^S>% ,^^ °^ "\.^" :;^&^^ %/■ 0" . ■^/.d< \.# / 9?. " -, X " ^^-o^ ■ ^^^^ \> . I • ^^' '^ \> » •< • , -%, .%'''-^^/o^./''.:--^co^o— .>;'-^o<: - -^^0^ .* ^ Of. ^^ ^ FRUITS AND FARINACEA PROPER FOOD OF MAN; BEING AN ATTEMPT TO PROYE, FROIT HISTORY, ANATOSTT PHY- SIOLOGY, AND CHEiriSTRY. THAT THE friginal, Itolural, aiili lest |ict of Itan IS DERIVED FROM THE VEQETABLE KINQDOM BY JOHN SMITH. WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, BY R. T. TRALL, M. D. jfrom tl)e SeconU SHontion BUftfon. NEW YORK: FOWLER AND WELLS, PUBLISHERS, No. 30« BEOADWAY. Bostok: » I PraLADELPniA : Ko. 142 Washington St \ \ No. 281 Arch Streut. X^'« Co Entered, accordhag to Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by FOWLERS AND WELLS, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for ,tjie Southern District of New York. EDWARD 0. JENKIXS, PRINTER k STEREOTYPER^ 114 Nassau Street, New York. AMERICAN PREFACE. The great importance of, and interest in, the Yegetarian question, in- volving as it does the relations of food to health, and, indeed, the theory of the progress, improvement, and destiny of the human race, render a text book of facts and principles not only desirable but indispensable. The sources from whence the arguments for or against an exclusively vegetable diet are usually and necessarily derived, are natural history, physiology, experience, and revelation ; hence the student has an ample range in the prosecution of his researches ; whilst the author who under- takes to collate judiciously the essential problems in all their departments of knowledge, and present intelligibly their vast variety of statistical data, requires a mind of no ordinary discernment and discrimination. But the author of " Fruits and Farinacea" has executed such a task, and in a most admirable manner, as the present work — which I cannot too strongly commend to the American people, and to all truth-seekers every- where — abundantly testifies. As a compendium of the evidences and rea- sonings on the whole subject of the philosophy of diet, it is as full and complete as can well be compressed within the narrow compass of a small book. The explanatory notes and physiological illustrations which I have added, are intended mainly to elucidate such of the more difficult and most dis- puted propositions as the general reader may not have time or opportunity to explore by the ordinary method of scientific investigation. R. T. T. Hydbopathio and Htgienio Institute. Nmv York., 1854 /7r PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The views advocated in the following pages differ so widely from those generally held by writers on dietetics, and are so diametrically opposed to the ' habits and customs of society in this country, that I am by no means sanguine of making many proselytes ; but what will man not attempt, when fully convinced that he is laboring in the cause of truth ? If perfectly satisfied that he has arrived at a correct and important result, opposition will only redouble his ardor in supporting and spreading the doctrine he has espoused. His steady perseverance in its defence will frequently expose him to the charge of enthusiasm or egotism ; these, in fact, seem almost necessary to the man who would successfully advocate any new or not generally received opinion : every one is warm in what he considers a good cause ; and he who observes the majority of society indifferent to the truth which he believes himself to possess, can scarcely avoid displaying the characteristics of the egotist. By defending a fruit and farinaceous diet among my own friends, I have frequently incurred similar charges ; I cannot, therefore, expect to be more leniently treated by literary and scientific critics. Perhaps, also, I may be accused of presumption, for daring to controvert points upon which phy- siologists are so generally agreed. It is very far from my wish to convey an impression that I place either my talents or acquirements on a par with those of the many learned and scientific discoverers who have written upon the subject, and whose views differ from my own : yet men of indifferent abilities have sometimes, by a steady and persevering attention to evidence, arrived at truths which have escaped the notice of more powerful intellects ; (T) Vi PREFACE. and " so limited is the human capacity, that the most exalted genius, and the deepest powers of investigation, have not been able to raise their pos- sessors above the errors and prejudices of their age, on subjects wliich have not been made the peculiar object of their reflection." I therefore hope that my investigations will not be found so devoid of interest as some may at a first glance suppose ; nor my deductions so wide of the truth as a reference to the long-established dietetic habits of my countrymen may seem to indicate : but whatever judgment the public may pass upon the opinions here advocated, at least it will be a satisfaction to feel that I have written with a sincere desire of benefiting society in general ; and more especially its members who suffer from dyspepsia and other diseases. He who undertakes to bring a new or neglected subject before the public, finds it exceedingly difficult to adopt the best arrangement of which it will admit ; and the probability is, that he will not defend his views with that clearness and force which, when more generally canvassed, might be brought to their support. Hence arguments which may appear forcible and conclusive to a person whose attention has been long and steadily directed to the subject, and who has viewed it in all its bearings, may be totally inadequate to produce conviction in others who have thought little about it. " Perhaps," as has been well observed, " the best mode of leading an- other to the apprehension of truth, is to show how we ourselves were convinced : and, in the announcement of a new discovery, it is always well to explain how we were first impressed with the idea, and afterwards pro- ceeded ; for nature always tells her own tale best, and in the most impress- ive way : by so doing, we in some measure place others in a similar posi- tion with ourselves, and enable them to judge through the same evidence which has convinced us." In accordance with this remark, I may briefly state, that I read an Essay on " Manifestations of Mind," about ten years ago, to the members of a small Literary Society, and attempted to trace the phenomena of sensation, from the lowest up to the highest forms of animated being. After the reading of the paper, and an interesting dis- cussion on the similarity of structure in the organs of sense, and the resem- blance of the nervous and cerebral development, in the superior classes of animals, to those of man, the following question occurred to me : — " Is man justified in slaughtering animals for his food ; seeing that, by means of a beautifully-organized structure, they are rendered exquisitely sensible both of pleasure and pain ?" The answer I mentally returned to the inquiry was : " If the flesh of animals be necessary to the health, happiness, and longevity of man, then PREFACE. vii the law of self-preservation will warrant his taking the life of animals ; — provided he be guilty of no cruelty, and cause no unnecessary pain to the animal which he sacrifices to supply his wants ; but if upon further inquiry it should appear that the life of man can be preserved, his health and strength maintained, his pleasure and happiness continued or rendered more pure and satisfactory, and the period of his mortal existence unabbreviated or prolonged, by a diet of which the flesh of animals forms no part, — then would neither wisdom nor benevolence sanction the horrid cruelties that are daily perpetrated, in order to pamper the perverted appetites of man." Believing the subject to be one of great interest, I determined to inves- tigate it impartially, and resolved to adopt practically whatsoever should appear to be the plain dictates of nature. After carefully consulting the writings of Moses, traditionary records, comparative anatomy, physio- logy, chemistry, general history, and private experience, I arrived at the firm conviction, that the flesh of animals is not only unnecessary, but de- cidedly prejudicial to man's health and well-being. I therefore discontinued it, as an article of diet ; and, persevering in spite of the fears and remon- strances of my friends, I was soon rewarded with better health and more real enjoyment than I had experienced during many years. Having derived incalculable advantages from a strict adherence to a fruit and farinaceous diet, and being fully satisfied (after a long and patient in- vestigation of evidence) that it is well adapted to all constitutions, in all climates fit for the residence of man, I can no longer resist the importunity of my friends to publish the result of my experience and inquiries. Throughout the whole of these investigations I have preferred express- ing my sentiments in the language of authors eminent for talents and scien- tific pursuits, rather than in words of my own ; which must be my excuse for the many disconnected sentences and sudden transitions to be found in the work. On a careful perusal of the whole, I find much to be dissatisfied with ; — arising, in a great measure, from the many interruptions that have occurred during its composition ; and I would gladly have re-written it, had not my avocations forbid the attempt. I therefore solicit the indul- gence of the public towards its faults and imperfections. For much valuable information on the points I have discussed, I am indebted to the works of Drs. Lambe, Grant, Carpenter, Southwood Smith, Prout, Bird, Eoget, Pereira, Dick, and Miiller ; Professors Liebig, Law- rence, and Mulder ; Baron Cuvier, Mr. J. F. Newton, and many others , more especially to the " Lectures on the Science of Human Life," by Mr. Sylvester Graham, of North America ; which I would earnestly recommend to all who feel an interest in the subject. €(intnits. IjnrBOI>TT#eiOHi ..---------...pp.1 PART I. OEIGmAL FOOD OF MAN. CHAPTER I. Ettdbxce peom thb WKmNGS OF Moses and from Tradttion. — Fruit and Herbs bearing Seed appointed to Man for Food. Golden Age described by Ovid, Yirgll, and others. Man's Expulsion from Paradise. Silver Age, &c. Longevityof the Antediluvians. Man permitted to eat Animal Food after the Deluge. Little Animal Food eaten long after the Deluge. Brazen and Iron Ages. Consequences of a Change of Diet. Fable of Prome- theus, &c., - - ^ - - pp. 29-11 CHAPTER n. Inferences from the original Innocence of Man. — ^Man created in the Divine Imago. Opinion that Man is progressive in Mental and Moral Qualifications - - pp. 41-44 CHAPTER III. Inferences from the Sensations of Sigut, Smell, and Taste. — Man dependent on Instinct In the Selection of Food. Sight, Smell, and Taste would direct him to Fruit, pp. 44-17 . CHAPTER IV. Pbepaeations op Animals fob Food,— Fire, and Implements for Killing and Preparing Animals. Summary of Previous Evidence, pp. 47^9 CONTENTS. PART II. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. CHAPTER I. Ettdbitce aftoeded by Compaeative Anatomy. — Instincts of Man deteriorated by Acquire^ Habits. Natural Food of Man not determined by Climate but by Structure. General Characteristics of Carnivorous and Herbivorous Animals. Proper Mode of proceeding in the Inquiry. Teeth— Incisors, Cuspids, Bicuspids, Molars. Articulation of the Lower Jaw. Zygomatic Arch, Temporal and Masseter Muscles. Salivary Glands. Alimentary Canal— Stomach, Colon, Caecum, and Liver. Perspiratory Glands. General Eeview of the Organs, pp. 53-86 CHAPTER II. Man (strictly speaking) not Omntvoeotts. — ^Intermediate Character of Man's Digestive Organs. The Gastric Juice varies according to the Food. Organs in which Man differs from other Animals. Questionable whether any Animal be strictly Omnivorous. The Quadru- mana and their Food. Opinions of Linnseus, Cuvier, Lawrence, Bell, and others. Two Objections answered. Animals trained to live upon and relish Improper Food. Difference between Adaptation and Adaptibility. Improvements of Art inferior to Nature. Pro- vince of the Intellectual Faculties, pp. 86-98 CHAPTER HI. Physiology of Sight, Smell, and Taste. — Objection— Flesh-eating general in various na- tions, pp. 93-110 CHAPTER IV. Bensittve and Moeal Feelings of Man. — Slaughtering of Animals opposed to the Exercise of Benevolence and Sjmipathy. Instances of Cruelty to Animals killed for Food. Opinions of others on this Point. Demoralizing Influence of Torturing and Killing Ani- mals. Cases in which Man is justified in Destroying Animals. Objections. "Why wore Oxen, Sheep, &c., created, if not for the use of Man ? If Animals be not killed, they will become too numerous. How could the Land be cultivated without Animal Manure ? The Sum Total of Animal Pleasure is increased by Breeding and Killing Animals for ^ood, pp. 111-123 CONTENTS. PART III. BEST FOOD OF MAN, CHAPTER I. Vegetables contain all the ELEMEinB an© QtrALinEs necessaey foe the Complete NtTTErrioN OF Man. — Processes of Decay and Nutrition. Azotized and Non-azotized Principles of Food. Various Sources of Nitrogen to the Herbivora, &c. Man can be supported by Non-azotized Food. Food of the Carnivora and Herbivora. Nutritive Mat- ter in various Articles of Diet. Convertibility of Starch into Fat, Protein, &c. Benefits resulting to Man from the Action of the Atmosphere on Non-azotized Principles. A Mixed Diet does not contain the best Proportions of Starch, Gluten, &c. Food should vary according to the Character of the Digestive Organs. Time in which various Articles are converted into Chyme. Experiments of Majendie and others. Concentrated Food and Isolated Principles, Dr. Stark's Experiments. Variety of Food not so necessary as a due Admixture of Nutritious and Innutritions Matter. Best Kind of Bread, - pp. 127-157 CHAPTER n. Experience of Nations and Individc- alb.— Vegetable Diet not a New Doctrine. Opinions of Pythagoras, Plutarch, &c. Various Ancient and Modern Nations have lived on Vege- table Productions, --PP* 157-168 CHAPTER HI. Fbthts and Faeinacea coNDxrciTE TO Health.— In what Health consists. Food Nutritive and Stimulative. Opinions of Drs. Hufeland, and others. Examples in illustra- tion, pp. 163-170 CHAPTER lY. Vegetable Food consistent with Physical Strength and AoTrvrrr. — ^Mistaken Notions on this Subject. Stimulation not Strength. More Oxygen required when Animal Food is taken. Protracted Labor endured better on a Vegetable than on an Animal Diet. In- stances of Strength in Herbivorous and Frugivorous Animals. Instances of Strength in Nations and Individuals who have lived on Vegetables, - - - - PP. 170-191 CHAPTER V. Climate and Tempeeatuee.— A greater Degree of Cold may be sustained on Vegetable Diet. Eeasons which induce some to think otherwise, - - - - pp. 191-194 CONTENTS. CHAPTER VI. Inflttbncb of Azotized Food in peoduoing ceetain Diseases.— On what the States of Health and Disease depend. Opinions of Medical "Writers on the Production of Disease. Ilecent Origin of Certain Diseases. Production and Eetention of Various Acids in the System. Lithic Acid Diathesis; including Gout, Calculi, &c. Dr. "W. Tyler Smith's Opinion respecting Scrofula, &c. Professor Liebig, Dr. Bence Jones, Dr. Prout, and Dr. I Oolding Bird, on the Origin of Lithic Acid. Experiments proving the Incorrectness of .' Lieblg's Views. Dr. Lehmann's Experiments. Production of Lithic Acid by other Means. Authorllles and Cases. Diabetes Mellitus, pp. 194r-214 CHAPTER VII. iNJXTEiotrs Effects of Animal Food. — ^Utility of Exercise under a highly Azotized Diet. Direct Injuries caused by the Flesh and Milk of Animals. Caries of the Teeth produced by Animal Food. Decay of the Teeth more common now than formerly - pp. 214-219 CHAPTER Vni. Bekeficial Effects of Vegetable Food on Invalids.— Result of Dr. North's Inquiries on the Subject. Dyspepsia cured by a Fruit and Farinaceous Diet Excellent Effects of this Diet in Phthisis. Its Effects in cases of Scrofula, Scurvy, Epilepsy, Dysentery, and In- flammation. Two remarkable Cases of Ulcers cured by Fruit, &c. Unnecessary Alarms of Persons commencing Vegetable Diet. Fevers, Epidemics, and Accidents, less Fatal on a Vegetable Diet Extreme Debility no Obstacle to the Adoption of a Fruit and Fari- naceous Diet, pp. 219-284 CHAPTER IX. Vegetable Diet peotective against Epidemics. — Wallachians, Brahmins, Otaheitans, Negroes, and Mexican Indians. Cases in illustration by Dr. Alderson, Eev. J. B. Strettles, Mr. S. Graham, and Dr. Copland, Howard the Philanthropist, Chas. Whitlaw and others. Cholera at New York. Shelley's View of the Subject, pp. 234-240 CHAPTER X. Vegetable Diet conditcive to Symmetry and Normal Development. — Effects of Differ- ent Kinds of Food on the Lower Animals. Organs connected with Digestion most readily intluenced. Development most Eegular when the Processes are Slow. Effects of Fruit and Farinacea on Bulk and Weight. Facts from Various Parts of the World in illustra- tion, - ' pp. 241-246 CHAPTER XL Vegetable Diet coNDucrvE to AcirrENESS and Perfection of the Special Senses.- -State- ments of Mr. S. Graham and Dr. Lambe. Case of Caspar Hauaer, - - pp. 247-249 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. Vegetable Diet conducive to ueal Sensual Pleasube and Enjoyment, - pp. 249-252 CHAPTER Xm, Vegetable Diet favorable to Mental Exertion and Intellectual Culture. — Opinions of Theophrastus, Diogenes, and Sir J. Sinclair. Children of Irish Peasants, Caspar Ilau- ser, and Orphan Asylum of Albany. Children at Syra, St. Croix, and those of the Zulus. Pythagoras, Epicurus, Sir Isaac NeTvton, and others. Effects of a Full Meal of Animal Food, pp. 253-259 CHAPTER XIY. Vegetable Diet favorable to the Government of the Passions and Peopensities, AND to the Development of Man's Moral Powers. — Connection between Animal Food and the Diffusible Stimulants. Tempers and Dispositions of Carnivorous and Herbivorous Animals. Effects of Feeding the Herbivor* on Animal Food. Nations living principally on Flesh more Cruel than others. Opinions of Porphyry and Lord Byron. Cases in illustration. Effects of Vegetable Diet on Sir Walter Scott. The Propensities prematurely Developed by Animal Diet. Injurious Effects of this Diet on Children. Concluding Remarks, - - - PP- 259-266 CHAPTER XV. Vegetable Diet favorable to Longevitt!— Progress of Life described by Dr. South- wood Smith. Period of Perfect Development, the only one that can be indefinitely ex- tended. Longevity desirable, when properly considered. Processes of Decay and Ee- newal more rapid under an Animal Diet. Chyle and Blood from Vegetable Food more Pure. Ossification of the Tissues hastened by Stimulating Diet Opinions of Hufeland, Celsus, and Lord Bacon. Instances of Longevity in Nations and Individuals. General Comparison of the Effects of Animal and Vegetable Food, - - - - pp. 267-280 CHAPTER XVI. Diet considered in its Relation to Population and the Moral Progress of Man.— The Organic Laws less studied than the Inorganic. As Population increases, Animal Food becomes scarcer. More Nutriment in Vegetable than in Animal Substances. Effects of a Potato Diet. Man when Carnivorous requires more extensive Supplies than the Lion or Tiger. One Pound of Starch equal to Four Pounds of Flesh. Weight of Animal Food consumed by the Canadian Boatmen, &c. Produce of Animal and Vegetable Food compared. View of the Subject as regards Economy. Population that may be supported by the Land of Great Britain and Ireland. Immense Resources of Food in the Vegetable Kingdom. Variable Proportions of Oxygen and Carbonic Acid in the Atmosphere. Law of Increase of Population. Mr. Alison on the Ratio of Food to Population. Causes of the Downfall of Nations. Anticipated Effects of General Education, ifcc. Consequences of an Advance towar(Ja Moral Perfection, jip. 280-299 CONTENTS CHAPTER XVII. CoNCLinoiNG Eemaeks.— Best Mode of commencing Vegetable Eegimen. Eulos for the Preservation of Health. Fruit, Grain, Tubers, &c., proper for Human Food. Breakfast, Dinner, Supper, 800-308 APPENDIX. Note, — A. Acquired Peculiarities, ---------- 809 B. Composition of Urine under Different Kinds of Diet, - - - - 811 C. Proximate Principles and Value of Various Kinds of Grain, Boots, &C., 812 D. Produce of an Acre in Wheat, Oats, &c., 813 NOTES BY DR. TRALL Absurd Experiments on Animals, ..-...•-••--- 150 A Clergyman on Butchering, 42 All Nutriment formed by Vegetables, ---145 Bathing invigorates the Skin, 141 Bible Authority, 29 Common Objections to Vegetarianism, 162 Diet in relation to Toothache, .--..--»--•--- 217 Digestive Apparatus, 80-83 Effects of Cooking on Flesh, • 47 Effects of Tea and Coffee, 307 Experimental Evidence. ..........87 Food in relation to Animal Hoat, .-.-.-..-••-. 193 Frauds in Flesh and Poultry, 118 Herbivora taught to eat FlesS, ............. 53 Illustrations of the Teeth, 7&-78 Iron in the Blood, 128 Making Food into Blood, 129 Milk-Sickness, 216 Modus Operandi of Stimulitats, 171 Nutritive Quality of Fat, 136 Organization in relation to 3iet, ..-...-•.••--56 Permission to eat Flesh, ----.-•••.•---- 37 Physiological Cook Book, .--308 Pictorial Illustrations, - 57-71 Prevalence of ConsumptEon, .-....•••••••• 168 Sa\t as a Dietetic Article, 209" Treatment of Gout sual Rheumatism, 209 VegetariaiM* ^esi «idtt!re Fasting, ...-....•--•- 173 Water, hard, inJl»>tio«8, 145 EXPLANATION OF TEMS OCCURRING IN THIS WORK, WHICH ARE NOT USUALLY FOUND IN DICTIONARIES. Abnormal. Irregular, contrary to rule. Acari. Ticks or mites. Adipose. Fatty, containing fat. Albumen. A proximate principle existing abundantly in the white of egg. It is also found in animal and vegetable fluids and solids. Albuminous. Containing the properties of albumen. Alkali. A metallic or earthy salt, as potash, soda, lime, &c. Alkaline. Having the properties of an alkali. Amylaceous. Pertaining to starch or the farinaceous part of grain, &c. Azote. Called also Nitrogen. A gas which is the basis of nitric acid, and constitutes four-fifths of the atmospheric air. Azotized. Imbued with azote or nitrogen. Binoxide. Two equivalents of oxygen combined with a metallic base. Brachmans. Ancient philosophers of India. Bronchocele. A tumor on the fore part of the neck ; the Derbyshire neck. CcBcal. Appertaining to the caecum. Ccecum. The first portion of the large intestine, perforated at one end only. Caseine. That ingredient in milk which is neither coagulated spontaneously, like fibrine, nor by heat, like albumen, but by the action of acids alone. It is identical with legumine, and occurs in vegetables. Cellulose. The cellular substance of plants. jOerebral. Pertaining to the cerebrum or brain. Chyme. That particular modification which food assumes after it has un- dergone the action of the stomach. EXPLANATION OF TERMS Chijlopoietic. Having tlie power to change into chyle. Comparative Anatomij. That branch of anatomy which treats of the anatomy of other animals than man, with a view to compare their structure with that of human beings. Conventionalities. Artificial agreements in contradistinction to natural obligations. Development. The organic changes which take place in animals and vege- tables, from their embryo state until they arrive at maturity. Dextrine. The soluble or gummy matter into which the interior substance of starch-globules is convertible by diastase, or by certain acids ; it is convertible into grape-sugar by boiling. Diastase. A peculiar vegetable principle extracted by water from crushed malt. Diabetes Mellitus. A generally fatal disease, characterized by an immoder- ate flow of urine which abounds with sugar. Diathesis. Particular disposition or habit of body, good or bad. Enteritis. Inflammation of the intestines. Entozoa. A general name for those parasitical animals which infest the bodies of other animals, as intestinal worms. Farimacea. Grain, roots, and other vegetables yielding farina or flour. Fecula. Starch or farina. Fibrine. A form of albumen found in animals and vegetables. Glenoid. A term applied to some articular cavities of bones. Glucose. Grape-sugar. Gluten. A tough elastic substance left after washing out the starch from the flour of wheat and other grains ; found also in the juices of certain plants. Coagulated vegetable albumen, soluble in alcohol. Goitre. The bronchocele or Derbyshire neck. Ligesta. Aliments taken into the stomach, Insalivation. The act of mixing with saliva. Lactic acid. Procured from sour milk or whey. Legumine. A peculiar vegetable product obtained from peas, beans, kc. Lithates. Salts formed by lithic acid with a base. Lithic acid. An acid present in human urine ; sometimes called uric acid Mesentery. A membrane in the cavity of the abdomen. Its use is to re tain the intestines and their appendages in a proper position. Miasma. An infectious emanation floating in the air. Morceau. A bit, a morsel. Nascent. Beginning to exist ; coming into being. Nitrogen. See Azote. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Normal. According to rule or principle. Oxide. A compound of oxygen with a metallic base. Pectin. Vegetable jelly, obtained by boiling ripe fruits with sugar and water ; or by mixing the juice with alcohol. Pedicuti. Apterous insects, commonly called lice. Peroxide. A base saturated with oxygen. Phosphates Combinations of phosphoric acid with lime, soda, potassa, and other bases. Protein. A chemical substance derived from albumen, fibrine, and caseine. Protoxide. The lowest compound of oxygen with a metallic base. Purpura hemorrhagica. An eruption of small purple specks and patches, caused by extravasation of blood under the cuticle. Saccharijiable. Convertible into sugar. Sodium. The metallic base of soda and common salt. Tabes. A wasting of the body. Tcenia. The tape-worm. Thoracic duct. The trunk of the absorbents. Tritoxide. Three equivalents of oxygen with a metallic base. Tubercle. A peculiar morbid product occurring in various textures of the body. Urate of Soda. A compound of uric acid with sodium. Urea. A constituent of urine. Uric acid. See lithic acid. / INTRODUCTION The ultimate object of animal life being pleasure, the law of self-preser- vation, or the love of life, will remain in full force so long as the sensations of pleasure are not outweighed by those of pain, or until the organs of sense become indiCferent to their accustomed stimuli. Every creature, therefore, is so wisely constructed, and endowed with such instincts, as in- duce it to make choice of those means which are best calculated to maiu- tain and preserve its existence : were not this the case, anunal life would soon terminate. But as individual life has a commencement, so also has it an end ; and though the laws of nature should be at all times implicitly obeyed, and circumstances should be of the most favorable khid, yet there is a limit beyond which none can pass, — when vitality must yield to the universal range of chemical influence. Even man, the last and most complete result of Divine workmanship, is no exception to this general rule ; nor can all his wisdom and intelligence reveal to him the means of escaping the sen- tence passed upon the father of our race : " Dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return I" This, however, should not deter him from investigating the laws of mortality, and the causes which hasten or p*"otract the period of old age and dea^. " Know thyself!" was the advice of the ancient sage ; and it is still further enforced upon our attention by t>^ well known line of Pope, — "The proper study of mankind is maD-" It should, indeed, be our first endeavor to become acquainted with our position in the universe ; — to mark the relation in whicli we stand to sur- rounding objects ; to inquire how health and happiness, present and future, may be best promoted ; diligently and faithfully to examine in what cases we have misconceived or departed from the laws of nature, by the observ- ance of which health may be maintained, and longevity promoted ; and, finally, to ascertain by what means physical and moral evil may be dimi nished, and the universal reign of peace and harmony established. The man who woirid enjoy the greatest happiness for the longest period (2n 22 INTRODUCTION. should first determine the laws which influence health, for upon this depends a material portion of human happiness ; and, secondly, he should endeavor to discover what subjects are most worthy of his close attention and steady pursuit. Clearly and fully to ascertain these important points, requires no slight consideration ; but, havmg once satisfactorily settled these weighty questions, so far as our present knowledge will permit us, we should reso- lutely practise what reason shows to be most desirable ; and habit, once gained, will render the future pursuit easy and pleasant. The superior endowments of man place him far above the rest of crea- tion ; so that he is not under the necessity of submitting, in all cases, to the dictates of instinct and passion ; for by the possession of higher intel- lectual faculties, he is enabled to resist, and greatly to modify, the simple suggestions of nature. In many instances, however, man has abused this privilege ; for instead of using his reason as the handmaid, guardian, and assistant of instinct, he has placed them in collision ; and the uses of the one have been perverted and overborne by the mischievous meddling of the other. Hence the formation of unnatural and injurious habits ; which have become as powerful as original instincts, withdrawn his attention from his best interests, weakened the true principles of his nature, and entailed npon himself and society sickness, vice, and misery. " Eeasoning at every step they tread. Men yet mistake their way ; While meauer things, by instinct led, Are rarely known to stray." When, by daily repetition, and by the powerful influence of social inter- ooursc and national prejudice, habits have been long established, emancipa- tion from their control becomes an almost impossible task ; and when either practice or opinion is nearly universal, its propriety or truth is seldom questioned. If, by any means, the attention of an individual be directed to the consideration of a generally-received opinion, and he arrive at a conviction opposite to that of the society by which he is surrounded, there is little chance of his making many converts ; nay, the probability is that, however clear and confirmed his ^aews may at one time appear to himself, he wiU gradually yield to the overwhelming influence of example, and the frequently - expressed opinions of his associates; for a weak objection acquires all the force of a strong one, by repetition. If, however, a man have sufficient decision and courage to depart from the usages of society where he considers them wrong and injurious, or resolutely and perscver ingly to maintain any unpopular belief, — more especially if opposed to the appetites and pleasures of mankind, — he may calculate upon being laughed INTRODUCTION. 28 at for his singularity, and perhaps subjected to the daily jeers and witticisms of those who are carried along the stream of public opinion or local cus- toms. The doctrine or practice is attributed by them to whim, caprice, eccentricity, or some still more unworthy motive. Every new opinion, therefore, though capable of the clearest demonstration, must necessarily be slow in its progress. Most people are so busily engaged with their daily avocations, that they have no leisure to consider a subject which de- mauds time and attention, and less inclination when that subject is repre- sented as a novelty. Some, perhaps, though convinced, deem it of too little consequence to demand a change of habit ; while others possess too little moral courage to brave the taunting observations of their companions. Thus are the same customs continued through long periods of time ; and the thinking few are held in thraldom by the o» iroXkoi, or unthinking many ; 80 that ** the discoveries of one generation can only become the established and influential truths of the next." It is, however, our duty and interest to inquire, how far the practices and habits of mankind accord with the original intentions of nature ; and what effect any departure from truth, if I may be allowed the expression, has had upon our health, happiness, and longevity. To trace all the errors of mankind in this respect, would be an endless, if not altogether an im- possible task ; for — the functions of some organs having been vitiated, and the senses very much impaired — it requires great care lest we mistake the perverted for the original use, and thereby find " the light that is in" us to " be darkness." Nay, mankind now live in such an artificial state, that it would be almost impossible to dispense with many acquired habits ; they have become, as it were, essential to their comfort and well-being : all changes, therefore, should be adopted with caution, lest, by too sudden a return to nature, we infiict upon ourselves and the community a greater injury than we are endeavoring to cure. " But pliant nature more or less demands As custom forms her ; and all sudden change She hates of habit, even from bad to good. K faults in life, or new emergencies, From habits urge you by long time confirmed, Slow may the change arrive, and stage by stage ; Slow as the shadow o'er the dial moves, ^low as the stealing progress of the year." Armsteong. But as, without bodily health, physical strength, and mental vigor, man is rendered miserable, and incapable of securing to himself that full amount of enjoyment and longevity which nature has placed within his reach, and qualified him for attaining ; he should carefully note all such circumstances «4 INTRODUCTION. as exercise a direct or indirect influence over the development of liis organ- ization, which is the foundation upon which the superstructure of all that is great, good, and desirable in human nature must be erected. To no subject, perhaps, do these observations more directly apply, than to that of human diet. Every latitude of the earth has its peculiar pro- ductions ; and every division of society has its special and long-established modes of satisfying the hunger and thirst, which remind man of the changes incessantly taking place in the animal structure. In the warmer regions of our planet, vegetable substances chiefly constitute the nutriment of our race ; some feasting on delicious fruits ; others on food of a more farinaceous description, such as rice, sago, and maize, with a variety of other grains and roots. In temperate climes, man appears of a more omnivorous cha- racter ; and, while indulging his appetite with a multiplicity of rich dishes from the vegetable world, he is still more luxurious in highly-seasoned pre- parations from the flesh of almost every class and order of the animal kingdom. In the colder regions, — so unfavorable to the production of vegetable substances, as well as to human development, — ^man is under the necessity of resorting to an almost exclusively animal diet ; so that the Esquimaux feeds with as great a relish upon train-oil and sawdust, as the WaUachian does .on fruit, or the Brahman on rice ; and to the Greenlander, the half-frozen, half-putrid flesh of the seal is as choice a morceau as a woodcock to an English gourmand. Thus, through the various climates of our globe, every variety of food — vegetable as well as animal — is com- peUed, in one shape or other, to supply nutriment to the human organism ; yet health and long life seem limited to no particular district, nor confined to any precise kind of diet. We are not from this, however, to conclude, that man may indulge in all kinds of food with impunity ; or that each kind, whether of an animal or vegetable nature, is equally productive of a healthy state of the body, or equally favorable to longevity ; for though the habits of a nation may be correct as regards food, many other injurious customs or circumstances may neutralize the good effects of a natural diet, and place the people on a par with those whose food is not so well adapted to their constitution. Most people in this country are aware of the necessity of attending to diet ; and it is a matter of universal experience, that in hot climates, a mixed diet, in which animal food abounds, is productive of dis- ease ; while in cold climates, fat, oil,'^ or other carbonaceous compounds, are * This passage seems obscure. Fat and oil may be necessary as food in cold climates, be- cause nothing else can be procured in sufficient quantity ; not because of their carbonaceous nature merely. All ordinary vegetable foods contain all the carbon requisite for sustenance, respiration, and animal heat, as far as the element of carbon is concerned.. T. INTRODUCTION. 26 absolutely necessary to man's existence. The fact is that, in all regions of the globe, the diet of man has been determined by the circumstances in which he has been placed, rather than by the exercise of his primitive and uucorrupted instincts, or the rational deductions of a sound understanding. The following questions, therefore, seem to be suggested for our consider- ation : — I. What was the original food of man ? II. Is he so wonderfully constructed, that climate and locality alone de- termine on what substances he shaU feed ? Or does his organization, like that of other animals, manifest a special adaptation to one specific kind of food, but with an extensive range of adaptability to the greatest variety of animal and vegetable productions ? III. What is the best food of man ; or, what diet do science and expe- rience point out, as best calculated for promoting health, happiness, and longevity ? rv. What seems designed to be hereafter the universal diet of mankind ? I shall now attempt to show, that there are data sufficient for enabling us to solve these important questions ; which, although totally independent of each other so far as evidence is concerned, are, notwithstanding, so inti- mately connected in other respects, that the answer to one being fully established, the others may be legitimately derived as corollaries from it. A distinct line of evidence will be observed, however, in the solution of each question ; and I hope ultimately to prove, that fruits and roots, with other farinaceous and succulent vegetables, wdre the original food of mankind ; that they are the natural and best food ; and will hereafter become the universal food of our race. After many years' attentive consideration of the subject, I cannot but regard it as materially affecting the interests and happiness of man ; and I trust, therefore, the reader will not hastily dismiss the arguments advanced, but will diligently consider and weigh the evidence for himself; biased as little as possible by the pleasurable associations which, upon this subject, are so apt to oppose candid inquiry, to warp the judg- ment, and to render nugatory the deliberate convictions of the understand- mg. A delicate morsel is often too strong a temptation to be resisted, even when we know that future pain will be the result of the indiscretion. Arguments, however strong, and reasons, however clear and logical, are 2 26 INTRODUCTION apt to lose their force, when opposed by appetite and pleasure. " It is a hard and difficult task," as Cato observes, " to undertake to dispute with men's stomachs, which have no ears ;" but — "Ita fit, ratio prsesit, appetitus obtemperet." A time will doubtless come, though we may not live to witness it, when man will become more rational, and when his inquiry will be, " What is truth?" — ^not, "What suits my perverted appetites?" — for truth is the road to all excellence : all its ends must be good ; and all its effects on man must be pure pleasure and real happiness. " Time is the cradle of know- ledge. Time will wear out the old clothing of thought, when reason and common sense will come to be the fashion." All truths — whether of a physical, moral, or religious nature — ^must harmonize ; because they all flow from the same universal Source of Good ; and must terminate in pro- ducing the greatest amount of happiness of which the nature of man is sus- ceptible. PAET I. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. CHAPTER I. EVIDENCE FROM THE WRITINGS OF MOSES AND FROM TRADITION. Kal eluEV 6 Qebg, ^iSov deSojKa vfilv navra xopTOV OTr6pLfj,ov GTTELpov arrepfia, o eonv eivdvo) ndoi^g rrjg yrjg ' koI ndv ^vXov, o EKEi ev eavTG) Xaprrbv anepfiarng Gnopi'iMOv, vimv EGrai etg l3pGJGLV. — Uen. i. 29. ' [Note 2. "And God said, Behold, 1 have given you every herb bearing seed, which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree, in the which ■is the fruit of a tree yielding seed ; to you it shall be for meat."' The reader will bear in mind that the word " meat" often occurs in Scrip- ture as synonymous with food. T.] 1. Information respecting the Original Food of Man is necessarily in- cluded within very narrow limits ; but all accessible sources are decidedly in favor of its having been derived from the vegetable kingdom. Sacred and profane authors unite in representing the progenitors of our race as fru- givorous. At a subsequent period, they are stated to have fed upon plants of a more herbaceous character ; and at a still later period, they are re- corded as having become " riotous eaters of the flesh" of other animals. These periods are also characterized by different states of innocence, virtue, justice and happiness ; and correspond to the golden, silver, brazen, and iron ages of the poets. 2. Moses, after describing, with great force and beauty, the progress of creation, and finally the production of (a'lJi^)* Adam, or man, thus proK ceeds : "And God said, Behold, I have given you every herb bearing seed * Gosenlus, and other Hebraists, do not consider f^j^ as the proper name of the first man, but as an appellative referring to the race of mankind. (29) 80 ^ ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN which is upon the face of all the earth, and every tree in the which is the fruit of a tree yielding seed ; — to you it shall be for meat." (Gen. i. 29.) Here we have plainly and distinctly stated, what God intended should be the food of mankind ; and which, no doubt, would be best adapted to his nature, most conducive to his health, happiness, and longevity ; and the best calculated (so far as food is concerned) for preserving purity of mind, and for subjugating the passions to the mental powers. Man, at his first creation, was placed in a situation in which he might find abundance of such delicious fruits as were adapted to please his eye, gratify his taste, and contribute to his bodily and mental vigor ; for we are further informed, that " The Lord God planted a garden'^ eastward in Eden ; and there he put the man whom he had formed. And out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight, and good for food : the tree of life, also, in the midst of the garden ; and the tree of knowledge of good and evil." (Gen. ii. 8, 9.) "And the Lord God took the man, and put him in the garden of Eden to dress it and to keep it. And the Lord God commanded the man, saying. Of every tree of the garden thou mayest freely eat ; but of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil thou shalt not eat : for in the day that thou eatest thereof thou shalt surely die." (Gen. ii. 15—17.) 3. No one, I think, can mistake the language here employed ; or arrive at any other conclusion, than that fruit and herbs bearing seed were ex- pressly granted as the food of man ; and we shall find that his organization was in perfect harmony with this divine command. He was placed in tlie garden of Eden, or " garden of delight," that he might " dress it and keep it," for the purpose of supplying him with all such fruits as were " pleasant to the sight, and good for food." Some have contended, that this food is not sufficient to sustain the health and vigor of man ; l^ut we may rest as- sured, that what is of divine appointment will be amply sufficient to pro- duce the effect intended. 4. In the works of the Greek and Latin authors we meet with frequent allusions to this period, in which man lived in a state of innocence aad happiness ; — ^the " golden age," when he fed upon the delicious fruits of the earth ; when his bodily strength and mental energies were in great perfec- tion ; when human life extended through such long periods of time, that the men or heroes of those days were considered immortal ; when peace * The Hesperidum Horti, or Gardens of the Hesperides,— producing golden apples, (as the mythologists represent,)— appear to have derived their name from T*|5 ^^'2 (nsz peri), a fruit tree,; and in allusion to the Garden of Eden hero described. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 31 reigned throughout tlie whole creation ; and when a perpetual spring ren- dered the earth abundantly productive. Ovid* thus describes this state : "The golden age was first, when man, yet new, No rule but uncorrupted reason knew ; And, with a native bent, did good pursue. Unforced by punishment, unawed by fear. His words were simple and his soul sincere. Needless was written law, where none oppressed ; The law of man was written in his breast. No suppliant crowds before the judge appeared ; No court erected yet, nor cause was heard ; But all was safe ; for conscience was their guard. The mountain trees in distant prospect please. Ere yet the pine descended to the seas : Ere sails were spread, new oceans to explore. And happy mortals, unconcerned for more. Confined their wishes to their native shore. No walls were yet; nor fence, nor moat, nor mound, >or drum was heard, nor trumpet's angry sound; Nor swords were forged ; but, void of care and crime. The soft creation slept away their time. The teeming earth, yet guiltless of the plough, And unprovoked, did fruitful stores allow : Content with food which nature freely bred, On wildings and on strawberries they fed ; Cornels and bramble-berries gave the rest, And falling acorns furnished out a feast. The flowers, unsown, in fields and meadows reigned ; And western winds immortal spring maintained. In following years, the bearded corn ensued From earth unasked, nor was that earth renewed. From veins of valleys milk and nectar broke ; And honey sweating through the pores of oak." 5. The same poet — after describing the horrid cruelties inflictea upon animals, in order to appropriate their flesh as food — observes : " Not so the golden age, who fed on fruit, Nor durst with bloody meals their mouths pollute. Then birds in airy space might safely move, And timorous hares on heaths securely rove : Nor needed fish the guileful hooks to fear. For all was peaceful ; and that peace sincere.'"t 6. The golden age is described, in heathen mythology, as under the dominion of Saturn ; when, according to Dicearchus, as related by Saint Jerome in his books on Grecian antiquities, no man ate flesh ; but all lived * Metamorphoses, Book 1., L. 118; Dryden's translation. t Metamorphoses, Book xv., L. 187 ; Dryden's translation. 82 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. upon fruits and pulse, whicli were abundantly produced ; and when, as Vir- gil remarks — " No fences parted fields, nor marks, nor bounds DistinguisUed acrcg of litigious gi'ounds ; But all was common ; and the fruitful earth Was free to give her unexacted birth."* 7 Pope, in reference to the same period, observes : " Nor think in Nature's state they blindly trod ; The state of Nature was the reign of God : Self-love and social at her birth began ; Union the bond of all things, and of man. Pride then was not, nor arts, that pride to aid ; Man walked with beast, joint-tenant of the shade The same his table, and the same his bed; No murder clothed him, and no murder fed. In the same temple, the resounding wood, All vocal beings hymned their equal God; The shrine Avith gore unstained, with gold undrest, Unbribed, unbloody, stood the blameless priest : Heaven's attribute was universal care, And man's prerogative to rule, but spare. Ah ! how unlike the man of times to come I •• Of half that live the butcher and the tomb ; "Who, foe to Nature, hears the general groan. Murders their species, and betrays his own. But just disease to luxury succeeds. And every death its own avenger breeds; The fury-passions from that blood began, And turned on man a fiercer savage — man."t 8. Similar to this is the language of Thomson, in reference to the same period. Speaking of herbs, he says : "But who their virtues can declare ? "Who pierce, "With vision pure, into their secret stores Of health, and life, and joy ? The food of man, "While yet he lived in innocence, and told A length of golden years; unfleshed in blood, A stranger to the savage arts of life. Death, rapine, carnage, surfeit, and disease ; The lord, and not the tyrant, of the world.''^ 9. This primeval state of innocence and bliss, however, did not long con- tinue. Man forsook the way of peace ; and, by vainly assuming a know- ledge at variance with the law of his God and his nature, he ate of forbid- den food, and thus lost the image in which he had been created. He was therefore no longer a fit inhabitant of Paradise ; but was driven into less • Georgics, i., L. 193. t Essay on Man, Epis. iii., L. 147, t Spring, L. 283. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 88 productive climes, wliere the very earth refused to yield its increase with- out toil and labor. " Cursed is the ground for thy sake ; in sorrow shalt thou eat of it all the days of thy life. Thorns also and thistles shall it bring forth to thee ; and thou shalt eat the herh of the field. In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread, till thou return unto the ground ; for out of it wast thou taken ; for dust thou art, and unto dust shalt thou return." (Gen. iii. 17—19.) 10. I shall not stop to inquire, whether these expressions refer to the change of climate man would experience, in consequence of his expulsion from Eden ; or whether they refer to some remarkable change which took place in the general fertility of the earth. It is certain, from numerous geological data, that great alterations have been gradually taking place in the earth's atmosphere ; particularly by a diminution of its temjierature and carbonic acid ; which would greatly afifect vegetable productions, and ren- der culture and art much more necessary to bring them to perfection. But there is no evidence, as yet, to show that any material changes have taken place since the creation of man. In whatever way the passage of Scrip- ture may be interpreted, one thing is evident ; namely, that man, after his transgression, could no longer enjoy that abundance and variety of deli- cious fruit with which he was originally favored ; except as the result of great labor, industry, and experience ; and even then he would fi'equently have to derive his subsistence from roots, corn, and other farinaceous and succulent vegetables : in fact, he must " eat the herb of the field." 11. To this period, it is probable, Ovid alludes, when he describes the silver age, under the dominion of Jupiter : " Succeeding times a silver age behold, — Excelling brass, but more excelled by gold. Then summer, autumn, winter did appear, And spring was but a season of the year ; The sun his annual course obliquely madej Good days contracted, and enlarged the bad. The air with sultry heats began to glow ; The wings of winds were Clogged with ice and snow ; And shivering mortals, into houses driven, Sought shelter from the inclemency of heaven. Those houses, then, were caves, or homely sheds; With twining osiers fenced, and moss their beds. Then ploughs, for seed, the fruitful furrows broke, And oxen labored first beneath the yoke."* 21. Up to this period, man seems to have derived his support from the vegetable world alone ; and upon this food his life was prolonged to vast * Metamorphoses, Book !., L. l46. 34 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. periods of time. According to the generally-received chronology of the Scriptures, the average duration of patriarchal life, previously to the Deluge, was about nine hundred years. Immediately after the Flood, when animal food was permitted as an article of diet, the average period of life was reduced to four hundred years ; and when Jacob lived, it had gradually declined to one hundred and fifty years. This abbreviated period of human existence may not have been the effect solely of animal diet ; but it doubt- less had a considerable influence. 13. Lucretius, when describing the first ages of mankind, observes : "The nerves that joined their limbs were firm and strong ; Their life Avas healthy, and their age was long : Eeturning years still saw them in their prime ; They wearied e'en the wings of measuring time : No colds nor heats, no strong diseases wait, » And tell sad news of coming hasty fate ; Nature not yet grew weak, nor yet began To shrink into an inch the larger span."* 14. Sauchoniathon, a Phoenician historian who flourished about four hundred years after Moses, says, that " the first men lived upon the plants shooting out of the ground." Hesiod, the Greek poet, also says, " the un- cultivated fields aSbrded them their fruits, and supplied their bountiful and unenvied repast." So also Lucretius : " Soft acorns were their first and chiefest food, And those red apples that adorn the wood."t 15. Similar testimony respecting the food and longevity of the ancients is also alBforded by Mauetho, who wrote the Egyptian History ; Berosus, who collected the Chaldean monuments ; Mochus, Hestiseus, Hierouymus the Egyptian, and those who composed the Phoenician History ; also by Hecatseus, Hellanicus, Acusilaus, Ephorus, Nicolaus, Diodorus Siculus, Herodotus, Strabo, and Jerome of Egypt. 16. ^ElianJ tells us, " that the diet of the first race of men differed accord- ing to the different productions of their respective countries : the Athenians lived on figs, the Argives on pears, and the Arcadians on acorns." Hero- dotus, who wrote about four hundred and fifty years before Christ, relates that, " upon the death of Lycurgus, the Lacedemonians, meditating the conquest of Arcadia, were told by the Oracle, that there were many brave BaknvYjcpayoi civ^^zg [acorn-eaters] in that country, who would repel them if they attempted to carry their arms thither ; as it afterwards happened." * Creech's Translation, Book v., L. 981. t Ibid. Book v., L. 997. t ^lian Hist. Var., L. 3, ch. 89. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 85 Pliny also, the Roman naturalist, says : " Mankind in the first ages sub- sisted on acorns ;" and Galcu — the celebrated Roman physician, who flourished in the second century of the Christian era — assures us, iu his work on Human Aliment, that "acorns afford as good nourishment as many sorts of grain ; that in ancient times men lived on acorns only ; and that the Ai'cadiaus continued to eat them long after the rest of Greece had begun to make use of bread-corn."* President de Goguet, in his work on the Origin of Laws, Arts, and Sciences, observes : " The first generations of mankind subsisted chiefly on plants, roots, and fruits ; of whose quali- ties they had no previous knowledge." 17. Dr. William Hillary, in his Inquiry into the Means of Improving Medical Knowledge, says : " Their food, during the first ages of the world, was taken from and chiefly consisted of vegetables, and their fruits and seeds, with the addition of milk from their flocks ; and water was their drink." He also infers that, as their food was plain and simple, their dis- eases were also simple and few, and therefore more easily cured — either solely by the efforts of nature, or, when the assistance of art was necessary, by the help of a few simple medicines or applications — than they were afterwards, when diseases were increased, and more complicated by the various inventions of luxury. Porphyry, a Platonic philosopher of the third century, — a man of great talents and learning, and of very extensive research and observation, — investigated the subject of human diet with great care and diligence. He says : " The ancient Greeks lived entirely on the fruits of the earth." 18. Hippocratesf and CelsusJ confirm these statements respecting the primitive regimen of mankind ; and, iu fact, " all writers of antiquity, of every nation, — historians, physicians, philosophers, and poets, — assert that the first generations of men, who lived nearly a thousand years, were per- fectly natural and simple in their diet." 19. How long mankind continued to live upon the simple productions of the earth, we have no means of ascertaining. St. Jerome, Chrysostom, . Theodoret, and other ancients, as well as moderns, maintain that all animal food was strictly forbidden before the Flood : but long before that event they had transgressed the law of God ; and there can be little doubt that the flesh of animals had, for some time previously, formed a material part of their diet. "We read, that " all flesh had corrupted his way upon the * Galen de Aliment. Facult., L, 2, ch. 88. t Hlppoc. de Prisca Medicin. p. 9, (foL ed.) t Celsus in Prsefat, p. 2. 36 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN earth ;"* and that " the earth was filled with violence through them :" and God said : " Yet his days shall be an hundred and twenty years, "f 20. When the Deluge had swept away the first generations of man, per- mission appears to have been granted to him to eat flesh-meat ; as we learn from the following words : " Every moving thing that liveth shall be meat for you ; even as the green herb have I given you all things. But flesh with the life thereof, which is the blood thereof, shall ye not eat. "J I am aware that certain advocates of a vegetable diet take a different view of this, and some other passages of Scripture, and believe that the flesh of animals for human food is still prohibited. I am inclined, however, to admit the full force of such passages ; and to acknowledge that man is not, since the Flood, restricted by the law of God from partaking of animal food.^ It was, doubtless, foreseen by the Omniscient, that mankind would, in obedience to his command, " be fruitful and multiply, and replenish the earth :"|| that they would, in consequence of emigration and various other causes, frequently be placed in such circumstances that fruits, roots, rice, wheat, and other grains, could not be procured. Man, however, is so ad- mirably organized as to be capable of inhabiting every clime : he is not only to " replenish the earth," but to " subdue it ;" to bring it into a state of universal cultivation, and to " have dominion over every thing that moveth upon the earth." In accomplishing these divine purposes, he would frequently be exposed to great privations ; for as grass, and other inferior herbage, affording support to herbivorous animals only, are the sole pro- ductions of cold climates, man would be under the necessity of becoming carnivorous, until art and industry have rendered the soil of any newly in- habited part of the earth fruitful and productive. Plutarch, in reference to this, observes : "And truly, as for those people who first ventured upon the eating of flesh, it is very probable that the sole reason of their doing so was scarcity and want of other food." If, then, the original restriction as to food had not been relaxed, man, in obeying the impulses of nature to preserve his ovra life, would have broken the law of God ; but the moral * Genesis vi. 19, 13. t Genesis vl. 3. t Genesis ix. 3, 4. § Some of my reviewers have adduced Peter's vision and other passages of Scripture, in vindication of the use of animal diet ; but as I have fully acknowledged that the use of ani- mals for food was permitted after the Flood, I think it unnecessary to answer any such objec- tions. I deprecate, as much as any one can do, all appeals to Scripture upon points which science is fully competent to decide, and have only referred to the historical portions for the purpose of showing what was the original food of man, and of marking the period when further latitude was granted him. If it can be shown that a frnit and farinaceous diet is most consistent with the physical, mental, and moral nature of man, and that it is nowhere forbid- den in Scripture, this is all the sanction the vegetarian requires. II Genesis i. 28, and ix. 1. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN ST and physical laws of an all-wise Creator are always in strict conformity with each other. Man was to increase, multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it ; — to have dominion over all animals, in all climates : it is therefore consistent with all correct views of divine government to expect that he would receive such an organization from the divine hand as would render him capable of subsisting on the greatest variety of food, — the pro- ductions of all climates ; with full liberty to use all such as he might be induced, by his instincts or reasoning faculties, to adopt, as circumstances might require. The flesh of animals, therefore, could not be excepted ; for, in many climates, no other food could be procured. 21. But we are not thence to infer, that the digestive organs of man are the best adapted to an animal or even a mixed diet, (the contrary of which I hope to prove hereafter ;) nor are we to conclude, that because animal food is permitted to man,^ therefore a more wholesome diet cannot be em- ployed in situations where it can be procured. We must be careful to dis- guish between divine permission and divine command : there is a kind of relative fitness in morals as well as in physics ; and what may be convenient and lawful in certain circumstances, may be highly imj^roper in others, or under a different dispensation. [Note 3. No branch of the scriptural argument is so much harped upon by our opponents as this ''permission " to eat flesh ; yet, what is pass- ing strange, these same permissionists will acknowledge that God has, in the plainest possible language, commended or ordained the vegetable kingdom as the source of man's sustenance. The permission to have a plurality of wives in ancient times might as well be alleged against the modern notion of every man having " his own wife." All permission to violate a natural, a social, or a moral law, is accompanied with the condition that the wrong- doer suffer the penalty. T.] 22. God has permitted evil to exist, — moral as well as physical ; but man is not justified, as a moral agent, in causing either. The Pharisees, when objecting to the teachings of Christ respecting marriage, said: " Why did Moses, then, command to give a writing of divorcement, and to put her away ? He saith unto them, Moses, because of the hardness of your hearts, suffered you to put away your wives ; but from the beginning it was not so."* Under a former dispensation, a principle of retribution was admitted ; — " an eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth ;" — " to love » Matt, six , 8 88 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. our neighbor and hate our enemy ;" but now we are commanded " to love our eneinles, to bless them that curse us, to do good to them that hate us, and to pray for them that despitefuUy use us and persecute us." David, Solomon, and others, were permitted a plurality of wives and concubines ; but the Mediator of a better covenant ordains otherwise for his followers. Things may be lawful that are not expedient ; and man may be allowed the use of what might be to his advantage and happiness to reject. Throughout the Scriptures we shall find the dispensations of God suited to the circumstances of His people ; and the language in which His servants communicate His will, and a knowledge of His works, always condescend- ingly adapted to the information and mental capacity of those for whom it is intended. " I have yet many things to say unto you," observes the Saviour, ** but ye cannot bear them now." Upon a careful examination of Scripture, we shall find that all things connected with man's duty to God and his neighbor are revealed in such clear and simple language, " that a wayfaring man, though a fool, shall not err therein ;" but, with respect to meats and drinks, man is left to the guidance of those instincts and men- tal faculties with which he is endowed, with full permission to use all the " good creatures" of God as his wants may dictate ; — due regard being paid to mercy, truth, benevolence, moderation, and sobriety. 23. Without any disparagement to the cause of vegetable diet, there- fore, ii; may be conceded, that animal food was permitted after the Deluge, when " men began to multiply on the face of the earth." But long after this e-/ent, the Patriarchs and their descendants confined themselves prin- cipally to a vegetable diet ; for fruits, honey, milk, butter, bread, and some simple preparations of seeds and mild herbs, were the plain, healthful food of the people for many ages afterwards. On joyous and festive occasions the faited calf was killed ; but their usual diet was derived from the vege- table kingdom, and the produce of their flocks and herds ; and, even to this day, the inhabitants of Syria, Mesopotamia, and other countries, live after tie same manner. 24. Assaad Y okoob Kayat, a native Syrian, in a speech at Exeter Hall, (May 16, 1338,) remarked, that he had lately visited Mount Lebanon, wliere he found the people as large as giants, and very strong and active. Tb.ey lived almost entirely on dates, and drank only water ; and there were many among them one hundred and one hundred and ten years of age. Burckhardt, also, in his remarks on the Bedouins, says : " Their usual fare (callec! aijesh) consists of flour made into a paste with sour camel's milk. This is their daily and universal dish ; and the richest sheik would think it disgraceful to order his wife to prepare any other dish, merely to please his own palate. The Arabs never indulge in animal food, and other hizu- ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 39 ries, except or. the occasion of some great festival, or on the arrival of a Btrangcr. If the guest be a common person, bread is baked and served up with a'jesh ; if the guest be a person of some small consequence, coffee is prepared for him, and also the dish called behatta, (rice or flour boiled with sweet earners milk,) or that called fteta, (baked paste, kneaded up thorough- ly with butter ;) but for a man of some rank, a kid or lamb is killed." 25. In process of time, however, the use of animal food became much more prevalent, particularly in temperate and cold climates ; and there is every reason to believe that cruelty, immorality, and disease, marked the progress of man in this unnatural diet. This period is characterized by the poets as the brazen and iron ages, when — " Truth, modesty, and shame the world forsook ; Fraud, avarice, and force, their places took. Then sails were spread to every -wind that blew ; Eaw were the sailors, and the depths were new : Trees, rudely hollowed, did the waves sustain. Ere ships in triumph ploughed the watery plain. The land-marks limited to each his right, For all before was common as the light ; Nor was the ground alone required to bear Her annual income to the crooked share ;■ But greedy mortals, rummaging her store, Digged from her entrjiils first the precious ore, (Which next to hell the prudent gods had laid,) And that alluring ill to sight displayed. Thus cursed steel, and more accursed gold, Gave mischief birth, and made that mischief bold And double death did wretched man invade, By steel assaulted, and by gold betrayed: Faith flies, and piety in exile mourns ; And justice, here oppressed, to heaven returns."* 26. ThQ various changes to which the earth and its inhabitants have been subjected, are alluded to in the fables of Chaos, Tellus, (or Terra,) Coelus, Oceanus^ Hyperion, Rhea, Japetus, Saturn, Jupiter, Prometheus, &c. 27. Prometheus (n^o|X?i&5uj) — one who uses forethought, a contriver — is represented as having stolen fire from heaven, (which would be necessary to render animal food at all palatalDle to man ;) for which crime he was chained to Mount Caucasus, where a vulture continually devoured his liver, which was never diminished, but continued to increase as it was fed upon. Hesiod says that, before the time of Prometheus, mankind were exempt from suf- fering, enjoying a vigorous youth ; and that when death did arrive, it was ♦ Metamorpho86vS, Book i, L. 165. 40 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. without pain, and the eyes were gently closed as in sleep. Horace, in allud- ing to the theft of Prometheus, olDserves : " Thus, from the sun's ethereal beain, Whea bold Prometheus stole the enlivening flame, Of fevers dire a ghastly brood (Till then unknown) the unhappy fraud pursued ; On earth their horrors baleful spread; And the pale monarch of the dead, TiU then slow moving to his prey, Precipitately rapid swept his way.''* 28. Mr. Newton, the author of the " Eeturn of Nature," gives the fol- lowing interpretation of this fable, in which Prometheus is thought to represent the human race : — " Making allowance for such transposition of the events of the allegory as time might produce, after the important truths were forgotten which this portion of the ancient mythology was intended to transmit, the drift of the fable seems to be this : Man, at his creation, was endowed with the gift of perpetual youth ; that is, he was formed not to be a sickly, suffering creature, as we now see him ; but to enjoy health, and to sink by slow degrees into the bosom of his parent earth, without disease or pain. Prometheus first taught the use of animal food {primus bovem occidet Prometheus) and of fire, with which to render it more digestible and pleasing to the taste. Jupiter, and the rest of the gods, foreseeing the consequences of these inventions, were amused or irri- tated at the short-sighted devices of the newly-formed creature, and left him to experience the sad effects of them. Thirst, the necessary concomi- tant of a flesh diet, perhaps of all diet vitiated by culinary preparations, ensued ; water was resorted to, and man forfeited the inestimable gift of health which he had received from Heaven ; he became diseased — the par- taker of a precarious existence ; and no longer descended slowly to his grave."! 29. Halle, in his " Hygiene," entertained the opinion here advocated, respecting the various articles successively employed as human food. " Moses, in his history of the world," says he, " describes the different sub- stances which man successively included in the range of alimentary matter. He represents him as at first faithful to reason ; then transgressing the rules which it prescribes ; obedient to the laws of necessity, but yielding to the charms of pleasure with too faint a resistance ; satisfying his hunger with the fruits with which the trees in a happy climate abundantly sup- plied him ; then with the herbs and corn which he obtained from a more avaricious earth, as the reward of his labors ; with the milk of his flocks ; * Francis' Horace, book 1., Ode 8. t Eeturn to Nature, p. 9. ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 41 i»-nd, finally, with their flesh : subjecting, also, the juices of vegetables to the process of fermentation ; and extracting from them liquors which re- cruit his exhausted strength, but which, when indulged in to excess, intoxi- cate and deprive him of reason. He exhibits to us the duration of life diminishing in proportion as he created to himself new wants." CHAPTER n. INFERENCES FROM THE ORIGINAL INNOCENCE OF MAN. 30. Having adduced all the evidence I have been able to find, in sacred and profane history, respecting the primitive diet of man, I shall now pro- ceed to show that the state of innocence in which man was created is a strong argument in favor of vegetable diet. We are told that " God created man in his own image ; in the image of God created He him." (Genesis i. 27.) Now, where shall we find this divine image, except in that state of innocence and moral perfection in which man originally existed ? Upright in mind, holy in heart, and righteous in action, the very thoughts of kill- ing or of cruelty could find no place in him. At peace with the whole animated creation, his presence would excite neither the fears of the timid nor the resentment or ferocity of the strong. The dominion he held over every living thing would be regulated by benevolence and kindness ; mercy would restrain him from doing injury to any one of the animals by which he was surrounded ; pity would move him to relieve every appearance of distress or pain ; a universal sympathy would characterize all his actions ; and his supreme pleasure and enjoyment would consist in serving his God and in rendering all creatures endowed with life and sensation happy and contented. The delicious fruits of Paradise would abundantly satisfy every craving of appetite ; and no motive could exist in his pure mind for shedding blood or inflicting pain. " Before the Deluge," says Bossuet, " the nourishment which men derived from fruits and herbs was doubtless a remnant of the primitive innocence and gentleness in which we were formed." 31. Even in our degenerate state, the man of cultivated moral feeling shrinks from the task of taking the life of the higher grade of animals, and abhors the thought of inflicting pain and shedding blood ; how much 42 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. more, then, would purer minds and more feeling hearts be moved by the agonies and quivering limbs of creatures slaughtered for their appetite?* "While the state of innocence continued, the dominion of man over the animated creation was regulated by love and kindness ; but when he had lost the image in which he v/as created, — when a perverted appetite and a selfish principle prevailed against the dictates of reason and benevolence, — when blood had stained his hands, and guilt had hardened his heart, — when repeated acts of cruelty to dumb animals had blunted his feelings, and feasting on their flesh and blood had inflamed his passions, — in short, when immorality and violence had deluged the earth, then was he permit- ted to rule with a rod of iron, where before he had swayed the sceptre of peace ; and the language of Deity was — " The fear of you, and the dread of you, shall be upon every beast of the earth, and upon every fowl of the air, and upon all that moveth upon the earth!" (Genesis ix. 2.) [Note 4. An eminent divine, in the course of a sermon lately delivered in a neighboring city, asked the significant but not uncommon question, " Who would want to have his son a butcher?" And why not? If the slaughter- ing of animals for food is the brutali2;ing and demoralizing occupation it is so generally represented to be, no one should pursue it. And if the butchery is wrong, I cannot understand how those who patronize the wrong by eating the flesh of the slaughtered animals can absolve themselves from the charge of being accessaries in wrong-doing. T.] 32. But I need not dwell longer on this part of the subject, as, I believe, all whose feelings have not been greatly corrupted by habit will conclude that the taking of life would have been highly revolting to the minds of the first race of mankind ; and as our feelings are a part of our better nature, and the impress of divine power and wisdom, we may rest assured that an all-wise Creator would not have rendered a diet necessary to our health and happiness, which must be obtamed by doing incessant violence to our sympathies. 33. Some there are who doubt or deny that man was either created in this state of high moral perfection, or that he was wise and intelligent. They believe that his condition has been progressive from rude barbarism to the refinement of civilized life. It would probably, therefore, have had greater weight with such persons if I had considered the race of man to be shadowed forth by his history as an individual from infancy to manhood, commencing with instinctive suggestions and terminating with a high state of intellectuality and moral rectitude. This might have led to a very dif- ferent arrangement of the subject, but we should have arrived at the same ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 43 conclusions. All natural evidence respecting human diet, and all influences and motives directing man in the choice of his food, would be elicited by- contemplating him in the threefold character of an instinctive, a self-inte- rested, and a rational being. We shall find, upon careful examination, that each of these three motive-powers urge man in the same direction, not only as regards food, but as to all other means of producing health and happi- ness. We are to suppose, then, that man did not originally possess what we call knowledge — the fruit of long experience, and of a careful and long- continued observation of the laws of nature, or the result of ratiocina- tion, — but that his perceptions, feelings, and actions, (being uncontrolled by acquired knowledge, artificially-formed habits or gross selfishness,) were intuitive, and, therefore, perfect as far as they extended ; such as those we observe in the bee and many other animals, whose achievements frequently surpass tliose of man enlightened by reason. We must also admit, what few scientific and candid inquirers will be disposed to deny, that man is indigenous to the warmer regions of the earth, where fruits, his natural diet, as we shall shortly find, are most abundant and in greatest perfection. From a careful comparison, therefore, of man's instincts, his organization, his native climate and other related circumstances, we shall be justified in concluding that, though neither learned nor scientific, it is highly impro- bable he would be savage, ferocious, or immoral : these debasing qualities are the ofifspring of scarcity and selfishness, — ^the fruitful sources of almost every vice. Before mankind began to multiply on the earth in a favorable climate, their wants would be few ; and, fruits of delicious flavor being plenteously supplied, there is every probability that they would be simple and innocent in their habits and manners ; mild, frank, and generous in their conduct towards each other ; — and that they would practise, from native impulse, all the more general virtues which we learn as matters of duty or expedience. At this period they would be uncontaminated by the envy, strife, malice, treachery, and cruelty which too frequently character- ize a life of constant competition in civilized society ; where " each seeks his own," regardless of the wants, and frequently of the rights of his neigh- bor. In each state of society there is plenty for all ; but, in the latter, an indi\'idualizing and ambitious spirit leaves enough to none. As an instinct- ive being, then, man would be directed by the senses of sight, smell, and taste, to fruit as his natural diet; (Chap. III.;) and his social and sensitive feelings would deter him from killing animals and feeding on their flesh, so long as he was able to meet with more congenial food. Bui, however in- stinctive and mechanical man may have been originally, it is evident that he was not to remain in this state, but to become a rational and account- 44 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. able being. He must eat " of the tree of knowledge of good and evil ;" he must learn wisdom and " obedience from the things which he suffers," and acquire his knowledge by painful experience, careful observation, compari- son and analogy. The first fruit of knowledge (I will not say of wisdom) is to concentrate all care upon self; but a more enlarged experience teaches man that it is his true interest to share his possessions, first with '' wife, children, and friends," and then to extend his benevolence to the whole human race. His motives to action are, in this state, of a utilitarian character, and cui bono ? is the preface to all his exertions. As he advances in true wisdom, he discovers what is truth, and learns to practise it, not from self-interest, but from a regard to duty. 34. Thus have we seen that man may, originally, have been innocent, done justly, loved mercy, and walked obediently, because he had no motive to act otherwise ; he gradually learns the same from a perception of self- interest, and finally from the highest motive that can actuate him, a con- scientious regard to truth and duty ; and under these three heads might have been arranged all the arguments which appear in this work in favor of a vegetable diet. By a primeval or natural state, however, we must not understand a state of barbarism, such as we witness in various de- graded races of mankind at the present day ; but a state wherein climate, productions, &c., are perfectly adapted to the organization of man, and antecedent to the conventionalities and corruptions of society. CHAPTER HI. INFERENCES FROM THE SENSATIONS OF SIGHT, SMELL, AND TASTE. 35. The intimate relations that exist between the organs of sense and food will be considered more at large when treating of the natural food of man ; and I shall here merely refer to those more obvious relations which would influence man in his primeval state. 36. In all matters connected with organic life, comprehending the pre- servation of existence and the propagation of the species, man is directed by similar instinctive feelings, and governed by the same general laws, as inferior animals. Sensations yielding pleasure, without any intervention ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 45 of reason, infallibly direct him to the adoption of the means best adapted for securing his well-being ; and painful or disagreeable sensations constantly warn him of danger and impending destruction. No superior intellectual endowment, no scientific research could so effectually and so instantor noously direct man to the best means of self-preservation. These observar tions particularly apply to the selection of food suitable to his peculiar organization, and best adapted for assimilation. Man, when originally created, would, doubtless, be devoid of all information which we know to be the result of long experience ; but food would be immediately necessary for renewing his constantly wasting structure: how then could he be directed to the most suitable aliments, but by the senses of sight, smell, and taste? But even if we grant that man was created with an extensive acquaintance with the properties of other bodies ; supposing him to have possessed considerable chemical, physiological, anatomical, and other knowledge ; yet even these endowments would have been a poor substitute for those instinctive feelings by which other animals are directed in their choice of food ; and the most scientific philosopher, without these instincts, would, if an unusual article of diet were placed before him, be surpassed by an unenlightened rustic, who depended upon the simple suggestions oi the senses. 37. Reason and science are insufficient even to remind man when sup- plies are necessary to recruit his strength and renew his structure ; and without the sense of hunger as a monitor, man would be constantly endan- gering his life, by neglecting his daily food. Three senses are therefore absolutely necessary to the continued existence of all animals ; one to ren^ der them conscious of the demands of nature, another to direct them to their food, and a third to test the qualities of the food when in con- tact. 38. "It cannot be too often repeated," observes Mr. Sidney Smith, "that none of those necessaries which an animal requires are ever left to reason or to mere perception of utility. The superstructure and basis of humanity is animalism. Man lives before he thinks ; he eats before he reasons ; he is social before he is civilized ; loves even against reason ; and becomes a Nimrod long before he is a Nestor. Had man not been an animal before he became rational, he would not have existed at all. Reason is evidently the last care of nature. She first secures existence, and then finds leisure to think. She begins with enduing man with the faculties necessary to enable him to provide for himself, before she ventures to animate him with the sentiments which dictate to him to look abroad for the health of others ; and she bids him provide for others before she allows to him that high ad- 46 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN vance in reason which gives him leisure to indulge in the mere exercise of intellect." 39. Upon the instinctive feelings, then, mankind must have originally depended for direction in the selection of appropriate diet ; and can we suppose, judging even from our own perverted sensations, that man would be tempted by the sight of other animals to kill them for food ? There is " beauty in them," it is true ; their shape, symmetry, and motions delight and please us ; but there is no such beauty as is calculated to excite the appetite while they are living, much less when dead. But suppose an ani- mal to have been killed, either by design or by accident, and that its skin had been removed — would this be a sight calculated to excite desire, or would the smell and taste be gratified by such an object? Eather would not the sensations arising from these organs excite horror and aversion ; and " in a warm climate, where putrefaction immediately succeeds dissolution, must not the dead flesh have speedily diflused an offensive odor, and oo- casioned insuperable loathing and disgust?" ■ 40. Judging from instinctive feelings, therefore, we must conclude, that man could not have been originally carnivorous ; for the mangled and gory limbs of a dead animal are not calculated to gratify the sensations of either sight, smell, or taste. What objects, then, without artificial preparation, would be most likely to have yielded pleasurable sensations to each of these senses, when the calls of hunger demanded satisfaction? Would the grass of the field be sufficient for this purpose? The herbivorous animal is attracted by the sight of a verdant lawn, and the sensations of smell and taste are there equally gratified ; but this is not the case with man. Food of a higher character was designed for him. Moses informs us that " out of the ground made the Lord God to grow every tree that is pleasant to the sight and good for food ;" (Genesis ii. 9 ;) and again, " When the woman saw that the tree was good for food, and that it was pleasant to the eyes, and a tree to be desired to make one wise, she took of the fruit thereof, and did eat ; and gave also unto her husband with her, and he did eat." (Genesis iii. 6.) Thus we find that the organ of sight was the first to direct Eve in the choice of food ; and that fruit was in this respect most attractive. No other kind of diet, in its natural state, is so calculated to afibrd pleasure to three out of the five senses with which man has been endowed. The eye is pleased with the varied forms and hues of the fruit of genial climes, and fruit yields a fragrance to the olfactory nerves not to be surpassed ; while luscious juices and rich flavors render the sensual enjoyment complete. Fruit, then, would doubtless be best calculated to attract the notice of mankmd ; and upon this they would be induced, by every instinct of their ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 47 peculiar organization, to make their repast ; until either scarcity, change of climate, or other causes, reduced them to the necessity of adopting a di'.'t less congenial to their nature, and less conductive to their happiness. CHAPTER IV. PREPARATION OP ANIMALS ^ d FOOD. 41. That man has succeeded, by art, in making the fiesh of other ani- mals agreea,ble to the senses of sight, smell, and taste ; — that he has rendered it also both digestible and nutritious,^ caimot be questioned; but the comparative advantages of this and a vegetable diet will be more fully con- sidered hereafter ; my present arguments merely applying to a state of society far antecedent to the discovery of fire, and the invention of cook- ing and culinary utensils. [Note 5. This proposition cannot be admitted without qualification. It may be questioned whether any form of cooking can render flesh-meat more nutritious or digestible in the absolute sense. It is very true that many persons in civilized society have artificial or decayed teeth, neither of which are well adapted to the mastication of raw flesh ; hence, with such persons, cooked flesh well masticated might digest more comfortably than uncooked flesh with little or no mastication. Again, the revolting appear- ance of raw flesh might, when first presented to the senses of taste and smell, so disturb and nauseate the stomach as to seriously impair for a time the digestive functions. But I am of opinion that raw flesh, well masticated, would prove as much more nutritious and digestible than cooked in the case of the human, as it is with the lower animals, after the senses had been thoroughly accustomed to it. T.] 42. How soon man became acquainted with fire and its various uses, neither sacred nor profane history assists us in determining. Cain and Abel brought offerings unto the Lord, but there is no allusion to their using fire ; nor are we justified by any expression made use of on that occasion* in inferring that this element was then employed to consume the offerings' The first mention of it occurs, I believe, when Abraham was about to offer up his son Isaac, long after the Flood, and when flesh was allowed as an 48 ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. article of diet. I have previously alluded to the fable of Prometheus stealing fire from heaven ; as well as to his being the first to make use of animal food, and to the diseases he entailed upon himself and mankind by so doing ; instead, therefore, of vainly searching farther for the date of the discovery, it may suffice to observe, that until man was acquainted with fire, and familiar with its effects, it would be impossible for him to relish the flesh of other animals, particularly if fruits and farinaceous arti- cles of diet were within his reach ; and I believe no instance can be adduced of any nation, however savage, feeding upon raw flesh, where fruits, ferinaceous roots, and corn could be procured. Have we not here, then, another strong argument in favor of the fruit and farinaceous diet of man, durmg the first period of his existence? 43. Another physical reason presents itself for considering man not to have been originally carnivorous ; — ^namely, the want of implements for slaying, cutting, and preparing other animals, before he could make use of their flesh for food. All animals destined for feeding upon flesh are pro- vided by nature with instruments for catching, tearing, and devouring their prey ; but for man there is no such provision ; — a plain indication that, previously to the discovery of the arts, he must have been indebted to some other productions for his subsistence. " God hath made man upright ; but they have sought out many inventions." (Eccles. vii. 29.) 44. I have now completed my investigations respecting the original diet of man ; and have, I trust, satisfactorily proved, that the flesh of animals was not laid under contribution for his support. The language of Scrip- tm'e seems to me particularly clear and decisive on this point, showing that fruit and other vegetables were appropriated to the use of man. His original innocence and moral perfection speak the same language ; for the thought of creating pain and misery, by slaughtering an animal in the midst of pleasure and enjoyment, could arise in no breast whereon the image of the Creator was faithfully sealed, except in the case of dire necessity. The testimony of profane antiquity, also, is in favor of a sim- ple vegetable diet among the first races of mankind. The senses of sight, smell, and taste, the instincts expressly designed by the Creator for direct- ing each a.nimal to its appropriate food, loudly proclaim man to have been originally frugivorous ; while the absence of fire and other results of discovery would entirely preclude the first human inhabitants of this globe from feasting upon the flesh and blood of slaughtered animals. 45. Whatever source of evidence we consult, therefore, no discrepancy is found. Eevelation and tradition, morals and man's sensitive feelings, nature and art, all harmonize in declaring that man, when fresh from the ORIGINAL FOOD OF MAN. 49 hands of his Creator, when he lived in innocence and peace, when he was blessed with happiness, health, and vigor, for many hundreds of years, and before a gross selfishness had corrupted and degraded his nature, lived upon the simple productions of the earth. PAKT II. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. PART IT. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN CHAPTER I. EVIDENCE AFFORDED BY COMPARATIVE ANATOMY. Felix, qui potuit rerum eognoscere causas ; Quos rami fructus, quos ipsa volentia rura Sponte tulere sua, carpsit. — ^Virgil. 46. I HAVE previously stated, that the intellectual faculties of man have afTorded him the power to resist, and greatly to modify, his instinctive sug- gestions. His inventive powers enable hira to substitute the discoveries of art for the simple and more wholesome provisions of nature. Daily use and pleasing associations render him capable of enjoying, with the greatest gust and delight, substances which were originally distasteful, or even repulsive to his palate ; (138 ;) and those articles of diet which, to an nnvitiated taste, yielded the greatest enjoyment, become tasteless and in- different. ^ Thus are the natural wants supplanted by numerous artificial ones, which, becoming associated with the former, are not to be distinguished from them ; and thus is man, by the refinements of luxury, the require- ments of fashion, the habits of modern society, the influence of example, and the force of habit, plunged headlong into an abyss of artificial plea- sures, and disqualified for relishing the simple aliments which nature had adapted to his original instincts, and to the highest development of his phy- sical and moral powers. [Note 6. A cow has been taught to love '' kitchen-slops" strongly im- pregnated with refuse and putrefied animal matters, in preference to her natural food ; and a sheep has been feasted on beefsteak and coffee until it refused to touch the greenest grass or the most delicious clover. So, man (53) 54 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. has depraved his instincts to that degree, that " rum and tobacco" have become his greatest luxuries. T.] 47. But those very intellectual endowments which conferred on man the ability to depart so far from his natural state, are able also to lead him back from his long wanderings, and to reveal to him the best means of securing his health and happiness. Ill health, pain, misery, and an abbre- viated existence, are the means adopted by the Deity to remind us of our transgressions of nature's laws ; and although our instinctive feelings are no longer competent to direct us in the path of health and peace, our cul- tivated reasoning faculties, by which we investigate and compare the laws of nature, and by which we are made sensible of the beautiful adaptation of means to an end, are fully sufficient for enabling us to retrace our steps. We may also rest assured, that the principles of sound philosophy will harmonize with the dictates of original instinct. God being the author of both, they cannot contradict each other ; the laws of nature are but the expression of his will, and, as all his designs are for good, there is a moral certainty that a life passed in obedience to those principles will be product- ive of the highest degree of happiness that temporal objects can yield ; notwithstanding the sacrifices and self-denial which an emancipation from previously-formed habits will undoubtedly require. 48. Let us, therefore, interrogate Nature, with a sincere desire of dis- covering the truth, and not with the object of defending what we wish to find true ; let us employ the talents with which God has endowed us, not in accumulating wealth, not in fostering and expanding the selfishness of human nature, but in discovering th^ real causes of disease and misery, and the best means of establishing durable health and happiness. With this view, let us now attempt an answer to the second question ; namely Is man so wonderfully constructed, that climate and locality alone deter- mine on what substances he shall feed? Or does his organization, like that of other animals, manifest a special adaptation to one specific kind of food ; but with an extensive range of adaptability to the greatest variety of ani- mal and vegetable productions ? 49. That the alimentary organs of man are so constructed as to admit of his feeding on a great variety of animal and vegetable substances, as climate and circumstances may direct, and yet enjoy a tolerable amount of health, happiness, and longevity, there can be no doubt ; and the advan- tages of such a range of capability will hereafter be referred to. 50. Hence it is that climate, in most cases, determines the diet upon which any particular nation or people subsist ; and many have been induced to conclude, that climate and its productions should prescribe the rule NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 66 by which the diet of man ought to be regulated. " In the torrid regions of the globe," say they, " where a variety of rich and juicy fruits, rice, &c., abound, and where gregarious animals, such as sheep and oxen, are scarce, or of an inferior description, there it is evidently intended that man should feed on vegetable productions, and his health is best preserved by them : but in colder climes, where the circumstances are reversed, animal food should form the chief part of human diet. These are the evident intentions of aature." The argument is plausible ; and, as the majority of a nation practically adopt the diet that seems purposely provided for them, without ever being led to suspect they are in error, or to investigate the matter on anatomical and physiological grounds, it is concluded, that public practice is the result of experience, and consequently the best : the more rational inference is, that expediency in the first place, and habit in the second, have reconciled man to the food he usually feeds on ; and his alimentary organs are so peculiarly constructed as to accommodate themselves easily to his circumstances. But when the structure and functions of the various human organs employed in the prehension, mastication, and digestion of food are considered, it is clear they have a special adaptation, in obedience to which all the interests and happiness of man are most effectually promoted ; while, at the same time, they possess a wider range of capability, which permits him to feed on the greatest variety of animal and vegetable pro- ductions, without destroying his life, or materially interfering with his pleasures. 51. There are few who doubt that fruits, &c., were the original food of man ; and I trust the evidence already presented will tend to produce con- viction in the minds of those who have not previously thought upon the .subject. Now, if such was the original diet of man, it is certain that the Divine Being must have provided him with such an organization as was better adapted to the solution and assimilation of vegetable matter, in the form of fruits, roots, grain, &c., than any other alimentary matter : to sup- pose otherwise would be to admit a defect in the plans of Omniscience, which we invariably find " ordered in all things and sure." It devolves, therefore, upon those who maintain that man was originally frugivorous but not so now, to show that his organization has, since his original crea- tion, undergone some change. This, of course, they, cannot do; and I sliall now endeavor to prove, that the organization of man is precisely of the nature we should expect a frugivorous creature to possess. 52. Without a comparison of the natural dietetic habits of animals, anatomy supplies us with no internal evidence of the characteristic food of any particular species. It is necessary, therefore, that the naturalist 56 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. should classify the animal creation, according to the food they are observed to feed upon ; and then the anatomist marks the minute differences in their structure, and ascertains that all carnivorous animals have alimentary organs of a particular character, and all herbivorous animals those of a totally different kind. The naturalist and anatomist having mutually aided each other by their respective observations and discoveries, and determined the established laws of relation, comparative anatomy enables us to ascer- tain the natural dietetic character of those animals whose natural history is unknown. 53. Between the organs of digestion, of motion, and of sensation, there is so direct and intimate a relation, and so beautiful a harmony of parts, that from the appearance of a single bone or any other characteristic part, a skilful naturalist will often be able to describe, with considerable exactness, not only the form of the skeleton, but even the dietetic habits of an extinct species. A piercing eye, a keen scent, swiftness of foot or wing, strong talons, powerful muscles, sharp angular teeth or a crooked beak, a simple stomach, a short alimentary canal, great cunning and a treacherous and cruel disposition, generally characterize the carnivorous animal ; and the remark applies universally to mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects. The herbivorous race is, for the most part, distinguish- ed by organs and qualities the reverse of all these ; and so consistent is nature in all her work, that we never find an animal with organs of a rapa- cious character in one part of its structure, and those of an opposite class in another part. For instance, the claws of the tiger are never combined with the stomach and intestinal canal of the sheep or the camel. All the divisions of an animal's economy are wisely adjusted to each other : per- fection and unity of design mark every organ, and fit it for the function it has been destined to perform. Let us, therefore, wisely consider these workings of divine wisdom, and carefully note the lessons they are intended to teach us."^ [Note 7. This branch of our argument is never appreciated by the superficial reader. The different portions oi the digestive apparatus are often represented as affording the evidence to be deduced Irom compara- tive anatomy. But to my mind the whole organization of the difierent classes of animals, considered in relation to their dietetic habits, presents a still more conclusive argument in favor of the frugivorous character of man. A pictorial glance at a few specimens of these several classes can- not fail to give us a vivid and impressive idea of the teachings of natural history on the subject. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 51 I have often thought that, if a few animals, however promiscuously selected, were grouped according to their natural dietetic characters, we should have an ocular and a convinchig demonstration to which class man naturaUy belongs. As a fair representation of the general bodily conformation of the car- nivorous division of the animal kingdom, look at the bull-dog, jackal, alligator, and tiger. (Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 4.) Fi». 1. BULL-DOa. There are, of course, a variety of smaller and larger animals which pro- sent the carnivorous organization in a still more striking aspect, as the spider, \'u]ture, anaconda, shark, hyena, &c., whose history and habitudes are fiuniliar to all naturalists. If any attribute of character, bodily or mental, stands out prominently in form, limbs, features and expression, it is that of unmistakable and unmitigated ferociousness. On every part of the organization a predacious or bloodthirsty nature seems indelibly stamped ; and this "language of signs" is universally understood by the animal kingdom. " Gloomily retired, The villain spider lives, cunning and fierce, Mixture abhorred ! Amid a mangled heap Of carcasses, in eager watch he sits, OV.rlooking all hia waving snares around,'' &8 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN'. i • But why should poets, and divines, and all men of refinement and intelli- gence, attach the ideas of viilauy and cruelty to the killing and eating of Fio. 2. JACKAL. fttiiinals amongst the insect tribes, if the highest development of the human being requires him to obtain a part of his sustenance in a similar manner ? Fig. 3. ALI-IGATOR. Is there not as much of treachery and fierceness, to say nothing of villany and cunning, in slaughtering and devouring a pet lamb, or an innocent calf, 0.S in catching and eating flics? NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 5d Fi». 4. In Figs. 5, 6, 7, and 8, we have a group from the omnivorous dcpartnient of the animal kingdom. The general expression of organization lin^ cer- FiO. 5. BROWN BEAR. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. tainly kss of fierceness and maliciousness, yet the evidences of grossness and st' pidity are even more prominent. it is true that the hog, in its domesticated condition, is a much more HIPPOPOTAMUS, filthy animal than in its native forest ; and the bear, when left to its own dietetic instincts, is, compared with the domesticated hog, of cleanly habits ; the arg'iiment, therefore, that the inhabitants of new countries arc very Fia. 7. v/ell nourished on " bear-meat," has very little force when applied to the flesh of the equally omnivorous but artificially-fattened swine. The flesh of all animals is rendered worse by confinement, and, as food, still further det<^riorated by the fattening process. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 61 Pio. a I cannot here forbear alludiEg to an improved dietary wliich has recently been proposed by the IVench Academy of Medicine, and echoed through Fig. 9, .-\i:(// DEEE. the medical journals of this comitry, for the treatment of the disease called diabetes. This improvement consists in feeding the patient on the 62 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. fiesh of carnivorous animals — cats, dogs, foxes, &c. ! And in order to con- quer the "prejudice" whicli the patient's mind or palate may be supposed to entertain against the ensanguined nutrition, it ih farther proposed to season it abundantly with brandy and spices! Such " discoveries" in medi- cal science are much better calculated to carry us back to the dark ages, than to lead to any useful results in the future. Figs. 9, 10, 11 and 12, represent a group of the herbivora. In all these, and, indeed, in all herbivorous animals, the limbs, mouth, features, expression, and, in short, the entire organization, is in striking contrast with both the carnivorous and omnivorous groups. Here gentleness, Pro. 10. peacefulness, and innocence are the prominent traits of character. The mental constitution of the herbivora is as well distinguished from the carni- vora and omnivora, as is the bodily conformation. With these, secretin encsa and destructiveness are leading propensities ; and with herbivora, cautious- ness and combativeness. It is worthy of remark that the horse, the stag, the antelope, the bull, &c., will contend to conquer and subjugate ; the wolf, the panther, the hyena, the shark, «&;c.. tear and rend, to devour and annihilate. In the herbivorous group, too, are the most hardy and enduring speci- mens of the animal kingdom ; and this fact proves iiicontestably that, not- NATURAL FOOD OF MAN 68 withstanding great agility (resulting mainly from the development of particular sets of muscles by constant exercise) is compatible with an exclusively flesh diet, the greatest working power, and the most permanent strength and vigor, if not consistent with none other than an exclusively vegetable diet, are, at least, never found in connection with any other. Fro. 11. ^;^^,\\ ^ GIRAFFE. liostly, let us look at a group of the frugivora. The Galago, (Fig. 13,) which is found in some of the barbarous countries on the eastern coast of Africa, climbs upon the trees like the squirrel, and feeds upon gum and pulpy fruits. The appearance of its feet, resembling very strikingly the human hand, indicates an approximation to the samias or monkey tribes. Figs. 14, 15, and 16, are those specimens of frugivorous animals which most nearly resemble the human form. It seems to me that, from the spider to the orang-outang, through those several groups of animals \vhose diet- otic habits have been indicated, there is something like an ascending scale ; and surely, whether the aliment ou which the animal subsists has any 64 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN Fia. 12. ELEPHANT. determinate relation to its mental and bodily nature or not, it is clearly demonstrable that animals approximate humanity in form and feature vory nearly in the precise ratio to their departure from the practice of flesh-eating. And if all this is a mere accident in the order of nature, it is certainly a most strange and wonderful accident ! But in order to complete the illustration, let us glance at specimens of the human race more nearly resembling, in dietetic habits, the several classes of animals we have been considering. In Fig. 17 (p. 68) is seen a specimen of humanity as nearly carnivor- ous, perhaps, as can be found in this age of the world. His or its manner of lifc is very much after the ape or orang-outang style, and his principal food is the flesh of the opossum, which he catches by climbing the trees. A single grade above the Australian in bodily symmetry and mental endowment, are the Tikopians, (Fig. 18, p. 69,) who inhabit the small island Tikopia. (See Pritchard's Natural History of Man.) In dietetic habits they resemble more nearly the omnivorous animals than the majority of the xlustralians, as they employ a greater proportion of vegetable food. In Fig. 19 (p. TO) is seen a representation of a KalTir of Bechuana, belonging to a race making a nearer approach, in crauinl as well as gene- ral development, to the more cultivated tribes of the human family. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 66 In general the Kaffirs are brave, high-spirited, rather warlike, but not cruel. They are described by travellers as intelligent and possessing acute sensibilities and perceptions ; yet, from not having reflective education, they Fio. 18. GALAQO. are exceedingly superstitions. The combined influence of cunning, avarice ai ul superstition, causes them to believe in witchcraft, and to resort to many barliarous devices to plunder those victims of suspicion who happen to :>o~5;os.-^ property. The (Circassians and Georgians, though rude and unpolished tribes, are NATURAL FOOD OF MAN, Fio. 14. MONKEY. celebrated as among the handsomest people in the world. Pritchard re, •narks, "The Georgians are a people of European features and form. Eeineggs says that their women are more beautiful than the Circassians, but that the prevalent complexion of the race is not so fair as that of the Circassians, who are natives of the higher conntry of Caucasus." NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 67 Travellers and historians inform ns that these people use very little flesh as compared with the barbarous and semi-civilized nations generally, and that in many places their fields, cultivated like gardens, supply them with ample nutritive material for an almost exclusively vegetable diet. FiQ. 16. ORANG-OUTANG Wii may find in various parts of the world, examples to illustrate tlio same jirinciples, as well as the particular ones I have selected. Thus the Esquimaux, whose leading articles of food are animal flesh, fats and oils, exhibit a strong prevalence of the animal over the mental powers, and a correspondingly weak development of the moral sentiments and intellectual faculties. Dwarfishness of body, stupidity of mind, grossness of sense, with excessive alimentiveness, are the prominent characteristics of this animal man. The Kalmuck Tartars are fair samples of omnivorous or all-devouring men-animals, with a preponderance towards the carnivorous. Although horse-flesh is with them a principal article of food, yet they eat indiscrimi- nately of any other animal it is convenient to procure, with such vegetable food as comes in their way. Travellers uniformly represent them as hideous 68 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. A NATIVE AUSTRALIAN. and revolting- in feature and expression, and as gross in sensibilities and appetences as can well be imagined. A higher grade of civilization is found in the Turk. The people of this nation evince a bodily organization and mental constitution superior to the NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 69 TIKO PIAN. Esquimaux and Tartars, which I have made to represent the carnivorous and omnivorous man, and correspondingly we find their dietetic habits approximate toward vegetarianism. if it be alleged as an argument against the positions I am endeavoring to illustrate, that the mild and amiable Georgians and Circassians are de- graded and enslaved by their more ferocious and warlike neighbors, the 70 NATURAL FOOD OP MAN. Fia 19. ■i EN KAFFIR. Tartars and Turks, I can only reply that human beings may, and in fact do, like predacious animals, riot upon and tyrannize over the more amiable and more lovely, as the wolf preys upon the lamb, and the vulture upon the dove. And 1 can see no end or remedy for this seeming cruelty, save NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 71 Fig. 20. GEORGIAN FEMALE. in that law of bcnevoleiice and progress which permits sufifering for a sea- Bon, and as a means of development, and overrules all for good, by that law which, in due process of time, will not only exterminate from the face of the earth the beasts of prey, but also all the appetences of human beings for preying on other animals. T.] n NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 54. If the structure of any animal be of a character decidedly carni- vorous or decidedly herbivorous, there is little difficulty in determining its place in the scale of creation ; but " if we find, on careful and accurate examination, that the organs under our inspection are neither like those of carnivorous nor like those of herbivorous animals, we are to conclude that the animal whose they were belonged to neither of these orders ; and if the animal belonged to an extinct or unknown species, the natural his- tory of which is also wholly unknown, and cannot now be studied, all cor- rect principles in comparative anatomy most clearly and decidedly demand that we should diligently explore the animal kingdom, and, if possible, find some type with which the organs under our examination correspond. But if no exact type of our specimen can be found, then we must ascertain in what order of animals alimentary organs are found most nearly resembling those of our specimen ; and when this is done, we must conclude that the animal to which our specimen belonged came nearer to that order than to any other known order of animals, in its natural dietetic character ; and in all that our specimen varies from that order, and approaches to a resem- blance of some other known order, we are to conclude that the animal to which it belonged differed from the former, and approached to an agree- ment with the latter, in its natural dietetic character. But if we find an order, with the alimentary organs of which our specimen fully corresponds, then we are irresistibly led to the conclusion that the animal to which it belonged was of the same dietetic character with that order ; and if now we can, by studying the natural history or observing the natural dietetic habits of that order, fiiUy ascertain the natural dietetic character of the animals belonging to it, then we know the natural dietetic character of the animal to which our specimen belonged, just so far as the most rigorously correct principles and reasonings of comparative anatomy can teach us. 55. " Now, then, with the strictest application of these principles, and this mode of reasoning, to the question before us : What is the natural dietetic character of man, according to the real and true evidence of com- parative anatomy ? In considering this question, it is important that we should remember that, whatever may be true concerning the natural dietetic character of man, there is neither now on earth, nor has there been for many centuries, any portion of the human race, so far as we know, which have lived in all respects so perfectly in a state of nature, or in a state to whicii the constitutional nature of man is most perfectly adapted, as to afford us an opportunity to study the true natural history of man, and learn his natural dietetic character from his natural dietetic habits ; and, therefore, so far an this question is anatomically considered, man must, in strict propriety, be NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 73 regarded a3 au extinct species ; because, though man is actually a living species of animals, yet the species, as a whole, have become so artificial in their dietetic habits, that it is impossible to derive from those habits any evidence which can justly be considered unquestionable, in relation to the natural dietetic character of man : and, consequently, our evidence and reasoning in the case must be precisely such as would be proper if man were really an extinct species, and his natural history wholly unknown. 56. " Let us suppose, then, that the alimentary organs of the human body are placed before us for examination, in order to ascertain the natural dietetic character of man. In the first place, those organs speak no dis- tinct and unequivocal language ; afford no clear and determinate indications from which, without reference to any thing else, we can learn the natural dietetic character of man. In the second place, the purely natural dietetic habits of man are wholly unknown, except as a matter of extremely an- cient history and tradition ; and we have now no way by which we can become acquainted with those habits from observation. From the nature and circumstances of the case, therefore, we are under the necessity of drawing our evidence from comparative anatomy, in the same manner aa we would if the species were extinct and unknown. That is, we have no other way of ascertaining the natural dietetic character of man IVom his alimentary organs, than by comparing those organs with the ainieutary organs of other animals in a pure state of nature : and if we can find an order of animals whose alimentary organs perfectly correspond with those of man, and can accurately and fully ascertain the natural dietetic habits ami character of that order of animals, then have we learned, so far as we can learn from comparative anatomy, the true, natural dietetic character of man." Fully agreeing with these sensible remarks of Mr. Sylvester Graham,* I shall now proceed to compare the various organs of man em- ployed in the prehension, mastication, insalivation, and digestion of food, with the corresponding organs of the carnivorous and herbivorous classes. TEETH. 57. The teeth of the Mammalia are generally divided into four sorts : 1. Incisors, or Cutting Teeth. 2. Canines, Cuspids, or Eye-teeth. 3. Bi- cuspids, or small Cheek-teeth. 4. Molars, or large Cheek-teeth. In each human jaw there are sixteen teeth ; consisting of four incisors, two cuspids, four bicuspids, and six molars. These, in a perfectly normal state, form an uninterrupted series ; they arc all nearly equal in length, and closely approximated in each jaw ; a character by which man is distinguished * Lectures on Human Life, vol. iL p. 49. '74 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. from all other animals, excepting the fossil genus Anoplotlierium, which ia allied to the Tapir tribe. 58. The incisors in man are large, broad, and compressed, with a fiat edge. In carnivorous animals there are six in each jaw : they are small and pointed, bearing no resemblance to those of man ; standing, also, farther apart, and being comparatively unimportant. In herbivorous animals they are broad, as in man ; but generally much stronger, with the cutting ends considerably thicker, but varying extremely, both in form and number. In the Ruminantia, there are no incisors in the upper jaw ; and those of the lower one are flat, broad, and oblique, so as to oppose their upper sur- face to the callous gum above. In the horse they are large and strong ; in the hog they are also strong, those of the lower jaw projecting obliquely. In the elephant there are no incisors in the lower jaw, and the two in the upper assume the fonn of huge cylindrical tusks. The Rodentia (such as the rat, beaver, &c.) have long curved incisors. 59. The cuspids, or canine teeth, assume their normal development in the Carnivora; and the term ** canine" (from the Latin word "ca?2w") in- dicates them to be especially developed in the dog. They are (when nor- mal) longer than the other teeth, conical, acute, and strong ; often com- pressed, and with a cutting edge behind : their number never exceeds one on each side in each jaw. In many animals, they are developed into huge tusks ; as in the boar, &c. The cuspids being generally much longer than the other teeth, a considerable space usually exists between the teeth, on each side of the jaw, to receive the canines of the opposite jaw ; and, in all animals, the lower cuspids are anterior to the upper ones. In the hedge- hogs, shrews, phaslangers, and the tarsier, the canine are shorter than the other teeth ; and, consequently, there is a vacancy between their points on each side. There is not the slightest resemblance between the cuspids of man and those of carnivorous animals ; though the possession of these canines is the principal evidence urged by those who contend that man is partly carnivorous. Thi'oughout nature, there are no sudden departures from the general type ; and an organ which is strikingly characteristic in one class or order, disappears by successive gradations through severol other orders, till it finally vanishes, or becomes merely rudimental. Such is the case with the canine teeth. In the Carnivora, they are strong and powerful weapons of offence and defence ; in some of the Herbivora, as the horse, camel, and stag, they are still pointed and large ;* in man they * Eudiments of teeth are containod within the bodies of various kinds of Berpenta. In the young of the whale, before its birth, there is found in the lower jaw a row of small teeth, which do not rise above the gums, and can therefore be of no use for mastication. Their NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 75 are small, scarcely longer than the incisors ; and no space exists between the opposite teeth, for receiving the canines ; which is an exception pecu- liar to man. In him, therefore, the cuspids may be regarded as a form of transition between the incisors and bicuspids, and as having no reference whatever to a flesh-eating propensity. If, however, any one be disposed to hold an opposite opinion, in consequence of the existence of the canines in man, then (to be consistent) he must believe the horse, camel, and other species of Herbivora, to be still more carnivorous than he ; because the cuspids are longer in them than in man. 60. The bicuspids or false molars in man have two prominences, the outer one being generally somewhat more prominent than the inner. In the Rodentia, the Ruminants, the horse, and the elephant, there are no false molars. In carnivorous animals, they rise into high and sharp points, like saw-teeth, much larger and more prominent than those just described : they present nothing which approaches to a grinding or triturating sur- face ; but, like those which precede them, are fitted for tearing and cutting. In this order, they are subdivided into " carnivorous" and " tuberculous" molars ; the number of the latter diminishing, in proportion to the san- guinary habits of the species. 61. The molars of herbivorous animals have very large or oblong square crowns ; not, however, proportionately larger than those of man, but en- tirely different in structure. They are composed of alternate longitudinal plates of bone and enamel ; and the whole crown is surrounded with a plate of enamel, like human teeth ; the grinding surface, however, is not covered by enamel, as is the case with those of man and the Quadruraana ; but presents the uncovered ends of the alternate longitudinal plates of bone and enamel ; and the plates of bone, being much softer than those of enamel, wear away much faster in mastication ; so that the plates of enamel are caused continually to be more prominent than those of bone ; whereby a roughness is given to the grinding surface, which greatly in- creases its dividing and triturating power upon the grass, twigs, boughs, and other vegetable and woody substances, on which herbivorous animals naturally subsist. The cheek-teeth in the lowei ''^w of man, like those of herbivorous and frngivorous animals, are simply raisea V.+o rounded eleva- tions ; and are directly opposed to those of the upper jaw, sc ^^ to mash further growth is arrested, and they afterwards wholly disappear. Eoget observes, that "an organ which has served an important purpose in one animal, may be of less use in another, occupying a higher station in the scale ; and the change of circumstances may even render It wholly useless. In such cases, we find that it is gradually discarded flrom the system ;" be- coming continually smaller, till it disappears altogether." 76 ISIATURAL FOOD OF MAN and grind the substances that come between tliem ; but not in the least adapted to the killing, tearing, and gnawing of animals. In the Carnivora they shut within those of the upper jaw, so as to tear and cut the flesh on which they feed, preparatory to its being swallowed : when both series are viewed together, the general outline may be compared to the teeth of a saw, and their action to that of a pair of shears.^ [Note 8. Figure 25 is a correct representation of the teeth of a car- j,. 25. nivorous animal, the tiger, which aje similar to those of all specimens of the feline race. They differ from human teeth in being pointed, jag- ged, and crossing, instead of an even height at the meeting surfaces. It is apparent at a single glance, that food can- not be finely ground or mas- ticated by such teeth, but can only be cut and torn. SKULL OF TIGER. In Figure 26 are seen the teeth of an omnivorous animal. Here the ^w, as in the case of the Carnivora, is restricted to the opening and shut- Fig. 26. UNDER JAW AND TEETH OF THE HOG. ting, or cutting and tearing motion ; all lateral or grinding motion being prevented by the great depth of the glenoid cavity, and by bony eminences before and behind. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 77 Fig. 2T. SKULL OF SHEEP Next let us view, in Figure 27> the teeth of an herbivorous animal. Here we have a more even develop- ment of the upper or grinding sur- faces ; whilst the articulation of the lower jaw allows a free lateral and rotary motion, admirably adapted to the purposes of thorough mastication and insalivation of the food of the animal, as an exammation of the teeth will readily show. The teeth of a well-known frugivorous animal. Figure 28, certainly resemble those of the Omuivora, or even Carnivora, more than human teeth do. Fig. 28. SKULL ORANG-OUTANG. Following up the ascending scale with the comparative anatomy of the teeth, as we have done with that of the whole organization, we come lastly to the human, which, it is apparent at a glance, are farther removed from the carnivora than are those of the orang-outang. Those who will take the trouble to look closely at the evidences to be derived from compara- tive anatomy, will not wonder that all naturalists are agreed that tlie 78 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. organization of the human being is clearly frugivorous ; however much they may marvel that medical writers and physiological authors should be con- Fig. 29. HUMAN SKULL AND TEETH. tinually repeating the oft-exploded dogma that *' the digestive apparatus of man is intermediate between the carnivorous and herbivorous animals, hence adapted to a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food," &c. T.] ARTICULATION OF THE LOWER JAW. 62. AU lateral motion of the lower jaw in the Carnivora is not only prevented by the structure of the teeth, and the closing of the lower cheek- teeth within those of the upper ; but is also rendered quite impossible by the rising edges of the glenoid cavity ; so that the articulation, or joint, admits of the opening and closing motion only ; thus rendering it more secure under the extreme muscular action to which it is frequently sub- jected. In herbivorous animals, the condyle is adapted to, and works upon, a wide and somewhat convex surface ; and, consequently, the articulation allows considerable lateral motion, for masticating the vegetable matter on which they feed. Great freedom of lateral motion is also possessed by the human inferior maxilla ; so that the food can be completely triturated by the grinding surfaces of the molars, before it is swallowed ; a charac- NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 79 ter evidently connecting man with the Herbivora and with the Quadru- mana, which possess a similar articulation. ZYGOMATIC AKCH; TEMPORAL AND MASSETER MUSCLES. 63. The temporal and masseter muscles, by which the motion of the lower jaw is effected, are of immense size in carnivorous animals. The temporal muscle occupies the whole side of the skull, and fills the space beneath the zygomatic arch, the span and spring of which are generally an index of the volume of this muscle ; while the extent and strength of the arch indicate the development of the masseter muscle. On the con- trary, the pterygoid muscles, which aid the lateral movement of the jaw, are extremely small. The zygoma is of great size and strength in the Carnivora ; consisting of a long process of the masseter bone, overlaid by the usual process of the temporal bone, which is equally strong. The arch extends not only backward but upward, by the bending down of the extremity ; the line of anterior declination falling precisely on the centre of the carnassiere tooth — the point in which the force of the jaws is concentrated, and where it is most required for cutting, tearing, and crushmg their food. In Ruminants, the zygomatic arch is short, and the temporal muscles are small ; but the masseter muscle on each side extends beyond the arch, and is attached to the greater part of the side of the maxillary bone. The pterygoid fossa is ample, and its muscles are largely developed. The arch is small in man, the temporal muscles moderate, and the force of the jaws comparatively weak. SALIVARY GLANDS. 64. The food of all animals possessing the true molar teeth, requires due mastication, and mixture with the saliva, before it is passed from the mouth into the oesophagus ; and, for the secretion of this fluid, salivary glands are* present in almost all animals, except the cetacea and fishes. In insects, they have the character of prolonged coeca ; and are very feebly developed in the amphibious Mammalia. They are numerous and large in those animals living on food which requires continued mastication, as in Ruminants ; and they are so situated, that the play of the muscles, in the act of chewing, communicates to them a proportionate stimulus. In the Carnivora, the food of which requires little or no mastication, these glands are very small ; and, consequently, the saliva is very limited in quantity. The salivary glands are not proportionably so large in man as in herbivorous animals, nor so small as in the Carnivora. It is also stated, that these glands are much more developed in those of our race who have long sub- sisted on vegetable food, than in those who have lived chiefly on animal 80 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. food. The secretion from these glands in man is very copious ; which indicates his much nearer alliance to herbivorous than to carnivorous animals. ALIMENTARY CANAL. 65. The length, divisions, structure, and capacity of the alimentary canal, assist us still further in determining the dietetic character of man. In car- nivorous animals — whether among the Mammalia, birds, reptiles, fishes, or insects — it is generally short, its structure simple, and its capacity small ; whereas, in herbivorous animals, the canal is considerably longer in pro- portion to the size of the animal ; and the stomach, colon, and ccecum are much more complicated.^ [Note 9. In Figure 30 is seen a representation of the alimentary canal, with all of the chylopoietic viscera. T.] Fig. 80. stomach Spleen Large lDt«|tine. Small Intostino. DIGESTIVE APPARATUS. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 81 66. The length of the intestinal canal, as compared with the length of the body, is, in carnivorous animals, as three, five, or, in some few cases, eight to one. Herbivorous animals vary considerably in this respect ; in the Pachydermata, as the horse, ass, &c., the proportion is six, eight, or eleven to one ; in Ruminants, as the ox, deer, sheep, &c., it is eleven .and even twenty-eight to one ; and in the Simiae, six or eight to one. In man, the proportion has usually been considered about six or seven to one ; but, as the legs and thighs were improperly included in estimating the propor- tion in his case, and excluded in that of other animals, the result is incor- rect ; and we may regard ten or twelve to one as a nearer approximation to the truth. In the hog the proportion is thirteen to one. Length alone, however, is an imperfect criterion ; and, unless the diameter and complica- tion of each division of the canal be taken into consideration, our inferences respecting the natural food of an animal may be incorrect. The hyena, for instance, which lives on the flesh and bones of other animals, has an alimentary canal about eight times the length of its body ; while the por- poise and dolphin, which feed on fish, have a canal extremely long, but simple in its structure. STOMACH. 67. The stomach of the Mammalia varies very much in form and com- plexity ; but even this important organ is not sufiicient of itself to indicate the true dietetic character of an animal, without reference also to the coecum, colon, and length of the whole canal. The stomach of carnivorous animals generally consists of a simple, globular sac, without internal division ; and the same form is found in many insectivorous animals. Their food being highly concentrated, and difiering little from the nature of their own tissues, requires but a slight change to prepare it for assimilation ; and its liability to become putrescent requires for it a quick passage through the canal. In the Herbivora, subsisting on far less concentrated food, the stomach is divided into two or more compartments ; and in the Ruminants it is very large and complicated, consisting of various cavities. Some animals of this class, as well as others that are frugivorous, have a stomach comparatively simple, differing little from that of a carnivorous animal ; as is the case with the horse : in all such instances, however, the coecum and colon are much more developed, and, by their increased dimensions, compensate for the more limited functions of the stomach. 68. In man this organ is simple, but divided into a cardiac and pyloric portion ; thus occupying, as in many other anatomical respects, a middle line between the carnivorous and herbivorous Mammalia. The inner sur« 4* NATURAL FOOD OF MAN face of the stomach is covered with rugae, or wrinkles ; formed by the mucous membrane, which lines the whole of the intestinal canal, and which forms valvular folds, called " valvulse conniventes," in the lower half of the duodenum, through the whole length of the jejunum, and upper part of the ileum ; by which means the extent and surface of the whole canal are materially increased.^" [Note 10. The relative as well as the absolute form of the stomachs of carnivorous, herbivorous, and frugivorous animals, is seen in the cuts, (Figs. Fig. 31. lion's stomach. 31, 32, 33.) Some may imagine, at the first glance, a closer resemblance between the human stomach and the lion's, than between the human and Fio. 82. STOMACH. the sheep's! But when they are viewed in relation to their proper food, their closer resemblance will vanish at once. It should be particularly observed that, so far as mere bulk is concerned, there is a greater similarity between the food of frugivorous and carnivorous animals, than between NATURAL FOOD OF MAN 88 frugivorous and herbivorous. The digestion and assimilation of coarse herbage, as grass, leaves, &c., requires a more complicated digestive appa- Pie. 88 HUMAN STOMACH. ratus than grains, roots, &c., and these more so than flesh and blood. The structure of the stomach, therefore, in such case seems precisely adapted to the food we assume that Nature intended for it. T.] COLON AND C(ECUM. G9. The colon, which is the first of the large intestines, differs little in the Carnivora from the smaller ones — the interior surface being smooth, and the capacity small and never cellulated : but in the Herbivora '^.nd in man its dimensions are much greater ; and deep cells are formed in it by ligament- ous bands. 70. The coecum, or caput coecum coli, is the blind pouch, or cul-de-sac, formed by a prolongation of the colon beyond the point at which the ileum enters its cavity. In the Carnivora the coecum is either altogether absent, or, when present, extremely small ; while in herbivorous and frugivorous animals it appears to perform, in some measure, the functions of the sto- mach, and is generally developed in the inverse ratio of that organ ; being voluminous and complex where the stomach is simple, and proportionally small where the latter organ is complicated. In accordance with these remarks, we find no coecum in the sloth, the stomach of which is complex ; it is long, smooth, and ample, with a blunt apex, in Ruminants ; and gen- erally large, sacculated, and distinctly glandular, in the Pachydermata. Those of the Eodentia which feed upon grain, as the campagnoles, the hamsters, and the lemmings, have the coecum large ; in those that are omnivorous, as the black rat, it is small ; while in those which feed upon 84 NATURAL FOOD OF MAIS. Bucculent vegetables (as the hare) it is exceedingly large ; having ten times the dimensions of the stomach. 71. In man the coecnm is tolerably large and globular, with a long " vermiform appendix," which may be regarded as the rudiment of an extended coecum ; it is found only in the human species, in the chimpanzee, the orang, the gibbons, (in the last very short,) and in the wombat. The coecum is proportionately much larger in infants than in adults ; change of diet probably causing it to shrink in manhood. 72. In answer to the general statement, that the coecum is larger in the Herbivora than in the Carnivora, Dr. Tyson states, that the hedgehog, which he considers frugivorous, has neither colon nor coecum ; but it is well ascer- tained that this animal naturally feeds on serpents and insects. He also alleges that the opossum, being carnivorous, has both a colon and a coecum : to this, however, it may be replied, that the opossum lives chiefly on roots and wild fruits, though it also devours poultry. 73. In the Carnivora and Rodentia, which present the most complex form of liver among the Mammalia, there are five distinct parts : a central or principal lobe, corresponding with the principal part of the liver of man ; a right lateral lobe, with a lobular appendage, corresponding to the " lobu- lus Spigelii" and the " lobulus caudatus," and a small lobe or lobule on the left side. Through the whole animal series, however, the magnitude of the liver varies in the inverse ratio of the lungs. 74. In man, the liver is much less developed than the same organ in many other Mammalia ; and presents, as rudimentary indications, certain organs which are in other animals fully developed. Europeans, and the inhabitants of northern climates, who partake more of animal food, have the liver much larger, and its secretions more copious, than the inliabitauts of warm climates. Perhaps this, in some measure, depends upon the amount of non-azotized articles talien along with the flesh of animals, by which means the system is supplied with more carbon than is needed. (See § 202.) So that the enlarged liver is attributable to gross living on a mixed diet, rather than to an exclusively animal diet. 75. There is another part of structure in which man dificrs from car- nivorous animals, and resembles the Herbivora ; namely, the inunense number of perspiratory glands in the skin ; by which the superfluous heat, generated by an excess of non-azotized food, escapes ; the retention of which in the system might be injurious. It is not improbable that hydro- NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 86 phobia owes its origin to the inactivity of this function of the skin : per- spiration, in the dog, being given off principally by the tongue. GENERAL REVIEW OF THE ORGANS. 76. The principal points of relation and difference, then, may be summed up in the folloT^ang manner : In the absence of claws, and other offensive weapons ; in the form of the incisor, cuspid, and molar teeth ; in the articulation of the lower jaw ; in the form of the zygomatic arch ; in the size of the temporal and masseter muscles, and salivary glands ; in the length of the alimentary canal ; in the size and internal structure of the colon and coecum ; in the size of the liver ; and in the number of perspira- tory glands : in all these respects, man closely resembles the herbivorous class of animals. The only points in which he appears to differ from them, and approach the Carnivora, are, in the enamel of the molar teeth being confined to the external surface, instead of being arranged in upright plates, alternating with plates of ivory and of cortical substance : and in the stomach, which, though not so simple as that of the Carnivora, is much less complicated than that organ generally is in the Herbivora. Some of the latter, however, which are apparently formed for digesting grain and other concentrated food, have the stomach more simple, and the alimentary canal short, as the horse. 77. " The prevalent notion," says Dr. Combe, " that the digestive appa- ratus is simpler and shorter in carnivorous than in herbivorous animalg, merely because their food is more analogous in composition to their own bodies, and therefore requires less perfect digestion, seems to be unfounded ; and to be negatived by the fact that, in the grain-eating birds — in the con- stituent elements of whose food there is no such analogy — ^the intestines, nevertheless, scarcely exceed in length those of the carnivorous birds ; a circumstance at variance with the notion of length being necessary, solely on account of the great elaboration required for the conversion of vegeta- ble into animal substance. The true principle — and it is important to notice it, as the error is generally adopted — appears to be, that where the food of the animal contains much nutriment in a small bulk, there the stomach and intestinal canal are simple and short ; but where, on the con- trary, it contains little nutriment in a large bulk, there great capacity, complexity, and length, become requisite to enable the animal to elaborate a sufficiency of nourishment for its subsistence, by taking in the requisite quantity from which it is to be derived." 78. All the human organs connected with alimentation, therefore, are evidently very different from those in carnivorous animals ; and although, 86 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. in some respects, they differ also from the organs of herbivorous animals, they are evidently much more closely allied to those of the latter class then to those of the former CHAPTER n. MAN (strictly SPEAKINa) NOT OMNIVOROUS. 79. Supposing, then, we had no further evidence respecting the natural food of man than we derive from the comparison just instituted, what would be the correct inference to be deduced fi-om it ? There appears to be only one alternative ; either it is intended that man should derive his sub- sistence from a mixture of both kinds of diet, and thus be omnivorous, (as many physiologists consider him ;) or that he should feed upon substances of a nature and consistency intermediate between flesh and herbs ; such as fruit, roots, and grain. 80. Let us take a careful and impartial view of this question. The indications of structure are, that flesh requires a tearing rather than a masticating process, little or no saliva, a gastric juice of a peculiar cha- racter, together with a short and simple alimentary canal, in order that the processes of assimilation may be expedited ; for if animal food be detained too long in the alimentary passages, it is said to become putrid and injuri- ous. On the contrary, vegetable food requires to be well masticated and intimately mixed with the saliva, a peculiar gastric juice for its solution, and a cellulated colon and large coecum, for the more complete digestion of such portions of vegetable matter as have escaped the action of the sto- mach and duodenum. Now, if carnivorous animals have received the very best structure for the perfect assimilation of flesh, and if herbivorous ani- mals possess the best development for the complete and healthy solution of grass and other vegetables, then man, being different from both in the structure and disposition of the alimentary organs, cannot have received the best adaptation for either kind of food ; and, therefore, though a mix- ture of both may be tolerably digested, yet neither kind can so easily and completely undergo transformation as would be effected by the organs and secretions of animals especially adapted to its solution. 81. Physiologists inform us, that the gastric juice varies in its character NATURAL POOD OF MAN. 87 according to the food habitually taken. If flesh be eaten, the gastric juice secreted is specially adapted to its solution ; if vegetables be taken, the juice changes its qualities accordingly ; and if juice of an intermediate quality be formed, in consequence of a mixture of both kinds of food, it seems to be a physical impossibility that it should produce so complete an effect upon either as that kind which is specially designed for each. It may also be remarked that, with people living upon a mixed diet, in pro- portion as animal food predominates, the power of the stomach to digest vegetable food generally diminishes. Hence the frequent complaints of vegetables and fruits disagreeing with the stomach ; so that many find it necessary to be extremely careful of what vegetables they partake ; and are perhaps obliged to limit themselves to stale bread, or biscuit, or some other simple farinaceous substance. Yet even these individuals, by gra- dually diminishing the amount of animal food, and adopting a correct regimen, may once more return to their youthful enjoyment of fruits and vegetable substances generally.'^ [Note 11. — It is not uncommon in this city for persons, especially inva- lids, to assert that they have tried the vegetable diet for one, three, six, or twelve months, and found it decidedly to disagree with them. Hence, they have come to the conclusion — and so far as their experience goes, the con- clusion is legitimate — that, however advantageous it might have been to some constitutions, it did not agree with theirs. I have taken some pains to investigate the circumstances of many of these failures, and have inva- riably found that the whole cause of the difficulty was a morbid appetite which the experimenter would not or did not control, or an injudicious quality and preparation of vegetable foods. I have never known a failure, either with well persons or invalids, where the vegetable diet was regulated by correct physiological principles. T.] 82. Let us, for a moment, direct our attention to those organs wherein man differs from the classes of animals we have considered. The hands, and the erect position of man, seem more adapted to gather the produce of fruit trees, than either to capture objects of prey, or collect herbs ; and the incisor teeth, which are comparatively of little use to the Carnivora, are in man admirably suited to the office of cutting substances into convenient portions for the grinding process of the molars, and for removing the skin or rind of fruit, &o. ; while the short cuspids, or canine teeth, may be ren- dered similarly usefal. 83. The ostensible reason for regarding man as omnivorous is, that ha can subsist upon a great variety of animal and vegetable productions, just 88 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. as climate or circumstances may determine ; but, if properly considered, this only evinces the wide range of adaptability which his organization has received ; in considering which, we are apt to overlook its special adapta- tion. We know that man can live on flesh alone, but this does not prove that he is carnivorous ; he can also live exclusively on fruit and other vege- tables, but we ought not to conclude from this that he is frugivorous ; and it is equally illogical to infer that he is omnivorous because he can feed, with comparative health and pleasure, on a mixture of both animal and vegetable substances. The question we have to determine is, whether the development of the physical, mental, and moral powers of man, is equally complete upon whatever kind of food he lives ; or whether there is a defi- nite kind of food upon which all the interests of his economy are better maintained than upon any other. If the former be the case, then is man truly omnivorous ; if the latter, he is not omnivorous. We have seen how far comparative anatomy supports the latter opinion, and we shall find it corroborated by the evidence from every other source. 84. From these and other considerations it appears questionable, whether any animal is strictly omnivorous ; that is, formed for feeding indiscrimi- nately, or without preference, upon either animal or vegetable substances ; and with organs adapted for procuring, masticating, and digesting each kind of food with equal facility, so as to attain the highest degree of per- fection of which its nature is susceptible. The animals which approach the nearest to this character are the hog, the bear, and the opossum ; yet these, when in a perfectly natural state, and when food is abundant, inva- riably prefer fruits, roots, grain, and other vegetable produce. 85. The digestive organs of the hog are very similar to those of man ; but the teeth are widely different, excepting the true molars, which very much resemble those in the human jaw, and are characteristic of animals intended to feed on vegetable matter. The cuspids and bicuspids in the hog are very similar to those of carnivorous animals ; the incisors, also, bear no resemblance to those of man. This comparison, then, by no means favors the notion that man is partly carnivorous, supposing we admit the hog to be so ; for all the characteristics connecting the latter with the Her- bivora are similar to those of man ; while those which unite it with the Carnivora bear no resemblance to those of the human subject. Remem- bering, therefore, that the hog, when left to its own instincts, in a perfectly pure state of nature, and when food is abundant, always prefers fruits, roots, and other vegetables, and requires no animal food for its perfect development, we must inevitably conclude that man is still more widely removed from animals of a carnivorous character. But we have yet found NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 89 110 true type of the human alimentary organs ; nor shall we, in any race of auimals, find the characters identical in all respects. THE QUADRUMANA. 86. The nearest approximation is met with in the Quadrumana, particu- larly in the orang-outang ; which, both in outward conformation and general organization, bears the greatest resemblance to man. " The masticatory organs of the orang are so closely similar," observes Professor Lawrence,* *' that they might easily be mistaken for human ;" the only difference being, that the cuspids or canine teeth are relatively longer and more pointed, with intervals for the reception of those of the opposite jaw ; and the ele- vations on the grinding surfaces of the molars more prominent and pointed ; by which characteristics the orang approaches nearer to the Carnivora than man. The disposition of the enamel in the molar teeth is the same as in the human subject. The articulation of the lower jaw, the form of the stomachy the comparative length of the intestines, the relative capacity of the coecum, and the cellular arrangement of the colon, in the orang-outang, likewise correspond very closely with those of the human body ; and in what part soever a difference is detected, it denotes man to be less formed for animal diet than the orang. The zygoma (for instance) is larger, and the temporal muscles are far more powerful than in man ; the muciparous, labial and buccal glands, (which soften the contents of the cheek-pouches,) are more constant and larger in man than in the Simia3 ; but the parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual glands are less ; the valvular folds of the sto- mach, duodenum, &c., are wanting in the orang. In other species of the Simige, the teeth are of a more carnivorous character. Comparative anatomy, therefore, warrants us in concluding that the alimentary organs of the orang are the true type with which to compare those of man, in order to ascertain his true dietetic character. Now, as the orang-outang and most species of monkeys, when in a pure state of nature, and when left free to choose their own food, and to follow their undepraved instincts, are wholly frugivorous, subsisting exclusively on fruits, nuts, and other esculent farinaceous vegetables, we are perfectly justified by all the laws of correct reasoning in concluding, that the natural food of man is not of that mixed nature which many physiologists would have us to believe. 87. Dr. Abel's orang "appears naturally to have preferred fruit; though he yielded, on shipboard, to the temptation of meat, and seems to" have quickly become as carnivoror.s as his companions. His food in Java was chiefly fruit, especially mangostans, of which he was excessively fond ; Lectures on Physiology, &c., p. 189. 90 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. he also snaked eggs with voracity, and often employed himself in seeking them. On shipboard he was very fond of bread, and would not refuse flesh ; but always preferred fruits when he could obtain them. Afterwards, however, his food was vegetable ; both from his own choice, and because it agreed much the best with him."* Sir William Jardine says : " The food of this family may be called almost entirely vegetable ; the eggs and occa- sionally the young of birds being the only approach which can be traced to a carnivorous propensity."! They plunder the maize-fields, and rob the orchards of their choicest fruits ; and, in a state of confinement, vegetable diet contmues their favorite and most nourishing support ; but they will eat almost any thing that the luxury of man has introduced, and some even become remarkable for their peculiarities. One of the keepers of the Tower of London informed Mr. Newton, " that experience has taught those who have the care of the menagerie, that feeding monkeys on flesh renders them gross, and shortens their lives ; from which practice they have there- fore desisted." 88. Of the hoolocks, another species of orang, and native of the Garrow Hills in British India, it is said, " their food, in the wild state, consists (for the most part) of fruits common only to the jungle in this district of coun- try ; and they are particularly fond of the seeds and fruits of that sacred tree of India called the peopul tree." Of one of these it is also stated that, " like many of the religious castes of this country, he seemed to entertain an antipathy to an indiscriminate use of animal food ; and would not eat of either the flesh of the cow or hog ; would sometimes taste a httle piece of beef, but never eat of it." He would take fried fish, which he seemed to relish better than ahnost any other description of animal food, with the exception of chicken ; and even this he would eat but very sparingly of ; preferring his common diet, bread and milk, with sugar, fruit, &c.t Of some species of South American Simice it is incidentally mentioned by Humboldt, that they live on fruits ; and indeed all travellers and naturalists agree in representing the Quadrumana as naturally frugivorous. AU evi- dence derivable from comparative anatomy, therefore, is as demonstrative as we can exiDCct such evidence to be, that the natural dietetic character of man is also frugivorous. OPINIONS OF LINN^US, CUVIEE, AND OTHEKS. 89. This part of the subject might now be safely left to the unbiased * Jardine's Naturalist's Library. Mammalia, vol. i., pj 76. t rbiW2.firZiso«-'s Rvman Physiology vol. L p. 115. 108 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 139. Such is the great power of habit over men, that it completely blinds their eyes to every true principle. That which was at first offensive, may become at length agreeable ; and what vv^as at first manifestly injurious, may become apparently indifferent, or even salutary ; and as the majority of mankind enjoy a portion of health and comfort with w^hich they are contented, the operation of remote causes escapes observation ; and men become exceedingly unwilling to connect their sufferings with the things which constitute a large portion of their enjoyment ; while the example of persons indulging in the same habits, and yet arriving at w^hat is deemed extreme old age, still further confirms the delusion. 140. The following anecdote may serve further to illustrate these remarks : " Now that we have fallen on the subject of national tastes, we must not forget to describe the most atrocious compound ever presented to man in the shape of food. It is the Kussian soup called ' Batinia,' which to English palates tastes worse than poison ; but which these our allies, high and low of them, delight in as the greatest delicacy on earth. Hear- ing so much in its praise, we ventured once, and once only — ^for there is no fear of its being asked for a second time — to give a hint that we should like to make a trial of it. But (' dura Russorum ilia !') the taste is not yet away from our lips; nor are we yet persuaded that the skin has returned to our throats. A plateful of this yellow liquid — it ought not to be called ' soup' — was placed before us, with a scum on its top, something like a thin coating of sulphur. Adventurously diving through the surface, what did we discover ? Lumps of rotten sturgeon, slices of bitter cucum- ber, spoonfuls of biting mustard ; in short, a concatenation of all the most putrid, most acrid, most villanous substances that nature produces. The witches' broth was nothing to it : 'Eye of newt, and too of frog, Wing of bat, and tongue of dog,' would be delicacies most exquisite compared with these Russian horrors. But, though both smell and sight were well-nigh daunted, we resolved to persevere like men. We had begun the perilous adventure, and could not with honor draw back before taste had also been put to the proof. A spoonful of it was accordingly raised to the lips ; when lo ! besides other recommendations, it was found to be literally as cold as ice ; for the moun- tain projecting above the surface, which we had innocently supposed to be some nice redeeming jelly, of Russian invention, turned out to be a lump of ice from the ' frosty Caucasus,' or some other vile place. That mouthful was the worst we ever swallowed, It would be impossible to depict the NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 109 looks of anguisli whicli we — a party of deluded, inexperienced English- men — cast on each other. It took aw£ty the breath ; tears rolled from our eyes ; we were more than satisfied ; we were humbled, silenced, overcome ; and made a vow, before the whole company of strangers, never more to be lured into an attempt to make new discoveries in the adventurous region of Russian dishes."* 141. "As to the statement, that the different portions of the human race appear to have enjoyed about an equal amount of health, vigor, and lon- gevity, whether their food has been purely vegetable, or purely animal, or a mixture of the two, let it be understood that, so far as we are informed, no considerable portion of the human family ever intelligently adopted any particular mode of living, upon clear and well-ascertained physiological principles ; and constantly and perseveringly, from generation to genera- tion, adhered to a course of diet and general regimen, conformable to all the laws of life ; but, on the contrary, nearly every thing in the nature, condition, and circumstances of man, from the first transgression to the present hour, has served to fix his attention continually on present enjoy- ment ; with no further regard to future consequences than experience has taught him to be necessary, in order to avoid sudden destruction or intol- erable distress ; and hence, as we have seen, the grand experiment of the whole human family seems ever to have been to ascertain how far they can go in indulgence ; how near they can approach the brink of death, and yet not die so suddenly and violently as to be compelled to know that they have destroyed themselves. T^Tiether, therefore, men have subsisted wholly on vegetable or on animal food, or on a diet consisting of both, they have done so without any regard to correct physiological principles, either in relation to quality, quantity, or condition of their food ; or in relation to other physiological wants and habits of the body, which are nearly as important to the general welfare of the system as the quality and condi- tion of the food. If their climate and circumstances have been less favor- able than others to health, vigor, and longevity, they have learned from experience how far, as a general rule, they must restrain their indulgences, and in what way they must regulate their habits and appetites, so as to secure life long enough for one generation to become the progenitors and nurturing protectors of another generation. And if their climate and cir- cumstances have been more favorable than others to health, vigor, and lon- gevity, they have also learned from experience how far they may go in indulgence, and still keep within the bounds necessary for the perpetuation * Bremner's Excursions in the Interior of Eussia, vol. i. ^10 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. of the race. So that in all cases, as a general rule, what they have wanted in natural advantages, they have made up in correctness of habits ; and what they have possessed in natural advantages, they have squandered in erroneousness of habits. If their climate has been salutary, they have indulged the more freely in dietetic and other excesses. If their food has been congenial to their nature, they have balanced or counteracted its good efiects by other things unfavorable to health, and vigor, and longevity ; and, in this way, the whole human family, whether inhabiting frigid, tor- rid, or temperate zones ; whether dwelling on high mountains, or in low valleys ; whether residing in ceiled houses, or living in tents, or in the open air ; whether subsisting on animal or vegetable food, or on a mixed diet of the two ; whether eating their food in its simplest and most natural state, or cooked and prepared in the most complicated manner ; whether confined to simple food and water, or indulging in every variety of condiments, and stimulating and intoxicating liquors and substances ; whether moderate or excessive in quantities ; whether cleanly or filthy ; whether chaste or lewd ; whether gentle or truculent ; whether peaceful or warlike ; have, in the great experiment to ascertain how much indulgence the human •constitution is capable of sustaining without sudden destruction, so balanced their good and evil as to preserve, throughout the world for many centuries, very nearly a general and uniform level, in respect to health, vigor, and longevity. This statement, however, is general ; and admits of many particular excep- tions of individuals, and sects, and societies, and perhaps tribes^ ; but these exceptions in no case militate against its truth as a general statement, nor against any of the facts on which it is predicated. The fact, then, that a large portion of the human family actually have, for many centuries, and probably ever since the Flood, subsisted to a greater or less extent on ani- mal food, and apparently done as well as those who have subsisted wholly on vegetable diet, does not, in any degree, invalidate the evidence of Com- parative Anatomy : that man is, naiurally and purely, a frwgivoroug animal."* * Graham's Lectures on the Science of Human Life, vol. H. p. 90 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. Ill CHAPTER ry. SENSITIVE AND MORAL FEELINGS OF MAN. 142. The last argument I shall introduce, in favor of vegetable diet, as tlie natural food of man, is founded on his sensitive and moral feelings ; which, like his other instincts already noticed, (36,) are dependent on his organization, and inseparable from his nature. Every manifestation of pain and suffering, in a sensitive being, must at all times awaken the sym- pathies of the human heart; except in those who are constitutionally obdurate, or whose feelings have been blunted by repeated acts or scenes of craelty and misery. Some there are who, like a Nero, can take plea- sure in the sufferings of mankind and of inferior animals ; but such are blots upon the fair creation of God, and are unfit for the society of those who long for the universal reign of happiness, peace, and benevolence. Can we suppose, then, that the Deity would have implanted in the human breast such an aversion to the taking of life ; such a horror of shedding blood ; and such a heart-sickness on witnessing it ; such a hatred of cru- elty, and such a sympathy with creatures writhing with pain, if he had intended us to feed upon the flesh of slaughtered animals ? Would he not rather have formed us cruel and ferocious, like all carnivorous animals, which seem to derive pleasure from witnessing the suflerings of their vic- tims ? Or has the All-wise Creator departed from that harmony of design so conspicuous in all his works, and rendered necessary for man's support a food, the procuring of v/hich shall do violence to the best and kindliest feelings of his nature ; shall be continually weakening and tending to exteiTninate the attributes of benevolence, mercy, and love ; and gradu- ally defacing the image in which God created him ? Could he intend that the human race should eat their food with compunction ; that every morsel should be purchased with a pang, and every meal empoisoned v/ith remorse ? No ! Consistency runs through all the works and designs of God ! We have already seen, that the organization of man, so far as the procuring, masticating, and digesting of food are concerned, is strictly adapted to a vegetable diet ; and his sensitive and moral feelings confirm the views we have taken, and are in direct harmony with all other parts of his svstem. 112 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 143. Much of the feeling manifested in this chapter will doubtless be attributed to a state of morbid sensibility ; and it must be acknowledged that all the sentimental faculties, as well as the propensities, are liable to abuse, and may be the cause of much unnecessary sorrow, when not directed by the intellectual powers. But an enlightened benevolence will endeavor to avoid each extreme, and neither give pain to its possessor at the sight of imaginary torture, nor yet render him insensible in the pre- sence of actual suffering, whether in man or brute. I cannot agree with ShaV j.oare, who says : " The poor beetle that we tread upon, In corporal sufferance finds a pang as great As when a giant dies ;" * because we know that the inferior development of its nervous system ren- ders it not so acutely sensible to pain as the higher classes of animals : we also know that the inferior classes experience comparatively little incon- venience from the loss of one or two of the limbs. But there can be little doubt that most of the more highly organized animals, such as various divisions of the vertebrata, which form so large a portion of human food, and whose nervous system is so similarly developed to our own, are acutely sensible both of pleasure and pain, and suffer dreadfully from the brutality of man, who abuses them in his service, hunts them for amusement, or kills them for food. TiU it can be shown, therefore, that organized beings, with a nervous structure similar to our own, do not in reality suffer from the wounds and bruises which we inflict on them, a rightly constituted mind will believe that " the feelings of the heart point more unerringly than the dogmas and subtleties of men, who sacrifice to custom the dearest senti- ments of humanity." 144. How few of those who feed upon the flesh of slaughtered animals are aware of the enormous amount of excruciating pain that is inflicted to satisfy their unnatural appetites ! But the scenes of the slaughter-house are seldom, if ever, witnessed by those whose feelings are likely to be wounded by the struggles and cries of dying animals ; and *' what the eya sees not, the heart feels not." " Witness the patient ox, with stripes and yells Driven to the slaughter, goaded (as he runs) To madness ; while the savage at his heels Laughs at the frantic sufferer's fury, spent Upon the guiltless passenger o'erthrown."+ * Measure for Measure, Ac . 3, Scene 1. + Cowper. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 113 145. In all parts of the world where flesh-meat is used for food, the art of torturing dumb animals for the pu^30se of pampering a perverted appe- tite is carried to such an extreme as to shock any sensitive mind. " Creation's groans through ocean, earth and sky, Ascend from all that walk, or swim, or fly." * 14G. Even in the warm climate of Abyssinia, a marked penchant exists for raw flesh cut out of an animal alive, and while the fibres are yet quiver- ing. Not only Bruce, but Pearce and Coffin, who remained in the country and became intimately acquainted with the manners of the people, give shocking details of the cruelty that is there practised. The favorite por- tion is called the shulada, and is cut out, on each side, from the buttocks, near the tail. As soon as these are taken away, the wounds are sewed up by these surgical butchers, and plastered over with cow-dung. The animal, which had been thrown down before and during the operation, is now allowed to rise, and is driven forward on his journey. The fashionable parties at Goudar, the capital of Abyssinia, are served with brinde or raw meat, with the same hospitable feeling as, in our part of the world, they would be with venison-chops done just to the turn. The animal — a cow or a bullock — is brought to the door, and the dainty pieces cut off in the manner above described. But on this occasion the animal is killed ; before doing which, all the flesh is cut off in solid square pieces, without bones or much efRision of blood. Two or three servants are then employed, who, as fast as they can procure the brinde, lay it upon cakes of tefif placed like dishes down the table, without cloth or any thing else beneath them. The fast-days of these carnivorous and licentious people, misnamed Christians, amount to no less than a hundred and sixty-five in the year. The fast is only preserved, however, until about three o'clock in the afternoon, after which, they make up for their former reserve." f In son^e parts of the East, animals are cruelly whipped to death to render their flesh tender. 147. " The celebrated pates de fois gras prepared at Strasbourg are made of the livers of geese, artificially enlarged by the cruel process ot shutting the birds up in coops, within a room heated to a very high tem- perature, and stuffing them constantly with food." J 148. A person lately passing through Leadeuhall market, observed on a stall a chicken which, though it had been plucked, was still alive and in motion ; while several others were undergoing the same process. When the gentleman remonstrated with those who were thus torturing the poor * Poetical "Works of JaDies Montgomery. Yol. iv. p. 134. t Dr. John Bell on Eegimen and Longevity, p. 59. X Murray's " Hand Book for Travellers on the Continent." (1836.) 114 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. creatures, lie received nothing but abuse in return. The following article, as well as many others of a like character, has appeared in the newspapers : *' Conveyance of Calves. — Notwithstanding the strenuous exertions of the Eoyal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, to promote a more humane conveyance of these animals to and from the^various markets, we are often compelled to witness cart-loads of calves closely packed together, with their legs tied tightly, and their heads hanging down over the back and sides of the carts, tossing to and fro, and knocking against each other with great violence. They are frequently conveyed in this torturing position, thirty, forty, and even fifty miles, and when examined at their journey's end, many are found dead." We also read of various acts of torture resorted to for the purpose of compelling animals to obey the wills of their tormentors ; such as sawing their tails, and, what is still worse, dislocating every joint of their tails ; and the agents of the above- named Society have frequently to interfere in such cases. Doubtless, such acts of cruelty are unnecessary, and animals might be killed for food with- out causing them so much pain even as they might suffer by a natural death, but I fear there is little chance of inducing the general adoption of milder treatment and more expeditious processes than are at present employed. The opinions of others on this subject may not be unaccept- able to the reader. 149. " Nothing can be more shocking and horrid," says Pope, " than one of our kitchens sprinkled with blood, and abounding with the cries of creatures expiring, or with the limbs of dead animals scattered or hung up here and there. It gives one the image of a giant's den in romance ; bestrewed with scattered heads and mangled limbs." 150. Diogenes observed, that " we might as well eat the flesh of men as the flesh of other animals." And Cicero remarked, that *' man was des- tined to a better occupation than that of pursuing and cutting the throats of dumb creatures." 151. Plutarch remarks, " How could man bear to see an impotent and defenceless creature slaughtered, skinned, and cut up for food? How could he endure the sight of the convulsed limbs and muscles ? How bear the smell arising from the dissection ? "Whence came it that he was not disgusted and struck with horror, when he came to handle the bleeding flesh, and clear away the clotted blood and humors from the wounds? We should, therefore, rather wonder at those who first indulged themselves in this horrible repast, than at such as have humanely abstained from it." 152. Dr. Cheyne says, " I have sometimes indulged the conjecture, that animal food, and made or artificial liquors, in the original frame of our NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. lift nature and design of our creation, were not intended for human creatures. They seem to me neither to have those strong and fit organs for digesting them, (at least such as birds and beasts of prey have that live on ilesh,) nor those cruel and hard hearts, or those diabolical passions which would easily suffer them to tear and destroy their fellow-creatures : at least, not in the first and early ages ; before every man had corrupted his way, and God was forced to exterminate the whole race by a universal deluge ; and was also obliged to shorten their lives from nine hundred or a thousand years to seventy." 153. " To see the convulsions, agonies, and tortures of a poor fellow- creature," continues Dr. Cheyne, *' whom they cannot restore or recompense, dying to gratify luxury, must require a rocky heart and a great degree of cruelty and ferocity." " I cannot find," adds he, " any great difference, on the foot of natural reason and equity only, between feeding on human flesh and feeding on brute animal flesh, except custom and example. I believe some rational creatures would suffer less in being fairly butchered, than a strong ox or red deer ; and in natural morality and justice, the degrees of pain here make the essential difference." * " But animals, in our degene- rate age, are every day perishing under the hands of barbarity without notice, without mercy ; famished, as if hunger were no evil ; mauled, as if they had no sense of pain ; and hurried about incessantly from day to day, as if excessive toil were no plague, or extreme weariness were no degree of suffering. Surely the sensibility of brutes entitles them to a milder treat- ment than they usually meet with from hard and unthinking wretches. Man ought to look on them as creatures under his protection, and not as put into his power to be tormented. Few of them know how to defend themselves against him as well as he knows how to attack them. For a man, therefore, to torture a brute, shows a meanness of spirit, (particularly, if he is slaughtering it for the table.) f 154. Dr. Hawkesworth observes, ''Among other dreadful and disgusting images which custom has rendered familiar, are those which arise from eating animal food. He who has ever turned with abhorrence from the skeleton of a beast which has been picked whole by birds or vermin, must confess that habit alone could have enabled him to endure the sight of the mangled bones and flesh of a dead carcass which every day cover his table ; and he who reflects on the number of lives that have been sacrificed to sustain his own, should inquire by what the account has been balanced ; and whether his life is become proportionably of more value by the exercise * Cheyne's Essay on Eegimen. t Bee Dean w the Future Life of Brutes. 116 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. of virtue and piety, by the superior happiness which he has communicated to reasonable beings, and by the glory which his intellect has ascribed to God." * 155. Were a person under the necessity of killing all the animals whose limbs he devours, then would he more frequently be led to ask whether that food could be natural to him, the procuring of which does such vio- lence to other parts of his nature. His sympathies would then be a greater check upon his desires for flesh ; and he would more frequently be induced to satisfy his hunger with the rich, abundant, and delicious products of the vegetable world. But if we shrink from the task of taking life ourselves, and shun the scenes of cruelty inflicted by others upon dumb animals, why should we by our gross, unnatural appetites render it a work of necessity to our domestics and those who supply our larders ? Far be it from me to infer that either a butcher or a sportsman is necessarily more cruel than another man, either to his own species, or to the animals he slays for our food. Many of those whose business it is to destroy life are known to be humane and merciful, and would spare unnecessary pain to the beasts they kill ; but it cannot be denied that there are others thus employed who become callous and unfeeling ; utterly regardless of the pains they thoughtlessly, or even wilfully, inflict. Young people early trained to the habit of taking life, gradually lose all sympathy for the beasts they ill-treat ; and the direct tendency of such constant employment is to blunt the feelings and deteriorate the whole character. If, then, by our flesh-eating habits, such duties become necessary, we are virtually cul- pable not only for causing much pain and misery to the animal creation, but also for corrupting the morals of our fellow-creatures, and for giving birth to much brutal ferocity. It is, therefore, our duty, and, as will here- after be shown, our interest — for real duty and true interest always har- monize — to discountenance the slaughter of any part of the animal creation for our food. 156. The Gentoos rear numerous herds of cattle ; but such is their veneration for these animals — on account of their useful and patient ser- vices to man — that to kill or even maim one of them is deemed a capital offence." f "Among the Wallachians, though there is no positive institu- tion to the contrary, yet the women never destroy the life of any creature. Whether this custom was founded by some of their ancient legislators, or whether it originated from incidental circumstances, is uncertain ; but however that may be, nothing can be more suitable to the gentleness anc" * Edition of Swift's Worka. t M. Be Page's Travels, vol. ii., p, 27. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 117 timidity which form the most beautiful and engaging part of the female character." * 157. Beasts of prey shun the light, as if ashamed of their cruelties. " Not so the steady tyrant man ; "Who— with the thoughtless insolence of power, Inflamed beyond the most infuriate wrath Of the worst monster that e'er roamed the waste — For sport alone pursues the cruel chase, Amid the beamings of the gentle day. Upbraid, ye ravening tribes, our wanton rage 1 For hunger kindles you, and lawless want ; But, lavish fed, in nature's bounty rolled, To joy at anguish, and delight in blood, Is what your horrid bosoms never knew." t 158. " Oun there be a more gratifying spectacle," observes Dr. Eoget, " than to see an animal, in the full vigor of health and the free exercise of its powers, disporting in its native element, revelling in the bliss of exist- ence, and testifying by its incessant gambols the exuberance of its joy ?'' Yet cruel man — to gratify an acquired habit, which (as I shall hereafter show) only mars and abridges his existence — cuts short their innocent pleasures, and causes them to agonize to no useful purpose. "By long habit and familiarity with scenes of blood, men at length view them with- out emotion ; but observe the young child which is told that the chicken it has fed and played with is to be killed : are not the tears it sheds, and the agonies it endures, the voice of nature itself, crying within us and pleading the cause of humanity ?" " The merciful man is merciful to his beast ;" and the man of sensibility " will hate the brutal pleasures of the chase by instinct : it will be a contemplation full of horror and disappoint- ment to his mind, that beings capable of the gentlest and most admirable sympathies should take delight in the death-pangs and last convulsions of dying animals." 159. There is no antipathy between man and other animals which indi- cates that nature has intended them for acts of mutual hostility. Numerous observations of travellers and voyagers have proved, that in uninhabited islands or in countries where animals are not disturbed or hunted, they betray no fear of men : the birds will suffer themselves to be taken by the hand; the foxes will approach him like a dog." These are no feeble indications that nature intended him to live in peace with the other tribes of animals. * Dr. W. Alexander's History of Women, vol. 1., p. 866, t Thomson's Autumn, L. 390. 118 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 160. There are circumstances, however, which will justify man in taking animal life if care be taken to prevent all unnecessary sufiering;. These circumstances appear to me well enumerated by the poet Cowper : " The sum is this : if man's convenience, health, Or safety interfere, his rights and claims Are paramount, and must extinguish theirs. Else they are all — the meanest things that are — As free to live, and to enjoy that life, As G-od was free to form them at the first, Who Ji His sovereign wisdom made them all. Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons To love it too."* 161. Ovid represents Pythagoras giving directions to the same purport: . " Take not away the life you cannot give ; For all things have an equal right to live. Kill noxious creatures where 'tis sin to save : This only just prerogative we have : But nourish life with vegetable food. And shun the sacrilegious taste of blood. "t '4 [Note 14. The flesh-eaters of New York — and probably the remarks about to be made will hold true in relation to many other cities — are not generally aware of the large quantity of spoiled or putrid meat which is sold in market, after having undergone a " doctoring" process, which re- stores its natural color, and takes away the putrescent smell. A few weeks ago, one of our daily papers, the Tribune, related the particulars of a " mercantile transaction," wherein a large lot of poultry which, in conse- quence of having been brought a long distance and a sudden change in the weather, had become black and fetid, was sold for $50, or about one-tenth of a cent per pound. The purchaser soaked it in alum and otherwise managed it so that it sold for ten cents a pound, the " speculation" yielding a clear profit of some $800. Beef, pork, and other spoiled and tainted meats are often treated in a similar manner, and sold for a " prime article." T.] OBJECTIONS. 162. Several objections may here be noticed. " Why were sheep, oxen, &c., created, if not for the use of man ?" I might briefly reply that they were brought into existence by the same power, and for a similar purpose, as all other animals ; many of which man never knew, and probably never will know ; and many others of which are absolutely injurious and de- ♦ Task, Back vi. t Metamorphoses, Book xv., L. 705. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 119 Btructive to him. At no time, perhaps, are the pride and imbecility of man more apparent than when he imagines all things, animate and inani- mate, to have been created solely for his pleasure. There exist millions of 8UUS with their revolving orbs, which the eye of man has never witnessed ; and myriads of animals, on this globe and others, enjoy their sports and pastimes unheeded and unseen by him : how, then, could they have been created for his use " "Ask for what end the heavenly bodies ehine, Earth for whose use ? Pride answers : ' "Tis for mine ! For me kind Nature wakes her genial power, Suckles each herb, and spreads out every flower; Annual for me the grape, the rose renew The juice nectareous and the balmy dew ; For me the mine a thousand treasures brings ; For me health gushes from a thousand springs ; Seas roll to waft me, suns to light me rise ; My footstool earth, my canopy the skies.' Has God (thou fool !) worked solely for thy good ; Ihy joy, thy pastime, thy attire, thy food? Who for thy table feeds the wanton fawn, For him as kindly spreads the flowery lawu. Is it for thee the lark ascends and sings ? Joy tunes his voice, joy elevates his wings. Is it for thee the linnet pours his throat? Loves of his own and raptures swell the note. Kjiow, Nature's children all divide her care : The fur that warms a monarch, warmed a bear. While man exclaims — ' See all things for my use V See man for mine I' — replies a pampered goose. And just as short of reason he must fall Who thinks all made for one, not one for all."* 163. These lines of Pope convey much instruction ; and teach us, that all animals were created for their own enjoyment ; for mutual advantages ; and for the preservation of that universal harmony in nature to which all the varied forms of the animal, vegetable, and mineral kingdoms are made to contribute. Certain acari, pediculi, and entozoa, prey upon man, whose body (externally or internally) is their natural and only habitat : it seems necessary to their very existence. With much more apparent reason, therefore, might it be said, that man was created for these loathsome crea- tures, than that sheep, oxen, and other animals, were formed for his use ; since they are not indispensable to his health and happiness. Whatever man can press into his service, whether for food, raiment, or pleasure ; whatever can be made to minister to his necessities, real or imaginary ; ♦ Essay on Man. Epls. i., 1. 131. 120 NATURAL FOOD OP MAN. these his pride and selfishness prompt him to believe were given solely for his use ; and because the flesh of gregarious and other animals is found to be nutritious, he concludes that the sole design of the Creator, in impart- ing vitality to them, was to supply him with food, clothing, and other con- veniences : but few men who think seriously on the subject will consider the inference a just one. 164. But it will be said : "If we allow such animals to multiply, they will soon become so numerous as to consume the greater portion of the food required for the use of mankind." I reply, that so soon as they cease to be necessary to man, he will no longer increase their numbers by his fostering care ; and if they still continue so numerous as to interfere with his own comfort and happiness, he will either prevent their breeding so extensively, or kill them from necessity. I may also observe that the various races of animals, if left to themselves, are a check upon each other, and prevent the excessive multiplication of any particular kind : and thus by the irreversible laws of an all-wise Being is the balance of creation preserved. " Let nature follow her own course with regard to all that lives." The answer to this objection, however, may be safely deferred till time and circumstances shall require it. 165. Again ; it will be asked : " Wlmt shall we do for clothing, shoes, &c., if animals are not killed ?" When vegetable diet becomes so general as this question looks forward to, and when the supply is inadequate to the demand, the ingenuity of man will soon discover the means of introducing abundance of substitutes. In contemplating such extensive changes in the habits of a nation, it is well to have a prudent regard to consequences ; but such changes must necessarily be so slow and gradual, that any e^il arising from them would be easily counteracted, long before it could be extensively felt. Besides, if the diet of a nation should become so totally altered that the^ flesh of animals is not at all needed, and yet their wool, milk, &c., indispensable ; numerous flocks and herds would doubtless be kept for the supply of those articles only ; as was the case in the time of the patriarchs, (23,) and as is the case now in some parts of Asia and Africa. (274.) The principal expense in keeping sheep is in rendering them unnaturally fat ; and if protected for their wool merely, the poorest lands, and such as are unfit for any other purpose, would be appropriated for their support. Thus fed, their wool would cost us no more than it does at present, and yet it would be of much better quality. Mr. Culley ^says that the Herefordshire sheep, which produce the finest wool, are kept lean, and yield one pound and a half each ; he adds : " If they be better kept, they grow large, and produce more wool, but of an inferior »!ualit- '' NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 121 From a table furnished by Mr. Fison, a wool-sorter, it appears that, of fifteen tods or four hundred and twenty pounds of clothing-wool grown in Norfolk, in 1790, two hundred pounds were prime ; while, in 1828, the same quantity of Norfolk wool only yielded fourteen pounds prime * Other witnesses corroborated this statement.! If the whole or majority of a nation, therefore, should hereafter abandon the use of flesh diet, they would still have sufficient means in their poAver to provide themselves with warm clothing, either by the discovery of substitutes for wool, or by keep- ing animals for its production ; and under a vegetable diet much more laud would be available for such purposes. (506, 507.) 166. Another inquiry is : " How can the land be cultivated without the manure resulting from the keeping and feeding of sheep, oxen, &c. ?" It is evident, I think, that these animals can return no more to the land than they take from it : consequently, if they be otherwise unnecessary to man, the land appropriated to their support may be employed in producing an extended supply of fruit, roots, grain, and other vegetables adapted to his wants. Yet the question will be reiterated : " Where is the manure to come from?" I profess not be sufficiently acquainted with agriculture to answer this question so fully as it deserves ; but it is well known to scien- tific inquirers, as well as to the best practical cultivators of land, that a considerable portion of our strongest and most valuable manures, both fluid and solid, are entirely wasted ; and which, if properly economized, would far more than supply the loss we are supposing : in addition to which, we should have a considerable quantity from those animals which would be at all times protected for the production of milk, butter, wool, &c. ; and, under a general vegetable diet, the land (as will be shown here- after) would produce much beyond what man could require for his own consumption, even in this densely-populated country. 167. Again : from the rapid advances lately made in agricultural clie- Tiistry, it is perhaps not unreasonable to expect that, ere long, artificial Jianures may be produced so easily and so cheaply as to make up for any leficiency that may arise from the diminished numbers of gregarious ani- iuals-t Our knowledge of vegetable economy may become so complete, :ind our acquaintance with the wants of the various families of plants so iitimate, as to enable us to supply them with the most appropriate kind )f nourishment, and to cultivate them in circumstances the most favorable ^r developing their nutritive qualities in the highest perfection. * Report of Evidence taken before the House of Lords, 1828, p. 207. t Report, pp. 383, 640, and 644. ; t Since the above was written, Professor Liebig has taken out a patent for several kinds ft artlflcial manures, suited to diffierent crops, and further discoveries raay expected \ 6 122 NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 168. Some persons, in justification of the slaughter of animals for human food, contend that the sum total of animal pleasure is thereby pro- moted ; since it encourages the breed of gregarious animals, and it is the duty and interest of their owner to feed and protect them : consequently, more animals are brought into existence than would otherwise be the case ; and their enjoyment overbalances the pains they are made to endure. It would, however, be a difficult question to determine whether animals thus multiplied, in order to supply our artificial wants, do actually experience more pleasure than pain, during the short period of existence we allow them. If we take into consideration the miserable way in which many of them are cooped up ; the mutilation which many others undergo, in order to de- stroy the instincts which nature bestowed upon them to enhance their plea- sures ; the captivity which aU have to submit to, contrary to their natural desires ; the privations they endure in consequence of inappropriate and iusuflBcient food, in confined situations ; the diseases we entail on many, by abridging their freedom, and by confining them to food which they would not prefer were they more at liberty to seek out their own ; and the pain we cause them in a variety of ways, besides what they experience immedi- ately before and at the time of slaughter ; the question as to the prepon- derance of pain or pleasure becomes, I think, too difficult for ug to settle. 169. But if we are the means of bringing animals into existence, we do them injustice if we abridge their liberty, destroy their instincts, or pre- vent their enjoying any of those pleasures which nature has qualified them for receiving. If their flesh be not only unnecessary, but absolutely injurious to man, (as will be shown hereafter,) then every pain we inflict upon them is no less than wanton cruelty, and cannot be compensated by the pleasures we procure them. For the sake of argument, however, let us admit that the sum total of pleasure greatly exceeds the sum total of pain, in those animals which receive existence in consequence of our car- nivorous habits : it will be proved, in another part of this work, that on a pure, substantial, and nutritious vegetable diet, a much greater popula- tion of human beings could be supported, in full health and strength, than on either an animal or a mixed diet ; and to provide means of comfortable subsistence and enjoyment for a rapidly-increasing human population, is an object as much more worthy our attention, as the varied pleasures and happiness of man arS superior to the mere sensual enjoyments of the brute. It is true, that if vegetable diet were more general, fewer animals would be bred, and much of the present pasture-land would be appropriated to the production of fruit, grain, and roots ; but the means for obtaining the greatest amount of human happiness would be considerably increased. NATURAL FOOD OF MAN. 123 It has been contended that man was naturally carnivorous, because in infancy he feeds on milk, which is an animal product. This argument would prove too much, because the young of all the Mammalia, not except- ing the herbivora, are supported by milk ; but who, on that account, would contend that the sheep and the ox are carnivorous ? It would be equally logical to conclude that all animals are carnivorous because, ante- rior to birth, they derive their nourishment from the blood of the mother. Milk is wisely designed for the support of the Mammalia till teeth are sup- plied for the mastication of solid food. 170. I shall conclude this part of the subject with the excellent address of an ancient and distinguished priest of India : " Children of the sun, listen to the dying advice of your faithful and affectionate instructor, who hastens to the bosom of the great Allah, to give an account, and to enjoy the expected rewards of his services. Tour regimen ought to be simple and inartificial. Drink only the pure, simple water. It is the beverage of nature ; and not by any means, nor in any way, to be improved by art ! Eat only fruits and vegetables. Let the predaceous animals prey on car- nage and blood ! Stain not the divine gentleness of your natures by one act of cruelty to the creatures beneath you ! Heaven, to protect them, hath placed you at their head. Be not treacherous to the important trust you hold, by murdering those you ought to preserve ; nor defile your bodies by filling tli.cm with putrefaction. There is enough of vegetables and fruits to supply your appetites, without oppressing them bv carrion, or drenching them in blood." PAET III. BEST FOOD OF MAN. PAKT III BEST FOOD OF MAN CHAPTER I. VEGETABLE/! -Jl 'ATTAIN ALL THE ELEMENTS AND QUALITIES NECESSARY FOR THE COMPLETE NUTRITION OF MAN. 171. K.4Yvi*»^ seen that history and science bear ample testimony to the trtith, that T?<^etables were the original, and are (now as well as in former ages) the r«tural food of man, the inference that they are also his best food, seer^s unavoidable ; but as evidence of a totally different nature from that already produced can be brought to prove the latter, independently of the two former propositions, the whole three may be considered established, as clearly and firmly as questions of such a nature admit. First, then, we must inquire, what important purposes food is designed to answer in the human economy ; secondly, whether vegetables possess the elements and qualities necessary for answering those purposes ; thirdly, we must ascer- tain whether they are easy of digestion ; and, lastly, whether they are superior to animal food, or a mixed diet, for sustaining all the vital pro- cesses ; for producing the " mens sana in corpore sano," in the greatest perfection, and for the longest period. 172. The life of all organized beings is a state of perpetual warfare with unorganized matter. No organized structure is, for a single moment, in a state of absolute repose ; nor in two successive moments perfectly identical. The human body is every instant undergoing a change, and losing minute but innumerable particles of its substance. Every motion of our limbs, every manifestation of force, every sensation we experience from without, and every mental affection within, is accompanied by a transformation in the structure of the solids, and by changes in the chemi- cal nature of the secreted fluids. The worn-out particles of the body are separated from the system, by means of various organs adapted to that purpose, in the form of excretions ; as by the skin, lungs, liver, kidneys, adipose tissue, and intestinal canal. Thus, during life, an uninterrupted 147 128 BEST FOOD OF MAN. series of transformations is constantly taking place ; and, consequently, the body would in a very short time become completely emaciated, the organs would gradually cease to perform their functions, and death would very soon put an end to all vital phenomena, unless fresh matter were supplied for renewing the parts that have undergone transformation. 173. It is in the ultimate tissue of the body, where the capillary vessels are spread out as a beautiful net-work, that the grand phenomena of life take place : here the whole body is in a state of constant mutation, of decay and reconstruction ; depending upon the joint influence of the oxy- gen of the atmosphere and the blood. The process seems to be as follows : When a quantity of atmospheric air has been received into the lungs by an act of inspiration, it there meets with the venous or dark-colored blood, which has arrived from all parts of the body, loaded with impurities. Several changes then take place. The carbonic acid, which is the cause of this dark color, is set at liberty ; and the protoxide of iron contained in the globules of the blood, becomes a peroxide, by uniting with a part of the oxygen contained in the air inhaled."^ In this state, the blood (now of a bright red color) is conveyed, by the action of the heart, through the arteries, to all parts of the systeui ; and in those minute vessels termed " capillaries," the peroxide of iron gives off half its oxygen, and is again reduced to a protoxide,^* which combines with the carbon and hydrogen set free, in the same situation, by the decomposition of the tissues ; and the iron (in the state of carbonate) returns to the lungs, where it ex- changes its equivalent of carbonic acid for one of oxygen, and is conveyed to the tissues as before. Thus we see that muscles, tendons, nerves, bones, nails, hair, and all the other solids and fluids of the body, (which are ever in a state of fluctuation,) derive their origin from that important fluid — the blood. This liquid flesh, (as it is sometimes termed,) as it passes through the capillaries, deposits the materials of each organ — be it muscle, nerve, or bone — wherever the decomposed particles require renewal ; and the same vital current, loaded with the products of chemical transforma- tion — carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, &c. — finds access to the various excre- tory organs, where these eSete materials are given ofi"; and, after under- going its last degree of purification in the lungs, it is returned again to the heart. [Note 15. The doctrine that the color of the blood is owing to the presence of iron, is a mere hypothesis, assumed by many physiologists, but * The fibrin, oxidized in the lungs, is, according to Mulder, the principal, if not the only, carrier of the oxygen of the air ; it is especially this substance from which the secretions aro formed.— Simon's Animal Chemistry translated.— Dr. Day, vol. i., p. 12. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 129 which none of them have proved. Indeed, I think the balance of evidence is altogether against it. T.l 174. The blood is thus gradually exhausted by building up and renewing the solid structure of the body ; and itself requires constant renewal by daily supplies of food. This food is partially prepared for digestion, in the mouth, by mastication and iusalivation ; it is then passed along the oesophagus into the stomach, where it undergoes various chemical changes, and is converted into chyme ; it then passes through an aperture at the right extremity of the stomach, called the " pylorus," into the duodenum, where it undergoes still further change, by the action of several secretions from the duodenum, liver, and pancreas ; it is finally elaborated into a white fluid denominated " chyle," which is taken up by minute vessels termed " lacteals," and passes along the thoracic duct, which terminates in an angle formed by the union of the internal jugular and subclavian veins. Thence it flows, mixed with particles of organized matter, lymph, and venous blood, to the heart, by which it is transmitted to the lungs, where all these dififerent fluids are converted into one substance, arterial blood, to be sent out by the left side of the heart to the system, for its support. The principal purpose of food, therefore, is to supply nutriment to the body, in order to compensate for the waste constantly taking place from the decomposition of the tissues by the action of oxygen.'^ FlGXTBE 81. MAKING FOOD INTO BLOOD. [Note 16. The process of blood-making is weU illustrated in figure 31. 180 BEST FOOD OF MAN. The stomach is represented pouring its properly digested contents through the pyloric valve, a, at its right end, into the duodenum, the first portion of the intestines. The ducts from the liver, h, and pancreas, c, are seen contributing their necessary juices to the chyme ; and the jejumen, d, d, d, with its numerous lacteals, f, f, f, readj to absorb the required nourish- ment, to convey it along the mesentery, e, e, e, change it materially in the mesenteric glands, g, g, g, which appear something like knots of beads, and to deposit the fluid thus changed in the receptacle of the ckyle, h, //., whence it passes up the thoracic duct, i, and is poured mto the subclavian vein to be mingled with the venous blood. T.] 175. But there is also another important end to be answered by the proximate principles or ultimate elements contained in food : namely, the production of animal heat ; without which all the varied functions of life would immediately cease. Azotized articles of food, termed also the " plastic elements of nutrition," and (by Dr. Prout) the " albuminous class of aliments," are generally believed to be specially and principally designed for the former purpose. They were found, by Mulder, to be modifications of a certain compound, which he has named " protein," (from .rpwTSi^w, I hold the first place,) . yihich. is composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen ; as in the formula C^^ H^e, N«, 0'\ (Liebig.) The same chemist " has discovered two oxides of protein ; a binoxide and tritoxide ; both of which are formed in the animal economy, and constitute, when combined with fatty matter, the buflfy coat of inflamed blood. He believes that the protein of the food reaches the right side of the heart, circulates through the lungs, and combines with oxygen ; forming oxy-pro- tein, (binoxide, tritoxide, or both ;) this reaches the nutrient capillaries, and all or part is decomposed ; the oxygen being employed for the disor- ganization of worn-out tissue, and the protein, thus deoxidized, being deposited to supply its place. If more protein be set free than is wanted for the growth of tissue, it passes unchanged into the veins, to be again oxidized in the lungs. The tritoxide of protein, being soluble in water, is better enabled to traverse the minutest capillaries than if it existed merely diffused through the fluid containing it."* 176. The azotized principles, fibrin, albumen or gluten, and casein, are capable of being assimilated, and converted into the various animal organs and tissues ; and only differ from each other by small but essential quanti- ties of mineral substances; such as sulphur, phosphorus, potash, soda, common salt, and phosphate of lime. * Urinary Deposits, by Dr. G. Bird, p. 8. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 181 177. The non-azotized principles are supposed to minister principally to the support of respiration and the production of animal heat. They are divided by Dr. Prout into two groups : the saccharine, comprehending sugar, starch, and gum ; and the oleaginous, which includes oils, fat, and spirits. Liebig asserts, that the non-azotized principles are incapable of supporting life and nourishing the tissues ; but his opinion on this point, as we shall see presently, is questionable.* It is pretty well ascertained, however, that one important use, to the Herbivora and to man, of sub- stances containing these principles, is to supply carbon and hydrogen; which, by uniting with oxygen, produce muscular force and animal heat ; if not supplied with these principles, their organs would be destroyed by the action of oxygen. Professor Liebig calculates, that about fourteen ounces of carbon are daily burned in the body of an adult man ; and that sufficient heat is thus given out to maintain the temperature, and to ac- count for all the gaseous matter and water expelled from the lungs. Although this view of the effects produced by the saccharine principles may be in the main correct, yet certain facts are scarcely reconcilable with their exclusive appropriation to the production of caloric. The diet of the inhabitants of the tropics, for instance, aboimds with carbon and hydrogen, which would be likely to generate a much greater quantity of heat than could readily escape in the high temperatures to which they ai'e exposed : it is probable, therefore, that a portion of these non-azotized compounds is converted into nutriment, by a union with the nitrogen of the atmosphere. (200.) We must inquire, secondly, whether vegetables possess the elements and qualities necessary for answering the purposes above mentioned. 178. Some years ago, when organic chemistry had been little investi- gated, it was generally supposed that vegetables were deficient in that im- portant element termed " azote," or " nitrogen," which enters largely il'"© the composition of the blood and flesh, or muscle, of all auiraals. It was therefore concluded, that vegetables are insufficient for the due support and renewal of the human body ; and that the flesh of other animals is a necessary article of diet for man. Now, without the aid of chemistry, it is demonstrable that either the assumption or the inferen'^i is incorrect. For * " If gelatine-sugar be in reality a compound of cane-sugar q which one equivalent of urea has been substituted for one equivalent of water, it is hi?' y probable that, when sugar is brought into the body aa a substance, it may there form w uerous combinations, and may by no means be destined merely to maintain the functio of respiration. If gelatine be formed in the animal body, then sugar, either derived d' dctly from the food, or produced from starch in the alimentary canal, may be used for thi: purpose."— Mulder's Chemistry of Vegetable and Animal Physiology, p. 236. 182 BEST FOOD OF MAN. as the flesh of sheep, oxen, and other herbivorous animals, is acknowledged to contain as much nitrogen^' as the flesh of man, I would simply ask ; ** Whence do they derive it ? In whatever way they obtain the nitrogen, man may also acquire it, although he should never taste flesh ; provided his organization be adapted for assimilating food of a vegetable nature, which has been already proved.f Now, in herbivorous animals, there appears to be only five possible sources of azote : 1. The vegetables upon which they feed. 2. The air swallowed with the food. 3. The converting powers of the secretions of the various viscera ; as the stomach, liver, pan- creas, &c. 4. The azote resulting from the decomposed tissues being again organized. 5. The atmosphere, by means of the process of respiration. 179. If we admit the conclusion of former chemists, that vegetables contain little or no nitrogen, then, whatever portion of this element the flesh of herbivorous animals contains, we must evidently refer to one or more of the four remaining sources ; and to whichever of these we attribute it, we are bound to admit that man has equal facilities for obtaining it, even if confined to a vegetable diet. Let us first inquire, then, what light physiology throws upon the subject ; and then proceed with an examina- tion of the proximate and ultimate principles of vegetables. 180. The Herbivora swallow much more air with their food than the Carnivora ; and Bespretz has ascertained, by experiment, that the former expire more nitrogen than the latter ; a fact which is inexplicable unless we admit that nitrogen can be supplied in larger quantities than the food itself contains. The Carnivora never masticate their food ; but the Herbi- vora and man have teeth adapted to this purpose, by which means the food becomes intimately mixed with the saliva, which Liebig says possesses the property of enclosing air in the shape of froth, in a far higher degree than even soap-suds. " This air," he observes, " by means of the saliva, reaches the stomach with the food, and there its oxygen enters into combination, * The recent researches of Messrs. Macaire and Marcet tend to establish the important fact, that both the chyle and the blood of herbivorous and of carnivorous quadrupeds are identi- cal in their chemical composition ; in as far, at least, as concerns their ultimate analysis. They found, in particular, the same proportion of nitrogen in the chyle, whatever kind of food the animal habitually consumed; and it was also the same in the blood, whether of carnivorous or herbivorous animals ; although this last fluid contains more nitrogen than the chyle.— Memoires de la Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, v. 389. Eoget's Bridgewater Treatise, vol. ii., p. 53. t " Look at the elephant ; whence is this mass of flesh derived ? Fish and leeches kept in glass vessels of pure water not only live, but increase in weight and size ; now, as nitrogen is an abuLdant constituent of their structure, whence can it be derived, but from the air which exists in combination with the water ?"— Dr. Searle's Philosophy of Life, Health, and Disease, p. 62. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 188 while its nitrogen is given out through the skin and lungs, without being applied to any use in the animal economy." This last observation of Liebig seems to me supported by no evidence ; nor can I for one moment admit, that nature would allow nitrogen to be incessantly passing through the various tissues of the body by means of the stomach and lungs, without answering some useful purpose. It is possible, therefore, that additional nitrogen may be supplied to the system by means of mastication and in- salivation, when the food does not contain a sufficient quantity. Dr. Prout remarks : " This involution of azote may be considered as one of the great objects of mastication and insalivation, which are almost peculiar to ani- mals chiefly subsisting on saccharine matters." Liebig also appears to have changed his opinion on this subject ; he says : " When a chemical attraction causes the formation of a compound, it is in regard to tlie chem- ically active, or attracting body, quite indifferent whether the atoms which it attracts form a group, bound together by their mutual attractions, or are Bimply arranged near each other, without being combined. To produce the compound, it is only necessary that the attractive force should be more powerful than the forces which oppose its manifestation ; that is, the form- ation of the new compound. If the attractive force preponderates, the attracted elements enter into the new combination : and this, whether they have been previously arranged in one, two, or three compound molecules or groups, and the result is exactly the same as if the attracting body had combined with one group of combined atoms." " The formation of the blood-constituents would have equally admitted of explanation, and would have been equally well explained, even had the food contained, instead of one sulphurized and nitrogenized constituent, two or three compounds, in one of which was found the sulphur, in the second the nitrogen, and in the third the carbon required to make up the sum of the elements."* 181. Chemists generally take it for granted, that food is the only means by which azote can be added to the blood, and that the animal body has no power to convert the non-azotized elements of food into azotized com- pounds. Certain physiologists, however, are of a different opinion, and believe that there may take place many changes and conversions in the mysterious vital laboratory of an animal which cannot be imitated in the un- organized laboratory of the chemist. It is probable that all organic struc- tures have the power of reducing nutrient substances to the simple elements, and of recomposing them, by means of affinities controlled by the vital agency. It is not impossible, even, that during the vital process some of * Liebig's Researches on the Chemistry of Food, p. 19. 134 BESTFOODOFMAN. the ultimate principles may be both decomposed and generated. This appears to be the opinion of Dr. Front, who observes : " My belief is that, under certain extraordinary circumstances, the vital agents can form what we now consider as elements ; but that, in ordinary, such elements are chiefly derived ab externa, in conjunction with the alimentary principles." Again ; he states that, " under extraordinary circumstances, the assimilat- ing organs may be able to decompose principles which are still considered as elementary ; nay, to form azote or carbon." 182. " It is, therefore, much more safe and philosophically accurate," says Sylvester Graham, " for chemists to say what inorganic forms or kinds of matter result from a chemical analysis of organic substances, than it is for them to state that organic substances are composed of such and such chemical elements, or kinds of matter. We know, it is true, that all mar terial bodies are composed of that common matter of the world which chemistry has distributed into more than fifty elements ; and we know that, in manufacturing its various organic substances out of that common mat- ter, the vital economy employs more of some of those elements than of others. We also know that some of those elements, or forms of matter, are much better adapted to the purposes of the living body than others ; but we have no right to assume that the vital forces possess no higher energies of analysis than are exerted by the chemical agents of the inor- ganic world, nor that their principles of combination, in any respect, re- semble those of inorganic chemistry. On the contrary, we have reason to believe that vitality decomposes all those substances used in its economy which chemists call * elements ;' and that in arranging its various organic substances and structures, the synthetical operations are very different from those of inorganic chemistry. It is, therefore, purely hypothetical to assert, that oxygen and carbon and hydrogen aiid azote, and other chemi- cal elements, as such, combine, in the vital processes, to form the various substances and structures of the organic system."* 183. It is well known that the vegetable, being supplied with ammonia, can form gluten out of what would otherwise have been deposited as starch ; and Dr. Prout has distinctly stated, that he has found albumen (an azotized principle) in the duodenum, when none was found in the stomach ; from which circumstance he concludes, that a highly azotized substance may be secreted from the blood, either in the stomach or duode- num, or both, for the purpose of being united with the non-azotized con stituents of the food, to form a compound- adapted to the nutrition of tha ♦ Graham's Lectxires on the Science of Human Life. Vol, i., p. 81. BEST FOOD OF MAN. lo5 tissues. He also supposes that the portion of blood thus deprived of its azote is separated from the general mass of blood by the liver, as one of the constituents of the bile ; which secretion, as a whole, is remarkably deficient in azote.* 184. Tiedemann and Gmelin,f ^ as well as other physiologists, believe that the secretion of the pancreas adds to the chyme richly azotized animal substances, albumen, casein, and osmazone ; by which it is brought nearer to the chemical composition of the blood, and prepared for its complete assimilation to it. Thus is a portion of nitrogen supplied to such aliment- ary matter as was originally destitute of it. Hence the large size of the pancreas, and the more copious secretion of the pancreatic fluid in herbivor- ous than carnivorous animals ; hence the change that is said to be pro- duced in the size of this organ by a long-continued change in the habits of the animal ; hence, also, its smaller size in the wild-cat, which lives only on animal food, than in the domestic cat, which lives partly on animal and partly on vegetable food. It would seem, therefore, that the pancreas is a compensating organ, the function of which is to maintain a due balance of protein in the chyle, into which the chyme of the stomach is converted iu the duodenum ; and it is not improbable that the spleen exercises a similar office for the chyle, in its further progress. Miiller thinks it probable that the spleen secretes lymph of a peculiar nature, which, being mixed with the contents of the lymphatic and lacteal system coming from other parts, tends to perfect the formation of the chyle. A large amount of fat, and a small quantity of fibrin, are found in the lacteals previously to their pass- * " Long and repeated attention to the functions of the liver, both in health and disease, have satisfied me that this organ, in its assimilating functions, is analogous to, or identical with, the assimilative functions of vegetables; that the liver represents, in short, the original vegetative system, on v^hich, in animals, the animal system is, as it were, superimposed." — Dr. Proct. t MM. Bouchardat and Sandras conclude, from a variety of experiments, that the pan- creas secretes the principle diastase for the purpose of dissolving the food of animals living on feculent or starchy substances, and the experiments of M. Lassaigne seem to confirm this opinion. It appears, however, from the more recent researches of Dr. Charles Bernard, tliat the special action of the pancreatic juice is on fatty matters ; he regards it as indispensable for their absorption and for the formation of chyle. By a careful comparison of the experi- ments made by the parties just mentioned, and by MM Mialhe, H. Meckel, Matteucci Majendie, Andral, and others, we arrive at the following conclusions : Cellulose and amy- laceous or starchy elements generally, are converted by the saliva into dextrine and glucose; albuminous matters are assimilated by means of the gastric juice; the glucose, or grape-sugar, is changed by the bile into fatty matter, and the pancreatic fluid converts the fatty or oleaginous products into chyle, which is absorbed by the lacteals. That the oleagi- nous principle may be converted into most, if not all the matters necessary for the existence of animal bodies, seems to be proved by the well-known fact, that the life of an animal may bo prolonged by the appropriation of the fat and other matters contained within its own body, 136 BEST FOOD OF MAN. ing through the glands of the mesentery, and to their receiving the lymph from the spleen ; after which the proportions are reversed. It appears, therefore, that the oleaginous principles of food are gradually converted into azotized principles, and that the fluid of the splenic lymphatics assists in effecting this change. Thus it would seem, that when in any circum- stances the food of an animal does not contain the proportion of chemical elements proper for forming the blood, provision is made, in its complicated structure, for supplying what is deficient. The fact that blood coutaius more nitrogen than chyle, as proved by the experiments of Macaire and Marcet, further confirms these views. Whether the azote resulting from the decomposed tissues be susceptible of being again employed, when the supply by other means is insufiicient, we have not the means of determining ; but it is not unreasonable to conjecture that such may be the case. [Note 17. It is very common for physiologists to affirm that animal fat, or oil, is highly nutritive ; some authors using the term " preeminentlgnu- tritious.'' But there is abundant evidence to show that its nutritive value is extremely small. Animals fed on it exclusively become plump and embonpoint, yet soon die ! Fat men do not endure hard labor, severe cold, nor long abstinence, as well as others ; and the respiratory function is always of diminished capacity in fat persons. It is very true that the organic economy can manufacture all the oleaginous or adipose material the system requires out of the elements of ordinary food ; hence there is no necessity for taking into the stomach those elements alre-ady formed into fat or oil. T.] 185. The air we breathe is the next possible source of nitrogen. This substance is not a chemical compound, but a mechanical mixture, princi- pally of two gases — oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportion of 23 parts of the former to 76 of the latter. The important agency of the oxygen in reference to the blood, and the mode of its action, have already been pointed out, (172 ;) but what becomes of the nitrogen ? Does it answer no useful purpose in the animal economy? Is it, as some suppose, merely a diluent for the oxygen ? Has nature, then, produced a gas nearly equal to four times the amount of the oxygen, for the simple purpose of mode- rating its effect on respiration, and of checking the progress of vitality ? The supposition is unworthy of the wisdom exhibited to our view in every department of nature, where we invariably find two or three purposes accomplished by one arrangement. BEST FOOD OP MAN. 137 '* In human works, though labored on with pain, A thousaud movements scarce one purpose gain ; In God's, one single can its end produce, Yet serves to second too some other use."* 186. It needs, therefore, but little experimental evidence to prove, tliat this nitrogen of the atmoephere fulfils some great design of the Creator ; and, among others, that of supplying this element to the animal system, when not derivable in sufficient abundance from other sources. 187. Experiment shows, that there is a continual absorption of nitrogen by the blood ; and as continual an exhalation of it. Sometimes the quan- tity absorbed exceeds the quantity exhaled ; in which case the excess must have been, by some means, appropriated in the system ; and if a chemical union takes place, in the capillaries, between the oxygen conveyed by the blood-globules and the carbon of the decomposed tissues ; and if a part of the oxygen enters into chemical union with the blood, as is generally admitted, there is no reason why the nitrogen absorbed by the blood should not, in the same locality, enter into combination with the other elements of the blood, if an additional quantity of it be required. 188. The weak affinity existing between nitrogen and the other elements, even at high temperatures, seems the principal objection to the belief, that this gas can be appropriated in the human system. But it is a known property of nitrogen, that when it meets with hydrogen in a nascent state, within an enclosed space, it readily unites with the latter, and forms am- monia ; and as hydrogen is developed, not only in the whole extent of the alimentary canal, but also in the capillaries, where the disintegration of the worn-out tissues takes place, we have all the conditions necessary for the combination of nitrogen with the other elements of protein. JFrom the researches of MM. Bouchardat and Sandras it appears, that the digestion and absorption of albuminous matters take place exclusively in the stomach by the veins ; and although the solution of fecula, or starch, also occurs in the stomach, its absorption takes place there less exclusively ; which fact accords with the special disposition and length of the intestines of animals not carnivorous. Majendie found little hydrogen in the stomach one hour after food had been taken, and none at the end of two hours ; whereas, in the small intestines, upwards of fifty per cent, of this gas was found ; but at the expiration of four hours, only eight per cent. It is probable, therefore, that much of this element enters into combination with nitogen in this locality, when the food consists principally of non-azotized principles.f * Essay on Man, Epls, I., L. 53. t Vide Liebig's Animal Chemistry, p. 825. 138 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 189. Dr. Proiit thinks the azote of the tissues may, in some instances, be derived from the air ; and Sir Humphry Davy states that, in his experi- ments, an absorption of nitrogen took place during respiration, to the amount of 1-1 7th of the volume of the oxygen which disappeared from the atmosphere ; so that, in twenty-four hours, the quantity of nitrogen absorbed was as much as 2246 grains. Professor Pfafif, also, observed a diminution in the quantity of the nitrogen ; and estimated it at from l-107th to l-80th of the volume of the air inspired. 190. Priestly, Cuvier, Dr. Henderson, Edwards, and others, obtained similar results ; but Allen and Pepys, Berthollet, Jurine, Nysten, Dulong, and Despretz, detected an increase of nitrogen. "Allen and Pepys ascer- tained, that when guineas-pigs were made to breathe in a mixture of hydro- gen and oxygen, nitrogen was exhaled, and in a quantity exceeding the volume of the whole body of the animal, which shows that it could not be derived from the air previously contained in the lungs."* 191. Dr. Bostock observes, that it is probable the blood, as it passes through the lungs, both absorbs and exhales nitrogen ; the proportion which these operations bear to each other being very variable, and depend- ing upon certain states of the system, or upon the operation of external agents. The discrepancy in the results obtained by different experimenters upon this point, is also explained by M. Edwards in a similar way. He supposes that in certain circumstances, the ahsorption of nitrogen is most active ; in others, the exhalation. These circumstances are probably de- pendent on the condition of the blood with respect to this necessary ele- ment ; the absorption being greatest when the food and the alimentary organs have not supplied it in sufficient quantity for the requirements of the system. Absorption and exhalation of this gas seem also to take place by the skin ; and Dr. Pereira has suggested, that the ammonia of the atmosphere may furnish nitrogen to the system ; but there has been no experimental proof of this. The evidence already adduced is so much in favor of the opinion that the nitrogen contained in the tissues of man and the Herbivora may be obtained independently of food, that there is scarcely any room for doubt upon the subject ; it may be considered an established fact, and in our investigations respecting human diet, it is of great importance that we should never lose sight of it. 192. That nitrogen in food is, to a certain extent, unnecessary to tlie support of man, we may infer from various well-authenticated facts. Adansou asserts, that the Nomadic Moors have scarcely any other food * MuUer's Elements of Physiology, Yol I. p. 82T. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 139 than gum Senegal. Hasselqiiist relates, that a caravan of Abyssinians, consisting of one thousand persons, subsisted for two months on a stock of gu:n arabic alone, which they found among their merchandise. Those who gather gum from the trees in Arabia and Senegal, live, for a time, almost entirely upon it ; and six ounces in twenty-four hours have proved sufiBcient for a man's support. Humboldt informs us, that he has frequently observed the mule-drivers who carried his luggage on the coast of Caraccas, giving the preference to unprepared sugar over fresh animal food ; and it is well known that negroes, and individuals otherwise imperfectly fed, soon become fat and vigorous from masticating the sugar-cane. Now, gum and sugar contain little or no nitrogen. Potatoes and rice, also, are universally acknowledged to be far from the bottom of the nutritive scale ; and yet the quantity of nitrogen present in them is extremely insignificant, com- pared with the amount in even the inferior qualities of wheat. " Maize is said to contain no gluten, and little, if any, ready-formed saccharine mat- ter ; whence it has been asserted to have but a very small nutritive power : on the other hand, it is seen that domestic animals which are fed with it very speedily become fat ; their flesh being at the same time remarkably firm. Horses which consume this corn are enabled to perform their full por- tion of labor, are exceedingly hardy, and require but little care ; and the common people of countries where Indian corn forms the ordinary food, are for the most part strong and hardy races.*'* (492, &c.)f If nitrogen, tlierefore, be necessary for the renewal of the tissues, it is evident that, in these instances, it must be supplied by one of the processes just mentioned, and not by the food. 193. But granting nitrogen to be a necessary element in human food, it is no difficult matter, since the late discoveries in organic chemistry, to prove that fruit, roots, grain, and all succulent vegetables, contain it in sufficient abundance. Boussingault and Payen, as well as other chemists, have ascertained that nitrogen is present in all parts of vegetables, particularly the seeds, juices, and nascent parts ; the membranes being the only portions from which this principle is excluded. 194. Indeed, it is now no longer doubtful that all nutritive substances, whether of an animal or vegetable nature, contain a certain proportion of both the azotized and non-azotized principles ; otherwise denominated the " glutinous" or " albuminous," and the " saccharine" or " saccharifial.Mo" * Library of Entertaining Knowledge, "Vegetable Substances used for the Food of Man," p. 101. t Boussingault, Playfair, and Dr. E. D. Thomson, state the nitrogenized products contained In maize meal at 11 per cent 140 BESTFOODOFMAN. principles. Both these are necessary to the saccharine or acetic fermenta- tion which takes place in the stomach during the process of digestion ; and all substances on which animals subsist may be proved, by chemical analysis, to contain these two principles, though in very different propor- tions ; some containing an excess of the albuminous, and others of the saccharine principle. Dr. Prout has shown that milk, upon which the young of all the Mammalia feed, contains a considerable portion of an albuminous substance, (casein,) which forms its curd ; a great quantity of oily matter, the butter ; and no inconsiderable amount of sugar ; thus including his three staminal principles. 195. The food of the Carnivora consists ahnost entirely of the com- pounds of protein ; consequently, the carbon necessary for uniting with oxygen, in order to produce caloric, must be principally derived from the decomposition of the tissues ; and, as the exercise of the vital functions is the only means by which the tissues can be decomposed, it is absolutely necessary that the Carnivora should take an enormous amount of muscu- lar exercise, to furnish the requisite amount of carbon. Probably, how- ever, so abundant a production of caloric is not so necessary to support animal heat in the Carnivora, as in the Herbivora and Frugivora ; in con- sequence of the absence of perspiratory pores in the former, which prevents their cooling too rapidly. 196. The food of the Herbivora contains only such an amount of the compounds of protein as is sufficient to restore the waste of the tissues ; and the carbon necessary for respiration is supplied by the starch, sugar, oil, &c., which form the greater portion of their food ; the abundance of their perspiratory pores allowing the surplus of caloric to escape :* con- sequently, a much less amount of muscular exertion is necessarily required of them ; though they are not on that account less capable of taking it, if requisite, as will be shown hereafter. In all articles used as food, and not artificially prepared, nature has combined not only the azotized and non- azotizcd principles, but also a certain amount of nutriment, with a large quantity of innutritious matter ; and the latter is as necessary for healthy" digestion as the former. * The experiments of MM. Becquerel and Breschet seem at variance with the generally received opinion, that the animal heat is increased by the closing of the pores. The hair of rabbits was shaved off, and a composition of glue, suet, and resin, (forming a coating through which air could not pass,) was applied over the whole surface ; when, instead of the temper- ature being increased, it was considerably reduced ; and one of the animals died in conse- quence. Abundant evidence however may be adduced to prove that, in man, the cleaner the skin is kept, the more clothing, external heat, or muscular exercise, he requires to main- tain his proper temperature.i8 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 141 * [Note 18. I think there may be an error here. Certainly my ex- perience and observation do not correspond with the statement. Many persons, I am aware, are in the habit of keeping their skins very clean by the frequent employment of vapor, warm or hot baths ; a practice which tends to relax the system generally, and weaken the cutaneous func- tion in particular, and thus render them more susceptible to the influence of cold. But those who practise cold bathing habitually and judiciously, and take warm or hot baths only occasionally, find the functional power of the skin so invigorated that they can bear cold better than those who keep unclean skins. T.] 197. The various kinds of flesh-meat (as beef, mutton, &c.) contain about 25 per cent, of nutritious matter ; while rice, wheat, peas, and beans, afford fi-om 82 to 92 per cent. Even potatoes, which are considered by many as a very innutritions kind of food, contain about 28 per cent of nutriment. (Appendix, Table B.) According to these estimates, one pound of bread, oatmeal, rice, or sago, contains more nutritious matter than three pounds of flesh, and a pound of potatoes as much as a pound of beef. These pro- portions of nutriment, however, though pretty accurately ascertained by chemists, are not to be depended upon as representing the correct ratio in which these various kinds of food support the human body ; since much is said to depend upon the proportion of azotized and non-azotized princi- ples in the aliments. Rice and potatoes, for instance, although containing a considerable quantity of nutritious matter, possess but little of an azotized principle, (from 2 to 8 per cent, of gluten ;) and, therefore, are commonly deemed weak articles of diet : practical experience, however, contradicts this. (192, 492, &c.) ^ 198. Nor are those articles which contain the greatest amount of pro- tein the most nutritious and best for man ; it having been proved that leguminous seeds, (such as peas and beans,) though containing more nitro- gen than the cereal grains, are less nutritive. Liebig attributes this to their being deficient of the earthy phosphates ; but numerous considera- tioni lead us to infer that this cannot be the only cause. According to Braconnot, peas (Pisum Sativum) contain 9.26 grains of earthy phosphates in one ounce, which is about twice the quantity found in French beans or wheat, and twenty-four times the amount found m the same weight of beef. 199. On a careful consideration, therefore, of the compound aliments and their eflects, we may very safely affirm that there is something more essential to nutrition than a mere mixture of what we regard as the mos5t important alimentary principles of food. Wheat is acknowledged to 142 BEST FOOD OF MAN. contain a considerable amount of gluten or vegetable albumen, and its fitness for human food has acquired for it the appellation of " the staff of life." " Grain and other nutritious vegetables yield us," says Liebig, " not only (in starch, sugar, and gum) the carbon which protects our organs from the action of oxygen and produces in the organism the heat which is essential to life, but also (in the form of vegetable fibrin, albumen, and casein) our blood, from which the other parts of our body are developed." 200. Notwithstanding the abundant proofs lately afforded by chemistry | that vegetables contain all the elements necessary for nutrition, it has been | stoutly asserted that their principles are very different from the fibrin, | albumen, and casein of animal food, and that only the latter are calculated 1 to form muscle and impart strength to the human frame. But the experi- j ments of Liebig and other excellent chemists have established, beyond the possibility of a doubt, the perfect identity of animal and vegetable fibrin, ; animal and vegetable albumen, and animal and vegetable casein ; each i containing precisely the same amount of the azotized principle, protein, i As to the starch and other saccharine matters which are found so abun- 1 dantly in farinaceous vegetables, it is the opinion of Prout and Liebig i that in the digestive process they are convertible into the oleaginous principles by the extraction of oxygen,^ of which the former contain a much greater quantity than the latter. Thus the empirical formula of starch is 0'^ H''', 0'" ; which, by the loss of one equivalent of carbonic acid (C 0^) and seven equivalents of oxygen, (0"^,) is converted into C'\ • H'^, 0, the empirical formula of fat. Or the starch may be changed by < vital chemistry into four equivalents of carbonic acid, (0*, 0^,) four equi- ' valents of olefiant gas, (C^, H^,) and two equivalents of water, (H^, 0^.) ; Or, if we admit that the nitrogen of the atmosphere combines, in tlie digestive process, with the elements of food, — of which there can be little , doubt, (185,) — then four equivalents of starch may be converted into one I equivalent of protein (C-^^, H^^ N^, 0^"^) and four of water, with a sepa- ; ration of oxygen. Thus, under a full vegetable diet, (in which starch j abounds,) a sedentary life — especially if the pores of the skin are not kept open by frequent ablutions — will generally conduce to the formation of fat ; but if abundant oxygen and nitrogen be supplied by exercise, a loss amount of oxygen is then requisite from the food, and the chyle — which might, in other circumstances, have produced fat — may now be converted into fibrin to supply the waste of tissue arising from muscular exertior-. 201. Here then is manifest a ray of that divine wisdom which shines .-o gloriously in every department of nature, v/hen carefully investigated. We ♦ See note at §184. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 143 need no longer regard the nitrogen, which constitutes four-fifths of the atmosphere, as an inert and useless gas ; but, like oxygen, as an important ind essential aliment for the support of animal life. The two gases are beld in a weak combination, or mechanical mixture, in order that each may in its turn, as circumstances require, subserve the interests of vitality. If animals were so constituted as to render necessary a precise amount of any element in the food to which their instincts direct them, and if their organs were so limited in their functions as to be incapable of fulfilling any other duty but that for which they were specially intended, then would life be subject to continual interruption ; and disease and death would spread ruin and devastation in every direction. Neither men nor the lower animals are at all times so situated as to be able to procure, in sufficient quantity, that food which contains all the elements in the precise propor- tion and mode of combination best suited to their organization; the atmosphere, therefore, presents an immense reservoir, always at hand to make up deficiencies by means of mastication or respiration ; and the digestive, chylopoietec, and secerning organs are endowed with such capa- bilities as to vary, within certain bounds, their proper functions, and to seize with unerring precision those elements of the atmospheric air of which the ingesta and circulating fluids are deficient. 202. These views are applicable to man living on a natural or vegetable diet as follows. In warm climates, where an elevated temperature is incompatible with great muscular exertion, nature has provided a bountiful and pleasant repast of fruit, rice, and other vegetables possessing a consider- able proportion of carbon and hydrogen, and little nitrogen. By virtue of affinities modified by vital agency, these nutritive substances are formed (in the stomach, duodenum, &c.,) into new compounds by a rearrangement of their elements and by a combination with those of the atmosphere ; thus producing either protein or fat as the wants of the system may determine. If the tissues are wasted by exercise, more oxygen and nitrogen are supplied by the atmosphere, so as to prevent the formation of oleaginous compounds ; and the albuminous principles that result are converted into fibrin to renovate tHe system ; but if the occupations are sedentary, less fibrin is necessary ; the deficient supply of air causes more oxygen to be separated from the food ; and an increase of fat is the consequence, espe- cially if the food be in excess. If a more azotized diet be indulged in, then — as there is less occasion for the formation of protein from the starch — the carbonaceous compounds must be eliminated by the skin, liver, and lungs ; but, as the cutaneous surface, especially of the white variety of mankind, is not constituted for performing the additional duty now 144 BEST FOOD OF MAN. demanded of it, and as in these circmnstances there is a deficient supply of oxygen to the lungs, carbon accumulates in the blood ; and the liver is ; called into an excessive exercise of its function in consequence of the inactivity of the skin and lungs. Hence the prevalence of hepatic diseases in hot climates. 203. In cold and temperate regions, wheat and other azotized products may be more freely indulged in, and the carbonaceous principles of food are then left at liberty for the respiratory function ; muscular exercise ~ becomes more easy and pleasant, and caloric is more abundantly formed. ' The inhabitants of these countries are more exposed to diseases of the chest and that numerous train of distressing complamts arising from the presence of an abnormal proportion of lithic acid in the system ; such as ' gout, rheumatism, gravel, &c.^^ The extreme indulgence in animal food, in these countries, becomes the predisposing cause of all these diseases, as well as of dyspepsia and liver-complaints. (313.) If flesh or other highly ! azotized food be taken with a very small proportion of starchy matter, the sufferings of the dyspeptic are alleviated, as every medical practitioner is aware ; because there is then less carbon for the liver to separate ; but : this diet demands more exercise from the lungs in consequence of the diminished supply of oxygen from the food ; hence its danger to persons ' who are threatened with phthisis, (256, 362, and 463,) as well as to gouty individuals, from its favoring the production of lithic acid. (316.) If the dyspeptic were entirely to abandon the use of animal food and adopt a diet of fruit and farmacea, not only would the disease be palliated as by the above treatment, but, in the generality of cases, entirely cured, without throwing an additional burden upon either the lungs or kidneys; the former having their labor remitted by the disengagement of oxygen from the food durmg the conversion of starch into protein; and the latter having less duty to perform in consequence of the diminished supply of substances containing protein ready formed. There is, therefore, no real contradiction in stating, that while a diet of lean animal food and bread, or a very sparing supply of vegetables, greatly relieves the dyspeptic, an exclusively vegetable diet is stiU more efficacious. (357.) Under the former, no greater quantity of the non-azotized principles is received than is necessary for the supply of the respiratory process and for the produc- tion of animal heat ; the flesh yielding the requisite amount of albumen for the repair of the fabric. If the proportion of vegetable food be considerably increased, the nutrient matter will be in excess ; and, conse- quently, the blood may become surcharged with carbon or nitrogenized principles, the former stimulatmg the liver, the latter the kidneys. Under BEST FOOD OF MAN. • US the exclusively vegetable diet, the non-azotized principles unite with the nitrogen of the atmosphereto supply the protein which is deficient in the food, thus provcutiug too great an accumiilation of carbon ; but in proportion as animal food is superadded, this conversion becomes unneces- sary, and the surplus must be disposed of by other means ; being trans- muted either into fat or non-vitalized albumen ; and thereby giving rise to hepatic complaints, scrofala, tubercules, gout, and other diseases. [Note 19. The general employment of impure or hard water is, doubt- less, prominent among the causes of calculous or gravelly affections. A large proportion of the people of this country pay very little attention to the quality of the water they drink, provided it be cool and transparent. Since the introduction of Croton water into New York, calculous affections have rapidly decreased, whilst in South Brooklyn, where much of the water is very hard and impure, these affections, and also diseases of the kidneys, are comparatively common. T.] 204. Some have contended that a mixture of animal and vegetable food iu certain proportions contains, within the least possible weight, all the chemical principles requisite for supplying the waste of structure, and for the production of animal heat ; and that neither animal nor vegetable food, taken separately, answers the purpose so well, unless in much larger quantities. Presuming that a man taking moderate exercise requires eighteen ounces of starch and five ounces of albumen or gluten, &c., iu twenty-four hours, Mr. Johnston* calculates that these will be best supplied by one and three-quarter pounds of bread, and half a pound of animal food. Thus: For Respiration. Vor Waste of Muscle. 1^ lbs. of Bread, yielding 18 oz. of Starch, and 8 oz. of Gluten. ^ lb. of Bee^ " " 2 oz. of Fibrin. Total consumed by Eespiration and the ordinary Waste, 18 oz. Starch, and 5 oz. of Gluten and Fibrin.20 [Note 20. I think the argument above alluded to is completely refated by the fact, now acknowledged by all the chemists, that all nutriment is formed by vegetables; animals having the power to appropriate almost every thing that is nutritious, but not to create any thing. T.] 205. This calculation is based on the supposition that wheat-flour con- tains 15 per cent, of dry gluten ; and as Mr. J. says, 1| lbs. (or 28 oz.) of bread contain 3 oz. of gluten, the same as 20 oz. of flour, we learn that he considers 20 oz. of flour to make 28 oz. of bread. But in a previous table * James T. "W. Johnston's Elements of Agricultural Chemistry and Geology. 146 BESTFOODOF MAN. (page 229) he informs us that 15,000 lbs. of wheat contain 825 lbs. of starch, 315 lbs. of dry gluten, and 60 lbs. of sugar. Now, divide each of tbcsa numbers by 15, and we find that flour contains 21 per cent, of gluten, and about 60 per cent, of starch and sugar. With this correction we have : 15 lbs. of Bread = 20 oz. of 'Wheat-T'lour, yielding 12 oz. Starch, and 4 1-5 oz. of Gluten. i lb. Beef, yielding 2 oz. of Fibrin. Total.— 12 oz Starch, and 6 1-5 oz. of Gluten and Fibrin. 206. There now appears a deficiency of 6 oz. of starch, and a surplus of 1^ oz. of gluten, when bread and beef are taken. Again : 2 lbs. of bread yield 13 f oz. of starch, and 4| oz. of gluten ; leaving a deficiency of only 4f oz. of starch, to be suppplied by potatoes, rice, &c., and ^ of au oz. of gluten ; so that from Mr. J.'s own data, 2^ lbs. of beef and bread do not supply the required amount of starch and albumen, so well as two lbs. of bread ; and this is precisely the weight of bread that has been found practically sufficient for a man taking ordinary exercise. Yogel says, wheat-bread contains 53.5 per cent, of starch ; consequently, 2 lbs. will contain 17/o oz. of starch, only /^ of an oz. short of the requisite quantity. " Good wheaten bread," observes Dr. Carpenter, " contains more nearly than any substance in ordinary use, the proportion of azotized and non- azotized matter which is adapted to repair the waste of the system, and to supply the wants of combustible material, under the ordinary con- ditions of civilized life in temperate climates ; and we find that health and strength can be more perfectly sustained upon that substance than upon any other taken alone." 207. Organic chemistry, however, has not yet been brought to such perfection as will enable us to mete out man's food by its laws. We have yet much to learn in this respect, and a short notice of the subject is introduced here only to show that from the vegetable kingdom may be selected, for human food, such articles as will bear a comparison with a mixed diet, so far as our present knowledge will permit us to judge, and that the light already thrown upon the matter by chemistry is sufficient to prove that fruits, grain, roots, and other esculent vegetables, if used in a natural, unrefined, and unconcentrated state, contain every principle necessary for the nourishment of man. 208. Various substances may contain all the principles necessary to complete nutrition, and yet be either partially or totally indigestible, arising from a deficiency of relation between those substances and the organs of assimilation. Thus grass may be indigestible in the stomach of a lion, while to the ox it proves a wholesome and nutritious aliment. The organs of digestion in man, also, are subject to determinate physical laws ; BEST FOOD OF MAN. 147 bat being of an intermediate character (as has been previously shown, 15) belvreen the carnivorous and herbivorous animals, their functions admit of a wider range ; and though not so perfectly adapted to the digestion of flesh as the assimilating organs of the tiger, nor formed with so direct a relation to herbaceous matter as those of the sheep or the ox, habit will enable man to subsist, with tolerable health, upon certain kinds of either, or a mixture of both. But it has been shown (80, &c.) that the appro- priate food of man is fruit, roots, and grain ; and these not only admit of the easiest solution in the human stomach, but also create the least incon- venience through the whole of the alimentary canal, produce the healthiest chyle and purest blood. I am aware that some persons have questioned the fact of vegetable food being so easily digested in the human stomach, and have instanced various functional disarrangements from the eating of fruit, &c. Dr. Cullen said he had known portions of apple eructated^ without alteration, two days after they had been swallowed, and such cases undoubtedly occui' ; yet Dr. Beaumont found that apples arc easily digested in the stomach, requiring only about an hour and a half for the purpose. [iSToTE 21. It is an every-day occurrence for patients, on first entering a Water-Cure institution, to find almost every thing eatable disagree with their stomachs, especially fruits and the cruder vegetables, as turnips, cabbage, &c. But the great majority soon find these articles not only to agree, but to feel pleasant and prove salutary. When simple, plain, coarse vegetable or farinaceous food, or ordinary fruit, seems to disagree with the stomach, the fact is proof positive that the stomach is in an abnormal condition. T.] 209. Yarious causes may be assigned for the indigestion of such arti- cles of diet. I shall only mention what I consider to be the three princi- pal : 1. The habit of indulging in a totally difierent kind of food ; for it is proved that the change from a bad or inferior kind of diet to a better or more natural one, often causes temporary inconvenience, if this change do not take place by degrees ; because, by a wise economy of nature, the gastric juice is always secreted of such a character as is best adapted to the solution of the food we habitually feed upon ; (82 :) indulgence in any unusual kind of diet, therefore, may sometimes disorder the stomach, even though the food be more natural than what, from habit, is said to agree better with the stomach. Kittens, (as previously mentioned, 104,) when brought up on vegetable diet only, have been rendered sick when made to eat flesh, the food designed for them by nature. Hence we see the necessity of making all great changes in diet with caution, and by 148 BEST FOOD OF MAN. degrees ; that the gastric juice and other secretions may be gradually adapted to the new circumstances. 210. 2. Most people, in this country, eat their fruit at the most objec- tionable time possible ; namely, after a full meal of animal food, and a host of other incongruous mixtures. When the stomach has been already gorged with a variety of fish, flesh, and fowl, with rich sauces, condiments, and vegetables, need there be any surprise that the vegetable pectin and acids of fruits should create disturbance in the stomach and alimentary canal ? Surely every thinking man would expect such a result. But the whole blame is laid upon the fruit, instead of being attributed to the pro- per cause — the injudicious mixture of ingredients. 211. 3. The third cause of indigestion from fruit, is imperfect mastica- tion and insalivation. It was shown (62, 63) that neither the cheek-teeth nor the under jaw of carnivorous animals is formed for mastication ; nor are their salivary glands large, or the secretions from them copious. These animals, therefore, tear their food, and swallow it without chewing ; and if man would be carnivorous too, let him follow their example, and save his teeth. But fruit and other vegetable food is so far different from flesh, that it requires careful mastication, and mixture with saliva, previously to deglutition ; otherwise it may remain long in the stomach before the gas- tric juice can effect its complete solution. The character of the molar teeth in man and herbivorous animals proves that nature intended fruits and vegetable food to undergo these processes ; but if these substances be received into the stomach without previous preparation, along with seeds, flakes of integument, &c., they will excite a rapid motion of the stomach, (as shown by the experiments of Schultz,) and will be propelled into the duodenum before the necessary changes have been effected. Vegetable matters thus hurried into the small intestines, create considerable disturb- ance, which is often referred to the acidity of the fruit. Having under- gone little or no change in the stomach, the duodenal changes are necessa- rily imperfect ; hence the development of gases, increased secretion from the alimentary tunics, and spasms. But the experiments of Dr. Beaumont and of others prove, that when fruits, roots, and farinaceous substances have been well masticated and mixed with saliva, they are easily digested in the healthy human stomach, and answer all the purposes of complete nutrition.* * Perfect health is only consistent with a due performance of all the functions ; to secure which, each organ should have its full share of duty assigned it, in order that its normal power and energy may be preserved. It is universally admitted that any organ may be weakened by excess of labor, and its powers may be debilitated by a superabundance of duty requiring constant action but little energy. The muscular j^ower of the giant may bo BEST FOOD OF MAN. 149 212. A short statement of facts from Dr. Beaumont's Tables will con- firm these remarks. He informs ns that the following articles were con- verted into chyme, or digested, in the times mentioned : Eice, boiled soft .... 10 Apples, sweet and ripe 1 30 Sago, boiled 1 45 Tapioca, Barley, stale Bread, Cabbage, with Vinegar, raw, boiled Milk and Bread and Milk, cold 2 Potatoes, roasted ; and Parsnips, boiled 2 30 Baked Custard 2 45 Apple Dumpling 8 Bread-corn, baked ; and Carrots, boiled 3 15 Potatoes and Turnips, boiled; Butter and Cheese, 8 30 Tripe and Pig's Feet 10 Venison, broiled 1 35 Codfish, boiled ; and Eggs, raw 2 Turkey, Goose, and Lamb 2 30 Eggs, soft-boiled ; Beef and Mutton, roasted or boiled ; and Oysters, raw , 3 Boiled Pork ; stewed Oysters, Eggs, hard-boiled or fried 8 30 Domestic Fowls and Ducks, roasted 4 "Wild Fowls; Pork, salted and boiled; Suet 4 80 Veal, roasted ; Pork, and salted Beef 5 30 Our second question (177) is, I think, now sufficiently answered ; it being demonstrated, upon the strictest chemical principles, that vegetables do possess the elements and qualities necessary for renewing the decomposed tissues of the body. EXPERIMEXTS OF MAJENDIE AND OTHEKS. 213. How is it, then, that we hear of the failure of various attempts to support life upon a simple and nou-azotized diet? The experiments of Majendie, Burdach, Tiedemann and Gmelin, Dr. Stark, and others, are any thing but satisfactory upon this point ; although they are, in most physio- logical and dietetic works, adduced as complete proofs of the necessity for azotized food, variety in diet, and (more especially) for the mixture of ani- enfeebled by incessant employment in actions requiring only the force or muscnlar capabili- ties of the child. So it is with the stamach; highly elaborated substances are chosen, and additionally semi-digested in cooking, in order to spare nature the trouble of putting forth her vital energies. She does not, therefore, labor where nothing is given her to work upon ; but the organism which she would have employed is a sad loser by its insignificant exercise. It misses of robustness and steady forcefulness. In manhood, the demands upon it are great, but its capacity is exceedingly limited. Nature's simple fare of fruits and grain soon becomes altogether unsuited to its weakness ; and at last indigestion, which is but another name for the inertness of the digestive organism, inflicts its irremediable disorders upon its impotent vlctinL"— Healthian, p. 53. 160 BEST FOOD OF MAN mal and vegetable products in the food of man. Majendie fed dogs upon sugar and distilled water ; the consequence was that, in the course of a few days, they became diseased ; and died in about a month. He also fed some dogs upon olive oil and water, some on gum, and others on butter ; and in each of these trials, death took place in the course of four or five weeks.* Tiedemanu and Gmelin fed geese, one with sugar and water, another with gum and water, and a third with starch and water : they all gradually lost weight, and died ijp the course of three weeks or a month. None of the substances on v/hich these animals were fed, contained nitrogen : the experiments, therefore, are thought by some to demonstrate the neces- sity for azotized food. The following experiments show the fallacy of such a conclusion. Majendie fed a dog on iclute bread and water ; but it did not live more than fifty days, although the gluten with which white bread abounds is as highly nitrogenized a product as any of the albuminous class of aliments. Tiedemann and Gmelin fed a goose on boiled white of eg^, cut into small pieces ; and, notwithstanding that the animal was in this case fed on pure albumen, it died on the forty-sixth day. Dogs fed on cheese alone, or on hard eggs, lived for a long time, but they became feeble and thin, and lost their hair. Animals fed exclusively on gelatine, the most highly nitrogenized principle of the food of the Carnivora, die with all the symptoms of starvation : in fact, the gelatinous tissues are in- capable of conversion into blood.f'-'^ [Note 22. All such experiments must appear exceedingly absurd to an intelligent physif'iogist, who also understands the philosophy of diet. Food is a compound of several proximate principles ; starch, sugar, casein, albumen, fibrin, &c., as these are compounds of ultimate elements, carbon, * M. 0. Chossat has lately made seventeen experiments on dogs ; and ascertained, that in some cases sugar tended to fatten the animal, and in others turned to bile. In the first case there was generally a tendency to constipation ; in tlie others, the bowels were relaxed. He also observes that milk, as well as snjrar. has a tendency to fatten or to create bile, according to the different systems of the persons who nso it cscin&rvcly, or mako it a. principal article of food; and that where bile is thus created, diarrhoea ensues, and leads to a M-asfing of tho solids. Where tlic digestion is feeble, excess of nutrition, instead of being absorbed generally into the system, turns to bile, and causes debility and wasting to a high degree. t M Majendie, in the report made by the gelatine committee, infers that as gelatine, albu- men, and fibrin, separate or artificially combined, are incapable of permanently nourishing ; wliile flesh (which consists of gelatine, albumen, fibrin, fat, salts, &c., combined according to the laws of organic nature) suffices, even in small quantities, for complete and prolonged nuti-ition, it is the "organic condition" which forms so important an element in the process. The same observations will apply to wheat and maize, the gluten of which is said to be the only proximate principle capable of supporting life, without being combined with some other principle. Gluten, however, may be regarded as a compound principle ; containing some traces of fecula, gum, &c. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 161 oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, &c. Hence, when learned gentlemen " feed" dogs, cats, rabbits, geese, or humans on one of the constituents of an ali- mentary article, instead of the aliment itself, they do not, in the strict sense, give them any food at all. T.] 214. I might relate many other experiments of the same nature ; but these are sufficient to prove that death, in the former instances, was not owing to the absence of nitrogen in the food. The death of these and other animals experimented on, is clearly attributable to one or both of the following causes : 1. The non-adaptability of the articles used as food to the structure and secretions of the alimentary organs. 2. The artificial and concentrated state of the substances attempted to be used as nutri- ment. 215. When inquiring respecting the natural food of man, I showed that the various animals are constructed with an evident adaptation to one kind of food, and with a certain range of adaptability to other varieties of diet ; but it is evident to any one who will reflect, that the experiments I have just mentioned were conducted in direct violation of the physiological laws of adaptation ; the carnivorous dog and the herbivorous goose being alike fed upon artificially produced, and, to them, totally unnatural sub- stances. The results, therefore, might have been predicted, without any reference to the chemical character of the articles given them as food. 216. ''Art alone," says Raspail, " furnishes us with non-nutritive sub- stances, which it extracts from vegetables and from animals ; for extraction is isolation. Now, when two things derive their qualities from their asso- ciation only, then isolation must destroy them. To feed animals with sub- stances produced by art, is very frequently to load their stomachs, while leaving them to die of hunger." An ass fed by Majendie on dry rice, and afterwards on boiled rice, lived only fifteen days ; whereas a cock was fed with boiled rice for several months, with no ill consequences ; evidently showing, that the very same substance may be insufficient nutriment to one animal, while it imparts health and enjoyment to another ; the effects vary- ing with the development of the alimentary organs. 217. But the greatest error in many experiments on the food of animals has consisted in the employment of substances too concentrated, or of al> stract and isolated principles. " Like the atmospheric air," says Graham, " all substances designed for human aliment are composed of certain pro- portions of nutritious and innutritions matter ; and the alimentary canal, like the lungs, is constituted with determined relations to the constitutional nature of alimentary substances in this respect. There is somewhere a 162 BEST FOOD OF MAN. point of truth, in the proportions best adapted to the constitution and functional powers of the alimentary canal, and the vital vrelfare of the whole system ; and so far as we vary from this point of truth, by increas- ing or diminishing the proportion of the nutritious to the innutritious mat- ter of our food, we do, as a general fact, injure the alimentary canal, and through it the whole body. And it is very certain, that too great a pro« portion of nutritious matter in our food is little less dangerous to our digestive organs, and to the vital interests generally, than too small a pro- portion. Every thing in the anatomical structure and physiological powers of the alimentary canal clearly and fully demonstrates, that it is constituted with wise and determinate relations to natural alimentary substances, com- posed of nutritious and innutritious matter. And all experience corrobo- rates this demonstration. It is the duty of the alimentary canal to receive these substances, at proper times, and in proper quantities, after they have been thoroughly masticated and insalivated in the niouth ; and completely to dissolve them, or separate their nutritious from their innutritious matter, and convert their nutritious matter into chyme ; and present this to the absorbing mouths of the lacteals ; and then to remove the fecal or innutri- tious residuum from the organic domain." " If, therefore, instead of sup- plying the alimentary organs with food composed of due proportions of nutritious and innutritious matter, we artificially separate the nutritious from the innutritious, and supply the alimentary organs with the concentrated nutritious matter only, we shall soon destroy the functional powers of the organs, break down the general function of nutrition, and cause atrophy and death."* Combe observes, that " farinaceous and other concentrated aliments do not afford the requisite stimulus to the muscular fibres of the intestine ; because they are in a great measure absorbed, and leave little to be thrown out." 218. Many recorded experiments illustrate these remarks. The dog fed by Majendie on white bread and water, died in the course of seven weeks ; but another fed by him on brown soldiers' bread (pain de munition) did not suffer. When dogs were fed on sugar and water, they died in a month ; but if a considerable portion of saw-dust be mixed with the sugar, their health will not be affected by it, although they are naturally carnivorous animals. It was also shown, that an ass fed on rice died in fifteen days ; but if a l^e quantity of chopped straw had been njixed with the rice, he would have continued to live and be well. " Horses fed exclusively on meal or grain will die in a short time ; but mix their meal or grain with a suitable proportion of cut straw or wood-shavings, and they will thrive and ♦ Graham's Lectures, vol. I., p. 640. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 153 become fat And it is an interesting fact, that if horses be fed on grain alou.;, \rith the exception of water, for a number of days, they will instinct- ively gnaw the boards, or whatever woody substance is within their reach." I might here give several well-attested anecdotes, in confirmation of vrbat has been now stated ; but the two following will be sufficient : 219. ''About the 1st of December, 1800," says Capt. John Matthews, of Maine, " I left Bath, in the schooner Betsey, with a deck-load of covv-s, oxen, horses, and one mule. Expecting to have a short passage, I took but little hay. When we had been out several days, a gale came on, which swept away most of our hay, and drove us so far out of our course, that we were fourteen days without hay, before we made the island of Bermuda. We had plenty of corn and potatoes on board ; with which we fed our stock. After three or four days, the stock all began to be in- disposed, and to droop, and to be unwilling to eat the food we gave them ; and they seemed to be very uneasy, and to crave something which they had not : and the miile began to gnaw a spruce spar which lay before him. This suggested to me the thought, that my stock all required more woody matter with their food ; and I immediately caused some spruce and oak spars to be shaved up with a drawing-knife, and gave the shavings to the stock. All the young cattle and horses and the mule ate these shavings greedily ; and were very soon improved in their health, and continued to do well the remaining part of the voyage. The mule ate them more freely than any other animal on board, and he improved most : indeed, he was quite plump and sleek when he arrived in port. Some of the older cattle and horses would not eat the shavings ; and every one of these died before we got in. About the year 1830," continues Capt. Matthews, " returning from Bonavista, one of the Cape de Yerd islands, I brought several goats with me. Having no hay on board, I fed them on grain and shavings. They came every day for their shavings, as regularly as they did for their grain ; and ate them as greedily." 220. These observations on the concentrated nature of food are equally applicable to man as to the lower animals. Dr. Stark made many curious and whimsical dietetic experiments in his own person ; and fell a sacrifice in the prosecution of his inquiries. The proposed object of his experi- ments was to prove that a pleasant and varied diet is more conducive to health than a simple one ; yet most of the dishes of which he partook were neither natural^ simple, nor pleasant ; but exceedingly disagreeable compounds of concept ited substances. He began with fine flour ; bread and water ; from whi^n he proceeded to bread, water, and sugar ; then to bread, water, and oil of olives ; then to bread, water, and milk ; afterwards 7* 154 BEST FOOD OF MAN. he tried bread and water with roasted goose ; then bread and water with boiled beef; then stewed lean of beef with gravy; then oil of suet and water ; then flour, oil of suet, water, and salt ; then flour, water, and salt ; then bread and fat bacon ; then infusion of tea and sugar ; then bread or flour, with honey and an infusion of rosemary. A number of other dishes equally disagreeable, and some of them more so, were successively tried. He was healthy and vigorous when he commenced his experiments, but he gnv dually declined, and at the end of nine mouths he died after much sufferin;^'. 221. Dr. Stark's experiments prove quite the contrary of what they were designed to establish ; and clearly show that concentrated alimentary substances, however varied, are destructive to health and life : this case might be urged, with much propriety, against too great a variety of food, and in favor of simplicity of diet. Even nations on whom science has not yet dawned are aware of the advantage of mixing innutritions substances with highly concentrated food. Thus the Kamtschatdales, who are fre- quently compelled to live on fish-oil, judiciously form it into a paste with saw-dust, or the rasped filings of indigenous plants. 222. Much has been written, by physiologists, to demonstrate the neces- sity of variety of food — by which they generally mean a mixture of animal and vegetable substances ; and they quote many instances of ill effects arising from simplicity of diet. I am confident, however, that all the inju- rious effects that have been referred to simplicity of diet, have arisen from improper and unnatural food, or from food in too concentrated a state. Miiller informs us, that in Denmark, a diet of bread and water for four weeks is considered equivalent to the punishment of death. There must be some fallacy in this statement ; but, if correct, the injury produced may perhaps be attributed to the extraordinary fineness of the flour, and the superabundance of gluten which it contains. Knight, in his Physiologi- cal and Horticultural Papers, says : " Bread made of wheat, when taken in large quantities, has probably, more than any other article of food in use in this country, the effect of overloading the alimentary canal ; and the general practice of French physicians points out the prevalence of dis- eases thence arising amongst their patients." All the evils said to be pro- duced by living upon bread are due to our modes of refining upon nature ; and though it must be admitted that bread made from the finest wheated flour, if eaten in great abundance, and witliout a due admixture with innu- tritious matter, will be productive of serious consequences to health, yet it can be shown, upon good authority, that many individuals have subsisted for years on coarse, undressed wheat-meal bread and water alone ; and have not only improved in health, but become remarkably vigorous and robust. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 155 Oliildreu whose food, for a considerable time, consists of superfine flour- bread, arrow-root, and other concentrated substances, (such as sugar, but- ter, &c.,) may appear fat and well, but do not acquire strength : they generally become weak and sickly, and are often covered with sores. Hence, some physicians who have written on the diet of children, have spoken in severe terms against confining children to an exclusively vegeta- ble diet. But if a child be put upon a diet of good bread made oi undressed wheat-meal, with milk-and-water or pure soft water for drink, and be allowed to indulge pretty freely in the use of good fruits in their seasons, none of the evils which result from concentrated forms of aliment, or which are attributed to vegetable diet, will be experienced ; but the child, if in other respects properly treated, will be healthy, and robust, and sprightly. (See case at 372.) 223. " Bulk," says Dr. Beaumont, " is nearly as necessary to the articles of diet as the nutrient principle. They should be so managed, that one will be in proportion to the other. Too highly nutritive diet is probably as fatal to the prolongation of life and health as that which contains an insufiicient quantity of nourishment. It is a matter of common remark among old whalemen, that, during their long voyages, the coarser tlieir bread, the better their health." " I have followed the seas for 35 years," said an intelligent sea-captain to Mr. Graham, " and have been in almost every part of the globe ; and have always found that the coarsest pilot- bread, which contained a considerable proportion of bran, is decidedly the healthiest for my men." " I am convinced from my own experience," says another captain, " that bread made from the unbolted wheat-meal is far more wholesome than that made from the best superfine flour ; the latter always tending to produce constipation." Captain Benjamin Dexter, ui the ship Isis, belonging to Providence, R. I., arrived from China in Decem- ber, 1804. He had been about 190 days on the passage. The sea-bread, which constituted the principal article of food for his men, was made of the best superfine flour. He had not been long at sea before his men began to complain of languor, loss of appetite, and debility : these diSiculties con- tinued to increase during the whole voyage ; and several of the hands died on the passage of debility and inanition. The ship was obliged to come to anchor about thirty miles below Providence ; and such was the debility of the men on board, that they w^ere not able to get the ship under way again ; and the owners were under the necessity of sending men down from Providence to work her up. When she arrived, the owners asked Captain Dexter what was the cause of the sickness of his men. He replied — " The bread was too good." 156 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 224. In Blackwood's Magazine for June, 1847, there is an excellent paper by Mr. Jounson, on the relative values of fine flour and the coarse meal. His estimates are as follow : 1. The fat. Of this ingredient, 1,000 lbs. of the Whole grain contains 28 lbs. Fine flour ........ 20 Bran 60 2. Muscular matter. In 1,000 parts, — Whole Grain. Fine Flour. Wheat 156 130 Indian corn 140 110 * 3. Bone material and saline matter. In 1,000 lbs., — Bran contains 700 Wholemeal 170 Fine flour 60 Whole Meal. Fine Flour. Muscular matter . . . 156 130 Bone material .... 170 60 Fat 28 20 Total in each 354 210 " To please the eye and the palate," observes Mr. J., " we sift out a less generally nutritive food, [does he mean what is generally considered a less nutritive food ?] and to make up for what we have removed, experience teaches us to have recourse to animal food of various descriptions." " The husk may be considered to form one-eighth of the whole ; hence, if the whole meal be used, eight people will be fed by the same weight of grain which only fed seven before. Again, we have seen that the whole meal is more nutritious ; so that this coarser flour will go farther than an equal weight of the fine, namely, one-half more nutritive than the fine. Leaving wide margin for the influence of circumstances, let us suppose it only one^ eighth more nutritive, and we shall have now nine people nourished equally by the same weight of grain, which, when eaten as fine flour, would support only seven. The wheat of the country, in other words, would in this form go one-fourth farther than at present. The mixture of the fine flour and the bran in reality increases the virtues of both." BEST FOOD OF MAN. 157 225. These instauces confirm tlie excellent observations of Dr. Prout, who says : " Of the numerous shapes assumed by lignin, the best adapted for excremental purposes is undoubtedly the external covering of the seeds of the cerealia, and particularly of wheat. Bread, therefore, made with undressed flour, or even with an extra quantity of bran, is the best form in which farinaceous and excremental matters can be usually taken ; not only in diabetes, but in most other varieties of dyspepsia accompanied by obsti- nate constipation. This is a remedy, the efl&cacy of which has been long known and admitted ; yet, strange to say, the generality of mankind choose to consult their taste rather than their reason : and, by oflflciously separating what nature has beneficially combined, entail upon themselves much discomfort and misery.* The mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines is, in some perons, so irritable, that it cannot bear furfura- oeous substances ; and in such cases coarse bread should be adopted by degrees, or the green matter of the leaves of plants and the skin of fruit may form a proper substitute. " Debility, sluggishness, constipation, ob- structions, and morbid irritability of the alimentary canal, have been among the principal roots of both chronic and acute diseases in civic life in all parts of the world, and in all periods of time ; and concentrated forms of food, compound preparations, irritating stimuli, and excess in quantity, have been among the principal causes of these difficulties." CHAPTER n. EXPERIENCE OF NATIONS AND INDIVIDUALS. 226. It will, perhaps be objected, that these are new doctrines, which, if true, would have been long since discovered to be so. Yet were this the first time of proclaiming the truth, the cry of novelty ought not to nega- tive the evidence adduced in its support. No pretensions, however, are made to originality ; for wise and good men in all ages have strenuously advocated the claims of a vegetable diet, and have strictly refrained from animal food. Such being the case, it may be asked why these claims have not been more generally acknowledged, and the diet more extensively adopted. Various reasons might be assigned for this. Few think it neces* * Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Benal Diseases, p. 46. 158 BEBT FOOD OF MAN. sary either to investigate the subject, or to attend to it when introduced ' their notice ; and many have neither time nor opportunity for giving it a proper consideration. It is long, therefore, ere a scientific truth can extend its influence over the mass of mankind ; particularly if of a practi- cal nature, and opposed to long-established habits, whi^h, if we have the desire, we have not the resolution to alter, on account of the pleasing asso- ciations of past enjoyment, and the ardent desire they have implanted for renewed gratification. Our daily meals, our social visits, our family ties, and our friendly intercourse with each other, all tend to strengthen and confirm our dietetic habits, whether right or wrong ; so that we are unwill- ing to listen to one who would introduce any material change, especially when it seems likely to subtract from our pleasures. No wonder, then, that the discoveries of science — with regard to health, happiness, and morals — make so slow a progress ; nay, even when the judgment of a gene- rally accounted wise and rational man is convinced of an error in a dietetic habit, how seldom does it lead to reformation ! " There is a difference," observes Chalmers, " between such truths as are merely of a speculative nature, and such as are allied with practice and moral feeling. With the former, all repetition may be often superfluous ; with the latter, it may just be by earnest repetition that their influence comes to be thoroughly estab- lished over the mind of an inquirer." I have already quoted the opinions of some of our best anatomists and philosophers in support of the views advocated in this work ; and shall now mention a few more who have pro- ceded me in the same cause. 227. Pythagoras, one of the most celebrated philosophers of antiquity, is the first we read of as defending a vegetable diet. He not only totally refrained from animal food himself, but also strictly prohibited the use of it by his disciples ; so that those who abstain from it, at the present time, are frequently called Pythagoreans. Pythagoras flourished about 500 years before the Christian era. He was a man of immense learning, and extraordinary powers of intellect : he was the first demonstrator of the 47th Problem of the First Book of Euclid ;* and entertained correct views of the solar system; which views, slumbering for ages after his death, were at length revived by Copernicus in the fifteenth century. One sentence of his, which has become an English proverb, is enough to estab- lish the character of the man : " Fix on that course of life which is the most excellent, and habit will render it the most delightful." Ovidf represents him as arguing thus : * " The square on the hypothenuse of any right-angled triangle is equal to the sum of the two squares on the base and perpendicular." t Metamorphoses, B. xv., 1. 101. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 169 " O mortals, from your follows' blood abstain ; Nor taiat your bodies with a food jjrofanel WJiiie corn and pulse by nature are bestowed, And planted orchards bend their willing load ; While labored gardens wholesome herbs produce, And teeming vines afford their generous juice ; Nor tardier fruits of cruder kind are lost, But tamed with fire, or mellowed by the frost ; While kine to pails distended udders bring. And bees their honey redolent of spring; While earth not only can your needs supply, But, lavish of her store, provides for luxury; A guiltless feast administers with ease. And without blood is prodigal to please." The poet proceeds to a much greater length than it is necessary here to transcribe. 228. Zeno the Stoic, Diogenes the Cynic, Plato, Plutarch, Plautus, Pro- clus, Empedocles, Socion, Quintus Sextus, Apollonius Tyanoeus, Porphyry, and numerous others among the ancients, abstained from animal food ; and more recently, Haller, Ritson, (celebrated for his numerous works and splen- did talents,) Dr. Cheyne, Dr. Lambe, Mr. Newton, (who wrote a work entitled " Return to Nature,") Shelley, Dr. Hufeland, Sir Richard Phillips, Professor R. D. Mussey, of Hanover, U. S., Dr. James, of Wisconsin, Dr. Whitlaw, Dr. W. A. Alcott, of Boston, U. S., and many others, have both advocated and personally tried, for many years, a strictly and exclusively vegetable diet. Clement of Alexandria says of Saint Matthew, that " he abstained from the eating of flesh ; and that his diet was fruits, roots, and herbs."* The Manichseans, a sect of Christians, religiously abstained fi-om all kinds of animal food. Miuutius Felix, who about the year 210 a.d. wrote an elegant dialogue in defence of the Chi'istian religion, represents Octavius, the principal speaker, as saying : " We Christians dread the thoughts of murder, and cannot bear to look on a carcase : and we so abhor human blood, that we abstain from that of beasts." Descartes, at his table, in imitation of the good-natured Plutarch, always preferred fruits and vegetables to the bleeding flesh of animals.f The four most ancient orders of priests — the Rahans, the Brahmans, the Magi, and the Druids — confined themselves to vegetable food ; as did also the Athenian prince Triptolemus, who established the Eleusinian mysteries, and prohi- bited by law all injury to animals : his words are, Zcja jx-i Cjvstf&aj, (do not kill animals.) J * " Posdagogue," B. ii, c. 1. t Seward's Anecdotes, voL li p. 171. X Monthly Magazine, Feb. 1812, p. 21. 160 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 229. But the illustration of this subject is not limited to the practice of individuals ; for whole nations, both ancient and modern, have subsisted during many generations on vegetable regimen : and it would be no diffi- cult matter to prove, that a considerable majority of the human race sel- dom or never taste animal food. "When Boadicea, Queen of the Ancient Britons, was about to engage the Eomans in a pitched battle, in the days of Roman degeneracy, (a.d. 61.) she encouraged her army by an eloquent speech, in which she says : " The great advantage we have over them is, that they cannot (like us) bear hunger, thirst, heat, or cold. They must have fine bread, wine, and warm houses. To us, every herb and root are food ; every juice is our oil, and every stream of water our wine." " In those terms," observes Lord Kaimes, " our fathers were robust both in mind and body ; and could bear, without much pain, what would totally over- whelm us." 230. A considerable proportion of the laborers in various parts of Eng- land and Wales, even at the present day, eat but little animal food ; and, about seventy or eighty years ago, the principal part of the labor, in this country, was performed by those who seldom or never tasted flesh-meat. It is true that, in the time of Queen Elizabeth, we read of animal food and flagons of ale even at breakfast ; * but Sir F. M. Eden, whose elaborate researches have thrown much light on this subject, states that the substan- tiality of diet for which the sixteenth century was renowned, was confined chiefly to the tables of persons of rank. "A maid of honor," says he, " perhaps breakfasted on roast beef ; but the ploughman, in those good old times, (as they are called,) could (I fear) only banquet on the strength of water-gruel." {" State of the Poor," vol. i. p. 116.)f It is calculated by Mr. McCulloch, that " on the most moderate computation, the consumption of butcher's meat in the metropolis even, as compared with the population, is twice as great at this moment as in 1740 or 1750. J 231. The food of the native Irish was (principally, if not oxclusively) vegetable, long before the potato was known in Europe. Nay, in almost * "Notwithstanding all that is said," observes McCulloch, "of the rude hospitality, and of the consumption of ale and beer, in those remote times, it is abundantly certain that the laboring classes consume, at this time, ten times more malt-liquor than their ancestors over did, in either the fifteenth or the sixteenth century." — Statidical Account of the British Empire,^'' vol. ii. p. 496. t "During several months, even the gentry tasted scarcely any fresh animal food, except game and river fish, which were consequently much more important articles in housekeeping than at present. It appears from the Northumberland Household Book, that in the reign of Henry VII. fresh meat was never eaten, even by the gentlemen attendant on a great earl, except during the short interval between Midsummer and Michaelmas." — MacavXay. X Statistical Account of the British Empire, vol. ii. p. 49T. UEST FOOD OF MAN. 161 the first glimpses we have of them, they are represented to us as herbivo- rous, iroricpayoi ; for such is the expression of Solinus. So they continue to be described by Spenser, Hollmgshed, and Camden. The latter says : "As for their meats, they feed willingly upon herbs and water-cresses ; especially upon mushrooms, shamrocks, and roots." In which he is cor- roborated by Ware, the Irish antiquary, who wrote about the time when the potato was introduced. The food of the Irish peasantry of the present day is almost wholly composed of the potato, without any other vegetable ; and only in favorable circumstances is it accompanied with milk. In reference to this diet of the Irish, it has been observed : " When I see the people of a country with well-formed, vigorous bodies, and their cottages swarming with childi-en ; when I see their men athletic, and their women beautiful, I know not how to believe them subsisting on unwholesome food."* It has even^been stated, on authority which cannot be doubted, that rents have been raised because the tenant has been seen to eat " apple taters" — potatoes of the best sort — the landlord considering their quality too good for the consumer, who should have sold them for his benefit, and substituted coarser in their place.f I do not, however, name this by way of recommending a potato diet. Far from it. I sincerely wish that those poor but industrious creatures could obtain a plentiful supply of corn, rice, milk, fi'uit, &c. ; the only object in naming the subject here, is to show upon what a scanty diet it is possible for the human frame to be supported. Dr. Smith, in his "History of Kerry," declares this food to be sufficient for preserving the Irish laborers in full health and vigor. 232. The hardy Scotch, also, are almost exclusively confined in their diet to the productions of the field and garden. " So late as 1763," says Mr. McCulloch,J " the slaughter of bullocks for the supply of the public markets was a thing wholly unknown even in Glasgow, though the city had then a population of nearly 30,000 ! Previously to 1775, or perhaps later, it was customary in Edinburgh, Glasgow, and the principal Scotch towns, for families to purchase in November what would now be reckoned a small, miserable, half-fed cow or ox, the salted carcase of which was the only butcher's meat they tasted throughout the year." At the period of their greatest simplicity, manliness, and bravery, the Greeks and Romans appear to have lived almost entirely on plain vegetable preparations ; and at the present time, bread, fruits, and roots constitute the chief nourish- * Young's Tour in Ireland, vol. ii., pt. 2, p. 83. t Penny Oyclopfedia, article " Food of Laborers." t Statistical Account of the British Empire, vol. 2, p. 502. 162 BEST FOOD OF MAN. ment of the Italians, and of the mass of the population of Southern Europe. 233. The Lazzaroni of Naples are a tall, stout, well-formed, robust, and active class of people ; and yet subsist chiefly on coarse bread and pota- toes ; and their drink of luxury is a glass of iced water, slightly acidu- lated. 234. In France, a vegetable diet prevails to a very great extent. M. Dupin informs us that two-thirds of the French people, to this day, are wholly deprived of animal food, and live on chestnuts, or maize, or potatoes. The peasantry of Norway, Sweden, Kussia, Denmark, Poland, Germany, Turkey, Greece, Switzerland, Spain, Portugal, and of almost every other country in Europe, subsist principally, and most of them entirely, on vege- table food. 235. The inhabitants of Asia and Africa are conipelled by their climate to refrain in great measure from animal food. The Persians, Hindoos, Burmese, Chinese, Japanese, the inhabitants of the East India Archipelago, and of the mountains of Himalayah, and, in fact, most of the Asiatics, live upon vegetable productions. It has been maintained by Dr. Yan Cooth, (no vegetable-eater himself,) in a learned medical dissertation, that the great body of the ancient Egyptians and Persians " confined themselves to a vegetable diet ;" and the Egyptians of the present day, as well as the Negroes, (whose great bodily powers are well known,) live chiefly on vege- table substances. The Mexican Indians and South-Sea Islanders were formerly remarkable for their great temperance, and attachment to a vege- table diet, but they have recently been corrupted by the introduction of European customs. I might greatly extend the list of those who subsist on vegetable productions ; but as they will be hereafter referred to, the mention of them here is unnecessary. It has been observed, that " from two-thirds to three-fourths of the whole human family, from the creation of the species to the present moment, have subsisted entirely, or nearly so, on vegetable food ; and always, when their alimentary supplies of this kind have been abundant and of a good quality, and their habits have been in other respects correct, they have been well nourished and well sustained in all the physiological interests of their nature." 236. But it is not a sufficient recommendation of a vegetable diet to show that it has been adopted by nations as well as individuals. I shall therefore now point out a few of the many advantages of an exclusive adoption of it.^^ [Note 23. I cannot refrain here from alluding to the most common BESTFOODOFMAN. 163 objection to vegetarianism we meet with in this comitry ; and I do so for the purpose of explaining it away. The objection is, that vegetarians are themselves poor specimens of health. And the answer is, that the great majority of those who are the subjects of notice and comment are inva- Mds who are restricted to a vegetable diet, because they can recover health in no other way ; and many of them are living on a strict vegetable regi- men, because it is the only way tliey can live at all. At the various hydropathic establishments in this country the most desperate cases are put on a vegetable diet, simply because it afibrds them the best chance for getting well. The casual observer, who judges by appearances, will always find an argument in favor of flesh-eating in the fact that the best- looking persons, physiologically, are those who eat meat. There are, however, in this country, particularly amongst the Bible Christians of Philadelphia, many persons of adult age who have never tasted animal food, and who will not suffer, as respects mental and bodily development, with the best specimens of flesh-eaters that can be found. There are also, scattered over the United States here and there, speci- mens of humanity whose bodily vigor and mental capacity are conclusive in favor of vegetarianism, so far as the experimental evidence is con- cerned. T.] CHAPTER in. FRUITS AND FARINACEA CONDUCIVE TO HEALTH. O beata sanitas I te praesente amsenuia Ver floret gratiis, absque te nemo beatus. 237. "A PHILOSOPHICAL friend once remarked to me," says Dr. Combe, " that he never considered himself to be in complete health, except when he was able to place his feet firmly on the turf, his hands hanging care- lessly by his side, and his eyes wandering over space ; and, thus circum- stanced, to feel such agreeable sensations arising in his merely bodily frame, that he could raise his mind to heaven, and thank God that he was a living man." This is probably as brief and as correct a description of health as can be given ; for the man in perfect health will possess that buoyancy of feeling, good humor, and satisfaction, which never fail to accompany the human organism when all the functions are in order : then 164 BEST FOOD OF MAN. may a man with truth exclaim, " Yivere ipsa voluptas !" To acquire and preserve this equable and regular discharge of the various functions of the body, requires an originally good development of the organs, or constitutional stamina, and a strict fulfilment of the physiological laws of our nature. 238. These, however, we are not called upon to consider, except so far as diet is concerned ; in reference to which it may be observed, that all food is both nutritive and stimulative ; and upon the relative proportion of these two qualities in any article of diet, depends its power of producing the "juste milieu" of existence. If the stimulating property be in excess, the functions are abnormally accelerated, life flies too fast, pleasurable feelings are vivid but evanescent, and disease is frequently the result. If the nutritive properties prevail, the functions are sluggishly performed, a stupid state of indifference creeps over the frame, life is passed without animation, and actual pleasure appears to be unknown. There seems, however, no reason to doubt that each article of food, while in the state in which nature provides it, contains that just proportion of the two qua- lities which is requisite for the healthy discharge of the functions of the animal for the use of which it was provided, and the organs of which are in strict relation to the condition of its food. But if a diet be adopted by any animal, materially different from that to the digestion and assimilation of which its organs are strictly adapted, though the new food contain aU the chemical elements necessary for the due nourishment of the animal, it is possible their mechanical combination — ^upon which, probably, the nutri- tive and stimulative qualities depend — may be such as to prevent its perfect assimilation. All animals do not require the same degree of stimu- lation for the attainment of that state of perfection of which their nature renders them susceptible ; and, consequently, the food that may be admira- bly adapted to the wants and necessities of one, may be quite inadequate to the due development of another. 239. Xow, though grain and other vegetables contain the same proxi- mate principles as the flesh of animals, (namely, albumen, fibrin, and casein,) yet these must be in a different state of combination in the two kinds of diet ; for it is universally admitted, and daily experience proves the fact, that animal food is much more stimulating than vegetable food ; and if the latter contains such a proportion of the stimulative quality as is sufficient to maintain man in perfect health, then every additional degree of stimu- lation — whether derived from the flesh of animals, or from such articles as are stimulative without being nutritious (as spirits, wine, &c.) — must be injurious to health. But as slight deviations from health are little noticed, BEST FOOD OF MAN. 166 and as the seeds of disease are generally sown long before any serious attack is experienced, few refer their complaints to the real causes, and usually blame any little indiscretion which immediately precedes actual pain. It was well observed by Hippocrates, that " diseases do not fall upon men instantaneously, but, being collected by slow degrees, they explode with accumulated force." Hence it is that none, except those who have paid great attention to the subject, are ever led to suspect that the flesh \Nliich they and others are daily in the habit of eating can be in any way connected with their sufierings. 240. It may be shown — both from the opinions of medical writers, and from numerous well-attested examples — that vegetables are sufficient for maintaining man in a perfectly healthy condition. 241. Haller — a first-rate botanist, an eminent physician, and a profound philosopher — says : " This food, then, which I have hitherto described, and in which flesh has no share, is salutary ; insomuch that it fully nourishes a man, protracts life to an advanced period, and prevents or cures such dis- orders as are attributable to the acrimony or grossness of the blood."* The celebrated Dr. Hufelani^ taught, that a simple vegetable diet was most conducive to health and long life. Sir William Temple — after no- ticing the customs and habits of the Patriarchs, the Brahmans, and the Brazilians — says : " From all these examples and customs it may probably be concluded that the common ingredients of health and long life are, great temperance, open air, easy labor, little care, simplicity of diet — rather fruits and plants than flesh, (which easily corrupts,) and water ; which preserves the radical moisture, without too much increasing the radical heat. Whereas sickness, decay, and death, proceed commonly from the one prey- ing too fast upon the other, and at length wholly extinguishing it." 242. Porphyry, (444,) when addressing Firmus Castricius, who had re- linquished Pythagorean abstinence, says : " You owned, when you lived among us, that a vegetable diet was preferable to animal food, both for preserving health and facilitating the study of philosophy ; and now, since you have eaten flesh, your own experience must convince you that what you then confessed was true. The use of flesh does not contribute to health, but rather prevents it ; since health is preserved by the same mea- sures by which it is restored : but it is restored by the use of the lightest food, and by abstinence from flesh ; and consequently health is preseiTed by the same means. A quiet state of mind is of the utmost importance to the maintenance of health, and a light and spare diet contributes greatly to the same end." * Haller, Elem, Phy., vol. vi. p. 199. ]6() BEST FOOD OF MAN. 243. Tyron, who wrote " The Way to Health," says : " I am sure that i a man may make a better meal with half a pennyworth of wheaten flour j made into pap, and half a pennyworth of bread to eat with it, and a little i salt, and be as strong, brisk, and able to perform any labor, as he that ! makes the besl meal he can, with either flesh or fish ; so great is the igno- ranee, folly, blindness, false opinion, and custom of those that call theia- ; selves learned." Again he says : " If all men would refrain eating of flesh, | there would be no cause to complain for want of food : for the Almighty i has, in all particulars, been gracious and bountiful unto all creatures, but i more especially unto mankind ; for whom he has spread a plentiful table; ] furnishing the whole earth with a great multitude or variety of herbs, : fruits, grains, and seeds, fit for food ; which do afford a nourishment of a ' most excellent substance, and far beyond flesh." Dr, Adam Smith, in his " Wealth of Nations," says : " It may indeed be doubted whether butcher's i meat is anywhere a necessary of life. Grain, and other vegetables, with j the help of milk, cheese, and butter, or oil, (where butter is not to be had,) j it is known from experience can, without any butcher's meat, afford the j most plentiful, the most wholesome, the most nourishing, and the most in- i vigorating diet."* 244. In the "Anatomy of Abuses," published (in 1583) by Stubbes, we find the following quaint observations respecting articles of diet at that j time : " I marvel how our forefathers lived, who eat little els but colde ! meates, grosse, and hard of digesture ? Yea, the most of them fead upon i graine, carne, rootes, pulse, hearbes, weedes, and such other baggage ; and , yet lived longer than wee, were healthfuller than wee, of better complec- tion than wee, and much stronger than wee in every respect ; wherefore i can not perswade myself otherwise, but that our niceness and curiousness in diet hath altered our nature, distempered our bodies, and made us subject to millions of diserasies and diseases, more than ever were our forefathers subject unto, and consequently of shorter life than they. Doe wee not see the poore man, that eateth browne bread (whereof some is made of ryf», barlie, peason, beanes, oates, and such other grosse grains) and drinketh small drink, yea, some tymes water, feedeth upon milke, butter, and cheese, (i sale) doe wee not see suche a one healthfuller, stronger, fairer compleo tioned, and longer livying, then the other that fare daintilie every daie? And how should it be otherwise ?" 245. Dr. Cheyne, whose opinion has been previously quoted (152) on the natural food of man, farther observes : " For remedying the distempers of the body, to make a man live as long as his original frame was designed * Vol. iii. p. 337. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 167 to last, with the least pain and fewest diseases, and without the loss of his senses, I think Pythagoras and Cornaro by far the two greatest men that ever were : the first by vegetable food and unfermeuted liquors ; the latter by the lightest and least of animal food, and naturally fermented liquors. Both lived to a great age. But, what is chiefly to be regarded in their conduct and example, both preserved their senses, cheerfulness, and serenity to the last ; and, which is still more to be regarded, both at last dissolved without pain or struggle, after a great age of perfect health. A plain, natural, and philosophical reason why vegetable food is preferable to all other food is, that, abounding with few or no salts, being soft and cool, and consisting of parts that are easily divided and formed into chyle, without giving any labor to the digestive powers, it has not that force to open the lacteals, to distend their orifices, and excite them to an unnatural activity, to let them pass too great a quantity of hot rank chyle into the blood, and so overcharge and inflame the lymphatics and capillaries, which is the natural and ordinary effect of animal food ; and, therefore, cannot so readily pro- duce diseases. There is not a sufficient stimulus in the salts and spirits of vegetable food to create an unnatural appetite or violent cramming ; at least, not sufficient to force open and extend the mouths of the lacteals more than naturally they are or ought to be. Such food requires little or no force of digestion ; a little gentle heat and motion being sufficient to dissolve it into its integral particles. So that in a vegetable diet, though a delightful piquancy in the food may sometimes tempt one to exceed in quantity, yet rarely, if spices and sauces (as too much butter, oil, and sugar) are not joined to seeds and vegetables, can the mischief go farther than the stomach and bowels, to create a pressed load, sickness, vomiting, and purging, by its acquiring an acrimony from its not being received into the lacteals ; so tliat, on more being admitted into the blood than the ex- penses of living require, life and health can never be endangered by vege- table diet. But all the contrary happens under a high animal diet." 246. Dr. Craigie, who has recently published an excellent work on the practice of physic, says : " Diet consisting of animal food is not requisite, either to preserve health or maintain strength ; and diet of articles from which the flesh of animals is together excluded, is perfectly adequate to the sustenance of the human body, in a state of good health and strength." Dr. James Mollenson (of View Bank, near Montrose, North Britain) says : " Thus it will appear, that it is under the use of a diet chiefly of grain, milk, and vegetables, or certain simple and innocent modes of regimen, that firm health and long life have, in the great plurality of instances, been enjoyed." BEST FOOD OF MAN. 247. " I formerly believed, in common with the generality of mankind, that meat was an indispensable article of food, particularly to the laboring man, but have had abundant reason to change my opinion. I have had free intercourse for two or three years with a large number of physiologi- cal reformers, who subsist entirely upon vegetable food, and find they are much more healthy and vigorous than those who make use of meat. Some of these reformers are laboring men, who are compelled to work hard from the rising to the setting of the sun, and they assure me they possess a greater amount of physical strength than when in the habit of flesh-eating. Moreover, they always have a relish for their meals, without being troubled by a loss of appetite at one time, or the cravings of hunger at another. They are comparatively exempt, also, Irom attacks of disease, such as colds, diarrhoea, dysentery, and the prevaing maladies of the seasons ; and among the whole of these reformers, I rarely or never met with a case of costive- ness, or sick-headache — complaints which are so universal at the present day."* 23 [Note 23. Constipation is the prevailing condition of the people of this country ; more especially with females : and probably the inhabitants of no country in the world use so great a proportion of concentrated and obstructing food. The maladies which spring from this source are almost legion, and the infirmities and suffering are absolutely appalling. Yet our doctors go on from year to year, and from generation to generation, in- structing the people how to destroy their bowels with physic, instead of the manner of regulating them by proper food. In the dozen years of medical practice, during which my attention has been particularly directed to this subject, I have never known a consistent vegetarian to be troubled with costive bowels, sick headache, dysentery, nor piles ; nor a well-fed child of vegetarian parents to be afiQicted with dysentery, nor cholera infantum. T.] 248. It would be easy to cite many more medical authorities, to show that a fruit and farinaceous diet is not inconsistent with perfect health ; but this is unnecessary. I shall therefore endeavor to confirm the opinions already given, by a few practical examples. 249. " The natives of Sierra Leone, whose climate is said to be the worst on earth, are very temperate ; they subsist entirely on small quanti- ties of boiled rice, with occasional supplies of fruit, and drink only cold * American Vegetable Practice, by Morris Mattson, Physician to the Keformed Boston Dispensary, &c. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 1C9 water : in consequence, they are strong and healthy, and live as long as men in the most propitious climates.""^ 250. Dr. W. Stark mentions, that Mr. Slingsby lived many years on bread, milk, and vegetables, without animal food or wine ; and that since he observed this regimen, he was very vigorous, enjoyed good health and spirits, and remained free from gout ; and that Dr. Knight lived long on diet strictly vegetable, excepting eggs, milk, (with tea and chocolate,^ and butter ; — taking however a little wine ; and that, living in this manner, he had been free from attacks of gout. 251. Dr. Combe mentions a remarkable case of improvement in the health of children, by attention to the physiological laws. It is that of the Orphan Asylum in Albany, (New York,) which was opened towards the end of 1829, with about seventy children ; — the number being subse- quently increased to eighty. " During the first tliree years," says he, " when an imperfect mode of management was in operation, from four to six childi-en were constantly on the sick-list, and sometimes more ; one or two assistant-nurses were necessary ; the physician was in regular attendance twice or thrice a week ; and the deaths amounted (in all) to between thirty and forty, or about one in every month. At the end of this time, an improved system of diet and general management was adopted ; and, not- withstanding the disadvantages inseparable from the orphan state of the children, the results were in the highest degree satisfactory. The nursery was soon entirely vacated, and the services of the nurse and physyclan no longer needed ; and, for more than two years, no case of sickness or death took place. It is also stated that, since the new regimen has been fully adopted, there has been a remarkable increase of health, strength, activity, vivacity, cheerfulness, and contentment among the children. The change of temper is also very great : they have become less turbulent, irritable, peevish, and discontented ; and far more manageable, gentle, peaceable, and kind to each other." It is surprising that neither Dr. Combe nor Dr. Car- penter (who also quotes the case) informs us in what this change of diet consisted ; namely, a complete exclusion of all animal food, and strict adherence to vegetable regimen ; with certain other salutary regulations as to ventilation, sleeping-rooms, &c. 252. Dr. Lambe, who has (in two or three works) strenuously and excel- lently vindicated the cause of vegetable diet ; Mr. Newton, who also has written upon the subject ; Sir Richard Phillips, and many others in this country, might be mentioned^ as enjoying good health for many years, without tasting any kind of animal food ; but as most of the cases to be * Monthly Magazine, July, 1S15, p. 528. 8 170 BEST FOOD OF MAN. adduced by way of illustration will range more appropriately under some of the succeeding heads, the examples already given may suffice. CHAPTER IV. TEGETABLE FOOD CONSISTENT WITH PHYSICAL STEENGTH AND ACTIVITY. 253. Though it is generally admitted by medical professors who have c ^^sidered the subject, that vegetable food is quite sufficient for the main- tb, jAnce of health, yet there is a very prevalent opinion (in this country, at le'o^t) that it is insufficient for imparting to the human frame that degree of Muscular power and energy which is in strict harmony with the due development of other parts of the system. If brute force, exerted for short ^jeriods of time — without any regard to intellectual culture, moral feeKnj>, human sympathy, domestic happiness, or longevity — be considered the perreotion of human existence, then is a diet of flesh-meat entitled to our prererence : but if the normal development of the physical, mental, and moral powers of man — the production of the pm'est enjoyment and greatest happiness for the longest period — be the objects of our choice, then shall we lind a well-selected vegetable diet much superior to either an animal or mixed one, for accomplishing our purpose. 254. The flesh of animals and fermented liquors, being much more stinmlative than fruit and farinaceous vegetable substances, appear to impart considerably more strength and vigor to the muscular system than the latter ; and doubtless, while the stimulation lasts, a person is capable of much greater exertion under it ; but the only sure way of permanently increasing the powers of the muscular system, is by a natural and nutritious diet, along with judicious exercise. The mode in which stimulants act, is by exciting the nervous energy, and quickening the circulation, and thus producing rapid transformations of the tissues throughout the whole structure ; and while these changes are taking place — whether as the effect of animal food, fermented liquors, anger, madness, fever, or exercise — the muscular power is (for the time) increased ; but exhaustion constantly suc- ceeds, and wiU invariably be in proportion to the degree and duration of their action. Exercise, however, is the only safe and legitimate stimulant, in a normal state of the system; for it creates a healthy demand for BEST FOOD OF MAN. 171 -« — . — ■ — . renewal, by promoting the requisite decomposition of structure ; while the others destroy the balance between decay and reproduction, and thus lay the foundation of local or general disease.^^ [Note 25. — ^Those effects which are called stimulant, tonic, &c., are in reality the evidences of the resistance which the vital powers make to the injurious or impure substance, and not, as is commonly supposed, the action of the article on the system. The feeling of strength is increased, for the reason that the energies of the system are roused into unnatural intensity of action to defend the vital machinery ; and the reason that a depression of power is always experienced afterwards, is because the vital energy has been expended, uselessly wasted, in the struggle. T.] 255. " But whatever may be the real character of the stimulus, every sthnulation to which the system is accustomed increases, according to the power and extent of its influence, what is called ' the tone,' and the action of the parts on which it is exerted ; and, while the stimulation lasts, it always increases the feeling of strength and vigor in the system — ^whether any nourishment be imparted to the system or not. Yet, by so much as the stimulation exceeds, in degree, that which is necessary for the full and healthy performance of the function or functions of the organs stimulated, by so much the more does the expenditure of vital power and waste of organized substance exceed, for the time, the replenishing and renovating economy of the system; and, consequently, the exhaustion and indirect debility which succeed the stimulation are always necessarily commensu- rate with the excess. Hence, though that food which contains the greatest proportion of stimulating power to its quantity of nourishment, causes, while its stimulation continues, a feeling of the greatest strength and vigor, it also necessarily produces the greatest exhaustion in the end ; which is commensurately importunate and vehement in its demands for relief, by the repetition of the accustomed stimulus ; and, as the same food more readily than any other affords the demanded relief, by supplying the requisite degree of stimulation, our feelings always lead us to believe that it is really the most strengthening. Hence, whenever a less stimulating diet is sub- stituted for a more stimulating one, a corresponding physiological depres- sion, or want of tone and action, always necessarily succeeds — varying in degree and duration, according to the general condition of the system, and the suddenness and greatness of the change ; and this depression is always attended by a feeling of weakness and lassitude ; which is immediately removed, and the feeling of strength and vigor restored, by the accustomed 172 BEST FOOD OF MAN. degree of stimulation, by whatever produced — whether any increase of nourishment is actually afforded to the system or not. The feeling of strength produced by stimulation, therefore, is no proof that the stimulating substance is either nourishing or salutary, nor even that it is not decidedly baneful." * Yet how many are deceived by the temporary sensation thus produced ! 256. " Dulong found that the quantity of oxygen lost during respiration, and not replaced by carbonic acid, amounted, (on an average,) in the case of herbivorous animals, to one-tenth of the volume of that which was replaced by carbonic acid ; in the case of carnivorous animals, it amounted to from one-fifth to one-half" f It was also ascertained by the experiments of Dr. Fife, and confirmed by the observations of Mr. Spalding, in his own person, that in the same individual, while animal food is taken, a larger quantity of air is required for respiration, and a greater proportion of oxygen is consumed, than when vegetable aliment is employed. It may be inferred, also, that the greater the quantity of animal food eaten, the greater is the quantity of oxygen consumed by the lungs in a given time. The respirations, also, are more frequent in a given time, when the indivi- dual subsists on animal food, than when he lives on vegetable aliment. " These facts show," says Dr. Craigie,| " that the sustenance of the frame by means of animal diet causes a more violent and laborious action of the lungs than the sustenance of the same frame by means of vegetable diet. Hence, persons living on animal food breathe laboriously, and are less capable of fatigue." These facts have been sufficiently explained, {200 ;) and it has been shown that, under a farinaceous diet, a considerable amount of oxygen is separated from the food, whereby a less amount of atmospheric air for respiration becomes necessary. Hence, also, the advantage of vegetable food in cases of phthisis, because it is of a milder and less stimulating nature than an animal or mixed diet ; and the lungs have much less labor to perform. (362.) 257. The processes of assimilation and nutrition, also, on a flesh diet, are more rapid, and attended with a greater expenditure of vital power and waste of organized substance, than in the use of pure vegetable aliment : hence those who subsist principally on the former suffer much more dis- tress from hunger, when deprived of their accustomed meals, than they do who subsist on the latter. This is one important reason why — all other things being equal, and the system being fully established in its habits — * Graham's Lectures, vol. ii. p. 96. t Miiller's Elements of Physiology, vol. i. p. 326. X Elements of the Practice of Physic, vol. ii, p. 643. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 173 they who subsist on a well-chosen vegetable diet can endure protracted labor, fatigue, and exposure, without food, much louger than they who subsist mostly or entirely on flesh-meat. For as the transformation of the tissues takes placi more slowly on the former diet, and as the true sensa- tion of huuger depends upon the general wants of the system rather than upon the emptiness of the stomach, the appetite for food does not recur so frequently on well-chosen vegetable aliments ; nor is the craving for food 80 acute as upon a more stimulatmg diet. The more stimulating the food, the sooner does the demand for it return. ^^ [Note 26. I have often noticed, in conducting a "Water-Cure establish- ment, containing more than a hundred inmates on the average, about half of whom were either vegetarians in principle, or were restricted to an exclusively vegetable diet by special prescription, that such patients can bear fasting for a time much better than the flesh-eaters ; and they suf- fer but little, in comparison with those who employ a mixed diet, from the " craving" sensation at the stomach, on the approach of the dinner or sup- per hour. To this rule I have never known one exception. T.] 258. That even grass and other herbaceous substances are quite ade- quate to produce great physical force and vigor, when the alimentary organs are in direct relation to the food to be assimilated, we may learn from the horse, the elephant, the rhinoceros, and many other herbivorous animals, whose great muscular power is well known ; and that fruits, roots, and grain are also competent to supply considerable muscular energy, is sufficiently evinced by the orang-outang, "Allemand, the Dutch professor of Natural History, had received many vague and unsatisfactory accounts respecting an animal of this kind, and was induced to write to Mr. May, a captain in the Dutch naval service, stationed at Surinam. This gentleman found him exactly similar to one which he had brought from Guinea, except in size. He was nearly five feet and a half high, and very strong and powerful. Mr. May had seen him take up his master (a stout man) by the middle, and fling him from him for a pace or two ; and one day he seized a soldier, who happened to pass carelessly near the tree to which he was chained, and, if his master had not been present, he would actually have carried the man into the tree."* Dr. Abel gives an interesting account of the cruel capture of one of the red or Asiatic orangs ; and informs us hat, after receiving five balls, and vomiting a considerable quantity of Dlood, and when nearly in a dying state, he seized a spear ♦ Sir W. Jardine's Naturalist's Library, "Mammalia," vol. I. p. 58. 174 BEST FOOD OF MAN. made of supple wood, which would have withstood the strength of the stoutest man, and shivered it in pieces : in the words of the narrator, he broke it as if it had been a carrot. It is stated by those who aided in his death, that the human-like expression of his countenance, and piteous manner of placing his hands over his wounds, distressed their feelings, and almost made them question the nature of the act they were committing.* 259. But we are not dependent upon illustrations from the inferior races of animals, to prove that vegetable food is not inconsistent with muscular strength and vigor ; for ancient and modern history abounds with striking demonstrations of the fact ; and innumerable well-known instances at the present day, and to which reference will shortly be made, ought to convmce the most sceptical. We have already seen that the antediluvians enjoyed good health and strength, and lived to advanced periods of time, on vegeta- ble diet ; and, since the Flood, we have many examples to the same effect. " Cyrus, who raised Persia from an obscure, rude colony, to one of the most powerful and splendid empires that the world ever saw ; who per- formed more extraordinary marches, fought more battles, won more extror ordinary victories, and exhibited more personal prowess and bodily power of effort and endurance than almost any other general that ever lived, sub- sisted, from childhood, on the simplest and plainest diet of vegetable food and water ; and the Persian soldiers who went with him through all his career of conquest, and shared with him all his hardships, toils, and dan- gers, and on whom he always placed his main dependence in battle, and with whom he was able to march thousands of miles in an incredibly short time, and conquer armies of double the number of his own, were, like him- self trained from childhood on bread, cresses, and water ; and strictly ad- hered to the same simplicity of vegetable diet, throughout the whole of their heroic course, without relaxing from the stern severity of their abste- miousness even in the hour of victory, when the luxuries of captured cities lay in profusion around them." The Persians of the present day are very abstemious, and use little animal food. Pilau, or rice stewed with various ingredients, forms their favorite dish. The chief luxury of their table con- sists in a profusion of the best of fruits ; yet is the physical character of the Persians said to be fine, both as to strength and beauty. 260. In the most heroic days of the Grecian army, their food was the plain and simple produce of the soil. The immortal Spartans of Ther- mopylae were, from infancy, nourished by the plainest and cor^sest vegeta- ble aliment ; and the Roman army, in the period of their g eatest valor and most gigantic achievements, subsisted on plain and coa le vegetable * Ibid., p. 85. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 176 food. When the public games of ancient Greece — for the exercise of mus- cular power and activity in wrestling, boxing, ruuniug, &c. — were first instituted, the athletse, in accordance with the common dietetic habits of the people, were trained entirely on vegetable food. " Those who were destined to this profession frequented, from their tender age, the Gymnasia or Palestrae, which were a kind of academies maintained for that purpose at the public expense. In these places, such young people were under the direction of different masters, who employed the most effectual methods to inure their bodies for the fatigues of the public games, and to form them for the combats. The regimen they were under was very hard and severe. At first, they had no other nourishment but dried figs, nuts, soft cheese, and a gross, heavy sort of bread called * jjua^a.' They were absolutely forbid- den to use wine, and required to observe the strictest continence."* " In later times — after animal food had begun to be common among the people, and flesh-meat was found to be more stimulating, and to render their pu- gilists and gladiators more ferocious — a portion of flesh was introduced into the diet of the Athletae. But, according to the testimony of early Greek writers, it was soon found that the free use of this kind of aliment made them the most sluggish and stupid of men."f 261. " It is said, that after the Eomans became a flesh-eating people, the Roman army was equally heroic and victorious ; but it should be remembered that, whatever were the practices of the wealthy and luxurious Roman citizen, flesh-meat entered but very sparingly into the diet of the Roman soldier till after the days of Roman valor had begun to pass away ; and, with equal pace, as the army became less simple and less temperate in their diet, they became less brave and less successful in arms. It should be remembered, also, that after the Romans had become a flesh-eating people, the success of the Roman army did not, as at first, depend on the bodily strength^ and personal prowess of individual soldiers, but on the aggregate power of well-disciplined legions, and on their skill in systematic war. So far as bodily strength and ability to endure voluntary action are considered, the Roman soldier was far the most powerful and heroic in Rome's earliest days, when he subsisted on his simple vegetable food.J 262. The same important principles are demonstrated by the facts of modern times. '' Very few nations in the world," says a sagacious histo- rian, " produce better soldiers than the Russians. They will endure the greatest fatigues and sufferings with patience and calmness ;" and it is well known that the Russian soldiers are, from childhood, nourished by simple * EoUin'fl Ancient History, vol. 1. t Atbletae, Introduction. X Graham's Lectures, vol ii. p. 188. 176 BEST FOOD OF MAN. and coarse vegetable food. " The Kussian grenadiers," says a letter from the Helder, " are the finest body of men I ever saw : not a man is under six feet high. Their allowance consists of eight pounds of black bread, four pounds of oil, and one pound of salt, per man, for eight days ; and, were you to see them, you would be convinced tliat they look as well as if they lived on roast beef and English porter."* "The Russian peasant," observes Bremner in his " Excursions in the Interior of Russia," " is satis- fied with the plainest food. No people in Europe are so coarsely fed. Their diet consists of the most acrid articles that were ever devised : pickled cucumbers, pickled cabbages, or pickled mushrooms, with a piece of black bread, are their daily fare." Again he says : " Unless in the very largest towns, butcher's-meat would appear to be very little used. Even in such places as Toula and Zaraisk a butcher's-shop is never seen ; a calf with the skin half off is sometimes displayed at a butcher's door ; but the sight does not occur above once in two hundred miles. Fish is even more rare than beef, being always sold alive from the river ; none is ever exposed in tlie market-places. Vegetables and milk compose a great part of the diet in the districts we have now reached." 263. " I have made several voyages to St. Petersburgh, in Russia," says Capt. Cornelius S. Howland, of New Bedford, Mass. " The people of Rus- sia generally subsist, for the most part, on coarse, black rye-bread and gar- licks. The bread is exceedingly coarse, sometimes containing almost whole grains ; and it is very hard and dry. I have often hired men to labor for me in Russia ; which they would do from sixteen to eighteen hours and * find themselves,' for eight cents per day, the sun shining there sometimes twenty hours in the day. They would come on board in the morning, with a piece of their black bread weighing about one pound, and a bunch of gar- licks as big as one's fist. This was all theii' nourishment for the day of sixteen or eighteen hours' labor. They were astonishingly powerful and active ; and endured severe and protracted labor far beyond any of ray men. Some of these men were eighty and even ninety years old ; and yet these old men would do more work than any of the middle-aged men belonging to my ship. In handling and stowing away iron, and in stowing away hemp with the jack-screw, they exhibited most astonishing power. They were full of agility, vivacity, and even hilarity; singing as they labored with all the buoyancy and blithesomeness of youth." 2G4. The general food of the Norwegians is rye-bread, milk, and cheese. Mr. Twining says : "As a particular luxury, the peasants eat their sharke, which are thin slices of meat, sprinkled with salt, and dried m the wind, * The "Sun" newspaper for September 25, 1799. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 177 like hung-beef ; but this indulgence in animal food is very rare indeed. A common treat, on high, days and holy days, consists of a thick hasty-])ud- ding, or porridge of oat-meal or rye-meal ; seasoned by two or three pickled herrings, or salted mackerel. All the travellers I have consulted, agree in representing the people as thriving on this apparently poor fare ; and in no part of the world, in proportion to its population, are there more instances of extreme longevity than in Norway." " Notwithstanding the poor fare of the inhabitants," says Dr. Capell Brooke, " they are remark- ably robust and healthy. Though in many parts animal food is quite unknown to them, they are generally tall and good-looking, with a manly openness of manner and countenance, which increased the farther north I proceeded. From this hardy way of living, and being daily accustomed to climb the mountains, they may be said to be in a constant state of training ; and their activity, in consequence, is so great, that they keep up with ease by the side of your carriage at full speed, for the distance of ten or twelve miles." 265. '•' The Polish and Hungarian peasants from the Carpathian Mount- ains," says a young Polish nobleman, "are among the most active and powerful men in the world : they live almost entirely on oat-meal bread and potatoes. The Polish soldiers under Bonaparte," continues he, "would march forty miles in a day,, and fight a pitched battle ; and the next morn- ing be fresh and vigorous for further duties." The peasants of some parts of Switzerland, who hardly ever taste anything but bread, cheese, and but- ter, are vigorous people. " The Bernese," observes M. Raspail, " so active and so strongly formed, live scarcely on any thing but maize and fresh water." Those who have penetrated into Spain, have probably witnessed to what a distance a Spanish attendant will accompany on foot a traveller's mule or carriage ; not less than forty or fifty miles a day ; raw onions and bread being his only fare. 266. " With respect to the Moorish porters in Spain," says Capt. C. F. Chase, of Providence, R. I., " I have witnessed the exceedingly large loads they are in the habit of carrying ; and have been struck with astonishment at their muscular powers. Others of the laboring class, particularly those who are in the habit of working on board of ships, and called in that country ' stevedores,' are also very powerful men. I have seen two of these men stow off a full cargo of brandy and wine in casks, after it was hoisted on board and lowered into the hold, apparently with as much ease as two American sailors would stow away a cargo of beef and pork. They brought their food on board with them, which consisted of coarse, brown wheat-bread and grapes." 8^ 178 BEST FOOD OF MAN 267. " The Greek boatmen," says the venerable Judge WoodriiflP, of Con- necticut, who went out as the agent of the New Yorli: Committee for tlie relief of the Greeks, " are seen in great numbers about the harbors, seeking employment with their boats. They are exceedingly abstemious. Their food always consists of a small quantity of black bread, made of unbolted rye or wheat-meal, generally rye ; and a bunch of grapes or raisins, or some figs. They are, nevertheless, astonishingly athletic and powerful ; and tise most nimble, active, graceful, cheerful, and even merry people in the world* At all hours they are singing ; blithesome, jovial, and full of hilarity. I'he laborers in the ship-yards live in the same simple and abstemious manner, and are equally vigorous, active, and cheerful. They breakfast and dine on a small quantity of their coarse bread, and figs, grapes, or raisins. Their Bupper, if they take any, is still lighter ; though they more frequently take no supper, and eat nothing from dinner to breakfast. It is, indeed, asto- nishing to an American, to see on how small a quantity of food these peo- ple subsist. It is my serious opinion, that one hearty man in New England ordinarily consumes as much food in a day as a family of six Greeks. Yet there are no people in the world more athletic, active, supple, graceful, and cheerful. In Smyrna, where there are no carts or wheel-carriages, the carrying business falls upon the shoulders of the porters, who are seen iu great numbers about the wharves and docks, and in the streets near the water-side, where they are employed in lading and unlading vessels. They are stout, robust men, of great muscular strength ; and carry at one load, upon a pad fitted to their backs, from four hundred to eight hundred pounds. Mr. Langdon, an American merchant residing there, pointed me to one of them in his service, and assured me that, a short time before, he carried at one load, from his warehouse to the wharf, about twenty-five rods, a box of sugar weighing four hundred pounds, and two sacks of coffee weigh- ing each two hundred pounds — ^making, in all, eight hundred pounds : that, after walking off a few rods with a quick step, he stopped and requested that another sack of coffee might be added to his load ; but Mr. Langdon, apprehending danger from so great an exertion, refused his request." Lieut. Amasa Paine informs us, that one of these porters carried a load weighing nine hundred and sixty pounds. Mr. Luther Jewett, of Portland, Maine, says, that one of his schooners came into Portland, laden with barilla, from the Canary Islands ; and that he stood by while the schooner was discharging its cargo, and saw four stout American laborers attempt, In vain, to lift one of the masses of barilla, which the captain and mate both solemnly affirmed was brought from the storehouse to the vessel by a single man — a native laborer where they freighted ; and he subsisted entirely on coarse vegetable food and fruit. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 179 •268. Mr. W. Fairbairn, of Manchester, in the " Report on the Sanitary Condition of the Labormg Population of Great Britain," says : " I ob- served, on a late journey to Constantinople, that the boatmen or rowers of the caiques, who are perhaps the first rowers in the world, drink nothing but water ; and they drink that profusely during the hot months of the summer. The boatmen and water-carriers of Constantinople are decidedly, in my opinion, the finest men in Europe, as regards their physical develop- ment ; and they are all water-drinkers : they may take a little sherbet ; but, in other respects, are what we should call in this country ' Teetotallers.' Tlieir diet is chiefly bread ; now and then a cucumber, with cherries, figs, dates, mulberries, or other fruits which are abundant there ; now and then a little fish : occasionally, I believe, they eat the flesh of goats ; but I never saw them eating any other than the diet I have described. They eat about the same amount as European workmen ; but, if any thing, are more moderate as respects quantity." 269. Mr. Buckingham informs us that the inhabitants of the mountains of Himalayah, although fed upon nothing but rice, are yet much superior to our sailors in strength. The Japanese not only abstain from animal food, but even from milk and its productions. One of the laws whick they most religiously observe is, not to kill nor to eat any thing that is killed. Their chief food consists of rice, pulse, fruits, roots, and herbs, but mostly rice, which they have in great plenty and perfection ; and dress in so many different ways, and give to it such variety of tastes, flavor, and color, that a stranger would hardly know what he was eating.* Hot rice-cakes are the standard food ; and are kept ready at all the inns, to be presented to the traveller the moment he arrives, along with tea, and occasionally sack! or rice-beer. The Japanese are, however, represented as robust, well- made, and active, remarkably healthy, long-lived, and intelligent. " I see," says Michaelis, " from Russei's Natural History of Aleppo, (page 50,) that there the Jews and Turks never taste the flesh of cattle." 270. The Hindoos are divided into several distinct orders or classes ; which division has existed from the remotest times. " The three higher classes are, by their religion, prohibited entirely the use of flesh-meat ; the fourth is allowed to eat all kinds except beef ; but only the lowest classes are allowed every kind of food without restriction ; and it is in these lowest classes that the most miserable, ill-formed, and indolent portion of the native inhabitants of India are found : while among the higher and more intelligent, temperate, and virtuous classes, which subsist on a pure and wholesome vegetable aliment, men of six feet stature, and with well- * "Mod, Univer. Hist," vol. Ix. p. 62. 180 BEST FOOD OF MAN. proportioned, symmetrical, vigorous, and active bodies, are by no means uncommon ; and for natural ease, grace and urbanity, this class of Asiatics are exceeded by no people in the world." * 271. '' There is a caste of Hindoos," says Sir John Sinclair, " called, on the western side of India, Pattamars, whose sole occupation is to carry letters and despatches by land ; and they perform journeys almost incredi- ble in the time allotted, as is the small quantity of food they subsist on during their journey. They generally go in pairs, for fear of one's being taken ill, and are allowed rewards in proportion to the expedition with which they perform their journey. From Calcutta to Bombay, I think, twenty-five days are allowed, (about sixty-two miles a day ;) from Madras to Bombay, eighteen days ; from Surat to Bombay, three days and a half. They are generally tall, being from five feet ten inches to six feet high. They subsist on a little boiled rice." 272. The Chinese also feed almost entirely on rice, confections, and fruits ; and although many of them — from chewing opium, and other pernicious habits, as well as from exti-eme scarcity of food — are in a state of great wretchedness, yet those who are enabled to live well, and spend a temperate life, are possessed of great strength and agility. "A finer shaped and more powerful race of men exists nowhere," says Sir John Davis, the present Governor of Hong Kong, " than the coolies or porters of Canton ; and the weight they carry with ease, on a bamboo between two of them, would break down most others. The freedom of their dress gives a devel- opment to their limbs that renders many of the Chinese models for the sculptor." Gutzlaff says that, on a certabi occasion, " not being able to walk, we procured sedan-chairs. The bearers appeared to be the lowest of the low — clad in a few rags, and looking as emaciated as if they were going to fall down dead. But under this unseemly exterior they hid great strength. I certainly believe that a well-fed horse would not have been able to carry some of us, who were stout and hale, over the' cragged moun- tains, without sinking under the load. But these men walk on briskly and sure-footed, and ascend acclivities with greater speed than we could have done in walking. Yet, though these men were meagre, and hungry as wolves, they were cheerful and boisterous. Of the scanty livelihood upon which the poorer classes, and indeed nine-tenths of the nation, are obliged to subsist, those who have not witnessed the reality can hardly have an adequate idea. The wages are so low that a man who has worked hard from morning till evening receives perhaps ten cents, and with this he has to maintain wife and children." * Graham's Lectures, voL 11., p. 198. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 181 273. In Egypt, the diet of the peasantry and laboring people is much the same as in China. They use some animal substance, particularly fish, as a kind of relish or condiment, but their nourishment is derived from vegetable substances. Their food chiefly consists of coarse bread, made of wheat, of millet, or maize, together with cucumbers, melons, gourds, onions, leeks, beans, chickpease, lupins, lentils, dates, &c. Most of these vegetables they eat in a crude state. " It is indeed sui-prising to observe how simple and poor is the diet of the Egyptian peasantry, and yet how robust and healthy most of them are, and how severe is the labor which they can undergo. The boatmen of the Nile are mostly strong, muscular men. They undergo severe labor in rowing, poling, and towing ; but are very cheerful, and often the most so when most occupied, for then they frequently amuse themselves by singing." ^ " The Egyptian cultivators of the soil, who live on coarse wheaten bread, Indian bread, lentils, and other produc- tions of the vegetable kingdom," says Mr. Catherwood, " are among the finest people I have ever seen." 274. The natives of Central Africa, who subsist wholly on vegetable food, possess astonishing bodily powers. " The people of Jenna," say the enterprising Landers, " have abundance of bullocks, pigs, goats, sheep, and poultry ; but they prefer vegetable food to animal. Their diet, indeed, is what we should term poor and watery, consisting chiefly of preparations of the yam, and of Indian corn ; notwithstanding which, a stronger or more athletic race of people is nowhere to be met with. Burdens with them are invariably carried upon the head ; and it not unfrequently requires the nnited strength of three men to lift a calabash of goods from the ground to the shoulders of one ; and then, and not till then, does the amazing strength of the Aftican appear. Some of the women that we saw bore burdens on their heads that would tire a mule ; and children not more than five or six years old trudged after them with loads that would give a full- grown person in Europe a brain-fever." 275. "The Kroomen are a particular race of people, differing entirely from the other African tribes. They inhabit a country called ' Settra Kroo,' on the coast near Cape Palmas. Their prmcipal employment is of a mari- time nature. A certain number of these men are always employed on board of the ships of war, on the African coast, for the purpose of per- forming those duties in which considerable fatigue and exposure to the sun are experienced. They only require a little palm oil and a few yams to eat, and they are always ready to perform any laborious work which may be required of them."t * Lane's "Egypt." t. Graham's Lectures, vol. ii., p. 205, 182 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 2*76. " The principal article of food among tlie Indians of Mexico, and more particularly in the state of Tobasco," says Mr. Pope, who resided several years among them, " is Indian corn. It consequently constitutes the most important article of agriculture ; and three crops may be obtained in a year, without the labor of tillage. From the corn they prepare a thin cake, called the ''j^rtiUa,' which is a bread universaEy used by the better class of the inhabitants, and a dough from which is made what they call * posol :' the latter article is prepared by boiling the corn, and afterwards crushing it on a flat stone fitted for the purpose, and which every family possesses ; it being substituted for grinding, as corn-mills are unknown m the country. This dough is laid aside until wanted for use, and in a short time becomes sour ; in which condition it is generally preferred. It is then mixed with water, to such a consistency as may be di^unk ; and some- times a little sugar is added. On this food alone they are enabled to sub- sist and undergo far more fatigue, under the tropical sun of Mexico, than our northern laborers in the northern latitudes, with the free use of animal food. I have not unfrequently been forty hours in ascending the Tobasco river to the capital, a distance of about seventy-five miles, in one of their canoes, against a current of from three to four miles an hour ; the men poling the canoe (a very laborious employment) sixteen hours out of the twenty-four. Those who abstain from the use of ardent spirits are muscu- lar and strong ; and among them are to be found models for the sculptor." 277. Sir Francis Head informs us, that immense loads are carried by the South American miners, though fed entirely on grain and pulse. " It is usual for the copper-miners of Central Chili to carry loads of ore of 200 lbs. weight up eighty perpendicular yards twelve times a day. When they reach the mouth of the pit they are in a state of apparent fearful exhaus- tion, covered with perspiration, their chests heaving, yet after briefly rest- ing they descend again. Their diet is entirely vegetable : breakfast con- sists of sixteen figs and two small loaves of bread ; dinner, boiled beans ; supper, roasted wheat grain. They scarcely ever taste meat ; yet on this simple diet they perform a labor that would almost kill many men." The diet of the ASghan consists of bread, curdled milk, and water. He lives in a climate which often produces in one day extreme heat and cold ; he will undergo as much fatigue, and exert as much strength, as the porters of London, who are fed on flesh and ale ; neither is he subject to their acute and obstinate disorders."* 278. " The Spaniards of Rio Salada, in South America, — who come down from the interior, and are employed in transporting goods overland, * Dr. Dick's Miscellanea Medica. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 183 — live wholly on vegetable food. They are large, very robust, and strong ; and bear prodigious burdens on tlieir backs — such as require three or four men to place upon them — in knapsacks made of green hides : and these enormous burdens they will carry fifty miles into the country ; travelling over mountains too steep for loaded mules to ascend, and with a speed which few of the generality of men can equal without any encumbrance." 279. " The slaves of Brazil are a very strong and robust class of men, and of temperate habits. Their food consists of rice, fruits, and bread of coarse flour, and from the farrenia root. They endure great hadships, and carry enormous burdens on then- heads a distance of from a quarter of a mile to a mile, without resting. It is a common thing to see them in droves or companies, moving on at a brisk trot, stimulated by the sound of a bell in the hands of the leader ; and each man bearing upon his head a bag of coffee weighing a hundred and eighty pounds, apparently as if it were a light burden. They also carry barrels of flour, and even barrels of beef and pork, upon their heads. They are seldom known to have a fever, or any other sickness. The Congo slaves of Rio Janeiro subsist on vegeta- ble food, and are among the finest-looking men in the world. They are six feet high, every way well proportioned, and remarkably athletic. The laborers of Laguayi^a eat no flesh, and are an uncommonly healthy and hardy race. A single man will take a barrel of beef or pork on his shoulders, and walk with it from the landing to the custom-house, which is situated upon the top of a hill, the ascent of which is too steep for car- riages. Their soldiers, likewise, subsist on vegetable food, and are remark- ably fine-looking men."* 280. An officer of a frigate who had been at the Sandwich Islands has declared, that our sailors stood no chance in boxing with the natives, who fight precisely in the English manner. A quartermaster, a very stout man, and a skilful boxer, indignant at seeing his companions knocked about with so little ceremony, determined to try a round or two with one of the stoutest of the natives, although strongly dissuaded fi-omthe attempt by his oflficers. The blood of the native islander being warmed by the opposition of a few minutes, he broke through all the guards of his antagonist, seized him by the thigh and shoulder, threw him up, and held him with extended arms over his head for a minute, in token of triumph, and then dashed him on the deck with such violence as to fracture his skull. The gentleman added, that he never saw men apparently possessed of such muscular strength Our stoutest sailors appeared mere shrimps compared with them. Their mode of life, constantly in vigorous action in the open air, and undebili * Graham's Lectures, vol. il., p, 207. 184 BEST FOOD OF MAN. tated by the use of stimulating food or drink, may be considered as a perpetual state of training.* 281. In 1823, General Yaldez, a Peruvian general, led his army from near Lima to the southward of Arequipa, — a distance of two hundred and fifty leagues, or seven hundred and fifty miles, — in eleven days ; or more than sixty-eight miles a day, for eleven da; s in succession ; and, at the close of this forced march, met and routed the patriot army, which was much larger than his own. During this march, the soldiers subsisted on the parched corn which they took in their pockets. " These Peru- vians," says a highly intelligent gentleman, who has spent twenty years among them, " are a more hardy race, and will endure more fatigue and privation than any other people in the world. They subsist wholly on vegetable food ; and, being very improvident, their diet is generally coarse and scanty. Parched corn is their principal, and generally their exclusive article of food, when engaged in any particular enterprise or effort which requires great activity and power of body : at other times, they subsist on such of the various products of their climate as they happen to have at hand. In travelling, and in many other respects, the women are quite equal to the men in muscular power and agility." 282. Examples might be multiplied, from all parts of the world, of peo- ple living entirely upon vegetable food, and enjoying perfect health and bodily vigor ; but perhaps none are more striking than those we have in close proximity to us. " The chairmen, porters, and coalheavers, the strongest men in the British dominions, are said to be, the greater part of them, from the lowest rank of people in Ireland, which are generally fed with the potato. No food can afford a more decisive proof of its nourish- ing quality, or of its being peculiarly suitable to the health of the human constitution."! This remark has been amply confirmed by the recent experiments of Professor Forbes on the weight, height, and strength of above eight hundred individuals ; his tables clearly showing that the Irish are more developed than the Scotch at a given age, and the English less. The Rev. Howard Malcolm, of Boston, — who has travelled extensively in Europe, Asia, and America, — says : " The finest specimens of the human body I ever beheld, I saw in Ireland ; and they had never tasted animal food." Many English farmers, who have been in the habit of employing the natives of the Emerald Isle, bear testimony to the fact, that those who are steady, and refrain from spirituous liquors, are indefatigable ; and are capable of performing a much greater amount of agricultural labor, on * Sir John Sinclair's Code of Health anc| Longevity, t Smith's Wealth of Nations, vol. 1., p. 222. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 185 their simple meal of potatoes and buttermilk, than the English laborer, though feeding- on abundance of flesh-meat. 283. The miners in Cornwall are remarkably strong, well made, and laborious : their chief food is potatoes. Douglass, in his description of the East Coast of Scotland, says — " The common food of the country people on the east coast of Scotland is oatmeal, milk, and vegetables ; chiefly red cabbage in the winter season, and cole worts for the summer and spring." At ten or twelve miles' distance from a town, flesh is never seen in the houses of the common farmers, except at a baptism, a wedding, Christmas, or Shrovetide. Yet they are " strong and active, sleep sound, and live to a good old age." He gives " a farmer's bill of fare for a day ;" which is curious, and does not contain a particle of animal food. " The usual diet of laborers, in the parish of South Taunton, Devonshire, is milk and pota- toes, barley or wheaten bread, and occasionally a little bacon." " Bread and cheese, potatoes and milk porridge, and a thick flummery, made of coarse oatmeal, are the usual diet of the laboring people in Pembroke- shire."* 284. Mr. Brindley, a celebrated canal engineer in this country, informs us, that in the various works in which he has been engaged — where the workmen, being paid by the piece, each exerted himself to earn as much as possible — men from the north of Lancashire and Yorkshire, who adhered to their customary diet of oat-cake and hasty-pudding, with water for their drink, sustained more labor and made greater wages than those v/ho lived on bread, cheese, bacon, and beer — the general diet of laborers in the South. I am aware that statements have been made which seem to contradict what Mr, Brindley here affirms to be true. It has been said that Frenchmen, when employed in the forming of canals and raiVoads, have not been able to compete at all with the English, till they hav*'^ begun to eat animal food and to drink beer. Perhaps the work was at first new to them ; and habit, rather than food, might effect the change. It is not denied, however, that a more stimulating diet might excite them to more strenuous exertions ; and as they became more accustomed to their work, they would perform it with much greater ease ; and although a man on vegetable diet might not accomplish so much in a short space of time as a man living on more exciting food ; it is nevertheless certain, that if their constitutional stamina be equal, the former will bear a continuance of labor much longer than the latter ; and, by his steady and unremitting exertions, will in the end perform a much greater amount of work. 285. That animal food, or a mixed diet, is also sufficient to produce * Sir F. M. Eden's State of the Poor. 186 BEST FOOD OF MAN great bodily strength and vigor, cannot be denied. The examples already adduced are merely for the purpose of showing that a vegetable diet is not inconsistent with these qualities ; and abundant evidence yet remains to prove the superiority of a diet of fruit and farinaceous substances over one of animal food. But that the latter diet does not invariably produce strength and vigor, we have sufficient evidence in the inhabitants of both North and South latitudes. The Esquimaux and Fuegiaus, the Lapland- ers, Samoides, Ostiacs, Tungooses, Burats, and Kamtschatdales, though living almost exclusively on animal food, are the smallest, weakest, and least brave people of the globe. This part of the subject may be concluded with a few instances of individuals who have either never eaten anunal food, or subsequently discontinued its use. 286. " The yeomanry and laboring poor, throughout the greater part of Westmoreland and Cumberland, live altogether without animal food. Even substantial statesmen, as they are there called, who cultivate their own land, do not see a piece of flesh-meat at their table, for weeks or months together. Their chief diet is potatoes, milk, and oat-cakes ; wheaten bread being almost as great a variety as beef or mutton."* 287. Judge Woodruff, to whom I have previously alluded, (267,) relates an interesting anecdote of a Greek youth, a native of Thessaly, about nine- teen years of age, who subsisted on the plainest, simplest, and coarsest vegetable food ; mostly in a natural state, and chiefly fruit. " On our passage home from Greece," says he, " we encountered a number of severe gales, in which all the sailors were obliged to exert themselves to the utmost. During these times, onr Greek boy, John of Thessaly, displayed the most astonishing agility and muscular power. He would run out on the rigging ; and, hanging by one leg, he would handle the sails v/ith a degree of strength which seemed ahnost supernatural : although the storm was severe, and the sea rough, yet he would often swing so as to describe a con- siderable part of a circle, and it appeared impossible for any creature to hold fast. I witnessed these exploits with painful dread, expecting every moment to see him shaken from the rigging into the ocean ; but he felt perfectly secure, and even loved the sport, and seemed proud to be daring. One day, while we were sailing under a pleasant breeze, and nothing for the hands to do, the men amused themselves in performing various feats ; and, among other things, they tried to lift a cannon which was lying upon the deck. We had among the crew one very large, stout-built, powerful man, a native of Kentucky, who went by the name of ' big Charlie.' He prided himself in his strength : and, after several others had tried in vain to * Eitson on Animal Food. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 187 lift the gun, he took hold, and laid out his whole strength ; but did not stir it. He changed his position ; and tried the second and the third time» with all his might ; but was not able to move the gun at all. After big Charlie had given up, and all supposed, of course, that it was entirely use- less for any one else on board to try, the Greek boy, John, who had been idly looking on, came up lazily, and took hold of the gun ; and — to the utter amazement of the whole crew — he, with apparent ease, raised it up full two inches from the deck, and laid it down again. The astonished spectator^ could not believe their own eyes ; and, to satisfy them there was no deception about it, he raised it up the second time. This feat appeared so extraordinary to me, that I could not divest myself of the suspicion that there might be some peculiar sleight in it ; and — as I had been, in my prime, a pretty stout man — I thought I would try my own hand at it. I accordingly watched my opportunity, when no one was present to witness my attempt ; and, taking hold of the gun in the manner the Greek boy had done, I exerted all my strength ; but I could no more move it than if it had been riveted to the deck."" 288. The celebrated Lord Heathfield, who defended the fortress of Gib- raltar with such consummate skill and persevering fortitude, was well known for his hardy habits of military discipline. He neither ate animal food nor drank wine ; his constant diet being bread and vegetables, and his drink water ; and he never slept more than four hours in the twenty-four. " My health," says Mr. Jackson, a distinguished surgeon in the British army, " has been tried in all ways and climates ; and, by the aids of temperance and hard work, I have worn out two armies in two wars, and probably could wear out another, before my period of old age arrives. I eat no ani- mal food, drink no wine or malt liquors, nor spirits of any kind. I wear no flannel ; and regard neither wind nor rain, heat nor cold, when business is in the way." 289. " Thomas Jackson, a laboring man of Nantucket, has never eaten any flesh, though he sometimes eats fish. He informed me, a short time since," says Mr. William Macy, " that he had never been sick, never felt any of the aches and pains of which others complain, and never experi- enced any painful weariness from labor. He said he could work all day and all night, if necessary, without any considerable sense of fatigue. I have known him go into the field in the morning, and labor through the day, and come in at evening and eat his supper, and go into the oil-mill and work ail night, and then go into the field again in the morning, with- out a moment's sleep, and work all day ; and yet, at the close of the second * Graham's Lectures, vol. ii., p. 214. 188 BEST FOOD OF MAN. day, he assured me that he felt no oppressive sense of weariness or ex- haustion. He observed to me that he had several brothers, all of whom ate flesh freely ; and, said he, I am worth the whole of them to endure labor, privation, and exposure. He is uncommonly nimble and active." 290. " Thomas McGoodin, a laboring man in the Callender Factory, in Providence, is about forty years old, (February, 1834,) small frame, and weighs about 9 st. 4 lbs. From religious considerations he was induced, about 1825, to abandon the use of animal food, and adopt the most simple vegetable diet, and water to drink. After living in this way about seven years, and laboring hard, a competition arose in the beetling department of the factory, in which the ability of the laborers to endure powerful and protracted effort was severely tried. Two stations, requiring precisely the same exertion, were to be occupied for several days in succession. Mc- Goodin took one of these stations, and occupied it through the whole time without flagging in the least ; while the other station was successively occupied by three or four of the strongest men in the establishment ; all of whom were actually tired out, and obliged to be relieved. The overseer of the department declared that he believed McGoodin would kill every man in the establishment, if they were obliged to hold their way with him till he gave out. McGoodin also labored from one to two hours longer than any other man." 291. Dr. Joshua Porter says : " One of my neighbors has taken no flesh for more than three years. He is of the ordinary height, and san' ^me temperament, and usually weighed, when he ate flesh, 180 lbs. After he changed his diet, his countenance began to change and his cheeks feU in, and his meat-eating friends had serious apprehensions that he would sur- vive but a short time, unless he returned to his former habits. But he persevered, and is now more vigorous and more athletic than any man in the region, or than he himself has ever been before. His muscular strength is very great. A few days since, (October 26, 1827,) a number of the most athletic young men in our village (North Brookfield) were trying their strength at lifting a cask of lime weighing 500 lbs. All ftiiled to do it, with the exception of one, who partly raised it from the ground. After they were gone, this vegetable-eater, without any difficulty, raised the cask four or five times. He now weighs 165 lbs." 292. Dr. Lambe states that in his case there was an increase of strength, and the pulse became much more full and strong than under the use of animal food ; it was also perfectly calm and regular. A correspondent of Dr. Lambe's, who had adopted the vegetable diet in his family, says : "After persisting near four years in the use of a strict vegetable diet and distilled BEST FOOD OF MAN. 189 water, I am happy to give my decided testimony in favor of your system. Its effects have been a gradual and important strengthening of the consti- tution, without any inconvenience or disagreeable symptom. I found the change easy and pleasant, and have never had the least wish to resume the use of animal food. I have always used much exercise ; I have found my power of bearing fatigue increased, and have never, during the whole time, felt the slightest indisposition." Previously to this gentleman abstaining from animal food, his health had always been good ; and he gives similar testimony as to the effects of the diet upon his children — twelve, ten, and five years of age. ' 293. All the examples hitherto presented are of the male sex ; bat instances are not wanting to show that a diet of vegetable food is equally beneficial in its influence on the health of females ; and to them, generally, ' it is more essential than to men. Professor Lawrence says : " I was myself acquainted with a lady who, from a kind of whim, began to live on vegeta- bles. She was in good health, and it was not necessary at all for her to give up her ordinary habits of life. She took a fancy, however, to live in this way : she took nothing but distilled water, fruit, and vegetables ; without tasting animal substance, except the milk she took in her tea, for several years. I never knew a more active person ; she made nothing of walking ten miles, and could walk, with ease, twenty. She had two children during the time I knew her, and suckled them for about twelve months each ; during which time she only took what I have mentioned — vegetables and fruit to eat, and distilled water to drink — taking nothing stronger than tea, or tea mixed with milk ; yet they were fine healthy children." 294. At Salford, in Lancashire, there is a religious community, under the denomination of Bible Christians, who, from religious motives, abstain from animal food ; and their minister, the Rev. John Booth Strettles, has kindly answered many inquiries which I made respecting the health, &c., of the members of that society. He observes : "As to your fii'st question, respecting the health and strength of those who adopt the vegetable diet, I have had no reason — I have neither seen nor heard of any — to doubt that in strength they are equal, if not superior, to those who live on flesh diet ; while in health, as far as my experience and observation go, they greatly excel them. During the thirty-four years which I and others with me have abstained from flesh-meat and intoxicating liquor, I have known no injury to arise from such abstinence, either to young or old." This testimony is worthy of especial notice ; as, in the society to which it refers, there must 190 BEST FOOD OF MAN. be members of all ages, of great variety of constitution, and of all occupa- tions. 295. Since the publication of the first edition of this work, the " Vege- tarian Society" has been established, and the members held their first con- ference at Eamsgate, on the 30th of September, 1847, Joseph Brotherton, Esq., M. P., presiding. Although so recently constituted, the list of mem- bers published J«anuary 1, 1848, comprised as follows : Ladies, 110 Member of Parliament, ----- 1 County Magisti-ates, ------ 2 Aldermen, ------- 2 Physicians and Surgeons, ----- 9 Ministers of Keligion, ----- 3 Authors, ....... 2 Professional Men, .-.--- 12 Merchants and Manufacturers, . . . . Q Farmers, ---.--- 3 Tradesmen, Mechanics,, &c., - - - - 122 Private Gentlemen, ----- 2 The following table shows their respective periods of abstinence from the flesh of animals : 40 years, 1 30 " - 71 20 " 58 10 " 44 1 " 64 1 month, - 27 265 On the 1st of January, 1849, the number of members was 376. No less than 76 of the members have abstained from the flesh of animals the whole of their lives. The first annual meeting of the Society was held at Man- chester, on the 28th July, 1848, when much interesting and practical information was elicited from the members present ; and it is to be hoped that their future records will comprise a valuable fund of statistical facts, which may be of great service to future inquirers. Mr. Thomas Taylor, who was in his sixty-first year, had abstained from animal food during thirty-five years, and observed, that he had stood more hard labor than the generality of working-men. One gentleman present, seventy-three years of age, had walked 4,941 miles within the preceding twenty-one months, besides working in his garden during his leisure hours. " The wife of another gentleman at the meeting had abstained from flesh, and all intox- BEST FOOD OF MAN. 191 icating drinks, for thirty years, had given birth to fifteen children during that time, fourteen out of the fifteen she had suckled, and yet remained hale, young, and happy-looking." The general opinion, therefore, that physical strength cannot be maintained on a fruit and farinaceous diet, is undoubtedly wrong, and cannot have been formed from long experience, or from a proper examination of the subject. A few days' trial of a less stimulating diet than usual will certainly induce a person to suppose that it is debilitating : but if he persevere for a few months upon food judi- ciously selected, and take proper exercise, he will find no reason to com- plain of any diminution of his usual vigor. CHAPTER Y. CLIMATE AND TEMPERATUEE. 296. The numerous references already made to men living on vegetable productions, in all climates, whether hot or cold, and engaged in all kinds of occupations, and yet enjoying health and strength, may be regarded as a sufficient refutation of the opinion that human diet should vary with the climate in which a man resides. It is true that a diet of animal food will agree much better with a person living in a cold climate, and taking a considerable amount of muscular exercise, than with one residing in a hot climate, and leading an inactive life ; but it is also equally true, that a. diet of fruit and farinacea is conducive to the highest and most complete develop- ment of man, physically, mentally, and morally, in cold countries as well as in hot ; and, ^' all other things being precisely equal, the man who is fully accustomed to a pure vegetable diet can endure severer cold, or bear the same degree of cold much longer than the man who is fully accustomed to a flesh-diet. Reasoning from false notions derived from mere momentary sensation, mankind long clung to the opinion that alcoholic liquor would enable them better to endure both heat and cold ; and although modern experiments are beginning to set them right concerning alcohol, yet they blindly cherish the idea that flesh-meat is better for them in cold regions than vegetable food ; without pausing to consider, that while it actually affords them less real and permanent nourishment, it stimulates them more and exliausts the vital powers of their organs more rapidly ; and therefore, 192 BEST FOOD OF MAN. in all that it differs in its effects from vegetable food, it approaches more to the character of alcohol."* 297. We have seen that in Norway, Russia, and other cold portions of the globe, the people who subsist on coarse vegetable food are exceedingly hardy and vigorous ; and it has been stated, by gentlemen who have spent many months in Siberia, that no exiles to that wintry region endure the severities of the climate better than those who have been all their lives accustomed to a simple vegetable diet. Not to depend exclusively on a statement of facts, let us briefly inquire how far recent discoveries in organic chemistry substantiate the view here taken. 298. It is universally admitted, that food abounding in carbon and hydrogen is absolutely necessary to the inhabitants of cold climates, in order to support animal heat ; and though it is acknowledged that starch, and other amylaceous and saccharine substances, do not contain so large a pro- portion of these elements as animal fat and oils, yet they contain much more than the flesh or muscle of animals ; and are therefore better adapted to the circumstances of a man in a cold climate, than what is generally understood by an animal or mixed diet. Many vegetables also abound in oil ; as almonds, nuts, olives, chocolate, &c., which, -svith farinaceous sub- stances, w^ould sufficiently support respiration ; besides, it has not yet been proved that all the animal heat is produced by the oxygenation of carbon and hydrogen. 299. It has been shown (200) that the non-azotized principles of vege- table food are easily converted into fat, by a separation of oxygen ; or transformed into protein, water, and oxygen, by a union with the nitrogen of the atmosphere ; or resolved, by vital chemistry, into carbonic acid and other compounds ; by which processes caloric is evolved. It is clear, there- fore, that upon vegetable diet the animal heat ought to be higher (caeteris paribus) than upon a flesh or mixed diet, from which fat and oils are excluded. But if farinaceous articles of diet cannot be procured in high latitudes, or if the persons residing there have not been accustomed to that kind of food, then undoubtedly animal oils and fat are the only substances that can be substituted for them ; the flesh of lean animals being inadequate to their support, except at the expense of immense bodily exertion, to cause a sufficient waste of tissue for the purpose of supplying the carbon necessary for uniting with the oxygen of the atmosphere to produce animal heat. 300. Certain individuals, however, after adopting a vegetable diet, think that they feel more chilly and cold than when on a mixed diet ; others find no alteration in this respect. The difference in the experience of various * Graham's Lectures, vol. il., p. 278. B£iST FOOD OF MAN. 193 individuals may probably be thus explained. Vegetable food being less stimulating than the ordinary diet of this country, and less oxygen being requisite for respiration upon the former, in consequence of the liberation of that element from the food during the process of digestion, muscular activity is less required of a person adopting the former diet ; and, very frequently, the habits become more sedentary under it ; though this is by no means a necessary consequence. Hence the various secretions of the body are formed less rapidly ; and, as caloric is developed by all chemical changes, its absolute quantity will vary with the amount of organic trans- formations that are constantly taking place. Many persons, also, when making this change of diet, form at the same time the salutary habit of cold sponging ; and, by thus freeing the pores of the skin from feculent matter, permit a much greater amount of caloric to escape : active exer- cise, therefore, should invariably accompany cold ablutions, to restore the equilibrium of temperature. 301. But " the power of generating heat," as Sir John Eoss* ascertained from long experience, " varies exceedingly in diifereut individuals ; and is as much a portion of the original constitution as are the muscular or the mental energies." " This at least seems certain, that men of the largest appetites and most perfect digestion produce the most heat ; as feeble stomachs, whether dyspeptic, as it is termed, or merely unable to receive much food, are subject to suJBTer the most from cold ; never generating heat enough to resist its impressions." 302. In answer to an inquiry on this subject, respecting the influence of vegetable food on the members of the religious society called "Bible Christians," the Rev. J. B. Strettles says : " I know not that any have made any change in their dress, in consequence of adopting the change of diet; nor that they have discovered any thing like a decrease of heat, arising from that change, to induce them to think it necessary." 303. In conclusion, I can with truth affirm that, after thirteen years' trial of an exclusively vegetable diet, I feel no inconvenience from the change of the seasons, though I am more thinly clad than formerly ; and my present immunity from coughs and colds, to which I was very subject, may probably be attributed to the joint influence of a natural diet and daily sponging or bathing with cold water.^^ [Note 27. It is not yet proven that oily food, either of an animal or vegetable nature, is essential to the generation of a due supply of animal l^oat m cold climates. All the evidence as yet rests upon the mere * Second Voyage in Search of a North-west Passage, p. 128 9 194 BESTFOODOFMAN. assumptions of a few chemists. But these chemists, especially Liebig and Pereira, place alcohol, as well as oil, among the " respiratory foods," : because it, as well as oil, contains a large proportion of carbon. The manifest absurdity of such a conclusion is presumptive evidence against the philosophy of the theory. The truth probably is this : the ordinary farinaceous foods and fruits contain all the carbon and hydrogen requi- site to sustam the animal heat in all climates and under all circumstances of temperature : and if ever surplus carbon or hydrogen is taken into the system, it is of course thrown off; and when considerable of an amount of surplus carbon and hydrogen is taken, the labor of expelling it is , attended with a feverish excitement, which, instead of warming the body ; permanently, only wastes its energies, and renders it colder in the end. ' All human experience proves this to be true in relation to alcohol ; and I cannot see why this explanation does not just as well apply to any sub- stance which contains a large proportion of carbon or hydrogen, or both, ij with very little nutriment. T.] ' CHAPTER YI. INFLUENCE OF AZOTIZED FOOD IN THE PRODUCTION OF CERTAIN DISEASES. Si tibi deficiant medici, medici tibi fiant Haec tria ; mens hilaris, requies, moderata diaeta. — Schola Sales. 304. As health depends, primarily, upon a sound constitution, or fitness of the bodily organs to perform the functions assigned to them, and, seo- ondarily, upon a proper relation between those organs and external objects, so disease is the consequence of organic defects, or the want of relation between external matter and the organs, or of both ; so that the processes of decay and renewal are interrupted, or imperfectly performed. Func- tional disarrangement, therefore, affords the first indications of the com- mencement of disease ; and although, in certain conditions of the atmo- sphere, the healthiest person may be subject to epidemic infection, yet were all the physiological laws of health strictly observed by persons of origi- nally sound constitutions, they would seldom suffer from disease. 305. The principal avenues through which external agents influence organic life, for good or for ill, are the stomach, the lungs, and the skin or BEST FOOD OF MAN. 195 general surface : the two latter require iu this place no notice ; our atten- tion, therefore, will be confined to the former. It has already been shown, in part, (though the subject admits of much further elucidation,) that the teeth, salivary glands, stomach, liver, pancreas, spleen, the whole of the alimentary canal, and even the kidneys, lungs, and skin, as well as all the other organs of the body, bear a determinate relation to each other, and to the natural food of the animal. Various and wonderful are the contri- vances and adaptations of nature, for removing from the system any for- eign matler that may make its way into the blood, as well as any excess of such substances as are natural to it, which food improper as to quality or quantity may be the means of introducing. Nay, even so provident is nature, that when men absurdly persist in supplying the stomach with food that is uimatural, whether solid or liquid, the increased action to which any organ is excited, in order to rid the system of what is injurious, gradually enlarges the organ itself ; so that it may the more energetically and effi- ciently perform the additional duty imposed upon it. But this can take place only within certain limits ; and, in a great many instances, functional and finally structural disarrangement is the consequence of over-stimu- lation. 306. Without entering further into the nature of disease or its causes, ■- ive may show — 1. That too stimulating a diet, or one that is unnatural in quality or quantity, is a very general cause of functional disorder. 2. That an abstemious diet of fruit, grain, and other farinaceous vegetables is, in general, the surest means of restoration to health. Let it, however, be clearly understood, that improper food is not considered the only means of introducing disease ; inattention to exercise, pure air, cleanliness, the cuta- neous and other excretions, together with a number of acquired and unnatu- ral habits, may be equally effective in destroying health ; and a man who lives temperately upon a mixed diet of animal and vegetable food, and is at the same time regular in other sanitary habits, will enjoy a far greater share of health, and be less liable to epidemic diseases, than the man who adheres strictly to a vegetable diet, but neglects all other physiological laws. 307. If fruit, and other products of the vegetable kingdom, be the natu- ral food of man, of which much evidence has already been adduced, it is reasonable to conclude, a priori, that all the functions of the human frame will be best maintained in healthy action upon this diet ; and the most readily restored by it to a normal state, when functional power has been weakened : and many eminent medical practitioners entertain this opmion. 308. " The effects of animal food, and other noxious matter," observes 196 BE8TF00D0FMAN Dr. Lambe, " of inducing and accelerating fatal disease, are not immediate, but ultimate eflects. 1'lie immediate effect is to engender a diseased habit or state of constitution : not enough to impede the ordinary occupations of life, but, in many, to render life itself a long-continued sickness ; and to make the great mass of society morbidly susceptible of many passing impressions, which would have no injurious influence upon healthy sys- tems." (239.) 309. " Food in excess," says Dr. Clarke, " or of a kind too exciting for the digestive organs, may induce tubercular cachexia ; — a circumstance which is not sufficiently attended to, I may say not generally understood, even by medical men. Nevertheless, I hold it to be a frequent cause of scrofula ; and believe that it produces the same effect on the system as a deficient supply." Dr. Buchan observes : " Consumptions, so common in England, are in part owing to the great use of animal food ;" and Dr. Lambe is of opinion, that scrofula and other diseases are frequently attri- butable to the same cause. 310. Abernethy says : "Animal substances are changed into a putrid, abominable, and acrid stimulus ;" which was verified by Sir Edward Berry, who prevailed upon a man to live on partridges without vegetables ; but, after eight days' ti'ial, he was obliged to desist, in consequence of strong symptoms then appearing of an incipient putrefaction. " Errors in diet are the great source of disease : amendment of diet is the basis of recovery. The majority of our maladies medicine may relieve or suspend ; but, without the aid of regimen, can never cure."* 311. Many believe that the abuse of animal food, as an article of diet, is connected with the introduction of certain diseases; some of which appear to be of modern date, and are yet unknown in many parts of the globe. Dr. Sigmond, in his work on mercury, &c., says : " It is stated that our living on animal food is the cause of the greater number of diseases to which man is subject." Dr. Alphonsus Lercy, of Paris, has just published an essay on certain diseases of men, which he traces to the animals on which they had fed ; and he establishes the doctrine generally, that many diseases with which mankind are afilicted are communicated by eating the flesh of animals. 312. Measles are a complaint of recent origin ; scarlatini still more recent ; the latter having made its first appearance only two centuries age. The small-pox is of no very ancient date ; since Hippocrates, Galen, and the other Greek physicians, give it no place in their nosological histories ; the first account of it being in the works of the Arabian physicians. We * Thackrah's "Lectures on Digestion and Diet," p. 108. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 197 learn from Barrow's Travels,* that, to this day. Southern Africa is wholly exempt from smail-pox and canine madness. No writer mentions scurvy before Strabo, who tells us, that it broke out for the first time in Augus- tus's reign, at which period we know how luxurious the Romans had become.f The spontaneous origin of these and all other diseases, at some time or other, cannot be doubted ; but by what combination of circum- stauces, or what influence an improper and unnatural diet has had in pro- ducing them, it is perhaps impossible to determine. 313. Diseases of the liver are much more common where a flesh-diet abounds. Dr. Copland informs us, that " eating largely or frequently, especially of animal, rich, and highly-seasoned food, stimulating the appe- tite by a variety of incongruous dishes and sauces, and spices and wines, particularly in warm countries and seasons, are most influential causes of these disorders. It is probably owing to such full and stimulating diet," continues he, " that hepatic diseases are more common in the officers than in the troops serving in the West Indies."J (202.) Perhaps the fable before alluded to, of the vulture devouring the liver of Prometheus — who is said to have been the first to use fire and animal food — may be intended to represent the effects produced upon that organ by the free use of flesh and its usual accompaniment, spirituous liquors. It is not improbable that the fibrous growtlis and hypertrophy of tissues are owing to the excess of fibrin supplied by animal food. The late Dr. Graham, of Edinburgh, was of opinion that intemperate butchers, those who Vv^ere hired by the master butchers as slaughterers and assistants, were particularly prone to purpura haemorrhagica. This class of individuals in Edinburgh is almost invaria- bly addicted to drinking large quantities of ardent spirits, and lives chiefly on animal food. J. Wardell, M.D., also met with instances confirmatory of this opinion. g 314. " The man who forsakes not the law, and eats not flesh-meat like a bloodthirsty demon, shall attain good-will in this world, and shall not be aflSicted with maladies." || " It is to be remarked," says Sir John Sinclair, " in favor of vegetable aliment, that it has no tendency to produce any constitutional disorders, as happens from animal food, and any efiects it may have upon the body are almost entirely confined to the stomach and bowels, and seldom carry any injurious eSect to the system at large. Its effects hardly ever appear in the bloodvessels." And, again : "Animal food is * 7oL i., p. 408. t Newton's "Eetum to JNature," p. 183. X Medical Dictionary, article " Climate." § Prov. Med. and Surg. Journal, No. 5, 1849. I " Laws of Menu," In the "Works of Sir "William Jones, vol. lii. p 206. 198 BEST FOOD OF MAN. certainly more dangerous, and, in some respects, more wasting than vcgt;- table. By exciting temporary fever after every meal, the springs of life are urged into constant, preternatural, and weakening exertions." 315. But it is by an abnormal production, or retention in the system, of certain acids and their compounds, with mineral and earthy matters, that many of the more common diseases arise ; and it may be clearly shown that it is to the highly azotized articles of diet, such as animal food, that the increased production of these acids is principally owing ; though an obstruction of the perspiration and other excretions may produce similar effects, by preventing the necessary elimination of those moderate quantities that result from the transformation of the tissues. 316. The more formidable acids are the lactic, the lithic, and the oxalic, with their compounds. Now, when the excretory organs — as the skin, kidneys, liver, and lungs — perform their functions properly, all such acids, and their compounds, as are the result of the decomposition of the organic structure, are separated from the sytem ; and all the processes upon which life, health, and elasticity of mind depend, are uninterrupted. But there is another source of these acids ; namely, when the quantity of food exceeds the wants of the system, or when it is of a kind or quality not suited to the assimilating organs. When more azotized food is taken into the stomach than is necessary to supply the waste of the muscular and other azotized tissues, the digestive organs may be sufficiently active to effect the necessary conversion into chyle, and in this state it may be taken up by the lacteals ; but, as the blood becomes surcharged with elements of its com- position, the surplus, like that arising from daily decay, must be carried off by the excretory organs, particularly the liver, lungs, and kidneys, which (owing to the conjoint influence of external cold repelling the cutaneous exhalations, animal food, and spirituous liquors) are abnormally stimulated ; their functions are rendered more active, and their size frequently increased ; but, like many an over-worked laborer, they too frequently fail to effect all that is required of them, and sink under the additional duty they are called upon to perform. Hence a frightful catalogue of painful and dangerous diseases, so common in northern climates, where large portions of azotized food are consumed. 317. Derangement of function may either terminate in disease of the organ itself, or the matter which it was formed for eliminating from the blood may excite a general fever or combine with other effete matters, and be deposited in other distant parts of the system, thus giving rise to local irritation and various acute disorders, such as gout, rheumatism, calculi, &c., which constitute what is usually called the lithic acid diathesis, so BEST FOOD OF MAN. 1S9 prevalent among those who indulge in large quantities of azotized and stimulating food without proportionate muscular exercise. " In such quan- tities is urate of soda often generated, that the watery portions of the blood are not sufficient for its solution, and part of it is deposited in the joints and sheaths of tendons, producing painful swellings.""^ " The subjects of these diseases," observes Miiller, " are generally persons who live well, and eat largely of animal food ; whilst most urinary calculi, f gravelly deposits, the gouty concretions, and the perspiration of gouty persons, contain an abundance of lithic acid — a substance into the composition of which nitrogen enters in large proportions. By diminishing the amount of azotized substances in the food, the gout and gravelly deposits in the urine may be prevented." % Again he says, " The lithic acid of the urine, which resem- bles urea in containing a greater proportion of nitrogen than any other organic substances, is derived, without doubt, at least in part, from the new nutritive matter which the blood derives from the food ; for its quan tity in the urine is increased by merely taking animal food, or substances containing a large proportion of nitrogen ; and in the urine of herbivorous mammalia it does not exist, being replaced by hippuric (urino-benzoic) acid." ^ " In birds fed with substances containing nitrogen, the excrements contain much less white matter, or uric acid, than when they are fed with white of egg. In the composition of the urine of herbivorous and carnivo- rous quadrupeds, there is a difiercnce corresponding with the difference of their food ; the urine in the former animals contains hippuric acid. The urine of birds generally contains super-lithate of ammonia, but the urine of birds feeding on vegetables contains no urea." || Dr. Willis takes the same view of the matter, and says, " The most efficient cause in engendering lithic acid is indulgence in large quantities of animal food." 318. " Strumous, lithic acid, and gouty diseases," says Dr. Prout, "are all results of mal-assimilation of the albuminous principle, either primary or secondary, and often run into each other. Thus gout and struma or scrofula are frequently, if not always, associated ; and the gout and chalk-stones of old age may be considered as little more than modifica- tions of scrofulous tubercle of youth — both being alike formed from mal- assimilation of the albuminous or azotized principle." 319. " That these diseases (gout, calculi, &c.) are, comparatively speak- ing, rare among the lower classes, is at once accounted for by the fact that * Dr. Golding Bird on Urinary Deposits, p. 76. t Uric acid forms the nucleus of by far the greater number of urinary calculi ; five-sevenths of those at Guy's Hospital are of this kind. X "Elements of Physiology," vol. 1. p. 527. § lb., vol I., p. 161. [ lb., VOL i., p. 1C3. 200 BEST FOOD OF MAN. they do not take in any superfious azotized food — all that they consume being appropriated to the maintenance of their tissues, and the kidneys having only to discharge their proper function of removing from the blood the products of the decomposition of these." "* But as tubercular matter which gives rise to phthisis, scrofula, tabes, &c., is the result of imperfect conversion of food into organized matter, its presence in the system may arise from various other causes besides the superabundance of azotized food, particularly from lov/, innutritious diet, and from an unhealthy state of the secreting and excreting organs. 320. Notwithstanding the apparent correctness of these views, and the Yast amount of additional evidence that might be adduced to substantiate them, certain chemists and physiologists have ventured to call them in question ; some, perhaps, from a misapprehension of the term " low diet," or from not having fully and fairly considered the claims which a well- selected vegetable diet has upon their attention ; and others from too hasty an adoption of certain theories or statements of Professor Liebig. 321. Dr. W. Tyler Smith has lately written a work on scrofula, in which he freely animadverts on the poor and insufficient food in many of the Union Workhouses, and makes the following observations on the advantages of a mixed diet : " Prout and Majendie have shown, by reasoning and ex- periments, that a mixed diet of the different kinds of animal and vegetable food is the most conducive to health. Such an admixture of alimentary substances seems to amount to almost a positive law ; and is probably of more importance to those inclined to scrofula, than to any other class. Nevertheless, the children of the poor, and even of the rich, are often un- duly stinted in the use of animal food ; the one from the opinion that a vegetable and farinaceous diet is the most wholesome, the other from in- ability to procure a sufficiency of meat. There can be little question, look- ing at that state of the body which is most exposed to scrofula, that a purely vegetable diet — ^particularly in childhood, when the foundations of a weak or strong constitution can generally be laid — is most injudicious." 322. The experiments of Majendie have already been examined, (213, &c. ;) and it has been shown that they warrant no such conclusion as t]ie above. We only learn from them that the unmixed proximate principles, whether derived from the animal or vegetable kingdom, are insufficient to support life ; and that sul3stances highly concentrated by artificial means are injurious to health. The experiments and reasoning of Dr. Prout certainly show the necessity for a due admixture of the aqueous, saccha- rine, albuminous, oleaginous, and perhaps ligneous principles, in human * Carpenter's "Animal Physiology," p. 272. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 201 food ; but these are found in combination in the various fruits, grain, roots, &c., which have been previously shown to be the natural food of man ; and it is only when we attempt to refine upon nature, that these principles are separated. None of the observations of Dr. Prout, however, prove the necessity for a mixture of animal and vegetable matter in human food ; nor can it be shown from Anatomy, Chemistry, Physiology, or any of the kindred sciences, that for the preservation of health man requires either an animal or a mixed diet. 323. That the children of the rich frequently suffer from feeding on too concentrated a diet, — such as preparations from the finest wheaten flour, arrow-root, &c., — there can be no question; but that their liability to scrofula, and other diseases, is consequent upon abstinence from animal' food, is by no means a warrantable inference. If Dr. Smith's view of the subject were correct, we might expect to find scrofula exceedingly preva- lent among the Hindoos, the Irish, the Scotch, and many other people in various latitudes, who either never or very seldom taste animal food ; and yet among these are found examples of the most robust health. Dr. Prout has shown, that mal-assimilation, which may occur under an animal, a vege- table, or a mixed diet, is frequently the exciting cause of tubercle. The inferior and unwholesome food, both of an animal and vegetable nature, upon which the poor are reduced to the necessity of feeding, may well be called " a low diet ;" though people in very humble circumstances prefer the finest flour, both for themselves and their children, as more economical. In the case of the adult poor, it is mixed with so many other things of an innutritions nature, that no ill consequences may result ; but to their young- children, when it constitutes the principal part of their nutriment, it must be injurious. 324. Dr. Smith admits, that "fresh vegetables are of considerable importance in keeping the blood in a pure and wholesome condition, when the child has arrived at a proper age to digest any kind of food ;" and illustrates his remark by a reference to the prevalence of scro- fula among the boys of Christ's Hospital ; which he attributes chiefly to the absence of fresh vegetables from their dietary : their supply of animal food being good, both as regards quantity and quality. " Gross living," continues Dr. Smith, " is almost as influential as a poor diet in producing the disease, when the diathesis is highly developed. Scrofula is very com- mon among some of the children of the poor, who, are bloated from having a tolerable supply of food, and living without exercise, in confined apart- ments. Abundance of rich and stimulating food often renders strumous children so unwieldy as to prevent healthy exercise : it disorders the stomach 202 BESTFOODOFMAN. and digestion, and vitiates the whole mass of fluids to such a degree, that blotches, or small indurations, form in different parts of the body, and produce scrofulous sores ; or the slightest scratch or wound, in such cases, instead of healing, will begin to discharge, and speedily acquire the scrofu- lous character. Nothing is more common than for such children to get strumous disease of the scalp, obstinate scrofulous ophthalmia, otorrhoea, or discharge from behind the ears, and sores upon the mouth. In many cases, it almost seems as if scrofulous sores were set up, as a means of con- suming the superfluous material which has been introduced into the body." 325. These latter observations of Dr. Smith accord with those of I)r. Prout ; and there can be no doubt as to their correctness : for when mus- cular exercise is not proportionate to the amount of nutriment received, converted, and absorbed, nature is sure to set up some action to relieve the circulatory system from the excess ; but Dr. Smith has adduced no facts to prove that a scrofulous habit is ever the consequence of an exclusively vegetable diet, when of a proper kind and quality ; and if the account of the boys in Christ's Hospital may be depended upon, it is a proof of the injurious tendency of too animalized a diet. The diseases of the poor are attributable to many causes ; such as impure air, dirty habits, exposure to cold, and a scanty, low, innutritions diet ; consisting, frequently, of the worst quality of vegetable substances, and the offal of butcher's meat, perhaps rendered still more unwholesome by disease in the animal killed to supply it. 326. The views propounded by liebig, respecting the ultimate destina- tion of azotized and non-azotized articles of diet in the animal economy, are thought by some to sanction the use of animal food, and particularly where the lithic acid diathesis prevails. He is of opinion, that the amount of azotized matter in the urine may be regarded as a measure of the do- composition which takes place in the azotized tissues ; and that the quan- tity of urea and lithic acid, the products of the metamorphosed tissues, increases with the rapidity of transformation in a given time, but hears r?o proportion to the amount of food taken in the same period. " There can be no greater contradiction," says he, '' than to suppose that the nitrogen of the food can pass into the urine as urea, without having previously become part of an organized tissue." He also believes, that the use of wines, fat, oil, and other non-azotized articles of food, prevents the oxygen of the atmosphere from combining with the uric acid, to form urea. He further observes : " Gravel and calculus occur in persons who use very little animal food. Concretions of uric acid have never yet been observed in carnivorous mammalia, living in the wild state ; and among nations which live entirely BEST FOOD OF MAN. 203 on flesh, deposits of uric acid concretions in the limbs or in the bladder are entirely unknown."* 327. Eelying upon these views as firmly established, Dr. Bence Jones (in his work on gravel, calculus, and gout) recommends a diet principally of animal food in these diseases : it becomes, therefore, a matter of great importance to ascertain whether these opinions of Liebig are correct. That urea and lithic acid are, in a great measure, the result of the trans- formation of the tissues, and vary (ca^teris paribus) with the rapidity of decomposition; and that the quantity of lithic acid is increased by a deficient supply of oxygen, may be readily conceded : but that urea and lithic acid have no other origin than the transformation of the tissues, is certainly incorrect ; and that non-azotized articles of food favor the pro- duction of lithic acid, by combining v/ith the oxygen, is purely hypotheti- cal, and contradicted by facts. 328. Majendie states that uric acid disappears from the urine of carni- vorous animals, fed for about three weeks on non-uitrogenized food. An- other fact mentioned by Professor Liebig to Dr. Bird, as having been lately observed at the hospital at "Wurzburg, is to the same effect : "A girl, laboring under what appears to have been some form of hysteria, refused all food, excepting apples, of which she devoured an enormous quantity. On examining her urine, it was found to be alkaline, and con- tained a large quantity of hippuric, but no uric acid — like the urine of a horse or cow."f Hippuric acid contains eighteen equivalents of carbon, but only one of nitrogen. 329. It even seems more consistent with Liebig's own views to conclude that, as much oxygen is liberated by the chemical changes which take place durmg the digestion of non-azotized food, (200,) this very excess of oxygen may be esnployed in the conversion of uric acid into urea. His observations respecting concretions of lithic acid never having been found in carnivorous animals in the wild state, are equally applicable to herbi- vorous animals, when free and uncontrolled in their habits ; because they then live upon such substances as are adapted to their organization, and are not tempted by artificial preparations to take more than the wants of the system require. But man acts in a far diiFerent manner : he freely indulges in all the varieties of artificially prepared food, which are con- trived rather to gratify the palate than to satisfy the natural appetite ; * Opposed lo this statement is the fact, that the Carnivora excrete from the kidneys much less than the Herbivora, which induced Dr. Wollaston long ago to recommend vegetable diet to those who were subject to gravel. Dr. Pearson also advised the same regimen, having observed that the concretions of herbivorous animals contain no lithic acid. t " Urinary Deposits," p. 50. 204 BEST FOOD OF MAN. and instead of preventing the injurious effects of repletion, by labor and exercise, he too frequently increases the evil by indulgence in sloth aud inactivity. The excess of uon-azotized food, in such circumstances, may be deposited as fat, (200, &c.,) but the excess of azotized principles in the blood is not converted into muscle and other tissues : it must therefore be removed with the excretions, and pass off either by the kidneys or the skin ; and this must ever be the case, when the supply exceeds the demand. 330. If no more nutriment be received into the system than is requi- site to supply its wants, no azotized principles, it is probable, will appear in the urine, except such as have first formed a part of the animal fabric ; but whenever an excess of food is ingested, there will be an accumulation of nutrient principles in the blood, unless means be adopted to prevent it. It is very probable " that the fibrin of the blood, like the solid tissues, has a limited term of existence as such ; and that it must either be converted into solid tissue, or must undergo a change of composition." In the healthy state of the system, there is a constant demand for as much fibrin as the blood supplies ; consequently there is no waste ; but if the supply is greater than the demand, how can the excess be removed, except through the excretory organs especially concerned in carrying off the superfluous and effete azotized matters of the system ; namely, the kidneys and the skin ? Liebig states that the superfluous food of the luxurious is converted into various gases. This, no doubt, is partly the case; but the whole excess of azotized substances is certainly not thus disposed of ; for the excretions from the kidneys, skin, &c., vary, in character and amount, with the quality and quantity of the food. 331. Dr. Prout has shown that a considerable difference exists between the urina sanguinis, or urine resulting from the secondary assimilating process, and the urina potus vel chyli vel cibi, or urine of primary assimilation. " There are few persons," says he, " in whom the urine of assimilation does not deviate, more or less, from the healthy standard, both in specific gra- vity and quantity ; aud the degree and nature of the differences often throw much light on the derangements of the assimilating organs. The urine of the blood, in general, is more uniform in its properties ; but when it does vary remarkably from the standard of health, the deviation generally denotes some deep-seated and constitutional disease of an unfavorable cha- racter." And again : " With respect to diet, quantity is often of infinitely greater importance than quality. Thus, a full meal — whether of animal or vegetable* matters, or of a mixture of the two — will usually produce a * K vegetable food only be taken, the effect here spoken of ia doubtful, unless one or more of the excretory functions be much out of order. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 205 deposition of gravel in predisposed individuals, in v/liom a spare meal of llie very same materials is not followed by such deposits." 332. If Liebig were correct in stating that the urinary deposits result Bolely from decomposition of the tissues, they ought to vary little, in quan- tity or quality, from day to day, except when transformation is hastened by muscular exercise, disease, &c. ; whereas it is a well-known fact, that excess of azotized food greatly increases these deposits, when little exercise has been taken to promote disintegration ; it is, therefore, reasonable to conclude " that the superflous azotized matter ingested passes off in the form of urate of ammonia, without becoming part of the tissues at all." 333. " There can be no question," says Dr. Golding Bird, " that all the phenomena of health and disease point out the probability of there being a double origin of this substance, (uric acid :) one from the nitrogenized elements of tissues, and the other from the elements of food, rich in nitro- gen, which escape the completion of the process of primary assimilation. No experience yet collected justifies our assuming that uric acid bears any definite relation, in quantity, to urea ; in all probability. Dr. Front's opi- nion, that the latter is derived from the metamorphoses of a different set of tissues (the gelatinous) from those yielding the former, (the albuminous,) is correct, although it does not obviously admit of positive proof.''^ A diminution of albuminous matter in the food, therefore, so as to afford no more than the necessary supply to the tissues, is the most likely remedy in the lithic acid diathesis, and it has universal experience in its favor. " Who," says Dr. Graves, " ever heard of a case of gout among the potato- eating peasantry of Ireland?" "And who," observes a writer in the " British and Foreign Medical Eeview,"f " ever heard of one among the oatmeal-feeders of Scotland, or the rice-feeding Hindoos, low as is their oxygenation, in consequence of the warmth of the surrounding medium ? Every practitioner must have met with examples, in which a simple reduc- tion in the quantity of animal food ingested has caused an immediate dis- appearance of the lithic acid from the urine. Sometimes it is necessary to push this reduction to a still greater extent : thus, we have known an instance in which no decided benefit was obtained until the patient was restricted to the Hindoo diet of rice and capsicums, which procured a simple cure. Upon Dr. Jones' principles, this ought to have produced the most serious aggravation ; for the diet which he recommends is one from which starch and other non-azotized substances are almost completely' excluded." • "Urinary Deposits," p. 47. t No. XXX., April, 1823. 206 BEST FOOD OF MAN. 334. The following experiments fully conarm these remarks. Careful analyses were made of the urine from two persons, A and B ; the former having lived during several years on an exclusively vegetable diet ; the latter temperately on a mixed diet, excepting five days previously to the first experiment, when he purposely took a much larger portion of animal food than usual. Both had refrained during a long period from fermented and distilled liquors. The uric acid and urea obtained from the urine of tv/enty-four hours was as follows : A,— 1.8 grains of Uric Acid, and 181.29 grains of Urea. B.— 8.0 do. 333.6 do. Nine months afterwards, the experiment was repeated, on the 14th of April, 1845, without any change of diet, except that A had occasionally taken very small quantities of the diffusible stimulants, and B much less animal food than at the former trial. The proportions were then as follow : A. — ^1.69 grains of Uric Acid, and 13T.53 grains of Urea. B.— 2.19 do. 285.16 do. Immediately after this experiment, A lived freely during seven days on a mixed diet, taking a large portion of animal food during the same period, and B lived exclusively on a vegetable diet. On the 21st of April, the uric acid and urea were as below : A. — 3.14 grains of Uric Acid, and 2.52.16 grains of Urea. B.— 1.259 do. 15T.67 do.* 335. In the first experiment, the uric acid eliminated in twenty-foor hours by A, was one-sixth of the quantity eliminated by B, and the urea little more than one-half. In the second experiment, the uric acid waa four-fifths, and the urea still about one-half. In the third experiment, the proportions were reversed ; the urine of A containing 2h times the uric acid, and nearly 1| of the urea yielded by that of B. As the analyses were made with extreme care, and conducted in precisely the same way, reliance may be placed on their accuracy. The results of these experiments establish two material points : — 1. That the urea and uric acid are not derived exclusively from the decomposition of the tissues. 2. That the quantity of each of these important compounds is increased by animal food, and diminished by a fruit and farinaceous diet. The views of Professor Liebig a,nd Dr. Bence Jones upon these points cannot, therefore, be correct ; and, if practically applied in the treatment of the lithic acid diathesis, would doubtless be productive of much mischief. * See Appendix, B. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 207 336. Experiments similar to the above were made by Dr. Lehmaim, of Leipsic, who examined the quantity of urea and uric acid secreted by hi3 kidneys, while living, for some days, on a strictly animal diet ; on a purely vegetable diet ; on a mixed diet ; and on a diet quite free from nitrogen- consisting of starch, giun, oil, sugar, &c. The mean weight of the urea and uric acid obtained from the urine of twenty-four hours, in these circumstances, is expressed below in grains. Darr. ^Animal Vegetable. Mixed. Non-nitro. Urea in the urine of 24 hours 819-2 346-5 500-5 237-1 Uric acid ditto 22-64 15-7 18-17 11-24 337. The quantity of urea and uric acid here given, under each kind of diet, is much greater than is generally met with, and may be owing to some peculiarity in the constitution of the experimenter, or, more likely, to some error in converting the foreign weights into English grains. The evidence, however, is sufficiently clear as to the influence of food in modi- fying the proportion of urea and uric acid separated by the kidneys, and the results are similar to those obtained by the preceding experiments. 338. " From this table we learn," says Dr. Golding Bird, " that when living on a diet as free from nitrogen as possible, 11*24 grains of uric acid, and 237*1 of urea, were secreted in twenty-four hours. These quantities may be assumed as solely produced by metamorphosis of tissue ; inas^ much as there existed no other source for them. On confining himself to a strictly animal diet, Lehmann found in his urine 22*64 uric acid, and 819-2 urea ; being 11*4 more of the former, and 582-1 more of the latter, than can be accounted for by the disorganization of the tissues of his body, and, consequently, must have been derived from the ingesta. On mixing vege- table food with his meat, instead of finding an increased proportion of uric ucid, (as the theory of Liebig would indicate^ this substance decreased, not only in the actual amount, but in the ratio it bears to the urea."* 339. It is possible, however, that the sudden adoption of a purely vege- table diet, by one who has been accustomed to live luxuriously, might prove injurious, and even increase the amount of lithic acid ; for, if the digestive powers have been enfeebled by a long course of indulgence, au immediate return to a diet of fruits and vegetable matters might cause an increased secretion of oxalic acid, which, acting on the urate of ammonia might deposit the lithic acid ; but, if cautiously adopted, a diet of fari nacea and fruit will, in all cases, be of considerable service : and person? * " Urinary Deposits," p. 45. p Z08 BEST FOOD OF MAN. who have lived moderately on a mixed diet may, in most cases, make an immediate change, without any apprehension of ill consequences. 340. It may be here obser\^ed, that there are other causes of an abnor- mal production of lithic acid. When the functions of the skin, for instance, have been suspended, by cold or other means, an excess of nitrogen is retained in the blood, and is ultimately separated by the kidneys, in the form of urate of ammonia or urea. Sequin observed that perspiration was lessened during digestion, and considerably diminished when this function V.' as imperfect : food of any kind, therefore, taken in too large a quantity, may, by overloading the digestive functions, indirectly cause a deposit of uric acid, independently of the nitrogen contained in the meal, from which the urate of ammonia might be formed. Even chloride of sodium, (common salt,) when taken in excess, may contribute materially, not only to the deposition of the lithic acid, but also to the formation of chalk-stones (lithate of soda) in the joints ; and as physiological chemists appear to have overlooked, or not sufficiently attended, to the combinations thus arising, I hope I may be excused endeavoring to point out how these may take place according to the well-known laws of chemical affinity. Hydro- chloric acid is admitted to be an important agent in the process of diges- tion, and common salt, when taken as a condiment, or as existing in all vegetable products, is also supposed to be the origin of this acid."^^ It is well known that vegetables, during their growth, decompose water, and there is little doubt that this is the case in the animal economy. ISTow, as water consists of one equivalent of oxygen and one of hydrogen, and as common salt is formed by one equivalent of sodium and one of chlorine, the following transformations may take place in consequence of the decompo- sition of the water. The chlorine of the salt may combine with the hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid, and the oxygen unite with the sodium to form soda : if these two new products should be in such ex'cess in the system as not to be eliminated by the liver and other excreting organs, the hydrochloric acid, meeting with the lithate of ammonia, effects another change ; by combining with the ammonia, the lithic acid is either precipi- tated, forming gravel and other urinary calculi, or the lithic acid unites with the soda and forms lithate of soda ; hence it is that gouty concretions and gravelly deposits may either simultaneously or alternately afflict the same individual. Lactic acid, which, according to Berzelius, is a universal product of the spontaneous decomposition of animal matters within the human body, may also, by dissolving the union between the ammonia and the lithic acid, frequently cause the deposition of the latter. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 209 [Note 28. This supposition, however, must be erroneous ; for animals and human beings who never use salt in any form, are not in tlie least deficient in its acidulous property. I am of opinion that chloride of sodium can be manufactured by the vital machinery to any extent that the system requires it, even from those kinds of food in which chemical analysis does not detect it. There are many reasons for regarding common salt, when found in the excretions, as an excrementitious substance, as well as urate of soda, phosphate of ammonia, &c. T.] I shall conclude these observations upon diseases arising from an abnor- mal production of lithic acid, with the following authorities and cases. 341. Dr. Craigie observes : " Diet consisting of bread and milk, or rice and milk, or the flour of fai'inaceoiis seeds and milk, is quite ade- qnate io prevent the fonnation of the gouty diathesis, and to extinguish that diathesis if already formed. Such diet is also adequate to pre- vent the disease from appearing in its irregular form, and affecting the brain and its membranes, and the heart or lungs. If further argu- ments were required, in proof of the position that milk and grain-diet, (not in large quantity,) or diet of boiled vegetables and milk — while both necessary and adequate to the cure of gout — is perfectly safe, and much less injurious than diet of animal food, they may be found in the facts observed in the physiological relation between the stomach on the one hand, and the lungs on the other."* Dr. Cullen entertains the same opinion of vegetable diet : "I am firmly persuaded that any man who, early in life, will enter upon the constant practice of bodily labor, and of abstinence from animal food, will be preserved entirely from gout." With respect to rheumatism, he observes : " The cure requires, in the first place, an antiphlogistic regimen, and particularly a total abstinence from animal food, and from all fermented and spirituous liquors." Dr. Cheyne informs us that the Prince of Conde, after having long suffered from, and being quite overcome by the gout, was advised by his physicians, for the relief of his pain, to enter upon a vegetable diet, and a total abstinence from fish, flesh, and wine. It succeeded accordingly ; his pains were relieved, and the gout was overcome.^^ [Note 29. It would puzzle, I think, those of our medical gentlemen who admit the propriety of a strict vegetable diet for the cure of gout and rheumatism, yet contend for the necessity of a return to flesh-eating as soon as recovery takes place, to give a reason for their dietetic philo- * Elements of the Practice of Physic, vol. ii., p. 633. 210 BEST FOOD OF M.iN. sopliy. To me the statement that tlie food whlcli is capable of ridding the system of disease, and restoring its fanctiona] integrity, is not best cal- culated to preserve its normal condition, seems intrinsically absurd ; and I have never yet been able to draw out of a medical man a single reason for a contrary opinion. T.] 342. One of the most remarkable cases of the beneficial effects of vege- table diet in gout, is that of Mr. Thomas Wood, of Billericay, in Essex, recorded by Sir George Baker, in the Transactions of the Royal College of Physicians. This person — from living freely on large quantities of fat meat, with butter, cheese, ale, &c, — became exceedingly corpulent ; and began, in his fortieth year, to suffer severely from heartburn, sickness, headache, violent rheumatism, and frequent attacks of gout ; he also had two epileptic fits. These symptoms continued, increasing in severity, during a space of nearly five years ; when, in consequence of reading the work of Cornaro on health, he first diminished the quantity of animal food, and finally discontinued the use both of it and ale ; living entirely on boiled pudding and sea-biscuit, which he partook of only twice in twenty-four hours. Under this regimen, Mr. "Wood not only got rid of the rheumatic pains and gout, but became strong, vigorous and agile. He was able to carry five hundred pounds' weight, which was more than he could lift when he ate animal food and drank freely of ale. He enjoyed good health till his sixty-fourth year ; when he died from inflammation, brought on l^y exposure to cold. Had his diet been regulated by more correct principle?, and had other physiological laws been observed, it is probable he would have escaped the illness that caused his death, and have lived to extreme old age. 343. We are informed by Dr. Golding Bird, that a patient at Guy's Hospital recovered from a severe rheumatic attack by the same means. After a temporary recovery, by a judicious administration of medicine, " he went out of the hospital, took cold, checked the perspiration, and the uric acid deposit appeared as abundantly as before. He was again re- lieved by the diaphoretic treatment, but soon afterwards relapsed. It was therefore determined to confine his diet to arrow-root, sago, potatoes, and bread and butter ; excluding the four ounces of cooked meat he had previ- ously taken daily. The effect was very remarkable : the deposit almost immediately disappeared ; and he remained free from it till the time when he was discharged. On one occasion, the urine of this man deposited, in twenty-four hours, upwards of thirty grains of uric acid." 344. The oxalic acid diathesis, producing oxalic calculi, is generally BEST FOOD OF MAN. 211 regarded as a mal-assimilation of the saccharine principle ; consequently STigar, vegetables containing starch, and rhubarb, which contains oxalic acid, are interdicted to the patient, and are regarded by many as causes of the disease. Yet we have seen (192) that the negroes in the West Indies, wlien living on crude sugar, are healthy and strong, and, I believe, this disease is not known among them, and seldom if ever met with amongst vegetarians in any part of the world. Dr. G. Bird says : "From the symptoms presented in cases of this disease, there is no difficulty in proving to a demonstration the positive and constant existence of serious functional derangemeot of the digestive organs, especially the stomach, duodenum, and liver. And further, that the quantity of oxalic acid generated is to a considerable extent under the control of diet ; some articles of food, freefrcm oxalic acid, at once causing the excretion of this substance in large quantities, while others appear to have the effect of totally checking it." He also asks, " Is it not a legitimate conclusion to suppose that the disease under consideration ought to be regarded as a form of what has been aptly termed by Dr. Willis ' azoturia,' in which ihQ vital chemistry of the kidney has converted part of the urea, or the elements which would in health have formed this substance, into oxalic acid ?" Dr. Prout informs us that '* gelatine," which contains more azote than any other proximate principle, " is, in some states of disease, converted into the sao- charine principle and urea^ sometimes into oxalic acid and carbonate of ammonia." We may, therefore, infer that oxalic acid, when constituting disease, has a similar origin to lithic acid, the one also being convertible into the other ; and that the most appropriate diet in each disease is a mild and nutritious one, consisting of rice, oatmeal, and other farinaceous articles, milk and fruit being added when they produce no inconvenience to the digestive organs. 345. In that usually fatal disease,* diabetes mellitus, a diet consisting almost exclusively of animal food is considered by most practitioners, absolutely necessary ; and all vegetable productions containing starch or Bugar are most scrupulously forbidden. But if fruit and farinacea are the natural and best food of man, they must be equally proper, when judi- ciously selected, in health and diseases of every description. Medicines which are unnatural to a man in a state of health, are doubtless of great use in disease ; but food is simply intended to supply nutriment to the sys- tem, and to support respiration ; and these purposes will always be best eflected by such a diet as bears the closest relation to the structure of the • Dv. Watson says : " I dare not affirm that diabetes, although a functional disorder, has ever been cured." 212 BEST FOOD OF MAN. digestive organs. The general use of animal food in diabetes must, there- fore, be attributed to an imperfect knowledge of the cause and nature of the complaint. Mal-assimilation may be regarded as the common origin of struma, gout, and diabetes ; and the urinary deposits which appear in each of these diseases, vary with the character of the ingesta ; Uthates abounding when an excess of azotized aliments is taken, and sugar when much non-azotized food is used. Dr. Prout observes, that " a saccharine condition of the urine exists in dyspeptic and gouty individuals much oftener than is supposed : hundreds pass many years of their lives with this symptom more or less present, who are quite unaware of it, till the quantity of urine becomes increased."* Gout and struma may arise in con- sequence of more food being taken than the assimilating organs (although in a comparatively healthy state) are able to vitalize ; but the proximate cause of diabetes appears to be derangement of the digestive organs, and the s}Tnptoms vary with the progress of the disease. The first stage is often attended with a sub-inflammatory condition of the stomach, which prevents the complete assimilation of the food, even when taken in mode- rate quantities. The saccharine state of the urine, which distinguishes the true diabetes mellitus, is sometimes preceded by an imperfect conversion of the oleaginous principles into fibrin ; in consequence of which, fat either accumulates in the system or is removed from it with the excretions : this may be considered the second stage of the disease, and may exist long before its real nature is suspected. As the functional or organic derange- ment increases, the third stage advances ; consisting in a want of power in the assimilating organs to change the saccharine principles of food into the oleaginous : consequently, the fat hitherto existing (probably in abund- ance) disappears, and the body becomes greatly emaciated ; for the food, instead of contributing to the nourishment of the body, by its gradual conversion into fibrin, is expelled from the system in the form of a low sugar. If, at this stage of the complaint, the patient can be induced to dispense with all articles containing the amylaceous or saccharine principle, and confine himself to a simple animal diet, the symptoms will be allevi- ated, and the amount of sugar in the urine will be less, simply because less saccharine matter has been taken into the stomach ; or its presence may be disguised by the accumulation of urea and uric acid derived from the azo- tized food : but the diseased state of the functions and organs may still remain the same. Sugar continues to be excreted by the kidneys, even when an exclusive diet of animal food is adopted ; which has induced some to believe, that the assimilating organs have not only lost their power of * Nature and Treatment of Stomach and Eenal Diseases, p. 84. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 213 converting the saccharine group of aliments into fat and fibrin, but have also acquired the property of changing the azotized compounds into sugar. It is probable, however, that the fat previously deposited in the cellular tissue is gradually absorbed and carried to the stomach, which, from its diseased condition, is unable to effect the necessary changes : the fat is therefore resolved into sugar, and expelled from the system by the kidneys. The numerous experiments of Dr. Capezzuoli tend to prove that the quan- tity of sugar found in the urine of diabetic patients keeps no proportion whatever to the starch in the aliments ; and that even under the influence of an alimentation entirely consisting of neutral nitrogenous substances, the urine was found to contain the same quantity of sugar as during a farinaceous alimentation. Dr. Bernard, in Archives Generales de Mede- cine, infers from many careful experiments : 1. That diabetic sugar is a normal ingredient in the blood and liver of animals. 2. That the formation of sugar takes place in the liver, and independ- ently of saccharine or feculent food. 3. That this formation of sugar commences before birth. 4. That it is allied to a state of integrity of the pneumogastric nerves. Dr. Prout says, " The power of appropriating the saccharine principle ip the last that ceases to exist in an animal ; and thus often remains, to a certain extent, long after the power of appropriating albumen and oil has ceased." He also says he has never known saccharine urine to exist in any other animal than man, which is probably owing to his living upon an nnnatural diet. That it does not entirely depend upon the amylaceous or saccharine matter introduced from without, is proved by the fact that those who live exclusively on these aliments are almost universally free from the disease. As in dyspepsia, (203 and 357,) a well-regulated diet of animal food, and a sparing supply of vegetable matter, will be much more benefi- cial to the diabetic patient than the indiscriminate use of all kinds of food of which he may be tempted to partake ; but on a mild farinaceous diet, exclusive of all animal food, there would be a much better prospect of recovery, although the saccharine state of the urine might for a while be increased by it. The presence of sugar in the excretion is only a symptom, not a cause of the disease ; and as an azotized diet may diminish the amount of sugar witliout curing the complaint, so a purely farinaceous diet may, by its mild and nutritious qualities, gradually restore both organ and function to health, though the symptoms should appear at first to be aggravated. A medical friend informed me that he had a diabetic patient 214 BEST FOOD OF MAN. some years ago, who could not be induced to restrict himself to animal food ; he lived almost exclusively on oatmeal stirred into boiling water or milk. He improved rapidly under so mild a diet, and it is said he com- pletely recovered ; but probably his case had not been watched sufficiently long after his improvement to ascertain the result. A physician, in con- siderable practice, also informs me that in consequence of the invariable fatality of the disease under the usually prescribed diet of flesh, and bread composed of gluten only, he had recommended, in a well-marked case of diabetes, a strictly farinaceous diet, with as beneficial effects as he ever observed und^r animal food, &c. The patient is still under his care, but considerably improved. CHAPTER YH. INJUEIOUS EFFECTS OP ANIMAL FOOD. 346, Many, it must be allowed, partake of large quantities of animal food, without suffering from gout. An originally sound and vigorous con- stitution, with active excretory organs, may prevent an undue formation of lithic acid ; particularly in those leading an active life, and spending much of their time in the open air. The beneficial effects of long-continued muscular exercise, under a highly azotized but simple diet, is seen in the Pampa Indians of Buenos Ayres, who live almost entirely on mare's flesh and water ; and yet the diseases dependent upon an excess of lithic acid are not known among them ; because, when not sleeping, they are almost continually on horseback ; and, being accustomed to this kind of exercise from childhood, they acquire the power to ride very great distances with comparatively little fatigue. " The mare's flesh which they eat," says Sir Everard Home, " is tough and lean ; so that they only satisfy hunger, and never grow fat ; but when they accidentally get a buffalo, and indulge much in eating fat, it makes them feverish, and takes away their appetite. By fasting a day or two, however, they get well. By virtue of the great simplicity of their diet, and their constant exercise on horseback, in the open air, they enjoy remarkable uniformity of health ; and many of them are very athletic, and capable of great endurance, especially in those feats and exploits which are performed on horseback." Those who are disposed to imitate the Pampa Indians in their muscular exertions, and in their BEST FOOD OF MAN. 216 simple mode of living, may venture to satisfy their appetites with the flesh of animals ; those, however, who would enjoy health with a moderate share of exercise, will do well to adopt a diet more natural to man. 347. Flesh, even when obtained from healthy animals, is more stimulat- ing than it is desirable that human food should be, and has a tendency to create an unhealthy state of the blood, and to produce gout, apoplexy, and other diseases, as we have already seen. But the bad effects of animal food upon the human frame are not confined either to its stimulating or azotized qualities, for animals are exposed in various ways — particularly by confinement, overfeeding, and unnatural food — to the attacks of many diseases ; and, though the generality of mankind are not in danger of feasting upon animals that have actually died from disease, yet there can- not be a doubt that many are led to the slaughter with solids as well as fluids in a state far from healthy, and such as must prove (in some degree) detrimental to those who feed upon them. As Plutareh observes, " we chew the sores of some, and participate of the sap and juices of the deadly wounds of others." 348. " Herr Wauruch (of Vienna) states, that persons affected with taenia are mostly between fifteen and forty years of age ; and that persons most concerned with animal provisions were those observed to be chiefly attacked ; for, of the two hundred and six patients at an hospital in Vienna, one was a man, and fifty-two were women-cooks, several were butchers, and eleven were eaters of large quantities of meat. Among pre- disposing causes, the principal were a habitation in a damp neighborhood, and the use of injured aliments, as bad bread, flour, butter, potatoes, &c., but particularly bad mutton, pork, and water." * A man named Chap- man, a laborer at Horsham, and two of his children, died in June, 1844, from eating meat in a putrid state. The cow, of whose flesh they partook, died of the murrain.f In the spring of 1841, fom' members of a family had made their dinner, in their usual health, from a part of a sheep which had died from a disease then prevalent among cattle. Their symptoms somewhat resembled those of irritant poisoning, accompanied by others indicating an affection of the nervous system. One of the patients, a child, died in less than three hours ; the others recovered. There was no poison discovered in the food, nor in the body, nor was any poisonous vegetable used at the meal. The effects could only be explained by sup- posing that an animal irritant poison was in some unknown manner generated in the food. J In the Medical Gazette for November, 1842, * Lancet, May 13, 1843. t Leeds Mercury, July 6, 1844. I Guy'a Hospital Reports, April, 1843. 216 BESTFOODOFMAN. there is an account of the case of three persons who died from the effects of liver sausages, which had been made from an apparently healthy pig slaughtered only a week before. The inspection threw no light on the cause of death. The poisonous effect was supposed to depend on a partial decomposition of the fatty parts of the sausages. 349. In the " Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal," for July, 1844, it is observed, in reference to the poisonous properties of the jiesh of dis- eased animals used as food, that " in America there are certain regions extending for many miles in length, and some miles in breadth, on the herbage of which, if an animal feeds, its milk and flesh acquire poisonous properties, yet itself enjoying tolerable health."^" In Aurillac, in France, not many years since, fifteen or sixteen persons were attacked with symp- toms of cholera, after taking the milk of a certain goat. The goat died of cholera about twenty-four hours afterward ; and Professors Orfila and Marc gave it as their undoubted opinion that the cholera symptoms alluded to were caused by the milk. Dr. Alcott says he has known oysters, at certain times and seasons, produce the same symptoms. . " It is probable, also, that the species of phthisis to which cows are liable — in which it has been ascertained that the milk contains seven times more phosphate of lime than usual — ^may be attended with injurious results." The very exercise of the passions may have such influence upon the milk as to render it dan- gerous to children of weakly constitution ; and infants have been thrown into convulsions and died, in consequence of drinking the milk of nurses, after a paroxysm of rage : we may therefore conclude that the blood and other secretions of animals that have been over-driven, or greatly e-xcited, will prove highly injurious to persons predisposed to disease. [Note 30. The " milk-sickness," or " trembles," which has prevailed in several of our Western States, usually commences about the first of July, and disappears when vegetation is destroyed by the frost. It has gene- rally, if not always, prevailed along the borders of streams, although it is said to have disappeared wherever the timber has been removed and the land cultivated. What the precise poison is that affects the cattle is un- known ; but, when an animal becomes diseased in this way, its milk or flesh readily communicates a virulent fever to those who employ it as food. This fever has terminated fatally in a majority of cases. T.] 350. In the present flesh-eating age of Great Britain, perhaps no com- plaint is more general than caries of the teeth ; and, as animal food is a frequent cause of indigestion, it thus conduces to the decay of those useful BEST FOOD OF MAN. 217 portions of the human fabric. But there is a more direct mode by which animal food produces this effect. Bell, Fox, and other writers, attribute the decay of the teeth to inflammation, situated either in the lining mem- brane or the proper bone of the teeth ; but Mr. Robertson, a late author, proves — by a number of considerations drawn from the structure, physi- ology, and development of the teeth, and from operations performed on them — that caries is the result of chemical action of decomposed food upon the teeth, and not of inflammatory action. Upon examination, it will be found that there are fissures formed in the enamel of the teeth, in consequence of the irregular distribution of that substance upon the surface ; also, that there are interstices, caused by the crowded position of the teeth, and irregu- larity of the shape ; and as the fibres of animal food retained between the teeth undergo a process of decomposition, by the action of oxygen, they ac- quire the property of corroding, disuniting, and thereby destroying the earthy and animal substances of which the teeth are composed. At first there is form- ed but a very small hole, which is increased by the daily action of the same causes ; the phosphate of lime is gradually disintegrated by the carbonic acid, aided by the secretions of the mouth, until at length the nerve becomes exposed, and toothache is the result. Vegetable food is not so liable to be detained between the teeth ; and when this does occur, it is not so injurious, because the starch of which this food principally consists is much more easily acted on by the saliva, and converted into gum or sugar — one of the nutrient principles. The popular notion that sugar injures the teeth is incorrect, except in cases where, by it^admixture with other substances, it causes indigestion. " It has been alleged," says Dr. Wright, " that the eating of sugar spoils the color of, and corrupts the teeth : this, however, proves to be a mistake ; for no people on the earth have finer teeth than the negroes in Jamaica."* It has been previously shown (61) that the teeth of the Caruivora are formed for tearing, and not for masticating, and stand like the teeth of a saw ; by which means the particles of flesh, which so readily putrefy, have no chance of lodging between them, and, consequently, they are less subject to decay than those of man when he feeds on flesh, as they are formed for a different action and for different food.^ * [Note 31. As far as I have been able to collect information on the subject, vegetarians are seldom troubled with toothache or rotting teeth ; and those who are vegetarians physiologically are almost entirely exempt from decaying teeth or spongy gums. Indeed, I know many individuals * Dr. "Wright's "Medical Plants of Jamaica," 10 218 BEST FOOD OF MAN. who have been speedily cured of both, by adopting a consistent vegetable diet. T.] 351. Animal food, however, is not the only article which induces prema- ture decay of the teeth ; for " whatever causes a general disturbance of fimction, and a morbid irritability of the nervous system, assails the teeth in common with all the other organs ; but they wiU react against such causes with more or less vigor, according as the performance of their func- tion, and other circumstances, are more or less favorable to their health. If the food is soft and hot, or concentrated, or high-seasoned, or otherwise vicious, and mastication is neglected, incrustations of tartar will gather around the neck of the teeth, inflame the gums, separate them from the enamel, and irritate the membrane which surrounds the roots ; thus bring- ing on premature decay * The teeth being products of the epidermis, their healthy condition is as much influenced by that of the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal as the cuticle and hair are by the condition of the cutaneous organs ; consequently indigestion, from whatever cause, m'lst have an injurious influence on the teeth. 352. When we discover the remains of the inhabitants of our own coun- try that were interred two or three hundred years ago, when animal food was little used except by the wealthy, and when a greater simplicity of diet prevailed, we generally find the teeth in a good state of preservation. Sir John Sinclair says : "There is no particular, in respect of which for- mer generations seem to have enjoyed a greater superiority over the pre- sent, than with regard to the duration of their teeth. A place of inter- ment was lately opened at Scone, near Perth, in Scotland, which had remained untouched for about two hundred years ; and yet, to the asto- nishment of every one, among a great number of skeletons which were there discovered, there was hardly any of them whose teeth were not entire and sound. This must be ascribed to greater simplicity of diet, to the teeth being less injured by fumes from a disordered stomach, to the custom of drinking hot liquors being then unusual, and perhaps to the absence of scorbutic complaints." It was remarked, also, that several skeletons recently discovered while making alterations in the ground near Old Mal- ton Abbey, had the teeth quite perfect, and free from all sjnnptoms of caries, although the persons to whom they belonged had evidently lived much beyond the meridian of life. 353. An intelligent sea-captain, who had visited most parts of our globe, informed Mr. Graham that he found those people who used hot liquids and * Graham's Lectures, vol. i. p. 621. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 219 hot food, and smoked tobacco and other narcotic substances, always had black and much-decayed teeth ; but that in the islands of the Pacific, and other parts where the people seldom or never take any thing hot into their mouths, use little or no animal food, and are very simple, plain, and natural in their diet, they had very regular teeth — white, clean, and free from decay. In Mexico the higher classes consume great quantities of animal food, gene- rally eating it three times a day, and they are noted for the early decay of their teeth and for nervous complaints ; whereas the Indians residing in the same locality, but who live on vegetable produce, are remarkable for their fine white teeth, for their mild expression of countenance, (446, &c.,) and for their general good health * (276, 388, 473.) "A medical gentleman," says Graham, '' who formerly spent fifteen years in one of the remote counties of the State of Maine — where the principal business carried on was that of getting out lumber, and where the inhabitants, with active and industrious habits, knew nothing of luxury, but subsisted on a plain, simple, and coarse diet — stated that the people were very remarkable for their fine white and regular teeth, which were wholly free from decay ; and that, although he was the only surgeon in the county, he had occasion to extract but one tooth in the whole fifteen years ; and he finally left that part, because he found no professional business to attend to."t CHAPTER Yin. BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF VEGETABLE FOOU ON INVALIDS. " "We have known various persons who have been delivered from painful and obstinate disorders by giving up the use of animal food entirely ; and others in whom disorders of the nervous system and the chest bad been very much relieved by the same procedure." — Edik- BTJEGH Medical and Sttbgioal Jottsnal, No, 166. 354. The little I have now stated may be regarded as suJBBcient to warn us against too free an indulgence (at any rate) in a diet of animal food. I shall proceed to show the good effects of a return to natural and simple diet, upon those who suffer from disease. Dr. William Alcott, of North America, who (in 1838) published a work on vegetable diet, informs us * See "Life in Mexico," by Madame C de la B . + Lectures on the Science of Human Life, vol. 1. p. 518. 220 BEST FOOD OF MAN. that Dr. Milo L. North — a distiuguished practitioner of medicine ia Hart- ford, Connecticut — addressed a circular, or letter, and questions, to the editor of the " Boston Medical and Surgical Journal ;" requesting his medical brethren to give him information as to the effects of a vegetable diet upon any individuals who had been under their care, or whose cases were known to them ; for a great . number of people, of all classes, have tried this diet in America. The same queries were also inserted in the "American Journal of Medical Science" of Philadelphia ; and were copied into numerous papers. In the course of a few months he received a num- ber of letters, which were almost unanimous in stating, that a change from an animal or mixed diet to one consisting exclusively of fruit and farinacea, with no other beverage than water or milk, was attended with the most beneficial results, as regards health and strength, both corporeal and mental. 355. Dr. North prefaced his questions with the following observations : " Keports not unfrequently reach us of certain individuals who have fallen victims to a prescribed course of regimen. These persons are said, by gentlemen who are entitled to the fullest confidence, to have pertinaciously followed the course, till they reached a point of reduction from which there was no recovery. If these are facts, they ought to be collected and pub- lished." We are assured by Dr. Alcott, that not a case of any one hav- ing fallen a victim by the adoption of a vegetable diet, is found in the whole catalogue of returns to Dr. North. " Not a fact is brought," says he, " or an experiment related, in a list of from thirty to forty cases, (re- ported, too, by medical men,) v/hich goes to prove that any injury has arisen to the healthy from laying aside the use of animal food. In almost every instance, the reply to Dr. North indicates that bodily and mental labor was endured with less fatigue than before ; and that an increased activity of mind and body was accompanied with increased cheerfulness and animal enjoyment. In nearly every instance, strength of body was actually increased ; especially after the first month." Of the answers that were received by Dr. North, I shall make free use, for the purpose of show- ing the influence of vegetable diet in cases of disease. 356. Dr. Parmly, dentist. Park Place, New Tork, thus writes : " My Dear Sir : For two years past, I have abstained from the use of all the diffusible stimulants ; using no animal food, either fish, flesh, or fowl ; nor any alcoholic or vinous spirits ; no form of ale, beer, or porter ; no cider, tea, or coffee : but using milk and water as my only liquid ali- ment ; and feeding sparingly, or rather moderately, upon farinaceous food, vegetables, and fruit, seasoned with unmelted butter, slightly-boiled eggs, and sugar or molasses ; with no condiment but common salt. I adopted this BEST FOOD OF MAN. 221 regimen, in company with several friends, male and female ; some of whom had been afflicted, either with dyspepsia, or some other chronic malady. In every instance within the circle of my acquaintance, the symptoms of disease disappeared before this system of diet ; and I have reason to be- lieve that the disease itself was wholly or in part eradicated. In answer to your inquiry, whether I ascribe the cure, in these cases, to the absti- nence from animal food, or from stimulating drinks, or from both, I cannot but give it as my confident opinion, that the result is to be attributed to a general abandonment of the diffusible stimuli, under every shape and form. An increase of flesh was one of the earliest effects of the anti-stimulating regimen, in those cures in which the system was in a low conditioji. The animal spirits became cheerful, buoyant, and uniformly pleasurable. Men- tal and bodily labor was endured with much less fatigue ; and both intel- lectual and corporeal exertion was more vigorous and efficient." Dr. Joshua Porter, of North Brookfield, suffered nearly two years from dys- pepsia ; and was rendered more wretched by frequent attacks of colic, with pains and cramps extending to his back : so severe had these pains become, that the prescriptions of the most eminent physicians afforded only partial relief. After living for a short time on milk, with coarse rye and Indian bread, which constituted his only food, he completely recovered ; and declared, that on this mild diet he could endure fatigue and exposure as well as any man ; his muscular strength considerably increased ; and every day added new vigor to his constitution. Dr. N. J. Knight, of Truro, says : " Some three years previous to my forming a determination to subsist upon farinacea, I had been laboring under an aggravated case of dyspepsia ; and about six months previous, also, under an attack of acute rheumatism. I was harassed with constant constipation of the bowels, and ejection of blood after eating, together with occasional pain in the head. From November, -1831, to November, 1836, my diet con- sisted of rye and Indian bread, stale flour-bread, sweet bread without short- ening, milk, some ripe fruit, and occasionally a little butter. During this time, while I devoted myself to considerable laborious practice and hard study, there was no deficiency of muscular strength or mental energy. I am fully satisfied that my mind was never, so active and strong." It ap- pears that Dr. Knight has, since the above date, several times tried a diet of animal food, which, in each instance, was attended with such symp- toms as to induce him to desist. He adds : '' I am now satisfied, to all intents and purposes, that mankind would live longer, and enjoy more per- fectly the ' sane mind in a sound body,' should they never taste flesh-meat or fish." Dr. Cook, Dr. A. Ball, of New York, and many other members of the medical profession, give similar testimony. 222 BESTFOODOFMAN. 357. We have also well-authenticated facts of the good effects of a vegetable diet in cases of dyspepsia, in this country ; but, as the regimen is seldom tried here in these distressing complaints, and as members of the medical profession are, for the most part, in favor of a diametrically oppo- site diet, — generally recommending broiled mutton and stale bread, and a careful abstinence from most vegetables, — ^the instances of recovery under a vegetable diet are rare ; and, when recorded, the practitioner views them rather as phenomena to be wondered at, than as examples for our instruc- tion ; and, therefore, continues rigidly to follow the rules that have been given ex cathedra. (203.) 358. Dr. Abercrombie mentions a remarkable instance of the beneficial efiects of vegetable diet in a case of dyspepsia. ''A young gentleman," says he, " had been for many years a martyr to stomach complaints ; seldom a day passing in which he did not sufter greatly from pain in his stomach, with flatulency, acidity, and the usual train of dyspeptic symptoms ; and, in particular, he could not taste a bit of vegetable without suffering from it severely. He had gone on in this manner for years ; when he was seized with complaints in his head, threatening apoplexy ; which, after being relieved by the usual means, showed such a constant tendency to recur, that it has been necessary ever since to restrict him to diet almost entirely of vegetables, and in very moderate quantity. Under this regimen, so different from his former mode of living, he has continued free from any recurrence of the complaints in his head ; and has never been known to complain of his stomach."* 359. "Two cases have recently fallen under my notice," says Mr. Charles Turner Thackrah, of Leeds, " in which the individuals, without professional advice, adopted a diet of vegetables. Mr. W. tells me that — suffering long under bilious disorders, and obtaining little relief from medi- cal treatment — he tried a strict regimen of vegetables and water. His health and spirits, he assures me, have since been greatly improved ; and he is, consequently, a warm advocate of the herbivorous system. But, within the last two years, he has judiciously added to his dinner a moderate proportion of flesh. A gentleman from B., who had been under my care for a chronic disease, was induced, soon after his recoveiy, to try the vege- table system. After its use for some months, he informed me that it had removed an oppression from the head, which, though slight, had been before almost constant ; that his general comfort was increased, and his strength by no means reduced. But lately I learn, that he (as well as Mr. W.) has added meat to his dinner of herbs. In neither of these cases do I * Abercrombie on Diseases of the Stomach. BEST FOOD OF MAN. doubt the advantages at first received ; but I conceive that it was not imputed to the true causc."^" Had Mr. Thackrah beeu led to pay more attention to the subject of natural diet, and had he also been aware of the multitude of practical experiments which can. be brought to verify the deductions of rea,son, he would probably not have been so strenuous an advocate of an animal diet as he here appears to be. Besides, like Law- rence ond others, he seems to have mistaken a fruit and farinaceous diet for an herbaceous one, which is decidedly unnatural to man. 360. In a letter dated April 16, 1845, Dr. Larabe writes as follows : " From the age of nineteen to thirty-five I was constantly suffering from the usual symptoms of dyspepsia, which, towards the latter period, were accompanied by a constant and oppressive pain about the stomach. At the age of thirty-five I had an attack of enteritis, which was severe enough to require two venesections ; after this I never went out in the damp of the evening without feeling some tenderness over the abdomen. Under these circumstances, together with a general feebleness of health, I deter- mined to try the effect of substituting distilled water for common water as my drink. The effect of this change was a thorough relief of the dyspeptic pains and abdominal tenderness. In the ensuing three years, a headache, from which I had occasionally suffered earlier in life, returned so fre- quently and so severely, as to induce me to take active measures for its relief. I then determined to abstain from animal food, as well as from the use of common water. The intensity of the paroxysms was instantly relieved ; yet they recurred, in a mitigated form, for at least thirty years. I have been engaged in the active duties of my profession until the middle of last year, which was the eightieth year of my life. Since then, from a partial failure in my sight, I have retired into the country ; where, mak- ing allowance for my time of life, I enjoy a good share of health." 361. About thirteen years ago I also suffered very much from dyspepsia, and was treated secundum artem by my medical adviser, who was eminent in his profession ; but I derived little benefit from either the diet or medi- cine which was prescribed for me. I adopted a vegetable diet, not as a remedy for my complaint, but for the reasons already mentioned, (Preface ;) and, after using this regimen for a very short period, I no longer suffered from a disease that had formerly been a daily and severe drawback upon the pleasures of existence. Like the patients mentioned by Mr. Thackrah, I have often resumed my flesh-eating habits, partly for the sake of experi- ment, and partly with a view of complying with the general usages of society, and to avoid singularity ; but, after a short time, I have always • "Lectures on IHgestion and Diet," p. 62. 224 BESTFOODOFMAN. had cause to repent the change, from the inconvenience and pain which were the consequence. I have now sufficiently tested the diet practically, and hesitate not to say that since I have totally abstained from animal food, I have possessed more health and strength of body, more peace and serenity of mind, as well as more intellectual enjoyment, than at any former period of life : and I trust that I shall never more be induced to depart from that simple mode of living which, while it has conferred on me the inappreciable advantages just mentioned, also yields more exquisite sensual gratification than I ever experienced on the most richly-flavored dishes of a former period.* 362. " Of the effects of a regimen of the farinacea, combined with milk and fruits," says A. P. Buchan, " in subduing the early attacks of phthisis, many examples are recorded ; and there would probably be many more, were an appropriate regimen adopted rather with a view to prevent than to cure this disease." Dr. Caleb Bannister, of Phelps, (N. Y.,) whose ancestors, it appears, had all died of hereditary consumption, states as follows : "At the age of twenty, I began to be afflicted with pain in differ- ent parts of the thorax, and other premonitory symptoms of phthisis pulmonalis. Having a severe attack of ague and fever, all my consump- tive symptoms became greatly aggravated ; the pain was shifting, sometimes between the shoulders, sometimes in the side or breast, &c." After enumerating various other symptoms, (such as irritable pulse, &c.,) and stating that his life was despaired of, he says : " I was induced to try a milk diet, and succeeded in regaining my health ; so that for twenty-four years I have been entirely free from any symptom of phthisis." (202 and 256.) " It will not be disputed," says Dr. Lambe, " that, for consumptive symptoms, a vegetable diet, or at least a vegetable and milk diet, is the most proper." Dr. Buchan again observes ; " When there is a tendency to consumption in the young, it should be counteracted by strictly adher- ing to a diet of the farinacea and ripe fruits. Animal food and fermented liquors ought to be rigidly prohibited ; even milk often proves too nutritious." 363. Scrofula, cancer, scurvy, epilepsy, dysentery, inflammation, ulcers, &c., may be included among the diseases which are greatly relieved, if not cured, by vegetable diet, as the ensuing facts attest. Dr. N. J. Knight, of Truro, records the following case : " Mrs. A., infected with scrofula of the left breast, and in a state of ulceration, applied to me two years ago. * " The stomach being the organ in which animal food is dissolved, meat should not be given in gastric affections ; whereas feculent substances, digested in the jejunum, can be Bafely permitted."— Dr. M'Carthy. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 225 The ulcer was then the size of a half-dollar, and discharged a consideralale quantity of imperfect pus. The axillary glands were much enlarged ; and, doubtiijg the practicability of operating with the knife in such cases, I told her the danger of her disease, and ordered her to subsist upon bread and milk and some fruit, drink water, and keep the body of as uniform t-emperature as possible. I ordered the sore to be kept clean by ablutions of tepid water. In less than three months the ulcer was healed, and her general health much improved. The axillary glands are still enlarged, though less so than formerly. She still lives simply, and enjoys good health ; but she tells me, if she tastes flesh-meat, it produces a twinging in the breast." 364. Dr. Pemberton, after speaking of the general tendency, in our highly-fed communities, to scrofula and consumption, makes the following remarks : " If a child is born of scrofulous parents, I would strongly recommend that it be entirely nourished from the breast of a healthy nurse, for at least a year. After this, the food should consist of milk and fari- naceous vegetables. By perseverance in this diet for three years, I have found that threatened scrofulous appearances have certainly been post- poned, if not altogether prevented." Dr. Lambe's works supply numerous instances of cancer being relieved by the same kind of diet ; and to his reports I refer the reader for further information.* 365. We are assured by Dr. Buchan, that " the most obstinate scurvy has often been cured by a vegetable diet ; nay, milk alone will frequently do more in that disease than any medicine. Hence it is evident," says he, " that if vegetables and milk were more used in diet, we should have less scurvy, and likewise fewer putrid and inflammatory fevers." Sir Gilbert Blane, in his work entitled " Diseases of the Fleet," (1781,) mentions that raw potatoes sliced, with vinegar, have been found beneficial in scurvy. Lieut. James Grant, in his " Narrative of a Voyage of Discovery;" (pub- lished in 1803.) says, "We found an American ship lying here, called the Washington, of Nantucket. Her commander, Jedediah Fitz, informed me that the American sailors had discovered potatoes eaten raw to be a very powerful antiscorbutic ; and that their whaling-vessels constantly took a quantity with them to sea to eat raw, as an antidote against scurvy." Much more recently, Mr. Jullien Fontanellef gave a brief sketch of their antiscorbutic efiects on sailors ; many of whom, he states, declared them- * It is universally agreed that the diet of cancerous parents should be light, easily digestible, and succulent. Stimulants of all kinds should be carefuUy avoided, and a vege- table diet certainly combines these conditions. t "Journal de Pharmacie," tome xxiv. p. 301. (1838.) 10* • 226 BEST FOOD OF MAN. Belves to have been cured of the scurvy by the loug-continued use of potatoes very slightly baked under the ashes, and eaten without salt. Nauche, also, testifies to similar good efiects of this vegetable, which he used in the form of a decoction. In the " Lancet" for September 3 and 24, 1842, are two papers — one by Wm. Dalton, M.R.C.S., and the other by Julius Berncastle, M.R.C.S. — on the beneficial influence of potatoes in sea Bcurvy, either eaten raw and sliced, like cucumber, witli vinegar, or boiled, as generally used ; in either way, they are said to prove an excellent anti- scorbutic. 366. Dr. Baly,* Physician to the General Penitentiary at Milbank, has published some interesting observations on the antiscorbutic quality of the potato ; and he declares, that its efficacy is not (as some had supposed) impaired by a boiling-heat, but, " as ordinarily cooked, it is an admirable freservative against the scurvyy In 1840, he found that scurvy was a disease of rather frequent occurrence among the military prisoners ; while among the convicts it was never seen. The exemption of the latter, he found, could be attributed only to their weekly diet containing 5 lbs. of potatoes and an onion. The military prisoners, therefore, were allowed 2 lbs. of potatoes weekly, during the first three months of their imprison- ment ; 3 lbs. during the second three months, and 4 lbs. after the expiration of six months. " This addition to the dietary of the military prisoners was made in January, 1842, and not a single case of scurvy has since occurred." Dr. Baly has also shown, from the Reports of the Inspectors of Prisons, that in those prisons where scurvy has prevailed, the diet of the prisoners, though often abundant in other respects, has contained no potatoes, or only a very small quantity ; and that, in several prisons, the appearance of the disease has wholly ceased on the addition of a few pounds of potatoes bemg made to the weekly dietary. It may, therefore, be concluded from such an abundance of facts, that our present exemptiou from the scurvy is, in a great measure, owing to the general use of this valuable root. 367. A physician, in answer to Dr. North, states that he had been subject to severe attacks of epilepsy ; but, having maintained a total abstinence from flesh, fish, and fowl, for two years and a half, he had been entirely free from any attack. He adds : " That this happy immunity from a most obstinate disease is to be attributed solely to my abstinence from animal food, I do not feel prepared to assert ; but that my general health has been better, my attacks of disease far milder, my vigor of mind and body greater, my mental perceptions clearer and more acute, and my * "London Medical Gazette," February 10, 1848. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 227 enjoyment of life, on the whole, very essentially increased, I am fully pre- pared to prove." 368. Dr. Cheyne relates a remarkable cure of epilepsy, in the case of Dr. Taylor, who was, for a long time, dreadfully afflicted with epileptic fits. He tried the effects of medicine, and consulted all the most eminent of his brethren of the medical profession, in and about London ; but obtained no relief. At last, he was obliged to follow the advice of Dr. Sydenham, whose works he had studied. He first discontinued the use of all fer- mented and distilled liquors ; then, finding his fits become less frequent and less violent, he gave ui^ all animal food, and confined himself entirely to cow's milk. In the course of a year or two he was perfectly cured ; and, for seventeen years, enjoyed as good health as human nature is capable of. He assured Dr. Cheyne that, although considerably advanced in years, he could then play at cricket six hours without fatigue or distress ; and was more active and clear in his faculties than he had ever been in his whole life. He also said he had cured a great many persons of inveterate distempers, by means of the same diet. Dr. Hayward, of Boston, in one of his lectures, alluded to the case of a young man at the hospital last spring, who had such severe epileptic fits that it was thought the pressure upon the br9,in could only be relieved by trepanning. A mild vegetable diet, however, brought relief. Sometime afterwards he ate freely of flesh- meat at a dinner, and his fits immediately returned with more violence than ever. A strict adherence to a plain diet again brought relief. Dr. Cranstown, after suffering greatly for four or five years from chronic dysentery, was cured completely by milk and farinaceous diet. 369. " The late Dr. Gregory, of Edinburgh, used always to mention iu his lectures the case of Dr. Adam Ferguson, the celebrated historian, as affording one of the strongest illustrations he ever met with of the benefit that may be derived from timely attention to the avoidance of those cir- cumstances which tend to produce plethora and apoplexy. It is, perhaps, the most striking of the kind on record. Dr. Ferguson experienced several attacks of temporary blindness some time before he had a stroke of the palsy, and he did not take those hints so readily as he should have done. He observed, that while he was delivering a lecture, his class, and the papers before him, would disappear, vanish from his sight, and reappear again in a few seconds. He was a man of full habit ; at one time corpu- lent and very ruddy ; and, though by no means intemperate, he lived fully. I say he did not attend to these admonitions, and at length, in the sixtieth year of his age, he suffered a decided shock of paralysis. He recovered, however, and from that period, under the advice of his friend, Dr. Black, 228 BEST FOOD OF MAN. became a strict Pythagorean in his diet, eating nothing but vegetables, and drinking only water or milk. He got rid of every paralytic symptom, became even robust and muscular, for a man of his time of life, and died in full possession of his mental faculties, at the advanced age of ninety- three, upwards of thirty years after his first attack. Sir Walter Scott describes him as having been, " long after his eightieth year, one of the most striking old men it was possible to look at. His firm step and ruddy cheek contrasted agreeably and unexpectedly with his silver locks ; and the di'ess which he wore, much resembling that of the Flemish peasant, gave an air of peculiarity to his whole figure. In his conversation, the mixture of original thinking with high moral feeling and extensive learn- ing, his love of country, contempt of luxury, and especially the strong subjection of his passions and feelings to the dominion of his reason, made him, perhaps, the most striking example of the Stoic philosopher which could be seen in modern days." * 370.. Dr. Cheyne — the celebrated physician alluded to in several preced- ing paragraphs^ived freely, and became so enormously stout that he weighed thirty-two stones, and was obliged to have the whole side of his chariot open to receive him. He became short-breathed, lethargic, nervous, and scorbutic ; he tried the power of medicine in vain, and was only cured by resorting to a vegetable and milk diet. ^It is said that, upon this diet, he reduced himself to the weight of ten stones ! 371. Dr. Joshua Porter, of North Brookfield, says : " I have been called to prescribe for a man who has been a flesh-eater for more than half a century. He was confined to his house, and had been losing his strength for several months ; still keeping up his old habits. The disease which was preying upon him was chronic inflammation of the right leg ; the flesh had been so long swollen and inflamed, that it had become hard to the touch. There were ulcers on his thigh, and some had made their appear- ance on his hip. This disease had been of seven months' standing ; though not in so aggravated a form as it now appeared. After examining the patient attentively, I becamec onvinced that the disease, which developed itself locally, was of a constitutional origin, and, of course, not to be cured by local remedies, which had been applied for the period above men- tioned. All local applications were discontinued, and the patient was put on a vegetable diet, after the alimentary canal was freely evacuated. I saw this man three days afterwards : the dark purple appearance of tlic leg had somewhat subsided ; the red and angry appearance about the bas3 of the ulcers was gone, and his strength improved. Three days after J * Lectures on the Principles and Practice of Physic, by Thomas Watson, M.D 1843. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 229 called, I found him in his garden at work. He is now— two weeks since my first prescription — almost well. All the ulcers have healed, with the exception of one or two." 372. But the most remarkable cure of this kind is recorded in " The Lancet" for May 14, 1842, by Mr. S. Rowbotham, Surgeon, of Stockport. The son of Mr. Fielding, of that to-wn, about three years old, had been ill eighteen months. He was covered, from head to foot, with ulcers : his eyes, nose, ears, mouth, and, in fact, his whole head and face, were involved in one complete mass of fetid running sores and ulcers ; and the lower part of his body was equally bad ; so that his little thighs seemed nearly sepa- rating from his body. For more than twelve months he had been quite blind ; and had never been able to sit dovra, even on a pillow, but stood upon his foot, and leaned with his elbow upon the nui-se — except at times when he was able to kneel on a pillow : he had scarcely been able to lie in bed for the same period. Eight of the most eminent medical men had given him up as incurable ; and some of them declared, that no known mortal power could ever improve his condition, much less effect a cure. " From certain views which I held on the origin of disease," says Mr. Row- botham, " I was induced to recommend a diet consisting almost entirely of ripe fruits and honey, or sugar ajid treacle. The child commenced this diet on the 13th of September, 1841 : he had stewed fruits, mixed with sugar or honey, to all his meals ; and was allowed frequently to eat grapes, cherries, plums, apples, pears, and such other fruits as could be obtained. On the 16th, the sores on his back were beginning to disappear ; on the 23d, he was very sensibly improved ; on the 30th, one-half of his face was clear ; the lower parts of his body were much better ; and he could sit in a chair, and lie comfortably in bed. He continued daily to improve, till at last his eyes opened ; but they were at first very weak, and he could scarcely see any thing : his sight, however, gradually improved. On the 1st of January, 1842, not a single ulcer remained on his body : the skin became remarkably clear and fair ; and the features — which, for twelve months, had been in such a state that it was impossible to do more than guess at the position of his nose and eyes — were restored to their wonted appearance." 373. The report of this case reflects great honor upon Mr. Rowbotham. Had he been influenced by mercenary motives, and a desire to acquire fame at the expense of truth, he might easily have done so, by attributing the cure to some occult treatment ; but it does not appear that he employed any medicine. This case, therefore, may be regarded as going far to prove that a natural diet not only is the best food, but also the very best physic. 230 BEST FOOD OF MAN. Such, however, is the force of prejudice and credulity, and the love of mys- tery, that we have far greater confidence in a few grains of nauseous vege- table matter, in the form of '' Old Parr's" or " Morisou's Pills," than we have in pounds of wholesome and pleasant vegetable matter, in the shape of fruit. Many will tempt the appetite with fruit, after a hearty dinner of sundry compounds, when it is almost certain to produce bad effects ; but few think of making it a part of their daily meal, which is the proper way of employing it. 374. No sooner does a person make trial of a vegetable diet, than his friends (from the best of motives, no doubt) attempt to alarm him, by pre- dicting bad consequences from what they esteem his folly. Even Dr. Dixon says of this diet : " I know of no complaint, except small-pox and the other contagious diseases, that it has not of itself produced." This may certainly be added to his list of " Fallacies of the Faculty ;" and I challenge him to state a single instance in which «n?/ disease can be clearly traced to a properly-selected fruit and farinaceous diet. The facetious remarks which he makes respecting the advocates of an exclusively vege- table diet would be deserving of reply, were it not evident that, like many other opponents, he has totally misunderstood the question ; his arguments being directed against a low herbaceous diet which I should think few, if any, would defend. 375. Some anticipate that, though a person under this diet is not so lia- ble to inflammatory diseases, yet the low tone of his system exposes him more to the attacks of epidemics ; and should he become the subject of any active disease, he would have so little stamina, under so poor a diet, that he would soon sink under the complaint. This assumption is perfectly gra- tuitous ; having neither reason nor facts to support it. In the first place, we deny that a vegetable diet, in the true sense of the term, (as applied to man,) is a poor diet ; and, in the second place, it has been shown (Chapters m. and rV.) that the health and strength of those who adopt it are (other circumstances being the same) much superior to the health and strength of those whose food consists wholly or partly of the flesh of ani- mals. All the functions of the human frame maintain their normal state of activity much better under the former diet ; and, consequently, such a degree of sensibility, contractility, and elasticity is communicated to the human fabric, as enables it much more effectually to resist malaria : pro- bably, also, because the peculiar arrangement of elements which constitute miasma, meets with no similar arrangement in the blood ; by which Pro- fessor Liebig supposes a process of fermentation is set up, thereby giving origin to disease. If, however, disease should attack a person thus living BEST FOOD OF MAN. 281 according to nature, or if accident should befall liim, the symptoms gene- rally evince so slight a deviation from health, that a state of convalescence and recovery may be hoped for, by a little attention to the secretions, and by the judicious administration of the mildest medicines. 376. If by '•' stamiua" be meant stoutness of person and fulness of blood, such stamina constitutes the very food of disease ; and a person in such a state is not only more liable to febrile and epidemic attacks, but is also in much greater danger, while laboring under them, than one vs^hose develop- ment is such as to allow all the secretory functions to be performed with ease, and whose blood is not surcharged with either natural or extraneous elements. How frequently do we hear of those who are said to be looking well and healthy, being suddenly cut off by apoplexy, or some malignant disorder! The fact is, we are deceived by appearances, and misled by what we consider the indications of health ; for those whom we are taught to regard as healthy and robust, are generally the farthest from safety ; and only need a slight exciting cause to bring on fatal disease. " It is not the apparent disease which is the real cause of death : but men die because the body is worn out ; the tone of the fibres is destroyed, and the principle of motion fails. The obvious disease is the mask under which the condi- tion is concealed."* Not to dwell unnecessarily on this point, I may con- fidently appeal to medical experience, and to some hundreds of examples. 377. Dr. William Davidson, senior physician of the Glasgow Koyal Infirmary, in his treatise " On the Sources and Propagation of continued Fevers," — as quoted in the Report of the Poor-Law Commissioners on the Sanitary Condition of the Laboring Population of Great Britain, (page 145,) — gives us the following information : " Drs. Barker and Cheyne — in their historical account of the Irish Epidemic — state that, in every part of the country, fever was reported to have been much more fatal among the upper than the lower classes ! To what is this difference of mortality, so generally remarked by experienced hospital physicians, to be attributed ? and which in Ireland seemed to be very remarkable ; namely, in the lower classes about one in twenty-three cases, and in the upper classes one in three or four generally, but in other places about one in seven. Can the difference in the mode of living account for this anomaly ? as the first live very much on potatoes, while the others use a larger or smaller proportion of animal food ; and the lower classes, almost everywhere in this country, use less animal food and stimulating dishes than those who are more wealthy, and in a higher sphere of society." '' It is well known that the endemic fevers of Spain and Italy are greatly more violent and rapid than * Journal de Medicine, Chirnrgie, &c. 232 BEST FOOD OF MAN. those of England and Germany ; and though with both Spaniards and Italians they are less violent and more manageable than when English and German residents are attacked, and are often cured by keeping the patients on water diet for several days or weeks, yet no English patient could be trusted to such a mode of management ; but in order to bring the disease to a favorable termination, bloodletting to a considerable extent, and other evacuant remedies, are required. All this seems to be connected with the different habits as to the use of animal food observed by different nations."^ 3*78. " Excessive nourishment," observes 'Mjc. Thackrah, " is the general state of Englishmen. We take richer food than our habits require ; and thus our vessels are loaded, either with blood in excess or with a fluid but partially assimilated. Hence, probably our greater danger from disease or accident ; the greater bloodletting and evacuations which our maladies require ; and the higher fever which injuries occasion. In reading the Memoirs of French Surgery, we find numerous instances of patients re- stored by the efforts of nature, from states which, in similar circumstances, would be fatal to Englishmen."! " It is to be remarked," says Sir G. Staunton, "that the Chinese recover from all kinds of accidents more rapidly, and with fewer symptoms of any kind of danger, than most people in Europe. The constant and quick recovery from considerable and alarm- ing wounds, has been observed likewise to take place among the natives of Hindostan. The European surgeons have been surprised at the easy cure of sepoys in the English service, from accidents accounted extremely formidable." Sir George attributes this to their vegetable regimen. 379. A medical gentleman recently informed me, that four individuals in Manchester were bitten by a mad dog, and were in consequence attacked by that dreadful disease, hydrophobia. Similar remedies were employed in each case ; death, however, terminated the sufferings of all except one ; and he had long subsisted on a vegetable diet. An isolated case of this kind, however, should have little weight with us, as the recovery may have depended upon some cause unknown to us. 380. Some there are who, though convinced of the propriety of a vege- table diet for those who are strong and well, think its adoption a dangeroua experiment for those who are weak or emaciated by disease ; but Dr. Cheyne was of a very different opinion. He says : " For those who are extremely broken down with chronic disease, I have found no other relief than a total abstinence from all animal food, and from all sorts of strong * Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, No. 166. t " Lectures on Digestion and Diet," p. 84. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 2S8 and fermented liquors. In about thirty years' practice, in which I have (in some degree or other) advised this method in proper cases, I have had but two cases in whose ;total recovery I have been mistaken ; and they were both too deeply diseased, and too far gone for recovery, before I undertook them." The author is acquainted with several persons who had long labored under extreme weakness and debility, notwithstanding a long trial of a stimulating diet, — of animal food, porter, wine, &c., — at the recom- mendation of eminent practitioners; and yet, after adopting a simple, nourishing diet, — consisting of rice and other farinaceous substances, they immediately began to acquire strength, and were gradually restored to health. 381. Under a stimulating diet, weak persons may seem to rally ; and doubtless many, whose constitutions are able to bear it, rapidly improve ; but with many others, this does not continue long ; they generally retro- grade ; some debilitated organ or other of their system being found inade- quate to the duty required of it ; while, under a mild and natural diet, tone is gradually imparted to each organ ; the functions are performed with ease and advantage ; and the whole frame assumes its normal state of health, strength, and activity. Unfortunately, many have neither faith nor patience to give a fair trial to this slow but more sure process. 382. The following is a case in point, from Dr. Lambe's Reports : A youth employed as a shopman was obliged, at an early period, to live on vegetables : his health was not robust. At the age of sixteen, his diet contained a considerable proportion of animal food. " The consequence was, that he improved considerably in strength and appearance ; and, as he expresses it, he thought himself becoming quite a hearty lad. This in- creased strength, and apparently improved health, lasted nearly two years. After this, it began to decline. Though the diet continued unchanged, the strength diminished ; and he is certain that now, at the age of twenty- one, he is not so strong as he was three years ago, — at eighteen. He is not now able to raise weights which he could do then." At the age of eighteen, moreover, he becam.e affected with scrofula. 383. An intelligent gentleman thus writes respecting his little boy : " He was, for a long time, delicate and ill ; and, at the suggestion of the medical attendant, we ceased to give him animal food : he very soon be- came quite hearty, and seemed to relish bread and butter as his most desirable fare. The extremely pernicious effects of animal food in illness show that it cannot be so generally suited to us as farinaceous food, which is found to agree with persons in almost every state of health." Many more instances might be given of the beneficial effects of a fruit and farina. 234 BEST FOOD OF MAN, ceous'diet on persons laboring under disease, but it is presumed that those already presented will be suJBficient to convince those who are sceptical on the subject ; and, having shown that it is equally favorable to the continued maintenance oi health, strength, and soundness of constitution, a few ex- amples may now be adduced, to demonstrate its efficacy as a protection against diseases, and more especially such as are of an epidemic character. CHAPTER IX. VEGETABLE DIET PEOTECTIVE AGAINST EPIDEMICS. 384. From Volney's Travels we learn, " the Wallachians are in general tall, well built, robust, and of a very wholesome complexion. Diseases are very rare among them ; and the plague, though so frequent in Turkey, has never been known, excepting in times of war, when this disease is brought among them by the troops who come from Asia. The manners of the Wallachians, as far as I have been able to judge of them, are sim- ple, and neither embellished nor sullied by art. Temperate in their repasts, they prefer vegetables to fruits, and fruits to the most delicate meats." Timoni, in his account of the plague at Constantinople, relates that the Armenians, who chiefly live on vegetables, are far less liable to the disease than the inhabitants of that city.'* 385. Sir William Temple, in his " Essay on Learning,"! says of the Brah- mins : " Their moral philosophy consisted chiefly in preventing all diseases or distempers of the body, from which they esteemed the perturbation of mind, in a great measure, to arise ; then in composing the mind, and exempting it from all anxious cares ; esteeming the troublesome and soli- citous thoughts about past and future to be like so many dreams, and no more to be regarded. They despised both life and death, pleasure and pain ; or, at least, thought them perfectly indifferent. Their justice was exact and exemplary ; their temperance so great, that they lived upon rice and herbs, and upon nothing that had sensitive life. If they fell sick, they counted it such a mark of intemperance, that they would frequently die of aname and sullenness ; but many lived a hundred and fifty, and some two hundred years." * Clutterbuck on Fever. t Works, vol. ii., p. 149. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 285 386. In the first missionary voyage to the South Sea Islands, we are told that, " until the Europeans visited the Otaheitans, they had few dis- orders among them. Their temperate and regular mode of life, the great use of vegetables, little animal food, and absence of all noxious distilled spirits and wines, preserved them in health." The case at present is wo- fuUy different. 387. It has been observed, that the laboring negroes of the West India Islands are almost wholly exempt from the scourge of the yellow fever, which has cut ofiT such numbers of the other classes of the residents. Upon this observation it was proposed, when the same disease invaded Philadelphia, and was thought contagious, to employ negroes to attend the sick. But there it was found that negroes were some of those who were the most subject to the disease. The principal cause of this difference is said, by the physician on whose authority I relate the fact, to be, that in Philadelphia the manner of living of negroes was as plentiful as that of white people in the West Indies ; the reverse of which is known to be the fact in the islands."* 388. Humboldt says the Mexican Indians escape the goitre, even in districts where it is prevalent. It is probable that their exemption from bronchocele is due to their subsisting on vegetables ; on which account there will be less occasion for their drinking the water of the country, upon which the disease is supposed to depend. 389. The late Dr. Alderson, of Hull, sent the following statement to Mr. Thackrah : "A friend has, for a long series of yeai-s, uniformly continued a plan of water-drinking and a vegetable diet, which he adopted on mature reflection ; being fully convinced that the contrary mode was mere luxury and indulgence. His children are living evidences of the good effects of such a plan ; there cannot be a handsomer, stronger, or better family ; they possess every physical power in perfection — being tall, comely, finely pro- portioned, patient of fatigue, capable of the greatest exertions, and excel- ling in every gymnastic exercise, without ever having tasted animal food, or fermented liquors. They have very seldom even required the aid of medical men ; they fear not the effects of the common epidemics ; nor have they ever suffered from acquired diseases."! 390. The Eev. J. B. Strettles, from whose letter I have previously given an extract, (302,) further says : "As far as my experience with respect to the members of our Society goes, they are far less subject to the period- * Bush's "Works, vol, iv., p. 55. t Thackrah's Lectures on Digestion and Diet, p. 102. BEST FOOD OF MAN. ically prevailing epidemics ; and, during the late destructive cholera and influenza, none of them were at all affected by those diseases." The following cases are quoted from Sylvester Graham's "Lectures on Human Life :" 391. Howard, the celebrated philanthi'opist, was probably more exposed to the influence of pestilential causes than any other human being that ever lived. " In the period of sixteen or seventeen years," says his bio- grapher, " he travelled between fifty and sixty thousand miles, for the sole purpose of relieving the distresses of the most wretched of the human race. The fatigues, the dangers, the privations he imderwent or encountered, for the good of others, were such as no one else was ever exposed to in such a . cause, and such as few could have endured. He often travelled several nights and days in succession, without stopping, over roads almost impass- able, in weather the most inclement, with accommodations the meanest and most wretched. Summer and winter, heat and cold, rain and snow, in all their extremes, alike failed to stay him for a moment in his course ; while plague and pestilence and famine, instead of being evils that he shunned, were those with which he was most familiar, and to many of whose horrors he voluntarily exposed himself ; visiting the foulest dungeons, filled with ma- lignant infection ; spending forty days in a filthy and infected lazaretto ; plunging into military encampments where the plague was committing its most horrid ravages, and visiting where none of his conductors dared to accompany him." Through all this he subsisted entirely on a most rigidly abstemious diet ; carefully avoiding the use of wine, and all other alcoholic drinks ; and such was the result of this man's experience and observation, that he earnestly advised others who were exposed to the plague to abstain entirely from the use of animal food : this it cannot be supposed he would have done, had he not been fully confident of the correctness of such advice, both from what he had experienced himself, and from what he had seen in others. And it must be remembered, that Howard's opportunity to test the correctness of this opinion was neither brief nor limited, but the most extensive, varied, and long-dm-ing, ever experienced by any one man ; and such were the accuracy of his observations, and the soundness of his judg- ment, that, although not himself a physician, he was more successful in treating the plague than any of the physicians where he went. Howard's opinion on such a subject is therefore of the highest value. " The abste- mious diet which at an early period of his life he adopted, from a regard to his health," says his biographer, " he afterwards continued and increased in its rigor, from principle and from choice, as well as from a conviction of the great advantages which he derived from it." And, after all his BESTFOODOFMAN. 237 experience, near the close of his life, he made the following record in his diary : " I am fully persuaded, as to the health of our bodies, that herbs and fruits will sustain nature, in every respect, far beyond the best flesh." 392. The distinguished botanist, Charles Whitlaw, speaking of the ravages of the yellow fever in New York, says : " I was then in full vigor of health, having been brought up on a vegetable diet, which, I have no doubt, was the chief cause of preserving my health and life, as I attended and nursed a considerable number, during the whole of their illness, with- out taking the fever. Being anxious to know the cause of the dreadful malady, I attended the dissections. The doctors were astonished how I escaped the contagion. Mr. Hardy, a Scotch philanthropist, like Howard, went from place to place in the city, administering comforts to the diseased and miserable. I was induced to follow his course. It would be impossible to describe the distress I witnessed." Mr. Whitlaw also informed Mr. Gra- ham that he spent a season in New Orleans, during the prevalence of the yellow fever, and was much among the sick, nursing and administering to them; and, by virtue of a pure vegetable diet, he wholly escaped an attack of fever. 393. Dr. Copeland says : " When travelling in the most unhealthy parts of intertropical Africa, in 1817, 1 met with an Englishman who had lived there between thirty and forty years, and was then in the enjoyment of good health. The circumstance was singular ; and, in answer to my inqui- ries as to his habits, he informed me that, soon after his removal to that pestilential climate, his health had continued to suffer till, after trymg various methods without benefit, he had pursued, as closely as possible, the modes of life of the natives — adopting both their diet and beverage, (rice, maize, and water,) and from that time he had experienced no serious illness." " Dr. Eush, it is well known, preserved his health and energy amidst a very fatal yellow fever epidemic of Philadelphia, by confining himself to diet consisting chiefly of vegetables, grains, and milk, and excluding the flesh of animals in every shape."* 394. The Rev. Mr. Mylne, missionary to Africa, makes the following mention of the health of his colleague, the Rev. Mr. Crocker. Having given an account of his own severe sickness and recovery, he adds: "Brother Crocker has been very much favored. He has had no real attack of fever, all this time ; which, I suppose, is unprecedented for a white man here : but he began, three months before leaving America, to live on farinaceous food, and has strictly adhered to his principles since he arrived ; living on rice, cassada, sweet potatoes, &c. : a fact worthy of the * Edinburgh Medical and Surgical Journal, No. 166. 238 BEST FOOD OF MAN consideration of emigrants to tliis country." Mr. G. W. McElroy, of Kentucky, visited Liberia, (in Africa,) in tlie summer of 1835 ; arriving in July. He spent two months in Monrovia, and two months on the coast. During his voyage to Africa, while there, and on his passage home, he abstained wholly from animal food ; living on rice and other farinaceous vegetables, and on fruits. He enjoyed the best of health the whole time, (although much exposed while in Africa ;) and in fifty-seven days he gained fifteen pounds in weight. 392. " But the most signal demonstration of the truth of the principles which I am contending for," says Mr. Graham, *' was afforded in the city of New York, during the prevalence of the cholera, in the summer of 1832. The opinion had been imported from Europe, and generally received in our country, that a generous diet — embracing a large proportion of flesh- meat, flesh-soups, &c., with a little good wine — and a strict abstinence from most fruits and vegetables, were the very best means to escape an attack of that terrible disease. Nearly four months before the cholera appeared in New York, I gave a public lecture on the subject, in that city ; in which I contended that an entire abstinence from flesh-meat and flesh-soups, and from all alcoholic and narcotic liquors and substances, and from every kind of purely stimulating substances, and the observ- ance of a correct general regimen in regard to sleeping, bathing, clothing, exercise, &c., would constitute the surest means by which any one could rationally hope to be preserved from an attack of that disease. I repeated this lecture, after the cholera had commenced its ravages in the city ; and, notwithstanding the powerful opposition to the opinions which I advanced, a very considerable number of citizens strictly adhered to my advice. And it is an important fact, that of all who followed the pre- scribed regimen uniformly and consistently, not one fell a victim to that fearful disease, and very few had the slightest symptoms of an attack. The following statements, which were received from respectable indi- viduals soon after the disease had disappeared from the city, may be relied on with the fullest confidence : 396. " In stating my views of a simple diet," says Dr. >inos Pollard? " as a means of preserving health and preventing disease, I must neces- sarily be brief, for want of time. I think I have the most ample evidence of its salutary and conservative effects in my own person. I had been afflicted, both before and during my medical studies, with the worst of diseases — chronic dyspepsia — from which I never obtained any permanent relief until about eighteen months since, when I put myself on the simple mode of living recommended in your lectures. For nearly a year, I sub- BEST FOOD OF MAN. 239 sisted principally upon coarse wheat-meal bread and milk, with great advantage to my health ; when, happening to get some milk which tasted and smelt of garlics, I became so disgusted with it that, in May last, (1832,) I exchanged my milk for spring water, which, with the coarse bread, has constituted my diet mainly ever since. During the past summer, and especially the cholera season, my professional duties were exceedingly arduous ; and I often felt myself nearly worn out, for want of rest and Bleep. Yet, through the whole sickness, I subsisted on one pound per day of coarse, unleavened, wheat-meal crackers, with some fruit and spring water, and experienced no disorders of the stomach or bowels, but enjoyed, and still continue to enjoy, far better health than I have experienced before for the last fifteen years. I also gained several pounds in weight during the cholera season. Many people, and among them, some of my own pro- fession, have asserted that simple vegetable diet is conducive to, and in many cases has actually produced, cholera. Both in hospital and private practice, I have taken considerable pains to investigate these matters, and in not a single instance have I been able to verify their assertions ; but, on the contrary, I have uniformly found, that every person who has strictly and judiciously observed such a diet, under a well-regulated general regi- men, has not only escaped the cholera, but enjoyed excellent general health."* 397. Dr. D. M. Rees — whose practice and success were at least equal to any other physician's in New York — declares, that when the cholera broke out in that city, (and he was called to practise among it,) he found that the disease was making its greatest ravages among the excessive flesh- eaters : and he, consequently, went home and requested his family to abstain entirely from the use of flesh duing the continuance of the epidemic in the city ; and he and his family subsisted wholly on a vege- table and milk diet while the cholera prevailed, without having any thing of the disease, except in one instance, near the close of the sickness, when Mrs. R., without his knowledge, partook of flesh-meat, and, in a few hours after, was taken with diarrhoea. Precisely the same thing happened to Mr. Henry R. Piercy and his wife : and Dr. Rees says, that all who con- formed strictly to his advice wholly escaped the disease. 398. " Dr. Tappan, who supermtonded the Park Hospital, has assured me," says Mr. Graham, " that out of twelve house-pupils (students of medi- cine and young physicians) who assisted him in the hospital during the prevalence of the cholera, Mr. Sharrock, who had lived more than a year very strictly on a simple vegetable diet, was the only one who entirely * Graham's Iiectures, vol. il., p. 247. 240 BEST FOOD OF MAN. escaped all symptoms of the disease ; all the others being attacked more or less violently, and some quite severely." Mr. Graham gives a great many more instances of persons who enjoyed good health, and were protected from the cholera, while they lived upon a purely vegetable diet ; and this mode of living has made such rapid progress in several parts of the United States, that Graham Houses (that is, hotels where neither animal food nor fermented liquors are provided) are as common as Temperance Cofifee Houses in this country. 399. The observations of the poet Shelley may aptly conclude this por- tion of the subject : " There is no disease, bodily or mental, which the adoption of vegetable diet and pure water has not infallibly mitigated, wherever the experiment has been fairly tried. Debility is gradually con- verted into strength ; disease into healthfulness ; madness, in all its hideous variety — from the ravings of the fettered maniac to the unaccount- able irrationalities of ill-temper that make a hell of domestic life — into a calm and considerate evenness of temper, that alone might ojffer a certain pledge of the future moral reformation of society. On a natural system of diet, old age would be our last and our only malady ; the term of our existence would be protracted ; we should enjoy life, and no longer pre- clude others from the enjoyment of it ; all sensational delights would be infinitely more exquisite and perfect ; the very sense of being would then be a continued pleasure — such as we now feel it in some few and favored moments of our youth. By all that is sacred in our hopes for the human race, I conjure those who love happiness and truth, to give a fair trial to the vegetable system. Eeasoning is surely superfluous on a subject whose merits an experience of six months would set at rest for ever. But it is only among the enlightened and benevolent that so gTeat a sacrifice of appetite and prejudice can be expected ; even though its ultimate excel- lence should not admit of dispute. It is found easier, by the shortrsighted victims of disease, to palliate their torments by medicine, than prevent them by regimen. The vulgar, of all ranks, are invariably sensual and indocile ; yet I cannot but feel persuaded that, when the benefits of vege- table diet are mathematically proved — when it is as clear that those who live naturally are exempt from premature death, as that one is not nine — the most sottish of mankind will feel a preference towards a long and tranquil, contrasted with a short and painful life." BEST FOOD OF MAN. /tl CHAPTER X. VEGETABLE DIET CONDUCIVE TO SYMMETRY AND NORMAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUMAN FRAME. 400. There are so many causes influencing the development of the human frame, and either contributing to or preventing its approximation to an ideal type of perfect symmetry and beauty, that I shall not attempt here to enumerate them. There cannot be a doubt, however, that, after birth, food has a very considerable influence. It has been shown that aU animal bodies are in a state of constant mutation ; millions of atoms are daily separating from our corporeal frame ; and their place is supplied by newly organized matter, received from our food. Air, exercise, and many other circumstances, will, of course, materially influence the changes con- stantly taking place ; but, all other things being equal, the more' natural and appropriate the food, the more complete and normal will be the development. The lower ranks of creation supply us with many instances of the influence of food over development. 401. " If bees are deprived of their queen, and are supplied with comb containing young worker-brood only, they will select one or more to be educated as queens ; w^hich, by having a royal cell erected for their habita- tion, and being fed with royal jelly for not more than two days, when i^hey emerge from the pupa state (though, if they had remained in the cells which they originally inhabited, they would have turned out workers) will come forth complete queens, with their form, instincts, and powers of generation entirely different. Thus can a larger and warmer house, (for the royal cells are affirmed to enjoy a higher temperature than those of the other bees,) a different and more pungent kind of food, and a vertical instead of a horizontal posture, in the fii'st place, gave a bee a differently shaped tongue and mandibles ; render the surface of its posterior tibiee flat instead of concave ; deprive them of the fringe of hairs that forms the basket for carrying the masses of pollen ; of the auricle and pecten which enable the workers to use these tibiae as pincers ; and of the brush that lines the inside of the plantag. They lengthen its abdomen ; alter its color and clothing ; give a curve to its sting ; deprive it of its wax-pockets, and of the vessels for secreting that substance ; and render its ovaries more conspicuous, and capable, of yielding female as well as male eggs. These seemingly trivial circumstances, just enumerated, altogether alter 11 242 BEST FOOD OF MAN, the instincts of these creatures. They give to one description of animals address and industry ; and to the other astonishing fecundity. They change the very passions, tempers, and manners. The very same foetus, if fed with more pungent food, in a higher temperature and in a vertical position, becomes a female destined to enjoy love, to burn with jealousy and anger, to be incited to vengeance, and to pass her time without labor ; whereas this very same foetus, if fed with more simple food, in a lower temperature, in a more confined and horizontal habitation, comes forth a worker, jealous for the good of the community, a defender of the public rights, enjoying an immunity from the stimulus of sexual appetite ; laborious, industrious, patient, ingenious, skilful ; incessantly engaged in the nurture of the young ; in collecting honey and pollen ; in elaborating wax ; in construct- ing cells and the like ; paying the most respectful and assiduous attention to objects which, had its ovaries been developed, it would have hated, and pursued with the most vindictive fui'y till it had destroyed them !" * 402. The organs connected with digestion are the most readily influenced by a change of food ; but all the other organs and functions are more or less aflected by it. According to Sir Everard Home,f the digastric muscle in birds of prey is so small as not to be easily detected ; but if a bird of this kind be compelled to live on grain, the muscle becomes so large that it could not be recognized as belonging to a bird of prey. Mr. Hunter kept a seagull for a year upon grain, and found the strength of the muscle very much augmented. The South American ostrich is the native of a more productive soil than the African ostrich ; the consequence is, that the gastric glands of the former are less complex and numerous than those of the latter, and the triturating organ is less developed.^ 403. We have also many accounts of remarkable changes produced upon other animals, as well as upon human beings, by a change of diet ; for in proportion as the food is more or less nutritious, and more or less stimulating, in the same proportion will each organ of the body, as well as each particle of that organ, vary. If sufficiently nutritious diet be not given to the young, normal development is arrested ; and if food of too stimulating a nature be supplied, all the processes of assimilation and growth are hurried on too rapidly ; certain portions of the body receive prematurely their full growth, while others are retarded ; the body, there- fore, as a whole, is either imperfect or deformed. "Animal food — possess- ing a greater proportion of stimulating power to its quantity of nutrient * Kirby and Spence's Introduction to Entomology, vol. il., p. 129, &c t Lectures on Comparative Anatomy, vol; i., p. 271. t Ibid., vol. i., p. 293. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 243 matter — more rapidly exhausts the vital properties, aud wastes the sub- stance of the organs ; it accelerates all the functions of the system ; and renders the vital changes less complete, and the general results of the vital economy less perfect. There is no law of organic life, extending over the whole animal and vegetable kingdoms, which is more general and more certain than this. The slower the growth of organic bodies, consistently with the perfectly healthy and vigorous condition and action of the vital powers, the more complete are the vital processes, and the more perfect and symmetrical is the general development. Indeed, this law, or one very analogous to it, extends throughout the material world, and governs the formation of all material bodies. Even those crystals of the mineral kingdom which are formed most slowly, and, as it were, in the undisturbed tranquillity and serenity of nature, are the most perfect and the most beautiful. In the vital economy of the human body all the changes con- cerned in the nourishment and development of the system are the most healthfully slow and complete, when the food is purely vegetable ; and it therefore must follow, from every known physiological principle in the human constitution, that — all other things being equal — a pure aud well- chosen vegetable diet is most conducive to completeness of bodily develop- ment and perfectness of symmetry and beauty.* 404. When I contend that vegetable food is most conducive to this end, I do not assert that marked eflfects will be the inunediate consequence of a change from an animal to a vegetable diet ; for, as already said, the pro- cesses of decay and reproduction, though constant, are necessarily slow ; nor yet do I affirm that, upon a well-chosen vegetable diet, a plain child may become an Apollo Belvidere, or a Yenus de Medicis ; but that a cer- tain amelioration of form and feature will be the consequence, there is not the least reason to doubt. 405. The effects of fruit and farinacea on the bulk and weight of the human body, vary according to circumstances ; such as the kind of vege- tables used ; the stimulants that are taken with them ; the health of the individual ; the comparative energy of the assimilating and excreting func- tions ; the degree of bodily exercise, &c. Dr. Cheyne is said to have been reduced by this diet from the enornious weight of thirty-two stones to ten. (370.) Others, who have been thin and emaciated, have become much stouter by adopting it; and some have experienced no change at all. When I first commenced an exclusively vegetable diet, my weight was 12st. 8ilb. ; and, during eighteen months, the only variations were one or two pounds more, and occasionally one or two pounds less. During the ♦ Graham's Lectures, vol. ii., p. 148. 244 BEST FOOD OF MAN. time here stated, my occupation, exercise, and mode of living, were the same as before, usually taking a moderate portion of ale, porter, wine, or other stimulants. Afterwards, all diflfiisible stimulants were discontinued ; in consequence of which my weight was reduced (in the course of eighteen months) to list. 7-o-lbs. Other instances which have come to my knowledge might be here introduced ; and they all appear to prove that, when an excess of fluids is not taken, a natural diet has a tendency to produce and maintain that due admixture of muscular tissue and fat which is the most consistent with normal development, and the best suited to mental and bodily activity. There is therefore no inconsistency in stating, that upon a well-regulated vegetable diet, the corpulent may become thinner and more agile, easier in their breathing, and less exposed to the numerous dangers which daily threaten and frequently destroy them ; while a shat- tered and emaciated frame may, under the same mild and nutritious diet, be restored to a healthy and natural state. The following facts may serve to confirm these remarks ; but they are introduced to prove the perfect consistency of symmetry and beauty with a vegetable diet, rather than to show the necessity for such a diet to produce such effects ; for it is equally true that many, upon a diet chiefly animal, are noted for similar qualities. 406. The Persians — who live chiefly on pilau, or boiled rice, and fruit — are acknowledged to be a race of great strength and beauty of form. "Judging from the accounts of all navigators who have visited the Friendly and Society Isles, I am inclined to think," says a recent voyager, " that the people of Marquesas and Washington Islands excel in beauty and grandeur of form, in regularity of features and of color, all the other South Sea Islanders. The men are almost all tall, robust, aid well made. We did not see a single cripple, nor deformed person ; but such general beauty and regularity of form, that it greatly excited our astonishment. Many of them might very well have been placed by the side of the most cele- brated masterpieces of antiquity, and would have lost nothing by the com- parison. One man (a native of Nukahiwa) whom we carefully measured, corresponded perfectly, in every part, with the Apollo Belvidere. The food of these people consists of bread-fruit, cocoa-nuts, bananas, yams, batatas, kc, and mostly in a natural state." 407. Adam Smith, in his " Wealth of Nations," informs us, that the most beautiful women in the British dominions are said to be (the greater part of them) from the lower rank of people in Ireland, who are generally fed with potatoes. The peasantry of Lancashire and Cheshire, also, who live principally on potatoes and buttermilk, are celebrated as the hand- somest race in England. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 245 408. The interesting natives of Pitcairn's Island, who sprang from the matineers of his Britannic Majesty's ship Bounty, strikingly illustrate the principles before us : " Yams constitute their principal food, either boiled, baked, or mixed with cocoanut made into cakes, and eaten with molasses extracted from the taro-root. Taro-root is no bad substitute for bread ; and bananas, plantains, and appoi, are wholesome and nutritive fruits. The common beverage is water ; but they make a tea from the tea-plant, flavored with ginger, and sweetened with the juice of the sugar-cane. They but seldom kill a pig ; living mostly on fruit and vegetables. With this simple diet, early rising, and taking a great deal of exercise, they are sub- ject to few diseases ; and Captain Beechey says, they are certainly a finer and more athletic ra'^e than is usually found among the families of man- kind. The young men, all born on this island, were finely formed, athletic, and handsome ; their countenances open and pleasing, indicating unruffled good-humor. Their teeth are described as beautifully white, like the finest ivory, and perfectly regular, without a single exception." 409. Humboldt informs us, that he never saw a hunchbacked Mexican Indian, and that they seem to be exempt from every species of deformity. " The Indians of Mexico, on the Tobasco river," says another very intelli- gent gentleman, who had resided a number of years among them, " subsist almost entirely on vegetable food : their principal article of diet is Indian corn. Those who abstain from the use of ardent spirits are muscular and strong ; and among them are to be found models for the sculptor."'* 410. Many nations who feed upon flesh are noted for qualities directly opposed to these ; as the inhabitants of the Andeman Islands, who seldom exceed five feet in stature, with limbs disproportionately slender and ill- formed, together with high shoulders and large heads : their aspect is extremely uncouth. The same may be said of the Calmucks, of the natives of Van Diemen's Land, and of the New Hollanders. " The inha- bitants of Northern Europe and Asia," says Professor Lawrence,f " the Laplanders, Samoiedes, Ostiacs, Tungooses, Burats, and Kamtschatdales, as well as the Esquimaux in the northern, and the natives of Terra del Fuego in the southern extremity of America, are the smallest, weakest and least brave people of the globe, although they live almost entirely on flesh, and that often raw." 411. The Indians of Patagonia, and of the great Pampas or plains of South America, seem to form the most remarkable exception to the general rule with regard to flesh-eating tribes and nations. The earliest accounts * Graham's Lectures, vol. ii., p. 166. t Lectures, vol. ii., p. 186. 246 BESTFOODOFMAN. which we have of the Patagonians, describe them as ahnost a race of g-iants ; some of them measuring ten or eleven feet, and being, on an ave- rage, much taller than any other known portion of the human family, and every way well proportioned. These accounts, however, seem to have been greatly exaggerated. Bougainville, in 1767, landed amongst the Patago- nians. Of their size he remarks : " They have a fme shape : among those whom we saw, not one was below five feet ten inches and a quarter, (Eng- lish,) nor above six feet two inches and a half in height. Their gigantic appearance arises from their prodigiously broad shoulders, the size of their heads, and the thickness of all their limbs. They are robust and well fed : their nerves are braced, and their muscles strong, &c." Wallis, who visited them shortly afterwards, says : " The stature of the greatest part of them was from five feet ten inches to six feet." Captain King, who visited them in 1827, gives precisely the same dimensions ; but says : " It is possible that the preceding generation may have been a larger race of people ; for none that we saw could have been alive at the time of Wallis's or Byron's voyage." Messrs. Armes and Coan, the American missionaries, who have recently spent three months among them, state that the present inhabitants of Patagonia fall very considerably short of the descriptions given of their ancestors, some two or three hundred years back ; " the tall- est of them not exceeding six feet two inches in height, and few of them reaching this. They are evidently," says Mr. Armes, *' a degraded r^ce of men ; and are still becoming more degenerated." 412. Sylvester Graham says : " If any dependence can be placed on the opinions of those who have written and testified concerning this people, the Patagonians originally sprang from a race of islanders of very great bodily size and harmony of proportions, and who were strictly vegetable- eaters. If this is true, it would naturally require •b, succession of several generations, under the most unfavorable circumstances and diet of savage life, to degenerate the race to the diminished size of other flesh-eating tribes." They live in an exceedingly mild and uniform climate ; the atmo- sphere is dry and salubrious, and they take a great deal of exercise in the open air ; all which circumstances are favorable to their physical develop- ment. 413. The size, symmetry, and beauty of form, in nations and individuals, are modified by so great a variety of circumstances — such as climate, air, occupation, &c., — that no indubitable evidence, as to the influence of food in producing these qualities, can be obtained by a mere reference to history and experience ; yet the examples they aSbrd us are sufficiently clear and numerous to confirm our physiological deductions. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 247 CHAPTER XI. VEGETABLE DIET CONDUCIVE TO THE ACUTENESS AND PERFECTION OF THE ORGANS OF SPECIAL SENSE. 414. We must not, however, rest contented with comparing the respect- ive influence of an animal and a vegetable diet upon the nervous power, or the mere organic life of man : we have further to consider him as a sentient, intellectual, and moral being ; and to discover which kind of food is best adapted to develop his sensorial power, and the more important and more excellent part of his nature. A man may possess a sound body, along with great muscular force, and yet know little of the refined plea- sures of sense, and still less of the intellectual, sympathetic, moral and reli- gious pleasures in which man's highest happiness consists. We have already seen, that all the organs of special sense, except hearing, have a direct relation to the natural food of each animal : we may therefore safely conclude, that those organs will be best developed, and their functions best executed, by a strict adherence to that diet for which the structure is spe- cially adapted ; and that all substances which contain a greater amount of stimulation than necessary, will tend to deteriorate the functions of those organs. 415. Mr. Graham says :* " It has been a matter of very frequent and extensive observation, that those who, having been always accustomed to the use of flesh-meat, abandon it entirely, and subsist on a plain and simple vegetable diet, experience a very great improvement in their special senses. I have seen many such instances within the last six or seven years ; and some of them of a very marked character. This improvement, however, is . generally perceived much sooner in the smell and taste than in the sight and hearing ; and, in some cases, the sudden substitution of a less for a more sti- mulating diet, will cause a temporary depression of the physiological pow- ers and functions of the system, and especially those appertaining to organic life ; and while this depression, or species of indirect debility, continues, the special senses, and particularly sight and hearing, are often, to a consi- derable extent, involved in a general effect, and their functional powei'S are commensurately diminished ; in consequence, however, of a relaxation of the anatomical mechanism of the organs, rather than an abatement of * Lectures, vol. il., p. 299. 848 BESTFOODOFMAN. the sensorial power : but as soon as the vital properties of the body become perfectly adapted to the character of the new diet, the general tone of the system is elevated, and the functional powers of the special senses greatly improved ; provided always, that the vegetable diet is of a proper kind and condition, and the individual is not intemperate in quan- tity, nor improper in his regimen and habits in any other respect ; for every species of excess is necessarily injurious to the special senses, and none more so than gluttony and licentiousness." Dr. Lambe, who paid great attention to the subject, and noted the effects of a vegetable diet in a great variety of cases, confidently states, that " not only are the special senses improved by the disuse of flesh, but this improvement pervades every organ, and influences every function of every part of the system. Observation shows that there is no organ of the body which, under the use of vegetable food, does not receive a healthy increase of its peculiar sensibility, or that power which is imparted to it by the nervous system." 416. These remarks were strikingly illustrated in the person of Caspar Hauser, previously mentioned, (132,) who is supposed to have been con- fined in a narrow, dark dungeon from early childhood to the age of seven- teen, when he was released, and was found at the gates of Nuremburg, on the 26th of May, 1828. During the whole time of his confinement, he subsisted on coarse broMm bread and water exclusively, and for a long time after he was found he possessed considerable acuteness and power of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch. " It has been proved, by experiments carefully made," says his learned biographer, " that in a perfectly dark night he could distinguish different dark colors, such as blue and green, from each other. He could walk anywhere as well in the dark as in the light, and was astonished to see others groping and stumbling along in the dark. When, at the commencement of twilight, a common eye could not distinguish more than three or four stars in the sky, he could already dis- cern the different groups of stars, and could distinguish the different single stars of which they were composed from each other, according to their magnitude and the peculiarities of their colored light." 417. Much of this ability to distinguish objects and colors in the dark was undoubtedly owing to his eyes having been long accustomed to depriva- tion of light : he consequently experienced great inconvenience, at first, from the full light of day ; but, as his eyes became gradually more used to the light, his power and distinctness of vision did not diminish, and he became as remarkable for these properties by day as he had previously been by night, and could distinctly see small objects far beyond the reach of ordinary vision. " His sight," says his biographer, " was as sharp in BEST FOOD OF MAN. 249 distinguishing objects near, as it was penetrating in discerning them at a distance. In dissecting plants, he noticed subtle distinctions and delicate particles which had entirely escaped the observation of others." His senses of hearing, smell, taste, and touch, were equally remarkable ; as the following extracts from his biography attest : 418' '' His hearing was scarcely less acute than his sight. When walk- ing in the fields, he once heard, at a distance comparatively great, the foot- steps of several persons ; and he could distinguish these persons from each other by their walk." He could distinguish apple, pear, and plum trees from each other, at a considerable distance, by the smell of their leaves. After he had become accustomed to eating flesh, he could no longer distin- guish sounds with so great a nicety as before ; and there can be little doubt, from the testimony of his biographer, that his change of diet con- siderably diminished the acuteness of all his senses. Many other examples might be given, if necessary, to prove the great influence which a natural diet has in perfecting the organs of special sense ; and instances are not uncommon of persons experiencing a great exaltation of the senses, after discontinuing a flesh diet, to which they had been long accustomed, and adopting a plain, simple, and nutritious vegetable diet. This improvement, however, cannot be expected to take place suddenly after the change ; nay, the first effects might perhaps be a diminution of sensibility, particularly of sight and hearing, until the system became used to the less stimulating diet — as was shown to be the case with regard to corporeal strength^ (255 :) but in neither case is there any real loss of power — as a little timo and patience will sufficiently testify. CHAPTER XH. VEGETABLE DIET CONDUCIVE TO REAL SENSUAL PLEASURE AND ENJOYMENT. " So that the pains of poverty are removed, simple fare can give a relish equal to the most expensive luxuries." — ^EpicuKirs. 419. The prevalent notion that vegetable diet requires the continual exercise of self-denial, and considerably diminishes the pleasures arising from the gratification of the palate, is with many persons the most weighty 11* 250 BEST FOOD OF MAN. objection to its adoption. This notion, however, is decidedly erroneous, and not one fact can be brought to support it. Under a fruit and farina- ceous diet, the organs of smell and taste become much more sensitive, and the sensations resulting from the gratification of a natural appetite upon this food are much more exquisite and refined, and much more constant, than can possibly be experienced on an animal or mixed diet, which req\^ires great variety, continual changes, and many additions from the vegetable world, to prevent disgust. I do not assert that the vegetable- eater looks forward with such anxious cravings to an expected meal as the hon vivant, who has, perhaps, been under the necessity of rousing the appe- tite of an already surfeited system by bitters and stimulants ; this would be to withdraw his attention from higher and more worthy pursuits, and to convert the supreme enjoyment of a moral and intellectual bemg into the inferior pleasures of the sensualist. 420. The man who has long habituated himself to that food which is best adapted to his organization and instincts, can, during many hours, pursue his mental and bodily avocations without fatigue, and without hav- ing his attention withdrawn from higher objects of interest by any gnawing or painful craving for food, and without having his reflections disturbed by the prospective pleasures of the table. When the hour of refreshment arrives, he can defer the gratification of his appetite with much less incon- venience than one who lives on a more stimulating diet ; but when he does sit down to his healthy repast, he eats with a zest which a natural appetite only can impart ; and upon the most simple preparations of fruits, roots, rice, and other farinaceous articles, he experiences a pleasure far more exquisite than the richest and most varied dishes can yield to the man who indulges a perverted appetite. It is true, that some who have but lately adopted a vegetable diet, meet with many tempting dishes of animal food, of which they find it difficult to deny themselves ; and to persevere, requires a firm resolution, and a mind well convinced of the advantages to be de- rived from the change ; but when time has familiarized the organs to more simple preparations, and the mind has been fully satisfied as to the propri- ety of the change and the benefits resulting from it, the former dishes will become more offensive than pleasing, and the perfumes arising from them will only increase the disrelish for them. Since my commencement of vegetable regimen, I have several times {)artaken of animal food again, for the purpose of making observations on the change effected by diet on the secretions, &c., and always had considerable difficulty in overcoming the disgust which the taste of flesh at first excited. The pulse was accele- rated, the breathing became more rapid, the temper more irritable, the BEST FOOD OF MAN. 251 mind less collected, and the feelings generally less comfortable. In tlie course of two or three days the antipathy was overcome, and the other bad effects gradually subsided, but not entirely ; and I always returned to a more simple and more natural diet with great pleasure, as upon it my enjoyment was much more complete. " It is generally supposed," says Dr. Alcott, " that he who confines himself to a simple diet soon brings his sto- mach into such a state, that the slightest departure from his usual habits, for once only, produces serious inconveniences ; and this, indeed, is urged as an argument against simplicity itself. Yes, how strange ! How much more natural to suppose that the more perfect the health of the stomach, the better it will bear for a time with slight or even serious departures from truth and nature ! How much more natural to suppose that perfect health is the very best defence against all the causes which tend to invite or to provoke disease ! And what it would be natural to infer, is proved by experience to be strictly true. The thorough-going vegetable-eater can make a meal for once, or perhaps feed for a day or so, on substances which would ahnost kill many others ; and can do so with comparative impunity." 421. But how are people to be convinced of the truth of these observa- tions ? The testimony of others can have little influence on the minds of those whose only experience is on one side of the question, or who have but casually tried a less stimulating diet. They think it impossible that articles which they find so insipid should yield so much pleasure as others profess to derive from them ; and, therefore, deem it unnecessary to give the subject any fui'ther 'consideration. Thus are they insensibly led to believe their own mode of enjoyment the best, and to pity or ridicule those who are happy and contented with a simpler fare than their own. (138.) But the physiological inquirer w^ill easily detect and expose the error here involved. Whatever our present habits may be, it is indubitably true that the purest and most satisfactory gratification of the palate is produced by those alimentary substances which stimulate the organs no more than is consistent with the healthy discharge of their functions, and which have a direct relation to the whole of the human economy. Even in a raw, or un- prepared state, these substances are capable of yielding great satisfaction to a natural appetite ; and if half tiLie attention- w^ere paid to cooking, preserv- ing, and otherwise preparing the innumerable varieties of fruits, roots, grain, &c., which is now ahnost exclusively devoted to similar operations on the flesh of various animals, with what an immense profusion of nutri- tious and agreeable food would the vegetable world then supply us ! 422. But the prevailing customs and habits of the present age, in 262 BEST FOOD OF MAN. England, are such that, both at public and private tables, almost every vegetable preparation is spoiled by admixtures of animal matter, in one shape or other ; even plum-puddings must be polluted by an abundance of suet, and the pastry defiled by kneading with lard and other kinds of fat, which to the real Pythagorean must be exceedingly disagreeable. It is well for him, however, that his taste has become so natural as to be grati- fied with the simplest fare ; so that he has no great cause to regret if, at a friendly feast, no special regard has been paid to his peculiarities. But there can be little doubt that, as more correct notions respecting diet pre- vail, the gentler sex will exert their influence in effecting a change ; or, at any rate, in providing suitable dishes for those who have an utter dislike to fish, flesh, and fowl ; and to all vegetables that have been prepared with animal matter, except eggs, milk, butter, cheese, &c., to which few vege- tarians object. It is generaUy supposed that pepper, salt, and other condiments, are more necessary to vegetable than to animal food ; whereas quite the reverse is the case ; these stimulants may assist when flesh and other improper food is taken, but for a natural diet no such articles are required. Sugar, treacle, and honey may be added, when the amount of saccharine matter is deficient ; but even salt, which is considered by many indispensable to the health both of man and animals, is decidedly injurious when taken in large quantities. All aliments contain certain portions of salt, and in these minute quantities it is salutary ; but, when taken in excess, there is reason to believe it is decomposed in the system ; and its metallic base [sodium) assists in forming urate of soda, which occurs so frequently in gout and rheumatism. (317 and 340.) In disordered states of the alimentary canal, from improper food, worms, &c., salt is an inva- luable medicine, to which all animals will resort by instinct ; but, as a daily condiment to a natural diet, it cannot fail to be pernicious. It is unnecessary to advocate, at any great length, the superiority of vegetable over animal diet, in producing real sensual enjoyment ; as a few months' experience would be much more convincing than any other evidence. BEST FOOD OF MAN. 253 CHAPTER Xin. TEGETABLE DIET FAVORABLE TO MENTAL EXERTION AND INTELLECTUAL CULTURE. 423. The organic structure and physiological laws which determine the natural food of man are, in general, so briefly and superficially noticed, in connection with the subject of diet, and the results of practical experience are so little known or considered, that most men think vegetable food inadequate to impart strength and vigor to the human frame ; but sufficient evidence has been adduced, (Chapter lY.,) and abundant more might be had, if necessary, to prove that the opinion is unsupported, either theore- tically or practically. Though many have entertained doubts on this point, there are few who do not admit the superiority of vegetable over animal food, in favoring all mental processes and intellectual labors ; as well as in regulating the temper, and checking all inordinate exercise of the passions. ^ 424. Theophrastus, the disciple of Plato and Aristotle, who died at the age of one hundred and seven, says that " eating much, and feeding upon flesh, makes the mind more dull, and drives it to the extreme of madness." Diogenes, the cynic, attributed the dulness and stupidity of the ancient athletae to their excessive use of the flesh of swine and oxen ; and the Calmucks, and other people who subsist principally or entirely on animal food, are noted for similar qualities. Sir John Sinclair observes : " Vege- table food has a happy influence on the powers of the mind ; and tends to preserve delicacy of feeling, and liveliness of imagination, and an acuteness of judgment seldom enjoyed by those who make a free use of animal food. The celebrated Franklin ascertained, that a vegetable diet — promoting clearness of ideas and quickness of perception — is to be preferred by those who labor with the mind. Vegetable aliment — as never over-distending the vessels, or loading the system — never interrupts the stronger motions of the mind ; while the heat, fulness, and weight of animal food, is an enemy to its vigorous efforts. Temperance, then, does not so much consist in the quantity, for that always will be regulated by our appetite, as in the quality — namely, a large proportion of vegetable aliment."* 425. " In proof of the assertion," continues Sir John, " that a vegetable • "Code of Health," vol. i., p. 42T. 254 BEST FOOD OF MAN. diet promotes clearness of ideas and quickness of thought, and that a transition from vegetable to animal food produces injurious efFects, a friend of mine states, that he has more than once selected, from his tenants' children in Ireland, a boy remarkable for that smartness of intelli- gence so common in the Irish youth, while in the capacity of errand-boys on the farm, or helpers in the stables, and before they became pampered •with better food than their parents' cabin afforded. The lads, at first, were lively and intelligent, and displayed a degree of shrewdness exceeding what is met with from the youth of a more elevated walk in England. But he invariably found that, in proportion as those boys became accus- tomed to animal food, and, according to common notions, were better fed, they relaxed in activity, and became dull and stupid ; and he is confident that the change in the disposition was the effect of the change of diet ; and was not owing to corruption of mind from intercourse with the other servants. In fact, they lost aU their vivacity of manner, so inherent in the Irish boys, whether born in the vast bog of Allen, or in the dry and rocky mountains of Mayo and Galway. He is, therefore, inclined to think that the character of the people does not depend so much upon the climate and soil as upon food ; for no part of the globe can differ, more than those parts of that kingdom." 426. " These facts in relation to the Irish youth," says Mr. Graham, "are very important, and deserve far more attention from philosophers and philanthropists than has ever been given to them. The Irish peasantry, wherever they are known in the civilized world, are proverbial for their peculiar expressions, commonly called Irish hulls, a.nd which are generally considered as attributable to their peculiar national stupidity, or natural crookedness of mind, if I may so express myself. Whereas, directly the opposite of this is true. There is probably no class of people on earth more remarkable for natural quickness and shrewdness of mind than the Irish peasantry of pure and simple habits ; but they are, as a general fact, entirely destitute of the advantages of education, and, therefore, have a very limited and imperfect use and knowledge of language. The conse- quence is, that their intellectual quickness and activity, with their ignorance of the grammatical force and arrangement of words, continually lead them to express their ideas in a very peculiar — generally shrewd — often ludicrous — but always spirited and witty manner. Their very blunders, therefore, are really evidences of their remarkably natural quickness and activity of mind ; and hence, when well educated, they are often found among the most eloquent and witty men and able writers in the world." * * Graham's Lectures, vol. iL, p. 802. BESTFOODOFMAN. 256 427. While Caspar Hauser (132 and 41G) continued to subsist on Ma simple diet of bread and water, as lie had done in his dungeon, '• the activity of his mind," says his learned biographer, " his fervent zeal to lay hold of every thing that was new to him ; his vivid, his youthfully power- ful and faithfully retentive memory, were such as to astonish all who wit- nessed them. The curiosity, the thirst for knowledge, and the inflexible perseverance with which he fixed his attention on any thing which he was determined to learn or comprehend, surpassed every thing that can be con- ceived of them." After he had learned regularly to eat flesh, his mental activity was diminished ; his eyes lost their brilliancy and expression ; his vivid propensity to constant activity was diminished ; the intense applica- tion of his mind gave way to absence and indifference ; and the quickness of his apprehension was also considerably diminished. 428. In the Orphan Asylum of Albany, New York, (251,) from eighty to a hundred and thirty children were, in the close of 1833, changed from a diet which included flesh, or flesh-soup, once' a day, to a pure vegetable diet, regulated by physiological principles. Three years after this change was made, the principal teacher of the Institution thus speaks of it : " The efiect of the new regimen on the intellectual powers of the children has been too obvious and too striking to be doubted. There has been a great increase in their mental activity and power. The quickness and acumen of their perception, the vigor of their apprehension, and the power of their retention, daily astonish me. Indeed, they seem eager to gi'asp, with un- derstanding minds, almost any subject that I am capable of presenting to them in language adapted to their years." In Ovington's " Yoyage to Surat," we learn that " in their thoughts the Bannians are often more quick and nimble by their abstemious diet ; which renders their spirits more pure and subtle, and thereby greatly facilitates their comprehension of things. In a word, they keep their organs clear, their spirits lively, and their constitutions free from those diseases which a grosser diet is apt to create in these warm climates." 429. " On my way to Smyrna, in Greece, in 1828," says Judge "Wood- rufiF, " I stopped at Syra, where I was detained, by contrary winds, about twenty days. I there became acquainted with Dr. Korke, an eminent teacher from Switzerland. He had the charge of the principal school at Syra, containing from two hundred to three hundred pupils. During my stay at Syra, I took great pleasure in visiting this school, which I did almost every day. I very soon began to feel and express astonishment at the remarkable vivacity, sprightliness, and mental activity and power of these children. Their memory was truly surprising. Dr. Korke assured 266 BEST FOOD OF MAN. me that he had never, in any country, found children equal to these for clearness, sprightliness, and power of intellect, for aptitude to learn and ability to retain. And I can truly say, that these Greek children mani- fested a capacity for learning which exceeded any thing I had ever before or have since witnessed. Dr. Korke attributed this extraordinary ability in his pupils, mainly to their habits of living, which were extremely sim- ple. Coarse unbolted w^heat-meal bread, with figs, raisins, pomegranates, olives, and other fruit, with water, constituted their diet. Figs and other fruit composed a large proportion of their food ; but I am confident they did not consume an ounce of flesh-meat in a month." 430. " I spent the whiter of 1836-7 on the island of St. Croix, in the "West Indies," says Mr. John Burdell, of New York, " and devoted much of my leisure time to instructing the young slaves. The little field-negro children, from five to ten years old, who never saw a letter, nor had any idea of one till I taught them, on being promised that they should have a Bible given to them if they would learn to read, would, in the course of one w^eek, learn the alphabet, and to join a single consonant and vowel. In three or four weeks they would learn to read short sentences ; such as, * no man may put oJBT the law of God ;' and in a few months they would learn to read the New Testament. W ith all these little field-negroes, who lived on corn-meal, yams, peas, &c., there was the utmost avidity as wx^ll as aptitude to learn. But the little negroes of the same age in the house, living on what came from their master's table, (animal food, &:c.,) are wholly different. They are totally disinclined to receive instruction, and are slow to learn, like our well-fed w^hite children in the North. It is an irksome task to them to apply their minds to study ; and they never get a lesson, unless they are regularly tasked and urged on. I saw one of these house-children, who was tw^elve years old, and who had long been under the instruction of the master's daughter, and was just beginning to read a little in the New Testament." 431. " The Eev. Alden Grout," says Mr. Graham, " who has recently returned from a mission to the Zulus, on the south-east coast of Africa informs us that that people depend on the products of the soil for subsist- ence, living mostly on corn and milk. The children go entirely naked, and live in the simplest manner. They are sprightly, active, and full of vivacity, and their aptitude to learn is almost incredible. It is a common thing for them, in the couree of fifteen months from the first time they ever saw a letter, to learn to read well in the New Testament, and to do sums in the fundamental rules of arithmetic. They all discover the greatest eagerness for knowledge ; and seem to think nothing so desirable. On leaving tliem, BEST FOOD OF MAN. 257 I asked what I should bring them when I returned ; they all cried out at once, ' Bring us more teachers ! — more books !' " * 432. John Evelyn, after glancing (in his "Acetaria") at Cardan's opinion in favor of meat, says — " But this his learned antagonist utterly denies ; whole nations, flesh-devourers, (such as the farthest northern,) becoming heavy, dull, inactive, and much more stupid than the southern ; and such as feed much on plants are more acute, subtle, and of deeper penetration ; witness the Chaldeans, Assyrians, Egyptians, &c." 433. In reply to these observations, it may perhaps be objected, that the English and other Europeans, who live partly upon flesh, excel most nations in the arts and sciences, and have extended their dominions into every part of the known world ; while certain other people who live on vegetables are remarkable only for their imbecility and inactivity. In a candid search after truth, however, we must carefully distinguish things which are inseparably connected as cause and effect, from those which, though they coexist, are entirely independent of each other. If Intel, lectual greatness and mental energy depend upon a diet of animal food, why are not the Laplanders, the Tungooses, the Kamtschatdales, the Esqui- maux, the Fuegians, the Patagonians, and others who live almost exclu- sively on animal food, the most intellectual people in the world ; and why is their political influence so circumscribed ? It is evident that a nation's greatness depends upon many influential circumstances besides food ; and the only point for which I contend is, that, all other things being equal, vegetable productions are more favorable to mental and moral culture than a diet of animal food — a position which seems fully established by the preceding evidence. 434. The Hindoos have frequently been referred to, as an instance of a nation living solely on vegetable productions, and yet devoid of that bodily and mental activity which characterize more northern nations, who live on a mixed diet. It should be recollected, however, that their politi- cal, civil, religious, and social institutions, are such as entirely preclude all enterprise, and repress all energy of body and mind ; their climate, at the same time, favoring that ease and effeminacy which their laws and customs are so calculated to produce. But, notwithstanding the physical difficul- ties by which the Hindoos, as a nation, are surrounded, we find among them many subsisting on a pure vegetable diet, whose intellectual endow- ments and acquirements would have done honor to more learned nations, whose institutions foster and promote physical and mental greatness. 435. Even in those countries which are considered the most civilized and ♦ Graham's Lectures, vol. i., p, 307. 258 BESTFOODOFMAN. enligliteDed, and whose inhabitants generally consume much animal food; we find many of their brightest exemplars discarding the use of flesh at their tables. Not only Pythagoras and his followers, but Menedemus, Zeuo the stoic, Epicurus,* and -many other philosophers of antiquity, who have been highly eulogized for purity of morals and profundity of thought, restricted themselves entirely to a diet of fruit and farinacea. Among the moderns, also, macy of those who have astonished the world by their dis- coveries in science ; who have illumined mankind by a rigorous and clear demonstration of truth ; and who, by the vastness of their intellectual powers, have shed a halo of light over the physical, mental, and moral sciences, were Pythagoreans in respect to diet. Our immortal ISTewton, while writing his great work on Optics, lived entirely without animal food. Lord Byron excluded flesh from all his meals, though the vegetable regi- men he adopted was by no means a judicious one, and was far from according with anatomical structure and physiological laws. Shelley — whose poetic power, compass of imagination, and elegant diction, have seldom, if ever, been surpassed — was both a rigid abstainer from flesh, and an able advocate of vegetable diet. Sir Richard Phillips, and some of the first-rate wranglers at our Universities, as well as many other literary and scientific characters, might be mentioned among those who, during a series of years, have lived upon fruit and farinaceous substances. 436. Many of these have adopted this mode of livmg, not from a con- viction of its being the diet natural to man, nor from any philosophical reasoning on the subject ; but because they found, by experience, that they could pursue their studies with much greater freedom and energy than when flesh formed a part of their usual meals. Their ideas were clearer ; their spirits more buoyant ; their attention capable of being more exclu- sively directed to the subject under consideration ; their imagination more lively, yet under perfect control ; in fact, the whole of their intellectual and sentimental powers more active, and their propensities less powerful ; and, consequently, their penetration deeper, and their judgment sounder. 437. Who is there that has not experienced the diSiculty of applying the mind and attention, after a full meal of animal food, to any subject requiring deep thought and research ? And after what is called " a good * The character and doctrines of Epicurus have been greatly misrepresented ; and were very different from those of the modern Epicurean. The former considered that a happy life consists in tranquillity of mind and health of body ; the first of which he endeavored to secure by enjoying as much of the good, and suffering as little of the evil incident to human nature, as possible; and the second he secured by extreme temperance; r}§ia vSoLTl xai apmeal, from 3 to 16 per APPENDIX, 813 cent. ; yet some consider oat-meal more nutritive than wheat-meal, and ascribe this superiority to the ready-formed oil or fat which it contains. D.— See ^ 507. A Table exhibiting the produce of an acre of land in Wheat, Oats, Potatoes, and Beef; their relative value as food, cost of production, and average price. u 1i. Ill H 113 li St . ■3tS .9 a .2| 4 Is li .1 ^1 1 < o -1 '^FEff.I.S, 308 Broadway, IVew York. Books sent prepaid by First Mail to any Post Office in the United States. WORKS ON WATEE CURE, PUBLISHED BY Fowler and Wells, 3 8 Broadway, New York. If the people can be thoroughly indoctrinated in the general principles of Hydeo- PATHT, and make themselves acquainted with the Laws of Life and Health, they will well-nigh emancipate themselves from all need of doctors of any sort. — Dk, Trall. Hydeopathic Encyclopedia: ASys- TEM OF HYDROPATHY AND HYGIENE, Containing Outlines of Anato my ; Physiology of the Human Body; Hygienic Agencies, and the Preservation of Health ; Dietetics, and Hydropathic Cookery ; Theory and Practice of Water Treatment ; Special Pathology, and Hydro-Therapeutics, including the Nature, Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment of all known Diseases ; Application of Hydro- pathy to Midwifery and the Nursery. Designed as a Guide to Families and Stu- dents, and a Text-Book for Physicians. By R. T Trail, U D. Illustrated with upwards of Three Hundred Engravings and Colored Plates. Substantially bound, in one large volume. Price for eitheredition, prepaid by mail, $3 OO. This is the most comprehensivt and popular work on Hydropathy, with nearly one thousand pages Of all the numerous publications which have attained such a wide popularity, as issued by Fowlers & "Wells, perhaps none are more adapted to general utility than this rich, comprehensive, and well-arranged Encyclopaedia.— A\ T. Tribune. Hydeopathic Family Physician. A Ready Prescriber and Hygienic Adviser, with reference to the Nature, Causes, Prevention and Treatment of Diseases, Accidents, and Casualties of every kind; with a Glossary, Table of Contents, and Index. Illustrated with nearly Three Hundred Engravings. By Joel Shew, M. D. One large volume of 820 pages, sub- stantially bound, in library style. Price, with postage prepaid by mail, $'2 50. It possesses the most practical utility of any of the author's contributions to popular medicine, and is well adapted to give the reader an accurate idea of the organization and functions of the human frame. — New York Tribune. Domestic Peactice of Hydeopathy, with fifteen Engraved Illustrations of Important Subjects, with a Form of a Report for the Assistance of Patients in consulting their Physicians by Corres- pondence. By Ed. Johnson, M. D. Muslin, $1 50. Hydeopathy ; or, the Water-cure. Its Principles, Processes, and Modes of Treatment. In part from the most Eminent Authors, Ancient and Modern- Together with an Account of the Latest Methods of Priessnitz. Numerous Cases, with Treatment described. By Dr. Shew. $125. Cheonic Diseases. An Exposition of the Causes, Progress, and Termination of various Chronic Diseases of the Digestive Organs, Lungs, Nerves, Limbs, and Skin, and of their Treatment by Water and other Hygienic Means. By James M. Gully, M. D. Illustrated. Muslin, $1 50. Fowler and Wells' Publications. Home Treatment for Sexual ABUSES. A Practical Treatise for both Sexes, on the Nature and Causes of Ex- cessive and Unnatural Indulgence, the Disease and Injuries resulting there- from, with their Symptoms and Hydropathic Management. By Dr. Trail, 3u cts. Children ; their Hydropathic Man- AGEMENT IN HEALTH AND DISEASE. A Descriptive and Practica Work, designed as a Guide for Families and Physicians. With numerous cases described. By Joel Shew, M.D. 12mo., 432 pp. Muslin, $1 25. Midwifery, and the Diseases of WOMEN. A Descriptive and Practical Work, showing the Superiority of Water Treatment in Menstruation and its Disorders, Chlorosis, Leucorrhrea, Fluor Al- bus. Prolapsus Uteri, Hysteria, Spinal Diseases, and other Weaknesses of Fe- males in Pregnancy and its Diseases, Abortion, Uterine Hemorrhage, and the General Management of Childbirth, Nursing, etc., etc. Illustrated with Nu- merous Cases of Treatment. By Joel Shew, M. D. 12mo. 432 pp. Muslin, $1 25. Cook Book, New Hydropathic. Bj E T. Trail, M. D. A System of Cookery on Hydropathic Principles, containing an Exposition of the True Eelations of all Alimentary Substances to Health, with Plain Eecipes for preparing all Appropriate Dishes for Hydropathic Establish- ments, Vegetarian Boarding-houses, Private Families, etc., etc. It is the Cook's Complete Guide for all who " eat to live." Price, Paper, 62 cents ; Muslin, 8T cents. Consumption ; Its Prevention and CUEE BY THE WATEE TEEATMENT. With Advice concerning Hemor- rhage of the Lungs, Coughs, Colds, Asthma, Bronchitis, and Sore Throat. By Dr. Shew. Price, Paper, 62 cents; Muslin, ^7 cents. Water-cure Applied to Every KNOWN DISEASE. A New Theory. A Complete Demonstration of the Advant- ages of the Hydropathic System of Curing Diseases; showing also the fallacy of tho Allopathic Method, and its Utter Inability to Elfect a Permanejit Cure. With an Appendix, containing Hydropathic Diet, and Eulesfor Bathing. By J. H.Eausse. Translated from the German. Paper, 62 cents ; Muslin, 87 cents. Water-cure Almanac. Publislied Annually, containing Important and Valuable Hydropathic Matter. 4S pp. 6 cents. Philosophy of Water-cure. A De- velopment of the True Principles of Health and Longevity. By John Balbirnie, M. D. With a Letter from Sir Edward Lytton Bulwer. Paper. Price, 30 cents. Water-cure .Iournal, and Herald OF EEFOEMS. Devoted to Physiology, Hydropathy, and the Laws of Life and Health. Illustrated Engravings. Quarto." Monthly, at $1 00 a year. We know of no American periodical which presents a greater abundance of valuable information on all subjects relating to human progress and welfare. — JV. Y. Tribune,. This is, unquestionably, the most popular Health Journal in the world.— A''. F. Eve. Post. Fowler and Wells' Publications. Results of Hydropathy ; oE; Con- STIPATIOX not a Disease of the Bowels; Indigestion not a Disease of the Stomach ; with an Exposition of the true Nature and Causes of these Ailments, explaining the reason why tliey are so certainly cured by the llydropathic Treatment. By Edward Johnson, M. D. Muslin. Price, 87 cents. Water-Cure Library. In Seven Vol- umes, 12mo. Embracing the most popular works on the subject. By American and European Authors. Bound in Embossed Muslin. Price, only $7 00. This library comprises most of the important worlds on the subject of Hydropathy. The volumes are of uniform size and binding, and form a most valuable medical library. Water and Vegetable Diet in Con- sumption, Scrofula, Cancer, Asthma, and other Chronic Diseases. In which the Advantages of Pure "Water are particularly considered. By "William Lambe, M. D., "With Notes and Additions by Joel Shew, M. D. 12mo., 258 pp. Paper, 62 cents. Muslin, 87 cents. Accidents and Emergencies: A Guide, containing Directions for Treatment in Bleeding, Cuts, Bruises, Sprains, Broken Bones, Dislocations, Eailwayand Steamboat Accidents, Burns and Scalds, Bites of Mad Dogs, Cholera. Injured Eyes, Choking, Poison, Fits, Sun-stroke, Light- ning, Drowning, etc., etc. By Alfred "Smee, F. Ji. S. Illustrated with numerous Engravings. Appendix by Dr. Trail. Price, prepaid, 15 cents. Parents' Guide for the Transmis- SIGN of the Desired Qualities to Offspring; and Childbirth made Easy. By Mrs. Hester Pendleton. Price, 60 cents Pregnancy and Childbirth. IIlus- trated with Cases, Showing the Eemarkable Effects of "Water in Mitigating the Pains and Perils of the Parturient State. By Dr. Shew. Paper. Price, 30 cents. Introduction to the Water-cure. Founded in Nature, and adapted to the "Wants of Man. Price, 15 cents. Sexual Diseases ; their Causes, Pre- vention, and Cure, on Physiological Principles. Embracing Home Treatment for Sexual Abuses ; Chronic Diseases, especially the Nervous Diseases of "U'omen ; The Philosophy of Generation; Amativeness ; Hints on the Keproductive Organs, In one volume. Price, $1 25. The Science of Human Life. By Sylvester Graham, M.D. With a Portrait and Biography of the Author. $2 50. Curiosities of Common Water ; or, the Advantages thereof in preventing and curing Diseases; g.ithered from the "Writings of several Eminent Physicians, and also from more than Fortv Tears' Experience. By iohu Smith, C. M. "With Additions, by Dr. Shew. SO cents. Fowler and Wells' Publications. Peacticb of Water-cuee. With An- th'-nticated Evidence of its Efficacy and Safety. Containing a detailed account of the various processes used in the Water-Treatment, etc. By James Wilson, M. D., and James M. Gully, M, D. SO cents. Experience m Water-cure. A Fa- miliar Exposition of the Principles and Eesults of Water-Treatment in Acute and Chronic Diseases; an Explanation of Water-Cure Processes; Advice on Diet and Eeicimen and Particular Directions to Women in the Treatment of Female Dis- eases, Water-Treatment in Cliildlnrth, and the Diseases of Infancy. Illustrated by Numerous Cases. By Mrs Nichols Price, 30 cents. Water-cure Manual. A Popular Work, 12mo. Erabracino: descriptions of the various Modes of Bathing, the Hygienic and Curative Effects of Air, Exercise. Clothing, Occupation, Diet, Water-Drinking, etc. Together with Descriptions of Diseases, and the Hydropathic Remedies. By Joel Shew, M. D- Muslin. Price, 87 cents. Chromc Diseases: Especially the Nervous Diseases of Women. By D. Rosch. Translated from the German. 80 cts. Alcoholic Controversy. A Review of the Westminster Review on the Physiological Errors of Teetotalism. By Dr. Trail. Price, 30 cents. Digestion, Physiology of, Consid- ered in Eelation to the Principles of Dietetics By G. Combe. Illustrated, 30 cents. Fruits and Farinacea the Proper FOOD OF man. With Notes bv Dr. Trail. Illustrated by numerous Engrav- ings. $1 00. ^ Vegetable Diet; As Sanctioned by Medical Men, and by Experience in all Ages. Including a System of Vegetable Cookery. By Dr. Alcott. 87 cents. Syeijn'GES. — We keep constantly for sale, at wholesale or retail, an assortment of the best Syringes, embracing a variety of styles, at different prices. The practical value of these instruments ts becoming understood, and no family who have proper regard for health will be without one. We furnish with each instrument an Illustrated Manual of instructions, pre- pared by Dr. Tkall, giving complete directions for its use. The prices of the best syringes, sent by mail, postage pre-paid, are from $3 50 to $4 00. FOWLER AND WELLS have all works on Physiology, Hydeopathy, Phrenol- ogy, and the Natural Sciences generally. Booksellers supplied on the most liberal terms. Age^jts wanted in every State, county, and town. These works are universally popular, and thousands might be sold where they have never yet been introduced. Let- ters and other communications should, in all cases, be post paid, and directed to the Publishers, as follows : FOWLER AND WELLS, 308 Broadway, N. Y. Books sent by first Mail to any Post-Office in the United States. WORKS ON PHYSIOLOGY, PTJBLISnED BY Fowler ani> Wells, 3 8 Broadway, New York. The Complete Gymnasium. A pro- fusely illustrated work. Being the application of Gymnastic, Calisthenic, Kine- sipathic, and Vocal Exercises to the Development of Body and Mind, and the Cure of Disease. By K. T. Trail, M.D. Price, $1 25. Heeeditaey Desce:^t : its Laws and Facts applied to Human Improvement. By 0. S. Fowler. Price, 87 cents. Food and Diet; with Observations on the Dietetic Pvegimen suited to Disordered States of the Digestive Organs ; and an Account of the^Dietaries of some of the Principal Metropolitan and other Es- tablishments for Paupers, Lunatics, Criminals, Children, the Sick, &c. By J. Pe- reira, M.D., F.R.S. Octavo. Muslin. Price, $1 25. Combe's Physiology, applie to the Preservation of Health, and to the Improvement of Physical and Mental Education. By Andrew Combe, M.D. With Notes and Observations by O. S. Fowler. 87 cts. Mateiotity; or, the Bearing and JNTurs- Ing of Children, including Female Education. By O. S. Fowler. 87 cents. Combe on Infancy; or, the Physio- logical and Moral Management of Children. By Andrew Combe, M.D. 87 cents. Physiology, Animal and Mental, applied to the Preservation and Eestoration of Health of Body and Power of Mind. By O. S. Fowler. Illustrated with Engravings. Price fc7 cents. Amativeistess I or, Evils aiid Remedies of Excessive and Perverted Sexuality, including Warning and Advice to the -Mar- ried and Single. An important little Avork. 15 cents REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS : their Diseases, Causes, and Cure on Hydropathic Principles. 15 cents. Uterine Diseases: or, the Displace- ment of the Uterus. A thorough and practical treatise on the Malpositions of the Uterus and adincent Orsans. illustrated with Colored Engravings from Original Designs. ByE. T. Trail, M.D, Price, -15 00. Fowler and Wells' Publications. How TO Weite: a New Pocket Manual of Composition and Letter-Writing, embracing Hints on Penmanship and choice of Writing Materials, Practical Eules for Literary Composition in general, and Epistolary and Newspaper Writing, Punctuation, and Proof Correcting in particu- lar ; Directions for Writing Letters of Business, Eelationship, Friendship and Love, Illustrated with numerous Examples of Genuine Epistles from the pens of the Best Writers, to which are added Forms for Letters of Introduction, Notes, Cards, &c. Paper, 30 cents ; muslin, 50 cents. How TO Talk : a New Pocket Manual of Conversation and Debate, with Directions for Acquiring a Grammatical and Graceful Style, embracing the Origin of Language, a Condensed History of the English Language, a Practical Exposition of the Parts of Speech, and their Modifications and Arrangement in Sentences ; Hints on Pronunciation, the Art of Conversation, Debating, Reading and Boolcs, with more than Five Hundred Errors in Speaking Corrected. Paper, 30 cents ; muslin, 50 cents. How TO Behave: a New Pocket Man- ual of Republican Etiquette, and Guide to Correct Personal Habits ; embracing an Exposition of the Principles of Good Manners, Useful Hints on the Care of the Per- son, Eating, Drinking, Exercise, Habits, Dress, Self-Culture, and Behavior at Home; the Etiquette of Salutations, Introductions, Receptions, Visits, Dinners, Evening Parties, Conversation, Letters, Presents, Weddings, Funerals, the Street, the Church, Places of Amusement, Traveling, &c ; with" Illustrative Anecdotes, a Chapter on Love and Courtship, and Eules of Order for Debating Societies, Paper, 30 cents ; muslin, 50 cents. How TO DO Business : a New Pocket Manual of Practical Affairs and Guide to Success in Life ; embracing the Principle, of Business ; Advice in Reference to a Business Education ; Choice of a Pursuif , Buying and Selling, General Management, Manufacturing, Mechanical Trades, Farming, Book and Newspaper Publishing, Miscellaneous Enterprises, Causes of Success and Failure, How to Get Customers, Business Maxims, Letter to a Young Lawyer, Business Forms, Legal and Useful Information, and a Dictionary of Com- mercial Terms. Paper, 30 cents ; muslin, 50 cents. Hand Books foe Home Impeove- MENT (Educational); comprising, " How to Write," "How to Talk," "How to Behave," and " How to Do Business," in one large gilt volume. Price, $1 50. Hopes and Helps foe the Young of both Sexes ; Relating to the Formation of Character, Choice of Avocation, Health, Amusement, Music. Conversation, Cultivation of Intellect, Moral Senti- ments, Social Affection, Courtship and Marriage. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. Price, in paper, 62 cents ; muslin, 87 cents. Fowler and Wells' Publications. Hints towards Reforms ; consisting of Lectures, Essays, Addresses, and other Writings. With the Crystal Palace and its Lessons. Second Edition, Enlarged. By llorace Greeley. Price, $1 25. Human Rights, and their Politi- cal guarantees. By Hurlbut. With Notes, by Combe. Paper, 62 cts. ; muslin, S7 cts. Natural Laws op Man. A Philo- sophical Catechism. By J. G. Spurzheim, M. D. An important work. SO cents. Home por All. A New, Cheap, Con- venient and Superior Mode of Building ; containing Full Directions for Constructing Gravel Walls. With Views, Plans and Engraved Illustrations. Price, 87 cents. Demands of the Age on Colleges, A Speech Delivered bj^ Hon. Horace Mann, President of Antioch College. With an Address to the Students on College Honor. Price, 25 cents. Aims and Aids for Girls and YOUNG WOMEN, on the various duties of life, including Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Development ; Self-Culture Improvement, Education, the Home Ee- lations, their Duties to Young Men, Marriage, Womanhood, and Happiness. By Rev. G. S. Weaver. Paper, 62 cts. ; muslin, 8T cts. Science of Swimming. Giving a History of Swimming, and Instructions to Learners. By an Experienced Swim- mer. Illustrated with Engravings. 15 cents. Every boy should have a copy. Ways of Lifei or, the Right Whj AND THE WEONG WAY. A First Rate Book for all Young People. By Eev. G. S. Weaver. Paper, 50 cts. ; muslin, 60 cts. Delia's Doctors : or, a Glance Behind the Scenes. By Hannah Gardner Creamer. Paper, price 62 cents ; muslin 87 cents. Immortality Triumphant. The Ex- istence of a God and Human Immortality, Practically Considered, and the Truth of Divine Eevelation Substantiated. By Eev. John Bovee Dods. Muslin, 87 cts. Kanzas Region : Embracing Descrip- tions of Scenery, Climate, Productions, Soil, and Eesources of the Territory. Interspersed with Incidents of Travel. By Max Greene. Price 30 cts ; mus. 50 cts. Fowler and Wells' Publications. Chemistry, and its Applications to Agriculture and Commerce. By Justus Liebig, M. D., F. E. S. Price 25 cents. Botany for all Classes. Contain- ing a Floral Dictionary, and a Glossary of Scientific Terms. Illustrated. 87 cents. PoPULATiOE", Theoey OF. Deduced from the General Law of Animal Fertility. Introduction by Dr. Trail. 15 cents. Life Illustrated i A First-Class PICTORIAL WEEKLY FAMILY PAPER. Devoted to Entertainment, Im- provement, and Progress To illustrate Life in all its phases, to point out all legitimate means of Economy and Profit, and to encourage a spirit of Hope, Activity, Self-Reliance, and ISIanliness among the People are some of the objects of this Journal, i ublished Weekly, at $2 a year. Half a year, $1. Tobacco. Three Prize Essays. By Drs. Shew, Trail, and Baldwin. Price, 15 cents. TOBACCO: its History, Nature, and Eflfects on Body and Mind. 80 cents. USE OF TOBACCO; its Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Effects. By Dr. Alcott. 15 cents. SOBER AND TEM- PERATE LIFE ; the Discourses and Letters of Louis Cornaro. With a Biogra- phy of the Author. With Notes and an Appendix. 30 cents. Twenty -five thou- sand copies have been sold. It is translated into several languages. TEA AND COFFEE ; their Physical, Intellectual, and Moral Effects on the Human System. By Dr. W. Alcott. 15 cents. TEETH ; their Structure, Disease and Treatment. With numerous Illustrations. By John Burdell. Price, 15 cts. ^tumtvif^m ana U^actiolofiff* A NEW AND COMPLETE LIBRARY OF ^MESMERISM AND PSCYHOLOGY, embracing the most popular works on the subject, with suitable Illustrations. In two volumes of about 900 pp. Price, $3 00. ELECTRICAL PSYCHOLOGY, Physiology of. In a Course of Twelve Lectures. By John Bovee Dods. Muslin. Price, 87 cents. MACROCOSM AND MICROCOSM; or, the Universe Without and the Universe With in; in the World of Sense, and the World of Soul. By Wm. Fishbough. Pi ice, Paper, 62 cents ; Muslin, 87 cents. FASCINATION ; or. the Philosophy of Charming. Illustrating the Principles of Life, in connection with Spirit and Matter. By J. B. Newman, M. D. 87 cents. PHILOSOPHY OF MESMERISM. Six Lectures. With an Introduction. By Eev. John Bovee Dods. Paper. Price, 80 cents. PSYCHOLOGY ; or, the Science of the Soul. Considered Physiologically and Philo- sophically. With an Appendix containing Notes of Mesmeric and Psychical Ex- perience. By Joseph Haddock, M.D. 30 cts. These works may be ordered in large or small quantities. A liberal discount will be made to Agents, and others, who buy to sell again. They may be sent by Express, or as Freight, by Railroad, Steamships, Sailing Vessels, by Stnge, or Canal, to any City, Town, or Village, in the United States, the Canadas, to Europe, or any place on th -j Globe. Checks or drafts, for large amounts, on New York, Philadelphia, or Boston, always preferred. We pay cost of exchange. All letters should be post paid, and ad- dressed as follows : Boston: 1 FOWIiEK AIVD ^VEIiliS, (Philadelphia: 142 WashiagtonSt. J 308 Broadway, I¥ew York. | 9'2i chestnut st. L/^ ^^^, V » ^ ■ " , % So^ V ^ ^ ^^ r.^^ .^ ^ V ^ ^^ " / ^ ^^^"^ ^.'^^'TV^^^^"^ ^ -^^^'-^ >>/o *% .^^'^ * %%& s^ ^.G ^^9. .6^.^-,<^:'--\c^.^^ 0^ .^;. :/\ "^ 0^ ^ 9^ ^^^ ^^ x^' "^ «. ^^^ ^^.X/' <^. S ^. ^' ^^' ^% ^ 'V^^^^s* (^^^ r% ^ -^d^ J^/^M;^/; "^d^ C" . .^ ^^> ^^ VSW; x^ -V ^ :^>:^i/v^.'\./^ ^:^si %. '^^Mi: -^ ^- ^ ^:^^^^'^.^\cf ^ % ^ ^ ^ ^; %4 ~ . ^ ,. r%-^V^ V^V^ c,'%?^^/ ^^^^,^.-.,%