pounds.
The forward, or skim plow, turns from two to three inches
of the sod in the bottom of the furrow ; then the after-plow
raises and turns from five to seven inches of the under soil
on top, entirely covering the sod and all herbage. The roots
of the grass being removed by the small plow, the under soil is
pulverized by the large one, thus leaving a perfect seed bed, and
rendering the use of the harrow unnecessary.
Fig. 23 shows the movement of the furrow slices of sod
and sub-soil as turned by the Columbus Double Plow. The
Double Plow requires no more draft than the single plow
doing the same amount of work. This has been proven by
repeated experiments with the dynamometer.
It .is, therefore, a desirable implement for deep tilling, as it
can be used with two small horses, by plowing a narrow and
deep furrow. This is apparent, as will be perceived, that the
COLUMBUS DOUBLE PLOW.
399
400
TflK WIIKAT PLANT,
proportions of the furrow of the important plow (i. e. the sod
or forward plow) are not destroyed, the width being double or
greater than double the depth.
Deep Plowing. — The objects gained by deep plowing are
more numerous than most persons are aware of, especially
those who have not given the subject a careful examination.
In the first place, the primary object of all tillage or
mechanical division of the soil, is to give the roots of plants
a larger range in search of food ; and when we consider the
extent to which the roots of many plants penetrate the earth,
if not obstructed by a compact subsoil, the object gained by
deep plowing must be obviously great, even in this respect.
2. By deep plowing, means are afforded to the surplus
waters to retreat beneath the surface of the earth, and thus
their injurious effects to the growing plants are entirely obvi-
ated, while it affords a reservoir of moisture acceptable to the
plants in time of drouth.
IMPORTANCE OF DEEP PLOWING. ' 401
3. The atmosphere is at all times more or less charged with
carbonic acid and ammonia, elements of vital importance to the
growing crops, wl.ich are brought down by showers of rain,
and if allowed to penetrate the earth, are deposited in the soil,
but if left upon the surface, do not benefit the crop.
4. In times of drouth, when every facility should be afforded
to the crop to obtain moisture from light showers and dews, it
is only the deep mellow soil that receives the benefits of these
agents ; for when the showers and dews are deposited upon
the compact earth, they are immediately taken up by the
atmosphere and lost to the plant; while on the other hand, if
the soil is open and porous, they are absorbed by the soil for
the future use of the plants. Tliis principle can easily be
tested by any one. Examine, in a dry time, a soil of say
four inches deep, covering a hard pan or subsoil, and you will
find it perfectly dry down the whole depth of the four inches ;
while on the same soil, in the same location, where the soil is
worked to the depth of eight inches or two feet, you will find
it moist even to the very surface.
5. On the principle of radiation, deep plowing lias decided
advantages over shallow, in protecting the crops against frost
as well as drouth ; for the more compact a substance is, the
greater the powers of radiation, consequently it sooner parts
with its heat and is reduced to the temperature of the atmos-
phere, which is frequently below the freezing point, when the
loose mellow soil is far above it.
6. On rolling lands, much injury is done by surface washing.
Often more of the soluble elements dissolved by showers, are
carried into the streams to enrich some ranker plantation, or
lost forever in the ocean, than is taken up by the plant; the
remedy for which is found only in artificial means, such as
deep tillage, trenching, ditching, etc.
Now, when we consider the advantages deep tillage has
over shallow, our only wonder is that it is not more generally
adopted.
Line upon line and precept upon precept seems so necessary
34
402 TJIK WllKAT VI, A NT.
upon this important subject, that no further apology should
be required for the amount of space devoted to it in this work.
Professor J. J. Mapcs, who has paid much attention to prac-
tical as well as scientific agriculture, presents the following
arguments in favor of deep plowing:
" 1. All plants consist of three parts — the main stem and its
branches ; the leaves whose office is to collect the principal
food or nourishment from the air ; and the roots which colleot
water-sap from the ground to keep the plant moist, to supply
its juices, and to act as a vehicle for carrying to different parts
of the plant the food gathered by the leaves. The roots also
serve as supports to hold the plant in its place.
2. The roots take in whatever liquids they are brought in
contact with. They are increased in size and number by the
direct application to them of food or stimulants (manures).
They are also injured by coming in contact with such soluble
poisonous materials as they can absorb.
3. The contact of air is necessary to destroy (oxidize) certain
poisonous mineral salts found in all soils — particularly theproto-
salts of iron .
Now, then, suppose we have a soil from which the air has
been shut out by its compactness, or by the constant pressure
of water or moisture in its pores. To break up and pulverize
such a soil deeply, is to invite the growth of roots downward
heloiv the vsual access of air. These deeper penetrating roots
then absorb some of the poisonous (unoxidized) mineral com-
pounds. The consequence is, the structure, not only of the
roots, but of the whole plant, is injured. On such a soil it
very often happens that shallow plowing, which only disturbs
the thin surface portion immediately in contact with the air,
will be preferable for the time being, to go down deeply at
once. The true way is to go only half an inch to an inch
deeper every year, and bring up a little of the under soil in
contact with air, to be fitted by it for use ; but not bring up
enough to injure the growing crops. Every one must have
observed that the soil thrown out of a deep well will at first
MAPES, ON DEEP PLOWING. 103
grow nothing ; and yet after contact with the air for a year or
two, or more, it becomes quite equal to the old surface soil.
Let us now look at another class of soils — those which are
open, porous, and by reason of good natural under-drainage
are a part of the year free from standing water to the depth
of a foot or more. In this case the air will have penetrated
deeply, and destroyed poisonous mineral compounds. Deep
plowing will not loosen a mass of dangerous material, but on
the contrary, will invite down the roots of plants where they
will find a supply of moisture, even when the surface is
parched with drought. To stir such soil only at the surface,
would tend to a shallow growth of roots, and when the
surface dries up, the plant fails to get moisture enough to
supply the waste of water by evaporation from the leaves. In
soils of this character it is manifestly desirable, nay, import-
ant, to plow deeply.
It is owing to such diversity of condition in soils, that
practical men, reasoning only from their own experience, have
been led to exactly opposite views in regard to deep and shal-
low plowing. Literally, what is one man's meat is another's
poison. And this remark has a wider application than to the
mere question of plowing. The manures appropriate to
particular soils, differ as widely as does the treatment
required. Quacks in medicine recommend one kind of pills
as a cure for all kinds of disease. Quacks in agriculture, in
like manner, prescribe a particular treatment or manure as jusi
the thing for all soils, and if ingenious, they can make out
plausible arguments to support their pretensions.
In regard to plowing deeply, the true theory is to provide
a deep thorough drainage for all soils not naturally dry to a
considerable depth from the surface; and then, hy degrees,
break up the sub soil, until a deep bed of dry, warm, air-ex-
posed soil is secured. When this is done, plants will sen 1
down and spread widely a mass of roots that will support a
corresponding growth of vegetation above the surface, and as
404 THE WHEAT PLANT.
berore remarked, our crops will be independent of the mere
surface effects of drought or rains."
Mr. Henry Stephens, a reliable English agricultural writer,
in his treatise on " Fester Deep Land Culture^'' says :
" The great object attained by deep-stirring the subsoil, is
the prevention of water lodging about or near the roots of the
cultivated plants. It is feared that thorough-draining a clayey
subsoil will not alone secure that object. The reason why it
is desirable that the subsoil about and below the roots of
plants should be in as loose a state as to allow the rain-water
that descends from the surface to pass from them quickly, is
that the passage of water has a consolidating effect upon the
subsoil as well as the soil ; and if it do not usually pass
quickly through the former, as it does through the latter, it is
because the upper soil is always in a loose state by cultivation.
Now, there is no way of rendering the subsoil entirely loose
but by deep-stirring it. The least consolidation of the sub-
soil tends to retain the water as it descends from the surface,
and thorough-draining can not of itself prevent that tendency
in clay subsoils ; and water when retarded is sure to chill the
roots of plants in winter, and to prevent the incorporation of
vegetable matters with both the subsoil and soil ; whereas
deeply stirring the subsoil renders consolidation impossible
for a considerable time, and in the meanwhile the plants enjoy
vigorous health by their roots absorbing as much moisture, as
it descends past them, as they require, and partaking of as
much food as is prepared for them by the natural action of
the soil and manure. No fear need be entertained of render-
ing the soil or the subsoil too dry by means of thorough
draining, or in conjunction with it of subsoil trench plowing,
inasmuch as the bottoms of all the drains, and the subsoil for
several inches above the tiles, are receptacles of moisture,
■which they are ever ready to yield to the wants of vegetation
whenever demanded, through the easy and quit-k instrumen-
tality of capillary attraction. Shallow plowed land has not a
TESTER DEEP LAND CULTURE. 405
sufficient body of pulverized mold to induce the action of
capillary attraction. Continuous shallow plowing has, more-
over, the effect of encrusting with a hard stratum the bottom
of the furrow in clay subsoils ; and those plows which work
at a constantly equal depth by means of wheels, i-ender the
bottom of the furrow on clay subsoils sooner hard than any
other class of plows.
Of all classes of subsoils the sandy ones are most quickly
affected by subsoil trench plowing, and they are also as easily
consolidated by water. Gravelly subsoils are next most easily
affected ; and there are such of this class of subsoils so firmly
compacted together, without the means of a clayey matrix,
that water passes with difficulty through them ; and yet, when
once broken asunder by the subsoil trench plow, they remain
loose ever after. Thin clay subsoils are the next most easily
affected by subsoil trench plowing ; and generally having
small veins of sand traversing them, or small stony grits in-
terspersed through them, they become loose for a consider-
able time after being subsoil trench plowed. The pure clay
subsoils are the longest in being affected by subsoil trench plow-
ing, and they have a constant tendency toward reconsolidation.
It thus being a paramount object with the farmer to have
the subsoils of the different classes of soils upon his farm
always in a pulverized state, he should make himself well
acquainted with the periods when it is necessary to renew their
subsoil trench plowing. Experience has not yet decided on
the respective periods at which this operation should be re-
newed on the different classes of subsoils ; but enough has
been ascertained on this point to lay it down as a rule, that
the Double plow should be employed to cross-plow in the
autumn the stubble land intended for green crop in the
ensuing season, to the depth of 15 inches, at the end of every
rotation of fives. The subsoil trench plow will not probably
require to be used again during the currency of a lease on
sandy and gravelly subsoils, nor even on thin clays ; but on
pure clays it may be required oftcner than once in the course
406 TlIK WHEAT I'LANT.
of a lease, although probably no farmer will undertake to do
it oftener than once in a lease. The same feeling will prob-
ably guide the farmer in the use of these implements that
guides him in the liming of a farm — once in a lease. Experi-
ence, of course, will determine its frequency; but common sense
already instructs that subsoil-trench-plowing will be executed
much more easily, more quickly, and therefore less expen-
sively, on repetition than at first.
To demonstrate that deep tillage is not a matter of mere
opinion or speculation, the annexed is quoted; being the re-
sults produced by systematic deep culture by the Marquess of
Tweeddale, in East Lothian, Scotland :
Results of the Yester Deep Land-Culture on the
Yester Farms. — A few instances of the crops received from
each of the I'^ester farms since it has been treated in the way
above described, will suffice to show the results which have
already been obtained from the system of deep land-culture
here recommended for general adoption by practical agricul-
turists, whether proprietors or farmers.
It is right to mention that at Yester Mains and Broad-
woodside the subsoil-trench-plowing, in a few of the strong
clay fields, had an evident injurious eff"ect upon the barley
crop and new grass, on account of the subsoil being originally
a very bad, poor clay; and the crop of turnips not having
been carried off", but eaten on the land late in spring, the seed
furrow was obliged to be given when the soil was in an unfit
state for plowing, particularly under the circumstance of the
large quantity of the subsoil not being thoroughly incorpo-
rated with the surface soil. This inconvenience has now been
entirely avoided by storing the turnips when at maturity in
autumn, and by immediately plowing up the land and ex-
posing it to the iVosts of winter.
In the second rotation, now being pursued on Yester Mains,
purple-top yellow turnips were raised in 1854, on Steel's
Walls field, with 13 loads of farm-yard dung and 2^ cwt. of
guano per imperial acre. The crop was r>2^ tons per acre.
RESULTS Oi' YiOSTEil D£J-:i'-C'ULTURE. 407
rooted and sliawed, as ascertained by ineafjurement and weight
from a whole acre of a fair average of the field, when carried
oflf to be consumed by cattle. In this field of 37 acres there
is now no trace of the original state of the very bad subsoil
to the depth under culture. Barley will succeed the turnips
in 1855. Black vegetable matter obtained from the drained
loch at Danskine has been put on the strongest clayey spots
of fields of this farm to open the tenacity of the clay, and
good turnips have been by that means raised upon parts upon
which turnips would formerly scarcely braird.
The Moss Bents field, which had originally been stifi" clay,
containing 15f imperial acres, was in oats in ]850, which pro-
duced 29^ bushels the acre. It was bare-fallowed and sub-
soil-trench-plowed in 1851, and in 1852 produced 61 quarters
of good wheat, and 2J quarters of light, equal to 38^ bushels,
and realized above £11 the acre.
The Long Bents field, of sandy clay soil and subsoil, con-
taining 16 acres, was in oats in 1848, which produced 65
quarters, equal to 37 bushels the acre. In 1849 it was bare-
fallowed and subsoil-trench-plowed, and in 1850 it yielded 58
quarters of good wheat, and 4 quarters of light, realizing £10
an acre. In 1851 it was in grass, and in 1852 the lea was
deep-plowed with the Tweeddale plow 15 inches deep. In 1853
it was in oats, which produced 104| quarters, equal to 61;^
bushels the acre. In 1854 it carried an excellent crop of tur-
nips, the weight of which was not ascertained.
At Broadwoodside the subsoil-trench-plowing was carried
on in a perfect state from the commencement of the improve-
ments.
The Wa' Tree Park, which was originally of stiff tenacious
clay soil and subsoil, containing 19f imperial acres, was in
oats in 1850, which yielded 60 quarters, equal to 28f bushels
the acre. In 1851, 6:|^ acres were bare-fallowed and subsoil-
trench-plowed, and loi acres subsoil-trench-plowed and made
with turnips. In 1852 the 6J acres produced, of wheat, 28J
quarters of good, and 3i quarters of light, realizing £15, 7s.
408 THE WHEAT PLANT.
4(1. the acre ; and tho 13^ acres produced barley, which aver-
aged 31|- bushels, and realized £6, Os. lOd. the acre.
The Holmes Park, which was originally of very poor stiff
tenacious clay soil and subsoil, and containing 24 acres impe-
rial, was in grass in 1850, and was deep-plowed, 15 inches,
with the Tweeddale plow in winter. It carried oats in 1851,
which yielded 108 quarters, equal to 43J bushels the acre. In
1852 it was subsoil-trench-plowed 19 inches deep for turnips,
which were a fair crop. In 1853 it was barley, of which 79-^
quarters were good and 18 quarters light, equal to 39 bushels,
realizing £9, 17s. 6d. the acre.
The Kitchen Croft, which was originally of stiff sandy clay
soil and subsoil, containing a large number of boulders, and
consisting of 8^ acres imperial, was previously let at £8, 15s.
for the field, and it was thorough-drained in the winter of
1848. In 1849 it was bare-fallowed and subsoil-trench-plowed
19 inches deep. In 1850 it carried wheat, of which 24 quar-
ters were good, 5J quarters light, equal to 34^ bushels, and
realizing £8, 8s. 8d. the acre. In 1651 it was turnips, which
were good. In 1852, barley, of which 40 quarters were good
and 3^ quarters light, equal to 53 bushels the acre, and was
sold for £10, 12s. lOd. the acre.
The land on Broadwoodside farm was limed after being
thorough-drained and subsoil-trench-plowed. At first, the
quantity used was 48 bolls, or 288 bushels, to the imperial
acre ; but it was soon found that 30 bolls, or 144 bushels, had
an equally good effect upon the land, and that was the quan-
tity which the farm mostly received.
The land on Danskine farm was not subsoil-treneh-plowed
at all, and only deep-plowed with the Tvseeddale plow, with
three horses yoked abreast in the compensation swing-trees,
to the depth of 14 or 15 inches, as the subsoil was of such an
open nature as not to require further pulverization. Sandy
oats were the kind first used on this farm, but were given up
for the Hopetoun variety, in consequence of the yield being
greater and the straw better on the improved soil.
VEGETABLE MATTER APPLIED TO CLAY. 409
The poor clay soil of Danskine was covered witli a black
vegetable matter, obtained from the bottom of the Loch of
Danskine after the water had been drained off. This vege-
table substance was laid on the land, at the rate of 180 cubic
yards per imperial acre, upon the stubble in autumn, cut
small with the spade, spread, and plowed in with a 14-inch
furrow with three horses in the Tweeddale plow. At first the
quantity laid on was 120 cubic yards the acre, but latterly it
was increased to 180. Such a large quantity of matter liter-
ally covers the surface when spread over it, so that its black
color imparts a darkened hue to the soil after incorporation
with it. The cost of digging this matter — lifting it out of
the bog by means of a railroad and steam-power, carting it on
the land, spreading it, with tear and wear of machinery, and
interest on cost of machinery — is 7d. per cubic yard ; so that
the cost of manuring an imperial acre with it was from £3,
10s. to £5, 5s.
This black vegetable matter is not a peat, but a deposit
composed of sphagnum moss, rushes, hazel, alder, willow, in
leaves and twigs. Its constituents were ascertained by Dr.
Anderson in 1850, viz :
One Another
specimen. siiecimea.
Water, 31.78 49.49
Nitrogen, 0.89 0.85
Humine, 6.00 16.82
in the dry state, after exposure to the air. The constituents
are valuable on account of the nitrogen they contain, which
is 1.5 per cent, in the dry state, and 0.9 per cent in the state
examined, which was of course drier than when taken out of
the deposit. This substance was used to act mechanically
upon poor thin clay; but after an incorporation, the soil be-
comes a clay loam, still open. It constitutes, in short, the
entire vegetable matter of the soil. It has been applied to all
the fields but two. which are yet undone. The horses were
severely worked in carting on this substance to the land on
account of the deep rutting of the wheels which so much
35
410 THE WHEAT PLANT.
cartage on deep plowed land occasioned. They, nevertheless,
retained their good health, and still work on the farm. In
dry weather the plowing-in of this matter was heavy, not so
much on account of the deep furrow as the rutted state of the
ground. This sub.stance is found acceptable to all sorts of
plants in the garden. It is a complete deodorizer of liquid
manure. It was put on the land to keep it open, and lime
will only be subsequently applied to meet the wants of vege-
tation. It is used as a bottoming to all the courts and boxea
in the steading, with the view of absorbing the liquid from
the cattle, and of making a compounded manure with straw.
This vegetable matter, after being plowed in, is beneficially
acted on by the atmosphere ; it incorporates with the soil, and
saves a furrow in the working of the land. Beside this sub-
stance, the turnips in 1854 were manured with 2^ cwt. of
guano. When the matter is laid on in dry weather, the tur-
nips are always good ; but in wet, the rutting of the soil has
an injurious eflfect upon them. This substance proves of no
inconvenience to the singling of the turnip plants, except
when an occasional large lump may have been left unbroken.
The turnips raised by it were the purple-top yellow and grceu
globe. When the barley land is covered with this substance,
it is plowed and sown without any dung. The barley crop of
185-4, treated in this manner, weij^hed IG stones 3 lb. the boll
of 4 bushels, or nearly 57 tb. the bushel — a heavy weight for
barley. When not treated with vegetable matter, the barley
land only receives one furrow, and that furrow is given at any
time the land is in a proper state for it, even as early as No-
vember, after the turnips have been stored. The subsequent
rains do not render the land firm with this substance in it,
and the land harrows freely. Barley is here found to have a
darker color after turnips, raised with guano and carried off,
than when eaten off by sheep.
The stubble of Cauldside field, of 22 acres, was plowed 15
inches deep, with three horses abreast, in the autumn of 1850.
The land was bare-fallowed in 1851, and covered with the
RESULTS OF DEEP LAND-CULTURE. 411
vegetable substance in July and August, and received no other
manuring. It was sown with Hunter's wheat early in Sep-
tember, with about 9h cwt. of rape-cake per iujperial acre.
The rape-cake is found to have a better eifect upon the future
crop, when sown a day or two before the wheat, to allow it to
be softened with dew or rain before being harrowed into tJic
soil. The wheat plant grew apace, and was strong before win-
ter, and its roots descended to the bottom of the pulverized
subsoil before December. Roots of wheat at 9 inches below
the surface, being unaffected by the winter frosts, are ready to
shoot up with the first mild weather in spring. The crop of
1852 was 5J quarters per imperial acre, and was of a quality
to weigh 18 stones 13 lb. per boll of 4 bushels, or 66^ lb. per
bushel — a great weight for wheat grown above 700 feet above
the level of the sea. A small portion of the young grass
after wheat was reserved for cutting for the horses before being
sent to pasture, and for hay. The hay crop was about 250
stones per imperial acre, of 22 lb. to the stone. The remain-
der of the grass was pastured with Cheviot ewes and their
lambs, got by Leicester tups, keeping three ewes and their
lambs to the acre. Four scores of ewes had seven scores of
lambs, and three of the ewes had three lambs each. The
lambs were sold for £1 each. The aftermath, after the lambs
were gone, was pastured with cows and horses. In the second
year the grass was pastured by Kyloe cows and their calves,
as also by horses and cows. The stocking was equal to one
head of oxen per acre.
The Easter Muir field, with originally a stiff hard clay soil,
and clay moorband pan subsoil, containing 22f acres imperial,
was in oats when in an undrained state, which produced 74^
quarters, equal to 31^ bushels the acre. It was thorough-
drained and bare-fallowed in 1849. In 1850 it carried oats,
which produced 103^ quarters, equal to 43^ bushels the acre.
In 1851 it was bare fallowed, manured with 180 cubic yards
of the vegetable matter per acre, and deep-plowed with the
Tweeddale plow to the depth of 14 inches. In 1852 it was in
412 TUE WHEAT PLjSNT.
/
wheat, which produced 91^ quarters of good, and 6^ quarters
of light wheat, equal to 41f bushels the acre, realizing £12,
18s. yd. the acre. In 1853 the young grass kept seventy
ewes and seventy-three lambs all the season, and twenty cattle
from 12th to 26th July. In 1854 the second year's grass
kept twenty cattle, from 27th April to 19th May, when it was
afterward let for the season at £40.
The Greenlaw field, of originally a stiff sandy clay soil, and
a clay subsoil, with much moorband pan and stones, contain-
ing 43|^ acres imperial, was in oats, after old grass undrained,
which produced 139|^ quarters, equal to 30J bushels the acre.
It was thorough-drained in 1852, manured with 180 cubic
yards of the vegetable matter, and deep-plowed with the
Tweeddale plow to the depth of 14 inches, and prepared for
turnips and bare fallow. In 1853, 26^ acres were in wheat,
which produced of good 60^ quarters, and of light 1\ quar-
ters, equal to 22| bushels the acre, realizing £10, Is. 4d. the
acre; and 16f acres grew barley, which of good produced Glf
quarters, and 5^ quarters of light, equal to 38^ bushels the
acre, realizing £9, 2s. 6d. the acre.
The wheat realized, altogether, £276 15 6
The barley realized, altogether, 159 16 1\
Together, £436 12 \\
In 1854 the young grass kept eighty ewes and one hun-
dred and thirty-one lambs from March. The lambs were sold
in July and August, and the ewes in October and November —
all fat. It also kept a mare and foal all the season ; three
cow.'i from 1st August to end of October; seven farm-hoises
from 28th August to 1st November ; and thirteen calves all
Octiiber. It yielded, beside, 1000 stones of hay, at 9d. per
stone. The second year's grass will be in 1855.
The particulars contained in the foregoing statements af-
ford some useful information. Before the thorough-drainage
of D;inskine farm, the oats yielded about 30 bushels the acre.
Thorough-draining alone increased the yield of oats to above
RESUI-TS OF YESTER CULTURE. 413
40 bushels, the increase of 10 bushels being more than 400 lb.
of grain in weight from the acre : while deep-plowing and
manuring with vegetable matter, superadded to the thorough-
draining, caused the increase to exceed 40 bushels of wheat,
being an increase in weight of grain of at least 630 lb. to the
acre. An increase to the power of land to raise 40 bushels
of wheat, instead of 30 bushels of oats, will be appreciated by
every practical farmer. Even the inferior crop of 1853 on the
same farm realized the sum of £436, 12s., off 43 acres — up-
ward of £10 an acre; while the entire cost of draining, deep-
plowing, and vegetable manuring, was a little above £13 an
acre. As the vegetable matter would be available for the fu-
ture crops of the rotation, and had 1853 been as good a year
for wheat as the one before, or the year after, that single crop
would have repaid the entire expenses, heavy as they neces-
sarily were.
On the Moss Bents field of Tester Mains the subsoil-
trench-plowing, and manuring with farm-yard dung on
bare fallow, produced 38^ bushels of wheat per acre in 1852 ;
while previously the same field, after being thorough-drained,
yielded only 29 bushels of oats. The oats would weigh
1160 lbs., and the wheat 2400 lbs., which is more than double
the weight of grain, and of a superior kind, too, from the area.
The Long Bents field, on the same farm, yielded, in 1848, 37
bushels of oats the acre ; and in 1853, after being subsoil-
trench-plowed, it yielded 61 bushels of oats to the acre,
making a difference of 1080 lbs. of grain to the acre in favor
of the pulverization of the subsoil.
The Holmes Park of Broadwoodside farm, after being sub-
soil-trench-plowed in 1850, carried 43|^ bushels of oats to
the acre in 1851, and 39 bushels of barley in 1853. The
Kitthen Croft of the same farm yielded 34| bushels of wheat
in 1850, after being subsoil-trench-plowed and bare-fallowed,
and in 1852, 53 bushels of barley to the acre.
Such crops of grain as these indicate the soil to be in a
sound bearing state ; and they are results very different from
414 THE M'HKAT PLANT.
what was to be expected from the same land at one time worth
not more than from 6s. to 10s. an acre. But the increase is
still more striking in the green crops of turnips and grass.
The turnips have increased from a very moderate crop of cer-
tainly not more than 12 or 15 tons on the acre, though not
weighed, to upward of 30 tons the acre, ascertained by weight
and measurement. Such an increase as this, in a root so val-
uable as the turnip, is incalculable, as its quality in food in-
creases proportionately with the weight of crop. The grass,
as green forage and pasture, affords a remarkable instance of
improvement. A yield of 250 stones of hay the acre is a heavy
one from any soil, but remarkably so from a soil so recently
almost in a state of nature. The maintenance of three ewes
with their lambs, many of them double, on the acre, indicates
a feeding power in the improved soil of no mean order ; and
the same result is confirmed on the pasture of Danskine, a
high-lying farm, supporting, in a thriving condition all sum-
mer, an ox to the acre.
Every practical farmer will be able to appreciate the value
of so much increased produce from the soil, of the various
crops raised in this country, as have been enumerated. He
knows that land, which was originally worth 10s. an acre
overhead, yielding such crops as the above figures indicate —
and the figures are derived from books most accurately and
minutely kept — is now worth a great deal more. Not having
been let to tenants since their improvement, it is difficult to
put a market value upon the land as regards rent; but expe-
rience would not consider it stretching a point were it stated,
as the belief of one, that the land had increased in value four
or perhaps five fold. Indeed, when the great saving in work-
ing the farm for the future is taken into due consideration, the
value of the land is even more than what has been suggested.
One circumstance corroborates such a conclusion. Both the
wheat and the barley grown on the Yester farms now realize
the top prices in the Haddington market; and the Hadding-
ton market is a severe test on the value of any grain presented
THE y ESTER SYSTEM SAVES LABOR. 415
at it, inasmuch as grain is shown there that has been raised
on as good soil, as fiivorable a climate, and with as much skill
as in any district of the kingdom. But wheat that has attained
66 lbs., barley 57 lbs., and oats 4-1 lbs. the butfhel, need not
fear competition in any market, and from any locality.
Besides these direct instances of the increase of produce,
the economy of the system may be judged of by the following
particulars : —
It is the opinion of the stewards upon the farms, that six
pairs of horses will now be able to accomplish what it has
taken eight pairs to do hitherto. Here, then, in one depart-
ment of labor alone, is a saving of 25 per cent. This is the
opinion of men who have been plowmen themselves, and
who had seen the state of the soil before as well as after the
improvements, and who have therefore been many years in
the service of the Marquess.
Economy in horse labor arises from cessation of plowing,
from the autumn cross-plowing of the stubble to the making up
of the land for turnips in spring. The advantage of a cessa-
tion from plowing in winter will be best understood by those
who have heavy clay soils to manage, even after being
thorough-drained ; because if such were stirred at any time
in spring in a moist state, or before a f\ill of rain, they are
sure to be converted in the first dry weather, into tough obdu-
rate clods, which require no inconsiderable amount of labor
to reduce, and to effect which, clod-crushers, grubbers, and
rollers must be called into requisition. The Yester deep-
plowed land requires no such assistance.
Such a direct saving of labor is a great furtherance to hav-
ing the spring work so far advanced in autumn as to render
the farmer independent of the weather both in winter and
spring. The winter furrow lies snugly awaiting the call in
ppring, at the time when it is in the best state to be worked •
and should the weather still prove adverse, tRe land can
wait fur the best weather, since it is already in a sufficiently
pulverized state. The power of thus only working the soil
416 THE WHEAT PLANT.
when it is in the best stute to receive the labur is equivalent
to a saving of labor.
A saving may also be eflfectcd iu the purchase of iuiple-
ments. Many of the most costly implements employed on
farms, such as Norwegian harrows, Crosskill's clod-crushers,
grubbers, rollers, are used only for pulverizing the soil. The
occupation of such implements is gone in the Yester deep
land-culture. The subsoil-treneh-plowing, by one double
operation, effectually and permanently pulverizes not only the
soil, but the subsoil to the depth of nineteen or twenty inches ;
and the Tweeddale plow itself afterward maintains the soil in
a state of pulverization to the depth of fifteen inches, leaving
still a stirred subsoil of four or five inches beneath a really
unusually deep furrow. Experience has fully established that,
from the pulverized state of the soil in spring, no other im-
plements are wanting for the cultivation of the soil than the
plows described above, together with the common harrow with
longer tines.
Another saving is effected in the manual labor bestowed on
the fields. The deep-plowing having eradicated all the strong-
rooted weeds, no wrack or couch grass has to be hand-picked,
few stones to be gathered from the surface, no large plants to
be weed-booked among the growing crops. Such a saving as
this is not easily estimated, but the work it saves usu-
ally constitutes an item in farm expenditure worthy of
consideration.
The hastening of the ripening of grain crops in an upland
or late district is one of the advantages insured by the Yester
system of deep land-culture. A harvest delayed for a fort-
night or three weeks beyond the period it might have been
ready, is a serious consideration for the farmer, both in the
cutting down and in the gathering in of the crop. The entire
value of a crop of wheat or of barley may depend upon the
state of the weather experienced after such a delay; and iu a
late harvest the days are, besides, much shorter for executing
so great a work as a harvest always ia.
CLOD CRUSH Ell.
417
Besides the positive advantages derivable from this system
of land cultivation, there are negative ones of equal value.
Let any amount of rain fall upon the pulverized soil and sub-
soil, attained by means of subsoil-trench-plowing, to nineteen
inches in depth, and the soil never becomes in a sour and
poachy state ; and observation has proved that it never again
becomes so cold as land in the commonly cultivated state.
This negative advantage produces a positive one, which is,
that young wheat-plants and young clovers are never thrown
out of the ground in winter or spring, however late or cold
the weather may be. Another thing is, that snow lies a
shorter time on the ground in spring. This arises from the
frost not having a moist soil to act upon, and it therefore does
not leave the surface-soil in a state of apparent fermentation,
in which weak soils seem often to be in spring.
Clod Crusher.
After the field has been well plowed with a double plow
(the Columbus and the Michigan double plow being the
only ones of which the writer has any knowledge), should
418 THE WHEAT PLANT.
it appear to be lumpy or cloddy, a great benefit will un-
doubtedly be derived, if the soil is dry, from a common
field roller ; this will pulverize many of the clods or lumps
■which cohered too firmly to be comminuted with the plow.
In England, an implement called '■'■ CrosskilV s Clod Crusher"
is extensively used ; and one equally as good is now manufac-
tured in Columbus, 0. The cut on the preceding page and
the following correspondence, copied from the Ohio Cultivator,
will convince the intelligent reader of the necessity of such
an implement, as well as convey an idea of the structure and
working of the Crusher itself.
Friend Harris : I have been thinking of making a roller with spikes
in it, but I am afraid to try it. I thought of cast spikes one inch in dia-
meter, and six inches out of the log and four in it, but I am afraid they
will break. The cost would be greater than I expected ($15. I think,
for spikes) ; and if 'they break, it will be an experiment for the benefit
of my neighbors, as well as myself, at my expense.
Will thee please give me some information, through the Cultivator, if
there has been an implement made of that sort ; also, if there are any for
sale in this State. There is something of the kind much needed to pul-
verize the ground before putting in the seed, such a season as this in
particular. The corn ground in this locality is, a large portion of it, very
cloddy and hard, so that a common roller and harrow will not do the
work as it should be.
Please give us some information about how to construct a spike roller
or where to get one. My uncle made one, last fall, with wooden spikes,
that will pulverize the hardest clods. It will not clog, unless the ground
is too wet to harrow. The rows or spikes are diagonal, about five inches
apart each way, and 8hari)cned after they were put in. I would like to
have something more durable, if it did not cost too much. Stir up the
farraens, and tell them not to look complacently on their cloddy fields,
and say they can't help it. Paul Tomlixson.
Hiijhland Co., 6ihmo., 1859,
Answer. — The spike roller will, no doubt, serre a good purpose,
where nothing better can be had; but for a thing to do the business for
certain, we nominate GILLS CLOD CRUSHKR, of which the above cut
is an illustration. This machine consists of 14 rings or sections, made
of cjist iron, 30 inches in diameter, the sjjokes about an inch tliick, and
the face a corrugated blunt chisel edge, covering some five inches in
DR. MADDEN ON PULVERIZATION. 419
width. The whole length of the roller is 7 feet. The whole face is so
foliated, indented, and corrugated, that it will crush and divide any clod
or lump not literally as firm as a stone. It is so constructed as to open-
ness of face and independence of action, that it can not be clogged on
any land that is dry enough to have a roller used upon it. Each ring
plays separately upon the shaft, which is of Avrought iron, two inches in
diameter. At the ends of the shaft are gudgeons or axles, to put on carry-
ing wheels, for taking the roller to the field with the same facility as an
ox-cart is moved. The whole weight of the roller is about a ton. It
will never wear out, or get out of order. Hon. Thos. Ewing, of Fairfield
Co., who should be well known to every citizen of Ohio and the Union,
after using one of Gill's Clod Crushers for a week, writes to say that it
is the unanimous verdict of his hands, that "it is the buUiest thing
among clods they ever saw !"' in which opinion Mr. Ewing concurs.
This Clod Crusher does not pack the soil like a roller, but leaves it all
light and fine. Ever since we saw the Scotch Clod Crusher of Crosskiil,
in the N. Y. Crystal Palace Exhibition in 1853, we have been in hope
some of our manufacturers would take hold of this matter ; and we are
glad to learn that J. L. Gill & Son of this city are now fully enlisted in
the enterprize, and that their machine is far superior to Crosskill's.
In order to exhibit more fully and clearly the necessity of
pulverizing the soil, or making it as fine as possible, we have
extracted the following from a lecture on Agricultural Science
by Dr. Madden, of England; in which the subject is not only
clearly and forcibly stated, but at the same time philosophic-
ally also.
" The first thing which occurs after the sowing of the seed
is, of course, gennination ; and before we examine how this
process may be influenced by the condition of the soil, we must
necessarily obtain some correct idea of the process itself.
The most careful examination has proved that the process of
germination consists essentially of various chemical changes,
which require for their development the presence of air, moist-
ure, and a certain degree of warmth. Now, it is obviously un-
necessary for our present purpose that we should have the least
idea of the nature of these processes : all we require to do is,
to ascertain the conditions under which the}' take place ; hav-
ing detected these, we know at once what is required to make
420
THE WHKAT PLANT.
a seed grow. These, we have seen, are air, moisture, and a
certain degree of warmth ; and it consequently results, that
wherever a seed is placed in these circumstances, germination
will take place. Viewing matters in this light, it appears that
soil does not act chemically in the process of germination ; that
its sole action is confined to its being the vehicle by means of
which a supply of air and moisture and warmth can be con-
tinually kept up. With this simple statement in view, we are
quite prepared to consider the various conditions of soil, for
the purpose of determining how far these will influence the
future prospects of the crop, and we shall accordingly at once
proceed to examine carefully into the mechanical relations of
the soil. This we propose doing by the aid of figures. Soil,
examined mechanically, is found to consist entirely of parti-
cles of all shapes and sizes, from stones and pebbles, down to
the finest powder; and, on account of their extren)e irregular-
ity of shape, they can not lie so close to one another as to
prevent there being passages between them ; owing to which
circumstance soil in the mass is always more or less porous.
If, however, we proceed to examine one of the smallest parti-
cles of which soil is made up, we shall find that even this is
not always solid, but is much more frequently porous, like soil
in the mass. A considerable portion of this finely-divided
part of soil, the impalpable matter, as it is generally called, is
*found, by the aid of the microscope, to consist of hrohn-dnwa
vegetable tissue, so that when a small portion of the finest dust
LACK Of AIK AND MOISTUKE IN SOIL. 42]
from a garden or field is placed under the microscope, we have
exhibited to us particles of every variety of shape and struc-
ture, of which a certain part is evidently of vegetable origin.
In these figures I have given a very rude representation of
these particles; and I must beg you particularly to remember
that they are not meant to represent by any means accurately
what the microscope exhibits, but are only designed to serve
as a plan by which to illustrate the mechanical properties of
the soil. On referring to Fig. 25, we perceive that there are
two distinct classes of pores : first, the large ones, which exist
between the particles of soil; and, second, the very minute
ones, which occur in the particles themselves ; and you will
at the same time notice, that whereas all the larger pores —
those between the particles of soil — communicate most freely
with each other, so that they form canals, the small pores,
however freely they may communicate with one another in the
interior of the particle in which they occur, have no direct con-
nection with the pores of the surrounding particles. Let us
now, therefore, trace the efl'ect of this arrangement. In Fig.
25, we perceive that these canals and pores are all empty, the
soil being perfectly dry ; and the canals communicating freely
at the surface with the surrounding atmosphere, the whole will
of course be filled with air. If, in this condition, a seed be
planted in the soil, you at once perceive that it is freely
supplied with air, huf there is no moisture; therefore, when
soil is perfectly dry^ a seed can not grow.
Let us turn our attention now to Fig. 26. Here we per-
ceive that both the pores and canals are no longer represented
white, but black, this color being used to indicate water ; in
this instance, therefore, water has taken the place of air, or,
in other words, the soil is very loet. If we observe our seed
now, we find it abundantly supplied with water, but no air.
Here again, therefore, germination can not take place. It
may be well to state here, that this can never occur exactly in
nature,- because, water having the power of dissolving air to a
certain extent, the seed in Fig. 2G is, in fact, supplied with
422
TJIE WilKAT PLANT.
a certain amount of this necessary substance; and, owinjr to
this, «icrmination does take phice. ulthoujj^h by no means under
such advanta<;eous ciicunistances as it would Vfcre (he soil in
a better condition.
V»'e pass on now to Fig. 27. Here we find a different
state of matters. The canals are open and freely supplied
■with air, while the pores are filled with water; and conse-
quently you perceive that, while the seed has quite enough
of air from the canals, it can never be without moisture, as
every particle of soil which touches it is well supplied with
this necessary ingredient. This, then, is the proper condition
of soil for germination, and in fact for every period of the
plant's development; and this condition occurs when soil is
moiiit, but not tcet — that is to say, when it has the color and
appearance of being well watered, but when it is still capable
of being crumbled to pieces by the hands, without any of its
particles adhering together in the familiar form of mud.
Turning our eyes to Fig. 28, we observe still another con-
dition of soil. In this instance, as far as u-atir is concerned,
the soil is in its healthy condition — it is moist, but not wet,
the pores alone being filled with water. But where are the
canals? We sec them in a few places, but in by far the
greater part of the soil none are to be perceived ; this is owing
to the particles of soil hnving adhered together, and thus so
far obliterated the interstitial canals, that they appear only
EXCESS OP WATER IN SOIL. 423
like pores. This is the state of matters in every clod of earth ;
and you will at once perceive, on comparinjj; it with the upper
right hand portion, which represents a stone, that these two
differ only in possessing a few pores, which latter, while they
may form a reservoir for moisture, can never act as vehicles
for the food of plants, as the roots are not capable of extend-
ing their fibers into the interior of a clod, but are at all times
confined to the interstitial canals.
AVith these four conditions before us, let us endeavor to
apply them practically to ascertain when they occur in our
fields, and how those which are injurious may be obviated.
The first of them, we perceive, is a state of too great dry-
ness, a ivry rare condition, in this climate at least; in fact,
the only case in which it is likely to occur is in very coarse
sands, where the soil, being chiefly made up of pure sand and
particles of flinty matter, contains comparatively much fewer
pores; and, from the large size of the individual particles, as-
sisted by their irregularity, the canals are wider, the circula-
tion of air freer, and, consequently, the whole is much more
easily dried. When this state of matters exists, the best treat-
ment is to leave all the stones which occur on the surface of
the field, as they east shades, and thereby prevent or retard
the evaporation of water.
We Avill not, however, make any further observations on
this very rare case, but will rather proceed to Fig. 26, a much
more frequent, and, in every respect, inore important condition
of soil : I refer to an txcess of water.
When water is added to perfectly dry soil, it, of course, in
the first instance, fills the interstitial canals, and from these
enters the pores of each particle; and if the supply of water
be not too great, the canals speedily become empty, so that the
whole of the fluid is taken up by the pores : this, we have al-
ready seen, is the hefilfhi/ condition of the soil. If, however,
the supply of water be too great, as is the case when a spring
gains admission into the soil, or when the sinking of the fluid
through the canals to a sufficient depth below the surface is
424 THK WHEAT PLANT.
prevented, it is clear that these also must get filled with water
so soon as the pores have become saturated. This, then, is
the condition of undrained soil.
Not onlj are the pores filled, but the interstitial canals
are likewise full ; and the consequence is, that the whole pro-
cess of the germination and growth of vegetables is materially
interfered with. We shall here, therefore, briefly state the in-
jurious efi"ects of an excess of water, for the purpose of im-
pressing more strongly on your minds the necessity of thor-
ough-draining, as the first and most essential step toward the
improvement of your soil.
The Jirst great efi'ect of an excess of water is, that it pro-
duces a corresponding diminution of the amount of air beneath
the surface, which air is of the greatest possible consequence
in the nutrition of plants; in fact, if entirely excluded, germi-
nation could not take place, and the seed sown would, of
course, either decay or lie dormant.
Secondhj. an excess of water is most hurtful, by reducing
considerably the temperature of the soil ; this I find, by careful
experiment, to be to the extent of six and a-half degrees Fah-
renheit in summer, which amount is equivalent to an elevation
above the level of the sea of 1,950 feet.
These are the two chief injuries of an excess of water in
soil which affect the soil itself. There are very many others
affecting the climate, etc. ; but these not so connected with the
subject in hand as to call for an explanation here.
Of course, all these injurious effects are at once overcome
by thorough-draining, the result of which is, to establish a
direct communication between the interstitial canals and the
drains, by which means it follows that no water can remain
any length of time in these canals without, by its gravitation,
finding its way into the drains.
The 4th Fig. indicates badly-cultivated soil, or soil in
which large unbroken clods exist; which clods, as we have al-
ready seen, are very little better than stones, on account of
bheir impermeability to air and the roots of plants.
PROPORTION OP AIR AND WATER IN SOILS. 425
Too mucli can not be said in favor of pulverizing the soil;
even thorough-draining itself will not supersede the necessity
of performing this most necessary operation. The whole val-
uable effects of plowing, harrowing, grubbing, etc., may be
reduced to this : and almost the whole superiority of garden
over Jield produce is refei-able to the greater perfection tc
which this pulverizing of the soil can be carried.
The whole success of the drill-husbandry is owing, in a
erreat measure, to its enabling you to stir up the soil well
during the progress of your crop ; which stirring up is of no
value beyond its effects in more minutely pulverizing the soil,
increasing, as far as possible, the size and number of the in-
terstitial canals.
Lest any one should suppose that the contents of these
interstitial canals must be so minute that their whole amount
can be of but little consequence, I may here notice the fact,
that, in moderately well pulverized soil, they amount to no
less than one-fourth of the whole bulk of the soil itself; for
example, 100 cubic inches of moist soil (that is, of soil in
which the pores are filled with water while the canals are filled
with air), contain no less than 25 cubic inches of air. Ac-
cording to this calculation, in a field pulverized to the depth
of eight inches, a depth perfectly attainable on most soils by
careful tillage, every imperial acre will retain beneath its sur-
face no less than 12,545,280 cubic inches of air. And, to take
one more element into the calculation, supposing the soil were
not properly drained, the sufficient pulverizing of an additional
inch in depth would increase the escape of water from the
surface by upward of one hundred gallons a day."
3G
426 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER XYII.
IMPROVEMENT OP SOILS.
Manuring. — Much has been said and written about manur-
ing and manures. Common sense dictates that always abstract-
ing and never replacing the equivalents taken from the soil,
must in course of time impoverish it. But we are not prepared
to admit that the soil in Ohio has been so thoroughly robbed
of its fertile elements, during the half century of the State's
transition from the red man's hunting-ground to the white
man's garden, as to require dosing with patent manures to
restore it to its virgin fertility. If Ohio's soil is already
robbed of the principal portion of its productive elements,
gloomy indeed is the picture which imagination thrusts on us
of the future. England has been cultivated for a thousand
years, and her farmers have not been in the habit of manur-
ing systematically, more than fifty years — and to-day the soil
there is richer than in Ohio.
What is required in Ohio, is a diflPerent system of culture —
underdraining, deep culture, and generous manuring with
farm-yard manure. With this system judiciously practiced
the soil of this State can go on increasing in fertility for a
hundred years to come.
In order to prove that farm-yard manure contains the neces-
sary elements to be replaced in the soil, we have made a
rather lengthy extract from a prize essay, written by Thos.
Way, on Farm-yard Manure, from the pages of the Journal
of the Royal Agricultural Society.
" Draininos op Dung-heaps. — Nobody can deny that farm-
yard manure is seldom kept in the most efficient manner. In
many places in England, especially in Devonshire, and in some
DRAININGS OF DUNG-IIKAPS. 427
parts of Gloucestershire, it is a common practice to place ma-
nure-heaps by the roadside, often on sloping ground, and to keep
these looi^ely erected heaps for a considerable length of time,
before carting the dung on the field. On other farms, the
manure is allowed to remain loosely scattered about in uncov-
ered yards for months before it is removed. Pleavy showers
of rain falling on manure kept in such a manner, by washing
out the soluble fertilizing constituents of dung, necessarily
greatly deteriorate its value. It is well known that the more
or less dark colored liquids which flow from badly-kept dung-
heaps, in rainy weather, possess high fertilizing properties.
According to the rain which falls at the time of collecting
these drainings, according to the character of the manure, and
similar modifying circumstances, the composition of the drain-
ings from dung-heaps is necessarily subject to variations.
The general character of these liquids, however, is the same
in dilute and in concentrated drainings. Several samples of
dung drainings were recently examined by me, and, from this
analysis it will be seen that they contain a variety of fertilizing
constituents, which it is most desirable to retain in dung-heaps.
The first liquid examined was collected from a dung-heap
composed of well-rotted horse dung, manure from fiittening
beasts, and the dung from sheep pens. Both the horse dung
and dung from fattening beasts were made in boxes. The
liquid which ran from this dung-heap was collected in rainy
weather, and contained, no doubt, in addition to the liquid
portion of the dung, a good deal of rain.
The amount of free ammonia (ammonia expelled on boiling
the liquid) in these drainings was determined in the manner
described above ; and after the free ammonia was removed,
quick-lime was added to the remainder of the concentrated
liquid, for the purpose of separating any ammonia present in
the form of salts, which are not decomposed simply by boiling.
In this way the following results were obtained : — One im-
perial gallon of drainings contained 36.25 grains of free ammo-
nia, and 3.11 grains of ammonia in the form of salts, not
428 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
decomposed simply in boiling, but by continued boiling with
quick-lime. Evaporated to dryness, 7,000 grains furnished
G2.51 grains of solid matter, dried at 212° Fahr.; or one impe-
rial gallon was found to contain 625.10 grains of solid matters.
On heating to redness, 62.51 grains left 36.81) grains of ash.
This ash was submitted to a detailed analysis, and calculated
for one imperial gallon of the drainings. According to the
analytical results obtained in these different determinations,
an imperial gallon of these drainings contained — volatile and
combustible constituents, 395.66.
Ammonia driven out in boiling, 3G.25 -v
Ammonia, iu tlie state of salts, decomposed bv > „
.' ,. ' ^ ' on I 39.36
quick-lirne, 6.11^
Ulniic and Iiumic acid, 125.50
Carbonic acid, expelled on boiling, 88.20
. Other organic matters (containing 3.59 of nitrogen), 142.60
395.66
Cineral matters (ash), 368.98, viz. :
'Soluble silica, 1.50
Pliosphate of lime, with a little phosphate of iron,... 15.81
Carbonate of lime, 34.91
Carbonate of magnesia, » 25.66
Sulphate of lime, 4.36
Chloride of sodium, 45.70
Chloride of potassium, 70.50
, Carbonate of potash, 170.54
368.98
Total, per gallon, . - - 764.64
These analytical results suggest the following remarks : —
1. It will be seen that these drainings contain a good deal
of ammonia, which should not be allowed to run to waste.
2. They also contain phosphate of lime, a constituent not
present in the urine of animals. The fermentation of the
dung-heap thus brings a portion of the phosphates contained
in manure into a soluble state, and enables them to be washed
out by any watery liquid that comes in contact with them.
DRAININGS OF DUNG-HEAPS. 429
3. Drainings of dung-heaps are rich in alkaline salts, espe-
cially in the more valuable salts of potash.
4. By allowing the washings of dung-heaps to run to waste,
not only ammonia is lost, but also much soluble organic mat-
ter, salts of potash and other inorganic substances, which enter
into the composition of our crops, and which are necessary to
their growth.
II. Drainings from another Duvg-Jieaj').
These drainings were not so dark colored as the preceding
ones. Like the former liquid, it was neutral, but gave off
ammonia on boiling, and on addition of quick-lime.
Hydrochloric acid produced a dark-brown colored, flaky
deposit, leaving the liquid only pale yellow.
The amount of the precipitated humus acid was much
smaller than in the preceding liquid.
For want of a sufficient quantity of liquid, only the amount
of solid matter contained in it could be determined.
An imperial gallon on evaporation furnislied 353.36 grains
of solid matter, dried at 212° Fah.
III. Drainings from a third Dung-heap.
A dung-heap, composed chiefly of mixed fresh horse, cow's,
or pig's dung, furnished the material for the third analysis of
drainings. This liquid was much darker than the two pre-
ceding liquids, possessed an offensive smell, although it con-
tained no sulphureted hydrogen. It was neutral to test-paper,
consequently did not contain any free or carbonate of ammo-
nia. On heating, ammonia escaped; apparently, however, in
much t-maller quantities than from the preceding drainings.
This liquid was collected at a time when no rain had fallen
for several weeks, which circumstance accounts for its greater
concentration. It was submitted to the same course of analy-
sis as the first drainings. 7,000 grs. evaporated to dryness
produced 135.774 grs. of dry matter; and this? quantity, on
430 TIIK WIIKAT PLANT.
burning in a platinum dish, furnished G2.58 grs. of mineral
matters. A separate portion was used for the determination
of the amount of the ammonia present in the form of salts;
and another portion of liquid, acidulated with a little hydro-
chloric acid, evaporated to dryness, was employed for the
determination of the whole amount of nitrogen. By deduct-
ing the amount of nitrogen found in the ammoniacal salts,
from the total amount of nitrogen obtained by combustion of
the solid matter with soda-lime, the proportion of nitrogen
contained in the organic substances of these drainings, was
ascertained. The following table represents the composition
of the solid substances found in one imperial gallon of drain-
ings from fresh manures :
Composition of solid matter in one gallon of drainings from
fresh farm -yard man lire.
Bendy formed Ammonia (principally present) as\ i- 10
humate and ulmate of Ammonia )
Organic Matter 71G.81
Inorganic matters (as^h) 625.80
Total amount of solid matter in one gallon of drainings 1357.74
Containing Nitrogen 31.08
Equal to Ammonia 37.73
625.80 of ash consisted of:
Silica 9.37
riiosphates of lime and iron 72.05
Carbonate of lime 59.58
Sulphate of lime 14.27
Carbonate of magnesia 9.96
" " potash 297.88
Chloride of potassium (iO.64
" •' sodium 101.82
It will be observed that these drainings contain about
double the amount of solid matter which was found in the
liquid from the first heap. The composition of this solid
matter compared with that of the solid matter in the liquid
MINERAL AND ORGANIC SUBSTANCES IN DUNG. 431
from the first heap, moreover, presents us with some particu-
lars to which it m;iy be advisable briefly to allude,
In the first place I would remark, that notwithstanding the
greater concentration of the third liquid, as compared with
the first, the proportion of ammonia present in the form of
ammoniacal salts was less, while the drainings from fresh dung
contained the larger portion of this element in the form of
soluble organic substances. The most important constituent
of farm-yard manure, i. e., nitrogen, is thus liable to be wasted
in the drainings, whether they proceed from rotten or fresh
manure, for in either case it passes ofi" in a soluble state of
combination. While speaking of the nitrogen in the drain-
ings of dung-heaps, I ought to mention that in both the
liquids examined in detail, I have detected readily the pres-
ence of nitric acid. In the liquid from fresh manure there
were apparently mere traces of nitrates, but in that from
rotten dung the proportion of nitric acid was so considerable
that I hoped to be able to determine it quantitatively. But I
found the large amount of soluble organic matter to interfere
sadly with the nitric acid determination ; and, unable to sup-
ply for the present correct results, I merely mention the fact
that these liquids contained nitrates, and trust to be able to
supply this deficiency in these analyses at a future period.
In the next place I would observe, that the proportion of
organic and inorganic matters, bear to each other different
relations in the first and in the third liquid.
In the liquid from rotten dung the proportion of mineral
matter exceeds that of organic substances, and in the third
liquid the reverse is the case. We learn from this that
soluble organic matters are very liable to become decomposed ;
and it is not unlikely that all putrescent organic matters
before assuming a gaseous state, are first changed into soluble
matters.
In the first stage of decomposition, {. e., during the active
fermentation of dung, the constituents of farm-yard manure
432 THE WHEAT PLANT.
are rendered more and more soluble; hence up to a certain
point the amount of soluble organic matters increases in
manures. But when active fermentation in manure heaps
becomes gradually less and less energetic, and finally ceases,
the remaining fermented manure is still liable to great and
important changes, for it is subject to that slow but steady
oxidation or slow combustion, which has been termed appro-
priately, by Liebig, Eremacausis. To this process of slow
oxidation all organic substances are more or less subject. It
is a gradual combustion which terminates with their final
destruction.
Hence the larger portion of organic matter in the liquid
from the manure heap formed of fresh dung in an active state
of fermentation, and the smaller portion of organic matter in
the drainings of the first heap, in which the dung had passed
the first stage of decomposition, and been exposed for a con-
siderable period to the subsequent process of eremacausis or
slow combustion. The formation of nitric acid from putrefy-
ing organic matter has long been observed, but the exact con-
ditions under which it proceeds are by no means sati.sfactorily
established, and much room is left to further extend investi-
gations.
The mineral substances in the drainings from fresh dung
are the same as those from rotten. Like the ash of the latter,
the liquid from fresh dung-heaps contains soluble phosphates,
soluble silica, and is rich in alkaline salts, especially in car-
bonate of potash, of which there are nearly 300 grs. in a gallon
of the liquid. Sufficient evidence is thus presented in the
analysis of these liquids, that as the drainings of both fresh
and rotten dung heaps are allowed to flow into the next ditch,
concentrated solutions of the most valuable constituents of
dung are carelessly wasted.
With a view of preventing such a serious loss, T have sug-
gested the propriety of carting the manure on the fields, when-
ever practicable, in a fresh state, and of spreading it at once.
EXTENT OP ABSORBING PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 433
It may be objected that the application of manure in a fresh
state, equivalent to winter manuring, and especially the
spreadini;- of dung, will lead to waste, inasmuch as the rain
which falls during the winter and spring, has much more
chance of washing out fertilizing substances from dung than
by applying it at the time of sowing. This objection would
indeed be a valid one, if we were not acquainted with the fact
that all soils containing a moderate proportion of clay
possess the property of retaining the more valuable constit-
uents of manure ; but, this being the case, the objection on
these grounds can not be admitted. With more force, how-
ever, it may be made with reference to light sandy soils, and
it is indeed upon such soils that manure is best applied in
spring.
In order to ascertain to what extent various soils possessed
the powers of absorbing manuring constituents from the
drainings of dung-heaps, I determined to employ a limited
quantity of soil and a large excess of liquid. To this end
two parts by weight of liquid were well mixed with one part
by weight of soil, and left in contact with the latter for twenty-
four hours, after which the clear liquid was drawn off and
passed through a filter.
Experiments to Ascertain the Extent op Absorbing
Properties of Soils of known Composition.
Experiment made with the drainings of dung-heaps
composed of rotten dung. The drainings employed in this
experiment were the same which contained in the imperial
gallon G64 64 grains of solid matter, the detailed composition
of which is given above. The composition of the soil used
in the experiment is given below.
The surface-soil contained a good deal of organic matter, a
fair proportion of clay, little sand, and a moderate proportion
of carbonate of lime in the form of small fragments of lime-
stone. It was a stiffish soil, belonging to the clay-marls. Its
subsoil was richer in clay and of a more compact texture and
37
434 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
less friable character than the surface-soil. The mechanical
analyses of soil and subsoil gave the following result :
Sdrface-soil. Subsoil.
Moisture when analyzed 5.66 3.66
Organic matter and water of combination 25.86 8.79
Lime 14.30 26.03
Clay , 34.84 56.76
Sand 19.64 4.76
100.00 100.00
In the chemical analysis of this soil the following results
were obtained :
SURFACE;SOTL. SUBSOIL.
Moisture when analyzed 5.36 3.66
Organic matter and water of combination.... 25.86 8.79
Oxides of iron and alumina 13.88 10.13
Carbonate of lime .. 14.30 26.03
Sulphate of lime 56 Not Determined.
Phosphoric acid and chlorine traces
Carbonate of magnesia 1.041
Potash 07 I 1.67
Soda 18j
Insoluble silicious matter 38J5 49.73
100.00 100.00
2,000 grains of this soil and 2,000 grains of subsoil were
mixed with 4,000 grains of the liquid from rotten dung.
After twenty-four hours the clear liquid was carefully drawn
off and filtered. Its original dark-brown color was changed
into a pale yellow color. This soil thus possessed in a high
degree the property of decolorizing dark-colored liquids like the
washings of dung-heaps.
1,200 grains of the filtered liquid, passed through soil, were
distilled in a retort nearly to dryness, and the ammonia which
was given off carefully collected in an apparatus containing
hydrochloric acid, and so constructed as to secure the perfect
absorption of ammonia.
ABSORBING PUOPEnTlIS OP SOILS. 435
The amount of chlorine of ammonia obtained on evapora-
tion of the acid liquid in the receiving-vessel was .02 grains.
This gives for one imperial gallon of liquid passed through
soil 11.49 grains of ammonia.
Originally the drainings contained, per gallon 39.36
After filtration tlirough soil they contained, per gallon... 11.49
Absorbed by 70,000 grains of soil 27.87 am.
1,000 grains of this soil thus absorbed .396 of ammonia.
On evaporation of another portion of the same liquid passed
through soil, one imperial gallon of filtered drainings was
found to contain 164.88 of organic matter ; 210.20 of inor-
ganic matter.
Before filtration through soil, the imperial gallon contained
268.10 grains of solid organic substances; 368.98 of mineral
matters.
A considerable quantity of both organic and mineral mat-
ters thus removed from the liquid in contact with the soil.
A similar experiment was made by diluting 4,000 grains of
the same drainings with 4,000 grains of distilled water, and
leaving the more dilute liquid in contact for twenty-four
hours with 2,000 grains of the same soil, and 2,000 of subsoil.
The filtered liquid contained in the gallon :
Ammonia 6.91
Organic matters 118. -50
Mineral matters 147.36
Total anionnt of solid matters in a gallon 272.77
The 147.36 of mineral matters (ash) consisted of:
Silica 2.38
Phosphates of lime and iron 1.-54
Carbonate of lime 79.72
Carbonate of magnesia 6.17
Sulphate of lime 7.92
Chloride of Sodium 18.90
Chloride of potassium 26.44
Carbonate of potash 4.29
436 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Originally the liquid employed in this experiment con-
tained 19.68 grains of ammonia to the gallon. After passing
through half its weight of soil, it contained only 6.91 grains
of ammonia; consequently 12.77 were retained by 35,000
grains of soil, and 1,000 grains of the same soil absorbed .396
grains of ammonia. In both instances it was thus found that
rather more than two-thirds of the amount of ammonia pres-
ent in these drainings, in the form of ammoniacal salts, were
retained by a very limited quantity of soil. I have purposely
used a large amount of liquid in comparison with that of soil.
If under such conditions, the soil is capable of retaining two-
thirds of the whole amount of ammonia present in a liquid
like the one examined, it is not too much to expect that no
ammonia whatever will be lost in practice by carting manure
on the fields in autumn, and spreading_it at once. The quan-
tity of soluble ammoniacal matters in a heavy dressing of the
best dung does not amount to many pounds, and such a quan-
tity, in relation to the weight of the soil ready to take up
ammonia from the mamire, is so insignificant that the most
scrupulous may rest satisfied that in a soil containing even a
small proportion of clay no ammonia will be lost by dressing
the fields in autumn.
Other no less important changes than those referring to the
absorption of ammonia will strike the reader to have taken
place in these drainings left in contact with the soil. For
better comparison sake, I will give the composition of the
drainings before and after passing through soil, and then
make a few additional remarks which are suggested by such a
comparison.
Composition op Drainings prom Rotten Dung.
One imperial gallon contains :
Before nitration ^j. filtration.
throuKii soil.
Ammonia (in the foi-m of ammoniacal salts).. 19.68 6.91
Organic matter 134.05 118.50
DRATNINGS PROM ROTTEN DUNG. 437
Silica 75 2.38
Phosphate of lime and iron 7.90 1.54
Carbonate oflime 17.46 79.72
Sulphate of lime 2.18 7.92
Carbonate of magnesia 12.83 6.17
Chloride of sodium 22.85 18.90
Chloride of potassium 35.25 26.44
Carbonate of potash 85.27 4.29
338.22 272.77
It will be observed that this liquid, in passing through the
soil, has undergone a striking change. Leaving unnoticed
several minor alterations in the composition of the original
liquid, I would direct special attention to the very small pro-
portion of carbonate of potash left in the draining after con-
tact with this soil. It will be seen that, out of eighty-five
grains of potash contained in the original liquid, no less than
eighty-one grains have been retained by the soil. This is a
result of the greatest importance, inasmuch as it shows that
the soil possesses, in a remarkable degree, the power of remov-
ing from highly mixed manuring substances, not only am-
monia from ammoniacal salts, but also the no less important
soluble potash compounds. According to this result, 1,000
grains of soil absorb no less than 2.313 grains of carbonate
of potash.
But, in addition to carbonate of potash, a considerable
quantity of chloride of potassium is retained in this soil by
passing the washings from rotten dung through it ; for it will
be observed that nearly nine grains of this salt, or in exact
numbers, 8.81, were retained in the soil.
The avidity of the soil for soluble salts of potash is the
more remarkable, as it offers a striking contrast to the appa-
rent indifference of this soil to absorb soda from its soluble
combinations ; for it will be seen that the liquid, after filtra-
tion through the soil, contains only about four grains less of
comnfbn salt in the gallon than before filtration.
In a purely chemical point of view, soda salts are closely
438 THE AVUKAT I'LANT.
allied to salts of potiisli, and yet there is a marked difference
observable in the power of this soil, at least, to absorb the
one or the other alkali.
As regards the practical effect which salts of soda and potash
are capable of displaying with reference to the nutrition of
plants, the former are not to be compared to the latter in
point of efficacy. It was believed at one time that soda was
capable of replacing potash in the ashes of our crops, but this
opinion was not based on trustworthy evidence. On the con-
trary, the best and most extensive series of ash analy.ses of
our crops show that while the amount of potash, within cer-
tain limits, is constant in the ashes of plants, that of soda,
especially of chloride of sodium, is liable to great fluctuations,
arising, no doubt, from local conditions of the soil.
The fact that soils are capable of absorbing potash from
soluble manuring matters, while no special care is manifested
by them to retain the equally soluble soda salts, appears to
me to account, to some extent at least, for the comparative
constancy of the amount of potash in the ashes of our crops,
as well as for the fluctuations of the amount of soda in the
same. The power of soils to retain potash in large propor-
tions must have the effect of converting the salts of potash in
the manure applied to the land into compounds which, though
not altogether insoluble in water, are yet sufiicicntly difficult
of solution to permit only a limited and fixed quantity to
enter into the vegetable organism in a given period. The
case is different with salts of soda ; for as soils do not appear
to retain them in any high degree, and plants have no select-
ing power, but absorb by endosmosis whatever is presented to
the spongioles of their roots in a state of perfect solution, it
is evident that more soda will enter into the plants when
grown on a soil naturally abounding in this alkali or heavily
dressed with common salt, than when grown upon a soil
poorer in soda.
We have here at the same time an interesting illustration
of the fact, that the soil is the great work-.shop in which food is
DRAININGS FROM ROTTEN DUNG. 439
prepared for plants, and that we can only then hope to attain
unto a more perfect knowledge of the nutrition of plants, and
the best means of administering to their special wants, when
we shall have studied, in all their details, the remarkable
changes which we know, through the investigations of Mr.
Thompson and Professor Way, take place in soils when ma-
nuring substances are brought into contact with them. The
subject is full of practical interest, but also surrounded by
great difficulties, which, it appears to me, can only be over-
come when the investigation is taken up in a truly scientific
spirit, without reference to the direct' application which, in
due course, no doubt, well established chemical principles will
receive in agriculture. It is the undue anxiety to obtain at
once what is popularly called a pi'aetical result — the grasping
after results which may at once be translated into so many
bushels of corn — which is a great hindrance to the more rapid
advancement of agricultural science ; and it is to be hoped,
for the sake of the true interests of the really practical man,
that the voice of those capable of understanding and appreci-
ating purely scientific results, will be sufficiently powerful to
keep in check the too great anxiety for immediate results.
In the next place, I beg to direct attention to the absorp-
tion by the soil of the phosphates contained in drainings. If
it is borne in mind that the soil and subsoil with which the
liquid was brought into contact, contained a large excess of
cai'bonate of lime, it is not more than would naturally be ex-
pected, if we should see the soluble phosphates of the original
drainings converted by the carbonate of lime into insoluble
compounds.
Having already remarked upon the power of this soil to
retain ammonia, I beg in conclusion to point out the large
quantity of carbonate of lime in the filtered liquid as worthy
of notice. This large amount of carbonate of lime is easily
expl.iined by the presence of much lime in the soil. Before
filtration the liquid contained only about 17J grains of car-
bonate of lime, and after filtration as much as nearly 80
440 THE WHEAT PLANT.
grains. Thus while potash and ammonia are absorbed by the
soil, lime is dissolved and passes into the liquid, which is fil-
tered through the soil. Not only is the quantity of carbonate
of lime considerably increased in the filtered drainings, but
that of sulphate of lime in a minor degree also.
It is highly satisfactory to me to find the observations of
Professor Way, with respect to the relative power of soils to
retain ammonia, potash, soda and lime, confirmed in my experi-
ments with a liquid containing a number of fertilizing agents
required by our crops.
Before describing the next filtration experiments, I may
state that I have thought it a matter of some interest to exam-
ine what amount of solid organic and inorganic matter to a
given quantity of pure water would dissolve from the soil, the
composition of which has been stated above. Accordingly, one
part by weight of subsoil, and one part of surface soil, were
mixed with four parts by weight of distilled water, and the
whole, being occasionally stirred up, left to subside for twenty-
four hours, after which time the water was filtered from the
soil, and carefully analyzed.
An imperial gallon of this water was found to contain 84.88
grains of dry residue (dried at 220° Fah.), consisting of —
Organic matter, and a little water of combination,... 48.00
Carbonate of lime, 26.84
Sulphate of lime, 5.73
Phosphate of lime, with a little oxide of iron, 65
Carbonate of magnesia, 50
Chloride of sodium, 1.25
Potash, 99
Silica, 92
84.88
The amount of organic matter in this water is very great;
it arises from the great excess of decomposing organic remains
in the soil, and imparted to the water a yellow color and disa-
greeable smell, not unlike the smell of water in which flax is
steeped. It will be further observed, that even pure rain-
FILTRATION OK FARM-YARD MANURE. 441
water is capable of rendering soluble a considerable quantity
of all those mineral constituents wbicb are found in the ashes
of our crops, and therefore are necessary to their growth.
2. Filtration experiment made with the drainiitgs of a dung-
heap composed of fresh mixed Farm-yard, Manure. — Having
ascertained in the previous filtration experiments, that a soil
containing a good deal of clay and lime is capable of remov-
ing from compound manuring substances all the more valuable
fertilizing constituents, I was anxious to determine to what
extent soils deficient in both clay and lime, possessed the
property of retaining fertilizing substances from drainings of
dung-heaps. The composition of the liquid used for this
experiment is given above ; it is the same liquid collected
from a fresh dung-heap, which in a gallon contained 1,357.74
grains of solid matter. The soil selected for experiment was
a light, sandy, red-colored, very porous soil, containing, as will
be seen by the following analysis, only little clay, and still
less lime, but a good deal of organic matter. It was submitted
to a minute and careful mechanical and chemical analysis, and
furnished the results embodied in the subjoined tables : —
I. Mechanical Analysis.
Moisture, 3.45
Organic matter, and water of combination, 13.94
Coarse, white, quartz sand, 47.00
Fine, red sand, and a little clay deposited from water
on standing five minutes, 19.82
Coarse clay, deposited on standing ten minutes, 2.82
Fine clay, deposited from water on standing one hour, 6.30
Finest clay, kept in suspension in water, after stand-
ing longer than one hour, 6.67
100.00
It appears from these results, that nearly half the weight of
this soil consists of pure white, coarse, quartz-sand, which can
be readily separated by washing. The deposit which set-
tied from water, after five minutes standing, consists chiefly
442 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
of fine, red sand, mixed with very little clay. The remainder
is clay in a very finely subdivided stale, besides humus, and
some water of combination. The result of the mechanical
examination thus shows that the proximate constituents of
this soil are present in an advanced state of decomposition.
In the following tabular statement the minute chemical com-
position of the same soil is given : —
II. Chemical Analysis.
Moisture, 3.45
*Organic matter, and water of combination,.. 13.94
Carbonate of lime, .. .31 ■> Containing
Sulphate of lime, 53 i .s'j'of lime.
(Containing S. O.3 37)
Alumina, 14.74
Oxide of iron, 5.87
Magnesia, 18
Potash (in a state of silicate), 25
Chloride of sodium, 11
Phosphoric acid, combined with iron and
alumina (equal to bone-earth, 131),... .061
Soluble silica (soluble in dilute potash), 7.42
Insoluble siliceous matters (almost entirely
whit^ aand), 53.32
100.181
*Containing nitrogen, 192
Equal to ammonia, 228
5,000 grains of this soil were mixed with 5,000 grains of
liquid from a fresh manure heap, and 5,000 grains of di.^tilled
•water. After twenty-four hours the clear liquid was filtered
from the soil, and found to be somewhat lighter colored than
before; but, in comparison with the decolorizing properties of
the clay soils, used in the experiment, with the drainiiigs from
rotten dung, its efi"ect upon the dark-colored organic com-
pounds in the liquid appeared to be weak.
A portion of the filtered liquid was used for the detcrniina-
tiou of the ammonia contained in it, in the form of volatile
ANALYSES OF FILTERED MANURE. 443
salts, or, at any rate, in the form of salts wliicli yield ammonia
on boiling their watery solution.
Another portion was evaporated to dryness, and the amount
of nitrogen in the dry residue determined. The rest of the
liquid was used for the determination of solid matter and ash.
Leaving unnoticed the details of these various determina-
tions, I shall state at once the composition of the drainings
passed through this light sandy soil. I may observe, however,
that the ammonia and nitrogen, as well as the total amount
of solid matter and ash in it, were determined twice, and
closely agreeing results were obtained. An imperial gallon of
liquid from fresh manure passed through red sandy soil con-
tained :
Ready formed ammonia (chiefly as ulmate and liumate of
ammonia), 7.13
* Organic matter, 301.70
*■* Inorganic matter (ash), 245.70
Total amount of solid matter per gallon of liquid, 554.53
Containing nitrogen, 12.60
Equal to ammonia, 15.30
The ash (M5 grains) consisted of:
Silica, 15.08
Phosphate of lime and iron, , 33.14
Carbonate of lime, 21.22
Sulphate of lime, trace.
Carbonate of magnesia 2.36
Carbonate of potash, 85.93
Chloride of potassium, 39.49
Chloride of sodium, 48.48
It appears distinctly from these result that this soil possessed
the power of absorbing manuring matters in a much smaller
degree than the stiffer soil used in the preceding experiment.
This agrees well with previous observations, in which it was
found that soils in which sand greatly preponderates, exhibit
444 THE WHEAT PLANT.
these useful absorbing properties in tlie least, and others in
which clay preponderates, in the highest degree.
The soil used in the last experiment, it is true, contains a fair
proportion of alumina ; but this alumina exists principally in a
free state, or at all events it is so loosely united with silica that
it can be easily separated from this combination by dilute acids.
The absorbing properties of soil, it thus appears, do not
depend so much on the alumina contained in soils in a free
state, but as shown already by Professor Way, rather in pecu-
liar combinations, into the composition of which alumina
enters. It is more than probable likewise that the different
agricultural clays contain double silicates, to which Professor
Way refers the absorbing properties of soils, in very variable
proportions, and that consequently the agricultural capabilities
of soils, so far as they are dependent upon these important
properties, can not merely be ascertained by determining the
proportion of clay which they contain. In short, the mere
analysis of soils is not calculated to give us a fair idea of their
true characters ; nor does it appear to me to afford sufficient
indications of what is really wanting in a soil in order to
make it yield up heavy crops.
The nature of the changes which these drainings from
fresh farmyard manure underwent in contact with the soil,
the analysis of which has just been given, will appear by
glancing at the subjoined diagram, in which the composition
of these drainings is stated before and after filtration through
soil. An imperial gallon of liquid contained :
BEFORE FILTRATION AFTER PILTBATION
Through Soil.
Ready formed ammonia, 7.67 7.13
Organic matters 358.40 301.70
Inorganic matter (ash), 312.90 245.70
Total am't of eolid matter per gallon, 678.97 554.53
Containing nitrogen, 15.54 12.60
Equal to ammonia, 18.86 15.30
SOME SOILS DO NOT ABSORB READILY. 445
BEFORE I'lLTBATION AFTER FILTRATION
Through Soil.
Silica 4.75 15.08
Phosphate of lime and iron, 36.32 33.14
Carbonate of lime, 29.79 21.22
Sulphate of lirue, 7.14 trace.
Carbonate of m;ignesia, 4.98 2.36
Carbonate of potash, 148.69 85.93
Chloride of potassium, 30.32 39.49
Chloride of sodium, 50.91 48.48
»» Total of ash 312.90 245.70
The amount of ready-formed ammonia retained by this
soil, it will be seen, is very trifling indeed ; nor is the pro-
portion of nitrogen, which is retained in the soil in the form
of nitrogenized organic matters, very great. We are thus
presented here with an instance, showing clearly that there
are soils which do not possess the power of absorbing ammonia
in any marked degree. In the case of such soils as the one
used in this experiment, I think it would be hazardous to apply
manure in autumn. I may also mention a curious circum-
stance in connection with this soil. I am informed that guano
and ammoniacal manures do not seem to do much good on
this soil, while the application of niter is followed with
marked effect.
The most decided change in the composition of this liquid
is observable in the proportion of potash which is contained
in the filtered liquid ; for as in the case of the former soil, a
considerable quantity of this alkali has been absorbed by the
sandy soil. On the other hand, there is only a trifling amount
less chloride of sodium in the liquid after than before filtra-
tion, thus affording another proof that the power of soils to
absorb potash is much greater than to retain soda. It will
likewise be observed that, instead of yielding carbonate of
lime to the liquid which was brought into contact with the
light soil, some carbonate of lime and all the sulphate of
lime were actually retained. This soil, it will be remembered,
is deficient in lime. Perhaps it may not even contain suffi-
446 THE WHEAT PLANT.
cient to supply the wants of some crops, and seems to be en-
dowed with the property of absorbing lime from manuring
matters, affording thereby an interesting instance how special
provision is made in soils for the absorption of those con-
stituents which are naturally deficient in them, and which are
required in considerable quantities for the healthy and luxu-
riant growth of our crops.
In the preceding experiment just the opposite took place;
for it will be remembered that the drainings, after passin£^
through the calcareous clay soil, contained a great deal more
of lime than before filtration. Similar differences will be
observed with respect to other constituents originally present
in the liquid and retained in the stiff and in the sandy soil in
very different proportions. I abstain from noticing any
minor changes in the composition of the filtered liquid, nor
sliall I indulge in any speculations respecting the compounds
in the soil which have contributed to these changes, and the
new combinations in the soil which may have resulted from
them. Our present knowledge on the subject is far too im-
perfect to warrant us to theorize profitably on these matters;
I therefore prefer to send forth for the present my analytical
results without any further comment, and conclude by ex-
pressing the hope that I may be permitted to continue similar
inquiries into the physiology of soils, and do not doubt that
great and important practical benefits will, in due course,
be derived from increased knowledge of the properties of soils
and the changes manuring matters undergo when in contact
with them.*
Manurinq the Wheat Crop.
In the palmy days of wheat-growing in Western and Cen-
tral New York, says the Country Gentleman^ the application
of active manures directly to this crop was not generally prac-
ticed. The opinion widely prevailed that such a course was
injurious, by stimulating a heavy growth of straw at the ex-
*Tlie above article on the absorbing fjnalities of soils, was written by Prof. Vut'lcker,
and wrongly credited to Prof. Way.
BARN-YARD MANURE FOR WUEAT. 447
pense of the grain, and in the rankness and succuleney of the
former, increasing the liability to lodge, and tending also to
produce rust and mildew in the standing grain. In some
instances, no doubt, high manuring has been followed by such
results, but in many more, large crops of wheat have rewarded
the application. We took occasion some eight years ago, to
urge the subject upon the attention of our brother farmers,
and the current of events influencing the wheat crop during
that time, has brought it far more forcibly upon their attention.
We throw away our seed and labor, now-a-days, in sowing
any but rkli^ warm, quick soils to wheat. We must get a
large growth of healthy, early maturing plants, or the wheat
midge will destroy the whole product. This we have urged in
a former article, and will revert more strictly to the subject
indicated in our heading.
Of all grains, says chemical analysis, wheat has in it more
nitrogenous substances than any other. Fifteen per cent, of
the organic matter of the grain of wheat belongs to this class.
Although the straw may grow luxuriantly, the grain can not
be formed without it. " Up to the formation of the kernels,"
says a writer on this subject, "ordinary soils, with rain, dew,
and air, can furnish and grow the wheat plant. But when it
comes to the fruiting part, the plant has to seek in the soil
for materials out of which to fabricate its seed. It is neces-
sary, therefore, that there be in such soil what we farmers call
nutritive or putrescent manure — something out of which nit-
rogen can be formed." This is furnished in barn-yard manure,
and other fertilizers of like character. These in a partially
decomposed state (and hence furnishing almost immediately
nutriment for the crop), we would apply to favorable soils be-
fore sowing them with wheat.
Many farmers have been in the habit of applying their
stock of yard manure in a green or long state in the spring,
to land intended for corn ; reserving little or none for com-
posting, or for application to the wheat crop. But this prac-
tice is becoming less general, and we now find frequently
448 THE WHEAT PLANT.
those who prefer keeping the manure in the yard until well
decomposed, and placing it in heaps for use the next season ;
applying it also upon winter grain, if they sow it, and as a
top-dressing for grass land. This course is usually very suc-
cessful. Though land heavily manured for corn, will produce
good crops of wheat and barley following, it is seldom that
the area which may be so manured and devoted, embraces
half the extent we desire for growing grain, which would pro-
duce it if enriched sufficiently. Hence we see that we need
more manure, as well as to study the most effective application
of the same.
More manure may be had by composting that obtained from
our farm stock with vegetable mold — the muck of swamps and
marshes — the turf and wash of roads — the scrapings of ponds
and ditches. We have doubled the amount and value of our
yard manure by mixing it with muck from the swamp, and
fermenting the same together in heaps loosely laid up and
properly moistened. This was used at the rate of twelve loads
per acre on land sown in wheat last autumn, being merely
gang-plowed in before sowing. A small plot not dressed,
shows a very marked difference — the growth is less than half
of that on the manured portion, and the product will be of
little if of any value.
We hope the lesson of the past few years will not be lost
on those who begin, after all, to think the wheat midge less
the enemy of the farmer than his own improvident course in
cropping with this grain. If it shall induce us to a better
enriching and cultivation of the soil, and a more careful
study of the nature and demands of our different crops, it
will prove to the country at large a blessing and not a curse.
If it leads the mass of farmers, as it has many of them, to
employ every av!i liable means of increasing the quantity and
quality of the manure made upon their fiirms, and to study
attentively the most effective application of the same for grow-
ing the most profitable crops, it will do more for the advance-
ment of agriculture than almost any other means which are
DRAINAGE. 449
likely to be employed. We would therefore urge immediate
attention to the preparation of manure for applying to the
wheat crop, and from our own experience and observation,
think that composted manure, mixed with the surface soil by
harrowing or very shallow plowing, will prove of the greatest
benefit to the crop. This method is practiced by the most
successful wheat-growers of the present day.
Drainage.
There are comparatively very few soils which do not require
drainaure. The benefits and advantages resultina: from drain-
er o o
age even on the best soils are so numerous and extended in
their details, that it would require a volume rather than a few
pages to discuss this subject properly. We shall content
ourselves for the present on this subject, by making a few
extracts from writers of acknowledged ability and practical
observation, reserving what we may have to say in detail
for a separate work.
It is a curious and apparently a paradoxical observation,
says Johnston, that draining often improves a soil on which the
crops are liable to be hiirned vp in seasons of drought. Yet,
upon a little consideration, the fact becomes very intelligible.
Suppose that the surface-soil extend to a certain line, while
below this there is a subsoil in which the water stagnates.
The roots will readily penetrate to the line between these two
soils, but they will in general refuse to descend further,
because of the unwholesomeness of soil where water stagnates,
(not to mention the mechanical opposition to their further
progress). Let a dry season conte^ and their roots having
little dcjyfh, the plants will he more speedily hurned rip. But
lower the level at which water stagnates, or remove it
altogether by working the subsoil, the rains will then freely
wash the subsoil, and the roots will descend into it, so that if
a drought come again, it may parch the soil above, as before,
without injuring the plants, since now they are watered and
fed by the soil beneath.
'1%
450 THE WHEAT PLANT.
If science never wrote aimthcr sentence applicalde to our
agriculture, the one just quoted from an able pen would be
invaluable, if duly weighed and acted upon. Many portions of
the State, we are aware, do not require drainajre according to the
view generally entertyined of the word ; but there is no doubt
that many spots, even those of the finest, might be improved
by the judicious introduction of drains, just to create a
circulation through th^m ; and we feel perfectly convinced
that persons act most erroneously and in direct opposition to
all reason and science, in refusing to work upon our soil and
in forcing our crops to grow in shallow plowed soil, with a
subsoil as hard as baked ware, and almost equally as impervi-
ous to the tender roots. Once more hear Professor Johnston,
for the matter can not be too much enlarged upon : " Enable
the water to travel downward, and the air from above will
follow it, and take its place among the pores of the soil, car-
rying to every root the salutary influences it is appointed to
bear with it, wherever it penetrates. When this is done, the
stiff soil will become mellow, and, when once stirred up to a
considerable depth, more universally porous, so that air
can make its way everywhere, and the roots can easily
extend themselves in every direction. The presence of
vegetable matter, whether existing naturally in a soil thus
physically altered, or artificially added to it, becomes of
double value." To facilitate these beneficial actions, the Pro-
fessor strongly advises the use of what is called the subsoil
plow, which breaks up the subsoil and renders it pervious to
the air and water, and still more strongly the process of deep
plowing, which, in addition to other advantages, "brings up
new earth to the surface, thus forms a deeper soil, and more or
less alters its physical qualities and chemical composition."
But we must leave it to those who think it worth while to
pursue the subject (and may they be many), to consult his
lectures on Agriculturnl Chemistry, or his smaller work, the
Elements of Practical Chemistry, which will amply repay the
outlay and trouble. We can not, however, deny ourself the
DRAINAGE CAUSES INDEPENDENCE OF WEATHER. 451
satisfaction of quoting some remarks of a pracfical man on
this subject, not only because of their intrinsic value, but
because they show what progress practical men are making
in the science of agriculture, and place the stamp of experi-
ence on the suggestions and reasonings of the man of science.
In an article on the culture of land for wheat, by Mr. Morton
(author of an excellent work on soils), in a late number of the
Agricultural Gazette, \i is said, " When land is plowed only
to the depth of three or four inches, the active soil is so very
limited, that the least change in the weather is injurious to
the plants growing in it. The manure, under this system of
shallow plowing, forms a layer near the surface ; the roots
of the plants ramify only through the furrow slice in which
the dung is placed, and consequently the plant has but little
hold of the ground. Being thus spread out horizontally
near the surface, the roots are easily exposed to the weather and
its influence ; in a dry season the shallow soil, and the manure in
it, becomes parched and inactive ; in wet weather the roots
having but little hold of the ground, a soaking rain and a
little wind loosen the plant and it is blown out. In a deeply
cultivated soil the plant exerts the whole of its energy at first,
in the production of roots, which strike deeply into the soil,
filling the whole of it with their minute fibers.
" Upon the arrival of genial weather, the organs of the leaves
being excited are prepared for vigorous and luxuriant growth ;
and a wide field having been laid under cultivation for the
purpose, the roots easily provide the nourishment required to
support them under it. If, under such a system, a plant be
pulled up, it will be found that the roots have ramified so
extensively that no variation of temperature can affect them :
they draw their nourishment from sources beyond the influ-
ences of the variableness of external agents. Thus, deep cul-
tivation, by encouraging depth of rooting, effects indirectly
for the plant a comparative independence of the weather, but
it has a direct influence in the same direction, for if the
weather be wet, the water more readily passes down to the
452 THK \viip;at plant.
drains, and if it he drjj. it retains for a Junrjrr time n wffi.ricnry
of moiature. Of two crops equally luxuriant hi their growth,
that is not so liable to lodge which is grown on the deeper soil ;
for its growth has been more gradual and natural, and less the
result of artificial excitement. Of course, it must be under-
stood that <1ecp cultivation can safely be entered upon only in
soils that are naturally or artificially ih-y" This last is a pre-
caution more necessary to be given in England than with us ;
but altogether, though authorities might be multiplied on
this head to an almost indefinite extent, yet we should hardly
find anything more applicable to our case or more clearly
expressed. We would recommend the careful perusal of the
fifty second section of Mr. Morton's valuable work on soil,
■where the subject is clearly treated and its advantages strongly
put.
It will not be amiss to quote one short sentence from Liebig
on this subject: " In hot summers," says he, " accompanied
by light and partial showers of rain, porous soils of no great
fertility yield often better crops than richer stiflF soils. The
rain falling on the porous soil is immediately absorbed and
reaches the roots, while that falling on the heavy soil is evap-
orated before it is able to penetrate them."
Drainage improves the quality of crops. In a dry season,
we frequently hear the farmer boast of the quality of his
products. His hay-crop, he says, is light, but will "spend'
much better than the crop of a wet season ; his potatoes are
not large, but they are sound and mealy. Indeed, this topic
need not be enlarged upon. Every farmer knows that his
wheat and corn are heavier and more sound when grown upon
land sufiieiently drained.
Drainage 'prevents drought. This proposition is somewhat
startling at first view. How can draining land make it more
moist? One would as soon think of watering land to make
it dry. A drought is the enemy we all dread. Professor
Esjty has a plan for producing rain, by lighting extensive
artificial fires. A great objection to his theory is. that he can
MOISTURE IN APPARENTLY DRY SOIL. 453
not limit his showers to his own land, and all the public
would never be ready for a shower on the same day. If we
can really protect our land from drought by underdraining
it, everybody may at once engage in the work without offense
to his neighbor.
If we take up a handful of rich soil of almost any kind,
after a heavy rain, we can squeeze it hard enough with the
hand to press out drops of water. If we should take of the
same soil a large quantity, after it was so dry that not a drop
of water could be pressed out by hand, and subject it to the
pressure of machinery, we should force from it more water.
Any boy Avho has watched the process of making cider with
the old-fashioned press, has seen the pomace after it had been
once pressed apparently dry and cut down, and the screw
applied anew to the " cheese," give out quantities of juice.
These facts illustrate, first, how much water may be held in
the soil by attraction. They show, again, that more water is
held by a pulverized and open soil, than by a compact and
close one. Water is held in the soil between the minute
particles of earth. If these particles be pi'essed together
compactly, there is no space left between them for water. The
same is true of soil naturally compact. This compactness
exists more or less in most subsoils, certainly in all through
which water does not readily pass. Hence, all these subsoils
are rendered more permeable to water by being broken up
and divided ; and more retentive by having the particles of
which they are composed separated, one from another — in a
word, by pulverization. This increased capacity to contain
moisture by attraction, is the greatest security against
drought. The plants in a dry time send their rootlets
throughout the soil, and flourish in the moisture thus stored
up for their time of need. The pulverization of drained land
may be produced, partly by deep or subsoil plowing, which is
always necessary to perfect the object of thorough-draining ;
but it is much aided in stiff clays, also, by the shrinkage of
the soil by drying.
454 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Drainage resists drought, again, by the very deepening of
the soil of which we have already spoken. The roots of
plants, we have seen, will not extend into stagnant water.
If, then, as is frequently the case, even on sandy plains, the
water-line be, in early spring, very near the surface, the seed
may be planted, may vegetate, and throw up a goodly show of
leaves and stalks, which may flourish as long as the early rains
continue ; but suddenly, the rains cease ; the sun comes out
in his June brightness ; the water-line lowers at once in the
soil ; the roots have no depth to draw moisture from below,
and the whole field of clover, or of corn, in a single week, is
past recovery. Now, if this light, sandy soil be drained, so
that, at the first start of the crop, there is a deep seed-bed
free from water, the roots strike downward at once, and thus
prepare for a drought. The writer has seen upon deep-
trenched land in his own garden, parsnips which, before mid-
summer, had extended downward three feet, before they were
as large as a common whiplash ; and yet, through the summer
drought, continued to thrive till they attained in autumn a
length, including tops, of about seven feet, and an extraor-
dinary size. A moment's reflection will satisfy any one that
the dryer the soil in spring, the deeper will the roots strike,
and the better able will be the plant to endure the summer's
drought.
Again, drainage and consequent pulverization and deep-
ening of the soils increase their capacity to absorb moisture
from the atmosphere, and thus afford protection against
drought. Watery vapor is constantly, in all dry weather,
rising from the surface of the earth; and plants, in the day-
time, are also from their leaves and bark, giving off moisture
which they draw from the soil. But Nature has provided a
wonderful law of compensation for this waste, which would,
without such provision, parch the earth to barrenness in a
single rainless month.
The capacity of the atmosphere to take up and convey
water, furnishes one of the grandest illustrations of the
DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGHT. 455
perfect work of the Author of the Universe. " All the
rivers run into the sea, yet the sea is not full ; " and the sea
is not full, because the numerous great rivers and their mill-
ions of tributaries, ever flowing from age to age, convey to
the ocean only as much water as the atmosphere carries back
in vapor, and discharges upon the hills. The warmer the
atmosphere, the greater its capacity to hold moisture. The
heated, thirsty air of the tropics drinks up the water of the
ocean, and bears it away to the colder regions, where, through
condensation by cold, it becomes visible as a cloud ; and as a
huge sponge pressed by an invisible hand, the cloud, con-
densed still further by cold, sends down its water to the earth
in rain.
The heated air over our fields and streams, in summer, is
loaded with moisture as the sun declines. The earth has
been cooled by radiation of its heat, and by constant evapora-
tion through the day. By contact with the cooler soil, the
air, borne by its thousand currents gently along its surface, is
condensed, and yields its moisture to the thirsty earth again,
in the form of dew.
At a Legislative Agricultural Meeting, held in Albany,
New York, January 25th, 1855, " the great drought of 1854 "
being the subject, the Secretary stated that " the experience
of the past season has abundantly proved that thorough-
drainage upon soils requiring it, has been proved a very great
relief to the farmer ; " that " crops upon such lands have been
far better, generally, than those upon undrained lands in the
same locality ; " and that, '' in many instances, the increased
crop has been sufficient to defray the expenses of the improve-
ment in a single year."
Mr. Joseph Harris, at the same meeting, said, " An under-
drained soil will be found damper in dry weather than an
undrained one, and the thermometer shows ? drained soil
warmer in cold weather, and cooler in hot weather, than one
which is undrained."
456 TIIK WllKAT PLANT.
The Secretary of the New York State Agricultural Society,
in his report for 1855, says: "The testimony of farmers in
different sections of the State, is almost unanimous, that
drained lands have suffered far less from drought than un-
drained." Alleghany county reports that "drained lands
have been less affected by the drought than undrained;"
Chatauque county, that " the drained lands have stood the
drought better than the undrained." The report from Clin-
ton county says : " Drained lands have been less affected by
the drought than undrained." Montgomery county reports :
" We find that drained lands have a better crop in either wet
or dry seasons than undrained."
B. F. Nourse, of Orrington, Maine, says that on his drained
lands, in that State, " during the drought of 1854, there was
at all times sufficient dampness apparent on scraping the
surface of the ground with his foot in passing, and a crop of
beans was planted, grown and gathered therefrom, without as
much rain as will usually fall in a shower of fifteen minutes'
duration, while vegetation on the next field was parching for
hick of moisture.
A committee of the New York Farmers' Club, which visited
the farm of Prof. Mapes, in New Jersey, in the time of a
severe drought in 1855, reported that the Professor's fences
were the boundaries of the drought, all the lands outside
being affected by it, while his remained free from injury.
This was attributed, both by the committee and by Prof.
J\Iapes himself, to thorough-drainage and deep tillage with
the subsoil plow.
Mr. Shedd, in the N. E. Farmer, says :
" A simple illustration will show the effect which stagnant
water, within a foot or two of the surface, has on the roots of
plants.
" Perhaps it will aid the reader who doubts the benefit
of thorough-draining in a case of drought, to see why it is
beneficial.
DRAINAGE PREVENTS DROUGH'!
457
Section of Land nrKORE
IT IS Dkained.
Sf.ction of Land aftku
IT IS DUAINBl).
Fig. '1:>. Fig. 26.
" In the first figure, 1 represents the surface-soil, through
which evaporation takes place, using up the heat which might
otherwise go to the roots of plants ; b, represents the water-
table, or surface of stagnant water below which roots seldom
go ; a, water of evaporation ; b, water of capillary attraction ,
c, water of drainage, or stagnant water.
'" In the second figure, 1 represents the surface-soil warmed
by the sun and summer rains; 2, the water-table nearly four
feet below the surface — roots of the wheat plant have been
traced to a depth of more than four feet in a free mold; d,
water of capillary attraction ; e, water of drainage, or stag-
nant water."
39
458 thk whkat i'lant.
Seeding.
After the ground has been properly prepared for seeding,
the next thing to be done is to select the best and cleanest
seed wheat. The best variety should always be obtained even
at a price double the usual selling price. Almost every farmer
has some special manner of selecting seed; some by threshing
the sheaves with a flail, others by tramping it out with horses.
But whatever kind of wheat you use for seed, be sure it is
entirely free of foul seeds. A good way to get seed wheat is,
to take ripe sheaves and beat oif the best of the grain in an
open barrel or tierce, leaving the smaller grains still in the
head for the thresher. Then take this picked seed, winnow
and screen it well, and you have the cream of the field.
We may by some be deemed over-nice in our views, but we
would recommend, wherever it is practicable, that the largest
and plumpest berries be selected by hand-picking. We are
satisfied that the farmer who does so once will find his own
reward in the result.
A habit has obtained among the European population, more
especially among the Germans and French in Stark, Holmes,
Wayne and Columbiana counties, to soak the seed wheat over
night in a solution of blue vitriol, say one pound to five or
six gallons of water into which as much wheat is poured as the
water will cover. They gave us various reasons for this prac-
tice, among which the following were the most prominent:
I. That soaking the wheat killed the Hessian fly.
II. That soaking the wheat killed the midge.
III. That soaking the wheat prevented smut.
IV. That soaking the wheat caused it to tiller more than
double the usual amount.
How far practice confirmed the hypothesis we have no cer-
tain means of determining, but certain it is that these farmers
always were rewarded with abundant crops of excellent wheat.
In addition to steeping the wheat seed, some subjected it to
another process. After it was removed from the steep quick-
WHAT STEEPING SEED ACCOMPLISHES. 459
lime was sprinkled over the mass, and so thoroughly incor-
porated in it that each individual seed was completely covered
with lime.
We by no means object to seed being steeped, well satisfied
that it more thoroughly cleanses the seed of all parasites and
other impurities with which it may be contaminated, but deem
it our duty at the same time to state candidly and explicitly,
that we do not believe that steeping accomplishes all that is
claimed for it.
I. That it kills the Hessian fly is obviously a mistake, be-
cause to kill it by steeping presupposes that the larvae of this
parasite already exist in the grain of wheat; we have searched
through many grains of wheat grown in the fields afiected by
the Hessian fly, and have been unable to find any orifice by
which they could have entered, neither could we find any
larvae in the body of the grain.
II. The same objection is equally valid with respect to the
midge.
III. There is no doubt that steeping and liming, if tho-
roughly done, will efi"cctually prevent smut.
IV. We miTst be pardoned for our inveterate scepticism with
respect to the doctrine that steeping will augment tillering.
If this hypothesis were correct, then steeped seed, if sown on
a barren soil, would tiller as profusely as if sown on a rich
one. But we have another equally strong objection to this
hypothesis, viz. : we do not believe that any solution will add
vigor or prolificacy to the plant, but admit that chemical and
mechanical conditions of soil can produce such results.
Having prepared the ground and selected the seed, the next
thing in order is to get the seed properly placed in the soil.
We confess our partiality to the drill, and can not present the
arguments in favor of the drill more concisely and efl'ectually
than they are stated in the following prize essay copied from
the Ohio State Agricultural Report^ for 1858 :
"The present century will be more distinguished in the his-
tory of agriculture than any of its predecessors, for imple-
460 THE WHEAT PLANT.
ments designed to economize the time and labor of the
husbandman ; but the credit of machines for peed planting
does not belong to it. They were known to the Italians in
the beginning of the seventeenth century. Experiments in
Italy, about the year 1G50, with machines having a cylinder
in a seed box, arranged over plows, on wheels, in the language
of an ancient chronicler, " brought a crop of sixty for one."
This success introduced the machines to Spain in 1GG9. In
the beginning of the seventeenth century, according to Bacon,
attempts were made in England to plant wheat by machinery.
The experiments were abandoned because the machines being
rude, the method was considered too laborious, but against
the judgment of the firseeing philosopher who declared it ad-
vantageous. Later in the seventeenth, and early in the
eighteenth century, various attemjjts were made to gain suc-
cesses whicli would secure general favor for seed-planters ; but
not until the beginning of the nineteenth century did drilling
become at all common in f]ngland. Machinery is now com-
monly employed there, not only for planting wheat and other
grains, but for turnip and other root seeds. Drills have been
used chiefly in America for planting corn and wheat, and for
sowing grass seed. Their service for those purposes was not
known among farmers, generally, ten years ago.
Since 1850, wheat planters have been more and more widely
employed in Ohio and other wheat-growing Stjites, and will,
in a few years, entirely supersede the hoe and the harrow, for
practical reasons, which maybe set forth in three propositions:
It is better to plant wheat with a good drill than to sow it
broad-cast and harrow it in, because,
Time and labor are economized,
Seed is saved,
A larger yield is secured.
Why Labor is Saved.
I. Supposing the ground to be alike prepared for broadcast
or drill seeding, the farmer can "put out" two acres with a
WHY DRILLING IS PROFITABLE. 461
•good drill for every one he can broadcast and harrow in. Six-
teen acres a day is not a large claim for a drill, on good
ground, with a pair of tractable horses and an attentive
driver. But, the saving of three or four, or six or eight days'
labor in a year, is not the great advantage in the economy of
time and labor gained with a drill. It is the saving of time
at a favorable juncture for planting — the accomplishment of
a large amount of work when the necessity is most im-
perative.
Again, when the farmer drills his grain, the work is finished
as fast as his team goes across the field. Not so, when he
scatters his seed broadcast. A sudden storm, or some other
contingency, may arrest his labors, when only a part of the
seed has been harrowed in, and he may be obliged to sow
over it again to his disadvantage, not only in the labor and
seed expended, but, perhaps, to the detriment of the expected
crop.
Why Seed is Saved.
II. One and a quarter bushels of seed planted with a drill
are equal to one and a half bushels sown broadcast, under the
same circumstances of soil and climate, because all the grain
put into the drill-box is deposited in the ground — none is
blown away — none is left where the birds can pick it up, or
the common insects can feed upon it.
Again, independently of loss of seed by failure to find a
lodgement for it in the soil when broadcast, seed is saved by
the drill, because the precise quantity known to be most de-
sirable can always be sown.
Why a Larger Yield is Secured.
III. Wheat drilled produces more abundantly than that
sown broadcast, for the following reasons :
1. The shovel of the drill removes small stones and pul-
verizes the soil, at least enough to allow fine dirt to fall over
the seed, which is thus better placed for vegetation than it
462 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
can be with a harrow that partially stirs it with the soil, leav-
ing some seeds too deep, some not deep enough, and others
entirely uncovered.
2. The shovel of the drill makes a furrow, at the bottom of
which the seed is covered ; the earth thrown out on either
side of that furrow forms a drain, in which the water carries
all the better properties of the soil, nourishing the roots of
the grain. When spring comes, the frosts which have
" thrown out " and winter-killed broadcast wheat, having filled
the drains in the drilled field, its roots are in good soil well
fed, and at once the wheat grows vigorously. The frosts,
therefore, which are disadvantageous to broadcast wheat, have
a good influence upon that properly drilled.
3. The seed deposited by the drill, at whatever depth the
farmer may wish, according to soil, climate, or season, having
taken root with an even, firm hold, produces a vigorous blade,
and induces healthy tillering. In time of drouth, the grain
grows steadily, while much of that sown broadcast, in soil of
the same character, shrivels, or produces single weak stalks,
because the evaporation has taken the moisture out of the
ground where its roots lie.
4. The position of drilled wheat is favorable to the circula-
tion of light and air, elements which are known to be inti-
mately required for healthful growth and proper ripening,
by every stalk.
5. The growth of drilled wheat being uniform, from the
fact of its regular distribution at regular depth, its ripening
is nearly simultaneous, and it is, therefore, not subject to the
ravages of the midge (yellow weevil), or to damage by rust,
in the same degree that broadcast wheat is ; some stalks of
which, as is well known to fixrniers, may be in blossom, while
in others the grain is hardening, thus afi'ording the mischiev-
ous insect fair opportunity to make sad havoc — giving it time
to work upon heads in diflferent parts of the field, just when it
can be most destructive.
6. Ripening uniformly, because all its stalks have had equal
SUMMARY. 463
nourishment from soil, moisture, light and air, drilled wheat
may be gathered wif-h greater security than broadcast, in
which there may be heads too ripe, while others are barely
fit for harvest.
7. Having depth of root — having grown regularly, because
uniformly nourished and protected, drilled wheat produces
strong stalks which bear large heads. Experience has proven
that when wheat stalks are crowded together, they produce
heads of different sizes, very small, and poorly filled. It is^
impossible to guard against irregular planting, with the hand
and the harrow, and it is possible to make an even distribution
of seed with good machines, properly adjusted ; therefore have
experiments, made with care, demonstrated the fact that the
3'ield from drilled wheat is on an average one-fifth greater
than from that sown broadcast. A careful man who examines
a field of wheat, will find that the stalks which bear small
heads, have roots that lie near the surface of the ground ;
those bearing large heads have roots lying not less than two,
and in many soils, three inches deep. If the seeds well
planted are those which bear large heads, to plant all the
seeds well will, under ordinary circumstances, secure large
heads on all the stalks. Therefore is it clear why forty -eight
bushels of wheat per acre have been harvested from fields
when drilled, which when sown broadcast, did not average
forty bushels per acre.
Summary.
The whole question of the comparative advantages of drill
seeding, over broadcast, may be resolved into three plain
statements :
1. Wheat sown broadcast is at the mercy of the winds, the
harrow, the birds, the insects, and the clouds.
2. No intelligent farmer will deny that careful experiments
will decide exactly what depth for given soil, seed ought to be
deposited ; and exactly how much to the acre will grow well
and produce best under known conditions.
464 THE WHEAT PLANT.
3. Then, the proper quantity of seed to the acre ascertained
— the proper depth di.scovered — it is obvious that the instru-
mentality by which the r|uantity desired will be uniformly
deposited at the depth desired, should always be employed
when wheat is to be planted.
Now, the question arises : Can farmers procure, at reasona-
ble cost, machines for planting wheat, which will deposit the
seed at regular distances, and at uniform depth ? That either
of the drills offered by the State Board of Agriculture as
prizes, is capable of answering what this essay demands for a
good machine, many reliable certificates can be adduced.
It should be mentioned as an incidental advantage of drills,
that to several of the different machines grass sowers are so
attached, that while the grain from one box is being planted
in drills, gra's seed is sown broadcast from another. Not only
does wheat grow better in drilled field.?, but the grass sown in
them is better than that cultivated with broadcast wheat,
because through the regular grain, light and air, and dews,
and gentle rains more directly reach it.
Another incidental advantage of drill seeding may be sug-
gested — that of depositing special manures with seed.
The foregoing arguments — which might be strengthened
with minor points that will suggest themselves to thoughtful
farmers — are not based upon speculation, but upon actual
experiments, through a series of years, to which, if required,
certificates of as good farmers as there are in Ohio, can be
obtained.
Good drills, in Ohio, cost from $75 to §100. Whether
their advantages justify such an outlay, is answered in the
reasons I have given why they save seed and labor, and secure
increased crops. I can give the name and address of more
than one prominent farmer who will certify that the increase
of crop for drilled, over broadcast wheat, was worth enough in
one year, from forty acres, to pay for a drill which cost 875.
But drills are not alone economical for the })lanting of
wheat. They have been proven advantageous for oats, barley,
EFFECTS OF WARMTH xVND FROST UPON PLANTS. 465
rye, and corn, and may be used in America, as in England,
for planting beans, peas, and the seeds of other vegetables,
wherever their cultivation, on a large scale, is undertaken.
I might close this essay with tabular statements contrasting,
in support of my propositions, the labor, expense, and profit
of broadcast and drill seeding, but I will omit them because I
do not think the candid inquirer will demand more particu-
larity than has been given.
When the validity of my claim, for economy of labor and
seed by means of a good drill ; and for an average yield one-
fifth larger than hand and harrow seeding secures, is respect-
ably disputed, statistics supporting it, from the best wheat
growing districts in the Western country, will be produced.
Effects of Warmth and Frost upon Plants.
When the agriculturist has entrusted the seeds to the bosom
of the earth, he has done, with few unimportant exceptions,
all that he possibly can do toward securing the perpetuity of
the plant. The growth of the plant depends upon the proper
amount, and at seasonable periods, of sunshine and rain.
Both warmth and moisture are of equal, as well as of prime
importance in the germination of the seed, and the develop-
ment of the future plant. If the one condition is not ful-
filled, it can not be supplied by the other. No amount of
rain can supply a deficiency of sunshine ; and all the sun-
shine possible can not make good the want of rain ; heat
without rain is just as fatal as rain without warmth.
It may appear superfluous to spend either time or words in
the investigation of a subje^ct over which man has no absolute
control ; but as investigation has been commenced, we learn,
the further the subject is pursued, that notwithstanding
we can not control the operation of the elements, we may
nevertheless so accommodate ourselves to their operation as
to leave their effects less disastrous.
We shall allude to several well known phenomena only to
illustrate this declaration. There are fields often in the same
466 THE WHEAT PLANT.
vicinity upon which the sun shines equally, but which are
nevertheless warmed in unequal degrees; the practical agri-
culturist says of the soil in one field that it is cold, and of the
other that it is warm ; and it is a well known fact that the
cold soil never produces as abundantly nor as luxuriously as
the warm soil. The cold soil is generally composed of im-
pervious substances, which retain moisture a great length of
time. Now by thoroughly underdraining a cold soil, the
plant is greatly benefited, not only by not having a super-
fluous amount of subterranean water to contend with, but also
by the increased temperature of the soil consequent upon the
removal of the water. The rays of the sun then produce
actual warmth in the soil, while before it was drained, they
served to evaporate moistyre only.
Again : a cold soil is most generally a light colored one.
It is a well known law in nature that dark objects attract and
retain rays of light better than light colored ones; hence, if a
light colored cold soil can have a dark substance, as humus,
soot, etc., incorporated with it, it will become warmer.
There are many practical questions depending upon the
solution of the temperature of the soil ; one of which we will
present, without attempting a solution of it, viz. : What tem-
perature of soil and atmosphere are most appropriate in which
to sow seeds? For example, is it better to plant ripe potatoes
in a low temperature, or to plant later, when both soil and air
are warmer? The recent investigations in the search of the
cause of the potato rot, as well as the cause of Honeydew and
Mildew, demonstrate that they are caused chiefly by sudden
changes of temperature between high and low ranges. The
theory that potatoes planted very early, and suftcred to lie in
the soil without germinating, and subject to many changes, if
not extremes of temperature, are more subject to disease than
those planted later, is not without foundation in fact. It has
frequently been observed that late planted potatoes have not
outstripped the early planted ones in growth, but have pro-
duced much healthier fruit.
WARMTH OP PLANTS. 467
Notwithstanding we may be able to explain the operation
of the sun's rays upon soils and plants in some special cases,
yet there are so many relations which warmth sustains to the
plant that every reflecting person has asked himself the ques-
tion, "How is this to be explained? Why is it?" We will
endeavor to explain the effects of dew, frost and freezing upon
plants. Dew has frequently been observed in one locality,
while in the same neighborhood perhaps a frost has occurred ;
in one place a plant is found to have been frozen, while in
another the plants are fresh and healthy ; here leaves on the
top and side only of a tree have been frozen, while on the
other side and beneath they were not affected, etc.
Inherent Warmth of Plants, and the Warmth they
Keceive from the Sun.
If we admit that plants, like animals, through vitalization,
have the power to generate warmth, we must at the same time
be convinced that they are subject to all the fluctuations of
temperature that the atmosphere which surrounds them, and
the soil in which they grow are subjected to. In order to
demonstrate this dependency experiments have been insti-
tuted to determine the temperature of the heart of the trunk,
limbs, and even roots of trees, by inserting a thermometer,
and then comparing it with one registering the temperature
of the air which surrounded it. The results exhibited a great
disparity in temperature.
An observation made on a maple in midsummer resulted as
follows :
Temperature of the atmosphere 74° F.
" in the heart of the trunk, 12 inches in diameter. ..58°
" of the sap wood of trunk 62°
" of the heart of upper portion, 6 inches in diameter 71^°
" of a three inch limb 72°
" of a root at nine inches depth 59°
" of the soil 58°
The relation which the plant, atmosphere and soil bear to
468 THE WHEAT PLANT.
each other, so far as warmth is concerned, is more apparent
during sudden changes of temperature. The observations
above mentioned were repeated on the same tree at a time
when, in the course of seven hours, the temperature of the
atmosphere rose from (i° to 41° ; during the same period the
temperature of the limb rose from .... 16^° to 41°
" of the trunk, 6 inches in diameter 15° to 33°
" of the trunk, 12 inches in diameter 16^" to 25°
" of sap-wood 33° to 34°
From this it is very evident that the young and tender por-
tions of the plant are more subject to the vicissitudes of tem-
perature than the older and more woody portions — the older
parts acquire and impart temperature with much less rapidity
than the younger portions, which are affected by the slightest
changes. This experiment, however, affords no evidence of
innate warmth in the plant. The question whether plants can
generate heat was first determined by the fact, well known to
our nurserymen, that if plants are surrounded by vapor
they " clamp off." From this phenomenon we conclude that
plants have an inherent warmth, because water can be con-
verted into and remain in vapor only, when confined in
a space already saturated with moisture, and under a rising
temperature ; — if, therefore, when plants situated in a place
saturated with vapor without a rising temperature, or a tem-
perature to sustain it in vapor, still exhale moisture, it is very
evident that the heat necessary to convert the water into vapor
must be produced by the plant itself. The temperature of all
plants is not, however, the same, but their capacity to exhale
depends upon the amount of leaf surJ'ace.
But as the innate warmth of the plant appears to be applied
only to convert the water into vapor in order to exhale it, it
therefore becomes more explicable why plants are subject to
all the changes in temperature which the soil and atmosphere
undergo.
The absolute heat of plants, like that of all inanimate
substances, is dependent upon the action of the rays of the
WARMTH OP PLANTS. 469
sun, the pliysical laws of which are well known, namely, trans-
parent, brilliant and light-colored substances do not retain the
heat, but substances which are rough and dark absorb and
retain the heat of the sun. That the power of substances to
retain heat depends upon their color is readily demonstrated.
Professor Schnebler covered some earth with a coat of talk or
white earth, and another portion with soot. In the course of an
hour that under the white cover exhibited a temperature of
93^", while that under the black was 104°.
Plants having large and deep-green leaves one would natur-
ally suppose would in consequence be warmer than the atmos-
phere, but strict observation has determined that they are
absolutely colder — the heat being almost exclusively devoted
to evaporating the moisture.
When the sun's rays no longer fall upon the plants, as in the
evening just after sunset, then the plant gradually cools down,
and imparts all the warmth it had acquired during the day.
The rapidity with which plants part with their warmth is very
dissimilar, although the plants themselves are similarly, or
even alike situated. As a general thing, plants whose leaves
are thin, serrated, or hairy, part more readily with warmth
than those having thick, fleshy, and smooth leaves. The pre-
cise amounts of depression of temperature to which certain
plants are subject are well known — a blade of rough grass, for
instance, loses from 12° to 15° of warmth, while a camelia
leaf parts with no more than from G° to 9°.
Another phenomenon of the radiation of heat is the for-
mation of dew. Dew is formed on objects which are in con-
tact with the atmosphere, and have imparted the warmth which
they acquired during the day to it; and, as they gradually
lose their warmth, so also do they lose their capacity to retain
water in the form of vapor, and consequently by their want of
warmth they condense the moisture of the atmosphere, which is
found in the form of small globules or drops on the surface
of these substances; upon the same principle that drops of
water collect on the outside of a glass vessel filled with cold
470 THE WHEAT PLANT.
water on a warm day. Dew does not fall every evening, and
even when it does fall it is not observed on all objects or sub-
stances. Dew falls only when the sky is serene and the air is
calm ; then just before sunset, if there are substances on which
the rays of the sun are no longer falling, they will be found
to be moist. If the sky is clouded the radiation of heat is
interrupted, and of course condensation can not take place.
If we suspend a board or stout paper over a plant, the heat
which it radiates is thrown back upon it, and thus is the plant
kept warm — the temperature is not reduced in consequence to
the dew point — hence there is no dew in a dense forest, neither
is there dew in the immediate vicinity of walls, buildings, etc.,
because they radiate during the entire night in summer time.
A very gentle breeze will prevent dew from forming, because
every moment the atmosphere is changing, and this interrupts
radiation.
If we examine objects in the morning after a dew has fallen
we discover that although substances are lying in close prox-
imity to each other, they yet have unequal amounts of dew upon
them ; metallic substances having the largest amount, wooden
ones less, etc. If plants are examined, it will be found that
the leaves of some contain much more than others of the
same superficies. This phenomenon is in accordance with a
law of nature, that rough, or uneven, or pointed bodies radi-
ate their heat more rapidly than those with smooth or polished
surfaces. The former radiating more rapidly are cooled more
rapidly, and condense more rapidly than the latter. Grasses
therefore have more dews, in proportion to the superficial
area, than other plants. Hence bearded wheats have more dew
than bald or smooth ones, and as frost is nothing more nor
less than frozen dew, it follows, as a matter of course, that
bearded wheats when in head suffer more from frosts than
smooth ones. The frost of June 4, 1859, fully demonstrates
this fact, if any proof were necessary. The Mediterranean
everywhere suffered more from the frosts than did the white
blue-stem.
WHY SOME PLANTS t'REEZE READILY. 471
Again, there is a very great difference in the capacity of
bodies to retain heat, and much more heat must consequently
be applied to produce in such bodies the same temperature :
water, for example, requires thirty-three times as much heat
to raise its temperature to 200° as mercury does. The body
possessing the greatest capacity for retaining heat imparts
it the slowest, and therefore collects less dew than those which
impart heat rapidly — hence limestone and quartz seldom col-
lect dew, and for this reason sandy districts have very little
dew but great heat and drought.
When the temperature of the atmosphere falls below 32°,
the dew congeals as rapidly as it falls, and it is called frost.
It not unfrequently happens that in valleys there is a frost,
when places having a greater elevation have dew only — or that
grass is frozen while cabbage is bedewed only.
It frequently happens that grass is frozen while at a place
fifteen or twenty feet above it dew only has formed. The grass
has been deprived of the sun's rays sooner than the higher
object, and the cold atmosphere obeying the law of gravity,
has sunk down in the valley, and remained calm.
The radiation of heat from plants produces the phenome-
non at which we have intimated above, namely, frost or freez-
ing of plants at certain seasons of the year. Frosts from
radiation occur most generally in spring and autumn, although
they sometimes occur in June, and even in July and August,
during nights when the sky is bright and clear, and other
conditions favorable for rapid radiation. The temperature
of the atmosphere at the surface of the earth, must then be
one or more degrees below 32°, or freezing point. These
summer frosts present peculiar phenomena — in deep valleys,
on banks, and on streams frost may be found, while the up-
lands will have dew only; two or three spots in a twenty- acre
field may be afi'eeted by frost, while the remainder of this
escaped uninjured. Then, again, plants which radiate fully
or rapidly may be frozen, while those which radiate slowly
may escape entirely. In some fields in which bearded and
472 THE WHEAT PLANT,
smooth wheat were sown but not thoroughly mixed, the places
in which the bearded variety preponderated was frozen, while
such portions as contained a greater proportion of smooth
than bearded was only slightly frozen.
The Grass family (and wheat is a member of this family) is
more subject to frost than any other family of plants — this
susceptibility to frost is so remarkable that there is scarcely a
meadow of any considerable extent in which frost may not be
found during every month in the year. Every nurseryman
has learned, by sad experience, that it is more difficult to rear
young plants in a grass plat, on account of frost, than it is on
a plat enjoying regular plow culture. If there are two vine-
yards adjoining each other, the one suffered to grow in grass
while the other is kept clean, should a frost occur the grassy
vineyard will suffer the most severely.
It is a common practice with German gardeners to sprinkle
water profusely over the plants which are frozen before the
sun has an opportunity to shine on them. If the frost was
severe the water will be congealed, while at the same time it
thaws the plant, or takes the frost out. of it. Observation
t^eaches that if a rain follows a frost without the intervention
of sunshine, the plants are uninjured; but if sunshine
follow the frost, whatever it has touched is generally fatally
injured.
It is an error to suppose, as was formerly done, that when
frozen plants are sprinkled with water, they are thereby
more gradually thawed than by the sun's rays. It is well
known that water expands as it is converted into ice, and
not unfrequently increases one-tenth in bulk, and from this
fact it has been inferred that the juices in the cells of the
plant ruptured their envelop ; but it is found that the cells
are not uniformly ruptured, most generally they are expanded
only.
In freezing air becomes separated from the water, and it is
very seldom indeed that a piece of ice can be obtained en-
tirely free from little cavities filled with air. Now, if the
HOW TO THAW FROZEN VEGETABLES. 473
frozen cells of a plant are examined, they will be found to
contain minute cavities of air ; this free or separated air does
not combine with the water when the plant thaws, but remains
separate, and acts destructively on the chlorophyll, and
destroys the vitality of the plant. In order, then, to prevent
the separated from acting on the plant, if water is poured over
it, it will absorb or drink in the water, fill the cells there-
with, and expel the air through the ducts of the plant. The
stimulant thus furnished the plant incites it to activity and
prevents the action upon the chlorophyll. If apples or pota-
toes are frozen and prepared for the table while in this condi-
tion, they are not injured in texture or flavor. Hard frozen
potatoes, if plunged into a pot of boiling water, are cooked
as '■'■mealy'' as if they were not frozen; but if suffered to
thaw and then cooked, they never become mealy, and have
invariably lost much of their flavor. If potatoes, when fro-
zen, are thawed in cold water, the frost is drawn out without
any injury to any of the qualities. So also of apples.
Acting upon the suggestion indicated by nature that a
strong light was injurious to frozen vegetables, a friend of
mine (Mr. Gribble, of Cleveland) having had some potatoes
and apples frozen in his cellar in the severe winter of 1855-6,
placed them immediately in utter darkness, where no ray of
light could reach them — in the spring they were found thawed
and in excellent condition — in fact it was diflScult to deter-
mine whether they were frozen at all. Hence it is possible
that if garden vegetables are frozen during the night, and are
covered early in the morning, so as to exclude the light of
the sun, the freeze Ihey have undergone will not injure
them. It is, to say the least, worthy of experiment.
How the frost acts, or what physical and chemical changes
a plant undergoes in freezing, is not so clearly described by
writers on this subject as is desirable to a perfect comprehen-
sion of the subject. On a previous page it was suggested that
in all probability the action of light on plants was to fix the
carbon, while the oxygen was permitted to escape ; and at
40
474 THE WHEAT plant.
night, when the light was withdrawn, there being nothing
to fix the carbon, it then escaped, or, in other words, that
the plant exhaled oxygen during the day-time, and carbon or
carbonic acid at night. Should future investigations confirm
this suggestion, may not the following be, perhaps, an explan-
ation of the manner in which frost acts :
The plant receives its nourishment in a fluid form, which is
composed chiefly of carbonic acid, oxygen, hydrogen, and ni-
trogen. When plants freeze, the cell-walls, or membranes
are expanded from the expansion of the fluids contained
within them, because it is a well known law, that freezing
causes fluids to expand ; — almost every one is familiar with
instances of bottles containing water being burst by freezing.
Now, the cell-walls in plants, fruits, etc., are exceedingly del-
icate, and attenuated to the highest degree, and in the normal
state are filled with parenchyma, or fluid matter from which
wood, starch, sugar, gum, etc., are formed. All these sub-
stances, namely, wood, starch, sugar, gum, etc., contain carbon
combined with oxygen and hydrogen. When freezing ensues
the combination is probably separated ; the oxygen and hydro-
gen (water) eliminated, and the carbonic acid retained; then,
when light, and necessarily heat is sufliered to act on the plant
in this condition, the carbon becomes fixed in the cells, and
impedes the circulation of newly elaborated juices, sent up
from the roots. The regular channels are, if not absolutely
obliterated, at least obstructed by an abnormal mass of mat-
ter, and the plant necessarily dies. But if light is withheld,
there is no separation of the carbon from the other elements,
the combination is not deranged or disturbed, and the accu-
mulation of new juices sent up by the roots commingles with
that the progress of which had been arrested ; a re-organiza-
tion of the cell contents takes place, and the elaboration of
the juices preparatory to being converted into wood, starch,
sugar, etc., goes on as before.
The wheat plant is a hardy plant, and has more vitality and
recuperative energy than most of cultivated plants. Wheat
WHEN SHOULD GRAIN BE HARVESTED. 475
sown in the fall is seldom killed by the severest winter frosts,
but oats sown in the fall are killed by almost the first frost
of winter. In the spring time wheat may be pastured or
mown down with no other injury than that of being retarded
a few dayi^at iiarvest. There are very few plants which pos-
sess such vitality.
Many frosts have occurred in May and June, of different
years, which destroyed beans, cucumbers, tomatoes, and other
garden vegetables, but which did not injure the wheat. The
early frosts in May, 1845, retarded th^ wheat ; but they
occurred before it had headed out. Many ascribed the short
heads to the frost, when in reality it should have been as-
cribed to the great drought which then prevailed. The frost
of the 29th of May, 1845, destroyed the wheat which was in
bloom at that time, while that which had not yet bloomed,
and that in which the berry was partially formed, escaped.
That which was killed in bloom sent out new tillers, and in
many instances produced a considerable amount of wheat late
in the season — say in the latter part of August and first of
September. It is perhaps to be recommended, in cases where
wheat is killed in the bloom, to leave the field undisturbed ;
let the plant put forth new tillers, or stools, and in all proba-
bility as profitable harvest will be obtained as any other
which could be grown on the same tract during that season.
When Should Grain be Harvested.
When is the proper period to cut grain ? This is an import-
ant question with the Western farmer at the present moment ;
for it is one closely allied to his interests, and one which he
should carefully inquire into. The best means of deciding
the question is to consult the opinion of those, who, by a
course of careful experiments, have acquired such experience
as entitles their decisions to respect. The weight of opinion
seems to be decidedly in favor of early harvesting — before the
grain is fully ripe. The most judicious millers and grain
dealers are decidedly in favor of early harvesting — and
476 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
certainly their opinion is worth something. In New York, and
indeed, in all of the great grain -growing States, the practice
of cutting grain before it is dead ripe, universally prevails.
With them, the exact time when it should be cut is now no
longer a matter of doubt ; all being perfectly conWuced that
the right period is indicated by that change which the grain
experiences when jiassing from a milky state to that of com-
plete hardness ; or, in other words, when it is in the " dough,"
and when the kernels without being "sticky," are yet not
sufficiently hard to resist the pressure of the thumb and
finger.
The advantages of this early cutting are : The grain is
heavier, plumper, sweeter and whiter — thereby making it more
valuable for the market ; there is less loss from scattered grain,
either from the high winds, or when the grain is cut with a
machine, or in handling when stacking ; the straw, particular-
ly when it is an object to feed, is much more valuable, because
it will possess a greater proportion of succulence and saccharine
sweetness, which render it better food for stock ; the farina of
the grain being perfected, all that is necessary to render it fit
for flouring is the hardening of it, and this, it is abundantly
established, may be as well perfected after the straw is cut, as
before. Again, grain that is allowed to stand until it is fully,
or dead ripe, makes darker flour.
Many experiments in cutting wheat at difierent periods of
ripening, go to show that from twelve to fourteen days before
" dead ripe," gives the plumpest, heaviest, thinnest skinned,
and most nutritive grain. The loss in weight by standing is
nearly 15 per cent., and the loss in equal weights by the in-
crease of bran, is about 4 per cent. At this period the grain
is in the milk ; " there is," says the late Prof. Norton, "but
little woody fiber ; nearly every thing is starch, gluten, sugar,
etc., with a large percentage of water. If cut then the pro-
portion of woody fiber is still small : but as the grain ripens
the thickness of the skin rapidly increases, woody fiber being
formed at the expense of the starch and sugar; these must
PROFITABLENESS OF EARLY HARVESTING. 477
obviously diminish in a corresponding degree, the quality of
the grain being of course injured."
Early cutting is well known to enhance to a considerable
extent, the value of the straw as food for animals. The ex-
periments show about the same per cent, increase in this as in
the grain. The philosophy of this is thus explained by chem-
istry : all plants contain the largest amount of matter soluble
in water, at the period of flowering, and that the sugar and
gluten of the stalk constitute its chief value as food for an-
imals. They rapidly diminish as the seed forms, changing into
insoluble woody fiber, and hay which should resemble grass
in its most perfect state, is worth much less if not made until
after that period. The value of wheat straw depends upon
the observance of the same law, and thus it is seen that the
time of harvesting, which best secures the value of both grain
and straw very nearly coincides.
A saving of grain is made by early harvesting, from the
fact that waste from shelling is avoided. This loss is often
large in fully ripe wheat, and it is a loss no caution can avert
with ripe grain. The loss from rust, also, will in most cases
be thus prevented. This disease generally makes its appear-
ance at about that stage of growth recommended for cutting
the grain, and whenever it does appear, its injuries can at
once be checked by harvesting.
Early harvesting allows more time for the work, so that the
business of securing the crop is not crowded into a few days,
in which it must be acconjplished, or serious loss result from
over -ripening and shelling, and if the weather is bad, from
growing in the ear.
The proper maturity for cutting may be judged of more
accurately, perhaps, if described as that when the stalk imme-
diately below the head, for two or three inches, becomes yellow
and dry, consequently cutting off the circulation — and the
grain, though soft and doughy, ceases to yield any milk upon
pressure. This occurs about a fortnight before the seed be-
comes dead ripe, as before remarked.
478 THL WHEAT PLANT,
In early harvesting, of course, greater attention must be
given to the curing of the crop. It is advisable to allow it to
lie for half a day or so in the swath before binding, and then
small bundles should be made. It should be shocked up be-
fore dew falls, and will need to remain in the field for a longer
time than if cut when fully ripe. Should no rain occur (which
can hardly be expected), the common practice of setting
up the sheaves in a double row, with the heads resting against
each other, is simple and sufficient. Against heavy showers,
however, this gives but little protection, nor is covering shocks
formed in the same manner, with two sheaves laid on horizon-
tally, the heads touching each other, a much better plan. The
safest mode is to set up half a dozen sheaves in a round com-
pact form, and cover them with two others broken in the mid-
dle, and laid on in the form of a cross, with the ends spread
out, which affords a reliable cap for the shelter of the grain
beneath from the usual storms of the season.
Of harvesting implements we shall not speak. The subject
will no doubt be sufficiently agitated by those interested — the
makers and users of these important inventions.
For these reasons, and they seem to be well established by
successful practice, it certainly stands the Western farmer in
hand to consider the importance of harvesting his grain at the
right time, that he may have the full benefit of his labor in
the harvest field. He should not yield to the tyranny of
prejudice, and persistingly tread in the same old beaten track,
just because "father did so," taking no heed of the improve-
ments and increase of knowledge which are benefiting his
co-laborers in the same noble pursuit.
VARIETIES OP WHEAT. 479
CHAPTER XVIII.
DESCRIPTION AND CLASSIFICATION OP VARIETIES OP WHEAT.
Wheat, botanically Triticum. A large and very important
genus of grasses, of the terminally spiked order. About
thirty species, besides a great multitude of varieties, at present
are included in this order ; about as many more formerly be-
longed to it, but now arc grouped with the new genus agro-
pyrum ; and several others which formerly were included in
it, more properly belong to the genera secale, schlerochloa,
and brachyopodium. All the present tritica are hardy exotic
annuals — four of them varying in hight from 6 to 24 inches,
and possessing very little interest; the remainder varying in
hight from 2^ to 6 feet, and ranging in value from inferior
economical plants, cultivable only in their native regions to
the richest cereal grasses of all the temperate parts of the
civilized world. All, or almost all the agropyra are hardy
perennials, and either worthless or mischievous weeds ; most
have a hight of between 6 and 18 inches; four of them, in-
cluding the notorious couch-grass with its several varieties, are
natives of Great Britain, and from thence have been intro-
duced into this country, and nearly all the rest were and are
indigenous in continental Europe.
The distinctive characters of the genus triticum in the old
or extensive sense of it, are terminally spiked inflorescence —
two-valved and quite or nearly equal glumes — alternate two-
rowed, many flowered spikelets, transverse or so placed that
the edges of the florets are toward the rachis — and two palae
surrounding the seed, the external or lower one armed or
pointed, and the internal or upper one cleft at the point. The
480 THE WHEAT PLANT.
rachis (spine) or shaft is jointed ; the spaces between the joints
arc called the internodii ; the spikelets rising one above an-
other on each side of the rachis, constitute the spike, or ear,
or head ; the glume or lowermost shield of each spikelet cor-
responds to the calyx of non-gramineous plants, and each of
the florets to a corolla ; some certain florets in each species,
in general, are fertile, while others are barren ; and the aggre-
gate inflorescence of the several species differs very widely in
the length and form of the rachis, the size and shape and
packing of the spike, the comparative length of the glumes,
and the number and fertility of the florets, and above all, in
the various properties of the seeds. The distinctive characters
of many of the species are sufficiently obvious and invariable
to serve the purposes of the most stringent classification ; but
those of some others, particularly of such as are very exten-
sively cultivated and as run much into varieties, either shade
off" so greatly through these varieties, or are so liable to change
under the influences of climate and soil and culture as to
render the drawing of any precise line of deraarkation be-
tween different species in some cases exceedingly difficult, and
in one or two quite impossible.
Some wheats of an apparently peculiar nature have been
introduced — as the Egyptian, the Polish, the Liberian, the
Zealand and the Talavera — and additions are being constantly
made to the stock from various parts of the world ; but al-
though differing in the proportions, which they contain of
nutritive matter, as well as in some particulars connected with
their growth, they have all sprung from one origin — and
being composed of similar elements are consequently applied
to the same purpose. Botanists indeed class some of them as
a distinct species ; thus for instance the Egyptian produces
several ears from the same stem, which is not the case with any
other sort. But when repeatedly sown upon poor land, its
supernumerary ears gradually disappear and it at length loses
all appearance of variety. In like manner, other kinds of
wheat grown in soils and climates more favorable to vegetation
TRANSMUTATION OK SPECIES. 481
than our own, have, when first introduced, succeeded very
well and hud apparently become acclimated, yet in a series of
years have degenerated, while other sorts imported from a
more northern climate, or taken from an inferior quality of
soil, have on the contrary improved.
The same circumstance occurs to those species generally
distinguished as winter and spring wheat ; for although they
seem from their time of growth to be of a diiFerent nature, yet
one can be, at pleasure, transformed into the other by the
common means of culture. Thus if winter wheat be sown in
the month of February, or the beginning of March, a portion
of it will ripen, though the lateral shoots will be weuk and the
crop will only be moderate. If, however, the seed thus pro-
duced be sown the next spring it will throw out stronger
stems, will tiller with more luxuriance ; and if the operation
be repeated in the following year, it will then be found con-
verted into the nature of summer wheat. If, on the contrary,
spring wheat be sown in the month of October, and the next
winter prove severe, the crop will perish, or can only be saved
if it be completely covered by a heavy fall of snow. Should
the weather continue mild, the seed will then, however, pro-
duce a tolerable crop, which will ripen earlier than autumn
wheat ; the seed obtained from it will in the following year
take longer to ripen than that of the former season ; it will
also tiller better and partake so much more of the nature of
the winter species, that, if sown in the month of May, it will
not produce a crop. Thus, also, however early the true winter
wheat may be sown in autumn, it will not produce stems in
the same year ; but the real spring wheat will do so if sown
at any time before midsummer. Similar remarks might be
made, with more or less force, respecting other supposed
specific characters — either such comparatively broad ones as
those which distinguish the Egyptian wheats from the com-
mon cultivated wheats, or such comparatively narrow ones as
those which distinguish the winter wheats from the spring
wheats. Yet the instabilities and gradations in specific char-
41
482 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
acter, even though they were both greater and more numerous
than they are, effect mainly the niceties of classiHcaiion and
address themselves principally to systematic botanists ; and
they neither prevent mutational characters from being as true
indexes of intrinsic constitution and adaptations as fixed
ones, nor ought to deter agriculturists from appreciating class-
ifications which, whether serviceable or worthless to the pur-
poses of exact botanical science, may in some way or other be
decidedly useful to the purposes of farniing economy.
The deterioration of varieties, from inditferent cultures,
non-adaptation to soil, liability to diseases, etc., has caused
the introduction of almost innumerable varieties. The fol-
lowing communications are inserted here as forming a portion
of the history of wheat culture in Ohio :
Zanesville, June 8, 1859.
John H. Klippart, Esq.:
Sir : — In Muskingum county, on new l.ind, wheats of the various kinds
have always produced good crops; now, as in New York and elsewhere,
the yield is diminished largely on all long cultivated land. The desid-
eratum now is to find out what manures and course of cultivation will
supply the pla<^e of virgin soil. To men of science and practical e.xperience
must we look for light on this subject. The Statpshould go to the expense
of experimenting to tind the remedy, or like Genessee country, we shall
ce.ase to produce wheal in quantity or certain crop. In Maryland, when
I was a boy, my father raised very large crops of wheat, forty to fifty
bushels per acre, on rather thin flint-stone land. Wheat every third year
was sown after clover sod, and plastered lime was not used at that day;
the farm lay some sixteen mile from tide-water of the Chesapeake. In
Ohio, commencing 1820 and up to 1845, my lowest average crop of wheat
was twenty-five bushels, and from twenty-five to fifty bushels, owing to
freshness of the land and kinds of wheat. For five years after 1 first
introduced the white wheat from Western New York, my crop averaged
thirty-five bushels to the acre. Subsequently the White Blue-
Stem did equally well. I found that seed introduced from a distance
proved better than it would after four or five years. I would advise you
to suggest a change of seed from a distance, and rely much on clover and
lime as stimulants, and top-dressing of well rotted manure and ashes
to hasten the ripening and increase the yield, so as to give a fifth or
FAVOKITE VAKIETIES. 483
tenth to the weevil and not miss it — still have a good crop left. T have
not farmed for ten years, and can not experiment — wish I could.
The best varieties of wheat are red. The old Red ChafiF Beardy stands
at the head decidedly, it more uniformly yields a fair crop; the berry
not equaled by any other red wheat; the flower much finer. This
wheat, of good quality, is not excelled by any other whatever, except
where foncy pastry flour is wanted. For sweet, tough bread, absorbing
the greatest quantity of water, it is ahead of white wheat; and take it
all in all, the Red Chaff Beardy is the best wheat for all purposes we
have in the United States. The best white wheat that we get now is
from Kentucky, Tennessee and Missouri, and sells here from ten to
thirty cents per bushel higher than average Ohio wheat. From these a
barrel of flour can be made (is made) from four bushels, five pounds, to
four bushels, ten pounds, while the yield from Ohio wheat is four bushels,
twenty-five pounds, to four bushels, thirty-five pounds.
I have had forty-three and a half bushels Red Chaff' Beardy to the acre
in early day, say about 1822.
As you are soliciting information, I concluded to drop you a line giv-
ing my views. Yours truly,
ISAAC DILLON.
Steuben, June 6th, 1859.
J. H. Klippart :
Dear Sir :—?voxa 1820 to 1830 the ''Red Chaff Bearded'' was gener-
ally cultivated ; it was abandoned for the " Ge7iessee Flint." The Flint
was cultivated until its further cultivation was prevented by the ravages
of the Midge; it was late in ripening, but a hardy variety, and excellent
for flouring. The '' White Blue Stem" was introduced perhaps about
1848, and was a very popular variety, but was abandoned for the same
reason as the last-mentioned. The ''Saul's Wheat" another popular
variety with farmers and millers, was abandoned for the same reason
as the two last-mentioned. The "Valley Wheat" was introduced about
1840, but was not a favorite, as it was a dark wheat, and poor for flour-
ing, and condemned by the millers. The "Mediterranean" was intro-
duced about 1840, but pretty generally condemned; the kernel being very
dark, but little better than rye ; the straw weak and lodged very bad,
and the yield light. A few farmers persevered in its cultivation, and it
rapidlj- improved in roundness and plumpne.''3 of kernel, stiffness of
straw, hardiness, and early ripening, and therefore escaping the ravages
of the midge. It is now more cultivated than all the varieties, and is
generally in favor with millers; being about five cents per bushel lower
than the white varieties. The Mediterranean being the only variety that
48-J TIIK WIIKAT l'l>ANT.
has exbibited a innrked improvenicnl in cultivation, all other varieties
having retrograded. The ^' Whiff or Day Ion Wfx^at" was introdured a
few years ago, on account of its early maturity, and thus escaping the
midge. It has not been received with that general favor that the Medi-
terranean has received. The kernel is small, shells bad, unless cut very
green, and does not mature as early as the Mediterranean. The last-
named, and the " Whiff," are the only two varieties now grown to any
extent in this vicinity; and the Mediterranean is fast taking precedence
of all others.
I nm not aware that I can give you much information on the different
varieties of Corn. We raise the common Yellow Dent, but smaller varie-
ties than are raised in Central or Southern Ohio. We have tried the dif-
ferent varieties of New York corn, but they are not received with gen-
eral favor. The "King Philip" or "Brown" corn has been tried, but
will not be a favorite in this climate.
Yours, respectfully,
C. B. SIMMONS.
Fro7H J. Coolidge, Paimville.
The Mediterranean Wheat is considered second-best for flour, and is
now about the only winter wheat we grow; the old-fashioned red and
white chaff bald winter wheat, and the red chaff bearded winter wheat,
were long since driven from our fields by the introduction of the several
kinds of white flint wheat, to-wit : the Blue Stem, the Saul's Wheat, both
bald wheat, and the Hutchinson Wheat, a bearded wheat, which were
all of a superior quality for flour ; but they were more liable to the weevil
and rust and a decline in quality and quantity, and are but little grown.
The Italian Spring Wheat is the best we grow; it is a red chaft' bearded
red wheat; yields from eight to ten bushels per acre; quality good for
spring wheat. The Canada Club, a red bearded wheat, the Black Sea
Wheat, and the Rio Grande, all red beai'ded spring wheat, are not reli-
able, and are but little grown ; in fact, we grow but little spring wheat in
this county. Yours, respectfully,
J. COOLIDGE.
Since the wheat midge commenced its depredations in 1854, all the
lute varieties of wheat have been abandoned, and farmers generally have
settled upon two kinds, viz. : the White Blue Stem and the Mediterraner.n.
Tiiose who have good wheat lands, very generally prefer the White Blue
Stem to the Mediterranean, as being more productive and of rather a
finer quality of wheat; commanding a higher price in market. But thf
Mediterranean is regarded as a more certain crop on an inferior wheat
FAVORITE VARIETIES. 485
soil; and a greater breadth of land is sown with it than with Blue Stem.
The White Chaff Bearded (a late variety), before the appearance of the
midge, had been cultivated successfully above twenty years by some of
the best farmers ; but since then, has been entirely abandoned. It was
subject to rust on poor wheat land. The Old Red Chaff Bearded ripened
early, was very free from rust, would •ature on poor soil ; and, before
the Hessian fly made its depredations, was very generally cultivated;
but the liy was very destructive to it, and it was abandoned. It was
believed by many good practical farmers to be more subject to cheat than
any other variety. The common Blue Stem was cultivated for some
years, on account of its having a stiff straw, and not liable to lodge; but
it was believed to be very subject to smut, and is also abandoned. Sev-
eral other kinds have been cultivated in the county within the last
twenty-five years with good success; but as early maturity to escape the
midge was the great desideratum among farmers, since its appearance
they have pretty much been laid aside as not maturing sufficiently early.
The frost on the night of the 4th June last, almost entirely destroyed the
wheat crop in the county; so that, in endeavoring to keep off Scylla, we
have struck against Charybdis. The White Blue Stem is white wheat,
nearly smooth ; the Mediterranean is red wheat and bearded head. Both
are winter varieties. Little spring wheat is sown. On soil of equal
quality, the Mediterranean ripens five or six days before the White Blue
Stem. From the diary of one of our best farmers, in 1855, he com-
menced cutting wheat on July 16th; in 1856, on July 12th; in 1857, on
July 23d; in 1858, on July 9th; in 1859, effectually killed.
The White Blue Stem is rather more subject to rust, and depredation
of the wheat midge, than the Mediterranean. The Hessian fly has done
but little injury for several years.
The Mediterranean has improved by culture : the berry is more plump
and not quite so dark colored. The White Blue Stem holds its own,
which is not easily surpassed on well-cultivated, good wheat lands. The
Mediterranean has been cultivated in the south part of the county about
twelve years, and perhaps some other parts longer; the White Blue Stem,
about eight years.
The Mediterranean does not often exceed twenty bushels per acre.
As high as forty bushels per acre have been raised of White Blue Stem ;
but thirty is regarded a good yield.
The two kinds above named are still cultivated, and likely to be culti-
vated so long as the wheat midge continues its ravages. But as the wheat
is so generally killed over a great part of the State, farmers are not without
some hopes that the midge will be much less destructive for years to come.
.Mahonhig County. GEO. POW.
486 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
From D. Gregory, Delaware Co., 0,
The kinds of wheat formerly raised had local names, and the same
variety in diflferent sections was not tinfrequently known by different
names. There were, however, two or three kinds of winter wheat that
seemed to take the preference to most others ; for instance, the bearded
red wheat was grown in this seflleinent from its earliest commencement
to about ten yenrs ago, and it was the leading variety in the early stage
of our settlement. A blue chaffed bald wheat was a favorite with some
producers, on account of its stiff straw, which would not fall down on
new land; but it was late in ripening, and consequently liable to rubt.
There were some varieties of bald white wheat that made e.xcellent flour,
but were abandoned, from their great liability to smut. Perhaps the
most popular bald wheat we ever had was the Blue Stem, both white and
red (until the Mediterranean supplanted it for its propensity to ripen
earlier than any other variety, and thereby escape the weevil). The
Mediterranean is the only kind of winter wheat that is safe to sow at
present, and is considerably improved in quality, and appears to be im-
proving as it becomes more thoroughly acclimated. It is not a very pro-
ductive wheat, and producers differ as to its falling-off in productiveness.
The best crop I ever raised yielded twenty bushels per acre, and that was
ten years ago ; and I believe that mj' crop would have yielded fully up
to that rate this year, if it had not been destroyed tjy frost of the 5th inst,.
The truth is, that so little pains is taken to prepare ground properly for
wheat since it became our leading crop, that we ought to expect light
yields.
The monographic writers on wheat, e. g., Metzqer, Euro-
pdische Cerealen, KoNio, Getreide & Futter Pflanzen von
Deutschland, J. W. Krause, Getreidearter, generally arrange
the classification so as to comprise seven species of wheat. Of
these seven species three only have found their way into gen-
eral culture in the United States.
The Polish wheat described by these monographers, is
rather a rye than a wheat. Spelts have, in rare instances,
been cultivated rather as an article of curiosity than for com-
merce or domestic consumption. I have been unable to learn
that any of the varieties of the Emmers (71 amyhuni) have
ever grown in the United States. St. Peter's corn (7^. mono-
coccum) is seldom grown in Europe as an article for human
food.
COLOR NO BASIS OF CLASSIFICATION. 487
I have given a list of the varieties of wheat orown in the
State of New York. This list was compiled from Prof. Em-
mons' Agricultural Survey, and is introduced into this work
on account of our proximity and commercial relations to that
State — there being no doubt varieties cultivated there which
could, with great advantage, be introduced into Ohio.
Finally, the varieties of wheat grown in Ohio were classi-
fied, or rather grouped in accordance with their most obvious
distinctions, namely: color and form, i. e., the red wheats
form the first group, the white ones the second, and the
SPRING wheats the third. The group of red and white wheats
are divided into bearded and smooth varieties.
This system of grouping, if not in accordance with system-
atic botany, is, to say the least, the most obvious and compre-
hensive, and therefore the most practical.
Color, however, is perhaps too unstable to serve as a basis
of classification, because many wheats are even now changing
from red to white, and in all probability the present '^ amber''
colored wheats are those which in the course of the next quar-
ter or half a century will become entirely white. There is
little doubt, however, that the white wheats are legitimate
descendants of the red ones ; the red blue-stem being the pro-
genitor of the white blue-stem ; the bearded red Mediterra-
nean being the parent of the bearded white Mediterranean
variety, and so of others. If color is disregarded in group-
ing there will then be that of form only remaining; all
wheats must then be found in one of two groups — bearded
or beardless.
The following is an outline of the classification adopted by
the continental writers of Europe on this subject.
To render the classification of wheat well understood, it
should be so clear and simple, that any farmer would be ena-
bled to state the precise variety he wishes to raise, by apply
ing to the seed merchant, a branch of business which should
belong to the corn trade.
488 THE WHEAT PLANT,
True Wheats (Frumenta).
Seeds not attached to the chaff. Rachis not brittle.
1. Common Wheat (T. vuhjare).
Spike four-cornered, compressed, both awned and without
awns. Spikelets four-flowered, the two and three lower ones
fruitiferous, three-grained, very extended, longer than broad.
Paleae ventricose, truncate at its extremity, with an acuminate
tooth. External valve awned, or acuminate, with a long,
awn-like tooth. Internal valve thin-skinned, inacuminate.
Seeds oblong, ventricose, truncate, mealy, rarely glassy.
Under this head (T. vulgare) are classed and grouped :
a. Common white bearded wheat.
b. " " and velvet bearded wheat.
c. " red bearded wheat.
d. " " velvet bearded wheat.
e. " brown " "
/. " blue " "
g. " black '• "
h. White club with white seeds.
i. " " " yellow "
k. " velvet club.
I. Yellow club wheat.
m. Red " "
n. " velvet club wheat.
o. Rough beard with white seeds.
p. " " " yellow "
q. '■ velvet bearded.
r. Hard and red club wheat.
2. Turgid, Cone, or English Wheat (Tnticum tergUlum).
Spike regularly 4-cornered, simple, end branched, awned.
Spil:cl('/s white, 1 -flowered, from 2 to 3-seeded, 2-awned,
almost as long as broad. Glume ventricose, short, ending in
a truncated tooth. .^i^eZ compressed, not very elevated. Awm
in four regular rows, almost parallel to the spike. Seeds ven-
tricose, mostly farinaceous, more rarely glassy.
EUROPEAN CLASSIFICATION. 489
a. White English (spring) wheat.
h. " Wonder " "
c. Black bearded white Wonder (spring) wheat.
d. White velvet English wheat.
e. Red English (spring) wheat.
/. " Wonder wheat (spring).
g. " velvet English (winter) wheat.
h. " " Wonder " "
i. Blue English (winter) wheat.
k. " Wonder » "
3. True Bearded Wheat (Triticum durum).
Spike diflFuse, but often hard, compact, generally roundish,
apex somewhat compressed, erect, abundantly awned. Spiktlets
from three to four seeded, 1 1-2 as long as broad, mostly
expanded. Glume long, much bent, ending in a broad and
re-curved tooth, the sides compressed, its bark elevated and
mucronate. Awns from two to three times as long as the
spike, very quarrose, stiff and rough. Seeds long, three-corn-
ered, rugged, mostly bright and glassy.
The varieties have been classed as ■' diffuse " and " compact "
spikes, in the " Europaischen Cerealen," but it is now evident
that these characteristics are annually changing, and most of
them are assuming the compressed form ; we have therefore
abandoned the distinction of diffuse and compact spikes.
a. White bearded (spring) wheat.
b. White wheat with black beards (spring).
c. " velvety beard wheat (spring) .
d. " " black bearded wheat (spring).
e. Red beard wheat.
/. " velvety bearded wheat.
g. Blue beard wheat.
h. Thin rare i bearded wheat.
4. Polish Wheat {Trificum Pohnicum).
Spike soft, square awned, white. Wallachian, Astrachan,
Egyptian corn, Gounner, Symaker, Siberian, Cairo, Double
Wheat, Germany. Ble d'Egypte, Ble de Surinam, Ble de
490 THE WHEAT I'LANT.
Magador, Ble de Pologne a epi divarique, Francr. Poland
Wheat, England. Fromento di Polonia, Italy. Trigo di
Polonia, Spain.
Halm from 4 to 4^ feet in length. Blades ^ to f inch,
broad, 6 to 8 inches in length. Racliis long, in joints, haired
on the border. Spihlets from 14 to 18, from 2 to 3 seeded, 2
awned, 1 to 1^ inch, in length. Ghnnr 1 to 1^ inches in length.
■J inch broad, compressed, with from 5 to 6 elevated stripes, 2
toothed, white, smooth, keel with very fine hair. U.cfnnal
valve as long as paleae, awned. Internal valve half as long as
external, mostly unequal, slightly embracing the seeds. Aivna
unequal, mostly of half the length of the spike. Seeds ^
inch long and longer, of equal breadth, furrowed flatly, little
compressed or tapered, white, almost transparent, and glassy.
It occurs sometimes upon fields in Germany as an experi-
ment.
Poland Wheat requires a warm climate, protected situation,
loose and rich soil, and very early sowing in spring.
a. Br.inched Polish wheat.
b. Velvety " "
c. Hiilf awned " '•
d. Club like " "
5. Speltz (^Triticum Spelta), LiNN.
The stalk 4 feet and upward, without any pith ; when ripe,
the same color of that of true wheat. Leaves are a foot and
upward in length ; the spikes vary from 3 to 9 inches in
length, and very loose, and when ripe are bluish, brownish,
or blackish, but seldom a bright yellow. Spikelets or breasts
are 9 to 12 on each side, and are placed at considerable dis-
tance from each other, each breast has three beards — the lower
breasts have 3 grains, the upper ones two only. The rachis
long and very brittle. The seeds are long, somewhat triangu-
lar, deeply furrowed, reddish, glassy, opalescent, and woolly
at the upper extremity. The chaff adheres to the grain like
barley.
EUROPEAN CLASSIFICATION. 491
a. Bluish awned spelt wheat.
b. Red " " "
c. White " " "
d. " glabre " "
e. Red " " "
6. Emmer, or Amel-corn (T. amylewm) Seringe.
Stalk or Halm 5 feet long, 5 jointed, tubular, the upper
joint often 2 feet long; leaves 15 inches long, nearly an
inch wide, bluish green with a red edge. Spike or head 4
inches long, 2 rowed twelve to fourteen spikelets on each side,
rather compactly arranged, each having 2 seeds. The rachis
is small, biownish. hirsute at the joints and very brittle.
The seeds are broadly furrowed, pointed at both ends, the
upper end woolly ; color grayish red, very glassy. The color
of the spike when ripe, is bluish black. (This species is
grown extensively in the Alpine valleys for bread, food for
cattle, and starch ; is very hardy, vigorous and produc-
tive.)
a. Black velvet amel-corn.
b. Red " "
c. White " "
d. Red compact " "
e. AVhite " " "
/. Red velvet " "
g. " many-eared " "
A. White short awned amel-corn.
i. " smooth many eared " "
k. " velvet » " " "
ST. Peter's corn {T. Monococcum L.).
Stalk 3 feet high, stiff, 5 jointed, sometimes pithy just
below the ear. Leaves 8 inch, long, narrow, and light green.
Heads about 3 inches long, bearded, very much compressed
laterally. There are 15 to 20 breasts or spikelets on each
side, which are very compactly arranged. Each spikelet is 3
flowered, but 2 are sterile, so that each breast produced one
grain only — hence the name of "one grained wheat." The
492 THE WHEAT PLANT.
rachis is very short jointed, very smooth, white, and glisten-
ing, but is so brittle that it is almost impossible to remove all
the spikelets without destroying it. The seeds are flattish,
being compressed on the grooved side ; the groove is very
faint — both ends are pointed ; the point woolly ; whitish
color, and glassy or flinty in appearance. The seeds remain
in the chaff when thrashed the same as barley. The flour is
dark, but makes a sweetish sad bread. But it is chiefly
grown for malting purposes. There is one variety only.
Wheats Grown in New York. — Compiled from Prof.
Emmons' Agricultural Survey.
A. Winter Wheat.
Improved White Flint Wheal. — This variety resembles very
closely the AVhite Flint. It is considered by Mr. Harmon as
new, having been produced by himself, by a selection of the
best seed, and liming and sowing it upon a limestone soil.
It is larger than the White Flint; and yet the cuticle of the
kernel is equally thin, delicate, and white. It weighs, accord-
ing to the statement of Mr. Harmon, whun prepared for seed,
64 lbs. to the bushel. The specimen in the Agricultural So-
ciety's collection has a specific gravity of 1.310,* and was fur-
nished by the improver of the White Flint, and hence may be
regarded as authentic. The specific gravity, however, is rather
less than I should have expected from the weight per bushel.
Two bushels and eighteen pounds of this wheat produced
106.8 lbs. flour and 31 lbs. of bran ; loss 1-2 lb., equaling in
the whole 138 lbs.
White Provence Wheat. — This is a French variety, and is
* The true weight of wheat is determined by its specific gravity. The
weight of a bushel of wheat will vary with the size of the kernel, and
from other circumstances; while its relative weicht, or that found by
comparing it with an equal bulk of water, at a given temperature, de-
pends upon its composition. The heavy varieties, or those with a high
specific gravity, contain more gluten than the light: the latter contain
the most starch. ^
WINTER WHEAT. 493
regarded as one of the finest kinds of wheat. It is without
beards, and has a large white kernel with a thin skin. It
grows rapidly, has larger blades, and sends out a greater num-
ber of straws from a root than most varieties. The straw,
however, is weak, and does not support itself well. Specific
gravity, 1.297. From its low specific gravity, I infer that it
weighs less to the bushel than the White and Improved
Flints.
Wheatland Red Wheat. — This is a variety which has been
brought out by the skill of Mr. Harmon, from the Virginia
White May kind. Its chaff is red ; head bald and of a medium
length. It is said to weigh 66 lbs. to the bushel. Its specific
gravity is 1.321. The objection to this kind is its red berry:
its recommendation is that it does not rust.
Tuscan Bald Wheat. — This kind, which was introduced from
Tuscany in 1837, has been laid aside in consequence of its lia-
bility to be injured or destroyed by frost. Its flour is fine and
white, and its heads well filled.
Skinner Wheat. — With awns ; chaff white ; straw short and
stiff; weight 64 lbs. to the bushel. It is not in so much es-
teem as to displace other kinds.
Golden-drop Wheat. — Awnless, with a red chaff and rather
thick cuticle. It is inferior to other well-known kinds in
Western New York.
White Blue-straio Wheat (Blue Stem of Ohio). — This kind
has been received from Maryland. It is a beautiful kind, and
yields a white and fine flour. Specific gravity, 1.344; with
the cuticle removed, 1.379. It is worthy of observation that
the specific gravity is increased by the removal of the cuticle.
Aguira Wheat. — This kind was brought, two or three years
since, from Spain, by F. Townsend, Esq., of Albany. It is a
very beautiful kind, the kernel being large and white. Specific
gravity, 1.394. Its weight approximates more closely to the
celebrated English kinds than any of the preceding.
Verplanck Wheat. — In richness of appearance, this wheat
excels most others. Its kernel is very large and white ; the
494 THE WHEAT PLANT.
head long, large, and well filled. The straw is large, and tall
in proportion, being at least four and a half feet. The grain,
however, is light, as will be seen from its low specific gravity,
which only attains 1.2G1.
B. Spring Wheat.
1. Italian Spring Wheat. — This kind, which at first was
esteemed, has so far deteriorated as to be neglected.
2. Tea Wheat, Siberian Wheat. — As a spring wheat, it is
regarded as a very good variety ; giving a white berry and fine
white flour. It is not subject to rust.
3. Black Sea Wheat. — The advantages arising from the
culture of this wheat are, that it escapes the fly, ripens early,
and rarely mildews. Its disadvantage is, that it yields a dark
flour of an inferior quality. Its specific gravity is 1.341. In
Vermont, Massachusetts, and Maine, it is often sown, as it is
less liable to a failure than the finer varieties.
5. Black-bearded Wheat. — Awns long and stiff"; heads
heavy; straw large, and berry red and large; hardy.
6. Red-bearded Wheat. — Awn red, and standing out from
the head ; kernel white ; chaff'ed. Yields a good flour. A
bushel weighs from 60 to 62 pounds. It succeeds best on
stiflf clay loams. It has yielded 44 bushels to the acre. Its
beard is objectionable.
7. Scotch Wheat. — Its origin is unknown. Berry large,
and resembles the Indiana ; straw large.
9. Talavera Wheat. — Awnless; chaff" white; straw long,
white, and stiff"; heads large, long, and well filled. Specific
gravity, 1.306. It is not sufficiently hardy to stand severe
winters. It is frequently injured by the fly.
Additional Varieties op Wheat which have been
Somewhat Cultivated in this State.
1. Velvet-chaff Bald. — Chaff greenish brown and dotted,
without beard or awns.
VARIOUS OHIO WHEATS. 495
2. Wheatland Yellow. — Chaff pale yellow, with short
awns ; heads large and berry large.
4. Hume's White. — Head rather long and slender; chaff
yellow.
5. Bearded Baltic. — Head thick and heavy ; chaff yellow-
ish brown, bearded ; beards moderately long.
6. Skinners Club. — Kernels clustered in whorls ; chaff
greenish yellow, bearded.
7. Old Bearded Tuscany. — Kernels clustered, and with
long beards, greenish yellow ; heads rather long.
9. Baltic Downy. — Chaff brown, quite downy ; heads long,
beardless.
10. Old Black Bald. — Kernels irregularly clustered ; chaff
brown, bearded.
11. Poland White Bald. — Berry irregularly clustered ; chaff
greenish yellow, awned, or with shortish beards.
12. New Velvet-chaff. — Kernels very thickly clustered,
bearded.
13. Black Velvet-chaff. — Kernels closely set and thick ;
chaff very dark.
14. Bald Baltic. — Kernels thickly set in regular rows ;
chaff light brown ; heads thick, heavy.
16. Early Velvet-beard. — Kernels clustered in whorls ;
heads long and yellow.
17. Italian Spring Wheat. — Kernels clustered, irregularly
arranged upon the spike ; chaff greenish yellow, thickly
bearded.
18. Bearded Valparaiso. — Kernels in rows regularly ar-
ranged ; heads short and thick, bearded.
19. Washington Wheat. — Heads very large and long; chaff
brown ; beards long ; berry rather dark, but numerous,
amounting to 70 or 80.
20. Verplanck Wheat. — Heads quite large and beautiful ;
berry of the largest size.
21. Club Wheat., Pennsylvania Wheat. — Heads short;
kernels in regular rows, bearded.
496 THE WHEAT PLANT.
22. Sjyring Red-chaff. — Kernels clustered; heads long;
chaff reddish brown, bearded.
23. Spring Wintington Wheat. — Kernels thickly set, but
irregular and large ; chaff yellow, bearded.
Before introducing the catalogue of wheats grown in Ohio,
it was deemed not improper to introduce a catalogue and
description of the varieties grown in, England, for the reason
that many practical hints may be obtained from it, which
the intelligent agriculturist can turn to advantage in this coun-
try. This catalogue and description was compiled from Morton's
Encyclopedia of Agriculture.
Varieties of Wheat.
The varieties of wheat are much more numerous than of
any other description of grain ; the result, no doubt, of the
greater range of climtites in which it has been cultivated.
From a consideration of the ordinary modes in which nature
operates, both in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, the
strong probability is, that all varieties of wheat have sprung
from one parent stock, and that the differences now observable
are the effects produced by climate, soil, and cultivation ; for
the differences which exist among varieties of the human race
itself, are even greater than those which prevail among well-
defined classes of wheat.
Thus, all varieties of wheat may be ranged under one
generic head — Tritieum. As this article is intended to be
solely of a practical nature, we shall confine our remarks to
those varieties of wheat which Mr. Lawson properly includes
under the specific term Tritieum sativum, or cultivated wheat.
In this gentleman's arrangement of varieties of cultivated
wheat, as given in his list of agricultural plants, they stand
alphabetically thus : —
Whitish Beardless Varieties.
Brodies. Chiddam or Cbeltbam.
Cape, Chinese.
Chevalier. Clustes, tall
lawson's classification.
497
Clustes, dwarf
Dantzic Le Couteur's Jersey
" common white.
Duke William.
Eclipse.
Essex.
Fenton.
Flanders.
Hopetown.
Hungarian.
Hunter's.
Indian.
Le Couteur's compact.
" " small round.
Mortons red strawed, white.
" " chaffed (new).
Mungoswell's.
Naples.
Reddish Beardless Varieties.
Blood red.
Bisshall compact.
Caucasian red.
Clover's red.
Common or old.
Creeping.
Dantzic.
Golden drop.
" or red Essex.
Flander's, or short eared.
Hickling's prolific.
Lammas or English.
Marianopoli.
Middlesex (new).
Pomeranian.
Piper's thickset.
Sack yellow.
Spalding's prolific new.
"Velvet or woolly eared of Crete.
*' " " common (old).
Waterloo.
42
Odessa.
Oxford prize.
Painted stalked.
Pearl, common white.
Rattling Jack (new).
Salmon.
Saumus.
Talavera (old).
Uxbridge.
Velvet or woolly eared common.
" " " Dantzic.
Vilmorius.
Whittington's.
Whitworih prolific.
To tliese may be added Archer's
Prolific While Irish, and others of
less importance.
Whitish Bearded Varieties.
Barbary thick-chaffed.
Cape spring.
Caucasian.
Col. Le Couteur's spring.
Common spring of France.
Light yellow spring.
Naples Winter.
Sicilian small hard spring.
Tuscany, spring.
Tumoisic black-jointed.
Woolly eared.
Reddish Bearded Varieties.
Caucasian.
Chinese spring.
Fern or April spring.
Hedgehog winter.
Macaron's small hard.
Mayoke red.
Narbonne.
Tuscany.
498
THE WHEAT PLANT.
Victoria spring.
Woolly eared winter.
Tinged Varieties.
Anti-fly or white cone.
Crawley red or corn rivet.
Louisiana.
Lozere smooth white.
Petumelle black.
Turkey large red.
As a full descriptive catalogue of all the varieties of wheat
would extend far beyond the scope of this work, and is, be-
sides, more curious than instructive, we confine our descriptive
remarks to a few of the more esteemed varieties generally cul-
tivated in the united kingdom at the present day :
Whitish Beardless Varieties. — Brodie's white wheat, origin-
ally propagated from a single ear picked by the late Mr.
Brodie, Ormiston, in 1821. From thirty-two grains originally
sown in 1821, the produce had multiplied to 15G bushels in
1826. When its cultivation had extended, it was generally
found to produce tall straw, and a fine sample, and to be early.
It is supposed by Mr. Lawson, that this variety, and that
called Oxford Prize wheat, are so similar as to warrant their
being considered the same, and he adds that this is the more
likely, from its having been ascertained that Mr. Brodie was
in the habit of sending seed wheat to Oxfordshire.
Chiddam Wheat is an old and highly esteemed English
variety of white wheat, and is very generally cultivated in the
finest wheat districts of that country. It is a free grower,
tall-strawed, fine square ear, singularly free from awns, grain
round, fair but starchy, and flour a little soft. It is remark-
ably well adapted for soft, easy soils in good condition, as it
ripens early, is not liable to lodge or to become mildewed.
Weight per bushel seldom under 61 lbs., even in wet years,
and as high as GG lbs., and 67 lbs. in dry summers. When
cultivated in Scotland, the seed requires to be changed every
two years from the south of England, otherwise deterioration
rapidly ensues.
Cluster Dwarf White Wheat. — A remarkably short and
firm-strawed variety, thick, dense ears, strong, bold sample,
yields well, but only suitable for low-lying, rich, black, or
FAVORITE BRITISH VARIETIES. 499
loamy soils. The tall " Fall Cluster " resembles the dwarf
variety in the form of the ear. It has tall straws, and rather
apt to lodge on rich soils.
Dantzic White, Col. Le Couteurs Jersey. — Originally ob-
tained by Col. Le Couteur, from an ear of wheat imported from
Dantzic. Tall, slender straw ; ears moderately dense, droop-
ing to one side when ripe ; chaff thin, smooth and white ;
grains, oblong, and of a transparent light color ; young plants
hardy, and bloom early.
Experiments made by Col. Le Couteur with this variety, in
1836, gave 52 bushels per acre, of 63 lbs. per bushel, and 18
lbs. of flour yielded 24 lbs. of bread of superior quality.
Fenton Wheat. — In the summer of 1835, the late Mr. Hope,
of Fenton Barns, East Lothian, noticed three ears of wheat
growing from one root, in the center of a quarry on his farm.
This quarry is composed of columnas basalt, and at the time
the three ears were discovered, there was a large quantity of
debris in the center, from which these had sprung.
The present Mr. George Hope was with his father when the
plant of wheat was first noticed, and he remarked that it
could not well have long straw growing in such a place, and
very likely was only Hunter's wheat accidentally dropped
there.
Under this impression he reluctantly, but by his father's
desire, pulled the three ears of wheat when ripe, and dibbled
out the produce year after year. When enabled to sow it in
quantities, and to compare it with Hunter's wheat, it was
found to be obviously distinct from it, and also from any other
sort Mr. Hope was acquainted with. He describes it as re-
markably short and stiff in the straw, and from its unequal
length a sheaf is generally a mass of ears from the band
upward. Although to appearance there is little straw, yet
when weighed there is less difference betwixt it and longer-
strawed varieties than might be supposed, in consequence of
its extreme density ; and in comparative trials with Hunter's
wheat, Mr. Hope always found the new variety to yield as
500 THE WHEAT PLANT.
much weight of straw, though greatly less in bulk. For some
years, at first, the quality was inferior to Hunter's, but latterly
it has become far superior to it; and frequently the best sam-
ples seen in Haddington market are of Fenton wheat. The
only variety of wheat that Mr. Hope has ever had to surpass
Fenton in point of yield of gain, is Sj)alding's red ; but the
money value of the farmer was at least equal to the latter.
The farm of Fenton Barns is generally of excellent quality,
composed of rich, loamy clay, derived from basaltic and por-
phyritic trap, and being in a high state of cultivation.
The short, solid, firm straw of this new variety has given it
a decided superiority over all other sorts. It is said that
Fenton wheat is apt to become mildewed on low lying, soft
soils; but while this is true to a certain extent, it is an objec-
tion to which the long-strawed sorts are still more open. Fenton
wheat is, however, principally adapted for sowing on naturally
rich or highly-farmed land, and is not profitable when grown
on soils where there is any difficulty in obtaining bulk of
straw. The ear of this variety is of moderate length, but
very square and evenly shaped ; grain round, plump, and of
a pale white color. It weighs well in the bushel, and gives a
great yield in proportion to the bulk of straw.
Hopctown. — This variety was propagated by Mr. T. Sher-
iff, late of Mungoswell's, East Lothian, from one ear found
by the late Mr. Keid, of Drem, East Lothian. Its character-
istics are long, stiff, bright- colored straw ; more than average
length of ear, which runs a little to a point ; smooth chaff,
free from awns; grain bright, plump, and transparent, pro-
ducing a beautiful sample, weighing well in the bushel.
The crop is seldom so prolific as its appearance when grow-
ing would warrant.
It is rather tender in constitution ; and being vc-y tardy in
completing the process of flowering, it is very liable to be in-
jured, in consequence of the wheat fly having a long time to
deposit its eggs while the blossom is opening its chaff valves.
It is, however, a good sort to sow on hard soil in good condi-
FAVORITE BRITISH VARIETIES. 501
tion, having a Southern exposure, where the free currents of
air are not impeded by plantations or high hedges.
JIuvier's Wheat is one of the oldest and most esteemed
varieties in Scotland. It was discovered about half a century
ago by the late Mr. Hunter, Tynefield, near Dunbas, East
Lothian, by the road-side, on Coldingham Muir, Berwickshire.
It is still largely cultivated in most of the eastern counties of
Scotland, especially East Lothian, Fife and Forfas. It has
stood its ground against many newer varieties, which, although
more prolific on their first introduction, have been found to
deteriorate so much, that their cultivation gradually lessened,
and that of Hunter's wheat increased. It is remarkably well
suited to medium and inferior soils, being hardy, and tiller-
ing very freely in the spring, and continuing its growth
steadily till autumn. In these respects it has been observed
that while many of the newer and finer sorts of wheat look
better in winter and in spring. Hunter will, year after year,
bear comparison with them either in the sbeaf, stack, sack,
flour-mill or bakers' shelf. It is a great favorite with millers
and bakers ; and its name to them is sufficient recommenda-
tion to purchase, even although the sample may want the fine
color of the white sorts. Its physiological characteristics are
medium length of straw and ear, the latter thickish in the
middle, tapering to the neck, and point a little awned and
slightly running to a point; grain, of a brownish color, a
little elongated in shape, but of a fine, hard, close, flinty
texture, and weighing well in the bushel, sometimes as high as
66 lbs., when grown on hard land. It is fully later in coming
to maturity than most of the white wheats ; and it should
never be sown on fields surrounded by woods, as in such cir-
cumstances it usually sufi'ers much from the attacks of fly.
Neither should it be sown on rich alluvial soils in high condi-
tion, as it will grow too bulky, and go down before the grain
is perfected.
It must be confessed that Hunter's wheat is neither so pure
nor of so good quality as it used to be ; and considering the
502 THE WHEAT plant.
very long period it has continued to maintain its high charac-
ter unimpaired, this adulteration and deterioration are no
doubt to be attributed to the introduction of so many new
sorts, and consequent neglect of the older variety. Any man
would confer a great boon upon a large proportion of farmers
in Scotland, who would carefully select one good ear of Hun-
ter's wheat, grown on firm, hard land, in an early climate,
and from this ear raise up a pure stock. Notwithstanding its
impurity and deterioration, Hunter's wheat is still a great fav-
orite in Scotland; and the only objection to be raised against
it is, that it is now so mixed with other wheats, that go where
you will for seed, it is impossible to obtain it pure.
MungoswelV s Wheat. — We are indebted to Mr. Sherifif,
Mungoswell's, Jlast Lothian, for this variety of wheat, as well
as Hopetown wheat, and the Sheriff oat. The Mungoswell's
wheat was at first considered to be earlier and more prolific
than Hunter's, but judging from the fact that its cultivation
has not extended in any notable degree, we are forced to con-
clude that it has not come up to the anticipation at first en-
tertained regarding it. Pearl Wheat is one of the finest
qualities of wheat in cultivation. It has been compared in
appearance and habit of growth to Uxbridge wheat, Oxford
Prize, and to Brodie's wheat. It has long, white, stiff straw ;
square, medium-sized ear, quite free from awns ; grain small,
round, plump and white, and placed very closely together in
the ear; weighs very heavy in the bushel; produces an abun-
dant quantity of flour, but of a softish quality. It is not
very hardy, and rarely very prolific ; but is early and well
adapted for sowing on rich, easy soils, either in winter or
spring. Frequent change of seeds from a better climate is
necessary to prevent deterioration.
Red Chaffed Wheat. — This is a rather short-strawed, but pro-
lific variety. The ears are very square, and the chaff of a reddish
color ; grain round, plump, affording a good sample. It is best
adapted for rich, sheltered soils, in consequence of the stout-
ness of its straw and liability to shed its seeds in high winds.
FAVORITE BRITISH VARIETIES. 503
Talavera Wheat, selected by Col. Le Couteur, Bellevue
Villa, Jersey, from a field of the common Talavera, and first
offered to the public in the Fall of 1838. Lawson describes
it as a hardy sort ; remarkably broad, upright foliage, often
yellowish in the spring but recovers rapidly afterward, straw
rather short and flexible, brittle when over-ripe : ears loose,
long, and tapering to a point ; grain large, oblong, thin-
skinned, very white, fine sample. Talavera is best adapted
for sowing in spring, on black land, or easy soils in good
order, but is not a safe variety to sow on clay soils. When
grown as a winter wheat, it is rather short-strawed ; but if
sown in spring the straw is sufficiently long to give a good
bulk. Notwithstanding the beauty of the sample, it seldom
weighs within two pounds per bushel of what its appearance
would indicate. It is probably the best spring wheat in cul-
tivation for the soils mentioned above.
Velvet, or Woolly-eared Wheat. — This sort is much cultivated
in Sussex and Kent. Its characteristics are short straw ;
rather small, close, compact ears; chaff white and downy;
grain of a semi-transparent, whitish color, but sometimes it
presents a brownish appearance; flour abundant, and of very
fine quality. It is not prolific when sown in light land ; but
on rich, loamy soils it yields remarkably well.
In a trial with this sort, grown in Fifeshire, in 1840, after
potatoes, on light, dry land, the crop was small but of very
fine quality. Sown the following year, after summer fallow,
on thick, loamy land, the produce was very great. Its cultiva-
tion was, however, discontinued, in consequence of its woolly
ears absorbing much moisture in damp or rainy weather, and
being difficult to dry.
Some Scotch wheats have become greatly mixed with velvet
wheat, especially Hunter's variety. This is very observable
when the crop is in full ear, and when seen between the spec-
tator and the sun. In wet weather, the wet may be squeezed
out of the ear by the hand, so absorptive and retentive is it
of moisture, while, at the same time, and along side of velvet
504 THE WHEAT PLANT.
wheat, other and smoother chaffed varieties are perfectly dry
internally. It is only a wheat for a dry climate.
White Irish Wheat has been long cultivated in Ireland
under the name of the Old White Irish.* It was introduced
into Fifeshire in 1845, and since then it has been cultivated
very successfully on the light and inferior soils of the trap
formation. It is solely a winter wheat; plants small and
creeping in spring, and so great is its propensity to tiller,
that it seldom grows much to length until the ground is
pretty well covered with plants; straw very tall, and more
like that of rye than wheat; ears very long, loose, pointed,
and open, easily wet, but soon dry ; chaff white, smooth, and
slightly awned ; grain large, oblong, and of a brownish dull
color, but of a very hard, flinty nature, and a great favorite
with bakers for mixing with whiter and softer sorts.
It is very prolific on medium, and even somewhat inferior
soils, but on rich land it grows too tall, and goes down before
the ear is filled. It is extremely hardy, and the growing
plants soon recover their vigor after untoward weather. It is
a late wheat, and only adapted for sowing in winter on early
soils, After eight years experience in growing this sort, the
writer is satisfied that no sort can compete in point of profit
with the White Irish, when cultivated on light easy soils, or
even on poor clay situated in an early climate.
Mortons Red Sfrawed White Wheat. — This variety was
introduced by Mr. John Morton, late of Whitfield Example
Farm, Gloucestershire. Mr. Morton originally got two ears
of wheat from the Rev. Mr. Hearn, Hatford, Berkshire; both
of which were very splendid, and contained upward of eighty
grains each. The grains were dibbled separately, three inches
apart, in six-inch rows. The seeds of the one ear produced a
*It is somewhat doubtful if the so-called "White Irish" be a true
white wheat, for although the stem and chaff have all the characteris-
tics of the white varieties, the grain is more akin to the red sorts. So
far, however, as its value to the miller and baker is concerned, it is
quite equal to the white sorts.
FAVORITE BRITISH VARIETIES. 505
fine crop, and the second year there was as much as half an
acre planted. The produce of the other ear was blighted and
worthless. The name of Eed Straw White Wheat was given
to it by Mr. Morton, because the upper part of the stem as-
sumes a purple or reddish color before the grain becomes ripe.
The characteristics of this variety are : strong, tall, reedy
straw, not apt to lodge ; square, close ear, of more than aver-
age length, and not liable to shed its seeds in high winds ;
white ; round, plump grain, when well grown, but open in the
breast, and coarse in unfavorable seasons, or when cultivated
on peaty soils. It is remarkably well adapted for all soils
usually deficient in yield of straw. It naturally inclines to
grow thin in the ground, and should, therefore, be sown a
little thickly. When growing, this wheat is easily distin-
guished from other sorts by its peculiarly dark green color ;
and when nearly ripe, by the reddish color of the stem imme-
diately below the ear. It is not so liable to mildew as most
of the other white varieties of wheat ; but owing to its great
length of straw, it is not so well adapted for soft or peaty soils
as the short straw kinds ; not, however, so much on account
of any deficiency of yield as from want of quality.
Red Beardless Winter Wheat — Common or Old Red Wheat. —
This sort was at one time rather extensively cultivated in
Britain, but it has now been all but superseded by newer and
more prolific varieties. It is a hardy, stifi"-strawed variety, and
is well suited for poorish clay soils. Lamma, or Red English
Wheat, is a highly-esteemed variety in England and the north
of France, but almost unknown in Scotland. It has abun-
dance of straw, long ear, free from awns, tapering slightly to
both extremities, closely-set grains across, but a good deal
apart vertically. It is well adapted for secondary and some-
what inferior soils. It is not so hardy as the common red
wheat, and requires a climate where the winter is rather mild,
such as prevails along the shores of the south and west of
England.
Spalding\ Prolific Red Wheat. — This variety is the best of
506 THE WHEAT PLANT.
all the red wheats. No authentic account of its origin has yet
been made public. From its name and character, there is
reason to suppose that it is originally from Lincolnshire, upon
the fenny lands of which immense crops of it are grown. The
straw is remarkably tall, strong, and stifif, and not easily laid ;
ear long, square, and free from awn ; grain round, plump, and
of a yellowish color; yields remarkably well, and weighs well
in the bushel. It is, however, a soft wheat, and can only be
sparingly used as a mixture with more flinty wheats, when the
flour is intended for the finer purposes of the baker. Spal-
ding's wheat is well adapted for clay soils, and for soft damp
soils situated in a wheat climate, [t is a winter wheat, but
has been found to answer well in the eastern coast of Scotland
when sown in spring. On the clay soils of the eastern dis-
tricts of Fifeshire, it has been known repeatedly to produce
eight quarters per acre. Sown along with the old White
Irish, on a light trap soil, the latter invariably beats Spalding
by fully four bushels per acre, while both are always superior
to Hunter's variety.
The most of the other varieties of red wheat, given in a pre-
vious table, have nearly gone out of cultivation. Hickling's
Prolific was in great favor for two or three years ; so also were
the Blood Red and Golden Drop varieties ; but now the culti-
vation of these has been all but discontinued, owing to their
unsuitableness for the purposes of the miller and baker. One
of the best of the red wheats, which has not attained much at-
tention, is Clover's variety. It was selected and propagated
by Mr. John Clover, Kirkling, Cambridgeshire. With a bag
of this variety, Lawson gained the Highland Society's premium
for the best red wheat, at Berwick-on-Tweed, in 1841.
Piper s Thirksft. — On this we have been f^ivored with the
following, sent by the gentleman whose name it bears : — " I
found a remarkable ear in my field some ten years ago, and I
cultivated it till I got about forty acres. I then offered it to
the public, more on account of its great yield than of its qual-
ity, though I still think it is better than the average of red
FAVORITE BRITISH VARIETIES. 507
wheats. It was then, and perhaps is now, the shortest and
stiffest strawed wheat in England. It is very thin skinned,
the bran from it being very light. It is more particularly
adapted for good land, and hollow bottom or meadow soils,
where the crop is likely to be lodged or laid. In several in-
stances it has grown sixty bushels per statute acre ; but the
farmers do not now grow it generally, as it does not grow straw
enough to please them, and (which is certainly a fault) the
ears are apt to break off at harvest time, if it is not cut early ;
though I don't know why farmers should not attend to their
business as well as other people, and cut and cart it in proper
time."
Reddish Bearded Varieties of Wheat. — The only one of any
importance to the British farmer is Fern April, or Awny
Wheat. Its characteristics are : tall, rye-like straw, not easily
lodged; ear awned and spreading, running much to a point at
the upper extremity ; grain longish and of a reddish brown
color, which weighs remarkably well in the bushel. It is a
very early wheat, and can be sown any time in April, and will
ripen sooner than any other variety of spring or winter wheat.
It was sown at one time largely and with great success in
Scotland ; but latterly it deteriorated so much in produce, that
it has fallen considerably out of cultivation. This deteriora-
tion is, however, greatly owing to the want of care in ch;inging
seed, and careful pickling with blue vitriol — -April Wheat
being more than ordinarily subject to bunt and black ball.
It sells at 4s. per quarter less than the white wheat; but,
notwithstanding this drawback, it is well worthy of being cul-
tivated on inferior soils in late districts, and also because it
offers prolonged opportunities of being sown from the 1st of
March to the 1st of May. The seed should be changed every
two years at least, from a hard soil and early climate, and
pickled, before sowing, with 2 lbs. of blue vitriol, dissolved in
two gallons of watev to each quarter of seed.
There should be mentioned under this head the Fingered
Egyptian, or Mummy Wheat, which, though not grown to any
508 THE WHEAT PLANT.
extent, owing to its inferior quality, is yet notable for its large
produce, and is often cultivated on allotment grounds, and on
small farms, where quantity, rather than quality, is desired.
The Rev. Gr. Wilkins, of Wix, in Essex, informs us that he
has grown, with no artificial assistance, four thousand fold
from seed of this sort; that some of the ears have had eleven
off-shoots, and that they have contained altogether 150 grains
in one ear ; he has also had sometimes 60 ears from a single
seed. The only other varieties of red bearded wheat, worthy
of cultivation, are the Cone, or Rivet wheats. There are three
varieties, viz. : Cone-rivet, or Anti-fly wheat, common Rivet
wheat of England, and Poll-rivet wheat.
They all produce tall, strong straw, long, well filled ears,
awned, but the awns sometimes disappear before harvest, being
easily broken off in windy weather ; grain coarse, and the flour
much disliked by bakers, except for dusting their boards and
tins, for which purpose it is considered superior to all other
sorts. Cone wheat is cultivated to a considerable extent in
the strong soils of the southern and central districts of Eng-
land, where the yield is so much greater than that of any other
variety, as more than compensates for want of quality.
Ilyhrid Wheat. — One of the most successful attempts at
hybridizing the wheat plant that has probably ever been
made, was accomplished in 1846, by Mr. Hugh Raynbind,
Laverstoke, Hampshire. In that year, Mr. Raynbind grew a
few plants of Piper's Thickset (a red variety), in a garden at
Hcngrave. There he inoculated with pollen from Hopetown
wheat. The produce was a lew shriveled grains, which were
planted early in autumn of the same year; and by dividing
the roots, the number of plants was greatly increased. These
plants produced a great variety of wheat, both red and white ;
some of the ears bearing a perfect resemblance to Piper's
Thickset, while others partook of the character of the Hope-
town in every thing except the color of the chaff; others had
half the ear thin and open, and the rest closely set; thus in
the same ear showing the characteristics of both parents. The
HYBRID WHEAT. 509
new hybrid whicli was selected and propagated is a red wheat,
having a stiff straw, of medium length, and promises to be a
valuable acquisition to the cultivators of red wheat.
The red varieties of wheat are generally hardier and more
easily grown than the white sorts, and although of less value
to the millei', they are fully more profitable to the grower, in
consequence of the better crop which they produce. Another
advantage the red wheats possess is their comparative immu-
nity from the attacks of mildew and fly.
As a general rule it is profitable to cultivate red wheats on
poorish soils, situated in early climates, in preference to the
white sorts ; but wherever the soil is a good clay, or firm loam
in rich condition, the white kinds are to be preferred, as they
are equally prolific, and command a higher price in the market.
While it is not desirable to grow many sorts on the farm, still
it is a safe plan to have two or three varieties, in order that
success may be rendered more certain, and failure less felt ;
for it is a well observed fact, that the prolificness of any single
variety of wheat differs, year by year, according to the pecu-
liarities of the season, during the active period of the plant's
growth. Thus, in a very dry year, the long-strawed sorts are
most prolific ; whereas, in wet seasons, the shorter varieties
excel.
Then, again, the cultivation of a limited variety of wheats
on the same farm is generally rendered necessary by inequal-
ities of soil ; and every farmer should try by experiment what
sorts are best adapted for his particular soil or soils, and hav-
ing found these out, to adhere to them until experience has
supplied him with something better. A blind preference of
any particular kind of wheat, because it has been cultivated
time immemorial in the district, and without an effort being
made to test its worth with other sorts, is as much to be con-
demned as a continual shifting, year after year, from one new
variety to a newer, in the vain hope of getting possession of
something which will throw all its predecessors in the shade.
The natural tendency is for some particular sort gradually to
610 THE WHEAT PLANT.
establish itself in a district, and for many years to hold its
ground against all compeers; but, sooner or later, it is found
to degenerate and give place to a newer sort. The cause of
this degeneracy should be sought for less in the seed itself
than in the treatment to which it is subjected. Unless on the
very finest soils, and in the best climates, no variety of wheat
can be long cultivated without manifesting signs of degener-
acy. This arises from the imperceptible, but certain degra-
dation of the organs of vitality, in consequence of imperfect
development, and, in very bad seasons, of functional derange-
ment, and even specific organic disease itself The obvious
cure is a habitual system of changing seed from a more genial
climate ; but as this sometimes can not be done without a
change of variety also, many prefer to go on trusting to their
favorite sort recovering its original character, rather than run
the risk of sowing another from a distance, which may not be
adapted to their soil and climate.
Under these circumstances, the proper mode of procedure
is, to endeavor to regenerate the variety which it is desirable
to retain as being best suited to any particular farm, by send-
ing a few bushels of it, well picked and dressed, to a better
soil and climate, to be grown for one or two years, and from
this to obtain a fresh stock of seed with an invigorated consti-
tution. The west and north of England could thus be sup-
plied from the south-eastern counties of England, and the
west and north of Scotland from East Lothian, or even from
some county south of the Huniber. A great deal can also
be done in the way of maintaining the vigor and purity of
seed wheat, by selecting a large well formed ear of any sort,
and subjecting it to separate propagation, and garden-like
culture, until a sufiicient stock for field-purposes is obtained.
It is by such means that nearly all our best varieties have
been propagated ; and although bearing new naiucs, they are,
no doubt, nothing more than finer specimens of older sorts.
The full benefit of high cultivation of the soil can not be
obtained without a careful attention to the kind and quality
VARIETIES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SOILS. 611
of the seeds sown, and even the profitless results of had culti-
vation may, in a considerable degree, be modified by employ-
ing good seed, adapted to the soil, and which has been
procured from a better climate. For soils of a firm texture,
naturally good, and in high cultivation, the best kinds of
wheat are Fenton, Morton's Red-strawed White, Red-chaffed
White, Pearl, and Chiddam, among the white varieties ; and
Spalding's Prolific, Lammas, and Clove's Red among the red
eort. For medium soils, in fair -condition, the long-strawed
varieties should be preferred, such as Hunter's, Hopetoun,
Mungoswell's for winter, and Talavera for spring sowing. On
the poorer class of soils, the best sorts are " White Irish " and
common Red for winter, and Fern, or April wheat for spring
sowing. For soft, growthy land, Fenton's and Piper's thick-
set are probably the best adapted : and even Morton's red-
strawed variety has been known to stand well on such soils,
but the sample is always coarse and uneven.
612 TUK WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER XIX.
WHEATS IN OHIO.
Red Bearded Winter Wheat.
Blizzard is a sub-variety of the " old red bearded " variety j
it is cultivated in Ross county.
Branta. — Introduced into Putnam county in 1857, by Geo.
Skinner, Esq. The straw is stiflf and strong — heads long ;
berry red, long and hard. It ripens early, and on a black
muck (poor soil for wheat) it yielded eighteen bushels for one
sowed.
California. — (See plate). This variety was introduced by
J. Buffington into Lawrence county ten years ago. It is
hardy, and ripens before the Mediterranean, consequently it
escapes all injuries from the fly, rust or midge. The yield is
considerably more than that of the Mediterranean ; and is
regarded in Lawrence county as a prime red wheat.
China Velvet is a velvety bearded variety of red wheat. It
has been cultivated some eight years in Washington county,
where it is seldom attacked by either rust or fly, and produces
from fifteen to thirty bushels per acre. It ripens at the same
time that the Mediterranean does in that county, namely, the
first of July.
China was introduced into Clark county by Jeremiah La-
zell, sen. ; it yields from fifteen to thirty-six bushels per acre,
according to soil, cultivation and season, and ripens at the
same time that the Mediterranean does, namely, about the
first of July.
Club. — Was introduced into Stark county three years ago
WHEATS IN OHIO.
513
by Hon. Thos. W. Chapman, of Navarre. It yields from fif-
teen to twenty-five bushels per acre, is subject to " rust, fly
and weevil " (midge), chiefly on account of its late ripening,
namely, about eight or ten days later than the Mediterranean.
Undoubtedly a southern wheat.
Crate White. — In Huron, and some
other northern county, a variety called
the crate was considerably cultivated dur-
ing a period of some twenty-five years, but
finally abandoned on account of the ra-
vages of the midge. It ripened about the
tenth of July, yielded about twenty bush-
els per acre under ordinary cultivation,
and yielded forty pounds of good flour per
bushel. It is nowhere cultivated in the
State at present.
Cretan Wheat. — (Binkelweizen, Ger- \lim.
man). I am indebted to Geo. Skinner,
Esq., of Kalida, for some excellent speci-
mens of this variety of wheat. He sent
it under the name of " Long Red wheat."
The straw is light ; it ripens early, and
yields at the rate of sixteen bushels for
one of seed. The berry is red, long,
shrunken and flinty. It has from ten to
twelve breasts on each «ide, and generally
has three grains in each breast. It re-
quired a dry, cool season to bring it into
perfection. It may prove a valuable ac-
quisition when it is perfectly acclimated,
but at present its grains do not present a
very marketable appearance.
Cretan Wheat.
Canada Flint was introduced into Licking county in 1844,
by Thos. Wilson. It ripened about the 10th of July ; it
produced good flour, but for some reason was soon abandoned.
514 THE WHEAT PLANT.
There is a lohite bearded wheat bearing the same name which
is yet cultivated.
Enyptian Wheat. — lias been highly commended in the
news journals, and is known under the names of Egyptian,
Syrian, Smyrna, Many Spiked, Reed, and Wild-goose wheat.
It derives its latter name from a story, which is current in the
north, that four or five kernels, from which the American
stock has proceeded, were found in the crop of a wild goose,
which was shot on the west shore of Lake Champlain. It is
called reed wheat from the great strength of its straw, which
serves to prevent its being prostrated in the field. It does
not yield so much flour or meal as other kinds of wheat ; and
the flour is scarcely superior to that obtained from the finest
barley. We find it described in some authorities as Mummy
Wheat, or Wheat Three Thousand Years Old. The following
is a brief popular alleged history of it : It is said that some
years ago a gentleman having occasion to unroll an Egyptian
mummy, found inclosed with the body a few grains of wheat,
which afterward, upon being sown with the modern Egyptian
■wheat, was found to be entii-ely dissimilar. The former con-
tained nearly a hundred stalks, ranging in length from nearly
five to upward of six feet, the leaves broader than usual,
and fully an average as to length. The grain was in two rows
or triplets, and on some, twenty triplets on a side, or forty on
the ear. The ear contained a few barbs or awns on the upper
end, and was open and distant between the grains. It flow-
ered nearly a fortnight before any of the varieties sown at the
same period. The modern Egyptian is dwarf, not more than
four feet high, closely set and barbed in every part of the ear,
and its general resemblance to its ancient progenitor is not
greater than that of barley to wheat. Egyptian wheat, found
in the tombs of the 18th Dynasty— i. e., from B. C. 1822 to
B. C. 1476 — has germinated when sown in Germany, and is
frequently found in the tombs of Egypt. It has been grown
by P. Poorman, in Stark county.
WHEATS IN OHIO. 515
This is an indifferent variety of wheat. The straw grows
to the hight of about five feet, is thick and pithy ; the leaves
are often ten inches long ; the head, or rather panicle, is
about four inches long, and nearly two wide and deep, and
when ripe is of a reddish brown. The head consists of from
five to twelve small heads densely compacted ; the awns or
beards are often four inches long, and of a very dark brown
or blackish color. The lower part of the grain is inordinately
swollen — it is very starchy, but not hard or flinty.
Golden Chaff. — This very popular variety was introduced
into Fairfield county some ten years ago. Six Stager intro-
duced it into Mercer county three years ago. It yields from
twenty to forty bushels per acre ; it improves by high culture,
is not subject to rust or fly, and ripens with the Mediterranean,
about the first of July. It should be cut before fully ripe, as
it sheds very readily. The berryMs rather lightish red. The
general appearance of the head is much like the Mediter-
ranean, but the color of the head and straw is yellower than
that of the Mediterranean. This year (1859) many of the
breasts or spikelets contained four grains each. It also
strongly resembles the Quaker wheat.
Genessee Flint. — Was introduced into Morgan county from
Belmont county. It has been cultivated in Morgan during
the past ten years; it ripens about the 25th of June, is not
affected by rust ; improves by culture, produces from twenty-
five to forty bushels per acre, and yields forty pounds of good
flour to the bushel. It is cultivated to a considerable extent,
but is objectionable on account of its rough, bristling beards.
There is a smooth white wheat also known by this name.
Hard Wlieat. — Introduced into Putnam county by George
Skinner, in 1857. The straw is light ; head about three inches
long, very loose, having from six to nine breasts on a side,
and tapering from the base to the point. Each breast, until
nearly to the top of the head, contains three grains, the
remainder two only, terminating in a point with one grain.
51G THE WHEAT plant.
The berry is red and shrunken. The yield is thirteen bushels
for one sown. Mr. S. says it is inferior in every respect to
the Mediterranean, which it closely resembles in general
appearance, when in the field.
Indiana. — This variety has been cultivated during the past
twelve years, in Lawrence county. It ripens about the 20tli
of June, consequently escapes the rust and midge ; yields
from fifteen to twenty bushels per acre, and produces forty
pounds of good flour per bushel. There is a white, smooth
wheat of the same name.
Mediterranean (see Plate). — This variety is now, perhaps,
more extensively cultivated than any other variety ever has
been in this State. Its general history we stated on a previ-
ous page. It was introduced into Ohio as much as thirty
years ago,* but was not extensively cultivated, nor held in
great esteem, because it was liable to fall or lodge, as it yet
does in Erie and Mahoning counties; but continued cultiva-
tion has given it a stiff straw in most of the other counties.
The berry, which at first was long and dark-red colored, has
become plumper, and of a lighter color. Millers everywhere
attest, with great unanimity, to its improved flouring qualities.
There is little doubt, but no direct proof, that by cultivation
this variety has deteriorated into the white bearded variety of
Mediterranean, which is now grown in Darke and some other
counties. Being a hardy variety, and less liable to change
from climate and soil than some of the finer varieties, t'.ere is
little doubt that the variety called Quaker wheat, in Preble
county, owes its paternity to the red Mediterranean, cultivated
and perhaps acclimated to a more southern latitude. In War-
ren county it is deteriorating.
A good croj). — Our respected fellow-citizen, William Carmi-
chael, Esq., raised this year upon twenty-one acres of laud,
* James Rollen introduced this variety into Mahouing county, under
the name of " ^/acA; Sea Wheats
\ RED BEARDED WINTER WHEATS. 517
one thousand and twenty-six bushels of Mediterranean wheat,
being a fraction below fifty-one and a half bushels to the acre,
averaging sixty pounds to the bushel. This is a very great
yield ; larger, we believe, than was ever made before on this
shore, and we question whether the State can beat it. This
shows what good farmivg v?i\\ accomplish. The land on which
this wheat was raised, is not better wheat land than two-thirds
of this county, but has been greatly improved by the use of
marl and marsh mud. — American Farmer (^Baltimore').
The desirable qualities of this variety are, 1st, it withstands
the attack of the Hessian fly better than any other ; 2nd, it is
not liable to winter-kill ; 3d, it improves by cultivation ; 4th,
and because it ripens early, but from no other cause, does it
escape the rust and the midge. In several counties, where it
wa:s sowed late, it was found as susceptible to rust as any
other variety, and its long and stiff beard did not protect it
from the midge. It perhaps yields less now than it did fifteen
or twenty years ago ; although when properly cultivated it not
unfrequently weighs sixty-five pounds to the bushel. Another
desirable quality is attributed to it, viz.: that it will do well on
a poorer soil than any other variety. A very careful farmer
from Mahoning county, writes that he has raised twenty bush-
els to the acre on a soil in which the Blue-stem invariably
failed. 5th, The certainty of the crop, rather than on account
of any of its qualities, is perhaps the only reason why it has
not only been continued in cultivation by the best farmers,
but has become the most popular wheat in the State. Its pe-
riod of ripening varies from June 15 (statement of Hon. A.
L. Perrill, Lithopolis), in Fairfield county, to July 15 (state-
ment of George Pow, New Albany), in Mahoning county ; but
a majority of the correspondents name July 1st, as the general
period of ripening.
Missouri. — Is a velvet bearded variety, and was introduced
into Lawrence county a few years since by S. Record. It has
yielded thirty bushels to the acre, but does not improve with
518 THE WHEAT PLANT. <
culture ; being very late, it is subject to all the diseases to
which wheat is liable.
Mt. Ohjmpiis. — Was introduced into Madison county from
Patent Office. The yield was good ; straw and head very
heavy and dark ; four rowed, with heavy beards resembling
barley ; it was considerably affected by the midge.
Red Chaff Mediterranean , is perhaps an improved or sub-
variety of the Ked Bearded Mediterranean, introduced two
years ago from Lancaster county. Pa., into Montgomery coun-
ty, 0., by S. llohrer, who claims that it is superior in every
respect to the old variety, but Mr. David French, of Miami
county, thinks it inferior. It has also been cultivated during
the past several years, by Wm. Benjamin Conard, of High-
land Co., who claims that it is better than the old Mediterra-
nean, says it " stands up " better — ripens earlier — and is not
affected by the midge.
Its appearance in the field is very like the old Mediterra-
nean ; but when ripe the straw and head are considerably
darker. The head tapers to a point. It has seven to nine
breasts on a side, with two grains to a breast. Grain some-
what flinty. Sheds very readily; berry full and plump and
rather light colored. It strongly resembles in color and ap-
pearance the Old Bed Chaff bearded.
Old Red Chaff' (see Plate.) — This was once a very popular
variety, but is now sadly on the decline. It has been culti-
vated in Clermont county, for upward of 50 years. Its
yield is fully equal to the Mediterranean, producing a much
finer berry with a lighter colored and thinner skin. Of late
years it appears much more liable to rust than formerly, while
it suffers severely from the midge. Farmers would now sow
more largely of this variety, were it not so diflScult to procure
clean seed. It ripens about the same time with the Mediterra-
nean. Red Chaff Beardy wheat was introduced into Muskin-
gum county, by John Dent, in 1808. But the millers set
their face against it ; called it a coarse, rye-like wheat ; would
RED BEARDED WINTER WHEATS, 519
not make good flour, and gave several cents less per bushel
for it. But it has some hardy and productive qualities which
induced the farmers to persevere in cultivating it, and it ulti-
mately so improved in character that Mr. William Galigher,
an intelligent miller of Zanesville, remarked in reference to
it, some seven years since, that he considered it the wheat of
this valley, and he would not care if there was not a bushel
of any other kind raised. That it was more nutritious, etc.
By reference to the Patent OflGice Report for 1848, page 263,
you will see it stated that a specimen of flour manufactured
by Beaumont & Co., analyzed by the Government chemist, of
Zanesville, produced a higher percentage of gluten, or nutri-
tious matter than any specimen examined by him in any of
the Eastern or Western States. There is little doubt that this
flour was manufactured of Red Chafi", as it was then the prin-
cipal wheat raised in the vicinity. The Mediterranean, when
first introduced, was subject to precisely the same objection as
the Red Chafi", but it is very rapidly improving.
The Red Chaff Beardy was introduced into Eastern Ohio, in
1808, by whom is unknown. At that early period and for many
years afterward, up to 1835, it was more successfully raised
than the old varieties, of White Chaff Smooth, 'or White Chaff
Beardy ; as these old varieties were subject to scab, and that
it produced sick wheat so much dreaded by the first settlers of
Ohio. But so soon as the Red Chaff was introduced on river
and creek bottoms, it was found that it was not subject to
scab, or to produce sick wheat, and hence became the prevail-
ing variety for many years.
The Red Chaff Beardy for a number of years after it was
introduced ground harsh, and did not make flour of so fair a
quality as it did afterward, when it became properly acclimated,
and was produced on a black oak and white oak soil, and was
harvested early, while there yet remained some little greenness
in the straw. Not so the Red Chaff Smooth ; as a red wheat,
it was soft and tender to grind into flour, and flour of an ex-
cellent quality.
520
THE WIIEAT PLANT.
PyramUlal Wheat (?)
Several samples of the
wheat was sent to me
by Geo. Skinner, Esq.,
of Kalida, Putnam co.,
0. The straw is light,
and pithy toward the
head — in some parts of
Germany it is used for
braiding or plaiting.
The beards are short,
very compact, and flat-
tened laterally, so as to
expose the rachis on
the one side. The ber-
ry is a lightish color,
rather short, plump and
very hard. There are
two grains only in each
breast or spikelet — nev-
er three. It ripens early
and yields at the rate
of sixteen bushels for
one of seed. It will
grow on vei-y poor soil.
It is grown in many
parts of Germany in
preference to some bet-
ter varieties, because its
long beards protect it
from various depreda-
tors.
Quaker Wheat. — This
variety, which undoubt-
edly is a sub-variety of
I'iTatnidftI Wheat— Hedgehog Wheat.
RED BEARDED WINTER WHEATS. 521
the red bearded 3Iediterranean, was introduced into
Preble county, about thirteen years ago by D. Dailey and
Geo. J). Hendricks, who, in 1854, gave the following account
of it : — " In the winter of 1844-5, I visited North Carolina on
financial business for my neighbor and friend, Enoch Taylor —
our worthy President; and either promiscuously or providen-
tially (I think by Divine Providence), our brother farmer,
David Dailey, of Jackson Tp., saw fit to accompany me, jour-
neying from three to five hundred miles out of his way for
company's sake. While attending church at a lonely school-
house in a dense pine forest, in the vicinity of the ' Shallow
Ford' of 'Deep River,' and not far from the far-famed
' Beard's Hatter Shop,' brother Dailey heard of a new variety
of wheat, called there and here the ' Quaker Wheat.' He
having some distant relations or neai' acquaintances there-
abouts, accompanied one of the brothers home and possessed
himself of one quart, all told, of the new variety of wheat.
This he placed in the end of his wallet to balance our dinner,
and brought it safely to his homestead, where he now lives;
and continued to sow, and sow, and re-sow the product, which
has proven a greater blessing to the people of Preble county
than any other one incident in her history ; and why? is
asked mentally by scores of farmers here who are not advised
of its properties and qualities. It is the very kind of wheat
desired by all ; a large berry, thin bran ; and it has almost
proved impervious to all the evils attending the raising of
wheat in this latitude. It, like the Mediterranean, is not so
liable to destruction by rust or devastation by the fly — stands
winter freezing better than most varieties ; and, take it all in
all, it is the best, because the surest variety raised north or
south of us — yielding from 45 to 50 lbs. of flour to the
bushel. So far as we know, it has made at worst (the season
of general rust, and this year of general winter freezing and
ravages of the fly) an average crop, while, with the exceptions
of these two years, it has. under good tillage, increased the
average product per acre from twenty to forty per cent.
44
522 THE WUEAT PLANT.
With from ordinary to first-rate tillajje on good ground, its
yield will range from 12 to 40 bushels per acre. And so
great has it grown in favor in portions of this county, that it
is all-the-go with our wheat-growers.
" Now mark what this one (juart of wheat has done for this
people in the short period of nine years. I think I am in
bounds of reason, when I aver that this community has been
directly or indirectly benefited more than S100,(JU0 ; and had
all the increase of seed been only applied to sowing, the
advantages would have been still greater — far, far beyond the
comprehension of the ordinary thinker; yes, millions of
bushels beyond what even a mathematician would naturally
suppose. If we estimate the first quart to produce 20 quarts,
and continue that amount in arithmetical progression, we
have the astounding product at the ninth (the past) harvest,
of sixteen thousand million bushels — quite enough to seed all
creation and bread ' the rest of mankind.'
" I have been thus explicit in giving you the pedigree of
this ' Quaker Wheat,' because of its paying properties, as
also to reach your ear in regard to the necessity and import-
ance of not only the members of this association of human
benefactors, but all others engaged in agriculture, to increase
the productiveness of their farms. If the average yield per
acre in Preble county should, as it can, increase ten per
cent., it would add at least 8100,000 to the wealth of the
producers of old Preble."
This wheat originally had a red chaff, which by careful
and thorough cultivation has been changed into a white chaff.
It has become quite a popular variety in Preble and the adja-
cent counties. In appearance it much resembles the Mediter-
ranean (see plate). The berry is of rather a finer quality
than the Mediterranean.
This variety owes much of its popularity to the fact that it
ripens at the same time that the Mediterranean does (June 25
to 28), thus securing it against the rust and midge.
Red Ohaj^] Baltimore Red Chaff. — This is perhaps a sport
RED BEARDED WINTER WHEATS. 523
or variety of the Old Red Chaff. Forty years ago it was
introduced into Holmes county by J. Mackey. It has been
cultivated for more than 30 years iu some of the northern
counties ; it is a good wheat but has a very weak straw, and
consequently liable to lodge ; the yield is about the same as
the Mediterranean, and as it ripens about the same time as
the latter, it is no more liable to attacks of the midge, fly, or
rust. It is generally being superseded by the Mediterranean,
although the most of our correspondents are of the opinion
that the berry improves by culture.
Rock. — Ten years ago H. Rogers introduced this variety
into Hamilton county, where it is steadily gaining friends as
it improves by cultivation. It possibly is a variety of the
Mediterranean, as it ripens at the same time, but yields rather
a larger product, and is equally exempt from all the injuries
incident to this cereal.
Red Bearded. — This is a sub-variety, if not a synonym of
the Old Red Chaffs difi"ering from it no more than might
reasonably be expected by culture, soil, etc. It is one of the
varieties introduced into the State at an early day. Gen. J.
T. Worthington writes that it has been cultivated upward of
40 years in Ross county. Twenty-five years ago Thomas
Gardner introduced it into Lawrence county. It is a variety
well known to all the " early settlers " throughout the entire
State. It does not yield as well as the Mediterranean, ripens
rather later, and is liable to be attacked by rust.
Stuhhle. — This variety once gave promise of great popular-
ity, but being rather late, it could not so well, as some of the
other varieties, withstand the attacks of insects, rust, etc., and
is now, we believe, entirely abandoned.
Sidle. — This is one of those sports which so frequently
occur in the culture of wheat. There is no doubt that this
variety owes it paternity to the Old Red Chaff, and for all
practical purposes may be regarded as an improvement on the
old variety. It was introduced into Muskingum county about
sixteen years ago, the seed having been brought from Chester
524 THE NVIIKAT PLANT.
county, Pennsylvania. It has been affected very slightly by
culture, soil, etc., has yielded 3o bushels to the acre, is hardy,
not liable to be attacked by midge or rust. It ripens fully
ten days later than the 3Icditerranean.
Shot. — This variety was introduced into Seneca county five
years ago by Wm. Barrick ; one year afterward it was intro-
duced into Montgomery county. It produces a better yield
than tlie Mediterranean ; ripens at the same time, but in iSen-
eca county is subject to injury from insects, which it escapes
in Montgomery.
Star Buck. — This variety has been cultivated in Lawrence
county during the past several years. It ripens at about the
same time that the Mediterranean does ; is not affected by fly
or rust, and yields largely a superior quality of flour.
Turliey was introduced into Miami county three years ago
from the Patent Office. It ripens about the first of July ; is
not affected by rust or weevil ; improves by culture, and yields
45 pounds of good quality of flour per bushel. The yield per
acre under ordinary cultivation is about 25 bushels. Mr. G.
W. Morris, of Troy, is of opinion that this variety will prove
to be a valuable acquisition.
Vtlvet or Crate (see Plate). — Twent3'^-five years ago this
variety was introduced into Muskingum county, where it has
yielded 35 bushels per acre. Twenty years ago it was intro-
duced into Defiance county, but does not yield as well there.
It ripens fully ten days later than the Mediterranean, and is
subject to rust, but remains stationary, i. e., it neither im-
proves nor deteriorates by culture. But the flour from it is
very coarse and dark. It requires a strong soil — has long
awns — the chaff and bran both are of a reddish cast.
White Chaff. — This variety has been cultivated during the
past 15 or 20 years in Preble county. It yields about 15
bushels per acre ; degenerates by cultivation, is seriously
affected by midge and rust, and ripens several days later than
the Mediterranean. It is considered as being " icorn out ; " in
other words, there are many varieties which yield more, and
SMOOTH RED WINTER WHEATS. 525
are not so precarious, so that the variety in question has been
abandoned.
Yellow Bearded. — This variety was introduced into Defiance
county some 15 years ago, by Mr. Churchman. It yields
about as well as the Mediterranean, ripens at the same time
that the latter does (July 4), and is equally exempt from
injuries by insecte, rust, etc. ; and, more than all, yields a
greater proportion and better quality of flour.
Smooth Red Winter Wheats.
Alabama. — See May.
Australia (see Plate). — This variety was introduced into
Richland county by S. H. Tranger, three or four years ago.
The straw is bright yellow, the head a darkish brown of me-
dium size ; there are from 9 to 12 breasts on each side, each
containing 3 grains. The breasts are rather loose at the lower
part of the head, but more compact at the top. It ripens
about the 10th of July; yields 20 bushels per acre under or-
dinary culture. The berry is large, amber colored, plump —
weighs 62 pounds to the bushel, yields 42 pounds of fine, or
39 pounds of superfine flour per bushel. The chafi" is heavy,
and the grain is not much aff'ected by the fly.
Blue Chaff. — This variety has been cultivated in Tuscara-
was county during the past forty years, and about 15 years in
Van Wert. On good high lands, with a sunny slope, it has
frequently yielded 35 bushels to the acre. It improves by
culture ; is somewhat subject to rust, fly, and midge, but ripens
nearly a week later than the Mediterranean. It yields 40
pounds of good flour per bushel.
Blue Stem. — Many of the more recent varieties of snjooth
red wheats were no doubt derived from this standard variety.
We find it cultivated in Stark, Tuscarawas and Carroll coun-
ties, full forty years ago. It was no doubt brought there by
immigrants from Pennsylvania. Twenty-five years ago Wm.
Hughs sowed some in Holmes county; it has been a standard
variety for the last 25 or 30 years in Harrison, Hocking, Cosh-
526 THK wiii;AT plant.
octon, Morgan and Sandusky counties, as well as in those
above named. There is perhaps no variety which repays good
cultivation so well, or yields so little when indifferently culti-
vated as does this variety. When properly managed and in a
favorable season it has yielded as much as 40 bushels to the
acre — (Stark, Tuscarawas, Carroll and Harrison counties),
but on the other hand in quite a number of counties in or-
dinary seasons it yielded no more than 8 to 10 bushels. It
ripens three to six days later than the Mediterranean (beard-
ed), is slightly subject to fly, rust and midge. We have
learned of a single instance only where it was winter-killed,
and that was on a bleak knob in Harrison county. A very
intelligent correspondent from Tuscarawas county says that
" the county would be many thousand dollars richer if no
other variety of red wheat had ever been introduced. It
makes as good a quality of flour as does any red wheat. There
is a white wheat known by the same name."
Carolina, Kentuchy Red (see Plate). — This variety is known
as Kentucky, or Early-ripe, in Darke county, where it was in-
troduced eighteen years ago by J. Hunter and J. P. Turpen,
It was introduced undoubtedly from Kentucky direct into
Logan county, under the name of '^^Kentucky, or Uarly-ripe.^'
Eight years ago it found its way into Tuscarawas county,
under the name of Carolina icUcat ; six years ago John Maid-
low introduced it into Putnam county ; Moses Iloagland in-
troduced it into Holmes county several years since, and,
lastly, Mr. Keys introduced it into Wayne county five years
ago. Our correspondents, with great unanimity state that it
thrives best on good, rich fallow grounds ; yields under or-
dinary culture about 20 bushels per acre. In all the above
named counties it appears to have escaped the midge, resisted
the fly, and suffered slightly from rust, but in Logan it was
from its first introduction so exceedingly liable to attacks
from fly, midge and rust, that in a few years it was entirely
abandoned ; after 15 years culture in Butler county, it dete-
riorated so as to become entirely worthless. Forty-three
SMOOTH RED WINTER WHEATS. 527
bushels per acre have been harvested iu Putnam county. It
improves by culture, and ripens at the same time that the
Mediterranean does.
The head is of medium length, lightish brown when fully
ripe, and the glumes (chaff) is not unfrequently spotted.
Each head has from 7 to 12 breasts, generally each breast
contains 3 grains. The grain is light colored, slightly flinty,
and somewhat shrunken. The breasts are considerably spread
out, so as to give to the head a rather flattish appearance. It
should be cut before fully ripe.
Dayton^ Whig, Malta, Maltese, Smooth or Bald Mediterrane-
an (see Plate). — This variety of wheat has found its way into
several counties throughout the State, from the vicinity of
Dayton, but is known by the above mentioned names. The
specimens forwarded to me from the several counties were all
of good size — the engraving was made from a medium sized
head. The apex or upper portion of the head has the breasts
very much crowded, so much so that the upper seven breasts
occupy no more than half the space on the raehis which the
5 lower ones do. Its general appearance is very like the
Smooth White Early Ripe or Rare Ripe (see plate), but it is
much wider and thicker, without being any longer. It has
generally a dozen breasts on each side, and (in the specimens
before me) each breast contains five grains, thus making 120
grains to the head. From its early maturity, appearance and
quality of the grain, I prefer the name of Smooth Mediter-
ranean. It was introduced into Preble county twelve years
ago by C. Wysong; four years ago a Mr. Snyder introduced
it into Seneca county, and Jacob Roher two years ago into
Miami county, from Lancaster, Pa. It has also been culti-
vated two years in Muskingum, Perry and Washington coun-
ties. The correspondents state that it improves by culture,
ripens early, generally escapes fly, midge and rust. Mr. D.
P. Egbert, of Warren county, has furnished the following in
relation to this wheat : — " It is the most productive ; is very
hardy and adapted to all the different qualities of soil, stands
528 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
up well on rich soil, is less liable to rust and not often injured
by the fly. The grain is a better color than that of the beard-
ed Mediterranean and not unfrequently weighs 66 pounds per
bushel. This variety of wheat was brought from Preble county
some four years ago. Our informant stated that it was first
procured by picking a few seeds out of the straw remaining
in a crate of China ware, imported from England or some
other foreign port. It is now sown by more than half of the
farmers in the neighborhood of Lebanon. J. M. Sellers pro-
duced 45 bushels per acre from this variety, so also have sev-
eral others. I cheerfully recommend it to farmers as the
safest variety to cultivate."
Early York, is cultivated to a slight extent only in Clark
county ; it is subject to all the wheat diseases incident to the
country ; yields, under favorable circumstances, thirty-six
bushels per acre — ripens about a week later than the Medi-
terranean.
Garden. — This variety was once cultivated to a considerable
extent in Stark, Wayne, Portage, and other northern counties ;
but as it ripened very late, it was of course subject to attacks
from the midge, and was found to deteriorate rapidly. It
yielded about twenty bushels per acre, under good culture, but
was unprofitable to the miller, the bran was thick and heavy,
and the flour full of specks. The head is of medium size, a
little flattish, dark brown when ripe, and in general appear-
ance strongly resembles the Kentucky red. 1'here are from
eight to ten breasts on each side of the head, each breast con-
taining three grains, terminating with a single grain on each
side at the apex.
Go/den Straw. — Was introduced into Tuscarawas county
in 1849, by S. Kuhn, and about the same time by A Standift
in Mercer county; fifteen years ago it was introduced into
Lawrence county, by T. Gardner; by Peter Fleck and Hon.
Thomas W. Chapman into Stark county, in 1854; ten years
ago it was taken to Holmes county, by J. AVatts ; and some
six years ago it found its way into Coshocton county. The
SMOOTH RED WINTER WHEATS. 529
straw is short and stiff, and is consequently not liable to lodge ;
it does best on rich sandy loams ; the grain is not properly a
red wheat, but an amber colored one, somewhat resembling
the old-fashioned flint wheats ; in Holmes county it is rather
of a yellowish cast. It ripens rather later than the Mediter-
ranean ; yields about twenty bushels per acre; does not im-
prove under ordinary culture, and is but little subject to injury
by rust or fly. It is rapidly growing into favor, and event-
ually may perhaps supplant the Mediterranean, although it
has won no advocates in Ross county. The head and straw
when ripe are of a bright yellow, and not even tinged with
brown. This year (1859) has produced some samples con-
taining seventy to seventy-five grains per head. There are
ten to fourteen breasts on each side, with three grains to the
breast.
Ken'nchy. — See Early Ripe.
Mediterranean^ Maltese^ 3Ialia, Smooth or Bald Mediterra-
nean. — See Dayton.
Mai/, or Alabama (see Plate). — This variety was introduced
into Gallia county, twenty yeiirs ago, by J. H. and A. S.
Guthrie, from Virginia ; into Crawford county some ten years
ago, and into Champaign county two years since, from the
Shaker settlement. It ripens about the same time the Medi-
terranean does, but is easily winter-killed, thus betraying its
southern origin ; yields eighteen to twenty bushels under
ordinary circumstances; it comes highly recommended from
Morgan county. Its general appearance is very like that of
the^Vhite Blue-stem, with this difference, viz. : the head, when
fully ripe, is a deeper yellow than the Blue-stem ; the stem just
below the head is a pale greenish-blue. There are from eight
to twelve breasts on each side, with four grains in a breast.
Specimens submitted to me for examination have not unfre-
quently produced eighty grains per head. It produces forty
pounds of superfine flour per bushel. It was harvested in
Lawrence county. May 26, 1859.
Rock, or Club. — Was introduced into Morgan county, by
45
530 THE WHEAT PLANT.
George Newman. It ripens about the fourth of July ; pro-
duced about 15 bushels per acre ; but is no longer cultivated.
May Wheat^ or Watkins. — Is extensively grown in the
neighborhood of Richmond. It weighs heavy, sixty-iour
pounds to the bushels; it matures very early, is not liable to
rust, and is not injured by the fly. In 1842 it was cut as
early as the 26th of May. It is not remarkable for produc-
tion, but a very certain crop. It is necessary to seed heavy ;
does not tiller well, and will not do well on poor land ; it has
a smooth head, and makes good flour, and is highly valuable
to those parts of Maryland which suS'er so much by the rava-
ges of the fly and rust.
Mountain Sprout. — Has been cultivated during the past ten
years in Perry county. The berry is light red, and ripens
about ten days later than the Mediterranean. It has generally
escaped the fly, rust and midge, when the Virginia Blue-stem
growing on neighboring fields was almost entirely destroyed.
Under favorable circumstances it has yielded forty bushels per
acre.
Red Chaff. — This is one of the oldest and most substantial
varieties, and is perhaps one of the earliest varieties cultivated
in the West. The straw is long, and stands up well, chaff
slightly brown. It makes a beautiful white flour. It ripens
about a week later than the Mediterranean ; yields about the
same as the latter does, but is subject to blight, fly, rust, mil-
dew, midge, and winter-kill. It has been grown in Hocking
county during the past several years. Mr. liobert A. Sherrard,
of Jefferson Co., says : — The Red Chaff Smooth was a variety
long and successfully cultivated in Eastern Ohio. But it
gradually depreciated in weight from year to year, until the
farmers at length 20 years ago quit the use of it entirely, and
about the same time quit the use of the Red Chaff Beardy.
Rccd Straw — Has been cultivated for the past six years
in Defiance county. It ripens cotomporaneously with the
Mediterranean ; is very little subject to disease from any
cause ; yields about the same as the Mediterranean — is perhaps
SMOOTH RED WINTER AVHEATS. 531
a sport of the red blue stem. Yields 40 pounds of flour per
bushel.
Swamp Creek. — Has been cultivated four years in Preble
county.
Soule's Red Chnff.' — Was introduced into the northern part
of the State several years since, but is now very generally
superseded by the Mediterranean.
TupjMihdmiock, is a variety of the Genessee Flint introduced
into Franklin Co., in 1858, by Gr. S. Innis, from Virginia —
it is a hardy variety and yields well.
Tennessee. — This appears to be a new variety ; it appears to
be hardy, not subject to attacks of insects or rust, does best
on thin land, ripens as early as the Mediterranean, yields from
12 to 30 bushels. It has been cultivated some five years in
Ross county, where it has made a favorable impression. It is
possible that Tennessee has been substituted for Genessee, and
that this variety is after all some one of the New York red
varieties. This inference is based upon its early ripening.
Turkey. — Has been cultivated in Muskingum county during
the past twenty years ; during that period it has deteriorated
very much ; at one time an average yield was 30 bushels per
acre, but now much less. In consequence of it ripening about
ten days later than the Mediterranean, it is liable to rust and
midge.
Velvet. — Has been cultivated some three years in Muskin-
gum, and is undoubtedly a sport of some of the old standard
red varieties from Maryland or Virginia. It is subject to rust
from its late ripening, being fully ten days later than the
Mediterranean. It yields about 35 bushels per acre under
good culture, and is said to resist the midge. It has been
cultivated several years in Fayette county, where it is said to
have deteriorated very much.
Vinjinia B/ne-sfem. — This variety is simply the Red Blue-
stem acclimated in Virginia, and then transferred to Ohio.
Being taken to Virginia from Pennsylvania, and then cul-
tivated in this State, it has by this change of locality become
532 THE WHEAT PLANT.
a later variety, — ripening fully four days later than the Red
Blue-stem, and from ten to twelve days later than the Mediter-
ranean. It has been cultivated in Perry county durinj^ the
past five or six years, where it is much subject to fly, rust and
midge.
Whig. — See Dayton.
Wabui^h. — Was formely cultivated in Montgomery county,
but was abandoned on account of its susceptibility to disease.
Watson. — Was introduced into Coshocton county about
twenty years ago. If sown seasonably it will ripen about the
fourth of July, but is subject to fly, rust and midge — it is a
heavy wheat, yields well in flour, and is therefore much ap-
proved by millers. The red and white Watson were mixed
when first introduced, and for several years were thus cul-
tivated until some one hand-separated several sheaves, since
which time the pure red has been gradually extending in cul-
tivation and driving out the mixed and white — the latter is no
longer in cultivation.
Yelloiv Fly Root. — This variety was introduced into Stark
county fifteen years ago, by Hon. Thom;is W. Chapman, of
Navarre, who has assured us that it is not liable to be injured
by fly, rust or midge ; that under ordinary cultivation it yields
twenty-five bushels per acre. It ripens rather earlier than
the Mediterranean.
Yellow Lamme. — Has been grown in Hocking and Mont-
gomery counties, but is now abandoned on account of late
ripening. The berry is yellow. It is a southern variety.
Yorkshire. — Was introduced by emigrants from England
some years ago, but it was soon abandoned, both on account
of its inferiority, and liability to disease.
Zimmerman. — This variety has been cultivated several years
in Ross, Darke, and Tuscarawas counties; it is an amber
rather than purely red wheat; ripens a week later than the
Mediterranean ; improves by culture ; yields 30 bushels per
acre, and is somewhat subject to fly. It succeeds best ou
good corn ground. The head is short, rather square,
BEARDED WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 533
very compact, of a liglit yellow color wlien fully ripe. There
are from eight to twelve breasts on each side of the head, each
breast containing three grains. These breasts overlie each
other like shingles on a roof Several samples, the heads of
which were two inches long, only contained 60 grains. The
berry short, amber colored and plump ; neither flinty nor soft ;
seldom weighs over 60 pounds to the bushel, but yields 40
pounds of good flour.
Bearded White Winter Wheats.
Canada Flint, or, as it is often called, the Cummings wheat,
from the name of the gentleman who introduced it, is a valu-
able English variety, that is rapidly taking the place of the
common Flint wheat, and produces from one fifth to one-third
more per acre than the old Flint wheat in equally favorable
circumstances. It is a fine grain, bearded and very hardy ; is
more liable to shell in harvesting than ordinary wheat, hence
should be cut earlier.
Club. — Was formerly cultivated in the northern counties,
and considered a good variety, but it deteriorated in quality,
and was so liable to injury from fly, rust and midge, that it is
now almost entirely abandoned. It ripened almost two weeks
later than the Mediterranean. A Logan county correspond-
ent says : " It came highly recommended, but left with a bad
character."
Cat Mountain. — This variety was introduced in Eichland
county several years since, by S. H. Tranger. It ripens about
the 10th of July ; is very liable to be destroyed by weevil ;
yields under good culture from 16 to 20 bushels per acre,
and a large quantity of excellent flour. It has been aban-
doned.
Gencssee. — This name is applied to a red bearded, and a
white smooth or bald variety, as well as to the white bearded.
The name properly pertains, we think, to the white smooth
variety. The variety under consideration was introduced into
Montgomery county eight years ago, by H. Lewton. It ripens
534 THE WHEAT PLANT.
before the Mediterranean, does not suffer from fly, rust, or
midge, and is said to be very productive.
Huteheson. — This variety was introduced into Summit county
three years ago, by Wra. Ilutcheson, from Union county. Pa.
It ripens rather later than the Mediterranean, yields as high
as 35 bushels per acre. It has not been affected by fly,
rust, or midge ; has a short stiff straw, and the berry much
resembles that of the White Blue-stem. It is rapidly
growing in favor. It yields 40 pounds of good flour per
bushel.
Kentucky White Bearded, Canada Flint, Hutchinson. — This
variety was introduced into Erie county last fall. It is con-
sidered as less valuable than the White Flint. The bran is
thicker. It spreads but little, and therefore requires more
seed. This, however, can not be regarded as an objection to
the wheat. Its straw is strong.; and hence, on rich, loamy
lands, it will succeed better than those with a weaker straw.
The straw, too, having more substance, the grain matures or
fills out after it has been cut. It is early and very pro-
ductive.
It has a white chaff; heads short and heavy, well filled ;
shells readily ; berries round, short, and white ; weighs 60 to
65 lbs. to the bushel ; flour very good, but not equal to the
White Flint. It tillers little ; the straw is strong, but liable to
injury from insects.
Indiana Wheat. — White chaff, bald ; berry white and
large ; bran thin ; the berry not as flinty as the White Flint,
some of the best quality weighing 64 lbs. to the bushel, produ-
cing flour of superior quality and quantity ; straw is larger and
longer than the White Flint ; shells easily, so that there is con-
siderable loss if it remains in the field till fully ripe. Insects
have attacked it more than the Flint, and it is more liable to
be winter-killed.
Mediterranean. — A variety known by this name was intro-
duced into Darke county three years ago, by Henry Snell,
and into Holmes county two years since, by Joseph Beam.
BKARDKD WHITE AVINTEU AVIIEATS. 535
The name is not happily chosen, and there is not much pro-
priety in naming this a white Mediterranean, except it be
distinctly shown that it either came from the European
neighborhood from which the red was originally obtained, or
else the red was changed into this white — an instance of which
nearly occurred several years ago on the farm of Hon. A. L.
Perril, of Lithopolis, Fairfield county. This new variety is
said to ripen earlier than the rcc7, to improve by cultivation,
and to yield from 20 to 30 bushels under ordinary circum-
stances, and to be exempt from injuries of the fly, rust or
midge.
Niw YorJi-. — Three years ago this variety was introduced
into Montgomery county, by J. B. White. It is said to ripen
ver^ early, yields well, and is exempt from the usual diseases
and injuries.
Oli/mpia. — This variety was disseminated several years since
throughout the country by the Patent Office department, if we
are not mistaken, as having come originally from Abraham's
farm in Palestine. However excellent it may be in Holy Land,
it has proved worthless in Ohio ; it is exceedingly long bearded,
the chaiF is black, resists fly and midge, escapes rust, yields
under good cultivation (G. S. Inni.s) ten bushels per acre,
deteriorates rapidly, and ripens nearly three weeks later than
the Mediterranean.
Rock. — Was cultivated some time since in Union county;
it had a beautiful white berry, but because it ripened late was
subject both to midge and rust. But the more serious objec-
tion was, if the season was wet about the time of ripening, a
great proportion of it was damaged by sprouting. The grain
protruded through the glumes, and was thus exposed to the
influences of the weather.
Rochester. — There is but little doubt that this variety, as
well as the Genessee and Hutchinson, are the off'spring of
an old variety of " Fliof." which years ago was, and perhaps
is yet, cultivated in the Genessee valley, N. Y. The follow-
ing description of the original " White. Flint," is applicable
536 THE WHEAT PLANT.
to the Genessee and the otlier varieties above named : — " It is
of Spanish origin, color white, heads awned, medium length
and well filled ; straw white, clear, and strong at the root, by
which it is prevented from lodging; kernels very adhesive to
the stalk. It is cultivated with success on loamy soil, and is
very susceptible to injury from frost or insects. The kernel
is very hard, from its silieious cuticle, in consequence of
which it is less injured by fall rains, and will stand in the
shock a long time without sprouting." The Rochester has
been cultivated during the past fifteen years in Trumbull
county. It ripens cotemporaneously with the Mediterranean,
and yields full as well. It is more hardy than the old White
Flint.
Red Bearded — lied chaif; beards standing out from the
head ; berry white, weighing from 60 to 62 pounds the bushel ;
yields flour well, and of good quality ; this is a hardy variety ;
succeeds well after corn, or on light soils; straw not large, or
very stiff. This variety would be more extensively cultivated
if its beards were not objectionable. The eultxire of this vari-
ety has been abandoned some years.
Turkish White Flint. — Two years ago D. McMillen, Jr., of
Greene county, received a package of this variety from the
Patent Office. It ripens as early as the Mediterranean ; not
affected by fly, rust, or midge ; improves by culture. The
beard is long and large, and the straw firm ; the chaff is pur-
plish ; the grain very hard, and rather difficult to be separated
from the chaff.
Velvet. — Was introduced into Butler county, two years ago,
by Stephen Clawson ; it ripens rather earlier than the Medi-
terranean, is vigorous and healthy, appears to withstand
attacks from insects and the severity of the winter, escapes
the rust, and yields about 20 bushels under ordinary culture.
Velvet Chaff. — Was abandoned in Franklin county ten or
twelve years ago. It yielded, under good culture, 40 bushels
per acre, but deteriorated ; it was very liable to injury from
insects, smut, and rust.
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 537
White, White Chaff, and White Bearded, appear to be syn-
onymous. It has been cultivated during the past 30 years in
Portage county, in Stark, Wayne, Columbiana, Carroll, and
about 25 years ago J. Newhouse introduced it into Holmes
county; in the above named counties it is known as " White
Beardy,'' in Butler county, where it has been cultivated during
the last 12 years, and in Darke 10 years, it is known as " White
Chaff." It improves by cultivation, yields under ordinary cir*
cumstances about 20 bushels per acre. In the northern por-
tion of the State it ripens later than the Mediterranean, but
in the southern counties earlier. In the north it is subject to
injury from the fly, but resists it in the south.
White Flint, was cultivated some years since in Geauga Co.,
but deteriorated in quality, diminished in quantity, and
ripened the latter part of July ; it is now generally abandoned.
White Flint. — This is one of the most valuable kinds in
the northern States. The heads are not long but well filled,
with 30 to 40 grains; the kernel is white and flinty, large,
and with thin bran. They are firmly attached to the chafi",
and do not shell out, except when very ripe. The heads are
rather drooping, with but few awns, the straw medium length,
and very white and strong. The flour is very superior; the
perfect wheat weighs from 63 to 67 pounds the bushels.
White Flint, Hannon's. — A variety improved from the
above, in which the berry is larger, bran very thin, and the
flour equally good, if not superior; weighs 64 pounds to the
bushel. This and the above are little injured by the Hessian
fly, and will stand a good deal of wet weather without injury.
From New York State — not much cultivated.
Smooth White Winter Wheats.
Alabama, White May (Plate I., No. 2). — This variety has a
white chaff", the heads somewhat heavier than the White Flint.
For the beautiful and large proportion of superfine flour to the
quantity of grain, the White May is unequaled ; but for late
sowing on unfavorable soil, it is not as valuable as the Flint;
538 THE WHKAT PLANT.
it will do well sown any time in October, or on very rich land
in November, and answers as a spring wheat sown in February
or March.
It has been cultivated in Clermont county, during the past
fifteen years. As it ripens very early it is not much subject
to rust or injury from the midge, but is attacked by the fly.
It is said to deteriorate. It has been cultivated some three
years in Franklin county, but does not appear to be received
with much favor. One year ago Stephen Clawson introduced
it into Butler county. It is cultivated in Warren county,
where it is in great favor, said to be fly-proof, but liable to
winter-kill — best adapted to light soil.
liluc Sfem (Plate). — The iilue Stem \va^ introduced into
Jefferson county, in the fall of 1804. by Wm. Sharron, near
Smithfield, and for the last 30 years thought to be the most
profitable variety now in use in Jefferson county. This vari-
ety holds much the same i-elation (so far as popularity is con-
cerned) to the white wheats, that the Mediterranean does to
the red. It is more generally cultivated than any other white
wheat, there being scarcely a county in which it wa.-^ not in-
troduced, under souje name or other. There is no doubt
that this variety is the offspring of " Flint " wheat, modi-
fied and improved perhap.s, by climate, soil, and culture,
and known throughout the State by the various names of
" Flint," " New York Flint," '- Genessce," " Durst," etc. The
parent variety is evidently of northern origin, but that intro-
duced into the State is from various sources, as Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and New York. That intro-
duced into Washington county 14 years ago by Dr. Johnson,
from the Patent Office; into Summit 10 years ago by Wm.
Lemmon and Wm. L. Palnjer; into Clermont county 14 years
ago by Wm. Sargent; into Muskingum 8 years ago; into
Monroe 10 years ago by Alex. Sinclair; into Mercer 10 years
ago by R. W. Steans; into l^reble 5 years ago by J. Patter-
son, from the north, and lias never been acclimated south of
the Ohio river; but that introduced into Summit by J. Philip
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 539
8 y^ars ago ; into Holmes 10 years ago by A. Bell ; into Mor-
row 15 years ago by A. Nevis; into Ross 10 years ago by
Wm. Betts, are of the eastern acclimated variety ; while that
in the other portions of the State may with safety be regarded
as of that variety which had been acclimated in the South.
These conclusions are based upon the following premises :
that that in those counties first named, or of northern origin,
ripens at the same time the Mediterranean does in the respec-
tive counties, and improves in quality, and but little subject
to injuries by insects or rust; the second named, or of the
Pennsylvania acclimatization, invariably ripens fully a week
later than the Mediterranean, and improves by cultivation.
That regarded as of southern acclimatization, ripened about
ten days later, was very sensitive to cold, much subject to dis-
ease, and deteriorated so rapidly that, in Montgomery, Logan,
Licking, Crawford, Erie, Franklin, and Hocking, and many
other counties, it was entirely abandoned. The correspond-
ents from Washington, Tuscarawas, Trumbull and Ross, and
some other counties, say it is the best variety of white wheat,
all things considered, that they ever have had. Fifteen coun-
ties report it as yielding, under good culture, 40 bushels per
acre. Mr. R. H. Rogers, of Venice Mills, Erie county, says :
" I have known a field of 40 acres produce 40 bushels per
acre." Twenty counties report 30 bushels as the yield under
ordinary circumstances, while twenty-five counties report 20
to 25 bushels as the average product.
The engraving is a good representation of an average-sized
head. The straw is tall but stands well, and near the head
when ripe, is blue — hence the name '■'■Hue stem." The flour is
of the very best quality. This variety always commands from
10 to 15 cents per bushel more than the Mediterranean. It
has a white chafi"; berry white; weighs sixty-four pounds to
the bushel; bran thin, produces flour of a superior quality.
Formerly, this was a red wheat ; now it is changed to a beauti-
ful white. There are from 10 to 15 breasts on each side of
the head, and each breast contains four grains in good seasons,
540 THE WHEAT PLANT.
generally three grains only. It is now one of the most pro-
ductive varieties cultivated in Virginia.
Boone. — Was introduced into Muskingum county about ten
years ago by Wm. Boone, from Pennsylvania. It yields, under
good culture, 30 bushels per acre, resists the attacks of fly and
midge, escapes the rust, and is improving in quality. It ripens
at the same time that the Mediterranean does.
Bull. — Mr. Fowler introduced this variety into Licking
county as early as 1825, whence it found its way into Muskin-
gum county; and thirty years ago Geo. Newman introduced it
into Morgan county. In these counties it ripened from the
6th to 10th of July ; and, notwithstanding it had a large straw,
long head, and yielded well, it was abandoned, on account of its
liability to rust and the fly. It is nowhere cultivated at present.
Club (Plate). — This variety was one among the earliest culti-
vated in the northern portion of the State, where it was in-
troduced thirty years ago ; the farmers in Carroll, Stark,
Columbiana, and Mahoning, have grown it more or less during
the past twenty-five years; and emigrants from these counties
have introduced it into the western and north-western coun-
ties, but it is being superseded by less precarious varieties. It
yields about 18 bushels per acre, under ordinary culture,
ripens from ten days to two weeks after the Mediterranean.
The berry lias a thin skin, makes excellent flour, but the plant
is very susceptible to injury from the fly, winter-kill, and
midge. A bushel yields 40 pounds of excellent flour. The
engraving represents ahead grown in Franklin county (June,
1858), under very favorable circumstances ; this is proof (if
any is required) that it possesses considerable " consfihifion."
Canada Flint, York Flint, and White Genessee (Plate),
are sub-varieties of the old white flint. Canada flint was in-
troduced into Adams county, by J. W. Adams, four years
ago ; it yields, under good culture, 40 bushels per acre ; is
not liable to injury from fly or rust ; improves by culture, and
ripens a few days after the Mediterranean. It is also culti-
vated in Preble county.
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 541
Cnyahoga. — Introduced into Greene county by D. McMil-
len, Jr. It, in all probability, is a sub-variety of the Flint.
It yields about 20 bushels per acre, is slightly liable to dis-
ease, improves by cultivation, weighs well, has a white chaff,
and ripens at the same time that the Mediterranean does.
Calb. — In 1845 Mr. Henry Calb, of Putnam county, no-
ticed a few heads of a distinct variety of wheat in a field of
red chaff. These heads were saved and sowed separately.
The wheat proved to be a very desirable variety both for qual-
ity and quantity, making the best flour in the neighborhood
and yielding for a number of years 28 bushels per acre. At
first it successfully resisted fly, winter-kill, midge, and rust,
but now is subject to all those evils. It is also deteriorating.
It ripens a week later than the Mediterranean. Yields 45
pounds of flour per bushel.
China. — Was introduced into Defiance county from the Pat-
ent Ofiice, eight years ago ; it yielded a fair quantity of good
quality flour. Fly, midge, rust, climate, soil, and culture,
appear to afiect it less than white wheats generally — it has
yielded 30 bushels per acre, and ripens a week later than the
Mediterranean.
Congress or Rock (Plate), was originally a flinty variety,
whence came the name " Rock " (if our information is reli-
able). Ten years ago A. S. Guthrie introduced this variety
into Gallia county from Virginia. Dr. Edwards, a member of
Congress from Ohio, introduced it among his constituency and
and acquaintances in Ohio (whence it has been called Con-
gress Wheat). It is grown in Lawrence county, where
Thomas Gardner introduced it six years ago, and who fur-
nished the head from which the engraving is made ; in Butler
county by Benjamin Symmes, five years ago ; in Fairfield by
M. Landis, six years ago. It improves by culture ; is very
little subject to disease ; yields about 25 bushels per acre, and
ripens cotemporaneously with the Mediterranean.
Dutch. — A variety bearing this cognomen was introduced in
Licking county in 1834 by Mr. Bodle. It yields from 20 to
542 THE WHEAT PLANT.
30 bushels per acre — ripens about the 10th of July; but it
deteriorates so rapidly, that in a short time it was entirely
abandoned.
Early Ripe or Rare Ripe (Plate). — This is a new variety
just introduced into Stark county by Harris Raynolds, Esq.,
of Canton, who sent the head from which the engraving was
made. Joseph Mosher of Mt. Gilead, Morrow county, has
also just introduced it. From the appearance of the head one
might be led to suppose that it was a hybrid produced by the
Club crossed upon the Blue-stem. It has a beautifully plump,
thin-skinned berry, which yields an excellent quality of flour.
It ripens several days before the Mediterranean, consequently
it escapes the rust, and is not affected by the midge.
The head is of medium length ; the breasts at the apex, are
very compact, while those at the base are very loose and
straggling, so that it is somewhat club shaped. There are 8 to
12 breasts on each side, each breast containing 4 grains. Its
external appearance is precisely like that of the " Dayton,"
" Whig,'^ or " Smooth Mediterranean," with this exception,
that the latter is wider and deeper in proportion to the length
than this variety. The former have 5 grains in each breast,
while this does not exceed four.
Flint, Old White Flint, Bull Wheat (Plate). — Appears to
have had three distinct origins, so far as Ohio is concerned,
viz. : in Trumbull and other north-eastern counties it was in-
troduced from N. Y. State some fifteen years' ago — there it
ripens with the Mediterranean ; is not much subject to disease,
and is considered a good variety. In Stark, Harrison, etc., it
was introduced as much as 30 years ago from Pennsylvania,
and is now almost literally ^^ run out." But in Franklin and
other more southern counties it was introduced from Kentucky ;
ripened about the 25th of July, and was in consequence, soon
abandoned entirely. Ten years ago Samuel Cole introduced
it into Darke county, where it is doing well ; at the same time
it was introduced into Tuscarawas. This flint is of Spanish
orijiin. The head is of medium length and well filled — straw
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 543
white, clear and strong at the root, by which it is prevented
from lodging ; spikelets very adhesive to the rachis, and ker-
nels very adhesive to the glumes. It succeeds best on loamy
soils and is rather susceptible to injury from frosts and insects.
The berry is very hard from its silicious cuticle (hence its
name), in consequence of which it is less injured by fall rains,
and will stand in the shock a long time without sprouting.
Genessee, Genessee Flint, Genessee White Fiiiit (Plate). —
Perhaps the first of this variety introduced into Ohio was in
Warren county, by Thomas Ireland, in 1842. From there it
no doubt spread through the valleys of the Miami ; in many
of which it forms the main crop of white wheats. It is best
adapted to high and gravelly lands, and rarely if ever succeeds
on a bottom soil. In Franklin county it is regarded as a
much surer crop than when first introduced eight years ago.
It ripens about a week later than the Mediterranean and ap-
pears to be less liable to disease than white wheats generally.
It is a very fine grained wheat, and yields more flour to the
bushel than any other variety. It frequently has yielded 40
bushels per acre.
Mr. D. P. Egbert of Warren county, says : " Four years
ago I procured several bushels of this variety from Michigan
and sowed by the side of some of the same variety, which I
had been cultivating for several years, and found that the
Michigan had much the finest head and yielded from 3 to 5
bushels more to the acre than that which I had formerly raised.
I can account for the change only by supposing that this is a
more congenial climate for it than Michigan."
Mr. David Jones writes, " It yields 44 pounds of flour to
the bushel, but does not contain the strength and moisture of
some other varieties. It is not so good as the Mediterranean
for family use; but if ground separately and then bolted with
the Mediterranean, it improves the quality of both for family
use." There are 10 to 12 breasts on each side of the head,
each breast containing four grains.
Golden Stem or Indiana. — Was introduced from Indiana ;
544 THE WHEAT PLANT.
has a large white kernel ; cuticle thin ; weight per bushel
sometimes 64 pounds. It ripens a few days later than the
Mediterranean, but it shells out easily when ripe. It has
yielded 33 bushels to the acre, but is not adapted to strong
soils. It is more liable to sprout in the stack than any other
kind. It was introduced into Pike township. Stark county,
some six years ago. Ten years ago it was introduced into
Guernsey county. Mr. C, P. B. Sarchet says: " The Golden
Stem and Mediterranean are principally raised in this county,
and are regarded the most certain. The Golden Stem does
not grow so tall nor is the stalk as stiff as the Mediterranean
— it is liable to drift and fall when raised on very rich soil.
It weighs 60 pounds per bushel, and in this market commands
from 5 to 10 cents more per bushel than other varieties."
Golden Chaff, is perhaps a synonym of Shot, and is jnob-
ably a sub-variety of Soule's ; was introduced some fifteen
years ago into Koss county. It ripens about a week earlier
than the Mediterranean. Gen. Worthington says it is the
earliest variety of wheat grown in the county, consequently it
escapes rust, midge, etc. It yields from 8 to 16 bushels, of a
small round berry, per acre ; it is not much cultivated.
Golden Straw, Whig, River Bottom. — -Was introduced three
years ago into Stark county, by J. Fleck ; four years ago into
Morrow county by D. C. Bingham, of Mt. Gilead. Joseph
Mosher, of Mt. Gilead, says that it is an early variety, is not
liable to disease; improves by cultivation, and yields from
20 to 40 bushels per acre. It is in all probability a sub-
variety of the " Flint " family. Mr. Fleck says it is very
liable to disease.
Garden. — Was very extensively grown some 12 or 15 years
ago, in Stark, Columbiana, Summit, and Mahoning counties ;
but is being superseded by more reliable varieties. It
ripened early in July, was rather liable to disease. Twenty-
five bushels per acre is the highest yield of which any account
has been returned to this office. It is yet cultivated in Trum-
bull county. There is a red wheat known by this name also.
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 545
German. — Was introduced into Hocking county some time
since, but it does not come well recommended.
Gander. — Has been cultivated in Muskingum county during
the past 12 years. It ripens cotemporaneously with the
Mediterranean ; is not affected by the fly, rust, or midge ;
improves by culture, and has been known to yield thirty-five
bushels per acre.
Hoover. — This variety originated in Stark county, on the
farm of J. B. Hoover, and is a sub-variety of the Blue-stem.
It ripens a few days later than the Mediterranean. Is liable
to injury from fly, but yields about 20 bushels per acre.
Indiana. — See Golden Stem.
June. — The May wheat is known by this name in Huron
county.
Lambert (Plate). — In 1849, Isaac Lambert, of Harding
county, found three heads of smooth wheat, uninjixred by rust
or midge, in a field of Old Red Chaff bearded, which was
seriously injured by both the above maladies. From these
three heads have sprung the famous crops of Lambert wheat
in that region. It ripens earlier than the Mediterranean.
The glumes appear to have a large amount of silica in their
composition, which is perhaps one reason that it is regarded
as proof against the midge, by which, thus far, it has not
been affected. It has yielded 20 bushels per acre. The berry
is small and opaquely white. Were it not for the fact that it
is regarded as proof against the midge, almost every one
would prefer, both for quality and yield, the White Blue-
stem, to which variety it undoubtedly owes its parentage, and
which it very strongly resembles in its general appearance, as
well as in its anatomical details.
Michigan. — Is a sub -variety of the Genessee Flint, intro-
duced into Franklin county some twelve years ago, but was
soon abandoned. It is also abandoned in Montgomery
county, where it was cultivated several years since.
Malta., or White Smooth Mediterranean. — Has been intro-
duced into several counties in the State, as Franklin, Wash-
46
646 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
ington, etc., some two years since. It i.s not really a white
•wheat, but properly belongs to a class which we have not
made, namely, " amber colored icheats.'^ It ripens at the same
time that the red Mediterranean does, and like almost all
white wheats, appears to be liable to disease. It yields, under
ordinary circumstances, 20 bushels per acre ; but is thought
to be rather too thick skinned to prove profitable for flour.
Mr. Arnold, of Darke county, thinks it is a better wheat, in
every respect, than the red bearded Mediterranean.
May (Plate). — During the past ten years it has been culti-
vated in Butler, Warren, and Clinton counties. It ripens
several days earlier than the Mediterranean ; has a very fine
grain, and has been known to yield 45 bushels per acre on
first-class soil. Although it is considered fly-proof, it is very
liable to injury from late frosts, and is upon the whole best
adapted to light soils. Mr. Egbert states that the wheat
weighs from 64 to 67 pounds.
Orange. — Introduced four years ago into Seneca county ;
ripens four or five days earlier than the Mediterranean, conse-
quently escapes the efi"ects of rust and the ravages of the
midge ; improves by culture, and has yielded as high as 30
bushels per acre.
Purhry. — So far as the history of this wheat is concerned,
I can do no better than to give the annexed letter entire,
from Mr. Freeman G. Carey, one of the Professors in Farmers'
College, near Cincinnati:
" Its history is as follows : It was obtained from England
about ten years since, and brought into our neighborhood by
Judge Moore, of Cheviot, Hamilton county; through him
disseminated through that immediate neighborhood. I ob-
tained it of him through Mr. Wardell, of that place, who had
been raising it with success upon a thin soil for several years
before he introduced it to my notice. He gave it the name
of the ' Purkey ' wheat. On sending some of it to Mr. Brown,
of the Patent Office, he gave me as the more probable name
the ' White Pirk,' as he said there was no such name as ' Pur-
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS.
547
key ' wheat, and it answered to the de-
scription of the name as above cor-
rected.
Query. — What authorities did Mr. D.
J. Browne consult? Where did he find
a description of the " Plrk " wheat ?
If Mr. Browne had consulted Vale's
" Gentleman s Comjjcniion in the business
and pleasures of a country life," written
about two hundred years ago in Eng-
land — the copy I have was printed in
1716 — he would have found the follow-
ing passage : " We find many sorts of
wheat mentioned in our Rustick autJwrs ;
as, Whole Straw wheat, lied Straw tvheat,
Rivet wheat, white and red, Pollard
wheat, white and red, great and small ;
Turkey wheat, Pitrkey irlieat, Grey icheat,
Flaxen wheat, I suppose the same in
some places is called Lammas wheat,
Chillern, Ograve, etc. [This is proof
positive that there is such a name as
" Purkey." — Klippart.^
"Its constitution is unmistakably
good, growing most vigorously even
upon thin soils, and withstanding the
effects of cold and drouth better than
any other variety wherever tried. It
has been known to yield 50 bushels to
the acre, and has from 50 to 80, and
even over that number of grains to
the head. It will yield from 5 to 10
bushels to the acre more than the Medi-
terranean, sowed side by side. It has
PuRKEY Wheat.
548 THE WHEAT plant.
weifrhed 72 lbs. to the measured bushel, and never falls below
standard. Its chaff is light ; kernels compact on the rachis ; the
head short, bald ; the straw white and strong, often a little
purple or inclining to red a few inches below the head — quite
a characteristic mark ; not liable to fall, as is the Mediter-
ranean, and is well suited to rich or lean soils. It has been
known to yield 44 lbs. of flour to the standard bushel ; and is
a premium flour in appearance as well as in fact, having a
rich cream-like color, and will ordinarily bring 50 cents per
barrel more than any flour in the market.
'* Another desirable quality in this latitude is that it ripens
early, about the time of the Blue Stem, and a little in advance
of the White Genessee of New York. We have never anal-
yzed it in any other way than at the table, where its merits
are often discussed with a good relish."
The engraving represents the natural size of a head of
this variety now in the State Agricultural Rooms, Columbus,
Ohio. It was obtained from Hon. Mr. Seney, liepresentative
in the last Legislature, from lloss county. He obtained it
from a gentleman who brought it from England. It is des-
tined to become one of the most popular white wheats in Ohio.
River Bottom. — See Golden Straw.
River Rhine. — Was introduced about the year 1845 into
Tuscarawas county, but as it ripened late it was liable to all
the ills to which wheat is subject, and the culture of it is now
abandoned.
Shot (see Golden ChoJ"). — The wheat, as well as the de-
scription, is so much like the Golden Chaft". that for all prac-
tical purposes it may be regarded as a synonym only.
Soviets (see Plate). — 'ibis wheat has been cultivated during
the past fifteen years, chiefly in the northern and central coun-
ties. VV^hen first introduced into Stark county, fifteen years
ago, the straw was short and very stiff, but now it has a much
longer straw ; correspondents from Trumbull, Tuscarawas,
Summit, Wayne and Holmes say it is not as reliable as the
SMOOTH WHITE WINTER WHEATS. 549
White Blue-stem. In Ross it has been abandoned on ac-
count of its liability to rust ; in Grieene they complain that it
has too soft a grain ; but in Sandusky, Williams, and other
•western counties, it is very popular. In Stark it has produced
better average crops than any other variety, but is now de-
teriorating. It ripens nearly a week later than the Mediter-
ranean, and appears to be more able to resist fly and midge in
some localities than in others. The Summit and Holmes
county millers praise the excellent quality of its flour. It
yields from 15 to 40 bushels of a very large sized wheat per
acre. Some writers regard this variety as a hybrid between
the Old Red Chaff and White Chaff, bald. Yields 42 pounds
of flour per bushel.
Siberian. — Fifteen years ago, Benjamin Travis introduced
this variety into Defiance Co. It did well for several years,
yielded some 35 bushels per acre. It deteriorated rather
rapidly ; it ripens fully a week later than the Mediterranean,
and is consequently liable to rust and midge.
Ttxian. — This variety was introduced by C. Lets, Esq , and
has been cultivated some three years in Knox Co.; it yields 25
bushels per acre under ordinary circumstances ; is said to be
fly-proof, but yields to rust. It ripens some days after the
Mediterranean.
Turkey. — Is a wheat introduced by the Patent Office, and is
met with in various parts of the State. It appears to have
succeeded best in Stark Co., where it has been cultivated
during the past six years. It ripens rather later than the
Mediterranean ; is not liable to fly, winter kill, rust, or midge ;
so far as change in form or quality are concerned, nothing
perceptible has yet taken place. It yields (in Stark) an aver-
age crop of 20 bushels of excellent wheat per acre.
Virginia. — Was introduced many years ago into Montgom-
ery Co., but is now entirely abandoned.
Wahash. — See Golden Stem.
White, Mount. — Has been cultivated during the past six
years in Meigs Co. It yields an average crop of 18 bushels,
550 rilK WIIKAT I'LANT.
ripens later than the Mediterranean, and is liable to be attacked
by rust.
White Nper Brandy Bauer — described in the
Penny Magazine of 1833, coincides in general description
580
THE WHEAT PLANT.
.^>
Fig. 35.
Fio. 36.
RUST. 581
and habits with what we have described as above as U. Caries,
but the accompanying figures seem to point to another fungus
of the same family. Whether these are distinct or are only
seemingly so, on account of differences in the manner and
time of observation, we are unable to state, and the determin-
ation of the question is of the less importance, as the same
means of prevention are equally effective, whether there be
two varieties or but one, as we are inclined to suppose, of this
livedo. Fig. 35 represents a group of this fungi on their
spawn, magnified 160,000. Fig. 36 is a young fungus of the
Uredu foetida not quite ripe, at which time it can be separated
with its pedicel h from the spawn (magnif. 1000 diamet). Fig.
37 is a ripe fungus (magnif. 1000 diam.) shedding its seed.
These seem to us to be the same parasite as already men-
tioned, and that the difference is apparent only, and not real.
Uredi^ riihigo vera, De Candolle — Figs. 38 and 27. — Rust
like the two preceding parasites ; is a mushroom of the family
of the uredines. It is developed upon both surfaces of the
leaves, upon the stubble and upon the heads of the gramin£e,
with the appearance of little oval points, pulverulent, project-
ing, at first yellowish, and afterward becoming black. The
little streaks which it at first forms in parallel lines at the side
of the fibers, finally spread, and, joining, form large patches.
When the rust attacks the grain only feebly, it does not ap-
pear to be very injurious to it, but when it is considerable, it
occasions serious losses. Among all the graminae wheat ap-
pears to be the favorite of rust.
If the streaks formed by the rust be attentively examined
upon the stalk, but particularly upon the leaf of the wheat,
the epidermis will be found split in every instance, and it will
not be difficult to perceive that the sap extravasated by this
split gives birth to the mushroom, or at least that it serves as
a receptacle to the spores of this mushroom, raised from the
ground by the rains, carried through the air by the winds, or,
what is perhaps more probable, absorbed in the earth with the
nourishing juices of the plant. It has been remarked that
582 THE WIIKAT PLANT.
the rust ordinarily shows itself when a very hot sun suddenly
succeeds rains which have been somewhat prolonged. It is at
the time when the evaporation of the water left upon the
stocks and leaves, going on too rapidly, occasions cracks in
the epidermis or vitreous varnish, which covers all parts, and
thus permits the sap to deflect from its ordinary course, that
circumstances favorable to the development of the mushroom
are presented to its spores, whether they come from the inte-
rior or exterior. From the time, also, when a stalk of wheat
is attacked by rust in a somewhat serious manner, it begins to
languish ; its leaves quickly begin to dry up ; and when the
rains are infrequent, the malady proceeds from the stalk to
the head, which also soon turns red. The husk or nearest
envelop of the grain then drying and adhering to this, soon
occasions its decomposition, as much by the moisture retained
by it as that which is maintained by the streaks of the mush-
room fixed upon its glumes. It will not be rare in these cases
to see fields of wheat produce less than half what they would
have done without this accident.
The more, then, that heat and moisture permit the sporules
or seminiform germs of the rust to attach themselves to the
stalks of the grain, and develop themselves there, the greater
will be the damage it may cause. There are certain places, as
in South Carolina, for example, where the cultivation of wheat
has had to be abandoned, because the natural humidity of the
soil, conjoined with the mists, which prevail so frequently in
that country, too greatly favor the development of rust. On
the contrary, it has been remarked that, in the vicinity of the
sea, or in grounds improved by means of lime or leached
ashes, or manured with sea plants, the rust never exhibits
itself in such abundance as to cause any considerable damage.
The following seems to be the reason :
There is found upon the most of the gramina3, and particu-
larly upon wheat, a certain shining varnish absolutely of the
same material as glass. Most commonly this vitreous material
terminates the edges of the leaves by little teeth, resembling
RUST. 583
a saw of extreme fineness, but always capable of scratching
the fingers of those who carelessly amuse themselves by fre-
quently rubbing these leaves in the direction of their length.
The greater then, the thickness of this glassy layer, and the
stronger the stalk, the greater will be its resistance to the
moisture or other atmospheric influences, which might cause
it to crack and present false issues to the sap upon which the
rust attaches itself. And it is imagined (conceivedj that this
layer of vitreous material will be stronger in proportion as
the soil itself contains, or, as are furnished artificially, the
elements of its composition. It is well known that to produce
glass, sand is used, with lime and ashes, which are melted to-
gether by heat, although each one of these substances is
scarcely fusible if heated alone. If, then, by mixing with the
soil, lime, ashes, etc., there be placed at the disposition of the
,plant a greater abundance of the materials which enter into
the composition of the vitreous material with which it is cov-
ered, it will necessarily absurb a greater quantity, and thereby
place itself in better condition to resist the rust. The sea-
weeds, which, by their decomposition produce soda in quan-
tity, which also enters into the composition of glass will
produce the same effect. Thus, too, it has been remarked,
that the rust has shown itself much more rarely in silicious
or sandy grounds.
The rust is the less injurious to grain the nearer this has
arrived at maturity at the time it is attacked by it. The
damage which it receives only coming from the suppression
of its nourishment which it (the root) intercepts to appropri-
ate it to itself, or which it leads away from its ordinary chan-
nels, it (the grain) suffers the more it has great need of this
nourishment.
As grain ripening early is rarely attacked by rust, and as
this does not ordinarily show itself until toward the end of
August, or the b -ginning of September, perhaps a certain
continuity of heat is necessary for the development of its
584 THE WHEAT PLANT.
seeds, a heat which it can not meet in July or the com-
mencement of August.
There has been no means used, so far as I know, to com-
bat the rust in Ohio. There has been more reason to com-
plain of it than ever in the district of Quebec during recent
years, since particularly to escape the fly, the sowing of spring
grain has been postponed until the commencement of June.
The vicinity of the sea, in general, preserves the districts of
Gaspe and Kamouraska. There ought, then, in the places
where the rust is most to be complained of, after all necessary
care of the ground by good drainage, be used as much lime
and ashes as possible as a manure, and a field of stubble
where rust has made an attack, ought not to be sown, and be-
sides the seeds ought to be limed as described above.
Smut. — (Du Carbon), Uredo segetiim De Candolh. Smut,
like caries, is a parasitic mushroom of the family of the.
uredines. It is pulverulent, like all mushrooms cf this family,
and it destroys or replaces the organs in which it is developed.
Smut has often been confused with caries and rust, although
its characters are suflBciently distinct to make it readily dis-
tinguishable from one and from, the other. In several places
the name mildew is also given to the smut.
Smut sometimes attacks the leaves and stems of the plants,
but it is the grain itself which it most commonly invades.
Smut attacks all the graminEe, but seems to prefer oats, bar-
ley and maize. In a field one can scarcely distinguish the
stalks affected, except by a little less hight, and a somewhat
tarnished or somewhat paler color. So long as the head has
not emerged from its envelops, the diseased portions appear
in almost their natural condition. But as soon as (^e head
has separated the leaves which it hid from sight, it appears
of a pale gray, and in a short time it assumes a black or
coal-like tint. The floral envelops, the pedicels, the glumes,
are all altered, changed or consumed ; it is often difiieult to
recognize even a vestige of the grain. It blackens the fingers
SMUT. 585
of those who touch it, and falls into powder if it is shaken ;
this powder is inodorous.
The seminiform sporules of the smut, which are infinitely
small, and still lighter than those of rust and caries, are also pro-
duced in the interior of the plant. The proof of this is, that
the heads are found entirely destroyed by the smut, even be-
fore they emerge from their envelops ; the seeds of the mush-
room absorbed in the soil with the alimentary liquids of the
plant having found in the head the circumstances favorable to
their development.
Smut is disastrous for the farmer when it attacks a great
number of heads. Fields have been seen in which it had
attacked one-fourth, one-half, or even two-thirds of the heads
of grain. All the heads from the same root are smutted,
sometimes all the grains of the same head are not, but such
grains are always small, lank and withered. The smut is
developed as well in a dry as in a rainy year, and as well in a
dry as a moist soil. But it has been remarked that where it
made the greatest ravages was always in little fertile grounds
or such as had the year preceding produced a grarainae aflFec-
ted by smut. In the first instance the vegetative life being
enfeebled, the mushroom met less resistance to its development,
and in the second, the ground having retained the spores of
the mushroom, of the preceding year, it already contained the
elements of the malady.
The remedy would be then, first, a lime-water soaking to
rid the seed of the spores which may be attached to it, and, in
the second place, not to sow grain upon any kind of cereal
stubble which had been attacked by smut.
It is not probable that the smut can be injurious to man by
the use which he may make of the grain which shall have
been attacked by it, because at the time of harvest the spores
of the mushroom have in a great measure, left the grain, and
because threshing and winnowing will remove the remainder.
According to several authors, even the straw of smutty heads
586 THE WHEAT PLANT.
although of an inferior qualit}-, would not be prejudicial to
cattle fed upon it.
Smut, so far as known, has never been the cause of great
damage to the Ohio farmer. It is believed that there have
rarely been seen fields of wheat in which more than one-hun-
dredth or one-sixtieth of the heads were attacked by smut.
This is doubtless due to the vigorous vegetation which charac-
terizes our climate, and perhaps also to the custom almost
general in this country, to alternate fallowing and cultivation.
A statement has found its way into the agricultural papers
to the effect that seed wheat, threshed by a machine, is the
cause of smut in wheat; and to prove the assertion, a case is
given of seed sown which was threshed by a machine, and an
adjoining land or two was sown with wheat threshed by hand ;
that the result was that the machine-threshed was smutted,
while the hand or flail-threshed was free from smut. The
cause attributed is that the machine breaks the grains, and
when sown the young plant has not sufficient nourishment to
grow a perfect plant, and hence is diseased.
It is not true that a broken grain of wheat produces an
unhealthy plant. If a plant is produced at all it will be a
healthy plant — although it may not be a vigorous one, yet it
will be perfect and healthy. If the chit or embryo is unin-
jured it will grow, and when . the amylaceous portion of the
seed is exhausted, the young plant will find its nourishment
in the soil. But if the amylaceous or starchy body is exhaus-
ted before the plant is sufficiently develojied to elaborate its
own nutriment, it will die. If breaking flie grain of wheat
produces diseased i)lants, then by an unexceptionable analogy
and parity of reasoning, cutting potatoes to plant should pro-
duce diseased potatoes — a conclusion neither confirmed nor
corroborated by experience.
But it is very possible that the starch cells of the broken
grains, having an organic vitality which is called into action
by being sown, having to expend their energies in accordance
TO PREVENT SMUT. 587
with physiological laws, and having no embryo to nourish,
may produce fungi, which by alternate generation may
become smut, or some other species of uredo. It certainly is
better policy, if not absolute economy, to sow seed which is
not only perfect but is perfectly clean.
We are indebted, says the Cincinnati Gazette, to Mr. R. Gr.
Carmichael, Commission Merchant of this city, for the follow-
ing valuable information with reference to the preparation of
seed wheat. The process has been fully tested by farmers in
England and Ireland, with entire success :
" To Prevent Smut in Wheat. — Dissolve half a pound of
sulphate of copper in three quarts of warm water. After the
mixture has cooled, sprinkle it over two bushels of wheat,
stirring it through until the whole be wet. Put it up in a
heap, turning it occasionally for an hour, when it will be
ready for sowing. Should wet weather or any other cause
prevent its being sown immediately, spread it thin on a dry
floor, giving it an occasional turning, and it will not suffer
injury for weeks."
The above was received from a very intelligent as well as
extensive farmer and miller, who says in regard to it :
"Where this has been carefully carried out, it has been
found effectual in prrvcnting smut in wheat. Of course, no
man should sow smutty wheat, but even smutty wheat will
produce grain perfectly free from smut, if it be carefully
dressed as above. The reason that sulphate of copper pro-
duces this result, is, that smut, being a fungus, which, when
the balls are broken, attaches itself to the ends of the wheat,
in many cases kills the wheat and grows in its place. The
solution kills the fungus, but is not powerful enough to hurt
the wheat. Care should be taken to prevent any animal from
eating grain dressed with this preparation, as it is poisonous."
The editor of the Gazette says the solution kills the smut,
but is not powerful enough to hurt the wheat. That is much
like asserting that arsenic in large doses will kill a tape worm,
but not hurt the individual who is so unfortunate as to have
588 THE WHEAT PLANT.
a tape worm. The truth is, that whatever will kill smut will
most assuredly kill the wheat.
The editor very properly calls the smut a fungus, but he
should know that the fungi are among the very lowest types
of vegetable organizations, and are possessed of a vital tenac-
ity exceedingly remarkable. The yeast which our good
housewives use in leavening bread is a fungus, and we all
know that it can be taken, when in the hight of its develop-
ment and multiplication, reduced to a solid, kept at a temper-
ature below zero, and so kept for months, but when surround-
ed by the proper conditions, it immediately vegetates. The
jirotococcus, or red snow, grows, developes, propagates, and
flourishes, on the snows in the northern part of Greenland —
it is a fungus.
In our experiments, we have placed smut balls in a solution
of nitrate of potash, dilute nitric acid, sulphate of iron, sul-
phate of copper, sulphate of zinc, and even in dilute sulphuric
acid, but the smut so treated invariably manifested undoubted
signs of vitality when surrounded by proper conditions.
We do doubt the assertion that W. Carniiehael's plan above
mentioned, produces uniformly clean wheat, or prevents smut
in wheat — because even if his theory is true, it is almost im-
possible to moisten ever?/ smut ball. The better plan is to
make a solution of, say, one pound of hlue-stone (sulphate of
copper, or blue vitriol) to two gallons of water ; put the solu-
tion in a tub or other wooden vessel ; then put in wheat to
within two or three inches of the surface ; stir it well, and
then let it stand an hour or longer ; at the expiration of this
time, the light (diseased) grains of wheat, as well as the smut,
will rise to the surface, and may be skimmed oiF; after the
wheat has been taken out of the vessel, it should be spread
on a dry floor, and thoroughly sprinkled with recently slaked
lime — if necessary, it may remain in this state several days
before sowing.
The few smut balls that remain attached to the sound and
healthy grains during the steeping process have become suffi-
OTHER FUNGI.
589
ciently moist to germinate, and the lime forms a proper nidus,
and nearly all the smut balls will be found to have germina-
ted in the course of forty-eight hours, but finding no sub-
stance in proper condition to nourish them, they necessarily
perish, and thus the wheat is prevented from being smutted,
but not because the solution kills the smut and not the
wheat.
Before leaving this part of our subject, it is well to remark
that very many fungi of difi"erent species infest the other
members of the vegetable world almost without exception,
and compose a large class of plants called cryptogamia^ because
the organs of reproduction are not distinguishable to the na-
tural eye. The varieties of these fungi are very numerous,
and it is impossible in the limits of this report to describe, or
even name all of them, and our aim has been merely to point
out those most important, on account of their extensive
ravages.
Cladosporium Herharmm, Fig. 39, highly magnified, is
a black fungus which sometimes gives a dingy appear-
ance to whole fields of grain. It is often called mildew,
but never attacks wheat except it has become already diseased.
The appearance of the straw attacked by this fungus is shown
590 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Fig. 38, slightly magnified, the dark patches indicating the
diseased points, or those upon which the Cladosporium has
formed lodgment.
The Uredo ruhigo already described, is figured in Fig. 27,
highly magnified, and is one of the most important of the ure-
diues, as its ravages are so great under favoring circumstances as
to destroy one-half or two- thirds of a crop of grain, and some-
times even more, and might, by extensive prevalence, be the
cause of a serious scarcity of grain, and it well deserves the
careful attention of the agriculturist.
The Credo fcetida also described, is figured in Fig. 28,
highly magnified, and is also an important member of this
destructive family of parasites, which have received their
names from the peculiar efl'ects upon the plant attacked.
Uredo and Brand are derived from words in Latin and Ger-
man, signifying burning, and corresponding to our words
blast, blight, and the burnt or rusty appearance of the plants
attacked by some of these has given rise to the English term
rust.
We have already adverted to the best means hitherto dis-
covered of preventing wheat and other grains from being
attacked by these destructive parasites. The following from
au authentic source is not inappropriate.
Preble County, Ohio, May 7, 1858.
John H. Klippart, — Sir : — At the instance of our worthy Secretary
of Preble County Agricultural Society, I give my personal observation
as to the operations of the rust, one of the most ruinous diseases the
crop is subject to.
In 1842 I had a large field seriously affected by rust, and having read
in the Genessee Farmer the necessity of early cutting, I put a hand-
cradle to work and left — was absent a few days, and on my return found
my hand had only cut a few dozen sheaves — avowed that it was so green
he knew it would be worthless. I then procured hands and had the field
cut, but too late for more than a half crop, while the portion cut at first
was plump, and had well filled ^ains.
In 1849 I had three fields of wheat of equal size — about the 20th to
25th of June the rust made its appearance in its worst form. The
cholera being in the country, hands were hard to procure. I, however,
RUST. 591
procured two cradlers, and set them to work in field No. 1 ; soon left for
the day, and on my return home was vexed to find my foreman had
abandoned the field, with the declaration that if 1 wasd — d fool enough
to cut wheat so green, he was not. I explained and entreated, and
finally got the field cut on Monday and Tuesday of the week, leaving the
wheat in the swath unbound, until it partly cured in the sun before
binding. Field No. 2 was left, partly to meet the views of my hands,
and partly to mark the difference as an experiment, until Thursday and
Friday, when it was cut and shocked. Field No. 3 having been put in
by a tenant, and under his control, was left until the Monday following,
though I urged him to have it harvested sooner. On Monday all hands
were ready for the work, but on close inspection there was nothing but
straw to cut, and hence the field was left unharvested.
The Result. — Field No. 1, although it was the poorest set or stand
by at least one-fourth, produced 12 measured bushels of wheat to the
acre, weighing 56 lbs. to the bushel. No 2 yielded 8 bushels to the acre,
weighing only 46 or 48 lbs. to the bushel, while the third field, fully
equal to the second field in every respect, and the same kind of wheat
(^white chafl" beardy) produced nothing.
The rust in '49 produced general havoc in this county, thousands of
acres having been entirely destroyed. And ignorance as to the time of
cutting when the plant was thus afflicted, must have bled our county of
at least $50,000, it not double that amount. For all who cut any portion
of their grain in the incipient stages of the rust, received a fair yield,
varying in quantity and quality as to time of cutting. Again, in 1857,
last year, the rust made its appearance, but not so fatal in its conse-
quences, but enough to do great damage. So soon as discovered I
"pitched into" field No. 1, cutting and shocking the same day. The
crop was so green I had to re-open the shocks and many of the sheaves
to cure them, to keep them from molding, as I also did in field No. 1 in
'49. Field No. 2 was left a week, being a later sown field. And again
had a field, No. 3, in charge of a tenant who obstinately refused to cut
till ripe. Result. — No. 1 produced 25 bushels to the acre: weight 64 lbs.
to the bushel, and as full, flinty wheat as I ever saw — No. 2 being only
a half set by "fly " and "freezing out," produced 10 bushels to the acre,
and weighed 56; but in this field, and on the poorest point in it (clay
land) I had well manured one acre in center of the field, and on which
was at least 30 bushels of No. 1 wheat, neither the rust nor fly had
affected it. No. 3 yields (though a good set) some 8 bushels to the acre,
and the wheat so poor it could not be sold; I am using it for feed. I
think it a fixed fact, that the rust detracts or draws the substance from
the grain. GEO. D. HENDRICKS.
592 THE WHEAT PLANT.
CHAPTER XXI.
ANIMAL PARASITES AFFECTING THE WHEAT.
The animal parasites affecting the different species of plants which
compose the vegetable kingdom, are very numerous, and very widely
different in their character, habits, mode of attack, and importance to
man as destroyers of the fruits of his labors, in the garden, orchard,
field, and vineyard. We can not advert to any except those most import-
ant, on account of their extensive depredations, and can only recommend
to all persons, whether directly or indirectly interested in the produc-
tiveness of our agricultural labors, to contribute, so far as possible, to the
general fund of information concerning these enemies of man's comfort
and prosperity, by studying practically the subject of entomology, and
recording their investigations iu regard to any or all classes of insects
■which may come within their scope of observation. In this manner we
may hope to gain such an acquaintance with the nature and habits of
noxious insects as will enable us to counteract their deleterious influen-
ces and restrain them within safe limits, if we should not succeed in
entirely eradicating their species, and thus preventing the necessity of
further watchfulness in regard to them.
In the following descriptions we have not always been able to point
out a remedy for the evil described, but it goes far toward discovering
a remedy, when the disease has become fully known, and we may ven-
ture to hope that a knowledge of the means of preventing the destruc-
tive ravages of some, at least, of these terrible scourges, may soon be
gained by some persons among the many whose interests they so greatly
and injuriously affect.
Agnjpnus Murinus (Mouse-colored click-beetle). — Is the parent of a
wire-worm with a flat and indented tail; it is generally found under
stones, and probably feeds on the roots of grasses. The beetle inhabits
wheat fields, and sandy situations during the spring and summer. It is
broad and flattish, clothed with short ashy hairs, marbled with brown;
the two horns are short; the six legs are of a pitch color, tips of the
AGRIOTES, LINEATUS, OBSCURUS, AND SPUTATOR. 593
thighs and feet tawny; the wing-cases conceal a pair of ample wings ; il
is six lines long, and two and a half hroad, or larger.
Agriotes Linealus (Striped click-beetle). — The head and thorax are
brown, clothed with cinereous down ; the wing-cases are of a fulvous
color, with nine punctured lines, forming four brown stripes on each;
the horns and legs are brighter brown. It is abundant in wheat fields,
grass lands, hedges, under stones, etc., from March to July.
A. Obscurus. — The obscure click-beetle is of the same size and form as
the last, but it is of an uniform earthy-brown color. This beetle is
abundant in fields, gardens, pastures, and woods, from April to July.
■^Jsnr
Fig. 40. Fig. 41.
A. Sputator. — The pasture, or spitting click-beetle, is much smaller than
A. obscurus; the head and thorax are black, thickly and distinctly dotted ;
the latter often has the anterior margin and hinder angles — which form
short, stout points — rusty; the wing-cases are light brown, with nine
dotted lines on each; the entire surface is covered with ochreous down;
tlie horns and legs are reddish brown, Fig. 40 (2 ), and magnified at Fig.
41 (3); it is universally abundant, from the end of April to the beginning
of July, in wheat fields, hedges, and pastures, especially after floods. These
four elators, or click-beetles, are the parents of the true " wire-worms,"
whose history will be more fully given under that head. Their econo-
my is now pretty well understood ; the eggs appear to be laid close to
the plants destined to support the young maggots, when they hatch ; the
larvae live upon various roots, entering the stems occasionally, and
forming burrows in the soil.
They must be exceedingly minute when first hatched; and as the dif-
ferent click-beetles vary in size, their wire-worms, no doubt, vary also.
The small one, Fig. 40 (1 ), we consider to be the offspring of A.
sputator (2) and of A. lineatus. When full grown, the wire-worms form
a cell deep in the earth, and change to pupae. At this period of its
existence, it is in a torpid state, and lies buried, as it were, in a
tomb, until the appointed time, when the spring sun warms the earth,
and all the limbs being now perfected, the beetle bursts its shroud.
50
594
THE WHEAT PLANT.
forces its tomb of earth, and makes its way to the surface, to dry and
expand its wings and limbs, when it is again prepared to generate its
species. The click-beetles have the power of springing up when laid on
their backs.
Anisoplia Agricola (Field Chafer), is a small species of cock-chafer,
■which does considerable mischief to wheat and rye when they are in the
ear, by congregating upon the milky grain, and eating out the contents.
This beetle is abiind-
1 A -Af- X ant in France and Ger-
many, but it is very
rare in England ; it is
of a bottle-green color,
the nose is narrowed
and curved up; the
horns are short, ter-
minating bj' a little
club cleft into tliree
lobes; the wing-cases
are shorter than the
^"'- ^^- body, either ochreous,
with a blackish square spot at the base, a splashed line across the middle,
and the margin irregularly black; or they are bottle-green, with ochreous
spots; Fig. 42 (4) — (5), the natural length; t.' e six legs are very strong,
spurred, and terminated by unequal, acute claws.
A. Ilorticola (Garden Chafer, or May-bug), is a similar insect, and
very abundant in this country. It flies well, and often covers the white
thorn hedges and wheat, making also sad ravages in gardens in May and
June, by destroying the flowers and leaves of roses, apples, peaches, etc.,
feeding upon the parts of fructification, and riddling the foliage. It is
of a very glossy green, but the wing-cases are of a tawny color. Fig. 42
(1) — (2), the same magnified. The female beetle enters the earth to lay
her eggs, and is thus the parent of a maggot. Fig. 42 (.3), which is very
destructive in pasture lands, feeding upon the roots of the grass, causing
large patches to wither, and rendering the turf spongy, and often unpro-
ductive to a great extent. These grubs, as they are called, are of an
ochreous white color, covered with rusty hairs; the head is shining and
deep ochreous, jaws strong and black at their tips; the six pectoral legs
are longish, and the extremity of the body is soft and of a lead color.
Ihey are feeding for many months before they arrive at maturity, when
they retire a considerable depth, to form earthen cells and undergo their
transformations — first into a pupa, then into the perfect beetle.
Sparrows will gorge themselves with the beetles ; blackbirds and
APHIS GRANARIA.
595
thrushes pick them up as they emerge from the soil, and starling
turn up the loosened turf to feed upon the maggots.
Aphis Granaria (Wheat Plant Louse), inhabits corn crops, having been
observed upon barley and oats, as well as upon wheat. In July and
August it is sometimes abundant on the ears of wheat, sucking the
stem and impoverishing the grain. The male is green. Fig. 43 (1) — (2),
natural dimension — horns very long and black ; eyes and three ocelli
black; disc of trunk dark; tubes slender, longish, and black; nervures
of wings pale-bi'own; terminal cell semi-heart shaped; stigma long
and green ; hinder legs very long; thighs — excepting the base, tips of
shanks and feet — black. Females often apterous (wingless), dull orange;
horns, excepting the base, ej'es, and abdominal tubes (which are stouter
than in the winged specimens), black ; legs blackish, anterior thighs,
and base of tibiae, more or less ochreous.
FlQ. 45. Fio. 46.
Numbers of the apterous females are often seen dead, and of a tawny
or black color, upon the ears of wheat; having been punctured by a para-
sitic fly, named Aphidius avenoe. Fig. 45 (2) — (1), the natural size,
which escapes when it hatches by forcing open a lid at the under side
of the body. Ephedrus plagiator. Fig. 46 (7) — (8), natural dimensions,
696
THE WHEAT PLANT.
is a similar parasite, bred from the dead females, which turn black
when punctured, as shown at ( 3) — (4), Fig. 44, being the natural size.
Fio. 47.*
A. Zeaa (Indian-corn-plaat louse), appeared in August, in groups
beneath the leaves of some maize grown in this country ; but they dis-
appeared about the middle of September, when the cold nights set in.
It is a pretty species, very distinct from any of the others, and is proba-
bly abundant in the southern countries of Europe, where the maize is
regularly cultivated. First the apterous females appeared, Fig. 47 (5 ) —
(6), natural size, with thehead, collar, base of trunk and of horns ochreous;
the other joints brown ; eyes black ; the back dark-green, marbled with
a paler tint; extremity of body rosy, tubes rather short and far apart;
legs ochreous and hairy ; feet and tips of shanks brown. They were
surrounded by little groups of their offspring, of a dark-green color ;
afterward a few winged specimens appeared. Fig. 47 (7) — (8), natural ex-
panse; they arc of a pale, rosy tint, variegated with green; the long,
slender tubes, fine horns, and legs, are whitish ; feet, tips of thighs, and
shanks, dusky; nervures of the wings very pale; stigma pale-green or
colorless.
Athous Longicollis (Long-necked click-beetle), is often found in wheat
fields in spring and summer, and is produced from a wire-worm ; but
whether it is injurious to the crops, has not been discovered. The male
is narrow, of a fulvous color, the head and trunk are black and punc-
tured; the latter is longish, with the margins rusty; the scutle and
*Fig. 47—1, 2, 3, and 4, is tho A. humuli, or hop-beetle, erroneously introduced bj
the engraver.
BEMBIDIUM. 597
breast are blackish ; the wing-cases have eighteen lines of dots ; and tho
outer margin is brown; beneath them is an ample pair of wings;
length four and one-fourth lines. The female is broader, larger, and
varies in color, from an uniform brown to an ochreous chestnut tint. A.
niger (black click-beetle) is polished, black-clothed, with shining yellow
hairs. It is elliptical, finely and not thickly punctured; there are
eighteen fine furrows drawn down the back of the wing-cases, which
cover wings for flight; length half an inch. It is very abundant in
May and June in cornfields, meadows, and hedges ; the wire-worm is
said to live in very rotten horse muck.
A. Ruficaudis (Red-tailed click-beetle), is a species so abundant in
cornfields, from April to July, that its wire-worm is no doubt very de-
structive, and it is supposed to resemble those of Agriotes lineatus, and
A. ohecurus, except that it is larger. The beetle is downy, with short
ochreous hairs; the head and trunk are black, and very thickly punc-
tured; the wing-cases are hazel-brown, with eighteen punctured furrows;
the wings beneath are ample, and it is often seen flying ; the legs and
under sides are reddish-brown, the trunk and breast darker, often
blackish ; it is six lines long.
Fig. 48.
Bemhidium. — A genus of minute beetles. A small larva has been de-
tected doing considerable mischief to wheat crops, which is supposed
to be the offspring of a Bembidium. or of a Staphylinus. It is a little
creature, Fig. 48 (1), with strong jaws; minute horns and eyes; six
hairy, jointed legs, with simple claws; the tail is tubular, and furnished
with two jointed horns; and there are four series of spines down the
back and sides; seen in (2) when the insect is magnified. In October
these larvce have done great injury; the young wheat plants dying oflf
fast, owing to their cutting round the outside sheaths of the stem (3),
about an inch below the surface of the soil, to feed, it is supposed, upon
598
THE WHKAT PLANT.
the root and tender straw. On being disturbed, they nin into a hole
previously formed by them in the huslt of the seed wheat (4). Ono-
fifth of a crop has been destroyed by these animals in Suffolk.
Cephus Pygmceus (the Corn Saw
Flyj, is often not uncommon in
our cornfields, and abounds on
umbelliferous flowers, and the
long grass which springs up ou
the surrounding banks in June,
and early in July. The females,
Fig. 49 (1), natural dimensions
(2), which are most abundant,
lay their eggs in the stems ©f rye
and wheat, either below the first
joint, or just under the ear. The
young maggot consumes tlie in-
side of the straw, ascending and
sometimes perforating all the
Xi?-¥?l knots before it is fully grown,
W'v when it descends to the base of
the straw and cuts it down level
Fio. 40. with the ground at harvest time ;
the maggot in its case (3). It immediately incloses itself in a transpa-
rent case within the stump of straw, a little below the surface, and closes
its cell with excrement and bits of food.
There it rests secure through the winters, and in March it changes
to a pupa, and is transformed to a saw fly, occasionally as early as
April. The maggots (4) magnified at (5) are fat, wrinkled, and yellow,
with a darker head. The flies are shining black, with a yellow mem-
brane on the neck and at the base of the abdomen, across which are two
yellow rings and a spot in the male; the tip is also yellow, as well as
the mouth, hips, inside of thighs, shanks, and feet; inside of hinder
shanks and feet brown. Female larger ; two horns shorter and stouter ;
four wings smoky; face black; abdomen compressed, with a short black
oviduct at the apex ; hips and thighs black, tips of the latter yellow (1).
A parasitic ichneumon, called Pachymesus calistrator (6), natural
dimensions (7), infests the larvre of the Cephus.
No doubt clover crops encourage the wire worms, and clean fallows
diminish their numbers; and various checks to their increase may be
called to our aid in the cultivation of land, such as hard rolling after a
top dressing of lime, mixing spirits of tar, gas, lime, nitrate of soda, or
MIDGE OR YELLOW WEEVIL. 599
rape cake, with the soil. A crop of white mustard or woad it is sup-
posed, will drive them away, and mowing corn is believed, by some agri-
culturists, to banish them. If artificial means be resorted to for their
extirpation, it has been proved that hand picking, tedious as it may
eeem, is the most effectual, and not a very expensive mode of clearing
the land of these pests.
A little fly (Proctotrupes viator) insinuates itself among the loose
earth, to deposit its eggs in wire worms, and other subterraneous larvoe,
and does considerable service ; but it is on birds the farmers must depend
for assistance.
The crows, lap-wings, gulls, starlings, pheasants, partridges, black
birds, thrushes, wagtails, and robins, can all make a meal of wire worms,
and even the poor mole is most serviceable in this respect.
Cecidomyia Tritici (the Midge or Red Weevil) — Is an insect belonging to
the same genus as the Hessian fly, and at the same time that the family
resemblance is quite apparent there are specific differences in the appear-
ance and habits of the Hessian fly and the midge, which separate these
two members of the same family into quite distinct species, and ren-
ders separate description of these two exceedingly injurious insects
necessary.
The Cecidomyia tritici is ascertained to be the true cause of the fail-
ure, to such a great extent, of the wheat crop in Ohio during the past
few years; and it has, consequently, attracted unusual attention from
farmers, where the wheat crop has been found greatly deficient in well-
developed grains, on account of the ravages of this insect, which causes
an abortion of many of the grains in a head attacked by it, leaving the
grains which were not affected to mature healthily. This infertility of
part of the glumes upon a head of wheat was formerly supposed to be due
to atmospheric influences entirely; but this has not been a well-ascer-
tained cause, while the influences of the midge are well established as a
definite cause of a partial abortion of the wheat heads, by destroying the
fertility of all the glumes upon which it has made its attack. This asser-
tion has been verified by very extensive observations in many depart-
ments of France.
To describe this insect, heretofore so little known, and to note its char-
acter and ravages, and means of prevention, if such there be, is an import-
ant entomological labor, and a careful examination of the whole question
involved is of vast importance to every individual, as upon the existence
or non-existence of the larvae of this parasite in our wheat fields, where
they may be found within the glumes about the time of flowering, de-
pends much human comfort or misery, small as the insect is. And men
whose modes of life present them with favorable opportunities for inves-
600
THE WHEAT PLANT,
tigation of these matters of interest, should improve their opportunities
for the advantage of themselves and fellow-beings.
The Oecidomi/ia tritici (improperly named wheat weevil by some persons;
this last name is more appropriately applied to the Calandra granaria,
hereafter to be described), is a small yellow fly, commonly called " The
3Iidffe,'' which makes its appearance about the middle of June, and can
be met with until the middle of July.
Fia. r>o. Fio. '>■!.
Till' female Cecidomyia Irilici much enlarged, — the
fipiire to the right is u view of the ovipoBitor mag-
nified.
FiQ. 51.
Toward sunset they leave the lower part of the wheat stalks upon
•which they had taken shelter during the day, and may be see in myriads
about the flowering time of wheat, when thej' sally forth during the early
part of the evenings to deposit their eggs in the glumes of the wheat,
just before it blooms. They remain on the wheat heads during the night;
and sometimes two or three of them may be found depositing their eggs
upon the same glume. They resemble common gnats somewhat in ap-
pearance, and are classified with them in entomological descriptions
The body is less than one-twelfth of an inch long, of a citron yellow, or
sometimes inclined to orange. The eyes are proportionately very large,
and jet black; the wings are long and transparent. The female hiis a long
ovipositor, about the size of the thread of the silk-worm (see Fig. 52),
which she thrusts into the same place between the glumes of the spike-
DEVELOPMENT OP THE MIDGE.
601
let as that from which the wheat grain is to spring (see annexed Fig.
51), where the eggs are sheltered, hatched, and nourished. This deposit
begins when the wheat head emerges from its sheath of leaves, and is
terminated when the head is in Viloom; after which they never deposit
their eggs, as the grain will be far too advanced to furnish the larvae
their nutrition if deposited after flowering. Tardily flowering heads still
continue to be attacke i, and thus the process of deposit continues from
about tlie middle of June until in July.
The larvae, when hatched, are white, but soon become yellow, and have
been found in numbers from fifteen to twenty upon a single kernel
of wheat, from which they derive their nourishment., and thus prevent
the development of the grain upon which they feed. If the number of
larvae in a single glume be large, ten or more, the material for
the formation of the grain will be entirely absorbed ; but if
only a small number be present, they merely divide the nutri-
tious materials with the grain, which is then partly developed,
as seen in the figure of a defective grain (see Fig. 53). They
begin their injurious work when the grain is in the formative
state, and continue it until the milk hardens, and they produce
a livid, spotted, or faded appearance of the glumes infested by Fig. 53,
them; but this change of appearance becomes less
marked as the head ripens, although the injured
glumes turn yellow more rapidly than the healthy
ones, as the natur;il hnniidity of a perfectly-formed
g-ain is wanting to delay the drying of the glume.
The engraving (Fig. 54) shows the larvae surround-
ing the young grain.
The larvffi, to attain their perfect development,
must reach and take shelter in the earth; and to
do this, they bend themselves into an arc, and, like
the so-called skippers in a cheese, spring out and '*'■
fall to the ground. Some of the larvae remain in the heads, as exceptions
to the rule, and attain a perfect development the following year after
having wintered in the barn. Those which reach the earth, which they
do just before or at the time of harvest, seek shelter near the roots of
the wheat stalk, and, burying themselves to a slight depth be-
neath the surface, lie dormant until the next spring, when they assume
the pupa, then the imago, and lastly the perfect form, about the middle
of June, as already slated, and may then be found resting on the ground
during the day, whence they soar away, like their progenitors of the
preceding year, to propagate and destroy. When they greatly increa>-e
in any one locality, the parasites which feed upon them increase in a like
51
602 THE WHEAT PLANT.
or even greater ratio, and soon ditniuish the progeny to a safe limit
again, and for the next few years thej' are not likely to do much harm,
while some section not before, or at the time infested by them, be-
comes their held of destructive operation until their enemies there de-
stroy them, and thus they alternately attack and leave unmolested
diflerent regions at different times, and those places not yet visited by
it are more liable to destructive attacks in the few coming years than
those where the scourge has already prevailed greatly, and where it must
sbon fall a victim to its natural and inveterate enemies.
If the blighted appearance of a wheat field caused by the cecidomyia,
were caused, as is supposed, by the weather, then there would be no rem-
edy, and no means of predicting a failure of the crops; but such failure
may be tbretold by observing the numbers of the insects engaged in
depositing their eggs, or a little later by examining the wheat heads to
ascertain the prevalence of the larvae. To do this, take a few heads
of wheat at random, from a field, count the number of sound and
affected grains, and the average of the crop may be easily calculated.
The loss in some departments of France amounted in some years to
one-eighth, then one-seventh, then one-half of the entire croj). particu-
larly in early sown wheat, which the cecidomyia attacked and destroyed,
and were then powerless to do further harm to late flowering wheat, as
the eggs being once deposited they are done with their labor prelimi-
nary to the damage they cause.
Parasites of (he Cecidomyia. — Simultaneously with the appearance of
the yellow insect called midge, appears another quite different, being
easily distinguished from it, although of nearly the same size, by being
entirely black, having four colored legs, and being seen during the
entire day. This insect is not, as has been thought, an enemy, but is a
protector of the wheat-field, being the natural enemy of the cecidomyia,
upon the progeny of which its young are fed, and without which our
fields would soon cease to yield us a crop of wlieat at all. It accom-
plishes its work of destroying the eggs of the cecidomyia bj' thrusting
its long lance-shaped ovipositor through the glumes of the grain, and
depositing its eggs within those of the midge ; both insects being often
found accomplishing their distinct missions at the same time upon the
same ear of wheat ; and although the destruction of the larvae of the
cecidomyia does not save the wheat crop of the current year, as these
larva; reach a development at the expense of the sap destined for the
grain, yet they then perish, while the larvae of the parasite living upon
them give origin to an insect in their stead not injurious to succeed-
ing crops. If, then, the cecidomyia be abundant and the parasites few
in number one year, the next crop will be very meager, but if the para-
HOW TO ESCAPE THE RAVAGES OP THE " FLY." 603
sites be very numerous, then the cecidomyia will be nearly extermi-
nated, and seek a new section where it may prevail, as it usually does
in one i)lace, for two or three years, and then fall again before the
increasing numerical strength of its deadly enemy.*
Means of Destroying the Cecidomyia, or providing against its ravages. —
The parasite mentioned we regard as the greatest destructor of the
midge, besides which there are at least two others less common, and
there is another auxiliary found in a small spider who spreads his net
for the midge near the roots of the wheat stalk. But we should not
depend upon these means alone to cure the evil where its exists, or pre-
vent its iavasion of new territory. The ravages of the insect are very
unequally great in different years ; and this is owing, doubtless, to some
definite cause or set of causes, which we should endeavor to learn, and
which we might, perhaps, modify to our great advantage. And all
the habits and transformations of the insect and attending circumstances
being carefully noted may lead us to a knowledge of these causes.
When the eggs are deposited in the glume we can do nothing for
the present harvest, but a preventive of future evil may be learned per-
haps, from entomologists. When the larvae reach the ground they pene-
trate only to a short depth, and changing into a chrysalis state lie there
during the winter, unharmed by the frosts ; but a deep plowing would
turn ihem so far under that they would mostly perish, and then the
wheat crop might be drilled in so shallow as not to turn them up again.
Again, entomologists know that a hot sun and dry atmosphere are fatal
to chrysalides, and a repeated light harrowing of the gi-ound which
contains these larvse would expose vast numbers of them to this cause
of destruction. Mineral manures might also be found very efficacious
as a means of their destruction. Mr. Paul Theward, of France, has
succeeded in destroying the Eumople or vine-hopper by an application
of oil cake, of colza and rape-seed powdered, we believe, and prepared
in a particular manner, >)ut not heated in its preparation above 21 2° of
Fahrenheit. Would not this prove an efficacious remedy for the midge ?
* Dr. A«a Fitch, State Entomologist of the State of New York, is of the opiiii magnified. 7. pupa. 8. Base of leaf nlieath swollen
from worms having lain under it and perforated by parasites coming from these worms.
9. Place where the larvae are found in autumn, a. stalk of wheat attacked by the fly.
6. c. healthy wheat plant. ,
The female deposits her eggs upon the young wheat leaves in Septem-
ber and May, between the minute ridges of the blade. They appear as
minute reddish spots, and are cylindrical in shape, being about one-
fiftieth of an inch in length, and one-two-hundred and fiftieth in
width.
The eggs laid in the autumn hatch in a week, if the weather he warm,
or two or three weeks if cold and unfavorable, and produce white mag-
gots, which pass down the leaf, between the sheath and stem, until it
reaches the first joint or crown, and remains fi.\pd upon the stem, head
downward, Fig. SS, 3, until it assumes the pupa form.
The young fall wheat attacked by these maggots, withers next spring,
while others proceeding from the same root will remain unaflfected, and
CECIDOMYIA DESTRUCTOR. 611
this death is caused by the nutritious juice being abstracted from the
shoot. The spring-hatched maggots attach themselves to the second or
third joint of the plant which is better able to resist their injurious
influence. Fig. 58, a, represents a plant withering from the effect pro-
duced by these maggots, while the stalk 6, a tiller from the same root, is
unaffected ; and hence wheat which tillers well is less liable to suffer
extensively than varieties less disposed to this process.
The maggots seem to live by suction alone, as they do not penetrate
the stalk, and the injury they cause to summer wheat seems to be by
their pressure between the leaf and inclosed stem, preventing the cir-
culation of s ip, and the deposition of silica upon which the strength of
the wheat straw and its ability to resist winds, etc., greatly depends.
Sometimes a swelling or gall (Fig. 58 — 8), is produced by their presence.
Those varieties of wheat which have a naturally strong tendency to the
deposition of silica and the formation of a hard flinty stalk, have been
found to resist the attacks of the fly best, and for the reason that they
are better able to resist breaking by the winds. Moreover, tillering
well, which is an indication of health and vigor in the plant, may
compensate for the injurious effects of the presence of the maggot,
wlieu not in overwhelming numbers, and good tillage and careful
selection of seed will do much to prevent detrimental attacks of the
insect.
The fall-deposited egg hatches out a maggot which makes its way
down the stem and is soon transformed into a dormant larva, surrounded
by a case formed of the skin, which remains in the position marked at
3, Fig. 58, a stem from which the leaves have been stripped, during the
winter, without undergoing any marked change. This pupa is seen
magnified at 5, Fig. 58. A magnified dorsal view of the active worm
or larva is given at 4, and a lateral view of the same at 6, Fig. 58.
AVhen spring arrives, the dormant larva becomes transformed into a pupa,
or chrvsalide, and after remaining in this position ten or twelve days,
the pupa-case bursts and the perfect insect emerges, about the flowering-
time of the early spring flowers.
The larvae of the Hessian fly have by their capacity to pass into the
dormant-larva condition a great power to resist extremes of temperature
and atmospheric changes during the winter; how they resist, like other
pupae, the tendency' to freeze during the intense cold of our northern
winters is a mystery ; but that they do so may be determined by examin-
ing the partially developed pupa which will be found flexible, as in the
case with the pu[)Oe of some other insects which have been found unfro-
zen, although the temperature had sunk to many degrees below the
freezing point.
612 TUE WHEAT PLANT.
The progeny of the fall fly whicli have passed the winter in repose
upon the stalks of llie wheat, in the spring become developed into the
perfect insect state, and ilien make a new deposit of eggs upon the same
Stalk which gave them lodgment during the winter, or the ueighboring
ones, but upon leaves a little higher up, as the radial leaves are now
more or less withered. The worm hatches, makes iis way to the base
of the leaf of the first or second joint, where it does not so greatly in-
jure lue plant but that it may become well developed ; but a slight swell-
ing usually points out its place of rest. Commonly, however, the stalk
bends or breaks, and gives a badly infected field an appearance as
though a herd of cattle had run through it. The worm attains its
growth about the first of June, becomes a pupa, and undergoes its trans-
formation to the perfect stale and emerges a complete fly during the
last of July or first of August, to recommence its depredations upon the
fall wheat.
The Cecidomyia destructor is subject to the attacks of numerous para-
sites which serve to moderate its multiplication vtry greatly. When
the eggs are deposited upon the wheat leaves, they are visiied by a min-
ute four-winged insect, of the Plalygaster family, elsewhere described,
and punctured by it, and receives a deposit of from four to six eggs of
this insect within each egg of the fly attacked, and with these within
and feeding upon it, passes on to the dormant-larva state, when it dies,
and these, its destroyers, at a proper season, escape from its empty shell.
Three other minute insects attack it in the larva state, of these the most
common is the Ceraphon destructor of Say, which, alighting upon a wheat
stalk, instinctively sting through the stalk into the larvie in their dor-
mant state, deposit an egg which hatches to a maggot, which lives in
and feeds upon the worm or the fly. The attacks of these and other
foes ot the Hessian fly are so destructive that probably not more than
one-tenth of the eggs deposited by it ever arrive at maturity. The
second generation of the fly, that is, those hatched in the summer, are
seemingly most subject to the attacks of these parasites.
The means of preventing the ravages of the Hessian fiy, which have been
proposed and practiced, are very various, but none can ever be found
probably, which will entirely destroy the insect, or wholly prevent its
ravages, as the laws of equilibrium between vegetable and animal life,
are such that they can not be set entirely aside, and we can only hope to
restrain their attacks within comparatively harmless limits.
A fertile soil, rich in all the constituent elements necessary to a heal-
thy growth ol the wheat plant, is of the first importance This it lies
within the power of the agriculiurist to control by proi)er manuring,
plowing to a proper depth, etc., aud it is even supposed that the Hessian
HOW TO PREVENT RAVAGES BY THE FLY. 613
fiy has been a benefit by compelling farmers to adopt a better mode of
culture than was formerly in vogue in some places, and still is in many
sections, and this improved culture has had the effect not only of lessen-
ing the ravages of the fly, but of increasing the productiveness of the
belter cultivated lands.
Late sowing is one of the best and easiest remedies for the fly, as it
perishes before late sown wheat has made its appearance, and to avoid
those accidents and diseases incident to late sown wheat proper means
hare been pointed out in the appropriate place, as draining, manuring,
littering, etc. Grazing, rolling and mowing, have been recommended as
good remedies, either to reijiove or destroy the eggs and larvne. Fly-
proof ivheats, that is, such varieties as tiller well and have a hard sili-
cious stalk, have been recommended, and found to offer a good means
of lessening the injurious attacks of the jly. For a description of varie-
ties of wheat possessing these properties, see the list of the varieties
and characteristics of the plant in the preceding pages of our article
upon that subject.
Soaking seed wheat has been noticed in connection with other subjects,
and may be referred to here. Various materials have been used in so-
lution, to hasten the germination of wheat, particularly when sown late,
and some of the materials acting as manures give the wheat greater
vigor and strength to resist the effects of the fly. Hot salt ivater (not
hot enough to kill the germ in the grain), applied to wheat upon which
a mixture of charcoal dust, guano, sulphate of ammonia, and other in-
gredients was used by a Mr. Pell, of New York, with a seemingly good
effect upon the productiveness of the cpop.
Oats as a decoy has been sown, and then, after the fly had deposited
its eggs, the oats were plowed in, but this is equivalent only to late
sowing.
Decoy tuheat patches have been sown in the middle of fields, and the
flies being attracted to these, have deposited their eggs before the later
sown portions of the field had grown up, and were then plowed under, but
this is not a very efiBcient remedy in years bad on account of the great
numbers of the flies.
Deep covering is not good, as will be seen by referring to where this
subject is mentioned, late shallow sowing being equal as a remedy, and
far superior for promoting the growth of the plant.
Procuring seed from uninfected districts is useless. Sun drying is equiv-
alent to late sowing. Sprinkling with salt lime and other supposed reme-
dial agents amounts to manuring only.
Burning and plowing up the stubble are good local remedies, if per-
614
THE WHEAT PLANT.
formed immediately after harvest, but to be of the greatest utility
should be practised in most, or all, of the infected district simultane-
ously. But if a wheat stubl)le field be twice plowed, the second plowing
brings up the eggs, and many of them hatch out, and the fly is not
destroyed.
Late sowed wheat is liable to the midge, rust, and smut, and to avoid
all these contingencies at once, late sowed wheat should be properly
stimulated to rapid germination and vigorous growth by proper soak-
ing, shallow covering and good manuring, deep plowing, and a selection
of an early ripening kind. These, with the other means pointed out,
will in all ordinary years be sufficient to .guard the wheat from the
attacks of this one of its worst enemies.
Why this insect and many others should be more abundant some years
than others, it is at present impossible to determine with certainty; but
one thing is well established, that a constant and wide-spread culti-
vation of its favorite food, the wheat, insures it the means of subsist-
ence, and favors its propagation so greatly that its eradication can
hardly be conceived to be within the bounds of possibility, and the
unknown conditions upon which depend its extraordinary multiplication
in particular years, may always be so far looked for as likely to occur,
as to stimulate the farmer to a constant care both as to the manner of
cultivating wheat and to a rational and suitable rotation of crop?, to
avoid, as far as possible, any sudden increase of this pest from affecting
his interests seriously. And the intelligent agriculturist will seldom
suffer serious loss if he apply his knowledge to a practical use.
Calandra GRAXAiHA (granary Wccvily
one of the most destructive insects which
live among stored corn and wheat. About
April, or as soon as the weather is warm
enough, the beetles pair, after which the
female burrows into the corn heaps, and
pierces a minute hole with her beak in
a grain; Fig. o9, 3 or 4. laying an egg
Fio. 59. in each, until they are all deposited,
Fio. 59. Calandra grauaria or ^^;^,j ^^^^^ j^ ^^^ ,,j,ji, ^^^ approach of
Granary weevil. „, i . i j
, ,, autumn. The maggots soon hatch, and
1. Pupa. '^^
2. Perfect insect magnified. feed upon the flour until the husk alone
3. Insect emerging from grain of jg igi't ; each grain supplying sufficient
•^°''"- nourishment to bring its inhabitants to
maturity, when it changes to a pupfl»
Fig. 59 (1), and in about six or seven
4. Orain of wheat from wliicli the
insect has escaped.
5. Natural size.
CALANDRA GRANARIA. 615
weeks from the time of pairing, the perfect weevil is hatched, and
eats its way out of the grain.
Unless the weevils are seen walking over the corn, it is difficult to
detect their presence until they have been at work some time, and the
holes of their exit become visible in the empty grains. Fig. 59 (4). On
throwing a handful, however, upon water, their operations are mani-
fested by the floating kernels. The grain weevils can not endure cold,
being natives of more southern regions ; and, consequently they desert
the grain heaps on the approach of winter to seek a warmer abode in
the chinks of walls and crevices in beams or floors, etc., so that if the
old stock of grain be then removed, unless the weevils be ejected or de-
stroyed, they are ready in the spring to commence upon fresh samples of
any sort of grain, although they give preference to barley and malt.
Corn, however, sometimes suflFers greatly from their inroads, as well as
wheat and oats.
Of course the eggs are extremely minute;, the maggots have no feet
are white and fat, with horny ochreous heads, armed with little jaws;
the pupa is of a transparent white, disclosing the members of the future
weevil through its clear skin.
The beetle is one of the Curculionidje, and is appropriately named
Calandra granaria. It is nearly two lines long, Fig. 59 5), magnified
at (2) smooth, shining, a little depressed, and varies from a dark chest-
nut to a pitchy color; the head is furnished Avith two small black eyes,
and narrowed before into a proboscis, which is shortest and thickest
in the male; at the apex are placed the jaws and mouth, and before the
eyes it is a little dilated, where the slender elbowed horns are attached ;
these are nine-jointed, and terminated by a little ovate club; the thorax
is large and narrowed before to receive the head; it is coarsely and
thinly sprinkled with oval pits ; the wing-cases are short and oval,
with eighteen deep and punctured furrows down the back; it has no
wings ; the six legs are short and stout ; the shanks are hooked at
their extremities; the feet are bent back in repose, being four-jointed,
the third joint heart-shaped, fourth furnished with two claws.
C. OryzcR, the rice weevil, is another species not less destructive
abroad, especially to the rice of the East Indies, to wheat in the southern
States of Europe, and to the corn of Guinea. Fortunately, our climate
is too cold for them, so that it is doubtful if they breed in Ohio, al-
though the beetles are no uncommon inhabitants of rice, etc. Its
transformations are similar to those of C. granaria, but the weevils are
rather shorter and not so smooth, they vary from an ochreous or golden
color to chestnut or pitchy, according to the age; the eyes are black;
the thorax is rough, with strong crowded punctures, the wing-cases are
616 THE WHEAT PLANT.
broadest at the base, with rows of punctures down the back, forming
ridges; in the dark specimens, four large paler spots are very visible
on the back, two at the base, and two toward the tail. It has a pair
of ample wings folded beneath ; the legs vary but little from the fore-
going species.
Merapnrus Graminicola (or an allied species of Chalcididm) is para-
sitic on the larvse of the rice weevil, Calandra oryzw. It is only two
thirds of a line long, and like a minute ant, but of a glossy blue-black
color; head hemispheric, with an eye on each side, and two shorthorns
in front; thorax oval; abdomen elongate conic; wings none or rudi-
mentary; six legs, stoutish and ochreous, with brown thighs.
No better remedy for the weevil is practicable than to omit storing
grain in the granaries infested by them, for one or two years, until
these insects have perished or eniigvated. Perhaps fumigation with
burning sulphur might, where practicable, be found a good remedy.
Chlorops is a genus of insects which reduces the value of corn crops
to a great amount by depositing eggs in the young wheat, barley and rye.
These eggs produce maggots, which either eat through the base of the
central stalk, destroying the ear, or by working up the straw. Fig. 60,
the ear is rendered more or less abortive. There are several species
which are engaged in these operations.
C. Lineala (the striped wheat-fly) lays its first brood of eggs in June,
when the ears are just appearing; they are placed at the lower part of
the ear, at the bottom of the sheath ; they hatch in about fifteen days,
when the maggots pierce the tender straw, and make a narrow channel
on the same, up the ear. Fig. 60 (6)-(ll)-(12), it there changes to a brown
pupa. Fig. 60 (12), toward the middle of the furrow, and the flies hatch
in September, laying their second batch of eggs upon the rye and other
corn, recently sown. The fly is yellow; horns, and a triangle on the
crown, black; thorax with five black stripes; abdomen with dusky
bands, and a dot on each side at the base; apex yellow; legs yellow;
anterior feet black, the others yellow ; with the two terminal joints black;
length one and a half lines.
C. Tceniopus (the ribbon-footed corn-fly). Fig. GO (2), magnified at (3),
is the species which does the greatest mischief in England, causing the
disease in wheat and barley called the gout, from the swelling of the
joints. The fly is pale yellow ; horns black, and a black triangle on the
crown; thorax with three broad black stripes, and a slender black stripe
on each side, also a black dot on the side of the breast; abdomen pale
greenish black, forming four black bands and two dots at the base;
OHLOROPS.
617
wings transparent; poisers white; legs ochreous, basal, and two termi-
nal joints of forefeet black; the others, with the two apical joints only
black ; length one and a half line.
'^^=2^3r> CCnirJ$S5^
Fig. 61.
Fig. 61. 1. Chloi-ops tsenioptis, or ribbon footed wheat fly. 2. natural size. 3. same
magnified. 4. larva or maggot of same. 5. pupa of same. 6. one of the pup* fixed in
the stalk. 7. Cwlinus niger (natural size). 8. Ccvlinus niger, magnified. 9. Ptero-
malus micans (natural size). 10. Pteromalus micans, magnified. 11. larva of Chlorops
containing the larvas of CVelinus niger. 12. point of escape of C. niger from the indu-
rated skin of No. 6.
These flies also deposit their eggs between the leaves in the autumn,
and in spring, when the maggots live in the base of the .stem; and, of
course, destroy the shoot, or render the ears unproductive — the wheat
sometimes altogether failing; in other instances, one side only of the ear,
with the greater portion of the grain, becomes shriveled. The maggots,
Fig. 61 (4). are whitish, shining, tapering to the head, blunt and tuber-
cled behind; the elliptical pupa3 (5) are of a rusty color and fi.xed in the
groove of the stalk (6) or inside of the closed leaves; from which the
flies crawl forth with their crumpled wings in August, and are found
in stacks through the winter.
Asa Fitch, who has devoted much attention to the study and descrip-
tion of noxious insects, has described, among others, the species of
Chlorops peculiar to the country of North America, and particularly to
the portion embraced by New York and the adjacent States, with Canada.
o2
618
THE WHEAT PLANT.
Fig. 02.
Wheat Mow Fly, natural size 1-12 of an inch
iu length.
Tliese are suflRciently like their
relatives already described to
render an extended notice of
them unnecessary. They are all
more or less destructive to the
wheat plant, and thus Torce them-
selves upon the attention of agri-
culturists, and will ultimately
meet with such a careful exanii
nation by th>s class of citizens as
to be far better known than they
are at present. Figs. 62, 03, are
magnified views of the American
varieties of the Chlorops, and do
not require lo be more carefully
described, as the European spe-
cies described and figured in this
article are so like them, that, ex-
cept for the purposes of nice
entomological distinction, a de-
scription of the form and habits
of one might serve as a basis of
acquaintance with the other.
There is a parasite named
Ccelinus niger, Fig. 61 (7), mag-
nified at (8), which punctures
the maggots; and these again
fall victims to the beautiful little
Pteromalus micaus (9), magni-
fied at (10).
Ca'Unvs niger is a small ichneu-
mon fly, parasitic upon Chlorops
(Fig. 61). The eggs are supposed
to be laid in the maggots, in the
stem and spalhes of the green
wheat, feeding upon the former
^"^' ^^' as soon as they hatch, and under-
g. Wheat flies. . ^j^^j^. transformation in
3. Deceptive wheat fly, natural size and mag- K"" fe p ., on^
„i,.,p,, the indurated skin of the thlo-
4. Coinm n wheat fly, natural size and mag- ^ops maggot (11). The Coelinus
nified. hatches several days before the
5. Shank banded wheat fly, natunil size and ^.^^ ^j eatS a hole through
magnified.
CUCUJUS PESTACEUS.
619
the leaves to escape (12). There are twelve British species, which are
abundant from Midsummer to Michtelmas, in meadows; tlie one bred
from the wheat Chlorops is named C'celinus nigcr (7), magnified at (8),
being of a pitchy color; the two long-jointed horns, head, and trunk, are
glossy black; the abdomen is narrowed at the base; the ovipositor of the
female is scarcely visible ; the four wings are transparent; stigma brown j
legs slender; four pair ochreous, with dusky feet.
Cucujus Festaceus. —
This minute corn bee-
tle inhabits granaries
and mills, eating into
the wheat, and depos-
iting its eggs, which
produce little ochre-
ous larvaj, with fork-
ed tails. Fig. 64 (1),
magnified at (2), that
feed upon the farina,
and, with the weevils,
do great mischief. In
all probability they undergo their transformation in the grain.
The beetle (4), magnified at (3), is depressed, and bright fulvous,
finely punctured, and clothed with short ochreous down ; the head is
large, with two little black eyes, and two straight eleven-jointed horns;
the thorax is squarish, the wing-cases of six indistinct ridges, and con-
ceal a pair of ample wings; it has six small legs. Fig. 64 (5) and (7)
are Trugosita mauritanica (see p. 628), and its larvae, which also injure
grain.
Micropus Leucopterus (Say), the chinch bug (Fig. 65 natural size
and greatly magnified), is undoubtedly one of the most pernicious
insects, according to the writings oF Asa Fitch, which we have in the
United States. Although not confined to the southern portion of this
country, its destructive habits have been most severely felt in that sec-
lion. It is a small insect, of coal-black color, with snow-white wing-
covers, which are laid flat upon its back.
They made their appearance in North Carolina in 1783, and by 1785
had become so numerous and destructive as to cause the culture of wheat
to be abandoned in some districts for four or five years, and again became
destructive in the same State in 1809, and probably at other times. la
the Cultivator, Vol. VI., p. 103, A. D., 1839, W. S Gibhes, of Chester, S.
C, describes their ravages in the wheat, oats and cornfields, as exceed-
ingly destructive, and was compelled to burn them, corn and s-.H. to save
620
THE WHKAT PLANT.
the parts of fields which had not yet heen attacked. The season he
describes as Lot and dry.
J. \V. Jeffries, of North Carolina,
describes their attack.s upon the wheat
fields as beginning late in May and
early in June, and as the wheat ripens
or is destroyed by them, they miprate
to other fields, oats, corn, etc., and then
to the woods, in incalculable numbers.
The rapidity of their multiplication is
great beyond estimation.
In 1840, the total destruction of the
wheat crop was threatened, but the
season became wet. and the insects were
destroyed, and their ravages were ar-
rested. About this time (1840-4), they
became known on the upper Missis-
sippi by the name of '' Mormon lice,"
as the Illinois people supposed that the
Mormons were the causers of this pest,
as our ancestors supposed that the Hes-
sian fly was bred by the German allies
of the British troops. It was described by Dr. Le Baron, as a most formid-
able scourge, devastating the fields of wheat and other crops, and emit-
ing a smell living or dead, which is most disgusting. In this section of
country many fields were burnt over to prevent spreadiug and to avoid
their return another year. It was noticed to be most abundant in the
south and east parts of fields, but in swampy places, the wheat or other
grain was untouched. It was but little noticed in wet sea.sons, but three
consecutive dry summers (1855), served to multiply it prodigiously.
Early wheat escaped its ravages, as did the first crop upon newly broken-
up prairies. The grain from injured fields is light and shriveled, when
compared with other samples
Various writers of the West, mention or describe this insect from 1850
to 18.')6, and all concur that, when numerous, it is very destructive, that
it first attacks the wheat fields, marching forward in the work of
destruction, with pretty well defined lines like an army, once in a while
sending out a small foraging party to destroy a small patch of wheat
or other grain, beside the main line of devastation. When the wheat
has been killed or cut, when it has become sapless, they march to other
fields, oats and corn, which latter they are said to cover so closely some-
Fio. r,,-i.
Upper fig. n.atiiral size.
Lower fig. magnified.
CHINCH BUG — MIRIS.
621
times, as to make the stalks look as though painted black. Wherever
they go ia numbers the grain dies.
These insects belong to the Hemipterous genus Rhyparochromus, fam-
ily hygoeidse. Length If lines, or 3-20 of an inch. Body black, covered
by a fine gray down, not visible to the naked eye ; basal joint of the
antennae honpy-yellow, second joint the same, tipt with black, third and
fourth joints black, head brown; wings and wing-cases white; the lat-
ter black at their insertion, and have near the middle two short irregu-
lar black lines, and a conspicuous black marginal spot ; legs dark honey-
yellow, terminal joint of the feet and the claws black. The young
individuals are vermilion red, thorax brown, with a white band across
the middle of the body, comprising the two basal segments of the abdo-
men. As they increase in size they become darker, changing first to
brown, and then to a dull black, the white band still remaining. The
antennae and legs are varied with reddish, and gradually change until
they assume the characters of the perfect insect.
They are propagated by means of eggs, deposited in the ground, and
are hatched out in the spring. They never appear, like insects of other
orders, as maggots ; yet in the larvae, or developing state, they differ
much from the perfect insect.
Dry seasons favor their production — wet kills them, hence the practical
deduction that drenching fields infested by them, copiously, by means of
a garden, or other watering engine, would afford a means of ai resting
their ravages ; and this might be done in many situations, with so little
labor and expense, that the grain saved from their rapacity would amply
repay for the outlay of means. There is no other feasible means of destroy-
ing them known at present, but, doubtless. Providence has placed within
the reach of human ingenuity, all the means needed for the preservation
of man, and the works of his bands, and necessity will prompt their dis-
covery sooner or later.
3Iiris erraticiis, Linn.,
is abundant in wheat
fields from the begin-
ning of July till late
in autumn; it is nar-
row, and three and a
half lines long, of a ^|
straw color; the horns
and legs more ochre-
ous, long, and slender;
the former black at
the base and apex ;
622
THE WHEAT PLANT.
the thighs spotted with black, and there is a broad slate-colored stripe
from the nose to the extremity of the wings when they are closed.
M. tritki, Kirby, is apparently only a pale variety of the foregoing.
It is very common in wheat fields, froii earing to harvest-time.
Fig. 60 (5), shows the natural size at rest; (6) the insect flying.
Lepidotus, or Elaler Ilolosericens (the Satincoated Click-beetle). — Noth-
ing is known of the wire-worm which produces this elater; it is deep
brown, variegated with shining ochreous rings and spots; the legs are
rusty, and the wings ample. It is abundant in wheat fields, under
stones, etc., from April to August. All the elaters have the power to
leap np when laid on their backs, by employing in a special manner
the head, the trunk, the base of the body or post-pectus, with four
carities in which the legs were inserted; the lobe being pressed into the
cavity in the chest and under the edge, the head and trunk are thrown
back, the lobe is suddenly liberated, and the animal is jerked up to
regain its feet.
Noctua (Agroiis) Tritici, Linn, (the wheat full-body moth), expands
from one and a quarter to on« and a half inches ; is ashy brown ; supe-
rior wings, with an oval and ear-shaped pale spot on the disk, and a
dark, elliptical one below; also two wavy lines beyond, and between
them is a row of pointed black streaks; the pinion edge is spotted;
inferior wings dusky, white at the base in the m^le; legs anuulated
with white. The caterpillar is naked and yellow, with three white lines,
and feeds on the ears of wheat.
N. Agroiis Lineolati, Har., is probably a variety of N. tritici, which,
from the myriads of moths that have occurred in Kent, just befor har-
vest, must greatly
diminish the wheat
crops in some sea-
sons.
Oscinm is a genus
of tlies closely allied
to chlorops, and sim-
ilar in its economy
e — the larvte being
^j very destructive to
1/ wheat before it cars,
0. G ranariuis(CHrt.)
seems to differ from
the other species, as,
from the little that
is known of it, the
Fiu. (;7.
osciNis. 623
larvae are presumed to live in the ears of wheat, as musca or chlorops
first does in those of the barley. Fig. 67 (1) represents a grain of
wheat, with the shining ochreous pupa attached (2); the fly hatched
from it expands only two lines; it is shining black, with a greenish
cast; the horns are small; the head is rather large with two lateral
eyes; the thorax is globose-quadrate; body conical; wings transparent,
ample, similar to those of chlorops, but the dark, cortal nervure extends
to the second apical one; club of balancers ochreous; four posterior legs
black, basal joint of feet dull ochreous (3, 4, magnified).
0. Pumilionis (Bierk), the Rye-worm fly, is very destructive to that
valuable crop in Sweden, stunting its growth, and causing the stems to
die; the little white maggots inhabit the base of the stem, changing to
yellow pupae the end of May, and the flies hatch the middle of June.
They are one line long, and yellow; eyes, horns, and a triangle on the
nape black; thorax and body black above; the former with two yellow
lines dowu the back; the poisers are white ; legs grayish, black at the
extremities; the fore legs bear two black spots.
0. Vasiator {Curt). — The larvae of this fly injure wheat crops to a
great extent; they are found in the spring near to the base of the stem
(b), and by eating through the plume (a) it can be drawn out; it there-
fore soon withers, and the future ear is destroyed ; they are yellowish, tap-
ering to the head, blunt at the tail; the mouth is furnished with two
black, horny points (d, g, the natural length). About midsummer they
change to elliptical rusty pupiB within the folds of the leaves (c, f, the
same magnified; e, the natural length). The flies hatch early in July,
and are very similar to 0. granarius in size and color, being shining
greenish black; the wing? lie flat on the back in repose, and extend con-
siderably beyond the body; all the nervures are pitchy; club of poisers
ochi-eous; base and tips of four anterior shanks rusty, as well as the
base of all the feet (3, natural size walking; 4, flying and magnified).
As the plants sometimes tiller after being visited by these pests, pulling
up and burning the plants is not always advisable. The best remedy is
the alternation of green crops, which do not attract the oscinis, and on
which their larvse can not subsist: for probably nothing tends more to
infect land with insect plagues, than successive cropping and slovenly
farming. But one of the best and most efiicient friends the farmer has,
is the female of a little black fly (5), which, with its long ovipositor,
pierces the infested stems and Lays its eggs in those of the oscinis; the
maggots of both hatch, one feeding inside of the othei", without hinder-
ing its growth, until they are full fed and change to pupae, still one
within the other; but instead of the fly of the oscinis, that of the para-
site comes forth to fulfill its mission — checking the multiplication of
624 THE WHEAT PLANT.
the baneful oscinis. The parasite is named by Nees von E?enbeck, Sig-
ali)liiis candatus; it is entirely black, excepting the transparent winf^s,
witli pitchy stigma and nervures ; the fore legs are tawny, excepting
the base of the thighs; base of the other shanks tawny; expanse of
•wings, If to 2^ lines (5)-(H) magnified.
Pachymerus Calcitrator (Grav.). is a parasitic ichneumon, which keeps
in check Ceplius pygmteus, whose larvae feed in the stems of rye, wheat,
and barley. This fly punctures the larvae when they are concealed in
the stem, and as soon as the eggs hatch, the parasitic maggots feed ujion
the others, change to pui)a> in the straw, and the ichneumon is bred from
them in June. P. calislrator expands half an inch; is shining black;
head large; horns like two longish brown threads, yellow beneath;
abdomen compressed, slender at the base; third and fourth joints red-
dish, remainder brown, edged with white: four wings ample; hinder
legs long and brown ; four anterior ochreous on the inside, hinder
thighs thick, the shanks sometimes tawny. Female antennae shorter;
abdomen spindle-shaped, four first segments reddish ; oviduct projecting.
dr^ptfci^ofzn^ Poli/Jcsmvs ComplanatuK, Linn., (the
*^^^^^^^^~ *«35S!a flattened Milliped), is often the most
destructive of all the species in the
^'G- *^'^- field and garden, eating in the spring
the roots of grain and vegetables, especially wheat, carrots, beans, and
onions; it varies from a quarter to a half an inch in length; is of a
pale lilac color, linear, and flattened; it has no eyes; the two horns are
short and clubbed; the body is composed of nearly twenty granulated
segments, with the hinder angles acute, and the tail niucronale. It has
between sixty and seventy legs, tapering, jointed, and of an ochreous
tint, Fig. 1 and 2 magnified.
Proctolrupes Viator (Hal.), is a parasitic fly, which lays its eggs in
wire-worms and other subterranean .larvae, thus being of great service
to the agriculturist. It is black and shining, the horns and legs red-
dish, dusky at their tips, the former are slender and thirteen-jointed; the
body is ovate conic, attached by a slender neck to the elongated thorax,
and the tapering apex is furnished with a stout curved ovipositor; the
four wings are transparent, almost nerveless, with a triangular brown
spot on the costa of the superior: they expand about one quarter of an
inch.
PLATYGASTER-PTEROMALUS. 625
PLATYGASTER TIPUL^.
This minute insect belongs to Proctotru-
pidce, and to it we are indebted for the
destruction of myriads of the wheat midge.
The female is of a shining black color ;
wings transparent; without nervures ; an-
tennae ten jointed ; bright ochreous ; thighs
and shanks clubbed ; feet long, slender,
and five-jointed. The tip of the abdomen
is armed with a long curved ovipositor,
with which it pierces the larvas of the ^^''- *"^-
, n 3 1 •! !_• I Fig. C9. 1, natural size, 2, mag-
wheat-fly and deposits an egg, which '^''- " ■ >
nified.
speedily hatching becomes a small grub,
that living upon the fatty matter of the midge larvae, ends by destroy-
ing it.
Curtis, one of the best European entomologists, says of this insect:
"This insect, of all others known, is the greatest enemy of the fly. It
does not like strong sunlight, but takes shelter within the husk of the
grain, and among the leaves. When about to deposit its eggs, it
travels over the whole head with great rapidity, and bending its body,
inserts the ovipositor, with a vibratory motion, into the larvEe of the
fly. In a short time the deposited egg hatches, and the grub begins
to feed upon its victim. By this means the immense increase of the
fly is reduced, as the stung larvse never become flies."
Pleromalus micans (Oliv.) is a brilliant parasitic fly, which hatches
from the stems of wheat infested by the Chlorops, Fig. 61. These
little creatures have the power of discovering the hidden larvse and
pupae, in which the female, Fig. 61 (9, 10 magnified), lays her eggs,
to live upon the fat and muscles of the Chlorops.
The sexes of P. micans are very dissimilar ; the male is of a lovely
green, with a blue or yellow tinge ; the flail-shaped horns are brown
and thirteen-jointed; the body is strap-shaped, black, smooth and shin-
ing; the wings are transparent, with a short curved nervure on the
costa, legs bright ochre, thighs pitchy, feet tipped with black. The
female is dull green; base of horns ochreous; the body is lune-shaped,
violet above, metallic green at the base; expanse three lines.
P. Puparum (Linn.) is bred in multitudes from the pupae of Pontia
Brassicce, and other white-cabbage butterfles. The sexes vary, and
resemble P. micans. The male is brilliant green ; horns, slender,
58
626 THE WHEAT PLANT.
tawny; body very glossy and golden green; wings limpid; legs bright
ochreous ; tips of feet pitchy. Female greenish-black; horns black,
ochreous at the base ; body shining black, often violet above ; base
metallic green; legs bright ochre; thighs pitchy, excepting the base
and tips; four hinder shanks brown in the middle; tips of feet black ;
expanse three lines.
Staphylinua is a genus of Rove-beetles, and a small larva, which is
presumed to be the offspring of some one of the species (possibly a
Tachyporus) has been detected injuring the wheat-crop, and destroying
one-fifth of the plants.
This larva is scarcely one-fourth of an inch long ; the head is fur-
nished with strong jaws, feelers, and two little horns; it has six jointed
legs, terminating in claws ; down the back and sides of the body are
four rows of spines, being four on each segment; the tail has a fleshy
foot, and two feelers, composed of four joints, which are useful in bur-
rowing. In October, these larvae attack the green wheat, causing the
death of the plants by cutting round the stem with their strong jaws,
about an inch under ground ; the object being to get at the white shoot,
which they eat. At this early stage of the crop, the empty husks of
the grain remain attached to the roots, and into these the larvae retreat
when disturbed, making them their habitations, and possibly cells also,
to undergo their transformation in.
Staphylinus, or Ocypus olens (Fab.), the Fetic, Rove-beetle, is one of
the largest and commonest species, and, from its ferocious appearance
when irritated, it is usually known as the devil's coach-horse. It is how-
ever a most useful insect to the cultivator, for, in its larvae state, it lives
underground, feeding entirely upon animal substances during the win^
ter ; in the spring it is full fed, and forms a cell beneath a stone or clod
to become a pupa. In September and October these beetles are abundant
everywhere, and occasionally a few are around in the spring; but it is
in the autumn they are most serviceable in destroying the ear-wiga
upon which they live. S. olens is of a dead black, thickly punctured,
and covered with short hairs ; the head is large, with two powerful
jaws; the horns are short; the wiug-cases are small, quadrate, and
cover two tawny wings, which are too short for flight; the body is long,
and it has six strong legs (the figure was given to the engraver,
but was not finished in time) . See Fig. 859, Morton's Encyclopedia
of Agriculture.
Tenebrio Moliter (Linn.) , (the meal-worm beetle), generates in flour,
bran, and meal bins, and is consequently found in granaries, mills, and
farm-houses. The beetles appear in April, May, and June. They are
TENEBRIO — TINEA.
627
smooth, slightly depressed
and of a pitchy, or chest-
nut color, especially the-
under side and legs; mi-
nutely and closely punc-
tured; head somewhat
orbicular, with two small
eyes, and short, slender,
even jointed horns; tho-
rax sub-quadrate ; hinder
legs acute: elytra ellip-
tical, with sixteen shallow
furrows, and beneath them '**■
ample wings, which are smoky on the costa; legs stout ; feet five-jointed,
hinder pair with only four joints (Fig. 70 (1); flying and magnified at
2). The meal-worm is cylindric, smooth, ochreous, with bright, rusty
bands, and a few scattered hairs ; two small horns, six pectoral legs,
and two minute spines at the tail (3). The pupa (4), is pale ochreous,
with the members visible, and two spines at the tail.
T. Obscurus (Fab.), is similar in form to the foregoing, but the beetle
is dull black ; the under side, horns, feelers, and feet chestnut color, and
the thorax is longer. The larvae is shining, pale brown, and prefers dry
and sound flour, while the other meal-worm prefers damp and damaged
flour. T. molitor is an old inhabitant of England, but T. obscurus has
been introduced with American flour, and is sometimes abundant in Lon-
don and the provinces. Cleanliness is the best guard against these
insects, and the meal-worm is a favorite food of nightingales.
Tinea Granella (Linn.), is a satiny and cream white; the head tufted
with little, dark eyes; the horns are long and slender, and in front are
two spreading feelers, between which is a short, spiral proboscis. The
body is blunt in the male, pointed in the female, with a retractile ovi-
positor; when at rest, the wings slope like the roof of a house, and
the fringe is turned up like a tail ; the superior wings are long and nar-
row, freckled with brown, and mottled with blackish spots, two being
on the same disk, three on the pinion edge, and toward the apex are
three smaller ones; the fringe is long and brown, with two or thi-ee pale
stripes ; the inferior wings are smaller, lance-shaped, and of a pale
mouse color, with a fine, long fringe. It has six legs ; the hinder shanks
long, hairy outside, with spurs at the apex, and a pair near the base;
the feet are long and slender. The larvae of this moth will also destroy
books, boxes, and woolen materials, as well as timber and grain. To
expel these troublesome and expensive visitors, in the winter the floors
628 THE WHEAT PLANT.
should be well scrubbed with hot water and soap, wheuever the g^-ana-
ries, etc., are empty, and the walls, ceiling, and beams, must be washed
with lime and water as hot as possible. The floors may also be sprinkled
with salt dissolved in vinegar; and salt, mixed with the grain, will kill
the caterpillars without injuring it. When the larvae are feeding in
the spring and summer, kiln-drying at about 78° of Fahrenheit will
kill them ; and currents of cold air, by means of ventilators are a safe
and certain remedy, as they become torpid and die if a low temperature
be sustained. The moths are best destroyed as soon as they hatch in
April and May, by burning gas or some such powerful light, which
attracts them, and they are at once burnt or rendered incapable of gen-
erating the species. Frequently turning over the heaps will also
destroy the eggs and young larvas.
Trogosita Mauriianica (the Cadelle). — This imported insect is some-
times found in granaries and malt-houses in England, but it requires a
more southern climate to render it abundant. The larvas are called
Cadelle, in France, where they commit extensive ravages among the
stored corn. They will also feed on bread, almonds, rotten floors, and
dead trees. They live in this state a year and a half, and when full
grown are sometimes nearly three-quarters of an inch long; and by nib-
bling the outside of the grain they do much mischief. They are flat-
tened, fleshy, rough, with scattered hairs and whitish, tapering toward
the head, formed of twelve distinct segments besides the head, which is
horny and black, with two sharp, curved jaws ; the first segment has
two semi-oval brown spots, and the two following, two round ones on
each; the tail is horny, with two hooks; and they have six pectoral legs.
When they are ready to transform to pupae, they bury themselves in the
earth, or among any refuse at hand ; and the beetle which hatches from
them is the T. mauritanicus of Linnaeus, and the T. caruhoides of Fabri-
cus. — It is depressed, shining, and of a pitchy, or deep chestnut color,
and regularly punctured; the head is large, wiih strong jaws, two
small eyes, and before them two short clubbed horns; the trunk is
broader, somewhat orbicular, but narrowed behind, and broadest
before; with the sides margined, and pointed in front; elytra large,
elliptical, with eighteen delicately punctured lines; two wings beneath;
six short legs, and four jointed feet. The beetles ai-e long-lived, and said
to be carnivorous, destroying grain-moths, etc. See Fig. (54 (5)-(7).
Thrips cerealium (Hal.) is an active little insect, which resides in the
spathes and husks of wheat and rye in June, causing the grain to shrivel,
and at an earlier period eff"ecting the abortion of the ear, by puncturing
the stems above the joints, being the most injurious to late sown wheat.
In the larva; state they are deep yellow, with part of the head and two
WIRE-WORMS.
629
spots on the pro-thorax dusky ; the horns and legs are marked with
dusky rings ; the pupa is active and pale yellow, with the horns, legs,
and wing-cases whitish, the eyes reddish. The perfect insect is larger,
flat, smooth, shining, and pitch-color. The male is apterous, the head is
semi-oval, with a short stout proboscis beneath, a granulated eye on
each side, three simple ones on the crown, and two short nine-jointed
horns in front; thorax somewhat quadrate, narrowed before, body very
long, and acuminated in the female, which sex has four long narrow
wings, lying parallel
on the back in repose.
Fig. 70 (1), (natural
size 2), fringed with
very long hairs and
adapted for flight (3),
(magnified at 4) ; they
have six short stout
legs, the first pair of
shanks straw color,
feet very short, and
terminated by a little
gland. They are not Fig. 70.
free from parasites, and a little white mite feeds upon them.
T. minutissima (Linn.) lives beneath potato leaves in the summer, and
subsists upon the sap. The larvae are ochreous and sole-shaped, eyes
black, horns four jointed (5), (magnified at 6). The pupte are similar
and ochreous. The perfect thrips is of a pale dirty ochre color, with two
six-jointed horns; the lateral eyes are deep black; the trunk is elon-
gated, the collar ^ub-quadrate, hinder portions broader, and to this are
attached four narrow dirty-white wings, which are fringed with long
hairs, and folded parallel on the back in repose; the six legs are short,
stout, and simple; the body is pitchy, elliptical, nine-jointed; the tail
pointed and bristly (7), (magnified at 8) .
Wire-worms. — Complaints are occa-
sionally made of the wire-worm and
cut-worm, but a careful cultivation and
a proper rotation of crops has lessened
the evil produced by these insects.
A figure of the wire-worm (Fig. 71)
is given, the better to communicate a
knowledge of its true character. The Fig. 71.
parent insects (2, 3, Fig. 71) are familiarly known as the snapping bug,
from the sound it produces when thrown upon its back in making the
630 THE WHEAT PLANT.
peculiar spring by which it regains its position. There are several
varieties of the snapping bug, but the one most injurious is a brown
smooth bug, which is about an inch long, and is well known to
every farmer. The larvae or worm, which is the incompletely devel-
oped offspring of the bug, is about one inch long, having six feet; it is
tough, smooth and slender, and is said to continue five years before
being transformed into the perfect insect, during which time it feeds
upon the roots of wheat, barley, oats, corn, and grass. Its ravages are
sometimes extensive and desolating. Newly cultivated grounds or mead-
ows, which have not been cultivated for a long time, are most infested
by them, but they can be destroyed by cultivation, and if ground be
fallowed and exposed to freezing during the winter, this insect, as well
as the cut-worm, which has often needlessly been mistaken for it, may
be effectually destroyed. Fig. 71 (1) is the worm or larvaj wire-worm.
2 the perfect male insect; 3 the perfect female insecl — all of nearly nat-
ural size and general appearance. There are larger species which are
not nearly so numerous, and hence not so destructive as the one here
described.
The true wire-worms are the offspring of the elaters or click-beetles,
which lay their eggs in the field, where they hatch, become larvae or
wire-worms, are transferred into puptc, and from these the perfect click-
beetles emerge. It is believed that the female elater, of those species
so injurious to tield-CJ'ops, after pairing with the male, lays her eggs upon
or beneath the surface of the earth; they are small, round or oval, and
yellowish white. The almost invisible worms which hatch from these,
immediately attack the crops, whether of corn, turnips, mangold-wurzel,
potatoes, cabbages, or grass ; and during the five years they are arriving
at maturity, they no doubt moult their horny skins several times.
When full fed they form, generally in July or August, an oval cell deep
in the earth, and casting off the last coat, they are transformed to deli-
cate white pup;c, and in about a fortnight they become perfect beetles.
Wire-worms are not much unlike meal-worms, but they are more active,
burrowing into the soil with great facility when laid upon the surface.
The different kinds resemble each other considerably, the greatest dis-
similarity existing in the form of the tail. Sometimes the common
wire-worm will ascend into the stem of a plant to feed, and even come
forth at night, or in a dull day, to revel upon the leaves ; but they prefer
keeping beneath the soil, as they can not endure the sun or dryness;
and as they dislike cold, in severe winters they retire too deep into the
earth to do any mischief at that season. Crows, starlings, sea-gulls, lap-
wings, pheasants, partridges, wag-tails, robbins, blackbirds, thrushes,
fowls, and especially moles, keep down the wire-worms. There are even
ZABRUS aiBBUS. 631
insects which destroy them — one a ground-beetle, named Steropus madi-
dus, and probably many more of the Carabidae ; also a small kind of
ichneumon fly [ Froctoirupes viator), which is very abundant, and exam-
ines every chink in the earth to find a wire-worm, to pierce it with its
short ovipositor, laying twenty or thirty eggs in its victim, which pro-
duce maggots that feed on the wire-worm and destroy it.
The remedies to be employed are numerous, and can only be alluded
to here. It seems that turning iu sheep and cattle to feed off lays, by tread-
ing down the soil and saturating it with ammonia, prevents the beetles
from emerging from their cells, and kills the worms. Heavy rolling is also
beneficial in the spring. Top-dressings of soot, lime, gas-lime, salt, and
nitrate of soda, are more or less preventatives. Haud-pickiug is a cer-
tain remedy; and 12,000 wire-worms have been thus collected from one
acre of turnips. Slices of potatoes, turnips, carrots, etc., kept moist
under the surface will decoy them. A crop of woad or white mustard
will starve and banish the wire-worms.
Zabrus Gibbus (Fab.), (Corn Ground Beetle). — This is one of the
Caribidse, a carnivorous family, which, in its larva and perfect states, is
very serviceable in destroying the caterpillars and maggots which inlest
fields and gardens. Z. gibbus is, however, an exception, for both the
larva and beetle feed upon the crops. The beetles run about our grain-
fields in July ; they are six lines long, very convex and broad, of a pitch
color, smooth and shining; the mouth and legs are bright rusty; the
jaws are strong; the horns short, slender, and eleven-jointed; the
trunk is delicately striated across, with a faint line down the back;
there are sixteen finely-punctured furrows on the elytra, with ample
wings beneath; the legs are stout, shanks spiny, and formed for bur-
rowing; the lore-feet broadest in the males. Clusters of eggs are
deposited by the female iu the earth; the larvoa from which are whitish,
and slightly hairy; head, thorax, and a stripe down the body brown;
the head is large, with short horns, powerful jaws and feelers; and it
has six pectoral legs. During the three years they are in this state,
they excavate perpendicular and curved burrows in the earth, from a
few inches to two feet in depth; and about the beginning of June
form oval cells, in which they change to whitish pupa3, with dark
eyes.
In Saxony, the larvae have destroyed two sowings of whe;it, and then
attacked the rye and barley. They come out at night, and eat into the
stems of grain close to the surface, to feed on the pith.
The beetles afterward make their appearance in enormous quantities,
concealing themselves under clods by day, and at night ascending the
stems to feed upon the soft grain.
632 THE WHEAT PLANT.
Anguillula Triiici. — Among the enemies of the wheat plant, the An-
guillula tritici, which has been described by British and Conliiifutal
European writers, but which has not, so far as we know, been noticed by
any American authority, deserves a passing notice in the present work.
This it does because, although it has not been observed, as yet, to have
produced sufficient injury to the wheat crops in North America to have
forced itself into notice ; yet, from its peculiar nature and characteris-
tics, it may soon become, unless agriculturists are fortified against its
attacks by a knowledge of these, a dangerous and destructive enemy.
This worm belongs to the family of Helminthes nematoides, nearly all
the members of which are parasites, either of plants or animals, and is
the cause of the diseased condition of wheat, known in England as
mildew, and in France as niel, and possesses the very singular property
of suffering no detriment to its vitality by complete desiccation, of any
length of duration, and of being likewise unaffected by any of the nar-
cotics, or other vegetable poisons, of the alkaloid group, acting upon the
nervous system, suffering immersion in these of very considerable extent
of concentration of sohuion, without injury to its vitality.
It is found, in the wheat affected, to have replaced the flour, and pro-
duces a shriveled, wrinkled graiu, which, upon being broken is found
to contain a white powder, which being moistened and examined
by means of a microscope, is found to consist of numerous filiform parti-
cles, which are anguillulce, or wheat eel-worms. These worms in the
mature wheat, examined at any time, are always found without sexual
organs, and are therefore to be looked upon as in a transitional state.
When wheat containing them is sown, they are dry, shriveled, and
seemingly dead; but, absorbing moisture in the earth, they burst the
covering of the grain, and, emerging, find lodgment between the leaves
of the growing plant, near the center, where these are yet folded together
in the form of an envelop tor the form-
ing stalk and head. Fig. 72 is a
transverse, segmental section of a
young stalk of wheat, magnified 100
times, showing three of the interior
leaves, with two anguillulae between
these, as they are rolled or involuted
upon each other, and by creeping
among these leaves, the worms find
their way to the head of wheat, while
undergoing that process of develop-
jT' -, ment which occurs previous to its
"heading out." In Fig. 74, magnified
ANGUILLULiE TRITICI.
633
Fig. 74.
100 times, is seen a section of young wheat stalk, upon which two
anguillul?e (still in the larva state) are
seen, but into the tissues of which they do
not find entrance.
During the early stages of the develop-
ment of the wheat-head, while the future
chaflF, the stamens, ovary, and pistil are yet
rudimentary and composed of scales, as it
were, of soft cellular matter, the anguil-
lulas find entrance into the forming grain ;
but, if they do not reach the head until
these parts become distinct, and more con-
sistent, they are then unable to effect their
entrance at all.
Until these worms penetrate the form-
ing grain, they undergo no change after
being resuscitated by the moisture in the
earth, which was supplied to them when
the grain was sown ; but so soon as they
reach the grain, their change from the larva or rudimentary to the adult
state takes place, and they then exhibit the sexual organs, — the female is
impregnated by copulation, and deposits a vast number of eggs, and, ac-
cording to the law of insect existence, procreation being completed, the
parents perish, while the ova are developed to the larva state in what
would have been a wheat grain, and becomes desiccated when this dries
at maturity, and there wait a resuscitation when the wheat is sown again
in the fall. These lai-vae may be desiccated and resuscitated a vast num-
ber of times without destroying their vitality ; neither are they destroyed
by heat which is not sufficiently great to destroy the germinating capacity
of grain; nor does freezing kill them unless they are entirely surrounded
by water, and they are therefore difficult to destroy, in a remarkable degree.
The injury they effect is seen in the leaves of the wheat, occasionally,
which are shriveled and twisted and badly formed, as in Fig. 75, or they
present the shriveled, worm-eaten appearance represented by Fig. 76,
which is a magnified section of a leaf of mildewed wheat. But the prin-
cipal or only real damage effected by them is in the grains attacked,
which generally give lodgment to eight or ten larvoe, afterward trans-
formed into the perfect insect, and these deposit so many ova that the
grain never contains any flour, its development being entirely metamor-
phosed, and its place supplied by an envelop consisting of the bran, con-
taining the white flour mentioned, and which, at the maturity of the
wheat, is completely desiccated.
634
THE WHEAT PLANT.
Fio. 78.
I'lii. 7G.
The appearance of a wheat head attacked by the anguillulfe is very
irregular, no one head ever having all its grains attacked; the healthy
grains, with their huslo or chalf, reach their ordinary development, while
the diseased grains present a shriveled diminutive form, and the glumes
are contorted and smaller in size than natural, as indicated in the wheat-
head in Fig. 75.
These parasites are peculiar to wheat alone, and their propagation may
be prevented by choosing clean seed, proper screening, separating the
shriveled grains, which should be destroyed by burning, or by being
heated in an oven at so high a temperature as to destroy the vitality of
the desiccated larvie. or by soalsing the seed wheat for twenty-four hours
in a mixture of sulphuric acid one part and water one hundred and fifty
GORTYNA ZOJ£. 635
parts, which destroys the worm without affecting the germinating capacity
of the wheat. Rotation of crops also prevents their multiplication.
Care should be taken not to cast the refuse grains upon the manure piles,
as the worms, by this means, find their way back to the fields again.
Experiments instituted in France, for the purpose of determining the
matter, go to prove that the mildewed wheat, or the wheat damaged by
the anguillulce, is entirely innoxious when used as food by men or ani-
mals, but greatly lacking in its proper nutritive qualities.
Wheat may be attacked in the same bead, even, by other diseases and
parasites, at the same time as by the anguillulce. ; some of which may be
prevented by like means as recommended to obviate the attacks of this
enemy.
Gortyna Zoce. (Fig. 77). — At the reaping and
mowing trial held by the Board at Hamilton, But-
ler county, July 1, 1857, I found an insect affect-
ing the Barley. In July, 1858, I found the same
insect affecting the wheat in the vicinity of Columbus. In appearance,
it resembles the common spindle worm Gortyna Zoce (and for that reason
I have given it the above name, trusting that some competent entomolo-
gist will furnish the proper name) ; but if fully grown, is considerably
smaller. The cut is a correct representation of the living insect and of
the normal size. It has sixteen legs, the first pair of pro-legs being
rather smaller than the others. The color is a brownish black, the head
and first segment yellowish white, with a blackish lateral stripe. The
third segment has five white stripes ; the lower part of the abdomen
being of the same color. The antenn43
ages in the Asiatic islands, situate under the equator, between Conti-
nental Asia and Australia, may have passed from these islands into
China and spread as far as the Himalaya, where Heber observed it.
"Maize," says J. Crawfurd, "is next to rice the principal produce
among the great tribes of the Indian Archipelago. The word Jagung^
which is believed to correspond to indigenous, is the exjiression under
which this plant is known from one extremity of the Archipelago to
the other; there could; therefore, be little doubt that a single tribe must
iiave instructed ail others in that cultivation, as we saw it was done with
that of rice. Such a fact can not be demonstrated, but Ave are allowed
to think that maize was cultivated in the East Indies before the discovery
of America, and that this plant is an indigenous product. The name
of maize has no analogous word in the American tongues, although,
concerning animal and vegetable exotic productions, they have invariably
adopted, in all the Indian Archipelago, either the primitive name, or such
as to show the origin of the plant. It suffices to quote as an example
the pepper plant, the maugoo (mangifera Indicu), tiie hairy kidney bean
( phaselous Max, D. C.) ; the ewe which was introduced by the Hindoo ;
the orange-tree and the arachide, natives of China; the coffee-tree,
received from America through European nations."
Finally, a conclusive proof of the maize existing in the Old World, at
one of the earliest epochs, would be its presence within the monuments
of the highest antiquity. M. Rifaud, known by excavations which he
had made in Egypt, affirms to have found grains of that plant within
the tomb of a mummy discovered at Thebes in 1819. The following
details extracted from the unpublished narrative of this traveler, and
directed to me, deserve of being literally communicated.
"The grains and the ear of maize which I have discovered at Gournac
(Thebes), were found, says M. Rifaud, under the head of a mummy,
laid on a wooden cushion. The grains were within an earthen bowl,
the stem, eighteen inches long, still preserved its leaves. On the left
part of the mummy were seen small fruits, named in .\rabian nabac,
mingled with some grains of wheat and bulbs of a plant wherefrom the
inhabitants manufacture their beads. On the right part were aquatic
■vegetables, named in Arabian resche; there were also five or six loaves
of wheat bread. A garland and a crown of lotus blossoms ornamented
the corpse of the mummy. The coffin, made of sycamore wood, covered
with hieroglyphics, was inclosed within a sarcophagus of basilt; three
hundred and ninety small figures of baked earth surrounded the mum-
my. The wooden box was five feet seven inciies long, and the basalt
sarcophagus was about six feet. It was at the western part of Thebes,
644 THE CORN PLANT.
on the declivity of the Libic rixnge, that I made this discovery, alto-
gether accidental, since the little valley wherein the tomb lay concealed
had been explored by the Araliians during several j'ears."
Such are the authorities and principal documents that may be brought
forth to support the claim that the maize originated in the Old World.
But before declaring any decisive opinion, 1 will present in the same
order those which might establish the American origin of that plant,
and with this assumption, show that the name of Indian wheat came
to our forefathers, from the idea that the new continent was a part of
the Asiatic regions, comprised then under the general name of India.
At first, against the assertion of Bock, Kuel, De Fiulis, and other
botanists, who pretend that maize came from the East, we may array the
opposite affirmation of no less celebrated writers, such as Camerarius
and Mathioli; the former in a work printed in 1-588, invalidates Fuchs'
opinion by assuming that maize was brought from the West Indies, and
not from Asia; the latter, a most learned man, speaks thus about that
plant:
" We may reasonably include among the wheat that which is wrong-
fully called Turkish wheat; I say wrongfully, because it ought to be
named Indian wheat (formento Indiaiio), and not Turkish wheat, because
it came to us from the West Indies, and not from Asia or Turkey, as
Fuchs believes.'
Dodoens, Ray, and other botanists, either contemporaneous or subse-
quent, declared that Fuchs was mistaken, and that maize came from the
New World.
Furthermore, the name of Turkish wheat, or wheat of Turkey, given
to maize probably at the time of its introduction, and which it still pre-
serves, indicates no better its origin than the name of wheat of Egypt
(rnisrbogday), given to it by the Turks, or dourah of Syria, by the
Egyptians, and Sicilian grain, by the Tuscans; while it is called Indian
wheat, in Sicily; wheat of Rome, in Lorraine and Vosgcs; Spanish tcheat,
at the foot of the Pyrenees; wheat of Guinea or Barbary, in Provence.
These names, taken from the countries in which maize was cultivated at
various periods into neighboring regions, prove no more conclusively its
place of nativity than the names of Italian poplar and rice of Carolina,
demonstrate the spontaneous growth of the former in Italy, of the latter
in America. The name of Turkish wheat seems to me as improper in
regard to maize, as the word turkey (fowl of Turkey), used by the
English to designate a cock of India, a native of Americn.
Some authors, M. Dumeril among them, have thought that maize had
been named Turkish wheat on account of the long silk with which ears
ITALIAN MAIZE. 645
of female cora are garnished. It is useless to combat this explanation;
the costume of wearing plumes on the head being not peculiarly and
exclusively Turkish.
Let us examine, now, whether maize is well indicated by the words
melu/a, which is read in the charter of Incisa, and milica, which Cres-
cenzio and others used.
The minute description of the species of grain brought from the East
into Italy, at the beginning of the thirteenih century seems, it is true,
to answer for grain of maize, the basis of which inserted into the ears
axis is white, while the outer portion is yellow in many varieties; but
according to the interpretation of the word nieligahy the learned author
of the ^ora of Egyyl;-* the same may be applied to sorgho or millet of
India {holcus sorghum, L.), the grains of which pass in some varieties,
from yellow to w'lite. When we interrogate other authors upon that
score, we are answered by Cardan, from the sixteenth century, that the
wheat cultivated at the AVestern Indies, under the name mais, approaches
by its stature the plant designated in Italy by the name of milica or
sorghum. At the same time Caspar Bauhin said that the Lombards
named melaga, the plant known as saggina in Tuscany. Mathioli, who,
without doubt, did not confound the two plants, assures us that the
one known under the name of m.elega, was called melica, in Lombardy,
saggina in Tuscany, sorgho in many regions of Italy. George di Turre,
"an Italian botanist of the seventeenth century, says also with Cardan,
that the maize or Turkish wheat, imported into Italy, a few years since,
produced a stem similar to that of the plant named meliga or sorghum.
The academicians of Crusca, whose authority bears a great weight in
regard to language, render, in their vocabulary, the Italian word meliga
( in Latin melica) by saggina, finally Targioni-Tozzetti, author of a botan-
ical dictionary, justly esteemed, translates the words holcus sorghum, L.,
by melega, melica, melliga, miglio indiano, panico indiano.
It is only in the Piedmontese dialect that the name of melia or meliga
is given both to the zea and holcus, nevertheless distinguishing the latter
plant from the former by the words melia rossa or melia da ramasse (red
maize, or broom maize) ; while in Italian language maize receives the
name of grans Turco, sorgo Turcs, formentons, granojis, grano Siciliano,
grano d' India, and so forth.
Therefore, neither the charter of Incisa, nor the quotations from
Crescenzio and others, can decide the question, as long as it shall not
be proved that meliga or melica is a true maize. The grain brought
* Description of Egypt, published by order of Napoleon I., Na*. History, Vol. 2, see
thu spleniiid nnpy givon by France to thfi T''^nito(l States, Smitlisoninii Institnti>.
646 THE TORN IT, A NT.
by the Crusndcrs, might W a varietj' of sorgho or millet of India, then
unknown in the Montferrat.
Again, Crawliird's opinion upon the Indian origin of the maize, how
well grounded soever it may appear, is counteracted by M. de Hum-
boldt. " There is no doubt," says this universal savant, " in the minds
of botanists, that viais or Turkish wheal is a truly American wheat, and
that the new world gave it to the old world. When Europeans dis-
covered America, zea maiz, in Azteck language thaolli, in Haitian mahiz,
in Guichua cara, was already cultivated from tlie southern region of
Chili as far as Pennsylvania. According to a tradition of the Azteck
nations, the Toultecks introduced, during the seventh century of our era,
the cultivation of maize, cotton, and pimento, into Mexico. It might,
however, be true those various branches of agriculture were practised
before the Toultecks, and that this nation, whose advanced civilization
was extolled by historians, did nothing but spread it with success.
Hernandez informs us that the very Otomites, a barbarous, wandering
tribe, planted the maize. The cultivation of that plant was therefore
extended even beyond the Rio Grande of Santiago, formerly named
Tololotlan."
Indeed, no doubt can be entertained that the maize was cultivated
among the Americans, when P. Martyr, Ercella, John de Lcry, Laet,
Torquemada, and others, relate to us that the first Europeans wlio landed
upon the new world saw there, among other marvels, a gigantic wheat
with long smooth blades, elegant stem, and golden ear; this marvelous
wheat was the maize. Several nations celebrated its harvest amid
religious ceremonies; at Cusco, the holy city, abode of ihe Incas, the
virgins of the Sun prepared Avith that precious corn the bread of
sacrifice, tinged with the victim's blood. In Mexico, they formed with
it idols, which the priest broke, and distributed the fragments thereof
to the multitude. A goddess Ceres, worshiped under the name of cin-
teutl, derived from centli or maize, in Mexican language, received as an
offering the harvests first fruits. Every nation in Mexico, Peru, Brazil,
Orinoco's plains, Antilla Islands, were nourished with that grain.
Maize, cultivated over a space ninety degrees south and north of the
Equator, was the wheat of the new hemisphere; it was there used as
money or standard of exchange; and the law, among Mexicans, con-
demned to death whoever stole seven ears of maize.
In the books of Homer and Theophnistus, people believed to trace
the maize Viy the name zcia; in calling it zea, Linnteus propagated that
notion, .\ndres de Laguna, in his commentary on Dioscorides, Ix)hel
and Olivier de Serres, supposed that the black millet brought from
India into Italy during the time of Pliny was the maize. Lobel gave
PERSIAN ACCOUNT OP ORIGIN OP MAIZE. 647
the figure of the maize under the name of milium indicum Plinianum ;
but these conjectures are not well grounded. The zeia of the Greeks,
as admitted by M. Fee, the faithful interpreter of Theocrites and Virgil,
was assuredly the zea of the Latin, now a kind of wheat named spelt
(L. (riticum spelta). The characters assigned to zeia by Theophrastes,
are so positive that they can not be misunderstood; and the plant
with black grains indicated by Pliny, should be the black sorgho, the
tine of the negroes [holcus niger. Gral.), which is distinguished by the
black color of the shell which covers the grain; it was, perhaps, a
vai-iety of viil (miglio), spoken of by Anquillara during the sixteenth
century.
The celebrated orientalist, d'Herbelot, quotes a sentence from Mirk-
hond, a Persian historiographer of the fifteenth century, the translation
of which, if faithful, would leave no doubt as to the maize being known
to the ancient world before the discovery of America. According to
d'Herbelot, Mirkhond says: Rous, Japet's eighth son, caused to be sown
within the islands of Caspian sea, the wheat that we call wheat of
Turkey, and which the Turks name still in their language rous and
houlgar. In order to verify this quotation, the book of Mirkhond at the
Royal Library of Paris was examined, and ascertained that the Per-
sian author, at the place indicated by d'Herbelot, relates that Khozar,
son of Japet, caused to be sown on Volga's banks, some Kaveres, a
kind of corn which the dictionaries render by millet, yellow millet, rail-
let of Khatay ; and that Rous, Khozar's brother, caused to be cultivated
on Volga's islands the borgon, which signifies, according to the same
dictionaries, a kind of hollow tree from which flutes are made. The
word borgon would then have been confounded with borgoul or borgul,
rendered 'oy authors as alica, frumentum sen triticum, far decordcatum ;
and from the word bolgour, d'Herbelot would have made boulgar, which
vocabularies translated as leather, and not as any grain whatever. As to
the word rous meaning maize or grain, I found nowhere an expression
to support d'Herbelot's account. Either this author has drawn from a
source difi"erent from that which he indicates, or a strange confusion
befel the documents which he had collected.
Harmentier, and other subsequent writers, suggested as a negative
])roof, the silence of the voyagers who visited Africa and Asia in ages
previous to the discovery of America ; but these travelers having not
explored all regions of Asia and Africa, it may be objected that they did
not see those where maize was cultivated.
Besides, could we not trace the maize from a period of Diodorus of
Siculus, when that historian relates that a Grecian adventurer, named
648 THE CORN PLANT.
lambol, visited, in the sea of India, an island where a kind of reed grew
which abundantly bore a precious K''''"i similar, in its form, with that
of the orob. " They gather it," said lambol, " and they allow it to macer-
ate in water, until it obtains the bulli of a doves egg; tlien after pound-
ing and kneading it with the hands, they make loaves which are baked
in ovens, and that bread has a very sweet savour." That grain,
unknown to Diodorus, might be the maize, and the island whereat lam-
bol observed it was Taprobane of antiquity, now Ceylon, or Sumatra,
according to various opinions.
To the above conflicting authorities many more could be added:
evidently there is no lack of facts or deeds for their support; but those
which I have gathered seem to me sufficient to base the following prop-
ositious:
1st. The charter of Incisa, and the quoted authors failing to estab-
lish, in a positive manner, that the plant named mcliga, or vielica, was
really the maize, these testimonies afford no complete proof.
2d. The dissenting opinions of the botanists, during the sixteenth
and I'ollowing centuries, about the origin of the maize, do nothing but
cast doubt on the Eastern or American origin which is attributed to it.
3d. If it were certain, as historians assert, that maize was cultivated
in America, when Europeans landed there at the end of the fifteenth cen-
tury, it. would appear equally true that this plant was in full cultivation
within India at anterior epochs.
4th. The treatise of Natural History, by Li-chi-tchin, written toward
the middle of the sixteenth century, marks the existence of the maize in
China, within a time so close to the discovery of America, that this event
must not be connected with the introduction of that plant into Asia.
5th. In conclusion, the maize found at Thebes, within a mummy's
coffin, after a lapse of thirty or forty centuries, would be a precious but
solitary relic, which would prove that maize existed in Africa since the
earliest time.
These various points being admitted, there is enough to conclude that
maize was known to the old world, before the discovery of America;
that probably the Arabs, or the crusaders introduced it first into Europe;
and that subsequently the discovery of America gave occasion for another
introduction, and wider extent of cultivation of this plant, heretofore
confined within narrow bounds.
But let it be granted that the presence of the maize, within the two
worlds, may be attributed to its spontaneous production on both hemi-
spheres, or one of iheni only; and that, in this last conjecture, it may
have migrated from one to the otlier with their ancient nations, it is
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OP CORN. 649
probable that the first dwelling-place of the maize will remain uncertain
until we discover the place where it grows without culture, granting
that the revolutions which the earth has experienced render such a dis-
covery not impossible.
BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION OP CORN.
Zea Mats or Indian corn forms a genus of grasses characterized by
its monoecious flowers — (that is, it has both male and female flowers,
while the flowers of the wheat plant are hermaphrodite, or male and
female included, and each forming a portion of the same liower — ) form-
• ing a terminal panicle (tassel); each spilieiet containing two flowers,
each with two palae and three stamens. The female or fertile flowers
(ear) form a long, dense spike, completely enveloped in a number of
sheathing floral leaves (husks), from which the thread-like stigmites
protrude to a great length; the spikelets, as in the males, contain two
flowers, but they have no stamens; one flower has an ovary with a long
style ending in the above-mentioned thread-like forked stigmate; the
other flower has only two empty pales.
Explanation of the Plate.
Young ear of maize released from its spathce.
Fig. 1, one of the axillary boughs bearing female blossoms set in the
shape of an ear; every bough bears from one to four ears; this
specimen is, in the flowering period, exposed to view by the
removal of its lower spathse, and by the opening of the two
upper ones [b. b).
a, a, bundle of styles, the top of which only is seen when the spathje
b incloses the ear; each style is inserted upon one grain of the
ear, but they are removed in order to show the arrangement of
the grains on the cob which supports them ; this order is liable
to many variations. The grains are often closely set two by
two, and form longitudinal lines straight or spirally, winding
from left to right ; the number of these rows is variable, but
always even.
Fig. 2, Male blossom isolated a little magnified.
o, bi-glumed calix containing
b, c, two blossoms somewhat difi'ering in form and size with their
glumes ; the fixed blossom c has two small glumes about equal,
sharp, and ciliated at the top.
6, the pediceled blossom has also two glumes, smaller and uneven ;
the innermost is shortened with a double-pointed summit; the
external one is sharp and shorter.
Fig. 3, The three isolated stamincr, showing at their basis the two small-
55
650
THE CORN PLANT.
, i'ig- 5.
d,
d,
Fig.
4,
c,
d,
«,
b,
DESCRIPTION OF THE CORN FLOWER. 651
est glumes ( oi' glumellulne), e e, swollen and greenish at the basis,
and surmounted with a white, scarious truncated membrane,
stamens.
two ovaries, surrounded with
their shells fastened to a portion of
the cob, each of them surmounted with
their style, laminated, hairy, greenish, grooved in the middle
through its length, which indicates two styles soldered into one
naturally divided at the top into stigmatae; sometimes there is
but one of them, the other being abortive.
Fig. 5, female blosaom of which the glumes and glumellse are forcibly
opened in order to show.
1, the whole ovary and
2, its two glumellae so deeply bi-lobed, that we would be inclined
to believe them to be four in number.
3, 3, two of the three subulated points which are three glumellulae
situated at the basis of the ovary.
4, 5, are the neuter blossom of which 5, the smaller glumellae, is laid
on the larger external one, 4.
6, 6, two large glumes or calyx containing the two blossoms.
Fjg. 6, Vertical section magnified of the perisperm, 8, and embryo ;
9, thickness of the cotyledon; 10, phimula; 11, radicle; 7, cavity
variable, but always placed toward the center of the perisperm.
We always find at tlje lower extremity of the embryo a some-
what large plate, black, thin, membranous, inert, which was not
as yet pointed out, and may be the remnants of the ovulary
bag; 13, its place and section.
The maize is a stout, erect annual, growing from the bight of four
to sixteen feet, awjording to the variety, soil and season. The leaves
are from one to two feet long, and from two to three inches broad-
The panicle (tassel) is divided into long branches on short stalks. The
female spikes (ear) are generally two or three in number, placed at or
below the middle of the stem ; they are often over a foot long and
thicker than the wrist. The axis (cob) is a thick, hard pith, on which
the grain is very closely packed in a number of regular longitudinal
rows, differing in color, size, and form, according to variety.
Ever since the settlement of the United States, corn has been the
most prominent cereal cultivated in the Middle, Western, and Southern
States. From the earliest settlements in Ohio, it has been the most im-
portant crop in the southern portion of the State ; indeed, it must be
regarded as inferior to no other crop, for the reason that for family use it
occupies a consi)icuous position, :ind for wintering and fattening domestic
652
xnE rr>RN PLANT.
animnls, is indispensable. Then, too, the leaves and stalks furnish a
tbildcr very much superior to the straw of any other cereal.
There is no cereal grown with less ditficulty than corn, yet there is no
other that repays good culture so well; at the same time it can not
be denied that its perfection depends in a much greater degree upon
the season than any other crop. As a general thing, however, if July
and August prove favorable, a good crop may safely be relied on — from
the fact that early frosts and late-continued rains, like those of 1857, do
not occur once in a decade of years — they are, therefore, the exception
and not the rule.
Mr. Salisliury, the analytical chemist of the New York State Board
of Agriculture, says: " Very little has been done by chemists, which is
calculated to throw light upon the composition of corn. All the analy-
ses which have hitherto been published, are incorrect as well as
imperiect." He, therefore, commenced a complete series of detailed
analyses, commencing with the plant when it weighed, in a dry state,
only 26 grains, and analyzed specimens, of which each succeeding one
was from five to eight days longer growth than the preceding one, until
the corn was fully ripe. From his detailed and elaborate statements, pub-
lished in the Natural History Survey of New York, 1 have compiled the
following analyses. The annexed table gives the amount in grains which
the several parts of the plant weighed when dried, also the amount of
water which they contained, and the amount of ashes tliey produced.
The plants were taken up respectively on the oth of July, 4tli of August,
and 18th of October, at which latter period the corn had fully matured.
July.'). Hig't
of plant, 36 1
inches.
Wiitor.
Dry Mutter,.
A>h,..
Water,
Pry Matter,. I
AnIi,..
OCTOBEIl IH.
Dry Mutter,. |(i-i
A«ii, ..
^
?
•-3
?
a
s?
2
2
2
c
1
3
■e
CD
1
Oi
."
c
ST
c
K*
K
tn
S
p
rj
X
304.
X
f
i
.54.8
92..5
181.1
(i.2
8.1
166.0
63.
0.6
4 9.
15.0
6.7
:»!-,.4
11.5.5
02.5
2010.
2079.
■2i»n.F,
029.5
3li.i;
68.5
654.0
514.
631.
330.5
70.5
3.5
4.7
29.4
32.
58.9
12.22
4.
3V4.n
2n.^..
54.9
80 •..:)
2425.9
5i5.7
948.7
529.2
354.0
06.4
2ir,.3
(i-i-l.t
211.
78.1
1-.9.7
3Cf».
218.3
(ii5.:!
2 :',.*'
44.4
14.2
41.1
1 8
2.9
9.2
11.2
26.6
22.5
79.8
13.4
1.2
.9
2.8!
70.3
19.1
1.6
427.6
128.4
5.3
ANALYSIS OP THE CORN PLANT.
053
OBSERVATION.?, PARTS AND PROPORTIONS.
October 18 — corn ripe. The amount of water in the stalks, leaves,
and sheathes has gradually decreased since the 13th of September. The
kernels have gradually increased in specific gravity since their first
appearance.
RELATION OF THE PARTS OF PLANTS TO EACH OTHER.
Tassels,
Top Stalk,
Butt Stalk,
Sheathes,
Leaves,
Sheathes of Husks,
Stalks of Ears,....
Silks,
Roots,
Kernels,
Cob,
QUANTITY.
PER
CENTAGE.
133
1026
grains.
1.068
8.239
2786
22.375
744
5.975
1584
12.721
763
6.126
299
2.401
81
.651
556
4.465
3468
27.852
1012
8.127
12452
grains.
100.
INORGANIC ANALYSIS OF THE PLANT.
October 18,
Corn Ripe.
Carbonic Acid,..,
Silicic Acid,
Sulphuric Acid,..
Phosi)horic Acid,
Phosphates,
Lime,
Magnesia,
Potash, ,
Soda,
Chlorine,
Organic Acids,..
m
tr
V-
O
w
c
CO
Leaves,
-i
?3
1.8
trace.
trace.
4. ••••
;S
12.8
51.2
47.6
58.6
61.0
2:1.6
1.07
""is.'i
12.2
""9!7
6.6
""26.2
4.8 ....
.....„„
'9.8
'""ii'.'s
2.8
2.1
0.4
4.5
2.3
4.f.
0.9
0.8
trace.
0.8
0.6
1.0
16.2
7.4
3.5
7.3
6.8
11.3
24.6
12.4
9.8
8.5
8.8
25.4
10.9
3.2
2.9
trace.
1 5.5
2.6 -1
2.2 ]
10.3
1 22.
trace.
8.5
0.5
60.3
' '.07
6.5
23.1
3.6
0.3
5.7
*The analyses of Tassels and Roots aro not ooniplete.
654
THE CORN PLANT.
The amount in pounds of elements removed in the entire crop of an
acre of corn, yielding an average return, is as follows:
5.01
0.82
0.19
Silica, 4.
Earthy Phos
phates, ,
Lime,
Magnesia, j 0.05
Potash, ! 0.57
Soda, 0.74
Chlorine, 0.19
Sulphuric Acid, 0.33
8.78
10.36
1.92,
0.64
11.08
17.09
7.49
7.38
82.68
29.27
9.40
1.91
19.70
13.14
15.07
6.46
Total, 18.02 64.77 177.64 75.35 56.49 27.83 61.S-li 471
39.66
26.92
7.(^4 14.83
1.58 0.25
O.o8
5.57
9.26
2.20
8.92
0.04
1.98
5.55
3.14
3.77
4.07
8.22
0.10
0.30
12.31
2.03
0.04
0.11
W
lbs. ' oz.
5.93 173 12.4
22.18
0.10
1.50
14.95
14.11
0.30
2.74
15.6
An organic analysis of the Ohio Dent Corn, which is one of the largest
varieties of this cereal grown, is as follows :
Starch, ,
Gluten ,
Oil,
Albumen,
Caseine,
Dextrine,
Fiber,
Sugar and Extrac
tive,
Water,
41.85
4.62
3.88
2.G4
1.32
5.40
21.36
10.00
10.00
101.07
40.34i
7.691
4.68i
3.40j
0.50
2.90
18.01
.301 5.20i
14.00 13.40
30.29
11.60
48.90
46.90
6.60
4.62
1 nnde-
J triiit!.
9.24
3.90
3.60
6.96
G.OO
14.30
8.72
5.02
2.20
5.84!
2.32
2.50
4.61
24.82
2.00
2.25
26.80
11.24'
14.00
8.50
14.62 10.00 7.02
10.32 13.(')8 12.12
99.72 98.001 100.93, 99.62 99.51 i 100.05
o
tlOO
C o
36.06
5.00
3.44
4.42
1.92
1.30
18.50
7.25
15.02
There is no plant, whether cereal or other, which so re.^dily hybrid-
izes or intermixes as corn. Every one who has grown corn, is well
^■IncladiDg Sugar.
t BxcluslTe of Sugar.
CULTURE OF CORN. 665
aware of the difficulty of keeping the varieties pure. If a single red
grain is planted with white or yellow grains, all of the corn, not imfre-
quently, within the space of a rod in each direction from the red
stalk, will have more or less red grains on the cob. Several experi-
ments are recorded of .the impregnation of one variety by the pollen of
five or six distinct other varieties, and when the ear matured, there were
five, six, or seven varieties of kernels on the same ear. The pollen from
the tassel is the male portion of the plant, and the silk from the ear is
the female portion ; it follows, necessarily, that if the tassel of the red
corn referred to above, be removed before it is mature, that there will
then be no pollen to he shed on the surrounding stalks, and conse-
quently it can not propagate its variety. If the silk be removed as soon
as it protrudes through the husk, it can not be impregnated, and although
the ears may perhiips produce grains of corn, yet ihej will be deprived
of all germinating power.
As with the wheat plant, climate, soil, and culture have materially
modified the corn plant, and produced a great number of varieties, each
of which has habits peculiar to itself — has, in a word, as much a fixity
of type as any variety of wheat; but it readily acclimates, and in the
process of acclimation has its typical character much modified.
I have verj- little doubt that the Oregon corn, as it is called, is the
original corn plant of America. In this variety each grain is enveloped
in a separate husk, or sheath, but when it is cnllivated with other varie-
ties, for a series of ten or twelve years, these husks disapf)ear ; the cob
grows larger and compact, and in every respect resembles the ordinar.y
corn.
CULTURE OF CORN.
Corn thrives best on a sandy loam, or bottom lands; in a stiff clay it
never succeeds so well, although some good crops have been grown on
clays which have been long in a state of cultivation. The bottom lands,
like those of the Scioto. Miami, nnd Muskingum vallej's, appear to be best
adapti'd for the growth of this cereal, in its greatest perfection. Corn
succeeds well on lands after several crops of wheat also, but farmers
generally prefer brenking up "sod ground" for a good crop of corn.
Practice indicates that a soil rich in humus, or decayed and decaying
vegetable matter, is much better adapted to corn tlian that destitute of
this material; for this reason it is good policy', to say the least, if not
really advisable, to grow corn after wheat, in order to remove the veget-
able matter formed by the roots of the wheat; for the same reason it
succeeds .admirably on sod ground, because it removes the humus created
by the roots of the grasses.
666 THE CORN PLANT.
The ground should be well manured nud finely pulverized to insure a
good crop, and this is the reason why loamy soils are uniformly more
productive than the clays, for the reason that there is less cohesion
among the particles of the soil whereas cluy, as is well known, is exceed-
ingly tenacious. ,
It will flourish on the best wheat land; but wheat will not succeed
well on the best corn land. To grow corn on land that will produce
good wheat, is not, as a general rule, to be commended.
I have said that corn will succeed on land too low for wheat. This
is true; but corn requires a dry soil. It is a mistake to suppose that all
high land is dry, and all low land wet. Mr. Swan, near Geneva, New
York, who laid over fifty miles of drain-tiles on his farm, found that the
highest part of his farm required as much again draining as the lower
portions. On low land, a few open ditches are often suflicient to carry
off all the water; but on a springy hillside, thorough underdraining is
necessary.
Land for corn must be dry. We recollect, says the Genessi e Farmer,
walking through a magnificent field of corn on the thoroughly under-
drained farm of our friend John Johnston. One of the underdraius was
choked up, and there the crop was a failure. Corn delights in a loose, dry,
warm soil. If it is surcharged with water, all the sunshine of our hot-
test summers can not make it warm, and all the manure that can be put
on it will not make the corn yield a maximum crop. In passing along
the various railroads, we have often been sadilened to see thousands of
acres of land planted to corn, which, by a little underdraining, would
have produced magnificent crops of this grandest of cereals, but which
presented a miserable spectacle of yellow, sickly, stunted, half-starved
plants, strnggliug for very life. We have ever been willing to apolo-
gize for the shortcomings of American farmers. We know the difficulties
under which many of them labor. We do believe them to be, as a whole,
"intelligent and enterprizing." But these sickly corn-fields are well
calculated to create a very different impression. We have frequently
to rejicat the German proverb — "To know is not to be able." These
farmers know how to raise good corn, but they are not always able to
put in practice improved methods of cultivation. Many, however,
mii;ht do better than they do. The country is in an embarrassed con-
dition. Willing hands can not find labor. Good crops alone can save
us from still greater poverty and suffering. One good harvest would set
the wheels of trade and manufacturing industry in motion, and usher
in a gladsome period of national prosperity. But it is in vain to hope
for good crops without good cultivation."
Constant stirring of the soil decomposes its organic matter, and
GILL S EXPERIMENT IN CORN CULTURE. 657
renders available the food of plants lying latent in it; it enables it to
attract ammonia, and to condense moisture fi-om the atmosphere, while
it furnishes a loose and warm bed for the roots to grow in.
Deep culture is also indispensable. There is scarcely a plant which
does not thrive much better in a loose, deep soil, than in a shallow, com-
pact one ; but in no case is this fact susceptible of more ready verifica-
tion than in the corn plant. One instance only may be cited to illustrate
the effects of deep culture. There is in the immediate vicinity of Colum-
bus a tract of ^'Scioto bottom land," which has for upward of forty years
been cultivated in corn annually. In 1851, Mr. John L. Gill, of Colum-
bus, anxious to test the effect of deep culture on corn, plowed eleven
acres and about three-fourths to a depth of about eight inches, with a
double plow, and then followed with a subsoil plow, loosening but not
turning up the soil, to a depth of eight inches more. This tract, as
well as the neighboring one, had never been plowed to a depth exceed-
ing six or seven inches. In 1851 the neighboring pieces were plowed
the usual depth, and planting completed on the 7th of May; Mr. Gill
completed the planting on the 10th.
In the course of three weeks the corn in the neighboring tracts
appeared as forward and thrifty as usual, while that of Mr. Gill ap-
peared pale and rather dwarfed — this, to say the least, was rather dis-
couraging. But in the month of July, that in the neighboring fields
appeared to have come to a "stand still,'' — the leaves curled and
drooped, and gave unmistakable manifestations of sufferings from
drought, while Mr. Gill's was growing vigorously, and indicated no lack
of moisture. The result was that Mr. G. obtained 120 bushels per
acre, while the adjoining fields yielded less than forty bushels per acre.
This fact is well authenticated, and the field was witnessed in July and
August by thousands of persons.
While the stalks in Mr. G.'s tract presented a pale and sickly appear-
ance, the roots were pushing downward in search of moisture and nour-
ishment; finding abundance of this, a sufiBcient supply was stored for
the growth of the plant to resist all effects of drought. That in the
neighboring fields exhausted the supply at first, and when the drought
set in it had no store of supply to fall back upon.
Selection of seeds. — The ears which ripen the first should always be
selected for seed, and not all the kernels on the ear should be planted.
The largest and best developed grains only should be planted; those at
the base and apex of the ear invariably tend to degenerate the variety.
After they have been selected they should be placed in some dry, cool,
airy place, but should not be exposed to the open air of severe mid-
winter.
658 THE CORN I'LANT.
Many farmers pursue altogether too bap-hazard a methcl of providing
themselves with seed corn. The crop of corn in a field will be much
less where seed comes up badly, and where there are hundreds of va-
cancies in places where corn stalks ought to be. It is believed to be
not an uncommon case that a farmer loses at least five bushels of corn
to the acre on account of poor seed. The loss sustained through the
entire West must therefore be immense. And yet with a little attention
there is really no difficulty in providing good seed. In the month of
September, when the husks on most of the ears of corn begin to whiten,
showing a commencement of the ripening of the grain, go through the
corn-field selecting good ears. In husking them, leave two or three
husks, for the purpose of braiding several ears together. Suspend these
over i)oles, aflixed in some of the out-buildings, and let them remain
till planting time in spring. This method of securing good seed corn
has been known to me from boyhood. As a proof of the excellency
of this plan, I have now on hand two or three communications giv-
ing the practicHl experience of good farmers who have tried it.
One correspondent writes from Yellow Springs, saying that he
lately met with a Mr. James Justice, an old farmer from Indiana, 70
years of age, who stated he had uniformly supplied himself with seed
corn in the manner above related for more than thirty years, and that
he never failed in having good seed ; that his corn plants in spring,
when first pushing out of the ground, exhibit a vigor of growth and a
vitality of constitution that remain visible throughout the entire
season. And the following on this same subject I publish in full.
Saving Seed Corn. — I gather my seed early in September, when
about half the cars of the field intended for gathering seed from have
their husks whitened with ripeness, showing ears that have matured.
The secret of the whole matter may be understood at once ; be sure to
have seed corn perfectly dry before freezing weather comes upon it.
This method, be asssured, if carefully attouded to, will save much trouble
and perplexity in starting your corn crops. I leave enough husk on
each ear to tie two and two together, and hang on poles in a dry airy
place, two ears deep to each pole.
Soaking corn in water has all the effect so far as hastening growth is
concerned, that soaking in any of infinite solutions recommended would
have; at the same time it may be advisable to soak the corn in
some mineral solution, and then roll it in plaster of Paris, lime, or even
tar, to render it unpalatable or poisonous to cut-worms, grubs, elc. The
kernels should l)e planted in "check-rows," two and a half or three feet
apart, and six to eight kernels in each hill; then, at the expiration of
three or four weeks the hills should be thinned out — always removing
HOW TO CULTIVATE CORN. C59
the least vigorous plants, until three or four only are left in each hill.
Bear in mind the necessity of closer planting than is usual, to give
you a full crop of corn. While five feet square will give about 1,700
hills, four feet each way will 2,700, and three and a half feet each way,
more rhan 3,700 hills. With manure enough and proper working, this
number will grow as well without firing and burning as that first
named.
The after culture of corn is simple, but nevertheless indispensable.
But you must not put off working it until July. You can not go with
plow or cultivator into corn six to eight feet high — the roots branching
through every inch of the soil, without doing it irreparable damage.
The grand axioms in corn-raising are — good ground, well prepared,
early and cai-eful planting ; eai'ly cultivatiou, and hoeing ; destruction
of all weeds, the summer through. If prompt and energetic action is
important and necessary anywhere, it is most emphatically so in a corn-
field.
Corn, being the chief summer crop, all other work should be got oflf
our hands, that this may be put into the ground as early as the season
will permit, and in the best possible condition. It is certainly among
the most important considerations to get the crop started early, and that
it have a vigorous, rapid, early growth. If planted late, and it is tardy
in coming on at first, the season must prove remarkably and unusually
favorable to expect even a middling yield. True, cases may be cited
where good crops were obtained from late planting and loose culture;
but who is willing to take such cases as governing rules in his gen-
eral practice ?
One plowing is all the cultivation usually given to corn-ground before
planting, the seed being planted directly on the furrows; but it can not
be disputed, that, excepting our rich, alluvial bottom lands, more work-
ing of the soil for this crop would result in a much more rapid growth
and early maturity; since the finer the tilth, the more readily do the
organs of the plant find their appropriate food. One or two workings,
with a two-horse cultivator, after plowing, would prove an amply pay-
ing operation, I think, on all soils, except those above noted, which,
having been formed by gentle, river deposits, are more thoroughly com-
mingled and divided than can be done by my processes of culture.
Those who plant on greensward will be likely to have trouble with
the cut-worm. To get rid of these insects, there appeai-s to be but one
eftectual means, and that is, killing them outright, by passing over the
field very early in the morning, armed with sharp sticks, to oust them
from their hi ling-places. It is worse than a waste of time to apply any
nostrums, however strongly advised and recommended. Plowing
660 THE CORN PLANT.
greensward, in August, the year previous, will insure safety against the
cut-worm. The experiment was carefully tried in the same field, and
though one to three worms were found in the last hill on the newly
plowed ground, not a single one was seen on that portion plowed the
previous year.
My opinion has been asked in regard to the expediency of cultivating
Indian corn entirely by the hand hoe, which formerly was the only cul-
ture it received — save an apology for plowing. Good crops have been
obtained by this mode, on soils that remain sufficiently loose through
the season. Whether it is ihe most profitable way even on that kind of
soil, is a question. The argument in favor of it is, that the implements
usually drawn by a horse, cut off and mutilate the roots of the corn.
This is not necessarily so. It is very true that the cultivator or plow
may mutilate a few roots, but they readily form new spongioles (see
page 142), and are not in consequence retarded in growth. By stir-
ring the soil new surfaces and new particles of matter are presented
to the root from which to elaborate nutriment. (See pages 420 to 424).
For the same reason, if a harrow is drawn across a wheat field in spring
time, when the soil is not wet, although many plants are mutilated, yet
the remainder are more thrifty, stool better, and the crop is invariably
larger than if the harrow had been withheld.
The principal cultivation of Indian corn should be while it is com-
paratively small. At this stage the roots have not extended them-
selves far, and implements may penetrate the ground as deeply as
desired without doing the growing plants any harm. As the crop
grows, the implements which run deeply should be kept farther down
from the stalks, and the use of them finally discontinued altogether.
If the space between the rows has been properly cultivated, weeds
will not grow much after the corn is so large as to shade all the
ground. The little horse plow must not be wholly laid aside to make
■way for the cultivator. For in many cases the plow is best. When the
soil lies heavy the little plow leaves it lighter than a little harrow or
cultivator. The plow should run as close as possible to the corn and
turn the earth away from it. Next time the earth may be turned toward
the corn — and the third time hoeing the cultivator may be used, when
the holder fears that the plow would cut his corn roots. The steel tooth
cultivator is best, as the teeth may be kept bright and clean.
But corn is cultivated to a great extent in the country, on soils
which tend to more compactness than is favorable to the crop. Here
Bome means must be devised to counteract this tendency. In many
cases, especially if heavy rains are followed by dry weather, the fore
part of the season, some implement must be used that will penetrate
EXTENT OF CORN CULTURE IN OHIO.
661
nearly to the depth to which the ground was first plowed, in order to
prevent baking, and to afford a deep, friable bed for the corn roots. To
accomplish this object by hand hoeing would be almost an impossibility,
to say nothing of the expense.
On the whole, I think the great aim should be to substitute horse
and ox labor for manual labor, as far as possible, in the cultivation of
Indian corn and other crops. The expensiveness of hand labor forms an
obstacle to corn culture. By the use of proper tools and by proper skill,
the crop might be made to do better than it now generally does, and
with considerable saving of expense. We have repeatedly seen fields of
corn well cultivated, and with scarcely a weed to be seen, that never
had a hand hoe in them. It is true that the larger and stronger stalks
of the corn grown at the South render it more easy to keep down the
weeds without injury to the corn than it would be with our varieties;
but even here the thing could be done so far as to greatly lessen the use
of the hand hoe.
It is not necessary — probably not advantageous — to deeply cultivate
between the rows of corn on very light soils. It is on such that hand-
hoeing may answer; but tools might be used with a horse that would
merely scrape the sui-face, if that only was desired. The common plow
is not the best thing to cultivate corn with. On light land it distarbs
the soil too much — that is the small portion of it which is touched at
all — it is left too much in ridges and hollows. Level cultivation, which
is best on loose, dry soils, can not be had with it. On tenacious soils,
the plow even presses the under portion more closely than it was before.
Cultivators, grubbers, horse-hoes, etc., are preferable to the common
plow in cultivating growing crops.
Statement of the number of acres planted in Corn in 1857 and 1858
in Ohio, also the number of bushels gathered in each of these years.
1857.
1858.
COUNTIES.
CORN,
CORN.
Acres.
Bushels.
Acres.
Bushels.
3.3.896
29.341
18,856
9,620
23,164
17,847
1,073,956
679,744
696,467
327.391
854,324
537,460
30,507
825.137
Allen
12,781 315,799
17,495 545,970
' 11,802 457,070
Athens
Auglaize
! 19,214 418,899
1 11,300 ! 222,947
662
THE CORN PLANT.
COUNTIES.
Belmont, ..
Brown
Butler
Carroll
Ctlalllpaigii
Clnrk
Clermont.,.
Clinton
Columbiana
Coshocion..
CniwCord ..
Cuyahoga-
Darke
Defiance
Delaware..
Erie
Faiffield ...
Fayette. ...
Franklin .. .
Fulton ,
Gallia
Geauga
Greene
Guernsey...
Hamilton.,.,
Hancock ...,
Hardin
Harrison ....
Henry
Highland....
Hocking. ...
Holmes
Huron
Jackson ,
Jefferson
Knox
Lake
Lawrence . .
Licking
Logan
Lorain
Lucas
Madison
1857.
CORN.
Acres.
32,384
39,138
56,383
11,954
37,880
30.914
38;569
38,980
16,453
38,906
24,800
10,512
83,331
9,458
34,639
20,439
49,630
48,611
62,934
9,308
19,480
6,687
37,471
22,651
31.928
22,290
16,254
17,461
6,120
53,554
16,865
18,214
31,767
19,000
15,562
33 640
6,437
17,393
48,156
29,223
11,977
6,131
36,410
Bushels.
1,330,403
1,350,709
2,696,597
401,637
1,475,670
1.222,009
1,425,540
1,402.003
503.856
1,442,972
861,039
369,194
1,174,368
304,312
1,445,316
001,713
1,858,862
2,257,752
2,065,661
276,798
645,468
217,144
1,592,590
746,361
1,172,831
594,561
512,158
702,270
178,573
2,022,213
560,828
572,319
897,100
533,841
583,940
1,216,205
238,348
553,244
1,944,390
1,081,369
410,705
198.444
1,541,601
1858.
CORN.
I Acres.
25,890
35,350
49,848
9,980
30,638
23,670
34,240
38,484
13,795
33.913
19;54U
10,149
23,912
6,182
25,7.56
15,844
39,464
43,564
50,570
6,614
17,330
6,082
30,827
17,427
26,857
17,514
11,293
14 244
4,601
48,998
14,583
16,385
22,566
15,975
12,828
30.290
6,592
16,342
46,810
24,568
9,913
4,780
20,297
Bushels.
676,479
1,001,180
1,448,846
241,366
962,809
764,756
920,761
1,041,164
406,662
1,013,446
554,300
361,453
455,300
153,295
685,090
438,290
1,147,935
1,232,669
1,456,775
141,822
893,859
229,348
1,083,990
379,410
822,530
442,428
261,852
372,096
110,159
1,561,199
338,612
401,782
547,251
361,432
292,259
976,396
252,990
390,754
1,476,061
607,674
285,463
128,613
704,946
CORN CULTURE IN OHIO.
663
COUNTIES.
Mahoning
Miiriou
Mfditia
Meigs
Mercer
Miami
Monroe
Montgomery
Morgan
Morrow
Muskingum .
Noble
Ottawa ,
Paulding
Perr}' ,
Pickaway
Pike
Portage........
Preble
Putnam
Richland
Ross
Sandusky
Scioto
Se n eca
Shelby
Stark
Summit
Trumbull
Tuscarawas ...
Union
Van Wert
Vinton
Warren
Washington ..
Wayne ,
Williams
Wood
Wyandotte ...
1857.
CORN.
Acres.
Total 2,254,424
12,265
34,074
14,929
15,285
17,251
42,117
20,034
37,306
21,645
28,531
39,512
22,612
3,685
3,883
21,054
72,188
27,715
11,371
39,210
17,089
25.216
74,114
16,991
24,767
27,271
21,680
21,791
11,142
12,294
2J,649
32,413
9,434
14,587
43,206
22,646
24,685
11,241
14,462
21,389
Bushels.
422,876
1,365,109
743,624
547,689
543,845
1,631,301
598.384
1,569,125
842,857
817,874
1,469,595
793,998
120,459
116,674
674,266
3,409,177
1,050,976
020.038
1,420,901
467,610
746,842
3,397,188
403,991
949,069
747,423
695,603
751,120
307,979
439,247
948,-521
1,203,610
291,636
450,898
1,834,777
719,561
824,871
34.5,440
388,487
73.3,530
82,555,186
1858.
CORN.
Acres.
10,477
24,854
11,978
13,091
9,294
28,430
16,600
22,854
18,176
16,832
32,641
20,375
3,274
2,177
18,957
49,940
21,701
9,620
3], 615
11,158
21,098
71.051
13,036
18,014
21,847
10,939
27,477
10,611
10,169
20,577
21.451
5,732
11,350
33.992
20,596
21,939
6,528
10,294
16,886
1.834,138
Bushels.
397,637
626,270
485,830
329,582
148,926
752,016
309,884
655,299
515,080
448,897
1,001,408
558,788
85,517
44,770
549,636
1,392,296
612,029
413,669
890,796
209,041
613,249
2,011,998
360,292
530,125
478,828
248,838
594,637
420.039
401.493
506,091
480,314
82,003
254,985
989,687
533,206
730,098
142,266
210.076
423,639
50,863,582
664
THE CORN PLANT.
No. of Acres.
No. of BusbeU.
Cora crop
of 1850 was
1,537,947
l,66i,427
1,730,188
1,830,493
1,972,337
2,205,282
2,084,893
66,619,608
61,171,282
1851 "
1852 "
58,16.5,517
73,436,090
52,171,551
1853 " /
1854 "
1855 "
87,587,434
57,802,515
1856 "
The several varieties of corn cultivated in the State, may be classified
into soft and hard, the latter including that with round and flintj' grains,
almost transparent, and very hard — rarely whitish or thickened on the
outer extremity of the grain, and never dented.
The soft corn is less hard than that which is classified as hard,
although not always soft in the common meaning of the term. All the
gourdseeds and dent varieties belong to this class, with grains more or
less long, always whitish at the end, and more or less dented or pointed.
Also corn with short, round grains, that readily break under the nail.
Each of these classes may be subdivided according to color, into white,
and yellow or colored.
Experience establishes the fact, that the flour of the hard, or flinty
corns is much less liable to become musty, or to "«0Mr" than that of the
soft, white, starchy varieties.
There are two original varieties of the flint corn, viz.: the white and
the yellow, which, by being crossed on other varieties, have produced an
extensive family of hybrids, all of which partake, in a greater or less
degree of their progenitors. The flint varieties are more hardy than the
soft ones, yield less starch, but are much better adapted for family use,
and are less liable to spoil in shipping, either in grain or ground, while
they are at the same time less valuable for stock than the soft varieties.
The following is a brief statement of the varieties cultivated in the
State, viz.:
Early White. — It matures, in Clark county, Ohio, if planted by the
first of June — medium fodder, rather small cob of red and white color,
grains dented, sound, and good weight. Each stalk bears one or two
ears, and each ear twelve to sixteen rows. It is of medium size, white
color, very early, and is a soft variety.
Early Adams. — This corn is considered by some persons, very desirable,
while by others it is regarded as unfit for table use, and not as useful foi
the farm as the Early White. The grains are firm, sound, dented, flinty,
and rather heavy. Each stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear from
VARIETIES OF CORN IN OHIO. 665
ten to fourteen rows. It is of rather small size, white color, rather
early, and is a soft variety.
Peabody^s Prolific. — Some persons consider this corn a humbug. Dr,
Warder, however, says of it, " This new variety from the South, closely
resembles Early Adams, in many particulars. The ears are of a medium
size, fodder large, under favorable circumstances prolific — promises
well." Each stalk bears two or more ears, and each ear ten to fourteen
rows. It is of medium size, clear white color, neither early nor late, and
is a soft variety.
White Gourdseed. — This old variety is a favorite kind for feeding in the
ear, on account of its softness, although it is inconvenient for an ox to
masticate between bis grinders, in consequence of its large size. The
grains are of medium weight, and very long; the cob is large, but not
always sound, and each stalk bears one ear, with sixteen to twenty-four
rows. It is short and thick, a dull white color, neither early nor late,
and is a soft variety.
Bayou. — This grows quite tall, and is very thrifty, and is much grown
in the Miami bottom. The grains are large, dented and heavy ; the cob
is large, but not always sound, and the husk coarse, and tig^tlj- inclos-
ing the ear; the stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear twelve to four-
teen rows. It is of large size, dull white color, late, and is a soft
variety.
Hackberry White. — This variety, like the Yellow Hackberry, appears
to be a cross or hybrid, between the Gourdseed and Dent varieties. The
cob is white and red, and scarcely medium size, and the grains are nar-
row, pointed, medium size, good weight, and white.
The stalk bears one compact and heavy ear, with twelve to sixteen
rows, and in some instances as high as sixteen to twenty-two rows.
This variety shells very readily, and one hundred and twenty-three
bushels have been raised on an acre. It is neither early nor late, and is
a soft variety.
Common White. — This is much grown on hill farms, and is a great
favorite for bread and stock. Each stalk bears one or two ears, and each
ear ten to fourteen rows, and is medium size, dull white color, rather
early, and a soft variety.
Speckled While. — This is a curious mixture of red, yellow and white
corn, of Gourdseed and Dent varieties. Some of the grains, and some
of the ears are speckled, others are pure white, and still others are all
red. The grains are long, sound, often pointed like hackberry, and are
beautiful in the band, and will make very good meal. The stalk bears
one ear, with twelve to sixteen rows; is of medium size; white, red, or
yellow color; and neither early nor late, and is a soft variety.
50
666 THE CORN I'LANT.
Wyandotte. — This curiosity is unworthy of culture, on account of its
lightness and lateness. It hns niiiny suckers, and nil produce tassels
and ears, and a single grain is sutticient for a hill. It has been grown
in very few places only, and has not been favorably received in those
places where it has been grown. Each stalk bears four to eight ears,
and each ear from eight to ten rows. It is of medium size, and white,
and is a soft variety.
Flour, or New York Cheat. — This corn has credit of being a material
of value in the preparation of the fancy brands of Genessee flour, for
which the extreme whiteness of its meal well adapts it. For other pur-
poses it is not desirable, as it is neither prolific, sound, nor heavy. Each
stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear eight rows. It is medium size,
neither early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Tuscarora, or Early Suchett. — This is desirable only for an early crop
of roasting ears, for the market, and most persons would prefer to wait
a fortnight for the Sweet Corns. The grains are large aud white, or
dull white, and the cob is red and very small. Each stalk bears two
ears, and each ear eight rows, and it is a soft variety.
Baden.-^Th'is is undoubtedly a Southern variety. Various attempts
have been made to grow it, in different portions of the State, but with-
out success. It requires a very long and favorable season to mature it.
Each stalk bears two or more ears, and each ear eight to ten rows. It
is small sized, and of yellowish or dull white color, and is from Baden,
in Germany. It is a soft variety.
New England Sweet Sugar. — This is excellent for table use. If it
is ground when very dry, it makes very good but not handsome bread, it
being the sweetest of all the varieties of corn. Each stalk bears two
ears, and each ear eight rows. It is small, translucent, and neither
early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Mammoth Sugar. — This is an improvement in the size of ears. Each
stalk bears two ears, and each ear eight rows. It is of medium size,
translucent, and neither early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Stowelis Sorghum. — This is a delicious variety, and is deservedly a
great favorite with all lovers of roasting ears. It has all the sweet-
ness of the New England, with greater size of ear and depth of kernel,
and a larger number of rows. Each stalk bears two ears, and each ear
twelve to eighteen rows. It is medium size, translucent, and neither early
nor late, and is a soft variety.
Yellow, Blue and Red Sugars are all mere shoots from the New Eng-
land, and are not desirable. Each stock bears two ears, and each ear
eight rows. It is small in size, neither early nor late, and is a soft
variety.
VARIETIES OF OHIO COKN. G67
Wigwam. — This is from the Sijite ol New Jersey, and has many points
to recommend it to public favor. It is vigorous and productive; fodder
medium to large ; the ears are very long and regular ; the cob is red and
■white and small; the grains are dented, heavy and sound, but not so
hard as to prevent thorough mastication by cattle, while the size of the
ears and small cob enables them lo bite off a portion at a time, and
submit it to the influence of their grinders. This item may not be ap-
preciated by those who feed meal and slop, but for the " million,'' it is no
mean consideration. Horses select this corn from other varieties fed
with it, and eat it first. Each stalk bears at least one ear with ten to
sixteen rows. It is large in size, and of bright yellow color, neither
early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Dent. — This a favorite variety, possessing many good qualities, being
a medium between the Gourd-seed and Flint varieties. There are several
varieties of the Dent tribe, as the Early, the White and the Yellow.
The Early Dent is an eight-rowed, white variety, each stalk bears two
ears, and it ripens in about one hundred days. The White Dent has
from ten to fourteen rows on each ear, some of the stalks bear two ears,
others one only, and it ripens at least ten days later than the Early
variety. The Yellow variety has all the cliaracteristics of the White,
with the exception of color, it being a bright yellow, but requires ten
days longer to mature fully. The Dent family of corn is perhaps more
extensively cultivated in Ohio than any other. It yields from sixty to
seventy-five bushels per acre. It is medium to large size, and is a soft
variety.
Biff Yellow. — Cob is rather large, but the grains are not as large as
some other sorts. Each stalk bears one ear with twelve to sixteen rows.
It is large, dull yellow color, neither early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Maryland Gillou. — Was brought from Maryland many years ago. A
specimen of it was sent from Ohio to the "World's Fair'' in England,
where it took the premium over all others exhibited. This variety is
nearly lost by its lateness in the bad seasons. Each stalk bears one
ear with twelve to sixteen rows. It is very large, deep yellow, and late,
and is a soft variety.
Ilackberry. — This variet}' is grown to a considerable extent in central
Ohio. It is a hybrid or cross between the Gourd-seed and Dent varieties,
and is very popular. Each stalk bears one ear with twelve to sixteen
rows. The grains are long, pointed, generally sound, and are of a dull
yellow color, though sometimes speckled grains may be seen. It matures
in ordinary seasons, about the first of September, and is of medium size,
rough to handle, and is a soft variety.
Bloody Butcher. — This is a hybrid between the Hackberry, Dent and
€68 THE CORN PLANT.
Red, and is considerably grown in the bottoms. It matures about the
first of October in the northern portion of the State, and from ten days
to two weeks earlier in the southern. Each stalk bears one ear with
twelve to sixteen rows, and is of medium to large size, and dull yellow
red and striped colors, and is a soft variety.
Pymm. — This variety is from Pennsylvania, and is a very handsome,
heavy, large Dent corn. Each st.alk bears one or two ears, and each ear
twelve to sixteen rows. It is of large size, yellow color, and is neither
early nor late, and is a soft variety.
Lee County, Iowa. — This is a variety distributed by the Patent Office,
is one of the largest Early varieties, and is valued for replanting or late
planting. The grains are sound, firm, large, and of bright yellow color.
Each stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear twelve to iburtecn rows.
It is a soft variety.
Bonem or Bonham. This variety is much grown in the Miami bot-
toms, where it originated, and is productive, sound, and of good weight.
Each stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear twelve to sixteen rows.
It is of medium size, chocolate or dull red color, neither early nor late,
and is a soft variety.
Master. — Is from Tennessee, and is so distinct as to maintain its char-
acter when mixed with other sorts, upon which it leaves its impresa, and
hence the name it bears. The grains are rather deep, dented, sound,
though not heavy. Each stalk produces one or two ears, and each
ear ten to twelve rows. It is from medium to large size, dull red color,
early, and is a soft' variety.
Clinton. — This variety is from J. S. Lecoming, Wilmington, Clinton
county, Ohio, and promises well. Each stalk bears one or two ears with
twelve to fourteen rows. It is from medium to large size, dark yellow
color, early, and is a soft variety.
Gourd-seed or Jlorse-tooth. — -This variety is extensively cultivated in
the southern portion of the State. It is a soft variety, ear short, and
densely packed with eighteen rows of large white grains, having the
summit indented, possibly from the drying of the starch. The indenta-
tions make it rougli corn to handle.
Bastard Gourd-seed. — Is grown to a considerable extent in central and
eastern Ohio, it is productive, not so hard as the flint, nor so rough to
handle as the Gourd-seed, and matures rather earlier than the latter. It
has yellow, good-sized grains, sixteen rows to the ear, although some-
times ears are found containing eighteen or twenty rows. It is a soft
variety.
Sheep-tooth or Snail Gourd-seed. — It is a variety of the Hackberry,
and is grown in the northern part of the State. Each stalk produces
VARIETIES OF OHIO CORN. C69
from one to four ears, each with twelve rows of small and dark yellow
grains. It ripens from the middle to the last of October, and is a soft
variety.
Follow Gourd-seed, — This is a sixteen rowed variety of yellow corn —
in other respects it much resembles the White Gourdseed or Horsetooth,
and is a soft variety.
Larffe White was originally from Tennessee. Each stalk generally
produces two ears with twenty rows of white, large-sized grains on each
ear. It ripens early.
Ohio. — The stalk not unfrequently bears two ears. It is a yellow,
twelve-rowed variety, and ripens about tlie first of October, in the north-
ern part of the State, where it is cultivated to some extent.
Fennsylvania. — This is a twenty-rowed, reddish variety of corn, in-
troduced several years ago in the northern part of the State, from Ches-
ter CO., Pa., but it meets with no favor from the fact that it ripens very
late, although it has many desirable qualities.
Tree Corn. — Several attempts have been made to introduce this
variety, but the great length of time required to mature it has been
the obstacle to overcome. It is a yellow variety, each ear having from
sixteen to twenty-six rows, and each stalk generally bearing two ears.
White Flint. — This is an excellent, sound and productive variety.
Each stalk bears one or two ears, and each ear eight to ten rows. It is
large and pure white color, and, under ordinary circumstances, matures
during the month of September. This variety was originally from
Maryland, weighs sixty pounds per bushel, and is very hard to grind.
Small While Flint. — Fodder small, ears low, husk loose, retaining
water and spoiling the grain and cob. It is used for hominy. Each
stalk bears two ears, and each ear eight rows. It is medium size, creamy
white color, and early.
Early White Flint has the same characteristics as the Small White
Flint, color excepted, it being pure white. It is used for hominy, roast-
ing-ears, and bread. Fodder tall.
Arkamas Hominy. — This variety was brought from the South ; pro-
duces very large fodder, but is too late in ripening to be useful. Each
stalk bears two ears, and each ear eight rows. It is medium size, dull
white color and hard.
Fink Flint. — Perhaps this is not a distinct variety. It may be Early
Adams changed. Each stalk bears two ears, and each ear ten rows. It
is of small size, pink color and early.
Mexican Flint. — This beautiful corn was received from the Patent
Office, and is productive, sound, and heavy. The very large, firm, white
grains characterize it especially for the manufacture of hominy. Each
670 TUK lOHS I'l.ANT.
Stalk bears two ears, and each car eight to twelve rows. It is large,
white, and early.
White Pop Corn. — This is the prettiest variety of pop corn. There
is a great number of very compact small-eared, ten-rowed varieties of
corn which are cultivated in gardens, the stalk yielding from two to
six ears, and are good for the purpose of •' popping." — The smallest are
preferred.
Rice Corn is a pearly white, small, but very long grained, twelve-
rowed garden corn, each stalk bearing from two to three ears.
Yellow Flint. — This corn is too hard for hogs or cattle. It is heavy,
sound, makes good bread, and is valuable for replanting. Each stalk
bears two ears, and each ear eight rows. It is large, bright yellow color,
and early.
Canada. — This corn has the same characteristics as the Yellow Flint,
except that it is small and of a clear pale yellow color.
Dulton is not valuable as a field crop, where Dent corn will ripen. It
is small, bright yellow, two ears to the stalk, and eight rows to the ear,
and early.
Oolden Sioux is one of the original Indian corns. It is quite small,
of clear yellow color, very early, two ears to the stalk, and eight rows
to the ear.
King Philip was introduced several years since from the Eastern
States, but is not held in high estimation except in a few isolated
localities. A very intelligent former from Guernsey Co., writes: — ''The
King Philip is the king of humbugs ; it is so ea^er for maturity that no
matter when planted, nor in what kind of soil, it begins to tassel when
knee high regardless of the season, and to die as soon as tasseled, making
little grain and less fodder. It is represented to yield one hundred
bushels per acre — it would still be a great exaggeration, giving the Kitig
the benefit of his roots, stalk, husks, blades, and crown, in the meas-
ure." It is most generally used for replanting where later varieties
have suffered from frost or late spring.
The ear contains eight rows, but has been improved to twelve rows;
the grain is of moderate size and deep orange color; ears long, slender,
with little variation in thickness from top to base; and two ears usually
grow to the stalk.
Omaha. — This variety ripens far north in September. Its beautiful
large blue grains yield a very white meal. It is very early, of deep blue
color; two ears to the stalk, and eight rows to the ear.
Purple Wyandotte is heavy, very hard, and very prolific. It is of
medium size; purple color; and each stalk bears five ears, and each ear
eight rows.
OREGON CORN.
671
Red Pop Corn is very prolifici
very small, very red, and is early.
Each stalk bears five to nine ears,
and each ear eight to ten rows.
Yellow Pop Corn is small, of
bright yellow color, and neither
early nor late. Each stalk bears
from four to six ears, and each ear
ten to twelve rows.
Mixed Pop Corn. — Thirty-two
ears were produced from one grain
of this variety ; every joint throw-
ing an ear or a branch of ears. It
is very small; blue, yellow, and
white; six to twelve ears grow
upon the stalk, and ten to twelve
rows upon the ear.
Neiv York is grown to a consider-
able extent in the northern portion
of the State. Each stalk bears
two to four ears, and each ear eight
rows. Under ordinary circum-
stances, it ripens about the middle
of August. There are several vari-
eties, dififering in color only from
a pure white to yellow, and even
dark orange, like the King Philip.
Wabash was introduced as much
as eighteen years ago into south-
eastern Ohio. It is a white variety ;
each ear having fourteen to twenty-
four rows of large grains; it has
also a large cob, but the shelled
corn weighs from fifty-eight to
sixty pounds per bushel, and makes
an excellent quality of bread. It
ripens during the month of Sep-
tember.
Lady Washington has ten rows of
medium sized grains, of a whitish
shaded with purple color. It ripens
early, and promises to be quite an
acquisition.
672 THE CORN PLANT.
Yankee. — There is au eighteen-rovved, yellow variety of this name,
cultivated iu Summit county, Ohio; each stalk bearing four ears. "It
matures early, and is pretty well liked as an upland corn; it has small
ears, and the grains are very hard."
Oregon, California, or Wild Corn. Samples of this variety have
been introduced from Oregon, California, Mexico, and South America.
The cob (a) (see Plate on preceding page) does not exceed half an
inch in diameter; is very pithy; the grains are each enveloped in a
separate husk (h b), and attached to the cob. The graia (c) is very
flinty, dented, rather ovate, sides convex, and pointed at its place of
insertion in the cob. It is grown as a curiosity only.
Virginia. — This is a very late light-yellow variety ; has from twelve
to sixteen rows; is considerably cultivated in central and eastern Ohio.
Sed Cob is a twelve-rowed yellow corn ; ripens during the first week
in September; the grains are medium sized, and the cob, as the name
indicates, is red.
Kentucky is a twelve-rowed white corn; matures during the latter
part of September, and is highly spoken of. It weighs eight to ten
pounds heavier than yellow corn generally ; of course, it yields better
and is said to stand drought better than the yellow.
Illinois Brown is a twelve-rowed brown corn ; ripens about the middle
of September; the grains are medium sized, of a dark brownish color,
each stalk hearing from one to three good sized ears. It was formerly
in better repute than at present, from the fact that it rapidly deteriorates.
Trumbo is a variety cultivated to some extent in south-eastern Ohio.
It is a fonrteen-rowed yellow variety ; has generally one to two long
and sound ears to the stalk. It matures early, and stands in good
repute.
While Cap is a sixteen-rowed yellow variety; matures about two
weeks later than the Dent. The stalks are two to three feet higher than
the Dent, and yield from sixty to eighty bushels per acre.
Cregar. — This is a brftwn hybrid variety, possibly between the Illinois
Brown and King Philip. There are from sixteen to twenty rows on each
ear, and sometimes two ears to the gtalk ; it deteriorates by culture, and
does not ripen until the middle of October or first of November, — entirely
too late for the climate of Ohio.
Tuscarawas is a ten-rowed white corn, ripening about the first of
October; it is cultivated to a considerable extent in south-eastern Ohio.
Calico is a fourteen-rowed variety ; the grains are yellow, with red
stripes; and ripens about the first of October.
Homing is an eight-rowed white variety; large grain; one ear to the
Stalk ; ripens in October in northern Ohio ; and is much used for homiuy.
CORN CROP OF 1858 IN OHIO.
67c
Scott's Striped Corn. — This variety was produced by Mr. S. H. Scott,
of Morgan county, by crossing a variety of the Yellow Dent having
twenty rows with a yellow red eight-rowed corn. Scott's Corn is red"
dish, with a yellow stripe; sixteen to eighteen rows to the ear, and two
fiars to the stalk; it ripens about the 2jth of August. Mr. S. says :
" I found this hybrid to be of better quality than either of the originals —
is better adapted to the climate — yields eighty to ninety bushels per acre
and there are nine pounds of cob to every fifty-six pounds of corn."
The following is a condensed statement of the replies from County
Agricultural Societies to questions propounded on the annual circular
by the Corresponding Secretary of the Ohio Siate Board of Agriculture:
CORN.
COUNriES.
Adams
Ashland...
Ashtabula.
Athens.
Belmont.
Brown .
Butler..
Carrol
Champaign.
Crawford ...
Cuyahoga...
Darke
Defiance ..
Delaware
57
1. How late was tlie
latest com planted in
your county ? 2. Did
it mature?
20 June.
16 to 20 June.
3d July. Matured
well on bottom
binds.
9th of June.
June. 2. Yes.
Some varieties of
flint were plant-
ed latter part of
June.
12ih to 15th June.
1st of July.
6th July. 2. Yes.
25th of June.
22d of June.
1 to 10 July. 2. Yes.
7th of July. 2. Yes
What were the couse-j
quences to cattle and What varietiei 8uc-
liogs, fed on the un- ceedeU best 1
ripe corn of last year?
Bad, especially lor
horses.
Cattle some. Hogs
none.
No bad consequen-
ces. Did not fat'
ten stock well.
Bad.
None.
Would not fatten.
Looseness
bowels.
None.
None.
None.
of the
White yellow tiint.
Hackberry and
Gourd seed.
Red-cob, gourd
seed, King Phil-
lip, on good soil,
yields most.
Yellow gourd seed.
Yellow gourd seed
best, white flint
next.
Red Cob Yellow
Yellow gourd seed.
Gourd seed and
flint.
Gourd seed.
Small yellow.
Yellow flint.
Common yellow-
Dent, York State
and Michigan.
674
THE CORN PLANT.
Fairfield.
Fayette..,
Gallia
Guernsey .
Hamilton ,
Hancock . .
Hardin ....
Highland .
Hocking...
Huron
Jackson....
Enox..
Lake
Lawrence.
Logan..
Lorain.
Lucas.....
Madison.
Marion
Medina
Meigs..
Mercer.
Miami..
10th June. 2. Yes.
7th of July.
24th of June.
1st July. 2. Did
not all mature
. How late wan the
latest corn planted
in your county ? 2.
Did it mature ?
What wore ihe cnnse-
qiienci'S to cattio and
h'lps, fi'd on tlio un-
ripe corn of last year?
None.
Did not fatten well.
Stock killed by un-
ripe corn.
No.
Monroe
Montgomery..
1st July. 2. Mat-
ured well.
25th June. 2. Most
matured.
22d of June.
25th June. 2. Mat-
ured.
25th June. 2. Mat
ured.
5th July. 2. Mat-
ured.
4th July. 2. Not
all.
2d July. 2. Yes.
25th June. 2. Yes.
25 May. 2. Yes.
10 July. 2. Yes.
27 June. 2. Yes.
1 July. 2. No,
4 July. 2. Not all.
22 June. 2. Yes.
10 June. 2. Yes.
15 July. 2. Yes 7-9
29 June. Yes, •§.
15 June. 2. Yes.
25 .Tune. 2. Yes,
Slightly injurious
to stock.
Did not fatten well
No bad effect.
Did not fatten well
No bad conse-
quences.
Fattened hogs
slowly.
Did not fatten well.
None.
None.
Fattened slowly.
They kept fat.
But few cases of se-
fious consequence
Did not fatten well.
What variefi'!3 suc-
ct-cdetl best '.'
Yellow flint.
Fair crop in some
places, damaged
by heavy rains
in others.
Gourd seed, hack-
berry, yellow
flint!
King Philip tried
with success.
Yellow and white
gourd seed.
Yellow.
Homnion yellow
and white.
Small yellow.
Hack berry.
Small white flint
and large yellow.
(See original.)
Fattened slowly.
Took more to fatten
Red cob gourd seed.
Large yellow and
white.
Yellow gourd seed.
Alabama AVhite,
Hackbcrry small
yellow gourd.
Yellow Dent and
King Philip.
Every kind known
in Scioto Valley.
Gourd seed and
Flint.
Yellow hackberry.
Yellow brown and
striped.
Common yellow.
CORN CROP 0¥ 1858 IN OHIO.
675
COUNTIES.
Morgan.
Morrow
Muskingum.
Ottowa
Portage
Preble
Putnam...
Richland.
Koss.
Sandusky .
Scioto .
Seneca ,
Shelby.
1. llow late was the
latest corn planted
in your county ? 2.
Did it mature ?
10 July. 2. Yes.
25 .June. 2. Yes.
16 June. 2. Yes.
IJuIy. 2 Nearly all
25 June. 2. Yes.
15 June. 2. Yes.
8 July. 2. Not all.
10 July. 2. No.
4 July Did not
mature. 1st of
July, Yes.
20 June. 2. Yes.
4 July. 2. Yes.
Done very well.
U U 11
Good for cattle, not
for hogs.
25 .June. 2 matured
1 June. 2. Yes.
Stark 6 June. 2. Yes.
Summit.
Tuscarawas
Union
Van Wert...
Warren ,
Wayne..
Williams.
Wood ,
Wyandot
16 June. Matured.
July 5. Did not
mature.
20 June. 2. Ma-
tured well.
3 July. 2. No.
28 June. 2. Yes.
10 June. 2. Yes.
10 June and later.
2. Yes.
5 July. 2. Yes.
20 June. 2. Not all
4 July. 2. Yes.
What were the conse
qnences to cattle and
hogs, ted on ttie un-
ripe corn of last year?
Almost worthies;
for stock.
Slow growth.
We have heard of
some Stock being
killed.
Not injurious,more
to fatten.
More to Fatten.
Not injurious.
Did not thrive well
Not nutritious.
None injured by it.
Fattened hogs well.
No deleterious ef-
fects.
vVliat varieties suc-
ceeded best?
Common yellow.
Red Cob, gouid
seed, King Philip
Yellow Ripley and
Kentucky White.
Gourd seed.
Small yellow.
Gourd seed and
King Philip.
Yellow Hint.
Robinson and
Quand's yellow.
Common yellow
and white.
Yellow gourd seed
and King Philip.
Large quantity of
seed brought
from Pennsyl-
vania and Illi-
nois; the Penn.
the best.
Hackberry, Yellow
Dent, and King
Philip.
Yellow gourd seed
■Common yellow.
PLATE I. — PAGE 92.
Explanation. — A jEgihps ovaia, h, producing JS. triti-
coides c; a, the original ear from which they proceedeil. B,
epikelet of JE ovata with each glume bearing four awns. D,
Bpikelet of JE triticoides forcibly opened ; its two glumes each
with 2 unequal awns, a pair of sessile florets and a stalked
floret in the middle. E, floret of JE triticoides forced open
with two valves or paleas, of which one has an awn and a frag-
ment. F, floret of M ovata forced open, with two valves or
paleae, one of which has two awns.
PLATE II.
PLATE II. — PAGE 99.
A. Ear of 1840, natural size ; a, floret and kernel magnified.
B. Ear of 1839, natural size.
C. Ear of 1841, natural size ; h, floret and kernel magnified.
P r, A T K T T T ,
PLATE III.
A. Ear of 1842, natural size; a, spikelet somewhat en-
larged.
B Ear of 1844, natural size ; b, spikelet enlarged.
C. A floret with fruit also magnified.
PLATE IV.
PLATE IV.
Australian Wheat, - . - . Page 525
Garden Wheat, ... - « 528
Kentucky Red, « 526
White Blue-stem, - - - - "538
Soule's, « 548
Aht
§'m}'nl
'■ \i . \^
1 >
\ . \
^^i^Mk^^'^^ Pi
,1 III
^ \.^j>
^..
PLATE V.
PLATE V.
Belgian. — The description of this variety was inadvert-
ently omitted in the text. It is a red bearded winter wheat
of the Mediterranean family, and very much resembles the
Golden Chaff (page 515). The straw and head are light yellow
when ripe ; the grain a fair amber color, and much plumper
than the Mediterranean. There are from eight to twelve
breasts on each side, each breast containing four grains; the
beards are very long, and when ripe spread very much. It
ripens with the Mediterranean, but should be cut before fully
ripe, as it sheds its grains more readily than any variety I
have ever seen. It is a vigorous grower, resists midge and
rust, and yields better than the Mediterranean. It is grown
in Clermont county.
Red Blue Stem, Page 525
Dayton or Whig, - - - - "527
|@" The cut represents both a side and a lateral view of
the head.
Pennsylvania White, . - - . Page 550
PLATE VI
PLATE VI.
Mediterranean, . - - - . Page 516
Alabama, "537
Zimmerman, .--__" 532
Eed Chaff Mediterranean, - - " 518
Golden Chaff, "515
PLATE VII.
PLATE VII.
Genessee Flint, ----- Pa^e 543
Rock, ------ « 523
Quaker, « 520
Purkey, "546
58
PLATE VIII.
PLATE VIII.
Lambert, Page 545
Early Ripe, " 542
Canada Flint, '< 540
Club, "540
Old Red Chaff, "518
INDEX.
AsABtE land in Ohio 309
Anther of wheat (ill.) 27
.Sgilops, varieties of. 92
" descriptiou of. 96
" Fabre's experiment with 98
*' produces wheat 101
Ashes of plants, analysis of. 237
Ammonia, properties of. 170
" contained in soil 171
Apocrenic acid, composition of. 175
Ammonia, use of in plants 202
" necessity of 203
'■ and carbonic acid 205
Alumina, composition of. 155
" fruit-forming substance 219
Barley, history of. 49
Black Sea wheat, analyses of. 113-115
Barley, experiments with 225
" experiments with 234
Boussingault's experiments 238
Buckwheat, experiments with 235
Classification in animal kingdom 18
" in vegetable kingdom 18
" in mineral kingdom 19
Cattle and horses, no diverse origin of 24
Chaff, analysis of. 116
Carbon, properties of 164
Carbonic acid, effect of in soil 192
Carbon obtained from the soil 193
" in plants, Henfrey's theory of. 194
" " Liebig's theory of... 193-5
Carbonic acid and ammonia 205
" " not derived from the air 208
Caird's statement of Illinois soils 302
Cereals and grasses, history of 36
" " geographical distribution of. 39
" what ones most in use ^ 41
694 INDEX.
Page.
Cereals, varieties of. 42
Chess, is it derived from wheat CO
Cellulose 125
Cell productiou 137
Creuic acid, coini>osition of. 176
Cells, how thoy miiltipl.v 188
Climate, changes produced by 75
" iuHuenccs of 76
Corn, history of. 53,641
Crops, philosophy of rotations in 147
Clay, properties of. 154
Chlorine, properties of. 169
Clay absorbs ammonia ; li.'S
Chlorine of doubtful utility 214
Clover, experiments with 236
Crops, necessity of rotation in 357
" how to rotate remuneratively 363
Clod-crusher 417
Coolidge, J., letter from 484
Corn, native country of. 641
" in Eastern countries 042
" in Egyptian tombs 043
" difl'erent names of. 644
" Italian 645
" Humboldt's opinion of origin of 646
" Persian history of origin of 647
" Summary of historical evidence 648
" Botanical desciiption of. 049
" plate illustrating (lower of 050
" description of plate 661
" analyses of plant 652
" analyses of-component parts 653
" matter removed from an acre 054
" culture of 655
" soil for 6.56
" Gill's exjierimeut in deep culture 057
" selecting and sowing corn seed 658
" how to cultivate 659
" cultivating 660
" in Ohio, statement of 661
" varieties of 664
" Oregon, Fig. of 671
<• crop of 1858 in Ohio 673
" crop of 1858, effects on stock 073
Dbainaqe, effects of 403
Drainage **^
" how it operates *S0
*' causes independence of weather 451
" improves the crops •. 452
H. F. French's Rtatemnnt of 452 to 457 inclusive
INDEX. 695
Page.
Drainage, resists drought 454
" prevents drought 455
" sundry statements on 456
" effects of on wheat crop 457
Dew, how caused 459
Diastase 134
Drilling 459
" saves labor 460
" saves seed 4C0
" produces a larger yield 401
" promotes tillering 462
" Bummary of advantages of. 463
« cost of. 404
Dillon, Isaac, letter from 482
Diseases of the wheat plant 557
" jaundice 559
" blight or withering 559
" lodging 560
" sprouting in the shock 561
" mildews 567
" mildews, wheat 572
" mildews, uredo rubigo 573
" mildews, uredo caries 575
«' how to prevent 578
" uredo foetida 579
" " " engravings of 580
" " rubigo vera 581
" " segetum 584
•' " " how to prevent 587
" cladesporinm herbarium 589
" caused by insects (see Insects) 592
Drop of water on first leaf of oat plant 223
EsDOSMOsis defined 182
Exosmosis defined 182
Endosmotic theory untenable 185
Embryo 206
Fabre Espeit's experiment of producing wheat from oegilops 98
Farm-yard manure ^cessary 376
" " " value of 378-379
" " " draiuingji of. 426,429
" " " ammonia in 427
" " " analysis of. 428
" " " drainiugs, composition of. 430
" " " mineral and organic substances in 431
" " " quality of substances in 432
" " " absorbed by soils 433
" " " rotten draining of 436
" " " analysis of filtration from 441
" " " analysis, chemical 442
696 INDEX.
Page.
Farm-yard manure before and after filtration 444
" " " for wheat 447
" " " composted 448
Flesh of elephants in river Lena 1C6
" of animals derived from plants 377
Flonr, new method of preserving 1C6
" price from 1800 to 1855 328
" exported 329
Forest trees are exix>nents of thequality of soil 337
Fallows not essential 367
Frost, eflects of on plants 405
Frozen plants, how to thaw 473
Frost, how does it act on plants ? 474
Gbasses, primitive 20
" history of. 36
" Tropical 37
" in temperate zones 38
" geographical distribution of. 39
" important 43
Granite composition 154
Grasses freeze sooner than other plants 472
German legend 11
Germination 126
" condilions necessary 129
" time of in wheat 130
" eflects of colored lights on 131
" Csborne's experiments in 139
Geicacid, analysis of. 175
Gregory, D., letter from 486
Gilbert & Lawes, experiments of 239
" " history of gluten 240
" " experiments with varieties of wheat 241
" " determination of nitrogen 242
«' '• method of experiments 243
" " plan of investigaticm 244
«• " summary of experiments 245
" " eftect of season on crop 246
" " early wheat has less mineral matter 248
" ." influeuceof manures «. 249
" " table of experiments 250
«« " method of determining nitrogen 251
" " manures aftect quantity more than qnality 252
«' " table of quantity, quality, etc 253
«« " mineral manures increase nitrogen 254
" " amount of matter depends on maturity 255
" " method of analysis 256
" " probable errors as to bases 257
" " table of wheat ash. analyses (1844) 258
«• " table of wheat ash, analyses (1845) 269
«« '< table of wheat ash, analyses (1846) 260
INDEX. 697
Page.
Gilbert &. Lawee, phosphates essential to wbetit 2GI
" " maturity depends on season 2G2
" " tabular statement of analyses 2G3
" *' mean results 2('.4
" " conclusion of experiments 205
Glurao of wheat illustrated 27
Gluten, properties of. 124
" composition of. 199. 202
' in wheat lO'.l
Gum, composition of. 2(i2
Gluten essential in articles of food -Oii
" history of discovery 240
Hendrick's, G. D., letter from on rust -"'iio
Hopetown wheat, analysis of. 120
nornblende, composition and properties of 15S
Humus, properties of 1"2
Huniic acid, properties of l^:?
" " composition of. 175
Humin, " " !"■'
Hybrids in the aninuil kingdom 25
-nt:- 82
" importance of in wheat 65
Pydrogeii, properties of. 109
i
" mlcropiis cuoopteus (chinch bug) 019
«' " " fig. of. 020
" mcraporousgniminicolii 010
" niiris crraticus 021
" new insect 030
" uoctua 022
" " agrotis lineolati .■ 022
" oacinis 022
" pachjinerus calcitrator t'2-l
" polydcsuiiis complatmlus i,24
" platjga.ster tijiula Oij
" " ptiiMtiiior ii07
" pttroinaliis iiicans ^'l^
" staph vliiius 020
" teiiebrio luoliloi- OJO
" tinea granolla i;27
" triigosita niauritanica r,28
" thrips ceraliir.n 02.s
" wire worms i '.;i
" zabriLS gibbus 0.S1
Introduction !•
Indian legenil of grain catcr.s 10
Isoiiieric substances 1:;«
Iron, properties of 150
Inorganic artificial soils 210
" " Salm Horstniarr's experiments in 210
" substances, what ones are essential 217
Iron, elTects of in excess 21.S
" sodium and manganese necessary 2;J!)
Lawson, Charles, letter of 1:12
Lime, composition and propertie.s of b'S
" sulphite of \ 16'J
" sulphate of I."i9
" plicjsphate of 1-ist
Ligiiin, composition of 202
Ijois Weedon systeni .'.KO
" " " cost of :!sr,
" " " hand labor indispensable .';87
Mao.nksium, properties and description of I'lO
Map!c, analysis of ash?s of. 178
Manganese increases asbimiUlion 21;')
INDEX. 699
Page.
Manganese not necessary to farm fruit 218
Mapes, Prof, on deep plowing 402
Manuring 420
" diaininga of dung-heaps 426
" " ammonia in 427
" " analysis of. 428
" wheat crop 44i5
Maizo, native country of G41
" in eastern countries (|42
" " Egyptian tombs 643
" varicnis names of 644
Mica, composition and properties of 157
Mineral manures not always fertilizers 333
Mildew 557, 570
Moisture in plants -38
Mules or mongrels 25
Nitrogen, properties of. 168
" necessity in nutrition 200
" what function it performs? 201
" in the wheat plant 207
" in the wheat roots 207
" in the wheat stalks 207
" in the wheat heads 207
" in the parts of plants collectively 208
" not derived from the air 208
" effects of. 210
Nitrate of ammonia, etfects of. 224
Nitrogenous manures, effects of 'iJ'J
Nutrition of the wheat plant 1~6
Organic world, general viewof. 17
Oats, history of 50
" e.xperinionts with 211, 2.35
Over lu.xurianoe, effects of 385
Origin of vegetable and animal kingdoms 22
" of the wheat plant 92
Organic manure, value of. 153
" " causes diseases in plants 355
Osborne's experiments I'iO. 191
Oxygen, properties of. 164
" discovery of. 165
" combinations of 167
Plants in different geologic eras 20
" changes in forms of. 23
" impregnation of. 20
" return to the original type 64
" origin of cnllivated ones 65
" growing i:i high tfv do they grow ? 170
700 INDEX.
Page.
Plants subsist on inorganic bodies „... 177
" inorganic elements in 179
" have iuherout vitality 181
" do not obtain all their carbon from air 193
" obtuin their carbon from the soil 196
" obtain carbon from tiic air, proof of 197
" experiments wiih in inorganic soils '210
" moisture in 238
" germination of. ... 207
" 8tonm in leiives of. 277
" do not ab.sorb carbon in day-time 278
Pa.-?ture land in Ohio 309
Plains in Stark county, Ohio 343
Plants absorb food in proportion to root surface 375
" warmth iliey receive from the sun 467
" why some freeze so readily 471
Parasiitcs, vegetable .'>C6
Pi«til in wheat (ill.) 27-'28
Pitch pine, analysis of ashes of. 178
Pollen, importance of. 31
Potassium, properties of 15G
I'liosjilioric acid lli'i
Plowing, phiIi>Bophy of .397, 398
Plow, double \ 399
Plowing, deep 400
" " impi.rtanco of 401
" " Mapes' view of 4il2
" " Yester plan of 404
" shallow, effects of 405
" deep, etfects of 400
Paw, Geo., letter from , 485
Plumule 149, 2t>9
'• function of 151
Physical progress
Quartz, composition of. 154
Bice, history of. 55
" culture of. 57
Roots, physiology of. 143
" functions of 144
" al)8orb moisture 1S3
Bust, prevented by early cutting 477
" in oats, what is it ? •'" S
" in wheat 581 to .''.S:!
" G. P. Hendrick's letteron y'.iO
Ryo, history of 46
" experiments with 2:U
Sthaw, annlynis of , I'lP
BoiiIe'D wheat, analysis of. 113
INDEX. "^1
P..p,e.
185
Sap, circulation of. ' ^
" two cinrulations of.
1 oa
" absorption of.
" produces its circulatiug vessels
Starch, composition of '^^-'
Salm Uortsmarr'K experiments -1"
" " " with white oats -'-l
" " plant floiu-i.shcd with nitrogen •'• 212
'< " lime and potash necessary 212
" " iron invigorates the plant 212
" «' manganese increases assiuiilalion 213
" " soda not essential 213
" '< phosphoric acid essential 214
«« '< silicic acid necessary, 214
«« " chlorine of doiihtful utility 214
«« " comparison of experiments 21o
«« •< nitrogcji increases assimilation -16
«« " experiments with seven inorganic substances 217
«« " manganesB not necessary to form fruit 218
« " test experiment -^^
" " alumina, a fruit-foiniing substance 219
" " alumina, experiments with 220
" " alumina, experiments, with summary table of. 221
«< " cause of side shoots in oats 222
«« " drop of water on the first leaf. 223
«« " ammonia must be in the soil before seeding 224
« " experiments with spring barley 225
« '• conipcsition of artificial soil 226
" " experiments with winter wheat 227
<• " composition of artificial soil 228
" «' experiment with nitrate of soda 228
" " sodium, iron and manganese necessary 229
«« " results 230
« " experiments with spring barley 230
** " composition of artificial soil 230
'• " experimont-s with winter ry« 231
" " expeiiments with winter ry«, barren soil 232-3
Season, effects of on crop 246
Seeding ^58
Seed should be soaked "^59
•' " " it kills Hes.siau flies 459
«' " " it prevents smut 459
" " " drUled 459
Silica, properties of. .• IGl
" how deposited in plants 273
Simmons, Hon. C. B. , letter fi-om 484
Spcngiole 2G9, 186, 142
Soils, origin and constituents of. 153
Sodium, properties of. IGl
Sulphuric acid, properties of 163
Soila change the qualities of plaats. '. ISO
702 INT)KX.
Page.
Solvent fluid 191
Soil absorbs carbon 192
Soile, why uuefiHuUy fertile 208
Scolecit, exiierinieut with 220
Sodium, chloride of, in forming fruit 220
Soils of Illinois a02
" deficiencies in Western 305
" of Ohio; 307
Sheep essential on wheat soils 308
Soil for wheat 330
Soils, analyses of, not always reliable 334
" " of, furuish no proof of fertility 330
" forest trees indicate the quality of. 337
" classification of 345
" clay _ 346
" sandy and lime 347
•' marlj-and loamy 348
« composition of 349
" value of analyses in 350
" how to test lime in 351
" exhaustion of. 362
" can not furnish more food than it contains 358
" food of plants not in solution in 359
" capacity for production 360
" " " " how to estimate 361
" mineral constituents removed by wheat SC2
" exhaustion af one element exhausts all 364
" gradual exhaustion of. 365
" decrease in grain forming conditions 369
" progressive exhaustion of. 373
Smith's, Kev., system of wheat-growing 389
Soil, pulverization of the 383
" management of .'. 389
«' best for wheat 390
" frequent plowing necessary 391, 393
" pores in 392
" capillary attraction in 394
" Salisbury's experiment 395
" soluble salts on clay 396
" must be comminuted 397
■' Dr. Madden on pulverization 419
" mechanical relations of 420
" lack of air and moisture in 421
*' conditions of illustrated 422
" excess of water in .- 423
■' effects of drainage 424
" improvement of. 426
« absorbing powers of „ 433, 435
" analyses of 434
« absorb potash from manures 438
" absorb phosphates from manure 439
INDEX. 703
Page.
Soils, all do not readily absoib 445
" moisture in 453
" color changes temperature 406
Shocks, best method of making 563
Summer wheat, analyses of. 114
Sugar made of starch 136
Sugar 202
Smut in wheat .^ 572
" in wheat 584
" " how to prevent 587
T11.LERINO 271
Tobacco plant requires saltpeter 179
" experiments with 236
TuU's, Jethro, sy.stem of wheat-growing 380
ITnger's theory of the vegetable kingdom 21
Ulmin, composition of. 175
Ulmic acid, composition of. 175
Vegetable molds 345
Vegetables, how to thiiw, when frozen 473
Vine requires lime 179
Vital force in plants 183
Vicia sativa, experiments with 234
Vines, why pnming is necessary 370
Wax, composition of. 202
Weighman's & Polstorf 's experiments 233
" " composition of artificial soil 233
" " experiment with vetches 234
«' " " " barley 234
«« " " " oats 235
" " " " buckwheat 235
«« " " " tobacco 236
" " " " rod clover 236
" " analyses of ashes of above plants 237
Western Reserve, adaptatiim i)f. 311
West, the, not a wheat regii)n 325
Wheat the symbol of civilization 9
" plant never leaves civilization 13
" " history of. 59
" in ancient Egypt CI
" wild in Oregon and Califurnia 02
" first in Me.xico 63
" varieties of. 06
" " change by culture 68
" doesit change to chess? 69
" turning to chess, report on , 73
" and chess will not hj'bridize 74
" Australian, changes in 76
704 INDK.X.
Pace.
Wheat, stnictHiv of gniin 77
" origin of vuriel ifs "8
" docs not liyhridi/o in the field 79
" iiiiiH>rt;i«c-c of liyhrids 85
" hiBtorj' of Mwliti'iraiiPiin 87
" Le C'oiiteur's fxpcriniciits witli S>1
" ori.ein of. 'J2
" produced fnim ft'gilo|)S ^ I'X)
" gratu, stmcUire nnd omipiwitioii of. 1"7
«• " analysis of 108
" " " Bi-rk'rt 109
*' " " Eminon's 110
" " structure of ; I'-O
" plant germination I'-G
«* " life of in ditfcrent countriee 128
" embryology of. 133
" can grow in poison 141
" plant, nutrition of 170
" " requires phosphates 179
" gluten in 199
" winter, S Horstmarr's cxperiiuentB with 227
«' spring, c-xperiment-f with 230
" Gilbert & Lawes's experiments 241
" nitrogen in 242
" plant, growth of 2G6
" " germination of. 267
" " proper depth to plant 270
" " tillering, |)rooess of 271
" " winter killing , 273
" " result of drought , 274
" grains not productive without impreguatiou 279
" plant, botanical description of. 280
" head, anatomy of „ 281
" "breast," anatomy of 282
" glume, anatomy of 283
" pollen, its properties and uses 284
" pistil, anatomy and function of. •» 285
" plant tillers from coronal roots only 286
" " its remarkable tillering powers 287
" regions of the world 290
" regions of Europe 291
" produced in Europe 292
" flour imported by Britain 293
" trade of the Elbe and France 294
» " of Spain 295
" " of Odessa 296
" regionsof the U. S 297
" average crops in U. S 298
" crops in each State 299
" regions of the West 300
« •' deterioration of. 301
INDKX. 705
rase.
t regions of Illiuuis il'li
soils of Illinois '^''^
section of U. S 300
soil of Ohio 3U7
acres of, sown in Ohio from 1850 to 18o7 312
bushels giithered in Ohio from 1850 to 1857 3Ui
loss by insects in Ohio 3-0
district in Oliio changing 321
" diminution of 3<;3
iiveruge product of in Ohio 324
region, Ohio tlie center of 327
amount exported 32!)
culture of. 330
soils, Scotch method of determining 344
after clover 354
amount of mineral matter removed in an acre 3G2
to precede potatoes 371
rotation with clover and potatoes 372
how to grow with profit 381
crop, manuring 41G
for seed should be soaked 459
bearded most liable to freeze 470
when to harvest it 475
advantages of early cutting 470
description and classification of varieties 479
transmutation of species 481
color no basis of classification 487
Metzger's classification of. 488
common varieties of. 488
turgid varieties of. 489
hard varieties of 489
Polish 489
Speltz 490
Emmer or Amel corn 491
St. Peter's corn 491
in New York, Emmon's classification 492
spring varieties in New York 494
additional varieties in New York 495
British varieties .*. 496
" Lawson's classification 497
" description of. 498 to 511
varieties in Ohio 512
" bearded winter, red 512 to 525
" smooth winter, red 525 to 533
" bearded winter, white 5.33 to 537
" smooth winter, white 537 to 551
" spring 551 to 556
diseases and enemies of. 557
" atmospheric 559
degeneration of 565
vegetable parasites of. 567
700 INDEX.
Pftge.
Wlu'iit, iiisi'i-t parasites of. 592
Wiiitvr will-ill, analysis of. 116
While flint wluat, analysis of 118
Wlieatland roil wlieat, analysis of. 118
White oats, experiments with 211
Wooillaml in Ohio 309
Yestek deep land culture 404
" " " " effects of. 40G
" " " " effects of mucking 409
" " " " effects on crops 410
" " " " effects on hay crop 414
" system saves labor 415
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My Dear Sir — The work you have translated, "Histoiredo la Medecine," by Dr.
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