lHl!!';!l 
 
 Is! 
 
 ]l!!N!i 
 
HISTOEY AND GEOGRAPHY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 FOR 
 
 COLLEGES AND SCHOOLS. 
 
 (CHIEFLY FROM THE FRENCH^) r- 
 
 ' • i ■ 
 
 BY 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON GREENE, 
 
 AUTHOR OP ' LIFE OF GEN. GREENE,' ' HISTORICAL STUDIES,' ETC. 
 
 PART L /$' '^ 
 
 HISTOEY. \A^-- 
 
 NEW-YOEK : 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 GEO. S. APPLETON, 164 CHESNUT-ST. 
 
 1851. 
 
%-\. 
 
 Entered, according to Act oi Congress, in the year 185CI, by 
 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 
 
 iB'the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern ' 
 District of New- York. 
 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The following pages, as tlie title indicates, are cMefly 
 taken from a popular Frencli work wliicli lias passed 
 rapidly tlirougli several editions, and received tlie 
 sanction of tke University. It will be found to con- 
 tain a clear and satisfactory exposition of tke revolu- 
 tions of tke Middle Ages, with, suck general views of 
 literature, society and manners, as are required to ex- 
 plain tke passage from ancient to modern kistory. 
 At tke kead of eack ckapter tkere is an analytical 
 summary, wkick will be found of great assistance in 
 examination or in review. Instead of a single list of 
 sovereigns, I kave preferred giving full genealogical 
 tables, wkick are muck clearer and infinitely more 
 satisfactory. A select bibliograpky of tke Middle 
 Ages, witk tke references for a full course of reading 
 or study, will be found in tke second part. 
 
2 PREFACE. 
 
 TMs little volume is the first of a series, in wHcli 
 I hope to do sometMng towards the promotion of a 
 taste for historical studies in our colleges and schools. 
 There is no department in which text-books are more 
 needed. The student needs them as a guide, the 
 teacher as an outline, and the general reader, who has 
 already gone over the ground in detail, as a reference, 
 by which he can revive old studies and give unity to 
 his conceptions, by a clear and comprehensive classifi- 
 caition. 
 
 a. w. G. 
 
 Brown University, September 19, 1850. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOE. 
 
 Introduction, 5 
 
 Chapter I. — Invasion of the Barbarians, 13 
 
 Chapter II. — Goths and Lombards, .34 
 
 Chapter III. — Anglo-Saxons, 61 
 
 Chapter IV. — History of the Franks — Organization of the Bar- 
 barians after the Conquest, 60 
 
 Chapter V. — The Eastern Empire to the Crusades, . . 82 
 
 Chapter VI. — Church — Letters and Arts, 97 
 
 Chapter VII. — Mahometanism, 120 
 
 Chapter VIII. — Carolingian Empire, . . . . • . 148 
 Chapter IX. — Establishment of the Feudal System, . . 156 
 
 Chapter X. — Invasions of the Northmen, 170 
 
 Chapter XL— History of Germany and Italy to the death of 
 
 Frederick II., 186 
 
 Chapter XH. — History of the Crusades, 215 
 
 Chapter XIII. — Germany from the thirteenth to the fifteenth 
 
 century, 241 
 
 Chapter XIV. — Italy from the thirteenth to the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, 255 
 
 Chapter XV. — France and England during the first period of 
 
 their rivalry, 279 
 
 Chapter XVI. — France and England during the second period 
 
 of their rivalry, 306 
 
 Chapter XVII. — History of the Sclavonic and Scandinavian 
 States from their origin to the middle of the fifteenth 
 
 century, 317 
 
 Chapter XVIII. — Spain — History of the Arabs and the Chris- 
 tian kingdoms in Spain to the accession of Henry IV. to the 
 
 throne of Castile, 336 
 
 Chapter XIX.— Greeks and Turks — State of Europe at the end 
 
 ofthe Middle Ages, 354 
 
4 CONTENTS. 
 
 FAQE. 
 
 Chapter XX. — Summary notions of the arts, literature, the 
 sciences, and commerce in Europe, from Charlemagne to 
 
 the taking of Constantinople, 873 
 
 Synchronitic table of the History of the Middle Ages, . . 397 
 
 Genealogy of the Merovingian race, 413 
 
 Genealogy of the Merovingian race continued, . , . 414 
 
 Carolingian emperors and kings of Italy, .... 415 
 
 Genealogy of the Carolingian kings of France, . . . 416 
 
 Genealogy of the Capetian dynasty to Lewis the Fat, . , 417 
 
 First branch of the Capetians, 418 
 
 Genealogy of the first branch of Valois, 419 
 
 Kings of England — House of Normandy and Anjou, . . 420 
 
 Kings of England continued 421 
 
 Imperial house of Saxony, 422 
 
 Imperial house of Franconia, 423 
 
 House of Hohenstaufen, or Suabia, 424 
 
 Second house of Guelph, or Este, 425 
 
 Imperial house of Hapsburg and Luxemburg, . . . 426 
 
 Kings of Castile and Leon, 427 
 
 Kings of Aragon, Majorca, and Sicily, 428 
 
 Chronological series of the emperors of the East, . , , 429 
 
 Greek emperors of the house of Comnenus, . , , 480 
 
 Greek emperors of the house of Angelus, .... 430 
 
 Latin emperors of Constantinople, . . . . . 431 
 
 Greek emperors of Nice, 431 
 
 Greek emperors of the house of Paleologus, . . . 482 
 
 Sultans of the Ottoman Turks to Mahomet II., ... 483 
 Chronological series of the popes from Gregory VII. to the 
 
 end of the great schism of the West, .... 483 
 
 Popes of the great schism of the West, .... 434 
 Popes from the end of the great schism to the taking of 
 
 Constantinople, 484 
 
 Contemporary sovereigns, 485 
 
 Tabular view of the dismemberment of the empire, , , 445 
 
 Dismemberment of Navarre, 446 
 
 Tabular view of the three Caliphates, 447 
 
 Tabular view of the remai'kable persons of the crusades, . 449 
 Synoptical table of the administration of Charles V. and Ed- 
 ward III., 452 
 
 Reforms and Institutions in France and England during the 
 
 second period of the hundred years' war, . , ■ . . 453 
 
HISTOEY OP THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 EXTENT OF THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. ITS GREAT 
 
 DIVISIONS. ENUMERATION OF THE PRINCIPAL STATES FOUND- 
 ED DURING THIS PERIOD OF HISTORY, IN THEIR GEOGRAPH- 
 ICAL AND CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER. THEIR RESPECTIVE IM- 
 PORTANCE IN THE HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 I. 
 
 1. Extent of the history of the Middle Ages. — Its great 
 Divisions. — The Middle Ages were long considered as an 
 obscure and uninteresting epoch, the history of which could 
 take only a secondary place in a course of study. But since 
 the works of Thierry, Guizot, Michelet, Lingard, Hallam, 
 Hurter, and Voigt, a new lustre has been cast upon this pe- 
 riod, till then so imperfectly understood, which, revealing its 
 true character, has shown how important a place it really 
 holds in the world's history. Then appeared those phases in 
 the progress of civilization, under the influence of Christian- 
 ity, which are often so grand, and the true origin of modern 
 society, the actual state of which can only be understood by 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 tracing it back to its birth, and following up its development 
 through the middle ages. 
 
 Two great facts give the middle ages an aspect peculiar, 
 ly their own : the first, is the introduction into the European 
 world of that new element, the barbaric race, which at differ, 
 ent periods modified without destroying the old races on 
 which the Roman dominion had set its seal ; the second was 
 the supreme and regulating action of the church, which pro- 
 duced a gradual and successive fusion of these two ele- 
 ments, and assembled them in a grand unity, harbinger of the 
 political union of all nations in modern times. 
 
 The development of these two leading facts decides the 
 beginning, the highest point, and the end of the epoch which 
 is known by the general name of middle ages, a name which 
 is admirably expressive of an epoch of transition and organ- 
 ization. Although historians generally begin the middle 
 ages with the final division of the empire, it may, with truth, 
 be said to have begun at the moment in which the invasion 
 of the Barbarians, long confined to partial incursions, was 
 changed to a sudden and general irruption (376 — 406). It 
 continues through those centuries during which the Holy 
 See, the centre of European policy, rallies all people around 
 it, and forms that vast body which has been designated so justly 
 by the name of Christendom. It ends at the moment in 
 which the fall of Constantinople marks the final progress of 
 the great Mussulman invasion (1453) at a moment in which 
 a universal agitation in the minds of men announces that re- 
 ligious revolution of the sixteenth century which was to anni- 
 hilate for ever the temporal power, the supreme arbitrage of 
 the sovereign pontiff, and give a new base to modern policy. 
 
 This epoch may be divided into four great periods : 1st. 
 From the final division of the empire to Charlemagne, the 
 period of permanent invasion (395 — 800) ; 2d. From Charle- 
 magne to Gregory VII., period of the second invasion and of 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 the feudal system (800—1073) ; 3d. From Gregory VII. to 
 Boniface VIII., period of pontifical influence (1073 — 1294) j 
 4th. From Boniface VIII. to the fall of Constantinople, period 
 of the restoration of royal power (1294^1453). 
 
 II. 
 
 2. First Period : From the final division of the Empire 
 to Charlemagne. — Character of this period. — I. (395-800). 
 The first period, which would begin more naturally with the 
 entrance of the Goths into the empire (376) was prepared by 
 that long series of local irruptions which had already greatly 
 modified the population of the Roman provinces. This was 
 the epoch of the great invasion of the Germanic races, which 
 completed the transformation of the provinces by renewing 
 their manners, government and laws. The impotence of the 
 empire had no sooner been manifested by its final division, than 
 all the frontiers were opened to the incursions of the Barba- 
 rians, who introduced unknown elements into the bosom of 
 the Roman world. New states arise in Spain, in Gaul, in 
 Africa and in Italy. The western empire falls at the shock. 
 The Empire of the East alone remains and seems to have 
 been spared. But while it vainly endeavors to resume the 
 extei-nal supremacy which is slipping from its grasp, a new, 
 and no less terrible invasion threatens it from the East. Ma- 
 hometanism, issuing from Arabia, springs forward, sword in 
 hand, conquers, overthrows by its invincible impetuosity 
 whatever opposes it, and imposes upon the terrified nations its 
 dogmas, its principles and its laws. It wrests all the 
 provinces of Asia from the empire, and from Christianity the 
 spot in which it had been cradled. Soon it advances toward 
 the west, through the northern districts of Africa ; but this 
 great effort is broken by the resistance of the Frank and 
 
8 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Germanic races, led by Charles Martel. The grandson of 
 the conqueror of the Saracens, Charlemagne, soon after arrests 
 the movements of the people of the north and the south by his 
 triumph over the Saxons and the Huns. The Empire of the 
 West, which the invasion had overthrown at the beginning 
 of this period, rises again at its close, to mark the end of this 
 general commotion of nations. 
 
 3. Second Period: From Charlemagne to Gregory VII. — 
 
 II. After the Germanic invasion follows the Scandinavian 
 or Norman invasion, which falling upon states scarcely organ- 
 ized, checks their first progress, and opens an epoch of decay 
 and struggle, augmented by the destructive incursions of the 
 Scythic or Hungarian races. In the heart of vast and pow- 
 erful dominions a crowd of petty principalities arise and or- 
 ganize the defence ; the royal power is no longer any thing 
 more than that of a lord paramount : the reign of feudalism 
 begins. In Germany alone, the royal authority resists for a 
 long time, and appears still to maintain itself, when it seems 
 annihilated among the other people of the west ; but the vic- 
 tory of feudalism was the more complete and lasting for 
 having been retarded so long. 
 
 The great Mussulman empire is a prey, like Christian 
 Europe, to a general parcelling. The vast and strong unity 
 which had rendered it so redoubtable, is for ever broken, and 
 its divisions prepare the way for its decay. 
 
 4. Third Period : From Gregory VII. lo BonifaceVIlI. — 
 
 III. A deep-felt want of order and union is experienced in the 
 midst of these crises and convulsions. There is but one 
 regular, unchanging power in the world, the power of the 
 popes ; and Christendom takes refuge in the shade of this 
 great and sovereign influence. The popes, called by the 
 nature of events to reassemble and combine all the elements 
 of the new society, unite political with religious supremacy. 
 Kings appeal to them as arbiters ; the people, as the defenders 
 
INTRODUCTION. 9 
 
 of their rights and their dawning liberty. The temporal 
 action of the Holy See is felt in the interior of Europe by 
 that great work of protection and universal mediation ; with- 
 out, by the crusades, which the first time unite the Europe- 
 an states in the same thought and the same enterprise — the 
 crusade, that great manifestation of religious enthusiasm, 
 and of the ardent faith of the middle ages. In the political 
 world their principal results were the strengthening of royal 
 authority and the weakening of feudalism, by uniting the in- 
 habitants of the same territory under the same standard, and 
 thus restoring national unity, by re-establishing the bonds of 
 subordination in the higher classes, and by favoring the de- 
 velopment of the commons. 
 
 5. Fourth Period : From Boniface VIII. to the taking of 
 Constantinople. — IV. When the royal authority began to grow 
 strong again, and every nation to become more firmly and 
 regularly organized, the temporal power slipped from the 
 hands of the prince of the church : and politics were separa- 
 ted from religion, while royalty triumphed throughout Eu- 
 rope. 
 
 The decay of the Mussulman dominion continues in 
 Spain ; but Mahometanism, reanimated by the energy of a 
 new race from central Asia, regains in the East what it loses 
 in the West ; the power of the Ottoman Turks overcomes, after 
 a long struggle, the feeble Empire of the East. The conquest 
 of Greece and taking of Constantinople, final results of the 
 invasion of the Barbarians, complete the introduction into 
 Europe of the elements of its modern organization. 
 
 III. 
 
 6. Principal States founded during these different periods ; 
 their respective importance. — The first invasion, by dismem- 
 
 1* 
 
10 IKTRODUCTION. 
 
 bering the Empire of the West, gives rise : in Western 
 Europe, to the kingdom of the Visigoths (413), which after 
 having absorbed that of the Suevi (585) is overthrown by the 
 Arabs (Til); to the kingdom of the Franks (481), which is 
 to destroy that of the Burgundians, and continue from the 
 epoch of the invasion to modern times ; to the kingdom of the 
 Ostrogoths (493), which flourishes in great splendor during a 
 short period, and is replaced by that of the Lombards (570). 
 In Africa is founded the kingdom of the Vandals, to be anni- 
 hilated under Justinian (534), and finally, in the west of Eu- 
 rope, the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy (455 — 880) results from a 
 second phase of the Germanic invasion. The supremacy be- 
 longs to the Ostrogoths under the great Theodosius, and slips 
 from them to pass gradually to the Franks, who at the end of 
 this period exercise an immense preponderance under Pepin 
 and Charlemagne, to whom the Holy See owes the first origin of 
 its temporal power. In Asia arose with prodigious rapidity the 
 Mussulman empire, which, a century after its birth, contends 
 at the same time against the Empire of the East in Asia 
 Minor, and the Franks on the north of the Pyrenees, and sup- 
 planted for ever in Asia and in Africa the dominion of the 
 emperors of Constantinople. But the division of the Ca- 
 liphate presages the destruction of this colossal power, and 
 favors in Spain the progress of the little kingdoms of the As- 
 turias and Leon. In the north of Eui'ope the kingdom of 
 Poland is established (about 600) and begins to develop itself 
 under the influence of Christianity. 
 
 The second period sees arise from the wrecks of the em- 
 pire of Charlemagne, the kingdom of France proper, the 
 German empire, the kingdom of Navarre, the kingdom of 
 Italy, and the two kingdoms of Burgundy. The maritime 
 republics of Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, acquire or maintain 
 their independence. The Christian reaction in Spain gives 
 rise to the kingdoms of Castillo and Aragon. The Scandi- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 11 
 
 navian invasion lays the foundation of the duchy of Nor- 
 mandy (885), which in 1066 extends its dominion over the 
 Anglo-Saxon kingdom of England. In 1057 it lays the foun- 
 dation of the Norman kingdom of Italy. The kingdom of 
 Hungary was founded in the tenth century by Asiatic tribes. 
 In the north and out of the sphere of the European movements 
 were founded the kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, 
 and the grand-duchy of Russia (864). During the greater 
 part of this period the preponderance belongs to the German 
 empire. 
 
 During the third period the kingdom of Portugal was 
 formed (1139) in the Spanish peninsula, at the expense of the 
 Mussulman power, which is divided in the East, where it is 
 shaken by the Crusades and by the terrible incursions of the 
 Moguls, who extend their inroads into Europe, and overthrow 
 the Sclavonic states. The German empire and the Holy See 
 contend energetically for the political supremacy, which in 
 the end falls to Rome. The crusades develop rapidly the 
 power of the maritime republics of Italy, and favor the for- 
 mation and development of the Hanseatic league in Ger- 
 many. 
 
 During the last period of the middle ages, no power suc- 
 ceeds to the universal ascendant of the Holy See. England, 
 by her triumphs in her contests with France, acquires a pre- 
 ponderance in the West, which France, soon after victorious 
 in turn, wrests from her. The German empire falls from 
 the high rank which it had held ; but already the increase 
 of the house of Austria foreshadows the part which it will 
 soon be called upon to fill, although the formation of the 
 Hanseatic league (1308) has diminished its territories and 
 compromised its influence. In the East the Mussulman 
 power gradually replaces that of the emperor of Constanti- 
 nople, until at last this old dominion falls. In the North, the 
 re-union of Lithuania and Poland (1386) secures to the lat- 
 
12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 ter a great preponderance, balanced, however, in the four- 
 teenth century, by the great confederation of Colmar, which 
 unites for several years Denmark, Sweden, and Norway 
 (1389). 
 
 Northern and southern Europe, still isolated, will only 
 be definitively drawn nearer together in modern times. 
 
 Our aim will be to give a correct idea of European soci- 
 ety in the middle ages. This can only be done by showing, 
 on the authority of the great works by which Germany has 
 enriched this portion of historical science, the true character 
 of that pontifical influence which is mingled with all the im- 
 portant facts of this period and controls so many of them ; 
 and pointing out, amid the variety of events, the origin and pro- 
 gress of constitutions and government, which form for every 
 people the truest expression of their manners and traditions. 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 IHTASIOIT OP THE BAEBAEIANS. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. State of the Roman world, at the end of the fourth century. — 
 General exhaustion in the provinces. — Decay of the Municipal System. 
 Introduction of the Barbarians into the Empire. — Division and rivalry of 
 the Empii-es of the East and West. 
 
 § II. General character of the barbarian world at this epoch. — 
 Three great families of Barbarians. — Scythian and Tartar races. — The 
 Moguls, the Mantchoos, the Turks, the Avars, the Huns. — Manners of the 
 Hunnish nations. — Manners of the Sclavonians milder than those of the 
 Scythians. — Secondary roll of the Sclavonians in the great invasion. — 
 Three great tribes in the family of the Sclavonians. — Of the Bulgarians 
 and Alani. — Germanic family : Allemanni, Franks, Suevi, Burgundians, 
 Angles, Saxons, Lombards, Vandals, Hemli. — Of the Gothic nations. — 
 Customs of the Germans. — Manners, government, religion. 
 
 § III. Double aspect of the invasion of the Barbarians. — Its two dis- 
 tinct phases. — State of the Empire after Theodosius. — Arcadius and 
 Honorius. — Power of Stilicon. — Invasion of Alaric, king of the Visigoths, 
 in Greece and Italy. — Invasion of Radogast. — Great invasion — Suevi, 
 Vandals, Alans, Burgundians, Franks. — Constance, Emperor of Gaul. — 
 Assassination of Stilicho. — Sack of Rome by Alaric. — The Visigoths in 
 the south of Gaul under Adolphus, Alaric's successor.— Wallia in 
 Spain. 
 
 § IV. Successors of Honorius. — Valentinian III. — Quarrel of Boni- 
 face and Aetius. — The Vandals in Africa. — Genseric — Attila. — Battle 
 
14 DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 of Chalons. — Sack of Rome by Genseric. — Influence of the Suevian 
 Ricimer. — Majorian. — Last emperors. — Orestes and Augustnlus over- 
 thrown by Odoacer. — Fall of the Western empire. 
 
 §1. 
 
 GENERAL IDEA OF THE DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 7. Extent of the Empire. — The world, at the close of the 
 fourth century, presents a smgular spectacle. You still 
 see the vast empire of Augustus, of Constantino, of Theodo- 
 sius, comprising the richest and most beautiful countries that 
 border on the Mediterranean. The Rhine, the Danube, the 
 Euxine and the Euphrates still separate, in appearance, the 
 Roman world from the Barbarians. On the one hand, we 
 see ancient civilization and the consecrated traditions of the 
 imperial dominion ; on the other, wandering tribes of savages 
 and the unknown elements of a new society. But every 
 thing shows that a work, which had been begun long before, 
 was about to be consummated by a terrible crisis ; that an 
 universal destruction was about to blend, every where, all 
 these different people, already mingled, in so many places, by 
 local invasions ; and that after the various phases of a long 
 revolution, there would no longer be either Romans or Bar- 
 barians, but for the first time in the world's history, European 
 states. 
 
 8. Extent of the Roman world at the end of the Fourth 
 Century ; general exhaustion. — Since Constantino, the empire 
 had been sustained by a borrowed life and a factitious en- 
 ergy. The reforms which men of powerful genius had at- 
 tempted, had acted upon it like those violent remedies which 
 restore a transient vigor by exhausting all the springs of life. 
 A single century had been sufficient to produce this fatal 
 result, and notwithstanding the splendor of the reign of The- 
 odosius, the empire was at the eve of its final ruin. The 
 
DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 15 
 
 apparent regularity of the administration, the skilful and 
 complicated organization of public functions, could no longer 
 conceal its real decay. The municipal system, destined to 
 regenerate the provinces, was still struggling against its own 
 impotence (see Roman History), crushing the population, and 
 absorbing the fortunes of individuals, without sustaining the 
 government or restoring public prosperity. The defenders of 
 the cities {defensores civitatis) carried up fruitless complaints 
 to the governors, or employed their influence to oppress their 
 fellow-citizens. An universal sense of discouragement had 
 seized upon men's minds at the sight of incurable evils, which 
 this discouragement itself only served to render more sensi- 
 ble. The husbandmen abandoned their fields in order to 
 escape taxation, and the soil which they no longer cultivated 
 became a desert waste. The municipal officers abandoned 
 their posts to fly from the responsibilities which they imposed : 
 the counts and dukes opened their frontiers to the stranger, 
 rather than engage in a hopeless contest ; and the barriers 
 which had so long held the Barbarians at bay, were thrown 
 down, one after the other, by the Romans themselves. If a 
 wandering tribe chanced to fall, sword in hand, upon some 
 province, it had nothing to fear from its inhabitants. Italy, 
 which had conquered the world, Gaul, which had once filled 
 up the legions of Cassar, could no longer furnish a single 
 soldier : and the invaders could pass boldly on from province 
 to province, until they were repulsed by some other tribe in 
 the emperor's pay, or had established themselves permanently 
 on the territories of the empii'e. But while the population 
 was thus renewed, it was changed too in its character, and 
 these new citizens, even while they accepted the forms of the 
 imperial government, often awaited but the favorable moment 
 of separating themselves from the centre, and resuming their 
 nationality. The continuation of the invasion hastened the 
 dissolution which was already prepared from within. 
 
16 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 9. Division and rivalry of the Empires of the East and 
 West. — In such a situation, the policy of the princes, from 
 the death of Constantine, consisted in averting, with more or 
 less skill, the danger of the moment, without being able to 
 give even a thought to the future. The division of the 
 empire had appeared to Theodosius, as well as to Constan- 
 tine and to Diocletian, the only means of correcting internal 
 evils and repelling external invasions, by an easier inspec- 
 tion of the remote provinces and a more direct action of the 
 supreme authority. But to accomplish this would have re- 
 quii'ed two emperors, animated with the same spirit, acting 
 in concert against the common enemy, and preserving peace 
 and subordination in their own territories. 
 
 This, however, was far from being the case. Instead of 
 being friends, the two emperors were rivals : instead of sus- 
 taining each other, each strove to obtain the control over his 
 colleague ; laboring mutually to undermine and raise up 
 enemies against the power on whose existence each depend- 
 ed for the preservation of his own. In this deplorable task 
 they were both equally successful ; and the result of their 
 divisions was the general invasion, hastened by the policy of 
 the Eastern Empire, and which was soon followed by the dis- 
 memberment and rapid fall of the Empire of the West. 
 
 §11. 
 
 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS, BEFORE THE INVASION. 
 
 SCYTHIANS AND TARTARS, SCLAVONIANS AND GERMANS. 
 
 MANNERS OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 10. General character of the Barhariaris. — On the bor- 
 ders of these desolate provinces, in those vast countries, 
 once almost a desert, a young, ardent and impatient popula- 
 
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 17 
 
 tion stands ready to throw itself upon its unresisting prey. 
 With them all is life, energy, movement, both in private life 
 and in the public mind ; and at the aspect of those nations 
 pressing and crowding upon one another, contending for the 
 possession of a soil from which their own restless activity 
 drives them away almost as soon as it is won ; of this strength 
 nourished by incessant struggle, and this ambition irritated 
 by partial success, it is easy to foretell that all things are 
 wonderfully combined for a great work of destruction. 
 
 1 1 . Scythian and Tartar races ; their manners. — Three 
 powerful families of separate nations were again about to be 
 mingled together, beyond the Roman frontier : the Scythians, 
 the Ger7nans, and the Sclavonians.i.^) On the north of Per- 
 sia and Arabia, the race which was known to the ancients as 
 Scythian, and among which are classed the Tartar tribes, 
 occupied the immense steppes of upper Asia and eastern 
 Europe. There lived the Kalmucks or Moguls, the Mant- 
 choos, the Turks, the Avars, the Huns or Hiongnous, the 
 most terrible of them all. India was to become the spoil of 
 the Moguls, China of the Mantchoos, Western Asia and a 
 part of Europe of the Turks : the Huns, masters for a mo- 
 ment of all these tribes (v. Roman History, ch. xxiii.) but 
 soon driven back by them in turn, were destined to overrun 
 all Europe like a desolating torrent, and then disappear, 
 without leaving scarcely a trace in the world which they had 
 laid waste. 
 
 The Huns were the most savage of the barbarous tribes, 
 and historians never speak of them without terror. Short 
 and thick, disfigured by hideous sears, clad in skins coarsely 
 stitched together, they lived upon roots and meat softened 
 under their saddles, or the curdled milk of their mares. 
 They led about numerous flocks wherever they went, and 
 
 (1) For the Ethnography of the Barbarians, see Part II. of this work 
 ch. i. book 11, containing the Geography of the Middle Ages. 
 
18 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 transported their booty in wagons, which formed a sort of 
 rolling city. They slept in the open air, and passed their 
 lives on horseback : it was on horseback that they ate, that 
 they held council, that they made war, and leaning upon the 
 necks of their steeds, caught an uncertain sleep, while dream- 
 ing of the morrow's battle. They charged their enemy with 
 frightful cries, came upon him unawares, dispersed in an in- 
 stant, returned again to the charge, throwing their javelins 
 with unerring skill, and dragging their prisoners after them 
 with a noose, that they were trained to throw with the same 
 fatal precision with which the South American of our own 
 days hurls his lasso. 
 
 The Huns worshipped the sun and a naked sword 
 planted in the ground. They had neither laws nor religious 
 dogmas. Their children, born in the wagons in which their 
 women passed their lives, were formed early to the chase, 
 and only acknowledged to be of age when they had killed an 
 enemy with their own hands. Their prisoners were sacri- 
 ficed to the shades of their ancestors ; the warriors collected 
 the skulls of their enemies, and in battle tied them to the 
 flanks of their horses. 
 
 12. The Sclavonians. — The manners of the Sclavonians, on 
 the other hand, who occupied the whole of northern Europe 
 fi'om Germany to the Volga, were comparatively mild and 
 gentle. They tilled the ground, fed large flocks, and hunted 
 the abundant game which peopled their forests. Their fam- 
 ilies were remarkable for the union which prevailed in them ; 
 stealing was unknown among them : the Sclavonian, on quit- 
 ting his dwelling, left the door open and a meal ready 
 dressed for the traveller : strangers were received with honor, 
 and the poor man could take from the rich whatever he 
 needed for the entertainment of his guest. Their prisoners 
 were generally treated with humanity, and allowed the privi- 
 lege of ransom. 
 
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 19 
 
 The Sclavonians adored a great number of divinities, 
 whose worship they celebrated by dances, public games and 
 patriotic songs ; and in these solemn festivities mead and 
 milk were served with profusion. It was only when under 
 the influence of superstition that the Sclavonians were cruel. 
 Human blood was mingled with the blood of animals upon 
 the altars of their gods : wives were sacrificed to the shades 
 of their husbands, and the hatred of the priests of their idols 
 was soon to prepare frightful tortures for the missionaries of 
 Christianity. Bound by their sedentary habits to the soil of 
 their birth, the greater portion of this race took no part in 
 that great movement of people which ended with the fifth 
 century. It was only after the invasion that they appeared 
 in turn in the deserted provinces. 
 
 The Sclavonians were divided into three great nations. 
 The Venedi, near the Baltic ; the Ants, on the banks of the 
 Don ; the Sclavonians proper, near the Danube. At a later 
 period they were divided into a great number of tribes. All 
 of these people, subjected for a moment by the great king 
 Hermanric to the dominion of the Goths, recovered their in- 
 dependence after the division and destruction of the empire 
 of the Goths by the invasion of the Huns (v. Roman His- 
 tory). 
 
 The Bulgarians and Alani, though Sclavonian by origin, 
 resembled the Scythians in their wandering habits and savage 
 character. 
 
 13. Germanic races. — On the west of Sclavonia, between 
 the Ocean, the Vistula, the Theiss and the Rhine, were those 
 German tribes which had long been known to the Romans. 
 The Allemanni and Franks, composed of the reunion of sev- 
 eral smaller tribes, were scattered near the borders of the 
 Rhine, on its left bank when victorious, on the right when van- 
 quished, but still with their arms in hand, and ever ready to 
 seize the opportunity of invading Gaul. In the centre were 
 
20 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 two powerful people, the Suevi and the Burgundians ; on the 
 northeast, the Saxons ; the Angles and the Prisons on the 
 shores of the Baltic and opposite to the coast of Great Britain ; 
 in the north and in the east the Lombards, the most ferocious 
 of all the Germanic tribes, the Gepidi, the Vandals, and the 
 Heruli, already yielding before the pressure of the Goths, 
 themselves of Germanic origin, and who occupied all the 
 eastern portions of Germany and several Sclavonian provinces. 
 'At the end of the fourth century, the Ostrogoths (eastern 
 Goths) had submitted to the transient dominion of the Huns, 
 while the Visigoths (western Goths) had sought an asylum 
 in the empire. 
 
 14. Manners and customs of the Germans. — The man- 
 ners of the Germans have been admirably described by Ta- 
 citus, whose indignation at the corruption of his fellow-citi- 
 zens led him, perhaps, to render a somewhat exaggerated 
 homage to the purity of manners and the energy and simpli- 
 city of the institutions of the Barbarians. Passionate lovers 
 of independence, the German tribe never confined itself 
 within the limits of a province : beauty of situation, rich 
 pasturage, decide their transient residence. The palace of 
 the chief is a simple hut ; a ditch is the rampart, with 
 which they guard against their enemies. Their lives are 
 divided between hunting and war ; the cares of agriculture 
 and their flocks are left to women and slaves, while they 
 go to meet their enemy ; it is sloth and cowardice, in their 
 eyes, to win by sweat what can be won by blood. The 
 severity of their manners guarded marriage with inviolable 
 respect. Women brought no dower; but on the wedding- 
 day, they received a present of a pair of oxen, as a symbol 
 of the labor to which they were destined, and a horse and 
 arms, to remind them that it was their duty to inspire their 
 children with courage and patriotism. The food of the 
 Germans was, in general, simple and frugal ; at their re- 
 
ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 21 
 
 pasts, they discussed public affairs, while their young men 
 executed, near them, dangerous dances between lances and 
 swords. No people ever observed the duties of hospitality 
 more religiously ; the traveller was received with joy, fed 
 by his host, who also served him as guide, and never let him 
 go away without some gift. 
 
 With these primitive virtues, the Germans mingled the 
 vices of a nature still coarse and savage. Families were 
 divided by the fiercest hatred when the offended one had re- 
 fused to accept the pecuniary reparation which, according to 
 the custom of the country, had been offered by the offender. 
 The solemn festivals, on which the chief collected his war- 
 riors around him, were wild revels, debased by disgusting in- 
 temperance, and ending, almost always, in bloody quarrels. 
 In their moments of repose, they engaged with a species of 
 fury in games of chance : often hazarding their whole for- 
 tune upon the turn of a die ; and when all was lost, their 
 flocks, their horse, and their arms, they would stake their 
 wives, their children, and even their own freedom ; and 
 warriors, young and vigorous, would suffer themselves to be 
 bound and sold like slaves, to pay a debt of honor. 
 
 15. Political and religious institutions. — The nation really 
 comprised but two classes, freemen and slaves; and the lot 
 of the latter was much less rigorous, among the Germans, 
 than among the Romans. Strictly speaking, there was no 
 aristocracy, no hereditary nobility : the warriors who had 
 distinguished themselves in battle, and grown rich with the 
 spoils of the enemy, were surrounded by distinctions and 
 honors. The freemen of their tribe gathered around them 
 and chose them for their chiefs in war ; and sometimes the 
 whole tribe intrusted them with the supreme command. 
 But it was seldom that the monarchical form was permanent- 
 ly established among them. These personal privileges never 
 became the legal prerogative of a family. The chiefs 
 
22 ETHNOGRAPHY OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 were consulted upon ordinary affairs ; but great questions 
 were always referred to the assembly of the whole nation, 
 where the freemen came on horseback, armed, and each 
 with an equal right in debate, and no other influence but 
 that of eloquence and glory. 
 
 A priest presided over the assembly ; these fierce Ger- 
 mans acknowledged no supremacy but that of religion. 
 Some old man opened the meeting, and the murmurs of the 
 multitude, or the clashing of their arms, was the signal 
 that his counsel had been rejected or received. 
 
 It was in these assemblies that peace or war was de- 
 cided. If an expedition was resolved upon, all the freemen 
 were mustered, and set out, under the guidance of the 
 bravest. They shared the fatigues, the dangers, the good or 
 bad fortune of their chief, and the joy of his feasts, and the 
 spoils of the enemy after victory ; but if the chief fell in 
 battle, it was dishonor for his companions to survive him. 
 The arms of the Germans were a buckler and the framea, 
 a short, pointed lance, to fight close at hand or at a dis- 
 tance, and sometimes a battle-axe and club. The strength of 
 the army was in the cavalry ; the foot-soldiers mingled 
 with the horsemen, were taught to cling to the manes of 
 their horses, follow them at full speed, and fight in their 
 ranks. The women accompanied the army in general wars, 
 dressed the wounds of the wounded, brought back the fugi- 
 tives to the charge, and were more than once seen to po- 
 niard the cowardly with their own hands, and after a defeat 
 throw themselves under the wheels of their wagons, rather 
 than survive their husbands' disgrace. 
 
 The religion of the Germans was sombre and mysteri- 
 ous. They worshipped the divinity in the depths of forests. 
 The sun, and fire, were the symbols which they venerated 
 most ; they looked upon the earth (Dertha) as their mother, 
 and offered bloody sacrifices in the isle of Rugen, the dread- 
 
INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS. 23 
 
 ed sanctuary of the goddess ; every year, beautiful young 
 girls were led to the bank of a sacred lake, and never seen 
 again. The Germans believed in the immortality of the 
 soul ; and to the brave, who died in battle, were promised 
 the infinite joys of the Walhalla, where warriors were to cut 
 one another to pieces during the day, and at night sit down 
 together, young and full of life, to the eternal banquet. 
 
 § III. 
 
 INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS IN THE TWO EBIPIRES. 
 
 16. Double aspect of the invasion of the Barbarians. — The 
 invasion of the empire by all these tribes of Barbarians pre- 
 sents two distinct phases : one slow and successive, the other 
 sudden and rapid ; the first destined to perform the work of 
 insensible disorganization, the second to overturn by a sud- 
 den blow. For more than a century, the tribes nearest to 
 the empire had penetrated, one by one, into its territories ; 
 but subdued by civilization, they had been aggregated in a 
 certain measure to the society around them, subjected to its 
 influence even while they transformed its elements, and ended 
 at last by substituting their own authority to that of the em- 
 peror, without making any great modification in a system to 
 which they had gradually adapted their own. Thus under 
 the dominion of the Goths, who were for a long time in im- 
 mediate relations with the empire, the Roman traditions are 
 preserved in Italy and Southern Gaul. But other tribes, 
 beyond the contact of Roman civilization, brought suddenly 
 to the frontiers of the empire in the course of their wild ex- 
 peditions, or by the reaction of distant revolutions, and eager 
 only for destruction and pillage, come next, with a frightful 
 shock, which threatens all the vestiges of ancient society 
 with annihilation. 
 
24 INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 Against such enemies, who inundate all her provinces at 
 the same moment, the weakened and divided empire cannot 
 long sustain the unequal contest. 
 
 17. Accession of Arcadius in the East and Honorius in 
 the West. — The inheritance of Theodosius, the last of the 
 Roman emperors, was divided between his two sons (395). 
 Arcadius had the East, comprising the two prefectures of the 
 East and Illyria, that is, Egypt, the whole of Asia, Thrace, 
 Moesia, Dacia, and all Greece. In the West, Honorius 
 reigned over the two prefectures of Italy and Gaul, com- 
 posed of Illyria proper, Pannonia, Norica, Rhetia, Italy, Af- 
 rica, Spain, Gaul, and Great Britain. Arcadius resided at 
 Constantinople, and Honorius at Milan, although Rome still 
 preserved its title of Metropolis. The West was administered 
 by the Vandal Stilicho, whom Theodosius had appointed 
 guardian of the two brothers. The Gaul Rufinus governed 
 the East for Arcadius (v. ch. v.). 
 
 18. First invasion of Alaric. — The military talents and 
 exploits of Stilicho alarmed the low jealousy o^ Rufinus, who, 
 to stir up enemies against his rival, called in the Barbarians 
 to ravage the provinces. Alaric, chief of the Visigoths who 
 were established in Dacia, hastened to obey the summons. 
 He invaded and plundered Greece, but escaped with difficul- 
 ty from Stilicho, who had come to the defence of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. Arcadius, after having declared Stilicho enemy 
 of the Eastern empire, made peace with the Goth, and gave 
 him lands in Illyria, with the title of Master of the Troops 
 (400). Alaric caused himself to be proclaimed king of the 
 Visigoths, augmented his forces at the expense of the Eastern 
 empire, which the blind Arcadius had placed at his disposal, 
 equipped his soldiers with the arms of the arsenals of the 
 East, and crossed the Alps to invade Italy. The peninsula, 
 without regular armies, and incapable of defending itself^ lay 
 open to the invader, while Stilicho went to seek on the fron- 
 
INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS. 25 
 
 tiers the troops wliich Italy could not supply. Frightful 
 devastations marked the passage of the Goths, until Stilicho 
 reappeared to deliver Honorius, who was besieged in Asti, 
 and save the empire (402). Alaric, after three defeats and 
 the loss of his army, returned into Illyria. Honorius cele- 
 brated the total destruction of the Gothic nation by magnificent 
 games, in which gladiators appeared for the last time in the 
 arena. A monk named Telemachus threw himself between 
 the combatants, and tried to separate them. The spectators, 
 intoxicated with the sight of blood, fell upon him and killed 
 him. But the indignant emperor abolished the odious spec- 
 tacle by a solemn decree, and the repentant people honored 
 as a saint the martyr of humanity. Notwithstanding the ex- 
 citement of his triumph, Honorius hastened to quit Milan and 
 establish his residence at Ravenna, where the lagunes afford- 
 ed a sure protection against sudden attack (403). 
 
 19. General invasion. — Alaric had given the signal to the 
 Barbarians. Scarcely had he quit Italy, when the Suevi 
 broke up from Germany and descended towards the Alps. 
 For a second time the peninsula was a prey to the desolating 
 scourge ; but Stilicho was on the watch. By vigorous efforts 
 he succeeded in creating an army, promising freedom and 
 two pieces of gold to every slave that would take up arms 
 (406). Rhadogast, chief of the Barbarians, was repulsed 
 from the walls of Florence, to which he had laid siege, and 
 surrounded and killed on the arid heights of Fiesoli ; his horde 
 was sold in the slave market. 
 
 Till then Italy alone had been attacked ; but now all the 
 West was upon the point of being assailed, at the very mo- 
 ment in which the death of Stilicho, assassinated by order of 
 the cowardly Honorius, deprived the empire of its only pro- 
 tector. The Suevi, who had been exterminated with Rha- 
 dogast, were but the advanced guard of an innumerable army, 
 composed of the remainder of the Suevi, of the Vandals, the 
 
 2 
 
26 INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 Alans, and the Burgundians. At the news of Rhadogast's 
 disaster, they turned their steps towards Gaul, crushed in 
 their passage the Ripuarian Franks, who had dared to meet 
 the first shock (407), and spread like an inundation over all 
 Gaul, leaving ruin and destruction behind them (v. History 
 of France). The Burgundian tribes established themselves 
 between the Rhone and the Saone ; the others passed into 
 Spain, which they ravaged even more fearfully than Gaul. 
 
 Shortly afterwards, the Franks, one of whose colonies on 
 the Rhine had vainly tried to check the invasion, went to take 
 their part also in the conquest of Gaul (v. ch. iv. § 1). 
 
 The centre of the country, which amid these revolutions 
 still remained Roman, had not returned to Honorius. 
 
 20. New invasion and death of Alaric. — Constantine, chief 
 of the legions of Britain, who had helped drain off the wave 
 of invasion, was proclaimed emperor in Gaul, and charged 
 the general Gerontius with the conquest of Spain. Honorius 
 was compelled to recognize him, for Alaric had once more 
 invaded Italy (409). 
 
 Stilicho's enemies had been promised that the auxiliary 
 Goths should be massacred. Thirty thousand of them, who 
 escaped from this bloody execution, took refuge with Alaric, 
 who hastened into Italy to avenge them. Some one is urging 
 me on, said the Barbarian, and impelling me to sack Rome. 
 From the first siege Rome was redeemed by gold ; after a 
 second siege, Alaric invested the prefect Attalus with the 
 purple, but deposed him again the moment that he began to act 
 independently ; and Honorius still refusing to fulfil the con- 
 ditions which he had sworn to accept, siege was laid for the 
 third time to the Eternal City, which was assaulted, taken, and 
 sacked, with frightful devastation (410). The churches, how- 
 ever, were spared, and in these the population found a secure 
 asylum ; for the beneficent influence of Christianity began 
 already to be felt. It had made its way among the Goths on 
 
INVASION OF THE BARBARIANS. 27 
 
 their first entrance into the empire, and having penetrated 
 also to the greater part of the Barbarians before the great 
 invasion, served on more than one occasion to soften the 
 horrors of these disastrous times. 
 
 In all the Western Empire scarcely any thing M^as left to 
 Honorius but the lagoons of Ravenna. However, Alaric 
 did not survive his triumph long. He died at Cosenza, and 
 his companions, to secure for his ashes an inviolable tomb, 
 drained the waters of the river, and having buried him in its 
 channel, slew the slaves by whom his grave had been dug, 
 that no man might know where he lay. 
 
 21. Foundation of the kingdom of the Visigoths in the 
 south of Gaul and in Spain. — His death (411) gave Honorius 
 a breathing space, and by abandoning several provinces he 
 was enabled to save a few. The Roman Constantius, who 
 had replaced Stilicho, conquered Gerontius, who was at war 
 with Constantine, and reduced him to such extremity that, he 
 killed himself ; and finally made Constantine himself prison- 
 er, and sent him to Honorius, who put him to death. The 
 Visigoths ceased to be the enemies of the empire. Adol- 
 phus, Alaric's successor, had at first proposed to raise the 
 empire of the Goths on the ruins of the empire of Rome ; but 
 he soon became convinced that his undisciplined subjects 
 would never submit to regular laws, and changing his policy, 
 he asked the hand of Placidia, Honorius's sister, became his 
 brother-in-law's protector, and overthrew the two pretenders, 
 lovinius and Sebastianus, who with the protection of the 
 Burgundians had assumed the purple in Gaul. Magnificent 
 festivals had celebrated this alliance of the Romans and the 
 Barbarians, and the Christians repeated joyfully the words 
 of the prophet Daniel, " The daughter of the king of the 
 South shall one day be united to the son of the king of the 
 North." 
 
 As for the Barbarians established in the empire, as Hono- 
 
28 DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 rius had no means of driving them away, he was compelled 
 to recognize them. He confirmed the Burgundians, the mild- 
 est and most peaceable of the northern tribes, in the posses- 
 sion of Helvetia (413). To remove the Visigoths from Gaul, 
 and oppose them to the Barbarians in Spain, he offered them 
 settlements beyond the Pyrenees. Adolphus advanced as far 
 as the Ebro, and was assassinated at Barcelona. His suc- 
 cessor, Wallia, subjected the Alans, drove the Vandals who 
 occupied Andalusia ( Vandalusia) into the south, and the Suevi 
 into Gallicia, where they were not destined to preserve their 
 independence long. In reward for his services, Wallia ob- 
 tained from Honorius all the south of Gaul as far as the 
 Garonne, and founded the kingdom of the Visigoths, with 
 Toulouse for its capital. 
 
 Honorius retained the provinces which were not comprised 
 in the three kingdoms of the Barbarians. He rewarded Con- 
 stantius with the title of Augustus and the hand of his sister, 
 the widow of Adolphus. But the dismemberment could no 
 longer be prevented, and the tottering fragments which still 
 bore the name of Empire of the East were about to crumble 
 in their tui'n. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 32. Valeniinian III. — Rivalry of Aetius and Boniface. — 
 The Vandals in Africa. — Honorius died in 424 ; Valeniinian 
 III., son of Constantius and Placidia, succeeded him on the 
 throne, after the usurpation of the secretary John, emperor 
 of a day, who, however, signalized his reign by a memorable 
 edict abolishing slavery. Placidia, once more a widow, 
 reigned in her son's name, and another female, Pulcheria, 
 
DESTRUCTION OF THE "WESTERN EMPIRE. 29 
 
 governed the East during the minority of her brother, Theo- 
 dosius II. The two empires enjoyed a moment of repose ; but 
 the mutual enmity of the generals of Placidia, Aetius and Bo- 
 niface, cost the empire another province. Aetius, conqueror 
 of the Frank Chlodian (428), of the Burgundians, and of the 
 Visigoths, could not bear the ascendency which Boniface had 
 gained over the regent. The latter, deposed at the instigation 
 of his rival, revolted in his province of Africa, and called the 
 Vandals with their king Genseric to his assistance. His tardy 
 repentance, awakened by the remonstrances of St. Augustin, 
 did not come in time to repair his fault. The independent tribes 
 of Africa and the Donatists, fanatics of the most obstinate 
 caste, united with the enemies of the Roman power. Hippo, 
 vainly defended against the attacks of the Vandals, opened 
 its gates after a siege of fourteen months, in the third of which 
 its illustrious bishop, the eloquent Augustin, had died. Boni- 
 face escaped over sea, and Valentinian was compelled to 
 yield Genseric a part of Africa by treaty (435). Four years 
 afterwards the Vandals surprised Carthage ; all Africa was 
 lost to the Romans, and the city of Dido again became the 
 capital of a kingdom. She soon too saw Rome at her feet, 
 and decked herself with the spoils of her haughty rival. 
 Genseric subjected all the great islands of the Mediterranean, 
 Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica, and the Balearic isles ; he rendered 
 his capital as powerful as of old by her navy, and built a 
 large number of ships, with which he cruised in every di- 
 rection and plundered every coast ; " urged on," said he, 
 " against those wliom God wishes to punish." 
 
 23. Invasion of Attila, king of the Huns. — A Barbarian 
 equally redoubtable with Genseric held the northern provinces 
 of the two empires in terror. Attila, who called himself the 
 hammer of the universe and the scourge of God, had subjected 
 to the empire of the Huns all the Sclavonic tribes, and among 
 the Germans the Heruli, the Marcomanni, the Gepidi, the Os- 
 
30 DESTRUCTION OF THE "WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 trogoths, and the Suevi. The assassination of his brother had 
 made him sole chief of his terrible nation. His sceptre was 
 the sword Deman, which had been found by a shepherd in the 
 midst of a desert, and the possession of which presaged the em- 
 pire of the world. A message of Genseric decided him to attack 
 the East. All the countries near the Danube were devastated 
 with fire and sword. Theodosius II. bought peace at the 
 price of an enormous tribute of two thousand pounds of gold ; 
 and his ambassadors, admitted to the table of Attila, but placed 
 in the lowest seats, saw the haughty conqueror eat in wooden 
 dishes, while his attendants were served in plates of gold and 
 silver, the spoil of their enemies. Attila found a worthier 
 adversary in Marcian, the successor of Theodosius ; / have 
 gold for my friends, and steel for my enemies, was his reply 
 when the Barbarian demanded the payment of his tribute. 
 The king of the Huns avoided the contest, and turned his 
 steps towards the West, where he demanded the hand of Va- 
 lentinian's sister, the princess Honoria, who had by a recent 
 message invited Attila to claim her as his bride. Gaul was 
 again laid waste. The prayers of St. Genevieve saved 
 Paris ; and the valor of Arianus, bishop of Orleans, held 
 Attila in check before the walls of the city which he had 
 doomed to destruction. Aetius came to the succor of the be- 
 sieged at the moment in which they were upon the point of 
 giving themselves up for lost, and his army, united with that 
 of the Visigoths, the Franks, and the Burgundians, overtook 
 the Huns near Chalons sur Marne (451). Theodoric II., 
 king of the Visigoths, was killed in this horrible shock of 
 Barbarian arms ; but the victory fell to his allies. Attila, 
 pursued to his intrenchments by the son of Theodoric, had 
 already built himself a funeral pile with the saddles of his 
 horses, and was prepared to kill himself upon it rather than 
 fall into the hands of his enemies. But Aetius, fearing too 
 great an increase of the power of the Visigoths, withheld 
 
DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 31 
 
 them from a final attack, and suffered Attila to regain the 
 frontiers without being pursued ('). Gaul was delivered ; 
 but the scourge fell upon Italy ; Attila razed Aquileja, and 
 ravaged all the north of the Peninsula ; the inhabitants of 
 Venetia took refuge in the lagoons of the Adriatic, where 
 they laid the foundations of Venice ; and the fierce conqueror 
 was preparing to march upon Rome, when he was met by a 
 solemn embassy of the Senate. The majestic aspect of Pope 
 Leo the Great, who had come with the ambassadors, and who 
 presented himself in the imposing array of his pontifical 
 robes, with a rich ransom under title of the dowry of the Prin- 
 cess Honoria, and more than all, perhaps, the superstitious ter- 
 ror with which he reflected on the fate of Alaric, whose death 
 had followed so close on the sack of the imperial city, moved 
 the Barbarian's mind, and led him to grant peace to the trem- 
 bling Romans. He abandoned Italy, and died the next year 
 (453). The power of the Huns did not survive him long. 
 The great empire of the Barbarians was torn in pieces by 
 the children of its founder. 
 
 24. Sack of Rome iy Genseric. — But Attila's rival, Gen- 
 seric, was prepared to accomplish his work, at the moment 
 when the empire lost its only defender. When Attila's sword 
 was broken, Valentinian drawing his own for the first time, 
 plunged it into the heart of the last of the Romans : jealous 
 of Aetius, he killed the man who had so long retarded the 
 fall of the empire. Next year Valentinian was put to death 
 by the senator Petronius Maximus, who seized upon the throne, 
 and the emperor's widow called in the Vandals to punish the 
 assassin and the usurper (455). Rome was taken and sacked 
 
 (1) Timens ne Hunnis funditus 
 
 Tnteremptis, a Gothis Romanorum 
 Premeretur imperium. — Jornandes. 
 
 Such was the invariable policy of the empire during its decline. 
 
32 DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 
 
 a second time by the Barbarians. Genseric loaded his 
 ships with the statues of the capitol, the fragments of the 
 golden ceiling which had cost Domitian seventy millions, and 
 the ornaments of the temple of Jerusalem which had adorned 
 the triumph of Titus. A part of the inhabitants, with the 
 empress Eudoxia and her two daughters, was led captive to 
 Carthage. 
 
 25. Injluence of the Suevi Ricimer. — The Barbarians con- 
 tinue to hold possession of the provinces, while their brethren 
 press on them from without. Under this double pressure the 
 death-struggle of the empire is protracted for a quarter of a 
 century. After the death of Maximus, the rhetorician Avitus 
 is proclaimed, and then assassinated by the Suevian Ricimer, 
 whom he had put at the head of the Barbarian allies, and 
 who assumed the right of disposing of the empire. Majo- 
 rian, to whom he gave the purple (457), believed himself ca- 
 pable of exercising the imperial power, restoring the honor 
 of the Roman name, and making it once more dreadful to 
 her enemies. He restored some regularity to the administra- 
 tion, by reorganizing the collection of the revenues, by liber- 
 ating the municipal magistrates from their burthensome respon- 
 sibility, and re-establishing the ancient and useful office of 
 defenders of the city. He had already equipped a fleet, too, 
 and was prepared to carry war to the heart of the empire of 
 the Vandals. But Ricimer, dreading the loss of his own 
 authority, excited a conspiracy against the virtuous emperor, 
 and treacherously defeated his generous plans. Three ob- 
 scure emperors, Severus III., Anihemius, and Olyhius (461 
 — 472), rise and fall at the voice of the Barbarian. 
 
 26. Last emperors. — Fall of the Western Empire. — At 
 length, after the death of Ricimer (472), the patrician Orestes, 
 successor of Glycerins and Julius Nepos, invests with the 
 purple his son Romulus Augustulus, as if to close the imperial 
 line with a name which should recall at the same time the 
 
DESTRUCTION OF THE WESTERN EMPIRE. 33 
 
 founder of Rome and the foundei' of the empire (476). 
 Orestes is so imprudent as to excite the discontent of the Bar- 
 barian allies, by refusing the distribution of lands which they 
 demanded. They revolt, with the Herulian Odoacer, who 
 had ah-eady been raised to the first grades of the army j 
 Orestes is massacred, and his son banished. From that time 
 Rome had no more emperors. 
 
 The Western Empire, so long undermined, fell without a 
 shock. Italy was governed by a king, instead of an empe- 
 ror. The Barbarians assumed the insignia of a power of 
 which they had long possessed the reality. Odoacer was the 
 first that reigned in Italy, and the emperor of the East, to 
 preserve at least a nominal supremacy, gave him the title of 
 patrician (476). 
 
 2* 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 GOTHS AND LOMBAEDS. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Theodoric overthrows Odoacer. — His conquests and military 
 triumphs. — He governs the Visigoths. — His skilful administration. — 
 Heligious and political toleration. — Favors granted to the conquered. — 
 Respect for all the Roman customs — His efforts to unite the two peo- 
 ple. — Distinctions which he makes between them. — Protection granted 
 to letters, arts, and agriculture. — Cassiodorus, a minister worthy of The- 
 odoric. — End of the reign of this prince. — His cruelties and death. — 
 Amalasontha and Athalaric. — Theodatus assassinates Amalasontha. — 
 Relisarius in Italy. — Totila. — Fruitless efforts of Belisarius deprived 
 of support. — Narses in Italy. — Destruction of the empire of the Ostro- 
 goths. 
 
 § n. Progress of the Visigoths in the south of Gaul and in Spain. — 
 Wallia.— Theodoric II.— Euric— Alaric II. killed by Clovis.— The Visi- 
 goths confined to Spain. — Contest between the Franks and' Visigoths. — 
 Justinian retakes a part of Spain. — Success of the Visigoths against the 
 Suevi under Leovegild. — Their conversion to Catholicism. — The Greeks 
 driven from the Peninsula. — Suintila king of all Spain. — Decay of the 
 kingdom of the Visigoths. — Excessive power of the clergy. — Internal - 
 dissensions. — Attacks of the Saracens. — Battle of Xeres. — Fall of the 
 Gothic monarchy. 
 
 § III. Causes of the rapid fall of the kingdoms founded by the Goths. 
 — Religious and political obstacles to the fusion of the conquerors and 
 conquered in one nation. — Causes of the instability of the government. 
 
HISTORY OF THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 35 
 
 § IV. The Lombards called into Italy by Narses. — Alboin. — Troubles 
 at his death. — Reigns of Autharis, of Agilulphus and Theodelinda, and 
 of Rotharis. — New internal dissensions. — Luitprand. — Final progress of 
 the Lombard power. — Contest with the Franks. — Fall of the kingdom 
 of the Lombards. 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. THEODORIC. CAS- 
 
 SIODORUS. 
 
 27. Conquest of Italy ly Theodoric. — It was easier to 
 conquer Italy than to keep it. The Herulian had hardly be- 
 gun to confirm his dominion, by allying himself with the Visi- 
 goths and the Vandals, when he saw a terrible competitor 
 rise against him. The Ostrogoths, shut up in a corner of II- 
 lyria, and wearied with an unwonted idleness, were begin- 
 ning to grow restless, and waited nothing but a leader to rush 
 on to war and plunder. The emperor Zeno sent them a son 
 of their king Theodosius, whom he had brought up at Con- 
 stantinople, adopted as his son by the adoption of arms, and 
 raised to the first dignities of the empire. To him he dele- 
 gated his rights over Italy, which he charged him to wrest 
 from the hands of the Heruli ; hoping that while he conquer- 
 ed his enemy with the arms of the young warrior, the Barba- 
 rians would mutually waste their strength in wars against 
 each other. 
 
 Theodoric set forth, clad in the sacred veil, the emblem 
 of his investiture, proclaiming himself the servant, the slave 
 of Zeno (Jornandes), These vain demonstrations concealed 
 the designs of a vast and audacious ambition. The chief of 
 a powerful nation of Barbarians could not long remain the 
 docile instrument of the feeble emperor of the East. The 
 whole nation of the Ostrogoths marched under his orders. 
 
36 HISTORY OF THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 
 
 They crossed the Julian Alps rapidly (489), defeated Odoa- 
 cer three times, and compelled him to take refuge behind the 
 walls of Ravenna. After a siege of two years, the Goths 
 and the Heruli, equally tired of the war, signed a treaty 
 which left Odoacer half the command. Theodoric stabbed 
 him in the midst of a banquet, and reigned alone (493). 
 
 28. Development of the power of Theodoric. — Brave as 
 a Barbarian chief, skilful as a disciple of the Greeks, Theo- 
 doric had all the qualities which make a great king : military 
 talents to conquer, political talents to organize his conquests. 
 Having subdued Italy, he fortified all the avenues to it : Illy- 
 ria, Rhetia, Pannonia, Noricum, were occupied, in order to 
 close all the passages on the north. The remnants of the He- 
 ruli were confined to the foot of the mountains, to serve as 
 ramparts for the peninsula, and held in dependence by seve- 
 ral Gothic chiefs, who were encamped on the chain of the 
 Alps. The coasts of the Adriatic, infested by Greek pirates, 
 were protected by a fleet of a thousand light ships, a navy 
 created by Theodoric himself. Dreaded by the emperor of 
 the East, whom he still continued to treat with politic respect, 
 and by the nations of the West, whose invasions he checked, 
 he proclaimed himself the protector of all the people of his 
 race. Though too late to save his son-in-law Alaric II., 
 king of the Visigoths (v. Hist, of France), he defeated the vic- 
 torious army of Clovis, established his authority in the south 
 of Gaul, and declared himself the guai'dian of Am alaric, 
 Alaric's successor (511). He took the direction of the 
 government of Spain, as he had done that of Italy ; appoint- 
 ed the magistrates, directed the administration, regulated the 
 affairs of the state, and became the sovereign of all the 
 Gothic tribes ; while the chiefs of the Vandals, the Burgun- 
 dians, and the Thuringians sought alliance with his family 
 or courted his friendship. 
 
 29. Skilful administration. — Policy towards the vanquish- 
 
HISTORY OF THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 37 
 
 ed. — He proved himself worthy of his extensive power, by 
 the wisdom of his administration in Italy. The world saw 
 with admiration a Barbarian and a conquei'or occupied only in 
 effacing the traces of invasion, and securing the concord, the 
 pi'osperity, and the civilization of his states. Though an 
 Arian, he respected the privileges of the clergy, protected 
 the catholic religion, which was professed by the Romans, 
 and permitted the celebration of its solemnities. " We have 
 no empire," said he, "over religion; for no man can compel 
 belief" As tolerant in politics as in religion, he placed the 
 conquered, in appearance at least, on an equality with 
 their conquerors. His whole aim seemed to be to make 
 one nation of them ; wishing that " the Goths might love the 
 Romans as neighbors and brothers, and the Romans cherish 
 the Goths as their protectors." While in other countries 
 the conquerors preserved a privileged legislation, in Italy the 
 law was the same for the Goths and the Romans, and that 
 law was the Roman law slightly modified. Taxation fell 
 equally upon both. The old system of administration was 
 preserved with scarcely a change. The senate was held in 
 honor ; civil magistracies and dignities resumed their places, 
 and were mostly intrusted to Romans. Theodoi'ic's secretary 
 and minister was the Italian Cassiodorus, whose talents Odo- 
 acer had already discovered and employed, and who, by his 
 learning, his activity, and his wisdom, seconded the genius 
 of his new master worthily, and established his claim to a 
 share in the glory of this illustrious reign. 
 
 Theodoric's court became wholly Roman ; he adopted 
 the imperial ornaments, and when the Romans saw him 
 enter Rome with the pomp of a Roman triumph, and I'enew 
 the distributions of the Forum and the games of the Circus, 
 they forgot that they were slaves. 
 
 Theodoric, to reward his soldiers, made a distribution of 
 lands ; but of the lands which Odoacer had already taken 
 
38 HISTORY OF THE OSTEOGOTHS IN ITALY. 
 
 fi'DiTi their owners. At the same time he denounced severe 
 punishment against the Goth that should dare to usurp the 
 inheritance of liis neighbor, or carry off his harvest or his 
 flocks. A severe police maintained harmony between the 
 old inhabitants and their new guests. 
 
 30. Protection of literature and the arts. — End of Theo- 
 doric's reign. — With all these concessions to secure the affec- 
 tion, as well as the obedience, of the vanquished, the policy 
 of the Barbarian still left a deeply rooted distinction between 
 the two people, although it was veiled skilfully. The Goth 
 alone had a right to wear arms : he was trained in military 
 exercises in the gymnasiums : letters and arts were not made 
 for this warlike race, which perhaps they would only have 
 enervated. The Roman was not allowed to carry arms ; but 
 the schools, the academies, and the libraries, which were shut 
 to the Goth, were open to him ; and Theodoric favored with all 
 his power the development of these peaceful arts, which shed 
 their splendor over his reign, while they assured the tran- 
 quillity of his dominion. Ancient monuments were repaired 
 with zeal, if not with taste. The Goths themselves tried 
 their hands at architecture, and Theodoric had a magnificent 
 palace built at Verona. Cassiodorus, a new Mecenas, calls 
 to court all the men eminent for their learning : Symmachus 
 and Eunodius, Jornandes the historian, and the philosopher 
 Boethius, so eminent for his piety and elevation of mind, who 
 preserved the sound traditions of ancient literature, while he 
 opposed vigorously every doctrine inconsistent with purity 
 of faith. 
 
 At the same time industry and agx'iculture received a 
 new development. The Pontine marshes and the marshes 
 of Spoleto were drained, and Italy for the first time began to 
 live by her own products. Commerce alone was neglected, 
 as was but too natural for a nation long accustomed to have 
 no I'elations with its neighbors but those of war and pillage. 
 
HISTORY OF THE OSTKOGOTHS IN ITALY. 39 
 
 Unfortunately, the end of Theodoric's reign did not cor- 
 respond to its brilliant maturity, and seemed to foreshadow 
 the close of this happy period. Wearied perhaps with the 
 cares of government, irritated at not finding in others the 
 same religious tolerance which he had professed and prac- 
 tised, and anxious too about the fate of the empire which he 
 had built up so laboriously, he became suspicious and cruel. 
 He threw into irons pope John, who had refused to intercede 
 for the Arians, persecuted by the emperor of the East, and 
 punished a doubtful conspiracy by putting to death Boethius, 
 and Symmachus, his father-in-law, in frightful tortures. 
 Soon after, pursued, it was said, by the bloody shades of his 
 victims, he died a prey to remorse (526). 
 
 31. Theodoric^s successors. — Exploits of Belisarius. — Af- 
 ter Theodoric, the two Gothic kingdoms were again divided, 
 and that of the Ostrogoths soon fell to decay. It was in 
 vain that Amalasontha, worthy daughter of so illustrious a 
 father, governed wisely and firmly during the minority of 
 her son Athalaric ; and vainly did Cassiodorus unite his 
 efforts with those of the queen, to preserve Theodoric's work 
 entire. The independent spirit of the Goths was irritated 
 by that Roman organization which Theodoric alone had the 
 strength to impose upon them ; and they claimed the right 
 of educating Athalaric in the customs of his ancestors. The 
 young prince soon perished, a victim of debauchery. Ama- 
 lasontha, hoping to preserve her power, after his death mar- 
 ried her cousin Theodatus (534), whose love of literary 
 retirement seemed to afford a sufficient assurance that he 
 would leave her, as he had promised, in the full possession 
 of her authority. This wretch had her assassinated, but did 
 not enjoy the fruits of his crime long. Justinian, emperor 
 of the East, seized this occasion to snatch Italy and Rome 
 from the Barbarians, and declared himself the avenger of the 
 daughter of Theodoric. His general, the famous Belisarius, 
 
40 HISTORY OF THE OSTROGOTHS IN ITALY. 
 
 had only to show himself in order to get possession of Sicily 
 and a great part of Italy. But Vitiges, who had been chosen 
 to fill the place of Theodatus (536), whose cowardice and 
 treachery had received their just reward, made a more seri- 
 ous resistance. He retook Milan, where three hundred 
 thousand men were massacred, and laid siege to Rome, 
 which Belisarius had just taken. The city, though defended 
 by scarcely five thousand men, was saved by prodigies of 
 skill and valor, during a siege of fourteen months. From 
 that time Belisarius regained the ascendant. The Franks, 
 who at the call of both parties, had come to make war on 
 both alike, were driven back by famine ; and Vitiges was 
 soon after made prisoner at Ravenna, and carried to Constan- 
 tinople to adorn the triumph of his conqueror (540). 
 
 32. Destruction of tJie empire of the Ostrogoths, — No sooner 
 had Belisarius been recalled than the Goths raised their heads 
 again under Ildebald, who reconquered northern Italy, and 
 Totila (541), who defeated the Greeks at Faenza, and made 
 himself master of the whole peninsula. The hero of the 
 empire was sent to Italy a second time, but without the 
 means which such an undertaking required, and which the 
 jealousy of the court withheld. He saw Totila take Rome, 
 without being able to- do any thing for its defence, and only 
 succeeded in preserving it from total destruction, by an elo- 
 quent appeal to the generosity or the prudence of the Barbari- 
 an. " The founders of cities immortalize their names," wrote 
 he to Totila ; " their destroyers dishonor themselves for ever. 
 If you conquer me, you will have preserved the richest or- 
 nament of your states : if fortune should turn against you, 
 the preservation of Rome will plead your cause : the choice 
 rests with you." Totila spared Rome, which Belisarius 
 was soon after able to enter by surprise (546). But without 
 resources, and indignant at the helpless state to which he 
 was reduced, he asked to be recalled. The command was 
 
THE VISIGOTHS IN FRANCE AND SPAIN. 41 
 
 given to the eunuch Narses, who landed in Italy with a large 
 army of Barbarians in the pay of the empire. Totila was 
 killed at the battle of Lentagio, which decided the war and 
 the fate of Italy (552). The struggle continued still a year 
 under Teias and Aligerii, supported by the hope of succor 
 from the Franks. But a final defeat (553) compelled the 
 remnant of the Goths to abandon Italy, which became again 
 a province of the empire. 
 
 The Franks, who came too late to assist the Goths, even 
 if they had been disposed to do so, perished by the plague or 
 by the arms of Narses, after having ravaged the peninsula 
 (554). 
 
 §11. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE VISIGOTHS IN FRANCE AND SPAIN. 
 
 33. Progress of the Visigoths in the south of France and 
 in Spain. — While the empire of the Ostrogoths was crum- 
 bling in Italy, that of the Visigoths in Spain had reached the 
 summit of its grandeur ; from which, however, it was soon 
 to decline. Originally established in the north of Spain and 
 south of Gaul by Wallia, under the reign of Honorius, it 
 had not remained long confined to its first limits. After the 
 glorious death of Theodoric I. at the battle of Chalons, his 
 son Thorrismond (451-452) had made himself master of a 
 great portion of the western coast of Gaul. Under Theodo- 
 ric II. (452-467) the Visigoths took Narbonne, and engaged 
 in a contest with the Suevi beyond the Pyrenees. Euric 
 (467-484), who was the first that gave written laws to his 
 people, took possession of all Roman Spain, leaving the Suevi 
 nothing but a corner of Gallicia. At the same time he en- 
 larged his frontiers towards the centre of Gaul. Two trea- 
 
42 THE VISIGOTHS IN FRANCE AND SPAIN. 
 
 ties with Julius Nepos and with Odoacer secured him Au- 
 vergne and Provence. At the moment when the Western 
 Empire fell, the dominion of Euric reached as far as the 
 banks of the Loire. Alaric II. (484-507) continued Euric's 
 work of civilization, and published a collection of laws ex- 
 tracted from those of Rome, and known by the title of Bre- 
 viariiim Alaricarium : but with his death, the prosperity of 
 his kingdom ceased. The defeat of Vougle (v. Hist, of 
 France), which cost him his life, cut off Aquitania from the 
 kingdom of the Visigoths, who had nothing left in Gaul but 
 the province of Septimania. 
 
 34. Wars with the Franks and Greeks. — Subjection of all 
 Spain. — The dominion of the Visigoths was re-established in 
 the south of France, when the two Gothic kingdoms were 
 united under the supremacy of the great Theodoric ; but the 
 Franks, whose pride he had humbled, passed the Pyrenees 
 in turn, under the reign of Amalaric (526-531), to punish 
 this Arian king for his ill treatment of his Catholic wife. 
 After Amalaric (551), their decline began : royalty became 
 elective, and proved a source of disorder and civil war. 
 Three princes perished in succession by a violent death. 
 The Franks profited by these troubles to plunder the north- 
 ern provinces of Spain, and the Visigoths were reduced to 
 submit to receive the succor which Justinian offered to one 
 of the competitors for the throne of Spain, in order to open 
 for himself an occasion for intermeddling in the affairs of this 
 country. All the eastern and southern portions fell into the 
 hands of the Greeks, after a bloody contest, vainly kept up 
 by king Athanagild (554-568). But those distant posses- 
 sions could not long remain subject to the feeble sceptre of 
 the emperor. Leovigild (569-586), victorious over his rivals, 
 took Cordova from the Greeks, and compelled the Suevi, by 
 the great battle of Broga, to accept his laws (585) : nearly 
 all Spain was reduced under one dominion. 
 
THE VISIGOTHS IN FRANCE AND SPAIN. 43 
 
 The Visigoths, like the greater part of the Barbarians, 
 had till then been heretics: Eecarede (586-601), son of Le- 
 ovegild, was converted to Catholicisnn, had Arianism con- 
 demned in the council of Toledo, and thus won for himself 
 the title of Catholic. This prince had recommended the old 
 contests with the Franks ; his successor turned his arms 
 against the Greeks, whom he followed up closely, and con- 
 fined within constantly decreasing limits on the eastern coast. 
 At length, taking advantage of the wars which kept the ar- 
 mies of Heraclius occupied in the east, Suiniilla (621-631) 
 drove the Greeks from the Peninsula, and became the first 
 king of the whole of Spain. 
 
 35. Internal divisions. — Fall of the Inngdom of the Visi- 
 goths. — .The kingdom of the Visigoths continued to support 
 itself for the greater part of another century, in the midst 
 of internal dissensions. The powerful men of the nation 
 contended together for the crown, and each new election re- 
 newed the disorders. The clergy, the only body that was 
 stable and powerful of itself, gained an immense ascendency 
 and overtopped the royal power. Excessive rigor against 
 the Jews and heretics showed that their zeal was more ar- 
 dent than enlightened, and served to increase the troubles of 
 the state. At the same time Spain was menaced by a new 
 danger. The Arabs (v. ch. vii.), masters of northern Africa, 
 push on their redoubtable battalions towards Europe. The 
 fleet of king Egiza disperses their ships (696) : a fruitless 
 victory. Mauritania, which had been conquered by King 
 Sisebut in the beginning of the century, is reconquered by 
 the Arabs. The dissensions of the nobles add to the dangers 
 of the kingdom ; and soon after. Count Julian, defending the 
 rights of the grandson of Egiza against the usurper Roderic, 
 calls the Mussulman armies to his aid, and at the battle of 
 Xeres overthrows the throne of Roderic and the kingdom of 
 the Visigoths (710). 
 
44 RAPID FALL OF THE GOTHIC KINGDOMS. 
 
 § III. 
 
 CAUSES OF THE RAPID FALL OP THE KINGDOMS FOUNDED BY 
 THE GOTHS. 
 
 36. Obstacles to the fusion of the Roman and Gothic races. 
 — Difference of religion. — At the side of the kingdom of the 
 Franks had arisen two states, founded by a people both more 
 powerful and more numerous than they ; one of them more 
 brilliant, the other possessing a richer and more extensive ter- 
 ritory. Still the kingdom of the Franks has continued unin- 
 terruptedly to our own times, while the kingdoms of the Goths 
 were destroyed within less than three centuries after their 
 birth. The other states founded by the Barbarians at the 
 same epoch had already disappeared, or were soon to disap- 
 pear. How shall we explain this difference in their destiny ? 
 The kingdom of the Franks had received from its founda- 
 tion a guarantee for its duration and stability which was 
 wanting in all the others. 
 
 The number of the Barbarians established in the coun- 
 tries which they had invaded was necessarily small, in com- 
 parison with that of the old inhabitants. To render their 
 dominion solid, it was necessary either to subject or to incor- 
 porate the conquered ; and the latter was in most cases the 
 only thing that they could do. It was towards this that the 
 most enlightened of the Barbarian kings directed their efforts, 
 by intermingling the conquerors and the conquered, multi- 
 plying the relations between them, and uniting their interests. 
 But although habits, manners, and laws may be assimilated, 
 there is a distinction which nothing but time can efface, and 
 this is, difference of religion. Now the Franks who became 
 Catholics shortly after their establishment in Gaul, were unit- 
 ed to the Gallo-Romans by the strongest of all ties. The 
 
RAPID FALL OF THE GOTHIC KINGDOMS. 45 
 
 Goths, heretics on their entrance into the empire, were sepa- 
 rated by an insurmountable barrier from the Italians and the 
 Spaniards whom they had subdued. 
 
 It is thus that we must explain the failure of the efforts 
 of the great Theodoric himself. 
 
 This prince had tried, by combining two opposite systems, 
 to fuse the two nations, while he preserved the preponderance 
 for the Ostrogoths. But his unbounded tolerance could never 
 do what the conversion of Clovis did. When the Frank king 
 was baptized by the hand of a Catholic prelate, he won for 
 his rising kingdom the support of the clergy, already so pow- 
 erful in Gaul. It was the bishops, wearied with the dominion 
 of the Arian Visigoths, who confirmed the power of the 
 Franks to the south of the Loire. In Italy the bishops might 
 become attached for a moment to Theodoric's person ; but 
 they never devoted themselves to the interests of an heretical 
 dynasty and empire. The Catholic Roman would have 
 looked upon any alliance with an Arian Goth as a profana- 
 tion. This difference of religion rendered marriages impos- 
 sible ; and the intermixture of families is the only thing 
 which can produce an intermixture of people. 
 
 37. Political distinctions established hy Theodoric. — The 
 desire of maintaining the supremacy of the Gothic race, con- 
 tributed also to render all the measures which Theodoric 
 took to establish unity in his states ineffectual. The separa- 
 tion of the youth, brought up in different gymnasiums for a 
 kind of life wholly different ; the humiliating distinction which 
 deprived a people, once masters of the world, of the right of 
 wearing arms ; the compulsory removal of the Goths from 
 those pacific occupations which alone could have softened 
 their manners, were so many distinctions which constantly 
 recalled to the one, that they held in their hands the rights of 
 victory, to the others, that they were bound by the law of the 
 strongest. And the conquered was that Roman people, 
 
46 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 
 
 always full of the recollections of its ancient grandeur, and 
 whose national pride, surviving its power, avenged its degra- 
 dation by despising its rulers. The astonishing charactei 
 of Theodoric made up for a while for the defects of his in- 
 stitutions, and in the beginning his policy seemed to calm 
 national antipathy ; but at his death the two races remained 
 face to face, strangers and enemies as before. 
 
 The uncertainty of the order of succession to the throne, 
 the independent habits of the Barbarian warriors, and the 
 disorders which these causes produced in the state, increased 
 the instability of the Gothic monarchies. In Spain, the con- 
 version of the conquerors to the Catholic faith came too late 
 to repair the evils of the past ; for when the decay began, it 
 was no longer time to attempt a general reorganization and 
 to create a new nation. 
 
 It was not, however, from this Spanish race, ever impa- 
 tient of the yoke, that the power of the Goths could look for 
 support : neither could they look for it from without. While 
 the Franks, few at first, but on the borders of Germany, still 
 drew new recruits from the countries yet occupied by their 
 brothers, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths, separated by avast 
 distance from the regions which they had originally inhabit- 
 ed, were isolated for ever upon a soil in which they could 
 not take root. Sooner or later they could not but sink undei 
 the attacks of strangers. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY TO THE CONQUEST OF 
 THE KINGDOM OF THE LOMBARDS BY CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 38. Invasion of Italy hy the Lovibards. — Alhoin. — The 
 dominion of the Eastern Empire in Italy was not long to replace 
 
THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 47 
 
 that of the Ostrogoths. Narses, after having subjected all the 
 peninsula, had governed it fifteen years under the title of 
 exarch : but his exactions rendered him odious to the Ro- 
 mans. At the complaint of the senators, he was recalled by 
 the Emperor Justin, and insulted in his disgrace by the Em- 
 press Sophia, To revenge himself, he called, it is said, the 
 Lombards into Italy (568). 
 
 This barbarous nation, dreaded throughout Germany for 
 its ferocity, descended from the banks of the Elbe and the 
 Oder. Its chief, the brave and savage Alboin, ally of the 
 Avars, had subdued the Gepidi after having killed their king 
 vi'ith his own hand, and married the beautiful Rosamund, his 
 enemy's daughter, who had been found among the prisoners. 
 The Avars received for their portion Pannonia, which had 
 been taken from the Gepidi : the Lombards set forth with 
 their booty, with the understanding that if they should fail 
 in their expedition, they were to receive back again the ter- 
 ritory which they had surrendered to their allies. In a 
 solemn banquet, Alboin served up to the principal chiefs the 
 choicest fruits of the peninsula. All wished to hasten to the 
 conquest of a country where such delicious productions were 
 found ; and the whole Lombard nation, men, women, and 
 children, accompanied by twenty thousand Saxons, descended 
 into the plains of Italy. A general terror seized on all who 
 saw these warriors, clad in the skins of wild beasts, who 
 fought without giving quarter, and made drinking-cups out 
 of the skulls of their enemies. Wherever they came, men 
 fled before them. The lagoons of Venice received new in- 
 habitants, and the principal cities, no longer defended by 
 Narses, were compelled to open their gates to the Lombards, 
 who uniting at Milan, proclaimed their chief king of Italy 
 (568). Still Pavia held out, and when Alboin had at length 
 taken it, after a siege of three years, he made it his capital, 
 and founded the kingdom of the Lombards. The conquered 
 
48 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 
 
 territory was divided into duchies, which were granted to 
 the principal chiefs. Ravenna, with the surrounding territo- 
 ry, remained subject to the Greeks under the name of ex- 
 archate, and continued for two hundred years longer to pre- 
 serve itself independent of the Lombards. 
 
 The new monarchy was shaken by the bloody death of 
 Alboin, victim of the vengeance of his own wife, whom he 
 had forced, in the intoxication of a banquet, to drink out of 
 her father's skull. After the death of Clepli (574-575), Al- 
 boin's successor, who was assassinated after a reign of eigh- 
 teen months, the Lombard dukes divided the power between 
 themselves, and agitated Italy by their dissensions for ten 
 years. 
 
 39. Development of the power of the Lombards. — Autha- 
 ris. — AgiluJplius. — Rotharis. — Wearied at last with disorder 
 and anarchy, and alarmed by the alliance of Maurice, empe- 
 ror of the East, with Childeric IL, king of Austrasia, they 
 gave up the sceptre to Autharis, son of Cleph, granting him at 
 the same time half of their own domains for his support (585). 
 Then began the brilliant period of the Lombards. Aul.haris 
 leads his victorious army to the extremities of Italy, and 
 spurring his horse into the waves, cries, " These are the 
 limits of the empire of the Lombards." His widow, the vir- 
 tuous Theodalinda, gives her hand, after his death, to duke 
 Agihdphus, whom the Lombards hasten to place upon the 
 throne (590-615). The queen, uniting her efforts with those 
 of pope St. Gregory, softens their manners by propagating 
 the Catholic religion among them, while Agilulphus defends 
 his throne victoriously against the rebel dukes, and against 
 the Greeks, united with the Avars and the Franks for the 
 destruction of Lombardy. Soon after (536-652), Rotharis 
 gives his subjects a regular code of laws, solemnly approved 
 by the nation in the diet of Pavia, and which were framed to 
 preserve public tranquillity, individual liberty, and the rights 
 
THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 49 
 
 of property. At the same time he crushes the Greeks, 
 whose attacks are suspended for nearly a century. 
 
 40. Dissensions. — Last conquests. — Destruction of the 
 Lomlard monarchy. — But internal dissensions are preparing 
 the fall of the kingdom. The respect of the nation for the 
 family of the great queen Theodalinda, cannot outweigh their 
 attachment to the principle of election, sustained by the am- 
 bition of the leading men. King Pertharite, grand-nephew 
 of Theodalinda, driven away by Grimoald (662-671), duke 
 of Beneventum, regains the crown after his rival's death, and 
 after his own, his descendants dethrone and slaughter one 
 another. Lombardy recovered for a moment her grandeur 
 and prosperity, when she called the Bavarian Luitprand to 
 the throne (741). Reformer of the Lombard laws, ally of 
 Charles Martel, conqueror of the Saracens in Provence, and 
 of the greater part of the exarchate, Luitprand made him- 
 self redoubtable to all Italy. Rome, which an insurrection 
 against the iconoclast officers of Leo the Isaurian (v. ch. v.) 
 had freed from the supremacy of the empire, could scarcely 
 defend her newly won independence against the valiant king 
 of the Lombards, who knew how to take advantage of the 
 indignation excited by the edicts of her heretic prince, to ex- 
 tend his own dominions. Lombardy attained the limits of its 
 territorial development under Asiolphus, who took possession 
 of Ravenna definitively, and put an end to the exarchate 
 (752). But his designs against Rome were thwarted by the 
 king of the Franks, Pepin le Bref, who came to the defence 
 of the pontiff, by whom his arms had been consecrated, and 
 defeated Astolphus in both his descents into Italy. Astol- 
 phus, compelled to accept peace, died shortly after, leaving 
 to his successor Desiderius a throne already tottering, and 
 which was soon to fall under the invincible arms of Charle- 
 magne (774). 
 
 Several maritime cities, Venice, Naples, Amalfi, &c., 
 8 
 
50 THE LOMBARDS IN ITALY. 
 
 bound to the Greek empire by a dependence purely nominal, 
 began to form republics, which an active commerce soon 
 rendered flourishing. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 A ]S" G L O - S A X ]Sr S . 
 
 SUMMARY. ■ 
 
 § I. Britain abandoned by Honorius. — Internal troubles. — Invasion 
 of the Caledonians ; the Britons call in the Saxons. — The Saxons estab- 
 lish themselves in Britain. — Contest vs'ith the Britons ; foundation of the 
 four Saxon kingdoms. — Invasions of the Angles, who found three king- 
 doms in Britain. — Heptarchy. — Oppression of the conquered, — Preach- 
 ing of St. Augustine. — Divisions between the states of the heptarchy ; 
 they are subjected to Egbert the Great, king of Wessex. 
 
 § II. Invasions of the Danes, favored by internal dissensions. — Be- 
 ginning of the reign of Alfred the Great. — His reverses. — His constan- 
 cy. — His success. — Wise and skilful government of Alfred. — His efforts 
 to civilize England. — Institutions and laws which are attributed to him. — 
 Successors of Alfred. — Contest with the Scotch — Development of the 
 English power. — New Danish invasions. — Danegeld imposed upon the 
 English. — The Dane Sueno makes himself master of England. — Reign 
 of Canute the Great. — Division of his heritage. — The ancient Saxon race 
 reascends the throne. — Influence of the Normands under Edward the 
 Confessor. — The way prepared for the conquest. 
 
 §1. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 HEPTARCHY. 
 
 41. Britain abandoned by the Romans. — Invasion of the 
 Caledonians. — The Saxons called in by the Britons. — Britain 
 
52 THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 was too remote to be preserved long. When the invasion 
 began, it became necessary to protect the heart of the Em- 
 pire, instead of watching over distant frontiers. Under Ho- 
 norius, all the Roman legions were recalled from Britain, in 
 spite of the prayers of the inhabitants, who were thus left ex- 
 posed to the attacks of the Caledonians. Thus condemned to 
 independence, they substituted an imperfect organization to the 
 Roman institutions, and raised national troops to supply the 
 place of the legions. But degenerated by long servitude, 
 they had become incapable either of governing or of defend- 
 ing themselves. Instead of uniting for the common safety, 
 the chiefs thought only of making war upon one another for 
 the supreme power. While they were engaged in their dis- 
 sensions, their indefatigable neighbors redoubled their attacks. 
 The continual ravages of the Caledonians and Saxon pirates 
 spread universal consternation and despair : the fields were 
 left without cultivation ; famine and the plague desolated the 
 whole island. In their distress, the Britons addressed their 
 groans to Aetius, who commanded in Gaul ; but Aetius could 
 not divide his forces. They then took the fatal resolution of 
 interesting their enemies in their defence, and called the 
 Saxons to their aid (448), with the offer of the little island 
 of Thane, as a reward for their services. 
 
 Hardly had the pirates landed when they began to de- 
 mand ampler territories ; and the Britons repenting their im- 
 prudence in calling in such dangej'ous auxiliaries, refused to 
 fulfil their engagements. War of course broke out between 
 the white dragon of the pirates, and the red dragon of the 
 Britons. But the efforts of the brave Wortigern, head chief 
 of the Britons, and his son Wortimer, were vain against their 
 ferocious and warlike enemies, whose ranks were increased 
 daily by new arrivals. 
 
 42. Seven kingdoms founded hy the Saxons and Angles. — 
 Hengist, chief of the Saxons, after having conquered the 
 
THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN ENGLAND. 53 
 
 Scots and Britons, took in 455, the title of king of Kent. 
 For seventy years the invasion continued. The Britons, di- 
 vided among themselves, were defeated, as well as their old 
 enemies, the Scots, and were gradually shut up in the 
 mountainous districts of Wales and Cornwall. Great num- 
 bers fled to Gaul, where they established themselves in Ar- 
 morica, and gave to their new country the manners, language, 
 and name of the old (Brittany). Meantime several Saxon 
 chiefs settled in the countries abandoned by the vanquished 
 Britons, founding successively the kingdoms of Sussex (Sud- 
 sex, 491), Wessex (Westsex, 516), and Essex (Estsex, 526). 
 Arthur alone (514-542), the hero of British fable, succeeded 
 in preserving some portion of national independence, though 
 his exploits can hardly be said to belong to authentic history. 
 The first phase of the invasion was over : but soon ap- 
 peared a new people, more savage and cruel than the Saxons 
 themselves, and who came to seize upon the northern provin- 
 ces which had remained in the hands of the Britons. Edda, 
 chief of the Angles, setting out from the Cimbric Chersone- 
 sus, landed with all his tribe in the north of Briton. After 
 winning by his frightful devastations the surname of Fire- 
 brand, he established himself there, and founded, in 547, the 
 kingdom of Northumberland. A detachment of his tribe 
 
 o 
 
 formed, a few years later, that of East Anglea (571); and 
 in 584 a third kingdom was founded by the Angles, under 
 the name of the kingdom of Mercia. 
 
 43. Conslituiion of the heptarchy. — 'Reunion of the seven 
 kingdoms. — Thus was founded the Anglo-Saxon heptarchy, 
 as it has generally been called, though from the original se- 
 paration of Bernicia and Deira, it might more properly be 
 termed an octarchy. Common interest first united the two 
 races. The whole body of the victorious population leagued 
 together to subdue Britain and oppress the vanquished. The 
 natives diminished rapidly under the weight of a frightful 
 
54 THE ANGLO-SAXONS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 tyranny, and the peaceful religion of Christ was supplanted 
 by the bloody superstition of Odin. But the zeal of the mis- 
 sionaries sent by .the Holy See, and led by the monk Angus- 
 tin, was soon, under Eihelberi, king of Kent (596-616), and 
 who was for a moment master of the whole heptarchy, to 
 raise again the altars of Christianity, and exercise an influ- 
 ence of peace and concord over these ferocious conquerors 
 (v. ch. vi.). 
 
 The heptarchy had a general council, called the Witte- 
 nagemot (a council of sages), which, under the direction of 
 the Bretwalda, the supreme chief, decided all questions of 
 common interest. This institution, however, does not appear 
 to have had great influence, and in spite of its conciliatory 
 action, it was not long before the different people were again 
 divided. 
 
 War soon destroyed the equilibrium between the seven 
 kingdoms, and those of Wessex, Mercia, and Northumber- 
 land had already reduced the neighboring states under their 
 dominion, when Egbert the Great, king of Wessex (800), a 
 soldier trained in the armies of Charlemagne, united them 
 all under his sceptre, and founded a real monarchy in Eng- 
 land. Part of the British population had found a refuge from 
 foreign dominion among the mountains of Cornwall and 
 Wales. This feeble remnant of a great people had the glory 
 of keeping possession of their last corner of land against 
 all the efforts of a people immensely their superior in num- 
 bers and in wealth ; often conquered, but never subdued, and 
 preserving through ages of trial the unshaken conviction that 
 a mysterious eternity was reserved for their language and 
 their name. This eternity was predicted by the Welsh 
 bards from the first day of their defeat, and the result seems 
 to have justified their rash predictions. 
 
CIVIL WARS. 55 
 
 § II. 
 
 CIVIL WAES. DANISH INVASIONS. KINGDOM OF ENGLAND TO 
 
 THE BATTLE OF HASTINGS. 
 
 44. Danish invasions. — The new monarchy which had 
 sprung from an invasion, was to end also by an invasion. 
 For several years the coasts of England had been ravaged 
 by the Danish sea-kings (v. ch. x. § i.). Their incursions 
 became more frequent and terrible after the death of Egbert. 
 At the moment when union alone could have saved the na- 
 tion from these terrible enemies, Ethelwolf divided his king- 
 dom among his children (858). The dissensions of the 
 princes favored the progress of the Danes, aided by the 
 Welsh and the Scotch, mortal enemies of the Anglo-Saxon 
 race. On their first attack, the famous pirate Lodbrock was 
 taken prisoner, and perished in a frightful dungeon filled 
 with serpents ; but his death-song was repeated on all the 
 coasts of Scandinavia. His sons fell upon the north of Eng- 
 land, massacred the inhabitants, and divided the lands among 
 themselves. Edmund the king was taken prisoner, and 
 whipped to death by the barbarous conquerors. The hour 
 of their triumph, however, was not yet come ; a hero 
 snatched their prey from their hands. The youngest of 
 Ethelwolf's sons, Alfred, who had been sent to be crowned 
 in Rome by the pope when only five years old, and had given 
 early proofs of his shining talents, was called to the throne 
 by the death of his brother, who had died of a wound receiv- 
 ed in fighting manfully against the Danes (871). 
 
 45. Beginning of the reign of Alfred. — Reverses. — Ex- 
 pulsion of the Danes. — Alfred's talents were formed in the 
 rude school of adversity. For seven years he struggled 
 against adverse fortune, vainly, but with indomitable cour- 
 
55 CIVIL WARS. 
 
 age. Every wave seemed to bring a new enemy to the 
 English coast. The Saxons themselves became weai'ied 
 with a hopeless struggle, and all yielded but Alfred. The 
 king of Mercia took refuge at Rome under the disguise of a 
 pilgrim ; but Alfred would not leave his kingdom. Con- 
 cealed amid woods and marshes, and reduced to seek shelter 
 in the hut of a swineherd, he calmly waited for better times. 
 With a few friends he hazarded occasional attacks upon small 
 detachments of the enemy, and at last, raising his standard, 
 collected an ai'my on the borders of Selwood forest. To 
 ascertain the enemy's position, he entered their camp in the 
 garb of a minstrel, and then taking advantage of the infor- 
 mation which he had thus gained, be fell upon them una- 
 wares and put them to flight (878). Gothum, their chief, 
 swore peace with Mercia, and received baptism. A few 
 yeai's afterwards, another sea-king, Hastings, appeared in 
 league with the Danes of Northumberland. But Alfred 
 shut up the pirates in their camp, took Hastings's wife and 
 children prisoners, and only released them on condition that 
 the Danes should quit England immediately. From that 
 time the peace of his reign was unbroken. 
 
 46. Wise and skilful government of Alfred the Great. — 
 This prince was the greatest king of old England. Worthy 
 rival of Charlemagne, while fighting for the independence 
 of his country he labored to diffuse the lights of civilization 
 among a barbarous people. As a child, he had manifested a 
 remarkable fondness for study. His mother was one day 
 showing her children a volume of Saxon poems beautifully 
 illuminated, with the promise that it should be his who should 
 learn the quickest to read. Alfred, though youngest of all, 
 set himself to the task, and was soon able to recite the whole 
 volume. When king, it saddened him to see that very few 
 on the banks of the Humber, and fewer still on the banks 
 of the Thames, could understand their Latin prayers. He 
 
CIVIL WARS. 57 
 
 called learned men to his court, learnt Latin himself at the 
 age of thirty-eight, translated Bede, Orosius, Boethius, open- 
 ed schools, chiefly for those who were destined for the church, 
 and founded, it is said, the university and library of Oxford. 
 The churches and monasteries which had been destroyed by 
 the Danes were rebuilt or repaired, and missionaries sent 
 through the country to extend the mild influence of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 47. Institutions attributed to Alfred. — The admiration of 
 the English loved to attribute to Alfred many noble and use- 
 ful institutions which had been gradually formed before his 
 time, and which he only completed and developed. From 
 his reign England was divided into counties, hundreds, and 
 tythings, and every citizen was required to take his place 
 in one of these divisions, under penalty of being proscribed 
 as a vagabond. The heads of ten families who formed the 
 tything, were responsible for one another ; and the tything 
 was judge of the disputes between its members. Where 
 the communities themselves were concerned, the cause was 
 carried before the assembly of the canton, composed of a 
 hundred families, from which twelve freemen were chosen 
 to decide the question on oath. This was the origin of the 
 jury. In every county there was a superior tribunal, which 
 met twice a year, under the presidency of the bishop or of 
 the alderman of the county. The great council of the na- 
 tion, the Wittenagemot, composed of bishops, abbots, counts, 
 and larger landholders, and which contrived to exercise 
 supreme control over the whole judicial hierarchy, was con- 
 vened by the king himself. 
 
 These different institutions, the development of which 
 was favored by the enaction of laws common to all, had the 
 happiest influence on the order and police of the kingdom, 
 and Alfx'ed is said to have hung up valuable bracelets by the 
 highway, which no one dared to touch. But the greatest 
 
 3* 
 
58 CIVIL WARS. 
 
 danger came from without ; and to guard against this, he had 
 a fleet of long, fast-sailing ships, built for the protection of the 
 coast. In the midst of these useful enterprises he was cut 
 off at the age of fifty-three (900), and his work of regene- 
 ration, like that of Charlemagne, perished with him. Yet 
 his memory has survived to adorn the brightest page of the 
 annals of British kings, and his immediate successors found 
 an efficient protection against foreign invasion in the energy 
 of his measures and the glory of his reign. 
 
 48. Contest with Scotland. — During the tenth century the 
 kingdom was only troubled by internal dissensions and occa- 
 sional wars with Scotland. Most of Alfred's successors, fol- 
 lowing the example of his son Edward the Elder (900-925), 
 endeavored to preserve the countiy from invasion by building 
 fortresses, increasing the fleet, and disciplining the army : 
 and under Edgar the Pacific (957-975), Wales, Scotland, 
 and Ireland itself acknowledged the supremacy of England. 
 At the same period, St. Dunstan, a severe censor of corrupt 
 manners, travelled over the kingdom, reforming the religious 
 orders and re-establishing the purity of ecclesiastical dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 49. Conquest of England ly the Banes. — Canute the 
 Great and his successors. — It was not till the reign of Ethel- 
 red II. (978-1013), seventy-eight years after Alfred's death, 
 that the Danes recommenced their attacks. Sueno and Olof, 
 kings of Denmark and Norway, compelled the English to 
 ransom themselves by the tribute of Danegeld. Ethelred 
 thought that he could escape from this ignominy by massa- 
 creing all the Danes established in his states (1003). A 
 fearful invasion avenged this cowardly treachery. The 
 cities were burnt ; the inhabitants slaughtered in the 
 churches in which they had sought a refuge ; Ethelred 
 driven into exile; and Sueno took possession of the throne 
 (1013). 
 
CIVIL WARS. 59 
 
 The new dynasty gave England an illustrious prince, 
 Canute the Great, son of Sueno, who reigned over Scandina- 
 via and Great Britain. His marriage with Ethelred's widow, 
 the re-establishment of the laws of Alfred, and the mildness 
 of his government, won him the affections of the conquer- 
 ed as well as the conquerors : the English marched in his 
 train to the conquest of Norway. Canute, proud of his 
 power, took the title of Emperor of the North — king of kings. 
 The pope, whom he visited as a pilgrim, and the emperor of 
 Germany, sought his alliance. He left at his death -three 
 crowns to his sons Sueno, Hardi Canute, and Harold. But 
 for six years these princes waged incessant war against one 
 another, and after the death of the two last, followed by Sue- 
 no's withdrawing to Denmark, the sceptre slipped from the 
 grasp of the Danish dynasty. The old Saxon race remount- 
 ed the throne, with Edward the Confessor (1042-1066). This 
 prince, who had been educated in Normandy, brought back 
 to his kingdom the language and the manners of the French 
 Normans ; and their admission to civil and ecclesiastical 
 offices prepared the way for the conquest, which was com- 
 pleted under the reign of Hai'old, his successor (v. ch. x.). 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 HISTOEY OF THE FRANKS, OEGAISTIZATION OF THE 
 
 BAEBAEIANS AFTEE THE CONQUEST. 
 
 SXJMMARY. 
 
 Part First. — § I. First settlements of the Franks beyond the Rhine . 
 — Conquest of Gaul by Clovis. — Foundation of the Frank monarchy. — 
 Battle of Tolbiac. — Conversion of Clovis. — Battle of Vougle. — Conquest 
 of Aquitania. — Division of the kingdom of Clovis. — Rivalry of the sons 
 of Clovis. — Conquest of Burgundy. — Expedition against the Visigoths. 
 — Into Italy. — Chlothaire I. sole master of the Frank monarchy. — Expe- 
 ditions of the Franks into Burgundy, Italy, Spain, and Germany. 
 
 § II. Second period of the History of the Franks. — Division of the 
 kingdom of Chlothaire. — Rivalry between Austrasia and Neustria. — Fre- 
 degunde and Brunechilde. — Treaty of Andelot. — New civil wars. — 
 Chlothaire II. sole king. — Mayors of the palace. — Pepin of Landen. — 
 Austrasia overcomes Neustria. — Dagobert. — The last Merovingians or 
 Faineants kings. — The mayor Grimuald. — Contests between the mayors 
 Ebroin and St. Leger. — Pepin of Heristal duke of Austrasia. — Triumph 
 of Austrasia at Testry. — Pepin's government. — Troubles after Pepin's 
 death. — Charles Martel, duke of the Franks. — His exploits. — Carloman 
 and Pepin. — War in Aquitania. — Retreat of Carloman. — The last Mero- 
 vingian is deposed and Pepin proclaimed king. 
 
 Fart Second. — § I. State of Europe after the invasion. — State of the 
 lands. — Division between the conquerors. — Allodial — Beneficiary — Tri- 
 butary lands. 
 
FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE FRANKS. 61 
 
 § II. Influence of property on the state of persons. — Beginning of a 
 social hierarchy. — Of the nobility. — Of freemen. — Of the lidi and 
 freedmen. — Of slaves. 
 
 § III. Modification of the German idea of government by the influ- 
 ence of Roman ideas. — Development of the royal povs'er. — Decay of 
 popular sovereignty. — Formation of the aristocracy. 
 
 § IV. Changes in legislation. — Written laws among the Barbarians. 
 ■ — Character of their legislation more or less modified by the principles 
 of the Roman law. — Personal character of their laws. 
 
 § V. Immediate but secondary results of the invasion. — Principal 
 results. — Regeneration of society. — Combination of Roman and German 
 principles under the influence of Christianity. 
 
 PART FIRST. 
 
 §1. 
 
 FIRST SETTLEMENTS, FIRST TRIBES, AND FIRST CHIEFS OF THE 
 
 FRANKS. CLOVIS. CIVIL "WARS AND EXPEDITIONS OF THE 
 
 FRANKS. 
 
 50. First settlements of the Franks beyond the Rhine. — 
 As early as the middle of the third century, the Franks were 
 already united in a confederation which constantly menaced 
 that beautiful and extensive province which was one day to 
 become their own. To disarm these indefatigable enemies, 
 the emperors had abandoned to several of their tribes the 
 country districts of northern Gaul, which had been laid waste 
 by their incessant inroads. Julian the Apostate had given 
 them Toxandria, on condition that they would defend the fron- 
 tiers of the. empire, which they did valiantly. But they 
 claimed a larger share ; and no sooner had the great shock 
 been given to the Roman dominion by the general invasion, 
 than they began once more the contest, which was to end 
 only with their triumph. They were seen for a moment 
 
62 FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 under Meroveus, fighting with the Romans against the Huns 
 at the battle of Chalons (451); and they had attempted also 
 to check the advance of the general invasion, with the inten- 
 tion, doubtless, of reserving for themselves the inheritance 
 which they had coveted so long. But already, before the 
 time of Meroveus, Chlodian, chief of the Salian Franks, had 
 appeared as conqueror on the banks of the Somme. Childe- 
 ric (456-481), son of Meroveus, dethroned by his subjects 
 on account of his debauchery and afterwards restored to 
 power, had pushed his expeditions to the banks of the Loire. 
 The completion of the conquest was reserved for his son. 
 
 51. Conquest of Gaul by Clovis (481-511), (v. Supple- 
 ment). — Clovis, king at fifteen of the little tribe of Franks 
 of Tournay, leagued with Ragnacar, chief of the Franks of 
 Cambray, to attack the Roman governor, Syagrius, and over- 
 threw, by- the battle of Soissons, the Roman dominion in 
 northern Gaul (486). Though married to St. Chlotilda, 
 daughter of Gondebald, king of Burgundy, he had adhered 
 firmly to the worship of his idols, in spite of the solicitations 
 of the pious princess. But at the battle of Tolbiac (496) 
 against the Allemanni, he made a vow, on seeing his soldiers 
 break and fly, that if he won the day he would embrace 
 Christianity. He won it, and was baptized by St. Remi, 
 Archbishop of Rheims, together with more than three thou- 
 sand of his warriors, who followed their leader to the font as 
 they would have followed him to battle. Thus Clovis be- 
 came the natural protector of the Catholics, and in turning 
 his arms against his heretical rivals, seemed to be fulfilling 
 a solemn duty. Accordingly, after having subjected the 
 Burgundians to a tribute (500), he declared war against the 
 heretical Visigoths. "I cannot bear," said he, "that those 
 Arians should possess the best part of Gaul : let us go forth 
 against them ; and when we have, by God's help, ovei'come 
 them, we will reduce their country under our dominion and 
 
FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE FRANKS. 63 
 
 their persons to slavery." Deceiving his enemy by a shame- 
 ful perjury, he went forward, guided, says the monkish his- 
 torian, by a miraculous agent, and encountering Alaric II. at 
 VougU, gained a victory, which the death of his antagonist 
 rendered the more complete, and would have overrun the 
 whole kingdom if Theodoric had not checked him in mid- 
 course upon the banks of the Rhone. To make amends for 
 this, he established his authority in Armorica, and took pos- 
 session, by treachery and murder, of the territories of the 
 Frank chiefs of Cologne, Terouane, Cambray, and Mans ; and 
 died, in 511, leaving to his sons the care of completing the 
 conquest of Burgundy for which he had prepared the way. 
 
 At his death it was seen how dangerous a thing it is to 
 leave a throne without any fixed order of succession, and 
 expose a nation, like a private inheritance, to all the chances 
 of arbitrary division. This principle of division, which the 
 Franks had brought with them from Germany, became the 
 source of endless disputes among the descendants of Clovis, 
 and crowned by frightful crimes a long series of suffering. 
 
 52. Rivalry of the children of Clovis. — Their expeditions. 
 — Chlothaire I. — Clovis had divided his states among his four 
 children. To Thierry, the eldest, he gave Metz, with the 
 country which lies between the Rhine and the Meuse, and a 
 part of Aquitania. Childebert was king of Paris and the 
 banks of the Seine, with the rest of Aquitania. Chlodomir 
 reigned over Orleans and the banks of the Loire. Chlo- 
 thaire received Soissons and the provinces of the northwest 
 of Gaul. 
 
 The Franks preserved, under the sons of Clovis, their 
 warlike and conquering character ; but they turned it as 
 often against one another as against foreigners. They car- 
 ried their arms into Germany, Burgundy, Spain, and Italy. 
 Chlodomir, conqueror of Sigismund, king of Burgundy (523), 
 put him to death, but was killed himself the next year by 
 
64 FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE FRANKS. 
 
 Gondemar, Sigismund's father, and his children were assas- 
 sinated by their uncles Childebert and Chlothaire. While 
 Thierry, aided by Chlothaire, made war upon the Thurin- 
 gians (524), Childebert overran his dominion (507), till his 
 victorious brother returned to lay waste the kingdom of Paris 
 with fire and sword (530). 
 
 At length, after so much discord and crime, the sons of 
 Clovis united together in one great expedition, and in three 
 campaigns made themselves masters of Burgundy (531—534). 
 Childebert made war upon Amalaric, king of the Visigoths, 
 to revenge the cruelty with which the Arian had treated his 
 wife, the sister of the Frank king : but though successful in 
 the beginning, ample booty was all that he retained of his 
 conquest. Theodeiert, the son of Thierry, is the Frank 
 hero of this epoch. He carried his adventurous arms into 
 Italy, where the Greeks and the Ostrogoths were waging a 
 destructive war, and returned laden with booty, after having 
 beaten both his allies and his enemies. Provence, which the 
 Visigoths had ceded to him as a reward for his alliance, be- 
 came a part of his kingdom. His son Theodebert (548-555) 
 inherited his warlike disposition and his projects ; but the 
 two chiefs whom he sent across the Alps, Leutharis and Buc- 
 celin, lost their armies, and the Franks renounced for a 
 while these distant expeditions. 
 
 After Theodebert's death, which was soon followed by 
 that of Childebert (558), Chlothaire remained sole master of 
 all the inheritance of his father's family. But his reign was 
 none the more tranquil • and the revolt of his son Chramne, 
 whom he conquered, and caused to be burnt to death in a 
 cottage, was both the punishment and the crowning act of his 
 ci'iminal enterprises. 
 
DECAY OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 65 
 
 §11. 
 
 DECAY OF THE MEROVINGIANS. VICTORY OF ATJSTRASIA OVER 
 
 NETJSTRIA.- — BIAYORS OF THE PALACE OF THE TWO COUN- 
 TRIES. THE TWO PEPINS. 
 
 53. Netv division. — Rivalry of Austrasia and Neustria.-— 
 Brunecliilde and Fredegund. — Chlothaire I. died in 561, and 
 his states were divided among his four sons : Charibert 
 reigned at Paris, Gontran at Orleans, Siegbert at Metz, and 
 Chilperic at Soissons. Upon the death of Charibert, a new 
 division was made, which marks out more clearly the sepa- 
 ration of the different races which were then comprised in 
 the empire of the Franks. Gontran received Burgundy, 
 Siegbert Austrasia, and Chilperic Neustria. Neustria was 
 the country of the tribe of Clovis which had subdued Gaul, 
 and advancing towards the south, had been quickly subject- 
 ed to the influence of the old Roman population. Austrasia 
 was peopled by other tribes nearer to Germany, who had 
 preserved their primitive manners and their love of war and 
 conquest. Hence the deep-rooted and constant rivalry be- 
 tween Austrasia and Neustria, which was in fact a contest 
 between Germany and the last remnants of Roman society 
 in Gaul. 
 
 The contest began by the famous quarrel of the two 
 queens, Fredegund, wife of Chilperic, and Brunechilde, wife 
 of the king of Austrasia, who seem to personify the two 
 races. Fredegund had raised herself to the throne by pro- 
 curing the death of Galswintlia, Brunechilde's sister. Bru- 
 nechilde excited her husband to punish the assassin, and 
 Siegbert had already invaded the kingdom of Neustria, 
 and had himself proclaimed by the nobles, when he was 
 assassinated by Fredegund's emissaries (577). His death 
 
66 DECAY OF THE BIEROVINGIANS. 
 
 turned the scale in favor of Chilperic, who attacked Austra- 
 sia, and but for Gontran's intervention, would have seized 
 upon the inheritance of his nephew, the young Childe- 
 bert. While Childebert governed by the advice of his 
 mother, Brunechilde, who after a long captivity had escaped 
 from her enemies, Chilperic was assassinated, as was supposed, 
 by his wife, and Gontran became the protector of his young 
 son Chloihaire II. against the ambition of Childebert. 
 
 54. Treaty of Andelot. — Cloihaire II. sole king. — A dan- 
 gerous revolt in Aquitania, fostered by the patrician Mummo- 
 lus, suspended for a while by a common danger the discord of 
 the Frank kings. The rebels were subdued (584), and three 
 years afterwards the alliance of the three kings was confirm- 
 ed by the celebrated treaty of Andelot, which strengthening 
 the military aristoc racy by making fiefs hereditary, prepared 
 the way for the usurpations of the Mayors of the palace (587). 
 New troubles broke out at the death of Gontran (593) and 
 Childebert (596). Brunechilde assumed the government in 
 Austrasia and Burgundy, as guardian of Childebert's two 
 sons, Theodehert II. and Thierry II, Fredegund, who ruled 
 Neustria in the name of Chlothaire II., declared war against 
 her, and g-ained a great victory. But dying shortly after 
 (596), Brunechilde's grandchildren repaired their losses by 
 stripping Chlothaire of the greater part of his states (600). 
 Nothing but the discord of the two brothers saved him from 
 total destruction. Theodehert, after having conquered and 
 put to death Thierry and his son Merova^us, died suddenly 
 (613). Chlothaire was proclaimed king by the nobles of 
 Burgundy and Austrasia, who delivered into his hands Bru- 
 nechilde and the children of Thierry, The unhappy prin- 
 cess was condemned to a horrid death by her implacable 
 enemy — and thus ended the last act of the bloody drama 
 which had begun with the death of Clovis (613). 
 
 55. Mayordom of the palace. — Austrasia separates from 
 
DECAY OF THE MEKOVINGIANS. 67 
 
 Neiistria. — Chlothaire did not maintain long in his vast do- 
 minions the unity of power which had been re-established by 
 the precarious union of Austrasia and Neustria. The Aus- 
 trasian nobles, dissatisfied with their subjection to a chief of 
 a rival race, resumed their national individuality by compel- 
 ling Chlothaire to give them for king his son Dagobert, under 
 the guardianship of Pepin of Landen (or the elder), their 
 mayor of the palace, who was the real head of the govern- 
 ment. When the death of his father (628), and of his 
 brother Charibert (631), had again reunited France under 
 one sceptre, the Austrasians exacted from Dagobert the re- 
 cognition of their independence with his son Siegbert 11. for 
 king (633). From that time the mayordom of the palace 
 became the sovereign authority in Austrasia, and soon effaced 
 that of a royalty which had sunk to an empty name. 
 
 In Neustria, where the title of king was preserved to the 
 very last, the power passed also from children and feeble 
 princes to the vigorous hands of the mayors. After Dago- 
 bert, who had rendered his sceptre redoubtable by his victo- 
 ries over the Saxons, the Gascons, and the Armoricans, and 
 who had been aided in his wise administration by the advice 
 of St. EM, begins that long series of princes without autho- 
 rity and without influence, whom history has classed under 
 the general and ignominious name of famdans. 
 
 56. The faineants kings after Dagobert. — Contest between 
 Ehroin and St. Leger. — While the kingdom of Neustria 
 passed to Clovis II. (638), Pepin of Landen transmitted the 
 supreme power in Austrasia to his son Grimuald, who ac- 
 quired such an ascendency by the support of the clergy, that 
 on the death of Siegbert he ventured to shut up the young 
 Dagobert II. in a cloister, and thought that he might- give 
 the sceptre to his own son. But the nobles became suspi- 
 cious of the ambitious projects of their mayor, and depriving 
 him of his power, gave themselves once more to the king of 
 
68 DECAY OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 
 
 Neustria. But the union maintained by the wisdom of the 
 mayor of Neustria, Erchinoald, was soon broken when the roy- 
 al power had passed to the eldest son of Clovis II., Chlothaire 
 III. (656), and the office of mayor to the impetuous Ebroin. 
 The nobles, whose influence was menaced by the mayor, re- 
 volted under the guidance of St. Leger, bishop of Autun, 
 mayor of Burgundy, and took for king Childeric II., brother 
 of Chlothaire HI., while Ebroin gave the title of king of 
 Neustria to Thierry III., third son of Clovis II. Ebroin and 
 his phantom king were beaten and thrown into a cloister ; 
 but the conqueror Childeric II. had the imprudence to reject 
 the sage advice of St. Leger, whom he shut up in the same 
 convent with Ebroin, and to irritate the nobles by his violent 
 and tyrannic measures. A revolt set the two mayors at 
 liberty. Ebroin restored to Thierry III. the sceptre of Chil- 
 deric, who perished by the hands of an assassin, and attacked 
 St. Leger, who had been re-established in his authority in 
 Burgundy. St. Leger was defeated, and falling into the 
 hands of his enemy, was put to death after cruel tortures. 
 Marvellous stories have been handed down of the miracles 
 which attended his punishment, and his memory was vene- 
 rated as that of a saint. 
 
 57. Pepin of Heristal.— Triumph of Austrasia over Neus- 
 tria. — During these troubles and divisions, Austrasia had de- 
 finitively abolished royalty, and confirmed its independence 
 under the authority of the wise and skilful mayor of the 
 palace, Pepin of Heristal, who received the title of duke 
 (678). Ere long the contest broke out anew between the 
 two rival races. Ebroin, victorious in a first battle, was as- 
 sassinated (681), and Austrasia soon took a brilliant revenge 
 at the famous battle of Testry (687), won by Pepin of Heris- 
 tal, which established the preponderance of the Austrasians, 
 and may be considered as the last and decisive victory of 
 Germany over Gaul. 
 
DECAY OF THE MEROVINGIANS. 69 
 
 Pepin of Heristal, chief of all the Frank races, and firmly- 
 sustained by the clergy, whom he had conciliated by a sin- 
 cere attachment to the church, preserved to his death an 
 authority which he confirmed by his wise administration and 
 his victories over the Britons, the Prisons, and the Allemanni. 
 He had raised successively to a nominal throne, Clovis III. 
 (691), Childebert III. (695), and Dagobert III. (711). 
 
 58. Troubles. — Charles Martel. — His exploits. — After Pe- 
 pin's death the preponderance of Austrasia seemed for an 
 instant to be compromised. The nobles of Neustria gave the 
 office of mayor to Rainfroy. The new mayor expelled The- 
 odebald, grandson of Pepin, who had bequeathed him his 
 authority under the guardianship of St. Plectrude, his widow. 
 But Charles, a natural son of Pepin, roused the courage of 
 the Austrasians, conquered in two battles Childeric II., who 
 had made a momentary effort to exercise the royal power for 
 his own advantage, and gave his throne and the title of king 
 to Chloihaire IV., while he reserved the royal authority for 
 himself. He employed it wisely and nobly. During ten 
 years he waged a fierce war against the Saxons, the Prisons, 
 and the Bavarians (720-730), and returned at the head of his 
 victorious army to oppose the invasion of the Mussulmen, who 
 had made themselves masters of Spain and Septimania, and 
 were advancing through Aquitania, under the Emir Alder- 
 ante. The celebrated battle of Poictiers (732) saved Prance 
 and Europe, and won for Charles the surname of Martel 
 (hammer). Charles had won his victory with the aid of 
 Aquitania, which formed an independent state under the suc- 
 cessors of Charibert. But this ancient conquest of Clovis 
 excited his ambition. He subdued Duke Eudes, seized upon 
 Provence, which had yielded to the Arabs, and invaded their 
 possessions of Septimania. 
 
 59. Pepin and Carloman. — Pepin is proclaimed king.-^ 
 Charles, who after the death of Thierry II. had left the throne * 
 
70 ORGANIZATION OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 vacant, without taking for himself the name of king, divided 
 his states between his two sons, Carloman, to whom he gave 
 Austrasia, and Pepin, surnamed the Short, to whom he gave 
 Neustria and Burgundy (742). The two princes united to 
 suppress the insurrection of Bavaria, which had been con- 
 quered by Charles Martel, and force the Duke of Aquitania 
 to do them homage. Soon Carloman retired to a convent 
 (747), and the whole of France was reunited under Pepin, 
 who at first thought it prudent to restore the sceptre to the 
 feeble Childeric III., last descendant of the Merovingian race, 
 in order to build up his authority without fear under the 
 shadow of a royal name. But once firmly established, and 
 invited, it is said, by the nobles, to assume the supreme title 
 where he had long held the supreme authority, he consulted 
 Pope Zacchary, and by the advice of this pontiff, deposed 
 Childeric, and caused himself to be proclaimed king by his 
 warriors in the field of May (687). 
 
 PART SECOND. 
 
 ORGANIZATION OF THE BARBARIANS AFTER THE CONQUEST. 
 
 The invasion of the Barbarians, ending by the establish- 
 ment of so many new nations upon the soil which the Roman 
 empire had occupied, changes the whole aspect of society. 
 The imperial organization, the last product of Roman civili- 
 zation, disappears, or is reduced for a long time to a secondary 
 part. During all the first half of the middle ages, the Ger- 
 manic customs regulate, almost exclusively, the state of per- 
 sons and property, and predominate in the government and 
 laws. 
 
OF LANDS. 71 
 
 §1. 
 
 OF LANDS. 
 
 60. Division of lands among the conquerors. — The inva- 
 sion was every where followed by the distribution of the 
 conquered lands among the conquerors ; and the division was 
 made according to the customs of each people. The Bur- 
 gundians took from the Romans half of their dwellings, two- 
 thirds of the cultivated lands, and only one-third of their 
 slaves. A x'ace of shepherds, they needed vast pastures for 
 their flocks, and few servants. The Burgundian, mild and 
 sociable in his habits, was the guest of the Roman with whom 
 he took up his residence : he sat at his table, and when he 
 wished to sell his lands, he would naturally prefer the Roman 
 to any other purchaser. The Visigoths took the same part 
 as the Burgundians. The Ostrogoths, who were spread all over 
 Italy, contented themselves with a third of the lands already 
 invaded by the Heruli ; but while several of the Barbarians, 
 as a compensation for their invasions, exempted the conquer- 
 ed people from taxes, the Ostrogoths maintained the taxes on 
 persons and on real estate which the Romans had paid under 
 the empire. The Lombards, who on their arrival in Italy, 
 had lost nothing of their nomadic habits, did not trouble them- 
 selves about property ; this they left to the Italians, and ex- 
 acted only a third of the products of all the lands, until the 
 habits of a sedentary life gradually transformed them into a 
 people of farmers. The Franks do not seem to have despoiled 
 the Gallo-Romans ; but they doubtless took for themselves 
 the deserted fields or the vast fiscal estates which the fall of 
 the empire had left without a master. The domains which 
 were not divided remained public property, common to all, 
 where every one was free to feed his flocks, according to the 
 
72 OF LANDS. 
 
 old German usage, which required the cultivator to throw 
 down his inclosures after harvest. 
 
 61. Allodial — Beneficiary — Trihutary lands. — The lands 
 distributed by lot among the heads of families of the con- 
 quering tribes, were called allodial (from los, lot). " The 
 warrior," says Bouteiller, " holds his land only from God, 
 who directed the cast of the lot, and from his sword, which 
 won the victory." Therefore allodial lands were exempt 
 from taxation and tribute. The primitive allodium was also 
 called salic land (from sala, manor). As it had been originally 
 given as the reward of valor, so it was always to remain in 
 the hands of a warrior : and thus, among most of the German 
 tribes, it could only pass to a female when there were no 
 males to inherit it. Among the Franks, females could not 
 inherit it in any case. 
 
 At the side of this independent and hereditary allodium 
 was the benefice or fief, essentially precarious and subordi- 
 nate. The origin of benefices must be referred to Roman 
 usages and German institutions. It is allied to those conces- 
 sions of land by which the emperors endeavored to fix the 
 Barbarian tribes upon the soil of the empire, and above all, 
 to the old German custom of vassalage. The German chief, 
 surrounded by numerous companions, rewarded their services 
 by dividing his booty among them, and gave them his pro- 
 lection in exchange for their devotion to his person. But 
 when their definitive settlement upon the Roman soil had 
 rendered pillage rarer and modified their wants, warriors re- 
 quired other recompenses ; and lands were given them on 
 condition of homage to the chief who had granted them, fol- 
 lowing him to war, sitting in his assemblies of justice, and 
 aiding him on all occasions. And thus the personal relation 
 of vassalage was changed into a relation wholly territorial. 
 
 The usufructuary benefices, which at first, after the death 
 of the grantee, returned as a matter of right to the grantor, 
 
OF PERSONS. 73 
 
 soon became eventually hereditary : the land could be granted 
 on the same conditions by which it was held. The lord lost 
 the power of taking it away at will, and the beneficiary's heir 
 acquired the right of holding the fief for himself, by doing 
 homage and accepting the obligations contracted by his father : 
 a privilege which was soon after converted into an absolute 
 right of inheritance. 
 
 The full grant of a domain for a moneyed rent, an institu- 
 tion of purely Roman origin, continued after the invasion. 
 These lands were called ti'ibutary. 
 
 § II. 
 
 OF PERSONS. 
 
 62. Influence of property on the state of persons. — Social 
 hierarchy. — In such a disorganized society as that which 
 begins with the fifth century, it is useless to look for a well 
 defined classification of persons. The Germanic principles 
 give, as will be seen, to landed property a great influence 
 over the state of persons, by connecting with it those personal 
 prerogatives which among the Romans were essentially in- 
 dependent. In the beginning, however, this influence was not 
 yet powerful enough to determine, in a general manner, the 
 social state of individuals ; it only modified the classes, which, 
 though with very little precision, existed in German society 
 before the invasion. 
 
 The principle of equality prevailed in Germany, admit- 
 ting of scarcely any other distinctions than those of fact. 
 Freemen possessing equal rights formed the nation (see ch. i. 
 § ii.) ; above them rose a few individuals, but only by virtue 
 of personal merit. Below them were the slaves, whose con- 
 dition, though they were not regarded as members of the 
 tribes, was far from that of the same class in Rome. 
 
 4 
 
74 OF PERSONS. 
 
 After the conquest, the separation between the classes 
 becomes more marked, and a certain social hierarchy begins. 
 We no longer see among the nobles that mobility, that indi- 
 viduality, which we have remarked in ancient Germany ; 
 but we do not yet see those characteristics of an inaccessible 
 and privileged cast, which will give them so much strength 
 in the next period. 
 
 63, The nobility. — The clergy. — Freemen. — The lidi,freed- 
 men, slaves. — Whatever can render man illustrious and pow- 
 erful is a title of nobility. Glory, fortune, talent, royal favor, 
 contribute equally to form a sort of aristocracy to which 
 every man can aspire, and which gives no other legal privi- 
 lege than a claim to a higher pecuniary compensation for an 
 injury. Among these nobles we find the descendants of 
 German chiefs, heirs of vast domains awarded to their fathers 
 after the conquest ; the warriors, whose valor the king rewards 
 by the gift of some fief, and the high functionaries of the 
 palace. Those who in the German tribe would have been 
 the counsellors of the nation, become the counsellors of the 
 king, who endeavors to attach them to his own person in 
 order to strengthen his influence. 
 
 Such, among the Franks, are the Leudes, companions or 
 Jideles of the king : the antrusiions, royal guests, who them- 
 selves have vassals attached to their own persons : among the 
 Saxons, the royal thanes : the optimates in Burgundy : the 
 counts and dukes among the Visigoths. But these distinc- 
 tions were not reserved for the conquerors alone : those of 
 the Romans who were still great landholders, and even freed- 
 men, enriched by their masters' favor, were admitted to the 
 title of royal guests. This nobility does not yet secure any 
 political privilege — has not yet become the essential condition 
 of admission to any office. 
 
 The members of the clergy are almost always assimilated 
 
OF GOVERNMENT. 75 
 
 with the men of the first class, and the bishops with the no- 
 blest among the warriors. 
 
 The freemen (fribourgs), proprietors of allodiums, and 
 warriors (ahrimajini), admitted in arms to the national assem- 
 blies, compose the second class. Their property guarantees 
 their independence ; but it is soon menaced and destroyed by 
 the constantly increasing preponderance of the nobility. 
 
 The lidi, freemen by origin who have passed into vassal- 
 age, and enfranchised slaves, incapable of exercising the full 
 right of property, form an intermediary class, generally sub- 
 jected to statute labor and rent service, but enjoying a certain 
 degree of personal independence, and superior to the slaves, 
 who still stand at the bottom of the social scale, though soon 
 to disappear under the double influence of German manners 
 and the principles of Christianity. 
 
 § III. 
 
 OF GOVERNMENT. 
 
 64. German traditions modified by Roman customs. — The 
 German traditions were long preserved, both in government 
 and in the organization of society ; but not without being 
 gradually modified by the influence of Roman ideas. Among 
 the Germanic tribes the government of society was based 
 upon two foundations of unequal importance, the sovereignty 
 of the people, and the precarious delegation of the supreme 
 power to a chief rather than to a king. Both of these ele- 
 ments appear again after the conquest ; but the reaction of 
 Roman customs tends promptly and almost universally to 
 give the preponderance to the second, and gradually do away 
 with the first. 
 
 Royalty surrounds itself with all the pomp of the Roman 
 ceremonial and titles, which the Barbarian chiefs ask as a 
 
76 LEGISLATION OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 favor from the heirs of the empire ; frivolous phantoms in 
 appearance, but which change by degrees the nature of their 
 power. Alaric, chief of the Visigoths, asked for the title of 
 prefect of Illyria ; Odoacer the Herulian was named patrician 
 by the emperor of the East ; Clovis solicited the same dis- 
 tinction ; Theodoric was proclaimed consul, and adopted by 
 Zeno. Thus the royal dignity was elevated and confirmed. 
 The principle of election, so active in Germany, is slowly 
 undermined, and is every where combined with the constantly 
 increasing custom of confining the election to the members 
 of the royal family. 
 
 65. Weakening of the sovereignty of the people. — Progress 
 of the aristocracy. — The general assemblies, a true national 
 representation or rather participation of the whole nation in 
 the government, were continued for some time. But their 
 primitive character was quickly lost in the Field of March 
 of the Franks, the Diet of Pavia of the Lombards, the Wit- 
 ienagemot of the Anglo-Saxons, and the Council of Toledo 
 of the Visigoths, in which the most important decisions were 
 taken, and the gravest disputes decided. The constantly in- 
 creasing preponderance of the nobles, the establishment of a 
 hierarchy of dignitaries, dukes, counts, SfC, tend by degrees 
 to banish from the national assemblies their essential element, 
 the freemen, or leaving them only a secondary place, to cre- 
 ate a rich aristocracy, which, after having destroyed the 
 Germanic traditions of popular sovereignty, soon attacks the 
 sovereign power itself. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 LEGISLATION OP THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 66. General character of the Barbarian legislation. — This 
 change in the character of the government is followed by a 
 
LEGISLATION OF THE BARBARIANS. ' 77 
 
 correlative and equally important modification in legislation. 
 In place of those customs, the direct expression of the gene- 
 ral wants and interests of the community, by which the 
 German tribes had hitherto been governed, and of which the 
 people was at once the depository, the interpreter, and the 
 executor, appear written laws, framed after the Roman model. 
 
 However, the greater part of these codes sanction, after 
 the conquest, the ancient usages of Germany. We find 
 there that curious practice which leaves it to chance to 
 decide upon innocence or guilt, judicial combat, the trial by 
 boiling water, and by heated iron, which superstition accepts 
 as a judgment of God. Among nations long accustomed to a 
 life of violence and devastation, and whose daily occupation 
 is war, the punishment of murder is left to the relations of 
 the murdered man, unless they choose to accept a pecuniary 
 compensation (wehrgeld), which is fixed by law according 
 to the rank or dignity of the victim. Capital punishment is 
 reserved for cowardice and treason, often even for theft, which 
 is held to be the most dangerous of all perfidy among a wan- 
 dering people, who have no other safeguard for their property 
 but mutual confidence. 
 
 67. Special characteristics of the different legislations. — 
 These new codes come from the hand of the sovereign, some 
 filled with national traditions, others with deep-set marks of 
 foreign influence. They give a just idea of the respective 
 situation of the different tribes with regard to Roman society. 
 The Salic law, the law of the conquering tribe of Clovis, 
 and which perhaps was reduced to writing before the con- 
 quest, and merely reformed by the Merovingians, preserves 
 the German type throughout, and is almost exclusively di- 
 rected to repress the excesses of individual liberty by penal 
 dispositions, without attempting to regulate the relations of a 
 civil state which does not yet exist. The Allemanni con- 
 stantly associated with the Salian Franks in their inroads 
 
78 LEGISLATION OF THE BARBARIANS. 
 
 upon the empire : the Saxons, who only leave their forests to 
 invade Britain, already abandoned by the Romans : the Lom- 
 bards, those savage conquerors of Italy, who never treated 
 the Romans but as a conquered people, scorn to borrow any 
 thing from institutions which they despise, and preserve their 
 old institutions, though modified by the spirit of Christianity. 
 On the other hand, the law of the Ripuarian Franks, who 
 had been long established upon the territories of the empire, 
 begins to adopt some provisions of the Roman law with re- 
 gard to enfranchisements and the sovereign power, which the 
 Salic law does not even mention. The Burgundians, so re- 
 markable among the Barbarians for the mildness of their 
 manners, quickly submitted to the influence of Roman civil- 
 ization. Their law, which the Gallo-Romans signed with 
 the Burgundian counts, is filled with fragments of Roman 
 laws, and presents an attempt at civil and political organiza- 
 tion : it is the only one which punishes murder by death 
 instead of a simple fine. 
 
 The Gothic race, in frequent contact with the empire, 
 received into the Roman territory, formed to the usages, the 
 manners, and the wants of Roman society, preserves but a 
 small portion of its primitive institutions. If the law of the 
 Visigoths {forum judicum), drawn up by Euric and his suc- 
 cessors, reproduces the German customs with regard to per- 
 sons, it borrows most of the forms of the civil and criminal 
 practice of the Romans ; and the influence of the clergy 
 gives it that character of humanity which gradually becomes 
 the distinction of modern legislation. A king of the Visi- 
 goths, Alaric II., composes for his Roman subjects a collec- 
 tion drawn from the pure soui'ces of Roman law {hrevia- 
 rium alaricianwn). And finally, the law of the Visigoths, 
 the production of the great Theodoric, is less a barbarous 
 law, bearing the impress of the Roman character, than the 
 Roman law itself, mingled with foreign traditions. 
 
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE INTASION. 79 
 
 68. Personality of the laws. — The writing of these laws, 
 a thing so contrary to all the primitive usages of the Barba- 
 rians, became a necessity for them, after the conquest, if they 
 wished to maintain their own institutions in presence of the 
 deeply rooted institutions of the Romans. The Barbarians, 
 too proud to accept the laws of the vanquished, too few and 
 too insecure to impose upon the whole Roman population 
 customs foreign to their ideas and manners, do not pretend to 
 destroy the imperial legislation ; they allow it to remain be- 
 side their own ; and both mingle, without yet uniting, like the 
 two societies which the invasion has brought into contact 
 without amalgamating them. Thus was established the prin- 
 ciple of the personality of the land. Every one has a right 
 to be judged by his national law ; and this right, constantly 
 invoked, is maintained for several centuries, till constant con- 
 tact, community of interests, and the action of a regular 
 power, gradually effaced the original distinctions of origin 
 and manners, and with them the distinctions of legislation. 
 But from the beginning, all the members of the clergy, to 
 whatever race they belonged, were subjected without distinc- 
 tion to the Roman law ; and thus the first example of national 
 unity was given by the church. 
 
 §V. 
 
 GENERAL RESULTS OF THE INVASION. 
 
 69. Immediate hut secondary results of the invasion. — But 
 the realization is still remote ; and the world, after the long 
 throes of an invasion which had continued for more than a 
 century, seems abandoned to universal confusion. Countries 
 are laid waste and depopulated by the passage of these fero- 
 cious conquerors, who leave behind them so many cities in 
 
80 GENERAL RESULTS OF THE INVASION. 
 
 ashes, so many provinces devastated : agriculture, already 
 ruined by the disastrous effects of the municipal organization, 
 undergoes a terrible but final trial, and seems for a moment 
 annihilated in the deserted fields. The subversion of all the 
 relations which formerly existed between the provinces, des- 
 troys commerce and industry : the light of ancient civiliza- 
 tion, which nothing has yet replaced, grows dim on every 
 side, and the loss of hundreds of precious monuments would 
 seem to menace the world with the darkest ignorance, if the 
 church was not to give a refuge in its convents to the wrecks 
 of human science, and preserve them for modern society. 
 
 70. Principal results. — Renovation of society. — Such were 
 the immediate consequences of the invasion. But far graver 
 and more enduring results are connected with the great com- 
 motion of the universe. Although the invasion was partly 
 pi'oduced by insensible changes of population, by the slow 
 and successive introduction of numerous tribes, insulated in 
 the midst of the Roman provinces ; although several of them, 
 gradually formed to the imperial organization, submitted to 
 its influence and gradually lost their primitive character; it 
 is none the less true, that a great number of the Barbarian 
 tribes, suddenly precipitated into the midst of the empire, 
 overthrew from its very foundation a civilization which decay 
 had rendered impotent, and that in the fifth century a univei'sal 
 renovation was accomplished in Europe. The invasion threw 
 a whole society into the Roman world. Instead of those ener- 
 vated and degraded populations, which yielded to every flue- 
 tuation and gave themselves up without resistance to the first 
 invader, we see people of violent and savage manners, with 
 independent and warlike customs, whose power was strong to 
 build up as it had been strong to overthrow ; men with souls 
 ferocious and warlike, but still fresh — an uncultivated but 
 fruitful soil, in which the seeds of truth quickly take root. 
 Already their rude virtues restored to the heai't somewhat of 
 
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE INVASION. 81 
 
 its elevation and noble sentiments, and prepared it for the 
 influence of Christianity, which was to soften the ferocity of 
 their character without diminishing its energy, which was to 
 prepare the creation of modern nationality by uniting, by the 
 ideas of fraternity and spiritual association, the principle of 
 order established in Roman society, with the principle of in- 
 dividuality which German society had introduced. Every 
 thing was changing in the civil and political form of nations. 
 New idioms were uniting their vocabularies to the Latin, and 
 thus forming the double element of modern languages. To 
 the Roman administration the Barbarians substituted their 
 own customs, or mingled them with it, and prepared from 
 afar the great institutions of the middle ages, feudalism and 
 chivalry. 
 
 This fusion of the old and new world, this renovation of 
 moral and political society, is the painful work of long years. 
 Not every nation has yet found the soil where it will become 
 definitively established ; but all have been united by the in- 
 vasion in the vast space which is to contain them. They 
 have brought with them all the materials to rebuild in the 
 midst of the ruins which they had made. They have now 
 to repair the evils of so many frightful shocks ; to establish 
 and to organize themselves. 
 
 4* 
 
CHAPTEE Y. 
 
 THE EASTEEK EMPIEE TO THE CEUSADES. 
 
 SUMMAEY. 
 
 § I. State of the empire during the reign of Arcadius. — Influence 
 of Pulcheria under Theodosius II. — Marcian. — Religious disputes. — 
 Wars with the Persians under Zeno and Anastasius.' — Justin I. — Justin- 
 ian. — Exploits of Belisarius against the Persians and Vandals. — Beli- 
 sarius and Nurses in Italy. — Disgrace of Belisarius. — Attack of the 
 Bulgarians. — Government of Justinian. — Theodora. — Sedition at Con- 
 stantinople. — Laws of Justinian. — Sources of Roman law at this epoch : 
 Codes, Pandects, Institutes. — Novelle. 
 
 § II. State of the empire at the death of .Justinian. — Justin II., Ti- 
 berius II., and Maurice contend against the Persians and Avars. — He- 
 raclius. — Period of reverses. — The Persians conquered. — The Avars 
 exterminated. — New reverses. — Victories and conquests of the Maho- 
 metans. — Debasement of the empire under the descendants of Heraclius. 
 
 Long period of religious disputes after the rise of the Iconoclasts 
 under Leo the Isaurian. — Tyranny of Constantine Copronymus. — 
 Irene represses the Iconoclasts condemned by the Council of Nice. 
 — Schism of the Greek church. — Photius named patriarch of Constanti- 
 nople. — Schism confirmed by the patriarch Cerularius. — Wars against 
 the Bulgarians, the Hungarians, the Petchenegui, the Russians. — Glori- 
 ous reigns of Nicephoras Phocas, John Zimisces, and Basil II, — Ac- 
 cession of the Comneni. — Progress of the Seljuk Turks. — First 
 crusade. 
 
WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 83 
 
 §L 
 
 WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. JUSTINIAN : HIS LAWS. 
 
 BELISARIUS. 
 
 71. State of the empire under Arcadius. — The Empire of 
 the East, which was destined to survive a thousand years the 
 Empire of the West, whose fall it had hastened, had sustain- 
 ed itself, though with but little glory, in the midst of the 
 general commotion. 
 
 The history of Arcadius is a history of ministerial in- 
 trigues and the disastrous results of the quarrels of the palace. 
 Eufinius, jealous of the brave and skilful StilicJio, who go- 
 verned the West ; jealous of the eunuch Eiitropius, his rival 
 in the favor of Arcadius, and who had placed the princess 
 Eudoxia upon the throne, had just let loose the Barbarians 
 upon the two empires when he perished by the hand of the 
 Gainas (395), and perhaps at the instigation of Stilicho. The 
 head of the odious minister who had publicly sold justice, 
 even in the imperial palace, was carried through the streets 
 of Constantinople on the end of a pike. His right hand, 
 which had been cut off, accompanied the head. A stone had 
 been put into his mouth, to keep it open ; and his lips seemed 
 to ask the alms which the hand was held ready to receive : a 
 popular satire of frightful energy against the exactions of 
 power, Eutropius, the successor of his unfortunate rival, 
 and more contemptible than he, was soon supplanted by 
 Gainas, who himself perished by a popular revolt (401), 
 while the feeble Arcadius abandoned his power to the em- 
 press Eudoxia, whose scandalous licentiousness St. Chrysos- 
 tom dared to reprove, even upon the throne. 
 
 72. Theodosius II. and Ms successors. — Religious dis- 
 putes. — Foreign wars. — Under Arcadius's son, Theodosius 
 
84 WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 
 
 II., or rather his sister Pulcheria, the empire enjoyed some 
 internal tranquillity, if not splendor and power ; and the 
 formation of the Theodosian code rendered this reign for ever 
 memorable (408-450). Upon the death of Marcian, a no- 
 ble emperor who had dared to brave Attila (v. sequel), and 
 who had been called to the throne by Pulcheria (450), the 
 religious disputes excited by the Nestorians and Eutychians 
 (v. oh. vi. § i.) were prolonged for half a century, notwith- 
 standing the edict of union (481) published by the emperor 
 Zeno (474-491), successor of Leo I. and Leo II. (457-474), 
 and in spite of the dangerous wars in which the empire was 
 engaged with Persia (502-505). 
 
 With the religious discussions were mingled civil troubles, 
 the frivolous origin of which reveals the debasement of au- 
 thority and the degradation of public manners. The drivers 
 of the circus, distinguished by the colors of their liveries, 
 formed two factions, the Hue and the green, divided by a fe- 
 rocious rivalry, in which the people, the nobles, and even the 
 emperor himself took a part. The hippodrome, converted 
 into a political arena, became the theatre of bloody conflicts 
 and redoubtable seditions. Anastasius the Silent (491) tried 
 to appease the discord by dismissing the turbulent Isaurian 
 guard, forbidding the combats between men and wild beasts, 
 and suppressing an odious tax fatal to industry. But his rir 
 diculous pretensions to theological science served only to in- 
 crease the progress of heresy and the discontent of the orthodox. 
 Meanwhile the Arabs were ravaging Mesopotamia, the Bul- 
 garians had invaded Thrace, and the Persians, who had en- 
 tered Syria, compelled the cowardly emperor to buy a peace 
 for ten thousand pounds of gold. 
 
 At last came Justin I., a Thracian peasant, successively 
 tribune, count, general, senator, captain of the guards, and 
 emperor (518-527), and who, with all his vices and barbari- 
 ty, restored peace to the church and empire, protected his 
 
WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 85 
 
 frontiers against the Persians and the Bulgarians, and pre- 
 pared in this obscure period the illustrious reign of his nephew 
 Justinian. 
 
 73. Accession of Justinian. — Exploits of Belisarius against 
 the Persians and Vandals. — Justinian (527-565), in spite of 
 his weakness of character, won a real glory by some great 
 ideas, and still more by that fortunate combination of circum- 
 stances which gave him men of genius to execute his projects. 
 To reconstruct the old Roman empire by wresting the west- 
 ern provinces from the Barbarians, and to establish its inter- 
 nal organization upon a surer basis by founding a complete 
 and regular system of legislation, was the double end which 
 Justinian proposed and attained. 
 
 A war with Persia, which had broken out under Justin, 
 suspended for a while his enterprises against the west. Beli- 
 sarius, whose name became so famous, began to make him- 
 self known by his exploits against King Cabades, whom he 
 conquered at Dara, and compelled to evacuate the provinces 
 which he had invaded (528); but the unskilful general who 
 replaced him retreated before the Persians, and Justinian 
 gladly bought a peace from Chosroes, Cabades's successor, at 
 the price of eleven thousand pounds of gold. 
 
 Then all the strength of the empire was directed against 
 the west, and Belisarius, with a fleet of six hundred sail and 
 forty thousand men, was sent to reconquer Africa, where the 
 Vandals, enervated by the softness of the climate, had lost 
 their ancient vigor and courage. In 532, Belisarius landed 
 in Africa to punish the usurpation of Gelimer, who had de- 
 throned Hilderic, the ally of Justinian. The Vandal, defeated 
 at Trecanium, gave himself up to the Romans after an ob- 
 stinate defence, asking for a morsel of bread, of wh,ich he 
 had not eaten for three months, a sponge to wash his wounds, 
 and a lyre to sing his misfortunes. Carthage was soon taken, 
 Sardinia and Corsica yielded to the conquerors, and Africa 
 
86 WARS AGAIHST THE PERSIANS. 
 
 was restored to the empire by a campaign of three months. 
 Gelimer had lost his kingdom without uttering any other com- 
 plaint than the words of Scripture, Vanity of vanities — all is 
 vanity. Belisarius returned to Constantinople to triumph, 
 after the manner of the old Romans (534). The sacred vases 
 of the temple of Jerusalem, which had been sent to Rome by 
 Titus and carried to Carthage by Genseric, were borne in 
 procession before him. The Vandal chiefs followed with 
 their king Gelimer, clad in a mantle of purple. The con- 
 queror marched on foot at the head of his brave companions. 
 
 74. Conquest of Italy. — Last expedition and disgrace of 
 Belisarius. — Death of Justinian. — It was then that Belisarius 
 was sent against the Ostrogoths to avenge the death of Ama- 
 lasuntha, and began the conquest of Italy, which was com- 
 pleted twenty years afterwards b}^ the eunuch Narses (v. ch. 
 ii. § i.). About the same time (552) the dissensions in the 
 kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain restored to Justinian all 
 the eastern part of the peninsula, which he took from the 
 imprudent Athanagild, at whose call his armies had come 
 (v. ch. ii. § ii.). 
 
 During this period Belisarius had returned against his 
 first enemies, the Persians, who at the call of the Armenians 
 had crossed the Euphrates and ravaged Syria (540) : at the 
 head of a shattered army, without provisions and without 
 arms, the conqueror of Africa and Italy saved Jerusalem 
 and Palestine, but could not reconquer Armenia. The un- 
 grateful Justinian took from him his command and his digni- 
 ties. Chosroes, freed from his most dangerous antagonist, 
 continued the war, and in spite of the treachery of the king 
 of Colchos, sold peace to the emperor and liberty of conscience 
 to the Christians for a tribute of three thousand pieces of gold 
 (562). 
 
 It was the destiny of Belisarius to end his noble career a 
 prey to envy and hatred, but always ready to serve the prince 
 
WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 87 
 
 who had disgraced him. While the Avars were founding a 
 powerful empire upon the banks of the Danube, the Bulgarians 
 crossed it on the ice, and passed the wall which the emperor 
 Anastasius had built as a barrier against the inroads of the 
 Barbarians. A Greek army that was sent against them was 
 beaten, and Justinian trembled in his capital. Belisarius, 
 restored to power by the approach of danger, armed the citi- 
 zens, collected all the horses of the hippodrome to form a 
 cavalry, and drove the Bulgarians beyond the Danube. No 
 sooner was the danger passed than the service was forgotten, 
 and the hero, sti'ipped of his possessions, was sent into exile. 
 The saviour of the empire died in disgrace, and Justinian sur- 
 vived him but a few months (565). 
 
 75. Jusdnian's administration. — Theodora. — The internal 
 administration of Justinian offers a singular mixture of gran- 
 deur and weakness, of noble enterprises and miserable in- 
 trigues. The arts, generously encouraged, combined to adorn 
 the capital and the provinces with magnificent monuments. 
 Amid twenty-five churches arose at Constantinople the church 
 of St. Sophia, Justinian's pride, who exclaimed, while con- 
 templating it — " Solomon, I have conquered you !" Bridges, 
 aqueducts, and hospitals were built in the principal cities of 
 the empire : a chain of eighty fortified towns was drawn 
 from the confluence of the Save to the mouth of the Danube, 
 to check the inroads of the Barbarians : fortresses were built 
 or repaired on almost all the frontiers : Carthage and Antioch, 
 destroyed by war and earthquakes, were repaired with mag- 
 nificence. 
 
 But at the same time a courtesan, Theodora, daughter of 
 the bear-keeper of the amphitheatre, whom the feeble empe- 
 ror had married and raised to the throne, exhausted the re- 
 sources of the empire by a pompous prodigality, and ministers 
 enriched themselves by falsifying the imperial constitutions 
 for money. Belisarius was indebted in a great degree for 
 
88 WARS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 
 
 his good fortune to the influence of his wife Antonia, the 
 despicable accomplice of the licentiousness of Theodora. The 
 emperor, himself a passionate lover of the games of the circus, 
 took a part in the disputes of the coachmen, and seemed to 
 encourage the disorders to which he was near falling a vic- 
 tim. A sedition, which began in the hippodrome, threw 
 Constantinople into confusion for five days : the terrified Jus- 
 tinian, upon the point of seeking safety in flight, was saved 
 by the courage of Theodora: "You may fly," said she, "if 
 you choose ; as for me, I know of no tomb more glorious 
 than a throne." Justinian took courage, and the sedition was 
 quelled by the massacre of thirty thousand of his subjects. 
 
 76. Justinian's legislation. — The only indisputable glory 
 of Justinian is his legislation. The science of law, which 
 had been assiduously cultivated for centuries by the ablest 
 lawyers that ever lived, had become almost inaccessible by 
 the immensity of its domain. The laws of the Twelve Ta- 
 bles, that ancient groundwork of Roman legislation, were 
 regarded as a respected tradition, foreign to the wants of a 
 new society. At the side of this civil law,th.e edicts of the 
 praetors, following the march of civilization and constantly 
 modified by jurisprudence, had aimed at harmonizing laws and 
 customs ; while the interpretations of the learned deduced, 
 with an admirable logic, the practical consequences of the 
 philosophical principles of law, and were deservedly ranked 
 among the most fruitful sources of legislation. And in fine, 
 the emperors having concentrated the legislative power in 
 their own persons, had multiplied constitutions, edicts, and 
 decrees, according to the wants of their administration. 
 
 To form a connected whole of these different materials ; 
 to separate from a crowd of provisions which custom had re- 
 jected, the laws which accorded with the spirit of the age ; 
 to mark out sure and easy paths in this labyrinth where the 
 most skilful became bewildered, was the conception which 
 
HERACLIITS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 89 
 
 has immortalized the name of Justinian. The Gregorian 
 and Hermogenian codes, which contained the constitutions of 
 the pagan emperors, and the code of Theodosius II., which 
 contained the laws of the Christian emperors, had scarcely 
 begun this great work. Justinian had the boldness to under- 
 take, and the glory of accomplishing it. There are marks 
 of haste here and there, and imperfections, which betray the 
 impatience of the imperial legislator ; but it still remains 
 and ever will remain the noblest monument of the empire. 
 The most skilful jurists were set to the task, under the direc- 
 tion of the quaestor Trihonian. In 528 appeared the Code, a 
 collection of the imperial constitutions, in twelve books, which 
 a few years afterwards was thoroughly revised ; in 533, the 
 Pandects or Digest, a vast compilation, in which all the dif- 
 ferent schools of jurisprudence were united, compared, or 
 reconciled, and the Institutes, an elementary work, contain- 
 ing a lucid and methodical exposition of the principles of the 
 science, for the use of schools. The laws published by Jus- 
 tinian himself during the last thirty years of his reign, were 
 collected in the Novelle, which was enlarged by the constitu- 
 tions of his successors. All of these laws tended to efface 
 the last vestiges of the original republican organization, and 
 to consecrate the principle of the absolute sovereignty of the 
 emperor. 
 
 §11. 
 
 HERACLITTS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 77. State of the emph^e at the death of Justinian. — At the 
 moment of Justinian's death, the empire of the East was at 
 the highest point of its power ; a power which unfortunately 
 was more apparent than real. In the east, Justinian, although 
 
90 HERACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 compelled to buy peace of the king of Persia, had re-estab- 
 lished the ancient limits of the empire. In the west he had 
 been compelled to leave in the hands of the Barbarians Great 
 Britain, which the Romans had abandoned in the reign of 
 Honorius, Gaul, which had fallen into the hands of the 
 Franks, and the greater part of Spain, which had been occu- 
 pied by the Visigoths : but still he had recovered Italy, Africa, 
 and the eastern coasts of Spain, and Rome had once more 
 become the second capital of the empire. But this sudden 
 reunion of states which had been separated so long, lasts but 
 a few years. The Lombards draw near the frontiers of Italy, 
 which they are soon to invade : the Bulgarians have stationed 
 themselves within reach of Constantinople : the Avars, who 
 had followed the track of the Huns from Asia, establish 
 themselves in Dacia, where the Goths had once settled. The 
 Persians menace the eastern frontier, and the day is not far 
 off when the Mahometan invasion will separate all the east- 
 ern provinces from the empire for ever. 
 
 78. Justin II. — Tiberius II. — Maurice. — It was under 
 the reign of Justinian's successor, Justin II. (565-578), that 
 Italy passed under the dominion of the Lombards, without an 
 effort on the part of the Eastern empire to defend a territory 
 which had cost her so much treasure and blood (v. ch. i. § i.). 
 Tiberius II., assailed by the old Chosroes, sent against him 
 the brave and skilful Maurice, who drove the Persians back 
 to Assyria. The great king died with grief for his defeat ; 
 but at the same time Tiberius had been compelled to buy the 
 retreat of the Avars. Maurice, called to the throne after the 
 death of Tiberius (582-602), was attacked at the same time 
 by the Avars, who advanced to the walls of Constantinople, 
 and the Persians, whom Barham, a revolted satrap, had arm- 
 ed against the empire. Maurice, protector of Chosroes's 
 heir, defeated the rebels, and disposed, with the authority of 
 a master, of the sceptre of the Sassanides. The Avars were 
 
HERACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSOKS. 91 
 
 crushed in five battles ; but the centurion Phocas raised a 
 revolt in the army, assassinated Maurice, and seized upon 
 the crown (602). Immediately Chosroes II., who owed his 
 sceptre to Maurice, declared war against the usurper, and 
 under pretext of avenging his benefactor, invaded the pro- 
 vinces of the empire. 
 
 79. Heraclius. — Period of reverses. — Constantinople was 
 hard pressed by the Barbarians on the south and on the north, 
 when Heraclius, son of the governor of Africa (610), ascend- 
 ed the throne, after having overthrown Phocas, who had 
 polluted it during seven years by his cruelty and his licen- 
 tiousness. Chosroes overran Syria, sacking Damascus, Anti- 
 och, and Jerusalem, and putting to death those who refused 
 to trample upon the cross and adore the sun, while his lieu- 
 tenant Sain traversed Egypt as a conqueror, and returned 
 with frightful rapidity to Asia Minor, to establish his garri- 
 sons even in the city of Chalcedonia. Heraclius sued for 
 peace : Chosroes replied by having the valiant Sain, who 
 had seemed to listen favorably to the emperor's proposals, 
 flayed alive, and marching on the capital (616). At the same 
 time the Avars, excited by the Persians, resumed their arms, 
 and appeared again under the walls of Constantinople (618). 
 Heraclius, reduced to extremity, resolved to fly to Carthage ; 
 but the patriarch retained him by his remonstrances, and the 
 clergy contributed their wealth for the defence of the empire. 
 
 80. Period of success, followed by new reverses. — The 
 period of reverses was past, and that of wonderful success 
 began. Heraclius bought off" the Avars and turned all his 
 strength against the Persians. By a bold manoeuvre he sud- 
 denly removed the seat of war to the extremity of Cilicia, 
 and Chosroes, taken by surprise, retreated beyond the fron- 
 tiers, twice defeated in his retreat, once at Issus, and once at 
 Mossoul. The Avars, excited once more by the Persians, 
 were nearly exterminated by the patrician Bonosius, and He- 
 
92 HEKACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 racliu^ reconquered Armenia and Syria, with the aid of the 
 Khazar Turks, a tribe in alliance with the empire. Siroes, 
 Chosroes's successor, begged for peace, and could only ob- 
 tain it by restoring the conquered countries, the Roman 
 eagles, and the true cross, which his father had taken from 
 the Greeks (628). 
 
 For a long time Persia will not attack the empire : but 
 more redoubtable enemies have arisen on the south. Maho- 
 met has let loose upon the world the wandering tribes of 
 Arabia, with the Koran in one hand and the sword in the 
 other (v. ch. vii. § iii.). The eastern provinces of the em- 
 pire are invaded first ; and Heraclius, who had slumbered 
 too long in a fatal security, soon sees a great battle decide the 
 conquest of Syria and of Egypt. 
 
 81. Degradation of the empire under the descendants of 
 Heraclius. — The limits of the empire no longer reached be- 
 yond Asia Minor. Heraclius, fallen from his glory, died 
 (641) without having avenged his defeats, and left the throne 
 to a long sei'ies of princes whose names polluted the annals 
 of the degraded empire. He had just seen the Visigoths of 
 Spain wrest from his dominion a portion of the conquests of 
 Justinian. 
 
 The family of Heraclius becomes extinct after half a 
 century of crimes and infamy (641-711), during which ten 
 princes contend for the bloody sceptre, and leave the frontiers 
 open to every attack of the Barbarians. It is the prelude 
 of a period no less deplorable, in which the empire contends 
 for four hundred years -against the repeated attacks of Bar- 
 barians and internal dissensions fomented by religious dis- 
 putes, fruit of the restless subtlety of the Greek mind in its 
 decay. 
 
 82. The Iconoclasts. — Religious quarrels under Leo the 
 Isaurian and his successors. — From 717 to 780, the throne 
 was occupied by three sovereigns of the Isaurian race, Leo 
 
HERACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 93 
 
 III., Constantine Copronymus (741), and Leo IV. (775-780), 
 his son. The worship of images, which formed a fruitful 
 source of gain for the monks and clergy, had taken deep 
 root among the people ; favored too, perhaps, by the abun- 
 dance of works of art and an exhaustless store of relics. 
 Leo the Isaurian opposed this corruption with all the vehe- 
 mence of his character, and the persecution into which he 
 allowed his passion to carry him, won for him and for his 
 successors, who unfortunately imitated him in his violence, 
 the name of Iconoclasts, or breakers of images. In Italy, 
 the authority of the pope was opposed to that of the emperor, 
 and the Romans, rising against the imperial prefect, pro- 
 claimed the republic and placed the pope at its head. Leo 
 III. defended Constantinople against the Saracens, and his 
 successor fought bravely at the head of his troops upon the 
 banks of the Euphrates and of the Danube. But their names 
 have been branded in Catholic annals as heretics and tyrants. 
 Leo IV., less energetic as a prince, but no less violent in his 
 opposition to the worship of images, fell a victim to his own 
 zeal and the vengeance of his wife, the infamous Irene. 
 One of the first acts of Irene, who reigned as guardian of 
 her son, was to re-establish the worship of images, and have 
 it confirmed by a council which she assembled at Nice (787). 
 Her zeal was rewarded by the approbation of the church, 
 and though suspected of the murder of her husband, and 
 acknowledged to have had her son put to death under circum- 
 stances of revolting cruelty, she has been canonized in the 
 East as a saint. But the period was approaching in which a 
 schism more fatal than that of the Iconoclasts was to deprive 
 the Catholic church of a large portion of its ancient inherit- 
 ance. 
 
 83. Schism of the Greek church. — The imperial throne 
 was filled by Michel the Drunkard (842-867), who boasted 
 that he had taken Nero for his model, and who refused to 
 
94 HERACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 listen to the messenger who brought him tidings of an in- 
 vasion at the most critical moment of a race. To free 
 himself from all opposition, he shut up his mother Theodora 
 in a convent, and removed the patriarch Ignatius to make 
 room for Photius, the captain of his guards. Photius was a 
 man of profound learning, but his election, though approved 
 by a cabal, was condemned by the pope (Nicholas I.), who 
 fulminated an excommunication against him (858). Photius 
 replied by citing the acts of a council in which the pope him- 
 self had been excommunicated, and disputing the authority 
 of the See of Rome over the Bulgarians, who had just been 
 converted to Christianity. 
 
 The accession o^ Basil the Macedonian (867), and the 
 convocation of the eighth oecumenic council, disturbed for a 
 moment the triumph of Photius, who was compelled to give 
 way to Ignatius. The empire enjoyed a moment of repose, 
 and the emperor consecrated a few peaceful years to a reform 
 of the financial system, and adapting the laws of Justinian 
 to the wants of the epoch. The collection of the numerous 
 compilations of Justinian, translated into Greek and methodi- 
 cally arranged, has immortalized the name of Basil. Still 
 this prince prepared the way for new dissensions. Upon the 
 death of the patriarch, Photius succeeded in regaining the im- 
 perial favor and the See of Constantinople (879). 
 
 The schism was not yet complete. Under Leo the Phi- 
 losopher Photius was removed and condemned to lose his 
 eyes. But the division between the two churches had 
 widened during these miserable quarrels, and in 1054 the 
 papal legates withdrew from Constantinople, leaving the 
 Greek church to its own doctrines and its own rulers. 
 
 84. Contests ivith the Bulgarians, the Sclavonians, the 
 Franks, ^c. — Meanwhile the empire had sustained a weari- 
 some contest against enemies which seemed to multiply as its 
 powers of resistance decreased. The Bulgarians, converted 
 
HEEACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 95 
 
 to Christianity (about 861), had discontinued their ravages : 
 but they demanded, sword in hand, posts and factories for 
 their rising commerce, and irritated by the annoyances to 
 which their merchants were exposed from the imperial offi- 
 cers, advanced several times to the walls of Constantinople 
 (888-923). The Sclavonians, who were established in 
 Illyria, menaced Macedonia. The Petchenegui and the 
 fierce Hungarians, descending from the shores of the Baltic, 
 advanced along the banks of the North Sea and the Danube, 
 compelling both the Bulgarians and Greeks to pay tribute 
 (924). The Khazar Turks remained faithful to their old 
 alliance ; but the Russians, who had shaken off the yoke, 
 sent their ships to the Bosphorus (865), burnt the faubourgs 
 of Constantinople (904), and forced Leo the Philosopher to 
 promise a tribute, which his successors still continued to 
 pay forty years after. And finally, the Saracens of Africa, 
 masters of Sicily, Sardinia, and Crete (v. eh. vii.), rav- 
 aged the coasts of Greece, and the progress of the Arabs 
 in Asia Minor was only checked by the decay of the ca- 
 liphate. 
 
 85. Glorious reigns of Phocas and Zimisces. — Basil II. — 
 Accession of the Comneni. — In the midst of these obscure 
 contests, which generally terminated in the submission of the 
 emperors, three men, Nicephoras Phocas, John Zimisces, and 
 Basil II., are entitled to an honorable mention in history. 
 Phocas, called to the empire by the choice of the soldiers 
 (963), forces back the Bulgarians on the north, drives the pi- 
 rates from the island of Crete, retakes Cyprus, and subdues 
 Cilicia. His successor, John Zimisces (969-976), for a long 
 time the companion of his victories, crosses Syria, makes the 
 caliph of Bagdad tremble in his capital, and returns in tri- 
 umph to Constantinople. Basil 11. (976-1025), formed in 
 the school of these two great men, crushes, after twenty-five 
 campaigns, the nation of the Bulgarians (1019), and destroys 
 
96 HERACLIUS AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the kingdom of the Khazars, who had joined the enemies of 
 the empire. 
 
 But the transient splendor of these three reigns is eclipsed 
 after the death of Basil. Komanus Argyrus (1028-1034) 
 atones for some slight success against the Arabs by a bloody 
 defeat (v. ch. ii.). After him two corrupt women, Zoe and 
 Theodora, prostituted the purple to unworthy favorites, and 
 the race of Basil the Macedonian was extinguished in infamy. 
 
 A new family ascends the throne with Isaac Camnenes 
 (1056), whose nephew Alexis (1081), raised to the empire 
 after long years of internal dissension and reverses in Asia, 
 where the Seljuk Turks had subdued both the provinces of 
 the caliphate and of the empire (v. ch. vii. § viii.), invokes 
 in his distress the succor of the West, and excites the first 
 crusade. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 CHUEOH. LETTEES AND AETS. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. State of the church at the moment of the great invasion of the em- 
 pire and among the Barbarians. — The Catholics persecuted by the Arians 
 among the Visigoths. — Euric. — Amalaric. — Oppression of the CathoHcs 
 in the kingdom of the Vandals. — Conversion of the Suevi ; of the Visi- 
 goths ; of the Lombards. — Conversion of the Franks under Clovis ; of the 
 Burgundians. — Conversion of Ireland. — The monk St. Augustin sent by 
 Fope Gregory the Great to the Anglo-Saxons. — Ethelbert, king of Kent, 
 embraces Christianity. — Conversion of the whole of Great Britain. — Irish 
 and Anglo-Saxon missionaries among the Germans. — St. Wilfred and 
 St. Wilbrod. — Apostolic labors and martyrdom of St. Boniface. 
 
 Christianity in the East. — Persecution in Persia. — Progress of Nesto- 
 rianism. — The missionary Olopen founds a Christian establishment in 
 China. — Decay of the heretical and schismatic churches in the East. — 
 Paganism still subsists in the schools of philosophy and in the country. 
 
 Heresies from the fourth to the eighth century. — Error of Nestorius. 
 — Heresy of Eutyches. — Pelagianism and Semi-Pelagianism. — Schism of 
 the Donatists. — Iconoclasts. 
 
 Councils of Ephesus, of Constantinople, of Chalcedonia, of Carthage, 
 of Nice. 
 
 Begiiming of monastic and cenobitic life in the East and West. — St. 
 Paul the hermit ; St. Anthony. — St. Martin of Tours. — History of St. 
 Benedict of Nursia : foundation of the order of Benedictines. — Their 
 rule ; utility of monasteries. 
 
 5 
 
98 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 § II. Pagan literature in the fifth and sixth centuries, — Fall of the 
 school of Alexandria. — Character of Pagan poetry. — Claudian. — Rutili- 
 us. — Complete decay. — Pagan historians : Zozimus, Procopius. — Gram- 
 marians of Alexandria. 
 
 Christian literature. — The fathers. — Lactantius, St. Athanasius, St. 
 Basil : St. Gregory of Nazianze. — St. Jerome and St. Ambrose. — Series 
 of fathers of the Greek church. — Si. John Chrysostorn ; his exile and 
 death. — St. Cyril of Alexandria. — Theodoret of Cyr. — John of Damas- 
 cus. — Series of fathers of the Latin church. — St. Augustin ; character 
 of his genius. — Salvian ; his book on the government of God. — St. Avi- 
 tus of Vienne ; his Paradise lost. — Claudian Mamertus ; St. Hilarius. — 
 Dyonisius the Little.— St. Leo and St. Gregory popes. 
 
 Christian historians. — Orosius, Cassiodorus, Jornandes, Socrates, So- 
 zomenus, Sulpicius, Severus, Gregory of Tours, the Venerable Bede. 
 
 Christian poets. — Sidonius ApoUinarius, Synesius, Pnadentius, Pros- 
 pero of Aquitania, Fortunatus of Poictiers. 
 
 Faint progress of science. 
 
 Art at the beginning of the Middle Ages. 
 
 §1. 
 
 STATE OF THE CHURCH IN THE EAST AND IN THE WEST. 
 
 86. State of the church at the moment of the great invasion. 
 — Christianity had passed through the epoch of persecutions, 
 and spread with the blood of its martyrs. Triumphant with 
 Constantine, and supported by the civil authority, it continues 
 the accomplishment of its divine mission through trials of a 
 new species. The Barbarians begin to parcel out the em- 
 pire : Christianity penetrates their forests, or imposes baptism 
 as the price of their victory, and subdues them by the moral 
 force of truth. 
 
 Old men and weak girls whom they had captured in their 
 inroads, were the first instruments which God employed for 
 the diffusion of his word. Soon Constantine declares him- 
 self the protector of all Christians, both within and without 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 99 
 
 the empire, and endeavoi's to secure the conversion of the 
 Barbarians. 
 
 But still Christianity, at the epoch of the great invasion, 
 had made but little progress in the rural districts, where the 
 old superstitions still prevailed to such an extent that pagan 
 and peasant were synonymous terms (jpagani). Even in the 
 most enlightened cities, many enemies of the Christian religion 
 were still united under the banners of philosophical polythe- 
 ism. The schools of Athens and Alexandria counted nume- 
 rous disciples ; and in the old capital of the empire men had 
 not yet ceased to invoke those religious remembrances which 
 recalled their former glory, and the Senate still demanded 
 the statue of victory. 
 
 But the Gospel had already penetrated beyond the fron- 
 tiers of the empire, further than the Roman eagle. The 
 Negus of Abyssinia had just been converted with his whole 
 people by the preaching of St. Frumentius, and Christianity 
 had survived forty years of persecution in the remotest pro- 
 vinces of the Persian empire. In the west, the Goths had 
 been converted, the Burgundians, the Suevi, the Vandals, the 
 Lombards had received the Gospel before they invaded the 
 empire. But unfortunately they had adopted the doctrines 
 of Arius, and with them a bitter hostility for those of the 
 Catholics, with whom their adventurous life soon brought them 
 in contact. 
 
 87. Persecutions of the Catholics among the Visigoths and 
 the Vandals. — Euric, king of the Visigoths and an ardent 
 Arian, attacked with inveterate hostility the doctrines of the 
 council of Nice. " Under his reign," says Sidonius Apolli- 
 narius, " the churches fell to ruins, the doors were torn off, 
 the entrance of the holy place was closed only by brambles 
 and thorns : wild beasts made their dwelling in the sanctua- 
 ry, and cattle fed upon the grass that gi'ew around the altar." 
 The bishops who had escaped exile were not replaced at their 
 
100 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 death, and the priesthood died with them. Amalaric perse- 
 cuted Catholicism even in his wife, a daughter of Clovis ; 
 and the unhappy princess, unable to support the violence of 
 her husband any longer, called on her brothers to avenge 
 her. After a few years of calm, Leovegild signalized his 
 hatred against the Catholic religion by the execution of his 
 own son who had abjured Arianism, and driving from their 
 sees the bishops who had adhered to the doctrines of Nice. 
 
 The Catholics of the African church, which but a little 
 while before had been so flourishing, might fancy that the 
 days of the crudest of the emperors had returned again. 
 Genseric had begun the persecution by sending his soldiers 
 to break up the assemblies of the Catholics by blows. Under 
 his son Huneric, more than forty thousand Catholics were 
 put to death in less than two years, and a great many had 
 their hands and their tongues cut off. St. Eugenius, bishop 
 of Carthage, having refused to close the churches, the king 
 placed guards at the door, armed with iron hooks, with which 
 they tore off the skin and hair of those who came to attend 
 divine worship. These fanatical cruelties, as well as the 
 ravages which had marked their entrance into the empire, 
 made the name of the Vandals a term of reproach. But 
 persecution served, as it always does, to hasten the propaga- 
 tion of truth. A Moorish tribe of the interior of Africa was 
 converted by four exiles, whom the Vandals punished for the 
 success of their preaching, by crushing them under the 
 wheels of a chariot. 
 
 Wherever the Catholics obtained the supremacy, they 
 were as intolerant and almost as bitter as their opponents. 
 The rights of the mind were unknown, and centuries were 
 yet to pass before men could be taught that individual respon- 
 sibility implies freedom of conscience. 
 
 88. Conversion of the Suevi, the Visigoths, the Lombards, 
 and the Franks. — Arianism maintained the supremacy in 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 101 
 
 Africa till the conquest of Belisarius, and among the Heruli 
 and Ostrogoths during the whole duration of their dominion. 
 Most of the other Germans were converted to Catholicism 
 during the second half of the sixth century. In 551, Caria- 
 ric, king of the Suevi, having heard during the illness of his 
 son Theodoric of the miracles of St. Martin, made a vow 
 that he would adopt the doctrines of this saint, if his son was 
 restored to health. The young prince recovered, and the 
 king not doubting but what it was all owing to the miracu- 
 lous intercession of the saint, became a Catholic with all his 
 people (560). The Visigoths soon followed the example of 
 the Suevi, whom they had just subdued ; and under Recarede 
 the Catholic, brother of a martyr, the council of Toledo 
 solemnly consecrated the return of all Spain to the Catholic 
 faith (589). A few years afterwards, the Lombards, who had 
 in the beginning displayed great rigor against the Catholics, 
 yielded, with their king Agilulphus, to the mild influence of 
 the pious Theodelinda. But still their faith long retained 
 traces of their heresy and even of paganism. 
 
 It was only with the invasion that Christianity penetrated 
 among the Franks, the Scots, the Angles, and the Saxons. 
 The Franks, who were converted with Clovis at the battle 
 of Tolbiac, became at the same time Christians and orthodox 
 (497). Clovis and his sons, conquerors of the Arian Bur- 
 gundians, compelled them to renounce their heresy, which 
 was soon to disappear from Gaul. 
 
 89. Conversion of Ireland. — The most remarkable con- 
 version was, perhaps, that of the Britannic Isles. The Anglo- 
 Saxons carried with them from Germany all the ferocity of 
 the worship of Odin, and proscribed Christianity, which had 
 already taken root in Great Britain. But they could not 
 prevent St. Patrick, who had been prisoner in the land during 
 his youth, from returning there as a missionary, by order of 
 Pope Celestin (432), and preaching the gospel to the savage 
 
102 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 inhabitants. At his death (about 465), several bishoprics, 
 convents, and seminaries were already founded in Ireland, 
 which soon, as the Island of Saints, was to send forth ardent 
 apostles of the faith. From the sixth century this island was 
 the country which contained the greatest number of pious 
 establishments and the most zealous religious corporations. 
 There were no better schools in the west than those of the 
 convents of Ireland ; that, for example, of St. Finian, found- 
 ed in 530, and that of Lismore, which St. Cataldus established 
 in 640. While the west of Europe was given up a prey to pil- 
 lage and suffering, this island, defended by the sea, offered a 
 sure asylum to the friends of science and monastic life. The 
 strangers who emigrated not only from England but from the 
 continent, I'eceived from the Irish an eager and gratuitous 
 hospitality, and were provided with all the means of instruc- 
 tion. And on the other hand, the pious inhabitants, learned 
 for their age, went upon distant missions to found or reform 
 convents, and became the civilizers of most of the countries 
 of Europe. 
 
 90. Conversion of the Scotch and Anglo-Saxons. — The 
 tnonk Augustin. — It was an Irishman, St. Colomban, that 
 preached the gospel to the Scotch of the north, and founded 
 numerous churches among them (563-597) : a British bishop 
 by the name of Ninian had already carried it to the Scots of 
 the south. The conversion of the Anglo-Saxons was the work 
 of Pope St. Gregory the Great, as that of the Irish had been 
 of Pope Celestin. Gregory being struck with the fine ap- 
 pearance of some Saxon slaves in the market at Rome, con- 
 ceived the design of converting their nation to Christianity, 
 and shortly after his accession to the pontificate dispatched 
 Augustin, a monk, with forty companions, to carry the gospel 
 into England. Augustin landed in the isle of Thanet, and 
 sent word to Ethelbert, king of Kent, that he was come from 
 a distant country to bring him the promise of eternal happi- 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 103 
 
 ness and a kingdom without end, if he would accept his doc- 
 trines. The king's wife was a Christian, and the king was 
 easily persuaded to listen to the missionaries ; but he would 
 not receive them any where but in the open air, for fear of 
 enchantment. He listened to them with a favorable ear, and 
 soon after was baptized, moved by the purity of their lives 
 and the ardor of their zeal (596). Augustin chose Canter- 
 bury for the metropolis of the English church. The conver- 
 sion of the island was soon completed, and all the kings and 
 people of the heptarchy received the Catholic faith. 
 
 91. Catholic missions in Germany. — St. Boniface. — This 
 church, founded directly by the Holy See, was more strongly 
 attached to the preservation of Catholic unity. It was from 
 Rome that the apostles of Germany set out, during the seventh 
 and eighth centuries, upon their perilous mission. St. Rupert 
 had already founded there the see of Salzburgh (about 618) ; 
 and some Irishmen, St. Colomban, St. Gall, and St. Kilian, 
 had preached the word of God upon the banks of the Rhine, 
 when the Anglo-Saxons, Wilfred, Wilbrod, and Winfred, 
 completed this evangelical task under the auspices of the 
 Heristals. St. Wilfred and St. Wilbrod were the apostles 
 of the savage fishermen of Frisia and Holland (690-738): 
 Winfred, better known under the name of St. Boniface, which 
 recalls all his good deeds, succeeded St. Wilbrod, of whom 
 he had shared the ministry and profited by the lessons. Bo- 
 niface converted the Thuringians and Hessians, living among 
 them by the work of his hands, and sharing their poverty 
 and toil. The deepest rooted superstitions yielded to his 
 courage. At Geissmar, in Hesse, there was a sacred ti'ee 
 which all the people venerated. Boniface took in his own 
 hands an axe to cut it down, while the pagans gathering around 
 him expected to see flames from heaven fall upon his sacrile- 
 gious head. The tree fell, and the Hessians were converted. 
 The churches which St. Boniface founded became a centre of 
 
104 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 re-union for the inhabitants who had been scattered over the 
 country. Villages and cities were formed, and in old Ger- 
 man the same word was used for inass and assemhly. The 
 pope, filled with admiration at the prodigies accomplished by 
 Boniface, gave him the direction of the rising church of Ba- 
 varia, and made him bishop of Mayence. But the indefati- 
 gable old man soon resigned his dignity to return to the 
 dangers of his mission. The crown of martyrdom awaited 
 him in Frisia, where he was massacred with his companions, 
 after having converted several thousand idolaters (755). 
 
 92. Christianity in the East. — Persecutions in Persia. — 
 Nestorian missions. — In the East, these apostolic labors, fa- 
 vored by the zeal of the emperors of Constantinople, gradu- 
 ally spread the reign of Christianity beyond the frontiers of 
 the empire. In the fourth century Armenia, the Caucasian 
 provinces, and a great part of Arabia and Persia, were convert- 
 ed to Christianity. But Sapor 11. , king of Persia, accusing the 
 Christians of the western provinces of preferring the dominion 
 of the Greek empire to his, gave the signal of a frightful perse- 
 cution, which lasted more than a century (330-450). Un- 
 heard of punishments were invented to shake the constancy 
 of believers. Martyrs were thrown, with their feet and 
 hands tied, into ditches filled with rats and mice, who ate 
 them alive. All the east admired the firmness of St. James, 
 whose limbs were all torn off, one after the other. Still it 
 was not from persecution that the greatest danger came : 
 the progress of the church was checked by the development 
 of the famous heresy of Nestorius. 
 
 A priest of Edessa persuaded the king of Persia, that as 
 long as his subjects had the same symbol with the Greeks 
 they could never be sincerely devoted to him, while Nestori- 
 anism would raise an insurmountable barrier between the 
 two people. Yielding to these insinuations, the king lent all 
 his influence to the Nestorians, who, not contented with estab- 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 105 
 
 lishing themselves in Persia, tried to propagate their doctrines 
 in other countries. But their efforts were vain, in spite of 
 the ardor of the new sectaries, and especially of the mis- 
 sionary Olopen, who travelled through Asia and penetrated 
 into China about the year 635. The emperor had the books 
 which Olopen brought with him examined ; declared that the 
 doctrine was good, and allowed it to be spread in his states. 
 A church served by twenty-one priests was built in the capi- 
 tal of the Chinese empire, and Olopen's successors continued 
 without obstacle the work which they had so intrepidly begun. 
 But whatever may be the cause, their doctrines made but 
 little progress, and their church soon fell to decay. 
 
 93. Last vestiges of idolatry in the schools of philosophy 
 and, in the country. — Idolatry, though conquered, still found 
 an asylum during the fifth and sixth centuries among some 
 wits, full of the poetical traditions of mythology, and in the 
 schools of philosophy, the last of which was not closed till 
 the reign of Justinian. But it was still more under the shel- 
 ter of ignorance that it defended the wrecks of its empire. 
 At the end of the sixth century Pope St. Gregory wrote to 
 the king of Austrasia, Theodebert, to induce him to abolish 
 the superstitious customs of some inhabitants of the country, 
 who still worshipped idols, adored sacred trees in the depths 
 of forests, and sacrificed animals upon the altars of demons. 
 The same pope had not been able to do away with the last 
 vestiges of idolatry in the vicinity of Rome. In 586 a mar- 
 ble dragon, clad in skins, was still worshipped in the duchy 
 of Beneventum, and the duke of Spoleto made open profes- 
 sion of idolatry. In the same country the council of Rheims 
 condemned to public penance those who had taken auguries 
 or eaten with pagans meats offered to false gods. A great 
 number of superstitions wholly pagan were still to survive a 
 long time, and to be perpetuated through the middle ages in 
 spite of the sovereign influence of Christianity. Long ages 
 
 5* 
 
106 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 and the divine force of the gospel were required to extirpate 
 usages which had been deeply rooted by four thousand years 
 of en'or. 
 
 94. Heresies from the fourth to the eighth century. — This 
 period was fertile in religious disputes, which Rome con- 
 demned as heresies, and which were closely connected with 
 the political revolutions. Arianism was a cause of bitter 
 hatred between the Visigoths and the Franks, the Lombards 
 and the Italians ; and the rapid reverses and sudden success 
 of the empire in the east were owing as much to the disputes 
 about the doctrines of Nestorius as to the arms of the hostile 
 monarchs. Nestorius, patriarch of Constantinople, refused 
 to acknowledge the Virgin as mother of God. Oriental sub- 
 tlety seized eagerly upon this pretext, and a large sect was 
 soon formed, which spread beyond the borders of the empire, 
 and took root in Persia (431) and Egypt, and throughout all 
 the east. Eutyches asserted that there was but one nature in 
 Christ (monophysites), and had his doctrines approved by the 
 council of Ephesus, which the Catholics consequently stig- 
 matized as a conventicle. 
 
 In the west a British monk by the name of Pelagius (410) 
 denied the dogma of original sin and the necessity of grace ; 
 asserting that man could live without sin, and win salvation 
 by his own virtue. This doctrine spread in Gaul, Great 
 Britain, the east, and Africa, where it yielded to the eloquent 
 voice of St. Augustin, or was reduced to the more timid 
 form of Semi-Pelagianism. 
 
 No one can deny that the Arian controversy was one of 
 deep importance, and touched the most vital questions of 
 Christianity. But Africa was divided by a dispute which we 
 can hardly understand. Two competitors claimed the arch- 
 bishopric of Carthage, Donatus and Cecilius. Constantino, 
 after a long examination (312-315), decided in favor of Ce- 
 cilius. Four hundred bishops appealed against his decision, 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 107 
 
 and a party was formed under the name of Donatists, which 
 maintained the claims of Donatus with furious zeal, condemn- 
 ing their opponents to eternal perdition, and fancying that 
 to die in such a cause was to win the ci'own of martyrdom. 
 Africa was devastated for three centuries by the ravages of 
 these madmen, and the history ^of the Circumcellions, by 
 which name they were finally distinguished, is one of the 
 most singular pages in this singular period. 
 
 95, To all these enemies the church opposed the power- 
 ful arm of her general councils. The councils of Ephesus 
 (431) and Constantinople (553) condemned Nestorianism : 
 the heresy of Eutyches was anathematized at Chalcedonia 
 (551). A council of Carthage condemned the doctrines of 
 Pelagius on their first appearance (412), and the second 
 council of Nice (787) gave the final blow to the iconoclasts, 
 by re-establishing the honorary worship of images. But 
 the decrees of this council met a severe opposition in the 
 west, where popular feeling had fixed upon bones and relics 
 as objects of veneration, instead of statues and paintings, 
 which were neither as abundant there as in the east nor so 
 much esteemed. The council of Frankfort rejected the de- 
 crees of the council of Nice, and were supported by the au- 
 thority of Charlemagne, who dictated the Carolinian books 
 against the worship of images. The pope was sorely puz- 
 zled to reconcile the contradictory decision of the two infal- 
 lible councils ; but the protection of Charlemagne was not a 
 thing to be lightly thrown away, and by quibbles, and hair- 
 splitting, and ingenious explanations, the two synods were 
 made to stand peacefully together as equal expressions of the 
 will of the supreme church. 
 
 96. Beginnings of monastic life in the east and west. — 
 Christian ascetics and hermits had already been known from 
 the end of the second century. They were mostly Syrians 
 and Egyptians, men whose temperaments and manners led 
 
108 STATE OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 them to the wildest acts of self-denial, and who perhaps 
 thought that in a period of persecution, they could do nothing 
 better than to renounce human society altogether, and pass 
 their lives in deserts. Man, whose natural development is 
 hastened by the alternation of society and solitude, becomes 
 a wild beast in the desert, and these holy men seem to have 
 hastened the transformation, by taking the devil with them 
 for a companion, tormenting themselves by a thousand imagi- 
 nary terrors, till they came to believe that their great adver- 
 sary was ever present, and ever lying in wait for them in 
 some new and dangerous form. St. Anthony was the first 
 (305) to give something of a more human cast to this sad 
 form of piety, by reducing their religious exercises to definite 
 rules, and making them live either together, or at least near 
 enough to assist one another in their physical as well as in their 
 spiritual wants. Pacomius, another Egyptian (340), built 
 convents for the ascetics to live in together, and established a 
 rule for them to live by. Religious instruction and self- 
 support were their chief occupations. A very little work 
 was sufficient to provide for all their physical wants, and 
 fasting, which is much easier to bear in Egypt and Syria 
 than in Europe, was one of their chief religious exercises. 
 Their number increased so rapidly that over fifty thousand, 
 between monks and nuns, were soon found in Egypt alone. 
 A single residence often contained several thousand, and 
 there was hardly a man eminent for piety, or a bishop of high 
 standing to be found, who had not received his first instruc- 
 tions from these ascetics and lived some time among them. 
 As yet they were not bound by any irrevocable vow, either 
 to a particular convent or a particular rule. Their mode 
 of life was far more rigorous than that of the monks who 
 rose after them in the west, but their real liberty was far 
 greater. Egypt, Syria, and Pontus were the countries in 
 which they flourished most. Even in Asia Minor they met 
 
STATE OF THE CHURCH. 109 
 
 with little approbation, and still less in Europe. The colder 
 climates of Italy and France were less suited to such a form 
 of fanaticism, Syro-Egyptian diet less acceptable, and the 
 population itself too equally spread to leave room for those 
 savage solitudes in which they delighted most. 
 
 The oldest community of Cenobites in the west was es- 
 tablished in Gaul by St. Martin of Tours (about 370). In 
 the fifth century St. Honoratus and St. Cassian founded the 
 monasteries of Lerins and Marseilles (405-408), which be- 
 came the asylums of science and the nurseries of the apos- 
 tles of that barbarous age. That of Lerins became especially 
 famous by its schools, and gave rise to the order of monks 
 of St. Claude, who reduced the valleys of the Jura to culti- 
 vation. 
 
 97. Foundation of the order of Benedictines. — Towards 
 the end of the fifth century, St. Benedict of Nursia in Tus- 
 cany, shocked at the corruption of the young men of Rome, 
 abandoned a rich and illustrious family to take refuge in a 
 cave in the midst of the mountains. He was soon joined by 
 a few solitaries, and they supported themselves by clearing 
 and cultivating the surrounding country. The progress of 
 the pious colony alarmed the last defenders of paganism, and 
 Benedict, driven from his retreat, established himself with 
 his companions on Mount Cassino, where the peasants of the 
 neighborhood still came to offer sacrifice in an ancient temple 
 of Apollo. Benedict broke the idol and converted its igno- 
 rant worshippers. With the aid of these new Christians he 
 built a vast monastery on the site of the temple, and this was 
 the origin of the celebrated order of Benedictines. 
 
 The rule of St. Benedict was approved by Gregory the 
 Great in 595, and became the common law of all the con- 
 vents of the west. It divided the life of the cloister between 
 labor and prayer. After having passed a part of the day in 
 clearing the wastes, in draining marshes, and fertilizing the 
 
110 LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 land, the Benedictines returned to their cells to study holy 
 books or copy ancient manuscripts. While the Barbarians 
 were laying waste all the provinces of the empire, the con- 
 vents, protected by their sacred character, were preserving 
 for better days the precious remains of antiquity. It is to the 
 Benedictines that France owes those historical collections from 
 which modern science has drawn its richest treasures. " It 
 was a consolation," says Voltaire, in speaking of the order 
 of St. Benedict, " that there were asylums like these in which 
 men could escape from the oppression of the Goths and Van- 
 dals, and find refuge in the repose of the cloister from tyran- 
 ny and war. What little knowledge was left was pi'eserved 
 in the convents ; and some useful inventions came from 
 them. Moreover, these men tilled the ground, sang the 
 praises of God, lived soberly, practised hospitality, and by 
 their examples may have mitigated somewhat of the ferocity 
 of this barbarous age." 
 
 The good done by these institutions naturally awakened 
 the gratitude of the faithful ; and their revenues were in- 
 creased by numberless donations, as well as by the establish- 
 ment of tithes, voluntary at first, but soon prescribed by law. 
 But this increase of wealth brought with it the seeds of grave 
 abuses, which increasing from age to age, imposed at last 
 the necessity of important reforms. 
 
 §11. 
 
 SUMMARY VIEW OF LETTERS AND THE ARTS TILL CHARLE- 
 MAGNE. 
 
 98. Fall of the pagan school of Alexandria. — Literature, 
 whose destinies are connected with all the great political and 
 religious revolutions of the world, followed it in the fourth 
 
LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. Ill 
 
 century in the adoption of Christianity, Pagan philosophy, 
 already driven from Rome by Constantine, and restoi'ed for a 
 moment by Julian, was rapidly sinking, in spite of the efforts 
 of its last advocates. The school of new Platonists or eclec- 
 tics of Alexandria, which Constantine had closed and Julian 
 re-opened, was shaken again by Theodosius. At the begin- 
 ning of the fifth century the new Platonists removed to Athens, 
 where their lessons preserved somewhat of their early bril- 
 liancy. But in 529 their schools were finally closed by order 
 of Justinian. These men who attempted to oppose Chris- 
 tianity by the systems of Plato and the secret sciences of the 
 east, were not wanting in learning. The eclecticism of Al- 
 exandria found a brilliant interpreter in the beautiful Hypatia 
 (d. 415), daughter of the mathematician Theon, and in the 
 learned Proclus (d. 487), philosopher, astronomer, geometri- 
 cian, and poet. But the principle of life was wanting in 
 their doctrines, and when they fell, it was rather by the 
 strength of public opinion than by the imperial decrees. 
 
 99. Pagan literaiure — poetry, history, <^c. — Profane poet- 
 ry, which vainly endeavors to revive the superannuated fables 
 of polytheism, is but a colorless imitation of the ancients. 
 Claudian alone (5th cent.), who is distinguished by the elevation 
 of his thoughts and his graceful descriptions, sang the hero 
 of his age in verses which are still admired, although his 
 style runs too often into declamation, and his rhythm is too 
 monotonous. The Gaul Rutilius Numantianus (420), a fri- 
 volous and scoffing spirit, narrates in a trifling style his tra- 
 veller's impressions, or aims an epigram at Christianity, which 
 he derides as a transient folly. If he seems to accept pagan- 
 ism, it is only to repress the new doctrines whose decline he 
 boldly predicts. After him pagan literature offers scarcely 
 any thing worthy of remembrance. One poet undertakes a 
 continuation of Homer, and completes in the Posthomerides 
 the narrative of the Trojan war. Another, jealous of this 
 
112 LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 happy thought, relates in the Antehomerides the events which 
 preceded it, and produces a prologue to the Iliad. 
 
 History is cultivated with better success. Zozimus (5th 
 cent.) gives a clear and rapid sketch of the decline of the 
 empire to the fifth century, and is cited with confidence in 
 spite of his declamations against Christianity. Priscus (5th 
 cent.) composed a Byzantine history, of which, unfortunately, 
 nothing but a fragment has reached us. Procopius (died 565), 
 the companion and historian of Belisarius, narrates with 
 warmth and skill the exploits of this great man, and com- 
 pelled to flatter Justinian in an official work, avenges him- 
 self in his memoirs, in which he lays bare the vice and 
 corruption of the emperor's court. 
 
 About 422 Macrohius, a grammarian and philosopher, 
 writes a work of curious erudition under the title of Satur- 
 nalia. And now too appears a new form in literature, the 
 romance, for which so brilliant a part is reserved in the mid- 
 dle ages. We will mention only ^thiopica, or the loves of 
 Theagenes and Chariclea, which Racine admired so much, 
 and which Heliodorus, a bishop who lived towards the end 
 of the fourth century, had written before his conversion ; and 
 the Daphne and Chloe of Longus (5th cent.), a pastoral, more 
 remarkable for the grace than the delicacy of its descriptions. 
 These works are written in Greek, and the rigid morality of 
 the jEthiopica forms a striking contrast to the loose and vo- 
 luptuous tone of the other works of this class. 
 
 It is to paganism also that belong Hesychius, Philemones, 
 Stohceus, and the other grammarians of that school of Alex- 
 andria which attempted to oppose, by rules and definitions, the 
 increasing corruption of language, and which first invented 
 accents and punctuation to help the slothful intellects of the 
 new inhabitants of the empire. 
 
 100. Christian literature. — Apologists. — Christian schools. 
 — At the side of these works, which with a few exceptions 
 
LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEBIAGNE. 113 
 
 were so meagre and feeble, a new literature is developed 
 under the influence of the sublime ideas of Christianity. 
 The literary genius of Christianity appears in full vigor in 
 the writings of the apologists, men holy and learned — as ar- 
 dent in deed as in word. Their style, although affected by 
 the bad taste of the age, is sustained by grandeur of thought 
 and depth of conviction, and under the influence of an elo- 
 quence which seems almost to partake of inspiration, we lose 
 sight of inere defects of form. 
 
 We have already mentioned, in speaking of the persecu- 
 tions of the church, several men illustrious for their talepts 
 and learning. And no sooner does the first dawn of peace 
 give room for long study and profound meditation, than crowds 
 of noble geniuses appear, the lights and the glory of the 
 church. 
 
 The Christians had begun early to oppose the schools of 
 the pagans by schools of their own, in which the sciences and 
 literature were taught by the faithful. From this crowd of 
 Christian teachers who shone in the fourth century, we will 
 cite only a few of the most eminent. Lactantius (about 300) 
 taught a pagan school in his youth, and having embraced 
 Christianity, continued his lessons in literature, after the ex- 
 ample of Origen. His eloquence and his numerous writings, 
 which had procured him the honor of teaching the son of 
 Constantifie, won him the surname of the Cicero of Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 101. Fathers of the church. — St. Athanasius. — St. Basil 
 and St. Gregory. — St. Jerome and St. Ambrose. — We have 
 already spoken of that young deacon who victoriously op- 
 posed Arius before the council of Nice, and of Athanasius, 
 bishop of Alexandria, the object of the indefatigable ha- 
 tred of the Arians (373). After him two illustrious friends 
 united their learning and talents for the defence and glory 
 of Christianity, St. Basil (329-379) and St. Gregory of Na- 
 
114 LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 zianzen (328-389). Educated at the same school, and rivals 
 in their studies, they sustained the contest against heresy with 
 equal zeal, and maintained in the highest positions the honor of 
 their priesthood. Basil appearing before the imperial governor 
 (v. Rom. Hist. ch. xxiii. § v.), Gregory abandoning, in order 
 to appease some disputes, the second bishopric in the world, 
 gave a noble example of apostolic firmness and disinterested- 
 ness. Both rendered equal services by their writings ; Basil 
 by profound reasoning, vast erudition, and works always 
 grand, sometimes sublime ; Gregory by a mildness, an im- 
 pressiveness, and a grace, which make you love his doctrines 
 while you admire his talents. The tears of the church 
 proved how much she regretted this admirable fraternity of 
 self-devotion, virtue, and genius. But two teachers not less 
 illustrious were already beginning to make themselves known. 
 These were Jerome and Ambrose. 
 
 St. Jerome (340-420), the most learned of the fathers of 
 the Latin church, buried his renown in a desert, where the 
 remembrance of Rome and the voice of worldly glory came 
 more than once to trouble his passionate soul and fervid ima- 
 gination. There he devoted himself to the defence of the 
 orthodox creed, and waged war against heresy from the depths 
 of his solitude. It is to him that we owe the Latin trans- 
 lation of the Scriptures. The name of St. Ambrose closes 
 the fourth century (340-397). He was distinguished as an 
 orator, a philosopher, and a learned theologian. The bold- 
 ness with which he compelled the great Theodosius to do 
 penance for the massacre of Thessalonica shows how firmly 
 he exercised his ecclesiastical authority, and the conversion 
 of St. Augustine to orthodoxy is considered as sufficient 
 proof of the earnestness and success of his apostolic labors. 
 
 102. Series of the fathers of the Greek church. — St. John 
 Chrysostom. — These illustrious men were followed by worthy 
 successors. The bishop of Hippo and the bishop of Constan- 
 
LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 115 
 
 tinople appear at the same time. John, the golden-mouthed 
 father (344-407), after havmg preached twenty years in 
 Antioch, was raised to the patriarchal chair of Constantino- 
 ple. Firm and independent in the exercise of his authority, 
 he spared neither the vices of the throne nor of the hovel. 
 He was driven twice from Constantinople by the intrigues of 
 his powerful enemies, and twice recalled by the enthusiasm 
 of the people, full of admiration for his austere virtues and 
 apostolic zeal. But the court of Constantinople could not 
 long endure a prelate whose presence alone was a stern con- 
 demnation of its licentiousness. Chrysostom was compelled 
 to yield a third time to the resentment of the emperor, and 
 bade adieu to his church, never to see it again. Dragged 
 from exile to exile, compelled to follow his merciless keepers 
 bareheaded under the rays of a burning sun, the holy old 
 man, already worn out with labor and austerity, died at the 
 age of sixty-three on the shores of the Euxine. 
 
 After him St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 444) composed 
 works remarkable for their profound learning, if not for cor- 
 rectness of style : Theodoret (387-458), who had Chrysostom 
 for his model in eloquence, governed the church of Cyr in 
 Asia with great applause. In the eighth century John of 
 Damascus (676-754) left several hymns which are still sung 
 in the festivals of the church. 
 
 103. Series of the fathers of the Latin church. — St. Augus- 
 tine. — In the Latin church St. Augustine (354-429) was the 
 ornament of sacred literature. He was born at Carthage, a 
 learned and polite city, still flourishing amid the decay of the 
 empire, and where the crowd still flocked to the public squares 
 to witness the contests of the rhetoricians. In his confessions 
 he tells us how he was first led astray by the temptations of 
 youth. The subtleties too of the sophists entangled him in 
 the errors of Manicheism. But rescued from them by St. 
 Ambrose, he became their most fatal enemy. " He was," 
 
116 LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 says Villemain, "the most wonderful man of the Latin 
 church ; the one who brought most imagination to theology, 
 the most eloquence and even sensibility to scholastic philoso- 
 phy. Never did a man possess a vaster or a readier genius. 
 His comprehensive mind embraced every science — metaphy- 
 sics, history, archaeology, manners, arts. He wrote upon 
 music as readily as upon free will : he explains the pheno- 
 mena of memory, and the decay of the empire. His elo- 
 quence, though tainted with affectation and barbarism, is 
 often fresh and simple." His writings still form the basis 
 of theological instruction in the Catholic church, and hold 
 also an important place as works of philosophy. In the im- 
 mense variety of his writings, there is a character of religious 
 universality which reminds us of Bossuet. 
 
 104. Literature in the fifth century. — Sacred writers.— 
 In the fifth century Salman, a priest of Marseilles, wrote 
 during the great invasion a treatise on the Government of God, 
 in which he justifies the ways of Providence, and speaks of 
 the Barbarians as instruments of Divine justice. St. Avitus 
 of Vienna composed a poem on the loss of Paradise, which is 
 supposed to have suggested some beautiful passages to Milton : 
 Claudian Mamertus was considered by Sidonius Apollinarius 
 as the finest genius of his time (474) : and St. Cesarius (542) 
 won a name by the beauty and simplicity of his homilies. 
 All these were Gauls. — In Italy, Boethius defended the fun- 
 damental truths of Christianity with the logic of Aristotle : 
 Cassiodorus in his retirement wrote a remarkable work on 
 the Scriptures : Byonysius the Little, (d. about 545) collected 
 the Apostolical Canons, which obtained great success for the 
 favorable view which they gave of the claims of the Holy 
 See ; and in 526 calculated an Easter cycle, in which the 
 birth of Christ was used for the first time as the starting point 
 of chronology. 
 
 Finally two popes, St. Leo (440-461) and St. Gregory 
 
LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 117 
 
 (590-604), obtained a high reputation by their writings and 
 their discourses. The name of St. Gregory closes the list 
 of the sacred writers of this period of decay. His last homi- 
 ly, pronounced before the Roman people when the city was 
 reduced to extremity by the attack of the Lombards, is cha- 
 racterized by a deep and touching eloquence. 
 
 105. Historians. — Poets. — History in the hands of the 
 Christians is confined almost exclusively to the church, if we 
 except Orosius of Tarragona (towards 414), author of an 
 abridgment of the History of the World, Cassiodorus, Jornan- 
 des, the historian of the Goths (towards 552), and Isidorus 
 of Seville (570-636), who published a Universal Chronicle. 
 The sufferings of the faithful and the triumphs of the chui'ch 
 serve as an introduction to the narration of contemporary 
 events ; which, recorded by monks and priests, find a place 
 on the page, only when they are connected with the history 
 of religion. It will be enough to cite in the Greek church, 
 after Eusebius (338), Socrates the Scholastic, Sozomenes, and 
 Theodoret, who collected the events after Constantine : in the 
 Latin, Sulpicius Severus, whose Sacred History won him the 
 name of the Christian Sallust ; Gregory of Tours (595), the 
 Herodotus of France, whose continuator, Fredegarius, fell 
 far short of the winning artlessness and originality of the 
 author of the Ecclesiastical History of the Franks ; and the 
 Venerable Bede, a Saxon monk of the eighth century, who 
 laboriously collected the precious materials of the ancient 
 history of England. 
 
 Some Christian poets had mingled the fables of paganism 
 with their writings ; but the mysteries of Christianity inspired 
 something nobler than the compositions of Ausonius, which 
 often ran into licentiousness (309-374), and the light poems 
 of Sidonius Ajpollinarius (430-489). Synesius, bishop of 
 Ptolemais and contemporary of St. Chrysostom, has left seve- 
 ral hymns remarkable for purity of style and elevation of 
 
118 LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 thought. Prudentius (405), by turns lawyer, magistrate, and 
 soldier, won by his lyric and didactic poems the title of prince 
 of Christian poets. The poem of Prosperus of Aquitania on 
 Grace was often imitated by Louis Racine. And in the 
 seventh century, the hymn in honor of the cross, Vexilla re- 
 gis prodeunt, the last monument of Latin poetry, was written 
 by Fortunatus, the first versifier of his age (606), and who 
 was treated with great honor by the princes of the Merovin- 
 gian line. 
 
 106. Sciences and arts. — Application of architecture and 
 music to the Catholic worship. — The sciences, which require 
 calm and tranquil meditation, made but little progress during 
 this period of troubles and disorder. Geography owes some 
 useful indications to the Periplus of Marcian of Heraclia, and 
 the Christian Cosmography of the Egyptian Cosmos, who de- 
 scribes China and India with considerable exactness. The 
 celebrated Proclus left several works on astronomy ; and 
 Diophantes, another of the new Platonists, invented, it is said, 
 the first elements of algebra. The physical sciences were 
 lost in the dreams of alchemy. The compendium of medical 
 knowledge of Paul Eginetus is the only work which deserves 
 to be remembered amidst a crowd of treatises on charms, 
 talismans, and dreams. 
 
 Art, like literature, undergoes a remarkable transforma- 
 tion. Painting, drawing, and sculpture, after having supplied 
 paganism with the objects of its worship, were looked upon 
 with suspicion by the enemies of an idolatry which had not 
 yet been overcome ; and the Catholic church, which preserved 
 the worship of images, attached at first far more importance 
 to the subject than to the execution. Drawing and painting 
 were employed by the monks as ornaments of the manuscripts 
 which they copied so laboriously, and mosaic was beginning 
 to be used in decorating the interior of churches. 
 
 Architecture, which had seemed destined to fall with the 
 
LETTERS AND ARTS TILL CHARLEMAGNE. 119 
 
 ruins of the empire, was about to revive w^ith the vi'^ants of a 
 new worship, and take a new and bold flight. The Roman 
 basilica, which had never been profaned by the worship of 
 false gods, was developed into the Christian temple. In the 
 midst of the sanctuaries of paganism, Constantine had built 
 the churches of St. John Lateran and St. Agnes. The Ro- 
 tunda of Ravenna, built by Theodoric, and St. Sophia of 
 Constantinople, by Justinian, deserve mention for their bold- 
 ness and their colossal dimensions; but nearly all the remark- 
 able monuments of the Roman or Byzantine type belong to 
 the following age, in which the Gothic first arose, the source 
 of all the architectural wonders of the middle ages (v. last 
 chap.). 
 
 Music, the sweetest form of adoration, was studied care- 
 fully. . St. Ambrose substituted a graver and nobler style to 
 the light melodies of the pagans. St. Gregory perfected it, 
 and gave his name to that solemn and touching rhythm which 
 is still heard in the ceremonies of the Catholic church. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 MAHOMETANISM. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Description of Arabia : Arabia Deserta : Petrea : Happy. — The 
 Sabeans and Ishniaelites ; their customs. — Religious state of Arabia be- 
 fore Mahomet. 
 
 § II. History of Mahomet : his first preaching : conversion of his 
 cousin Ali : his flight or hegira. — First expedition of Mahomet against 
 the inhabitants of Mecca : battle of Beder. — Embassy of Mahomet to 
 the emperor ; to the king of Persia ; to the king of Abyssinia. — Victoiy 
 of Muta. — Taking of Mecca. — Death of Mahomet. 
 
 § III. The Koran: ts origin: its principal dogmas: skilful combi- 
 nation of Christianity and Judaism : observances prescribed to Mussul- 
 men. — Fatahsm. 
 
 § IV. Abu-Beker, first caliph. — Beginning of the holy war : exploits 
 of Khaled : battle of Yermuck : conquest of Syria. — Amru invades Egypt 
 under the caliphate of Omar. — Conquest of Persia after the victory of 
 \'ictories under Othman. — Caliphate of Ah: civil vi^ar: Ali assassinated. 
 — Moaviah founds the dynasty of the Ommiades. — Useless attack of Con- 
 stantinople. — Success in Africa. — Victory of Xeres won by Tarik. — Pro- 
 gress in the East ; in central and southern Asia. — The Mussulmen re- 
 pulsed from Constantinople by the Greek fire. — Extent of the Mussulman 
 empire. — Contests of the Abbassides and Ommiades. — Caliphate of the 
 East falls to the Abbassides. — Abderame at Cordova. 
 
 § V. Brilliant period of the caliphate of the East. — AI Manzor. — Al 
 
STATE OF ARABIA BEFORE MAHOMET. 121 
 
 Mahadi. — Glorious reign of Haroun al Raschid. — Flourishing state of 
 the East under the caliphate : development of letters, the sciences, the 
 arts. — Al-Maroun worthy successor of Haroun. 
 
 § VI. Decline of the caliphate : dismemberment of the Mussulman 
 empire. — Dynasty of the Edrissites and Aglabites in Africa. — The Fa- 
 timites. — Influence of the Turkish troops. — The emir Al-Omra. — Mah- 
 moud the Gazneride independent in Persia. — Progress of the Seljuk Turks. 
 — Toghrul-Beg, Malek-Schah. — Conquest of Asia Minor and Syria. 
 
 § VII. Conquest of Spain after the battle of Xeres. — Musa comes to 
 replace Tarik, and is recalled himself— The Christians in the Asturias. 
 — Troubles. — New expedition. — Spain becomes independent of the ca- 
 hphate of the East. 
 
 § VIII. Abderame the Ommiad at Cordova. — State of Spain under 
 the dominion of the Arabs. — Wealth and civilization. — Beginning of the 
 contest between the Christians and the Arabs. — First successes. — King- 
 dom of Asturia : of Navarre. — Glorious reign of the caliph Abderame 
 III. — Exploits of the vizier Al-Manzor. — Decline and fall of the caliphate. 
 
 § IX. Excursions of the Arabs on the coasts of France and Italy.^ 
 Conquests of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. 
 
 PAET FIEST. 
 
 THE MUSSULMEN IN ASIA AND AFRICA. 
 
 §1. 
 
 STATE OF ARABIA BEFORE MAHOMET. 
 
 107. Description of Arabia. — On the south of Syria and 
 east of Egypt lies a vast peninsula, which the old writers 
 divided into three parts, Desert Arabia, Stony Arabia, and 
 Happy Arabia. 
 
 Nature is dead in the deserts of Arabia ; the sky is like 
 brass, and there is nothing to temper the heat of the sun. 
 From the summits of hills which the winds have stripped of 
 vegetation, you descry vast plains in which the weary wan- 
 
 6 
 
122 STATE OP ARABIA BEFORE MAHOMET. 
 
 derer vainly seeks a shade to refresh him, or an object on 
 which his eye can repose. An immense space separates 
 him from every living being. From time to time, at the 
 foot of some grove of isolated palms, he finds a stream 
 which flows on and loses itself in the sands. The Arabian 
 alone knows these resting-places : he alone inhabits them. 
 Accustomed to a frugal life, he finds there the means of satis- 
 fying his desires. It is there that he carries the slaves and 
 treasures which he has taken from the caravan, and places 
 them, as it were, under the protection of the fearful simoom, 
 whose sulphureous exhalations choke man and beast. In the 
 north, the aspect of the country suddenly changes. Immense 
 blocks of granite heaped up in wild disorder bear witness to 
 the ravages of extinguished volcanoes. In the midst of these 
 gigantic fragments rises the chain of Sinai, whose valleys, 
 fertile in pasturage, nourish large flocks. The shore of the 
 Red Sea leads to Yemen or Araby the Blessed, where in- 
 cense, balm, cinnamon, and coffee grow abundantly. Culti- 
 vation is carried to the very tops of the mountains. Large 
 roads unite the different cities, and an active commerce draws 
 together foreigners from all parts. 
 
 108. Manners and religion of ilie Arabians before Maho- 
 met. — Two people of different origin and manners occupied 
 Arabia towards the beginning of the middle ages : the Sabe- 
 ans, for the most part sedentary, dwelling in cities, exchang- 
 ing the products of their own country for the gold of others : 
 and the Ishmaelites, wanderers like the son of Abraham, from 
 whom they descended, and constantly engaged in contending 
 with other men for that portion of the inheritance from which 
 they have always been excluded. Like the Bedouins of our 
 own days, these children of the desert traversed the sandy 
 waste full as often to levy contributions upon travellers, as to 
 defend the caravans which had paid the escort tax to the great 
 Emir of the desert. Though they lived by plunder, yet the 
 
LIFE OF MAHOMET. 123 
 
 stranger who took refuge under their tent was received joyful- 
 ly ; for hospitality was their chief virtue. United under the 
 orders of a sheik or emir, their judge in peace and their leader 
 in war, they formed independent hordes, which sometimes unit- 
 ed in some plundering excursion, and sometimes waged war 
 upon one another. Their rich and ardent imagination loved 
 the songs of poets, and early adopted the fables of paganism, 
 which they adorned with oriental dreams. The Sabeism of 
 Persia had also found its way among them, without effacing 
 those paternal traditions which had preserved in the midst 
 of Arabia some traces of the Jewish religion. Christianity 
 had made some progress among the wandering tribes of the 
 north ; and in the south, the Negus of Abyssinia, conqueror 
 of the king of Yemen, had placed a Christian dynasty upon 
 the throne. The four religions were about to be skilfully 
 combined in order to form a new one, and Mahomet came to 
 lead these robbers of the desert to the conquest of the world. 
 
 §11. 
 
 LIFE OF MAHOMET. 
 
 109. First preaching of MaJwmet.— The Hegira. — Maho- 
 met, son of Abdallah, of the tribe of the Koreishites, de- 
 scendants of Ishmael, was boi'n in Mecca in 569. An orphan 
 at the age of five, at twenty-five he married a rich widow 
 named Cadijah, in whose service he had led caravans, and 
 passed the first fifteen years of his married life in meditating 
 that bold enterprise which was to change the face of half the 
 world. Every year, he passed a month in a cave of Mount 
 Hora, near Mecca. All of a sudden he pretended that the 
 angel Gabriel had appeared to him, presented him a book, 
 and bade him " Read in the name of the Lord who created 
 
124 LIFE OF MAHOMET. 
 
 thee : for thou art the Apostle of God." He then declared 
 himself the chosen of God to teach men a religion more per- 
 fect than that of the Jews and Christians : a prophet announced 
 by the Scriptures greater than Moses — greater than Christ. 
 The first to believe his words were his wife Cadijah, and Seid 
 his slave. In a feast in which he had assembled forty of his 
 relatives, he offered them the goods of this world and the 
 next, if they would embrace his doctrines. His cousin Ali, 
 a youth of fourteen, cried out with enthusiasm, " O Prophet ! 
 I will be thy companion and vizier. Whoever rises up against 
 thee, I will break his teeth and tear out his bowels." The 
 others tried to dissuade him from a project which they con- 
 demned as folly. Unable to move him, either by threats or 
 entreaties, they gave the alarm to the citizens of Mecca : 
 nearly the whole of his own tribe declared against him, and 
 after various vicissitudes and dangers, he was at last compelled 
 to take refuge among his proselytes in Yatreb, which from 
 that time was called Medina (the city par excellence). This 
 was the hegira or year of flight, which forms the basis of 
 Mussulman chronology (622). 
 
 110. Victories and conquests of Maliomet. — His death. — 
 It was from this, in fact, that Mahomet's triumph dates. The 
 inhabitants of Medina declared for him, and as soon as he felt 
 himself strong enough, he took up arms. Hearing that a 
 body of Koreishites was returning from Syria with a rich 
 caravan, he went to lie in wait for them near the well of Be- 
 der (625). The caravan escaped, but a large body which 
 had come out to their aid was defeated with great loss ; and 
 this massacre was the beginning of that bloody preaching of 
 Islamism which was to fill the world with carnage and ruins. 
 Soon after, the defeat of ten thousand men under the walls 
 of Mecca avenged a slight check of his partisans, and he 
 obtained by treaty permission to visit the temple of the Caaba, 
 that great object of the veneration of the Arabs, to which 
 
LIFE OF MAHOMET. - 125 
 
 crowds of pilgrims flocked from all parts to see the famous 
 Mack stone, once a gem of paradise, or as some taught, Ad- 
 am's guardian angel, atoning in this form for the neglect of 
 his charge. 
 
 The taking of Caibac, a powerful city of the Jews (627), 
 inspired him with such confidence, that he wrote to the em- 
 peror Heraclius, the king of Persia, the king of Abyssinia, 
 the governor of Egypt, and all the emirs of the Arabs — 
 " In the name of Him who created the heavens and the earth, 
 I command you to believe in God, and in Mahomet his pro- 
 phet." Little attention was paid to his summons; but next 
 year the army of Heraclius was defeated for the first time 
 by the Mussulmen near Muta (630). The Mahometans did 
 wonders on that day. The standard-bearer Giafar had his 
 right hand cut off. He seized the standard with his left. 
 Losing this too, he clasped the standard in his arms, and held 
 it fast till he fell with it, lifeless. Khaled, one of Mahomet's 
 lieutenants, decided the victory by his valor. Nine swords 
 had broken in his hand during the conflict. Mecca, at the 
 news of this triumph, opened her gates. The three hundred 
 and sixty idols of the Caaba fell, and the temple of Mecca 
 became the first temple of Islamism {islam, the faith that 
 saves). Arabia received the new law voluntarily or by 
 force ; and in the year of Embassies (631) the envoys of He- 
 raclius, of the governor of Egypt, and the king of Yemen, 
 came to solicit the friendship of the conqueror. 
 
 Shortly after, Mahomet died of a languishing disease 
 (632), poisoned, it was said, by a Jewess, at the taking of 
 Mecca. Perceiving his end approach, he caused himself to 
 be carried to the mosque of Medina, and said to the people : 
 " If I have struck any one, here is a stick, let him strike me 
 again. If I owe any one, here is my purse, let him pay 
 himself." A man claimed three drachms, which Mahomet 
 paid, thanking him for having accused him in this world 
 rather than in the next. 
 
126 RELIGIOUS LEGISLATION OF MAHOMET. 
 
 § III. 
 
 SKETCH OF THE RELIGIOUS LEGISLATION OF MAHOMET AND 
 THE KORAN. 
 
 111. Origin of the Koran. — Mahomet left no digested 
 body of doctrine. His father-in-law, Abu Beker, collected 
 all the sentences, instructions, visions, and revelations which 
 he had scattered during his lifetime, and formed the Koran 
 or iook par excellence. In this strange collection great truths 
 are mingled Avith absurd dreams and deplorable errors. Ma- 
 homet had studied Christianity in Syria, and was familiar 
 with the doctrines of the Jews. The Koran was announced 
 as the complement of the Bible and the Gospel. " Truth," 
 said Mahomet, "has been brought to man by six prophets : 
 Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ, and Mahomet. 
 The last is the greatest of all. He is the spirit of truth an- 
 nounced by the Gospel." By accepting many rites and doc- 
 trines of the Christians and Jews, he doubtless won many to 
 his side who would otherwise have opposed him when their 
 opposition was most to be dreaded ; and he never could have 
 taken the same stand as an insulated teacher, which he did 
 as the successor of a line of prophets. But it must not be 
 forgotten that he was born in a land of idolaters, whom he 
 was the first to recall from their idolatry ; that he had been 
 brought up in absurd rites, the absurdity of which he had 
 the intelligence to perceive and the boldness to declare ; and 
 that the nation which he found grovelling before images of 
 their own making, he left sincere and ardent believers in the 
 unity of God. 
 
 But he was far from thinking that many of the rites 
 which the abstemious Mussulman could practise with but 
 little effort under the burning sun of Arabia, would become 
 
RELIGIOUS LEGISLATION OF MAHOMET. 127 
 
 a grievous burthen to his descendants in Constantinople and 
 Spain. A drop of fresh water or a cup of milk is the sweet- 
 est draught that can be offered to the parched lip of the Arab 
 in the desert, and Mahomet may well be excused for not 
 having foreseen that the day would come when it would be 
 hard for a Moslem to turn away fi'om the wine-cup. 
 
 112. Principal dogmas of Islainism. — The religion of 
 Islam is divided into two parts : Faith and Practice. There 
 are six articles of faith : 1st. Faith in God — single, immu- 
 table, omniscient, omnipotent, all-merciful, and eternal. 2d. 
 In his angels, ethereal beings created from fire, of various 
 degrees in duty and favor, but all raised by their nature 
 above the weaknesses and infirmities of humanity. 3d. In 
 the Koran, as a book of Divine revelation. 4th. In the pro- 
 phets of God — six of whom out of two hundred thousand are 
 pre-eminent, as having brought new laws and dispensations 
 upon earth. 5th. The resurrection and final judgment. 
 Here Christianity and Arabo-Judaism are strangely blend- 
 ed : the Moslem believing that the soul is reunited to the 
 body to be judged in the grave, immediately after death, by 
 two black angels of fearful aspect, and then awaits, in a state 
 of seraphic tranquillity, near the tomb, or of awful anticipa- 
 tion in the bowels of the earth, through the interval between 
 death and resurrection. 6th. Predestination, or that every 
 event, the destiny and dying hour of every individual, were 
 irrevocably predetermined. 
 
 Practice : 1st. Prayer and ablution five times a day. 
 2d. Alms to the value of a tenth of a man's revenue. 3d. 
 Fasting — thirty days during the month Rhamadan from sun- 
 rise to sunset. 4th. One pilgrimage to Mecca during life, 
 either in person or by proxy. 
 
 If we compare this system with Christianity, we must 
 confess that it every where betrays the marks of human 
 weakness, and falls infinitely below the Divine precepts of 
 
128 ALL — THE OMMIADES. 
 
 Christ. But if we compare it with what Mahomet learnt 
 from his fathers and saw daily practised around him, we 
 shall be compelled to confess that none but a genius of the 
 highest order could have worked out such a change. There 
 can be no reasonable doubt of Mahomet's sincerity, at least 
 up to the beginning of his military expeditions, when human 
 ambition began first to develope itself in his breast ; nor 
 should it be a matter of surprise, that in turning away in 
 disgust from the idolatry of his own countrymen, he should 
 have hesitated to accept a creed at the hands of such Jews 
 or even such Christians as he had known. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 ALI. THE OMMIADES. 
 
 113. The first caliphs. — Conquest of Syria and Egypt. — 
 Ali, the first of the believers, seemed called to succeed Ma- 
 homet ; but the influence of Ayesha, the prophet's favorite 
 wife, prevailed against him, and obtained the election of her 
 father, Abu Beker, as caliph or vicar of the prophet. He 
 immediately summoned the faithful to the work of conversion, 
 and gave the signal of the holy war. Syria, the nearest 
 country, was attacked first. Khaled, the sword of God, in- 
 vaded it at the head of five thousand men, inured to every 
 form of hardship by the wandering life of the desert, and 
 animated by the wildest enthusiasm. The Roman army, 
 seventy thousand strong, was conquei'ed at Aisnaddin. Boz- 
 ra and Damascus were taken by assault. Part of the inha- 
 bitants, who had been spared on the faith of a treaty and allow- 
 ed three days to escape in, were overtaken and massacred in 
 their flight. The brilliant success of the Mussulmen was 
 crowned by the great victory of Yermouk, under the caliph. 
 
ALL — THE OMMIADES. 129 
 
 ate of Omar (634-644), and in 638 Syria submitted to the 
 conquerors. 
 
 Egypt was invaded by Amru, who had shared with Khaled 
 the glory and the perils of the Syrian war (638). Memphis 
 opens her gates, and after a resistance of fourteen months 
 Alexandria is taken, in spite of the energetic resistance . of 
 her inhabitants and the succor which they received by sea. 
 It was then that the great library of Alexandria is said to 
 have been destroyed, although the story is hard to reconcile 
 with the silence of the original historians, or the condition in 
 which the library had been left by the destruction of the 
 temple of Serapion. 
 
 114. Conquest of Persia. — Persia was conquered at the 
 same time. The tiara, after long domestic dissensions, had 
 just been placed on the head of the young Yesdegird III., 
 when the Arabians appeared on the frontier under the orders 
 of the brave Saad. The terrible battle of Kadesia (636), 
 which lasted three days, threw the Persians beyond the Ti- 
 gris, and the belief that the last hour of their empire had 
 come spread dismay and discouragement among the soldiers. 
 The cities which had so often repulsed the Roman armies 
 opened their gates without resistance. But still the young 
 king, though surrounded by cowards and traitors, struggled 
 manfully for his throne. At the head of his last army he 
 fought, near Nehavend, a decisive battle, and lost all in the 
 victory of victories (642). Forsaken by every one, he was 
 assassinated a few yeai's after, and the dynasty of the Sassa- 
 nides ended with him (652). 
 
 Omar had died in 644, with the boast that he had contribut- 
 ed more than the prophet himself to the progress of Islamism, 
 having destroyed forty thousand temples of the unbelievers. 
 The fall of Yesdegird and final subjection of Persia took place 
 under his successor, Otliman (644-655). 
 
 115. Caliphate of AU. — Civil war. — Ali, the faithful 
 
130 ALL — THE OMBIIADES. 
 
 companion of the prophet, was now raised to the caliphate, 
 but his elevation was the cause of his death. Ayesha, who 
 had opposed him three times successfully, now excited Amru, 
 governor of Egypt, and Mohaviah, governor of Syria, against 
 him. The civil war lasted five years. To end it, three fa- 
 natics resolved to kill the three pretenders, and each chose 
 his victim. Ali alone was killed (661), and his descendants 
 struggled in vain to defend their inheritance. These political 
 divisions gave rise to a religious division still deeper and far 
 more lasting. The partisans of Ali, under the name of 
 Sclmtes, attached themselves scrupulously to the letter of the 
 Koran, and rejected with horror the doctrines of the Sunnites, 
 who admitted tradition as a means of interpreting and com- 
 pleting the sacred book. The former are chiefly found 
 in Persia, and an irreconcilable hatred separates the two 
 sects, each of which maintains that it is more pleasing to 
 God to kill one schismatic Mussulman than many Christians. 
 
 116. Accession of the Ommiades. — Conquests in Africa 
 and Spain. — Mohaviah caused himself to be proclaimed ca- 
 liph, and became the founder of the dynasty of the Ommiades. 
 It was he who first sent his fleets against Constantinople, upon 
 the word of the prophet, who had promised a glorious place 
 in Paradise to him who should first attack the city of the em- 
 perors. But the Imperialists fought with the Greek fire, which 
 water instead of extinguishing, merely decomposed and sup- 
 plied with fresh strength. " It was thrown from the summits 
 of the walls in waves of fire, or hurled in vessels of red-hot 
 iron : it cleaved the sea in fire-ships, which dashed frightfully 
 in amidst the hostile fleet, and falling with the swiftness and 
 noise of a thunderbolt, spread a horrid light far around." 
 The Arabs were driven back, and Mohaviah was compelled 
 to pay tribute (678). 
 
 In Africa his arms were more successful. Here he was 
 opposed by Queen Kainah, who summoning all the tribes to 
 
ALL — THE OMMIADES. 131 
 
 the defence of their country, repulsed a first attack, and laid 
 the country waste to render a second impracticable. This 
 terrible measure, which was executed by the wandering war- 
 riors of the desert, produced a revolt among the inhabitants 
 of the west, and the Moslems reappearing soon after, were 
 welcomed as friends and protectors. Hassan took Carthage 
 (698), and after the death of Kaina, killed in battle (708), 
 Musa completed the conquest of Africa to the shores of the 
 Atlantic. The exile of three hundred thousand Berbers, 
 who were transported into Asia, confirmed the subjection of 
 the country. Islamism was imposed upon the vanquished, 
 and Christianity disappeared for ages from this portion of the 
 world, where it had once seemed to have struck its roots so 
 deeply. The conquest of Spain soon followed that of Africa. 
 
 Five thousand Mussulmen crossed the straits of Gibraltar 
 under the orders of TanA:, and at the call of Count Julian 
 (v. ch. ii.). The battle of Xeres (711), in which Roderic 
 fell, overthrew the power of the Christians. Those who es- 
 caped took refuge in the mountains of Asturia (v. ch. vii.). 
 
 117. Progress in the east. — Extent of the Moslem domin- 
 ions. — In the east the conquests did not stop. Armenia was 
 conquered in 696 by the caliph Abd-el-Malek. Under the 
 caliphate of Walid, who had sent Musa, the Moslem arms 
 appeared on the frontiers of China, and the emperor, alarmed 
 at the approach of these men whom no obstacle could stop, 
 hastened to promise tribute and send magnificent presents. 
 On their return, they conquered the warlike population of 
 Turkishtan, and subdued central Asia beyond the Indus and 
 the Ganges. Still they met a firm resistance in Asia Minor, 
 where the Taurus long marked the limit of their possessions. 
 A second attack of Constantinople was equally unfortunate 
 with the first : and the Moslem fleet was again destroyed by 
 the terrible Greek fire (717). 
 
 Eighty years after Mahomet's death, his empire had ac- 
 
132 THE ABBASSIDES. 
 
 quired an immense extent. In Europe, it embraced Spain 
 and the Balearic Islands : in Africa, all the northern coast 
 from the Atlantic to the Red Sea : in Asia, Arabia, Syria, 
 Palestine, Persia, Armenia, and the provinces of the Cauca- 
 sus, the two Bucharias, with a part of Turkishtan and Hin- 
 dostan. Thus in less than a century had arisen a dominion 
 vaster than that of the Romans or of Alexander. But the 
 seeds of division were already sown, and a great revolution 
 was about to prepare the way for a future reaction of religion 
 and liberty. 
 
 118. Contest letioeen the Ahhassides and Ommiades. — The 
 descendants of Abbas, an uncle of Mahomet, revolted under 
 Merican 11. , and were supported by the partisans of Ali, ir. 
 reconcilable enemies of the usurping race. A bloody war 
 began between the Abbassides and Ommiades — the black 
 banner and the white : it was both a political and a religious 
 contest. Merwan was killed (749), eighty members of his 
 family were put to death by order of his rival, Aboul- Abbas, 
 and the caliphate of Damascus was the prize of the new dy. 
 nasty. At the same time, an Ommiad who had escaped from 
 the massacre of his family, Ahderame, fled to Spain, where 
 he defeated the lieutenant of the Abbassides (756), and de- 
 clared himself independent at Cordova (v. § viii.). 
 
 THE ABBASSIDES. 
 
 119. Caliphate of the east. — Al-Manzor. — Al-Mahadi.-— 
 At. Raschid.— The era of the Ommiades had been the period 
 of conquests. That of the Abbassides also, though destined 
 to witness the decline and fall of the caliphate, had its days 
 of power and glory. The blind fanaticism of Mahometanism - 
 
THE ABBASSIDES. 133 
 
 yielded to the influence of civilization, and the Arabian cha- 
 racter, after having been first developed with such fearful 
 energy, now appeared under an aspect which, though divested 
 of its terrors, had lost none of its splendor. 
 
 After the death of Aboul- Abbas the Bloody, Abou-Giafar- 
 al-Manzor (the victorious), founder of Bagdad (762), carried 
 his arms to the north of the Caspian, and gave a generous 
 protection to literature and the arts (754-775). The reign 
 oi Mohammed al-Mohadi (the reformer of justice) prepared 
 the way for that of his son Haroun al-Raschid, whose mili- 
 tary career began during the lifetime of his father by a bril- 
 liant expedition against the empress Irene, who was compelled 
 to promise tribute (782). Under this great prince (786-809), 
 the caliphate attained its highest degree of splendor. The 
 emperor Nicephoras having dared to send the caliph a bundle 
 of swords, instead of the tribute promised by Irene, Haroun 
 cut with a blow of his scimetar the badly tempered steel of 
 the Greek arms, and sent word to the emperor that *' lie would 
 see, not hear his ansioer." Soon after, the terrified Greeks 
 saw the Arabs advance in Asia Minor, and Nicephoras, de- 
 feated in several battles, was compelled to accept a humiliating 
 treaty, and have engraved upon his tribute money the image 
 of his victorious enemy (805). 
 
 120.. Development of literature, the sciences, and the arts. 
 — The arts of peace, too, flourished under the patronage of 
 the caliph. The Arabs, weary of making ruins, set them- 
 selves to rebuild them : the fields, so long desolate, were 
 covered with delightful country-seats : smiling gardens, built 
 upon the sides of mountains and supported by enormous walls, 
 x'ecalled the hanging gardens of Babylon. The palace of the 
 caliph seemed the type of those enchanted dwellings of which 
 we read in the Arabian tales. A few years later, the Greek 
 ambassadors admired in this splendid dwelling thirty-eight 
 thousand carpets, a great number of which were of silk, em- 
 
134 THE ABBASSIDES. 
 
 broidered with gold, and among other refinements of a won- 
 derful luxury, a tree of gold and silver, with eighteen large 
 branches covered with birds of all kinds, made like the 
 leaves themselves of the most precious materials. This tree 
 waved as if in the wind, and with every undulation you heard 
 the songs of the different birds. 
 
 Enthusiastic admirers of every kind of glory, the inhab- 
 itants of the east aspired to literary success as well as success 
 in arms. Their ingenious and fertile imaginations produced 
 those graceful fictions, those fantastic inventions, those pas- 
 sionate narratives, of which the Arabian Nights are the spe- 
 cimen best known. But they took pleasure also in abstract 
 meditation, became philosophers, and studied Aristotle. The 
 categories, the divisions and formulas of the Stagirite became 
 popular in the east, and even Islamism itself did not wholly 
 escape the influence of pei'ipatetic ideas, any more than 
 Christianity did those of Plato. 
 
 The exact sciences were further advanced at the court 
 of Al-Raschid than in Europe, and the Arabs became, on 
 more than one occasion, the masters of the Europeans. They 
 taught them the numerals which we still use, and which were 
 so great an improvement upon the Roman. To them also 
 belongs, if not the invention, the application, at least, of al- 
 gebra, that admirable instrument of mathemathical discovery. 
 Chemistry and medicine were in great honor at Bagdad, and 
 Avicenna and Averroe.s won an immense reputation, aided, 
 perhaps, not a little by the use of means which experience 
 has long since disclaimed. The first clock that was seen in 
 Europe was sent by Haroun to Charlemagne, and the post 
 was established in the provinces of the caliph seven hundred 
 years before it was introduced into France. 
 
 Al-Mamoun, the worthy successor of Al-Raschid (813- 
 833), employed learned men to collect the most useful works 
 and translate them into Arabic, in spite of the opposition of 
 
INDEPENDENT DYNASTIES. 135 
 
 the Mahometan theologians, who condemned these reproduc- 
 tions of Greek literature and philosophy as blasphemy. All 
 that they could obtain was, that after the translation was 
 completed the originals should be destroyed. 
 
 § VI. 
 
 INDEPENDENT DYNASTIES. SELJTJK TURKS. 
 
 121. Dismember?nent of the Moslem empire. — Independent 
 dynasties. — But though this splendor concealed for a while, 
 it could not destroy the seeds of decay which had been thick- 
 ly sown in the Arabian dominion. The enthusiasm which 
 had been so powerful an instrument of conquest, became a 
 source of disorder when the victory was won. Fanaticism 
 and ambition were soon to destroy the vast empire which 
 they had built up. Even during the reign of Al-Raschid, 
 Ibrahim ben-Ag/ah had refused to pay tribute, and founded in 
 northern Africa the independent dynasty of the Aglabites 
 (800), which ruled on the Mediterranean for two centuries, 
 and conquered Corsica, Sardinia, and Sicily (v. § ix.). An- 
 other of his lieutenants, Edris, threw off the dominion of the 
 caliphs, and built on the west coast of Africa the city o^ Fez, 
 which became the capital of the Edrissites (789). The dy- 
 nasties of the Taheriles (813-872), of the Soffarides (872- 
 912), of the Samanides (879-999), succeeded one another in 
 Khorassan. While the Tartar tribes, newly converted to 
 Islamism, dismembered the caliphate in the east, and founded 
 the dynasty of the Hamadanides in Mesopotamia (892) and 
 of the Buids in Persia (933), the sect of the Karmathians 
 devastated the remaining provinces of the caliphate with fire 
 and sword. These fanatics, who at the word of their chief, 
 did not hesitate to plunge a dagger in their breasts or throw 
 themselves from a precipice, easily dispersed the effeminate 
 
136 INDEPENDENT DYNASTIES. 
 
 troops of the sovereigns of Bagdad, and carried their ravages 
 to the coasts of Africa. 
 
 And finally the Fatimites, roused by a sectary who an- 
 nounced himself as a descendant of Fatima, the daughter 
 of the prophet, and himself the last of the prophets, became 
 powerful in Africa, and subjected to their yoke the descend- 
 ants of Edris and of Aglab (909). Moez-Billah (953-975), 
 the fourth Fatimite, founded the city of Cairo, which became 
 the seat of the new caliphate. " What are your titles to this 
 rank ?" inquired some injudicious doubters. " These," re- 
 plied the Fatimite chief, displaying his treasure and his 
 sword, " these are my genealogy and my family." Africa 
 was to remain subject to his successors till towards the end 
 of the twelfth century (v. ch. xii.). 
 
 122. Decay of the caliphate. — The Emir al-Oinrah. — The 
 caliphs of Bagdad had sought to escape this general dismem- 
 berment by calling terrible auxiliaries to their defence. The 
 Turkish troops, brave as the Arabs of Mahomet, had been 
 received in the caliph's guard in 841 ; but these fierce and 
 independent men soon shook the empire which they had been 
 called to sustain, and bloodied the throne with their frequent 
 revolts. Five caliphs perished by assassination in the course 
 of twenty-five years (846-870), and at the end of the ninth 
 century an insurrection of the Arabs of the desert gave the 
 last blow to the dynasty of the Abbassides. Al-Khadi (934— 
 940), unable to defend his inheritance against these constant- 
 ly renewed usurpations and insurrections, placed his throne 
 under the protection of a more energetic authority, and con- 
 ferred tipon a Turk of the family of the Buids the dignity 
 of Emir al-Omrah, or prince of the princes of the empire of 
 the caliph (935). This office had the same effect as the may- 
 ordom of the palace among the Franks. The emir stripped 
 the caliph of his political influence, and left him nothing but 
 an empty religious supremacy. 
 
INDEPENDENT DYNASTIES. 137 
 
 Still their power did not long survive that of the caliphs. 
 The Fatimites advanced from conquest to conquest, through 
 Palestine and Syria, up to the gates of Bagdad, and forced the 
 emir to pay tribute (985). A few years afterwards, Persia, 
 which had long been subject to the Buids, was taken from them 
 by Malimoud the Gaznevide (997), who was the first to take the 
 title of sultan, making extensive conquests in Persia and In- 
 dia : but his dynasty was soon to give way before a new 
 power. 
 
 123. The SeJjuk Turks in Asia Minor. — The powerful 
 tribe of Seljuk Turks descended from the shores of the Cas- 
 pian and the Oxus under the guidance of the valiant Toghrul- 
 ieg, whom they had proclaimed king (1038). Togrul drove the 
 Gaznevides towards the Indus, stripped the Buids of the office 
 of emir al-omrah, and seated himself on the throne at the 
 side of the caliph, who placed upon his head two turbans as 
 symbols of the crowns of Persia and Arabia, and girded him 
 with two swords, as lord of the east and the west. Toghrul's 
 son Alp-Arslan (1063) entered Asia Minor, which the emperor 
 Diogenes defended vigorously. But the Barbarian profiting by 
 the defection of a body of mercenaries, defeated him, and in the 
 exultation of victory compelled the unfortunate sovereign to 
 kiss the ground before his conqueror (1071). Under Mahk- 
 Shah (1072-1093), the empire of the Seljuks extended from 
 the extreme confines of Yemen to the Caspian sea, and from the 
 frontiers of China to the shores of the Hellespont. Egypt 
 alone remained subject to the Fatimites. The Gi'eeks re- 
 tained possession of a few cities in Asia Minor. But the 
 division of the vast inheritance of Malek-Shah into four sul- 
 tanates, prepared the way for the success of the first crusade. 
 
138 INVASION OF SPAIN BY THE ARABS. 
 
 PAET SECOND. 
 
 THE MTJSSULMEN IN EUROPE. 
 
 § YIL 
 
 INVASION OF SPAIN BY THE ARABS. 
 
 124. Conquest of Spain hy Tarik and Musa. — The mo- 
 narchy of the Goths fell at the battle of Xeres, and Christian 
 Spain seemed annihilated. The victorious Saracens pene- 
 trated, under the guidance of Tarik, to the heart of the Pe- 
 ninsula, ravaged Andalusia, and took Toledo, while a small 
 band of warriors w^ho had escaped from the disastrous field 
 of Xeres took refiige in the mountains of Asturia, under the 
 conduct of Pelagio, a descendant, it was said, of the Gothic 
 king Recaredes. These heroes, faithful to their God and to 
 their country, preserved in exile the sacred deposit of religion 
 and independence. Pelagio, proclaimed king in 718, and 
 victorious over the Mussulmen the very next year, establish- 
 ed his authority over the important cities of Astorga and 
 Leon. His successors were soon to pass the narrow limits 
 of this little kingdom, and restore Christianity and freedom 
 to the conquered people. 
 
 Over all the rest of Spain the Arab dominion spread ra- 
 pidly. The emir Musa, jealous of his lieutenant's glory, 
 crossed the strait at the head of eighteen thousand men, and 
 all the provinces yielded at his approach. Medina, Seville, 
 Be] a, were taken in turn ; and the Goth Theodemir succeed- 
 ed in preserving the province of Murcia in eastern Betica 
 only by promising tribute. However, Merida, formerly one 
 of the most celebrated of the Roman colonies, and then the 
 capital of Lusitania, resisted courageously, in the hope that 
 
INVASION OF SPAIN BY THE ARABS. 139 
 
 the fatigues of war and old age would soon deliver her from 
 her enemy. Musa triumphed by a stratagem : he stained 
 his beard and hair, and gave audience to the Christian envoys 
 in a half-lighted tent. The deputies, terrified at this meta- 
 morphose, told their fellow-citizens that their hopes were 
 vain, and the city opened its gates. 
 
 125. Troubles. — Spain becomes independent of the caliphs 
 of the east. — Meanwhile Musa, who had taken away the 
 command from his lieutenant Tarick and had him beaten ig- 
 nominiously, was recalled by the caliph. He returned to the 
 east loaded with the wealth which the Goth had been three 
 centuries in collecting, and leaving the government of his 
 new conquest to his son, the young Abdelasis. Abdelasis 
 had distinguished himself during the invasion by brilliant 
 exploits ; but his marriage with the beautiful Egilona, widow 
 of Roderic, excited the suspicion of the caliph, who had him 
 assassinated in the mosque of Cordova. Musa, the conqueror 
 of Spain, whom the tyrant had stripped of his treasures and 
 banished to Mecca, died of grief on hearing the tragic fate 
 of his son. But it was in vain that the caliphs made the 
 walis or governors of Spain dependent on the viceroys of Af- 
 rica ; the suspicions and cruel policy of the masters of the 
 east could not long preserve this distant province. 
 
 The progress of the Mussulman power, interrupted by 
 Musa's recall, soon resumed its course, and already threat- 
 ened all Christendom, when it was suddenly checked by the 
 famous victory of Charles Martel at Poictiers (732) (v. § ix. 
 of this ch.). This disaster was soon followed by a great 
 revolution. 
 
 A bloody contest gave the sceptre of the east to a new 
 dynasty (v. § v.), and a single descendant of the Ommiad 
 caliphs, Abderame (Abd al-Rahman, servant of the compas- 
 sionate), escaped the assassin's dagger (750). While a price 
 was set upon his head by the wall of Africa, three sheiks 
 
140 CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA. 
 
 of Cordova came to offer him Spain, where his family had 
 still many partisans. He crossed the strait with a thousand 
 horsemen, defeated Youssef, the Abbasside governor (756), 
 and being proclaimed emir al-moumenin, established at Cordo- 
 va the seat of a second Mussulman empire. Still he did not 
 dare to assume the sacred title of caliph, which his descend- 
 ants did not take till a hundred and fifty years afterwards. 
 
 § VIII. 
 
 CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF 
 
 THE ARABS IN SPAIN. 
 
 126. Flourishing state of Spain under the dominion of the 
 Arabs. — Abderame and his successors made incredible efforts 
 to confirm their power and reconstruct the Spanish nation, by 
 binding the old inhabitants to the new, less by the force of 
 arms than by the splendor with which they surrounded their 
 throne. The evils of the invasion were repaired by a mild 
 and humane government. The conquered people preserved 
 their laws ; were judged by their own tribunals, except when 
 they had offended a Mussulman : the conquerors were not 
 free from taxation, though it fell heaviest upon the conquered • 
 but the latter were allowed the free exercise of their x'eligion, 
 provided they refrained from any public attack upon Mahomet- 
 anism. Their principal churches had been converted into 
 mosques, but many remained in the hands of the Christians, 
 who were allowed even the use of bells, which had been every 
 where forbidden in Africa and in Asia. Property was res- 
 pected, and the Arabs took only the domains of the state or 
 those tracts which the war had depopulated. Agriculture, 
 under the protection of the new sovereigns, flourished once 
 more throughout the peninsula. Several useful plants were 
 
CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA. 141 
 
 brought from the east, and taking root in a kindred soil, con- 
 tributed to the wealth of the fields. The palm of the desert 
 rose by the side of the products of the west. Spain became 
 the most populous and industrious of European countries. 
 
 This brilliant civilization, which rendered the reigns of 
 Haroun and Al-Mamoun so illustrious in Asia, cast a splen- 
 dor equally brilliant upon Mussulman Europe. The emirs 
 of Cordova were the worthy rivals of the masters of Bagdad. 
 The arts, encouraged by the prodigal liberality, and even by 
 the example of the sovereign, displayed all their magnifi- 
 cence : Abderame worked with his own hands on a magnificent 
 mosque, which was supported on more than a thousand 
 columns. The capital of the new empire became the sanc- 
 tuary of literature and science. Seventy libraries and sev- 
 enteen schools opened abundant sources of instruction. An 
 academy of forty members discussed the great questions of 
 philosophy and literature. Six great cities vied with the 
 splendor of the capital : four hundred cities of inferior rank 
 were enriched by commerce : upon the banks of the Guadal- 
 quiver alone there were twelve hundi'ed villages surrounded 
 by fertile fields. 
 
 127. Beginning of the contest hetween the Arabs and 
 Christians. — Still this prosperity, which the imagination of 
 poets has painted in such brilliant colors, could neither give 
 life nor duration to the Mussulman dominion. The Moors 
 were still strangers upon the soil of Spain. A few of the old 
 inhabitants uniting their families with those of the Arabs, 
 accepted the names of Mozarahs, or Arabs by adoption. But 
 Christianity and Islamism were irreconcilable enemies, and 
 the brilliant empire of the Mahometans was one day to yield 
 to the poor and despised Christians. 
 
 Spain was thenceforth the theatre of that long and mag- 
 nificent struggle in which, in despite of many reverses, the 
 obstinate energy of the Christians gradually prevailed. Ab- 
 
142 CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA. 
 
 derame, the independent emir of Cordova, reigned thirty 
 years with glory ; but already the second successor of Pela- 
 gio, Alfonso I. the Catholic (739-757), had conquered Galli- 
 cia, and Froila had made himself master of Oviedo (759— 
 768). Soon after, an expedition of Charlemagne, called in 
 by the rebel governors, shook the Moorish empire in the 
 north of the peninsula (778) ; and the powerful king of the 
 Franks put garrisons in the cities near the Pyrenees. Du- 
 ring the troubles which followed the death of the emir Hes- 
 cham, Alfonso the Chaste, king of Asturia (797-835), 
 advanced victoriously to the gates of Lisbon, and the feeble 
 Al-Hakem, enraged at a success which broke in upon his 
 indolent life, avenged himself by slaughtering his own sub- 
 jects. Under Ahderame II. (822-852), several places in 
 A ragon proclaimed their independence : the Navarrese, free 
 under Count Aznar (831), crossed the Ebro in arms (841), 
 and soon took for king the brave Garcias Ximenes (860). 
 
 The divisions of the two infidel races, the Arabians pro- 
 per and the Berbers of Africa, who had united during the 
 first days of the conquest, favored the efforts of the Chris- 
 tians. Ramire I. (835-850), called to the throne by Alfonso 
 I., won great renown by a brilliant victory over the Arabs 
 near Logrono. The intrepid Ordogno (850-866), conqueror 
 of the emir Mahomet I. (853), had penetrated as far as Sal- 
 amanca, when a leader of brigands roused all the north of 
 Spain and joined the Christians. Alfonso the Great, the 
 worthy son of Ordogno, advanced triumphantly to the Tagus, 
 repeopled several Mussulman cities with Christians, and 
 crowned his triumphs by the great victory of Zamora (901). 
 But the reign of the great Abderame III., who first took the 
 title of Caliph of the West, suddenly checked the progress 
 of the Christians (912). 
 
 128. Glorious reign of the caliph Abderame III. — This 
 was the most brilliant period of the Mussulman dominion. 
 
CALIPHATE OF CORDOVA. 143 
 
 The revolted provinces were brought back to the yoke ; the 
 Christians, among whom divisions had crept in, after the 
 death of Alfonso the Great (910) defended themselves with 
 difficulty among their mountains ; and the terrible battle of 
 Simancos, which cost the caliph fifty thousand men, was but 
 a momentary check to the progress of the Mussulmen (937). 
 The Moorish empire was reconstructed : Abderame, conqueror 
 of the Fatimites, was proclaimed caliph in Africa : his nu- 
 merous fleets gave him the command of the Mediterranean, 
 and the emperor of Constantinople sent to solicit his assist- 
 ance against the caliphs of Bagdad. King Ramire II., who 
 ventured a new effort, lost two armies in a fatal expedition, 
 and died of grief (950). The Christians, driven back in 
 Gallicia, were compelled to lay down their arms. 
 
 In the midst of these wars Abderame protected literature 
 and the arts, and displayed all his grandeur and magnificence 
 in the palace of Cordova, brilliant with marble and gold. 
 And yet this great caliph, after fifty years of prosperity and 
 glory, declared on his death-bed (961) that he had had scarce 
 fourteen happy days in his life. 
 
 129. Exploits of the vizier Al-Manzor . — After this brilliant 
 reign, degenerate caliphs buried in the magnificent palace 
 of Abderame their indolent and voluptuous lives, and permit- 
 ted the powerful empire which he had built up to fall to ruins. 
 Hescham II., to reanimate the religious enthusiasm of the 
 Arabs, by restoring the primitive rites of their worship in all 
 their vigor, could think of no better means than tearing up 
 the vineyards and proscribing the use of wine. The vizier 
 Mohammed-al-Manzor (the victorious) resisted the decay with 
 gi'eater energy : he appealed to the brilliant memorials of the 
 conquest, and cast, at least, the splendor of his own exploits 
 over the last days of the caliphate. The Christians, driven back 
 once more to their mountains, saw the Mussulman hero take 
 Barcelona and Zamora, carry the strong city of Leon by 
 
144 EXCURSIONS OF THE SARACENS. 
 
 assault, plundei' the revered church of St. James of Compos- 
 tella, the patron of Christian Spain, and having conquered 
 the Edressites, whose revolt he had crossed the straits to 
 chastise, return to the other extremity of Spain, and pursue 
 the Navarrese to the foot of the Pyrenees. Fifty years of 
 triumphs had persuaded Al-Manzor that he was invincible : 
 but the kings of Leon and Navarre, Bermudas II. and Gar- 
 cias III., and Garcias Fernandes, count of Castile, uniting 
 for the defence of the Christian name after their long and 
 fatal rivalries, met him at Calatagnazar, not far from Medina- 
 Celi (998). It was Al-Manzor's fifty-seventh battle. For 
 a whole day he contended manfully for the victory : but 
 the Christians won it, and the emir died of despair. 
 
 130. Decline and fall of the caliphate. — Immediately 
 after, the Mussulmen, exhausted by their own success, fell 
 into a new lethargy, and the caliphate became a prey to 
 general dissolution. The African tribes, called in to repeo- 
 ple the fields which all these wars had made desert, asserted 
 their independence : the Walls, sovereigns in their provinces, 
 refused to recognize the authority of the impotent caliph, and 
 changed their governments into kingdoms. Nineteen states 
 were formed out of the wrecks of the Mussulman empire, 
 while twenty obscure pretenders followed in rapid succession 
 upon the throne of Cordova. The dynasty of the Ommiades 
 became extinct with Hescham III. (1031), and Cordova her- 
 self became the simple capital of a province. 
 
 § IX. 
 
 EXCURSIONS OF THE SARACENS IN FRANCE AND ITALY. 
 
 131. Invasions of the Saracens in France checked ly 
 Charles Mariel. — Of all the countries of Europe, Spain alone 
 
EXCUESIONS OF THE SARACENS. 145 
 
 had been doomed to bear for centuries the yoke of the Mos- 
 lems : but still the whole of southern Europe had to contend 
 for a long period against their inroads and invasions. Even 
 before the conquest of Spain had been completed, Musa (713), 
 conqueror of Catalonia, had crossed the Pyrenees and ravag- 
 ed Septimania, that ancient appendage of the kingdom of the 
 Visigoths. Soon after, the emir Zama established a Mussul- 
 man colony at Narbonne, and then advanced towards the 
 banks of the Garonne, where he was met and defeated by 
 Eudes, duke of Aquitania, near Toulouse (721). Ambiza 
 took Nismes, and sacked Carcassone ; and then, says an 
 Arabian writer, " the wind of Islamism began to blow from 
 all sides against the Christians." Whole provinces were 
 given up to their devastations. What escaped the sword fell 
 a prey to the flames. The conquerors preserved only what 
 they could carry with them. They had burnt the convents 
 on the banks of the Rhone, the churches of Lyons, of Beaune, 
 and Autun, when a still more terrible attack came to terrify 
 Gaul and all Europe with her. Under the orders of the emir 
 Abderame, an invading army crossed the Pyrenees, inun- 
 dated all the provinces, crushed the troops of the duke of 
 Aquitania, the indefatigable defender of southern Gaul, and 
 advanced towards the Loire. But this great effort of the 
 Mussulman invasion was broken by Charles Martel in the 
 plains of Poictiers (732) ; and though there is doubtless much 
 of the usual exaggeration in the accounts which have come 
 down to us of this field, which the Arabs are said to have 
 named the pavement of martyrs, yet it must ever be looked to 
 with gratitude as the spot in which the long contest between 
 the crescent and the cross for the sovereignty of Europe was 
 irrevocably decided. 
 
 132. Establishment of the Saracens in southern France. — 
 Christendom was saved : but Europe had still to defend its 
 coasts. For a moment Marseilles was in the hands of the 
 
146 EXCURSIONS OF THE SARACENS. 
 
 Mussulmen (739). Under Al-Hakem began the great mari- 
 time expeditions, that resource of a restless spirit when inva- 
 sions by land become too difficult or too hazardous. Fifteen 
 thousand pirates issued from the ports of Spain, and estab- 
 lished their seat in the island of Crete, from whence they 
 carried terror through every sea (817). Though driven 
 from Narbonne and forced to cross the Pyrenees by Pepin the 
 Short, and defeated in Spain by Charlemagne, the Arabs re- 
 appeared again in France. Towards 889, twenty pirates 
 landed in the gulf of St. Tropes in Provence, massacred the 
 inhabitants of the neighboring village, and established them- 
 selves upon a rock which commanded the entrance of the 
 gulf. This was the origin of the redoubtable port of Fraxi- 
 neto, which was enlarged and fortified till it became a kind 
 of military republic ; from which the Saracens extended 
 their excursions throughout Provence and Dauphiny. At 
 last the Hungarians appeared (924), and the Saracens, who 
 had possession of all the passes of the Alps, united witij 
 them to ravage Helvetia and Valais, of which they remained 
 masters for nearly twenty years. Then they fell upon 
 northern Italy, burnt Acqui, and ravaged the surrounding 
 country. Finally, after the death of Abderame III., Dau- 
 phiny was retaken, and Fraxineto, in which the eighty years' 
 plunder of the neighboring provinces had been heaped up, fell 
 into the hands of the count of Provence (975) : and thus fell 
 the Mussulman power in the south of France. 
 
 133. Invasion of Italy. — Conquest of Sardinia, Corsica, 
 and Sicily. — At the same time, southern Italy was struggling 
 against the still more redoubtable attacks of the Saracens of 
 Africa. In 827 the Aglabites made a descent on Sicily, 
 got possession of Agrigentum, of Enna (858), of Syracuse, 
 which they destroyed (878), and founded a principality with 
 Palermo for its capital. Called in as auxiliaries by the par- 
 ties which divided the peninsula, sometimes by the Greeks 
 
EXCURSIONS OF THE SARACENS. 147 
 
 and sometimes by the Beneventans, they took post on Mount 
 Gargano and upon the banks of the Garigliano, in order to 
 command southern Italy (towards 860), With Sardinia and 
 Corsica, they obtained command of the commerce of the west- 
 ern Mediterranean. From Tarentum and Bari they sent a 
 fleet up the Tiber and burnt the suburbs of Rome. The city 
 itself owed its safety to the energy of Pope Leo IV., who 
 collected ships and repulsed the invaders. He then walled 
 in the quarter of the Vatican, which took the name of the 
 Leonine cily (852). Less fortunate, John VIII. (872-882) 
 was compelled to promise tribute in order to escape from 
 their attacks, and the Italian provinces were ravaged again. 
 It was only towards 915, that Pope John X., arming against 
 them the Italian troops and the fleet of the Greek emperor, 
 succeeded in driving them from their dangerous post of Ga- 
 rigliano. The loss of their possessions in Italy dates from 
 that time : but the Zeirites still retained possession of Sardi- 
 nia, and the Fatimites, conquerors of the Aglab dynasty, of 
 Palermo, till the Normans came to snatch the whole of Sicily 
 from the hands of the infidels (1006). 
 
CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 CAEOLINGIAN EMPIKE, 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Results of the accession of Pepin the Short. — Increase of the' 
 influence of the clergy. — Development of the royal power. — Field of 
 May. — Expeditions of Pepin the Short against the Saracens, the Aqui- 
 tanians, the Saxons, and the Lombards. 
 
 Reign of Charlemagne. — Conquest of Aquitania and Lombardy: 
 wars of Saxony : contests with the Saracens : war of Bavaria : expedi- 
 tion against the Avars : Charlemagne emperor of the West : his insti- 
 tutions. 
 
 § II. Beginning of the temporal power of the popes. — Rome renounces 
 the supremacy of the Eastern Empire and is governed by the popes. — 
 Quarrels of the pope and the Lombards : he solicits the aid of France. 
 — Pepin liberates Stephen II. — Donation of the Pentapolis and duchy 
 of Rome made by Pepin and confirmed by Charlemagne. 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE REIGNS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. EX- 
 TENT OF THE EMPIRE OF CHARLEMAGNE. CIVIL, POLITICAL, 
 
 ECCLESIASTICAL, AND LITERARY INSTITUTIONS OF CHARLE- 
 MAGNE. 
 
 134. Result of the accession of Pepin the Short. — The 
 accession of Pepin the Short to the throne of France (752) 
 
REIGNS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 149 
 
 was followed by great results. It had consummated the 
 victory of the Austrasian or Germanic race over that of the 
 Neustrians or old Franks. It contributed greatly, also, 
 towards augmenting the power of the clergy, which had 
 been weakened by the policy of Charles Martel. Pepin, 
 raised to the throne under the regis of the church, called in 
 prelates to his coronation, and admitted them to the national 
 assemblies of the Field of May, which in the beginning had 
 been altogether composed of warriors. The Latin language 
 too was introduced there, and being the language of the cler- 
 gy, was one of the causes of their increasing influence. 
 The royal authoi'ity, free as yet from the attacks of the feu- 
 dal nobility, increased rapidly under the founders of the new 
 dynasty, and recovered for a while from the debasement into 
 which it had fallen under the first race. Military glory was 
 its chief support, and the first Carolingians were constantly 
 engaged in military excursions. 
 
 135. Military expeditions of Pepin the Short. — The reign 
 of Pepin served as a prelude to that of Charlemagne. He 
 prepared, by brilliant expeditions, the conquests which his 
 son terminated so gloriously. 
 
 The hordes of the north, frightened rather than subdued 
 by Charles Martel, took up their arms again at the accession 
 of the new king, and drove the Franks beyond the Rhine, 
 after having massacred the missionaries who had been sent 
 to convert and civilize them (753). Pepin penetrates victo- 
 riously among the Frisons and Saxons, compels them to make 
 peace, and makes them promise, as one of its conditions, that 
 they will grant the Catholic priests full liberty to preach the 
 gospel among them. On his return from these first cam- 
 paigns, he receives the holy oil from the hands of Stephen 
 II. (782), and declares himself protector of the sovereign 
 pontiff against the ambition of the Lombards. He crossed 
 the Alps twice to punish Astolphus, whom he had vainly 
 
150 REIGNS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 
 
 warned to break off hostilities against Rome, took from him 
 the Campagna, Emilia, and the Pentapolis, and made a dona- 
 tion of them to the pope (754-756). This title of protector of 
 the Holy See was soon after to win for Charlemagne a new 
 crown. 
 
 At the same time, continuing the work begun by Charles 
 Martel, Pepin gave the last blow to the Saracen dominion 
 in the south of Gaul. Profiting by the contest between the 
 Ommiades and the Abbassides, he made himself master of 
 Septimania and its capital, Narbonne, which had resisted 
 seven years (752-759). Aquitania was still to be conquered. 
 Duke Waifer had given an asylum to Grifon, a disinherit- 
 ed son of Charles Martel, and the province, still Roman by its 
 institutions, its manners, and its language, repelled the Ger- 
 man dominion with contempt. Pepin began a war of extir- 
 mination against Waifer, which filled, during nine years, the 
 most beautiful provinces of the south of France with ruin 
 and blood. The death of the duke by assassination, which 
 was soon followed by that of the Frank king, suspended the 
 hostilities, which were to begin anew under his successors 
 (760-768). 
 
 136. Charles and Carloman. — Conquest of Aquitania. — 
 Pepin divided his states between his two sons, Charles and 
 Carloman, giving Austrasia and Neustria to the first : to the 
 second, Bavaria and the southern provinces of Gaul. A re- 
 volt of the Aquitanians drew upon them the arms of Charles, 
 who subdued them in a single campaign (769). Soon after, 
 taking advantage of his brother's death, he had himself pro- 
 claimed sole king of the Frank monarchy, without heeding 
 the claims of his two nephews (771). 
 
 1.37. Wars against the Saxons. — The following year saw 
 the beginning of that terrible war against the Saxons, which, 
 though often suspended, filled the greater part of the reign 
 of Charlemagne. The Franks, irritated by the massacre of 
 
REIGNS OF PEPIN AND CHARLEMAGNE. 151 
 
 the Christians, in a city of Fi'isia, invaded the country of the 
 Saxons, seized upon the fortress of Ehresburg, destroyed the 
 ancient and venerated statue of Arminius (hermansaule), and 
 imposed upon their enemies a truce, which was soon broken 
 by the Saxons, while Charlemagne was engaged in his two 
 successful expeditions against the Lombards (775-776). 
 Charles returning, pursued the Saxons into the depths of their 
 forests, and compelled them to come in crowds to Paderborn 
 and ask for baptism (777). 
 
 But a powerful chief, the brave Witikind, who had re- 
 fused to make his submission and taken refuge in Scandina- 
 via, profiting by the wars which called Charles into Spain, 
 roused his countrymen to another effort. Charles returned, 
 defeated them again, and calling in religion to the support 
 of his arms, founded numerous abbeys and bishoprics among 
 them. Witikind sought him out new enemies among the 
 Sclavonians, ai^ exasperated by the massacre of four thou- 
 sand five hundred of his countrymen, kept up the contest 
 several years longer with the energy of despair. Convinced 
 at last of the uselessness of further resistance, the Saxon 
 hero received baptism and submitted to the conqueror in the 
 assembly of Auigny (785). Occasional revolts still called 
 in from time to time the arms of Charlemagne : but the sub- 
 mission of the last Saxon chiefs at the diet of Salza (803), 
 and the establishment of ten thousand Saxon families in Bel- 
 gium and Holland, put an end to this long and sanguinary 
 contest (804). 
 
 138. Wars against the Lombards, Saracens, 8fC. — Charle- 
 magne emperor. — Great events had been accomplished else- 
 where during this long and memorable war. Desiderius, 
 king of the Lombards, had drawn upon himself the arms of 
 the Frank king, by protecting his nephews and making war 
 upon the pope. Charlemagne forced the passages of the 
 *Llps, renewed at Rome the donation which his father had 
 
152 KEIGNS OF PEPIN AND CHAKLEMAGNE. 
 
 made to the Holy See, took Desidei'ius prisoner, shut him 
 up in a convent, and had himself crowned king of Lombarr 
 dy (774). Soon after, entering Spain at the invitation of a 
 Mussulman governor, he subdued the Spanish marches 
 beyond the Pyrenees, and preserved his conquest in spite 
 of the defeat and death of his nephew, the famous pala- 
 din Orlando, in the pass of Roncesvalles (778). His victo- 
 rious arms were dreaded by the whole of Europe. Having 
 conquered the powerful duke Tassillon of Bavaria, he stripped 
 him of his states (788), and sent his son Pepin beyond the 
 Danube and the Theiss, to take from the Avars the plunder 
 which they had heaped up in their camp. From the banks 
 of the Elbe to the Oder, from the shores of the Black Sea to 
 the Adriatic, all submitted to his power ; and then the con- 
 queror of so many nations, receiving at Rome from the hands 
 of Leo III. the imperial crown, renewed that empire of the 
 West, which but a little more than three centin-ies before, had 
 fallen under the shock of the Barbarians. 
 
 139. Institutions of Charlemagne. — His death. — But a 
 purer glory than that of arms belongs to this great man. He 
 knew how to organize a coarse and undisciplined society by 
 wise institutions, attacking barbarism by a skilful legislation, 
 by a regular government, and by the development of civili- 
 zation and knowledge. In his celebrated Capitularia, he 
 regulates every part of the civil and religious administra- 
 tion ; gives a firm and constant support to religious discipline, 
 which had fallen into great disorder ; establishes permanent 
 magistracies for the first hearing of causes, and superior 
 courts, composed of bishops or noblemen, to decide them, 
 with a right of appeal to the king's council or the general 
 assembly of the nation. These assemblies met twice a year, 
 and discussed all the laws, without fettering the royal autho- 
 rity, which was supported by a strong civil and military 
 organization, and surrounded by the splendor pf a pompous 
 
ALLIANCE OF THE POPES AND CAROLINGIANS. 153 
 
 ceremonial borrowed from the traditions of the empire of the 
 West. The officers of the palace, who had annihilated the 
 power of the kings of the first race, became docile instru- 
 ments in his hands. The emperor sees and directs every 
 thing himself. He inspects his states in all their extent by 
 temporary envoys {missi dominici), while local and perma- 
 nent agents exercise the different functions of government in 
 his name. At the same time he reanimates study by his own 
 example, and calls forth some rays of knowledge in this 
 dark age. Alcuin, his friend, preceptor, and minister, founds 
 the Palatine school in the imperial palace, and establishes 
 regular instruction in the monasteries, and in every city 
 which was the residence of a bishop. Sublime efforts of a 
 great genius, as eager for the conquests of the mind as for 
 the conquests of arms, and which have won for his name the 
 respect and the admiration of posterity. 
 
 But the day of revival had not yet come, and when Char- 
 lemagne died (814) at the height of his glory and his power, 
 he carried with him the destinies of his brilliant empire, and 
 in a few years every trace of his admirable institutions had 
 disappeared. 
 
 §11. 
 
 ALLIANCE OF THE POPES AND CAROLINGIANS. INCREASE OP 
 
 THE STATES OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 140. Rome throws off the supremacy of the Eastern Em- 
 pire. — With the aid of the first Carolingians began the de- 
 velopment of the temporal power of the popes. 
 
 While the dominion of the Lombards extended over the 
 greater part of Italy, Rome, with the Pentapolis and the Ex- 
 archate, had continued to acknowledge the authority of the 
 
 7* 
 
154 ALLIANCE OF THE POPES AND CAROLINGIANS. 
 
 Empire of the East. The authority of the bishops of Rome, 
 though great, was purely moral, and in exerting themselves 
 against the Lombards in defence of the rights of the empe- 
 rors, they were at the same time protecting Catholicism 
 against the hated doctrines of Arius. 
 
 Such was the state of things in 726, when Leo the Isau- 
 rian issued his edict against the worship of images. The 
 indignation of the Romans was universal. They broke the 
 statues of the emperor, who had broken those of Christ and 
 the saints, and Gregory II., who filled the pontifical chair, 
 addressed the emperor in language which sounds much more 
 like a threat than a remonstrance. " Renounce," said he, 
 "your audacious and fatal enterprise. Reflect, tremble, and 
 repent. The converted Barbarians burn to avenge the per- 
 secuted church. If you persist in your designs, it is not 
 upon us that the blood will fall." The emperor is said to 
 have replied by attempting to have the pope assassinated. 
 Then the Romans rose against him, and with the aid of the 
 Venetians and the Lombards, drove away the Byzantine offi- 
 cers. The authority of the imperial prefect seemed to de- 
 volve upon the pope as his natural heir, and Rome established 
 a republic, with her bishop at its head. The territories of 
 the new state extended from Viterbo to Terracina, and from 
 Narni to the mouth of the Tiber. Still the tie which had so 
 long bound her to the East was not wholly broken. The 
 new pope, Gregory III. (731), continued, as his predecessor 
 had done before him, to respect the nominal sovereignty of 
 the emperor, by using his name in public documents : but at 
 the same time he hurled a decree of excommunication against 
 all heretics, and in his view Leo was certainly of the num- 
 ber. All possibility of reconciliation was cut off by an at- 
 tack of the Byzantine fleet, which exasperated the Romans 
 to the utmost. A few yeai's afterwards, a new pope (741), 
 Zacchary, assumed his authority without asking the imperial 
 
ALLIANCE OP THE POPES AND CAROLINGIANS. 155 
 
 confirmation, and the temporal power of the popes over Rome 
 was definitively established. 
 
 141. Donation of the Pentapolis and duchy of Rome to 
 the Holy See. — But there could be no cordial union between 
 the pope and the Lombards. The taint of Arianism was 
 still upon them, and prevented them from amalgamating with 
 the native Italians. They had won too large a part of the 
 peninsula not to wish for the whole. And when the Greek 
 emperor was rejected, they naturally sought to take his place. 
 Luitprand had been disarmed by the eloquence of Gregory 
 II., but Astolphus seized upon the exarchate and Pentapolis, 
 and advanced pretensions upon Rome, which he supported 
 by a powerful army (752). No succor could be had from 
 Constantinople, and neither the pope nor the Romans were 
 willing to accept the dominion of the Lombards. Stephen II. 
 turned towards France. Pepin, who had just been conse- 
 crated by the pope, accepted the mission, defeated the Lom- 
 bards, and made him a donation (756) of the Pentapolis and 
 duchy of Rome, which became the patrimony of St. Peter. 
 Charlemagne completed his father's work by confirming the 
 donation, and received the imperial crown as a reward for 
 his sanction of the temporal sovereignty of the Holy See 
 (800). 
 
 Thus was consummated that fatal act which united the 
 temporal and spiritual power in the same hands, and made 
 the servants of Christ princes of this world. The appeal to 
 the Franks was an act of self-preservation ; the acceptance 
 of supreme authority at Rome may have seemed a necessity of 
 position ;' but it is vain to look for legality or justice in acts 
 which began in violence and ended in fraud. The Frank 
 monarch gave what his swoi'd had given him, and the pope 
 readily lent his divine office to human ends. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 ESTABLISHMENT OP THE FEUDAL SYSTEM. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. State of the empire at the death of Charlemagne.— Differences 
 of interests, manners, and origin, among the people subjected to his do- 
 minion : this immediate cause of dissolution favored by the principle of 
 divisions. — First division of the empire under Lewis the Debonair. — 
 Weakness of this prince. — Nature of the contest between his sons. — 
 Last reunion of the different parts of the empire under Charles the Fat. 
 — Final division. — Beginning of the Norman invasion. 
 
 § II. Danger of the kingdom of France, exposed to the attacks of 
 the Normans, the Sclavonians, and the Saracens. — Ascendency of the 
 family of the Dukes of France. — Accession of Eudes and Robert, to the 
 detriment of Charles the Simple. — Power of Hugh the Great. — Raoul. 
 — Lewis of Outremer. — Lothario. — Lewis V. — Accession of Hugh Ca- 
 pet. — State of royalty at the beginning of the third dynasty. — Reigns of 
 Hugh Capet, Robert II., Henry I., Philip I. 
 
 § III. Of the feudal system : its origin and its development. — Multi- 
 plication of beneficiary estates. — Diminution of allodial. — Commenda- 
 tion of persons and lands. — Relations between lord paramount and vas- 
 sal. — Progress of feudalism favored by social disorders and troubles. — It 
 soon loses its primitive character and becomes an instrument of oppres- 
 sion. — ^^Statc of feudalism in the different countries of Europe. — Compa- 
 rison between the feudal system in France and in Germany. 
 
Charlemagne's successors. 157 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF CHARLEMAGNE S SUCCESSORS TO THE REIGN OF 
 
 LEWIS OF OUTREMER. CAUSES OF THE DECAY OF THE CA- 
 
 ROLINGIANS AND DISMEMBERMENT OF THEIR EMPIRE. DIF- 
 FERENCES OF RACE AND INTEREST BETWEEN THE PEOPLE 
 OF THE EMPIRE. SEPARATION OF THE KINGDOMS AND PRO- 
 VINCES. — BEGINNING OF FEUDALISM. 
 
 142. State of the empire at the death of Charlemagne. — • 
 Causes of dissolution. — The edifice which Charlemagne had 
 constructed so laboriously, required his powerful hand to 
 sustain it. The moment that was removed, it fell, and all 
 the quicker for its magnitude. A double cause of dissolu- 
 tion and ruin menaced this vast empire, so wondrously built 
 up, in the midst of the people who had divided the west 
 among themselves. One dominion had been extended over 
 nations differing in their manners, their laws, their religion, 
 and their language : the Mussulmen of the north of Spain ; 
 the half converted pagans of Saxony ; the Italians, compelled 
 to renounce their nationality ; the Franks of the south, jealous 
 of the supremacy of the Franks of the north ; the Germans, 
 rivals and soon enemies of the Franks ; all aspired to an in- 
 dependence which the subjection of a few years had not 
 been able to efface from their memories. If the exploits of 
 the son of Pepin had stopped for ever the German invasion, 
 other Barbarians were gathering along the distant frontiers 
 of the Carolingian empire : the Danes, the Sclavonians, the 
 Saracens, waited only the death of the great emperor to take 
 back with usury the tributes which he had imposed upon 
 some of their tribes ; and Charlemagne himself had seen 
 with tears (ch. x,, no. 157) the signs of this new invasion. 
 To stifle all these germs of internal division, to repulse with 
 
158 chaklemagne's successors. 
 
 energy the repeated efforts of the Barbarians, to sustain an 
 incessant contest both within and without, was a task that 
 was soon to crush the unskilful and divided heirs of the 
 throne of Charlemagne. 
 
 143. Leiois the Delonair. — Division of the empire. — Lew- 
 is the Debonair (814-840), initiated in all the great designs 
 of his father, paralyzed them all by his weakness. Faithful 
 to the disastrous principle of division, he divides the power 
 among his sons, thus giving, of his own accord, leaders to 
 all these nations which asked nothing but the opportunity for 
 beginning the contest anew. From that time the history of 
 the Carolingian empire is a history of the quarrels of races, 
 embittered by the personal quarrels of their princes. No 
 sooner had the division of Aix la Chapelle (817) made Lo- 
 thario heir of the imperial dignity, Pepin king of Aquitania, 
 and Lewis king of Bavaria, than Bernard, Charlemagne's 
 grandson, whom he himself had named king of Italy, pro- 
 tested, sword in hand, and in the name of the cities and 
 princes of the peninsula, against a decision which made him 
 his cousin's dependent. Conquered and condemned to lose 
 his eyes, he died from the consequences of this barbarous 
 punishment, and Italy soon passed into the hands of Lotha- 
 rio. Lewis, touched with remorse at the hapless fate of his 
 nephew, did public penance for his crime, as Theodosius had 
 done for the massacre of Thessalonica. But the humilia- 
 tions to which he subjected himself at Attigny, before the 
 assembly of the Franks, served only to degrade the imperial 
 dignity and shake his throne (822). Insurrections broke out 
 in every part of the empire. The Obotrites, the Sorabians, 
 and Sclavonians of the east attack Lewis of Bavaria ; the 
 Bulgarians invade Pannonia ; the Basques resume their lib- 
 erty ; Brittany is in commotion : and the imprudent empe- 
 ror excites new troubles and awakens the hatred of his 
 family, by annulling his first division, in order to give Alls- 
 
Charlemagne's successors. 159 
 
 mania, Suabia, and Burgundy to Charles, the son of a second 
 wife, Judith of Bavaria (829). Abandoned by his army, 
 dethroned by his sons (830), betrayed a second time by his 
 soldiers at the Field of Lies (833), he is at last ignominious- 
 ly degraded by Lothario, who seeks to build up the imperial 
 power to his own advantage. 
 
 Lewis and Pepin, alarmed at Lothario's ambitious pro- 
 jects, liberate their father, and re-establish him solemnly 
 in the diet of Thionville (835). But he soon draws on him- 
 self new misfortunes by new faults. He strips the sons of 
 Pepin, who had died in 638, to give their inheritance to 
 Charles, and reduces the dominions of his eldest son to Italy. 
 Soon after, yielding to his menaces, he makes a final division, 
 in which Lothario receives Germany and Italy, Charles 
 nearly the whole of France, Lewis Bavaria and Provence. 
 But no permanent peace could arise from these arbitrary di- 
 visions, which clashed with the interests of the princes, and 
 still more with that of their people. Lewis of Germany, 
 stripped for his brothers, reclaimed his dominions : Aquitania 
 proclaimed under the name of Pepin II., the eldest son of her 
 king Pepin, and the death of Lewis the Debonair broke the 
 feeble tie which held these discordant elements together. 
 
 144. Contests of the sons of Lewis the Debonair. — Treaty 
 of Verdun. — The war continued between the Franks and 
 Charles the Bald, Aquitania and Pepin II., the Germans and 
 Lewis the Germanic, the Italians and Lothario, who had worn 
 for twenty years the imperial crown, and claimed the supre- 
 macy over all the princes of his race. The rivals met in 
 the plains of Fontenay (841). That terrible day in which 
 Lewis the Germanic and Charles the Bald fought against 
 Lothario and Pepin, and which cost, it is said, the lives of 
 nearly a hundred thousand men, saw the unity of the empire 
 broken for ever. The conquerors, Lewis and Charles, 
 strengthened their alliance by the act of Strasburgh, and 
 
160 Charlemagne's successors. 
 
 the oath pronounced in two languages, that it might be un- 
 derstood by both armies, showed for the first time how com- 
 pletely France had become separated from Germany (842). 
 Soon after, the general exhaustion brought about the treaty 
 of Verdun, which only consecrated the results of a division 
 which had already been completed. Lothario received for 
 his share Italy with the countries between the Alps, the 
 Rhone, the Soane, the Moselle, and the Rhine, which took 
 the name of Lotharingia : Charles received Neustria, which 
 with Aquitania formed the kingdom of France. Lewis pre- 
 served Germany (843). The imperial sceptre, which seem- 
 ed destined to control and unite all these different powers, 
 was for a long time little else than an object of discord, pass- 
 ing successively from Italy to France, and from France to 
 Germany. Pepin, abandoned by Lothario, defended himself 
 twenty years in Aquitania, with a thousand alternations of 
 reverse and success; often aided by the Normans and the 
 Saracens, and always sustained by the hatred of the Aquita- 
 nians for the Frank dominion. He fell, at last, a victim to 
 treachery (863), and expiated his courageous resistance by 
 perpetual captivity. 
 
 145. History of the Carolingians during the reign' of 
 Charles the Bald. — The divisions did not end with the dis- 
 memberment of Verdun. The Aglabite Saracens, called in, 
 in turns, by the Greeks and the Lombards of Beneventum, 
 seized upon Sicily (827 et sqq.), established themselves in 
 Sardinia (about 840), and menaced Rome and the southern 
 provinces of Italy, until they were repulsed by Lewis II. , 
 Lothario's son and successor in the imperial crown (855). 
 This prince had the kingdom of Italy, while his bro- 
 thers Charles and Lothario II. established themselves, the 
 first in Burgundy, the second in Lotharingia or Lorraine. 
 Lewis II. passed all his reign in contending against the in- 
 vasions of the Saracens and the revolts of the Lombard 
 
chaklemagne's sttccessoes. 161 
 
 dukes, who, masters of Beneventum, Naples, Capua, and 
 Salerno, divided all the south of the peninsula into inde- 
 pendent principalities. 
 
 Lewis the Germanic was more successful in his contests 
 with the Bohemians, Sorabians, and Moravians, whom the 
 exploits of his three sons, Lewis of Saxony, Carloman, and 
 Charles the Fat, compelled, in 874, to take the oath of fidelity. 
 In the kingdom of Charles the Bald, a contest had begun 
 with those terrible Northmen, who were to take their part in 
 the inheritance of Charlemagne, after having laid it waste 
 with fire and sword (v. ch. x. § i.). At the same time Brit- 
 tany was formed into a separate kingdom under Nomenoe, 
 whose son Erispre was acknowledged by Charles the Bald, 
 still engaged in the wars of Aquitania (851). These were 
 scarcely ended, by the defeat and captivity of Pepin, when 
 the death of Lothario's three sons threw open to the ambi- 
 tious king of France, Lorraine, half of Burgundy, and the 
 imperial sceptre. Charles hastened To be crowned at Rome, 
 in spite of the threats of his eldest brother, Lewis the Ger- 
 manic, who invoked the privilege of his birthright. 
 
 Lewis died in 876, but his sons Lewis of Saxony and 
 Carloman of Bavaria revived his claims, and invaded Lor= 
 raine and Italy. Charles the Bald, surrounded on all sides 
 by dangers which his insatiable ambition had excited, assail- 
 ed by his nephews, harassed by the Normans from without, 
 and within by the nobles, who having grown powerful amid 
 these dissensions, had resolved to make their governments and 
 dignities hereditary (capitulary of Kiersy on the Oise) (877), 
 died on the frontiers of Italy, leaving to his son Lewis the 
 Stammerer an authority barely recognized in a few pro- 
 vinces. 
 
 146. Lewis the Stammerer and his sons. — Charles the Fat. 
 — Dissolution of the Carolingian empire. — Lewis the Stam- 
 merer, in a reign of eighteen months, completed the ruin of 
 
162 CHARLEMAGNE S SUCCESSORS. 
 
 the royal authority, by lavishing his father's treasures upon 
 the nobles, and granting them the royal domains as heredita- 
 ry property. At his death, his sons, Lewis III. and Carlo- 
 man, had to contend with the Normans, whom they defeated 
 in several battles, with Lewis of Saxony, who wrested from 
 them Lorraine, and with Boson, son-in-law of the emperor 
 Lewis IL, who had himself proclaimed king of Provence 
 and Burgundy by the bishops, and kept his crown in spite 
 of all the efforts of the two kings, who died shortly after 
 (882-884). The old domain of Lewis the Germanic beyond 
 the Rhine passed to the hands of Charles the Fat, sole heir 
 of his brothers Lewis of Saxony and Carloman of Bavaria. 
 Charles, sovereign of Italy, Saxony, Bavaria, and Suabia, 
 filled in 881 the imperial throne, which had been vacant 
 since the death of Charles the Bald. Finally proclaimed 
 king of France after the death of the two sons of Lewis the 
 Stammerer (884) to the prejudice of Charles the Simple, post- 
 humous son of this prince, he saw himself at the head of 
 an empire almost as vast as that of Charlemagne. But the 
 attacks of the Sclavonians, Normans, and Saracens, soon 
 showed how vain a possession such authority was in such 
 feeble hands. Paris, besieged by the Normans, was valiant- 
 ly defended by Eudes and Robert, sons of Robert the Strong, 
 duke of France. Charles was called to their aid, but instead 
 of facing the enemy, bought their retreat by money (886), 
 though at the head of a superior force. Next year he was 
 solemnly deposed at the diet of Trihur. 
 
 This was the signal of a general dissolution of the Caro- 
 lingian empire, upon whose ruins rose the kingdoms of Ger- 
 many, France, Italy, the two Burgundy s, Lorraine, and 
 Navarre. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 163 
 
 §11. 
 
 ORIGIN AND FEEBLE BEGINNING OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY 
 IN THE MIDST OF FEUDAL FRANCE. HUGH, ROBERT, HEN- 
 RY I., PHILIP I. 
 
 147. Kings of France. — Accession of Eudes, Robert, and 
 Raoul, to the disadvantage of Charles the Simple. — The king- 
 dom of France, reduced to narrow limits and imperfectly re- 
 organized after so many rude shocks, seems incapable of 
 contending against the terrible pirates of the north, the Scla- 
 vonians on the east, and the Saracens on the south. The 
 Normans carry off bands of captives from every quarter, and 
 overrun the country unresisted. While the degenerate de- 
 scendants of Charlemagne find no other way of repulsing the 
 invasion but by tributes and subsidies, the country is com- 
 pelled to organize in its own defence ; the people grouping 
 around the principal lords and accepting their authority in 
 exchange for their protection. One family above the others, 
 the family of the counts of Paris, whose fortunes recall those 
 of the Heristalls, takes advantage of the weakness of the suc- 
 cessors of Charlemagne to govern in their stead. The nobles 
 refusing to obey Charles the Simple, as yet hardly eight 
 years old, call to the throne Eudes, count of Paris, who had 
 saved the capital ; but while he is engaged in contests with 
 the Normans and the Aquitanians, who had again revolted, 
 Charles III. the Simple, is proclaimed by the archbishop of 
 Rheims (893), and Eudes, after a civil war of three years, 
 is compelled to share the throne with him. He dies soon 
 after ; and the feeble Charles, unable to sustain so great a bur- 
 then, and stripped of Normandy and Brittany by the famous 
 Rollo (v. No. 158), vainly strives to seize the vacant inherit- 
 ance of his cousin Louis the Child in Germany (v. No. 170), 
 
164 ORIGIN OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 
 
 and soon sees himself threatened in his own kingdom by the 
 revolt of the nobles, who proclaim in his place Robert, the 
 brother of Eudes (923). He defeats Eudes, who falls in the 
 battle ; but is defeated himself by Hugh the Great, his rival's 
 son (923), who, choosing rather to give than to wear the 
 crown, places upon the throne Raoul, Duke of Burgundy ; 
 while Charles is removed from prison to prison, the sport 
 of his vassals, to die at last at the castle of Peronne (929). 
 Raoul is compelled to take part as ally of the duke of France 
 in the disputes between this powerful vassal and his brother 
 nobles. 
 
 148. The last Carolingians. — Accession of Hugh Capet. — 
 At his death, the throne remained vacant for several months 
 (936). At last Hugh the Great proclaimed a Carolingian, 
 Leiois of Outremer, son of Charles the Simple, whom he re- 
 called from England. But his attempts to resume some 
 portion of the authority which belonged to his title, were 
 punished by a long imprisonment in the castle of Laon, last 
 of the possessions of the kings of France. The intervention 
 of the pope and emperor of Germany restored him to liberty 
 (950); and at his death, his son Lothario obtained the crown 
 from Hugh as price of the investiture of Aquitania. This 
 powerful vassal bequeathed, on dying, Burgundy to his eldest 
 son ; and to the second, Hugh Capet, the county of Paris and 
 duchy of France. Lothario's reign was long, and filled up 
 by disputes with the empei'or of Germany. The royal au- 
 thority continued to languish in his hands, as it had done in 
 that of his immediate predecessors. His son Lewis V. the 
 Idle merely ascended the throne (986-987) to leave it at his 
 death to the new dynasty of the Capets. 
 
 149. State of royalty at the heginning of the third dy- 
 nasty. — But although the most powerful of the French lords 
 had exchanged the title of duke of France for that of king, 
 he had not changed the nature of his authority. He was no 
 
ORIGIN OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY. 165 
 
 more powerful as king than he had been as duke, and those 
 of the great vassals who consented to acknowledge his 
 honoraiy supremacy never ceased to consider him as their 
 peer. It was long before the new dynasty, which, like all 
 the other great families, depended for its influence upon the 
 extent and wealth of its domains, could exercise any of the 
 real functions of royalty. 
 
 The sovereign power in France had in reality been par. 
 celled out into as many fractions as there were great lord- 
 ships : and had neither vigor nor action till the feudal chain 
 was broken by the development of the commons, which 
 established new relations between royalty and the nation for 
 the mutual strength and protection of both. 
 
 150. Reign of Hugh Capet, Robert, Henry L, and Phi- 
 lip I. — The reign of the first of the Capetians recognized by a 
 small portion of nobles was filled with his contests with Charles 
 of Lorraine, uncle and lawful heir of Lewis V. Charles would 
 seem to have possessed some energy, for he gained posses- 
 sion of Laon and Rheims ; but his success was of no avail 
 against treachery, and the war ended in his captivity (991). 
 Meanwhile the great vassals, without troubling themselves 
 about the authority of the king, desolated France by per- 
 petual rivalries. This period of dissension and anarchy 
 continued throughout the reign of the good king Robert II., 
 son of Hugh Capet (996-1031), which was troubled by do- 
 mestic discord and the terror of the whole nation at the ap- 
 proach of the year thousand, which was looked to as the end 
 of the world. After the death of this prince, whom his piety 
 and love of justice had endeared to all France, Henry I. 
 (1031-1060) had to contend first against his brother Robert, 
 whom he conquered at last with the aid of Robert the Devil, 
 duke of Normandy ; and then the counts of Burgundy and 
 Blois, whom he subdued with the assistance of the count of 
 Anjou. After this, he was attacked by William the Bastard, 
 
166 GENERAL IDEA OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE. 
 
 the new duke of Normandy, and compelled to accept a dis 
 advantageous peace while the kingdom was a prey to all the 
 horrors of the plague, famine, and private wars. These last, 
 the church endeavored to stop by the Truce of God, which, 
 under penalty of excommunication, forbade all hostilities 
 during Advent, Lent, and every week from Thursday even- 
 ing to Sunday evening. 
 
 The reign oi Philip I. (1060-1108) was distinguished by 
 great events in which he had scarcely any part. The con- 
 quest of England by the Duke of Normandy, that of Italy 
 by some Norman knights, the establishment of the kingdom 
 of Portugal, and the first crusade (v. chs. x., xii., xviii.), 
 were all accomplished while the king of France, indifferent 
 to the glory of his cotemporaries, was abandoning himself to 
 shameful passions, or submitting to be disgracefully beaten 
 by his vassals. After an unsuccessful contest with the count 
 of Flanders (1071), he was menaced in his capital by Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror of England, and only saved by his death : 
 and becoming at last an object of contempt to all, was de- 
 clared unworthy to wear the crown. 
 
 III. 
 
 GENERAL IDEA OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE, AND PARTICULARLY 
 IN FRANCE. IMPORTANCE OF LANDED PROPERTY. ALLODI- 
 UMS AND FIEFS. INHERITANCE. RESPECTIVE RIGHTS AND 
 
 DUTIES OF THE HOLDERS OF FIEFS. FEUDAL HIERARCHY. 
 
 ROYALTY. 
 
 151. Of the feudal system. — Its origin. — The elevation of 
 the Capetian dynasty marks the epoch during which feudalism, 
 in its full power, prevails throughout France and the greater 
 part of Europe. The creation of hereditaiy benefices, 
 
GENERAL IDEA OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE. 167 
 
 granted with certain recognized obligations, had laid the first 
 foundations of feudalism in the landed aristocracy (v. ch. iv. 
 § i.). Benefices, in the beginning, were conferred by the 
 sovereign himself, establishing relations of direct subordina- 
 tion between him and his subjects. Soon the subjects them- 
 selves, anxious to form similar ties of dependence for their 
 own advantage, began to grant parts of their own domains to 
 inferior vassals, on the same conditions on which they had 
 received them. Thus were established the different degrees 
 of the feudal hierarchy. But it owed its development more 
 than all to the constant shocks of a long period of disorder, 
 which led to the diminution of the class of freemen, and the 
 disappearance of free or allodial property, the surest guaran- 
 tee of personal freedom. In a society in which the sovereign 
 power, unable to secure the rights of individuals, was in 
 most cases compelled to let every man defend himself, inde- 
 pendence was full of danger for the weak, and served only 
 to expose them to the aggressions of the strong. The neces- 
 sity of securing an effectual protection introduced the cus- 
 tom of commendation. The holder of a small allodium, re- 
 nouncing his sterile and perilous rights, surrendered his lands 
 to some noble, from whom he received them again as a bene- 
 fice, taking the oath of fidelity and homage, binding himself 
 to follow him in his wars, to serve him at the risk of fortune 
 and life, and pay certain Jines of more or less extent. In 
 exchange for this, the lord promised him justice and protec- 
 tion, an asylum in danger, and defence sword in hand. 
 Such were the principal relations which feudal homage estab- 
 lished between sovereign and vassal. (For a fuller devel- 
 opment v. supplement.) 
 
 152. Development of feudalism. — Alteration of its primi- 
 tive character. — Feudalism, repressed in France by the strong 
 hand of Charlemagne, gained strength after his death, and 
 was rapidly developed amid the endless wars which arose 
 
168 GENERAL IDEA OF FEUDALISM IN ETJEOPE. 
 
 from the divisions and dismemberment of the empire, during 
 which the sovereign had constant need of the aid and support 
 of his vassals. At length not only lands but dignities be- 
 came hereditary (capitulary of Kiersy, 877) : the impover- 
 ished kings having no longer any domains to distribute, 
 granted the civil and military offices under the title of fiefs, 
 and thus the whole social system was changed. 
 
 But this excessive development changed also the original 
 character of feudalism. Instead of securing faithful servants 
 to the king, the lord paramount, it raised him powerful rivals; 
 and the lords, masters of their government to perpetuity, 
 powerful by the extent of their domains and the number of 
 their vassals, considered themselves as petty sovereigns, and 
 took but little thought of a supremacy which they could re- 
 sist with impunity. The royal sovereignty seemed annihi- 
 lated ; and there seemed to be scarcely any difference be- 
 tween the power of the great feudal lords and that of a king 
 who had no real authority but a suzerain's over the vassals 
 on his own domains. 
 
 If we consider the relations between vassals and their 
 rear-vassals, we shall acknowledge >th% feudalism, rising 
 from the wants of society, rendered real service by develop- 
 ing generous ideas, consecrating good faith, and preserving a 
 certain degree of discipline. But still even here it often 
 wandered from its aim. The feudal lords disregarded the 
 rights of their inferiors, which no superior influence com- 
 pelled them to respect. The inferior suzerains, instead of 
 becoming the protectors, were the tyrants of their vassals, 
 who were reduced to the condition of serfs, and groaned 
 under a long and bitter oppression. 
 
 153. State of feudalism in the different countries of Eu- 
 rope. — The feudal system was established with great regu- 
 larity in England after the Norman conquest, and Scotland 
 borrowed it from England. The Normans, who carried it 
 
GENERAL IDEA OF FEUDALISM IN EUROPE. 169 
 
 with them into southern Italy, found that it had already been 
 introduced there by the Lombards of Beneventum. It seems 
 to have been introduced into the northern provinces of Spain at 
 the same time as in the south of France. In the last, however, 
 free estates were numerous at all periods. In Aragon it re- 
 ceived a full development : but less in Castile and Portugal, 
 where fiefs were little used. Neither did it take a strong 
 hold in the noi'th and east of Europe, in Sweden, Denmark, 
 Bohemia, and Hungary. In France and Germany its reign 
 was more general, although it led in each country to very 
 different results. In France, where it seemed upon the point 
 of annihilating the royal authority, a bitter contest soon be- 
 gan, in which the latter was almost always victorious. In 
 Germany, the sovereign authority, united and strong at the 
 accession of the Saxon dynasty, when it was so weak and 
 divided in France, sustained itself for some time with all the 
 splendor of the imperial dignity, and the emperor disposed 
 according to his own good pleasure of the high offices which 
 in France had become hereditary. But when royalty began 
 to regain strength in France, it had already lost it beyond 
 the Rhine : and we shall see the turbulence of the German 
 princes, the contests of the priesthood and the empire, and 
 the disastrous wars of Italy, prepare the way for that inde- 
 pendence and supremacy of the great feudal lords, which 
 reached its height in the thirteenth century, and reduced the 
 emperor to the state of the mere head of a confederation, 
 while the kings of France were marching with rapid strides 
 towards absolute power. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 INVASIONS OF THE NOETHMEN. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Religion and manners of the Northmen. — Sea-kings. — First ex- 
 cursions of the Northmen, and first establishment on the different coasts 
 of Europe. — Their expeditions against the Carolingian empire. — Their 
 stations on the French coast. — Irruptions into the provinces. — Neustria 
 granted to Rollo. — Foundation of the duchy of Normandy. 
 
 § II. Youth of William the Conqueror. — He disputes Harold's right 
 to the throne of England. — Battle of Hastings. — William crowned at 
 Westminster. — Sequel of the conquest. — Desperate struggle. — WUliam'a 
 cruelty. — Massacres of Northumberland. — The outlaws. — Organization 
 of the Normans after the conquest — Introduction of the feudal sys- 
 tem. — Division of lands among the conquerors. — Oppression of the con- 
 quered. — Game laws, &c. 
 
 § III. State of Italy. — First appearance of the Normans in Italy. — 
 Expedition of the sons of Tancred of Hauteville. — Conquest of Puglia. — 
 Arrival of Robert Guiscard and Roger. — Conquest of Sicily and South- 
 ern Italy. — Exploits of Guiscard. — Union of the county of Sicily and 
 Norman duchies of Italy. 
 
 Roger II., first king of the two Sicilies. — Wars against the Greeks 
 and Germans. — Contest between William II. and Frederic Barbarossa. 
 — Marriage of Henry of Germany and Constance of Sicily. — War be- 
 tween Henry and Tancred. — William IH., Tancred's son, dethroned. — 
 The kingdom of the two Sicilies united to the empire. 
 
INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN. 171 
 
 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN IN THE NINTH AND TENTH CEN- 
 TURIES. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE NORTHMEN IN NEUSTRIA. 
 
 154. Religion of the Northmen. — The Northmen came 
 originally from Cimbria and Scandinavia, the Denmark, Swe- 
 den, and Norway of modern Europe. They sprang from 
 the same race with the Franks and Anglo-Saxons, whose 
 language they understood ; but the conversion of the latter 
 to Christianity, had broken the ties which had bound them to 
 their Scandinavian brethren. The Northmen, in the eighth 
 century, still faithful to their ancient traditions, adored Odin, 
 the legislator of these regions, whom they had made their god. 
 According to the Scandinavian mythology, Odin, and Frigga 
 his wife, live in a cidatel inaccessible to the attacks of the 
 evil genii. His son Thor, who next to him is the strongest 
 of gods and men, is armed with iron gauntlets and a club, 
 with which he crushes all his enemies. Thor is the first 
 of the Ases, the divine race of Odin, who preside over the 
 destinies of men, sustain the warrior's courage, and inspire 
 those warlike songs which the bards sing at the banquets 
 of heroes. Odin sends into the midst of battle the virgin 
 Walkyries, to select the warriors that are to perish, and guide 
 them across the narrow bridge which leads to heaven, and 
 of which the rainbow is the visible part. It is they also who 
 pour out the flowing cup of beer and hydromel ; while the 
 miraculous wild-boar, which, after having nourished the Wal- 
 halla, comes to life again every evening, is served up for the 
 feast. Cowards, on the contrary, return to the empire of 
 death, where the palace of Anguish, the table of Hunger, and 
 the couch of Leanness await them. 
 
 155. Manners of the Northmen. — Sea-kings. — This war- 
 
172 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN. 
 
 like religion inspired the Northmen with contempt for life 
 and invincible bravery. War and warlike exercises filled 
 up the whole of their adventurous existence. To contend in 
 feats of strength and agility, to climb steep rocks, run along 
 the gunwale of a skiff, jump lightly from oar to oar with the 
 regular movement of the rowers, throw two javelins together, 
 fight with either hand with equal dexterity, swim across an 
 arm of the sea, subdue a rebellious steed, spring upon him at 
 every gait, drink beer in the skull of an enemy ; such were 
 the games of the pirate from whom death drew nothing but a 
 smile, and for whom the field of battle had all the charms 
 of a young bride. Scattered along the Scandinavian coast 
 under a cold and sombre sky, on an arid and ungrateful soil 
 which scarcely gave its inhabitants food, the Northmen 
 waited in their smoky cabins the end of the long winter 
 months. As soon as spring opened the sea to their ships, the 
 youngest sons of their sovereign, whom the right of primo- 
 geniture excluded from the paternal inheritance, set forth 
 with the boldest companions to seek kingdoms for themselves. 
 The same chief was their commander when they landed. 
 They saluted him with the name of king : but it was only in 
 battle, or on the sea, that he was king. For in the banquet 
 they sat in circle, and the beer-horn passed from hand to 
 hand without distinction of first or last. The king of the sea, 
 or the king of the fight, was followed with fidelity and obeyed 
 with zeal ; for he was renowned as the bravest of the brave, 
 as one who had never slept under a boarded roof, or drunk by 
 the side of a sheltered fire. The Northmen cared but little 
 whither they were going. They launched their light barks, 
 and abandoned them to the guidance of the winds. Some- 
 times they set forth during a storm, sure of coming upon their 
 prey unawares, and steered cheerfully towards plunder under 
 the protection of the tempest. Such were these redoubtable 
 pirates, who after having terrified all Europe by their ravages 
 
INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN. 173 
 
 and frightful cruelty, became the founders of vast and power- 
 ful states. 
 
 156. First excursions of the Northmen. — Under the name 
 of Varegues, they laid at Novgorod and Kief the first founda- 
 tions of the Russian empire (862) : Iceland fell into their 
 power in 874 ; and in the British Isles they renewed all the 
 terrors of the Saxon invasion (v. ch. iii.). In Ireland (to- 
 wards 796), they founded or conquered the cities of Dublin, 
 Waterford, and Limerick. They invaded the Orcades, the 
 Hebrides, and Shetland. Their depredations extended soon 
 to Spain, where the Mussulmen defended themselves vigor- 
 ously, though the distance, perhaps, was their most effectual 
 protection. But the Carolingian states, which three hundred 
 leagues of sea-coast exposed to every attack, became the chief 
 object of their enterprises. Their attacks were retarded for 
 a while by the genius of Charlemagne. Numerous vessels 
 were equipped along the coasts, and the beacon of Caligula 
 raised again to lighten the sea. But one day (808), near a 
 port of the Mediterranean^Charlemagne descried the long- 
 boats of the Northmen and wept. " Do you know," said he, 
 to his attendants, " why I weep so bitterly ? It certainly 
 is not for myself that I fear. But I am deeply grieved that 
 those pirates should have come so near the coast during my 
 lifetime ; and still more, when I think of all that they will do 
 to my children and their people." In fact, his death was the 
 signal for a second invasion of France : and the descents 
 of the Northmen became frequent, or rather continued till 
 their final establishment in Neustria. 
 
 157. Enterprises of the Northmen against the Carolingian 
 empire. — Charlemagne's successors called the barbarians of 
 their own accord, and were imprudent enough to employ 
 them in their private wars. From 830, a band established 
 themselves near the mouth of the Loire in the isle of Her, 
 which took the name of Noirmoutier from a monastery 
 
174 INVASIONS OF THE NORTHMEN. 
 
 which they had burned on landuig. This was the first of 
 those stations from which they set out to ascend the rivers, 
 and where they deposited their booty. Another island which 
 was ceded to them by the first Lothario, at the mouth of the 
 Scheldt, became one of their most formidable retreats, and 
 was enriched with the spoils of western France. Hastings, 
 who was born a Frank, and had fled from home and turned 
 pirate, ascended the Loire, plundered Amboise, possessed 
 himself of Nantes (843), and extended his devastations into 
 Italy. Soon Mans, Orleans, Angers, fell into the hands 
 of the Northmen. In the south of France, the banks of the 
 Charente, the Garonne, and Adour were ravaged ; and Bor- 
 deaux was sacked three times. Rouen had been burnt in 
 841, and the pirates had stationed themselves in the island 
 of Oyssel. Four years afterwards, Regnar Lodbrock ad- 
 vanced to the walls of Paris ; and finding them defenceless, 
 plundered the city. Charles the Bald not daring to fight, 
 bought his retreat with a large sum of money. The North- 
 men swore by their gods and their arms, that they would 
 never return : but in twelve years they reappeared in still 
 greater numbers, and burnt the church of St. Genevieve 
 (8-57). The brave duke of France, Robert the Strong, who 
 had several times repulsed their bands from the banks of the 
 Loire, fell in resisting a new invasion (866). At the same 
 time, Lorraine and the banks of the Rhine were the scenes 
 of frightful devastation. At length in 885, Siegfried ap- 
 peared before Paris with seven hundred boats. Gozlin the 
 bishop, and Eudes count of Paris, defended intrepidly the 
 two wooden bridges which united the Island of the City to 
 the shore. But Charles the Fat fearing to fight the Barba- 
 rians, though superior to them in number, concluded a 
 shameful treaty (886). (v. No. 146.) 
 
 158. Foundation of the duchy of Normandy by Rollo. — 
 Meanwhile the Northmen, gorged with booty and weary of 
 
CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 175 
 
 plunder, began to demand lands and domains instead of tri- 
 bute. Rorik, one of the pirates of the Scheldt, had obtained 
 the duchy of Frisia from Charles the Bald (870). A new 
 chief, Rollo, ascended the Seine and possessed himself of 
 Rouen. These wanderers, driven from their own homes by 
 the barren soil and severe climate, needed somewhere an- 
 other home which they could call their own. Charles the 
 Simple saw that this was the only way of securing Paris and 
 his kingdom from new assaults, and concluded at St. Clair 
 on the Ept (912) a treaty with Rollo, by which he gave him 
 his daughter Gisela in marriage, and the city of Rouen with 
 the western part of Neustria for her dower. Rollo became 
 a Christian and duke of Normandy, and in this direction the 
 ravages of the Northmen ceased. The churches and abbeys 
 which had been destroyed, were rebuilt ; the ramparts of the 
 cities repaired ; a severe police repressed robbery, and the 
 country from a desert became a rich and flourishing pro- 
 vince. Brittany, too, was granted to him by subinfeudation, 
 to revert, like Normandy, under certain circumstances to the 
 king of France. 
 
 §11. 
 
 CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. BATTLE OF HAST- 
 INGS. DIVISION OF THE CONQUERED TERRITORY. 
 
 159. Youth of William the Conqueror. — The Northmen 
 established in Neustria by victory and conquest, were none 
 the less subject to the influence of France. The feudal in- 
 stitutions were confirmed in the new fief under the sons of 
 Rollo : the French clergy exercised a powerful influence 
 over the converted Barbarians, and Normandy in a few years 
 became a French province. 
 
176 CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 
 
 Still the Northmen had not wholly lost their adventurous 
 spirit, and Neustria long served them as a great and power- 
 ful station; from whence, in the eleventh century, the found- 
 ers of the kingdom of Naples set forth on their hazardous 
 expedition, and soon afterwards the conquerors of England. 
 
 The sixth duke of Normandy, Robert the Liberal, after 
 having conquered French Vexin and subdued his rebellious 
 vassals, set out barefoot on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, 
 leaving the duchy to his natural son William (1037). The 
 minority of the new duke was protected by the clergy, who 
 resolutely opposed the " Truce of God" to the constant broils 
 and dissensions of those troubled times. William soon showed 
 that the energy of his ancestors was not to slumber in his 
 veins. At twenty he passed for the most redoubtable knight 
 in France ; " and it was, say his contemporaries, a beautiful 
 and a terrible thing to see him master his steed, brandishing 
 his sword, dazzling your eyes with his buckler, and threaten- 
 ing with his helmet and javelins." He already gave proof, 
 too, of that cold-blooded cruelty of the northern pirate. Some 
 men of the garrison of Alencon had reproached him with the 
 obscurity and humiliation of his mother ; William took the 
 city by assault, had the hands and feet of all its defenders 
 cut off, and their bloody limbs thrown over the wall : a 
 worthy prelude to the implacable vengeance of the tyrant 
 of the Anglo-Saxons. 
 
 160. William's invasion of England. — Battle of Hast- 
 ings. — Edward the Confessor, king of England, died without 
 children (1060), naming Harold son of Count Godwin as the 
 worthiest to succeed him. But William had already made 
 Harold swear that he would aid him in gaining the throne 
 of England for himself, and now claimed it in virtue of the 
 extorted oath and a pretended promise of Edward. Harold 
 prepared himself for a vigorous defence, both against his 
 rival and against his own brother Tosti, who had come 
 
CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 177 
 
 against him with the assistance of Harold king of Norway. 
 In the first battle against some troops that had been assem- 
 bled in haste, the king of the North defeated the English and 
 crossed a marsh on the bodies of those who were drowned in 
 their flight. Harold himself now advanced to meet him, and 
 was near taking him by surpi'ise. Before the battle began, 
 Harold offered his brother peace and his ancient honors. 
 " But what for my ally ?" said Tosti. " Seven feet of Eng- 
 lish ground, or, as he is taller than other men, perhaps a little 
 more." This time the English were victorious, but a more 
 redoubtable enemy had already landed with a banner conse- 
 crated by the pope, and an army of bold adventurers, eager 
 for conquest and spoil. William's foot slipped as he landed. 
 " Bad sign," cried his companions. " 'Tis God who gives 
 me possession of this soil, by making me seize it with both 
 hands." He offered Harold to refer their dispute to the 
 pope. The Saxon refused, and the two armies met at Hast- 
 ings. The battle was long doubtful. Harold fighting gal- 
 lantly at the head of his countrymen, and William leading 
 his disciplined bands with the skill of an experienced cap- 
 tain. At last an arrow pierced the brain of the Saxon king, 
 and his army fled. The enemy pursued all night (1066). 
 
 161. Sequel of the conquest. — Desperate contests. — Wil- 
 liam hastened to London, where Edgar, king Edward's 
 nephew, submitted without opposition. " In the year of the 
 Lord, 1067, the duke of Normandy entered London in the 
 midst of the enthusiasm of the clergy and the people, who 
 saluted him as king. He was crowned by Elred, archbishop 
 of York : then the nobles took the oath of allegiance, and 
 after having received hostages, he found himself surely 
 possessed of the throne and dreaded by all those who had 
 made pretensions to the royal power." To secure the papal 
 sanction, he sent rich presents to Rome in return for the con- 
 secrated banner which had triumphed at Hastings. 
 
 8* 
 
178 CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 
 
 At the same time, he levied enormous tributes upon the 
 Saxon population ; and made such a distribution of the spoils 
 among his companions, " that neatherds and varlets became 
 rich and gentlemen." 
 
 Still the conquest was not completed. The territory won 
 at Hastings was scarcely a fourth of the kingdom. For 
 seven years more William had to contend against the ener- 
 getic resistance of the Saxon race, less to crush rebellions, 
 than to subdue people that still maintained their independence. 
 When he returned to Normandy to celebrate his triumph at 
 Rouen by splendid festivals, the lieutenants whom he left 
 treated the conquered people with insupportable tyranny. 
 The irritation became universal. The Saxons of Devonshire, 
 who had given refuge to the family of Harold, gave the 
 signal for insurrection by repulsing the Norman officers, 
 whom they called William's brigands, sword in hand ; and 
 the king was compelled to return in haste, in order to sup- 
 press a formidable revolt. 
 
 The next year Edgar, escaping from the hands of his 
 rival, raised the Scotch clans and called the Irish and Danes 
 to his aid, while Harold's son defeated the Normans near 
 Bristol. For two years, the conquest seemed doubtful. At 
 the approach of the enemy, the Saxons would take refuge in 
 the woods with their wives and children, preferring the lives 
 of outlaws to the yoke of their conquerors. At Durham, 
 nine hundred Normans were put to death, with the governor 
 of the place. William swore that he would take a fearful 
 vengeance, and kept his word. A thousand men were mas- 
 sacred in Northumberland, which had resisted to the last : 
 cattle, tools, hoi'ses, harvests — all were destroyed, and the 
 land lay nine years without cultivation. A whole century 
 was not enough to efface the traces of this work of devasta- 
 tion. Some few fared better. Herward, whom the Norman 
 poets call the indomitable outlaw, Jiad established himself 
 
CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 179 
 
 with a band of faithful adherents in the marshes of Lincoln 
 and Norfolk. William respected his heroism, and restored 
 him his inheritance. 
 
 162. Organization of the Normans after tJie conquest. — 
 England was at last subdued, and the conqueror could forge 
 at leisure his iron yoke. He began by establishing the feu- 
 dal system, for the advantage of his Norman knights. But 
 to give still greater strength to the royal despotism, he re- 
 quired the rear-vassals, contrary to all the usuages of feudal- 
 ism, to do homage directly to the king himself. The English 
 were excluded from all political rights, and deprived of the 
 greater part of their property. The names of all those who 
 had fallen in battle, who had survived the defeat, or who had 
 been prevented by some involuntary cause from joining the 
 army, were rigorously sought out and all their possessions 
 seized. The children of the first were deprived of their in- 
 heritance for ever ; the second were stripped of their estates, 
 and felt, say the Norman writers, that their .conqueror, in 
 leaving them life, had done enough for them ; and finally, 
 those who had not taken up arms were stripped, because they 
 had intended to do so. Of this universal spoliation the king 
 kept for himself the treasures of the kings, the plate and 
 jewels of the churches, and all the precious things that were 
 found in the warehouses of the merchants. The Norman 
 captains had vast domains, castles, villages, and whole cities. 
 Smaller portions were distributed among the common soldiers. 
 All these tracts were soon covered with citadels and for- 
 tresses ; and all the natives were compelled to swear obe- 
 dience and fidelity. Only a few rich Englishmen preserved 
 their domains as vassals of some Norman lord. Some aban- 
 doned their native land, and sought an asylum at Constanti- 
 nople, where they met other Normans, and proved their valor 
 against Robert Guiscard (see next §). They were to be 
 under the name of Varangians, the last defenders of the By- 
 
180 CONQUEST OF GREAT BRITAIN BY WILLIAM. 
 
 zantine empire, and preserve their native Saxon till the day 
 of its fall. 
 
 163. Oppression of the conquered. — Game laws, SfC. — In 
 England the name of Englishman had become an insult. All 
 the prelates that bore it, were displaced. The worship of 
 English saints was forbidden, their tombs broken open and 
 their ashes scattered. The English language and writers, 
 were rejected as barbarous. French was taught in the schools 
 and used in courts. The Danegeld, a tax of odious memory, 
 was levied again ; and the curfew rang at eight, to warn all 
 Saxons, rich or poor, to cover their fires and put out their 
 lights. Hunting was forbidden them, perhaps as much to 
 take from them even this pretext for wearing arms, as to 
 gratify the conqueror's inordinate passion for field sports. 
 *' William," says a Saxon chronicle, " condemned every one 
 that killed a stag, or a hind, to lose his eyes ; and even made 
 laws to protect the lives of hares. This savage king loved 
 wild beasts as if he had been their father." Not contented 
 with having reserved all the forests and woods, he had thirty- 
 six villages destroyed to make room for the new forest, which 
 he peopled with game of all kinds for himself and his knights. 
 Finally, a tribunal was established to ascertain liow much 
 wool might yet ie cut from the English sheep. 
 
 After the pacification, or rather the subjection of Eng- 
 land, William was recalled to Normandy by the frequent 
 revolts of his son Robert. Philip I. of France hazarded an 
 ironical speech, which was repeated to the irritable conque- 
 ror, who resolved to take bloody vengeance. He had already 
 burned Nantes and was advancing upon Paris, when death 
 stopped him short in his victorious career (1089). 
 
CONQUEST OF SOUTHEEN ITALY. 181 
 
 § III. 
 
 CONQUEST OF SOUTHERN ITALY BY THE NORMANS. NORMAN 
 
 KINGS IN THE TWO SICILIES. 
 
 164. State of Italy. — About half a century before the 
 battle of Hastings, which gave England to the French-Nor- 
 mans, some of them had already begun to take possession of 
 Southern Italy. The whole country indeed seemed to hold 
 out peculiar attractions for the adventures of every land; for 
 the Greeks were contending in one section, the Germans had 
 the supremacy in another, and Sicily — the fate of which has 
 ever been so closely linked with that of the Peninsula — was 
 in the hands of the Saracens. 
 
 The territory comprised under the general denomination 
 of Apulia, formed with Otranto and Calabria the new province 
 or Theme of Lombardy. The emperors of Constantinople 
 had regained a nominal sovereignty over these districts, 
 which they governed by means of an officer called Catapan : 
 they collected taxes, coined money, and regulated by charter 
 the rights and privileges of the citizens. But still their 
 power was too remote and too feeble to exei't any fixed or 
 regular action over Apulia. On the other hand, the German 
 emperors, as the successors of Charlemagne, raised preten- 
 sions to the Greek possessions in Italy, and claimed the feudal 
 homage of the Lombard chiefs. On the west of the Apen- 
 nines, the great duchy of Beneventum had preserved its in- 
 dependence, but had lost its unity by the dismemberment of 
 the principalities of Capua and Salerno. The maritime cities 
 of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi, had formed themselves into re- 
 publics. In this state of parcelling and anarchy, Southern 
 Italy was an easy prey. 
 
 165. First expedition of the Normans into Italy. — Con- 
 
182 CONQUEST OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 
 
 quest of Apulia. — Forty Normans returning from a pilgrim- 
 age to Jerusalem, landed at Salerno while the city was sore 
 pressed by the attack of a band of Saracens. The Normans 
 easily put the invaders to flight, and on their return home 
 told such wonderful tales of the glory that was to be won in 
 this new field of adventure, that three hundred of their coun- 
 trymen set forth under the guidance of Raynulphus, to try 
 their fortunes there. Raynulphus soon distinguished himself 
 by his valor in the service of the duke of Naples, and was 
 rewarded by the castle of Anversa (1026) and the title of 
 count under the sovereignty of the emperor Conrad. This 
 first establishment soon became the rallying point of crowds 
 of adventurers. 
 
 Tancred of Haute ville, a Norman lord, had twelve sons 
 already renowned for their valor ; three of whom, Williavi, 
 Drogon, and Humphrey, renouncing their share of the pa- 
 ternal inheritance, went to try their chance in Italy (1037). 
 At first they aided the prince of Salerno against Capua. 
 Then they fought for the patrician Maniaces against the 
 Saracens of Sicily, and the victory gained for William the 
 surname of Iron Arm. Their ungrateful allies refusing to 
 pay the stipulated reward, they declared war against the 
 empire. The contest was waged with all their usual intre- 
 pidity, and marked by exploits which seem more like the 
 fables of knight-errantry than sober history. On one occa- 
 sion, seven hundred Normans are said to have met sixty 
 thousand Greeks, who, touched with compassion at the sight 
 of this feeble band, were willing to let them pass unharmed. 
 But the Normans fell upon them impetuously, and put them 
 to flight. However much we may wish to deduct from these 
 wonderful tales, it is certain that between 1040 and 1043 they 
 made themselves masters of Apulia, and received the investi- 
 ture of it from the emperor Henry III., leaving the Greeks 
 only a few possessions on the coast. 
 
CONQUEST OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 183 
 
 166. Robert Guiscard and Roger. — Conquest of Sicily 
 and southern Italy. — After the death of William of the Iron 
 Arm, and the assassination of his brother Drogon, who had 
 succeeded him in 1046, Humphrey became count of Apulia. 
 Soon the Normans began again their victorious excursions, 
 with the aid of Robert Guiscard and Roger, youngest sons 
 of the lord of Hauteville. Robert, setting out from Norman- 
 dy with five horse and thirty foot, threw himself into the 
 wild mountainous districts of southern Italy, and began his 
 career by robberies and murder. His band increased rapid- 
 ly, and his expeditions spread terror throughout the peninsula. 
 The three great powers of the age, the pope, the emperors 
 of the East and of Germany, leagued together against a 
 band of Normans : Pope Leo IX. was defeated and taken 
 prisoner near Civitella (1053). But satisfied with defeating 
 his army, the cunning conqueror treated the pontiff with 
 every mark of respect, and profited by his victory to obtain 
 a grant of his conquests as a fief of the Holy See : and thus 
 began a supremacy which was to be the source of infinite suf- 
 fering to posterity, and extend its influence to our own days. 
 
 After Humphrey's death (1057), Robert Guiscard caused 
 his brother Roger to invade Calabria, and obtained from the 
 pope the title of duke of Apulia, with the investiture of Sicily, 
 when he should have taken it from the Saracens. It was a 
 sad change for that fertile island, which in the hands of the 
 Saracens bloomed like a garden. The Mahometans had re- 
 sisted the Greeks successfully, but they were compelled to 
 give way before the impetuous valor of the Normans. In an 
 ambuscade they killed a nephew of Roger, and ate his heart, 
 believing that it would give them something of his valor. 
 But the Normans defeated their army of fifty thousand men 
 at Ceramio, took Palermo after a siege of five months, and 
 Roger was charged with the government of Sicily with the 
 title of grand-count (1074). 
 
184 CONQUEST OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 
 
 Meanwhile the taking of Bari, Otranto, Salerno, and 
 Amalfi, had completed the ruin of the Greek power in Italy. 
 Robert Guiscard then crossed the Adriatic, and defeated the 
 imperial army near Durazzo. In this battle the Saxon emi- 
 grants found themselves once more in face of the hated Nor- 
 man. Robert followed up his victory, and had penetrated 
 as far as Thessaly, in the hope of displaying his victorious 
 banner before the walls of Constantinople, when he was re- 
 called by the disputes between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. 
 The pope called on him for aid, and Robert, without heeding 
 the menaces of the emperor, and hoping to profit by Grego- 
 ry's dependent situation, marched to his rescue, and gave 
 him an asylum in his states. Soon after he died (1085), just 
 as he had received tidings of a new victory over the Greeks. 
 
 167. Foundation of the kingdom of the tioo Sicilies. — Ro- 
 ger 11. — While Roger's eldest son Boemond, preferring the 
 glory of the first crusade to his paternal inheritance, went in 
 search of distant conquests (v. ch. xii.), Roger Bursa held 
 the sceptre with a feeble hand, and transmitted it to his son 
 William. William died without children (1127), and his 
 cousin, Roger II. of Sicily, had himself proclaimed at Paler- 
 mo by the archbishop and the inhabitants, and three years 
 after received the investiture from the antepope Anaclete. 
 Pope Innocent II., forgetting the fate of Leo IX., ventured 
 to ineet Roger in the field, and like his predecessor was de- 
 feated, and compelled to comply with the demands of the vic- 
 torious Norman, Robert Guiscard had compelled his pris- 
 oner to grant him the investiture of his conquests. Roger 
 demanded and received the title of Ici7ig of the two Sicilies. 
 Thus the possessions of the two Norman branches were unit- 
 ed under one sceptre, and the popes, extending their sway 
 even in the midst of defeat, obtained the suzerainety of this 
 fertile kingdom. 
 
 The ppwer of the Normans in Italy had now reached its 
 
COKQUEST OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 185 
 
 highest point. Roger II., king of Naples and Sicily, duke 
 of Apulia, and prince of Capua, declared war against the 
 Gx-eeks, and passed his whole life in fighting them, without 
 ever meeting an adversary that could resist him. He made 
 himself master of Corfu, Etolia, and Boetia, burnt the suburbs 
 of Constantinople, and left as the fruit of his conquests the 
 culture of the silk- worm, which some of his prisoners brought 
 with them to Sicily. 
 
 J 68. Successors of Roger II. — Reunion of the two Sici- 
 lies to the empire. — The successor of this great prince, Wil- 
 liam I. the Bad (1154-1166), attacked at the same time by 
 the emperor of the East and Frederic Barbarossa, almost 
 stripped of his states of Naples, and repulsed by the pope, 
 who refused to recognize him for king, restored his fortunes 
 by a great victory, and obtained the investiture. His son 
 William II. the Good (1166-1169) united with Alexander 
 III., who understood the cause of Italian independence better 
 than his predecessors, and was an active ally of that famous 
 league of Lombardy, which checked the course of the re- 
 doubtable emperor (v. ch. xi., § iv.): but Frederic, seeking 
 by policy what he was unable to gain by force, obtained the 
 hand of Constance, Roger's posthumous daughter, for his son 
 Henry, who becoming emperor, claimed in his wife's name 
 (1189) the inheritance of William II. It was in vain that 
 the Sicilians, in hatred of the German dominion, proclaimed 
 Tancred, a cousin of the late king ; and that Pope Clement 
 III. gave the investiture to the defender of the national 
 cause (1190); for after the death of Tancred, who had 
 fought against Henry in Italy, and Richard Coeur de Lion 
 in Sicily, the resistance of the young king William III. was 
 crushed by a war of extermination, and the dominion of the 
 Normans, which had withstood both empires for a century 
 and a half, fell as a first fruit of the intei'marriage of princes 
 (1194). 
 
CHAPTER XL 
 
 HISTOEY OF GEEMAJSTY AND ITALY TO THE DEATH 
 OE FEEDEEICK H. 
 
 SUMMAEY. 
 
 § I. Dismemberment of the empire of Charlemagne. — Arnolph of 
 Carinthia, king of Germany, then emperor. — Zwentibold, king of Lor- 
 raine. — Wars in Italy against the Moravians. — Lewis the Child. — Final 
 establishment of the Hungarians in Pannonia. — Extinction of the family 
 of Charlemagne in Germany. — Election of Conrad of Franconia. — War 
 with the duke of Bavaria. — Henry of Saxony, the Fowler. — Wise and 
 strong government. — War against the Hungarians. — Otho I., the Great. 
 — Contests with the vassals. — Bohemia subjected to tribute. — Expedition 
 into Italy (v. next paragraph). — Progress of feudality under Otho II. and 
 HI., and Henry II. — Relations of the empire with the Bohemians and 
 Hungarians. 
 
 Accession of Conrad the Salic. — Henry II. contends with the Bohe- 
 mians, the Hungarians. — His ascendency in Italy. — Minority of Henry 
 IV. — Power of feudality, disorders in the empire. 
 
 § H. State of Italy. — Rivalry of Guido of Spoleto and Berengarius 
 of Friuli. — Intervention of the emperor Arnolphus. — Guido and his son 
 Lambert, emperors. — Lewis of Burgundy, king of Italy and emperor. — 
 Final triumph of Berengarius. — Lothario. — Berengarius H. of Ivrea. — 
 Adelaide, Lothario's widow, calls Otho II., who marries her. — Revolt 
 and submission of Ludolph, son of Otho. — Otho's second expedition : he 
 is crowned emperor. — Troubles in the church. — Quarrels with the em- 
 pire of the East. — Contest between Conrad and his Italian vassals. — 
 Ascendency of the empire over Italy and the Holy See, under Henry HI. 
 
GERMANY TO THE "WAR OF INVESTITURES. 187 
 
 § III. Causes of the influence of the church and the Holy See in the 
 middle ages. — Relations between the church and the empire. — Confu- 
 sion of temporal and spiritual. — Pretensions of the emperors. — Of the 
 right of investiture. — State of manners. — Necessity of a reformation. — ■ 
 Political position of the popes in Christendom. — Avowed ascendency 
 of the Holy See. — Accession of Gregory VII. — His double aim. — He 
 resists simony and the corruption of manners, and defends the inde- 
 pendence of the church. — Contest with the emperor Henry IV. — The 
 countess Matilda. — Insurrection of vassals. — Henry at Canossa. — De- 
 posed. — He triumphs over his rivals, and in Italy. — Death of Gregory 
 VII. — The contest continues under Urban II. — First crusade. — Reverses 
 and death of Henry IV. — Henry V. forces the pope to yield the investi- 
 ture. — Councils opposed to the decrees of the emperor. Henry V. 
 
 triumphs in Italy. — Troubles in Germany. — Concordate of Woryns. 
 
 § IV. Progress of feudal povi'er in Germany. — Beginning of the 
 quarrels between Guelphs and Ghibellines. — Lothario II. — Conrad of 
 Franconia gets the better of Henry of Saxony. — Accession of Frederick 
 Barbarossa. — Religious and political troubles in Italy. — Arnold of Brescia. 
 — Frederick Barbarossa interferes in Italy. — The quarrel of the Guelphs 
 and Ghibellines becomes the quarrel of the Holy See and the empire. — 
 Alexander III. — League of Lombardy. — Power of the emperor in Italy 
 after the annexation of the kingdom of the two Sicilies — Pontificate of 
 Innocent III. — Influence of the papacy over all Europe. — Frederick II. 
 — Contest with the pope and Lombard cities. — Eccelhno chief of the 
 Ghibellines. — Frederick at the crusade. — Civil wars in Germany and 
 Italy. — Frederick II. deposed. — New vs^ars. — Portrait of this prince. 
 
 §1. 
 
 GERMANY FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE 
 WAR OF INVESTITURES. 
 
 169. Dismemberment of the Carolingian empire after 
 Charles the Fat. — Amid the convulsions which followed the 
 dethronement of Charles the Fat (v. ch. ix.), Germany, 
 which had just placed the heir of her kings upon the throne 
 
188 GERMANY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 
 
 of France, still pi'eserved the preponderance. The natural 
 son of Carloman, Arnolph of Carinthia, having been chosen 
 king of Gennany, received the homage of Eudes, king of 
 France, and Robert Guelph, or Welf, king of Burgundy beyond 
 the Jura. . Lewis, Boson's son and successor, put Cisjuran 
 Burgundy under Arnolph's protection : Berengarius, duke of 
 Friuli, a pretender to the crown of Italy, invokedArnolph's 
 assistance against his competitor Guido of Spoleto ; and final- 
 ly this prince gave the kingdom of Lorraine to his natural 
 son Zwentimbold (895), who had been named after his god- 
 father, a formidable chief of the Moravians. Nothing seemed 
 to be wanting to him but the imperial crown, which Guido 
 had received in 891 from the pope Stephen V., and trans- 
 mitted to his son Lambert. Arnolph causing himself to be 
 crowned at Rome (896) in spite of Lambert's efforts, pre- 
 tended to give laws to Italy, and stripped even his own pro- 
 tegee Berengarius. But he was recalled to Germany by the 
 repeated incursions of the duke of the Moravians, whose 
 alliance he thought he had bought by the cession of Bohe- 
 mia. While he was engaged with this formidable adversary, 
 Lambert and Berengarius, equally jealous of his power and 
 fearful of his ambition, became reconciled and divided Italy 
 between them. 
 
 Arnolph died (899) just as he had received the tidings 
 of a new defeat of the Moravians, and at his death the desti- 
 ny of Germany became as uncertain as before. Berenga- 
 rius took the imperial crown. Zwentimbold was assassinated 
 in Lorraine, and Lewis, Arnolph's legitimate son but seven 
 years old, was acknowledged king of Germany. Only two 
 events mark his reign, the appearance of the Normans in 
 Lorraine, and the final establishment of the Hungarians in 
 Fannonia. These Barbarians from the shores of Lake Mseo- 
 tis and the Caspian Sea, allied themselves with the Bohemians, 
 and invaded the country of the Moravians, whose chief had 
 
GEKBIANY TO THE WAE. OF INVESTITURES. 189 
 
 submitted to the king of Germany. They crushed a German 
 army near Augsburgh, defeated the duke of Thuringia, pen- 
 etrated into Bavaria, and held Europe in terror during a 
 whole century by their ravages and incursions. 
 
 170. Extinction of tJie Carolingians in Germany. — Con- 
 rad of Franconia. — Henry of Saxony. — Lewis the Child, 
 Charlemagne's last descendant in Germany, died in 911. The 
 crown became elective, and passed to the most powerful fam- 
 ilies. Four great vassals could aspire to it : the dukes of 
 Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, and Saxony. Conrad of Fran- 
 conia was elected (911). But the feudal chiefs pretended to 
 throw off at will a power which they themselves had created. 
 Arnolph the Bad, duke of Bavaria, took the title of king, and 
 I'efused to submit to the imperial supremacy. Conrad over- 
 came him in a great battle. But the duke of Bavaria calling 
 in the Hungarians to his assistance, Conrad was killed, and 
 his death left unavenged. He had indicated Henry of Sax- 
 ony as his successor, whose talents and firmness he honored, 
 although his enemy. Conrad's brother, to prevent the inde- 
 cision of the vassals and decide Henry's election, carried him 
 the imperial insignia himself. Henry was hunting when the 
 message reached him, and from this incident received the 
 surname of the Fowler (918). 
 
 Henry the Fowler, proclaimed by the Thuringians and 
 the Saxons, and soon recognized by the Suabians and Bava- 
 rians, opened the dominion of that illustrious house of Sax- 
 ony to which Germany owes its organization and the perma- 
 nent possession of the imperial sceptre. Henry repressed 
 the ambition of the great vassals by forming a regular army, 
 and building in the provinces fortified castles, to which he 
 drew, by the grant of important privileges, the ninth part 
 of the inhabitants of the country. He established marches 
 or margraviats, to defend the northern frontiers against the 
 attacks of the Sclavonians and Sorabians. He conquered 
 
190 GERMANY TO THE WAR OE INVESTITURES. 
 
 the Danes of Jutland, and won the glory of opening the way 
 for Christianity among those savage people. Winceslaus, 
 duke of Bohemia, was compelled to recognize his supremacy 
 (930) ; and the Hungarians who had continued their ravages 
 in eastern Germany were defeated in a great battle, the me- 
 mory of which is still preserved in their popular traditions. 
 It was in this period also, that the first municipal cities of 
 Germany are supposed to have been established. 
 
 171. Otho I. the Great and Ms successors. — Otho I., son 
 of Henry the Fowler, was even more renowned than he (936). 
 Menaced at his accession by a crowd of revolted vassals, he 
 made this obstacle serve to confirm his power, by overthrow- 
 ing the rebellious dukes of Suabia, Franconia, Bavaria, and 
 Lorraine, and giving their domains to members of his own 
 family. The usurpation of Boleslaus in Bohemia, after the 
 murder of his brother, furnished Otho with an occasion of 
 invading this duchy and subjecting it to tribute, under pre- 
 text of punishing the assassin and avenging the persecuted 
 Christians (950). The number of Sclavonians (slaves) that 
 he took in this war was so great, that their name, which in 
 their own language means illustrious, became thenceforth 
 the distinctive appellation of captives or serfs. He made two 
 expeditions into Italy, which won for him the surname of the 
 Great and the imperial crown. The close of his reign be- 
 longs to the history of Italy, but from that time, the impe- 
 rial dignity became attached to the sovereignty of Germany 
 (v. next §). 
 
 The powerful authority of this prince, his skilful admin- 
 istration, and his success in arms, had repressed the efforts 
 of feudalism and checked its progress : but under his suc- 
 cessors it promptly repaired its losses. Under Otho II. (973 
 -983), Otho III. (933-1002), and Henry II. of Bavaria 
 (1002-1024), the vassals succeeded in establishing the he- 
 reditary transmission of fiefs, and soon also that of the prin- 
 
GERMANY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 191 
 
 cipal dignities of the crown. Thus the territorial aristocracy 
 was strengthened by the accession of another aristocracy no 
 less dangerous than itself. The imperial throne was elective ; 
 the fiefs and dignities became hereditary ; and it was easy to 
 see, that in a contest between the nobles and the emperor, the 
 emperor would be the loser. While this was going on in 
 Germany, each new reign began with a war in Italy, still 
 renewed, and still without result. The relations of the Sax- 
 on emperors with the Sclavonians and Hungarians were more 
 peaceable. Boleslaus I., the second Christian duke of Po- 
 land (992-1025), received the royal crown from Otho III. 
 Henry II. confirmed to Vaic, sovereign of Hungary, who, 
 under the name of Stephen, became the apostle of his coun- 
 try, the title of king, which he had already received from 
 Pope Sylvester II. (1000). 
 
 172. Extinction of the family of Saxony. — Conrad the 
 Salic. — Henry III. — Henry IV. — On the extinction of the 
 imperial family of Saxony, Conrad the Salic (1024) was 
 raised to the imperial throne ; and this election of a simple 
 lord, merely because he inspired less apprehension to his am- 
 bitious vassals, shows what progress the feudal power had 
 made during the preceding reigns. His reign was passed in 
 counteracting the leagues formed against him, and enforcing 
 the homage of several princes, all ready to shake off" even 
 this slight subjection. With his vassals of Italy he began a 
 contest, which continued under his son Henry III. (1039- 
 1056). This prince, successively conqueror of the Bohemi- 
 ans (1042), and of the Hungarians (1043), whom he sub- 
 jected to the empire, won over the turbulent nobles of Bur- 
 gundy by his marriage with the virtuous Agnes, a princess 
 of Aquitania. In Italy he exercised a powerful ascendency, 
 disposed several times of the pontifical throne, and had the 
 skill to conciliate the Normans in the south of the peninsula, 
 by granting them the investiture of what he could no longer 
 
192 ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 
 
 take from them. The empire was at the height of its gran- 
 deur, comprising the whole of Germany between the Rhine, 
 the Oder, and the Alps ; Italy to the confines of Apulia and 
 Calabria ; Gaul from the Rhine to the Scheldt, the Meuse, the 
 Soane, and the Rhone. But there was no unity in this vast 
 dominion, and the insubordination of the great vassals was a 
 permanent cause of division and decay. 
 
 The young Henry IV., son of Henry III. (1056-1106), 
 had been crowned with the consent of the princes and people, 
 eleven years before the death of his father ; but the imperial 
 dignity was none the better respected during his minority. 
 Agnes tried to make herself partisans by the gift of the great 
 fiefs of Carinthia, Suabia, and Bavaria, but it was only giv- 
 ing new allies to the great vassals ; and the usurpation by 
 their creatures of all the dignities of the church and the em- 
 pire, was the origin of those scandals and disorders which 
 were soon to cause a violent ruptui'e between the empire and 
 the Holy See. 
 
 §11. 
 
 ITALY FROM THE FOUNDATION OF THE EMPIRE TO THE WAR OP 
 INVESTITURES. 
 
 173. State of Italy. — The kingdom of Italy, founded upon 
 the ruins of the dominion of the Lombards, had never em- 
 braced the whole of the peninsula. Towards the end of the 
 ninth century, the independent states of the pope comprised 
 the environs of Rome and exarchate of Ravenna, with the 
 ancient Pentapolis. In the south, the Greeks still defended 
 their lessening territories against the Aglabite Saracens, who 
 had made themselves masters of Sicily and several cities of 
 the main land. The duchies of Beneventum and Salerno, 
 
ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 193 
 
 last remains of the Lombard kingdom, had sustained them- 
 selves between the Greeks and the Latins. Several cities, 
 powerful by their commerce and their mai-ine, Naples, 
 Gaeta, and Amalfi, repelled even the nominal supremacy of 
 the emperor of Constantinople. In the north, maritime com- 
 merce had begun to enrich Venice, which had grown up on 
 the lagoons of the Rialto, and Pisa and Genoa, which pro- 
 claimed their independence at the dismemberment of the 
 empire (888). The kingdom of Italy, which alone had pre- 
 served some degree of strength and unity in the midst of this 
 parcelling, was about to be rent by endless divisions. 
 
 174. Rivalry between the dukes of Spoleto and Friuli. — 
 In escaping from the powerless hands of Charles the Fat, 
 after the diet of Tribur, this kingdom was divided between 
 two powerful lords, Guido of Spoleto, and Berengarius duke 
 of Friuli. Berengarius, though recognized at first in the 
 north of the peninsula, confirmed in his possession by the 
 emperor Arnolph of Carinthia and victorious over the duke 
 of Spoleto at Brescia (889), was still obliged to yield to the 
 persevering energy of his rival, who made himself master, 
 first of the crown of Italy, and then of that of the empire 
 (891). His son Lambert, who was also invested with the 
 imperial dignity (894), forced Berengarius to yield him Italy 
 as far as the Adda. But Guide's death restored the sceptre 
 to his adversary, and Berengarius seemed now to have ob- 
 tained quiet possession of the long contested prize, when the 
 Hungarians broke down from the Alps with their fierce 
 bands. The Italians rallied promptly around the banner of 
 their chief, and the invaders, perplexed and harassed in a 
 country so little suited to their style of warfare, offered to 
 purchase retreat by restoring their plunder and giving hos- 
 tages for their good faith. Instead of catching at the offer, 
 the imprudent Berengarius attempted to crush them in the 
 field, and was defeated with immense loss. The invaders 
 
194 ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 
 
 spread in triumph over the country ; and, as if to punish the 
 unfortunate king for his imprudence, Adelbert of Tuscany, 
 with several other nobles, invited Lewis of Burgundy, son 
 of Boson, to accept the crown of Italy (900) and of the em- 
 pire (901). But a new turn of fortune restored the sceptre 
 to Berengarius ; and Lewis, who had disgusted the Italians 
 by his arrogance, had to swear that he would never come 
 back again before he was allowed to return to his native 
 kingdom. Oaths have seldom much weight in the balance 
 with a crown, and the king of Burgundy recrossed the Alps 
 at the head of a powerful army, and compelled the Pavians to 
 open their gates. Berengarius, who was sick, fled to Verona, 
 and the report was soon spread that he was dead. Verona 
 was filled with his adherents, but Lewis, trusting to the story 
 of his rival's death, ventui'ed himself there, and lived as 
 though all danger had died with him. But a fearful atonement 
 was prepared for his perjury. Berengarius, at the head of a 
 chosen band, fell upon him in the night, made him prisoner, 
 and calling him to account for the violation of his oath, in- 
 flicted upon him the terrible punishment of blinding, so com- 
 mon in that age (905). The mutilated king returned home, 
 and Berengarius remained in undisputed possession of the 
 throne. But still the imperial sceptre was floating in attrac- 
 tive vision before his eyes. The Hungarians, it is true, broke 
 in from time to time upon his kingdom, and compelled him 
 to buy them off" on degrading terms. It was less the pros- 
 perity of his kingdom that he desired, than the enlargement 
 of his titles. At length, a great victory over the Saracens 
 secured him the long-coveted prize ; and the pope, who had 
 been his ally in the contest, rewarded his triumph with the 
 imperial crown. Still Berengarius, with all his faults, was 
 not a bad man ; and his death, by the hand of an assassin, 
 was owing to a trait of noble genez'osity of which kings have 
 seldom given examples. 
 
ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 195 
 
 175. Conquest of Italy by Oiho the Great. — After Beren- 
 garius (924), the peninsula again became a prey to rival 
 pretenders. The kings of the two Burgundies, Rudolph and 
 Hughes, followed one another upon the throne of Italy in a 
 very brief space. Hughes, expelled by the powerful Beren- 
 garius, marquis of Ivrea, had been succeeded by his son 
 Lothario (946), in whose name Berengarius exercised a roy- 
 al authority. But tired of a secondary i-ole, he poisoned the 
 young king and was proclaimed in his stead. Lothario had 
 left a wife renowned for her beauty, Adelaide, daughter of 
 Rudolph II. of Burgundy, whose hand Berengarius wished 
 to obtain for his son Adelbert. But the princess resolutely 
 refused, and escaping from the fortress in which she had 
 been shut up, with a single attendant, called Otho I. to her 
 aid. In his first expedition beyond the Alps, Otho took Pavia 
 and several other cities, had himself declared king of Italy, 
 and married Adelaide. But in the midst of his success he 
 was recalled to Germany by the revolt of his son Ludolph. 
 Berengarius, who had yielded to the storm, had recourse to 
 negotiation, and obtained a grant of the crown as a gift of 
 his conqueror. But the habit of tyranny was too strong, and 
 his oppressions and bad faith led Otho to send his son against 
 him, and his son dying, to come again himself at the head 
 of a powerful army. This time his triumph was complete, 
 and after taking possession of Lombardy, and causing his 
 authority to be recognized throughout the kingdom, he went 
 to Rome and received the imperial crown from the hands of 
 Pope John XII. (2d Feb. 962). 
 
 The condition of Rome itself demanded the emperor's 
 attention. Marozia, widow of a Roman lord named Alberic, 
 had seized the supreme power in the city, making and un- 
 making popes at will. She raised to the throne her son John 
 XL, and to confirm her authority, married Hughes, king of 
 Italy, who was allured by the prospect of so rich a prize as 
 
196 ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURES. 
 
 the sovereignty of Rome. But Alberic, another son of Ma- 
 rozia, exasperated against his father-in-law, raised the people, 
 drove him from Rome, and confining his mother, made him- 
 self sovereign under the title of Patrician of the Romans. 
 This dignity he transmitted to his son Octavian, who at nine- 
 teen had himself chosen pope under the name of John XII. 
 
 John had invoked Otho's assistance against Berengarius, 
 and received him at Rome with every demonstration of res- 
 pect. But this harmony did not last long. The emperor 
 left Rome to lay siege to the fortress of St. Leo in Um- 
 bria, where Berengarius had shut himself up with his wife, 
 and during the siege he received frequent complaints of the 
 scandalous conduct of the pope. The remonstrances which 
 he addressed the haughty young man excited his indignation 
 instead of repentance, and to guard against the effects of his 
 resentment, Otho was obliged to hasten to Rome at the head 
 of a strong detachment. The pope fled, and Otho, on reach- 
 ing the city, made the people and clergy swear that they 
 would no longer choose a pope without his consent and that 
 of his successors. Then he called a council, had the pope 
 deposed, and Leo VIII. elected in his stead. John made 
 great efforts to regain his throne, but his opponent was sup- 
 ported by the strong arm of the emperor, and could not be 
 overthrown. 
 
 Soon after, Berengarius was compelled to surrendei', his 
 son Adelbert took refuge at Constantinople, and all that por- 
 tion of Italy which had belonged to the Lombards passed 
 under the dominion of the Germans, nothing being left the 
 Greeks but a few cities of lower Italy, with the greater part 
 of Apulia and Calabria. Otho transmitted this kingdom with 
 the imperial dignity to his son, and the Germans adopted the 
 principle that the king of Germany became by his election 
 king of Italy and emperor. Still the usage of the triple coro- 
 nation of Germany, Italy, and the empire, continued for cen- 
 
ITALY TO THE WAR OF INVESTITURE. 197 
 
 turies, and no king of Germany till Maximilian I. took the 
 title of emperor without having first been crowned by the pope. 
 
 Otho was ambitious to establish some claim to those pro- 
 vinces of southern Italy which had not yet been subjected to 
 the empire, and demanded the hand of the princess Theo- 
 phania for his eldest son. The treachery of Nicephoras led 
 to a war, which ended in the dethronement of the emperor of 
 the East ; and his successor, John Zimisces, bought peace by 
 consenting to the marriage. Next year, Otho the Great died 
 at the summit of human glory and power (973). 
 
 176. Troubles in the states of the church. — Ascendency of 
 the empire over the Holy See. — The reign of Otho II. con- 
 tains some romantic incidents, which left no decided trace 
 in Italian history. Under Otho III., Rome Vi'as governed for 
 a time by a consul, the celebrated Crescentius, who, after ex- 
 pelling two popes, was at last besieged in the castle of St. 
 Angelo by the imperial troops, and hanged like a common 
 malefactor before the gates of the fortress. Sylvester II., 
 illustrious also under the name of Gerietus for his learning 
 and his virtues, restored the dignity if not -the power of the 
 tiara : and the political rivalries which had so long desolated 
 the peninsula, ended with the accession of Conrad the Salic, 
 who was twice crowned king ; once at Milan, and once at 
 Monza. The resistance of Pavia was punished by laying 
 waste its territories, and destroying its castles. The great 
 vassals, who exercised an insufferable tyranny over their 
 own vassals, saw the imperial authority sustain the rights 
 of the vavassors, and Conrad set the example of a policy to 
 which the kings of France were subsequently indebted for 
 their victory over feudalism. The imperial power triumphed 
 in Italy. Henry III. interfered in the disputes of Benedict 
 IX., Sylvester III., and Gregory VI., who contended for the 
 chair of St. Peter ; and causing them to be deposed, had the 
 bishop of Bamberg appointed in their stead, who took the 
 
198 CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 
 
 name of Clement III. (1046). The Romans renounced 
 the right of free election of the pope, which had been at- 
 tacked by the emperors more than once ; and proclaiming 
 Henry and his successors patricians, gave them, in sign of 
 their supremacy, a green robe, a golden ring for the finger, 
 and a circlet of gold for the head. 
 
 But the contest between the church and the empire was 
 soon to begin, and lead to a still higher development of the 
 papal power. 
 
 § III. 
 
 CONTEST BETWEEN. THE CHURCH AND THE EMPIRE. GREGO- 
 RY VII. 
 
 177. Causes of the injiuence of the church and the Holy 
 See. — During this slow and painful elaboration of modern 
 society, which fills up so large a portion of the middle ages, 
 Europe was a prey to convulsions and divisions. Feudalism 
 contributed more than any other institution, to establish in 
 fact the absolute independence of the nobility. But from the 
 fall of the Roman empire, the only centre of action was the 
 church, which by its influence, independent of times and of 
 places, could act upon every people, communicating a regu- 
 lar movement in the midst of their constant agitations, and 
 rallying around her every eminent mind, by the science, of 
 which she alone was the depository. The church had more 
 than once saved towns and countries during the disasters of 
 the invasion : had organized almost all the Barbarian tribes, 
 by converting them to Christianity ; and amid the discords 
 of the tenth and eleventh centuries, had alone possessed suffi- 
 cient power to check the bloody dissensions of people and of 
 individuals, by compelling them to make peace, or at least to 
 
CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 199 
 
 accept the Truce of God. She alone could suspend for a 
 time the mailgnant quarrels of vassals, and the desperate con- 
 tests of princes. 
 
 It is not surprising that such benefits should have been 
 repaid by a general homage. The Western empire, the 
 only great temporal power, had felt the importance of ally- 
 ing itself with the great spiritual power which governed 
 the Christian world. It was for this that Charlemagne had 
 confirmed the donation of the domain of St. Peter ; and the 
 emperors went to Rome to receive their crown from the 
 hands of the pope. But they obtained in exchange a kind 
 of supremacy over the Holy See, which had been compelled 
 more than once to invoke the mediation of the emperors in 
 order to oppose the intrigues and confusion which had at- 
 tended the election of several popes. At the end of the ninth 
 century, it was still a simple protection : " The imperial 
 commissaries," says a decree of John IX., " will, according 
 to canonic rite and received usage, be present at the consecra- 
 tion of the pope, to repel violence and prevent scandal." But 
 from that time the emperors profited by every pretext, to take 
 an active part in the election of the sovereign pontiff; andOtho 
 the Great obtained from the anti-pope, Leo VIII., the right 
 of naming the pope and conferring ecclesiastical dignities in 
 his own states. This decree, though annulled by Henry II. 
 (1014), was revived by his successors, and became the 
 foundation of all the imperial pretensions. 
 
 178. Encroachments of the temporal upon the spiritual. — 
 Of the right of investiture. — But this subjection of the choice 
 of the pope to the good pleasure of the emperor, seemed to 
 menace that independence which is so essential to the head 
 of the church ; and particularly when the divisions of the 
 empire gave the sceptre to the great vassals. It was impos- 
 sible to abandon the pontifical power to every usurper that 
 held sway beyond the Alps ; and the abuse of the temporal 
 
200 CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 
 
 power in ecclesiastical affairs was promptly displayed in the 
 scandalous manner in which the princes distributed eccle- 
 siastical dignities. Instead of confining themselves to its 
 temporal concerns, they assumed the I'ight of appointing the 
 higher functionaries of the clergy as if they had been bishops, 
 and trafficked in holy things, to augment their revenues and 
 gain over partisans. Bishoprics and abbacies were put up 
 at auction, and given to the highest bidder. A child of ten 
 years old, Benedict IX., was raised by Conrad II. to the pon- 
 tifical throne for money. Prelates, who had bought their 
 places, indemnified themselves by dilapidating the pi'operty 
 of the church, and extorting from the poor, the sum which 
 they had paid for their dignity. Subject, too, by the feudal 
 tenure of the fiefs attached to their offices, to the feudal 
 hierarchy, they bore arms like mere temporal loi'ds ; raised 
 their banner at the prince's call, and fought at the head of 
 their vassals, instead of watching over their dioceses. 
 
 179. State of manners. — Necessity of a reformation. — 
 Contemporary writers give a horrible picture of the manners 
 of this period. " They give the episcopal dignity," says St. 
 Anselmo, " to serfs and debauchees, because they know that 
 such men will not dare to reprove the vices of the great to 
 whom they owe their elevation. These false shepherds 
 think only of growing fat at the expense of their flock, with- 
 out troubling themselves about their souls. Others giving 
 themselves up to the vanities of the world, busy themselves 
 with dogs and birds, for hunting ; and in spite of the canons, 
 abandon their churches to follow the emperor," These de- 
 plorable examples spread vice through all classes. " The 
 world," says St. Peter Domiano, " is no longer any thing 
 but a gulf of envy and lewdness. An evil spirit excites 
 
 every where hatred, impiety — hypocrisy Who is 
 
 ashamed of a disorderly life, of a sacrilegious theft ? Who 
 
CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 201 
 
 fears to commit crimes that call down the vengeance of hea- 
 ven ? Corruption overflows on every side." 
 
 Such was the frightful state of society, that wickedness 
 seemed to have reached its utmost bounds, and men looked 
 for the end of the world. The popes themselves had shared 
 in the corruption, and the Holy See had been defiled by the 
 grossest pollutions. But still the first thought of a sincere 
 pontiff" would be, that his office made it his duty to oppose, 
 by every means in his power, the progress of the contagion, 
 and defend the best interests of humanity intrusted to his 
 protection. Some, too, may have united with the hope of 
 liberating the church from the supremacy of the emperors, 
 that of founding a temporal supremacy of their own. Hu- 
 man motives are seldom unmixed ; and the stream that springs 
 limpid from the rock, will sometimes grow turbid as it runs. 
 However this may be, they announced the intention of re- 
 storing freedom to the Holy See ; of putting an end to an in- 
 fluence which reduced the church to the rank of vassal, 
 and seemed to have abolished every law of discipline and 
 morality. 
 
 180. Political situation of the popes in the midst of Chris- 
 tendom. — At the moment in which the struggle began, the 
 papacy was already possessed of immense power, founded 
 upon opinion and common consent. The popes had become 
 mediators and arbiters between people and kings. " It 
 was," says Ancillon, " a supreme tribunal erected in the 
 midst of universal anarchy ; and whose decrees were often 
 as deserving of respect as they were respected." The 
 nations and sovereigns themselves had founded this ascen- 
 dency, which Gregory VII. invoked with so much energy. 
 After the death of Lewis the Child, the states of Germany 
 sent deputies to the pope to excuse themselves for having dis- 
 posed of the cfown without his order and permission. The 
 
 9* 
 
202 CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 
 
 victorious Normans demanded of the pope, a prisoner in their 
 camp, the investiture of Apulia and Calabria as a fief of the 
 church. Stephen, king of Hungaiy, had transferred to St. 
 Peter all the rights and power of his crown. According to 
 Saxon law, it was not till the emperor elect had been crowned 
 by the pope that he obtained the imperial power and title ; 
 and the same legislation gave to the pope, in express terms, 
 the right of excommunicating the emperor. " The temporal 
 sword," said the law of Suabia, " is intrusted to the emperor 
 by the pope ;" and thus the emperor at his coronation was to 
 swear obedience and fidelity to the pope. It is from this 
 point of view that we must judge this epoch, and the conduct 
 of Gregory VII. 
 
 Such power, in such an age, could not be a vain deposit 
 in the hands of a man whose energetic will and unshaken 
 firmness were united with strong convictions, purity of life, 
 and far-reaching foresight. 
 
 181. First reforms and accession of Hildehrand (^Gregory 
 VII.) to the pontifical throne. — The history of Gregory's re- 
 forms, begins long before that of his pontificate. Hildehrand, 
 son of a Tuscan carpenter, was a simple monk of Cluny, 
 when the reputation of his wisdom and austere virtue called 
 him to the councils of the sovereign pontiffs. He had al- 
 ready sounded the depths of the evil, discovered its cause ; 
 and formed the double aim, to which his whole life was inva- 
 riably directed, the independence of the church and regenera- 
 tion of manners. Every thing was to give way before the 
 inspirations of his ardent genius. 
 
 Under Leo IX. and Victor II. (1048-1057), several 
 bishops, who had been appointed bj^ the emperor and convict- 
 ed of simony, were deposed by his advice. The celibacy of 
 the clergy — a masterpiece of policy, as separating the church 
 from the world ; but a lamentable error, as cutting them off 
 from natural sympathies, and exposing them to unneces- 
 
CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 203 
 
 sary temptations — was proclaimed, too, at his instigation, by 
 Stephen IX. (1055), in a bull which claimed to be founded 
 upon the ancient canons. And finally he caused Nicholas 
 II. (1058-1061) to issue a decree resei'ving to the cardinals 
 the free election of the pope, with only the simple reserve of 
 the emperor's confirmation. The work of his pontificate was 
 prepared. 
 
 When he was spoken of for pope, he endeavored to per- 
 suade the emperor Henry IV. not to confirm his election, 
 warning him that the imperial dignity would not guard him 
 from the stern reproofs which his irregular life deserved. 
 Henry, who had already rendered himself odious in Germany 
 by his cruelty and debaucheries, and who allowed abbacies 
 to be sold at auction even upon the footsteps of the throne, 
 approved the election in spite of the warning and the fears 
 of the German bishops, who trembled for their own safety, 
 and Hildebrand assumed the tiara under the name of Gregory 
 
 182. Contest between Gregory VII. and Henry IV. — Ex- 
 communication of the emperor. — He instantly renewed all the 
 decrees of his predecessors. The council of Rome of 1074, 
 proscribed simony, the traffic of holy things, and forbade, 
 under severe penalties, the marriage of priests. The de- 
 crees of the council were carried to the two kings who had 
 particularly favored the abuse, Philip I. of France and Henry 
 of Germany. Both professed submission. Next year (1075), 
 a second council decided that the investiture of ecclesiastical 
 property should no longer belong to laymen. 
 
 Henry, who was then at war with Saxony and Thurin- 
 gia, had just gained a great victory ; and in the pride of his 
 triumph, he rejected the pontifical decision. To the council of 
 Rome he opposed the conventicle of Worms, and sent Gregory 
 a sentence of deposition. The German barons assembled at 
 the diet of Treves, appealed to the pope as arbiter, who ex- 
 
204 CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 
 
 communicated the emperor, and released his subjects from 
 their oath of allegiance. 
 
 The effect of the excommunication was greater even than 
 the pope could have expected ; for Henry's life had been so 
 scandalously corrupt, and the influence of the Holy See was 
 so great, that almost all Germany rose up against him. The 
 remedy was indeed an extreme one, in the midst of the fright- 
 ful confusion of society and the uncertain state of the politi- 
 cal institutions of the period ; but perhaps, too, it was neces- 
 sary, and certainly it was authorized by the public law of 
 Germany, which declared that every one under the sentence 
 of excommunication, who did not obtain a reversal of the sen- 
 tence before the end of the year, had forfeited his fief and his 
 patrimony. " Freemen," says an old German author, " had 
 chosen Henry king, on condition that he would judge and 
 govern the electors according to the rights of the crown. As 
 he had constantly violated this compact to which he had sworn 
 at his election, they could refuse to recognize him for king 
 even without the decision of the Apostolic See." Henry's po- 
 sition was as critical as it was mortifying ; for the great vas- 
 sals threatened to depose him unless he obtained the pope's 
 absolution, and this could not be done without humbling 
 himself before a power which he detested. But there was no 
 choice, and he set forth towards Italy to beg pardon at the 
 feet of the sovereign pontiff. Gregory was at the castle of 
 Canosa, with the countess Matilda of Tuscany, who had de- 
 voted herself to the defence of the Holy See. Henry was 
 compelled to submit to a public and solemn penance, waiting 
 three winter-days in the castle court with nothing but a 
 woollen tunic to protect him from the cold. At last the pope 
 granted him absolution, and he withdrew to meditate new 
 plans of revenge. 
 
 183. Henry IV. in Italy. — Death of Gregory VIL — The 
 German lords were not satisfied. They had hoped to see 
 
CONTBST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 205 
 
 the emperor deposed, and reproached the pope for his indul- 
 gence. Henry had hardly reached Germany when the as- 
 sembly of Torscheim proclaimed his brother-in-law, Rudolph 
 of Suabia, in his stead ; and his son Conrad revolted against 
 him in Italy. But Conrad, returning to his duty, marched 
 against the pope ; while Henry, at the head of those of his 
 vassals who had remained faithful, pursued his rival, vainly 
 defended by the pontifical anathema. Rudolph was killed 
 in Thuringia ; and the same day, the defeat of the troops 
 of the countess Matilda opened for the emperor the road to 
 Rome. Henry went to be crowned by the anti-pope Clement 
 III., and besiege in the castle of St. Angelo, Gregory VII., 
 who, with unshaken firmness, still refused to make the slight- 
 est concession. The heroic old man was delivered by Robert 
 Guiscard, who burnt part of the city, and gave the pope a 
 refuge -in his states. Soon after Gregory died, repeating 
 these words : " I loved justice and hated iniquity, and there- 
 fore, I die in exile" (1085). 
 
 184. The contest continues under Urban IT. and Pascal 
 II. — The new pope, Victor III. (1086-1087), shrunk from 
 the legacy of disputes and combats which his predecessor 
 had left him, and made peace with the emperor. But two 
 years afterwards, he was replaced by Urban II., who re- 
 sumed Gregory's great work with ardor (1088-1089). Urban 
 shook the emperor's power, by making his two sons revolt 
 against him in succession ; and bound all Europe to the Holy 
 See, by exciting the enthusiasm of the crusades (v. ch. xii. 
 § 11). The people, rushing to the holy war, abandoned a 
 prince overwhelmed by the anathemas of the church. An 
 army of crusaders drove Henry IV. and the anti-pope Cle- 
 ment from Italy. 
 
 Pascal II. (1099—1118) continued to support the sons of 
 the unhappy Henry, who died in misery after having been 
 compelled to renounce the empire. The pope hoped great 
 
206 CONTEST BETWEEN THE CHURCH AND EMPIRE. 
 
 things from the new emperor Henry V., who owed him his 
 crown ; but the parricidal son repaid his benefactor with in- 
 gratitude. He seized upon the person of the pope, treated 
 him with great harshness, and would only consent to restore 
 him to liberty on the promise of an unconditional surrender 
 of the right of investiture. 
 
 Pascal soon retracted a promise wrested from him by 
 force (1112). Two German councils had already excom- 
 municated the emperor for his sacrilegious violence, and the 
 council of the Lateran renewed the prohibition of giving ec- 
 clesiastical investitures to laymen, or receiving them from 
 them. Henry V. opposed the decrees of the church sword 
 in hand, entered Italy (1116), drove Pascal from Rome, in- 
 vaded the inheritance of the countess Matilda which she had 
 bequeathed to the Holy See, and had himself crowned by the 
 anti-pope Gregory VIII. But at last, worn out with the 
 troubles of Germany, where a strong party sustained the 
 cause of the pontiff, he consented to open negotiations with 
 the legitimate pope Calixtus, who had been re-established at 
 Rome. 
 
 185. Concordate of Worms. — End of the war of investi- 
 tures. — A diet was held at Worms (1122), and after long 
 conferences between the ministers of the emperor and the 
 envoys of the pope, the emperor consented to the free election 
 of bishops and abbots, renouncing the investiture of the mitre 
 and the cross ; that is the ecclesiastical investitui'e, which was 
 reserved to the bishops. The pope, on his side, gave up the 
 investiture by the sceptre of the ecclesiastical domains, 
 which were subject, like all others, to feudal tenure. Thus 
 were divided the temporal and the spiritual jurisdiction; the 
 secular and the religious power. The pope was no longer 
 any thing more than the spiritual head of the church ; the 
 emperor, the first and greatest king of Europe. The politi- 
 cal unity of Christendom was broken for ever. 
 
CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 207 
 
 The agreement between the priesthood and the empire 
 was confirmed by the general council of the Lateran (1123). 
 From that time, the election of the pope has belonged exclu- 
 sively to the cardinals, being no longer subordinate to the 
 will of the emperor. The war of investitures was ended, 
 but other motives soon revived the rivalry between Italy and 
 Germany. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES UNDER THE HOUSE 
 
 OF SUABIA. INNOCENT III. INNOCENT IV. FREDERIC BAR- 
 
 BAROSSA. FREDERIC II. 
 
 186. Beginning of the contest ielween the Guelphs and 
 Ghihellines. — Lothario II. — During the war of investitures 
 and amid the internal confusion and civil wars of Germany, 
 the power of the great vassals had increased prodigiously at 
 the expense of the power of the emperors. To counter- 
 balance these encroachments, the emperors had created a 
 nobility which depended upon them alone ; and increased the 
 temporal power of the clergy, in order to oppose it to that of 
 their vassals. It was all in vain. The clergy generally made 
 common cause with the lay-nobles, and the lords who held 
 directly of the crown were not strong enough to stand against 
 the older and more powerful barons. Henry IV. had sunk 
 in the contest. Under Henry V. the hereditary transmis- 
 sion was established, and became the firmest foundation of 
 feudal power. At last the extinction of the imperial house 
 of Franconia seemed to decide the contest, and give free 
 course to the ambitious pretensions of the barons. At the 
 death of Henry V. two old families — the Welphs (Guelphs), 
 and the Hohenstaufen lords of Wibelin (Ghibellines) — dis- 
 
208 CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 
 
 puted the crown. The former held Bavaria and Saxony, 
 and in Italy had temporary possession of Tuscany and part 
 of Lombardy, the rich inheritance of the countess Matilda ; 
 the latter were masters of the duchies of Suabia and Fran- 
 conia. The preference which one of them obtained, became 
 the origin of the famous rivalry of the Guelphs and Ghi- 
 bellines. 
 
 Lothario II. duke of Saxony, was elected by the Ger- 
 manic diet, and crowned by the legate of the pope (1125) ; 
 but Frederic of Hohenstaufen duke of Suabia, and Conrad of 
 Franconia, refused to recognize him. Lothario passed the 
 greater part of his reign in contending against these power- 
 ful adversaries. He died in 1137, on his return from a 
 brilliant expedition into Italy, and after having invested his 
 nephew Henry the Proud, duke of Bavaria, with the duchy 
 of Saxony. 
 
 187. Conrad of Franconia. — Accession of Frederic Bar- 
 harossa. — After his death, the contest was renewed with 
 double energy. Conrad having been elected by the diet of 
 Coblentz, Henry the Proud, who had thought himself sure 
 of the crown, refused to recognize him. The diet of Wurtz- 
 burgh stripped him of his states, which were divided between 
 the Margrave of Austria and the lords of Brandenburgh. But 
 the Saxons protested energetically in the name of Henry the 
 Lion, the young son of Henry the Proud, while his brother 
 Welph VI. maintained himself in Bavaria ; and it was only 
 by having Saxony restored to Henry at the diet of Frankfort 
 (1142), that the emperor could put an end to hostilities. The 
 voice of St. Bernard calling the people to the second crusade, 
 appeased all these troubles for a moment. Conrad set out 
 with seventy thousand warriors, while Henry the Lion ac- 
 complished his vow by making war upon the idolatrous Scla- 
 vonians, and extending his states towards the north. But 
 the contest seemed to be upon the point of reviving, when 
 
CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 209 
 
 Conrad's death left the crown to Frederic Bariarossa, duke 
 ofSuabia (1152). 
 
 This prince, who as soon as he mounted the throne de- 
 cided as arbitrator between the princes of Denmark, gave the 
 title of king to the duke of Bohemia and compelled the king 
 of Hungary to do him homage, hastened nevertheless to 
 satisfy most of the pretensions of his rivals by restoring Ba- 
 varia to Henry the Lion, and Tuscany to the brother of 
 Henry the Proud. The affairs of Italy already called him 
 beyond the Alps. 
 
 188. Troubles in Ilaly. — First expedition of Frederic 
 beyond the Alps. — Pope Innocent II. had just recognized 
 Roger II. king of Sicily, Apulia, and Calabria, on condi- 
 tion of tribute and homage, when great troubles broke out 
 at Rome. A monk, of an ardent, enthusiastic spirit and cap- 
 tivating eloquence, Arnaldo da Brescia, disciple of Abelard, 
 declaimed vehemently against the temporal power of the 
 popes — denying them even the right of governing Rome, 
 where he wished to re-establish the republic ; and calling upon 
 the pope and bishops to surrender their estates, and live upon 
 the alms of believers. The people embraced his doctrines 
 with transport ; and Innocent II., Celestine II., and Lucius 
 II., found all their efforts vain to stem the torrent. The re- 
 public was proclaimed by the people, and the sovereign 
 power conferred upon Count Giordano, with the title of patri- 
 cian. Pope Lucius was mortally wounded in an assault 
 upon the capitol. Eugene III. succeeded in re-entering the 
 city, with the aid of the citizens of Tivoli (1149); but Adrian 
 IV. (1154) was driven away by a new revolution, and 
 called the emperor Frederic to his assistance. At the same 
 time, several cities of Lombardy in league with Pavia, de- 
 voted themselves to the imperial or Ghibelline cause, in order 
 to obtain the protection of the emperor against the powerful 
 city of Milan. 
 
210 CONTESTS OF THE GTTELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 
 
 Frederic, sure of finding partisans beyond the Alps, has- 
 tened to Italy. The Milanese were compelled to open their 
 gates, and swear allegiance to him ; and Pavia offered him 
 the crown of Lombardy. Arnaldo da Brescia perished at. 
 the stake ; but the republicans shut the gates of Rome, and 
 the haughty German, in the midst of his triumph, was com- 
 pelled to receive the imperial crown in a suburb without en- 
 tering the city. He returned to Germany to prepare the 
 means of vengeance. 
 
 189. Contest hetween Frederic and pope Alexander III. — 
 League of Lomlardy. — But foreign intervention had rallied 
 all minds to the national cause. The pope, who no longer 
 had any thing to fear from Arnaldo da Brescia, was little 
 disposed to acknowledge the imperial supremacy. Thus his 
 interest was opposed to that of the empire, and the quarrel 
 of Guelphs and Ghibellines became the quarrel of the Holy 
 See and the empire. Four jurists agreed in declaring that 
 the emperor was legally possessed of universal sovereignty, 
 and Frederic began the exercise of it by attempting to annul 
 the election of Alexander III. (llGO-1181). Alexander 
 replied by a bull of excommunication, and by calling the 
 Guelphs of Lombardy, William II. of Sicily, and all Christian 
 princes, to his defence. The emperor advanced at the head 
 of his army, burning the harvests, laying waste the fields, 
 and massacring the prisoners that fell into his hands. After 
 a long siege, in which the citizens displayed the greatest 
 firmness and self-devotion, he took Milan, threw down the 
 walls, and passed the ploughshare over its smoking ruins. 
 
 For a moment, the Lombards were terror-struck and sub- 
 mitted to the emperor. But exasperated by the cruelties of 
 the imperial governors (podestd), they found courage in in- 
 dignation, and formed a league for the enfranchisement of 
 Italy (1167). The pope declared for the league of Lombardy. 
 Venice sided with the Guelphs (anti-imperialists), because 
 
CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 211 
 
 Genoa, her rival, had declared for the Ghibellines ; and the 
 pope, in reward, granted her the sovereignty of the Adriatic. 
 The inhabitants of Milan, who had been dispersed through 
 the neighboring towns, collected together and rebuilt their 
 city. Then all joined together and built another city, as a 
 check upon Pavia — Alessandria della paglia. Frederic laid 
 siege to the new city before the ramparts were completed 
 (1174), but was compelled to retire ; and the defeat of Leg- 
 nano put an end to his absolute supremacy in Italy. At last 
 peace was made at Constance (1183), and the independence 
 of the allied cities secured with the acknowledgment of the 
 suzerainty of the emperor. Frederic and the pope met at 
 Venice, and the imperial crown was again humbled before 
 the tiara. 
 
 190. Poioer of the emperor in Italy after the union of the 
 kingdom of the two Sicilies. — In the contest between the pope 
 and the emperor, the Normans had remained attached to the 
 papal party ever since Innocent II. had conferred upon Roger 
 II. the title of king of the two Sicilies. The new kingdom 
 was going to take a very ditferent part under the dynasty 
 which succeeded to the Normans. Frederic Barbarossa had 
 prepared this change by marrying his son to Roger's daughter 
 (1186). Shortly after, he died in the crusade (v. Hist, of the 
 Crusades, ch. xii.). His son Henry VI., already king of the 
 Romans and soon after emperor, claimed the inheritance of 
 Roger. The pope, of whom the Norman fiefs of Italy were 
 held, unwilling to leave this rich and beautiful country 
 in the hands of strangers, conferred the investiture upon Tan- 
 cred, an illegitimate son of the last king. But Henry crushed 
 the national party, and revenged himself upon the leader 
 of the Sicilian army by having him tied upon a throne of red- 
 hot iron, and crowned with a crown of burning copper. Italy 
 trembled at his cruelty. The limits of the empire reached 
 the extremities of the peninsula, surrounding the papal terri- 
 
212 CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 
 
 tories on all sides and menacing their independence more 
 than ever. It required an Innocent III., imitator of Gregory 
 VII., to resist the encroachments of imperial power, subdue 
 the republican spirit in Rome, revive the religious impulse 
 throughout Europe, and organize a new crusade. 
 
 191. Pontificate of Innocent III. — Accession of Frederic 
 II. — In a pontificate of eighteen years (1198-1216), Inno- 
 cent restores the ascendency of the Holy See, and governs 
 Europe by his energetic will. In Italy, the states of the 
 church recover their unity and peace. In France he sus- 
 tains the rights of the church, those of an outraged princess 
 against the powerful Philip Augustus (v. ch. xv. § i.), and 
 excites the crusade against the Albigensis (ch. xv.). In Eng- 
 land he receives the homage of the king, which makes the 
 whole kingdom a fief of the pope. In the north, he sends 
 missionaries to conquer Estonia, Prussia, and Livonia. In 
 the East, he revives the crusades, and for a short time the 
 Gi'eek church submits to the Roman (ch. xii. § iv.) ; and 
 finally, he protects the young Frederic, the successor of 
 Henry VI. in Sicily against his powerful rivals, Philip of 
 Suabia and Otho IV. of Brunswick. Frederic was crowned 
 at Aix-la-Chapelle (1215), and had his son Henry pro- 
 claimed king of Sicily. 
 
 192. Frederic's contest with the pope and the cities of Lorn- 
 hardy. — Frederic, who owed his elevation to the Holy See, 
 gave proof of his gratitude by renouncing the succession of 
 the countess Matilda. But no sooner had he been crowned 
 emperor at Rome, and obtained for his son the title of king 
 of the Romans, than he changed his policy. With such a 
 character it could not have been otherwise ; for he was full 
 as ambitious as the pope himself, crafty, a skilful dissembler, 
 unscrupulous in the choice of means, and not much disposed 
 to yield to extravagant pretensions advanced in the name 
 of a religion which he did not believe. The pope {Honorius 
 
CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 213 
 
 III., 1216-1227) taking the alarm at his success in southern 
 Italy, where his chancellor Pietro delle Vigne had established 
 a new legislation, endeavored to force him to join the cru- 
 sades ; and just as he was upon the point of setting out for 
 the Holy Land, fulminated a bull of excommunication, and 
 preached a crusade against him in Italy. At the same time 
 he roused the cities of Lombardy, which formed a new league 
 for the independence of Italy with Milan at their head (1225), 
 and sent his own troops to invade the kingdom of Naples. 
 Frederic returning from the crusade, defeated the rebels, 
 who were united under the guidance of his own son Henry; 
 and followed up his success with the aid of the ferocious 
 Eccellino, chief of the Ghibellines of Lombardy. The 
 Lombard league, after various vicissitudes, and after having 
 at one time forced Frederic to grant them an advantageous 
 peace, was reduced to a few cities which were defended with 
 difficulty (1238). But pope Gregory IX. (1227-1241), al- 
 ready nearly a hundred years old, but of an energy which 
 age had not diminished, roused new enemies against the em- 
 peror in every direction, and convoked a general council. 
 The great victory of Meloria, gained by Frederic's natural 
 son, the beautiful Enzio, was a death-blow to the pope 
 (1241), but failed to secure the triumph of the imperial 
 cause. 
 
 193. Deposition of the e?nperor. — New wars. — Death of 
 Frederic. — His portrait. — After an interregnum of eighteen 
 months, the tiara was placed upon the head of Innocent IV., 
 who, being obliged to flee from Italy (1245), opened a council 
 at Lyons, to which he cited the emperor. Frederic refused 
 to appear, and the pope pronounced with great solemnit}^ an 
 anathema and decree of deposition. Most of the German 
 princes sustained his decision, and raised two pretenders to 
 the throne. But it was no longer that great contest between 
 church and empire, which had divided Europe. The strug- 
 
214 CONTESTS OF THE GUELPHS AND GHIBELLINES. 
 
 gle had resumed the proportions of a party quarrel, and St. 
 Lewis with all his piety, refused to declare for the pope 
 against the emperor. Frederic, at the news of his deposition, 
 had seized the imperial crown ; and putting it upon his head, 
 exclaimed — " Innocent has not yet snatched it from me ; and 
 before he can do it, rivers of blood shall flow," The media- 
 tion of St. Lewis could not prevent civil war from breaking 
 out anew in Germany and Italy. Eccellino and Frederic 
 vied with one another in ferocity. Crowds of prisoners were 
 massacred daily ; and others horribly mutilated, and then set 
 free to carry the terror of their fate among their friends. At 
 last, Frederic's partisans grew tired. They were horror- 
 struck at seeing him replace his German guard by a guard 
 of Saracens, and give up Christians to the fury of infidels in 
 the heart of Italy. Abandoned by all, betrayed even by 
 those who had served him most faithfully, tormented by sus- 
 picion and apprehensions of the attempts which his excom- 
 munication might excite against his person, he ended his 
 days in a remote corner of Italy (1250) a prey to grief and 
 despair. 
 
 Thus passed in deplorable disputes, a reign which might 
 have been glorious for Germany and the whole of Europe. 
 Vastly superior, by his political views and the extent of his 
 knowledge, to the greater part of his contemporaries, Frederic 
 loved the arts and sciences ; spoke several languages with 
 facility ; took pleasure in drawing the learned men of all 
 countries to his court ; formed libraries and universities, and 
 favored with all his power the early dawn of civilization. 
 But all his efforts were sterile, and his work did not survive 
 him. The Christian Europe of the middle ages could not 
 rally around a king, whose manners and belief seemed to fit 
 him for a Mussulman rather than for a Christian throne. 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 HISTOET OF THE CEUSADES. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. State of Europe at the moment of the first crusade. — Power of 
 feudality. — State of the East. — Decay of the Greek empire, which in- 
 vokes the assistance of the West. — Oppression of the Christians of the 
 East under the Seljukites and Fatimites. 
 
 § II. Peter the Hermit. — Urban II. — Council of Clermont. — First 
 crusade. — Taking of Nice. — Battle of Dorylaeum. — Principalities of 
 Antioch and Edessa. — Taking of Jerusalem. — Godfrey of Bouillon, 
 king of Jerusalem. — Organization of the new kingdom. — Orders of 
 knighthood. — Successors of Godfrey of Bouillon. — Noureddin. — Decay 
 of the kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 
 St. Bernard preaches the second crusade undertaken by the emperor 
 Conrad, and Lewis VII. of France. — Reverses in Asia Minor. — Saladiu. 
 — Battle of Tiberiad. — Taking of Jerusalem. 
 
 § III. Third crusade. — Frederic Barbarossa dies in Cilicia. — Philip 
 Augustus, and Richard Coeur de Lion. — Their disputes. — Return of the 
 • king of France. — Useless exploits, return, and captivity of Richard. — 
 Kingdom of Cyprus. 
 
 § IV. Fourth crusade diverted from its object. — Influence of the Vene- 
 tians. — Taking of Zara. — Foundation of the Latin empire of Constanti- 
 nople. — Division of the empire of the East. — Venice gathers the fruits of 
 the crusades. — Decline and fall of the Latin empire. 
 
 Crusade of children. — Efforts of Innocent III. to revive the ardor for 
 the holy wars. — Fifth and sixth crusades undertaken by German princes. 
 — Frederic II. in Palestine. — His policy with regard to the Mussulmen. 
 
216 STATE OF EUROPE AT THE FIEST CRUSADE. 
 
 Invasion of the Moguls. — Gengis or Tchenghis-Khan. — His conquests 
 in Asia. — Invasion of the Moguls in Europe. 
 
 § V. The Kowaresmians driven back tovi^ards Palestine. — The sul- 
 tan of Egypt master of JervLsalem.-^Seventh crusade undertaken by St. 
 Lewis and directed against Egypt. — Success, reverses, captivity of 
 the holy king. — He organizes the defence of the Christian cities in Syria. 
 — The old man of the mountain. 
 
 Invasion of the Mamelukes in Palestine. — Eighth crusade in Africa. 
 — Death of St. Lewis under the walls of Tunis. — Treaty concluded by 
 Charles of Anjou. — Destruction of the Christian power in the East. 
 
 § VI. Political results of the crusades. — Enfeeblement of feudality. — 
 Chivalry. — Development of the commons. — Extension of the royal power. 
 — Different people gradually brought nearer together. — Commercial, in- 
 dustrial, and literary results. 
 
 §1. 
 
 STATE OF EUROPE AT THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST CRUSADE. 
 
 STATE OF THE EAST. 
 
 194. Power of feudality. — At the end of the eleventh 
 century, Europe seemed admirably prepared for some great 
 external movement ; for the nations, still imperfectly or- 
 ganized and whom the royal power could neither restrain 
 nor direct, were a prey to restless agitation under feudal op- 
 pression. The pontifical power, triumphant in its contest 
 with the empire, offered a common centre and could move 
 the people at will. It had broken up, for a short time, the 
 great national wars, and realized in a certain sense that 
 great Christian unity which, in spite of the infinite diversity 
 of national interests, feelings, and manners, was ready to 
 move as one body under the influence of the religious feeling 
 by which it had been organized. The feudal aristocracy, 
 constantly agitated by those private wars which, without any 
 
-^TATE OF EUROPE AT THE FIRST CRUSADE. 217 
 
 permanent result, spread desolation through provinces and 
 kingdoms, was only waiting for an occasion to display its 
 turbulent activity in greater expeditions. 
 
 195. State of the different people of Europe. — Some 
 people, however, had their crusade at home, and could not 
 follow the general impulse. Spain had to defend western 
 Europe against Islamism. The Almoravides had just crossed 
 over from Africa ; but Henry of Burgundy built up the king- 
 dom of Portugal, as a barrier against them (1094). Al- 
 phonzo VI. of Castile, and Peter of Aragon, were extending 
 their frontiers ; and the Cid Campeador, the hero of Christian 
 Spain, established an independent principality at Valencia. 
 At the other extremity of Europe, the struggle between 
 Christianity and idolatry was still going on among the Scan- 
 dinavians and Sclavonians. Russia was a prey to constant dis- 
 cord. The Christians of Poland were constantly at war with 
 the pagans of Prussia, whose final conquest was reserved for 
 the Teutonic knights. In Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, 
 there was a contest from province to province between king 
 and people; and at the movement of the first crusade (1095), 
 Erick, the best king of Denmark, could only undertake a sterile 
 pilgrimage, while the good Inge of Sweden was burning the 
 pagan temples of Upsal, and overthrowing the idols. 
 
 In central Europe, the voice of the sovereign pontiff could 
 not be raised in vain. Germany, still troubled by the long 
 war which her princes had sustained against the Holy See, 
 and by the political rivalry of the Guelphs and Ghibellines, 
 yielded slowly to the general impulse. But in France, the 
 feudal power was being developed in all its energy under 
 the indolent Philip I., and was all ready for a great effort. 
 In England, the warlike and adventurous spii'it of the Nor- 
 mans had entered with the conqueror, and drew off one of his 
 sons to the Holy Land. The Normans of Italy, whose pro- 
 digious exploits had created three new principalities, were 
 
 10 
 
218 STATE OF EUROPE AT THE FIRST CRUSADE. 
 
 already sending their armies against the southern province 
 of Greece. 
 
 196. State of the East. — Oppression of the Christians. — 
 In the East, all was division and decay. Alexis Comnenes, 
 pressed at the same time by Robert Guiscard and the troops 
 of the Turk, Malek-Schah, despaired of being able to con- 
 tinue his resistance alone. The Seljuk empire was divided 
 when Malek-Schah died, but still the Mussulman invasion 
 drew nearer and nearer to Europe. Then the Greek empe- 
 ror addressed his lamentable supplications to the West, calling 
 all her people to the defence of religion and humanity. 
 
 The people of the West had also injuries of their own to 
 avenge. From the earliest times, pilgrimages had been a 
 favorite penance among Christians. They believed that the 
 benediction of Heaven was promised to those who visited Cal- 
 vary or the tomb of Christ ; or renewed their baptism in the 
 waters of the Jordan. Under Constantine, and after Helen 
 had built magnificent churches at Golgotha and Bethlehem, 
 they became still more frequent, and were not stopped by the 
 disastrous period of the invasion. The Barbarians respected 
 the cross and staff of the humble traveller. 
 
 When Judea fell with Syria into the hands of the Mussul- 
 men, the Christians could still continue their pious journeys 
 with some degree of security — at least during the brilliant 
 period of the caliphate. But when the Mussulman empire 
 fell to decay, a frightful tyranny replaced the tolerance of the 
 first caliphs. Believers were overwhelmed with vexations, 
 subjected to enormous tributes. A leather girdle at their 
 waist showed that they were looked upon as slaves. More 
 than once they were forbidden to celebrate the rites of their 
 religion, and their churches were turned into stables. A few 
 monks (1048) collected in a convent near the church of the 
 Holy Sepulchre, offered their hospitality to the Christians 
 of the West. But the charity of the Brothers of St. John of 
 
CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 219 
 
 Jerusalem was powerless against the hatred of the unbe- 
 lievers. The pilgrims who dared to encounter persecution, 
 generally came back plundered by the Saracens; and weep- 
 ing the misfortunes of the holy city, which the conquest of 
 Jerusalem by the Seljuk Turks had carried to the highest 
 point (1086). Gregory called Christendom to the deliver- 
 ance of the holy places ; but his voice was not heard amid 
 the quarrels of the West. In Palestine, meanwhile, the op- 
 pression grew worse from day to day. The Christians were 
 thrown into dungeons, with their priests and bishops ; and a 
 great number of pilgrims were put to death before they 
 reached Jerusalem. The recapture of the holy city by the 
 Fatimites (1094), exposed them to the vengeance of an irri- 
 tated conqueror. 
 
 §11. 
 
 CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERITSALEM. 
 
 197. Peter the Hermit preaches the first crusade. — Coun- 
 cil of Clermont. — ^At last a poor hermit by the name of Peter 
 appears before Urban II. He tells him that he has seen 
 the holy places profaned, and has wept with the patriarch of 
 Jerusalem. He crosses the Alps barefoot and with a cruci- 
 fix in his hand, to relate the sufferings of his brethren. At 
 the same time the emperor of the East, Alexis Comnenes, 
 invokes earnestly the assistance of Christendom. An im- 
 mense multitude collects at the council of Clermont (1095). 
 They renew the Truce of God, to think only of the holy war. 
 The voice of Urban and of Peter stirs the whole assembly 
 to enthusiasm. It is the will of God, is the cry. The bishop 
 of Puy is the first to receive the cross from the hands of the 
 pope ; and all mark the holy sign upon their robes, swearing 
 
220 CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 that they will free the holy sepulchre. " If any one," says 
 the council, " sets out for Jerusalem, not for honor or gain, 
 but from a spirit of devotion, this journey shall be to him in 
 the stead of every other penance." At the same time, it put 
 the crusaders, their families, and their estates under the pro- 
 tection of the church, suspending all their debts during their 
 journey to the Holy Land. 
 
 A first band set out before the time marked by Urban. 
 Men, women, and children marched together towards the 
 East, without arms and without provisions ; and with no other 
 guide than Peter the Hermit, and a poor gentleman called 
 Walter the Penniless. They were soon compelled to sepa- 
 rate, and most of them perished in Hungary, or in Asia 
 Minor. 
 
 198. Departure of the crusaders. — Battle of Dorylaeura. — 
 Taking of Jerusalem. — But their fate did not discourage 
 others. Soon a regular army set forward with Godfrey of 
 Bouillon, duke of Lower Lorraine, at its head ; and his 
 brothers Baldwin and Eustachius, Raymond of Toulouse, 
 Bohemond of Tarentuin, and his nephew Tancred, and a great 
 number of other nobles. The pontifical power was repre- 
 sented by Ademar of Montiel, the pope's legate ; but no king 
 appeared at the head of the movement ; the power was still 
 in the hands of the feudal aristocracy. 
 
 At the approach of these redoubtable auxiliaries, the em- 
 peror Alexis, trembling for his own states, made all haste to 
 furnish them with vessels to cross the Bosphorus. Six hun- 
 dred thousand (?) crusaders passed into Asia Minor, where 
 they found Peter the Hermit, who had escaped from the dis- 
 asters which had destroyed his companions. 
 
 The first exploit of the Christians, was the siege of Nice. 
 But just as they were about to enter the city, it was given up 
 to the emperor Alexis, who, fearing the power of the crusaders 
 almost as much as that of the Turks, was beginning to em- 
 
CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 221 
 
 ploy the most odious means for the destruction of those who 
 had come to his assistance. Thus it was only through a 
 thousand obstacles that they succeeded in overtaking the 
 army of the sultan of Roum, near Borylaeum. In the first 
 surprise of a sudden attack, the crusaders wavered for a mo- 
 ment ; but soon rallying to the cry of God wills it, swept the 
 field in triumph. 
 
 Baldwin, by the advice of an Armenian prince, advances 
 to Edessa, where he is adopted by the king and founds the 
 first Christian principality in the East. At the same time, 
 the crusaders, masters of Tarsus, which Tancred and Bohe- 
 mond had carried by assault, cross the Taurus and lay siege 
 to Antioch. They were already reduced to a hundred thou- 
 sand fighting men ; and the plague, famine, and their own 
 dissensions, decimated them anew under the walls of this 
 powerful capital of Syria. Finally, the gates were opened 
 by a renegade : the army of the sultans of Aleppo and Da- 
 mascus came only to be cut to pieces, and the city was given 
 to Bohemond, who soon extended his sway over the neighbor- 
 ing provinces. The army still continued to advance. In 
 1099, it reached Jerusalem, exhausted by battles and disease ; 
 and yet, still full of enthusiasm and valor. After a short 
 siege, a brilliant assault gave them the city in spite of the 
 obstinate defence of the besieged. But a frightful massacre 
 'dishonored the triumph of the soldiers of the cross. Godfrey 
 turned in horror from the scene of carnage, and dropping his 
 arms, went barefoot to pray in the church of the Resurrec- 
 tion ; and his example disarmed, it is said, the fury of his 
 followers. 
 
 199. Godfrey of Bouillon, king of Jerusalem. — Orders of 
 knighthood. — Godfrey of Bouillon, whose virtues and valor 
 the whole army admired, was elected king of Jerusalem ; 
 and refusing io ivear a crown of gold, where the Saviour of the 
 world had worn a crown of thorns, he took only the title of 
 
222 CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 baron of the Holy Sepulchre. The victory of Ascalon, in 
 which he defeated the armies of Bagdad, Damascus, and 
 Egypt, united against the common enemy, confirmed his 
 rising dominion. The exploits of Tancred, the bravest of the 
 Christian knights, completed the conquest of Judea. At the 
 same time Godfrey was occupied with organizing his govern- 
 ment. The code of the assizes of Jerusalem introduced the 
 feudal system into Asia. The king had his vassals and rear- 
 vassals. The counties of Edessa and Tripoli, with the prin- 
 cipalities of Antioch and Galilee, were the great fiefs of the 
 new kingdom. A superior court, in which the king presided 
 in person, judged the causes of the lords. Those of the com- 
 mons were brought to an inferior court. For the natives, 
 there was a Syrian tribunal. Several cities received muni- 
 cipal privileges, and governed themselves. Chivalry, which 
 in Europe was consecrated to the protection of the weak and 
 the oppressed, devoted itself in the East to the defence of the 
 faith and the destruction of unbelievers. The irothers hospi- 
 talers, who had been established to take care of pilgrims, took 
 up arms for the defence of the new kingdom, and became the 
 knights of St. John of Jerusalein. The celebrated order of 
 the knights of the Temple, who undertook to be always the 
 first to engage and the last to retreat, was founded shortly 
 after (1119); and in 1190, the Teutonic knights. These 
 warriors soon became the terror of the Mussulmen, and the 
 strongest support of the Christian power in the East. 
 
 200. Godfrey'' s successors. — Decline of the kingdom of 
 Jerusalem. — Godfrey died a year after the taking of Jerusa- 
 lem, and was replaced by his brother Baldtvin (1100). Under 
 the reign of this prince and that of his successor Baldwin II. 
 (1118-1131), the crusaders continued to gain ground in spite 
 of the defeat and captivity of the brave Bohemond of Antioch, 
 and the rapid decline of his principality. The taking of St. 
 John of Acre, of Beyruth, and Sidon by Baldwin, and that of 
 
CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 223 
 
 Tyre — which was attacked at the same time by the army of 
 Baldwin 11. and the fleet of the Venetians — extended the 
 Christian dominion on the shores of the Mediterranean. Foul- 
 ques of Anjou, taking advantage of the dissensions of the infi- 
 dels (1131-1142), obtained some successj and saved Damas- 
 cus with the aid of the Greeks, sincere allies for the first time, 
 of the orthodox Christians. But with his death ended the pros- 
 perity of the kingdom of Jerusalem. . Young Baldwin HI. 
 (1142-1162), had hardly received the crown when his throne 
 was shaken by the conquests of Zenghi, sovereign of several 
 Turkish sultanates which he had conquered successively, and 
 the triumphs of his still more dreaded son Noureddin. In spite 
 of the energetic defence of the old Josselin of Courtenay, 
 who, though mortally wounded, still led his soldiers to vic- 
 tory, Edessa, capital of the most flourishing Christendom of 
 the East, fell into the hands of the infidels. The Christians 
 uttered a cry of terror which reached Europe. 
 
 201. Second crusade. — Conrad and Lewis VII. — The 
 illustrious St. Bernard undertook to preach a new crusade. 
 At the assembly of Vezelay (1147), and in spite of the advice 
 of the wise Suger, abbot of St. Dennis, he made Lewis VII. 
 take the cross as a reparation for the massacx'e of Vitry. His 
 wife, Eleonora; the counts of Toulouse, of Champagne, of 
 Flanders ; and a multitude of inferior nobles, followed their 
 example. So great was the enthusiasm, that St. Bernard 
 tore up his robe to furnish crosses to those who wished to 
 enrol themselves under the holy banner. The emperor 
 Conrad, drawn away by the eloquent preacher, received a 
 consecrated banner from his hands, and swore to go wherever 
 the will of Heaven called him. He was the first to set out. 
 But his soldiers, betrayed by the guides whom the treacher- 
 ous emperor of the East, Manual Comnenes, had given them, 
 were surprised and defeated in the defiles of Lycaonia ; and 
 the king of France, on his arrival at Nice, found nothing but 
 
224 CHRISTIAN KINGDOM AT JERUSALEM. 
 
 the remnants of an army which had set forth in such brilliant 
 array and with so much hope. Then dissensions sprang up 
 among the chiefs. Lewis the Younger was near perishing 
 in the defiles of Pamphylia, where he fought for a long time 
 all alone, with his back to a rock ; and only escaped, because 
 he was taken for a common soldier. Fatigue, famine, the 
 perfidy, of the Greeks who shut the gates of their cities upon 
 the crusaders, had decimated the army when it arrived 
 before Damascus. This powerful city, protected by its high 
 walls and the strong palisades which surrounded its gardens, 
 was besieged without success ; and the two princes soon re- 
 turned to Europe, without soldiers and without glory. 
 
 202. Conquest of Saladin. — Battle of Tiberiad. — Fall of 
 the kingdom of Jerusalein. — Meanwhile, Jerusalem had not 
 received the succor which she implored, and Baldwin III. 
 continued his difficult struggle against Noureddin. Amaury 
 (1162-1173), his successor, after several unsuccessful expe- 
 ditions against Egypt, saw that country fall into the hands 
 of Saladin, son of Ayoub. It was all over with the kingdom 
 of Jerusalem. Amaury, and his successor Baldwin IV. (1173 
 —1183), did all that they could to defend their kingdom ; but 
 in spite of all their efforts, Saladin's dominion spread with 
 menacing rapidity. Once again, the cross triumphed in the 
 plains of Ascalon. Baldwin, though blind and a leper, cut 
 the army of the infidels in pieces ; and Saladin fled aci'oss 
 the desert, crying out that the star of the family of Ayoub had 
 paled (1176). But the fruits of the victory were lost by the 
 proud presumption of the Christians. Saladin regained the 
 advantage, and was already overrunning the Christian states, 
 when, at the death of Baldwin V. (1186), the sceptre passed 
 to the hands of the feeble Guy of Lvsignan. The degrada- 
 tion of the royal authority ; the all-powerful influence of the 
 military orders, which, moreover, were divided among them- 
 selves ; the corruption of mannei's and neglect of discipline, 
 
CRUSADES BY SEA. 225 
 
 had prepared the ruin of the kingdom of Jerusalem. The 
 massacre of five hundred knights in Galilee, was the prelude 
 of the bloody battle of Tiberiad (1187). This day, the 
 Christians fought heroically ; and well they might, for it 
 was to decide the fate of Christianity in the East. The 
 knights of St. John and the knights of the Temple, gathering 
 around the true cross, repulsed every attack. But Saladin 
 set fire to the grass of the plain. The Christians, siu'rounded 
 by smoke and flames, fought only at venture ; and their 
 ranks were already beginning to fall into disorder, when the 
 capture of the true cross by the infidels, struck terror into 
 the boldest heart. Guy of Lusignan and the grand-master 
 of the Templars, fell into the hands of the Mussulmen ; the 
 last defendei's of the holy sepulchre were taken or slain. 
 The sultan, enraged at the resistance which he had encoun- 
 tered, had a great many knights killed in cold blood. Im- 
 mediately Jericho, Ptolemais, Cesarea, Jaffa, and Ascalon, the 
 city of glorious memories, opened their gates to the conquer- 
 or. Jerusalem, pressed on all sides, held out with difficulty 
 a few days longer. The inhabitants bought their lives with 
 gold, but were driven from the city ; and the churches were 
 changed to mosques. 
 
 § III. 
 
 CRUSADES BY SEA. 
 
 203. Third crusade. — Frederic Barlarossa. — Philip Au- 
 gustus. — Richard Cceur de Lion. — The fall of Jerusalem, 
 which ought to have been long foreseen, caused a general 
 consternation in Europe. William, archbishop of Tyre, eye- 
 witness of this great disaster, came to tell the sad tale to the 
 princes of the West. At his voice, Philip Augustus of 
 
 10* 
 
226 CRUSADES BY SEA. 
 
 France, and Richard of England, take the cross. A tax 
 of a tenth is imposed upon all the lands of the two kingdoms, 
 without excepting even those of the church (Saladin's tithe), 
 to meet the expenses of the expedition. The emperor 
 Frederic Barbarossa, sets out first with an army of a hun- 
 dred thousand men (1189). Following the route traced by 
 the old crusaders, he crosses Greece, intimidates the cowardly 
 Isaac Angelus, who had made an alliance with Saladin, 
 and advances through Asia Minor in spite of the attacks and 
 treason of the sultan of Iconium ; but dies from bathing in 
 the icy waters of the Selef, after having lost the greater part 
 of his troops. The feeble remnants of his army went to join 
 the other crusaders under the orders of his son, Frederic 
 of Suabia. 
 
 The kings of France and England, profiting better by the 
 example of the first crusaders, had avoided the dangers of the 
 route over land, by embarking together at Marseilles. In 
 Sicily, where they quarrelled on account of an usurper, they 
 separated ,• and Philip landed first before St. John of Acre 
 (Ptolemais), which king Lusignan, having regained his 
 liberty, was besieging with Conrad marquis of Tyre. Un- 
 fortunately, strong dissensions prevailed among these chiefs. 
 Conrad and Lusignan contended for the sterile title of king 
 of Jerusalem. Richard of England had irritated Philip anew, 
 by marrying a princess of Navarre instead of his sister; and 
 while the king of France was fighting the infidels, the king 
 of England had stopped on his way to make war on Isaac 
 Comnenes king of Cyprus, and strip him of his states. 
 The duke of Austria, whom Richard insulted before the 
 walls of Acre, swore eternal hatred against him. The re- 
 conciliation of these princes was but a show ; and no sooner 
 had the city fallen, after three years of siege and nine 
 bloody battles, than Philip Augustus re-embarked for France 
 (1191). 
 
CRUSADES BY SEA. 227 
 
 204, Richard's exploits in Palestine. — Kingdom of Cy- 
 prus. — Richard, now left alone, won the name of Lion-hearted, 
 by exploits worthy of the heroes of romance. The Christians 
 called him Alexander, Achilles, Judas Macchabee : no Sara- 
 cen could stand before him. Once he advanced alone with 
 his lance in hand towards seventy thousand Mussulmen, 
 without one of them daring to accept the challenge. Paynim 
 mothers used his name as a terror to their children. And 
 yet all that he won by his prodigies of valor was a brilliant, 
 but vain renown. His army, exhausted in combats that led 
 to no results, was unable to take Jerusalem. He saw it, how- 
 ever, from the heights of Emmaus ; and turning away with 
 his eyes full of tears, exclaimed, " He is not worthy to see 
 the holy wt^, who is not able to win it." He had offered 
 S^dii^TO l|uit Syria, if he would restore him Jerusalem and 
 th|; true cross. Saladin refused, and a council of twenty 
 barons decided upon retreat. Richard re-embarked, after 
 having concluded a simple truce, and obtained permission for 
 Christian pilgrims to visit the holy places. Cast by a tem- 
 pest, on his return, upon the territories of the duke of Aus- 
 tria, the hero of Christendom fell into the hands of his bitterest 
 enemy, and suffered all the sorrows of a sad and severe 
 captivity. 
 
 Richard had sold the kingdom of Cyprus to Guy of Lu- 
 signan, the former king of Jerusalem, who relinquished all 
 thoughts of the holy city. The title of king of Jerusalem 
 was given to count Henry of Champagne ; and under the 
 shelter of the revolutions which shook the whole of Asia, the 
 family of Lusignan reigned three hundred years over the 
 little kingdom of Cyprus. 
 
228 IMPOETANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 IMPORTANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOURTH CRUSADE. FRANK 
 
 EMPIRE OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 205. Fourth crusade diverted from its olject. — Taking of 
 Constantinople. — These disasters began to diminish the zeal 
 for the holy wars. Meanwhile, after Saladin's death, his 
 brother Malek-Adel, as brave and as enterprising as he, 
 threatened the last remains of the Christian kingdom in the 
 East. An army of Germans and Hungarians (1195-1197) 
 was sent into Palestine, and checked his progress for an in- 
 stant : but a much greater effort was necessary. Innocent 
 III., worthy successor of Gregory VII. and Urban If^tirpuaBd 
 the ardor of the Christians and called all Europe to a new 
 crusade, which was preached by Foulques of Neuilly. The 
 lords of Champagne and Flanders took the cross under the 
 orders of Boniface of Montferrat and Count Baldwin of Flan- 
 ders. The Venetians were called to furnish vessels to trans- 
 port them into Palestine. 
 
 Already the original character of the crusades was 
 changed. Religious enthusiasm, the sole spring of the two 
 first, had given place to a romantic love of glory. Other 
 motives, still less elevated, now began to appear, and ambi- 
 tion and cupidity turned towards these distant expeditions as 
 a source of aggrandizement or of gain. Venice, which was 
 beginning to extend her commerce along the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, and whose merchants longed for the rich 
 products of the East, thought, when she saw the ambassa- 
 dors of the crusaders come to ask the assistance of her fleets, 
 that the moment had arrived in which her hopes were to be 
 realized. Henry Dandolo, the doge, granted a fleet for an 
 enormous sum, and the crusaders being unable to pay it, he 
 
IMPORTANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 229 
 
 offered to release them from their obligation, if they would 
 help the republic retake the city of Zara, which had been 
 seized by the king of Hungary. The crusade, thus diverted 
 from its object by the policy of Venice, was destined never 
 to attain it. In spite of the repeated remonstrances of Inno- 
 cent III., the prayers of Isaac Angelus, emperor of Con- 
 stantinople, whom his brother had dethroned and blinded 
 (1202), the artful insinuations of the Venetians decided 
 the crusaders to interfere in the affairs of the East. The 
 Venetian ships appeared in the Bosphorus, and the two hun- 
 dred thousand soldiers who defended the capital of the de- 
 generate empire were unable to withstand the attack of the 
 Franks (1203). The usurper was overthrown : Isaac, blind 
 and a prisoner, was replaced upon the throne with his son 
 Alexis, and the crusaders began at last to prepare for the 
 invasion of the Holy Land. But the Greeks would not sub- 
 mit to be governed by the emperor whom foreign arms had 
 given them. The murder of Alexis by Ducas Murzuphlas 
 called the Latins to vengeance, and Constantinople was taken 
 after two assaults (1204). 
 
 206. Latin empire of Constantinople. — Its decline and Jail. 
 — The leaders of the conquerors divided the conquest. Bald- 
 win, count of Flanders, was proclaimed emperor of the East : 
 Boniface, marquis of Montferrat, king of Thessaly : the French 
 Ville-Hardouin, sovereign of Achaia. The Venetians who 
 had led the expedition, took for themselves the best part of 
 the spoils. They obtained half of Constantinople, the Spo- 
 rades, the Cyclades, the coasts of Propontis and the Euxine, 
 the sea-coast of Thessaly, several cities on the Egean, &c. 
 
 But all the possessions of the Greeks had not fallen with 
 the capital. Theodore Lascaris founded the empire of Nice 
 in Asia Minor (1205); Alexis and David Comnenes the prin- 
 cipality of Trebizond : Michel Angela Comnenes had himself 
 proclaimed king of Thessaly. They had not long to wait 
 
230 IMPOETANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 
 
 for the ruin of the Latin empire. The Genoese, rivals 
 of the Venetians, lent their aid to the Greeks. Baldwin 
 had hardly taken possession of Constantinople when his 
 throne was shaken by successive reverses : and the Latin 
 empire, after having struggled for fifty years against the 
 Bulgarians and the Greeks of Nice, was overthrown under 
 Baldwin II. by Michel Paleologos, who re-established the old 
 Eastern Empire and became the founder of a new dynasty 
 (1261). 
 
 207. Efforts of Innocent III. to kindle the zeal of the holy 
 wars. — Fifth crusade. — Meanwhile the Christians of the East 
 had received no succor from the fourth crusade. Innocent 
 in. raised once more that voice which he had so often raised 
 in vain, and wondering Europe saw an army of children 
 cross France (1212), and embark at Marseilles for the Holy 
 Land. But many died of fatigue during the voyage, and 
 the rest were taken by the Turks near St. John of Acre. 
 Innocent, not yet discouraged, offered the tithe of his own 
 revenues and of those of the cardinals, to repay the expenses 
 of the expedition. At last the Christian princes consented to 
 take up arms once more in defence of the holy places : but 
 their efforts were unsuccessful, and these expeditions, no 
 longer productive of any real results, ended not long after 
 by the death on a foreign shore of the greatest sovereign of 
 Europe. 
 
 The fifth and sixth crusades began in Germany. Frede- 
 ric II., at the urgent solicitation of his guardian, Innocent 
 III., had consented to put himself at the head of the army 
 of the crusaders. But Innocent died, and the emperor re- 
 fusing to perform his promise, was replaced by Andrew II., 
 king of Hungary, who was joined by John of Brienne, king 
 of Jerusalem, and Hugh of Lusignan, king of Cyprus. The 
 princes had hardly appeared before St. John of Acre, when 
 Andrew returned home, and Hugh died suddenly. John, with- 
 
IMPORTANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOURTH CRUSADE. 231 
 
 out being discouraged, carried the war into Egypt, according to 
 the counsels of Innocent III., defeated the Mussulmen, and 
 but for the obstinacy of the papal legate, Felagio, who would 
 not consent to any treaty with infidels, would have recovered 
 Jerusalem, which the sultan Malek-al-Kasnel offered to re- 
 store. The inundation of the Nile reduced the crusaders to 
 a disastrous retreat, and John, returning to Europe, gave Fre- 
 deric the hand of his daughter Yoland, with all his claims to 
 the kingdom of Jerusalem (1225). 
 
 208. Sixth crusade. — Frederic II. — With this new motive 
 to engage in the defence of the Holy Land, and at the same 
 time solicited by the sultan Malek-al-Kasnel, who was me- 
 naced by a serious revolt, Frederic appeared at last in Pales- 
 tine (1228), although still under the ban of excommunication. 
 He obtained the surrender of Jerusalem by a treaty with Al- 
 Kasnel, consenting, however, to leave a mosque there for the 
 convenience of the Mussulmen. This concession excited 
 the liveliest indignation among the Templars and Hospital- 
 lers who had fought for him. The bishop of Cesarea laid 
 Jerusalem under interdict, forbidding pilgrims to enter it. 
 But the emperor entered at the head of his barons, and caus- 
 ed himself to be proclaimed king (1229), although no bishop 
 could be found to place the crown upon his excommunicated 
 head. At his approach, the priests veiled the sacred images 
 of their temples, and the champion of the cross was every 
 where denounced as the enemy of God. He took his ven- 
 geance, by having the monks who preached against him pub- 
 licly whipped, and returned from the crusade, leaving both 
 Turks and Christians equally dissatisfied with the results of 
 his expedition. 
 
 209. Genghis-Khan. — Invasion of the East and of Europe 
 hy the Moguls. — A terrible episode broke in for a moment 
 upon the course of the crusades. While the little kingdom 
 of Jerusalem, reduced to a few cities, was defending itself 
 
232 IMPORTANCE OF VENICE IN THE FOUKTH CEUSADE. 
 
 with difficulty in a corner of Judea ; and the empire of the 
 East, slipping from the grasp of the Latins, was about to re- 
 turn to its ancient masters, a frightful convulsion shook Asia, 
 and made Europe herself tremble at the swiftest and most for- 
 midable invasion of which history has preserved the record. 
 The nation of the Huns, which had sent forth Attila, gave 
 him a worthy successor in Genghis- Khan. 
 
 The Moguls, sprung from the Hunnish race, lived in insu- 
 lated tribes in the immense plains of Asia. The young Te- 
 moudgyn, chief of one of these tribes, at the age of thirteen 
 succeeded in baffling the plots of his ambitious relations, and 
 prepared the way by their punishment for the devastations by 
 which he was to terrify the world. All the Tartars submit- 
 ted to him voluntarily or by force, on the word of a hermit, 
 who had given him the surname of Genghis-Ehan, and the 
 Barbarian set out upon the conquest of the world at the head 
 of the whole Mogul nation, who had sworn to follow him 
 wherever he led (1206). He crossed the great wall of Chi- 
 na, and penetrated as far as Pekin. Then leaving one of his 
 generals to complete the conquest, he turned rapidly towards 
 the west. The empire of the Kowaresmians, extending from 
 the frontiers of Turkistan to those of India, attempted to stop 
 his destructive march ; but he cut in pieces their army of 
 four hundred thousand men, took their capital by assault, and 
 entered the great naosque on horseback to tread the Koran 
 under foot. The whole country to the Indus was changed 
 into a desert. Already one of his sons had carried the terror 
 of his arms into Russia, and founded the colony of the golden 
 horde near the Caspian Sea. A thousand tributary princes 
 sent their offerings to the resistless conqueror, whose empire, 
 at his death (1227), extended over fifteen hundred leagues in 
 length, and bore witness through the whole of this vast ex- 
 tent to his passage of fire and blood. 
 
 The invasion did not cease at his death : but this time it 
 
CRUSADES OF ST. LEWIS. 233 
 
 fell upon Europe. Russia came first : Moscow, Vladimir, 
 Kiev, were sacked by the Moguls, and all Russia soon sub- 
 mitted to their dominion. The dissensions of the European 
 powers, divided by the contest between the pontificate and the 
 empire, favored the progress of the invaders. Poland was 
 inundated by the torrent ; neither Bohemia nor Hungary 
 could check these ferocious conquerors, who left ruin and 
 ashes behind them. The duke of Silesia attempted to stand 
 the shock. He was crushed with his army. Germany, and 
 perhaps all Europe, seemed upon the point of falling a prey 
 to these new Barbarians, when the death of the son of Gen- 
 ghis-Khan deprived the Moguls of their chief, and they di- 
 vided and returned to Asia. 
 
 § V. 
 
 CRUSADES OF ST. LEWIS IN EGYPT AND AT TUNIS. 
 
 210. Seventh crusade. — St. Lewis in Egypt. — The inva- 
 sion of the Moguls had not reached Palestine. But it had 
 driven back upon the Holy Land the ferocious tribe of Ko- 
 waresm, which flying before its conquerors, spread every 
 where it came the same devastations which it had left 
 at home. With this aid the sultan of Egypt made himself 
 master of Jerusalem (1244) and Damascus (1245). St. 
 Lewis of France (Lewis IX.), (v. ch. xv. § i.), learnt with 
 profound grief the desolation of the Holy Land, and swore to 
 avenge the profanation of the holy sepulchre. In spite of the 
 prayers and tears of his mother, Blanche of Castile, he took 
 the cross and gave it to his three brothers, Robert of Artois, 
 Alfonzo of Poictiers, and Charles of Anjou, to Joinville, the 
 faithful and artless historian of the crusade, to most of his 
 nobles, and to Marguerite of Provence herself, the worthy 
 
234 CRUSADES OF ST. LEWIS. 
 
 wife of the gi'eatest and best of kings. Leaving the regency 
 to his mother, he embarked at Aigues-Mortes (June, 1248), 
 and after residing some time in Cyprus, arrived before Dami- 
 etta. Impatient to reach the shore, he leapt into the sea 
 where the water was up to his shoulders, marched directly 
 towards the enemy, and took the town by assault. 
 
 The sultan Malek-Saleh was already retreating : but the 
 Christian army lost precious time at Damietta. At last they 
 resumed their march and reached Mansowrah. Robert of 
 Artois put to flight a body of the enemy's cavalry, and pur- 
 suing them too far, was suri'ounded and killed (1250). This 
 disastrous combat decided the fate of the campaign. To the 
 valor of the knights, the Saracens opposed the terrible Greek 
 fire, at the sight of which, says Joinville, the bravest fell 
 upon their knees, crying on the Lord for mercy. Meanwhile 
 pestilential miasma spread a rapid contagion through the 
 army. Lewis resolved to retreat : but already the Nile was 
 rising, and a numerous fleet lay in wait to cut him off. The 
 exhausted French were surrounded and incessantly harassed 
 by the Mussulmen. The noble devotion of the knights was 
 of no avail. The intrepid Gaucher of Chatillon defended 
 alone the entrance of a village in which Lewis had taken 
 refuge, and fell at last, covered with wounds. The king, re- 
 duced by disease and unable to hold his sword, was compelled 
 to surrender with more than twenty thousand men. 
 
 211. Captivity of St. Lewis. — His return to France. — 
 This reverse brought out all the resignation and elevation 
 of soul of the royal captive. Al-Mohad, Malek-Saleh's suc- 
 cessor, demanded Damietta and a thousand golden byzants 
 for his ransom. " A king of France never ransoms himself 
 for money," said the king. " J will give Damietta for my 
 own person, and will pay a thousand byzants for the liberty 
 of my subjects." But as he was about to be set at liberty, a 
 sudden revolution broke out. The Mamelukes, created by 
 
CRUSADES OF ST. LEWIS. 235 
 
 Malek-Saleh, and who had in a short time become formidable 
 to their masters, killed the sultan, and one of them, still 
 covered with blood, ran to St. Lewis's tent, crying — " Make 
 me a knight, or I will kill you." " Become a Christian and 
 I will make you a knight," replied the king. The Barbarian, 
 struck with admiration, retired without attempting to execute 
 his threat. 
 
 At last the Mamelukes restored St. Lewis to liberty, after 
 having made him promise that he would not attempt any 
 thing against Jerusalem. They declared that he was the 
 proudest Christian they had ever seen. He was also the 
 most faithful to his word. He went and passed four years in 
 Palestine, visiting the places still inhabited by the Christians, 
 and repairing the fortifications of their cities. He even made 
 himself feared by the Old Man of the Mountain, chief of a 
 tribe of fanatics who were devoted to him, and had killed 
 more than one prince in the midst of his armies. The 
 dagger of the Assassins did not frighten the great king, who 
 replied by threats, and their prince hastened to send him 
 magnificent presents, with a ring and a shirt, and to solicit 
 his friendship and alliance. At last, the death of Queen 
 Blanche, in 1254, recalled him to France. 
 
 212. Invasion of Palestine hy the Mamelukes. — His de- 
 parture left the Christians of the East without a protector, 
 and surrounded by enemies. The Moguls, led by the fero- 
 cious Houlagou, ravaged the west of Asia, and after having 
 destroyed the sect of the Assassins, at the prayer of the ca- 
 liph of Bagdad, dethroned the caliph himself. The Mame- 
 lukes had proclaimed one of their own chiefs, Bibars Bondo- 
 char, the murderer of the sultan of Egypt. This cruel 
 enemy of the Christians invaded Palestine, massacring 
 every one that refused to embrace Islamism, and writing to 
 the prince of Antioch — " Death has come by every path. 
 If thou hadst seen thy knights crushed under the feet of 
 
236 CRUSADES OF ST. LEWIS. 
 
 horses, thy provinces pillaged, women sold at auction, pulpits 
 and crosses overthrown, the pages of the Gospel scattered to 
 the wind, monk, priest, and deacon slaughtered, and their 
 bones devoured by the fire of this world, thou wouldst have 
 cried out : Would to heaven that I were dust." Cesarea, 
 Tyre, and Jaffa were completely destroyed. A desolation 
 like that had never fallen on Palestine, 
 
 213. Eighth crusade. — Death of St. Lewis. — Destruction 
 of the Christian power in the East. — At this news, St. Lewis, 
 forgetting the bad success of his first expedition, and thinking 
 only of the afflictions of the church, took the cross and had 
 a crusade preached throughout his kingdom. But a dead 
 silence was the only reply to his appeal. Still he set forth, 
 hurried too by the ambition of his brother Charles of Anjou, 
 who saw nothing but new conquests in these holy expedi- 
 tions. 
 
 By his selfish advice, St. Lewis directed his course 
 towards that part of Africa which lies nearest to Sicily 
 (1270). The king of Tunis, summoned to receive baptism, 
 replied that he would come for it at the head of a hundred 
 thousand men. But Charles of Anjou was not yet arrived, 
 and the king awaited his coming to begin the war. 
 
 Meanwhile a contagious disease broke out among the 
 troops. St. Lewis, after having bestowed every care upon 
 those around him, was struck himself by the scourge, and 
 died like a hero and a saint, on the 25th of August, 1270. 
 At last Charles arrived, raised the courage of the soldiers, 
 imposed a peace upon the king of Tunis, and brought back 
 the remnants of the army to Europe. Prince Edward of 
 England, who had taken the cross at the same time, went to 
 the succor of the Christians of the East (1275) ; but his 
 presence only served to retard the fall of St. John of Acre, 
 the last asylum of Christianity in Asia. This city, which 
 had remained alone in the midst of so many ruins, fell under 
 
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 237 
 
 the efforts of two hundred thousand Saracens (1291). All 
 was now over. The orders of knights themselves abandoned 
 Asia. The Templars were about to be destroyed. The 
 Hospitallers removed, though somewhat later, to the island 
 of Rhodes: the Teutonic knights established themselves in 
 the north of Germany, in a country half pagan, where they 
 could still fight against unbelievers. 
 
 § VI. 
 
 GENERAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSABES POLITICAL, COMMERCIAL, 
 
 INDUSTRIAL, LITERARY. 
 
 214. Political results of the crusades. — Weakening of 
 feudalism. — Chivalry. — Christendom had not spent in vain 
 its treasures and its blood in the holy wars. Its immense 
 sacrifices were repaid by immense results, and the evils 
 which these great expeditions necessarily brought with them 
 were more than compensated by the advantages which they 
 procured to the whole of Europe. 
 
 The crusades saved Europe from the Mussulman inva- 
 sion, and this was their immediate good. Their influence 
 was felt, too, in a manner less direct, but no less useful. 
 The crusades had been preached by a religion of equality in 
 a society divided by odious distinctions. All had taken part 
 in them, the weak as well as the strong, the serf and the ba- 
 ron, man and woman, and it was by them that the equality 
 of man and woman, which Christianity taught, was made a 
 social fact. St. Lewis declared that he could do nothing 
 without the consent of the queen, his wife. It was from this 
 period that we must date that influence of woman which gave 
 rise to chivalric courtesy, the first step towards refinement 
 of manners and civilization. The poor, too, were the adopt- 
 
238 GENERAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 ed children of the Christian chivalry of the crusades. The 
 celebrated orders of Palestine were instituted for the protec- 
 tion of poor pilgrims. The knights of the hospital called 
 the poor their masters. Surely no lesson was more needed 
 by those proud barons of the middle ages than that of charity 
 and humility. 
 
 These ideas were the first to shake the stern despotism 
 of feudality, by opposing to it the generous principles of chi- 
 valry, which sprang all armed from the crusades. Bound 
 to the military orders by a solemn vow, and for the interests 
 of all Christendom, the knight felt himself free from feudal 
 dependence, and raised above national limits, as the immedi- 
 ate warrior and servant of united Christendom and of God. 
 Chivalry, founded not upon territorial influence, but upon 
 personal distinction, necessarily weakened nobility by ren- 
 dering it accessible to all, and diminishing the interval which 
 separated the different classes of society. Every warrior 
 who had distinguished himself by his valor, could kneel be- 
 fore the king to be dubbed a knight, and rise up the equal, 
 the superior even, of powerful vassals. The poorest knight 
 could sit at the king's table, while the noble son of a duke 
 or prince was excluded, unless he had won the golden spurs 
 of knighthood. Another way by which the crusades con- 
 tributed to the decay of feudalism was by favoring the en- 
 franchisement of serfs, even without the consent of their 
 masters. Whoever took the cross became free, just as every 
 slave becomes free on touching the soil of England or France. 
 
 215. Extension of the royal poxver. — Nations and people 
 drawn nearer together. — The communities whose development 
 is to be referred to the period of the crusades, multiplied ra- 
 pidly ; the nobles gladly granting charters and privileges in 
 exchange for men and money. With the communities the 
 royal power grew, and that of the aristocracy decreased. 
 The royal domain was enlarged, by the escheating of a great 
 
GENERAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 239 
 
 number of fiefs which had been left vacant by the death of 
 tlieir lords. The kings protected the communities, favored 
 their enfranchisement, and employed them usefully against 
 insubordinate vassals. The extension of the royal power 
 favored the organization of the nation, by establishing a prin- 
 ciple of unity : for till then, and with that multitude of mas- 
 ters, the nation had been little else than an agglomeration of 
 provinces, strangers to one another, and destitute of any com- 
 mon bond or common interest. The great vassals themselves, 
 often united under the royal banner, became accustomed du- 
 ring these distant expeditions to submission and discipline, 
 and learned to recognize a legitimate authority ; and if they 
 lost by this submission a part of their personal power, they 
 gained in compensation the honorable distinctions of chivalry. 
 
 But it was not the national feeling alone which was fostered 
 by the crusades. Relations of fraternity, till then wholly 
 unknown, grew up between different nations, and softened 
 the deep-rooted antipathy of races. The knights, whom a 
 common object united in common dangers, became brothers 
 of arms, and formed permanent ties of friendship. That 
 barbarous law which gave the feudal lord a right to call 
 every man his serf who settled in his domains, was softened. 
 Stranger and enemy ceased to be synonymous, and " the 
 crusaders," say the chronicles of the times, " although di- 
 vided by language, seemed to form only one people, by their 
 love for God and their neighbor." And without coloring the 
 picture too warmly, and making all due allowance for the 
 exaggerations which were so natural to the first recorders 
 of such a movement, we may say that human society was 
 founded and united, and Europe began to pass from the pain- 
 ful period of organization, to one of fuller and more rapid 
 development. 
 
 216. Commercial, industrial, and literary results. — Europe 
 was indebted to the crusades also for that material prosperity 
 
240 GENERAL RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 which was the natural consequence of the rapid impulse 
 which they gave to industry and commerce. It was in the 
 midst of these great expeditions that the maritime power of 
 Venice, Genoa, and Pisa were developed. The rest of Eu- 
 rope followed the movement, and the Hanseatic league (v. ch. 
 xiii. § ii.) was formed for the commerce of the north. Then 
 Europe began to profit by the productions of distant coun- 
 tries : gathering precious plants for agriculture and medicine : 
 the sugar-cane, maize, and the mulberry. The manufactur- 
 ing cities strove to imitate the stuffs of Asia, the excellent 
 tempering of its arms, and its industrial products. 
 
 This opening of communications, and exchange of arts 
 contributed greatly to the diffusion of knowledge. Mogul 
 ambassadors came to France ; and an attempt was made to 
 found a course of Tartar languages in Paris. Poetry was 
 developed in the songs of the Troubadours, enthusiastic re- 
 corders of the wonderful exploits which they witnessed. The 
 medical and mathematical sciences profited by the discoveries 
 of the Arabs, and geography was enlarged by more accu- 
 rate ideas concerning countries hitherto hardly known. 
 
 The church too profited largely by the immense influence 
 which the crusades naturally gave to the Holy See, at whose 
 instigation they began. The period was not yet passed when 
 monasteries and religious corporations could render great 
 services to literature and to the weak and oppressed. The 
 number of these institutions was multiplied, and with them 
 the benefits which they could still confer upon society 
 
CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 GEKMAJSnr FEOM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE ITF- 
 TEENTH CENTUKT. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. State of Germany at the death of Frederic II. — Great inter- 
 regnum. — William of Holland. — Conrad IV. — Alphonso of Castile, and 
 Richard of Cornwall. — Rudolph of Hapsburg. — Beginning of the house 
 of Austria. — Decay of the imperial power after the death of Rudolph. — 
 Adolphus of Nassau. — Albert I. of Austria. — Insurrection of Helvetia. — 
 Henry VII. of Luxemburg. — Expedition into Italy. — Frederic the Hand- 
 some of Austria. — Lewis of Bavaria. — Triumph of Lewis of Bavaria, 
 who is excommunicated by the pope. — Revolt of Charles of Bohemia. — 
 Corruption and weakness of the government. — Diminution of the do- 
 mains of the empire. — Vincislaus : his deposition. — Robert III. of Bava- 
 ria. — Sigismund of Luxemburg. — John Huss. — Religious and political 
 troubles. — Albert II. of Austria. — Frederic III. 
 
 § II. Constitution of the empire in the thirteenth century. — The 
 electors. — Associations of cities. — Hanseatic league: league of the 
 Rhine, &c. — Pragmatic of Frankfort. — Golden bull. — Vain efforts of the 
 emperor to establish the public peace. — Diet of Nuremberg. 
 
 § III. Oppression of Helvetia. — Conspiracy of Rutli. — William Tell. 
 — Formation of the Helvetic league. — War against Albert I. — Battle 
 of Morgarten. — Progress of the Swiss confederation. — Battle of Sim,' 
 pack. — Self-devotion of Wirikelried — Truce of Zurich, 
 
 u 
 
242 GERMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF GERMANY FROM THE DEATH OF FREDERIC II. TO 
 THE CORONATION OF FREDERIC III. 
 
 217, State of Germany after Frederic II. — Great inter- 
 regnum. — After the death of Frederic II. (1250) began a 
 period of dissolution. The long contest between the priest- 
 hood and the empire had broken all the harmony of the Ger- 
 man states. The people who had been divided so many- 
 years by incessant quarrels, now separated from one another 
 and resumed their independence. It was every where war. 
 " The ploughshare," says an old historian, " was changed 
 into swords ; the sickle into lances. No one went without 
 his tinder-box and flint, so as to be always ready to throw 
 fire and flame every where." Germany seemed to have 
 gone back to the times which had followed the dissolution 
 of the Carolingian empire. The imperial power, impotent 
 in the midst of such disorders, made useless efforts to estab- 
 lish peace and unity. This epoch is known, in German 
 hiatory, as the great interregnum. 
 
 While William of Holland, instigated by Innocent IV,, 
 during the last years of Frederic II. (1247) retained the 
 crown without knowing how to make it respected, Conrad 
 IV., Frederic's son (1250-1254), was establishing himself 
 with difficulty in Italy and vainly attempting to regain his 
 hereditary states. After the death of these two princes, two 
 strangers — Alplwnso, of Castile, and Richard of Cornwall — con- 
 tended by money for the suffi-ages of the diet, which rejected 
 the pretensions of the ambitious Ottokar, king of Bohemia. 
 It required a man of character firm enough to extricate the 
 empire from the anarchy of the long interregnum ; and yet 
 of too little power to excite the jealousy of the electors. 
 
GERMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 243 
 
 Count Rudolph of Hapsbui'g united these conditions, and ob- 
 tained the suffirages of the diet, without having solicited 
 them (1273). The year following, he was solemnly recog- 
 nized by the pope at the council of Lyons. 
 
 218. Rudolph of Hapsburg. — Rudolph surpassed the ex- 
 pectations of the great feudal lords, and displayed an activity 
 and a genius which no one had supposed him to possess. 
 Alphonso, who had survived his rival Richard, was compelled 
 to recognize the new emperor. Ottokar, placed under the 
 ban of the empire for having refused to do homage, lost Aus- 
 tria in a first war (1276) ; and was conquered and killed in 
 a second, in spite of the succors of the kings of Poland and 
 Bulgaria (1278). The conqueror left his son Vincislaus 
 nothing but Bohemia and Moravia, causing the vacant fiefs 
 of Austria to be given to two of his own sons (1282). Soon 
 after, he united them in the hands of his eldest son Albert, 
 whom he hoped to raise to the empire. Suabia and Bui*- 
 gundy were to form the appanage of the youngest. But the 
 progress of the imperial power, and Rudolph's manifest inten- 
 tion of recovering the ancient domains of the crown, alarmed 
 the vassals. A league was formed to oppose his projects, 
 and he died soon after (1291) — after having vainly attempted 
 to get possession of Hungary, and have his son elected king 
 of the Romans. 
 
 219. Adolphus of Nassau. — Albert of Austria. — The 
 electors, wearied by Rudolph's energetic severity, hastened 
 to give the crown to the obscure Adolphus of Nassau (1292). 
 But this prince attempted to extend his family domains, sword 
 in hand, and ravaged half Germany. The indignant elec- 
 tors cried out that they had still other kings under their man- 
 tles. The diet of Mayence gave the crown to Rudolph's 
 son, and he killed his rival in the very first battle (1298). 
 Albert I. of Austria, to give a new sanction to his authority, 
 had himself elected a second time, and crowned at Aix-la- 
 
244 GERMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 
 
 Chapelle. Pope Boniface VIII. alone refused to recognize 
 him, and receiving Albert's deputies with a crown on his 
 head and a sword at his side, assumed the title of vicar-general 
 of the empire, and ordered the princes to proceed to a new 
 election. But Albert, confident of the support of the elec- 
 tors and of the imperial cities of the lower Rhine, swore that 
 he would keep his throne ; and the pope, distracted by his 
 disputes with Philip the Fair, king of France (v. ch, xv. 
 § i.), withdrew his opposition. 
 
 The ambitious emperor wished to secure for his family 
 the^ thrones of Hungary and Bohemia, after the death of An- 
 drew III., and Vincislaus V,, his successor (1306). Failing in 
 this double aim, he attempted with like success to seize upon 
 Holland, Suabia, and Thuringia (1307), but was at last com- 
 pelled to abandon all these projects of conquest in order to meet 
 a revolt which threatened him with the loss of his own do- 
 mains. The cruelty of Gessler, intendant of the empire, 
 had stirred up a revolt among the inhabitants of Helvetia 
 (v. § iii.). Albert marched against them, accompanied by 
 John of Suabia, his nephew and ward, whose inheritance he 
 had invaded. This young prince, but fourteen years old, 
 formed a conspiracy against his faithless guardian, and Al- 
 bert was assassinated in crossing the Reuss, within sight of 
 the castle of Hapsburg. The vengeance of this death was 
 terrible. John, the parricide, proscribed in spite of the pope's 
 absolution, died a captive, and more than a thousand victims 
 were sacrificed to the fury of Albert's relations. 
 
 220. Henry VII. — Contest between Frederic the Hand- 
 some and Lewis of Bavaria. — The imperial sceptre slipped 
 for a second time from the house of Hapsburg. Henry VII. 
 of Luxemburg was elected, to the exclusion of Albert's son, 
 Frederic the Handsome (1308). A few years afterwards, 
 the states of Bohemia offered the crown to John, the new 
 emperor's son. But Henry, more ambitious than Albert, 
 
GERMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 245 
 
 even, for the aggrandizement of his family, was anxious to 
 enforce the disastrous pretensions upon Italy, which his pre- 
 decessors had had the prudence to drop. He died beyond 
 the Alps, without having been able to calm the endless quar- 
 rel of th^ Guelphs and Ghibellines (1313). 
 
 After his death, Frederic the Handsome, duke of Austria, 
 succeeded in obtaining the votes of part of the electoi's : 
 others preferred Lewis of Bavaria (1314). A war broke out 
 between the rivals. Lewis had recognized the independence 
 of the Swiss cantons, who declared in his favor. An army 
 which Frederic sent against them, was destroyed at Mor- 
 garten (v. § iii.), and the duke of Austria himself, who had 
 invaded Bavaria, was defeated and taken at the battle of 
 MuhldorfF(1322). But Pope John XXII. hurled against the 
 conqueror a bull of excommunication, and cited him to ap- 
 pear before him within three months, at the expiration of 
 which he declared his throne forfeit (1324). To disarm the 
 pope, Lewis released his rival, and consented to share with 
 him the imperial dignity. 
 
 Still after Frederic's death (1330), the pope set up 
 Charles of France against him, and excommunicated him 
 for having had himself crowned at Rome by the prefect 
 Colonna. Lewis wished to abdicate, to restore peace; but 
 the electors compelled him to maintain the contest to the end. 
 To the anathemas of Benedict XII., the German diet replied 
 by the pragmatic sanction of Frankfort (1338), which de- 
 clared the election of king or emperor legitimate indepen- 
 dently of the papal investiture. Lewis's reign was none the 
 more tranquil. John of Bohemia, who had long been his 
 eneiny, succeeded in obtaining for his son Charles the sup- 
 port of Pope Clement VI., who hurled new anathemas against 
 the emperor (1346) ; and Lewis died just as the electors had 
 declared the imperial throne vacant (1347). 
 
 221. Reign of Charles IV. — Weakness of the govern- 
 
246 GERMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 
 
 merit. — A sport of all the exactions of the nobles and slave of 
 the pope, Charles IV. of Bohemia (1347-1378) bought the 
 suffrages of the diet by lavishing the dignities of the empire ; 
 and obtained the second coronation at Rome by promising to 
 remain but one day in the city, never to return there* without 
 the pope's permission, and to recognize the suzerainty of the 
 Holy See (1355). 
 
 This reign was a sad period of debasement and humilia- 
 tion for the empire. Corruption and intrigue, supplied the 
 place of firmness and talent ; and the emperor filled his ex- 
 hausted treasury by alienating for money the imperial fiefs 
 and domains'; '--The cession of the Venaissin county to the 
 Holy See, was- solemnly confirmed. Dauphiny was with- 
 drawn fz'om^- the "suzerainty of the empire, and given to the 
 son of the king of France. In Helvetia, several cities joined 
 the new confederation (v. § iii.). Beyond the Alps, the em- 
 peror himself confirmed the independence of the pontifical 
 territories and of several cities of Lombardy. In Germany, 
 he published the famous golden-bull (v. § xi.), which gave 
 the imperial confirmation to rights and privileges which the 
 great vassals had already usurped (1256). The only thing 
 in which he succeeded, was in enlarging the domains of his 
 own family at the expense of the empire. He had already 
 incorporated Bohemia, Silesia, Lusatia, and Brandenburg; 
 and obtained the title of king of the Romans for his son Vin- 
 ceslaus, when he died, in the year 1378. 
 
 222. Vinceslaus. — Robert III. — Period of decay. — Never 
 had an empire been more divided, or a power more debased, 
 than that of Germany at the moment in which Vinceslaus as- 
 cended the throne (1378-1400). The son of Charles IV. 
 did not even attempt to restore the grandeur and energy of 
 the imperial dignity. Confined to his kingdom of Bohemia, 
 where alone he could wield an undisputed authority, he only 
 appeared at the diet of Nuremberg to witness, like an indif- 
 
GEBMANY FROM FREDERIC II. TO FREDERIC III. 247 
 
 ferent spectator, the dissensions between his haughty vassals, 
 and the cities leagued in Suabia and on the Rhine for the 
 defence of their liberty. He allowed the nobles to revive 
 the old brotherhoods of St. George, and of the Lion against 
 the commons, now rich and powerful ; and contented him- 
 self with publishing a public peace, of which he knew not 
 how to enforce the observance (1383). Neither was his in- 
 dolence moved by the news of the great victory of the Swiss, 
 at Sempach (1386). At last his Bohemian subjects rose, and 
 cast him into prison ; and the electors, setting him aside as 
 useless, named Robert III. of Bavaria in his place (1400). 
 This prince made an unfortunate expedition into Italy, and 
 returned to close in Germany an inglorious reign (1410). 
 
 223. Sigismund of Luxemburg. — Religious and political 
 troubles. — Albert II. of Austria. — Sigismund of Luxemburg, 
 already king of Hungary — and heir to the throne of Bohemia 
 still filled by his brother Vinceslaus, the deposed emperor — 
 seemed capable of reviving the dignity of the empire ; but 
 religious dissensions and the attacks of the Turks, paralyzed 
 all his efforts. John Huss, professor in the University of 
 Prague, had preached against the corruptions of the clergy, 
 and with his disciple, Jerome of Prague, revived the doctrines 
 of WiclifF, which the church had condemned as heretical. 
 He .was condemned by the council of Constance, and perished 
 at the stake in spite of the imperial safe conduct which Sigis- 
 mund had not the courage — perhaps not the strength — to en- 
 force (1415). The next year, Jei'ome met the same fate, after 
 having lingered in a painful captivity. Huss was of a mild 
 and gentle spirit ; but the retaliations which his disciples 
 took for his death, were so fearful that Vinceslaus is said to 
 have died of terror at them (1419). Several sects, whom a 
 common hatred for the Catholics united — the Adamites, Ore- 
 bites, and Orphans — declared war against the emperor. The 
 Taborites, the most enthusiastic, overran Austria, Bohemia, 
 
248 CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 and Bavaria ; plundering the monastaries ; torturing the 
 priests ; sacking the possessions of the Catholics, and pro- 
 claiming that the new kingdom of God would begin when all 
 the cities of the earth should be burnt and reduced to fire. 
 All Sigismund's efforts to resist them, were vain. At sight 
 of them, an army of eighty thousand men fled in the utmost 
 disorder ; and it was only by confirming all the concessions 
 that had been made them, that a momentary suspension of 
 hostilities could be obtained. 
 
 With Sigismund, ended the house of Luxemburg (1437). 
 A new epoch — an epoch of organization and regular adminis- 
 tration — began with the house of Austria, which, with Albert 
 II., obtained uninterrupted possession of the imperial throne. 
 Albert united Sigismund's three crowns, Austria, Hun- 
 gary, and Bohemia. His talents and virtues promised a 
 glorious and prosperous reign, which was cut short by early 
 death only two years after his accession, and on his return 
 from an expedition against the Turks (1439). Frederic III. 
 (1440-1493) succeeded him, and received the crown from 
 the hands of Nicholas V. He was the last emperor that 
 asked for this sanction from the pontifical power. 
 
 § II. 
 
 CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE DURING THIS 
 PERIOD OF THE HISTORY OF GERMANY. 
 
 224. Constitution of the empire in the thirteenth century, — 
 The changes introduced into the constitution of the Germanic 
 empire during this period, were fatal blows to the imperial 
 power and to the unity of Germany. Frederic II., by re- 
 nouncing the .supreme jurisdiction of the emperors in the 
 domains of the ecclesiastical princes (1220) and ten years 
 
CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 249 
 
 later of the secular (1230), had confirmed their absolute in- 
 dependence. The ruin and parcelling out of the ancient 
 duchies of Suabia, Franconia, Saxony, and Bavaria, gave 
 rise to a crowd of petty sovereignties, which divided the 
 power of the state and exposed it to every sort of disorder. 
 The most powerful countries, Denmai'k, Hungary, Poland, 
 with a part of Burgundy and Lombardy, renounced the im- 
 perial suzerainty. Among those which remained attached 
 to the empire, seven seized exclusively upon the right of 
 election, which, till then, had belonged to a larger number 
 of vassals, and formed the electoral college. The other 
 princes and barons, reduced to a simple right of confirma- 
 tion, sought a compensation by exercising on their own do- 
 mains an uncontrolled despotism over the inferior nobility, 
 who found in chivalry but a faint image of the old German 
 liberty, and the commons of the cities, whose revenues fed 
 the treasury of their lords. 
 
 225. Associations of cities — Hanseatic league. — League 
 of the Rhine. — But a great number of these cities, proud of 
 their numerous population and the wealth acquired by a 
 flourishing commerce, rejected the onerous protection of the 
 vassals, as well as the vain supremacy of the emperor. The 
 commons, contending with princes, counts, and knights, 
 jealous of their prosperity, transformed their industrial corpo- 
 rations into warlike associations. Each city had within its 
 walls a crowd of valiant defenders ; and separate cities soon 
 began to unite together, for the mutual protection of their 
 liberty. In 1241, a commercial compact between Lubeck 
 and Hamburg was the origin of that famous Hanseatic league 
 (or Hanse-Teutonic), which in 1300 comprised sixty cities 
 from the Lower Rhine to the Baltic ; and in the middle of 
 the fourteenth century had factories at Novogorod, Stock- 
 holm, London, and Lisbon, and had become a redoubtable 
 political power (v. Mod. Hist., ch. viii., § iii.). In 1254, 
 
 11* 
 
250 CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 sixty cities in the south of Germany formed a league also 
 against the oppression of the nobles, under the name of 
 League of the Rhine. Soon the inferior nobility of Suabia, 
 imitating the example of the commons, formed a confedera- 
 tion to escape from the despotism of the great vassals ; and 
 allied themselves, in the fourteenth century, with the cities 
 of that province (1380). 
 
 226. Increase of the power of the great vassals at the ex- 
 pense of the imperial power. — Golden lull. — The imperial 
 power, whose impotence was the cause of all these associa- 
 tions, had recovered some energy under Rudolph, who re- 
 claimed the rights usurped by the vassals ; and reduced 
 them to obedience by destroying those castles, whose pic- 
 turesque ruins still adorn the Black Forest and the moun- 
 tains on the banks of the Rhine. But anarchy returned at 
 his death. If the diet of Frankfort (1338) solemnly pro- 
 claimed the independence of the empire with regard to the 
 Holy See (v. § i.), Lewis of Bavaria gave a new blow to the 
 unity of the imperial government, by ordering the judges 
 to follow the laws of each province ; and increasing their 
 number himself by publishing a special code for Upper 
 Bavaria. 
 
 Under Charles IV., the golden hill (1356) — so called 
 from the golden seal affixed to it — sanctioned all the rights 
 and privileges which the great vassals had usurped. It con- 
 firms the exclusive right of election to seven princes, the 
 archbishop of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne ; the king of 
 Bohemia ; the count Palatine of the Rhine ; the duke of 
 Saxony, and the margrave of Brandenburg. Austria had no 
 vote, but contented herself with taking the empire for her 
 patrimony. The golden bull exempts the electoral domains 
 from the imperial jurisdiction; gives the 'electors regalian 
 rights over mines, the coins, and taxation ; insures their pre- 
 eminence over all the other princes, and makes it treason 
 
CHANGES IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE EMPIRE. 251 
 
 to attempt any thing against their privileges. The electors 
 are called the fundamental -columns, the seven torches of the 
 empire ; and the electoral dignity is raised almost to a level 
 with the imperial. 
 
 227. Efforts of the emperors to re-estahUsh the public peace. 
 — The golden bull contained also some provisions concerning 
 private wars, and the establishment of the public peace — 
 the only articles which were not sincerely kept. It was in 
 vain that the successors of Charles IV., Vinceslaus and Sigis- 
 mund, raised their voices to forbid the bloody quai'rels which 
 desolated Germany, and proposed a regular organization of 
 the states of the empire. The states, jealous of whatever 
 bore the semblance of imperial supremacy, chose to de- 
 pend upon their own strength to obtain justice, or defend 
 their usurpations. The princes, too, without troubling them- 
 selves about the sanction of the emperor, established rules 
 of general administration, without securing the execution of 
 them by the guarantee of any superior power. A new period 
 of anarchy was required to make these haughty vassals feel 
 the need of order and general tranquillity. At last, the con- 
 ciliating words of the wise emperor Albert II. were favorably 
 received at the diet of Nuremberg, in which all the provi- 
 sions of the golden bull for the public peace were renewed. 
 The division of Germany into six circles under the presi- 
 dence of a director, or captain general, and the re-establish- 
 ment of the appeal to the tribunal of the emperor, were to 
 secure the execution of the statutes of Nuremberg and fortify 
 the supreme power (1438). But the new troubles of Ger- 
 many under the feeble Frederic III., and his inability to re- 
 sist the attempts of even the weakest vassals (Mod. Hist., ch. 
 vii.), soon showed that the emperors were still to confine 
 their pretensions to a ratification of the encroachments of the 
 nobles. All Frederic's efibrts resulted in making regula- 
 tions for private wars. 
 
252 FORMATION OF THE HELVETIC LEAGUE. 
 
 §IIL 
 
 FORMATION OF THE HELVETIC LEAGUE. 
 
 228. Oppression of Helvetia. — Conspiracy of Ruili. — 
 William Tell. — While Germany was thus sinking with rapid 
 decay, a great political revolution was accomplished in a 
 corner of Europe. Helvetia broke away from the empire, 
 and won her freedom and nationality by the heroism of a 
 few mountaineers. Subjected, since Charlemagne, to the 
 imperial supremacy, Helvetia was divided into a great num- 
 ber of immediate fiefs — four imperial cities, and three called 
 forest cities Uri, Schwitz, and Unterwalden. Albert of 
 Austria, always goaded by the ambition of aggrandizing his 
 family, proposed to these cities to renounce their privileges 
 and put themselves under the direct protection of Austria. 
 All three refused : and the irritated prince charged the in- 
 tendants of the lands which he held in their neighborhood, to 
 enforce their rights with the gi'eatest rigor, to embarrass the 
 commerce of the cities, and tyrannize to the utmost over the 
 inhabitants of the country. 
 
 The proud mountaineers did not submit long to this 
 odious oppression. Thi'ee men, devoted to liberty — Werner 
 Staufacher, of Schwitz ; Walter Furst, of Uri ; and Arnold 
 of Melchtal, whose father, an inhabitant of Uri, had just been 
 blinded by the Austrian intendant — united for the indepen- 
 dence of their country. They held their meetings by night 
 on the rocks of Uri, and excited their friends to join with 
 them in this bold enterprise ; and thirty-three pledged them- 
 selves, in the name of the God who heard them, to defend with 
 their latest breath the holy cause of freedom. Such was 
 the origin of the Swiss confederacy. 
 
 One of the conspirators, William Tell, of the canton of 
 
FORMATION OF THE HELVETIC LEAGUE. 253 
 
 Uri, gave the signal of revolt. It is said that Gessler, in- 
 tendant of the empire, had set up his hat in the square of Al- 
 torfF, and commanded every body to do homage to this emblem 
 of his power. Tell, who refused to comply, was condemned 
 to be put to death, unless he could strike off with an arrow an 
 apple from the head of his son. He did it: but the intendant 
 resolved to crush this bold spirit ; had him chained, and 
 taking him in his boat, attempted to conduct him himself to 
 the fortress, where he meant to confine him. A violent tem- 
 pest arose, and the affi'ighted boatmen were unable to hold 
 their way among the rocks. Tell was unchained, and in- 
 trusted with the helm. He steered for the shore, and, leaping 
 upon it, pushed the boat back among the waves. The boat- 
 men, left to themselves, struggled manfully for their lives, 
 and succeeded at last in reaching the shore. Tell watched 
 them from the bank, and shot the tyrant as he landed. 
 
 229. Contest between the Swiss and Albert I. — Formation 
 of the Helvetic league. — Already by June, 1308, several 
 castles had fallen into the hands of the insurgents, whose 
 number had rapidly increased. Albert marched against 
 them, but was assassinated at the passage of the Reuss 
 (v. § i.). His son, Frederic the Handsome, was an equally 
 implacable enemy of the Swiss ; and after having avenged 
 his father's death by two bloody battles, he sent his brother 
 Leopold to wage against them a war of extermination. 
 Leopold appeared among the mountains with a band of illus- 
 trious knights, and cords to bind the chiefs of those vile 
 peasants, whom he threatened to crush under his feet. The 
 fearless confederates called first on Heaven for protection, 
 and then, by the advice of an old man, took their stand in 
 the defile of Morgarten. Thirteen hundred men, with no- 
 thing but halberts for arms, awaited the approach of Leo- 
 pold's numerous arniy and mail-clad knights. An hour and 
 a half decided the fate of Swiss freedom. Showers of stones. 
 
254 FORBIATION OF THE HELVETIC LEAGUE. 
 
 hurled down from the heights, crushed the Austrians as they 
 vainly endeavored to force their way through the pass ; and 
 the knights, struck down from their horses, were killed by 
 the blows of the halbert. The victors swore a perpetual 
 league, which was soon approved by Lewis of Bavaria ; and 
 the whole country took the name of the canton in which the 
 victory had been won — (Schwitz — Switzerland) (1315). 
 
 230. Progress of the confederation. — Battle of SempacJi. 
 — Truce of Zurich. — Thenceforth, the confederation grew 
 rapidly. From 1332 to 1353, it was successively joined by 
 the cantons of Lucerne, Zurich, Glaris, Zug, and Berne. A 
 new war with Austria, insured its independence. The Aus- 
 trians had established on the principal road to Lucerne, a 
 toll, to which the young men of the city refused to submit. 
 Leopold, duke of Austria, seized upon this pretext to invade 
 Argovia. His army of four thousand knights and a strong 
 body of footmen, met fourteen hundred soldiers of the con- 
 federation, near Sempach. The intrepid charge of the Hel- 
 vetians was vain against the iron battalions of the enemy. 
 Many had already fallen, when Arnold of Winkelried sprang 
 forward, crying — " Friends, I intrust my wife and children 
 to you ;" and then seizing the points of several lances with 
 both his hands, dragged down the soldiers in his fall. The 
 Swiss broke fiercely into the breach, and breaking helmet 
 and curiass with their heavy swords, put the Austrians to 
 flight (1386). The battle of Nafels, won by the inhabitants 
 of Glaris, soon followed ; and these two great victories pre- 
 pared the way for the truce of Zurich (1389), by which 
 Albert IIL of Austria recognized the rights of the Helvetic 
 confederacy. 
 
 A few years afterwards (1411), the eight cantons were 
 joined by the city of Appenzel ; and in the following cen- 
 tury, their number rose to thirteen (v. Mod. Hist.). 
 
CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 ITALY FEOM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE FIFTEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Decline of the political power of the popes. — Contests of the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines. — Corradino and Manfred. — Charles of Anjou, 
 in Italy. — Death of Manfred and Corradino. — Ambitious projects of 
 Charles of Anjou. — Sicilian vespers. — Separation of Sicily and Naples. 
 — Rivalry between the houses of Anjou and Aragon. 
 
 § II. Maritime power of Venice. — Influence of the fall of the Latin 
 empire upon the destinies of Venice. — Political revolution. — Abolition 
 of the democracy. — The Great Council. — Closing of the Great Council. 
 — Council of Ten. — Rivalry of Pisa and Genoa. — Decline of Pisa. — 
 Triumph of her rival. 
 
 § III. Relations between Clement V. and Philip the Fair. — Re- 
 moval of the Holy See to Avignon. — John XXII. — Clement VI. — 
 Cola di Rienzi tribune at Rome. — His power and his fall. — Return of the 
 popes to Rome, after a residence of seventy years at Avignon. 
 
 § IV. Double election of Urban VI. and Clement III. — Benedict 
 XIII. and Gregory XII. — Council of Pisa. — Alexander VI. — Council of 
 Constance. — John XXIII. — Condemnation of John Huss. — Deposition 
 of three popes. — Martin V. — Vain attempts at reform. — Council of Basle. 
 — Temporary reunion of the Greek church. 
 
 § V. Sovereign houses of Italy. — Family of the Visconti at Milan. — 
 Contest of the Lombard cities against Milan. — Bernabo Visconti. — John 
 Galeazzo. — The Condottieri. — Francis Sforza. — State of Lombardy. — 
 House of Savoy 
 
256 ITALY AFTER THE DEATH OF FREDERIC II. 
 
 § VI. State of Tuscany. — The contest between the Guelphs and Ghi- 
 bellines continues. — Exploits of Castruccio. — Rivalry between the Neri 
 and Bianchi, at Florence. — Plague at Florence. — Beginning of the house 
 of Medici. — Silvestro. — John, Father of the people. — Cosimo, Father of 
 his country. 
 
 § VII. Respective positions of Venice and Genoa. — Rupture between 
 the two republics. — Conspiracy of Marino Faliero. — Success of Genoa. — 
 War of Chiozza. — Venice saved by Pisani. — Success of the Venetians. — 
 Their progress on the continent. — War against Milan. — Revolution at 
 Genoa. 
 
 § VIII. Contest between Frederic of Aragon, and Robert of Anjou. 
 — Crimes and irregularities of Jane I. — Jane II. — Rivalry of Alphonso of 
 Aragon, and Rene of Anjou. — Reunion of the two Sicihes. — Wise go- 
 vernment of Alphonso. — Treaty of Lodi. — Pacification of Lodi. 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE STATES OF ITALY AND THEIR RELATIONS WITH 
 GERMANY AFTER THE DEATH OF FREDERIC II. 
 
 231. Final contest of the Guelphs and Ghibellines. — Cor- 
 radino. — Manfred. — During the period of anarchy which 
 desolated Germany (v. preceding ch.), Italy succeeded in 
 throwing off the foreign influence to which she had long 
 been subjected ; but was unable to form any principle of 
 unity for her divided strength, or organize an energetic 
 government. While the imperial power was declining so 
 rapidly beyond the Alps, the temporal power of the popes — 
 the only centre of action for Italy since Gregory VII. — sunk 
 with equal rapidity, and with it the political importance of 
 the peninsula. Several states will still run a bright career ; 
 but their fatal rivalries undermine the basis of their great- 
 ness, and prepare that long period of subjection which has 
 not yet ended. 
 
 The last contests of the Guelph or national party, against 
 
ITALY AFTER THE DEATH OF FREDEKIC II. 257 
 
 the house of Hohenstaufen and the Ghibellines, fill the close 
 of the thirteenth century. Frederic II. had left his natural 
 son Manfred guardian of his two legitimate children, Conrad 
 and Henry (1250). Conrad, murderer of his brother Henry, 
 was supposed to have fallen a victim himself to the ambition 
 of Manfred. However this may have been, Manfred was 
 chosen king on the report of the death of Corradino, Conrad's 
 son (1258), and crowned at Palermo. The pope refused to 
 grant him the investiture, and roused the Guelphs against 
 him. The Ghibellines met a severe loss in Lombardy, where 
 Eccellino their chief, who had made himself odious by his 
 cruelty and tyranny, was defeated and taken prisoner at 
 Cassano. At the same time, the pope armed Florence, Luc- 
 ca, and all the Guelph cities of Tuscany, against Pisa, Siena, 
 and Arezzo, which supported the opposite party, and gave to 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Lewis, the investiture of the 
 two Sicilies, to set him up against Manfred (1205). The 
 new king promised, like Robert Guiscard, to hold the king- 
 dom as a fief of the Holy See, pay a tribute of eight thou- 
 sand ounces of gold, and send every year to the pontiff* a 
 white palfrey in sign of vassalage. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, with the banner of the church at the 
 head of his brilliant army, met Manfred near Beneventum. 
 The Italian prince was surrounded by a guard of Saracens. 
 In the heat of the conflict the silver eagle of his crest fell 
 or was struck off": " /i( is the sign of God," he exclaimed; 
 and rushing among the enemy, fell, covered with wounds 
 (1266). 
 
 232. Charles of Anjou king of the two Sicilies. — Every 
 thing gave way to the conqueror : but the Italians soon grew 
 tired of the cold and imperious Charles, and called Corradino, 
 Conrad's son, from Germany. The Ghibellines of Tuscany 
 declared in favor of the young prince, who advanced with a 
 numerous army to the walls of Viterbo, to frighten Clement 
 
258 ITALY AFTER THE DEATH OF FREDERIC 11. 
 
 IV., the ally of Charles of Anjou. " They are victims going 
 to the sacrijice," said the pope ; and shortly after his words 
 were verified at the battle of Tagliacozzo (1268). The un- 
 fortunate Corradino was condemned to death, and executed in 
 the public square with his cousin Frederic of Austria, in pre- 
 sence of his cold-blooded conqueror. Charles of Anjou, who 
 had secured the triumph of the Guelphs, now attempted to 
 extend his own power over Italy : but all the Lombard cities 
 which had joined him against the Ghibellines, resisted him 
 manfully the moment that he began to threaten their inde- 
 pendence. Repulsed in northern Italy, he drew away St. 
 Lewis to the crusade against Tunis, and had hardly quit Af- 
 rica, from whence he was driven by famine and disease, 
 when he began to prepare an expedition against the empire 
 of the East, and had already taken Corfu and Durazzo, when 
 all his hopes were annihilated by an unforeseen event. 
 
 233. Sicilian Vespers. — Separation of Sicily and Naples. 
 — Giovanni da Procida, a Sicilian noble who had suffered 
 deeply from the tyranny of Charles, took refuge at the court 
 of Peter of Aragon, Manfred's son-in-law, and planned 
 there the great conspiracy of the Sicilian Vespers, which 
 cost the life of every Frenchman in the island. On Easter 
 Monday, 30th March, 1282, at the moment in which the bells 
 began to ring for vespers, the Sicilians rose up against the 
 French, began a general massacre, and in two hours eight 
 thousand persons had been put to death. So great was the 
 rage of the conspirators, that they killed even the Sicilian 
 women who had married Frenchmen. Only one man was 
 spared in this general slaughter, William Porcelet, who had 
 won so good a name by his virtues, that men did not forget 
 it even in that fearful moment. At the news of this catas- 
 trophe the pope excommunicated the Sicilians and Peter of 
 Aragon, whom they had chosen king (1282). Charles sent 
 a powerful army to punish the revolt, but all his efforts fail- 
 
PKOGBESS OF THE MARITIME REPUBLICS. 259 
 
 ed ; his fleet was destroyed by Roger de Loria and his son 
 taken prisoner. All Sicily recognized Peter, who reigned 
 till 1285. Charles died the same year, after three years of 
 unavailing efforts to reconquer his kingdom. The war con- 
 tinued under James I. of Aragon and Charles II. of Valois, 
 sons of the two rivals, with many vicissitudes ; but the Ara- 
 gonese preserved the dominion over Sicily, and it was not 
 till long afterwards that it was again reunited to Naples. 
 
 §11. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE MARITIME POWERS. 
 
 234. Maritime power of Venice. — Causes of her decay. — 
 The independent cities of the north of Italy, leaving the 
 southern provinces to struggle as best they might with their 
 foreign rulers, directed all their efforts to the strengthening 
 of their power at home, and the enlargement of it abroad. 
 The power of Venice, confined to the sea, had received an 
 extraordinary development during the crusades. The Vene- 
 tians, carrying their mercantile spirit to their religious en- 
 terprises, had secured an immense pi'ofit in their speculations 
 upon the enthusiasm of the crusaders. Venice lent them 
 her ships in exchange for their treasures, and hastened to 
 establish a factory wherever they made a conquest. The 
 fourth crusade confirmed the influence of the Venetians in 
 the East, where the Greeks had already granted them free 
 commerce in all their ports. The fall of the Greek empire 
 threw all the coasts into the hands of the Venetians, and 
 gave them the empire of the Mediterranean. The republic 
 excited the ambition and cupidity of all her citizens, by of- 
 fering the sovereignty of the islands and ports of the Egean, 
 to any one that should make the conquest and acknowledge 
 the sovereignty of Venice. Immediately a crowd of mer- 
 
260 PROGRESS OF THE MARITIME REPUBLICS. 
 
 chants and nobles engaged in expeditions, most of which 
 were successful, and extended the dominion of the republic, 
 which soon reached the highest point of its greatness. But 
 the repeated attacks of the Hungarians and lUyrians, and 
 above all the rivalry of Genoa, soon began to shake the 
 power of the queen of the Adriatic. 
 
 She had already lost her preponderance at Constantinople 
 by the ruin of the Latin empire (v. ch. x.), and the Turks, 
 masters of Tyre and Ptolemais, had closed the ports of Syria 
 against her, when her quarrel with Genoa broke out in all 
 its violence. Venice made incredible efforts to preserve the 
 navigation of the Black Sea, sometimes arming large fleets, 
 sometimes sending out swarms of pirates to destroy the 
 commerce of the Genoese ; but after a long war, inaugurated 
 by the victory of Trapani (1261), two great naval defeats 
 (battle of Curzola, 1293 — of Gallipoli, 1294) compelled her 
 to accept a humiliating peace, which closed to her the ports 
 of the Black Sea and the sea of Syria. From this epoch 
 dates the decay of the maritime power of Venice. 
 
 235. Arisiocraiic revolution at Venice. — Closing of the 
 great council. — Council of ten. — The Venetian government 
 was at the same time shaken by a great political revolution. 
 In a city of which the population had so often been renewed 
 by foreign immigrations, the democratic element had natu- 
 rally been predominant in the beginning. Nearly all the 
 inhabitants of Venice took a part in the nomination of the 
 doge and other magistrates ; but the confusion and trouble 
 which attended the elections afforded a pretext for change, 
 under the name of reform, and in 1172, the right of election 
 was transferred from the body of citizens to a great council, 
 composed of four hundred and fifty members, chosen by 
 twelve electors from the different quarters of the city. While 
 the aristocratic principle thus began its attacks upon democ- 
 racy, the monarchic element received a severe blow by the 
 
PROGRESS OF THE MARITIME REPUBLICS. 261 
 
 formation of a council of five members, the correctors of the 
 oath of the doge. Finally, in 1268, a, great chancellor was 
 created, who was to be chosen from among the commons — 
 another way of increasing the power of the nobles ; for by 
 granting a privilege to the people, you suppose that there can 
 be privileges, and that the nobility are already in possession 
 of their own ; by securing to them the possession of the 
 second place, you pronounce their exclusion from the first. 
 
 It was in vain that the people protested, and strove, at the 
 death of John Dandolo (1289), to regain the right of election. 
 The nobility made haste to render all reaction impossible. 
 Gradenigo, the doge, carried a decree by which the electors, 
 instead of being chosen freely by the people, were to be 
 chosen from the great council by its own members. In a 
 few years the most influential families had invaded the whole 
 council (1309). Nothing was now wanting but to give a 
 legal confirmation to their exclusive dominion. A decree 
 decided that thenceforth the council would be composed of 
 none but the senatorial families which then exercised the 
 right. This decree was called the closing of the great coun- 
 cil. In 1319 the dignity of counsellor was declared hered- 
 itary. And thus the aristocracy became a reigning caste, 
 and the state was concentrated in a class, of which the other 
 citizens were no longer any thing more than the subjects. 
 
 This victory was not won without difficulty, and several 
 conspiracies broke out among the nobles themselves, a large 
 portion of whom were disinherited of their share in the go- 
 vernment. But the only result was the establishment of a 
 tribunal, terrible by the number of its emissaries, the secrecy 
 of its operations, and the arbitrariness and rigor of its sen- 
 tences, the celebrated council of ten, and within it the in- 
 quisitors of state, more especially charged with the examina- 
 tion of the affairs and the execution of the decrees of the 
 council. 
 
262 PROGRESS OF THE MARITIME REPUBLICS. 
 
 This redoubtable tribunal, temporary at first, but soon 
 declared permanent (1335), stifled for ever in Venice the 
 spirit of insubordination and revolt, and with them the spirit 
 of liberty. Peace reigned in the republic, but it was the 
 calm of oppression and the silence of terror, 
 
 236. Rivalry of Pisa and Genoa. — Decay of Pisa. — 
 Greatness of Genoa. — Pisa and Genoa had followed the ex- 
 ample of Venice in their external policy, and more occupied 
 with foreign affairs than with the quarrels of Italy, had cre- 
 ated an important maritime power. But neighbors and rivals 
 in ambition, they soon engaged in a desperate struggle which 
 could only end in the ruin of one or the other. Under the 
 dynasty of the Hohenstaufen the Pisans were supported by 
 the imperialists ; but the decay of the Ghibellines, after the 
 death of Frederic II., was a fatal blow to them. Sardinia 
 was torn from them by the pope ; and the possession of Cor- 
 sica became the cause of a fatal war with Genoa. In 1284, 
 the terrible battle of Meloria, in which they lost thirty-five 
 galleys, five thousand killed, and eleven thousand prisoners, 
 destroyed their marine. The captives were carried to Ge- 
 noa ; and it became a saying in Italy — Go to Genoa if you loisli 
 to see Pisa. This unfortunate city, a target for the attacks of 
 all the Guelphs of Tuscany, was reduced to the necessity of 
 submitting to the tyranny of Count Ugolino della Gherardesca. 
 But the yoke soon became insupportable, and the people 
 rising against him, made themselves masters of his person, 
 after a desperate resistance, and threw him into the tower 
 of the setii vie, where he and his children perished by hun- 
 ger. A new war with the Genoese terminated in a treaty, 
 which compelled, it is said, the Pisans to block up their port 
 (1290). 
 
 This was a period of grandeur for Genoa. In spite of 
 the numerous changes in the uncertain form of her govern- 
 ment, which gave the dominion for a few years to Charles 
 
TRANSLATION OF THE HOLY SEE TO AVIGNON. 263 
 
 of Anjou ; in spite of the part she took in the quarrels of the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines, and her desperate contests with 
 Venice (1261-1299) ; Genoa had been one of the great 
 means of restoring Constantinople to the Greeks : in the 
 maritime provinces of the empire she had substituted her 
 dominion to that of Venice : she had seized upon the navi- 
 gation of the Black Sea ; had subdued Pisa, her constant ri- 
 val ; had secured her preponderance in the Mediterranean, 
 and established one in the East which lasted till the fall of 
 the empire. 
 
 § III. 
 
 TRANSLATION OF THE HOLY SEE TO AVIGNON. 
 
 237. Relations hetween Clement V. and Philip the Fair. — 
 Translation of the Holy See to Avignon. — The decline of the 
 political influence of the Holy See in Italy, a fact of immense 
 importance — the leading one in the history of the peninsula 
 in the thirteenth century, and which changed its destinies for 
 all following ages — was decided for ever, when the pope, 
 abandoning the pontifical city and his independent domains, 
 went to seek an asylum in the states of a foreign prince. 
 
 The quarrel between Philip the Fair and Boniface VIII., 
 which ended only with the death of the pope, exposed even 
 in Italy to the outrages of the emissaries of his enemy, 
 seemed to manifest an intention on the part of the king to 
 extend his supremacy over the sovereign pontificate. The 
 translation of the Holy See to Avignon was the result and the 
 complement of this policy. No sooner had Boniface's suc- 
 cessor, Benedict XI. (1303-1304), who had consented to ab- 
 solve Philip from the sentence of excommunication, left the 
 papal throne vacant by his death, than the king hastened to 
 
264 TRANSLATION OF THE HOLY SEE TO AVIGNON. 
 
 attach to his party Bertrand of Got, archbishop of Bordeaux, 
 who had been proposed as a candidate in the conclave. The 
 Frenchman was elected, thanks to Philip's intrigues, and 
 took the name of Clement V. (1305-1314). The king as- 
 sured him of his protection as the price of several conditions, 
 one of which, it was said, was to be accepted without being 
 known. One of the conditions was, that the Holy See should 
 be transferred to France. Clement, who preferred his own 
 country to Rome, torn by factions and agitated by the spirit 
 of democracy and revolt, complied readily with the king's 
 desire, and established himself in the county of Venaissin, 
 within the territories of the counts of Provence, from whom 
 his successors bought Avignon. Thus began what the Ital- 
 ians call the new captivity of Babylon, which lasted nearly 
 seventy years (1309-1376). Yet there were several condi- 
 tions to which Clement would not consent. He would not 
 brand the memory of his predecessor, for fear of degrading 
 the pontificate, although urgently pressed to it by the king. 
 And he was supported in it by the decree of the general 
 council of Vienne, which declared the pope guiltless of her- 
 esy (1311). But Philip obtained a compensation in the bull 
 of 1307, which abolished the order of Templars in all the 
 states of Europe. And this, say some historians, was the 
 condition which the king had not been willing to tell before- 
 hand. 
 
 238. Troubles in Italy. — Rienzi tribune at Roine, — One 
 of the fruits of the residence of the popes at Avignon was 
 the quarrel of Lewis of Bavaria with the Holy See. John 
 XXII. (1316-1333) began this new contest with the empire. 
 He refused to recognize Lewis, and claimed for himself the 
 right of naming an imperial vicar during the vacancy of the 
 empire. Benedict XII. and Clement VI., to serve the policy 
 of France, and often against their own wills, pursued the 
 emperor with their anathemas. Benedict XIL (1334-1342)^ 
 
TRANSLATION OF THE HOLY SEE TO AVIGNON. 265 
 
 ashamed of his vassalage, wished to escape from it by re- 
 turning to Italy ; but the revival of the quarrels of the 
 Guelphs and Ghibellines brought him back to France. 
 
 Under Clement VI. (1342-1352), Benedict's successor, 
 the return was still more difficult. A new tribune, Nicholas 
 Rienzi (Cola Gabrino), was on the point of taking Rome 
 from the popes (1347). This man of low birth had inflamed 
 his ardent imagination by the history of the old republic. 
 He possessed a lively eloquence, and when he assembled the 
 people around the monuments of their ancient grandeur, and 
 spoke to them of the glory of their fathers, he kindled an 
 enthusiasm to which they had long been strangers. Inflamed 
 by his discourses, they invested him with the supreme power 
 and established him in the capitol. He called himself Rien- 
 zi, severe and clement, tribune of justice, peace, and liberty, the 
 illustrious liberator of his country ; and, intoxicated with his 
 triumph, formed the project of a universal republic, of which 
 Rome was to be the centre. He summoned Clement VI., 
 Lewis of Bavaria, and Charles of Bohemia, to come and de- 
 fend their claims before his tribunal. But the people soon 
 grew tired of their new master. He was driven from Rome, 
 and re-established after an exile of seven years, by the pro- 
 tection of Innocent VI. But he again made himself obnox- 
 ious by his misgovernment, was besieged in the capitol, and 
 killed in a popular tumult (1354). 
 
 239. Return of the pope to Rome. — An envoy of the 
 pope, Cardinal Albornoz, who had been a soldier in his youth 
 and knighted by Alphonso XL, undertook the perilous task of 
 re-establishing order and submission, after so many troubles 
 and revolts. By address, firmness, and perseverance, this 
 skilful politician succeeded in bringing back Rome to the 
 authority of the sovereign pontiff", and prepared the way for 
 a return which had become more necessary than ever. 
 
 The frightful disorder which reigned in France had made 
 
266 GKEAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 
 
 the residence of Avignon odious to the popes. During the 
 pontificate of Innocent V. (1352-1362), a band of adventu- 
 rers spread over the territory of the city, and only ceased 
 their robberies to go and wage war in Italy under the banner 
 of the marquis of Montferrat. Under Urban V. ( 1 362-1 370), 
 new French bands, commanded by Bertrand of Guesclin, 
 spread through the county, and raised a tax of 200,000 florins 
 on the pontifical treasury. These multiplied injuries, the 
 entreaties of the Italians, the submission of Rome, and the 
 promises of the emperor, decided Urban V. to quit the French 
 territory ; to which, however, he returned again before he died. 
 But his successor, Gregory XI. (1370), restored the seat of 
 the pontificate definitively to Italy. He made his entry into 
 Rome (1376) with triumphal pomp, amid the acclamations 
 of the people, and chose for his residence the Vatican, the 
 name of which from that time became indissolubly connected 
 with the papal throne (1377). 
 
 § IV. 
 
 GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. COUNCILS OF CONSTANCE AND 
 
 BASLE. 
 
 240. Douhle election of Urban VI. and CIeme7it VII. — 
 Beginning of the schism of the West. — It was with no good 
 will that France had renounced the privilege of holding the 
 papal throne within her territories, and her resentment gave 
 rise to the great schism of the West, which lasted half a 
 century. The election which followed the death of Gregory 
 was the pretext of this schism. Armed men had threatened 
 the cardinals with death, unless they elected a Roman pope. 
 They yielded, and chose an Italian, Urban VI. But soon 
 after, several of them, disgusted with the severity with which 
 
GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST. 267 
 
 the new pontiff repressed their corruptions, protested against 
 the election, and chose a Frenchman, Clement VII., who es- 
 tablished himself at Avignon. The whole church was di- 
 vided by this schism. Some states took the side of one pope, 
 others of the other ; and this fatal contest continued under 
 their successors. After the double election of Benedict XIII. 
 and Gregory XII., the council of Pisa made a vain effort to 
 end the quarrel by inducing them both to abdicate, and 
 thought that it could overcome their resistance by giving the 
 tiara to the virtuous Alexander V., who, once a beggar of his 
 bread in Candia, had raised himself by his merit to the arch- 
 bishopric of Milan (1409). But this only increased the con- 
 fusion : instead of two popes there were now three ; and to 
 put an end to the scandal, Alexander's successor, John XXIII. 
 (1410-1415), resolved to convoke a general council at Con- 
 stance. 
 
 241. Council of Constance. — A crowd of lay and ecclesi- 
 astical princes, the electors of the empire, the plenipotentia- 
 ries of all the courts of Christendom, the emperor Sigismund 
 himself, Pope John XXIIL, and the legates of Benedict XIII. 
 and Gregory XII., and, says an eyewitness, several pagan 
 lords, wonderfully dressed, with a great many Greeks and 
 Mussulmen, met at Constance (1414). A hundred and fifty 
 thousand Christians were assembled in the city and its envi- 
 rons, and all Europe awaited with anxiety the decrees of a 
 council which was to put an end to the schism which divided 
 the church, and condemn the heresy of John Huss. This 
 heresy, as it was called by the council, was the same doctrine 
 which in the next century was to strip the Catholic church 
 of so large a portion of its heritage — attacking monastic 
 vows, the supremacy of the pope, and the worship of saints. 
 Huss consummated his revolt by publicly burning, as Luther 
 did after him, the pontifical bulls, and came boldly to the 
 council to defend his doctrines, which his partisans were 
 
268 GREAT SCHISBI OF THE "WEST. 
 
 actively spreading in Bohemia. Condemned by the church, 
 he refused to retract, and in spite of the safe-conduct of the 
 emperor, was burned at the stake (1415). 
 
 242. Martin V. — Attempts at reform. — Council of Basle. 
 — End of the schism. — Still the great object of the council, 
 the extinction of the schism, was not yet accomplished. John 
 XXIII. , to escape the decision of the council, had fled in 
 the disguise of a postillion, and taken refuge at Schaffhausen : 
 but still he was deposed. Gregory XII. abdicated voluntari- 
 ly. Benedict XIII. resisted the entreaties of the council and 
 the emperor. He was deposed in spite of his opposition, and 
 an Italian, Martin V., raised to the pontifical throne (1417). 
 Peace seemed to have been at last established in the church ; 
 but this long schism had introduced serious evils which called 
 for an immediate reform. But the new pope, fearing to en- 
 gage in this pej'ilous, though necessary task, dissolved the 
 assembly without heeding the remonstrances of the prelates, 
 who would gladly have averted the danger which menaced 
 them from so near. 
 
 The condemnation of John Huss was soon followed by 
 that of his disciple, Jerome of Prague (1416). But their 
 doctrines spread, and the success of the Taborites soon made 
 it necessary to convoke a second council. It met at Basle, 
 condemned the Hussites anew, called attention to several 
 great abuses, and began to work earnestly at the difficult 
 task of the reunion of the Greek church. But the pope was 
 again frightened by the cry for reform. Eugene IV. (1431— 
 1447) adjourned the council, several of whose members, 
 irritated by these hesitations, proclaimed Amedeus VIII., 
 duke of Savoy (1439), who took the name of Felix V. But 
 the greater part of the bishops soon met again at Ferrara, 
 and then at Florence, where Eugene IV. enjoyed the tran- 
 sient glory of proclaiming the reunion of the Greek and 
 Roman churches in a solemn act, which recognized the pope 
 
SOVEREIGN FAMILIES OF ITALY. 269 
 
 as head of the church, and gave the second place to the pa- 
 triarch of Constantinople. The abdication of Felix V. soon 
 followed, and Nicholas V., sole pope, confirmed by his pru- 
 dence the general pacification (1449). From that time the 
 popes lived tranquilly at Rome. 
 
 § V. 
 
 SOVEREIGN FAMILIES OF ITALY. 
 
 243. Independent powers in the north of Italy. — While 
 Europe was agitated by these religious troubles, Italy served 
 as the theatre for the last quarrels of the Guelphs and Ghi- 
 bellines, which were kept alive by the rivalries of the little 
 independent powers which divided the peninsula. The 
 northern provinces had hardly thrown off the imperial yoke 
 when the nobles seized the power and established themselves 
 as sovereigns in the principal cities. The most powerful 
 were the Delia Scala, who replaced the Eccellini in Verona; 
 the counts of Savoy, the princes of Este at Modena and Fer- 
 rara, the Gonzaga at Mantua, and Visconti at Milan. 
 
 244. The Visconti at 3Iilan. — State of Lomlardy and Sa- 
 voy. — The family of the Visconti triumphed towards 1276, over 
 the rival family of Torriani, and took possession of the su- 
 preme authority, which became hereditary among them after 
 the emperor Henry VII. had conferred upon one of them the 
 title of imperial vicar of Lombardy. Milan, under the go- 
 vernment of the Visconti, held the supremacy in upper Italy, 
 as it had done during the league of Lombardy. Verona, 
 Vicenza, Padua, Piacenza, and Pisa herself, recognized the 
 authority of the dukes of Milan (1315). But the power of 
 the Visconti excited a reaction, which involved them in seri- 
 ous difficulties. A league formed by Venice with the cities 
 
270 SOVEREIGN FAMILIES OF ITALY. 
 
 of Padua, Verona, Ferrara, and Mantua, was overcome by 
 the two brothers Bernabos and Galeazzo. Bernabos avenged 
 hhnself by frightful cruelties, maintained his authority in 
 Milan, and tried to deprive his nephew, John Galeazzo, of his 
 share of power. But the wily young prince, deceiving his 
 uncle, seized upon his person, threw him into prison, and 
 governed alone. John Galeazzo (1385-1432), as skilful as 
 he was ambitious, extended his power rapidly over all Lom- 
 bardy : Padua opened her gates to him ; the duke of Savoy, 
 the lords of Gonzaga, Este, and Montferrat recognized his 
 supremacy ; Bologna submitted to his laws, and the feeble 
 emperor Vincislaus gladly sold him the ducal dignity for a 
 hundred thousand crowns. 
 
 John Galeazzo had taken into pay the bands of condottieri, 
 a kind of Italian soldiery, similar to the great companies in 
 France, who sold their services to the best paymaster. But 
 the insubordination of these adventurers frequently rendered 
 them more redoubtable to their allies than to their enemies. 
 The firm and powerful Galeazzo kept them within bounds, 
 but they took ample amends on his young successors. Their 
 influence soon became supreme in Milan, and at the death of 
 Philip Maria Visconti, Galeazzo's second son (1447), one of 
 their leaders, Francesco Sforza, aided by the Venetians, 
 seized the supreme authority, in spite of the eiforts of the 
 Milanese to re-establish the democracy. His family preserv- 
 ed the crown for fifty years. 
 
 The republican government had disappeared throughout 
 the rest of Lombardy, and the names of Guelph and Ghibelline, 
 though occasionally heard, had lost their political meaning, 
 and served only as a cover to private enmities. In the east 
 of Lombardy, amid a crowd of obscure principalities, the 
 only house which was to preserve some celebrity and impor- 
 tance, was the house of Savoy. At the end of the fourteenth 
 century it was represented by Amedeus VIII., who early in 
 
REPUBLICS OF TUSCANY. 271 
 
 the century following was raised to the ducal dignity by the 
 emperor Sigismund (1419). 
 
 § VI. 
 
 REPUBLICS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 245. Continuation of the contest of Guelphs and Ghihel- 
 lines. — The Neri and the Bianchi. — Plague of Florence. — 
 The Guelph and Ghibelline parties lasted longer in Tuscany, 
 which they continued to divide into two camps. In the mid- 
 dle of the thirteenth century the Ghibellines ruled at Pisa, 
 Siena, Pistoja, and Volterra ; and succeeded even in making 
 themselves masters of Florence, which, with Lucca, was at 
 the head of the Guelphs. But Florence, subjected for a mo- 
 ment by the family of the Uberti to an aristocratical govern- 
 ment, revolted against the Ghibellines, re-established the de- 
 mocracy, and exiling the Uberti, confided the authority to 
 two anziani (ancients). This revolution secured the triumph 
 of the Guelphs till the battle of the Arbia or Monte Aperto, 
 where they were defeated with great loss by the exiles, by 
 the aid of the Siennese and Manfred. Nothing but the patri- 
 otism of Farinata degli Uberti saved Florence herself from 
 destruction. 
 
 In the intoxication of victory, the Siennese built the tower 
 of St. George of the thirty-eight windows, in honor of the 
 thirty-eight companies that had taken part in the combat 
 (1260). 
 
 Still this event did not end the quarrel. Florence gradu- 
 ally regained her strength, and avenged herself by the sack 
 of Pistoja (1306). Pisa, though fallen from her ancient lus- 
 tre, remained at the head of the Ghibellines, who were 
 vigorously supported by an exile from Lucca, Caslruccio 
 
272 REPUBLICS OF TUSCANY. 
 
 Castracani, a bold captain and skilful politician. Castruccio 
 became the terror of all Tuscany, all-powerful at home, and 
 supported by the alliance of Galeazzo Visconti, who had 
 sought his friendship. Florence made an effort to defend 
 her old superiority, but was defeated in a decisive battle 
 (1325). Thus unsuccessful abroad, she was lacerated at 
 home by the factions of the Neri and Bianchi, and reduced 
 to intrust the supreme power to a foreigner, Walter, duke of 
 Athens, an avaricious, cruel, and proud man, who sought 
 rather to be feared than loved, and imposed on the Floren- 
 tines a galling yoke. To all these disasters was added the 
 famous plague, which the eloquence of Boccacio has render- 
 ed so celebrated. A hundred thousand persons were swept 
 off by this scourge, and among them the historian Villani 
 (1348). 
 
 246. Rise of the house of Medici : Silvestro, John, Cosi- 
 mo. — Towards the end of the fourteenth century the family 
 of the Medici began to take an active part in public affairs. 
 In 1378 Silvestro dei Medici, the first illustrious personage 
 of his race, employed all his influence to secure the triumph 
 of the democratic party against an oligarchy of the com- 
 mons, which had seized the power after the fall of the duke 
 of Athens. With this revolution began the most brilliant 
 period of Florentine history. Pisa, her ancient rival, which 
 had fallen under the yoke of foreigners, was sold to her by 
 the duke of Milan, and compelled, in spite of a desperate re- 
 sistance, to submit to her sway. After the death of Silves- 
 tro, Joh7i de' Medici, a banker, won by his liberality the name 
 of father of the poor. Fie bequeathed a large fortune to his 
 children, but died still richer in public love than in lands or 
 gold. " Seek nothing beyond what the laws or men's free 
 will gives you," was his dying counsel to his children, " an4 
 thus you will avoid envy and the ills which follow in its 
 train." Such were the principles which governed the con- 
 
RIVALRY OF VENICE AND GENOA. 273 
 
 duct of his eldest son Cosimo (1430-1464). Banished for a 
 moment by the oligarchy, Cosimo was recalled by the whole 
 people (1434), and remained to his death at the head of the 
 republic, which enjoyed, under his administration, a peace 
 and prosperity which it had never known before. Tranquil 
 at home, respected abroad, and surrounded by all the splen- 
 dor of arts and letters, she forgot, in the security inspired by 
 the virtues and moderation of Cosimo, to guard against the 
 danger to which she might be exposed by his successors. 
 Cosimo was honored with the title of father of Ids country. 
 
 § VII. 
 
 RIVALRY OF VENICE AND GENOA. 
 
 247. Respective positions of Venice and Genoa. — Conspi- 
 racy of Marino Faliero. — Taking but little part in the inter- 
 nal dissensions of Italy, Venice and Genoa engaged actively 
 in the general affairs of Europe, to increase their power by 
 skilfully profiting by foreign wars, and above all by means 
 of great commercial enterprises. The East, with its wealth, 
 excited the ambition of the two republics, who could not meet 
 often on this ground without being brought into collision by 
 the opposition of interests. The revolution which wrested 
 Constantinople from the Latins had established the power 
 of Genoa in the Black sea. But Venice still ruled in the 
 Archipelago. The taking of Treviso had extended her power 
 on the coasts of the Adriatic (1339), and a treaty with the 
 sultan of Egypt opened new markets for her commerce 
 (1342). The Genoese, who had humbled their rivals in 
 1299 (v. ch. xi.), attempted to cut them off from the naviga. 
 tion of the sea of Azof, and Venice, to protect the liberty 
 of her commerce, was obliged to resolve upon war. 
 
274 RIVALRY OF VENICE AND GENOA. 
 
 The success was still nearly balanced between the two 
 republics, when Venice was exposed to great danger by the 
 conspiracy of Marino Faliero. The doge, an old man of 
 eighty, had been deeply outraged by a young noble, and the 
 only punishment which the council of ten inflicted was a few 
 days' imprisonment. Faliero dissembled his rage, and unit- 
 ing with the leader of the democratic party, formed a conspi- 
 racy, the object of which was the death of the patricians and 
 the annihilation of the aristocracy. Six hundred conspira- 
 tors were to assemble on the square of St. Mark on the 15th 
 of April, 1355, at the signal of the tocsin, which the doge 
 was to have sounded, and massacre the nobles as they came, 
 one by one, to gather around the head of the republic. But 
 the day before the plot was to break out, it was revealed to a 
 member of the council of ten. The conspirators were given 
 up to punishment, and the doge beheaded on the great stair, 
 case of the ducal palace, on the very spot where he had re- 
 ceived the crown. 
 
 248. Wars letween the Genoese and Venetians. — Venice, 
 enfeebled by this terrible execution, was forced to conclude a 
 disadvantageous peace with Genoa. Two years after, the 
 king of Hungary, profiting by her humiliation, stripped her 
 of the greater part of Dalmatia, and soon a new war with 
 Genoa brought her to the brink of ruin. The conquest of 
 Cyprus by the Genoese was the cause of this rupture. Ve- 
 nice took the part of King Lusignan, and at first was victori- 
 ous ; but the Genoese regained the advantage, defeated their 
 enemies at Pola (1379), and suddenly appeared before Ve- 
 nice, after having seized on Chiozza, twenty-five miles south 
 of the city. Peter Doria, who with Francis Carrara command- 
 ed the Genoese, boasted that he was going to replunge Venice 
 into her lagoons, and replied haughtily to the entreaties of the 
 senate and doge, that he would listen to no proposals till he 
 had put a bridle on the bronze horses of St. Mark. The Ve- 
 
RIVALRY OF VENICE AND GENOA. 275 
 
 netian signoi'ia was prepared to remove to Candia at the first 
 new reverse. But Victor Pisani, who had been unjustly 
 thrown into prison for the loss of a battle which he had fought 
 by express order, and against his own judgment, was drawn 
 from his dungeon to be placed in this emergency at the head 
 of the fleet, and joining with Zeno, who brought back a por- 
 tion of the fleet from the East, blockaded the Genoese at Chi- 
 ozza, and in spite of a vigorous defence and the heroic efforts 
 of the republic and her allies to deliver them, compelled them 
 to surrender at discretion. Shortly after, both parties, great- 
 ly weakened by their losses, were glad to sign a peace which 
 left things very nearly where they were at the beginning of 
 the war (1381). 
 
 Soon, however, Venice revived her power on the conti- 
 nent by favor of the dissensions which agitated her rival. 
 She recovered Treviso, Istria, and the Polesine of Rovigo, 
 while Genoa, wearied with her discords, gave herself up to 
 France, who sent the marshal Boucicault to govern her 
 (1401). Under this new administration Genoa flourished, 
 and after a short war with Venice, consented to put an end 
 to a disastrous rivalry, in order to think only of enlarging 
 her power at the expense of strangers. 
 
 249. War against the Milanese. — Revolution in Genoa. 
 — Venice, seconded by the condottiere Carmagola, whom she 
 had detached by liberal offers from the service of Milan, 
 turned her victorious arms against the cities of Lombardy, 
 and got possession of Vicenza, Verona, Padua (1410), Bres- 
 cia, and Bergamo (1448) : during the same period she took 
 Dalmatia from the king of Hungary (1426), and Friuli from 
 the patriarch of Aquileja. Her progress was only checked 
 by Francis Sforza, who compelled her to accept peace just as 
 the Turks made themselves masters of Constantinople (v. 
 treaty of Lodi, § viii.). 
 
 The Genoese, having driven away the French (1409), 
 
'276 HOUSE OF AEAGON. 
 
 tried during the next fifty years every form of government : 
 re-established and overthrew their doges, submitted to the 
 sovereignty of Milan (1419-1435), and recovering their lib- 
 erty, wasted in anarchy a strength which they ought to have 
 consecrated to the defence of Constantinople (1453), whose 
 fall, neither they nor their rivals knew how either to prevent, 
 or to avenge. This great event, however, decided the decay 
 of the two republics. 
 
 § VIII. 
 
 HOtJSE OF ARAGON. TREATY OF LODI. 
 
 250. Contest between Frederic II., and Robert of Anjou. 
 — Jane I. — During this period, important revolutions had 
 several times changed the face of the southern portion of 
 the peninsula. The two Sicilies, separated by the catas- 
 trophe of the Sicilian vespers, could not be reunited by 
 treaties. The son of Peter of Aragon, Frederic II. (1296- 
 1337), refused to give up Sicily, and was sustained by the 
 emperor and the Ghibellines. Robert the PFz'^e (1309-1343), 
 successor of Charles II. of Anjou, although chief of all the 
 Guelph states of Italy, could not wrest Sicily from his rival, 
 and reigned only on the continent. The tyranny of his 
 granddaughter Jane I. (1343), was felt all the more deeply 
 from its contrast with the mildness and wisdom of the pre- 
 ceding reign. This princess, celebrated by her crimes and 
 misfortunes, opened — by the mui'der of Andrew of Hungary, 
 her husband — a long career of scandals and crimes. She 
 married Lewis of Tarentum, one of the murderers of her 
 first husband ; but the king of Hungary taking up arms to 
 avenge his brother, invaded Italy, with a black banner for 
 his standard with the bloody body of the unfortunate Andrew 
 
HOUSE OF ARAGON. 277 
 
 painted on it. Soon the queen had nothing left but the cities 
 of Naples and Aversa. Clement V. interposed his media- 
 tion. But Jane reascended the throne only to dishonor it by 
 new excesses. Widow of James of Aragon, whom she had 
 married after the death of Lewis of Tarentum, she gave her 
 hand to a captain of Condottieri. Childless, though four times 
 married, she named her relation Charles Durazzo her succes- 
 sor ; and then irritated by his machinations, revoked her 
 nomination and adopted Lewis of Anjou, son of John king 
 of France. But Durazzo, by vigorous exertion, seized upon 
 the government ; and taking Jane prisoner, had her strangled 
 in prison (May 13, 1382). 
 
 251. Jane II. — Rivalry of Alphonso of Aragon and 
 Renato of Anjou, — Treaty of Lodi. — A long quarrel arose 
 from the rival pretensions of the two claimants of the throne 
 of Naples ; and though suspended for a moment under Jane 
 II. (1414-1435) last heir of Durazzo, was revived with 
 new vigor after the death of this princess, who proved her- 
 self, by her scandalous life, a worthy successor of the first 
 Jane. At first she had adopted Alphonso V. of Aragon, and 
 then replaced him by Lewis III. of Anjou ; and then by 
 Renato d' Anjou, after the death of his brother. Each of 
 these princes supported his claim by the act in his favor. 
 But Alphonso, the most powerful and most skilful, took pos- 
 session of Naples, and re-established the unity of the king- 
 dom of the two Sicilies (1442), in spite of an unfortunate war 
 against the duke of Milan and all the efforts of Renato, who 
 transmitted his rights to his nephew Charles of Maine. 
 These rights were one day to pass to the crown of France, 
 and give rise to new wars. Master of Southern Italy, Al- 
 phonso, whose noble qualities won him the surname of Mag- 
 nanimous, and whom Mariana calls the glory of the Spanish 
 nation, gave all his attention to the re-establishment of tran- 
 quillity in his states and throughout Italy. He adhered to 
 
278 HOUSE OF AKAGON. 
 
 the treaty ofLodi, which terminated in 1454 the long quarrel 
 of Milan and Venice, by securing to the Lombard republic 
 the ancient district of Cremona and the Ghiaradadda. All 
 the little states of the North were compelled to subscribe to 
 the treaty. The pope and republic of Florence acceded to 
 it, and it may be regarded as the act of the general pacifica- 
 tion of Italy. 
 
CHAPTER XT. 
 
 FEANOE AND ENGLAND DUEINa THE FIEST 
 PEEIOD OF THEIE EIVALEY. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Enfranchisement of communities. — Their constitution. — Lewis 
 the Fat. — Contest with feudalism. — Beginning of the rivalry with Eng- 
 land. — Lewis VIL — Philip Augustus arms against England : contends 
 with his vassals. — Battle of Bouvines. — War of the Albigenses. — Lewis 
 VIII. — St. Lewis. — Regency of Blanche of Castile. — Success against 
 the English. — Character of the policy of St. Lewis : his influence. — 
 The crusades. — Philip the Bold. — Disputes with Spain. — Philip the Fair : 
 his wars: his despotism. — States-general. — Civilians. — Quarrel with 
 Boniface VIII. — Abolition of the order of the Templars. — Lewis the 
 Stubborn (Ze Hutin). — Philip the Long. — Charles the Fair. — Progress 
 of national liberty. — End of the first phase of the contest between France 
 and England. 
 
 § II. England. — Causes of the rivalry of France and England. — 
 Quarrels of the sons of William the Conqueror. — William Rufus. — 
 Henry Beauclerc. — William Cliton despoiled by his uncles : succored by 
 the king of France. — Stephen. — Power of the vassals. — Oppression of 
 the people. — Henry I. Plantagenet, marries Eleanor of Guyenne. — 
 Thomas a Becket. — Submission of Brittany. — Conquest of Ireland. — 
 Revolt of the sons of Henry. — Richard I. Cwur de Lion. — Crusade. — 
 Exploits and captivity of Richard. — Usurpation of John Lackland. — 
 Richard's return to England. — Reign of John. — Murder of Arthur of 
 Brittany. — Disputes with Philip Augustus. — England declared a fief of 
 the Holy See. — Magna-Charta. — Revolt of the barons. — Lewis of France 
 
280 FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 king of England. — Henry III. — Parliament. — Simon of Leicester. — Sta- 
 tutes of Oxford. — St. Lewis umpire between Henry and his barons. — 
 Henry delivered from his captivity by his son Edward. — Edward I. — 
 Submission of Wales. — Contest with Scotland. — Exploits of Wallace. — 
 Robert Bruce. — Edward II. : his weakness. — Confirmation of Magna- 
 Charta. — Influence of favorites. — New contest with Robert Bruce. — In- 
 dependence of Scotland. — Edward dethroned by his wife Isabel, leagued 
 with the barons : his frightful death. 
 
 § III. Peculiar character of the feudal power in England. — The ba- 
 rons labor to extend national liberty. — Influence of Magna-Charta. — 
 Organization of parliaments. — Their origin and development. — Pro- 
 gress of cities. — Their wealth and power. — Deputies of the commons. 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS, FROM LEWIS THE 
 
 FAT TO THE ACCESSION OF PHILIP OF VALOIS. REVOLUTION 
 
 IN THE COMMUNITIES OF THE NORTH OF FRANCE. ST, LEWIS. 
 
 ALBIGENSES. DISPUTES OF PHILIP THE FAIR WITH ENG- 
 LAND WITH SPAIN WITH THE HOLY SEE. TEMPLARS. 
 
 PROGRESS OF THE ROYAL POWER. CONVOCATION OF THE 
 
 STATES-GENERAL. 
 
 252. The history of France during this period presents a 
 double aspect : without, the first phase of the rivalry with 
 England ; within, the formation of French nationality by the 
 enfranchisement of communities, and the simultaneous de- 
 velopment of monarchical power. 
 
 A popular opinion refers the enfranchisement of commu- 
 nities to Lewis the Fat. We must not suppose that this 
 species of republics, free in spite of feudal despotism, sprang 
 up all of a sudden and for the first time under the fourth 
 Capetian. In the south of France there had remained deep 
 traces of the Roman municipal government : a great number 
 of cities had preserved their institutions and their form of go- 
 
FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 281 
 
 vernment independent of the feudal hiei'archy which reigned 
 around them. They had for centuries been real communi- 
 ties, destined to serve as a model for those which were to be 
 formed in the North in opposition to feudal tyranny, and 
 which were first known under the name of conspiracies. 
 Their distinctive characteristic was an association sworn and 
 authorized by an authentic act ; the drawing up and con- 
 firmation of usages and customs ; the attribution of rights 
 and privileges, among which was a jurisdiction more or less 
 extensive, intrusted to magistrates chosen by the communi- 
 ties from themselves. 
 
 Nor is it true that the establishment of communities was 
 the result of a plan formed by royal policy against the clergy 
 and nobility. The king undoubtedly availed himself of com- 
 munities to strengthen his authority ; and stood ready to ex- 
 tend his jurisdiction over all the cities which had freed them- 
 selves from that of the nobles : but far the greater part of 
 these communities sprang from an insurrection against the 
 intolerable yoke of feudality, and the king did nothing more 
 than sanction the liberty which they had already won. The 
 first charters granted by the king, go back in France to the 
 twelfth century ; from which time they follow in unbroken 
 succession till the moment when they acquired a political 
 existence by the introduction of the third estate into the 
 states-general. 
 
 253. Reign of Lewis V., the Fat. — Lewis the Fat (1108- 
 1137), whose warlike activity had won for him in his youth 
 the surname of active and disputatious, began the contest 
 against feudality much more like a valiant knight than a 
 profound politician ; with lance and sword, rather than by 
 profound and skilful combinations. The part which he took 
 in the enfranchisement of the first communities, was very in- 
 direct ; but he was actively engaged in enforcing the royal 
 authority, by waging an incessant war against the nobles in 
 
382 FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 favor of their oppressed vassals, and seizing at the same time 
 every occasion of avenging himself for the progress of his 
 too powerful vassal the king of England. He may justly be 
 considered as the restoi'er of royalty, which was far from 
 having recovered under the first successors of Hugh Capet, 
 the power and splendor which it had wholly lost under the 
 last Carolingians. 
 
 Watching over the safety of his subjects and tranquil- 
 lity of his kingdom, constantly threatened by the turbulence 
 of the vassals ; he forced the lord of Bourbon to yield ; de- 
 fended the bishop of Clermont against the count of Auvergne ; 
 placed himself as umpire between the pretenders to the in- 
 heritance of the count of Flanders ; and destroyed the for- 
 tresses in which the lords of Coucy and St. Brisson had 
 heaped up the products of their robberies. 
 
 Without, he sustained vigorously against Henry I. of 
 England, a war which had begun by the entrance of the 
 English into Gisors (v. No. 263). The king of England 
 victorious at Brenneville (1119), succeeded in inducing the 
 emperor Henry V. to take up arms in his favor, and France 
 was menaced with a formidable invasion : but Lewis col- 
 lected a powerful force, and made such good preparation that 
 the invaders retired with precipitation (1124). 
 
 254. Lewis VII., the Young. — Lewis the Fat died in 
 1137, leaving to his son Lewis the Young a throne consoli- 
 dated by skilful government ; and a domain enlarged by 
 the marriage which he had made him contract with Eleanor 
 of Aquitania (v. § ii. of this ch.). 
 
 The national reaction against feudality continued during 
 the new reign (1137-1180), in spite of the unskilfulness of a 
 prince who did not know how to profit by any of the wise 
 lessons which he had received from his father. In an expe- 
 dition against the count of Champagne, he had burnt the in- 
 habitants of the little town of Vitry, who had taken refuge 
 
FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 233 
 
 in the church. To expiate this crueUy he imprudently took 
 the cross at the preaching of St. Bernard, in spite of the 
 councils of his prudent minister Suger, and lost his soldiers 
 beyond the sea, in an ill-conceived and ill-directed enterprise. 
 The skilful administration of Suger repaired the consequen- 
 ces of this unfortunate expedition. But after his death, a 
 fatal event, the king's divorce, stripped the crown of the rich 
 and fertile provinces, which Eleanor of Aquitania transfer- 
 red to England by her marriage with Henry Plantagenet 
 (1152). Henry's hostility to France was not long in mani- 
 festing itself openly, and his power to injure her was still 
 more increased by the marriage of his third son with the 
 heiress of the duke of Brittany (1166). A great many com- 
 munities received, during this reign, their charters of en- 
 franchisement ; but the royal domain, reduced again to its 
 narrow limits between the Seine and Loire, was bounded on 
 the north and the south by the vast provinces of the king 
 of England. 
 
 255. Reign of Philip Augustus. — It was reserved to 
 rhilip Augustus (1180-1223) to repair triumphantly the 
 faults of his predecessor. Ascending the throne at fifteen, 
 he disconcerts by his firmness the ambitious projects of his 
 mother and uncles, reduces his vassals to obedience, compels 
 the count of Flanders to acknowledge, on his knees, his su- 
 zerainty, and give up to him, with the Vermandois, the 
 cities of Peronne and St. Quentin (1185), and at the same 
 time foments the rebellion of the sons of his rival, Henry 
 of England. He gives royalty an immense ascendant by 
 making himself the judge of all questions of fiefs, and compels 
 feudalism to submit to the court of peers, a tribunal which, 
 though drawn from its own bosom, sets legal bounds to the 
 arbitrary power of the gi'eat. Not less skilful in his foreign 
 policy, he spurs on Henry's successor, the ardent Richard 
 Coeur de Lion, to the crusade ; while he limits his own ex- 
 
284 FRANCE UNDEK THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 ertions to a rapid campaign, and leaving the king of England 
 to win an empty renown by useless exploits, returns to watch 
 over the events of Europe. 
 
 Richard's return, after a long captivity, caused the explo- 
 sion of a hostility, the symptoms of which had appeared 
 during the crusade. The war had no other result than the 
 devastation of the Vexin and Normandy ; but after the death 
 of the king of England, a brilliant period began for the king 
 of France (1199). In a seven years' contest he wrested 
 from the cowardly and unskilful John, the assassin of his 
 nephew, Arthur of Brittany, a great part of his continental 
 domains, in execution of a decree of the court of peers 
 (1199-1206) (v. § ii. of this ch.). The supreme ascenden- 
 cy of the pontifical power, whose protection John had im- 
 plored, put an end to Philip's progress, while the Englishman, 
 stripped of his states, seconded against France the emperor 
 of Germany, Otho IV., the dukes of Brabant and Limburg, 
 the count of Flanders, the count of Boulogne, and almost all 
 the lords of Normandy, Anjqu, and Aquitania, united against 
 the French throne in the name of feudality. But Philip, 
 supported by the troops of the communities, triumphed at 
 Bouvines over all his enemies at once, and in spite of the im- 
 mense superiority of their army (1214). The emperor fled, 
 and the principal chiefs fell into the hands of the king of 
 France, who soon had the satisfaction of seeing the crown, 
 which had been snatched from the worthless John, offered to 
 his son by the English themselves (1215). Memorable reign, 
 and one, the glory of which would have been untarnished, 
 if the war of the Albigenses had not mingled its frightful 
 scenes with the splendor of this eventful epoch. 
 
 256. War of the Albigenses. — Lewis VIII. the Lion. — 
 A violent persecution against the Jews (1180-1182), who 
 were stripped of the wealth accumulated in their hands, was 
 the prelude of the war which was about to cover France with 
 
FRANCE UNDER, THE CAPETIANS. 285 
 
 ruins and blood. After many efforts vainly made by St. Ber- 
 nard and Popes Alexander III. and Innocent III., to induce 
 the Albigenses to renounce their faith and acknowledge the 
 Catholic church, it was resolved to try the force of arms, and 
 a crusade was preached against them. The count of Mont- 
 fort, leader of the crusaders, ravaged the flourishing districts 
 of the south of France with fire and sword, and took from 
 the count of Toulouse all his states, already far superior to 
 the rest of Europe in culture and civilization. Philip had 
 sent his sons to this horrid war, although he had refused to 
 take a part in it himself. His successor, Lewis the Lion 
 (1223-1226), less prudent than his father, turned aside from 
 his successful career against the English, whom he had al- 
 ready stripped of lower Poictou, Aunis, the Limousin, and 
 Perigord (1224), to direct all his efforts against the count 
 of Toulouse, after having caused Amaury of Montfort to 
 cede to him all the rights which he had received from the 
 court of Rome. The preaching of a new crusade brought 
 a large number of warriors to the standard of the king, 
 who had already made himself master of Avignon and 
 Nismes, when he was carried off by a contagious disease 
 (1226). 
 
 257. Eeign of St. Lewis. — Lewis VIII. left an insecure 
 sceptre to a son but eleven years old. But the regency was 
 in the hands of Blanche of Castile, and the king was St. 
 Lewis. It was in vain that the king's uncle attempted to 
 seize upon the regency, and that the great vassals, sustained 
 by the king of England, leagued together to recover, by pro- 
 fiting by a minority, the ascendency which feudality had lost 
 under the last reigns. The regent thwarted all their plots 
 by negotiations and by arms. The counts of Champagne, 
 of Toulouse, and Brittany, were reduced to submission; 
 and the marriage of the young king with Margaret, daugh- 
 ter of the count of Provence, secured an augmentation of 
 
286 FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 rich and powerful provinces to the crown. Lewis IX. attain- 
 ing his majority at the age of twenty-one, displayed all the 
 virtues of a saint, and all the genius of a great man (1226- 
 1270). 
 
 His life was passed in defending the interests of his coun- 
 try, and the still higher interests of Christendom. He fol- 
 lowed up with indefatigable energy and admirable disinter- 
 estedness the national work of Lewis the Fat and and Philip 
 Augustus — a work of internal organization, and of slow but 
 sure aggrandizement abroad. The victories of Taillehurg and 
 Sainies, which he won over Henry IIL of England, ally of the 
 rebellious counts of Toulouse and de la Marche, inaugurat- 
 ed his reign (1242). But in the midst of his triumph he 
 respected the obligations of a scrupulous equity, and a treaty 
 guarantied by an act of unheard-of generosity (1259) de- 
 fines the territories of France by securing her supremacy. 
 If he gives up to Henry IIL the Limousin, Perigord, Quercy, 
 and Agenois, he obliges him to abandon his claims upon Nor- 
 mandy, Maine, Anjou, Touraine, and Poictou: he had already 
 won the county of Toulouse, of Macon, and a part of that 
 of Champagne ; and to these he added in the sequel the 
 counties of Carcassonne and Perche (1257), and a large 
 number of cities and castles. At the same time, wise regu- 
 lations fix the relations between sovereign and subject, and 
 the scale of the feudal hierarchy ; the right of appeal to the 
 king, extended and generalized, offers a sure refuge against 
 the tyranny of the barons. The promulgation of the ordon- 
 nance so celebrated by the title of Establishments of Si. Leto- 
 is, gave the nation a regular code, combining the principles 
 of the Roman law, the different customs of the monarchy, 
 the orders in council of the kings, and the decrees of coun- 
 cils. It was the signal of a return towards uniform legisla- 
 tion, that unspeakable benefit of modern times. The king 
 himself gave the example of the wisest and most paternal 
 
FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 287 
 
 administration of justice, multiplying charters of enfran- 
 chisement, developing provincial assemblies, and preparing 
 the v^'ay for the organization of the states general, by calling 
 the commons to the assemblies of the barons, organizes! as 
 parliaments. The history of his reign might be comprised 
 in the words of Mueller : " Arms had founded the empire 
 of the Franks, but virtue consolidated royalty in France." 
 
 Nor is it posterity alone that gives the name of virtuous 
 to St. Lewis. His contemporaries bore testimony to his jus- 
 tice, submitting their disputes to his decision as to an unim- 
 peachable tribunal, and relying with perfect confidence on 
 his disinterestedness and honor. The only spot in this bright 
 character was the fatal error of the crusades, and even this 
 is so nearly allied to virtue that we rather deplore it than 
 condemn. 
 
 258. Philip the Bold. — The consequences of the elevated 
 policy of St. Lewis were manifested under his successors. 
 Philip the Bold (1270-1285) had returned from Africa with 
 the coffin of his father, of several princes of the blood, and 
 powerful lords. The inheritance of several of these escheat- 
 ed to the royal domain, which had already acquii'ed or re- 
 covered the counties of Valois, Poictou, and Toulouse. At 
 the same time the king gave an indirect but fatal blow to the 
 feudal caste, by authorizing plebeians to purchase fiefs with 
 all the rights attached to that form of property. The reign 
 of Philip the Bold was also occupied by wars of small im- 
 portance, against the count de Foix, who was compelled to do 
 homage to the king of France ; against the king of Castile, 
 Sancho the Brave, who had deprived Philip's nephews, the 
 children of Lacerda, of their rights to the throne ; and against 
 Peter IIL of Aragon, who, after the Sicilian vespers, had 
 been master of Sicily. These wars continued under his suc- 
 cessors (died 1285). 
 
 259. Philip the Fair. — His wars. — His despotism. — Philip 
 
288 FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 the Fair, after having terminated, by the treaty of Tarascon, 
 his fruitless and onerous wars with Spain, cited Edward I. 
 of England before the court of peers, and on his refusal to ap- 
 pear, pronounced the confiscation of Guyenne. But Edward 
 armed the count of Flanders against him, and the French, 
 victorious at Fumes (1297), saw their cavalry almost anni- 
 hilated at the fatal combat of Tournai (1302). Philip's vic- 
 tory at Mons en Puelle did not prevent the Flemings from 
 raising another army of sixty thousand men, and he granted 
 them an honorable peace (1305). The war with England 
 had already been terminated by reference to Boniface VIII. 
 (1298), both parties making concessions and abandoning 
 their feeble allies. 
 
 These wars exhausted the finances of the French king, 
 and led him to some very tyrannical measures. He plun- 
 dered the Jews and Lombards, who carried on almost all the 
 commerce of the kingdom, stripped the commons of part of their 
 plate, falsified the currency, and used every shameful and 
 tyrannical expedient for filling his coffers. The people mur- 
 mured, but Philip overcame every attempt at resistance, and 
 established his despotism by judicious and skilful measures. 
 He fortified the royal power by the concurrence of the na- 
 tion, called the commons, who as yet had only appeared in 
 the king's armies, to discuss the great questions of national 
 interest with the bal'ons and clergy, and established the states 
 general, which were assembled for the first time in 1302. 
 At the same time he introduced into the parliaments, now 
 definitively organized as regular and permanent supreme 
 courts of justice, the class of civilians or lawyers, a class 
 which, though devoted in its origin to the will of the king 
 and a blind instrument of his tyranny, accomplished in the 
 sequel an important mission, by resisting feudal influence, 
 and gradually undei'mining the political power of the clergy. 
 
 260. Quarrel with Boniface VIII. — Process of the Tetn-> 
 
FRANCE UNDER THE CAPETIANS. 289 
 
 flars. — The insufficiency of the resources he had hitherto 
 obtained by his exactions, led Philip to think of taxing the 
 possessions of the clergy. From this sprang the famous 
 quarrel between the king of France and Boniface VIII. 
 Boniface reproached Philip with his injustice and his exac- 
 tions ; and even went so far as to menace the independence 
 of his crown. Philip, relying upon the support of the states 
 general, falsified the papal bull, and replied with insolence. 
 The pope had recourse to excommunication, and the king 
 sent his chancellor, William of Nogaret, accompanied by a 
 Roman exile, Colonna, to brave the pontiff in Italy, Boni- 
 face was at Anagni, a small town in the Roman territory. 
 Colonna came upon him by surprise, made him prisoner in 
 his palace, carried his violence so far as to strike him in the 
 presence of Nogaret, and though he was quickly liberated, he 
 died a few days after from rage and humiliation. Philip, not 
 contented with this shameful vengeance, instituted a scanda- 
 lous suit against him after death, and imposed upon his suc- 
 cessor a secret condition which was to furnish new food for 
 bis avidity. This was the abolition of the order of Templars, 
 which was pronounced by the council of Vienne (1312). 
 This famous order had acquired a power and wealth which 
 alarmed Philip's jealousy, while they inflamed his avidity. 
 The Templars were all arrested on the same day throughout 
 all France, subjected to an atrocious form of trial, and con- 
 demned to be burnt as heretics, with their grand master, 
 James Molay (1314). Philip survived this horrible execu- 
 tion only a few months. 
 
 261. Reigns of the sons of Philip the Fair. — Extinction 
 of the first branch of the Capetians. — Philip the Fair left 
 three sons, who succeeded one another rapidly upon the 
 throne. 
 
 Lewis the Stubborn (le Hutin) (1314-1316), character, 
 ized a two years' reign by vigorous measures against law- 
 
 13 
 
290 ENGLAND "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 yers and financiers, the agents of the violent and tyrannical 
 policy of his father, and by an edict granting the serfs of the 
 royal domain the privilege of redeeming their freedom. 
 
 At the death of John I., a posthumous son of Lewis, who 
 lived only a few days, Philip the Long, second son of Philip 
 the Fair, was called to the throne (1316-1322), with the 
 sanction of the states general, which declared that women 
 were excluded from the throne by the Salic law, although it 
 says nothing upon this subject. Philip the Long's reign was 
 almost wholly consecrated to wise measures of administra- 
 tion, which resulted in the enfranchisement of a great num- 
 ber of serfs, the correction of the abuses and exactions which 
 occurred too frequently in the collection of taxes, and in de- 
 ciding the jurisdiction and composition of courts of justice. 
 
 Charles the Fair, Philip's brother (1322-1328), succeed- 
 ed him in virtue of the principle which excluded women 
 from the throne of France. He won the name of Justiciary, 
 by the vigor with which he punished the crimes of the pow- 
 erful baron of He Jourdain, whom he had executed, in spite 
 of his titles and alliances, and by revoking his brother's un- 
 just edicts against lepers and Jews. At the end of his reign 
 there was a short war with England. With this prince end- 
 ed the first branch of the Capetian dynasty. 
 
 §11. 
 
 HISTORY OF ENGLAND FROM THE DEATH OF WILLIAM THE 
 
 CONQUEROR TO THE ACCESSION OF EDWARD III, MAGNA 
 
 CHARTA. FIRST CONTESTS BETWEEN FRANCE AND ENG- 
 LAND. 
 
 262. Causes of the rivalry between France and England. 
 — ^AU the second part of the Middle Ages is fiMed with that 
 
ENGLAND WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR, TO EDWARD III. 291 
 
 famous rivalry between England and France, which cost the 
 latter such long and bitter trials. This contest might have 
 been foreseen from the day when a vassal of the French 
 king won for himself a royal crown, and bqcame as power- 
 ful as his suzerain. The king of France, while defending 
 his territory against a rival whose domains extended into the 
 heart of his kingdom, exacted testimonials of subordination, 
 a homage of dependence which wounded the pride of the king 
 of England. Thus there was a double cause of discord in 
 their relations, too active and too constant to admit of any 
 permanent peace or union between them. William the Con- 
 queror died, as we have seen, while on the point of marching 
 on Paris. Under his sons the contest began anew, and was 
 perpetuated almost uninterruptedly through nearly four cen- 
 turies. 
 
 263. Quarrels of the sons of William the Conqueror. — 
 For a moment after William's death his inheritance was di- 
 vided. While his second son, William Rufus (1087), ran to 
 seize the crown at Westminster, in violation of the rights of 
 his oldest, Robert, the latter was proclaimed duke of Nor- 
 mandy at Rouen, and Henry Beauclerc, the youngest, at- 
 tempted to maintain his independence in spite of the efforts 
 of his two brothers. This prince had been stripped of his 
 last fortress, when Robert's departure for the crusade threw 
 Normandy into William's hands for the paltry sum of ten 
 thousand marcs, which he advanced to his brother to aid him 
 in fitting out his expedition. During Robert's absence in the 
 Holy Land William died, and Henry seized the crown 
 (1100). He tried to win the good will of the Saxons by 
 promising to restore the laws of Edward the Confessor, and 
 by publishing the cliarta lihertatum. Meanwhile Robert re- 
 turned to claim his crown, and after an unsuccessful contest 
 (1106), was thrown into prison, where he died. Heniy, re- 
 lieved from the fear of a rival, forgot his promises, and the 
 
292 ENGLAND "WILLIAM THE CONQUEKOR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 yoke, in spite of the intercessions of his wife Matilda the 
 good queen, fell as heavy upon the Saxons as before. " If I 
 reign," said his son, " I will make those Saxons draw the 
 plough like oxen." Fortunately he did not reign, and his 
 early death by shipwreck was looked upon by the Saxons as 
 a vengeance of heaven upon his evil intentions. At the same 
 time a son of the unfortunate Robert, William Cliton, took 
 refuge in France, and Lewis the Fat offered to assist him in 
 reconquering his paternal domains on the continent. But 
 the battle of Brenneville opened, by a reverse, the contest 
 between England and France. Heniy retained his posses- 
 sions, while William, who had become count of Flanders, 
 was killed in a revolt of his new subjects. 
 
 264. Reign of Stephen. — Power of feudality. — At the 
 death of Henry, the throne belonged to his daughter Matilda, 
 widow of the emperor Henry, and wife of Geoffrey Planta- 
 genet, count of Anjou. The barons preferred Stephen, count 
 of Boulogne, grandson on his mother's side of William the 
 Conqueror (1135). A bloody contest broke out between the 
 rivals. Stephen, victorious over the Scotch, who had declar- 
 ed for Matilda (1138), then defeated and taken prisoner, 
 could only preserve his ci'own by naming for his successor 
 Henry, the son of his rival (1153), This troubled reign 
 was the triumph of the pitiless Norman feudality, and Eng- 
 land was crushed by a frightful oppression. " In the times 
 of this king," says the Saxon chronicler, " all was dissension, 
 misery, rapine. The rich soon rose up against him. They 
 built castles to defend themselves, and filled these castles with 
 the demons of hell. They laid hold on every body whom 
 they suspected of having any property, and even women in 
 childbirth ; threw them into prison to extort from them gold 
 and silvei", and made them suffer indescribable tortures : 
 some they hung by the feet, making them breathe a filthy 
 smoke ; others by the thumbs or by the beard, tying coats of 
 
ENGLAND WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 293 
 
 mail to their feet : they buried them in dungeons with adders 
 and toads : thousands were left to die of hunger. You might 
 travel a whole day without meeting a man in a village, or 
 seeing an acre of cultivated ground. To cultivate the land 
 was like tilling the sea." This lasted during the nineteen 
 years of Stephen's reign. 
 
 265. Reign of Henry II. Plantagenet. — Thomas a Beck- 
 et. — During all this time England and France were at peace; 
 but a new cause of jealousy and rivalry was about to give 
 rise to more violent disputes. Henry II. Plantagenet had 
 married the divorced wife of Lewis VII., Eleanor of Guy- 
 enne (1152), who brought him in dower the finest provinces 
 of the south of France. A league which the king of France 
 formed agains,t England, and Henry's attempts against the 
 counts of Toulouse and Brittany, had already manifested 
 the hostile dispositions of the two princes, when the famous 
 quarrel broke out between the king of England and Thomas 
 a Becket. 
 
 Henry II., who wished to annihilate the excessive influ- 
 ence which William's policy had given to the Norman cler- 
 gy, had given the archbishopric of Canterbury to one of his 
 creatures, a debauched courtier, whom he hoped to make the 
 servile instrument of his designs (1162). But no sooner was 
 Thomas a Becket invested with his new dignity, than a sud- 
 den reform in his life and manners showed that he felt the 
 importance of his mission. Henry, enraged at finding him 
 an intrepid defender of the privileges of the church, compel- 
 led him to quit England and seek an asylum in France. 
 Lewis VII. immediately took him under his protection. Al- 
 exander III. refused to consent to his deposition, and Henry, 
 compelled to an apparent reconciliation, permitted him to 
 return to his church (1170). But Thomas, who knew that 
 the vengeance of the king was not satisfied, had asked of the 
 pope, in setting out for England, the prayers for the dying. 
 
294 ENGLAND WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 A short time after his return, Henry, on learning a new act 
 of opposition to the royal will, exclaimed in a passion, " I am 
 surrounded by men whom I have loaded with favors : have I 
 no friend ?" His wish was understood. A few days after- 
 wards four of the king's household assaulted Becket in church, 
 and killed him at the foot of the altar. " May my blood 
 restore liberty and peace to the church," were his dying 
 words (1170, Dec. 29). A general cry of indignation broke 
 forth against the murderers, who, despairing of pardon, went 
 to die in the Holy Land. The king of England himself made 
 a pilgrimage to the spot where his victim had been buried, 
 and submitted to be flagellated by a monk, and pray a day 
 and a night at the martyr's tomb. But he consoled himself 
 for this humiliation by the submission of Brittany to his su- 
 premacy, if not to his sovereignty, and by the conquest of Ire- 
 land, which was never more to shake off the English yoke. 
 
 266. Revolt of the sons of Henry II. — The revolts of the 
 sons of the king of England, fomented by the king of France, 
 excited new troubles in the kingdom. Henry, the eldest, 
 son-in-law of the king of France, claimed an extensive appa- 
 nage in England. Richard wished to make himself inde- 
 pendent in Aquitania : Geoffrey pretended to the duchy of 
 Brittany. Their mother, the inconstant Eleanor, irritated at 
 the culpable relations of her husband with the beautiful 
 Rosamond Clifford, encouraged her sons in their projects of 
 revolt, and the king of Scotland, who hoped to gain by their 
 dissensions, sent an army to assist them. 
 
 This war was only interrupted for a moment by the suc- 
 cess of the king against the Scotch, and the mediation of the 
 Holy See, to begin again between the three brothers with re- 
 doubled violence, and last till the death of Henry and Geof- 
 frey (1178-1186). Richard, excited by the intrigues of the 
 new king of France, the young but skilful Philip Augustus, 
 turned once more his sacrilegious arms against his father, 
 
ENGLAND WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 295 
 
 and Henry, compelled to submit to a humiliating treaty, and 
 abandoned by John, the youngest of his sons, died of grief at 
 the castle of Chinon (1189). 
 
 2G7. Richard I. Coeur de Lion. — At the news of the fall 
 of Jerusalem, Henry II. had taken the cross with Philip Au- 
 gustus. The adventurous Richard I. (1189-1199) accom- 
 plished with ardor this vow of a father whose death was in 
 part owing to his ingratitude. The crusade was preached 
 throughout England, and the blind zeal of the people broke 
 out, at first, by a frightful massacre of the Jews, who were 
 slaughtered or burned in almost all the principal cities of the 
 kingdom. The king set out with his knights, after having 
 made provisions for the government during his absence. His 
 almost fabulous exploits are well known, as well as the mis- 
 fortunes which attended his return. The duke of Austria, 
 into whose hands he had fallen, was compelled to give him 
 up to the emperor, who sold him his liberty for a hundred 
 thousand marcs of silver. Richard consented at the same 
 time to hold his kingdom as a fief of the emperor, a striking 
 contrast to the dignified and noble conduct of St. Lewis, when 
 a prisoner in Egypt. During his absence, the king of France 
 had invaded Normandy, and John usurped the royal authority 
 in England. But the cowardly usurper did not dare to face 
 the anger of the unchained lion, and to merit his pardon, he 
 allowed the Irish garrison which Philip had sent him to be 
 massacred. A violent war broke out between France and 
 England, which was ended by the intervention of Innocent 
 III. and a truce of five years (1197). The hero of the third 
 crusade lost his life like an obscure paladin before a petty 
 fortress of Limousin. 
 
 268. Murder of Arthur of Brittany. — Usurpation of John. 
 — By right of descent the crown belonged to Arthur of Brit- 
 tany, son of Geoffrey Plantagenet ; but Richai'd's brother 
 John was proclaimed in England, by the influence of his 
 
296 ENGLAND — WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 mother Eleanor, and Arthur, who had been made prisoner, 
 with several noblemen whom the barbarous conqueror suf- 
 fered to die of hunger, was conducted to Rouen and thrown 
 into a dungeon. " In the middle of the night, in the week 
 before Easter" (1202), says an old chronicler, "John, urged 
 on by drunkenness and an evil spirit, killed his nephew with 
 his own hand, because the hand of his squire trembled, and 
 threw the body into the Seine ; and it was for this that he 
 became the object of the blackest hatred of all the human 
 race." 
 
 The king of France instantly seized the occasion, and 
 declaring himself avenger of the murdered orphan, summon- 
 ed John, as duke of Normandy and Aquitania, to come and 
 answer before the court of peers, for the murder of Arthur, 
 duke of Brittany, rear- vassal of the kingdom of France, whom 
 Philip, his sovereign, was bound to protect. John refusing 
 to appear, judgment was given against him, as in a state of 
 contumacy, and the sentence, which though dictated perhaps 
 by ambition, was in strict conformity with feudal law, strip- 
 ped England of Touraine, Maine, Anjou (1203), Normandy 
 (1205), and Poictou(1206). At the same time the thunders 
 of the Holy See struck the parricidal king, and Philip was 
 upon the point of making an invasion on England in execu- 
 tion of the pontifical decree, when John disarmed the pope by 
 resigning his states and receiving them again as a fief of the 
 church for a tribute of a thousand marcs of silver (1213). 
 
 Philip was compelled to spare the prince, who had de- 
 clared himself the repentant son and faithful vassal of the 
 church, and respect the patrimony of St. Peter. 
 
 269. Magna Charia. — Revolt of the English iarons, — 
 But John's reign was neither happier nor more tranquil. 
 The English barons, tired of the tyranny of a prince whose 
 cowardice was only equalled by his incapacity, formed a 
 league to enforce the solemn recognition of the rights of the 
 
ENGLAND — WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 297 
 
 nation. They drew up the celebrated manifesto known by 
 the name of Magna Charta, in which it was laid" down as a 
 principle, that no war tax could be levied except with the 
 consent of the ecclesiastical and temporal barons and other 
 royal vassals, gi'eat or small ; that no freeman should be 
 arrested, imprisoned, taken from his manor, or exiled, except in 
 consequence of a legal decision of his peers, and in force 
 of the law of the land ; that every fine should be in propor- 
 tion to the offence ; that the utensils necessary to a man in 
 the exercise of his profession, the arms of a gentleman, the 
 wares of a merchant, the cattle and tools of a laborer, should 
 not be liable to seizure ; and finally, that no governor nor 
 functionary of the crown should take from any body what- 
 ever his property, or impose tribute labor by his own decree. 
 Still the royal prerogative was untouched, and the great vas- 
 sals were bound to acquit themselves of the same obligations 
 towards the crown which they could require from their rear- 
 vassals. 
 
 This act, which established for the first time, in a fixed 
 and certain manner, some equality of rights between all 
 classes of freemen, and which is still regarded as the corner- 
 stone of English liberty, was presented to the king, in the 
 presence of all the lords, by the bishop of Canterbury, and 
 signed by the prince and all the nobles of the nation (1215). 
 Yet John ventured to break his solemn pledge, and furious 
 at the humiliation that he had received, levied an army to 
 ravage the lands of the barons. The indignant barons 
 wrested the crown from the perjured king, and offered it to 
 Philip of France, son of Philip Augustus (1216), But this 
 prince's partiality towards his own countrymen wounded the 
 pride of the English nation, who compelled Lewis to yield 
 the sceptre to Henry III., John's son, as soon as the death 
 of the father had appeased the hatred of his former subjects 
 (1217). 
 
 13* 
 
298 ENGLAND "WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 270. Henry III. — Statutes of Oxford. — The vigorous 
 firmness of the regent, Henry de Burgh, during the minority 
 of Henry III., had put an end to internal disorders ; and a 
 solemn confirmation of magna charta seemed to promise a 
 prosperous and glorious reign, by reconciling the crown and 
 the nation, when the young prince, receiving in 1227 the 
 power into his own hands, blighted all these brilliant expec- 
 tations. Unsuccessful in his wars against St. Lewis (1241), 
 he returned home with the odious surname of coward, excit- 
 ing the indignation of the great by giving an undue influence 
 to the relations of his wife, Eleanor of Provence, and insult- 
 ing the misery of the people by a blind prodigality. The 
 massacre of the Jews and confiscation of their wealth could 
 not fill his exhausted coffers. The nation grew weary. The 
 bishops pronounced terrible anathemas against any one that 
 should dare to violate the liberties of the kingdom ; and the 
 barons, under the guidance of Simoii of Leicestei', count of 
 Montfort, took up arms, and imposed upon the king a parlia- 
 ment which deserved the name of mad : first and violent 
 essay of representative government in England (1258). 
 Twenty-four barons were intrusted with the general adminis- 
 tration of the kingdom, with the power of redressing wrongs 
 and reforming the state, but subject however to the approba- 
 tion of parliament, which was to meet three times a year. 
 Henry swore to the statutes of Oxford. Royalty seemed 
 abolished. Vainly did Henry obtain from the pope a dispen- 
 sation from his oath. Vainly was the mediation of St. Lew- 
 is, whose virtue made him the arbiter of all Europe, inter- 
 posed between the parties. It was necessary to have recourse 
 to arms. Aided by the London militia, Montfort's troops 
 conquered : Henry III. and his son fell into the hands of the 
 enemy, and their chief reigned over England in the name 
 of the captive king (1264). Sustaining his power by the 
 concurrence of the representatives of the commons, the 
 
ENGLAND — WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 299 
 
 young and valiant Edward, who had escaped from his pris- 
 on, avenged his father and stifled the revolt by the victory 
 of Evesham, which cost Montfort his life : the rebels were 
 proscribed, but all Henry's efforts to make parliament resign 
 the liberties which they had won were fruitless. 
 
 271. Reign of Edward I. — Contest with Scotland. — This 
 wretched reign ended in 1272, while the king's son was dis- 
 playing his courage against the infidels. The aim of the 
 new king's policy (Edward I., 1272-1307) was to unite the 
 whole of Great Britain under his sceptre. Wales, subjected 
 to a nominal suzerainty, preserved its ancient independence 
 by the side of the royal domains. But the predictions of her 
 bards, and the courage of her chiefs, were unavailing when 
 opposed to Edward's skill : the last of the Welsh princes was 
 put to an ignominious death : his limbs were sent to the prin- 
 cipal cities of the kingdom, and Wales groaned, like Ire- 
 land, under the weight of a long tyranny (1276). 
 
 The same fate seemed reserved for Scotland. The cow- 
 ardly Baliol, menaced by the pretensions of Edward, came 
 to swear fealty and homage (1292), and soon atoned for a 
 moment of energy by a still more absolute submission. A 
 brilliant campaign made the king of England master of all 
 Scotland (1296). But a hero rose to wash out the shame of 
 his country in blood. While Bajiol languished in captivity, 
 a young man, William Wallace, gathered around him a band 
 of hardy followers, and began by bold excursions a series of 
 incredible exploits. His band soon grew to an army : many 
 nobles rallied around him in defence of the national cause : 
 the English army was defeated and compelled to evacuate 
 Scotland (1297), and the victors extended their ravages into 
 the northern provinces of England. Wallace was named 
 regent, and could he have united the country, might have 
 saved it. But petty jealousies undermined his power, which 
 he was compelled to resign, and the defeat oi Falkirk (1198) 
 
300 ENGLAND — WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR TO EDWARD III. 
 
 decided the first act of the drama. Wallace took refuge in 
 the mountains, where he was betrayed by one of his own 
 party, Monteith, carried to London, and publicly executed. 
 A new outbreak (1302) cost the Scots the forfeiture of their 
 laws, their charters, and their privileges. 
 
 But the patriotic enthusiasm of Wallace had left its traces 
 in the hearts of his countrymen, and raised them up a new 
 avenger. Robert Bruce, the powerful count of Carrick, es- 
 caped by a skilful artifice from Edward's court, where he 
 was held in a sort of honorable captivity, called the Scotch 
 to arms, and in spite of two defeats was crowned king of Scot- 
 land (1306). Edward died on his march against him, and 
 sullied his last day by ordering the massacre of the young 
 Scotch, whom he held in hostage (1307). The wars of this 
 prince against France led to no important result, serving only 
 to confirm him in the possession of Guyenne. 
 
 272. Edivard II. — Independence of Scotland. — Weakness 
 of her government. — The firmness of Edward I., which too 
 often degenerated into barbarity, had held England submis- 
 sive. But when Edward II. (1307-1327) was seen leading 
 his army shamefully back from the frontiers of Scotland, and 
 giving up the government to an unworthy favorite, Peter Ga- 
 veston, the indignant barons compelled the king to confirm 
 the charter anew, and banish the hated minister. 
 
 Gaveston fell into the hands of the lords. " You have 
 caught the fox," said one of them ; " if you let him get 
 away, you will have to begin your hunt again." He was 
 put to death, without Edward's daring to say a word to save 
 his favorite (1312). 
 
 A reconciliation, bought by baseness and cowardice, did 
 not add much to the strength of the king. Compelled to 
 take up arms against the Scotch, who had invaded England, 
 he called in the aid of all the adventurers of Eui'ope, by 
 promising to parcel out Scotland among them. A hundred 
 
CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DURING THIS PERIOD. 301 
 
 thousand men assembled under his banners : but still he was 
 defeated at Bannocklurn by the little army of Robert Bruce 
 (1314). For a moment Bruce placed his own brother on the 
 throne of Ireland. A few years afterwards Edward took 
 advantage of the troubles that agitated Scotland, to attempt 
 another expedition. But the battle of Byland was as 
 unfortunate as that of Bannockburn, and Bruce, now old 
 and infirm, illustrated the last year of his glorious career by 
 compelling Edward II. to sign a treaty recognizing the full 
 and entire independence of Scotland and her crown (peace 
 of Northampton, 1328). 
 
 Edward was as unsuccessful in governing as in making 
 war. After Gaveston, another favorite, Hugh Spencer, ob- 
 tained the control of the feeble prince (1315), and the queen, 
 Isabella of France, who, according to Froissart, was one of 
 the most beautiful women in the world, indignant at her hus- 
 band's desertion, joined the barons against him and his favor- 
 ite. An army raised in France and commanded by the 
 queen's lover, young Roger Mortimer, defeated the royal 
 troops and made the king prisoner. The unhappy Edward, 
 after having seen his favorite killed, was solemnly deposed 
 (1327), condemned by his guilty wife to a frightful captivity, 
 and as the ill treatment which he received did not hasten his 
 death rapidly enough, two wretches were employed to put 
 him to death in a manner too horrid to be described. 
 
 § III. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DURING THIS 
 
 PERIOD. REPRESENTATIVES OF THE COMMONS IN PARLIA- 
 
 MENT. 
 
 273. Character of feudality in England. — The harons ex- 
 tend the national liberty. — In England, as in France, the 
 
302 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DTTEING THIS PERIOD. 
 
 enfranchisement of the commons exercises a great influence 
 upon the development of the national constitution : but this 
 revolution bears a special character. In France, feudality, 
 founded upon the ancient customs of Germany, and gradual- 
 ly increasing by the wants of the epoch, had rendered itself 
 independent of the sovereign power, which it had over- 
 balanced and nearly annihilated. From this, English feudal- 
 ity, though imported from France, was essentially different. 
 Suddenly planted in the English soil by the conqueror him- 
 self, it was established there for the benefit of the crown ; 
 being directed, as its principal aim, to strengthening the rela- 
 tions of submission between the prince and his vassals, and 
 introducing a habit of subjection in the higher grades of the 
 feudal hierarchy, which in France was to be found only in 
 the lower. The English baronies, purposely divided, bore 
 no resemblance to those vast principalities which comprised 
 the greater part of the French territory. The lordships of 
 England, held in virtue of an actual concession of the sove- 
 reign, were uniformly characterized by a cei'tain degree of 
 subordination and dependence, while the domains of the great 
 French vassals, many of which had been acquired without 
 the intervention of the crown, and were even more extensive 
 than the royal domains, barely acknowledged in the head of 
 the state a nominal suzerainty. Thus in France it was sub- 
 ject royalty, that sought in the commons a counterpoise for 
 the aristocracy, and united itself with the nation to free both 
 king and people from the tyranny of the lords. In England 
 the movement came from the nobility, who, laboring under 
 the oppression of a superior power, united with the nation to 
 form a constitution. It was for this that the English barons, 
 in their contest with John, demanded a guaranty for the lib- 
 erty of the people. And perhaps, also, it is to this original 
 distinction that we ought to attribute the violent reaction 
 which was one day to manifest itself in France against the 
 
CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DURING THIS PERIOD. 303 
 
 supremacy of the nobles, and in England that duration of 
 the aristocracy, which, though somewhat undermined, still 
 continues to the present day. 
 
 The first phase of the constitutional history of England 
 was accomplished at the moment in which magna charta 
 (1215) and the statutes of Oxford proclaimed in general 
 terms the limits of royal authority, and established the prin- 
 ciple of the nation's right to take a part in the government; 
 but without fixing any legal and pacific means for the exer- 
 cise of rights. From that time the crown was subjected to 
 control, although it could not yet be exercised except by 
 force and an open resistance to the arbitrary will of the so- 
 vereign. 
 
 274. Organization of parliament. — The task of the second 
 epoch was to establish the equilibrium of these powers, to set 
 up against the royal prerogative an energetic and legal ac- 
 tion, no longer intrusted to a particular class, but fortified 
 and extended by the actual intervention of the representatives 
 of the nation : the complete organization of parliament. 
 
 There had been great assemblies in England under Wil- 
 liam the Conqueror and his successors, but they were exclu- 
 sively composed of the immediate vassals and tenants of the 
 crown, united, according to the usage of all Christendom, 
 with the bishop, and were as yet only the councils of the 
 king. The national representation was confined to a few 
 deputies of no personal weight, and who were admitted to 
 parlianaent without any share in its deliberations. Knights 
 of the shire were called to it under William himself and under 
 Henry III. ; but some only to explain to the prince the ancient 
 laws of the country, and others to inform against abuses, and 
 lay before Parliament the result of their inquiries. (1258.) 
 The representative system was not really established in 
 England till the Count of Montfort gave the deputies of the 
 commons a share in the deliberations of Parliament. 
 
304 CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DURING THIS PERIOD. 
 
 275. Progress of the Commons. — Feudal oppression had 
 weighed heavily upon the cities of England after the conquest. 
 An individual tax, imposed upon every inhabitant, put him at 
 the mercy of his lord, who could multiply his burthens and 
 increase his tributes at will. The conversion of individual 
 tributes into a perpetual rent, due from the whole city, came 
 at last as a guaranty to private property and a protection 
 for industry and commerce. From that time the cities, 
 growing in wealth and strength, began to purchase an exemp- 
 tion from their dues as vassals, and obtain charters of enfran- 
 chisement from the king. That of the community of London, 
 which, in the 12th century, contained more than forty thou- 
 sand inhabitants, goes back to the year 1103, after the acces- 
 sion of Henry I. Thenceforth the title of citizen of that great 
 city became a title of nobility. Several barons applied for 
 admission to the community, and its privileges were expressly 
 sanctioned by the magna charta. Among the twenty-five 
 barons who were to watch over the execution of it, was the 
 mayor of London. Henry IL granted many other municipal 
 charters. The organization resembled that of the French 
 communities in many respects. Thus, Henry L had granted 
 the members of the community of London, independently of 
 their fiscal and commercial immunities, the right of choosing 
 their sheriffs and judges, to the exclusion of all foreign ju- 
 risdiction. This right of election did not become general 
 till the reign of John. For a long time, however, there had 
 been in the principal cities free associations, religious or lay 
 corporations, which administered their own affairs, and re- 
 ceived a rapid development as soon as they had been con- 
 firmed by the charters of the crown. (') 
 
 (*) Similar efforts were made at this period in several countries, and 
 with equal success. In Germany, the emperors of the house of Fraiico- 
 nia rewarded the fidelity of the cities of the Rhine by the concession of 
 a great number of municipal charters. The communities of Lombardy 
 
CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND DURING THIS PERIOD. 305 
 
 276. The Deputies of the Commons in Parliament. — 
 Simon de Monf/ort, in his contest with Henry III., felt what 
 strength the support of these powerful cities might give to the 
 party which he led; and on the 12th September, 1264, letters 
 of convocation, addressed to all the sheriffs of the kingdom, 
 enjoined them to elect and send to parliament two knights for 
 each county, two citizens for each city, two burgesses for 
 each market-town. Whatever the views of Simon of Mont- 
 fort may have been, this great innovation, prepared by the 
 development of the commons, was destined to survive the fall 
 of its author. The imperious Edward I., conqueror of Eve- 
 sham, after having proscribed and annihilated the party of 
 the rebel, was compelled to respect a prerogative which the 
 English nation was never to lose. It was he who made the 
 deputies of the boroughs a permanent element of parliament. 
 Thenceforth the burgesses shared with the lay and ecclesias- 
 tical peers of the kingdom the right of voting supplies and 
 sanctioning laws. 
 
 soon became strong enough to resist the imperial supremacy. The con- 
 federations which were formed between many of the commercial cities of 
 Germany are unequivocal proofs of the kind of independence which the 
 cities had won. 
 
 In Flanders, history shows us several communities, and in particular 
 those of Ghent and Bruges, redoubtable even to foreign kings. 
 
 In Spain, too, the enfranchisement of the communities was extensive. 
 It ascends to a very remote period, since at the beginning of the eleventh 
 century, we find mention of municipal councils in several cities ; and in 
 the twelfth, the deputies of cities appear in the Cortes. The Cortes of 
 Aragon refuesd to recognize any right in the king either to make a law 
 or establish a tax without their concurrence. 
 
 In Italy, the formation of municipal governments and institution of 
 chartered towns, is closely connected with the most flourishing period of 
 Italian history. It is still a question whether they were any thing more 
 than a revival of the old communities of ancient Italy. 
 
CHAPTER XYL 
 
 FEANCE AISTD EISTGLAND DUEIISra THE SECOXD 
 PERIOD OF THEIR EIVALET. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Character of the second period of the contest between France and 
 England. — Edward III. — Philip of Valois. — War of Scotland, Flanders, 
 and Brittany. — Combat of Sluis : battle of Crecy. — John the Good. — 
 Power of the states general in France. — Invasion of the territory by the 
 English armies. — Internal troubles. — Battle of Poictiers : captivity of 
 John the Good. Imprudent reforms attempted by the states. — The jac- 
 querie. — Treaty of Bretigny. — Charles V. — E.xploits of da Guesclin. — 
 Truce of Bruges. — Death of Edward HI. — The constitution acquires 
 regularity under his reign. — Popular movements under Richard II. — 
 Doctrines of WicklifTe — Re verses of Richard on the continent. — Henry HI. 
 of Lancaster. — Insurrections in England. — Accession of Charles VI. in 
 France. — The Maillotins; the Truchins. — Tyranny of the king's uncles. 
 — Derangement of Charles VI. — Assassination of the duke of Orleans. — 
 Rivalry of the Burgundians and Armagnacs. — Anarchy. — Civil war. — 
 Invasion of France. — Battle of Agincourt. — Assassination of John the 
 Bold. — Treaty of Troyes, which gives up France to the English. — 
 Charles VH. and Henry VI. — Reverses of Charles VH — Joan of Arc. 
 • — Exploits of this heroine. — Charles crowned at Rheims. — Expulsion of 
 the English. — Depression of feudalism. — Progress of the royal power. 
 
FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 307 
 
 §1. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE AND ENGLAND FROM THE ACCESSION OF 
 PHILIP OP VALOIS AND EDWARD III. TO THE EXPULSION OF 
 
 THE ENGLISH. DEPRESSION OF FEUDALISM IN FRANCE. 
 
 CONVOCATION OF THE STATES GENERAL. REPRESENTATIVES 
 
 OF THE ENGLISH COMMONS IN PARLIAMENT. — CIVIL DIS- 
 SENSIONS IN THE TWO KINGDOMS. 
 
 277. Edward III. — Philip of Valois. — Their rivalry. — 
 The second phase of the rivalry of France and England, 
 known as the hundred years'' war, begins with the accession 
 of Edward III. in England, and the family of Valois in 
 France, and extends, through an alternation of frightful re- 
 verses and brilliant victories, to the end of the middle ages. 
 The contest of this period becomes more general, and is car- 
 ried on on a larger scale. It is no longer a mere question 
 of cities and provinces : but the nationality of France is at 
 stake, and the king of England aims at nothing less than the 
 French throne. 
 
 Edward III., who had been proclaimed king of England 
 during the captivity of the unhappy Edward II. (1327), laid 
 claim to the inheritance of Charles IV. by the right of his 
 mother, Isabel of France. The states general (1328), con- 
 forming to their previous decisions concerning the rights of 
 females to the throne, decided in favor of Philip of Valois, 
 descendant by the male line of Philip the Bold, and Edward 
 did homage for the duchy of Guyenne. But a quarrel like 
 this could not be decided by the sentence of a tribunal, and 
 the harmony of the two rivals was any thing but sincere. 
 The Scotch, at war with Edward, who was vainly trying to 
 drive away David Bruce, in order to replace Edward Baliol, 
 had Philip of Valois for their ally. The king of England 
 
308 FRANCE AND ENGLAND SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 
 
 gave an asylum to the rebel, Robert of Artois, and excited 
 the Flemings against the French. 
 
 278. Wars in Flanders, in Brittany, and in France.-^ 
 Battle of Crecy.— The mediation of Pope Benedict XIL 
 could not long retard the rupture which broke out as a con- 
 sequence of the war already begun with Flanders. In the 
 first year of his reign Philip had fought a bloody but indeci- 
 sive battle under the walls of Cassel, with the Flemings, who 
 had revolted against their count. A few years afterwards, 
 James Artevelt, a brewer by trade, had excited a new revolt, and 
 Edward, declaring in favor of the insurgents, went in person 
 to their assistance, taking first the title of king of France. 
 The destruction of the French fleet near fort Sluis (1340) 
 was the great event of this first war, which was soon ended 
 by a truce. But two years afterwards, hostilities were re- 
 vived by the question of the succession of Brittany, and 
 Philip took the part of Jane of Penthievre, while Jane of 
 Montfort, protected by the king of England, defended, says 
 Froissart, with the courage of a man and the heart of a lion, 
 the pretended rights of Montfort, her husband. This war of 
 the two Janes lasted till the treaty of Guerande (1365), which 
 secured the possession of Brittany to the house of Montfort. 
 
 The year 1346 saw, at the same time, the count of Derby 
 invade the south of France, and Edward, accompanied by 
 his young son, i\\e prince of Wales, land on the coast of Nor- 
 mandy, and advance to the environs of the capital. Edward soon 
 retreated before the French army. But the rash valor of the 
 French knights compelled Philip to engage in a disadvanta- 
 geous position, the fatal battle of Crecy, which cost the life 
 of the king's brother, of several princes, and more than thir- 
 ty thousand soldiers (1346). This disaster was followed by 
 the taking of the important city of Calais, the inhabitants of 
 which, having irritated their conqueror by an obstinate de- 
 fence of a year, were indebted for their lives to the heroic 
 
FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 309 
 
 devotion of Eustathius of St. Pierre (1347). A little before, 
 the Scotch, allies of the French, had been defeated with the 
 loss of fifteen hundred men, in a great battle, in which the 
 king with several of the principal nobles were taken prison, 
 ers. 
 
 Philip was obliged to sue for peace (1347). His king- 
 dom was exhausted by a bloody war, ravaged by famine and 
 the plague, and scarcely less so by the exactions of all kinds 
 to which he had had recourse in order to replenish his 
 empty treasury. Disasters of every species seemed to mark 
 the opening of this epoch, so disastrous for France, and for 
 which the acquisition of Dauphiny and the lordship of Mont- 
 pellier were an inadequate compensation. 
 
 279. John the Good. — Battle of Poictiers. — Captivity of 
 the king. — John the Good, Philip's successor (1350-1364), 
 appealed to the enthusiasm of the nation, and obtained from 
 the states general large supplies, but only on condition that 
 they should be allowed to superintend the employment of 
 them, and should be assembled regularly every year (1355). 
 But Artois, Languedoc, and Guyenne were all invaded at 
 once, while the kingdom was agitated by the intrigues of 
 Charles the Bad, king of Navarre. 
 
 Still the Black Prince had imprudently advanced at the 
 head of twelve thousand men into the heart of France, where 
 John, with fifty thousand men at his command, might easily 
 have crushed him. But at Poictiers, as at Crecy, the want 
 of discipline and rash impetuosity of the French nobility 
 caused the loss of the battle, and John, with a large number 
 of his nobles, fell into the hands of the enemy (1356). 
 
 The king's captivity threw the power into the hands of 
 Charles the Dauphin, only nineteen years old, who was 
 pressed at the same time by the attacks of the English and 
 the unreasonable reclamations of the states genei'al, who 
 chose this unpropitious moment for building up their own 
 
310 FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OP RIVALRY. 
 
 authority at the expense of that of the crown. The dauphin 
 could only obtain the necessary supplies by releasing the 
 king of Navarre, chief of all the factions, whom John 
 had thrown into prison, and accepting a council composed 
 of four bishops, twelve knights, and twelve burgesses, to 
 watch over the administration. France, paralyzed by her 
 civil troubles, was saved from the English by Edward's own 
 exhaustion, which compelled him to grant a truce of two 
 years (1357). 
 
 280. Anarchy in France. — The jacquerie (peasantry). — 
 Treaty of Bretigny. — The internal fermentation broke out 
 with double strength. The development of the commons, 
 the formation of a middle class, which stood between the 
 nobility and the serfs, naturally led men to insist upon 
 the consecration of the rights which they had acquired. 
 The third estate, which had grown powerful in the states 
 general, protested, under the guidance of Stephen Marcel, 
 provost of the merchants, against the increase of taxes and 
 the arbitrary exercise of power, and without considering the 
 dangers by which the state was menaced from without, en- 
 deavored to get possession of the government. A powerful 
 party manifested the intention of raising to the throne the 
 king of Navarre, representative of the female branch of the 
 Capets. At the same time, in the lower ranks of society, the 
 enfranchisement of the serfs, a work which had been slowly 
 begun, was changed, all of a sudden, in the hands of the 
 jacquerie (peasantry), into a territorial revolt against the 
 whole social order (1358). Edward pounced upon a prey 
 which all these divisions seemed to throw into his hands : but 
 the cold and skilful policy of the dauphin had already tri- 
 umphed over internal disorders. The Jacques, who had rav- 
 aged sevei'al provinces with fire and sword, had been pur- 
 sued like wild beasts and slaughtered on all sides. Marcel, 
 after having pi'oclaimed Charles king of France, and put to 
 
FRANCE AND ENGLAND SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 311 
 
 death several of the dauphin's most faithful servants, had 
 been killed by the alderman Maillard, just as he vi^as upon 
 the point of delivering up Paris to the English. The dau- 
 phin was recalled by the people of Paris, and meeting Ed- 
 ward with a resistance for which he was wholly unprepared, 
 decided him to accept the treaty of Bretigny (1360), which 
 restored the king to liberty, by the cession of all the provinces 
 of ancient Aquitania and several other lordships. 
 
 France gained nothing by the king's deliverance. Rav- 
 aged by the soldiers of both parties, who finding themselves 
 out of employment, overran and desolated the provinces un- 
 der the names of routiers {men of the road) and great compa- 
 nies, she saw John return to England to take the place of one 
 of his sons, who had been left as a hostage and had fled. 
 The king died soon after this magnanimous act of good faith, 
 leaving the throne to a son who repaired all the faults and all 
 the misfortunes of his reign. 
 
 281. Reign of Charles V. the Wise. — Scarcely was John 
 dead in captivity (1364), when the valor of a hero, the Bri- 
 ton du Guesclin, punished Charles the Bad, who was defeated 
 at Cocherel and compelled to abandon all his pretensions. A 
 prisoner in the battle of Auray, which was followed by the 
 treaty of Guerande (1365), du Guesclin recovered his liber- 
 ty to free the kingdom from the great companies, which he 
 led to Spain, where, in spite of all the efforts of the prince 
 of Castile, he dethroned Peter the Cruel in favor of Henry 
 of Transtamare (v. ch. xviii.). Soon Charles V., declaring 
 himself protector of the southern provinces, oppressed by 
 Edward's son, called England to account for the long success 
 of her arms. The duke of Anjou, one of the king's brothers, 
 retook the greater part of Aquitania. At the same time, 
 the duke of Burgundy, Philip the Bold, faithful to the pru- 
 dent tactics which the king had prescribed, held in check the 
 English general, Robert Knoll, who burnt even the villages 
 
812 FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 
 
 in the neighborhood of Paris, without being able to force his 
 adversary to a battle, till the valiant du Guesglin, who had 
 been named constable of the French armies, compelled him 
 to a precipitate retreat. While the Castilian marine destroys 
 the English fleet before Rochelle (1372), du Guesclin invades 
 Poictou, and drives beyond sea the protegee of the English, 
 the duke of Montfort, whom the death of his rival, Charles 
 of Blois, had left sole master of Brittany. All the conquests 
 of France are confirmed by the treaty of Bruges, a worthy 
 reparation for the treaty of Bretigny. Edward III., governed 
 in his old age by unworthy courtiers, ends in the midst of 
 reverses a reign which had begun with so much splendor 
 (1377). 
 
 282. Internal history of England under Edward III. — 
 This epoch of English history is memorable in several res- 
 pects. At the moment in which the generous but ill-regu- 
 lated efforts of the states of France had vainly attempted the 
 conquest of their national liberties, the English constitution 
 had obtained a regular development, in spite of the despotic 
 pretensions of Edward III. Parliament had been distinctly 
 divided into two houses, and enforced the recognition of the 
 three essential principles of the English government : the il- 
 legality of taxes levied without the consent of the commons, 
 the necessity of the concurrence of the two houses to change 
 a law, and finally, the right of the commons to inquire into 
 abuses and impeach ministers. The good parliament, which 
 assembled the fiftieth year of Edward III.'s reign, solemnly 
 consecrated this triple and important prerogative (1376). 
 
 283. Political and religious troubles under Richard II. and 
 Henry IV. — The popular movement continued with still 
 greater violence under the young Richard II. (1377-1399), 
 the feeble successor of the powerful and energetic Edward 
 III. While the king of France and his valiant constable, 
 profiting by the diversion effected by Robert Stuart, who had 
 
FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 313 
 
 become king of Scotland (1371-1390), were wresting from 
 the English their last possessions in Normandy, Aquitania, 
 and Picardy, the serfs of England were demanding, sword 
 in hand, the abolition of slavery, and Great Britain also had 
 her jacquerie. " A foolish priest of Kent," says Froissart, 
 " had preached to the peasants, that at the beginning of the 
 world there were no slaves, and that consequently nobody 
 could be reduced to slavery, unless he had betrayed his lord 
 as Lucifer had betrayed God." The reclamations of the 
 insurgents were answered by massacres. Religious troubles 
 soon followed. Wickliffe (towards 1378) taught new doc- 
 trines concerning ecclesiastical power, the rights of the 
 church, the monks and friars, and various other claims and 
 institutions of the church of Rome. This was the celebrated 
 sect of the Lollards, which the clergy sought in vain to sup- 
 press, and which, transplanted into Bohemia, gave the first 
 signal of the great and glorious reformation of the sixteenth 
 century. 
 
 Richard, stripped of nearly all his continental possessions, 
 had just obtained peace by marrying Isabella of France, and 
 giving up the ports of Cherburg and Brest, when the general 
 discontent, fomented by Henry IV. of Lancaster, overthrew 
 the unfortunate prince, who was put to death secretly and re- 
 placed by his assassin (1400). The continual insurrections 
 of the lords, who in Northumberland and Wales fought, as 
 they said, "to sustain the just cause of King Richard, if he 
 was still alive, to avenge him, if he was dead," and the bloody 
 persecution of the Lollards, filled the greater part of Henry's 
 reign. But France was no longer in a condition to profit by 
 the dissensions of her rival. 
 
 284. Charles VI. — His derangement. — Period of disas- 
 ters and anarchy. — The last year of the reign of Charles V. 
 had been troubled by the insurrections of Languedoc, Flan- 
 ders, and Brittany. At the accession of the young Charles 
 
 14 
 
314 FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 
 
 VI. (1380), his uncles, the dukes of Anjou, Berry, and Bur- 
 gundy, contended for the regency, and plundered the treasure 
 which had been collected by the wise economy of Charles V. 
 The revolt of the Mailloiins, excited at Paris by the increase 
 of taxes and the vexatious government of the king's uncles, 
 and the insurrection of the Tuchins (peasants) against the 
 oppression of the lords, were the sad preludes of the most 
 fatal epoch of French history. It was in vain that an expe- 
 dition against the Flemmings, marked by the victory of Rose- 
 leke (1382), and the happy reforms begun by Charles VI. 
 on coming of age, excited the hope of a government both ener- 
 getic and prudent ; for the derangement of the king soon be- 
 came for France a source of incalculable misfortunes (1392). 
 The power was disputed by the queen Isabeau of Bavaria, 
 and the dukes of Orleans, of Berry, and of Burgundy. After 
 the death of this last, the duke of Orleans was assassinated by 
 the attendants of the new duke of Burgundy, John the Fearless, 
 and this crime was the signal of the bitter contest of the Bur- 
 gundians and Armagnacs, who took their name from the pow- 
 erful count of Armagnac, father-in-law of the young duke of 
 Orleans, and who put himself at the head of his party. The 
 Burgundians, who had made themselves odious by the ex- 
 cesses of the Cahochiens, a military formed of the dregs of 
 the people, were driven from Paris by the Armagnacs, sup- 
 ported by the queen and the princes. The states-general, 
 which were assembled in 1413, and the dauphin, who was 
 charged with the administration, vainly strove to remedy so 
 many evils. France was a prey to a frightful anarchy when 
 the new king of England, Henry V. (1413-1422), demanded 
 the execution of the treaty of Bretigny, and invaded Nor- 
 mandy at the head of fifty thousand men. Compelled to re- 
 treat, he was already within reach of Calais when the French 
 army overtook him, forced him to give battle, and was exter- 
 minated in the plains of Agincourt (1415). Neither the dis- 
 
FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 315 
 
 asters of this day, not less fatal than Crecy and Poictiers, nor 
 the constantly increasing danger of the country, could allay 
 the fury of faction. The Armagnacs, masters of Paris, were 
 massacred by the people, stirred up by the executioner Cape- 
 luche, while Henry V. was making the conquest of Nor- 
 mandy. The duke of Burgundy, whose triumph seemed 
 sure, was assassinated at Montereau by the attendants of the 
 dauphin (1419), at the moment in which the two parties, 
 alarmed at the success of the English, were upon the point of 
 uniting against them. Philip his son avenged him by a new 
 treason, giving up France to Henry V. by the treaty of Tropes. 
 Parliament confirmed the treaty, and gave the king of Eng- 
 land the daughter of Charles VI. in marriage, with the title 
 of regent, and heir of the crown (1420). Charles the dau- 
 phin sought an asylum in the southern provinces. 
 
 285. Charles VII. — Expulsion of the English. — Two 
 years afterwards, at the death of Henry V. and Charles VI. , 
 the young Henry VI. of England united the two crowns 
 (1422-1461). The dauphin, a wanderer on the banks of 
 the Loire, and simple king of Bourges, strove to forget him- 
 self in amusement, and lose his inheritance gayly. The 
 English, victorious at Crevant (1423), and at Verneuil 
 (1424), laid siege to Orleans, where the dauphin had shut 
 himself up with Dunois, Xaintrailles, La Hire, and several 
 other valiant knights. 
 
 At this moment, when the city was hard pressed, and on 
 the point of surrendering, Joan of Arc, a humble peasant 
 girl, appeared before the king, declaring that she had re- 
 ceived a mission from heaven to deliver France ; and then 
 attacking the English, liberated in ten days that last bulwark 
 of the French monarchy. Charles was crowned at Rheims 
 (1429), to which the Maid of Orleans had opened her way 
 by the victory of Patay. A sudden enthusiasm seemed to 
 have inspired the whole army, and extended to the people. 
 
816 FRANCE AND ENGLAND — SECOND PERIOD OF RIVALRY. 
 
 To check it the regent had Henry VI. crowned at Paris with 
 great pomp (1431). Joan of Arc too was wounded at the 
 siege of Paris, and fell at Compiegne into the hands of the 
 English, who covered themselves with eternal infamy by 
 condemning her to an ignominious death. But it was all in 
 vain. The tide of conquest had turned. The duke of Bui'- 
 gundy united himself, by the treaty of Arras, to the cause of 
 France (1435). Paris opened her gates (1436). The gene- 
 rals of Charles "VII., Dunois, La Hire, Xantrailles, re-enter 
 the provinces one by one, driving the English armies before 
 them, in spite of the internal dissensions and the disorders of 
 the Praguerie, fomented by the son of the king. The war 
 which had been suspended for a moment by a treaty which 
 sanctioned the marriage of Henry VI. with a French pi'in- 
 cess, Margaret of Anjou (1445), soon began again, and 
 stripped the English of the remainder of their possessions on 
 the continent. In 1453, they had nothing left but Calais, 
 and Henry VI., who had thus lost one of his crowns, was to 
 be deprived of the other by a long and bloody war against 
 a prince of his own family. (V. Mod. Hist.) 
 
 A new era began for France. Victorious in a contest 
 which had so often menaced her existence, she was now to 
 resume her place at the head of the nations of the continent, 
 and complete the internal work of organization. 
 
 Charles VII. profited by the weakness of the nobility, 
 whose ranks had been thinned by all those civil and foreign 
 wars, in order to gain new guarantees to the royal power. 
 The establishment of a standing army (1445), and a tax for 
 paying it, freed the throne from the dangerous and precarious 
 succor of feudal troops ; and it is with this that the truly 
 monarchical period of French history begins. 
 
CHAPTER XYII. 
 
 HISTOET OF THE SCLAVOOTiC AND SCANDII^AVIAN' 
 STATES FEOM THEIE OEIGIlSr TO THE MIDDLE 
 OF THE riFTEENTH CENTUEY. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 § I. Foundation of Kiev and Novogorod by the Russians. — The 
 Tcheques or Bohemians. — Premislas their first duke. — The Polemians 
 or Poles — Cracus founds Cracow. — The Obotrites. — The Khazar Turks. 
 — The Hungarians. — Tlieir conversion under Vale or St. Stephen. 
 
 § II. Arrival of Rurick in Russia. — He subdues the Sclavonic popu- 
 lation. — Religion of the Russians. — Their conversion under Vlademir. — 
 Introduction of the Greek church into Russia. — Influence of this event. — 
 Jaroslaf gives laws to the Russians. — System of appanage. — Parcelling 
 out of Russia. — Attempt at federation under Vlademir II. — Invasion of 
 the Moguls, who subdue Russia. — First efforts of Russia to recover her 
 independence. — Foundation of the Russian monarchy by Ivan I. 
 
 § III. Piast first king of Poland. — Conversion of the Poles. — Contest 
 with Russia. — Influence of the popes in Poland. — Boleslaus III. the Vic- 
 torious. — Contest with the Prussians. — The Brethren of the militia of 
 Christ and the Teutonic knights. — Troubles in Poland. — Ravages of the 
 Moguls. — Contest of Poland against the Teutonic knights and the 
 Lithuanians. — Casimir the Great. — Accession of the Jagellons. — Re- 
 union of Lithuania. — Battle of Tanneberg, and peace of Thorn with the 
 knights. — Vladislas king of Poland and Hungary. — Preponderance of 
 Poland. — Progress of the power of the nobility. 
 
 ^ IV. Origin of the Scandinavian slates. — Harold of the Blue Tooth, 
 king of Denmark. — Conversion of the Danes. — Sweno and Canute the 
 
318 ORIGIN OF THE SCLAVONIAN STATES. 
 
 Great, kings of Denmark, Norway, and England. — Division of the three 
 kingdoms — Crusade against the pagans of the North. — Vlademir the 
 Victorious unites Norway and Denmark. — New division. — Greatness of 
 Denmark under Valdemar IV. 
 
 § V. Conversion of Sweden. — Triple cause of division in Sweden ; 
 in the government, the population, and the religion. — Of the royal and 
 the popular power. — Glorious reign of Magnus Ladulas. — Progress of 
 the power of the nobility. — Margaret of Denmark. — Battle of Falkoep- 
 ing. — Union of Calmar. — Causes of its early dissolution. — Remains only 
 under Eric the Pomeranian, and Christopher the Bavarian. — Rupture of 
 the union. — Christian king of Denmark and Norway. — Charles Canut- 
 son king of Sweden. 
 
 §1. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE SCLAVONIAN STATES. 
 
 286. Origin of the Russians — Of the Bohemians. — We 
 have mentioned the three great families which originally 
 divided the race of the Sclavonians (v. ch. i. § 11), and 
 which probably lived in tribes till the migrations of the Huns 
 compelled them to unite in warlike confederations in order 
 to resist the common enemy. But the origin of this people 
 is wrapt in profound obscurity, and their history begins only 
 in the fifth century. A tribe composed of Russians and 
 Alans founded Kiev on the Borysthenes ; and soon after 
 Novogorod, which soon became a powerful and celebrated 
 city. But this rising state was not yet Russia, which was 
 not formed till three centuries later. 
 
 The origin of Bohemia and Poland may be referred to 
 the middle of the sixth century. Towards 550, a tribe of 
 Sclavonians called Tcheques, drove the Marcomanni from the 
 country of the ancient Boii and formed several independent 
 republics, among which was that of Prague. Subdued by 
 the Avars, they, were soon after (about 626) delivered by a 
 Frank merchant called Samo, whom they put at their head. 
 
ORIGIN OF THE SCLAVONIAN STATES. 319 
 
 They took the name of Bohemians from the country in 
 which they lived (Bosohemem), and chose a single leader 
 with the title of duke. Premislas (about 700) is considered 
 as the first of these dukes. They soon became redoubtable 
 to the empire of the East, and the countries of the West. 
 Charlemagne having conquered the Avars, compelled the 
 Bohemians themselves to acknowledge his supremacy, and 
 extended his empire over the powerful nation of the Obo- 
 trites. The contest was renewed with various success, under 
 Lewis the Germanic and his sons ; and the emperors of Ger- 
 many were often exposed to the attacks of the Sclavonians 
 till Otho the Great, having conquered Bolislas I., com- 
 pelled the Bohemians to acknowledge the suzerainty of the 
 empire (950). The Bohemians embraced the Christian reli- 
 gion ; and it was from Prague that, a few years later, St. 
 Adelbert set forth to the spiritual conquest of Poland. 
 
 287. Polenians or Poles. — Ohotrites. — The Polenians or 
 Poles had established themselves, at the same time with the 
 Bohemians, between the Oder and Vistula. They divided 
 their conquest into twelve provinces, or potentates. But soon 
 weary of the divisions of their chiefs, they gave the crown to 
 one of their principal warriors, Cracus, who founded Cracow, 
 the royal residence of the Poles (towards 600). 
 
 The Ohotrites, freed from the imperial dominion under 
 the sons of Charlemagne, were united into a nation by one 
 of their chiefs, Gotskalker, and formed the kingdom of the 
 Venedi. But irritated by the efforts of their prince to subject 
 them to the Catholic faith, they broke violently asunder in 
 1066. massacred the priests and recovered their independence, 
 or rather their political and religious anarchy, On the ruins 
 of the kingdom of the Venedi, rose the three states of Meck- 
 lenburg, Pomerania, and Pomerelia. The two last were 
 converted by bishop Otho of Brandenburg, who had been 
 sent to them by Boleslas, king of Poland. Mecklenburg 
 
320 ORIGIN OF THE SCLAVONIAN STATES. 
 
 alone repelled the new religion, and it took waves of blood to 
 force them to receive baptism. 
 
 288. The Khazar Turks. — The Hungarians. — The Ants. 
 — In Eastern Europe, Asiatic populations came and min- 
 gled with the Sclavonic nations. The Khazar Turks founded 
 in remote times, a powerful dominion between the Caspian 
 and Black seas, and rendered themselves redoubtable to the 
 emperors of Constantinople. About three centuries after the 
 first appearance of the Russians, the Ougres Madyars, natives 
 of Turkishtan, appeared on the borders of the Danube ; and 
 the neighboring people gave them the name of Hungarians 
 (strangers). It was a wandering tribe, which only settled 
 down after having terrified all Europe by its devastations. 
 Repelled by the Russians, they invaded Silesia and Bohe- 
 mia several times, and penetrated into Italy and Burgundy. 
 It was only by the victorious arms of Otho the Great, that 
 they were compelled to cease from their incursions. Chris- 
 tianity did still more than force. Their chief, Geisa (961-997), 
 and his son Vaic, who received at his baptism the Christian 
 name of Stephen, softened the fierce and turbulent nature 
 of these barbarians by propagating Christianity. Stephen 
 received from pope Sylvester II. the apostolic crown ; and 
 from Henry II. of Germany the title of king (1000), with the 
 hand of Gisela, the emperor's sister. 
 
 The family of the A7its had separated from the other 
 Sclavonic nations ; and after having been subjected, like the 
 Tcheques, to the yoke of the Avars, they descended towards 
 the south, and in 626 obtained from the emperor Heraclius 
 permission to establish themselves in Illyria, on the coast 
 of the Adriatic, where they founded several principalities. 
 This was the origin of the bannats of Croatia, Dalmatia, 
 Esclavonia, Bosnia, and Servia. 
 
 Such was the origin of the principal Sclavonian states. 
 
RUSSIA. 321 
 
 We will now follow, in their progressive developments, those 
 which played an important part during the middle ages. 
 
 §11. 
 
 RUSSIA. 
 
 289. Establishment ofRuric in Russia. — The people who 
 had founded Kiev and Novogorod in what is now Russia, did 
 not remain masters of them long. Towards 862, three bro- 
 thers from Sweden established themselves near Lake Ilmen, 
 where they were received as friends, and allowed to build 
 cities. But one of them, Ruric, heir of the domains of his 
 two brothers, had himself proclaimed Great Prince at Novo- 
 gorod, in spite of the resistance of the old inhabitants. These 
 were soon after mingled with the new comers, and the Rus- 
 sian language replaced the Sclavonian. At the same time, 
 two Russians, who had been sent from Novogorod to Constan- 
 tinople, made themselves masters of the city of Kiev, which 
 they took from the Khazar Turks (863). After the death of 
 Ruric, and during the reign of his son Igor, this new princi- 
 pality was united with that of Novogorod (879-945). Under 
 this prince the new state, though scarcely organized, marked 
 its first entrance among the nations by a bold enterprise. 
 The Russians descended the Borysthenes, and appeared be- 
 fore Constantinople with two thousands barks, transporting 
 their fleet on wheels across the isthmus, which separates the 
 Propontis from the Euxine. The emperor Leo the Philoso- 
 pher sued for peace, and the Christians paid tribute to the bar- 
 barians of the North (911). However, the Sclavonians, tired 
 of a foreign dominion, revolted and assassinated Igor. But 
 five thousand of them atoned with their lives for the murder 
 of their prince, and the yoke fell on them anew. 
 
 14* 
 
322 HTJSSiA. 
 
 290. Religion of the Russians. — Their conversion under 
 Vladimir. — The Russians, thenceforth masters of the country, 
 lived in profound barbarism, abandoning themselves to sombre 
 and cruel superstitions. At the feet of the god Peroum, cre- 
 ator of the thunderbolt, there was a constantly burning pile 
 into which animals and prisoners were thrown, and where 
 even mothers came to cast in their children as a welcome 
 offering. Queen Olga (945-970), the wisest of women, say 
 the Russian annals, was struck with horror at this bloody 
 religion, and embraced Christianity. Her grandson, Vladi- 
 mir, who secured the throne after a civil war of seven years 
 against his brother Jarapolk (974-980), received the ambas- 
 sadors of three people who wished to convert the Russians. The 
 Bulgarians offered Mahometanism ; the Jews, their worship, 
 without an altar or a home ; and the Greeks, Christianity. 
 Ten men of character and experience were chosen to exa- 
 
 •mine the three religions, and came back to say to Vladimir: 
 " After having seen the Greek religion, we can no longer 
 adore our ancient gods, as a man rejects bitter food after he 
 has tasted of sweet." Immediately, Vladimir asked to be 
 baptized, destroyed the old temples, had the statue of the 
 god Peroum tied to a horse's tail, and torn to pieces, and 
 commanded all his subjects to follow his example under 
 penalty of being treated as rebels (988). They were all 
 assembled on the banks of the Dnieper to receive baptism, 
 and entered the water to their waists, while from both banks 
 the Christian priests recited the prayers of the church. 
 Vladimir founded a school, to spread knowledge and religion 
 together. But he was compelled to employ violence in order 
 to induce mothers to send their children, writing being looked 
 upon by the Russians as one of the most dangerous forms of 
 witchcraft. 
 
 291. Jaroslaf gives laws to Russia. — According to the 
 ancient custom of the country, the inheritance of Vladimir 
 
RUSSIA. 323 
 
 was divided by his sons into several appanages, very nearly 
 independent of each other, and which changed the monarchy 
 into a kind of irregular federation under the nominal supre- 
 macy of the great prince. After long disputes, Jaro.slaf 
 (1018-1054) succeeded in reuniting the different states, and 
 reigned with glory over all Russia (1036). The Great 
 Prince published a code known under the name of Russian 
 truths, which divided the nation into three classes, the nobles 
 or boyards, the people, and the slaves. For the right of ven- 
 geance, which perpetuated hostilities between families, he 
 substituted the system of composition, which was in juse 
 among the Germans, and endeavored to fix the great princi- 
 ples of government. At the same time, Russia began to open 
 other relations, besides those of war and pillage, with the rest 
 of Europe. Vladimir had married a Greek princess. Ja- 
 roslaf had Greek authors translated, and multiplied his rela- 
 tions with the neighboring people. One of his daughters 
 married Henry I. of France ; the other two married Harold, 
 king of Norway, and Andrew, king of Hungary. 
 
 But this first budding of civilization was quickly checked, 
 and the influence of Christianity, which was so powerful 
 in the rest of Europe, was hardly felt in Russia. The 
 Greek schism had separated her from the rest of Christendom, 
 which was subject to the influence of the Holy See. The 
 nomination of the monk Hilarion, as metropolitan of Russia, 
 was the signal for the concentration of the ecclesiastical 
 authority in the hands of the Great Prince, and the church 
 became a blind instrument of arbitrary power. 
 
 292. System of Appanages. — Divisions. — Troubles. — In- 
 vasion of the Moguls. — The fatal system of appanages, 
 which contained the same germs of division with feudality, 
 without the counterbalancing of any principle of hierarchi- 
 cal subordination, divided into five states the vast domains of 
 Jaroslaf, from the borders of the Pruth to those of lake 
 
324 RUSSIA, 
 
 Ladoga and Onega ; from the shores of the gulf of Fin- 
 land to the source of the Volga. 
 
 Jaroslaf had exhorted his sons to observe justice, and 
 cherish harmony ; but no sooner was he dead (1054), 
 than the rivalries of the brothers broke out, and all Russia 
 became a prey to frightful confusion. We shall not attempt 
 to trace the monotonous history of wars, treasons, cruel 
 vengeance, and bitter retaliation, which fill this period. For 
 a moment, the princes seemed to have grown tired of this 
 confusion, and attempted to put an end to it. They met 
 at Lioubetch (1097), at the call of Sviatopolk II., gave the 
 kiss of peace, and swore to respect each other's rights. 
 Three great victories over the barbarians of the north of 
 Asia were the fruits of this union (1113). Vladimir II., 
 Sviatopolk's successor (1113-1152), received from the einpe- 
 ror Alexis Comnenes a golden cap, the ensign of supreme 
 power, and which is still preserved for the coronation of the 
 sovereign. But the assembly of Lioubetch had exaggerated 
 the fatal right of appanages, by deciding that the states of 
 each prince should be indefinitely divided between all his 
 children. Thus, after the death of Vladimir, anarchy resumed 
 her work of destruction. Ten Great Princes succeeded one 
 another in a few years (1125-1164), and Russia was con- 
 suming her strength in internal quarrels, at the moment when, 
 a terrible scourge fell upon her. In 1223, a swarm of Mo- 
 guls, detached from the great army of Genghis Khan, preci- 
 pitated itself upon Russia, crushed her troops, and returned 
 to Asia laden with plunder. Soon a new army appeared 
 under the orders of the ferocious Bati, ivhose cruelties, says a 
 Russian writer, made the survivors envy the repose of the dead. 
 The Tartar, after having successively subdued Hungary, 
 Moldavia, and Walachia, and killed in battle the Great Prince 
 louri (1238), compelled his successor to go and swear fealty 
 and homage to the Khan of the Moguls on the banks of the 
 
POLAND. 325 
 
 river Amour, and established near the Volga the famous 
 Golden Horde which, for more than a century, continued to 
 dispose of the lives and dignity of the Great Princes. 
 
 293. Foundation of the Russian Monarchy hy Ivan I. — 
 The foundation of the Russian monarchy is attributed to 
 Ivan I, who transferred the seat of his power to Moscow 
 (1328), and subjected the greater part of the other princes to 
 his supremacy. But he could not escape the ravages of the 
 Lithuanians, and the still powerful suzerainty of the Golden 
 Horde. The end of the fourteenth century saw the first suc- 
 cessful effort of Russia for the recovery of her indepen- 
 dence, and a brilliant victory of the Great Prince Dmitri I. 
 over the chief of the great horde (1380), seemed to presage 
 the end of this long dominion. But soon the burning of 
 Moscow by the Moguls (1382), and the massacre of twenty- 
 four thousand Russians, who were slaughtered on the fallen 
 ramparts, proved that the hour of deliverance was not yet 
 come. 
 
 §111. 
 
 POLAND. 
 
 294. Piast I. king of the Poles. — Their conversion. — 
 Poland, separated by Russia herself from the Asiatic popula- 
 tions nearest to the West, had received during this period a 
 more regular development. After the death of Cracus, the 
 Poles, agitated by internal discord, renounced the govern- 
 ment of their dukes to choose a king. A simple husband- 
 man, Piast (towards 842), won the throne by his virtues. 
 Poland was happy under his reign. Commerce and agricul- 
 ture flourished in a country, till then, uncultivated and bar- 
 barous. Under the fourth descendant of Piast, Christianity 
 
326 POLAND. 
 
 began to exercise its civilizing influence. It was to a woman 
 that Poland, like the greater part of the other barbarous na- 
 tions, owed this benefit (965). Miecislas I. had married the 
 daughter of Boleslas I. duke of Bohemia. This princess, 
 who had been brought up a Christian, converted her husband. 
 The Bohemian saint, Adalbert, was called to preach the gos- 
 pel in Poland ; and the Poles passing suddenly from pagan- 
 ism to the most fervent piety, added new rigors to ecclesias- 
 tical discipline. He who broke the law of abstinence, was 
 to be punished with the loss of his teeth. Miecislas, full of 
 gratitude towards Germany, from whence he had received 
 Christianity, consented to do homage to the emperor Otho 
 II. (978). The Poles still remember ^o/e.sZa5 I. son of Mie- 
 cislas (992-1025), who established the custom long respected 
 in Poland, of singing religious hymns while marching against 
 the enemy. 
 
 295. Wars against the Russians, Prussians, and Moguls. 
 — Boleslas II. (1058-1081) took advantange of the Aveakness 
 and anarchy of Russia to extend his own dominion, and proud 
 of his success, shook off the imperial suzerainty (1077); but 
 his misconduct made him hated and despised at the close of 
 his life. Gregory VII. excommunicated him (1080), laid 
 his kingdom under interdict and suppressed the title of king 
 of Poland. Boleslas was compelled to yield to the haughty 
 pontiff (1081), and went to die, it is said, in a convent of 
 Croatia. 
 
 The twelfth century was for Poland an epoch of per- 
 petual wars against the surrounding nations, Russians, Prus- 
 sians, Pomeranians, and Hungarians. Boleslas III. the Vic- 
 torious (1102-1138), after forty-seven battles, compelled the 
 princes of Pomerania to recognize the suzerainty of Poland 
 (1124), and permit the introduction of Christianity into their 
 states; but at his death, the division of his kingdom into four 
 independent principalities, put an end to the progress of its 
 
POLAND. 327 
 
 power. The Prussians, a barbarous and pagan people formed 
 of a mixture of Russians and Sclavonians, took advantage of 
 the weakness of their neighbors to invade their territory and 
 begin a desperate contest which was to last more than a cen- 
 tury. Their ravages were only checked by the arms of the 
 Brethren of the soldiers of Christ, or knights bearers of the 
 sword of Livonia, who, united with the Teutonic knights 
 (about 1226), began a crusade against these infidels, and to- 
 wards the end of the fifteenth century compelled them to 
 receive baptism. 
 
 A last and more terrible invasion was that of the Moguls, 
 who appeared under the reign o?' Boleslas V. (1227-1279). 
 The Polish army was defeated, Cracow burnt, and the king 
 compelled to fly into Moravia (1242). Famine drove the Mo- 
 guls from a country which they had devastated ; and they 
 fell upon the Hungarians, whom a common origin could not 
 save from these ferocious invaders. Boleslas V. only re- 
 turned to Poland to flee again before the invasion ; and his 
 successor, Lesko the Black, died of grief at the sight of the 
 disasters of his country (1289). 
 
 296. Contest against the Teutonic Knights and the Li- 
 thuanians. — Casimir the Great. — Poland only escaped this 
 danger to fall back into anarchy. While the Teutonic 
 knights, who had become the enemies of the people for 
 whom they had fought so long, threatened the frontiers on the 
 south at the same time that the savage Lithuanians invaded 
 those on the north, Poland, convulsed by the ambitious con- 
 tests of the nobles, was reduced to give her ci'own to a foreign 
 king, Vladislas of Bohemia (1300). It required the inter- 
 vention of the pope to check the Teutonic knights, and re- 
 store national princes to Poland. At length she rose again 
 under Casimir the Great, the last descendant of the race of Piast 
 (1333-1370), who, with the mediation of the pope and king 
 of Hungary, made peace with Bohemia and the Teutonic 
 
328 POLAND. 
 
 order (1335), conquered the Russians, and took several pro- 
 vinces from the Lithuanians. A skilful politician as well as 
 a victorious warrior, he was the first to give written laws to 
 his people (1347). He set bounds to the absolute authority 
 of the king, by increasing the power of the nobles, and en- 
 riched the people by the development of commerce. 
 
 After the death of Casimir, and the agitated reign of 
 Lewis the Great (1370-1382), already king of Hungary, the 
 elevation of the Lithuanian family of Jagellons to the throne 
 of Poland put an end to the long rivalry of the two nations, 
 and made them more formidable than ever to their common 
 enemies, the Teutonic knights and the Russians. 
 
 297. Power of Poland under the Jagellons. — Jagellon 
 was baptized, and took the name of Vladislas II. (1386). 
 Christianity was proclaimed as the religion of Lithuania, and 
 the idol Peroum fell before the cross. Several victories over 
 the Tartar Khans were the first fruits of the union of tiie two 
 people (1397). Meanwhile the Teutonic order also had been 
 growing in strength. It had obtained the cession of the 
 island of Gothland, and the Lithuanian province of Samogitia. 
 Fifty-five walled cities, and forty-eight castles, defended a 
 vast territory peopled by two millions of inhabitants. Yet 
 Vladislas Jagellon invaded it, and won the great victory of 
 Tanneberg (1410), in which nearly forty thousand soldiers, 
 with six hundred knights, and the great master of the order, 
 were killed. This battle, and the peace of Thorn, which 
 confirmed its results (1411), may be considered as the first 
 symptoms of the decay of the Teutonic order, which was soon 
 compelled to give up several cities to its enemies, who had 
 received a new increase of strength by the accession of their 
 king Vladislas III. (1434-1444) to the throne of Hungary 
 (1440). Unfortunately, the development of the Polish power 
 was fettered by the vices of the constitution. The royal 
 authority had already suffered from the encroachments of 
 
SCANDINAVIAN STATES. 329 
 
 the nobles, which had been injudiciously favored by the great 
 Casimir. The monarchy had not yet become elective, and 
 the race of the Jagellons preserved the throne by right of 
 succession ; yet every prince was obliged to receive, at his 
 accession, the sanction of the nobles, who alone took part with 
 him in the government. None but the nobles were represented 
 in the diet, and received dignities and honors, leaving all the 
 weight of taxation upon the peasants. The burgesses, the 
 third estate, which was to become the strength of other nations, 
 had no existence in Poland ; and this was the real cause of 
 her decay. But still she was to maintain for several years 
 her rank of first power of the north. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 SCANDINAVIAN STATES. DENMARK AND NORWAY. 
 
 298. Origin of the Scandinavian States. — Their Union 
 under Canute the Great. — The origin of the Scandinavians 
 is no less obscure than that of the Sclavonians. The ancients 
 had known them by their frequent migrations, which had 
 procured those regions the appellation of storehouse of nations. 
 It was by their invasions also that they were known in the 
 middle ages. We have already spoken of the adventurous 
 expeditions of those pirates, who, after having filled all west- 
 ern Europe with the fame of their devastations and exploits 
 (v. ch. x. § i.), came to mingle with the population of 
 France, England, and Italy. They who remained in their 
 frozen country lived there obscurely, holding for a long while 
 no relations with the rest of Europe. 
 
 The history of Denmark begins to acquire some certainty 
 towards the period of the reign of Harold of the Blue Tooth 
 (926-985), who, being defeated in a war against Otho the 
 
330 SCANDINAVIAN STATES. 
 
 Great, consented to become a Christian, and receive into his 
 states the missionaries which were sent there by the arch- 
 bishop of Hamburg (972). A few yeai's afterwards, Chris- 
 tianity penetrated into Norway, under the reign of Olaus 1. 
 (995-1000) and St. Olaus II. (1014), who sent missionaries 
 into Iceland, and even as far as the coasts of Greenland. 
 Paganism, which was deeply rooted in Scandinavia, and for- 
 tified by ancient traditions and national poetry, triumphed 
 again for a moment under Sweno, who conquered England, 
 and subjected a part of Norway to his empire. But Canute 
 the Great, who completed the conquest of Norway (1031), 
 and united three crowns upon his head, labored diligently to 
 re-establish Christianity in all his states. 
 
 299. Division of the Empire of the North. — Crusade 
 against the Pagans. — After him (1036), the great empire of 
 the north was divided. Norway passed from Hardi Canute 
 to Magnus the Good (1036-1047), who, after the death of the 
 sons of Canute the Great, made himself master of Denmark 
 (1041). This kingdom recovered its independence under 
 Sweno Estrithson, grandson of the conqueror of England 
 (1047), who secured his throne by the aid of the emperor of 
 Germany, while the king of Norway, Harold IV., lost his 
 life in fighting for the traitor Tostig (1066), in England (v. 
 ch. X. § ii). After the death of Sweno begins a period 
 filled with internal quan-els and obscure contests with Nor- 
 wegian pirates or the pagans of Pomerania. 
 
 However, the great movement which at this period agita- 
 ted Christian Europe, was felt even in those distant countries. 
 Erick I, of Denmark (1103,) and Sigurd, king of Norway, 
 (1107), took the cross, and set out for Holy Land in their 
 light barks, built rather to ascend rivers than face the dan- 
 gers of a distant voyage. The surname of Pilgrim to Jeru- 
 salem rewarded the religious heroism of these princes. But 
 the kings of the north had a crusade at their own doors, 
 
SCANDINAVIAN STATES. 331 
 
 less brilliant, it is true, but perhaps scarcely less glorious. 
 While St. Bernard was preaching the second crusade 
 against the East, the princes of Denmark undertook to 
 convert or to exterminate the Vandals of Germany, who, 
 inheriting the adventurous spirit of the old Normans, were 
 paying back upon Scandinavia all the ills which she had 
 inflicted upon Europe. The brave Valdemar I. (1157-1182), 
 son of St. Canute, carried war into the very focus of northern 
 paganism, the island of Rugen, where there was a monstrous 
 idol, whose altar was constantly wet with Christian blood. 
 Victorious over the Rugians (1168), he broke the idol in the 
 presence of its worshippers, who renounced their errors at 
 the sight. Valdemar, who was as wise as he was brave, was 
 the first to give his people written laws, and compiled the 
 laws of Slavia, of Zealand, and an ecclesiastical code. His 
 son, Canute IV., established the three orders of the lords 
 (deans and bishops), of the nobles, and of the peasants, who 
 were to compose the assembly of the States (1183-1158). 
 He subdued also the princes of the Obotrites, and the duke of 
 Pomerania (1187). 
 
 300. Power of Denmark under Valdemar IT. and Valde- 
 mar IV. — Valdemar II., the victorious, compelled Norway 
 to acknowledge the supremacy of Denmark, and formed, 
 with the consent of Frederic II., the kingdom of Vandalia 
 out of his conquests in the north of Germany. But the cap- 
 tivity of this prince, who was imprisoned by a traitor, sud- 
 denly checked the progress of the Danish power. Norway 
 regained her independence. Mecklenburg, Holstein, and the 
 rich cities of Lubeck and Hamburg, which had recently 
 been subjected, shook off the yoke, and when Valdemar re- 
 covered his liberty it was too late to repair these disasters. 
 
 At the same time Denmark had become the prey of in- 
 ternal factions, which were prolonged throughout a whole 
 century, till Valdemar IV. {III.) (1340-1375), reducing to 
 
332 SWEDEN. 
 
 obedience all the Danish provinces, which were divided be- 
 tween six independent princes, restored strength to the go- 
 vernment by a severe and skilful policy, and enlarged his 
 territory by the conquest of the islands of Aland, Gothland, 
 and Holstein. This prince prepared the way for the glorious 
 reign of his daughter Margaret — the last scion of the race of 
 Odin — who, regent of Denmark (1387), queen of Norway by 
 marriage (1388), and of Sweden by election (1389), united 
 upon her brow the three crowns of the North. 
 
 § V. 
 
 SWEDEN. UNION OF CALMAR. 
 
 301. Conversion of Sioeden. — Of the royal and popular 
 power. — During the whole of this period, Sweden had been a 
 prey to political and religious divisions. Pagan under the do- 
 minion of the kings of TJpsal — descendants, it was said, of the 
 famous pirate Lodbrok — she received Christianity under Olof 
 Skotkonung (1001-1026), who was baptized by the English 
 Sigefred, and was the first to take the title of king of Sweden. 
 But the states prevented the king from imposing the new 
 worship upon the Swedes, and the worship of Odin preserved 
 its place at the side of that of Christ. There was also an- 
 other cause of division. The south of the peninsula was 
 occupied by Goths of German origin ; the north by the Scan- 
 dinavians. Each of these two races claimed the supremacy; 
 and as they were equally powerful, the dispute was ended by 
 a curious arrangement which called the princes of the two 
 nations to the throne in succession. 
 
 Finally there was an antagonism in the government itself, 
 between the royal and the popular sovereignty. Every year 
 the peasants who were landlords met in a great assembly called 
 
SWEDEN. 333 
 
 Ting, and elected a man from among themselves, who under 
 the name of Thorgny was to watch over the execution of the 
 laws. The power of this delegate of the nation was dreaded 
 by the king and the nobles. Olof, the first Christian king, 
 wishing to attack the king of Norway in spite of the people : 
 " Your conduct is imprudent," said the Thorgny. " We 
 peasants, wish you, king Olof, to make peace with the king 
 of Norway. If you do not give heed to our words you will 
 die by our hands ; for we are not men to put up with an out- 
 rage. Such were our fathers, when they drowned five kings 
 as proud as you. We wait your decision." A great tumult 
 arose in the assembly, and the king declared that he was 
 ready to accept the proposals that had been made to him. 
 This fact explains the history of Sweden, where, through 
 every vicissitude, liberty was maintained, because it was 
 founded upon property. In our own days, the order of peas- 
 ants sits in the diet with the other three ; and this is, with 
 the exception of France, the only country of Europe where 
 those, who bear the heaviest share of the burden, have also 
 the greatest share in elections. 
 
 302. Increase and preponderance of the power of the no- 
 lility. — Yet this excessive preponderance of the lower class 
 did not last long. It was soon balanced and then overborne 
 by the influence of the Christian clergy and the progress 
 of the royal power, which surrounded itself with the prestige 
 of glory and virtue under the reign of St. Erick — conqueror 
 and apostle of Finland (1157), and legislator of his own 
 country. After him, the rivalry of the two dynasties plunged 
 Sweden into troubles of long duration, which, however, were 
 calmed during the reigns of the valiant Birger, and of Mag. 
 nus I. (1275-1290). This prince transferred the right of 
 making laws from the people to the assembly of notables ; 
 forbade private wars during the session of the royal council, 
 and at the same time, diffused such prosperity and abundance 
 
334 SWEDEN. 
 
 through the country, that he received the name of Ladulas, 
 or lock of the peasants' granary. Magnus had founded the 
 power of the nobility, which became a new cause of trouble 
 under his successors, while Sweden was waging a difficult 
 contest with Denmark and Russia. After the deposition of 
 Magnus II. and his son Haquin, who had united the crowns 
 of Sweden and Norway, the nobles called a stranger to the 
 throne, Albert of Mecklenburg (1363) ; who, however, was 
 soon deposed in turn for attempting to throw off his de- 
 pendence on the aristocracy. It was then that the Swedish 
 senate offered the crown to Haquin's widow, Margaret 
 of Denmark. This princess defeated Albert at Falkoeping 
 (1389), and immediately presented to the states of Sweden 
 her great-grandson, Erick the Pomeranian, who was pro- 
 claimed her heir. 
 
 303. Margaret the Great. — Union of Calmar. — But the 
 great result of this victory was the Uiiion of Calmar (1397). 
 The deputies of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway proclaimed, 
 by a solemn act, that from that time for ever, the three states 
 should have but one king, who should be elected by the con- 
 current voices of the senators and deputies of the three king- 
 doms ; that the election should fall on one of the descendants 
 of Erick -, that the three kingdoms should aid each other 
 with all their strength against foreign enemies ; and that 
 each should preserve its constitution, its senate, and its laws. 
 Unhappily this union of all the Scandinavian races, though 
 accepted with enthusiasm, had no solid basis to rest upon. A 
 federative system could not be preserved long between three 
 powerful monarchies, divided by their laws, their customs, 
 old jealousies, and conflicting interests. 
 
 Yet during Margaret's reign national rivalries, yielding 
 to the influence of her genius, respected the universal peace ; 
 and the prudence and courage of the great queen, won for 
 her the surname of the Semiramis of the North. Stockholm, 
 
SWEDEN. 335 
 
 which had remained faithful to the dethroned king, opened 
 her gates at the news of the treaty of Cahnar ; and Albert's 
 last refuge, the Island of Gothland, yielded to Margaret in 
 1408. Her reign lasted in full glory till 1412. 
 
 304. Dissolution oftJie union. — But the work of this illus- 
 trious princess did not survive her long. It was in vain that 
 Erick the Pomeranian, renewed the union of Calmar, He 
 already perceived symptoms of dissolution, and merely aggra- 
 vated them. A bloody war with the Hanseatic cities, and 
 the commercial rivalry of England and Holland, exhausted 
 his resources; while an equal distrust of all his subjects, 
 and his refusal to reside either in Sweden or in Denmark, 
 dissatisfied the whole union, each member of which deposed 
 him in turn. 
 
 The Danes chose in his place, his nephew Christopher 
 the Bavarian (1489), who was recognized by the Swedes in 
 1440 and by the Norwegians in 1442. After hesitating a 
 long while, he transferred his residence to Copenhagen. 
 The greater part of his reign was troubled by the piracies 
 of Erick the Pomeranian, who landed several times in Swe- 
 den, destroyed the houses, and compelled the famished in- 
 habitants to live on flour mingled with the pulverized bark 
 of trees. Christopher, accused of all the misfortunes of his 
 reign, and hated by his people who called him the king of 
 bark, died of chagrin in 1448. After him, the union of Cal- 
 mar was definitively dissolved. The Swedes chose for king 
 Charles Canutson, high marshal of the kingdom ; while the 
 Danes and Norwegians, still faithful to their alliance, offered 
 the crown to Christian (or Christiern) I., son of Thierry of 
 Oldenburg, and a descendant by the female line of their an- 
 cient kings (1448). 
 
CHAPTER XYIIL 
 
 SPAHSr. HISTORY OF THE AEABS AND THE CHEIS- 
 
 TIAlSr KII^GDOMS IN SPAIN TO THE ACCESSION OF 
 HENEY IV. TO THE THEONE OF CASTILE. 
 
 SUMBIARY. 
 
 § I. State of Spain at the Death of Sancho the Great. — Divisions. — 
 Ferdinand of Castile. — Exploits of the Cid. — Invasion of the Alraoravi- 
 des. — Alphonso VI. — Henry of Burgundy in Portugal. — Alphonso the 
 Disputatious. — Reunion and New Division of Spain. — Invasion of the 
 Almohads. — Their Progress in the South of Spain. — Foundation of the 
 Religious and Military Orders — Crusade preached by Innocent III. to 
 succor Spain. — Great victory of the Christians at Tolosa. 
 
 § II. — Fall of the Almohads. — St. Ferdinand. — Taking of Cordova. 
 — Useless attempts upon Grenada. — Spain begins to take a part in Eu- 
 ropean politics. — Alphonso the Wise aspires to the Imperial Crown. — ■ 
 Sancho the Brave. — Invasion of the Merinides. — Peter of Aragon in Si- 
 cily. — State of the Spanish Peninsula at the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century. — The children of Lacerda kept fi-om the throne of Castile. — 
 Dissensions. — Alphonso II. Glorious reign. — Victory of Tariffa. — Peter 
 the Cruel. — His tyranny. — Revolt and triumph of Henry of Transfamare. 
 — Increase of the power of the nobles. — Firmness of Henry III. — Revo- 
 lution in Grenada. — John II. — Power and fall of the favorite Alvar de 
 Luna. — John 11. — Accession of Henry IV. — Progress of Aragon during 
 this period. 
 
 § III. The Council of Twelve. — The Juntas. — The Cortes in Ara- 
 gon. — The Nobles and Burgesses. — The Peasants. — Limits of the Royal 
 Authority. — The Great Justiciary. — His Power. — Liberal character of 
 
WARS BETWEEN THE CHRISTIANS AND ARABS. 33Y 
 
 Castilian Institutions in their origin. — Influence of Communities. — The 
 Power of the Nobility gradually acquires consistency and becomes pre- 
 ponderant. 
 
 § IV. Conquest of Portugal by Henry of Burgundy. — Alphonso, 
 King of Portugal. — Battle of Ourica. — Battle of Santarem, — Exploits 
 against the Moors. — Dyonisius, Father of his Country. — Alphonso IV. — 
 Murder of Inez of Castro. — Peter the Justiciary. — New Dynasty under 
 der John I. 
 
 § V. Expedition of John I. into Africa. — Henry of Viseu begins mari- 
 time discoveries. — Discovery of Madeira. — Reverses in Africa under Ed- 
 ward. — Bull of Martin V. — Campaign of Africa. — Discovery of Cape 
 Verd and the Azores. 
 
 §1. 
 
 WARS BETWEEN THE CHRISTIANS AND ARABS. 
 
 305. State of Spain at the Death of Sancho the Great. — 
 Division between his So7is. — We have seen the first phase of 
 the long and heroic struggle of Christian Spain against the 
 Mahometan dominion. What all Europe was unable to do 
 against the Mussulmen of Asia, the Spaniards alone accom- 
 plished against the Moorish race, constantly augmented by 
 African tribes. Their crusade lasted eight hundred years, 
 amid brilliant success, but sometimes also amid terrible re- 
 verses ; and in spite of the internal dissensions which too 
 often paralyzed their efforts, their arms never slackened till 
 the day of triumph. 
 
 The divisions of the infidels hastened the triumph of the 
 Christians. At the fall of the caliphate, when the Mussulman 
 provinces were divided between nineteen sovereigns (v. ch. 
 vii., 2d part), all Christian Spain, except the kingdom of 
 Leon, was united under Sancho the Great, who at his death 
 left his son three kingdoms (1035) : to Ferdinand I., Castile, 
 to which the kingdoms of Leon and the Asturias were united j 
 
 15 
 
338 WARS BETWEEN THE CHRISTIANS AND ARABS. 
 
 to Ramiro, Aragon ; to Garcia, Navarre and Biscay. Fer- 
 dinand of Castile waged war with the Arabs thirty years, 
 conquered Lusitania, and subjected the kings of Toledo, Sa- 
 ragossa and Seville to tribute. But the glory of this prince 
 was eclipsed by that of his intrepid companion, the Cid 
 Campeador (Rodrigo Diaz of Bivar), the Spanish hero of the 
 middle ages. Knighted by Ferdinand on his first field, the 
 Cid had already received the homage of five infidel kings, 
 when Spain was again divided by Ferdinand's death (1065). 
 
 306. Exploits of the Cid and of Alphonso VI. — Inva- 
 sion of the Almoravids. — There can be but little doubt but 
 what the Mussulman dominion in the peninsula would soon 
 have ended but for the constant divisions of the Christian 
 kingdoms, which, breaking the unity so essential in war, 
 wasted in inglorious disputes and ill-concerted action, the 
 energies which should have been united against the common 
 enemy. Sancho IV., son of Garcias of Navarre, carried on 
 the war against the infidels, while the sons of Ferdinand, 
 Sancho of Castile, Alphonso of Leon, and Garcia of Gallicia, 
 were contending for the inheritance of their father. After a 
 long war Alphonso VI., the survivor of the family of Sancho 
 the Great, reunited once more all the Christian states. But 
 the Cid had compelled him to swear at the foot of the altar 
 that he was innocent of the death of his brother. Alphonso 
 never forgave him ; and Rodrigo, in disgrace at court, but 
 powerful by his marriage with Chimene, went forth alone to 
 fight the enemies of his country and his faith. 
 
 The contest began again with new vigor, new bands 
 pouring in from Africa to fill up the thinned ranks of the 
 infidels. Alphonso had just made himself master of the king- 
 dom of Toledo (1081-1085), subjected the kings of Seville 
 and Badajoz to tribute (1086), and acquired several impor- 
 tant cities by his marriage with the Christian daughter of the 
 king of Seville, when the invasion of the Almoravids, who 
 
WARS BETWEEN THE CHRISTIANS AND ARABS. 339 
 
 had been called from Africa by the Mussulman princes, com- 
 palled him to abandon a part of his conquests. Soon these 
 terrible enemies, turning their arms against their own allies, 
 built up a new dominion, not less formidable to the Christians 
 than that which they had overthrown. 
 
 The Cid distinguished his last years by the conquest of 
 Valencia, where he founded a principality, while the valiant 
 Henry of Burgundy made himself master of Portugal (1005). 
 But after the death of the Cid, Valencia fell under the yoke 
 of the Almoravids, in spite of the obstinate defence of Chi- 
 mene. The dangers thickened. A bull of Pascal I. (1105) 
 forbade the Spaniards to go and fight in Palestine, and com- 
 manded all those who had taken the cross to turn their arms 
 against the enemies of their own country. Yet they were con- 
 quered at Ucles, where the infante Don Sancho perished with 
 a great number of his soldiers. Alphonso VI. could not sur- 
 vive his son. He left the throne of Castile to his daughter 
 Urraca (1109), who married Alphonso VII., already king of 
 Arragon and Navarre ; and then the Christian kingdoms 
 were again united under the same ruler. 
 
 307. Reunion of the Christian Kingdoms under Alphonso 
 VII. — Invasion of the Almohads. — Alphonso made himself 
 the terror of the infidels by his victories, and won the name 
 of the Fighter. But the jealousy of the queen and the pride 
 of the Castilians excited new difficulties. The marriage 
 which had united the Christian states was annulled, and the 
 kingdom of Castile recovered its independence. A few years 
 afterwards (1134), the defeat of Fraga led to the separation 
 of Navarre and Aragon. 
 
 The Mussulmen had not been able to profit by these divi- 
 sions, for they wei*e still engaged in a war of extermination 
 in the south of Spain. The Almohads, sectarians of an ob- 
 scure fanatic, who pretended to punish the licentiousness of 
 the Almoravids and introduce the reign of justice and virtue, 
 
340 WARS BETWEEN THE CHRISTIANS AND ARABS. 
 
 succeeded in rendering themselves masters of the northern 
 coasts of Africa (towards 1120). Sustained by the warriors 
 of the desert, they were victorious at Tlemcen, took Morocco 
 after a horrible siege, in which two hundred thousand persons 
 died of hunger, and annihilated in Africa the dominion of 
 their rivals. At the same time the old Moorish population 
 menaced in Spain all the Moravids, but not with the intention 
 of submitting to a new yoke. The Almohads met a lively 
 resistance on landing in Spain. Three Mussulman parties 
 contended eagerly for the supremacy, and this bloody quarrel 
 checked for twenty years the progress of the new invasion. 
 Alphonso invaded Andalusia, received the homage of the 
 new kings of Aragon and Navarre, and was crowned Empe- 
 ror (1135). 
 
 308. — Religious and. Military Orders. — Crusade against 
 the Moors. — Battle of Tolosa. — Christian Spain prepared to 
 renew the contest against the infidels with redoubled energy. 
 The enthusiastic fanaticism of the African conquerors was 
 met by the chivalric bravery of the religious and military 
 orders of Alcantara (1156), of Calatrava (1158), and of St. 
 James (1161), which were to renew in the West the exploits 
 of the knights of the East. Still Alphonso VII. died without 
 having gained any decided advantage over the Mussulmen 
 (1157). It was only by an heroic effort (v. § iv.) that Portugal 
 succeeded in repelling the invasion, and Alphonso VIII. lost 
 the great battle of Alarcos, in which the Almohad Jacoub won 
 the name of Al Manzor (1195). At the same time a crowd 
 of African tribes flocked to Spain with the hope of dividing 
 the Christian provinces as a sure spoil. The kings of 
 Castile, Leon, and Navarre, instead of uniting against the 
 enemy, abandoned themselves to fatal disputes. The voice 
 of Innocent III. was raised in Europe to call Christians to the 
 aid of their brethren in Spain. Sixty thousand crusaders of 
 France, Germany, and Italy, joined the Spanish troops com- 
 
DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 341 
 
 manded by the grand masters of the military orders, the kings 
 of Navarre, Aragon, and Castile. Near Tolosa they met 
 the Emir Mohammed, who was clad all in black, with a sabre 
 in one hand and the Koran in the other. A fearful contest 
 ensued, but the Christians were victorious, and the conquered 
 Mussulmen were driven from the field with great slaughter. 
 More than a hundred thousand Arabs are said to have been 
 killed (1212). 
 
 §11. 
 
 DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 
 
 309. Fall of the AlmoJiads. — Glorious reign of St. Fer- 
 dinand. — The battle of Tolosa put a final check to the inva- 
 sion, and proved a mortal blow to the power of the Almohads, 
 which was soon annihilated in the midst of revolts. The 
 Christian kings extended their empire, or at least their su- 
 premacy, rapidly over southern Spain. St. Ferdinand (1217 
 -1252), who definitively united in 1230 the kingdoms of 
 Castile and Leon, defeated the Mussulmen and laid siege to 
 Cordova. The ancient capital of the Caliphate was taken by 
 assault, and the cross raised with the royal banner upon the 
 walls. They found there the bells of St. James of Compos- 
 tella, which the Christians had been compelled to carry thither 
 upon their shoulders. The shoulders of the Mussulmen car- 
 ried them back. On his side, James I. or James the Con- 
 queror, king of Aragon (1213-1276), crowned his numerous 
 victories by the conquest of the kingdom of Valencia. The 
 kingdom of Grenada alone preserved its ancient power. All 
 St. Ferdinand's efforts to take Grenada were vain ; he was 
 compelled to yield to the indefatigable resistance of Alhamar. 
 But this king of the Moors soon became the ally of his valiant 
 
342 DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 
 
 antagonist (1246), and aided him in taking Seville, the ter- 
 ritory of which was the best cultivated of all Spain and 
 known as the garden of Hercules (1248). St. Ferdinand 
 fixed his residence there ; and proving himself the worthy 
 rival of his contemporary St. Louis, consecrated his last 
 years to the framing of laws for his subjects. Time has 
 swept his institutions away, but history has preserved this 
 sublime saying of the holy king : " I fear the groans of a 
 poor woman more than the armies of the Moors." 
 
 310. Invasion of the Merinids repulsed hy Sancho the 
 Brave. — Peter III. of Aragon in Sicily. — Henceforth the 
 victory of Christian Spain was sure, and she could take a 
 part in the affairs of Europe from which she had so long 
 been kept aloof by her own dangers. In 1257, Germany 
 offered the imperial crown to Alphonso the Wise (1252-1284), 
 son of St. Ferdinand, and who like him had for an ally 
 James the Conqueror, king of Aragon. Alphonso contended 
 long for the crown with Richard of England and Rudolph 
 of Hapsburg, and had the glory of stripping the Almohads 
 of their last asylum, the province of Murcia (1263). Under 
 the reign of his son, Sancho the Brave (1284-1295), Islamism 
 made a final effort. A new invasioon fell upon Spain, but it 
 was also the last. The Merinids, of the race of Merin king of 
 Fez, had made themselves masters of Morocco and put an end 
 to the dynasty of the Almohads (1270). At the call of their 
 brethren of Grenada, they crossed the straits and killed in 
 battle the archbishop Don Sancho, son of James the Conqueror. 
 His head was given as a trophy to the Merinids, and his 
 right hand to the soldiers of Grenada. Sancho the Brave 
 hastened to avenge him, and drove the Arabs back to Africa 
 (1285). The ambition of Sancho, who aspired to the crown 
 in spite of the rights of the children of his elder brother Fer- 
 dinand de la Cerda, caused a fruitless war between Castile 
 and France ; while the king of Aragon, Peter III. (1276- 
 
DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 343 
 
 1285), avoiding this useless contest, turned his views towards 
 Sicily, which the Sicilian vespers threw into his hands (1282), 
 and of which he retained possession in spite of all the efforts 
 of Charles of Anjou. Still the Moors continued to maintain 
 a position in the south of the peninsula, from which they were 
 not finally driven till the whole of Christian Spain had been 
 definitively united under one sceptre. 
 
 311. State of Spain during the first half of the fourteenth 
 century. — Alphonso XI. — At the beginning of the fourteenth 
 century, the Spanish peninsula still contained five distinct 
 kingdoms — Navarre, Aragon, Castile, Portugal, and Grenada. 
 Navarre, after having belonged to count Thihault IV. of 
 Champagne (1234-1253), had fallen to the royal house of 
 France by the marriage of Jane, granddaughter of Thibault, 
 with Philip the Fair (1284). In 1328, this kingdom passed 
 by another marriage to the house of Evreux, which gave it 
 for king Charles the Bad, that perfidious enemy of France 
 (1349-1386); and at last, by a new revolution, came in 
 1425 to John II. of Aragon, unnatural father of the unfortu- 
 nate prince of Viane (v. Mod. Hist.). 
 
 While Aragon in 1300 was governed by James II. 
 (1291-1327), who was forced to yield Sicily to his brother 
 Frederic, the kingdom of Castile and Leon was a prey to 
 factions and revolts under the minority of Ferdinand IV. 
 (1295-1312). Meanwhile Portugal was flourishing by com- 
 merce and art under the long and peaceful reign of Diony- 
 sius the Just (1279-1325). Finally the fifth kingdom, that 
 of the Moors of Grenada, troubled the Christians only at long 
 intervals. Castile alone, while all the other states were en- 
 joying the blessings of peace, was exhausted by the fatal dis- 
 cords which flowed from the usurpation of Sancho the Brave 
 over the children of La Cerda. The reign of Alphonso XI. 
 revived the glory of the Castilian name (1312-1350). After 
 a stormy minority, Alphonso repressed the insubordination 
 
344 DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 
 
 of the nobles by terrible executions ; ended the dispute with 
 the children of La Cerda by ceding to them the recently dis- 
 covered Canaries ; and became the terror of the Mussulmen. 
 by the famous victory of Tariffa (1340), and the taking of 
 the strong city of Algesiras (1344). He had already laid 
 siege to Gibraltar, which the king of Grenada had seized in 
 1333 ; and was upon the point of taking it, when he was 
 carried off by the plague. So great was the respect with 
 which he had inspired his enemies that the king of Grenada, 
 on hearing of his death, went into mourning (1350). 
 
 312. Peter the Cruel overthrown hy Henry of Transtamare. 
 — The tyranny of his son Peter the Cruel (1350-1369) re- 
 newed the troubles and sorrows of Castile. The first act 
 of the new king was to deliver up to the vengeance of his 
 mother the unfortunate Eleanor of Guzman, who had been se- 
 cretly married to Alphonso and borne him ten children. His 
 subsequent life was a tissue of perfidies and crimes. Vio- 
 lating the sanctity of marriage and of his oath, he rejected 
 with scorn the queen Blanche of Bourbon for Maria Padilla, 
 and threw her into prison to escape her reproaches. The 
 punishment of the powerful lord Albuquerque, grand master 
 of Calatrava, alarmed the nobles, who formed a league 
 against him. But their useless attempt only called forth 
 new cruelties. Peter had his brother Frederic killed in his 
 presence, and dined the same day on the spot where the mur- 
 der had been committed : he killed with his own hand Don 
 Juan of Aragon, who had dared to proclaim the independence 
 of Biscay, and threw him from a window into the square, 
 crying out to the inhabitants of Bilboa : " There is your 
 lord !" Soon after he caused three princesses, relations of 
 his victim, to be put to death. Henry of Transtamare, the 
 eldest of Eleanor's sons, tried to rouse Castile and punish 
 these crimes. His first victory rekindled the rage of the 
 
DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 345 
 
 tyrant, who avenged himself by killing Henry's two young- 
 est brothers. 
 
 But the day of deliverance was drawing nigh. Henry, 
 who after several successes had been defeated and compelled 
 to seek an asylum in France, returned to Spain with the 
 great companies and du Guesclin at their head. The Cas- 
 tilians received him with transport, and proclaimed him king 
 at Calahorra (1366). Peter fled in turn and asked an 
 asylum and protection of the prince of Wales, whose valiant 
 archers decided the success of the famous battle, of Navarete, 
 where du Guesclin was taken prisoner (1367). But Henry 
 soon reappeared with new troops, and du Guesclin, who 
 had recovered his liberty. This time the cowardly Peter 
 implored the aid of the infidels ; but they could not save him. 
 The great army of the Moors was conquered near Montiel ; 
 and Peter, who was besieged in a neighboring castle, was 
 compelled to surrender and brought to the tent of du 
 Guesclin. Henry was there ; and the two brothers, feeling 
 all their hatred revive at the sight of each other, closed in a 
 fatal strife, which ended with the death of Peter the Cruel. 
 With him the legitimate branch of the royal family of Castile 
 became extinct (1369). Henry of Transtamare succeeded 
 him, and effaced the stain of his birth by the glory of his 
 reign, which was passed in victorious wars against Portugal, 
 Aragon, and Navarre (1369-1379.) 
 
 313. Contest between Royalty and the Nohility in Castile. — 
 Amid the civil troubles, the nobles had acquired a power and 
 an ascendency, which increased during the feeble reign of 
 John I. (1379-1390), who allowed them to regulate the ex- 
 penses of his household, and during the minority of Henry III. 
 (1390-1406), while princes, nobles,and bishops, were contend- 
 ing for the guardianship. All the wealth was in the hands of 
 the lords, and one day Henry was obliged to sell his cloak 
 for food. This humiliation aroused his proud and haughty 
 
346 DECLINE AND DIVISION OF THE ARAB KINGDOMS. 
 
 soul. The next day he called together all the grandees of 
 the court, and addressing each of them in turn, " How many- 
 kings have you known ?" said he. Some answered three, 
 some four, others five. " And I, who am the youngest 
 of you all, have seen more than twenty. Yes," conti- 
 nued he, " you are all kings, to my shame and the ruin 
 of the state. But your reign is over." And ordering them 
 all to be thrown into prison he kept them there, till they had 
 restored all the castles and estates which they had usurped 
 from the royal domain. The Cortes united with the king to 
 humble the nobility, and the punishment of a great number 
 of rebels confirmed the royal authority. 
 
 But the njinority of John II. (1406-1454) destroyed the 
 work of Henry III. While the kingdom of Grenada was a 
 prey to such vicissitudes that a king was condemned to death 
 and reinstated upon the throne while a game of chess was 
 playing, Castile, which was no less torn by dissensions, could 
 nowhere find a moment of repose but under the pitiless des- 
 potism of the favorite Alvar de Luna, who, from the humblest 
 condition, had risen by his energy and talent to the highest 
 offices. But soon a league of the most powerful lords (1426), 
 in which the kings of Aragon and Navarre and John's own 
 son joined, seized the strongest cities of the kingdom, and de- 
 manded the minister's disgrace. Alvar maintained the con- 
 test for more than twenty years. Tv/ice exiled by the king, 
 he twice returned more terrible than ever. Finally, the no- 
 bility prevailed, and his head fell upon the scaffold (1453). 
 The feeble king, who had sacrificed him, died the next 
 year of grief (1454). 
 
 John II. was succeeded by Henry IV. (1454-1474), who, 
 after having joined the factions against his father, tried in 
 vain to shake off their control. This reign raised the anarchy 
 and calamities of Spain to the highest pitch, and the last 
 years of the middle ages saw the throne of Spain disgraced 
 
POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF ARAGON AND CASTILE. 347 
 
 by the weakness of the king, polluted by the licentiousness 
 of the queen, and the royal authority annihilated, or rather 
 concentrated in the hands of a few nobles who disposed at 
 will of the crown (v. Mod. Hist.). 
 
 314. Progress of the power of Ar agon. — While the king- 
 dom of Castile was slowly working its way through this period 
 of troubles and decay, Aragon, united and peaceful at home, 
 was powerful and dreaded abroad. It had gained Sicily by 
 the Sicilian vespers (1282) ; and James II. (1291-1327) 
 had obtained a decree for the perpetual union of Aragon, 
 Valencia, and Catalonia. In 1326 he made himself master 
 of the greater part of Sardinia. His grandson, Peter the Ce- 
 remonious (1336-1387), took the island of Majorca (1343), 
 bore an active part in the war between Peter the Great and 
 Henry of Transtamare, and consolidated the conquests of his 
 successors in Sardinia by a treaty with Genoa. Finally, in 
 1442, Alphonso V. the Magnanimous (1416-1458) made the 
 conquest of the kingdom of Naples. The brother of this 
 prince, John II., king of Navarre, who after him inherited 
 Aragon and Sicily, was the father of Ferdinand the Catholic, 
 under whose sceptre the united kingdoms of Aragon, Castile, 
 and Navarre, were to enter upon a brilliant career of prospe- 
 rity and glory. 
 
 § III. 
 
 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF ARAGON AND CASTILE. 
 
 315. Liberal institutions in Aragon and Castile. — The 
 Cortes. — The long and victorious efforts which secured the 
 political and religious independence of Spain, could not but 
 exercise a decided influence upon her internal constitution. 
 The national feeling which was manifested by so many 
 
348 POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS OF AEAGON AND CASTILE. 
 
 triumphs against the stranger, produced also institutions, 
 freer in their origin, than those of any other state of Europe. 
 
 The authority of the king of Aragon was limited ; first by 
 a council of twelve men, the oldest and wisest of the country; 
 next by the provincial juntas ; and finally by the cories, or 
 general assemblies of the three orders of the state, who from 
 1283 had the sole right of consenting to war and taxes. The 
 nobility was divided into two classes ; the ricos hombres (rich 
 men), who received cities and districts in fief with the lower 
 jurisdiction and the right of collecting taxes ; and the inferior 
 nobility, which comprised the cavalleros (knights) and the 
 hidalgos (sons of Goths — nobles). The burgesses, proud of the 
 wealth and power of the communities of which they formed 
 the strength, hardly yielded to the nobles. In the last rank 
 were the peasants, some of whom hired land to cultivate ; 
 while others, bound to the soil, lost their property by changing 
 their residence. The king, the supreme chief of the nation, 
 seemed by his oath of investment to hold of the cortes and the 
 first magistrate of the kingdom, the great justiciary. " We who 
 separately are as good as you " — said the deputies to a new 
 prince — " and united much your betters, make you our king 
 on condition that you will maintain our laws and privileges ; 
 if not, no." After this haughty formula the king took the 
 oath on his knees before the great justiciary. This magis- 
 trate arbitrator of the disputes between the nobles and king 
 enjoyed an influence which increased with time. In 1436, 
 the inviolability of the great justiciary was extended even to 
 the acts of his private life ; and in 1442 his authority, which 
 had been subject to revocation by the king, was declared 
 permanent. 
 
 316. The nohility obtain the preponderance. — In Aragon 
 the preponderance was constantly with the nobility. But in 
 Castile popular liberty received, in the beginning, a fuller 
 development. At the end of the thirteenth century, the comma- 
 
KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL. 349 
 
 nities formed against the nobility a confederation called the 
 ^roi/ier/tood(hermandad), redoubtable by its strength and unity. 
 In the cortes, their deputies counterbalanced without difficulty 
 the influence of the clergy and nobles. But Henry of Trans- 
 tamare, who owed his triumph to the support of the nobility, 
 lavished principalities and domains so profusely upon them, that 
 they gave him the surname of Magnificent. They enriched 
 themselves also with the spoils of the Jews, who under John I. 
 lost the privileges which, as opulent usurers, they had bought 
 of his predecessors. We have already seen how much au- 
 thority they enjoyed under Henry III. The fall of Alvar 
 de Luna crowned their triumph ; and the equilibrium was 
 not established till after the deplorable reign of Henry IV., 
 who ends the long list of Castilian kings of the middle ages. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 317. Exploits of Henry of Burgundy^. Aljphonso I., and 
 Sancho I. — In the west of the Spanish peninsula, while the 
 war with the Moors was at its height, a little Christian king- 
 dom was gloriously formed at the expense of the enemies of 
 the faith. While Alphonso VI. and the Cid were securing 
 the triumph of Christian arms, Henry of Burgundy, great- 
 grandson of Robert of France, engaged in the service of the 
 king of Castile (1095-1112). After having fought bravely 
 at the siege of Toledo, he distinguished himself by his deeds 
 against the Saracens of Portugal ; and was rewarded by Al- 
 phonso VI. with the hand of his daughter Theresa, and the 
 grant of all the countries that he could conquer. In the 
 year 1109, he received from his father-in-law the title of 
 hereditary count of Portugal. Victorious in seventeen battles 
 
350 KINGDOM OF PORTUGAL. 
 
 against the Moors, he made himself master of the provinces 
 between the Miuho and Duero ; and left to his son, Alphonso 
 the Conqueror (1112), the care of completing the task which 
 he had happily begun. 
 
 The young prince caused himself to be proclaimed king 
 (1139); and adorned his new crown with the laurels of 
 Ourica, where he exterminated the armies of five Moorish 
 princes. The cortes of Lamego (1143) sanctioned the elec- 
 tion of the conqueror, and regulated the order of succession. 
 The pope supported him against the pretensions of the king 
 of Leon, on condition of his declaring himself tributary of the 
 Holy See. The provinces of Bei'ra and Estramadura had 
 submitted after the battle of Ourica. Santarem (1145), Lis- 
 bon (1147), Evora, Badajoz (1166-1168), opened their gates 
 in succession. The foundation of the military order of Evora, 
 which afterwards became celebrated under the name of the 
 order of Avis, gave royalty valiant defenders. At the close 
 of his long and glorious career, Alphonso saw the existence 
 of his kingdom suddenly menaced by the terrible invasion 
 of the Almohads. The battle of Santarem, in which the old 
 king performed prodigies of valor, saved Portugal (1184). 
 
 Alphonso's successor, Sancho I. (1185-1211), added the 
 province of Alentejo to the preceding conquests (1203). The 
 Algarves were subdued under Alphonso IIL (1248-1279), 
 and Portugal reached the limits which she still preserves. 
 
 318. Prosperity of Portugal under Dionysius. — Troubles 
 after the murder of Ines de Castro. — Dionysius, who was 
 called the father of his country and the working king (1279- 
 1325), encouraged agriculture by setting the example of in- 
 dustry ; founded the university of Lisbon, which soon became 
 eminent (1290); and left to his son Alphonso IV. the Bold 
 (1325—1357) a kingdom enriched by industry and commerce, 
 and strengthened by wise institutions. But the assassination 
 of the gentle Ines de Castro (1354), secretly married to the 
 
DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTTTGITESE IN AFRICA. 351 
 
 king's son, and who was sacrificed to Alphonso's pride and 
 the jealousy of the court, kindled a war between father and 
 son, which lasted till the death of the former. Peter I. (1357 
 -1367) avenged the death of Ines by having the hearts of her 
 murderers torn out. He governed with a severity, which, 
 though rigorous, was always equitable ; and won for him the 
 name of the Justiciary. After the reign of Ferdinand I., 
 filled with troubles and civil- wars, the grandmaster of Avis — 
 the last king's natural brother, and who was proclaimed Pro- 
 tector of the kingdom by the revolted Portuguese (1433) — 
 ascended the throne of Portugal under the name of John I. 
 (1385-1433), to the disadvantage of the children of Ines. 
 He was the founder of a new family, whose doubtful rights 
 he sanctioned by his expeditions against the Moors of Africa 
 and John I. of Castile, who undertook to unite Portugal to 
 his crown. 
 
 §V. 
 
 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA. 
 
 319. First discoveries of the Portuguese. — Henry of Vi- 
 seu. — The kingdom of Portugal, confined within narrow 
 limits in Europe, was about to be enlarged by the conquests 
 which it made beyond the seas during the troubles of Spain, 
 whose supremacy it had energetically repelled. Under 
 John I. began the adventurous expeditions and the disco- 
 veries of the Portuguese. The king of Portugal, victorious 
 over the Castilians, set sail for Africa with his three oldest 
 sons ; and taking Ceuta in six days, conferred knighthood 
 on his sons in the mosque which he had wrested from Islam- 
 ism (1415). The infant don Henry of Viseu, one of the 
 most learned men of his age, who invented the astrolabe and 
 
352 DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTUGUESE IN AFRICA. 
 
 perfected the compass, returned from this expedition with an 
 ardent desire to know all of that Africa of which he had ob- 
 tained but a glance. A naval school was formed for young 
 gentlemen. All the preparations were rapidly completed ; 
 and towards 1417, Henry sent out two ships which advanced 
 sixty leagues beyond Cape Non, which had, till then, been 
 looked upon as an impassable barrier. In 1419, Madeira 
 was discovered. A conflagration, which is said to have lasted 
 several years, freed this island fi'om the forests with which it 
 was covered ; and opened the way for the cultivation of the 
 sugar cane and vine, which soon became an important branch 
 of Portuguese commerce. 
 
 320. Contests loitli the Moors of Africa. — Neio Discove- 
 ries. — ^A war with the Moors of Africa suspended for a mo- 
 ment these useful expeditions. Henry and Ferdinand, who 
 were sent across the strait by their brother Edward, successor 
 of John I. (1433-1438), made an unsuccessful attempt upon 
 Tangiers, and were taken prisoners. One of them died in 
 captivity ; the other was held as a hostage for the execution 
 of the treaty. The Portuguese had promised to give up 
 Ceuta, but they chose rather to let their prince die in a foreign 
 land than abandon so important a position. They were upon 
 the point too of repairing their losses. Prince Henry had 
 formed the project of opening a way by sea round Africa. 
 His plans were followed up by Alphonso V,, the African 
 (1438-1481), the greater part of whose reign belongs to 
 modern history. Encouraged by a bull of Martin V. which 
 granted to the Portuguese all the lands that they should dis- 
 cover as far as India, they doubled Cape Boiador, then Cape 
 Blanc (1442). In 1444, a company was formed to hasten 
 the progress of discovery. Soon the islands of Cape Verde 
 and the Azores were reached. A new variety of the human 
 race, the negro, so different from all the races hithez'to known, 
 met the eyes of the astonished navigators. They still conti- 
 
DISCOVERIES OF THE PORTIJGITESE IN AFRICA. 353 
 
 nued to advance, and before the end of the century, and in 
 spite of pusillanimous fears and jealous prejudices, Bartholo- 
 mew Diaz, and then Vasco de Gama, completed the work 
 which prince Henry had begun (v. Mod. Hist.). 
 
CHAPTER XIX. 
 
 GEEEES AND TUEKS. STATE OF EUEOPE AT THE 
 
 END OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 SUMMARY. 
 
 First Part. — § I. Michael Paleologus. — State of the Empire. — 
 Transient reunion of the Greek and Latin Churches. — The Catalonians 
 at Constantinople under Andronicus IL — Revolt of these intrepid aux- 
 iliaries. — Religious disputes. — Usurpation of John Catecuzene ; contest 
 with John Paleologus. — The Turks called to the aid of the two rivals. 
 
 § n. Beginning of the power of the Ottoman Turks. — Osman. — 
 Ourkhan. — His conquests in Europe. — Listitutions of this Sultan. — The 
 Janizaries. — Mourad or Amurath I. — New conquests. — Resistance of 
 the Servians. — Bajazet L — Humiliation of the empire. — Sigismund of 
 Hungary calls the people of Europe to his aid. — Defeat of NicopoUs. — 
 Bajazet disposes of the empire of the East. 
 
 § ni. First exploits of Tamerlane or Tiinour-Lenk. — Ravages in 
 Asia Minor. — Battle of Ancyra. — Defeat of Bajazet, who is made 
 prisoner. — Death of Tamerlane, and rapid decay of his empire. — Enfee- 
 blement of the Turks after the invasion of Tamerlane. — They recover 
 their power under Mahomet I. and Amurath H. — Valiant resistance of 
 .Tohn Hunmjades Corvinus. — Unfortunate expedition of Vladislas of 
 Hungary. — Defeat of Varna. — First success of Scanderbeg. 
 
 § IV. Constantine XIL and Mahomet IL — Foolish divisions of the 
 Greeks. — Constantine vainly demands succor of Europe. — Siege of Con- 
 stantinople. — Heroic resistance and death of the Emperor. — Taking of 
 Constantinople, and end of the Empire of the East. 
 
 Second Part. — State of the Ottoman power in Europe and Asia at 
 
GREEK EMPIRE. 355 
 
 the moment of the taking of Constantinople. — Situation of the other 
 Mussulman dominions in Asia, Africa, and Spain. — The Christian States 
 in Europe at the same epoch. — States of the North. — France. — England 
 and Scotland. — Germany^and Switzerland. — Italy, Spain, and Portugal. — 
 Principal events which mark the close of the middle ages. 
 
 PAET FIEST. 
 § I. 
 
 GREEK EMPIRE. 
 
 321. Michael Paleologus. — Transient reunion of the Greek 
 and Latin Churches. — When Michael Paleologus expelled 
 Baldwin II., he recovered only a very small portion of that 
 Eastern empire which Theodosius had bequeathed to Arca- 
 dius (1261). Egypt and Syria obeyed the Mamelukes. In 
 Asia Minor, the western coast was nearly all that the empire 
 retained ; the rest was divided between ten Seljuk princi- 
 palities, tributaries of the Moguls. In Europe, all the pro- 
 vinces beyond Mount Hemus belonged to the Vallachians, the 
 Bulgarians, and the Hungarians. For two centuries, the fa- 
 mily of the Paleologi still continued to contend with the 
 Turks for the shreds of the imperial dominion, inwardly torn 
 by the dissensions of schismatic monks, and the mercantile 
 speculations of the Venetians and Genoese. 
 
 The Greeks, who had lost all their ardor and energy, 
 except for endless controversies, could no longer do any 
 thing for the defence of the empire. When Michael Paleo- 
 logus wrested Constantinople from the Latins, the Venetians 
 were all powerful there ; and the emperor, feeling that he 
 was too weak to engage in a contest with the republic of 
 Venice, sought to escape her control by raising her up a 
 rival, and ceded the suburb of Para to the Genoese. But 
 
356 GREEK EMPIRE. 
 
 the empire, which had escaped fi-om its masters, still had need 
 of a protector. To interest the people of the West in its de- 
 fence, Michael proposed to Gregory X. the reunion and re- 
 conciliation of the two churches (1263). He sent to the 
 council of Lyons (1274) two prelates, distinguished for their 
 learning and their virtue, who solemnly recognized the su- 
 premacy of the pope. But the greater part of the bishops of 
 the East opposed his project with great vehemence. Troubles 
 broke out in several cities. The patriarch anathematized 
 the emperor, and gave him over to the devil. Michael, with- 
 out troubling himself about these furious- demonstrations, de- 
 posed the obstinate patriarch (1275), abjured the schism, and 
 declared that the supremacy of Rome should be recognized 
 every where. But no sooner was the name of the pope heard 
 in the churches of Constantinople, than the people broke out 
 in open revolt. In spite of all the efforts of Paleologus, the 
 legates, who had been sent from Rome to receive the oath of 
 all the priests of the empire, obtained only an obscure and 
 ambiguous profession of faith. Martin IV., dissatisfied with 
 this uncertain submission, excommunicated Michael and his 
 adherents as impostors ; and the emperor, in retaliation, had 
 the pope's name suppressed in the public prayers (1281). 
 
 322. The Catalonians at Constantinople under Andronicus 
 II. — The second Paleologus, Andronicus II. (1282-1328), 
 broke definitely the transient agreement of the two churches; 
 recalling the defenders of the schism, and banishing the par- 
 tisans of the Roman church. By these means he succeeded 
 in re-establishing some degree of tranquillity in the empire, 
 and the rigor with which he punished a conspiracy plotted 
 by his own brother, served to give stability to the throne. 
 Still, the state could not sustain itself. Andronicus was com- 
 pelled to take in pay a body of Catalonian adventurers, who 
 were ready to sell their swords and their blood to the best 
 paymaster. These intrepid mercenaries, armed with a small 
 
GREEK EMPIRE. 357 
 
 buckler, a sword, and a few javelins, were immediately sent 
 against the Turks. The success of their first campaign sur- 
 passed their employer's hopes ; but the empire had no longer 
 at its disposal the treasures with which the Comneni had 
 bought the aid of the Russians, the Normans, and the English. 
 Roger de Flor, the brave chief of the Catalonians, conquered 
 the Turks, and demanded his reward. His troops were paid 
 with counterfeit money, and he was assassinated. The Cata- 
 lonians, in their fury, massacred the inhabitants of Gallipoli, 
 and soon their bands, under the name of armies of the Franks, 
 annihilated the imperial troops which were brought against 
 them. They devastated the shores of the Black Sea, and re- 
 mained masters of Thrace (1307). Encamping at the gates 
 of Constantinople, they held the city in terror for five years, 
 till at length, weakened by their own dissensions, they were 
 compelled to retreat. The emperor thought himself fortunate 
 in being able to turn their ravages against the duchy of 
 Athens, no longer a part of the empire, and which they con- 
 quered (1312), and disposed of several times. They then 
 disappeared from history ; but the memory of their terrible 
 vengeance long remained engraved in the minds of the in- 
 habitants of the East. The empire had just lost too the island 
 of Rhodes, which was taken by the knights of St. John (1309), 
 who did not stop their conquests till they had made them- 
 selves masters of several islands of the Archipelago. 
 
 323. Religious and political Disputes. — The Turks called 
 in as Auxiliaries. — The Greeks, having escaped this double 
 danger, returned to their religious disputes. Fanatical 
 monks sustained, with all the obstinacy of their oi'der, absurd 
 doctrines and foolish dreams, which were opposed in a council 
 assembled in St. Sophia. Andronicus III. (1328-1341) took 
 part in the quarrel, made a new attempt to bring about the 
 reunion of the two churches, and died of fatigue after a vio- 
 lent controversy (1341). The favorite John Catacuzene, 
 
358 OTTOMAN TURKS. 
 
 who had supported his feeble master by his advice and exam- 
 ple, had refused the crown which the emperor in his discou- 
 ragement had wished to force upon him ; but after the death 
 of Andronicus, he wrested the throne from John PaJeoIogus, 
 to whom he had been appointed guardian (1347). The ri- 
 valry of these two pretenders gave the final blow to the em- 
 pire. John Paleologus had taken Turkish troops in pay. 
 Catacuzene called to his aid other tribes of Mussulmen, re- 
 turned with their assistance to Constantinople, and, to secure 
 their alliance, gave his daughter to Ourkhan, chief of the 
 Ottoman hordes. Then, to escape this dangerous protection, 
 he was reconciled to the young Paleologus. But it was in 
 vain. The influence of the Turks increased daily, and Ca- 
 tacuzene, wearied with a fruitless resistance, descended from 
 the throne to seek repose in a cloister (1355). His son 
 Matthew, untaught by the experience of his father, began 
 anew the contest with Paleologus, and each in turn put him- 
 self under the protection of the Turks. At last, Paleologus 
 conquered, but the Turks, who had come to Constantinople 
 as allies, swore that they would return as masters. 
 
 §11. 
 
 OTTOMAN TURKS. 
 
 324. Beginning of the potver of the Ottomans. — It was no 
 longer the Seljuks that ruled in Asia Minor. Their em- 
 pire, subdued by the Moguls, had been definitively divided at 
 the death of Alaeddin, the Seljuk sultan (1037), into ten 
 small independent states, one of which was destined to rise 
 upon the accumulated ruins of Iconium and Constantinople. 
 It owed its origin to a little tribe which came from Khorassan 
 under the guidance of Ertoghrul, and found in his son Os- 
 
OTTOMAN TURKS. 359 
 
 man an intrepid chief, and the founder of the Ottoman domi- 
 nion. Osman was already distinguished by his exploits when 
 his father died (1288). The next year, he received from the 
 Sultan Alaeddin the title of prince, with a fief which he soon 
 enlarged at the expense of the Greeks ; and, continuing his 
 conquests during a career of thirty-eight years, he crowned 
 them at last by the taking of Pruse or Broussa, one of the 
 most important cities of Asia Minor. Proud of having won 
 a capital and a tomb worthy of him, he died in 1326, covered 
 with glory, and venerated by the Ottomans, who were proud 
 to think that his enterprising spirit and dauntless courage 
 were united with all the great qualities which distinguish the 
 founders of empires. 
 
 325. Conquests of Ourklian and Amurat I. in Europe. 
 — Ourkhan, Osman's son and successor, followed up his suc- 
 cesses in Asia Minor, favored by the dissensions of the feeble 
 pretenders who contended for the empire of Constantinople. 
 Nicomedia and Nice fell into his power in succession (1328- 
 1330). The conquest of the Turkoman states of Asia Mi- 
 nor, and the taking of Gallipoli (1357), led the Ottomans to 
 the gates of Constantinople. In less than a century (1363- 
 1357) they had already made seventeen descents upon Eu- 
 rope, and shaken to its foundations the throne of the Greek 
 emperors, which Catacuzene vainly sought to strengthen by 
 giving Ourkhan his daughter in marriage (1347). This 
 prince, whose name is still held in veneration by the Turks, 
 founded the Ottoman power on energetic institutions. It 
 was he that instituted the magistracy of the Cadis. The 
 organization of the janizaries (yenitscheri, new troop,) is 
 also attributed to him, a formidable soldiery, composed of 
 Christian slaves brought up in the faith of Mahomet, which, 
 abjuring family, country, and religion, was to find them 
 all in passive obedience to the will of its chief. 
 
 Mourad or Amurat I. (1359-1389), Ourkhan's succes- 
 
360 OTTOMAN TURKS. 
 
 sor, interested the janizaries in his conquests by giving 
 them military benefices. These new troops were, fi'om their 
 origin, the terror of the Christians, as they afterwards be- 
 came of the sultans themselves. Amurat invaded the pro- 
 vinces of the empire with a frightful rapidity, and forced 
 Paleologus to accommpany him on an expedition against 
 some governors of Asia. Soon Ancyra and Adrianople 
 opened their gates to him, while Ai'menia yielded almost 
 without resistance. Lewis the Great, king of Hungary, was 
 defeated near Adrianople, which he had not been able to 
 succor. In vain the terrified Paleologus ran to Italy to 
 abjure the schism before Urban V. (1370); he could not ob- 
 tain a single soldier from the people of the West, and on his 
 return he found Amurat master of Acarnania and Macedon. 
 The chief of the little kingdom of Servia alone continued to 
 resist the infidels with unshaken courage. Conquered at 
 Belgrade in 1383, he took up arms again with the aid of the 
 kings of Bosnia and Bulgaria, and attacked Amurat at the 
 head of a formidable army. The Turks were again victo- 
 rious at Cassovo (1389) ; but Amurat fell in the conflict. 
 
 326. Exploits of Bajazet I. — Battle of Nicopolis. — Dis- 
 tress of the Eastern Empire, — Three great princes had suc- 
 ceeded each other at the head of the empire. But their 
 glory was effaced by that of Bayezid, or Bajazet I. (1389- 
 1403), Amurat's son, who, by the rapidity of his conquests, 
 won the surname of Yilderim (lightning). John Paleologus, 
 who had displayed a lamentable weakness with Amurat, was 
 the plaything of the new sultan. He had had marble towers 
 built near the golden gate of Constantinople. He tore them 
 down at the threat of Bajazet. His son Manuel, escaping 
 from the Turks who had held him prisoner, tried to resist 
 the haughty enemy. Bajazet instantly resumed the course 
 of his conquests ; took Philadelphia — the last possession of 
 the Greeks in Asia Minoi' — and the strong city of Thessalo- 
 
OTTOMAN TURKS. 361 
 
 nica; razed all the villages around Constantinople, and 
 terrified the imperial city itself by a five years' siege, 
 which at last he only raised to invade Hungary, where he 
 was called by the tributaries of King Sigismund. Sigis- 
 mund called Europe to defend a cause which was common 
 to all Christendom. A crusade of Italian adventurers, 
 and German and French knights commanded by the cele- 
 brated John the Bold, was formed against the infidels. The 
 Christian army, composed of a hundred and thirty thousand 
 men, revived Sigismund's courage. " What have we to fear 
 from the Turks ?" said he ; " if the heavens should fall, we 
 have lances enough to hold them up." But victory decided 
 for Bajazet in spite of the valor of the Christian knights ; and 
 the massacre of ten thousand prisoners avenged the death of 
 the Mussulmen who had fallen in the plains of Nicopolis 
 (1396). 
 
 Bajazet, victorious but exhausted, returned to seek easier 
 triumphs in the East, and govern the emperors of Constanti- 
 nople at will. He had a mosque built within the city, and 
 established a cadi there to judge the disputes of Mussulmen. 
 Constantinople seemed already conquered. Manuel had quit 
 his capital, and was trying to rouse the enthusiasm of the 
 Christians of the West for a new crusade. But Europe was 
 weary of those eternal complaints, and Manuel's long journey 
 only served him to study the manners and usages of the 
 West. The duke of Milan sent him to the king of France, 
 the king of France to the king of England. Every body 
 distrusted him as an importunate beggar, unworthy of aid 
 and even of pity. Meanwhile Bajazet was enjoying his 
 grandeur and his power, amid the luxuries of his magnificent 
 residence of Broussa. Among his slaves there were repre- 
 sentatives of all the nations of the earth ; and he was only 
 waiting for an occasion to annihilate the last fragments of the 
 dominion of the Greeks, and transport the seat of his power 
 
 16 
 
362 TAMERLANE. 
 
 to the imperial city. But all of a sudden there came a 
 frightful invasion, which put an end to his success and his 
 reign, and retarded for a few years the fall of Constantinople. 
 
 § III. 
 
 TABIERLANE. 
 
 327. Tamerlane — His conquests. — Battle of Ancyra. — 
 The chief of one of the tribes of the dismembered empire of 
 Genghis Khan, Timour, surnamed Lenk or the lame, whom 
 European historians call Tamerlane, had been stripped of his 
 inheritance while a child, and sought a compensation by put- 
 ting himself at the head of some wandering Tartars (about 
 1360). These soon grew to an army, which he enriched 
 with plunder ; and causing himself to be proclaimed sove- 
 reign of Samarcand, he put on a golden crown, and swore 
 war against all the people of the earth. Rapid victories soon 
 made him master of Upper Asia, or rather all the countries 
 through which he passed from the Indus to the Tanais, were 
 covered with blood and ruins. A new Genghis Khan seemed 
 to have arisen to terrify the world. 
 
 Some Seljuk emir of Asia Minor called him against 
 Bajazet, who replied to his menaces by insulting his messen- 
 gers. Tamerlane fell upon Asia Minor, leaving behind him 
 Damascus and Bagdad in ruins, and a pyramid of ninety thou- 
 sand human heads. The two great rulers of the East, Bajazet 
 and Tamerlane, met at Ancyra. In spite of the furious re- 
 sistance of the janizaries and the brilliant courage of the 
 Christians of Servia, who cut their way three times through 
 the enemy's ranks, Bajazet's hundred thousand soldiers 
 could not stand the shock of eight hundred thousand Moguls. 
 Bajazet was taken — the only living man in the midst of all 
 
TAMERLANE. 363 
 
 his slaughtered janizaries (1402). Tameriane, as if he scorn- 
 ed a victory of which he was so sure, was playing chess with 
 his son when the conquered prince was brought before him. 
 The haughty firmness of the captive pleased the victor, who 
 kept him near his own person in an easy captivity. The 
 sultan died the next year (1403), and Tamerlane did not 
 survive him long (1405). 
 
 328. Dissolution of Tamerlane'' s empire. — The Turks re- 
 commence their conquests. — Tamerlane's empire met the 
 same fate with that of Alexander, which it surpassed in ex- 
 tent : and of this immense dominion nothing remained but 
 the empire of the Great Mogul on the north of India, which 
 lasted to our own times. The Christians of Constantinople 
 had a moment of hope ; for there was great confusion after 
 Bajazet's defeat, and the quarrels of his sons made it still 
 greater. Soliman the Audacious (1403-1410) restored 
 several cities to the emperor Manuel in order to obtain his 
 protection. But the victory of Semendria, gained by Musa 
 over the emperor Sigismund, and the accession oi Mahomet I. 
 (1413-1421) — the murderer of his brothers — rekindled the 
 terrors of Constantinople. Still Mahomet respected to the 
 day of his death the alliance which he had sworn. His 
 warlike activity was turned against the successors of Tamer- 
 lane, while, on his side, the emperor of the East was care- 
 fully fortifying the barriers of the empire. After the death 
 of Bajazet's son (1421), Manuel tried to divide, by force of 
 intrigue, the reviving power of the Ottomans. But Amurat 
 II. (1421-1451), victorious over the rival whom the emperor 
 had set up against him, avenged himself by laying siege to 
 Constantinople. A diversion, caused by a revolt which the 
 intriguing genius of the emperor had stirred up, saved the 
 city ; and John III, Paleologus (1425-1448), Manuel's suc- 
 cessor, concluded a peace with the sultan, who turned his 
 
864 TAMERLANE. 
 
 arms against Hungary, where a formidable league was form- 
 ing against the infidels. 
 
 329. Contests of Hunnyades Corvinus and Scanderbeg 
 against the Infidels. — But Belgrade checked his career. 
 This city was defended by a hero, John Hunnyades Corvinus, 
 whom the Turks in their fright called the Devil, and to 
 whom the Hungarians applied these words of the Gospel : — 
 " There was a man sent from God, whose name was John." 
 Hunnyades forced Amurat to retreat, after having sustained 
 for six months the efforts of an immense army (1443). The 
 loss of ten battles punished Amurat for having dared to at- 
 tack Catholic Europe, and a treaty was signed by which the 
 Sultan swore to restore Servia and not to ravage Hungary. 
 
 All the advantages of this treaty were lost by the impru- 
 dent zeal of a papal legate. The young king of Hungary, 
 instigated to war, organized a crusade. A numerous army, 
 composed of Hungarians, Poles, Bohemians, and Germans, 
 went to meet Amurat's army in Bulgaria. The two armies 
 met near Varna. The sultan caused the treaty, which had 
 just been sworn, to be carried before the ranks, and invoked 
 the vengeance of God on the perjured Christians ; and as if 
 his prayer had been granted, he won a complete victory. 
 Vladislas was killed in the conflict, and Hunnyades fled for 
 the first time, confessing that it was an act of divine ven- 
 geance (1444). 
 
 Then, too, appeared another intrepid defender of liberty 
 and religion, George Castriota, surnamed Scanderheg, prince 
 of Albania. He had been brought up among the Turks, and 
 on recovering his liberty, renounced Islamism, which they 
 had compelled him to adopt, and became their deadliest enemy. 
 At the head of his brave mountaineers, he freed himself from 
 the sovereignty of the Ottomans (1438), repulsed twice the 
 attacks of Amurat, and baffled in his capital, the little city of 
 Croia, all the efforts of the infidel. 
 
TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 365 
 
 § IV. 
 
 TAKING OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 330. Mahomet II. and Constantine XII. — Taking of Con- 
 stantinople. ■> — The Turkish and Greek empire changed mas- 
 ters. Amurat II. and John III., Paleologus, were followed by 
 Mahomet 11. in 1451, and Constantine XII. in 1448 ; one of 
 whom was to be the last emperor of the Greeks, and the other 
 the conqueror of Constantinople. From the beginning of his 
 reign, Mahomet announced himself as the most implacable 
 and ferocious enemy of the Christians. A fortress which he 
 built upon the shores of Thrace, and armed with a monstrous 
 cannon, which sent a ball of six hundred pounds a thousand 
 paces, shut up the entrance of the Bosphorus for the Chris- 
 tians. Constantine, feeling that the final hour was come, 
 gave one more alarm-cry, which resounded vainly through 
 the West. He would have renewed the union of the two 
 churches, and saved his throne at the expense of his creed ; 
 but the people, clinging firmly to their faith in this last hour, 
 spurned even the aid of the Latins, crying out that they 
 would rather accept the turban of Mahomet than the tiara of 
 the pope. Constantine, who had obtained only the aid of two 
 thousand Genoese, could scarcely find in Constantinople five 
 thousand fighting men to oppose the countless army of Ma- 
 homet. The siege began the 6th of April, 1453. The last 
 of the Caears fell like a hero. For fifty-three days, and se- 
 conded by the brave Justinian, he sustained with indefatiga- 
 ble valor the efforts of Mahomet, and the furious assaults of 
 the janizaries. At length, the Ottomans made a general 
 assault. Constantine, conscious that he could no longer re- 
 sist, prepared to die with the remnants of his garrison. The 
 anizaries soon poured in upon the defenceless ramparts; 
 
366 THE MUSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 
 
 and the emperor, stripping off his golden armor, rushed head- 
 long into the conflict, and fell without being recognized. 
 Mahomet entered the conquered city in triumphal array. 
 The capital of the Caesars became the capital of the Sultan, 
 and in a few years all the possessions of the Greek empire 
 acknowledged his sway. 
 
 PAET SECOND. 
 
 THE RESPECTIVE POWER AND SITUATION OF THE MUSSULMAN 
 AND CHRISTIAN STATES IN THE MIDDLE OF THE FIFTEENTH 
 CENTURY. 
 
 331. State of the Ottoman power, and of the other Mus- 
 sulman dominions. — The taking of Constantinople, which 
 crowned the establishment of the Ottoman empire in Europe, 
 was the last great progress of the last invasion of the bai'- 
 barians. The eastern gate of Europe had fallen, as Spain, 
 the western barrier, had fallen long before. Constantine had 
 closed the list of emperors, as Roderic had closed that of the 
 Visigothic kings, and both died in battle against the enemies 
 of the Christian name. But as the invasion of the Mussulmen, 
 in the eighth century, had been checked beyond the Pyrenees 
 by the valor of the Franks, so in the fifteenth, John Hunnyades 
 and the Albanian Scanderbeg (v. Mod. Hist. ch. i. § 1), renew- 
 ing the exploits of Charles Martel, were to stay the march of 
 the infidel and save Christianity. 
 
 The definitive triumph of the Turks in the east of Europe 
 had been prepared by a long series of successes. The throne 
 of the Csesars had long been tottering on the brink of the 
 abyss. The empire had seen its provinces slip one by one 
 from its grasp, and its strength and its splendor fade gradually 
 
THE MUSSULMAN .AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 367 
 
 away. The Turks, constantly in arms, had ravaged the 
 open country, carried ofT women, children, and priests, by 
 crowds, to sell them as slaves, or transport them into Asia. 
 Eastern colonies had established themselves in the dwellings 
 of the exile, and the opulence of the new inhabitants seemed 
 a mockery of the wretchedness of the Greeks. The empe- 
 rors, so passionately fond of brilliant ceremonial, had been 
 compelled to renounce their ancient pomp. False diamonds 
 had replaced the imperial jewelry, their plate was changed 
 for pewter, and their golden cups for copper. The Mussul- 
 men had divided among them the shreds of the impoverished 
 and depopulated empire, before they gave it the fatal blow. 
 While the imperial domains were reduced to a few villages 
 in the neighborhood of Constantinople, and a part of the Mo- 
 rea, the Ottomans were masters of all Asia Minor, from the 
 Euphrates and the confines of the little empire of Trebizond 
 to the western coast. In Europe, their power extended to the 
 banks of the Danube, to the mountains of Bosnia and Alba- 
 nia, and into the very heart of Greece. 
 
 In spite of the divisions of the ancient empire of the Ca- 
 liphs, the different Mussulman dominions, which had been 
 formed from its fragments, occupied a vast portion of the 
 globe. The Turkomans shared central Asia with the Mo- 
 guls. Egypt and Syria were in the power of the Mamelukes. 
 The kingdoms of Tunis, of Tremesen, and of Morocco, filled 
 Northern Africa, and the kingdom of Grenada was still 
 standing in Spain. 
 
 332. General situation of Europe. — The reaction of the 
 Christian against the Mussulman world was still very far off. 
 At the moment when the contest, which had begun in the 
 East, seemed about to call all Europe to the field, she had 
 opposed to the Turks only the valor of a few princes in their 
 immediate vicinity, the fleets of Venice, the heroism of the 
 knights of Rhodes, worthy successors of the knights of Pales- 
 
368 THE MUSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 
 
 tine, and the fruitless zeal of the popes. While the popes 
 vainly raised their voices to rekindle the ardor of the cru- 
 sades, the nations of Europe, weak and divided, thought 
 only of consolidating their own constitutions. No great 
 power had yet risen to put itself at the head of a European 
 movement. The temporal supremacy of the popes was de- 
 stroyed. The imperial power had not been re-established, 
 and Europe had no political centre. 
 
 333. States of the North. — The three Scandinavian 
 powers destroyed the work of Margaret, breaking the union 
 of Calmar after the death of Christopher the Bavarian. The 
 contest of Charles VIII. of Sweden, and' Christian I. of Den- 
 mark, for the possession of Norway, show the first results of 
 the division of the people of the North. In Russia, the mo- 
 ment had not yet come when the Sclavonic power was to re- 
 cover its unity and power, Vasili, or Basil III., sometimes 
 tributary, sometimes captive of the Tartars, was also obliged 
 to contend for his throne, with the princes of his family, and 
 though he succeeded in reuniting to his domain a great num- 
 ber of small independent states, he vainly sought to repel the 
 yoke of the Mogul Khans, the founders of the Golden Horde. 
 
 The dominion of the Teutonic knights begins to be seri- 
 ously menaced by the progress of a national party, which is 
 soon to become the Prussian people. In 1453 a league of cities 
 and nobles refused obedience to the Order, and put itself tra- 
 der the protection of Poland, which, though recently subject 
 to the influence of the knights, had recovered under the Ja- 
 gellons her strength and her independence. Casimir IV. had 
 extended his domains to the shores of the Baltic, at the expense 
 of the Teutonic order, and succeeded in maintaining the 
 union of Poland with the duchy of Lithuania. But already 
 the power of the nobility, whose privilege Casimir himself 
 had been compelled to secure by oath, begins to rise up 
 against the royal power, and it is already easy to foresee 
 
THE MUSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 369 
 
 that series of rivalries and fatal disputes, which were one day 
 to deprive Poland of the preponderance which she had so labo- 
 riously won by five centuries of combats and persevering 
 efforts. 
 
 334. France and England. — France, on the contrary, 
 issuing from the long contest between the king and the feudal 
 nobility, was approaching an epoch of unity and strength. 
 The English had lost Normandy by the battle of Formigny 
 (1448), and Guyenne by that of Castillon (1451). Charles 
 VII., master at last of the whole French territory, begins to 
 introduce order and system in its government. The formation 
 of the parliament of Toulouse, formed on the model of that 
 of Paris, places Guyenne and Languedoc under the control of 
 royal justice, and the creation of a standing army frees the 
 king forever from the dictation of the feudal . aristocracy. 
 Charles VII., wholly devoted to his work of restoration, 
 would not listen to the urgent entreaties of the Greeks, nor 
 hazard the success of so much care by a distant war and an 
 adventurous expedition. It was enough for his glory to have 
 ended the long rivalry between France and England, by secu- 
 ring the triumph of his own country. 
 
 Henry VI., driven from France, where he had nothing 
 left but the city of Calais, did not even know how to defend 
 his power against the insubordination of his own subjects. 
 England, under the government of this feeble monarch, was 
 rent by domestic troubles, the prelude of that famous war of 
 the two roses, with which her modern history begins. Scot- 
 land, where the royal authority seemed to have been annihi- 
 lated during the long captivity of James I., a prisoner of the 
 English, was occupied like France with the reorganization of 
 her government ; and the contests between the king and the 
 nobles, marked by the assassination of James I., were resumed 
 with energy by James II., the heir of his father's policy. 
 
 335. Germany and Switzerland. — In the German empire 
 
 16* 
 
370 THE BIITSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 
 
 power was still in the period of decay. The results of the 
 successful efforts of Albert of Austria were wholly lost by the 
 incapacity of Frederic III., skilful and persevering only in 
 the aggrandizement of his own family — an aggrandizement, 
 however, which prepares the way for the restoration of the 
 imperial power. Frederic, "who had solemnly renounced all 
 the pretensions of the emperors over Rome, and permitted all 
 the princes of the empire to assume a real independence, 
 could not think of re-establishing the imperial supremacy 
 over that invincible confederation of Helvetia, whose young 
 existence was already brilliant with glory. Morgarten and 
 Sempach, those wonderful exploits of the middle ages, will be 
 followed in modern history by the no less splendid triumphs 
 over Charles the Rash. In the east of Germany, the crowns 
 of Austria, Hungary, and Bohemia, the futui'e patrimony ot 
 the imperial family, were united upon the brow of Ladislaus 
 the Posthumous. Hungary and Bohemia, placed in the ad- 
 vance guard of Europe, have an incessant contest to maintain 
 against the Ottomans — an heroic struggle, which forms the 
 glory of John Hunnyades Corvinus. But after the death of the 
 defender of Christendom, the provinces of Bosnia, Croatia, 
 Vallachia, and Moldavia, which were dependent upon Hun- 
 gary, were wrested from it one by one, while the last efforts 
 of the Hussites excited new troubles in Bohemia. 
 
 336. Italy. — Italy was split up into minuter divisions 
 than any country of Europe, and her domestic dissensions 
 soon prepared the way for foreign influence. In the North 
 the Sforzas reigned over the Milanese, united with Parma 
 and Piacenza. The house of Este, celebrated for the good 
 fortune, which interwove its name at so cheap a rate with 
 some of the brighest laurels of the Italian Parnassus, held 
 Ferrara and Modena. Venice still preserved her enei'gy 
 under the iron sway of her inquisitors, although her period of 
 decay had already begun. Mistress of Treviso, Verona, Padua, 
 
THE BIirSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 371 
 
 Brescia, and Bergamo, she held the predominance in northern 
 Italy, and still ruled the sea by her numerous fleets. But 
 the progress of the Turks, favored by the imprudent rivalry 
 between Venice and Genoa, stripped both of these powerful 
 republics of the most important of their possessions beyond 
 the Adriatic. Pisa, the ancient rval of Genoa, had fallen from 
 her rank among the Italian states, and was subjected to Flo- 
 rence, which, under the prudent and skilful administration of 
 Cosimo dei Medici, exercised an incontestable supremacy 
 over the cities of Tuscany. Lucca alone had preserved her 
 independence. The two Sicilies, governed by Alphonso the 
 Magnanimous, had reached the summit of their grandeur and 
 prosperity. Letters and art, under the protection of this 
 prince, shed their splendor around his throne. But Alphon- 
 so's death marked the close of this brilliant period, and, after 
 long and bitter contests, gave southern Italy to a foreign do- 
 minion. At Rome, the pontifical power was nearly confined 
 within the limits of its spiritual authority, and the pope no 
 longer gave laws to the city and the world {urhi et orhi) as 
 common father of all believers. Nicholas V. strove to heal 
 the deep wounds which the schism of the West had inflicted 
 upon the church. Yet in the midst of his pontifical cares he 
 did not forget the political role which his predecessors had 
 filled with so much splendor. He alone, at the sight of the 
 progress of the infidels, called Europe to a powerful and 
 magnanimous efibrt. He alone strove to save Constantinople 
 and organize an energetic resistance against the Mussuhnen. 
 His paternal solicitude, fruitless amid the discords of the 
 West, was useful at least to his own country, when he con- 
 tributed to the conclusion of the treaty of Lodi, an attempt, 
 unfortunately not successful, to put an end to the deep-rooted 
 divisions of Italy and secure her independence. 
 
 337. Spain and Portugal. — The Spanish peninsula, on 
 the contrary, was tending towards a great and powerful unity. 
 
372 THE MUSSULMAN AND CHRISTIAN STATES. 
 
 The Christian kingdoms of Castile, Navarre, and Aragon, 
 and the Moorish kingdom of Grenada, still separated and 
 agitated by violent contests, vs^ere soon to be united for the 
 good and the glory of all Spain. The little kingdom of Por- 
 tugal, impatient within its narrow limits, and with its eyes 
 constantly turned towards the western seas, had opened, un- 
 der Alphonso the African, that career of great discoveries, 
 which, before the end of the century, was to lead her beyond 
 the cape of Good Hope. Meanwhile, an obscure Genoese 
 was medidating that daring enterprise which gave Spain a 
 new world. Modern Europe reveals herself with her won- 
 derful destinies. 
 
CHAPTER XX. 
 
 SUMMAEY NOTION'S OF THE AETS, LITEEATTJEE, THE 
 SCIENCES, AND COMMEECE IN EUEOPE, FEOM 
 CHAELEMAGNE TO THE TAKING- OF CONSTAN- 
 TINOPLE. 
 
 SUMMAEY. 
 
 § I. Revival of Letters under Charlemagne. — Decay in the tenth 
 century. — Separation of the Teutonic and Romance languages. — Influ- 
 ence of the Latin language. — Revival of intellectual activity at the end 
 of the tenth century. — Development of Scholastic Philosophy. — Instruc- 
 tion spreads and becomes more regular. — Creation of universities. — 
 Disputes of the Realists and Nominalists. 
 
 § II, National literatures. — The language of Oc and the Trouba- 
 dours ; the language of Oil and the Trouveres. — French prose and poet- 
 ry. — Spanish literature. — Italian literature. — Dante. — Petrarch. — Boc- 
 cacio. — English literature. — Sclavonic and Scandinavian literature. — 
 Greek literature. 
 
 § III. Roman and Byzantine architecture. — Ogival architecture. — 
 Painting. — Sculpture. — Music. — Sciences. — Principal inventions. 
 
 § IV. Internal commerce. — Organization of industry. 
 
 LATIN LITEKATURE. — SCHOLASTIC PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 338. Revival of Letters under Charlemagne. — At the 
 epoch in which Charlemagne appeared, ignorance had inva- 
 
374 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 ded all classes of society. The last vestiges of the Roman 
 science and civilization of the fourth and fifth centuries had 
 disappeared with the introduction of the barbarians into the 
 church, and the scandalous union of military and ecclesiasti- 
 cal life. 
 
 Charlemagne began by re-establishing discipline in the 
 church, the decay of which had led to the decay of instruc- 
 tion. Then he called together the most learned men of all 
 countries to labor with him for the revival of science and 
 literature. There were seen the learned Peter of Pisa ; the 
 German Leirade, archbishop of Lyons; the Goth Theodulph, 
 bishop of Orleans; the abby of Fontenelle ; Ansegisius, editor 
 of the first collection of the Capitularies, and the Frank 
 Egmhard, secretary and historiographer of the emperor, and 
 the most remarkable writer of this epoch. At their head 
 was Alcuin (died 804), deacon of the church of York, but 
 educated in Italy, where the vestiges of Roman civilization 
 had been better preserved than in any other country. 
 Charles was his first scholar (v. no. 139). The emperor 
 founded in his own palace, under the name of palatine school, 
 a school for the education of the children of the nobles, and 
 caused a great many other schools to be opened near the 
 churches and monasteries, in the hope of preparing the way, 
 by a common education, for the fusion of all these different 
 people. The movement spread beyond his states. The 
 missionary, St. Anscharius, founded schools in the north of 
 Germany, and St. Dunstan in England; Cyril and Methodius 
 among the Bulgarians, Moravians, and Bohemians. The 
 writings of the fathers were translated into Sclavonian. In 
 Russia, three hundred youths were received into the college 
 of Jaroslaf. 
 
 The preservation of the old models had been the principal 
 end of Charlemagne's first efforts. But while he favored the 
 study of Latin and Greek, as indispensable to theology, he 
 
LATIN LITERATURE. 375 
 
 took care also of his mother tongue, causing the war-songs of 
 the old Germans to be collected, and a German grammar 
 compiled. 
 
 The arts and sciences were less fortunate than literature. 
 Although architecture, according to his contemporaries, was 
 assiduously cultivated, no remarkable monument has I'eached 
 us, and painting and sculpture made no progress. The columns 
 and mosaics of the palace of Aix la Chapelle were brought 
 from Ravenna. 
 
 839. Decay at the end of the Ninth and Tenth Centuries. 
 — The great emperor's work of civilization was as short- 
 lived as that of political organization. It was in vain that 
 his immediate successors, Lewis the Debonnaire and Charles 
 the Bald, held out a generous protection to studies, and that 
 some men who had been formed by Charlemagne strove to 
 continue his age. After the historian Eginhard (d. 839), in 
 whose principal work, the Life of Charlemagne, there is a 
 unity of exposition, a clearness of style, and sometimes a cri- 
 tical judgment, which raise it far above all the works of this 
 period ; and after the Irish theologian, John Scotus Erigina 
 (9th cent.), whose bold speculations are the forerunners of 
 scholastic theology, disastrous influences seemed to stifle the 
 progress of the human mind. 
 
 The preponderance of feudality, which was the triumph 
 of brute force, was an indirect attack upon the civilization 
 which had been protected by royalty and the clergy. At the 
 same time, the invasion of the northern barbarians plunged 
 Europe once more into a universal chaos, while the progress 
 of the Mussulmen, masters of Asia and Egypt, gave a fatal 
 blow to literature by cutting off* the supply of papyrus, the 
 only cheap and generally accessible material for writing. It 
 is to this also that we are to attribute the loss of many pre- 
 cious writings of classic antiquity, which were effaced to 
 prepare the parchment on which they were written for re- 
 
376 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 ceiving some notarial act, or the legend of some popular 
 saint. 
 
 - The Northmen, who had not taken a part in the first in- 
 vasion, attacked the rising society of the middle ages, as their 
 predecessors had attacked that of the old empire. The mo- 
 nasteries were burnt or plundered, with the libraries which 
 they contained ; and those of the conquerors who took orders 
 carried into the church the coarse and turbulent habits of 
 their former life. Some schools, and among them that of St. 
 Germain of Auxerre in Paris, dragged on a feeble existence 
 till the end of the ninth century. But in the course of the 
 next century, every trace of instruction was lost. England, 
 which had been animated for a moment by the glorious exam- 
 ple of Alfred the Great, shared the general desolation during 
 the ravages of the Danes. The tenth century is one of the 
 saddest for literary as well as for political history, though 
 France and Germany were far from being so badly off as 
 Italy and England. 
 
 340. Influence of the Latin Language. — Still, the prin- 
 ciple of unity was not wholly destroyed by this universal dis- 
 organization. At the dissolution of the Carolingian empire, 
 languages, like nations, were divided. The Germans took 
 the Tudesque, the remains of their old national idiom ; the 
 people, who had once been subjects of the empire, the 
 Romance, a corruption of the language of the former 
 masters of the world. But as a supreme power gradually 
 rose in the midst of the divided society of the tenth century, 
 so one language rose above all others, and preserved its pre- 
 ponderance. The Latin language, at once the symbol and 
 the instrument of the religious unity of the middle ages, con- 
 tinued to be the language of the church as well as the lan- 
 guage of learning and politics. It was in this language that 
 the learned men of one country held communication with 
 those of another — that the sharpest controversies about 
 
LATIN LITERATXTKE. 377 
 
 church and empire were carried on — that some of the most 
 remarkable efforts of the human mind were displayed. Om- 
 nis latinitas was the word used to designate the Christian 
 and learned Europe of the age of St. Bernard. 
 
 341. Intellectual activity revives at the end of the tenth 
 century. — In the second half of the tenth century, intellectual 
 activity begins to revive. Schools for the instruction of 
 children are gradually re-opened. Abhon of Fleury and 
 Fulbert of Chartres engage with ardor in the study of philo- 
 sophy. The French Geriertus (d. 1003), archbishop of 
 Rheims, then of Ravenna, and at last pope under the name of 
 Sylvester II., friend and master of Hugh Capet, of Robert, 
 and of the Emperor Otho III., was distinguished by a pro- 
 found scientific knowledge, which he borrowed from the Arabs 
 in Spain, and the Italians in Rome, and by important disco- 
 veries in natural philosophy, mechanics and mathematics, 
 which made his ignorant contemporaries suspect him of 
 magic. 
 
 The glory of forming almost all the great men of the ele- 
 venth century belongs to Italy. Lanfranc, who was born at 
 Pavia, gave renown by his learning to the Abbey of Jumieges, 
 which produced so many eminent men, and then passed into 
 England with William of Normandy to mitigate the evils of 
 the conquest, and continue in the chair of Canterbury the 
 work of civilization which had been begun by Alfred the 
 Great (d. 1089). His successor to the archbishopric of Can- 
 terbury, Anselm, like him an Italian (d. 1109), displayed 
 perhaps less imagination but more elevation and boldness. 
 He introduces philosophy into the domain of theology, enters 
 firmly upon the great problem of the agreement of faith and 
 reason, and without straying from the Catholic dogma, recog- 
 nizes the rights of the human mind. In his Monologium, he 
 proves the existence of God by the same principle which was 
 afterwards developed by Descartes. His Proslogium contains 
 
878 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 the profoundest considerations upon divine science. Modern 
 philosophy pays increasing homage to his eminent and long- 
 neglected merit. 
 
 342. Scholastic Philosophy. — Contest between St. Bernard 
 and Ahelard.— Thus begins the great science of the middle 
 ages, scholastic pMlosopht/, or the application of dialectics 
 to theology, which, like the philosophy of all ages, discusses 
 the gravest and most important questions, but resolves them 
 by the light of revealed dogmas. Whatever may have been 
 said of scholastic philosophy by those who never took the 
 pains to study it — whatever we may think of those subtle 
 forms of argumentation, unskilfully imitated from the catago- 
 ries of Aristotle, but which had nevertheless the merit of 
 giving the mind an incredible vigor and suppleness — no one 
 now dares to treat as idle questions and sterile disputes those 
 discussions of the schools which led to the foundation of uni- 
 versities throughout Europe, raised theological science to the 
 highest point, and laid the foundations of the greater part of 
 modern sciences. From the beginning of the twelfth century 
 Paris witnessed the brilliant lessons of Abelard (1079-1142), 
 the completes! representative of the science of his age. From 
 the summit of Mount St. Genevieve Abelard electrified thou- 
 sands of hearers by his powerful eloquence, and, exiled by 
 the influence of his enemies, saw the solitude suddenly peo- 
 pled by an immense multitude. All Christendom followed 
 with anxiety his theological contests with St. Bernard (1091 
 -1153), who, victorious over his redoubtable adversary, com- 
 pelled him publicly to retract his errors. St. Bernard exer-. 
 cised a prodigious authority over his age, appearing as great 
 in the schools as in those assemblies where his enthusiastic 
 eloquence drew kings and people to the crusades. 
 
 343. Development of Public Instruction. — Foundatio7i of 
 Universities. — In the midst of all this intellectual activity, 
 instruction begins to be developed and systematized. At the 
 
LATIN LITERATURE. 379 
 
 beginning of the twelfth century, lay schools were formed at 
 the side of the ecclesiastical schools, and began those lessons 
 of Roman and canon law which were destined to exercise 
 so great an influence. Jenerius (towards 1140) commentates 
 the Pandects with success, attracting a large number of 
 young men to Bologna by his lessons. His scholars spread 
 over France and England, and soon sovereigns, struck with 
 the regularity of Roman legislation, compared with the un- 
 certainty of their customs, begin to call lawyers to their aid, 
 and adopt in their acts the forms of the imperial constitutions. 
 It was at Bologna, too, that a monk named Gratian (towards 
 1160) compiled a collection of canons for instruction in ec- 
 clesiastical law, which was approved by Eugene III. The 
 tribunals as well as the schools drew eagerly from this 
 fruitful source, which was constantly enriched by new con- 
 tributions, till pope Gregory, causing to be published un- 
 der the title of Decretals, the complete collection of ponti- 
 fical decisions, established the principles of canon law. 
 
 The importance of these new objects of instruction reacted 
 upon the organization of the schools, which- was suddenly 
 strengthened and enlarged. In the first year of the thirteenth 
 century several professors, who had till then been teaching 
 separately, obtained a common constitution, and formed a 
 kind of corporation of teachers. Thus was founded the uni- 
 versity of Paris, which by its learning and independence ex- 
 ercised an immense influence over Christian and political 
 Europe. 
 
 The impulse once given, similar associations sprang up 
 on all sides. The most celebrated universities which were 
 then founded were those of Paris, founded in 1200; Sala- 
 manca, 1223; Naples, 1224; Cambridge, 12.31; Vienna, 
 1236; Upsal, 1240; Montpellier, 1283; Lisbon, 1290; Or- 
 leans, 1305 ; Oxford, 1206. 
 
 The university of Paris soon saw the most distinguished 
 
380 LATIN LITERATURE. 
 
 men of England, Italy, Spain, Germany, and the whole 
 North, flock thither to complete their studies at this centre 
 of science and learning. Theological disputes were car- 
 ried on with increasing brilliancy in the higher depart- 
 ments, while the masters of the arts initiated the younger 
 students into the seven branches of study : the trivium and 
 quadrivium grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics, arithmetic, geo- 
 metry, music, and astronomy. 
 
 344. Disputes of the Realists and Nominalists. — Alher- 
 tus Magnus. — St. Thomas. — The great dispute of the Real- 
 ists and Nominalists, which was to divide the philosophers 
 and theologians of the middle ages, had already begun. 
 Abelard's master, William of Champeaux, had taught that 
 ideas were real and substantial beings. The Briton Roscel- 
 linus, who had been condemned as a heretic for his opinions 
 concerning the Trinity (1092), and after him the eloquent 
 Abelard, maintained with Aristotle, the oracle of this epoch, 
 that ideas were pure abstractions of the mind, having only a 
 nominal existence. This discussion divided thinkers into 
 two great schools, which agreed only on the common ground 
 of religious faith. It was then that appeared Peter Lombard 
 (d. 1160), author of the celebrated Book of Sentences, a col- 
 lection of the principal philosophical opinions of the fathers, 
 and Gilbert de la Poree (d. 1154), both Nominalists, and who 
 were opposed by St. Bernard. Soon a profounder study of 
 Aristotle's logic, which exercised an astonishing influence 
 over this epoch, gave new strength to the human mind, and 
 the names of Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas of Aquinas, and 
 Duns Scotus, opened a still more brilliant period. The Ger- 
 man Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) embraced in his range 
 of inquiry theology, ethics, politics, and more particularly the 
 natural sciences, natural philosophy, alchymy, astronomy, 
 and mathematics. St. Thomas (1226-1274), born of a noble 
 Sicilian family, and educated at the university of Paris, dis- 
 
FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC., LITERATURE. 381 
 
 plays in all his writings a sublimity of views, a depth of 
 judgment, and a knowledge of divine things, which procured 
 him the name of the Angel of the Schools, and his Summa The- 
 ologicB deserves to be placed by the side of the best writings 
 of St. Augustine. Contemporary of the mystic St. Bonaven- 
 tura (1221-1274), Duns Scotus (13th cent.), the Seraphic 
 Doctor, devoted himself to dialectics and philosophical analy- 
 sis, winning, by his attempts to found the experimental me- 
 thod, the name of the subtle. He was chief of the Scottists, 
 who opposed with implacable zeal the realist opinions of the 
 disciples of St. Thomas. Raymond Lully (about 1315), the 
 Enlightened Doctor, who invented a sort of logical mechanism 
 for the guidance of the mind in reasoning, and Roger Bacon 
 (1214-1292), learned in natural philosophy, and who endea- 
 vored to separate the domains of philosophy and theology, 
 followed the traces of Scotus. The tendencies of the fifteenth 
 and sixteenth centuries begin to appear. The contests of the 
 middle ages gradually change their character. The English 
 John Ockham (d. 1347), the French Peter of Ailly (1350- 
 1420), and Gerson, the pious chancellor of the university 
 (1353-1429), were the last champions of nominalism against 
 the realist school of St. Thomas. 
 
 §11. 
 
 FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, &C. LITERATURE. 
 
 345. National Literatures. — Language of Oc and Trou- 
 badours. — Language of Oil and Trouveres. — Scholastic phi- 
 losophy, with its difficult forms and subtle distinctions, was 
 on the eve of decay, when modern literature and the new 
 languages began to mark out their places by immortal pro- 
 ductions. From the tenth century, Europe was divided be- 
 
382 FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC., LITERATURE. 
 
 tween four great national idioms, the Romance, Tudesque, 
 Sclavonic, and that old Greek which still survived with the 
 Eastern empire. 
 
 France, Spain, and Italy, belong to the Romance. In 
 the south of France was formed the Provenijal Romance, the 
 language of Oc, so harmonious in the verses of the trouba- 
 dours, noble knights, or poor villagers, ennobled by the gay 
 science, who, accompanied hy l]\eiv jugglers, went round from 
 castle to castle to sing their songs of love. The Provencal 
 Romance, adorned by the light imagination of the South, and 
 the imitation of the Arabic poetry, which gave it rhyme, had 
 more grace than strength in spite of the bold satires of some 
 daring thinkers, and the energetic hymns of the wai'like 
 Bertram of Born, the Tyrtaeus of the middle ages, or of the 
 valiant Richard of the lion heart. It fell without leaving 
 any very remarkable monuments, amid the civil and religious 
 wars which ensanguined the south of France during the 
 thirteenth century. 
 
 The Wallon Romance or language of OH was called to a 
 higher destiny. The Normans, who, becoming the active 
 agents of civilization, carried the old French into England 
 and Italy, separated it by their influence from the language 
 of Oc. It sets up the trouveres against the troubadours, and 
 they celebrate in long poems the exploits of the heroes of 
 antiquity and the middle ages in a style which, though less 
 brilliant and sonorous, is more masculine and vigorous than 
 that of their rivals of the South. Thus rise the great ro- 
 mances of the Round Table, precursors of the famous Ro- 
 mance of the Rose, the production of John of Meung and 
 William of Lorris, the poetic glory of the thirteenth and four- 
 teenth centuries. 
 
 346. French Prose and Poetry. — More serious works 
 had already marked the progress of that which was to be- 
 come the French language. Villehardoin (1167-1213), the 
 
FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC., LITERATURE. 383 
 
 historian of the fourth crusade, pleases by the artlessness 
 and unformed rudeness of his language ; you feel that it is 
 a new idiom relating things born at the same time with itself. 
 Joi.nviUe (1223-1317) wrote, with a charming grace and sim- 
 plicity, the life and very holy deeds of the good king St. 
 Lewis, and seems almost a man of genius by force of the 
 originality and nature of his style. At the end of the four- 
 teenth century, Froissart, wandering chronicler, roams from 
 land to land, collecting the facts worthy to be remembered, 
 and narrating them with the imagination of a troubadour, 
 the malicious spirit of a trouvere, and the eloquence and 
 fidelity of an historian. Froissart is the worthy precursor 
 of Commines, who was the first to intermix the inquiry into 
 causes with historical narration, and political views with 
 the exposition of events. The History of Charles V. by 
 Christine of Pisa, the Chronicle of Monstrelet, the history of 
 Juvenal of the Ursins, are much inferior to the memoirs 
 of Froissart. At the same time remarkable productions ap- 
 pear in another sphere of literature. Some of the Mora- 
 lities of the Bazoche, which begin to replace the mysteries, and 
 particularly the wheedling lawyer, contain excellent comic 
 strokes. French poetry is revealed in the works of Villon 
 (1431-1500), and of Charles of Orleans, long a prisoner, 
 and in whose complaints there is a touching grace. 
 
 347. Spanish Literature. — The Spanish language, issu- 
 ing from the Latin much more directly than the French, 
 and happily modified by the influence of Arabic civilization, 
 attains also much sooner to its full perfection ; and already, 
 from the thirteenth century, we find in it that broad and noble 
 harmony, that grand and pompous character, which harmo- 
 nizes so well with the genius of the people. Its oldest monu- 
 ment is the Romancero of the Cid, like the Iliad, the produc- 
 tion of the genius of several poets, faithful organs of national 
 traditions. It is the hymn of Christian Spain, enthusiastic for 
 
384 FEENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC, LITERATURE. 
 
 the exploits of her hero against the infidels. Some dramatic 
 and pious legends prepare the way in the following century 
 for the great works of Spanish literature — the works of Lo- 
 pez de Vega and Calderon. Castilian prose proved itself 
 worthy of Castilian poetry in the writings of the historian 
 Ayala, who may be compared with Commines for the justice 
 and depth of his views, and to Froissart for the charms of 
 his narrative. 
 
 348. Italian Literature. — Dante. — Petrarch. — Boccacio. 
 — But in spite of the rising splendor of Spanish literature, it 
 is still Italy that stands at the head of European civilization. 
 For several centuries, Italy seemed to have confined herself 
 to her classic recollections, and the language of Rome. Sud- 
 denly, the national language manifested itself in a work of 
 such wonderful power, as to make men doubt whether the 
 modern Italian, instead of having been formed from the 
 wreck of the Latin, was not the ancient common language of 
 the Peninsula, existing from the oldest times at the side of the 
 language of the learned, and preserved with little alteration 
 through the middle ages. The Divina Comedia of Dante 
 Alighieri (1265-1321) is the glory of Italian or rather of 
 modern poetry. Dante was the Homer of the middle ages, 
 resembling him by the boldness and originality of his genius, 
 the lively and complete picture of manners, belief, and the 
 whole life of a period of religious conviction. This is the glory 
 of Dante, as it had been Homer's glory, to revive the heroic 
 age and rude population of primitive Greece. Dante's poem 
 is the encyclopedia of the middle ages. Literature, science, 
 theology, astronomy, all ages, all people, find a place there. 
 An enthusiastic lover of liberty, and exiled from Florence by 
 his political enemies, the Guelphs, Dante avenges himself by 
 placing them in hell among the tyrants of all ages ; and 5''et 
 so great was his sense of justice, that few have dared to ap- 
 peal from his decision. 
 
FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC., LITERATURE. 385 
 
 In the following century (1304-1374) Petrarch, orator, 
 philosopher, moralist, celebrated among his contemporaries 
 for his profound learning and his Latin poems, won at the 
 same time a more enduring reputation by his sonnets and his 
 odes, which paint the most delicate shades of passion with an 
 indescribable grace, and breathe the spirit of pure and devo- 
 ted patriotism. The Canzoniere, or general collection of his 
 sonnets and odes, contributed no less than the Divina Come- 
 dia to give a decided form to the language. 
 
 Italian prose was formed in the writings of Dino Compagni 
 (1265-1323), who wrote the history of Florence from 1280 
 to 1312, in a style of concise and energetic elegance and 
 simplicity which has never been surpassed ,• of Villani 
 (d. 1348), a grave historian, exact narrator, and intelligent 
 judge of men and events ; and of Cavaica, Bartolomeo da San 
 Concordio, and above all, of Boccacio (1313-1375), who, 
 formed like Dante and Petrarch by the study of the ancients, 
 wrote with a richness and splendor, and graceful variety of 
 language and style, which have made his Decameron the text- 
 book of every student of that noble tongue. 
 
 349. English Literature. — English literature seems to 
 form the transition between the North and the South, the 
 Roman and the Germanic world. After the Norman inva- 
 sion, the Romance language, which had been carried over 
 by the conquerors, prevailed by right of conquest throughout 
 England. But by degrees the ancient Saxon rose again, al- 
 tered but unchanged in its nature by the influence of the 
 Norman, and in the end the national language triumphed 
 over the language of the conqueror. Its first work is the 
 narrative of the adventures and exploits of Robin Hood, the 
 poetical personification of the Saxon race, the hero of the 
 contest between the conquerors and the conquered. But its 
 progress at first was slow, and its minstrels of the thirteenth 
 century were greatly inferior to the troubadours and trouveres. 
 
 17 
 
386 FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC, LITEKATUnE. 
 
 It was not till the fourteenth century, that a great poet ap- 
 peared. Chaucer (1328-1415) was distinguished by the 
 artlessness and pungency of his style, and his richness and 
 originality of expression. 
 
 350. Sclavonic and Scandinavian Literature. — Germany, 
 which Roman civilization had scarcely touched, and which, 
 during the first years of the middle ages, and even under 
 Charlemagne, exerted so strong an influence upon France, 
 had resumed in the tenth century the almost exclusive use of 
 the Tudesque, and its literature, if we except the Latin works 
 of its learned men, resembles that of the North much more than 
 that of the South. We have observed the numerous analo- 
 gies which exist between the religions, warlike customs, and 
 wandering habits of the Saxons, Danes, Germans, and Scan- 
 dinavians. The agitated life and the belief of these people 
 appear with equal inspiration in great national poems. The 
 monuments of Scandinavian literature are : the famous book 
 of the Edda (grandmother), a collection of the old traditions 
 of northern mythology ; the Sagas, narratives of the events 
 of the olden time, mingled with fables and patriotic hymns to 
 the glory of heroes, and the most celebrated sea-kings ; and 
 the Runes, magical inscriptions preserved in indelible charac- 
 ters on sacred stones. The characteristics of these different 
 classes of works are almost all united, though in a calmer 
 and nobler tone, in the great poem of the Nibelwigen. There 
 we find all the artless histories, all the warlike songs, which 
 the inhabitants of that land of war and revery loved to hear 
 from the harps of their Minnesingers. It is a curious assem- 
 blage of the myths of Odin and the legends of Christianity, 
 and of the historic annals of several centuries, beginning 
 from the invasion of Attila, all concurring in the development 
 of the same drama, by turns pleasing and terrible, mingled with 
 simple and touching descriptions, with tales of bloody com- 
 bats and frightful revenge. It is an animated picture of the 
 
FRENCH, SPANISH, ITALIAN, ETC., LITERATURE. 387 
 
 political and private life of Germany during the long period 
 of the invasion of the eastern tribes and the Sclavonians. 
 
 Russia herself, that isolated and savage region, was not 
 without a literature. A monk of Kiev, Nestor (1056-1116), 
 wrote in Sclavonic a chronicle filled with precious documents, 
 and which was continued after his death by the monks of his 
 order. A translation of the Scriptures appeared at the same 
 period, and some warlike songs mark the first essays of na- 
 tional poetry. 
 
 351. Greek Literature. — While this young literature was 
 rising amid a new people, an old literature still lived with an 
 old nation on the eastern extremity of Europe. The Greek lan- 
 guage produced numerous works which, if they do not reveal 
 a great genius, reveal at least great intellectual activity, sus- 
 tained by theological controversies and the study of history. 
 We will cite for the ninth century the celebrated Plwtius, 
 whose works display immense learning ; for the tenth, the 
 Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus, who wrote the life of 
 his grandfather Basil ; Simeon Metaphrasfes, the first of those 
 oriental hagiographs, whose misdirected piety has filled with 
 fables the lives of saints ; the grammarian Suidas ; and Sto- 
 baeus, a philologist, full of science and sagacity. After a 
 century of barrenness, Zonaras (12th cent.), writes a univer- 
 sal history, some parts of which display real talent. Nice- 
 phoras Briennes, historiographer of the family of the Com- 
 nenes, and the princess Anna Comnenes (towards 1132), the 
 pretending but sometimes elegant author of the Alexiad, nar- 
 rate the events of contemporary history. At the same time, 
 appears Eustathius's learned commentary upon Homer. But 
 as the empire advances towards its fall, literature decreases 
 and becomes sterile. Bad taste and affectation are the gene- 
 ral characteristics of the historical works which abound in 
 the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. It is hardly worth 
 while to mention even the names of the annalists Nicetas and 
 
388 ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
 
 John Catacuzene. At last, the taking of Constantinople puts 
 an end to this series of obscure writers, and Greek literature 
 falls with the empire of the East, 
 
 § III. 
 
 ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
 
 352. Roman and Byzantine Architecture. — The history 
 of art in the middle ages is almost exclusively the history of 
 architecture, which receives an astonishing development un- 
 der the influence of Christian ideas. From the fourth to the 
 twelfth century, Roman and Byzantine architecture prevailed 
 almost exclusively, distinguished — the first, by an austere 
 simplicity ; the second, by a profusion of ornament. The 
 Christian idea had already created a symbolical type for all 
 the monuments of worship. The interior of a church pre- 
 sents the form of a cross ; the apsis, or circle of the choir, 
 indicating the place of the Saviour's head ; the chapels that 
 surround it, the rays of glory, &c. 
 
 During the disorders which followed the reign of Charle- 
 magne, art like literature fell to decay. Europe, a prey to 
 that frightful chaos which seemed to presage the end of the 
 world, did not awake from its lethargy till it had passed that 
 famous year 1000, to which all had been looking forward 
 with such dread. " But instantly," says the monk of Cluny, 
 " the Christians resumed courage, and one would have said 
 that the whole world, throwing off by common agreement the 
 rags of antiquity, had put on the white garments of the 
 Church." Then were founded or rebuilt the churches of 
 Dijon, Rheims, Tours, Cambray, Limoges, Poictiers, and nu- 
 merous other cities. Then rose, too, the celebrated abbey of 
 Cluny, one of the most curious monuments of tliis epoch. 
 
ARTS AND SCIENCES. 389 
 
 Then, also, was developed in all its splendor that elegant 
 architecture of the Arabs, with its slender minarets curiously 
 terminating in a ball or swollen cone, with its slim and deli- 
 cate columns, and its walls overloaded with ornaments and 
 glittering with marble and stucco, and sometimes even in- 
 crusted with gold, and jewels, and precious mosaics. 
 
 353. Ogival or Pointed Architecture. — Master-pieces of 
 Religious Art. — In the twelfth century, a revolution took 
 place in religious architecture. The curves were gradually 
 lengthened, the columns drawn out and extended, as if to 
 soar toward heaven. The ogive, or pointed arch, replaces 
 the semi-circle of the Roman and Byzantine schools. Whe- 
 ther the pointed arch was found in germ in the catacombs, or 
 arose from the combination of the arcs of the Roman curve — 
 whether it appears in some of the monuments of the Ostro- 
 goths, or was subjected to the influence of the Arabic style, 
 from which, however, it certainly did not arise — or whether, 
 in fine, it was the spontaneous product of the studies of west- 
 ern architects, it is none the less certain that it harmonized 
 marvellously with the wants of a spiritual worship. All the 
 magnificence of Christianity, all the sublimity of its dog- 
 mas, are manifested in those cathedrals where genius built 
 ideas with stones, where all the glories of heaven seemed to 
 be reflected through symbolic glass — gigantic creations, the 
 mere conception of which terrifies the imagination, while the 
 execution reveals a power of faith, of patience, of self-devo- 
 tion, and of boldness, which do not belong to modern times. 
 The building of a cathedral reveals perhaps full as much as 
 a crusade, and in all its artless beauty, the religious enthu- 
 siasm of the middle ages. " You see nobles, accustomed to 
 a voluptuous life, tie themselves to a car and draw stones, 
 lime, wood, and all the materials necessary for the sacred 
 edifice. Sometimes, the weight is so great that a thousand 
 persons, men and women, are dragging at the same car, 
 
390 ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
 
 and yet not a murmur is heard, and profound silence 
 reigns throughout the multitude. When they stop on the 
 road they speak only of their sins, which they confess with 
 tears and prayers j and then the priest exhorts them to stifle 
 their animosities, to forgive their debtors, and if there is any 
 one so hardened as to refuse, he is instantly loosened from the 
 car and driven from the holy company." (Letter of Henrion, 
 Abbe of St. Pierre.) Thus arose those admirable monu- 
 ments which are spread over France, England, and Ger- 
 many ; Notre Dame and the Holy Chapel at Paris ; the ca- 
 thedrals of Rheims, Bourges, Rouen, Chartres, Strasburg, 
 Cologne, Westminster. The workmen were the believers of 
 every class ; the artists who decorated them were poor monks, 
 who passed their lives in obscurity cutting a bas-relief or a 
 column ; the architects, men of wonderful genius, but still 
 more wonderful humility and self-denial, for scarcely any of 
 them have left their names to posterity. The Gothic cathe- 
 drals resemble those great national poems, which seem to 
 have sprung from the people themselves and embody their 
 traditions. 
 
 Ogival architecture begins to be corrupted towards the 
 fifteenth century. Its symbolical character becomes degra- 
 ded, and wanders from the religious idea. The artists, 
 heirs of the trouveres rather than of the pious builders of the 
 thirteenth centuiy, give full career to their satiric impulse, 
 without respecting the holiness of the edifice ; and often, un- 
 der their malignant chisel, a saint is replaced by a monk muf- 
 fled up in the skin of an animal. This decay announces a 
 new revolution. Science soon gives place to a cold monotony, 
 and architecture, which during the middle ages had been the 
 writing of the human race, seems to lose its power of expres- 
 sion, just when the art of printing comes to offer new resources 
 to thought. 
 
 354. Painting and Sculpture. — Painting, if we except 
 
ARTS AND SCIENCES. 391 
 
 that, the wonderful colors of which have been preserved on 
 glass, served for several centuries for little else than to fur- 
 nish churches with ornaments wholly unworthy of their mag- 
 nificence. It was not till the thirteenth century that the Ita- 
 lian Cimahue began to render drawing more correct, and turn 
 to account the gradations of light and shade. The figures of 
 Giotto (1266-1336), much superior to those of his master, are 
 characterized by truth and grace. He was the true pre- 
 cursor of the great Italian school, and the frescoes of the 
 Campo Santo of Pisa, a curious museum of this epoch, an- 
 nounce the revival of art. Spinello of Arezzo painted faces 
 with so much energy, that he was said to have died of fright 
 before a picture of the devil of his own painting. Masaccio 
 studied foreshortening with success, and died very young, 
 leaving works which Michael Angelo and Raphael thought 
 worthy of imitation and study. The Speculum Majus, a vast 
 collection in which Vincent of Beauvais (13th cent.) sums up 
 all the sciences which were taught in his times, reveals also 
 their weakness and imperfection. But still the invention of 
 oil painting (1427) prepared the way for the master-pieces of 
 the sixteenth century. 
 
 The progress of sculpture was more rapid than that of 
 painting. Amid a crowd of incorrect productions, some 
 figures of an admirable expression already adorn the old 
 cathedrals. At the beginning of the fourteenth century, An- 
 drew of Pisa distinguished himself by magnificent works, the 
 most celebrated of which is the door of the baptistery of St. 
 John of Florence. Balducci and Verrocchio follow his steps, 
 and soon Donatello (1383-1466) attained a degree of perfec- 
 tion which was hardly surpassed by his glorious successors. 
 
 355. Sacred Music. — Music, which in the first half of 
 the middle ages was exclusively consecrated to divine ser- 
 vice, preserved the noble gravity of the Gregorian chant. 
 But soon the crusaders heard with rapture the delicious 
 
392 ARTS AND SCIENCES. 
 
 sounds which the Arabs drew from the lute, the organ, the 
 flute, and the mandolin. The troubadours learnt to accom- 
 pany themselves on the harp. Towards the beginning of the 
 twelfth century, Guido of Arezzo gives the tones of the gamut 
 the names which they still bear, and publishes a system of 
 the principles of music, which in spite of the remonstrances of 
 the popes, gradually loses its austere simplicity even in reli- 
 gious chants. Counter-point began from that time to take the 
 place of the majestic gravity of the plain chant. 
 
 356. Sciences. — Principal Inventions and Discoveries. — 
 The history of the sciences is less fertile than that of the arts. 
 Florence founded the first academy of painting in the middle 
 of the fourteenth century. Mechanics, so essential to ar- 
 chitecture, seem to have made very rapid progress. In the 
 tenth century, Gerbertus knew how to regulate clocks of his 
 own construction by the stars, and make an organ play by 
 steam. In the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus was said 
 to have constructed a human figure which went and opened 
 the door whenever any body knocked. Algebra also owes 
 much to Gerbertus, who is said to have been the inventor of 
 decimal numeration, and particularly to Leonardo Fibonacci, 
 whose works long enjoyed a great reputation. Some medical 
 studies flourished among the Arabs, and in convents ; but 
 being deprived of the aid of obsei'vation and experiment, they 
 were mixed up with the reveries of alchymy and astro- 
 logy. Indeed, it is not till the end of the thirteenth cen- 
 tury that we can discern a real progress in science. 
 
 Then appeared Eager Bacon (1214-1292), a man su- 
 perior to his age, who, in the sterile search of the great 
 secret, discovered the art of distillation, and pointed out the 
 true scientific method. In the fourteenth century, the re- 
 storation of anatomical studies by Mondini dei Luzzi (1315) 
 pointed out a new career to medicine. Chemistry, in the 
 hands of the celebrated Raymond Lulle (towards 1315), 
 
COMMEECE AND INDUSTRY. 393 
 
 was still confounded with alchemy. The invention of spec- 
 tacles by the Florentine Salviato (1286), was one of the 
 useful discoveries of the same period. The composition of 
 gunpowder, long employed by the Chinese, was known to 
 Roger Bacon, and the application of it prepared a great 
 change in the art of war. Wood engraving, applied to 
 cards, led to a discovery of infinitely higher importance. 
 In the first half of the fifteenth century (1436-1440) John 
 Gutteriburg, of Mayence, invented at Strasburg the art of 
 printing with movable type, and the communication and 
 perpetuation of knowledge were secured for ever. Finally, 
 the compass, that wonderful application of the magnetized 
 needle to navigation, by supplying the means of making 
 long voyages, opened the way for the expeditions of the 
 Portuguese and the discovery of America. 
 
 § IV. 
 
 COMMERCE 'and INDUSTRY. 
 
 357. Foreign and Domestic Commerce. — Traffic of the 
 Jews and Lombards. — One of the principal results of these 
 great voyages by sea was the new impulse which they gave 
 to commerce. We have indicated the principal develop- 
 ments of maritime and international commerce in the middle 
 ages, in speaking of the Italian republics and Hanseatic cities. 
 We will now add a few words concerning domestic com- 
 merce and the organization of industry. The political unity 
 established by Charlemagne in a great part of Europe, and 
 the guarantees of order and tranquillity which the new em- 
 pire seemed to give, promised a prompt and easy progress 
 to all the elements of civilization. At the first opening of the 
 great fair at Aix-la-Chapelle^ Anglo-Saxons brought tin and 
 
394 COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. 
 
 lead from England ; Sclavonians brought metals from the 
 North ; Lombards, silks from Constantinople ; Spaniards, 
 merchandise from Africa ; and Frenchmen, woollens from 
 Lyons, Tours, and Aries. Charlemagne even attempted to 
 establish uniform weights and measures. But no sooner was 
 he dead than feudality came to annihilate the results of all 
 his efforts. The nobles rendered commerce impossible, by 
 plundering and taxing the merchants who crossed their do- 
 mains, and all the business of Europe fell into the hands of 
 the Jews, who were willing for the love of gain to brave every 
 species of danger and vexation. Clothes, linen, hardware, 
 jewels, and ornaments from the East, were transported on 
 mules from city to city, from town to town. The carriers, 
 in possession of an undisputed monopoly, realized enormous 
 profits, when they were not plundered, and triumphed by 
 their tenacity over every obstacle. Objects of universal 
 reprobation, and often exposed to terrible persecutions, the 
 Jews still gained a great importance by their commercial 
 superiority, and kings, who drew from them abundant contri- 
 butions, protected them against the hatred of the people. 
 These indefatigable speculators succeeded in introducing a 
 remarkable regularity into their operations. It is to those 
 that we owe the invention of bills of exchange. A redoubta- 
 ble rivalry rose up against the Jews when the crusades, deve- 
 loping with astonishing rapidity the power of the maritime 
 republics, had enriched Italy with a great quantity of oriental 
 merchandise. Lombard pedlars spread all over Europe, and 
 more skilful even than the Jews, succeeded in supplanting 
 them. It was then that the latter, abandoning their old trade, 
 devoted themselves exclusively to traffic in money. They 
 absorbed the greater part of the specie in circulation, and 
 exercised over Europe a real fiscal tyranny, which withstood 
 the severest restraints, and only yielded to the progress of 
 industry. 
 
COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY. 395 
 
 358. Progress and Organization of Industry. — Industry, 
 like every thing else in the social system, was subjected to 
 that universal necessity which produced feudality, the neces- 
 sity of a particular, in the absence of a general organization. 
 While the commons were organizing themselves against the 
 tyranny of the nobles, artisans sought security and protec- 
 tion by uniting in regular associations called brotherhoods or 
 corporations, and which were established as much for the 
 good of the buyer, exposed to the fraud of the manufacturer, 
 as for that of the artisan himself. In France, the provost 
 of Paris, Stephen Boileau, was intrusted by St. Lewis with 
 the carrying out of this great conception. From this time, 
 the Book of Trades marks out more than a hundred and 
 fifty different professions, a proof of the importance which 
 industry had already acquired in large cities. The corpo- 
 rations, which every where increased with the communities, 
 soon acquired a remai'kable development and regularity. 
 No one could be admitted till he had served his appren- 
 ticeship, and proved his skill by a master-piece {chef d'oeu- 
 vre). The institutions of censorship, called wardenships, 
 enforced the regulations of the society and the hierarchy of 
 the members. Every trade was under the protection of a 
 saint, and had a banner under which the whole brotherhood 
 marched to the aid of an injured member, or sometimes even 
 joined the national army for the defence of the country. In 
 several countries of Europe, and especially in Flanders, cor- 
 porations became redoubtable political powers. Like many 
 other institutions, they were the result of peculiar circum- 
 stances, and falling when those circumstances changed, 
 showed that they derived their usefulness and strength from 
 transient causes rather than from any general and permanent 
 principles. 
 
STNCHEONITIC TABLE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 395 
 
 401 
 402 
 406 
 
 410 
 412 
 
 413 
 
 418 
 427 
 429 
 431 
 
 432 
 
 440 
 448 
 
 450 
 
 451 
 
 453 
 476 
 
 481 
 
 HISTORY OF RELIGION. 
 
 Saint Anastasius. 
 St. Innocent. 
 
 St. Boniface. 
 
 Council of Ephesus, ■which 
 condemns the Pelagians 
 and Nestorians. 
 
 St. Sixtus m. 
 
 St. Leo the Great. 
 
 Council of Calcedonia 
 against the Eutychians. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Several Frank tribes are al 
 ready established on the 
 left bank of the Rhine. 
 
 Invasion of Gaul by the 
 Suevi, Alani, Vandals, 
 and Burgundians. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 
 of the Visigoths by As- 
 
 tolphus. 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 
 of the Burgundians. 
 Supposed beginning of the 
 
 kingdom of the Franks. 
 Chlodian chief of the 
 
 Franks. 
 
 Incursion of Chlodian into 
 Gaul. 
 
 Merovaeus— Great Britain 
 invaded by the Saxons. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 of Kent. 
 
 AttUa conquered at the bat- 
 tle of Chalons. 
 
 Acceesion of Clovis. 
 
 The Goths are already es- 
 tablished in the Empire. 
 Arcadius emperor of the 
 East, Honorms of the 
 West. Alaric invades 
 Greece. 
 
 Alaric in Italy, 
 
 Invasion of Italy by Rha- 
 dagasius. 
 
 Taking of Rome by Alaric 
 
 Genseric leads the Vandala •'' 
 into Africa. 
 
 Kingdom of Carthage. #/ 
 
 Invasion of Italy by Attila. 
 Fall of the Western em- 
 
 pite»_ Odoacer king of 
 
 Italy. 
 
398 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 A.D. 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA, 
 
 483 
 
 St. Felix III. 
 
 
 
 486 
 
 
 Victory of Soissons. 
 
 
 492 
 
 St. Gelasius. 
 
 
 
 493 
 
 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 of the Ostrogoths in Ita- 
 ly by Theodoric. 
 
 496 
 
 Conversion of Clovis and 
 tiie Franks. 
 
 Battle of Tolbiac. 
 
 
 498 
 
 Symmachus. 
 
 
 
 507 
 
 
 Battle of Vougle. 
 
 The Visigoths driven back 
 into Spain. 
 
 511 
 
 
 Death of Clovis. Division 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 
 514 
 
 Hormisdas. 
 
 
 
 523 
 
 John I. 
 
 War against the Burgun- 
 dians. 
 
 
 527 
 
 
 Accession of Justinian. 
 
 530 
 
 Boniface n. 
 
 
 Code of Justinian. Wa* 
 against the Fer.=ians. 
 
 534 
 
 
 End of the kingdom of Bur- 
 
 End of the kingdom of the 
 
 
 
 gundy. 
 
 Vandals. War against 
 the Goths. 
 
 540 
 
 
 
 New war against the Per- 
 sians. 
 
 547 
 
 
 Invasion of England by the 
 Angles. 
 
 
 553 
 
 Council of Constantinople. 
 
 
 
 654 
 
 
 
 Narses destroys the king- 
 dom of the Ostrogoths. 
 
 558 
 
 
 Clothaire I. sole king of the 
 
 Franks. 
 Second division between 
 
 
 561 
 
 
 
 
 
 the sons of Clovis. 
 
 
 568 
 
 
 Rivalry of Fredegund and 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 
 
 
 Burnechild. 
 
 of the Lombards by Al- 
 boin. 
 
 569 
 
 
 
 Birth of Mahomet. 
 
 584 
 
 
 Anglo-Saxon heptarchy. 
 
 
 587 
 
 
 Treaty of Andelot. Hered- 
 itary benefices in Aus- 
 trasia. 
 
 
 690 
 
 Saint Gregory the Great. 
 Christianity introduced 
 into England. 
 
 
 
 604 
 
 Sabmian. 
 
 
 Success of Chosroes II. 
 against the Empire of 
 
 the East. 
 
 613 
 
 
 Clothaire 11. sole king of 
 
 Reverses of Heraclius, em- 
 
 
 
 the Franks. 
 
 peror of the East. 
 
 615 
 
 St. Deusdedit. 
 
 Benefices made hereditary 
 
 Taking of Jerusalem by 
 
 
 
 in Neustria, and then in 
 
 the Persians. 
 
 
 
 Burgundy. 
 
 
 622 
 
 
 
 Flight of Mahomet from 
 Mecca, or the Hegira. 
 His doctrine spreads in 
 Arabia. 
 
 628 
 
 
 Dagobert I., king of the 
 
 Franks. 
 
 
 632 
 
 
 
 Death of Mahomet. Abu- 
 Beker, first caliph, pub- 
 lishes the Koran. 
 
 634 
 
 
 
 Omar second caliph. 
 
 638 
 
 
 Third division of the mo- 
 
 Conquest of Syria by the 
 
 
 
 narchy. 
 
 * Mussulmen. Conquest 
 of Egypt by Amru. 
 
HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 399 
 
 A.D. 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 640 
 
 Severinus. John IV. 
 
 Power of the mayors of 
 the palace under the fai- 
 neants kings. 
 
 Othman caliph. 
 
 649 
 
 Martin I. 
 
 
 Conquest of Persia by the 
 
 Mussulmen. 
 
 657 
 
 
 
 Dynasty of the Ommiads. 
 Mohaviah. 
 
 660 
 
 
 
 Siege of Constantinople by 
 the Arabs. 
 
 676 
 
 Donua I, 
 
 
 Peace with the Empire of 
 the East. 
 
 678 
 
 Agathon. 
 
 Power of the mayors Pe- 
 pin of Heristal, Martin, 
 fibroin. 
 
 
 681 
 
 Council of Constantinople 
 against tlie Monotlielitea. 
 
 
 
 687 
 
 Sergius. 
 
 Battle of Testry. Pepin 
 
 Conquests of the Arabs in • 
 
 
 
 sole mayor of all France. 
 
 Africa. 
 
 705 
 
 Jolin VII. 
 
 
 Conquests of the Arabs in 
 central Asia. 
 
 712 
 
 
 
 Battle of Xeres. Conquest 
 of Spain by the Moors. 
 
 714 
 
 
 Charles Martel mayor of 
 the palace. 
 
 
 715 
 
 Gregory II. St. Boniface 
 evangelizes Germany. 
 
 
 
 721 
 
 
 Invasion of France by the 
 Saracens. 
 
 
 726 
 
 Edict of Leo the Iconoclast 
 against images. 
 
 
 
 732 
 
 
 Victory of Poictiers over 
 
 Alphonso I. king of the 
 
 
 
 the Saracens. 
 
 Asturias. 
 
 750 
 
 
 
 The dynasty of the Abbas- 
 sides replaces that of the 
 Ommiads. 
 
 752 
 
 Stephen II. 
 
 Pepin the Short chosen 
 king of France and con- 
 secrated at Soissons by 
 St. Boniface. 
 
 
 756 
 
 
 
 The pope put in posses- 
 sion of the exarchate of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ravenna by Pepin the 
 
 
 
 
 Short. Caliphate of Cor- 
 
 
 
 
 dova Ibunded by Abde- 
 
 
 
 
 rame, a descendant of the 
 
 
 
 
 Ommiad caliphs. 
 
 759 
 
 
 Narbonne taken from the 
 Arabs : Pepin master of 
 all Gaul. 
 
 
 771 
 
 
 Charlemagne unites the 
 kingdom of the Franks 
 under one crown. 
 
 
 774 
 
 
 
 End of the kingdom of the 
 Lombards. The Franks 
 masters of Italy and the 
 city of Rome : patriciat 
 of Charlemagne. 
 
 778 
 
 
 
 Conquest of Spain between 
 the Pyrenees and the 
 Ebro by the Franks. 
 
 786 
 
 
 New wars in Saxony. 
 
 Accession of Haroun-al- 
 Raschid. 
 
 787 
 
 Second council of Nice, 
 
 
 Exploits of Alphonso the 
 
 
 which condemns the Ico- 
 
 
 Chaste, king of Asturia. 
 
 
 noclasts. 
 
 
 
400 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 793 
 795 
 
 796 
 
 800 
 
 814 
 
 843 
 
 850 
 855 
 
 871 
 
 874 
 
 877 
 
 879 
 
 Leom. 
 
 894 
 
 HISTORY OF RELIGION. 
 
 Photius re-established at 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Schism between the Latins 
 and Greeks. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 First invasion of England 
 by the Danes. 
 
 Charlemagne crowned em- 
 peror of the West. 
 
 Death of Charlemagne 
 Lewis the Debonnaire 
 emperor. 
 
 End of the English heptar- 
 chy: Egbert the Great 
 king of all England. 
 
 Peace of Verdun. Divis 
 ion of the empire of the 
 Franks. Origin of the 
 kingdom of France un- 
 der Charles the Bold. 
 
 Alfred king of England. 
 
 Capitulary of Kiersy : he 
 reditary feudal system 
 arises in France under 
 Charles the Bald. 
 
 Origin of the kingdom of 
 Cisjuran Burgundy im- 
 der Boson. 
 
 Deposition of Charles the 
 Fat at the diet of Tribur. 
 Eudes. 
 
 Final dismemberment of 
 the empire of the Franks 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Beginning of the maritime 
 incursions of the Nor- 
 mans. 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom 
 of the Avars by Charle- 
 magne : Pannonia passes 
 under the domimon of 
 the Franks. 
 
 Peace of Salza : the Saxons 
 submit to Charlemagne 
 and embrace Christian- 
 ity. 
 
 Origin of the kingdom of 
 Germany under Lewis 
 the Germanic. 
 
 Foundation of the Russian 
 monarchy by Ruric the 
 Normand. 
 
 Origin of the kingdom of 
 Lorraine imder Lothaire 
 II. 
 
 Origin of the kingdom of 
 Navarre under Don Gar- 
 cia. 
 
 Foundation of the republic 
 of Iceland by the Nor- 
 
 Amolph of Carinthia king 
 of Germany. The Ger- 
 mans make their crown 
 elective. Contest of Gui- 
 do and Berengariusin It- 
 aly. Arrival of the Hun- 
 garians on the Danube 
 under Almus and Arpad. 
 
 Italy becomes a separate 
 kingdom. Origin of the 
 kingdom of Transjuran 
 Burgundy under Ro- 
 dolph. 
 
 Borgiwoy first Christian 
 duke of Bohemia. 
 
HISTORY OF THE BIIDDLE AGES. 
 
 401 
 
 A.D. HISTORY OP RELIGION. FRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA, 
 
 900 
 
 911 
 912 
 
 919 
 924 
 
 925 
 
 930 
 
 932 
 
 961 
 962 
 
 965 
 966 
 
 994 
 996 
 
 Harald-Blaatand, king of 
 Denmark, receives bap- 
 tism. 
 
 Micezyslaw I., duke of Po- 
 land, receives Cliristian- 
 ity. 
 
 Vladimir the Great, grand- 
 duke of Russia, embra- 
 ces Christianity. 
 
 Conversion of Geysa or 
 Va'ic, prince of the Hun- 
 garians. 
 
 Charles the Simple, king of 
 France, seizes the king- 
 dom of liOrraine. 
 
 Treaty of St. Clair on the 
 Epte : RoUo, the chief 
 of the Normands, made 
 duke of Normandy un- 
 der the name of Robert I. 
 
 Kingdom of Aries and of 
 Provence. Cis-.Turan and 
 Trans-Juran Burgundy 
 reunited by Rudolph II. 
 
 The Saracens entirely driv- 
 en from France. 
 
 Hugh Capet king of France 
 — accession of the Capet- 
 ian dynasty. 
 
 Zwentibold king of Lor- 
 raine. 
 
 Dismemberment of the Mo- 
 ravian kingdom by the 
 Hungarians, who make 
 also the conquest of Pan- 
 nonia. Origin of mod- 
 ern Hungary. 
 
 Foundation of the caliph- / 
 ate of the Fatimites in ' 
 Africa and Egypt. 
 
 Conrad of Franconia. 
 
 Accession of the Saxon dy- 
 nasty of kings of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Interruption of the impe- 
 rial dignity in the West 
 on the death of Beren- 
 garius I., king of Italy 
 and emperor. 
 
 Reunion of the kingdom of 
 Lorraine by Henry I., 
 king of Germany. 
 
 Defeat of the Hungarians 
 near Merseburg by Hen- 
 ry I., king of Germany. 
 
 Reunion of the kingdom of 
 Italy by Otho the Great, 
 king of Germany. 
 
 Renewal of the imperial 
 dignity by Otho : origin 
 of the empire of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 Conquest of Egypt by the 
 Fatimites. 
 
 The Christians persecuted 
 in the East by the Fa- 
 timites. 
 
402 
 
 SYNCHEONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 999 
 1000 
 
 1001 
 
 1014 
 1015 
 
 1018 
 1024 
 
 1030 
 
 1032 
 1035 
 
 1042 
 1043 
 
 1048 
 
 1059 
 
 1061 
 1066 
 1069 
 1071 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 Sylvester II. (Gerbertus). 
 
 Olaus Skoetkonung, first 
 king of Sweden, embra- 
 ces Christianity. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 Conquest of England by 
 Canute the Great. 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Beginning of the maritime 
 power of Venice. 
 
 Stephen I., first king of 
 Germany, crowned with 
 the Angelic crown. 
 
 Canute the Great, king of 
 Denmark. 
 
 Death of Vladimir the 
 Great : beginning of di- 
 visions in Russia. 
 
 Accession of the dynasty 
 of the emperors of the 
 Salic family. Expedi- 
 tion of the French Nor- 
 mans into Italy. 
 
 Dismemberment of the ca- 
 liphate of Cordova : de- 
 cay of the Mahometans 
 in Spain. 
 
 Reunion of the kingdom of 
 Burgundy by the empe- 
 ror Conrad II. 
 
 Division of the states of 
 Sancho the Great into 
 the kingdoms of Na- 
 varre, Castile, and Ara- 
 gon. 
 
 Foundation of the empire 
 of the Seljuk Turks by 
 Togrulbeg. 
 
 The Danes expelled from 
 England. 
 
 Amiexation of Pannonia as 
 far as the Leytha by the 
 emperor, Henry III. — 
 Power of Germany. 
 
 Gerard of Alsatia first here- 
 ditary duke of the Mosel- 
 lian Lorraine and foun- 
 der of the house of Lor- 
 raine. 
 
 Robert Guiscard, duke of 
 Appulia and Calabria, 
 becomes the vassal of the 
 Holy See. 
 
 Abu-Beker, founder of the**^ 
 empire of the Almora- 
 vids in northern Africa. 
 Oct. 14, battle of Hastings. Tournaments first known. 
 Conquest of England by 
 
 WilUam of Normandy. 
 
 Yousouf, sovereign of the 
 Almoravids, builds Mo- 
 rocco. 
 
 The Greeks stripped of a 
 part of Asia.Minor by the 
 Seljuk Turks. Guelph, 
 founder of the house of 
 Brunswick, made duke 
 of Bavaria. 
 
HISTORY OP THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 403 
 
 A.D 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 PRANCE AND ENGfLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 1073 
 1074 
 
 1075 
 1076 
 
 1081 
 1086 
 
 1087 
 
 1092 
 
 1094 
 
 1095 
 1096 
 1099 
 
 1100 
 1106 
 
 1108 
 1115 
 
 1119 
 
 1122 
 
 Gregory VII. (Hilbebrand) 
 chosen pope and confir- 
 med by the emperor. 
 
 He Ibrbids investiture by 
 laymen and the marriage 
 of the clergy. Origin of 
 the new power of the 
 popes. 
 
 Foundation of the order of 
 Carthusians. Multipli 
 cation of the religious 
 orders. 
 
 Victor III. 
 
 Council of Clermont. 
 
 First war between France 
 and England : beginning 
 of the rivalry between 
 the two nations. 
 
 The pope preaches the iirst 
 crusade in France. 
 
 Calixtus II. 
 
 Concordate of Worms. 
 
 Lewis VI. the Fat. In- 
 crease of communities. 
 
 War between France and 
 England. Battle of Bren- 
 neville. 
 
 Decline of Germany. Rise 
 of the hereditary feudal 
 system in the empire. 
 Origin of the house of 
 Baden from the dukes of 
 Zaringuia. 
 
 Conquest of Palestine by 
 the Seljuk Turks. 
 
 The emperor Henry IV. 
 deposed by Gregory VII. 
 War between the church 
 and empire. 
 
 Dynasty of the Comneni 
 at Constantinople. 
 
 Alphonso VI., king of Cas- 
 tile, takes Toledo and 
 Madrid from the Moors. 
 The Almoravids of Afri- 
 ca invade Spain. 
 
 Dismemberment of the em- 
 pire of the Seljuk Turks 
 into four sultanates. 
 
 Henry of Burgundy, of the 
 house of France, made 
 count of Portugal. 
 
 Crusade of Godfrey of Bou- 
 illon. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 of Jerusalem by Godfrey 
 of Bouillon. 
 
 Foundation of the order of 
 St. John of Jerusalem. 
 
 The cities of Italy begin to 
 form republics. Origin 
 of communities. 
 
 Revival of the Roman law 
 in Italy. Increase of the 
 ecclesiastical state by the - 
 inheritance of the count- 
 ess Matilda. 
 
 Foundation of the order of 
 Templars. 
 
 Origin of the empire of the 
 Almohads, conquerors of 
 Africa and Mahometan ^ 
 Spain. 
 
 End of the war of investi- 
 tures. 
 
404 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 A.D. HISTORY OP RELIGION. FRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA, 
 
 1127 
 1130 
 
 1131 
 1136 
 1138 
 
 1139 
 
 1142 
 1147 
 
 1152 
 
 1154 
 1156 
 1157 
 
 1158 
 1164 
 1167 
 1171 
 
 Innocent 11. Efforts of the 
 pope to establish the 
 Truce of God. 
 
 General council of the Va- 
 tican. 
 
 St. Bernard at the council 
 of Rheims. 
 
 Sack of Vitry in Cham- 
 pagne. 
 
 St. Bernard preaches the 
 second crusade. 
 
 Eleanor of Poictou, heiress 
 of Aquitania, Gascony, 
 Poictou, &c., repudiated 
 by Lewis VII., marries 
 Henry Plantagenet,count 
 of Anjou. 
 
 Henry II. king of England, 
 Accession of the Planta- 
 genets. 
 
 The dukes of Zaringuia 
 created regents of the 
 kingdom of Burgundy. 
 
 Foundation of the kingdom 
 of the " Two Sicilies." 
 
 Henry the Proud, duke of 
 Bavaria, annexes the 
 duchy of Saxony. 
 
 Accession of the house of 
 Hohenstaufen to the 
 throne of the empire. 
 Guelphs and Ghibel- 
 lines. Beginning of the 
 divisions of Poland at 
 the death of Boleslas III. 
 
 July 24, battle of Ourica : 
 A Iphonso I. , son ol Count 
 Henry, proclaimed king 
 of Portugal. 
 
 Alphonso I., king of Portu- 
 gal, becomes vassal and 
 tributary of the pope. 
 
 Crusade of the emperor 
 Conrad III. & Lewis VII., 
 king of France, against 
 the Atabek Zenghi. 
 
 Austria, from a margraviat 
 made a duchy by the em- 
 peror Frederic II. 
 
 Conquest of Finland by the 
 Swedes. Albert the Bear, 
 margrave of the North, 
 takes possession of the 
 city of Brandenburg : be- 
 ginning of this margravi- 
 at. Andrew Juriewitsch, 
 great duke of Russia, es- 
 tablishes his residence at 
 Vladimir on the Kiias- 
 ma. Political schism of 
 Russia. 
 
 Discovery of Livonia by 
 some merchants of Bre- 
 men. 
 
 Sardinia formed into a 
 kingdom by the emperor 
 Freaeric I. 
 
 League of the cities of 
 Lombardy against the 
 
 - emperor Frederic I. 
 
 Saladin conquers Egypt 
 and founds the rule of 
 the Ayoubite sultans. ^ 
 
HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 405 
 
 A..D. HISTORY OP RELIGION. PRANCE AND ENGLAND. ECTROPE, ASIA & APKICA, 
 
 1172 
 1177 
 
 1183 
 
 1187 
 1189 
 
 1190 
 1191 
 1192 
 
 1198 
 1200 
 
 1201 
 1202 
 120i 
 
 Gregory vni. Clement III. 
 
 Celestin III. 
 
 Innocent IH. Inquisition. 
 
 Conquest of Ireland by 
 Henry II., king of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1206 
 1212 
 1213 
 
 The English stripped of 
 Normandy, &c., by Phi 
 lip Augustus of France 
 Commission established 
 in Languedoc to judge 
 heretics : origin of the 
 inquisition. 
 
 John-Lackland acknowl- 
 edges himself vassal of 
 the pope. 
 
 Peace of Venice : Frederic 
 I. renounces the prefec- 
 ture of Rome : the Vene- 
 tians claim the control of 
 the Adriatic. 
 
 Peace of Constance, which 
 secures the independence 
 of the Lombard cities 
 under the suzerainty of 
 the emperor. 
 
 Destruction of the kingdom 
 of Jerusalem by Sala- 
 din. 
 
 Crusade of Frederic I. of 
 Germany, Philip Au- 
 gustus of France, and 
 Richard Coeur-de-Lion 
 of England. Accession 
 of the house of Hohen- 
 staufen to the throne of 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Foundation of the Teu- 
 tonic order. 
 
 Seige and taking of Ptole- 
 mais by the crusaders. 
 
 Guido of Lusignan made 
 king of Cyprus by Rich- 
 ard of England. 
 
 Bolremia formed into a 
 kingdom. 
 
 First mention of the com- 
 pass. The University of 
 Paris formed into four 
 faculties : origin of uni- 
 versities. Foundation of 
 the city of Riga by Bisli- 
 op Albert of Livonia. 
 
 Foundation of the order of 
 the knights " Bear the 
 Sword " in Livonia. 
 
 Fourth great crusade un- 
 der Boniface, marquis of 
 Montferrat. 
 
 Constantinople taken by 
 the crusaders : dismem- 
 berment of the Greek 
 empire : foundation of 
 the Latin empire of 
 Constantinople, and the 
 Greek empires of Nice 
 and Trebizond. Don Pe- 
 dro II., king of Aragon, 
 becomes vassal of the 
 pope. 
 
 Genghis-Khan : foundation 
 of the great empire of 
 the Moguls. 
 
 Battle of Ubeda: defeat 
 and fall of the Almohada 
 of Africa. 
 
406 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 A.D. HISTORY OP RELIGION. PRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 1213 
 1215 
 
 1217 
 
 1218 
 
 1222 
 1^26 
 1227 
 
 1228 
 1230 
 
 1235 
 
 1236 
 1237 
 
 1248 
 1250 
 1254 
 
 1256 
 
 Council of 
 against the 
 
 the Latuan 
 Albigenses. 
 
 Gregory IX. 
 
 Celestin IV. 
 
 Alexander V. 
 
 Battle of Bouvines won by 
 
 Philip Augustus. 
 Magna Charta. 
 
 The palatinate of the Rhine 
 enters into the house of 
 Wittelsbach. 
 
 Crusade of Andrew n., 
 king of Hungary. 
 
 Extinction of the dukes of 
 Zarringuia : Switzerland 
 becomes an immediate 
 province of the empire. 
 
 Charter or decree of An- 
 drew II., basis of the 
 Hungarian constitution. 
 
 Renewal of the league of 
 Lombardy to oppose the 
 emperor Frederic II. 
 
 Battle of Bornhoeved in 
 Holstein : Waldemar II., 
 king of Denmark, loses 
 his conquests on the sou- 
 thern coast of the Baltic. 
 
 Crusade of the emperor 
 Frederic II. 
 
 The Teutonic order estab- 
 lishes itself in Prussia. 
 Conquest of the Balearic 
 islands by the king of Ar- 
 agon. Conquest of Cour- 
 land by the knights of 
 I^ivonia. 
 
 Decretal of Gregory IX. 
 Formation of the duchy 
 of Brunswick in favor of 
 the house of the Guelphs. 
 
 Conquest of the kingdoms 
 oi' Cordova, Murcia, and 
 Seville by the Castilians. 
 
 Conquest of Russia by 
 Baton- Khan : origin of 
 the Mogul or Tartar 
 horde of Kaptschak. — 
 Union of the order of 
 knights " Bearers of the 
 Sword" to the grand- 
 masteiy of the Teutonic 
 order. 
 
 Supposed beginning of the 
 Hansealic league. Inva- 
 sion of Poland, Silesia, 
 and Hungary by the Mo- 
 guls. 
 
 Crusade of St. Lewis, king 
 of France. 
 
 Beginning of the great in- 
 terregnum in Germany. 
 
 Accession of the emperors 
 of different houses in 
 Germany. End of the 
 dominion of the Agu- 
 bites in Egypt and Sy- - 
 ria : beginning of the 
 empire of the Mame- 
 lukes. 
 
 Enfranchisement of the 
 serfs at Bologna ia Italy. 
 
HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 407 
 
 A.D. 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 PRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 1261 
 
 Urban IV. 
 
 
 1265 
 
 Clement IV. 
 
 
 1266 
 
 
 Admission of ihe commons 
 to the parliament of Eng- 
 land. 
 
 1268 
 
 
 1271 
 
 Gregory X. 
 
 
 1273 
 
 
 
 1282 
 
 
 Conquest of Wales by the 
 king of England. 
 
 1283 
 
 
 
 1289 
 
 
 
 1290 
 
 
 
 1291 
 
 
 
 1294 
 
 Celestin V. Boniface VIII. 
 
 
 1298 
 
 
 
 1300 
 
 Foundation of the jubilee. 
 
 
 1301 
 
 
 
 SUROPB, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Michel Paleologus, empe- 
 ror of Nice, takes Con- 
 siantinople : end of the 
 empire of the Latins. 
 
 First general reserve by 
 Clement IV. of the liv- 
 ings falling vacant at the 
 court of Rome by the 
 death of the beneficiary. 
 Accession of the house 
 of Anjou to the throne of 
 the Two Sicilies. 
 
 Corradino decapitated at 
 Naples : extinction of the 
 house of Hohenstaufen. 
 — Suabia and Franconia 
 become immediate pro- 
 vinces of the empire. 
 
 The county of Thoulouse 
 passes to the king of 
 France, and the Venais- 
 sin to the pope. 
 
 Accession of the emperor 
 Rodolph of Hapsburg to 
 the throne of the empire : 
 first election by the seven 
 electors. 
 
 The Sicilian Vespers : the 
 kingdom of Sicily passes 
 to the king of Aragon. — 
 The emperor Rodolph 
 gives to his sons the in- 
 vestiture of the duchies 
 of Austria : foundation 
 of the house of Haps- 
 burg of Austria. 
 
 The Teutonic order com- 
 pletes the conquest of 
 Prussia. 
 
 Extinction of the male line 
 of the old race of Scotch 
 kings. Contest of Baliol 
 and Bruce. 
 
 Decline of the republic of 
 Pisa. Aggrandizement 
 of that of Genoa. 
 
 Taking of Ptolemais and 
 Tyre by the Mamelukes. 
 End of the crusades. 
 
 Decline of the Mogul em- 
 pire at the death of Ku- 
 blai-Khan. 
 
 Introduction of an heredi- 
 tary aristocracy at Ve- 
 nice. 
 
 Foundation of the modem 
 Turkish empire by Otto- 
 man I. 
 
 End of the male line of the 
 old kings of Hungary 
 Vifith Andrew III. : ac- 
 cession of the Angevins 
 of Naples. 
 
408 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 1309 
 
 HISTORY OP REJ.IGION. 
 
 Benedict XI. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 Admission of the " Third 
 Estate" to the "States 
 General" of France. 
 
 1310 
 1312 
 
 1315 
 
 Council of Vienne. 
 
 The city of Lyons passes 
 under the sovereignty of 
 the king of France. — 
 First dismemberment of 
 the kingdom of Burgun- 
 dy or Aries. 
 
 Enfranchisement of the 
 serfs of the crown by 
 Lewis X. king of France 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 1326 
 1328 
 1329 
 1335 
 
 Philip VI. king of France. 
 Accession of the house 
 of Valois. 
 
 Edward III. of England 
 lays claim to the crown 
 of France. 
 
 Accession of the house of 
 Luxemburg to the throne 
 of the Empire. Origin 
 of the Helvetic confed- 
 eration. 
 
 The popes remove to Avig- 
 non : fall of their author- 
 ity. End of the ancient 
 Sclavonian kings of Bo- 
 hemia. Accession of the 
 house of Luxemburg to 
 the throne of Bohemia. 
 The cities of the empire 
 admitted to the diet : ori- 
 gin of the college of the 
 cities. Marienburg, in 
 Prussia, becomes the 
 chief residence of the 
 Teutonic order. 
 
 Conquest of the island of 
 Rhodes by the knights of 
 St. John. 
 'Suppression of the order 
 of Templars. Cannon 
 and gunpowder used by 
 the Moors in Spam. 
 
 League of Brunnen : basis 
 of the federative system 
 of the Swiss. Conquests 
 of Matthew Visconti, lord 
 of Milan, in upper Ita- 
 ly. Battle of Morgarten. 
 
 Gedimir, grand-duke of Li- 
 thuania, takes possession 
 of Kiovia. The royal 
 dignity becomes perma- 
 nent in Poland after Va- 
 dislaw Lokietek. 
 
 Extinction of the electors 
 of Brandenburg of the 
 Ascanian family : this 
 electorate given to Ba- 
 varia. 
 
 Sardinia passes under the 
 dominion of the kings of 
 Aragon. 
 
 The grand-dukes of Rus- 
 sia fix their residence at 
 Moscow. 
 
 Treaty of Pavia. Division 
 of the house of Witiels- 
 bach into the Bavarian 
 and Palatine branches. 
 
 Cession to the kings of Bo- 
 hemia of the rights of 
 suzerainty of Poland 
 over Silesia. 
 
HISTORY OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 409 
 
 1338 
 
 1340 
 
 1343 
 
 1345 
 
 1346 
 1348 
 
 1349 
 
 1355 
 
 1356 
 1360 
 
 HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 1362 
 1363 
 
 1368 
 
 1369 
 1370 
 
 1371 
 1373 
 
 1378 
 1380 
 
 John Wickliffe. Urban 1, 
 
 Gregory XI. 
 
 Great schism of the West. 
 
 EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 First mention of gunpow- 
 der in France. 
 Battle of Crecy. 
 
 Humbert II., last dauphin 
 
 of the Viennese, trans- 
 mits Dauphiny to France 
 
 General union of the elec- 
 tors of the empire. Law 
 of Frankfort for main- 
 taining the independence 
 of the empire against the 
 pope. 
 
 BattleofTariffa: defeat of / 
 the Moors of Spain and / 
 Africa by Alphonso XI. t' 
 of Castile. The Poles 
 take possession of Red 
 Russia and of the pro- 
 vinces of Podolia and 
 Volhynia. 
 
 The Venetians obtain en- 
 tire liberty of commerce 
 in the ports of Egypt and 
 Syria. 
 
 The city of Avignon sold 
 to the pope by Jane I. of 
 Naples. 
 
 The plague spread through 
 Europe : persecution of 
 the Jews. Formation of 
 the duchy of Mecklen- 
 burg. 
 
 Extinction of the direct 
 line of the old dukes of 
 Brabant. 
 
 Golden bull of the empe- 
 ror Charles IV. 
 
 Taking of Adrianople by 
 Amarat I. The Turks 
 established in Europe. 
 
 Philip the Bold, founder of 
 the line of new dukes of 
 Burgundy. 
 
 Destruction of the empire 
 of the Moguls in Chi- 
 na. 
 
 Timour or Tamerlane. 
 
 Flourishing condition of 
 the Hanseatic league. — 
 The Piast kings of Po- 
 land end with Casimir 
 the Great : limitation of 
 the royal power in Po- 
 land. 
 
 Accession of the Stuarts to 
 the throne of Scotland. 
 
 The margraviat of Bran- 
 denburg passes from the 
 house of Bavaria to that 
 of Luxemburg. 
 
 Defeat of the Genoese at 
 Chiozza : decline of Ge- 
 noa. Union of Denmark 
 and Norway. Adoption 
 of Lewis I. of- Anjou by 
 Jane I. of Naples. 
 
 19 
 
410 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE OF THE 
 
 1380 
 
 1385 
 
 1386 
 
 1390 
 
 1395 
 1396 
 
 1397 
 1399 
 
 1400 
 1402 
 
 1404 
 
 1406 
 1407 
 1409 
 1412 
 
 1414 
 
 1415 
 
 1416 
 1417 
 
 HISTORY OF RELIGION. 
 
 Christianity introduced in- 
 to Lithuania. 
 
 John Huss. 
 
 Innocent III. at Rome. 
 
 Gregory XII. at Rome. 
 
 Council of Pisa. Three 
 popes. 
 
 Council of Constance con 
 yoked for the extinction 
 of the great schism and 
 limitation of the sacer- 
 dotal power. 
 
 John Huss burnt at Con- 
 stance. 
 
 End of the great schism of 
 the West: election of 
 Martin V. 
 
 PRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Accession of the Red Rose 
 in England. Henry IV. 
 kmg. 
 
 Battle of Agincourt. 
 
 Victory of the Tana'is over 
 the Tartars of Kaptschak 
 by Dimitry Iwanowitsch 
 Dunskoi. 
 
 Aug. 14. Battle of Aljuba- 
 rotta, won by the Portu- 
 guese over the Castil- 
 lans. John I., called the 
 Bastard, ascends the 
 throne of Portugal. 
 
 Jagellon, grand-duke of Li- 
 thuania, chosen king of 
 Poland under the name 
 of Vladislaw V. 
 
 Manufactory of linen pa- 
 per established at Nu- 
 remberg. 
 
 Milan made a duchy for the 
 Visconti. 
 
 Battle of Nicopolis by Ba- 
 jazet I. The Turks mas- 
 ters of Bulgaria. 
 
 Union of Calmar. 
 
 Battle of Ancyra: defeat 
 of Bajazet I. by Timour : 
 anarchy of the Turks. 
 
 The Teutonic order ac- 
 quires Samogitia. Great- 
 ness of the order. Origin 
 of the Polish diets. 
 
 Pisa passes under the do- 
 minion of Florence. 
 
 Foundation of the bank of 
 St. George of Genoa. 
 
 Eric, the Pomeranian king 
 of the union of the north. 
 The kingdom of Sicily, 
 which had long been 
 held by a younger branch 
 of Aragon, is annexed to 
 Aragon. 
 
 Taking of Ceuta by John 
 I. of Portugal : begin- 
 ning of the maritime ac- 
 tivity of the Portuguese, 
 the Austrians stripped of 
 their possessions in Swit- 
 zerland. 
 
 Foundation of the duchy 
 of Savoy : Amedeus 
 VIII. 
 
 First mention of the Bohe- 
 mians or gipsies in Eu- 
 rope. 
 
HISTORY OP THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 411 
 
 A.D. HISTORY OF RELIGION. FRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA, 
 
 1417 
 
 1418 
 
 1420 
 
 1422 
 
 1423 
 
 1429 
 1430 
 
 1431 
 1432 
 
 1434 
 1435 
 
 1436 
 
 1437 
 1438 
 
 1439 
 
 1440 
 
 Peace of Troyes in Cham- 
 pagne : the crown of 
 France secured to the 
 king of England to the 
 exclusion of the Dau- 
 phin. 
 
 Death of Henry V., king 
 of England, and Charles 
 VI., king of France. — 
 Charles VII. king of 
 France. 
 
 Joan of Arc. Charles VII, 
 crowned at Rheims. 
 
 Council of Basle. Eugene 
 IV. 
 
 Dissolution of the council 
 of Basle by Eugene IV. 
 
 Deposition of Eugene IV. : 
 schism of Basle. Coun- 
 cil of Florence. Momen- 
 tary union of the Greeks 
 and Latins. 
 
 Sept. 21. Peace of Arras 
 between Charles VII 
 and the duke of Bur- 
 gundy : decline of the 
 Enghsh party in France. 
 
 The electorate of Branden- 
 burg conferred upon Fre- 
 deric Hohenzollern, bur- 
 grave of Nuremberg, 
 founder of the house of 
 Brandenburg. 
 
 War of the Hussites. 
 
 Discovery of the island of 
 Madeira by the Portu- 
 guese. 
 
 The house of Misnia re- 
 places that of Ascania 
 m the electorate of Sax- 
 ony. Frederic I. elec- 
 tor, founder of the pre- 
 sent house of Saxony. — 
 Adoption of Lewis III. 
 of Anjou by Jane II. of 
 Naples. 
 
 Philip the Good, duke of 
 Burgundy, acquires Bra- 
 bant : power of the dukes 
 of Burgundy. Lucca be- 
 comes again a republic. 
 
 Discovery of the Azores by 
 the Portuguese. Ed- 
 ward king of Portugal. 
 
 Vladislaw VI. king of Po- 
 land. 
 
 Death of Jane II., last 
 queen of Naples of the 
 house of Anjou. 
 
 Printing invented at Stras- 
 burg by John Guttenberg 
 of Mayence. 
 
 Accession of the house of 
 Hapsburg of Austria to 
 the throne of the em- 
 pire. Albert II. empe- 
 ror. Pragmatic sanction 
 of Bourges. Alphonso 
 v., called the African, 
 king of Portugal. 
 
 Pragmatic sanction of Ma- 
 yence. Eric the Pome- 
 ranian, king of the Union 
 of the North, deposed. 
 
 Frederic HI. emperor of 
 Germany. 
 
412 
 
 SYNCHRONITIC TABLE. 
 
 A.D. HISTORY OP RELIGION. 
 
 1440 
 
 1443 
 
 1444 
 1445 
 
 1447 
 
 1448 
 
 1449 
 1452 
 
 1453 
 
 Uoman concordate be- 
 tween the Germans and 
 Eugene IV. 
 
 Concordate of Vienna be- 
 tween Frederic III. and 
 Nicholas V. 
 
 End of the schism of Basle. 
 
 PRANCE AND ENGLAND. EUROPE, ASIA & AFRICA. 
 
 Establishment of standing 
 armies in France under 
 Charles VII. 
 
 War of the two Roses. 
 
 Expulsion of the English 
 from the whole of France 
 except Calais. 
 
 Christopher the Bavarian 
 king of the Union of the 
 North. 
 
 Alphonso v., king of Ara- 
 gon, siezes the kingdom 
 of Naples. Scanderbeg 
 (George Castriota), con- 
 queror of the Turks. 
 
 Victory of Verna by Amu- 
 rat II. 
 
 Casimir IV. king of Po- 
 land. 
 
 Accession of the Sforza to 
 the duchy of Milan. 
 
 Accession of the house of 
 Oldenburg to the throne 
 of Denmark and Nor- 
 way. Charles Cnutson 
 (Charles VIU.) king of 
 Sweden. 
 
 Foundation of the duchy of 
 Modena. 
 
 May 29. Taking of Con- 
 stantinople by Mahomet 
 II. End of the Greek 
 empire. 
 
GEKEALOGY OF THE MEROVINGIAN RACE. 
 
 413 
 
 fl-i "D 
 
 t- ri^ >? „ H 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 -«l 
 
 
 p^ 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 -ci 
 
 
 1— 1 
 
 
 Ct3 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 1 — 1 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 fr-i 
 
 p^ 
 
 to 
 
 on 
 
 
 S 
 
 i 
 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 Tji 
 
 pq 
 
 > 
 
 i-i 
 
 W 
 
 s 
 
 2 
 
 E-l 
 
 1 
 
 -a; 
 
 f^ 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 Ci5 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 f-^ 
 
 
 -«1 
 
 00 
 
 pq 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 f^ 
 
 •a" 
 
 cii 
 
 Sh 
 
 
 'S 
 
 
 J3- 
 
 
 * ho 
 
 
 * § 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 
 * ^ 
 
 J- CO 
 
 
 Ss 
 
 ^:S 
 
 LO O 
 
 ^ c 
 
 "S'S ^ 
 
 ^ "* 
 
 c ° 
 
 j^Td 
 
 
 
 lg 
 
 "" ^ 
 
 M 
 
 o c 
 
 O 
 
 ^•s 
 
 
 HS 
 
 in 
 
 3 
 
 r«' 
 
 
 3^ g) 
 
 2gM 
 
 
414 
 
 GENEALOGY OF THE MEROVINGIAN RACE. 
 
 O 
 
 ^ OK 
 
 h-l t^g 
 
 r- ° - 
 
 O c ^'^ 
 
 P3 o 
 
 
 -2 
 
 I 
 
 O G 
 
 53 
 
 cm 
 
 0<jo 
 
 S 3 . 
 
 sis 
 
 o ™ ini 
 
 3- Th ■« 
 
 ^ s-^ 
 
 
 s.s 
 
 .3(2 
 
 Lf^ 
 
CAROLINGIAN EMPERORS AND KINGS OF ITALY. 
 
 415 
 
 j-OD 
 
 si 
 
 e 3—' 
 i| 
 
 '-'god 
 .a --co 
 a = -i- 
 Ph<J 
 
 o 
 
 s ^ 
 
 Egg 
 
 rh 53 CD 
 
 
 
 32 
 
 
 
 r°s 
 
 »-H .^-U 
 
 WJJ3 
 
 mo 
 
 c :;^ 
 
 .S§5jg 
 
 
 t-i ^r^ '-O 
 
 
 
 
 boSX^Z 
 
 J;J3 
 
 c £g.n.^* 
 
 £1^ 
 
 H"rQ .J 
 
 — *j 
 
 «^„ Qi nj 
 
 <t 
 
 P3 c £ 
 
 00 ■S 
 
 n-1 
 
 1 - 
 
 gS5 
 
 M« 
 
 1^ 
 
 >2 " 
 
 «d2 
 
 ■5 Sto" 
 
 "■fs 
 
 jS 
 
 .2 ow2 
 g.2'^ . 
 
 t- nJ vh -1— 
 rf CD O 
 
 
 o to 
 
 2 Ic 
 
 O 5 
 
 ■Ui <0 
 
 a) ^ 
 ho 
 
 I =■ 
 
 
 pOOM 
 
 
 
 ^Kif 
 
 *p3 bDi^^ 
 ■S.S S'!^ 
 
 S m coo 
 
 I 9. ^'^ 
 I g^oo 
 
 o o o S3 
 
 330! 
 
 S ° S ra 
 
 h 
 ic6 
 
 ooo 
 
 
 -cd . 
 
 
 >g3 
 
 itD v^ 5 
 
 ffl u 
 
 2 --o 
 .:lo »j 
 
 §■35 O 
 -^ • O 
 
 
 
 
 pbD 
 
 ""Sis' 
 3.S-B 
 
 "fe 
 
 ■s e 
 
 g =0 
 
 PQ"fe> 
 
416 
 
 THE CAROLINGIAN KINGS OF FRANCE. 
 
 1^ 
 
 Ph 
 O 
 
 I — I 
 
 -si 
 I— I 
 
 1 — I 
 
 o 
 
 fb 
 
 S2 
 
 55 CO 
 
 
 >S3 
 
 ^2 
 
 
 F^ 
 EH 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 Ci5 
 
 
 ^i^ 
 
THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY TO LEWIS THE FAT. 
 
 417 
 
 GENEALOGY OF THE CAPETIAN DYNASTY TO LEWIS THE FAT. 
 
 Conrad Welf or the Saxon Widekind. 
 
 Robert, called the Strong or the Angiovin, 
 duke of France, 861-866. 
 
 Hugh the Abbey, duke of 
 France, 866-886. 
 
 Eudes, count of Paris, duke of France, 
 
 king, 888-898. 
 
 Robert I., duke, 889: 
 king, 922-923. 
 
 Emma, wife of Raoul of Burgundy, 
 
 queen of France, 923-936 ; 
 
 no posterity. 
 
 Hugh the Great, duke of France, &c., 
 
 923-956 ; married Hedwige, 
 
 sister of Otho the Great. 
 
 Hugh Capet duke, 956 : 
 king, 987-996. 
 
 Otho duke of Burgundy, Henry duke of Burgundy, 
 
 956-965. 965-1002. 
 
 No posterity. 
 
 Robert II. king, 996-1031. 
 
 Marries — 1. Bertha of 
 
 Burgundy ; 2. Constance 
 
 of Provence. 
 
 Henry I. duke of Burgundy, 1015: 
 
 king, 1031-1060. 
 
 Marries Anne of Russia. 
 
 Robert duke of Burgundy, 1062 ; 
 
 source of the first hereditary 
 
 dukes. 
 
 Philip I. king, 1060-1108. Marries- 
 1. Bertha of Holland ; 
 2. Bertrade of Monfort. 
 
 , ^ ^ 
 
 Lewis VL the Fat, king, 1108. 
 
 Hugh the Great, count of Vermandois 
 and Valois in right of his wife Adelaide. 
 (Branch extinct in the 6th generation.) 
 
 18* 
 
418 
 
 FIRST BRANCH OF THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 FIRST BRANCH OF THE CAPETIANS. 
 
 Hugh Capet king, ! 
 
 Robert II. king, 996. 
 Henry I. king, 1031. 
 Philip I. kmg, 1050. 
 
 Lewis VI. the Fat, 1108. 
 
 Lewis the Young, king, 1137. 
 
 Marries — 1. Eleanor of Guy- 
 
 eime ; 2. Constance of Castile ; 
 
 3. Alice of Champagne. 
 
 Robert the Great, 
 
 source of 
 
 the houses of 
 
 Drew and Brittany. 
 
 Philip II. Augustus king, 1180. 
 Marries — 1. Isabelle heiress of 
 Artois; 2. Ag7ies of Meranie. 
 
 Margaret. Marries 
 Henry Court-Martel. 
 
 Lewis VIII. king, 1223. 
 Marries Blanche of Castile. 
 
 Philip count of 
 Boulogne. 
 
 Peter, 7th son. Marries 
 Isabelle, daughter and heir- 
 ess of Reginald of Courte- 
 
 nay, count of Auxerre. 
 
 A 
 
 Peter emp. of C. P. 1216. 
 
 Robert emp. of C. P. 
 1221. 
 
 Lewis IX. k. 1226. 
 
 Marries Margaret of 
 
 Provence. 
 
 Robert I., source 
 of the branch of 
 Artois ; ext. 1272. 
 
 Aiplionso, c. of 
 
 Poitiers, t 1271. 
 
 Marries .lane, 
 
 heiress of 
 
 Toulouse. 
 
 Charles, c. of An- 
 
 jou, t 1285. Marries 
 
 Beatrice of Provence, 
 
 source of kings of 
 
 Sicily. 
 
 Philip III. the Bold, king |Robert c. of Clermont, source Peter c. Blanche. 
 
 1270. Marries — 1. Isabelle of the branches of Bourbon, of of Marries Fer- 
 
 of Aragon ; 2. Mai-y of Vendome, and Montpensier. Alencon. dinand of 
 
 Brabant. ' Lacerda. 
 
 Philip IV. the Fair, king Charles. Marries Cath- Lewis, source Margaret. Mar- 
 
 1285. Marries Jane, arine of Courtenay, of the house ries Edward I., k. 
 
 heiress of Navarre and source of the houses of of Evreux- of England. 
 
 Champaign. Valois and Alencon. Navarre. 
 
 Lewis X. the Obstinate, Philip V. the Long, k. 1316. Charles IV. the Isabelle 
 
 king, 1314. Marries Jane of Bourgogne- Fair, king 1322, Marries Ed- 
 
 I Comte. 1 1328. ward II. 
 
 John I. Jane, heiress of Jane, heiress of the coun- 
 
 Fosthutnous. Navarre. ties of Burgundy and Artois. 
 
 Marries Philip Marries Eudes IV., duke of 
 of Evreux. Burgundy. 
 
THE FIRST BRANCH OF VALOIS. 
 
 419 
 
 GENEALOGY OF THE FIRST BRANCH OF YAIOIS. 
 
 Charles of Valois, second son of Philip the Bold. 
 A, 
 
 Philip VI. of Valois, k. 1328. 
 Marries Jane of Burgundy. 
 
 Charles II. count of Alencon, 
 source of a family ext. in'l525. 
 
 John II. the Good, k. 1350. Marries 
 Bonne, daughter of John of Bohemia. 
 
 Philip I., first duke of Or- 
 leans. No posterity. 
 
 Charles V., k. 1364. Marries 
 Jane of Bourbon. 
 
 Lewis, head of the 
 
 second house of 
 Anjou and Naples. 
 
 Philip the Bold, duke of Bur- 
 gundy, 1363. Marries Marga- 
 ret, heiress of Flanders. 
 
 Charles VI. k. 1380. Mar- 
 ries Isabelle of Bavaria. 
 
 Lewis, duke of Orleans, source 
 of the second Valois. 
 
 Charles VII. k. 1422. Mar. 
 
 Mary of Anjou. 
 A 
 
 Catherine. Mar. — 1. Henry V.; 
 2. Owen Tudor. 
 
 Lewis XI. k. 1461. Mar.— 
 
 1. Margaret of Scotland ; 
 
 2. Charlotte of Savoy. 
 
 Charles, duke of Berri, Norman- 
 dy, and Guyenne. 
 
 John the Fearless, 
 1404. 
 
 Philip the Good, 
 1419. 
 
 Charles the Rash, 
 1467. 
 
 Mary, heiress in 1477. Mar. 
 Maximilian of Austria. 
 
 Charles vm. k. 1483-1498. 
 
 Mar. Anne of Brittany. 
 
 (No sons.) 
 
 Anne of Beaujeu. 
 
 Jane of Orleans. 
 
420 
 
 KINGS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 CO 
 
 O 
 
 I 
 
 P) 
 
 o 
 
 fe 
 
 
 M< 
 
 2 S 
 ^ c 
 
 3 O J 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 g I a 
 
 Sv-V. 
 
 o o 
 
 k 5 o 
 
 8= a 
 
 s 
 
 2I 
 
 o ^ 
 
 Si 
 
 S o 
 
 g C8 
 
 i 
 
 fii 
 
 •— ' 
 
 teS > 
 
 T3 
 
 i0 
 
 a 
 
 "s's 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 ts „^ 
 
 i 
 
 ^^•s 
 
 
 S 2 g 
 
 
 roj:^ a 
 
 „ 
 
 ■g"<? 
 
 s-i 
 
 
 ^ 
 ^ 
 
 2 t; 
 
 
 •^s 
 
 
 (N . 
 
 
 t^ M 
 
 
 (>) 
 
 
 " a 
 
 
 
 
 .. > 
 
 
 is 
 
 
 SPh 
 
 
 
 
 S° 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ei-<( 
 
 
 >.-S 
 
 
 st^ 
 
 ta o 
 
 S 60 
 
 a 
 ..3 
 
 s-a 
 
 lS IS "^ 
 
 a-2 s 
 
 •==^s2 
 
 Sfe 
 
 (nOv, 
 
 8}V. ^ 
 
 ^r 
 
 «^ig? 
 
 Ill 
 
KINGS OF ENGLAND. 
 
 421 
 
 £; 03 
 
 o 
 I 
 
 g 
 
 fc ^^ 
 OS'S 
 
 H 
 
 O 
 
 i^ 
 Ci5 
 
 o 
 
 ^1 
 
 •MM 
 
 WS 
 
 •^ S3 
 
 tea s 
 
 o 
 
 'c3 
 
 "S OS'S 
 
 «-< 
 
 til 
 
 
 L^^-l 
 
 II 
 
 
 sro — ^ 
 
 ■a 
 
 o 
 
 
 J3 g. 
 
 as? 
 ll 
 
 t^ii; 
 
 cdi-H ^ 
 ■"* o 
 
 an 
 
 S-T S ° fl 
 
 .o tao C > 3 
 
 63 S 3 
 
 tq 
 
 as 
 
 a> o 
 
 HHt/^T^ y 
 
 oil 
 S3 
 
 (§s 
 
 3oS . 
 
 ^ ^ o 
 
 ""is 
 
 >i 
 
 o 
 
 
 >^^ 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 as 
 
 
 f^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i'^ 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 bO.S-< 
 
 I <u c =* 
 I gS ., 
 in" P-atM 
 
 0^:3 
 
 lis 
 
 Srto 
 
 ?53 
 
 1 Vh 
 
 re O 
 
 s53^^ 
 
 >-3 
 
 Pi 
 
 ■ A! a 
 
422 
 
 IMPERIAL HOUSE OF SAXONY. 
 
 O 
 CO 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 m 
 
 P-f 
 1^ 
 
 
 0^ Um 
 
 a => 
 
 3 „■-- 
 
 
 fe >> 
 
 « -Sin 
 
 r .a'3 
 
 a 2g 
 
 a°ffl 
 
 B2 
 
 ■-= "^'S 
 
 ■gS 
 
 
 g o 
 
 Sa° 
 
 1 
 
 s^ 
 
 tt 
 
 a -a 
 
 o 
 
 O e3 
 
 
 <i= a 
 
 
 ■^i 
 
 3 
 
 sa 
 
 
 3 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 O^ 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 pa 
 
 s 
 
 ;5 
 
 
 o 
 
 fil 
 
 
 aj 
 
 il 
 
 >. 
 
 
 !^'^ 
 
 tti 
 
 '6 
 
 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^^ 
 
 o 
 
 a "i 
 
 
 X 
 
 |S 
 
 3 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1, 
 
 ag 
 
 
 So 
 
 a tfl 
 «'a < 
 
 o o 
 
 E^ 
 
IMPERIAL HOUSE OF FRANCONIA. 
 
 423 
 
 o 
 
 f^ 
 
 o 
 
 O 
 
 W 
 
 I — I 
 p-i 
 
 
 ^P3 
 
 I ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fc- 
 
 
 
 
 J^'d 
 
 
 
 
 is§ 
 
 
 
 
 S^ =ir^ 
 
 
 
 
 .2 M 
 
 
 
 
 cd^ v^ 
 
 
 
 
 S°° 
 
 
 
 
 •«^ 
 
 
 
 
 a m" 
 
 
 
 
 •5 ca 
 
 
 
 
 £§ n! 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 02 1-1 
 
 UD 
 
 
 
 r-ioi 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 '•§§ 
 ill 
 
 *S 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 '? 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 C5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 s" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 o 
 
 C3 
 
 tS 
 
 1 
 
 %< 
 
 
 
 
 o. 
 
 c 
 
 £3 
 
 'S 
 
 S 
 
 
 bD 
 
 cS 
 
 s 
 
 tH 
 
 S .,• 
 
 •* 
 
 bD 
 
 3" 
 
 ^ 'S 
 
 
 3 o 
 
 1SP-( 
 
 g2| 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 Bow 
 
 H 
 
 1 a 
 
 
 ;6 
 
 a . 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 r-H 
 
 ci 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■rj5 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 -«5 
 
 '^_t3 
 
 ^-^g 
 
 Is 
 
 ft »rii> 
 
 ^1 
 
 3 --Ph*" 
 
 ^g^a- 
 
 ?^ 
 
 Or-H i^ S 
 
 i£. 
 
 -P r^W 
 
 
 3 o-^ii^ 
 
 g 
 
 S^Wfl 
 
 
 C5/J~v, <3 
 
 
 
 • 
 
 
 >.-« S 
 
 • ns 
 
 a -ts 
 
 ID a 
 
 ro Q-^ 
 
 S 
 
 a « N to 
 
 
 '-' cs S cs 
 
 ■-h'S) 
 
 da 
 
 
 -a 
 
 hJ 3 « a 
 
 >s 
 
 1 "^-S S 
 
 S:-! 
 
 "^ ^w 
 
 g^ 
 
 ■^ S 
 
 w§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 s 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
424 
 
 HOUSE OF HOHENSTAIJFEN. 
 
 •s > 
 
 c >-i 
 
 O G 
 
 o ^■°> 
 
 -= ao o 
 -^ "^ =! ■§ 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 ctf" '^ • 
 S Sim 
 3^—1 
 
 
 ss 
 
 S-« 
 
 
 it 
 
 rO O 
 
 IS 
 c^ 2 
 
 s 
 
 K 
 
 o 
 
SECOND HOUSE OF GUELPH OR ESTE. 
 
 425 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 ^ 
 
 ■s 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 1° 
 
 
 CO 
 
 S" 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 s.g 
 
 
 O 
 
 1^" 
 
 
 
 1™ o 
 
 1;'b 
 
 1-^ 
 
 £'§ 
 
 gs 
 
 
 ,Q 3 
 
 3 § 
 
 H5> 
 
 O 
 
 
 og 
 
 Ph 
 
 Is 
 
 .S^< 
 
 o 
 
 •a^ 
 
 el 
 
 p^ 
 
 go 
 
 Is 
 
 OQ 
 
 s s 
 
 ist'C 
 
 1^ 
 
 o 
 
 s ^ 
 
 |l 
 
 W 
 
 "2^ 
 
 o 
 
 N 
 
 Pi 
 
 s's^ 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^l-s. 
 
 
 o 
 
 's'-Ss 
 
 
 o 
 
 ■a SH 
 
 
 f^ 
 
 gSS 
 
 
 ca 
 
 -a &:" 
 
 
 CD £4 
 
 'S>;<< 
 
 sW 
 
 t^ 
 
 1^ 
 
 Q 
 
 •'Oct; 
 
 
 1!^ 
 
 ^ s >^ 
 
 ^- s 
 
 C n) 
 
 g 3 g 
 
 S 3 
 
 is^H 
 
 ©^ Vh 
 
 ^rs 
 
 S-a 
 
 !>5 
 
 ■s-< 
 
 
 M 9 
 
 &,5 S 
 
 tH 3 
 OH 
 
 t^l 
 
 "S 3 
 ^ 
 
 3 
 
 «=w 
 
 1= 
 
 ^. 
 
 m 
 
 SCO 
 
 
 ^ I—I 
 
 
 
 
 >;. 
 
 
 ho 
 
 IS 
 
 .3 
 
 c S 
 
 a 
 
 S £ 
 
 M 
 
 &(£ 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
426 IMPERIAL HOUSE OF HAPSBURG AND LUXEMBURG. 
 
 •§3 
 
 il 
 
 SS 
 
 'go M-a 
 t^ t; ^ ts 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 i^irM 
 
 ^'S^ 
 
 
 ^5B W 
 
 3<! 
 
 -3 >■ 
 
 «P3 
 
 
 
 .S-g . 
 |=ig 
 -I o'S 
 
 ■S IS 
 
 S 5oO— ' I 
 .2 no CO 
 
 bju£ 
 
 cfl I 
 
 
 <£ ^ o e _, 
 
 x;~ 
 
 r-T ■ 
 
 .2d 
 
 "-^ Oi 
 
 aJ —t 
 
 .CC'^ 
 
 Ph^ 
 
 GO -- 
 
 
 LJ; CO 
 
 o ■■* 
 
 ^'S' 
 
 ojO 
 
 an 
 
 
 S-g' 
 
 ■3Q 
 
 .3 
 
 > 
 
 
KINGS OF CASTILE AND LEON. 
 
 427 
 
 2^0 
 
 
 
 Ife 
 
 2^ 
 
 ^< 
 
 3 S 
 
 (>) ° 
 
 — ' bD 
 
 ■1- g 
 
 in 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 OJ 
 
 TO 
 
 
 
 ^- 
 
 +- 
 
 i 
 
 10 
 
 
 Oi 
 
 
 
 
 
 bD 
 
 •i. • 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 >■ 
 
 >■ 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 cti 
 
 
 a 
 
 g 
 
 9 
 
 s 
 
 ;h 
 
 t/2 
 
 Ife 
 
 Ife 
 
 l<! 
 
 !3< 
 
 o „ 
 
 CO ^ 
 
 ' 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 t~t 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 to 
 
 ■a 
 
 m 
 
 a 
 
 
 cS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 C 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 oi 
 
 m 
 
 TJ 
 
 
 
 '3 
 
 3 , 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 lo 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 
 bo 
 
 
 ,C 
 
 
 
 
 'm 
 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 
 :^ 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 :^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 03 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 .< 
 
 ^Ph 
 
 cd 
 
 '00 
 
 .g 
 
 10 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 [4 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ?3 
 
 
 
 
 •< 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1- 
 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bS 
 
 
 g 
 
 'X! 
 
 3 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 >%< 
 
 
 3 
 
 f. 
 
 'm 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 js 
 
 K 
 
 e' 
 
 1 
 
 b 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 ■w 
 
 
 •■3.2" 
 
 OfL, 
 
 LW 
 
428 
 
 KINGS OF ARAGON, MAJORCA, AND SICILY. 
 
 I — I 
 O 
 1 — I 
 
 o 
 l-t. 
 
 o 
 
 -< 
 
 o 
 
 I — I 
 
 c fa 
 
 o2 
 
 
 ■^S 
 
 bo ("t. 
 
 C |ffl 
 
 "SS 
 
 
 - I 
 
 {_<£ 
 
 r^ 
 
 "S 
 
 
 Ph g 
 
 
 i< 
 
 ^1 
 
 ' ca" 
 
 ^-c 
 
 ^ 
 
 go 
 
 •!■ •< 
 
 II 
 
 si 
 
 « 
 
 o!j2 
 
 - 
 
 ,M •• 
 
 
 
 
 o" 
 
 
 Pig 
 
 3 
 ^02 
 
 
 {S 
 
 <{ 
 
 Oct , 
 
 SS 
 
 
 Pco 
 
 
 
 2 r 
 
 •^ffl 
 
 l^ 
 
 Sct 
 
 
 
 c 3 
 
 s,T?o S 
 
 o S 
 
 K 5 
 
 si 
 
 £■0 
 
 fV-3 IS 
 
 I 
 
 ■^£< 
 
 ^o I' 
 
 =* ! c p .. ^ 
 
 ■<- I S^"2 
 
 ~° I '§•53 
 
 ^ fe o 
 
 as „ 
 
 £ o 
 
 o J2 
 
 ss 
 
 o 
 
 l^' 
 
 
 J^' 
 
 rH^S 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL SERIES OF THE EMPERORS OF THE EAST. 429 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL SERIES OF THE EMPERORS OF THE EAST, 
 
 FROM ARCADIUS, SON OF THEODOSIUS THE GREAT, TILL THE 
 ACCESSION OF THE HOUSE OF COMNENES. 
 
 1. — Arcadius, eldest son of Theodosius the Great, emp., 395 ; t 408. 
 
 2. — Theodosius II., the younger son of Arcadius, emp., 408 ; t 450. 
 
 3. — Marcian, emp., 450 ; t 457. Married Pulcheria. daughter of Arcadius. 
 
 4.— Leo I , emp., 457 ; t 474. 
 
 5. — Leo II., the Younger, emp., 474; t 474. 
 
 6. — Zeno, father of Leo II., emp., 474; t 491. 
 
 7. — Anastasius I., Dicorias, emp., 494 ; t 518. 
 
 8.— Justin I., the Elder, emp., 518; t 527. 
 
 9. — Justinian I., nephew of Justin, emp., 527 : t 565. 
 10. — Justinian II., the Younger, emp., 5tJ5; t 578. 
 II. — Tiberius II., surnamed Constantine, emp. , 578; t 582. 
 12.— Maurice, emp., 582; killed, 602. 
 13.— Phocas, emp,,602; killed, 610. 
 14.— Heraclius, emp., 610; t 641. 
 
 15. — Heraclius Constantine, son of Heraclius, emp., 641 ; t 641. 
 16. — Heracleonas, brother of Cons., emp., 641 ; exiled, 641. 
 17. — Constant II., son of Herac. Const., emp., 641 ; 1 668. 
 18. — Constantine III., Pogonat, son of Constant, emp., 668; 1 685. 
 19. — Justinian II., son of Constantine Pogonat, emp., 685; dethroned, 695 : re-estab- 
 lished, 705 ; killed, 711. 
 20. — Leontius, emp., 695; dethroned, 698. 
 21. — Absimar Tiberius, emp., 698; dethroned, 705. 
 22. — Philipicon, surnamed Bardanus, emp., 711 ; killed, 713. 
 23. — Anastasius II., or Artemius, emp., 713 ; dethroned, 716 ; killed, 719. 
 24.— Theodosius III., emp., 716 ; abdicates, 717. 
 25.— Leo III., the Isaurian, emp., 717; t 741. 
 26. — Constantine IV., Copronymus, son of Leo, emp., 741 ; t 775. 
 27. — Leo IV., surnamed Chazarus, emp., 775 ; t 780. 
 28.— Constantine V,, son of Leo, emp., with his mother Irene, 780; killed by his 
 
 mother, 797. 
 29.— Irene, alone, 797 ; deposed, 802 ; t 803. 
 80.— Nicephoras, emp., 802; t 811. 
 
 31. — Stauratius, son of Nicephoras, emp., 811 ; abdicates, 811 ; t 812. 
 32. — Michel I., Curopalates, emp., 811 ; dethroned, 813. 
 33.— Leo v., the Armenian, emp., 813 ; killed, 820. 
 34. —Michel II., the Stammerer, emp., 820 ; t 829. 
 35._Theophilus, son of Michel II., emp., 829 ; t 842. 
 36.— Michel III., the Drunkard, son of Theophilus, emp., 842; killed, 867. 
 37. — Basil, the Macedonian, emp., 867 ; t 886. 
 38.— Leo VI., the Philosopher, son of Basil, emp., 886 ; t 911. 
 
 39.— Alexander, son of Leo VI., emp., 911, with his nephew Constantine VL ; t 912. 
 40. — Constantine VI., Porphyrogenitus, son of Leo VI., emp., 911 ; dethroned by his 
 
 father-in-law, Romanus I., towards 919; re-established, 945 ; t 959. 
 41, 42, 43, 44. — Romanus I., Lecapenes, and his three sons, Christopher, Stephen, and 
 
 Constantine VII., emp., 919, 920, 928 ; dethroned, 944, 945. 
 45. — Romanus II., the younger son of Constantine VI., emp., 959 ; t 963. 
 46. — Nicephoras Phocas, enip., 963; assass., 969. 
 47. — John Zimisces, emp., 969 ; t 976. 
 
 48, 49.— Basil II., and Constantine VIII., son of Romanus II., emp., 976 ; 1 1025 and 1028. 
 50.— Romanus III., Argyrus, emp., 1028; 1 1034. 
 51.— Michel IV., the Paphlagonian, emp., 1034 ; 1 1041. 
 52.— Michel V., Calaphates, emp., 1041 ; deposed, 1042. 
 
 53, 54. — Zoe, enmress, and Constantine IX., Monomachus, emp., 1042; 1 1054. 
 55. — Theodora, Zoe's sister, empress, 1054 ; t 1056. 
 56, — Michel VI., Stratioticus, emp., 1056; abdicated, 1057. 
 57.— Isaac Conmenes, emp., 1057; abdicated, 1059. 
 
430 GREEK EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF COMNENES. 
 
 58.— Constantine X., Ducas, emp., 1059; T 1067. 
 
 59, 60. — Eudocia, empress, Michael Parapinaces, Andronicus, and Constantine, her 
 
 sons, emperors, with Romanus IV., Diogenes, her husband, associated to the 
 
 empire, 1068 ; and killed, 1071. 
 61. — Michael VII,, Parapinaces, brother of Constantine, Ducas, and Eudocia, sols 
 
 emperor, 1071; abdicated, 1078. 
 62. — Nicephoras Botoniates, emp., 1078; dethroned, 1081. 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS OE THE HOUSE OF COMNENES. 
 
 Manuel Comnenes, governor of Nice. 
 
 57 — ^Isaac Comnenes, proc. emp., 1057; resigned, 1059, John Comnenes Curopa- 
 
 in favor of Constantine Ducas : t 1061. lates, t 1067. 
 
 63. — Alexis Comnenes set up emperor against Nicephoras Botoniates, 1081 : 1 118. 
 
 , A , 
 
 64. — John Comnenes, the Aime Comnenes, known Isaac Comnenes Sebasta- 
 
 Fair, emp., 1118 : 1 1243. by her writings. crator. 
 
 ( \ ( \ 
 
 C5. — Manuel Comnenes, emp., 1143: 67. — Andronicus I., Comnenes the Elder, 
 
 t 1180. emp., 1183; killed, 1185. 
 
 . ^ , , ^ > 
 
 66. — Alexis 11., Comnenes, emp., 1180 ; dethroned Manuel Comnenes, blinded, 
 
 and killed by Andronicus, 1183. 1186. 
 
 _V^. 
 
 Alexis Comnenes, David Comnenes. 
 
 source of the 
 emperor of Trebisond, 
 ext. in 1461. 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF ANGELUS. 
 
 Constantine Angelas, Gov. of Sirmium, about 1173. Mar. Theodora Comnenes, 
 daughter of Alexis I. 
 
 Andronicus Angelus, exiled, 1183. John Angelus, Sebastocrator, 1185. 
 
 68. — Isaac II., 69. — Alexis III., Angelus Com- Isaac Michael Ange- 
 
 Angelus, emp., nenes, emp., 1195, by the deposi- Angelus. lus, Comnenes, 
 
 1185 ; dethroned, tion of his brother ; dethroned, I source of the de- 
 
 1195; re-estab., 1203 ; shut up, 1205. spots of Epirus. 
 
 1203: tl204. I | 
 
 70. — Alexis IV., Angelus, Anna Comnenes. 71. — Alexis V., Ducas- 
 
 emp., with his father. Marries Theodore Las- Murzuphylus, emp., 
 
 l203; killed, 1204. caris. 1204 ; killed, 1204. 
 
LATIN EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 431 
 
 LATIN EMPERORS OF CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders, 1 1195. 
 
 I 
 
 1. — Baldwin I, elected and 
 crowned emperor at Constan- 
 tinople, 1204 : 1 1206. 
 ***** 
 
 5. — John of Brienne, titular 
 
 king of Jerusalem, guardian 
 
 of Baldwin II., 1229 ; obtains 
 
 the title of emperor, 1231 : 
 
 1 1237. 
 
 2.— Henry, emp., 1206: 
 1 1216. 
 
 Yoland, t 1219. Marries 
 
 3. Peter Courtenay, chosen 
 
 emp., 1216 : 1 1219. 
 
 4. — Rohert I., 5. — Baldwin II., emp., 1228; driven 
 emp., 1219 : from the throne by Michael Paleolo- 
 t 1228. gus, 1261 ; t 1272. Mar. Maria, 
 
 daughter of John of Brienne, titular 
 king of Jerusalem, and emperor of 
 Constantinople. 
 
 Philip, titular emperor of Constantinople, 1 1285. 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS OF NICE. 
 
 Theodore Lascaris I., proclaimed emperor at Nice, 1206: 1 1222. Marries Anna, 
 daughter of the emperor Alexis III., Angelus, 1198 (V. house of Angelus). 
 
 , ' . 
 
 Irene Lascaris, 1 1241. Mar. John Ducas Vataeb, emp., 1222: 1 1255. 
 
 Theodore Ducas Lascaris, emp., 1255: t 1259. 
 
 John Lascaris, emp., 1259, at six years of age ; dethroned and blinded by his guar- 
 dian, Michel Paleologus, 1260 : t after 1284. 
 
432 GREEK EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OF PALEOLOGUS. 
 
 GREEK EMPERORS OF THE HOUSE OE PALEOLOGUS. 
 
 1. — ^Michel Paleologus, proclaimed emp. at Nice, 1260 ; retakes Constantinople, 1261 : 
 
 t 1282. 
 
 2. — Andronicus II., Paleologus, emp., 1282 ; dethroned by his grandson, 1328 : 1 1332. 
 
 Michel Paleologus, associated to the 
 empire by his father, 1295 : 1 1320. 
 
 Theodore Paleologus, source of the 
 marquisses of Montferrat, extinct 1533. 
 
 3. — Andronicus III., Paleologus the Younger, 5.— John Catacuzene, guardian of .lohn 
 
 emp., 1328— 1332: t 1341. 
 
 4. — John I., Paleologus, emp., 1341 ; driven 
 away by John Catacuzene, 1347 ; re-estab- 
 
 I., Paleologus, makes himself emp., 
 1341-1347; abiUcates, 1355: t . . . . 
 
 6. — Matthew Cata- Theodora, marries 
 lished' 1355 : t 1391. Mar. Helen, daughter of cuzene, proclaimed Orkhan, sultan of 
 John Catacuzene, 1347. emp. by his father, the Turks, 1347. 
 
 Andronicus, excluded from 7. — Manuel Pal- ' IcSO. 
 
 
 the throne for having eologus, emp.. 
 
 
 
 conspired against his father. 1391: t 1425. 
 
 
 
 8.— JohnII.,Pal- 
 
 9.— John Andronicus 10. — Con- 
 
 Demetrius 
 
 Thomas Pal- 
 
 elogus, associ- 
 
 III., Pal- Paleologus, stantine Pal- 
 
 Paleologus, 
 
 eologus, 
 
 ated to the em- 
 
 eologus, prince of eologus, 
 emp., Thessaloni- Dragases, 
 
 despot of the 
 
 Prince of 
 
 pire by his uncle 
 
 Pelopon- 
 
 Achaia and 
 
 Manuel, 1399 ; 
 
 1425 : ca, dethvon- last emp.. 
 
 nesus, de- 
 
 the Pelopon- 
 nesus, de- 
 
 reigns alone 
 
 t 1448. ed, 1425. 1448 ; killed 
 
 throned. 
 
 about 1400 ; ab- 
 
 at the taking 
 
 1469 : 1 1471. 
 
 throned. 
 
 dicates towards 
 
 of Const., 
 
 
 1469 : t at 
 
 1402. 
 
 1453. 
 
 
 Rome, 1465. 
 
 
 Andrew Paleologus cedes in 
 
 Sophia 1 1503. 
 
 Mar. Ivan 
 
 
 1494 his rights to Charles 
 
 Vasilievitsch, 
 
 first gr. d. of 
 
 
 VIII., k. of France. 
 
 Russia, 
 
 1472. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL SERIES OF THE POPES. 433 
 
 SULTANS OE THE OTTOMAN TURKS TO MAHOMET II. 
 
 Soliman Schah. 
 
 Ertogrul or Ortogrul, 1 1289. 
 
 1. — Osman or Ottoman I., lays the foundation of the new dominion of the Turks 
 towards 1300 : t 1326, 
 
 2. — Orkhan takes the title of Sultan ^ Padischah : 1 1359. 
 
 r ' — ' ^ 
 
 Soliman seizes Gallipoli, 1358: 1 1358. 3.— Amurat or Mourad I., called Gazi or 
 
 the Conqueror, Sultan 1359 ; takes 
 Adrianople 1360 : t 1389. 
 
 ,.- ^ ^ 
 
 4. — Bajazet I., called Rdrim or the Thunderbolt, Sultan 1389 ; defeated and taken 
 prisoner by Timour, the 16th June, 1402 : t 8th March, 1403. 
 
 Soliman I. receives from Ti- 6. — Musa receives from Timour 7. — Mahomet I. sole 
 
 mour the investiture of the investiture of Turkey Sultan after an 
 
 Turkey in Europe, 1403 : in Asia, 1403 : kiUed 1413. anarchy of ten years, 
 
 kiUed 1410. 1413 : t 1421. 
 
 ,, * ^ 
 
 8.— Amurat or Mourad II., Sultan 1421 : 1451. Mustapha, killed 1424. 
 
 > ^ , 
 
 9.— Mahomet H., Sultan 1451 ; takes Constantinople 1453: 1 1481. 
 
 CHRONOLOGICAL SERIES OP THE POPES, 
 
 FROM GREGORY VII. TO THE END OF THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE "WEST. 
 
 1.— Gregory vn., elected April 22, 1073, confirmed by the Emperor Henry IV. : 
 t May 25, 1085. 
 
 2.— Victor III., elected May 24, 1086 : t September 16, 1087. 
 
 3.— Urban II., elected March 12, 1088 : t July 29, 1099. 
 
 4.— Pascal H., elected August 13, 1099: t January 21, 1118. 
 
 5.— Gelasius II., elected Januaiy 25, 1118: t January 2.5, 1119. 
 
 6.— Calixtus n., elected February 1, 1119 : t December 12, 1124. 
 
 7.— Honorius II., elected December 21, 1124 : t February 24, 1130. 
 
 8.— Innocent II., elected February 15 1130 : t September 24, 1143. 
 
 9.— Celestine U., elected September 26, 1143 : t March 9, 1144. 
 10.— Lucius n., elected March 12, 1144 : t February 25, 1145. 
 11.— Eueene ID., elected February 27, 1145: t July 8, 1153. 
 12.— Anastasius IV., elected July 9, 1153 : t December 2, 1154. 
 13.— Adrian IV., elected December 3, 1154 : t September 1, 1159. 
 14.— Alexander HI., elected September 7, 1159: t August 30, 1181. 
 15.— Lucius III., elected September 1, 1181 : t November 24, 1185. 
 16._XJrban HI., elected November 25, 1185: t October 19, 1187. 
 17.— Gregory VIII., elected October, 20, 1187 : t December 17, 1187. 
 18.— Clement III., elected December 19, 1187 : t March 27, 1191. 
 19.— Celestine III., elected March 30, 1191 : t January 8, 1198. 
 20.— Innocent HI., elected January 8, 1198 : t July 17, 1216. 
 21.— Honorius III., elected July 18, 1216 : t March 18, 1227. 
 22.— Gregory IX., elected March 19, 1227 : t August 31, 1241. 
 
 23.— Celestine IV., elected towards the end of October, 1241 : t towards Nov. 18, 1241. 
 24.— Innocent IV., elected June 25, 1243 : t December 7, 1254. 
 25.— Alexander IV., elected December 12, 1254 : t May 25, 1261. 
 26.— Urban IV., elected August 29, 1261 : t October 2, 1264. 
 27.— Clement IV., elected February 5, 1265 : t November 29, 1268. 
 28.— Gregory X., elected September 1, 1271 : t January 10, 1276. 
 29.— Innocent V., elected February 21, 1276 : t June 22, 1276. 
 
434 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 
 
 30.— Adrian V., elected and 1 1276. 
 
 31.— John XXI.. elected September 13, 1276 : t May 17, 1277. 
 32.— Nicholas 111., elected November 25, 1277 : t August 22, 1280. 
 33._Martin IV., elected February 22, 1281 : t March 28, 1285. 
 ■ 34.— Honorius IV., elected April 2, 1285 : t April 3, 1287. 
 35.— Nicholas IV., elected February 15, 1288: t April 4, 1292. 
 36. — Celestine V., elected July 5, 1294; abdicates December 13, 1294. 
 37.— Boniface vm., elected December 24. 1294 : t October 11, 1303. 
 38.— Benedict XI., elected October 22, 1303 : t July 7, 1304. 
 39.— Clement v., elected June 5,1305; establishes himself at Avignon, 1309: t April 
 
 20, 1314. 
 40.— John XXII., elected August 7, 1316 : t December 4, 1334. 
 41.— Benedict XII., elected December 20, 1334 : t April 25, 1342. 
 42.— Clement VI,, elected May 7, 1342: t December 6, 1352. 
 43. — Innocent VI., elected December 18, 1352 : t September 2, 1362. 
 44.— Urban V., elected month of September, 1362: t December 19, 1370. 
 45.— Gregory XI. elected December 30, 1370 : t March 27, 1378. 
 
 POPES OF THE GREAT SCHISM OF THE WEST, 
 
 SOMAN POPES. 
 
 Urban VI., elected at Rome, 
 April 9, 1378: t October 
 18, 1389. 
 
 Boniface IX., elected Nov. 
 2, 1389 : t October 1, 1404. 
 
 Innocent VII., elected Oct. 
 17, 1404 : t Nov. 6, 1406. 
 
 Gregory XII., elected Nov. 
 30, 1406; deposed by the 
 Council of Pisa, June 5, 
 1409 ; resigned the Papacy 
 at the Council of Con- 
 stance, 1415. 
 
 AVIGNONESE POPES. 
 
 Clement VII., elected Sept. 
 21. 1378: t September 16, 
 1394. 
 
 Benedict XIII., elected Sept. 
 28, 1394 ; deposed by the 
 Councils of Pisa and of 
 Constance in 1409 & 1417 : 
 1 1424. 
 
 PISAN POPES. 
 
 Alexander V., elected at the 
 Council of Pisa, June 26, 
 1409 : t May 3, 1410. 
 
 John XXni., elected May 17, 
 1410 ; deposed at the Coun- 
 cil of Constance, May 29, 
 1415. 
 
 FROM THE END OP THE GREAT SCHISM TO THE TAKING OP 
 CONSTANTINOPLE. 
 
 Martin V., elected at the Council of Constance, November 11, 1417: t Feb. 21, 1431. 
 Eugene IV., elected March 6, 1431 : t February 23, 1447. 
 Nicholas V., elected March 6, 1447 : t March 24, 1455. 
 
 CHRONOLOGY OF THE MONASTIC ORDERS. 
 
 ORDEKS. 
 
 1. — Solitaries, 
 
 2. — Cenobites, 
 
 3. — Augustinians, - 
 
 4. — Maronites, 
 
 5. — Benedictines, - 
 
 6.— Of St. Basil, 
 
 7. — Cartesians, 
 
 8.— Of Mercy, - 
 
 9.— Trinitarians, or Mathurins. 
 10. — Carmelites, - 
 
 Barefooted Carmelites, 
 II. — Franciscans, 
 11. — Cordeliers. 
 12. — Domenicans, 
 13. — Premontres., 
 14. — Bernardins, 
 15. — Celestins, 
 16. — Minims, 
 17. — Jesuits, - 
 18. — Capuchins, ■ 
 19.— Trappists, 
 
 FOUNDERS. 
 
 St. Paul, the Hermit, 
 St. Anthony, Abbot, 
 St. Augustin, 
 St. Maron, 
 St. Benedict, 
 St. Basil, 
 St. Bruno, 
 St. Peter of Nola, 
 St. John of Matha, - 
 The Blessed Abbot, 
 St. John de la Croix, 
 St. Francis of Assisa, 
 
 St. Dominic, 
 
 St. Norbert, 
 
 St. Bernard, 
 
 St. Celestin, 
 
 St. Francis de Paola, 
 
 St. Ignatius de Loyola, 
 
 de Ranc6, 
 
 DATES. 
 
 about 300 
 300 
 350 
 400 
 500 
 530 
 1086 
 1192 
 1198 
 1204 
 
 1209 
 1209 
 1215 
 1219 
 1250 
 1254 
 1435 
 1510 
 1623 
 1662 
 
CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 435 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 3 
 
 
 ►J 
 
 B 
 
 « 
 
 .3 
 
 D 
 
 2 
 '3 
 
 Is "5 
 
 IPS' 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 OP 
 
 <M 
 
 D 
 
 o 
 
 ►-^ .XI: 
 
 ooofei 
 
 
 t 
 
 rin;^ 
 
 
 
 (U S !*> 
 
 
 ^ tS 
 
 
 
 
 
 1-1 
 
 55ii< 
 
 ia>c6 
 
 2^ ^ o 
 
 
 o 
 
 esw 
 
 a« 
 
 03 3 
 
 f^ O 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 1:4 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 <@ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'o 
 
 -a 
 
 a 
 
 13 
 
 
 !a 
 
 ■e 
 
 
 £ 
 
 i 
 
 T3 
 
 
 •a 
 
 ■3 
 
 ■aS 
 
 ,B 
 
 ^ 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 H 
 
 H 
 
 w 
 
 w 
 
 u 
 
 <! 
 
 O-^Ot^ClTj*!^ C0O»^O(NC0Tt^i>»Omt^C0 OSOfMfOtOl^— 'OJyS 
 
 O r-1 -H ^ rH O) CM 
 CO C30 CO 00 CO 00 00 
 
 oococooocooocoaoco 
 
436 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 •A 
 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 1— ( 
 
 o 
 
 S2 
 
 ■■5 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 O 
 
 m 
 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 S3 
 bD 
 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 
 1 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 KO 
 
 
 P 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ >■ _ lj 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 c 
 
 
 o 
 o S 
 
 13 
 
 rf . S . "3 fa 2 . 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fi 
 
 i-i 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 H 
 
 m 
 
 ■< 
 
 < 
 
 
 .s 
 
 l2 
 
 (—1 
 
 > 
 
 a 
 
 11 
 
 O O 
 
 s§l| ig 
 
 -c S3 
 
 1 o 
 
 TOT 
 
 X 
 
 5 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 <3i/3 
 
 &H CQ 
 
 Om 
 
 <^ 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 
 •a^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w" 
 
 
 
 
 >■ 
 
 
 *^ 
 
 ^J 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 1 
 
 
 '3 
 
 o 
 
 
 5 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 
 _s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 Tj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 <d 
 
 a a 
 
 kJ 
 
 
 & 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 << 
 
 • ^ 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 '™' 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 S S 
 
 
 
 '^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 '3'p 
 
 o S 
 
 a 
 
 J3 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 
 o o 
 
 cS rt 
 
 ,« 
 
 3 
 
 ^ 
 
 rS 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 13 
 
 
 >AvAO O 
 
 o 
 
 K 
 
 w 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 tfPS 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 Sz; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a> 
 
 
 
 
 
 -< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 +3 
 
 "2 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■a 
 
 
 
 
 4S 
 
 . 1 
 
 t^o^ 
 
 OM 
 
 -rt^ L 
 
 n 1- -< m"to" 
 
 bs. 00 O^ OCO 
 
 rt<ira 
 
 O r-( CO Tf O d 
 
 S5 «f ^ K 
 
 o 
 
 c- 1~^ 
 
 Sg 
 
 t 3s 
 
 gsssss 
 
 
 1 oo 
 
 
 ^-^ro 
 
 •i 
 
 Soo 
 
 
 1 00 00 1 00OTO5 
 
 1 030 
 
 O) O) Q^ o> O) c^ 03 cn d) oi 
 
CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 437 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .sj 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^5^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2"> 
 
 t3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S l-H 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 1 
 
 3 S 
 
 
 c 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 § 
 6 M 
 
 E; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 —H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I-; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 P4 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 o 
 
 a 
 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 So 
 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 rig 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 03 
 
 ;£_ 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 
 
 
 Hi>^ 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I-^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 %-• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ;« 
 
 
 ^S- 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 t/3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -=! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 El 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 p. 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 0) 
 
 
 ri> 
 
 3." 
 
 CO 
 
 II 
 
 
 a a a 
 o o o 
 
 I-!'-)'-) 
 
 
 
 i^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 ^9 
 
 
 >-i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >6 
 
 
 ft 
 
 
 .2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tn 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 
 
 *-l 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 lUl-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 h1 
 
 
 
 "2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a-u 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 TD 
 
 
 
 
 >; 
 
 
 1-^ 
 
 03 
 bxj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •a 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'kSi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'O 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 t2 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TS-ia 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 FiQH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 CC C3 
 
 ^ to m o o? ^ 
 
 TrT 
 
 CO O CO Tt* lO =£5 O^ 
 
 — « CO m b- 
 
 ooi coT»<inooociTOi!5 
 
 eOb^Tti ifii 
 
 Q 
 
 Ol O? CO c^ c^ ^^ 
 
 a: 
 
 
 T^ 
 
 S 
 
 in lt:. 
 
 uo 
 
 
 
 uo to O -X) 
 
 
 
 
 t^t^t^i^ 
 
 
 
 
 Oi Oi 
 
 
 O OCiOO) Ci 
 
 OlCfl 
 
 Q^O^O^O^O^O^O^O^Q^O) 
 
 0)000)030)00)0)03 
 
 Cn<JSO> Oi 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
438 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 p 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <1 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ttl 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 3 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 'o a 
 
 11 
 
 JO 
 
 3 
 § 
 
 s i s 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^»^!B^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a^S. 
 
 ^pi-^faO_ 
 
 
 
 
 A'^ 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 •S 
 "> 
 m 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 1-J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E-. 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 > 
 
 c 
 
 M 
 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -1 
 
 § 
 
 S 
 
 ^ "t 
 
 p4 
 
 M 
 
 > 
 
 a a 
 
 To 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 SjS 
 
 c 
 
 " 3 
 
 '6vi 
 
 o o 
 
 c2m 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 o 
 
 l-S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 W 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •r 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 
 
 [4 
 
 
 
 
 
 a £ £ g 
 
 %-a 1 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 M 
 
 ■3 
 c3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 /)H 
 
 H 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 Wh 
 
 
 
 
 
 CO 
 
 O^ 
 
 OOJCO 
 
 ^(M-rfiO 
 
 to 
 
 
 l^as-rf t^^co 
 
 "Tra" 
 
 
 CD t^ 
 
 CXiO 
 
 rv? 
 
 ■rf to 
 
 rr~ 
 
 is 
 
 < 
 
 0)05 
 
 ooo 
 
 Booo 
 
 o 
 
 
 22§is2 
 
 2 
 
 
 22 
 
 II 
 
 2 
 
 SS 
 
 1 
 
CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 489 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 
 
 
 << 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (-5 
 
 
 >j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 " 
 
 
 > 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 TS 
 
 
 o 
 
 8 
 >2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 << 
 c 
 3 
 
 
 2 
 "3 
 
 w as 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _Rfi 
 
 
 P 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tio 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 b> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 o s 
 
 
 2 
 
 ■^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •-^ 
 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 aj 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 fc 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 i1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^5 s 
 g3§ 
 
 X 
 
 Q 
 
 
 ^ 
 c 
 
 ^ 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 li 
 
 
 It 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 ^<:s; 
 
 (/ 
 
 5^ 
 
 
 ^^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 ^fe; 
 
 
 PO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 ■d 
 
 
 
 
 p^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ra 
 m 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 t: 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 i 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 ft 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rf 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 .s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 m 
 
 
 HH 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 CQ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 11 
 
 1-4 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 "3 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 J 
 
 Oi 
 
 wZ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 ^ 
 u 
 
 
 
 
 
 P^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 >5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■>! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >■ 
 
 
 
 S 
 O 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 3 
 
 
 h; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 P4 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tj 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 R 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-H 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 "3 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i_ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 eo 1-- GOO ■— ' 
 
 c^ 
 
 in 
 
 
 :o 
 
 
 oj ro'^t* 
 
 ^ 
 
 "^ 
 
 
 ro --o t^ 00 CO -<< 
 
 
 in 
 
 oooio^to 
 
 ToOCTiPOOO ^ 
 
 a 
 
 Ktoii^ 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 
 
 i^t^i^ 
 
 t-- 
 
 t-* 
 
 
 h- 
 
 CO 00 CO 
 
 
 3^ 
 
 
 m 
 
 critji 
 
 OOOOOO— Irt 
 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 o 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 ooooo 
 
 
 OOOOOO 
 
 
 o 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 l-H»— 1 
 
 rH 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^-^ f-1l— ( 
 
 '"' 
 
 '"' 
 
 
 ■^ 
 
 rH 
 
 1— It-H 
 
 ■"• 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 •"• 
 
 f—tf-H 
 
 '"^ 
 
 1— (i—ii— <i-H 
 
 1— (l— IT-^ 
 
440 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 E-i 
 O 
 
 
 jj 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 O 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 Q 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 a*^ 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 K 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 P4 
 
 
 
 >'S 
 
 >■ 
 
 » 
 
 H II 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >« 
 
 
 H 
 
 13 
 . G 
 
 > 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 o s 
 56 
 
 2 
 
 
 tri ^ <U cC V 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 1: 
 
 
 O 
 
 c 
 
 llillll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •j 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 T3 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 
 
 
 'eti'" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S !_: 
 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 t> 
 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 S > 
 >> 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 H2 ,jjH 
 
 'C 'm ^^ '-^ 'oo 
 
 ,s2 ps2 
 
 l-i 
 
 3 
 
 -a 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 
 « 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •< 
 
 ►5 
 
 a 
 
 1:3 
 
 
 
 
 
 .S 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 I 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ni G 
 
 
 
 
 ■§ 
 S 
 
 
 
 ft 
 
 'cti 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 CT3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 _oH_ 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 OiJH 
 
 
 
 <J<) 
 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <! 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1,^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 rt 
 
 g 
 
 
 ■!> 
 
 
 
 
 I"" 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tJ 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 fo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 p5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 &i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 <) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 2S;!3Sg^S 
 
 
 i^foS 
 
 o 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 §3gggS 
 
 
 fe 
 
 
 85SS 
 
 mo 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 .-Irt 
 
 ,-(— !.-( 
 
 '-' 
 
 
 l-Ht-lr-l 
 
 ■^ 
 
 '"' 
 
 '"' 
 
 '-' 
 
 fH 
 
 
 
 
 '"' 
 
 
 r-ll-l 
 
 '^ 
 
 rHrl 
 
CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 441 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 < 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l-H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-t 
 
 
 ij 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !h 
 
 
 O 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■§ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 1^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 <U 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -3 
 3 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 3 
 
 §^„- 
 
 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 b 
 
 S s 
 
 
 
 HH 
 
 I" w 
 
 ai a! 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 
 13 h 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ tD a S J3 
 
 
 
 ,3 
 
 K a S> 
 
 ogfe; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '■m 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 4 
 
 „• 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 
 
 M 
 Pi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •s 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 O ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 c 
 
 ,2 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 _> 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 '-5 
 
 
 
 o.? 
 
 
 
 
 
 i-s 
 
 
 
 < 
 
 M 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Eh 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 > 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 = 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 03 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 !^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 >! 
 
 h 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 X. 
 
 o 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 § 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 511 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 P4 
 
 
 
 ;3 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 hJPOO 
 
 
 
 
 O 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 5. 
 
 
 
 05 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "i 
 
 
 «B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 o 
 
 -3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 eu 
 
 Ofa 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Z 
 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 x 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tK 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 .2 
 
 .2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 -^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ge: 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ph 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t^lJ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 , z 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 13 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 iz; 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 c2 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 1-: 
 
 
 
 
 ffi 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 — : 
 
 r^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 ~ 
 
 s 
 
 j^ 
 
 
 I 
 
 Oi 
 
 o 
 
 717 
 
 Tt4 
 
 
 to CO 0-. GO Ol CO 
 
 Tj' ;cn>- GO o: 
 
 to t^o 
 
 
 T N. >— < 
 
 COt^OiO 
 
 _( 
 
 a 
 
 t^ 
 
 2 
 
 X 
 
 CO 
 
 
 10)01 OS 
 
 
 OlOSO^ 
 
 i 
 
 (JJOJ 
 
 ^§^c^S 
 
 gSi 
 
 § 
 
 
 ScsSScS 
 
 ggs 
 
 ■^ 
 
 —1 
 
 '-^ 
 
 ■-1 
 
 •-* 
 
 -" 
 
 
 — ( 
 
 '-' 
 
 '-' 
 
 ^ 
 
 '-^ 
 
 
 '""-''-' 
 
 
 
 "* 
 
 
 —"-'-' 
 
 
 '"' 
 
 
 
 
 ■"* 
 
 —' 
 
 
 -H 
 
442 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 g '^ g ^ 
 
 afe; 
 
 
 ^ . 
 
 
 t:^ 
 
 
 >'SH 
 
 
 •a-e 
 
 
 
 
 
 Joanna 
 
 Navan 
 Peter II 
 Aragon 
 
 Sancho 
 Cast, a 
 Alfonso 
 Aragon 
 
 11 
 
 
 s X 
 
 >■ .-a • 
 
 > 
 
 1— 1 
 
 > 
 
 >■> 
 
 nocent 
 drian V 
 hn XX 
 icholas 
 artin IV 
 
 P 
 
 o 
 
 
 C o 
 
 .2 '3 
 
 S<^.-i^'S. 
 
 X 
 
 z 
 
 ocq 
 
 
 (N O^Ttl i^ r-H -<$ in O -H (M CO Tjl to i^^Tt* ID iOOQiM C^ -^ in «D 
 
CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 448 
 
 o ca 
 
 KgT:a« 
 
 
 
 o . 
 
 •^ e^ Ci '^ ■ ^ C a ^ 7^ ^ 
 
 ^8 
 
 ctJ t- 
 
 
 eti e 2 e 
 
 (So 
 
 
 
 .2 c 
 
 K S 
 
 S a> 
 
 0)000 ooc— i-H ^|piJ^c3c5pj cQ o!roP3rOTj<ThTt<-r?r loininto o 
 
444 
 
 CONTEMPORARY SOVEREIGNS. 
 
 .■8 
 
 B a 
 
 ffiO 
 
 1^ . 
 
 -^ « S !, „• S ^ 
 
 
 •^ 
 
 S S ni § S S^C « !- § 
 
 "^.Cj^.b-S C <a a OS S 
 
 
 tfl S o s 
 
 III I 
 
 B3<; 
 
 5§ 
 
 ■i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 t3 
 
 B" 
 
 g 
 
 
 — ^ 
 
 "-J 
 
 
 'm 
 
 •s 
 
 
 
 
 
 > 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 o P « 
 
 Ho 
 
 3d5o5 I coco CO CO '^ ■•3^ -"^^ '^ ^ -^ -^ Tji -^ ra^ rti Tji tj^ rp Tf -^ -^ -^ '<3< 
 
DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 445 
 
 TABULAE VIEW OF THE DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 PRINCIPAL KINGDOMS. 
 
 888.— Arnolph of Carin- 
 thia, natural son of Carlo- 
 man, chosen king at the Diet 
 of Tribur, receives the hom- 
 age of the kings of France, 
 Italy, and Burgundy, and 
 disposes of the kingdom of 
 Lorraine in favor of his 
 natural son, Zventimbold or 
 Svantipolk. 
 
 He gives the duchy of Ca- 
 rintha to Sviatipolk, prince 
 of the Moravians. 
 
 894. — Amolph is called in- 
 to Italy by Pope Formosa, 
 who wished to strengthen 
 the temporal power of the 
 Holy See, by giving Rome 
 a foreign sovereign. 
 
 896. — Amolph enters Italy 
 after Guide's death, and is 
 crowned emperor at Rome. 
 But the incursions of the 
 Moravians recall him to Ger- 
 many. He forms an alliance 
 against them, with the Hun- 
 garians, recently arrived in 
 Pannonia. 
 
 899-911.— Reign of Lewis 
 IV., the Child, son of Ar- 
 nolph, and last Carolingian 
 in Germa)iy. 
 
 ITALY. 
 
 888. — Guido and Berenga- 
 rius, dukes of Spoleio and 
 Friuli.contend for the crown; 
 the Adige forms the limits 
 of their possessions. 
 
 891.— Guido, already pro- 
 claimed king at the Diet of 
 Pavia, goes to Rome to be 
 crowned emperor and king 
 of the French. He asso- 
 ciates his son Lambert in 
 the imperial dignity. 
 
 894. — ^Fjrst expedition of 
 Arnolph, who does not go 
 be.yond Piacenza,and returns 
 by the Burgundian Alps. 
 
 896. — Lambert is unable 
 to prevent Amolph's corona- 
 tion. After his retreat he 
 becomes reconciled with Be- 
 rengarius, who preserves the 
 title of king, and was the 
 last to wear the imperial 
 crown of the Carolingians. 
 Anarchy is to reign in Italy 
 till the I'e-establishment of 
 the empire by Otho the 
 Great, in 962. 
 
 38. — Eudes, son of Robert 
 the Strong, duke of France 
 and count of Paris, obtains 
 the crown from the nobles, 
 to the prejudice of Charles 
 the Simple, sole legitimate 
 descendant of Charlemagne. 
 He thwarts the designs of 
 Guido of Spoleto, and Lewis 
 of Provence, upon the king- 
 dom of France ; acknow- 
 ledges himself vassal of Ar- 
 nolph, and subdues cound 
 Raynolph, who had made 
 himself kins of Aquitania. 
 
 893.— Charles the Simple 
 is crowned at Rheims, and 
 puts himself at the head of 
 a powerful party to recover 
 his inheritance. 
 
 96. — After three years of 
 civil war, the usurper and 
 the pretender sign a treaty 
 of division, which gives to 
 Charles the provinces north 
 of the Seine. 
 
 898. -Charles becomes sole 
 king by the death of his 
 rival. But the great soon 
 snatch from him the crown, 
 to which they had already 
 disputed his right. 
 
 KINGDOMS OF THE SECOND ORDER. 
 
 CISJURAN BURGUNDY. 
 
 879. — Boson, brother-in- 
 law of Charles the Bald, 
 after having lost his duchy 
 of Pavia, Itad obtained the 
 government of Cisjuran Bur- 
 gundy, of which he was 
 crowned king and patrician, 
 at Mantaille, after the death 
 of Lewis the Stammerer. 
 This kingdom comprised the 
 country situated between the 
 Saone and the Jura, the up- 
 per Loire and the Alps. 
 
 TRANSJURAN BURGUNDY. 
 
 S8.— Rudolph Welf,count 
 of Transjuran Burgundy, 
 declares himself indepen- 
 dent after the death of Char- 
 les the Fat. He is chosen 
 king in a Diet held at St. 
 Maurice, in Valais. His 
 states lay between tlie 
 Rhone, the Jura, and the 
 Reuss. 
 
 NAVARRE. 
 
 About 831, Aznar, count 
 of the march of Navarre, 
 had thrown off his depend- 
 ence on Lewis the Debon- 
 naire. From that time the 
 farther Basques no longer 
 belonged to the Frank em- 
 pire. 
 
 857. — Garcias Ximenes, a 
 descendant of Aznar, takes 
 the title of king of Pampe- 
 luna. 
 
446 
 
 DISMEMBERBIENT OF NAVARRE. 
 
 CISJURAN BURGUNDY. 
 
 TRANSJURAN BURGUNDY. 
 
 NAVARRE. 
 
 930. ■ — The two Burgundies are united, and form the 
 kingdom of Aries. This union is made for the advantage 
 of Rudolph II., king of Transjuran Burgundy, by the ces- 
 sion of Hugh of Provence, his competitor for the crown 
 of Italy. 
 
 1033. — The kingdom of Aries is united to that of 
 Germany, by the will of Rudolph III., who bequeathes 
 it to his nepliew, the emperor Conrad II. 
 
 1000.— The kingdom of 
 Navarre, enlarged by the 
 counties of Aragon and Cas- 
 tile, reaches the height of 
 its power under Sancho the 
 Great. 
 
 1835.— Sancho III., at his 
 death, divides his kingdom 
 among his children. 
 
 DISMEMBERMENT OF NAVARRE. 
 
 CASTILE. 
 
 Capital, Burgos. 
 
 ARAGON ; 
 OR, COUNTY OP JACCA. 
 
 Capital, \st Huesca. 
 
 1033. — Ferdinand I. ob- 
 tains from his father the 
 country of Castile, a raoun- 1 
 tainous district, covered with ; 
 castles, of which Amaya was j 
 the chief place. This coun- j 
 try was formed into a king- 
 dom on the marriage of Fer- 
 dinand with a sister of the 
 king of Leon. The two 
 kingdoms were united after 
 a battle in which Bermuda 
 III. was conquered and killed 
 by his brother-in-law (1037). 
 
 With Bermuda ended the 
 line of the old kings of Ovi- 
 edo, whose States had been 
 enlarged at the expense of 
 the Mussulmen by the con- 
 quests of Alphonso the Cath- 
 olic, of Ramiro, and, above 
 all, ol Alphonso the Great. 
 Leon was the capital from 
 914. 
 
 Under Ferdinand begin the 
 exploits of the Cid and the 
 power of the kings of Cas- 
 tile. 
 
 NAVARRE. 
 
 Capital, Pampeluna. 
 
 1035. — Garcia IV. suc- 
 ceeds to the crown of Na- 
 varre as eldest son of San- 
 cho. This kingdom, shut up 
 between France and the 
 Christian States of Castile 
 and Aragon, cannot extend 
 like these by conquests over 
 its neighbors. It comprised, 
 besides Navarre Proper, the 
 Cantabrian republics of Bis- 
 cay, Alava, and Guipuscoa. 
 
 1035. — Ramiro I. gives 
 some importance to his little 
 kingdom by the anne.xation 
 of Soprarbe and Ribagorce, 
 which had fallen to a fourth 
 son of Sancho the Great. 
 
 Ramiro was killed at Graos 
 fighting the Moors of the 
 Eiaro. The establishment 
 of the old Cortes of Aragon 
 is attributed to him. 
 
 1096— Pedro Sanchez 
 takes Huesca from the Moors, 
 and makes it his capital. 
 
 Synchronism. — The dismemberment of Navarre, 
 which gave rise to the two principal Christian kingdoms 
 of Spain, coincides exactly with the dissolution of the 
 caliphate of Cordova in 1031. 
 
TABULAR VIEW OF THE THREE CALIPHATES. 
 
 447 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF THE THREE CALIPHATES. 
 
 OMMIAD CALIPHS. 
 
 756-788. — Abderame I., 
 founder of the Caliphate of 
 the West. 
 
 His wars against the par 
 tisans of the Abassides con 
 solidate his throne, but cause 
 the loss of Septimania. 
 
 He transplants the sci 
 ences and magnificence of 
 the Arabs into Spain. 
 
 788-882.— Hescham I. and 
 Al-Hakkam I. 
 
 Domestic troubles. Pro- 
 gress of the Christians under 
 Alphonso the Chaste, king 
 of Oviedo. 
 
 8^2-852. — Abderame II., 
 the Victorious. 
 
 He forms an alliance with 
 the emperor Michel the 
 Stammerer against the Ca 
 liph of BagdaB. 
 
 844. — The Northmen plun- 
 der Lisbon, Cadiz, Seville 
 &c. 
 
 851. -^Victory over Ordog- 
 no, king of Leon. 
 
 852.— Mohammed I.— Un- 
 der his reign Mussulman 
 Spain is torn by intestine 
 divisions and foreign war 
 Prince Al-Moundhir repuls- 
 es the Christians, and re- 
 presses the two revolts of 
 Musa and of the brigand 
 chief Ben-Hafsoun, who had 
 become Emir of Saragossa 
 The intestine divisions re- 
 vive under the foUowinj 
 reigns. 
 
 886-912.— Anarchy under 
 Al-Moundhir and Abdallah. 
 Alphonso the Great, king 
 of Leon, extends his domin- 
 ions at the expense of the 
 Moors. He rebuilds Porto, 
 and raises a banner of con- 
 quered towns against the 
 Mussulmen. 
 
 886-912.— Abderame HI. 
 the Great. 
 
 He restores internal peace, 
 and the power and glory of 
 the Caliphate. 
 
 Africa had recognized the 
 Abbassid caliphs ; but the 
 Emirs soon reigned there as 
 sovereigns, and the author 
 ity of the Commanders of 
 tlie Faithful was reduced to 
 a spiritual supremacy, dis- 
 puted by the dissenting sects, 
 and lost in 958. 
 
 788. — Edris-ben-Edris, sup 
 posed descendant of Mahom- 
 et, founds the dynasty of the 
 Edrissites in the Maligreb. — 
 Fez Becomes his capital in 
 807. 
 
 800 — Ibrahim-ben- Aglab, 
 head of the Aglabite dy- 
 nasty in Carthaginian and 
 Tripolitan Africa. — Kairoan, 
 capital. 
 
 827. — Conquest of Sicily 
 and Malta by the Aglabites. 
 
 Sicily becomes the centre 
 of operations of the Mussul- 
 man tleets,which land troops 
 of pirates and adventurers 
 on the coasts of Italy and II 
 lyria. 
 
 868.— Toulun, governor of 
 Egypt, founds an indepen- 
 dent dynasty there. 
 
 908.— The Marabout Obei- 
 doUah, chief of the Ishmael- 
 itea of the West, dethrones 
 the Aglabites and Edressites, 
 in 909 and 941. He is chief 
 of the Fatimites, and first 
 Mahadi. t 944. Capital, 
 Mahadiah. 
 
 944. — The Arab Zeiri 
 founds the city of Algiers 
 (Al Djezair), and makes 
 himself master of the sur- 
 rounding country, of which 
 the Fatimile caliphs grant 
 him hereditary possession 
 in 972, and where his family 
 reigned till 1148, when Roger 
 took from them the greater 
 part of the coast, and the 
 Almoravids, the city of Al- 
 iers. These last, fanatical 
 sectarians of Abdallah-ben- 
 
 ABBASSID CALIPHS. 
 
 750-754. — Aboul-Abbas 
 first Abassid caliph. 
 
 762.— Foundation of Bag- 
 dad, under Abon-Giafar-Al- 
 manzor. 
 
 785-784.— Mohammed Ma- 
 hadi : his generosity and 
 magnificence. 
 
 780.— War with the Greek 
 empire. Haroun advances 
 to Caledonia, and subjects 
 the empress here to tribute. 
 
 786-809.— Haroun-al-Ras- 
 chid succeeds hia brother 
 Al-Hadi. 
 
 His eight expeditions a- 
 against the Eastern Ro- 
 mans ; defeats of Nicepho- 
 ras. 
 
 The Mussulman empire 
 reaches its highest degree 
 of splendor. Magnificence 
 of the court. Brilliant liter- 
 ature. Favor and massacre 
 of the Barmacids. 
 
 813-833.— Al-Mamon : his 
 virtues, talents, tolerance. 
 He enlightens hia people, 
 and makes them happy. 
 
 838. — War of Amorium, 
 in Asia Minor, under Motas- 
 aem. 
 
 841.— Introduction of Turk- 
 iah slaves into the guard of 
 the caliphs. Pretensiona 
 and excesses of these troops, 
 who favor the insubordina- 
 tion of aeveral emirs of Turk- 
 ish origin. 
 
 Most of Motassem's suc- 
 cessors meet a tragic death. 
 
 873. — Takoub - el - Sofl^ar, 
 master of the Seistan, takes 
 the Rhoracan territory from 
 the Taherides, and causes 
 himself to be given the in- 
 vestiture also of Farsistan 
 and Tabaristan. This pro- 
 vincial dynasty prepares the 
 union of the caliphate of 
 Bagdad. 
 
448 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF THE THREE CALIPHATES. 
 
 OMMIAD CALIPHS. 
 
 912. — Victory of Jonquera 
 over the Christians, who 
 take their revenge at San 
 Estevan. 
 
 939. — King Ramiro XL, 
 after brilliant successes, los 
 es the bloody battle of Si- 
 mancas, which leads to a 
 peace in 942. 
 
 944.— The rebellion of the 
 Beni-Hassoun is crushed af- 
 ter lasting 80 years. 
 
 950. — Abderame causes 
 himself to be recognized in 
 Mahgreb, which, more or 
 less contested, was to belong 
 to the caliphs of Cordova 
 till the usurpation of the 
 Zeirites, and even longer. 
 
 Alliance with Constantine 
 VII. 
 
 Magnificence of Abderame 
 III ; his monuments ; palace 
 of Zebra; public schools and 
 libraries. 
 
 961-979. — Peaceful reig'i 
 of Al-Hakkam II. 
 
 975-1009.— Hescham 11. 
 
 Brilliant victories of the 
 hadjeb Mohammed-Alman- 
 zor over the Christians. 
 
 986. — Barcelona falls into 
 the hands of the Mussulmen, 
 who lose it again in 988, by 
 the conquest of Borel, count 
 ofUrgel. 
 
 998.— Defeat and death of 
 Almanzor at Medina-Celi. 
 
 Decline of the caliphate 
 of Spain. 
 
 1009.- Mohamed-Alraoha- 
 di dethrones Hescham II. 
 The caliphate falls a prey 
 to rebels and usurpers. 
 
 1031. — Deposition of Hes- 
 cham HI. — last caliph. 
 
 Dismemberment of the 
 caliphate of Cordova. 
 
 1010.— Kingdom of Mur- 
 cia. 
 
 1010. 
 
 " Badajoz. 
 
 1013. 
 
 " Grenada. 
 
 1014. 
 
 " Saragossa. 
 
 1015. 
 
 " Majorca. 
 
 1021. 
 
 " Valencia. 
 
 1023. 
 
 " Seville. 
 
 1026, 
 
 " Toledo. 
 
 1031. 
 
 " Cordova. 
 
 Jasin, make themselves mas 
 ters of Sedjelmesah towards 
 1050, and found under their 
 caliph, Yousef ben-Taschfin, 
 in 1069, the city of Morocco, 
 which becomes the capital 
 of their empire. 
 
 953-975. — Moez Ledinil- 
 lah, first caliph. 
 
 968. — Conquest of Egypt 
 by his lieutenant, Djewhar, 
 or Giafar, who founds at 
 Fostat the city of Cairo (El 
 Kahira, or the Victorious). 
 
 Cairo becomes the resi- 
 dence of the new caliphs 
 (969). 
 
 The power of the Fati- 
 mites, soon weakened in Af 
 rica, gives rise to the forma 
 
 ABBASSID CALIPHS. 
 
 859.— The caliphs of Bag- 
 dad rule m Armenia. They 
 recognize as superior king 
 the pagratide, Achod I., the 
 Great, who reigned at Kars, 
 and whose family held the 
 throne till 1079. About the 
 same time the Arabs invade 
 the Caucasian districts, and 
 seize Teflis. From that time 
 the kings of Georgia recog- 
 nize the supremacy of tlie 
 caliphs. 
 
 890.— Origin of the anti- 
 social sect of the Karmats, 
 which ruled some time in 
 Bahrein and Nedjed. It ex- 
 cites civil war, and desolates 
 the provinces for a century. 
 
 902. — The Samanides dis- 
 posses the Soiiaridesof Kho- 
 rassan and the neighboring 
 provinces. 
 
 934-940. • 
 Rhadi. 
 
 935. — Mohammed - Ibn - 
 Rayek, 1st Emiral Omrah. 
 
 Lidependent dynasties rise 
 
 Caliphate of 
 
 tion of several independent on all sides, leaving nothing 
 dynasties : tha.t of the Ham- to the caliph but the city of 
 
 adides at Bougie, in 979 ; of 
 the Badissites at Tripoli and 
 Tunis, &c., &c. But it ex- 
 tends at the same time over 
 Syria, wliere it finds for 
 auxiliaries the Assassins of 
 Lebanon. 
 
 980. — Conquest of Syria 
 under the reign of Azis- 
 Billah. 
 
 996-1021.— Hakem, grand- 
 son of Moez, attempts to 
 establish a new worship, of 
 which he was to be the deity. 
 He persecutes the Christians 
 and destroys their churches. 
 
 Druzi founds the mystic 
 sect of the Druzes, which 
 still exist in Lebanon. They 
 adore Hakem as a god made 
 man. 
 
 1036-1094.— Reign of Mos- 
 tanser Billah. He aspires 
 to the universal caliphate, 
 and reunites those of Cairo 
 and Bagdad, which were 
 a.gain divided after his death. 
 
 The caliphate of Cairo 
 was prolonged till 1171, when 
 it was abolished by Saladin. 
 
 Bagdad, with the spiritual 
 supremacy. The most dan- 
 gerous for the caliph was 
 that of the Buids, who to the 
 government of Persia added 
 the possession of the great 
 emirat. 
 
 997-1028.— Mahmoud the 
 Gaznovide raises a powerful 
 empire in Persia, on the 
 ruins of several provmcial 
 dynasties. 
 
 He makes himself master 
 of a part of India, where he 
 destroys the famous temple 
 of Sunnat, in 1022. He 
 found none but Idolaters in 
 this country, who had for- 
 gotten the teachings of the 
 first Christian apostles. It 
 was chiefly there that Islam- 
 ism spread over and beyond 
 the coast of Malabar. - 
 
 The communication be- 
 tween the Mussulmen and 
 the Hindoos gave rise to the 
 Hindosianee, the modern 
 language of India, which 
 took the place of the San- 
 scrit. This last became the 
 learned language of the 
 country. 
 
 1028. — Massouh succeeds 
 his father Mahmoud, under 
 the caliphate of the just 
 Kader-BiUah. 
 
REMARKABLE PERSONS OF THE CRUSADES. 449 
 
 SELJUKS. 
 
 103S.— The Turcomans revolt against Massouh, and overthrow the dominion of the 
 Gaznovides, under their chief Toglirul-Beg, grandson of Seljuk, who causes himself to 
 be proclaimed Sultan, at Nischabour. He makes himself master of Bagdad, in 1055, 
 and strips the last Buid, Malek-Rahim, of the dignity of Emiral-Omrah. 
 
 Alp-Arslan, his successor, makes war upon the Roman emperor Diogenes, and 
 makes himself master of Cappadocia (1071) and Armenia. But with the aid of the 
 Orpelian princes of Georgia, the Armenians reconquer, for a moment, their nationality, 
 of which soon nothing was left them but a vain image in the moxmtains of the Taurus, 
 where prince Rhoupen founded a new dynasty, in 1080. Alp-Arslan was indebted to 
 his vizn-, the wise and learned Nizam-Oul-Mouk, for the prosperity of his reign and 
 the happiness of his people. 
 
 J 072-1092. — Under the reign of Malek-Schah, the Seljuks complete the conquest of 
 Asia Minor, Syria, and the country beyond the Oxus. But after his death this vast 
 empire was divided, and the sultanates of Kerman, Aleppo (1094), Roum, and Damas- 
 cus (1095), tributaries of Persia, formed. 
 
 The sultanate of Persia was successively occupied by three sons of Malek-Schah, 
 Barkiarok, Mohammed, and Sandschar. This last counted among his vassals the 
 chiefs of the great dynasties of Gour, of Samarcand, Khowaresm, Aderbaidjan, Irak, 
 and Moultan. He encouraged the arts of peace, and left, in the East, a reputation 
 equal to that of Alexander the Great. 
 
 TABULAR VIEW OF THE REMARKABLE PERSONS OF 
 THE CRUSADES. 
 
 FIRST CRUSADE, 
 
 INSTIGATORS. 
 
 Peter the Hermit, and Pope Urban II. 
 
 PRINCES. 
 
 Philip I., king of France. 
 
 Alexis Comnenes, Greek emperor. 
 
 WARRIORS. 
 
 First Army.— Goifrej of Bouillon, duke of Lorraine, is proclaimed king of Pales- 
 tine, but refuses. He becomes king of Jerusalem. 
 
 Eustathius of Bouillon, and Baldwin— brothers of Godfrey. 
 
 Baldwin of Bourg— their cousin. 
 
 Baldwin, count of Hainault, Hugh of St. Pol, and Gerard of Cherisy. 
 
 Second Army. — Hugh, count of Vermandois. 
 
 Robert, duke of Normandy. 
 
 Stephen of Blois, and Hubert, count of Flanders. 
 
 Bohemond, prince of Tarentum, and Tancred his friend, both of Norman origin, 
 join this army at Rome with 30,000 knights. 
 
 Third Army. — Raymond, count of Toulouse. 
 
 Adhemar of Monteil, bishop of Puy and papal legate. 
 
 Walter, a general, dies with his followers, in attempting to avenge Rinaldo of Bres- 
 cia, who, with all liis followers, had been compelled by the Mussulmen to embrace 
 Mahonietanism. 
 
 SECOND CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIGATORS. 
 
 St. Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux, and Eugene III., pope— his disciple. 
 
 PRINCES. 
 
 Lewis VII., king of France. 
 Conrad III., emperor of Germany. 
 Baldwin III., king of .Jerusalem. 
 Manuel Comnenes, Greek emperor. 
 
450 REMARKABLE PERSONS OF THE CRUSADES. 
 
 Raymond of Poictiers, prince of Antioch, uncle of Eleanor, queen of France. 
 Roger, king of Sicily. He offers ships to the crusaders, who refuse them, and by a 
 foolish" pride, expose themselves a second time to the perfidy of the Greek emperors. 
 
 WARRIOKS. 
 
 Thierry of Alsace, count of Flanders. 
 
 Everard of Barres, grand-master of the Templars. 
 
 Noureddin, sultan of Aleppo. 
 
 THIRD CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIGATOR. 
 
 Urban HI.— This pope dies, at Ferrara, of grief, on hearing of the taking of Jeru- 
 salem by Saladin. 
 
 PEINCES. 
 
 Philip- Augustus, king of France. 
 
 Richard Coeur-de-Lion, king of England. The rivalry between these two kings 
 arose, in part, from their difference of opinion as to who should reign at Jerusalem. 
 Philip- Augustus sustained the rights of Conrad, son of the marquis of Monierrat and 
 Sybil his widow, who liad married Lusignan, whom Richard favored. 
 
 Frederic Barbarossa, emperor of Germany. 
 
 Isaac Angelus, Greek emperor, who betrayed the crusaders, and formed a secret 
 alliance with Saladin. 
 
 KINGS OP JERUSALEM. 
 
 Baldwin IV., sick, abdicates in favor of Guido of Lusignan, husband of his sister 
 Sybil. Lusignan, compelled to abandon the throne, goes to reign at Cyprus, which 
 Richard, who had conquered it, cedes to him. 
 
 Guido of Lusignan. 
 
 Amaury. This successor of Lusignan marries Isabella, widow of Henry, count of 
 Champagne, who had the title of king of Jerusalem. 
 
 WARRIORS. 
 
 Saladin, sultan of Egypt. 
 Malek-Adhel, his brother. 
 Rinaldo of Chatillon. 
 , Leopold, duke of Austria. 
 Conrad, son of the marquis of Montferrat. 
 Josselin of Courtenay. 
 William, Archbishop of Tyre. 
 The duke of Suabia. 
 
 FOURTH CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIGATORS. 
 
 Gregory VII. 
 
 William, archbishop of Tyre. 
 
 Innocent III.— Foulques of Neuilly.— It was Innocent HI. that founded the Inqui- 
 sition, and the mendicant orders of Franciscans and Dominicans. 
 
 Innocent III. loudly blamed the crusaders for having dethroned a Christian emperor 
 instead of going to fight the infidels. He hurled an e.xcomraunication, and retracted 
 it. He foresaw that the Latins would not long preserve Constantinople. 
 
 PRINCES. 
 
 Philip Augustus, king of France. 
 Alexis Comnenes, son of Isaac Angelus. 
 
 WARRIORS. 
 
 Dandolo, doge of Venice. 
 Eudes, duke of Burgundy. 
 
REMARKABLE PERSONS OF THE CRUSADES. 451 
 
 Thibault and Lewis, counts of Blois. 
 
 Thibault, count of Champagne, commands the army ; dies, and is replaced by Boni- 
 face, count of Montferrat, who is succeeded by 
 
 Baldwin, count of Flanders. 
 
 Baldwin is chosen emperor at Constantinople, in 1204, after the taking of this 
 city by the crusaders. Thus is founded the empire of the Latins, which lasts fifty- 
 seven years. 
 
 Baldwin IL, of the house of Courtenay, is dethroned by Michael Paleologus. 
 
 FIFTH CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIGATORS. 
 
 Innocent III., Honorius III. 
 
 John of Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem. 
 
 Andrew II., king of Hungary. 
 John of Brienne. 
 
 Hugh of Lusignan, king of Cyprus, who dying some time after the retreat of the 
 king of Hungary, left John of Brienne, sole chief of the crusade. 
 
 SIXTH CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIOATORS. 
 
 Gregory IX. 
 
 Eudes of Chateauroux, cardinal. 
 
 St. Lewis of France. 
 
 WAREIORS, 
 
 Robert, count of Artois, brother of St. Lewis. He is killed at the battle of Mas- 
 eoura. 
 
 Alphonso of Provence, brother of St. Lewis. 
 
 Mile and Salah, sons of Saladin, 
 
 St. Lewis, taken prisoner : he restores Damietta for his ransom. 
 
 SEVENTH CRUSADE. 
 
 INSTIGATOR. 
 
 Urban IV. 
 
 St. Lewis, dies of the plague at Tunis. 
 
 Philip the Bold, his son. 
 
 Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Lewis. 
 
 WARRIORS. 
 
 Alphonso of Provence, brother of St. Lewis ; he dies at Venice, on his way back to 
 France. 
 
 Tristan, son of St. Lewis, dies of the plague at Tunis. 
 
452 ADMINISTRATION OF CHARLES V. AND EDWARD III. 
 
 SYNOPTICAL TABLE OF THE INTERNAL 
 
 ADimiSTRATION OF CHAHLES V. AND EDWARD III. 
 
 Charles V. convokes only once the States 
 General, which had been so dangerous 
 under the preceding reign. He devises in 
 their place Lits de justice, to which the 
 great oihcers, some prelates, deputies of 
 the burgesses, and the University were 
 admitted. 
 
 1364. — Revocation of alienated domains. 
 Regulation of appannages. 
 
 1367 — 1372. — Prohibition of private 
 wars. 
 
 1374. — Edict of Vincennes, renewed 
 from the ordonnance of Carthage (1270), 
 concerning the regency and the guardian- 
 ship of kings, whose majority is iised at 
 fourteen years begun. 
 
 Naval establishments at Harfleur, Di- 
 eppe, Rouen, &c. The royal navy which, 
 snice Charlemagne, had fallen into decay, 
 is restored, and begins to protect com- 
 merce, which was also efficaciously en- 
 couraged by Charles V. 
 
 The^ Norman sailors double Cape Non 
 in the first half of the 14th century ; and 
 in 1364, the inhabitants of Dieppe, aided by 
 ship owners from Rouen, found at Sierra 
 Leone the factory of the Great Sestro 
 (Rio Sestos), which flourished for a time. 
 
 The reform of the currency restores to 
 commerce the security which it had lost : it 
 gives immovables a surer and less varia- 
 ble value. 
 
 Charles V. protects literature and its 
 cultivators : he founds, at the Louvre, the 
 Royal Library. 
 
 Edward III. confirms twenty times Mag- 
 na Charta, which was often violated dur- 
 ing his reign. 
 
 First admission of the princes of the 
 blood into the House of Lords, and pro- 
 gress of the House of Commons, the 
 meetings of which become annual. Par- 
 hament claims the right of judging re- 
 sponsible ministers, and confines within 
 just bounds the accusation of high treason, 
 which had been much abused. 
 
 1362. — Law of parliament prohibiting, 
 in public acts, the use of the French lan- 
 guage, which was no longer spoken at 
 court, and was falling into neglect in the 
 schools. From this time the distmctioa 
 between the two nations ceases. 
 
 Edward encourages industry, naviga- 
 tion, and particularly the woollen trade, 
 which formed two-thirds of the exporta- 
 tions of the kingdom (294, 184, of the 
 age). But the facilities granted by the 
 Merchants' Chai'ter to foreign ships 
 check the progress of the English mai-ine. 
 
 Edward attracts Flemish weavers into 
 his kingdom (1331), and grants honorable 
 privileges to movable wealth. 
 
 The Hanseatic merchants had from that 
 time, at London, one of their principal 
 factories, called the Hanse, or Guildhall 
 of the Teutons, as at Bruges, Bergen, and 
 Novgorod. 
 
 He protects literature, and particularly 
 the University of Oxford, which his chan- 
 cellor, Richard Aungerville, emiches with 
 a library. 
 
REFORMS AND INSTITUTIONS IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 453 
 
 REFORMS AND INSTITUTIONS IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND, 
 
 DURING THE SECOND PERIOD OF THE HUNDRED YEARS WAR, 
 
 Under Charles VI. the parliament of 
 Paris becomes permanent, and acquires 
 a part in the legislative power by the 
 gradual introduction of Registry, and by 
 the extension given to the Decrees of 
 Regulation, which had the force of law 
 throughout the jurisdiction of the ju- 
 diciary. 
 
 1403. — Ordonnance of administrative, 
 judicial, and financial reform, after a re- 
 volt of Cabochians, led by Eustathius of 
 Pavilly. Although badly executed, it 
 preserves the germ of salutary improve- 
 ments, and was a real progress towards 
 centralization. 
 
 1421.— Important ordonnance on the cur- 
 rency, which is restored to its real value. 
 
 1439.— On the remonstrance of the States 
 of Orleans, Charles VII., "wishing to put 
 an end to the great excesses and pillages 
 of the soldiery," institutes companies of 
 gendarmes, by a perpetual edict. In 1448, 
 ne organized the bands of Frank Archers, 
 who, with the Gens d' Armas, formed a 
 standing army of 18,000 men, independent 
 of the Scotch guard established in 1421. 
 
 The three orders, in demanding the 
 establishment ofa regular public force, had 
 consented by implication to the levying of 
 a perpetual tax, which the king levied by 
 his own authority, and in spite of the re- 
 monstrances of the States. The edict of 
 1441 says : " There is no need of assemb- 
 ling the three States to levy the aforesaid 
 taxes." However it does not deny their 
 right of voting aids and other taxes. 
 
 These two establishments raise France 
 from anarchy, and prepare the ruin of 
 feudality : but they give a blow to public 
 rights, and cheek the progress of the 
 national institutions. 
 
 1443.— Creation of the parliament of 
 Toulouse, which forms an integral part 
 of that of Paris, with the same honors and 
 rights. 
 
 The offices begin to be held for life, and 
 the courts of justice acquire thereby a 
 salutary independence (ed. of 1446). 
 
 1454. — Edict of Montils-les-Tours con- 
 cerning the act of justice. This precious 
 monument of civil legislation, forms a 
 complete code of procedure remarkable 
 
 Under Richard II., the parliament is by 
 
 turns seditious and servile. 
 
 Under Henry IV., this body acquires 
 greater consistency, and exercises a greater 
 mfluence in the government. The con- 
 currence of the two chambers becomes 
 necessary in important affairs, and the 
 mitiative of financial bills belongs to the 
 Commons (1408). 
 
 1406.— The right of petition and remon- 
 strance enters mto the elements of the 
 constitution. 
 
 1407. — Statute of Henry IV., giving 
 great extension to the right of suffrage. 
 ' 1430.— Statute of Henry VI., which re- 
 stricts the right of suffrage to freeholders 
 having 40 shillings income. 
 
 The House of Commons was composed 
 of two deputies for each county, each city 
 of the royal domain, and each borough 
 incorporated by charter or by prescription. 
 
 In England, as in France, tne judiciary 
 becomes independent of the crown. 
 
 While the church of France was mak- 
 ing every effort to put an end to the 
 schism, the English clergy was thinking 
 only of extirpating heresy. The doctrines 
 of Wickliffe, condemned in 1380 by a 
 national synod, and subsequently by the 
 council of Constance, had still many par- 
 tisans in the House of Commons. But 
 Henry IV., who was anxious to gain over 
 the ecclesiastical peers, numerous and 
 powerful, had a law passed condemning 
 
454 REFORMS AND INSTITUTIONS IN FRANCE AND ENGLAND. 
 
 for its wisdom. Article 125 prescribes 
 the collection and digesting the Customs 
 of the kingdom. 
 
 1455. — The States of Languedoc grant 
 subsidies, and obtain the reform of diver's 
 abuses. 
 
 1438. — Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, 
 which, in conformity with the decrees of 
 the council of Basle, re-establishes canon- 
 ical elections, and abolishes annats, re- 
 serves, expectatives, and other exactions. 
 
 Reform of the University by Cardinal 
 Estouteville. It counted 25,000 students. 
 
 Agriculture and commerce begin to 
 flourish again. Already under Charles 
 VI. John of Bethencourt of Dieppe had 
 discovered the Canaries, and opened the 
 way for the voyages of the Portuguese 
 (First Grants oj Africa, in 1450) ; James 
 Coeur keeps up intercourse with all parts 
 of the world, and assists the State in her 
 need. " Thanks to him," says a contem- 
 porary, " there was no mast in the East- 
 ern sea without the fleur-de-lis." But the 
 jealousy of the great procured his con- 
 demnation as peculator in 1453. 
 
 ENGLAND. 
 
 heretics to the stake (1400). William Sau- 
 ter and Old Castel were the first victims. 
 In Scotland, the reformation of Wicklifie 
 was suppressed by the same means. 
 
 The English marine is developed by the 
 codfish and herring fishery, an immense 
 source of wealth, and inexhaustible means 
 of nourishment for the poorer classes in 
 England, and, above all, in Holland, where 
 a sailor, named Bucolz, had just invented 
 the art of barrelling herrings. 
 
 Commerce, encouraged by Edward m., 
 languished during the wars with France. 
 The Navigation Acts of 1381 and 1.390, 
 which confined the exportation of English 
 goods to English bottoms, did not produce 
 the results which were expected from it. 
 The war of the Roses was still to retard 
 for a long while the development of mari- 
 time cornmerce. 
 
 THE END. 
 
Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
 Neutralizing agen^. Magnesium Oxide 
 Treatment Date: ''"'' ~ 290? 
 
 PreservationTechnologies 
 
 A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 
 
 111 Thomson Park Drive 
 Cranberry Townshio. PA 160SS 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 009 491 457 7