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ANCIENT HISTORY 
 
 OF 
 
 GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 WITH 
 
 INTRODUCTORY SKETCHES 
 
 OF THE 
 
 HISTORY OF THE 
 
 JEWS, EGYPTIANS, CARTHAGINIANS, 
 
 AND OTHER ANCIENT NATIONS. 
 
 ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS 
 WITH QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 
 
 J 
 
 BY JOHN RUSSELL, A.M. 
 it 
 
 " Author of " History of the United States," " History of England," and 
 " History of France." 
 
 V 
 
 — 
 
 I 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 PUBLISHED BY HOGAN & THOMPSON, 
 
 No. 30, NORTH FOURTH STREET. 
 
 1339. 
 
Entered according to the act of Congress, in the year 1839, by Hogan St, 
 Thompson, in the clerk's office of the district court of the eastern district of 
 Pennsylvania. 
 
 '*) 
 
 3 7 Ct 
 
 BTERBOTTrCn BY J IjtjOAl IH I I.A Dr.I.PHl A. 
 
 FKIN 1 Kit If «• IUKHH M AM- • 
 
 A 
 
I 
 
 
 PREFACE 
 
 Ijv completing his series of school histories, the author of 
 the present work has deemed it important to comprise in the 
 same volume the ancient history of Greece and Rome, and 
 of the other ancient nations, who were all more or less con- 
 nected with these powerful and far-conquering states. Al- 
 though it would be easy to multiply volumes by giving to 
 each of the less civilized and influential nations a minute 
 and extended history, yet the true interest of learners would 
 not be consulted by such a course. To trace the progress 
 of civilization and intellect with that degree of distinctness 
 which is requisite in a course of historical instruction at 
 school, it is deemed sufficient, so far as ancient history is 
 concerned, to study a clear and succinct history of Greece 
 and Rome, with such notices of the other ancient nations as 
 will give a correct idea of their extent and importance ; the 
 leading events and characters occurring in their annals ; and 
 their relations with those two great states which were the 
 chief depositaries of power, learning, and refinement, during 
 the respective periods of their independence. Such a course 
 has been followed in this volume ; and it is hoped that the 
 information which it comprises will enable the young student 
 to acquire a correct idea of the earlier periods of history ; 
 and to understand the allusions, which he may meet with in 
 a general course of literature, to the great nations, charac- 
 ters and events of antiquity. 
 
 1* W 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Chap. 1. From the Creation to the Confusion of Tongues Page 13 
 
 2. Noah's Descendants 15 
 
 3. The Call of Abraham 16 
 
 4. The Israelites in Egypt 19 
 
 5. The Judges over Israel 21 
 
 6. David and his Successors 24 
 
 7. Jehu, Amaziah, and their Successors 26 
 
 8. Xerxes favours the Jews — Macedonian Dominions in Judea 29 
 
 9. Dominion of the Romans in Judea — Asmonean Dynasty 31 
 
 10. Herod, King of the Jews. — Birth of Jesus Christ 34 
 
 11. Judea under Roman Procurators 36 
 
 12. Ancient Nations connected with the Jews 39 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Chap. 1. Description of Egypt. — Its Architecture 47 
 
 2. Learning and Superstition of the Egyptians — Military Establishment 50 
 
 3. Of the Kings of Egypt 52 
 
 4. Egyptian Colonies 55 
 
 5. Nechao, Psammis, Apries — Conquest of Egypt 57 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 Chap. 1. Origin of the Carthaginians — Their Religion, Government, and Com- 
 merce 63 
 
 2. Resources, Extent, and Early History of Carthage 65 
 
 3. Colonies of Carthage — Foreign Wars — Hamilcar — Hannibal 68 
 
 4. Hanno, Agathocles — War with Rome 70 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Chap. 1. Early History of the Grecian States 79 
 
 2. Institutions of Lycurgus 81 
 
 3. Institutions of Solon 84 
 
 4. Preparations of Darius for the Invasion of Greece 87 
 
 5. Invasion of Greece by the Persians 89 
 
 6. March of Xerxes to Greece 91 
 
 7. Defeat of the Persians in Greece 94 
 
 8. Final Expulsion of the Persians from Greece 96 
 
 9. Treason of Pausanias — Flight of Themistocles 97 
 
 10. Death of Xerxes , 98 
 
 11. Rise of Pericles — Public Services of Conon 101 
 
 12. Pericles at the Height of his Power 103 
 
 13. The Peloponnesian War 107 
 
 14. Peloponnesian War continued — Affairs of Persia — Alcibiades 109 
 
 15. Unfortunate Expedition to Sicily 112 
 
 16. The Thirty Tyrants— Thrasybul us 115 
 
 17. Expedition of Cyrus 117 
 
 18. Retreat of the Ten Thousand 118 
 
 19. Agesilaus — Victory of Conon — Decline of the Lacedaemonian Power 121 
 
 20. Socrates 125 
 
 21. Manners and Customs of the Greeks 126 
 
 22. Government of Athens 129 
 
 (7) 
 
Vlll I . i : • 
 
 c'iiai'. 23. Govemnu at of Athens, continued 131 
 
 84 Education and Military [natitutioni <<i tl>e < rreelu 133 
 
 85. ( Character of the Athenians 135 
 
 i >i the Theban Power — Pelopidax — Epaminondas 136 
 
 litaxerxei Mnemon undertakes the Reduction of Egypt 140 
 
 War of the Allies against the Athenian 142 
 
 89 Philip of Macedon 143 
 
 9a The Sacred \\ ar 14G 
 
 31 Sii •!■ ui Perinthus — Battle of Chavonea — Banishment of iEschines 148 
 
 32. Philip is declared < ieneralissimo of the < Ireeka againsl the Persians — 
 
 Hi* Death 150 
 
 33. Alexander ascends the Throne; and is declared < reneralissimoofthe 
 
 < .n i ks against the P< rsianfi 152 
 
 Mexander's Expedition 154 
 
 35. Battle of feus—Siege and ( Japture of Tyre 156 
 
 36. Battle of Irbela— Death of Darius 159 
 
 Death oft litus — Expedition to India 161 
 
 Alexander returns from India — His Death 164 
 
 39. Sua esaon of Alexander — I teath of Phocion 168 
 
 40. Achaean League — Greece reduced to a Roman Province 170 
 
 41. Allaire of Judea, Egypt, and Syria 172 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Chap. 1. The Foundation of Rome 179 
 
 2. Saliinc War — Numa PompiUus— Tullufl rTostilius 181 
 
 3. AncuG Martius — Lucius Tarquinius Priscus — Servius Tullus 184 
 
 4. Lucius Tarquinius Superbus — Knd of the Regal Government 186 
 
 5. Consuls 188 
 
 6. Tribunes created, U. C. 260.— Agrarian Law 190 
 
 7. The Creation of the Decemviri, U. C. 302— Virginius 193 
 
 8. Veian War — Invasion of the Gauls 196 
 
 9. War with the Latins and Samnites — Pyrrhus 199 
 
 in. Firal Punic War. B.C. 264 202 
 
 11. The Second Punie War 204 
 
 18 War with Philip, King of Macedon 207 
 
 13. Jugurthian War— Marius— Sylla 210 
 
 1 L ( aiilme s ( lonspiracy — Cn-sar crosses the Rubicon 213 
 
 15. Ratile of Pharsaha — Death of Pompey 216 
 
 16. ( teear in Egypt — < lato in I Itica 219 
 
 17. Death of Caesar— The Triumvirate 881 
 
 18. Baitle of Philippi— Death of Brutus 887 
 
 19. Antony in Egypt 889 
 
 20. ( 'niisiil i.lation of the Imperial Power by Augustus 232 
 
 81. Tiberius— Caligula 234 
 
 Claudius— Expedition to Britain 237 
 
 \. ro— Galba 239 
 
 84 otho—X itellius— Vespasian 240 
 
 1 • miliaii 849 
 
 \i r\ a ■Trajan — Adrian 844 
 
 27. Adrian's Expedition — Antoninus Pins— Marcus Aurelius 846 
 
 28. < !ommodus— Pertinai — Septimiua Severus 249 
 
 dla and ( Irla— \l»\and<r Se\ criis— Maxiinin — Philip — Decius 
 
 — ( iallus 251 
 
 3d. Valerian and fa i rjoxi 
 
 ."1 C ostantine 
 
 alien 258 
 
 \ al< 'nil ni an — \ a lens— ( iratian — Theodosiufl 980 
 
 31. The Barbarous Nations who subverted tho Roman Empire — Kail of 
 
 the Empire 262 
 
 35. Boundaries of the Roman Empire 265 
 
( io ) 
 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE JEWS. 
 
 (ii) 
 

 
HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 FROM THE CREATION TO THE CONFUSION OF TONGUES. 
 
 We learn from the Sacred Scriptures, the only source from which 
 the earliest authentic information can be drawn, that the creation of the 
 heavens and the earth was produced by the immediate power of the 
 Deity. By his sovereign command the light appeared. Form and order 
 arose out of a rude chaotic mass. The wide expanse of firmament 
 divided the upper from the lower waters. The earth, the sea, and the 
 air, abounded with living creatures, adapted to their respective ele- 
 ments ; lastly Man, the noblest work of the creation, was called into 
 existence ; and as it was not good for man to be alone, to him was given 
 a suitable helpmate. 
 
 Adam and Eve, our original parents, were placed in a paradise, called 
 the Garden of Eden, in which they enjoyed a state of innocence and 
 purity, with permission to partake of every tree in the garden, except 
 that of the knowledge of good and evil. But they disobeyed the divine 
 command, and they suffered the consequence of their disobedience; 
 they fell, and were banished from Paradise, B. C. 4004. — Cain, Adam's 
 eldest son, was born in the first year of the world ; and in the year fol- 
 lowing, Abel, his brother. Abel was a keeper of the flocks, but Cain 
 was a tiller of the ground, and occupied in the labours of husbandry. 
 
 Their tempers were as different as their occupations. Abel was a 
 lover of righteousness : Cain was obstinate and wicked. It was usual, 
 in the infancy of the world, to present oblations to God. Abel brought 
 of the firstlings of his flock, and Cain of the fruit of the ground. The 
 sacrifice of Abel, on account of his piety, was more acceptable to God 
 than the offering of Cain ; and the latter, transported with envy and 
 rage, slew his brother. The Almighty, on account of this fratricide, 
 condemned Cain to become for a while a fugitive and a vagabond on 
 the earth, till he settled in the land of Nod. 
 
 What is the scripture account of the Creation? — For what crime were Adam 
 and Eve banished Paradise? — When? — Who were their children? — Why was 
 Abel's sacrifice more acceptable than Cain's ? — What followed ? 
 
 2 (13) 
 
14 HISTORY OF Tin: JEWS'. 
 
 The birth of Seth, which happened some time after, must have 
 afforded cur lirst parents much consolation. Hi-- d< scendanta were long 
 distinguished for theii j » i * ■ t > , bo that they were called tin urns of Goa\ — 
 while the family of Cain were denominated the sons and daughters of 
 
 mm. At length, however, the descendants of Seth also neglected the 
 
 service of me great Creator, and contracted alliances with the daughters 
 of Cain, whose rices they gradually adopted. Some arte mu8l 1 
 
 attained a decree of cultivation before the Deluge. For Cain built a 
 city. Jabal was the father of such as dwell in tents. Jubal waa the 
 father of such as handled the harp and organ. Tubal Cain taughl the 
 manufacture of brass and iron. The Bister of Tubal Cain, Naamah, 
 discovered the art of Bpinning, and of making woollen clothes. By 
 degrees the human race had so degenerated, all flesh had so corrupted 
 its way upon the earth, that God determined to destroy it by a flood of 
 waters. 
 
 One man, Noah, a descendant of Seth, however, found grace in the 
 eyes <f the Lord. And on account of his piety, God was pleased to 
 
 e him from the general destruction; commanding him to build an 
 ark, or vessel, sutheieiit to contain himself, and his own family, and 
 some of every species of animals, with proper provision for their sub- 
 sistence. In the year of the world, 1656, and B. C. 2348, he entered 
 the ark; and the windows of heaven were opened, and the fountains 
 of the great deep were broken up; and the world which then was, 
 being overflowed with water, perished. The waters, which had in- 
 creased during one hundred and fifty days, at length subsided; and 
 after being inclosed in the ark for about the space of a year, Noah, and 
 all that were with him, came forth out of the ark, which rested on the 
 mountains of Ararat, B. C. 2317. On quitting the ark, Noah erected 
 an altar and offered thereon burnt-sacrifices; and the Almighty gra- 
 ciously accepted his piety, and declared, that he would not again curse 
 the ground for man's sake, nor cut off all flesh by the waters of the 
 flood. And as a token of that promise, said God, " I do set my bow 
 in the clouds." 
 
 With the testimonies of the Sacred Scriptures, (Genesis, chap. 6, 7.) 
 the writings of some of the ancient authors, and the different appear- 
 ances of the globe, concur in support of the truth of this event. The 
 length of the ark was "> I ? feet, its breadth 94, and its height 55. 
 
 Not only the lives of the Antediluvians, hut of many after the flood 
 were protracted to a greal age. Adam lived 930 years, Methuselah 
 969 years, and Noah 950 years. 
 
 Many historians having marked some coincidence - b< tween the cha- 
 racter and life of Fohi, the first emperor of China, and that of Noah, 
 have conj. ctured that .Noah might have been the founder of the Chic 
 empire. 
 
 The SOni ' N ill wen- Shem, Ham, and .1 aphet. .laphet was the 
 
 ehhst, and the patriarch pronounced a blessing upon him, Baying, 
 
 lli.u were the i diatinguiahed ! — Jabal f—Ji 
 
 Relate the porticulanof Noah and I he flood. When <li<l it lake placet— What 
 were the ig< of aeveroJ antediluvian — Whul u said of Noah —Repeal the 
 jir tphetic words of Noah ! 
 
noah's descendants. 15 
 
 "God shall enlarge Japhet, he shall dwell in the tents of Shem, and 
 Canaan shall be his servant." Concerning the posterity of Ham, he 
 said, " Cursed be Canaan, a servant of servants shall he be unto hig 
 brethren." Shem was honoured by the Hebrews, who were his de- 
 scendants, as were also the Assyrians, Persians, Syrians, &c. Ham 
 was the founder of the Egyptians, Ethiopians, &c. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 NOAH'S DESCENDANTS. 
 
 Among the most distinguished of the descendants of Ham, was Nim- 
 rod, who is termed, in Genesis, a mighty hunter before the Lord. The 
 beginning of his kingdom was Babel, Erech, Accad, and Calneth. 
 
 The immediate descendants of Noah quitted the environs of Ararat, 
 and descended to the plains of Shinar. On this spot they resolved to 
 build a city, and a tower whose top might reach to heaven, about 2247 
 years B. C, and 100 years after the flood. When they had carried 
 their edifice to a very considerable height, the Scriptures inform us that 
 the. Almighty confounded their language, so that they no longer under- 
 stood each other. For this reason the city was called Babylon. This 
 compelled them to relinquish their vain project, and the result was the 
 dispersion of mankind into different countries. 
 
 Before this event mankind spoke the same language, and occupied 
 the same portion of the earth ; but their diversity of tongues occasioned 
 their separation, and the forming of different nations. As families 
 increased, their domains were extended, and towns and cities were 
 erected. Hence arose the different laws and customs of nations, which 
 have since overspread a considerable portion of the globe. 
 
 It may, perhaps, be collected from the testimony of the Sacred 
 Scriptures, and from the deductions of philosophy, that man has always 
 existed in society, and that the first societies were families, the first 
 form of government patriarchal ; that the first nourishment was the 
 fruits of the earth, that gradually man became a keeper of flocks and 
 herds, and a cultivator of corn, that from the union of families arose 
 monarchies, the most ancient form of extended civil government. It is 
 in this last state we propose to trace the most important events that 
 have taken place among the various branches of the human race. 
 
 About 150 years after the deluge, Nimrod (the Belus of profane his- 
 torians) built Babylon on the eastern side of the river Euphrates, and 
 Assur built Nineveh, on the river Tigris, which became the capital of 
 the Assyrian Empire. 
 
 Ninus, the son of Belus, and his queen Semiramis, particularly the 
 latter, are said to have raised the empire of Assyria to a high degree 
 of splendour. From the death of Ninus down to a revolt of the Medes 
 under Sardanapalus, a period of 800 years, there is a chasm in the his- 
 
 What were Shem's descendants?— Ham's ?— What is said of Nimrod ?— When 
 and by whom was Ihe tower of Babel built?— What occasioned the dispersion of 
 mankind '—What was the most ancient mode of government ?— Who were the 
 builders of Babylon and Nineveh ?— What is said of INinus and Semiramis? 
 
16 HISTORY OF TIIK JEWS. 
 
 tory of Assyria ami Babylon, thai can be" supplied only by conjecture; 
 and the earliest periods of the Egyptian history ;ire < qually uncertain* 
 
 Origin of Law s. — Certain political writers have supposed that, ia 
 the infancy of society, penal laws i mi-:t have been extremely mild. 
 Perhaps the contrary was rather the case, as the more barbarous the 
 people, the stronger must he the honds to restrain them ; and history 
 confirms the supposition in the ancient laws of the Jews, Egyptians, 
 Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. 
 
 Among the earliest laws of all states, are those regarding ynarritige, 
 for the institution of marriage is coeval with the formation of society. 
 The laws of sueeetttof) are next in order. The father had the absolute 
 power in the division of his estate; but primogeniture was understood 
 to confer certain rights. 
 
 Early method of authenticating contracts. — Before the invention of 
 writing, contracts, testaments, sales, marriages, and the like, were tran- 
 sacted in public. Of these the Jewish and Grecian histories furnish 
 many examples. Some barbarous nations authenticate their bargains 
 by exchanging symbols or tallies. The Peruvians accomplished most 
 of the purposes of writing by knotted cords of various colours, termed 
 Quipos. The Mexicans communicated intelligence to a distance by 
 painting, or, as it is called, picture wri/inu;. Other nations used sym- 
 bols called hieroglyphics, as did the Egyptians. 
 
 The first vehicles of history were poetry and song. The songs of the 
 bards record a great deal of ancient history ; and the laws of many of 
 the ancient nations were composed in verse. Among barbarous nations, 
 the monuments of their history are stones, both rude and sculptured, 
 tumuli and mounds of earth; and among people more refined are 
 columns, triumphal arches, coins and medals.- 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 
 
 When Abraham was about seventy-five years old, at the command 
 of God he removed from Mesopotamia,* with Sarah his wife and Lot 
 his nephew, into Canaan, (B. C. 1920,) where the Lord appeared to him, 
 and promised that his seed should possess that land, lie was afterwards 
 compelled, however, to remove into Egypt for a short time on account 
 of a great famine in Canaan. He had not been long in that country when 
 Pharaoh the king, not knowing that Sarah was Abraham's wife, was 
 struck with the charms of her person, and took her to his palace. (B. C. 
 1919.) God graciously interfered for them, and she w as restored to Abra- 
 ham. After their return from Egypt, Abraham and his nephi w separated 
 on account of a quarrel between the shepherds concerning the pasture. 
 
 •Mesopotamia is the couiitr\ l\ int,' Id twoen tin- rivers Tigris and Kii|>hrntes. 
 
 Whal is said of penal laws ' — What laws \\ ere tappOSI 'I t" ha\ e been iirst insti- 
 tuted ? — What nextf — How were bttrgaini anil oontracu made in rarlv times! — 
 
 What of QgtpOff — Whal were 1 1 1 • • earliest vehicle! oi bietory ' — What wore the 
 earliest monument! 1 — The later ones | — t'ruin whut country was Abraham called 
 — When/ 
 
THE CALL OF ABRAHAM. 17 
 
 About this time the Almighty renewed the promise to Abraham, 
 " that in his seed all the nations of the earth should be blessed," when 
 as yet he had no child. By the advice of Sarah, he took to him Hagar, 
 her hand-maid, who bore him a son called Ishmael. (B.C. 1857.) A 
 misunderstanding arising between her and Sarah, she departed from her 
 master's house, and took with her Ishmael, who became the father of the 
 Arabs. When Abraham was an hundred years old, Isaac, the promised 
 child, was born, and was circumcised on the eighth day-, according to the 
 command of God, who had appointed that rite as a sign of the cove- 
 nant made between himself and the patriarch. 
 
 In order to try his faith, the Lord ordered Abraham to sacrifice his 
 beloved son Isaac, who was the child of promise. Accordingly he 
 prepared to obey the command, bound his son, and laid him as a victim 
 on the altar, when the Almighty, satisfied with his fidelity, bade him 
 desist from his design, and repeated his promise to him who had not 
 withheld his only son. Soon after this happened, Sarah died and was 
 buried in Hebron. Abraham then espoused Keturah, by whom he had 
 six sons, who settled in Arabia. 
 
 Abraham being solicitous to see Isaac settled, sent his steward (B. C. 
 1838,) to Padan Aram, to seek a wife for Isaac; and Rebecca, the pa- 
 triarch's niece, became the spouse of his son. Abraham died at the age 
 of one hundred and seventy-five years, and his sons Isaac and Ishmael 
 buried him in the cave of Machpelah, where Sarah had been interred. 
 
 Rebecca bore Isaac two sons, Esau and Jacob. As the lads grew, 
 Esau became a noted hunter, and was his father's favourite; but Re- 
 becca evinced a partiality for his milder brother, who, she had been as- 
 sured by divine revelation, was to inherit the blessing. When Esau 
 returned from hunting one day, greatly fatigued, he sold his birth-right 
 to Jacob for the gratification of his appetite. By afterwards depriv- 
 ing him of his father's blessing, Jacob incurred the displeasure of Esau 
 (B. C. 1761,) and to avoid his resentment, was obliged to seek a retreat at 
 Padan Aram, the place of his mother's nativity. On his journey, God 
 renewed to him all the promises he had made to Abraham. Jacob was 
 welcomed to the house of his uncle Laban, whose two daughters, 
 Leah and Rachel, he married, having served their father seven years 
 for each. They with their hand-maids bore the twelve patriarchs, and 
 one daughter Dinah. His beloved Rachel bore only Joseph and Ben- 
 jamin. 
 
 After having fed the flocks of his father-in-law for twenty years, and 
 having amassed considerable wealth, he returned with his family and 
 treasures unto his own country. Jacob despatched messengers to ap- 
 prise Esau of his arrival; and sent with them a rich present as a token 
 of his brotherly love. They met with a favourable reception, and Esau 
 set out to meet his brother, with four hundred men. When Jacob per- 
 ceived this numerous retinue, he was greatly alarmed, fearing that Esau 
 
 What was the Almighty's promise to Abraham ? — When was Ishmael born ? — 
 Isaac? — What sacrifice was Abraham called to make? — What followed ? — Whom 
 did Isaac marry? — What was Abraham's age? — For what did Esau sell his birth- 
 right? — When ?— What lbllowed ? — To what country and family did Jacob retire * 
 
 2* 
 
18 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 still harboured feelings of resentment against him. The meeting of 
 the two brothers, however, was amicable, and a perfect reconciliation 
 was effected. Esau departed to his residence at Seir, and Jacob 
 pitched his tent9 in the vicinage of Snccoth. Isaac died in the hun- 
 dred and eightieth year of his acre, and his sons Esau and Jacob buried 
 him. 
 
 Jacob lost Rachel when she was delivered of Benjamin : Joseph 
 now became his favourite child, and was distinguished with peculiar 
 marks of lore. (B.C. 17iM>.) His brothers beheld with jealousy their 
 father's partiality. They were further exasperated against Joseph, by his 
 relating to them some remarkable dreams, which evidently foretold that 
 he should come to great honour, and that his brothers should do him ho- 
 mage. Therefore to rid themselves of this object of their jealousy, 
 they sold him to a troop of Arabian merchants, who carried him into 
 Egypt, and disposed of him to Potiphar, captain of Pharaoh's guard. 
 In the mean time the wicked brothers dipped his coat in blood, and 
 sent it to their aged father, who in the anguish of his soul exclaimed 
 M Joseph is without doubt rent in pieces." The young Hebrew served 
 Potiphar in Egypt with diligence and fidelity, and his master advanced 
 him to great honour, and appointed him overseer of all his affairs. 
 
 His mistress, however, conceived a violent passion for him, but Jo- 
 seph rejected her solicitations. She then accused him to her husband 
 of insulting her, and he was cast into prison. In the same place of 
 confinement were Pharaoh's chief butler and chief baker, each of whom 
 related a remarkable dream to Joseph, which he interpreted and ap- 
 pointed the time for their fulfilment, begging, as the only recompense, 
 that the chief butler would remember his kindness when he was re- 
 stored to his former office, as Joseph foretold he should be. 
 
 After this the king was greatly perplexed by a dream which the ma- 
 gicians and wise men were unable to interpret. (B. C. 1715.) The butler 
 now recalled to mind his own dream, which had been accomplished pre- 
 cisely as Joseph had foretold. Accordingly, at his recommendation, Jo- 
 seph was sent for, who readily interpreted this dream. He was now ho- 
 noured at the Egyptian court, and raised to the highest distinction in the 
 empire next to the king. He rode in the second state carriage, and they 
 cried before him " Bow the knee." According to his prediction there 
 came seven years of great abundance, when he built granaries, and col- 
 lected vast quantities of grain for provisions in the famine that was to 
 follow. Joseph espoused Asenath, the daughter of Potipherah, priest 
 of On, by whom he had two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. 
 
 How was he reconciled to Esau ? — How came Joseph to be sold and carried to 
 Epvpt I — What gave occasion to his imprisonment I — What dreams did he interpret f 
 — What was the consequence 1 — How did he serve Pharaoh ? — How was he re- 
 warded ? 
 
THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 19 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 
 
 The famine came on as Joseph had predicted, and was severe in Ca- 
 naan. Jacob, hearing that there was corn in Egypt, sent his ten sons 
 thither to purchase some, but kept Benjamin at home, as he was now 
 the darling of his father. When the ten brothers arrived in Egypt, 
 Joseph immediately recognised them ; but being desirous of proving 
 them, he pretended that they were spies, and ordered Simeon to be put 
 into prison, while the nine went to carry provision for their families. 
 He also told them not to presume to see him again without bringing 
 Benjamin, their younger brother, with them. When they told this to 
 their aged father, with his heart full of grief he exclaimed, " My son 
 shall not go down with you." 
 
 But the urgency of the case, and the promise of Judah to restore 
 Benjamin to his father, induced the patriarch to let him go. When 
 Joseph beheld his younger brother, all his fraternal feelings returned, 
 and after trying their affection for Benjamin, he discovered himself to 
 his brothers, and instead of revenging their baseness, he owned the 
 hand of Providence in the whole transaction. He then sent for his 
 father and all the family to emigrate into Egypt. When Jacob saw 
 the presents and carriages sent by his son, his heart revived and he 
 exclaimed, " It is enough ; Joseph my son is yet alive ; I will go and 
 see him before I die." The meeting was truly affecting; Pharaoh 
 gave them permission to settle in the land of Goshen, and appointed 
 Joseph's brothers his principal shepherds. x 
 
 After living seventeen years in Egypt, the venerable patriarch felt 
 his dissolution drawing nigh. (B. C. 1689.) He called his children 
 into his presence, and after blessing them enjoined them to carry his 
 bones into Canaan, to be buried in the sepulchre of his fathers. The 
 body was embalmed, according to the Egyptian custom, and Joseph 
 and his brothers, with a numerous retinue, carrried it to Machpelah. 
 
 (B. C. 1630.) Joseph died in the hundred and tenth year of his age, 
 greatly lamented by the Egyptians. On his death bed he reminded 
 his brethren of God's promise to bestow upon them the land of Ca- 
 naan, and by a solemn engagement bound them to carry his bones with 
 them at their departure. 
 
 After a lapse of some years a new king commenced a violent perse- 
 cution against the Hebrews, and subjected them to the most rigid sla- 
 very. Finding their numbers multiply very fast, he published a cruel 
 edict, ordering that every male child of the Hebrews should be cast 
 into the Nile as soon as born. (B. C. 1571.) About this time Moses 
 
 What occasioned the Israelites to go to Egypt ? — In what part of Egypt did the 
 Israelites settle? — Give an account of Jacob's death and burial. — What was Jo- 
 seph's age?— What promise did he exact from his brethren? — What happened to 
 the Hebrews after his death ? — Who was Moses ?— Relate the particulars of Mo 
 ees in the bulrushes. 
 
20 HISTORY OF ill i : JEWS. 
 
 born, and his parents finding him a promising child, hid him till 
 seaiment became dangerous. His mother then laid him in an ark 
 of bulrushes, and placed it upon the banks of the river. He was dis- 
 covered l>v Pharaoh's daughter, who senl his sister Miriam to fetch 
 •.Mi Hebrew nurse, and she called her own mother, who was charged 
 by the princess to nurse the infant His royal patroness adopted him 
 as her son, and gate him an education worthy qi that dignity. 
 
 When lie grew up, Moses beheld with indignation the oppression 
 •and mis< iv ot bis brethren, and having slain an Egyptian who ahused 
 
 one of the Hebrews, he Bought an asylum in the land id' Midian. 
 
 ll.re he continued forty years, when In- received the divine commis- 
 sion t" the Egyptian court. He was joined by his brother Aaron; 
 and on their arrival, they acquainted the elders of Israel with their 
 mission. At their audience they demanded in the name of "Jehovah, 
 the God of Israel, " the dismission of the Hebrews. The answer 
 from Pharaoh was "1 know not the Lord, neither will I let Israel ir/>," 
 and at the same time he ordered the task-masters to increase the work 
 of tin' 1 lebreW s. 
 
 Invested with divine authority, Moses a^ain approached the pres- 
 ent- ot' Pharaoh and made the same demand. He threw down his rod 
 and it became a serpent ; and by the command of God he stretched out 
 the same rod and the waters were turned into hlood. Alter this an in- 
 numerable swarm of frogs consumed the fruit of the ground, and the 
 houses and even the heds of the Egyptians swarmed with them; then 
 ho turni d the dust into venomous flies and innumerable quantities of 
 lice ; he amicto d them with terrible boils, breaking out with blains on 
 man and beast. Still Pharaoh refused to let them go; but the smiting 
 of the first-born of all the Egyptians, from the first-born of Pharaoh, 
 to that of the captive, and also of their beasts, struck such terror into 
 the Egyptians that they were glad to rid themselves of the Hehrews, 
 and hastened their departure. On this memorable night was the Pass- 
 over instituted; for the Israelites, by the command ot' God, had sprin- 
 kh d their doors with the blood of a lamb, as a sign for the destroying 
 angel to pass by. 
 
 (B.C. lr.U.) .Moses now marched at the head of this vast multi- 
 tude, consisting of 600,000 men, besides women and children, their 
 
 rants, and their cattle, under the guidance of God, in a pillar of cloud 
 by day. and by night in a pillar of lire. They took with them the 
 
 bones of Joseph, and when they came near the Red Sea, they saw 
 Pharaoh and his army in their rear, for he was determined to pursue 
 
 them ami oblige them to return. Hut Moses, by divine appointment, 
 
 Stretched out his hand towards the sea. and the w.:t. rs w. re divided SO 
 that the Israelites wi at over on dry ground. The Egyptians with im- 
 
 iiioi pursued them into the sea, and were all drowned, while the 
 
 [ebrews landed Bafe on the opposite Bhore. (See engraving at the be- 
 ginning of the History of the .lows.) 
 
 oducation. — What i this Bight to Midian t— -His return to Egypt I 
 
 \\ li:n wire the ten plagues oi Egypt? — The Passover f— What caused tin- boera- 
 "i the Israelites .'— \\ bat I eiel die Egj ptiani in the lit d Sea l 
 
THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 21 
 
 The Israelites being thus miraculously delivered, marched through 
 the desert, and were sustained by divine power. When they came to 
 the foot of mount Sinai (B. C. 1491,) they heard the voice of the De- 
 ity deliver audily the ten commandments. Moses went up into the 
 mount, and was there forty days, during which time he had two tables 
 of testimony written with the finger of God. When Moses went 
 down, and saw the people dancing round a molten calf, which Aaron 
 at their request had made, he grieved at their apostacy, and indignant- 
 ly threw down the tables of stone and broke them. The people after- 
 wards repented of their idolatry, and the Lord graciously gave them 
 two other tables ; and Moses demanded of them a free-will offering for 
 the tabernacle which God had commanded him to rear. The people 
 gladly assisted in this work, and in a short time it was completed, (B. 
 C. 1490,) and Aaron and his sons were set apart for the ministry. 
 
 Moses sent some spies to examine the Promised Land, who return- 
 ed, after an absence of forty days, with an unfavourable report. This 
 irritated the minds of the people, and they rose in a tumult to stone Mo- 
 ses and Aaron. But Joshua and Caleb, two of his spies, endeavoured 
 to appease them, and wished them to march immediately into Canaan. 
 But their courage failed, and God declared that none of the Israelites, 
 above twenty years old, except Joshua and Caleb, should enter Canaan. 
 Not even Moses, for he had displeased the Lord, and was allowed only 
 to see the Promised Land. Accordingly they wandered about the wil- 
 derness for forty years, during which time this was fulfilled. (B. C. 1426.) 
 Moses died in the hundred and twentieth year of his age, in view of 
 Canaan. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 
 
 Joshua (B. C. 1451,) succeeded Moses ; and when they arrived on 
 the borders of Canaan, he sent out spies, who entered Jericho, and 
 found that the approach of the Israelites had struck terror into the in- 
 habitants. On their return, Joshua passed over Jordan in a miraculous 
 manner, and marched to Jericho. This was a walled city, and the Is- 
 raelites, by the command of God, marched round the walls for seven 
 days, carrying the ark of the covenant, blowing with rams' horns, and 
 shouting. On the seventh day the walls fell down before them, and 
 all the inhabitants, except Rahab and her family, who had received the 
 spies, were slain. After this they advanced to Ai, which place was 
 subdued. 
 
 In a glorious victory over the Canaanites, at the word of Joshua, 
 " the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged 
 themselves upon their enemies." Having made a division of the Land 
 of Promise among the people, Joshua assembled the tribes at Shechem, 
 
 On what Mount were the two tables delivered ? — Relate the circumstances. — 
 How long did the Israelites wander in the wilderness ?— Where ?— When and where 
 did Moses die ?— Who led the Israelites over Jordan into Canaan ?— How was Je- 
 richo taken ?— What miracle was performed by Joshua ? 
 
22 ii i- ron i of th b i iw -• 
 
 renewed the covenant between them and God. and reminding them of 
 past favours, he exhorted tin m to adhere to their engagement. He 
 died in the one hundred and tenth year of his age, and was buried in 
 tin- border of his inheritance in Timnath-serah. 
 
 \t"t<T this (H. c. 1 126,) the tribe of Judah, nndeT the command of 
 
 Call b, tOOB and burnt Jerusalem, ami obligi d the inhabitants of (Ja/.a, 
 
 K&kt Ion, and Bkron, to Bubmit to them. The other tribes did nol en- 
 tirely destroy the Canaanites, l>ut imposed a tribute upon them. They 
 lived among them, and married the Canaanitish maids, and worshipped 
 
 their idols. This was a cause of great disasters t:i them, ami they met 
 with continual defeats. The tribe of Benjamin (B. C. l km;.) was ex- 
 tinguished, excepl six hundred men. in a war which they waged against 
 the other tribes. Repenting <>f this afterwards, the Israelites endea- 
 voured t" restore their fallen tribe, and at length succeeded. 
 
 On account of their wiekedness and idolatry, ( rod delivered them 
 
 into the power of the Assyrians, whom they s< rved eight years, when 
 Othniel, Caleb's nephew, delivered them, and was judge forty years. 
 
 After his death they were Subject to the Moabites eighteen years. Ehud 
 
 slew Bglon, king of Moab, and restored liberty to Israel, which they 
 enjoyed eighty years. After this, the Canaanites brought them under 
 slavery for twenty years ; they were then delivered hy Barak and De- 
 borah, who ruled ov< r them forty years. The Midianites were their 
 next masters, in whose power they were seven years ; Gideon marched 
 again8l the forces of Midian, gave them a complete overthrow, and slew 
 their nem-rals. He enjoyed the government forty years. Ahimelech, 
 (B.C. 1236,) Gideon's natural son, slew his seventy brothers, except 
 Jotham; usurped the authority, and exercised it in a tyrannical manner. 
 He met his death at the siege of Thebez. 
 
 Jephthah, one of their judges, marching against the king of the 
 Ammonites, vowed, if he should be successful in his expedition, to 
 sacrifice the living being that should first meet him on his return. 
 Having returned in triumph, his daughter, an only child, came out to 
 congratulate him on his success. When apprized of her father's rash- 
 Bess, she begged a respite of two months to bewail her youth, and then 
 calmly met her fate. 
 
 After this, when the Israelites were tributary to the Philistines, God 
 raised up SAMSON, B mighty man, who made great slaughter among 
 them, and, on one occasion, slew a thousand Philistines with the jaw- 
 bone Of Bn ass. While he kept the cause of his n'pat Strength secret, 
 
 his enemies had no power over him. Hut being enamoured of Delilah, 
 
 a Philistine woman, he imparted the secret to her. This proved fatal 
 t>> him; hut he slew more of the Philistines at his death, than he had 
 slain during his life. 
 
 Eli, the high priest, then assumed the government. He had two 
 . Hophni and Phineas, who were guilty of injustice towards men. 
 
 Where, and al what sgs <li<l he die ? — Whal occurred under Ihe command of 
 mred under Othniel 1 — Ehud?— Gi IVhere did he di< 
 
 wii ithah f— Samson, and the Philistines ?—-What ii re. irded oi l.h and 
 
THE JUDGES OVER ISRAEL. 23 
 
 and of impiety towards God. They were slain in a battle against the 
 Philistines, and the ark of the covenant was carried away by the ene- 
 my. When the sad tidings reached the aged Eli, he was so distressed 
 at them that he fell from his seat and died, in the ninety-eighth year 
 of his age. After the Philistines had detained the ark four months, 
 they voluntarily returned it to the Hebrews. 
 
 Samuel, (B. C. 1096,) the prophet, succeeded Eli in the government, 
 which he maintained with so much integrity and satisfaction, that when 
 he appointed his two sons to succeed him, the people demanded a king, 
 alleging that his sons were unworthy of the succession. Samuel re- 
 monstrated with them ; but finding all to no purpose, he proclaimed 
 Saul, the son of Kish, king of Israel. 
 
 No sooner was Saul (B. C. 1095,) invested with the regal dignity 
 than he commenced a successful expedition against the king of the Am- 
 morites, which gained him the respect of all his subjects. This was 
 followed by several victories over the Philistines. Bat being sent 
 against the Amalekites, he presumed to act contrary to the directions 
 of the prophet, and he was informed that the kingdom should be taken 
 from him, and given to a neighbour more worthy of the dignity. Some 
 time after this, God sent the prophet to Bethlehem to anoint David, 
 son of Jesse, for the sovereignty. 
 
 Saul being grievously afflicted with a demoniacal disorder, his 
 friends had David summoned to court, to endeavour by his skill on the 
 harp, to revive the spirits of the prince. In this he was successful ; 
 and when Saul seemed recovered, he obtained permission of Jesse to 
 detain his son in his service. (B. C. 1069.) In a contest with Goliath, 
 the champion of the Philistines, David displayed such signal valour 
 and intrepidity, that the land resounded with his praise. This roused 
 the jealousy of his royal master, who sought means to rid himself of 
 this victorious champion. He gave him his daughter in marriage, on 
 condition of his destroying 600 of the Philistines. He sought to en- 
 trap him by various means, and he even endeavoured to despatch him 
 with his own javelin. Jonathan the king's son, had contracted an in- 
 timate friendship with David, and assisted him in escaping the king's 
 treachery. David, to avoid the vengeance of Saul, sought an asylum 
 with the Philistine kings. Samuel, the prophet, died, (B.C. 1059,) 
 and was buried in Ramah, in the eighteenth year of Saul's reign. 
 
 Saul, going against the Philistines, was greatly troubled at the su- 
 periority of the enemy, and went in disguise to a necromantic woman, 
 desiring her to raise him up Samuel. The king was informed that he, 
 together with his sons, would fall in the battle. Saul returned to the 
 camp, and in the engagement the Hebrews were defeated with great 
 slaughter, (B. O. 1055,) and the king and all his sons, except Ishbo- 
 sheth, were among the slain. Abner, Saul's general, proclaimed this sur- 
 viving son king. David was already acknowledged sovereign by one 
 
 Who was Samuel, and who was proclaimed king by him ? — Why? — What is 
 related of San! and his victories? — On what conditions did David obtain Saul's 
 daughter ? — When did Samuel'dic '/—Relate Saul's death, and David's advance- 
 ment to the crown. 
 
24 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 tribe at Hebron, and thus a civil war commenced, which raged for some 
 time with great violence. But at length [shbosheth was assassinated 
 by the treachery of bis friends, and David received homage from all 
 the tribes of Israel. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 DAVID AND BIS SUCCESSORS 
 
 When bo was firmly settled on the throne, David overran tbe land 
 of the Philistines, and annexed it t<> his own dominions. He also sub- 
 dued the Moabites, the Syrians, and the [dumeans. He took Mephibo- 
 shrth, son of Jonathan, to bis court, and honoured him at bis table. 
 The Hebrews defeated the Ammonites, with a great slaughter, and be- 
 (1 them in their capital. But David fell into a grievous sin, for 
 being enamoured of the wife of Uriah, an officer in tbe army, he pro- 
 cured his death at the Biege, in order to gratify bis passion. (13. C. 1035.) 
 This flagrant injustice induced (Jod to send Nathan the prophet with a 
 leproof 10 the parable of the ewe lamb. David became sensible of his 
 guilt, and implored forgiveness of the Lord. 
 
 In the mean time Joab, David's general, had been successful against 
 tbe Ammonites, and had taken their capital. The troubles of David 
 a now to begin, for one son having committed incest, was slain by 
 his brother. Absalom, bis son, rebelled against him, and compelled 
 him to flee for bis life. (13. C. 1023.) This wicked son was slain in 
 a battle fought against his father, who, on hearing of bis son's death, 
 exclaimed, " O my son Absalom ; my son, my son ! would to God I 
 had died for thee." Having quelled this conspiracy, David returned 
 to his palace, and died in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after a reign 
 of forty years. 
 
 Solomom succeeded his father, and took off all be bad reason to sus- 
 pect of infidelity. He married the daughter of Pharaoh, king of Egvpt, 
 and began his reign with prudence and moderation. God appeared to 
 him in a dream, and told him to name what he desired to have. The 
 youinj king begged wisdom and discernment to govern his subjects 
 wisely. He obtained his request, and received a more than ordinary 
 share of understanding and wisdom. (B. ('. 1013.) The Hebrews now 
 enjoyed a long peace ; and Solomon made an agreement with Hiram, 
 king of Tyre, for timber to build the temple for which David had made 
 preparations. 
 
 The foundations were laid in the fourth year of his reign, and in 
 seven years, this Btupendoas pile of building \\ as completed at an enor- 
 mous expense. Solomon (B. C. 1005, ) dedicated it to the Almighty, 
 and removed the ark of the covenant, and the tabernacle into it with 
 j/r. at pomp. He encouraged commerce, and built a numerous f 
 
 ■i [shbosheth, •— DevkTi final luccesa. — Whal nation did David wbdue! 
 — Whal of Mephibosheth f — Into what tin did David tall' — How was it re- 
 
 r roved I — What BOM rebelled? — What W8J Pa\id" Sge, &C.1 — Who succeeded 
 tovid t — For what did Solomon pray! — What followed I when were the 
 foundations of the Temple laid ! — When wai u dedicated ' 
 
DAVID AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 25 
 
 which traded to India and Ethiopia, and brought immense riches. As 
 he advanced in years, he married a multitude of wives without regarding 
 either the law of Moses, or of what country they were, and out of his 
 affection for them, he followed their idolatries, and gave into their fo- 
 reign customs. This apostacy drew the anger of God upon him, and 
 he was informed that his posterity should lose the kingdom, except the 
 tribe of Judah. He died in the fortieth year of his reign. 
 
 (B. C. 975.) Rehoboam succeeded Solomon, and in an assembly at 
 Shechem declared his determination of ruling them with more rigour 
 than his father. This incensed the people so much against him that 
 ten tribes revolted, and ordained Jeroboam king over them. Only the 
 tribes of Judah and Benjamin submitted to Rehoboam, who resided at 
 Jerusalem. Jeroboam, being apprehensive that if his subjects went to 
 Jerusalem to worship in the temple, they would desert to his rival, set 
 up two golden heifers, the one at Bethel, and the other at Dan, and 
 appointed priests from among the meanest of his subjects. Those that 
 abhorred his impiety, fled to Jerusalem, and greatly augmented the 
 number of Rehoboam's subjects. 
 
 Displeased at the irreligious practices of Rehoboam, the Almighty 
 permitted Shishak, (B. C. 972,) king of Egypt, to invade his dominions, 
 and he advanced to the gates of Jerusalem. The Egyptian took the 
 city without resistance ; pillaged the temple, and carried off the riches 
 of the king in great abundance. Rehoboam died after a reign of seven- 
 teen years, in the fifty-seventh year of his age, and was succeeded by 
 his son Abijah. 
 
 In the mean time, Jeroboam continued in his impiety, and on the 
 succession of Abijah, to the throne of Judah, he marched against the 
 young king with a powerful army. (B. C. 958.) Jeroboam was com- 
 pletely defeated with a great loss. Abijah did not long survive his vic- 
 tory ; and left his throne to his son Asa. Jeroboam died after a reign 
 of twenty-two years, and was succeeded by his son Nadab, who resem- 
 bled his father in impiety and wickedness. He had reigned only two 
 years, when he was slain in a conspiracy made against him by Baasha, 
 who usurped the authority, and destroyed all the race of Jeroboam. 
 
 (B. C. 955.) Asa, king of Jerusalem, was remarkable for his piety 
 and goodness. In the tenth year of his reign, Zera, king of Ethiopia, 
 marched against him with a numerous army. Asa, relying on the God 
 of Israel, attacked the enemy, and overthrew them with great slaughter. 
 After this, Baasha, the usurper who reigned over the ten tribes, invaded 
 the kingdom of Asa. This prince made an alliance with the kino- of 
 Damascus, who assisted him against Baasha. 
 
 Elah, the son and successor of Baasha, when he had reigned two 
 years, fell a victim to the treachery of Zimri, who survived his base- 
 ness only seven days. 
 
 Omri then assumed the government over the ten tribes. Ho enjoyed 
 his authority twelve years, and was succeeded by his son Ahab. The 
 
 Who succeeded Solomon? — Who ruled over Israel? — What was his sin? — 
 Who invaded Jerusalem and pillaged the temple ? — What wars took place be- 
 tween the kings of Judah and Israel ? — What result ? — What fe recorded . h 
 3 
 
26 BI8TOBY OP Tin: JEWS. 
 
 good kin o- of Judah, Asa, died after a happy reign of forty-one years, 
 and Kit his kingdom to liis son, Jehoshaphat. 
 
 (B. C. 918.) A hah, the king of Israel, exceeded his predecessors 
 in impiety and wickedness. He i spoused .A zebel, a Sidoman prim 
 w ho eel ii]) her foreign idols, and appointed priests and prophets foi her 
 idolatries, and slew those of the God of Israel. Naboth had afield 
 adjoining that of the king, who wished to purchase it to join to his 
 own. Naboth was not disposed to pari with it, and Jezebel ordered 
 Naboth to be Btoned, upon pretence of blasphemy to God, and disloy- 
 alty to the king. As a just punishmi nl for these infamous practice b, 
 the Almighty declared by his propbel Elijah, thai both Ahah and his 
 wife Bhould be slain, and thai dogs Bhould Lick liis blood, and ea1 the 
 body of Jezebel, which was fulfilled in the seventeenth year of Je- 
 hoshaphat, king of Judah. Jehoshaphat triumph* d over a league 
 formed againsl him, and died in the twenty-fifth yeaT of his reign. 
 
 (!!.('. >!•(!.) Ah \-/.i aii succi eded his rather Ahah, on the throne of 
 Israel. Bu1 happening to hurl himself by a fall, he sent to the God 
 of Bkron, to inquire about liis r< covery. 
 
 Eli jab the prophet intercepted the mi ss< tigers, and bid them tell 
 tin king, thai because he bad d< Bpised the God of Israel, and had sent 
 to impure of an idol, he would nol recover; accordingly, Ahaziah died 
 in a short time after, and was succeeded by his brother ,/tirai/t, (B. C. 
 B89.) 
 
 In the reign of this prince, Benhadad, the Syrian general, besii ged 
 Samaria, and reduced the place to such dreadful extremity, thai an. 
 head was sold for eighty pieces of silver, and mothers were compelled 
 to eat their own offspring. In this distress, God struck such terror into 
 the hearts of the besiegers, thai they fled with precipitation, and left 
 such plenty of provisions in their camp, that a measure of fine flour 
 was Bold t"r a shekel, and every thing else in proportion, in the gate 
 of Samaria. 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 JEHU. \M.\ZI\II. AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. 
 Jehu, who was anointed king by the prophet of the Lord, slew 
 
 Beventj of Allah's sons, and forty-two princes of the house of Judah ; 
 he put Jezebel to death, and destroyed the worshippers of her idols, 
 lie did nut utterly abolish idolatry, Inn allowed the people to worship 
 the golden heifi rs. How< ver, as a reward for his zeal for God, he 
 
 tured (H. <'. 856) thai his posterity should reign over Israel foi ft w 
 generations. He died in the twcnty-i ighth year of bis reign. At the 
 time be was zealous for the Jewish worship, Athaliah^ daughter of 
 Jezi bel, n igned in Jerusalem, and she endeavoured to extinguish the 
 house of David; bu1 Joash escaped through the faithfulness of Ins 
 . and in the seventh year of her reign, \thaliah v 
 
 Ah:il>' 'Jehoshaphat f — Whal of Jezebel and of Naboth *b vineyard 1 — Jeze- 
 bel'i Lite ' — Whal <lnl Elijah pronounce againsl Ahaziah t and whal befel the 
 Syrian army?— Whal I fehul Vlbuliuli 
 
JEHU, AMAZIAII, AND THEIR SUCCESSORS. 27 
 
 and Joash proclaimed king. This prince forsook the worship of the 
 true God, and was assassinated by his servants, after he had reigned 
 forty years. 
 
 (B. C. 838.) Amaziah, his son, succeeded him on the throne of 
 Judah, who brought the murderers of his father to justice. The 
 beginning of his reign promised well ; but his subsequent wickedness 
 drew upon him captivity and distress. He was slain by a conspiracy 
 in the twenty-ninth year of his reign. 
 
 During the latter part of this reign, Jeroboam II. reigned in Samaria. 
 He was the cause of great troubles to his subjects ; but afterwards he 
 restored the kingdom of Israel to its former splendour. (B. C. 772.) 
 He reigned forty-one years, and was succeeded by his son Zechariah, 
 who was treacherously slain by Shallum, after a reign of six months. 
 From this time, the history of Israel is replete with treasons, murders, 
 and anarchy. Tiglath Pileser king of Assyria, in the reign of Pekah, 
 overran the country beyond Jordan, and carried many of the inhabitants 
 captive into his own kingdom. 
 
 While Israel was thus languishing under cruel tyrants, Uzziah, son 
 of Amaziah, sat on the throne of Judah. He raised his kingdom to 
 affluence and prosperity, and made several successful expeditions. 
 This prince, presuming to usurp the priest's office, was struck with a 
 leprosy, which proved fatal to him. He was succeeded by Jotham, 
 his son, who was eminent for his virtue, for his pious zeal in beautify- 
 ing the temple, and for repairing the walls of Jerusalem. He died in 
 the sixteenth year of his reign. 
 
 Ahaz succeeded Jotham, his father, on the throne of Judah. By his 
 impieties he drew upon his country an invasion by the allied armies of 
 Israel and Syria. The Israelites slew one hundred and twenty thou- 
 sand of the troops of Judah, and took two hundred thousand prisoners. 
 They were met by the prophet Obed, who persuaded the Israelites to 
 release their captives. The reign of Ahaz was a scene of vices, im- 
 pieties, and misfortunes. 
 
 Pekah, king of Israel, was despatched through the treachery of Ho- 
 shea, who usurped the authority. In the ninth year of his reign, he 
 was taken captive by Shalmanezer, king of Assyria, and carried, toge- 
 ther with the ten tribes, into Media. (B. C. 721.) He was the last 
 king of Israel. 
 
 Hezekiah had succeeded his father Ahaz on the throne of Judah. 
 This prince esteemed the worship of God of the greatest importance. 
 He assembled the priests and Levites, proclaimed a passover, and in- 
 vited to the temple all the worshippers of the true God. In the four- 
 teenth year of his reign, Sennacherib, king of Assyria, invaded Judah 
 with a mighty army, defying the God of Israel, and sent troops under 
 the command of Tartan, Rabsaris, and Rabshakeh, to destroy Jerusalem. 
 But the angel of God cut off in one night an hundred and eighty-five 
 
 Joash ? — Mention the events of the reigns of Amaziah. — Jeroboam IT. — Za- 
 chariah. — What is recorded of Uzziah ? — Jotham ? — Ahaz ? — What victory did 
 the Israelites gain over Judah ? — What beiel the Assyrian army in the days of 
 Hezekiah ? 
 
H18T0BV OP THE JEWS. 
 
 thousand Assyrians ; and their generals marched back to their own land. 
 After this Hezekiah was dangerously ill ; and Isaiah was < mission- 
 ed to declare that his disease would prove fatal. The king implored 
 thai his life mighl be prolonged: the Almighty granted his reqn ; 
 and as a token of his life, the shadow of the Bun weqt back ten degrees. 
 i!i died in the twenty-ninth' year of his reign. 
 
 \1anasseh then ascended the throne, and as a punish- 
 ment for his diabolical Bacrilege, protaneness, and barbarous craelty, 
 his country was laid waste, and himself led captive to Babylon. He 
 there humbled himself <>n account of his vices, and was afterwards 
 • red to his kingdom-; when he became as remarkable for his vir- 
 tues, ;i s he had heen foT his vices. (15. ('. 643.) A.MON, his son. BUC- 
 led, who imitated his lather only in his wickedness. He perished 
 tonspiracy in the second year of his reign. 
 
 JosiAH (B.C. ('».■;.*>.) ascended tjie throne at the a^e of eight years, 
 and his long reign was a series of piety and benevolence, lie sup- 
 pressed idolatry, beautified the temple, and restored its worship to its 
 ancient splendour. lie lost his life in attempting to hinder the Egyp- 
 tians passing through .ludea. 
 
 Jehoahaz then assumed the government; hut after enjoying the dig- 
 nity three months, hi' was deposed hy the Egyptian kimj, who trans- 
 ferred the crown to JehOIAKIM, and imposed a heavy tribute on the land. 
 lie paid this trihute for three years, and then revolted. Nebuchadnez- 
 zar, king ^t' Assyria, overran the whole country, slew the king, and 
 pillaged tin; temple of its most valuable vessels, which he carried to 
 Babylon. 
 
 ( B. C. 599.) Jehoi uhin succeeded him in his throne and in his vices. 
 After reigning three months, ho, ton-ether with his court, was carried 
 captive to Babylon. Nebuchadnezzar then appointed Zedekiah, the 
 late king's uncle, to lie king, on condition of' his paying a certain tri- 
 hute. Having observed the oath for eighl years, he revolted, Jerusa- 
 lem was taken, and Zedekiah hail his eyes put out, and was led captive 
 
 to Babylon. The city and temple wi re pill iged, and the mosl Stately 
 edifices burnt to the ground ; and tic inhabitants were led in triumph 
 to Babylon. Thus the kingdom of Israel was destroyed, after it had 
 ■1 three hundred and eighty-eight years fr im the revolt of the ten 
 trihes, and one hundred and thirty-four from the destruction of Samaria. 
 T .lews continued in slavery seventy ye irs, I II. < '. 53G,) when, as 
 h d heen [iridic ted by Isaiah, CvTUS allowed them to nturu to the land 
 of their nativity, and to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple I f God. The 
 
 number of those that returned was forty-two thousand four hundred and 
 BlXty-tWO. But the Cutheans, who had hi en planted in Samaria, when 
 the ten tribes were carried into captivity. led iu hindering the 
 
 building for Borne years. But under the reign of Darius, i p>. < '. 6 1 8, | 
 Zorobabel obtained the royal consent, tin- temple was rebuilt, and dedi- 
 itfa great solemnity. 
 
 change took place in Manasaeh. — Whal ki Assyria reduced 
 
 the people into captivity} — Whal befel Zedekiah ? — Whither uere the people 
 lei! captive 1 — How long were the Jews jo captivity! — By whom and by whose 
 command wai rebuilt '. 
 
XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS. 29 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 
 XERXES FAVOURS THE JEWS — MACEDONIAN DOMINION IN 
 
 JUDEA. 
 
 Xerxes, the son and successor of Darius, was well disposed to the 
 Jews. He commissioned Ezra, the priest, to return with as many of 
 his countrymen as were desirous to go. Ezra renewed the Jewish 
 worship, and collected and revised the sacred books ; after him the 
 king permitted Nehemiah to rebuild the walls. In the reign of Arta- 
 xerxes, the consort of Esther, the Jewish nation was on the point of de- 
 struction through the baseness of Haman, an Amalekite, in favour at 
 the Persian court. But at the intercession of the queen, her country 
 was spared, and Haman was executed. 
 
 (B. C. 373.) The government of Judea was then annexed to the Sy- 
 rian prefecture ; and the high priests were entrusted with the adminis- 
 tration of affairs. In the reign of Artaxerxes Mnemon, John, the high 
 priest, quarrelled with his brother Jesus, and slew him in the temple. 
 Bagoses, the governor of Syria, then polluted the temple, and imposed 
 a tribute on the Jews for every sacrifice that was offered. During the 
 priesthood of Jaddua, Alexander the Great, having vanquished Darius, 
 sent to Jerusalem to demand provision for his army at the siege of 
 Tyre ; their refusal incurred the resentment of that prince ; but the pru- 
 dence of the priests, who went out of the city to meet Alexander, avert- 
 ed the threatened danger. 
 
 At the partition of the Macedonian empire, Ptolemy (B. C. 320,) 
 invaded Judea, took Jerusalem by treachery on the Sabbath day, and 
 led great multitudes of the Jews into Egypt. Being confident of their 
 fidelity, he distributed many of them into garrisons, and admitted them 
 to great privileges at Alexandria. On the succession of Philadelphus 
 to the throne of Egypt, he released the Jews, to the number of a hun- 
 dred and twenty thousand ; and he procured a translation of their law 
 for his library. About this time died Simon, the high priest, whose 
 piety and integrity procured him the surname of the Just: Eleazer, 
 his brother, then succeeded to the high priesthood. 
 
 On the succession of Ptolemy Philopater to the throne of Egypt, 
 Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, endeavoured to wrest Palestine 
 from his hands ; and after the death of Philopater, the Jews w 7 ere com- 
 pelled to submit to Antiochus, (B. C. 201,) and at his creath to his son 
 Seleucus. On the death of Onias, the high priest, the Jews quarrelled 
 among themselves about the succession. One of the parties fled to Se- 
 leucus, who marched against Jerusalem, and having taken the city, he 
 pillaged the temple of its immense treasures, (B. C. 168,) he prohi- 
 bited the Jews from observing the laws of their country, and the inhu- 
 
 Ey whom were Nehemiah and Ezra encouraged to rebuild the walls of Jerusa- 
 lem, and renew the Jewish worship ? — To what state was the Jewish government 
 annexed ? — By what act was Alexander the Great appeased ? — Relate the par- 
 ticulars of the Ptolemies towards the Jews. — Who pillaged the temple and-pun- 
 ished the people ? 
 
 3* 
 
30 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 man tyrant sacrificed those who presumed to disobey his orders. Ho 
 built a citadel that commanded the temple, and put into it a garrison of 
 Macedonians. 
 
 (B. C. 1G7.) At length Mattathias, a priest of Jerusalem, with his five 
 sons, and a few adherents, routed the generals of the tyrant, and de- 
 stroyed the idols that Antiochus had set up. Judas Maccabeus, his eld- 
 est son, succeeded him, and struck great terror into the enemy, and slew 
 their generals. After gaining three successive victories, he marched 
 into Jerusalem, purified the temple, and offered the appointed sacrifices 
 with great solemnity. He rebuilt the walls of the city, and erected 
 fortifications in the neighbourhood. Antiochus Eupator having suc- 
 ceeded his father in Syria, marched against Judas, and besieged him 
 in the temple at Jerusalem. Having spent much time at the siege, 
 Antiochus made a treaty with Judas, but the perfidious Syrian, contrary 
 to his oath, ordered his troops to demolish the walls. He despatched 
 Menelaus, the high priest, and gave the high priesthood to Alcimus. 
 
 Demetrius, the successor of Antiochus, sent Bacchides and Alcimus 
 against Judas. When they arrived in Judea, they endeavoured to take 
 the Jewish general by treachery ; but Judas, being aware of their base- 
 ness, eluded their intentions. Alcimus applied to the Syrian court for 
 more assistance. The king sent Nicanor, with numerous forces, who 
 advanced to Jerusalem, and threatened to pull down the temple, unless 
 they would deliver Judas to him. This heroic chief, however, attacked 
 the Syrian general, and cut both him and all his troops to pieces, so 
 that not one escaped. After this glorious victory the Jews enjoyed 
 peace a short time, during which Judas contracted an alliance with the 
 Romans, who had the treaty engraven in brass and deposited in the 
 Capitol. 
 
 When Demetrius was informed of the death of Nicanor, he des- 
 patched Bacchides with an army into Judea. In an engagement, Judas, 
 being deserted by many of his troops, fell fighting valiantly against 
 Bacchides. Jonathan succeeded his brother Judas in the command of 
 the Jewish army. (B. C. 160.) Having collected all his adherents, he 
 went into the wilderness, whither Bacchides followed them, and at- 
 tacked them on their Sabbath ; but he was compelled to retire to Jeru- 
 salem, with the loss of two thousand men, and Jonathan escaped across 
 the Jordan. Bacchides fortified all the principal cities in Judea, and 
 put garrisons into them who made frequent sallies on the defenceless 
 Jews. He then shut up the sons of the principal Jews in the citadel, 
 at Jerusalem, as hostages, and afterwards returned to the king. But 
 the enemies of Jonathan again persuaded Demetrius to send Bacchides 
 against Jonathan. Victory once more decided for the Jewish general, 
 and a treaty was made between him and Bacchides. Jonathan after 
 this governed Judea, and restored peace to his country. 
 
 (B. C. 153.) In the dispute between Demetrius and Alexander Ba- 
 las, the former feared lest Jonathan remembering how he had formerly 
 
 What family of Jews arose against the Syrians ? — What did Judas, the heroic 
 Jewish chief, effect ? — What followed ? — What success had Jonathan over the 
 general Baccliides ? — Who governed Judea ? 
 
DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA. 31 
 
 treated him, should join his competitor; he therefore sought the friend- 
 ship of Jonathan, by permitting him to raise an army, and to receive 
 oack the hostages in the citadel at Jerusalem. Alexander, wishing to 
 outvie his rival, conferred on Jonathan the high priesthood, and sent 
 him some rich presents. When Alexander obtained the crown of Syria, 
 he honoured Jonathan in a distinguished manner. But the Syrians re- 
 volted in favour of young Demetrius, and Apollonius, governor of Ccelo- 
 Syria, marched against Jonathan, (B. C. 148,) but he was routed with 
 great slaughter of his troops. Alexander, as a reward for his bravery, 
 sent Jonathan a magnificent present, and allowed him Ekron, with its 
 toparchy, for his inheritance. After maintaining the government of the 
 Jews for seventeen years he was treacherously murdered by Trypho, 
 one of Alexander's generals. (B. C. 144.) 
 
 Simon succeeded his brother Jonathan in the high priesthood ; and 
 he delivered his country from the Macedonian yoke. He also took and 
 demolished the citadel at Jerusalem. Antiochus, brother of Demetrius, 
 having ascended the Syrian throne, sent ambassadors to Simon to make a 
 league of friendship and mutual assistance. The high priest readily ac- 
 cepted their proposals, and presented Antiochus with large sums of 
 money. (B. C. 139.) But this perfidious monarch soon after sent an army 
 to ravage Judea and to seize Simon. However, his troops were defeated, 
 and Simon made a league with the Romans. After Simon had been 
 ruler of the Jews eight years, he was treacherously assassinated by 
 Ptolemy, his son-in-law. The murderer also despatched two of Simon's 
 sons, and endeavoured to take John, surnamed Hyrcanus ; but he es- 
 caped from him, and assumed his father's office. 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 DOMINION OF THE ROMANS IN JUDEA— ASMONEAN DYNASTY. 
 
 Antiochus then invaded Judea, and having ravaged the country, he 
 besieged Hyrcanus in Jerusalem, which he reduced to a dreadful state 
 by famine. Antiochus then agreed to make peace with the Jews, on 
 condition that they should deliver up their arms, pay tribute for Joppa, 
 and should give him hostages, and five hundred talents of silver. After 
 the death of Antiochus, the Jewish governor delivered his country from 
 the Syrian yoke. (B.C. 130.) He also took Samega, and the neigh- 
 bouring cities, Shechem and Gerizim ; and demolished a temple built 
 by Sanballat. Hyrcanus also renewed the league with the Romans ; 
 and he governed Judea with prudence and success for thirty years, 
 during which period Jerusalem and the temple were restored to their 
 ancient splendour and privileges. 
 
 He was succeeded by his eldest son, Jristubulus, who claimed sove- 
 reignty, and assumed to himself the diadem. He barbarously mur- 
 dered his mother and brother. He died after a short but cruel reign, 
 and his brother Alexander was appointed to succeed him. Alexander 
 
 What occurred between Jonathan and Alexander Balas ? — What success had 
 Simon ? — With whom did he league ? — How long did Hyrcanus govern Jerusa- 
 lem? 
 
32 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 led his army to besiege Ptolemais ; but he was compelled to raise the 
 siege for fear of Ptolemy Lathyrus, and received a terrible defeat on 
 the banks of the Jordan. Alexander then turned his arms against 
 Ccelo-Syria ; he besieged and took Gaza, and abandoned the city to the 
 fury of his troops. After his return to Jerusalem he was insulted by 
 his subjects, who pelted him with citrons, as he was sacrificing upon 
 the altar. He was so enraged at their insolence that he slew about six 
 thousand of the Jews. On account of his cruelties, he rendered him- 
 self odious to his subjects. To reduce them to submission, he slew 
 thousands of them, which exasperated them so much the more against 
 him. By his excessive debauchery, he brought on himself a disease 
 which terminated fatally in the twenty-seventh year of his reign. 
 
 Alexander left behind him two sons, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, the 
 elder of whom was appointed high priest. (B. C. 107.) Alexandra, 
 the widow of the late king, assumed the government; but she was 
 beset by the Pharisees, who compelled her to grant the most exorbitant 
 demands. The queen becoming dangerously ill, Aristobulus made an 
 attempt at seizing the government, and immediately after Alexander's 
 death, the two brothers commenced a civil war about the succession. 
 (B. C. 69.) Hyrcanus w r as compelled to resign the regal dignity to his 
 younger brother, and to retire to his private estate. But Antipater, an 
 Idumean, endeavoured to inflame the minds of the Jews against their 
 new king. He persuaded Hyrcanus to apply to Aretas, king of Ara- 
 bia, who marched with an army against Aristobulus, defeated him in 
 a battle, and besieged him in the temple. In this extremity, Scaurus, 
 the Roman general, at the request of Aristobulus, obliged Aretas to 
 raise the siege and to quit Judea. (B. C. 65.) Pompey cited the two 
 brothers to plead their cause before him at Damascus. Having heard 
 the complaints of each, he dismissed them with an assurance that when 
 he came again into their country he would settle their affairs. 
 
 Aristobulus, however, without waiting for the determination of 
 Pompey, marched into Judea. This greatly incensed the Roman gene- 
 ral, and he put Aristobulus into prison, and besieged Jerusalem. Pom- 
 pey's army was admitted into the city, and the party of Hyrcanus 
 delivered both the city and the lung's palace to Pompey. The parti- 
 sans of Aristobulus were closely besieged in the temple. However, 
 the priests did not desist from offering the usual sacrifices, though 
 numbers of them were slain at the altars. Twelve thousand Jews 
 were slain, and Pompey penetrated into the inmost part of the temple. 
 He restored the high priesthood to Hyrcanus, and then carried Aristo- 
 bulus and his four children in triumph to Rome. 
 
 Alexander, the son of Aristobulus, escaped from Rome, and, pass- 
 ing through Judea, collected numerous forces : but he was defeated in 
 the vicinage of Jerusalem, by the Romans. Gabinius, the Roman 
 general, divided Judea into five districts, and appointed a separate 
 
 What was the conduct, and what were the wars of Alexander? — Did not Pom- 
 pey interfere between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus! — and in what 
 manner? — How did Pompey treat the Jews in Jerusalem? — What Roman di- 
 vided Judea into districts? 
 
ASMONEAN DYNASTY. 33 
 
 council for each. Thus, the Jews were delivered from a pontifical 
 monarchy, and were governed by an aristocracy. Cassius after this 
 pillaged the temple of its most valuable ornaments. 
 
 When Julius Caesar had taken Rome he set Aristobulus at liberty, 
 and sent him with two legions to settle the affairs of Syria. (B. C. 49.) 
 But Pompey's party destroyed Aristobulus by poison ; and the body, 
 after lying in state for some time, was buried in the royal sepulchre at 
 Jerusalem. His son, Alexander, was beheaded at Antioch by order of 
 Scipio. Antipater rendered Caesar considerable assistance in his war 
 against Egypt, and was the principal cause of obtaining a glorious vic- 
 tory for the Romans. At the conclusion of that war, Caesar confirmed. 
 Hyrcanus in the high priesthood, and bestowed on Antipater the privi- 
 lege of a citizen of Rome, and a freedom from taxes every where. But 
 Antigonus, son of Aristobulus, complained to Caesar of his father's 
 fate, and implored him to restore to him the principality from which he 
 had been ejected. However, Antipater defended himself so ably, that 
 he w T as appointed procurator of Judea. 
 
 Antipater made Phasaelus, his eldest son, governor of Jerusalem, 
 and committed Galilee to Herod, his younger son, who having slain 
 the captain of a band of robbers, and also many of the banditti, was 
 summoned before the sanhedrim to answer for this unlawful act, and 
 which the people thought was the prelude to tyranny. (B. C. 46.) 
 When he stood before the sanhedrim with a body of his guards, Sameas 
 boldly appeared as his accuser, and Hyrcanus, perceiving that Herod 
 would be condemned, adjourned the council till the next day, and He- 
 rod in the mean time retired to Damascus. He afterwards marched 
 towards Jerusalem, intending to besiege the city, but he was dissuaded 
 from his design by his father and brother. 
 
 A short time after, (B.C. 44,) Malachus, a partisan of the high priest, 
 having caused Antipater to be poisoned, usurped the government of Ju- 
 dea. Herod resolved to revenge his father's death, and he procured 
 the assassination of Malachus. When Antony arrived at Bithynia, 
 ambassadors came from the Jews to accuse Phasaelus and Herod, say- 
 ing that Hyrcanus had indeed the appearance of governing, but that 
 these men engrossed all the power ; but Antony showed so much par- 
 tiality for Herod, that his accusers could not obtain a hearing, and the 
 two brothers were created tetrarchs. 
 
 (B. C. 40.) Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, having engaged the 
 Parthians to espouse his cause, advanced into Judea, where he was 
 joined by some of the Jews ; and Pacorus, the Parthian general, having 
 fraudulently obtained Phasaelus and Hyrcanus in his possession, cast 
 them into prison, where the high priest had his ears cut off, and Pha- 
 saelus put an end to his own existence. Herod with difficulty escaped 
 with his family and treasures to the citadel of Massada. Having sought 
 in vain assistance of Malachus, king of Arabia, he fled to the Romans. 
 He informed them of his brother's death, and the miserable condition 
 to which himself was reduced, and implored their assistance. 
 
 On whom did Caesar bestow the high priesthood ? — For what was Herod brought 
 before the Sanhedrim ? — To whom did Antony show such partiality? 
 
34 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 The senate appointed Jlcrod, king <>f the Jews, and he returned to Ju- 
 dea with some force to oppose Antigonus. Having recovered his fa- 
 mily and treasures which lie had left in Massada, Herod then laid siege 
 to Jerusalem. Nothing was effected in the city till the following 
 spring, when having espoused Mariainne, the daughter of Alexandra, 
 he closely invested the city. But the Jews made a hold resistance 
 against the united efforts of Herod and the Roman general ; till at 
 length the city was carried by storm, (B. C. 37,) three years after he 
 was invested with the regal dignity at Rome. Antigonus was led in 
 chains to Rome, and was afterwards put to death by the desire of Herod. 
 And thus terminated the government of the Asmoneans, who had held 
 the dignity a hundred and twenty-six years. 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 HEROD, KING OF THE JEWS. — BIRTH OF JESUS CHRIST. 
 
 Herod collected all the gold and silver, and other valuables he could 
 find in Jerusalem, that he might be able to make rich presents to the 
 auxiliaries. 
 
 Hyrcanus, the high priest, who had been detained by the Parthians, 
 at the earnest solicitation of Herod, returned to Jerusalem. Herod was 
 compelled, though much against his inclination, to appoint Aristobulus, 
 the son of Mariamne, to the high-priesthood, who officiated with such 
 benignity at the ensuing feast of tabernacles, that the multitude could 
 not refrain from expressing their zeal and affection for him with joyful 
 acclamations. This excited the jealousy and suspicion of Herod, and 
 after the festival, he appointed persons to hold Aristobulus under the 
 water when he was bathing, till he suffocated. 
 
 Alexandra, his mother, wrote an account of this treacherous scene 
 to Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, and Herod was summoned to answer to 
 the charge before Antony at Laodicea. But the presents of Herod had 
 greater influence with his judge than the imputations of Cleopatra. 
 
 Before he left Judea, Herod had privately charged his uncle Joseph, 
 that if Antony should condemn him, he should kill Mariamne, his wife, 
 of whom he was passionately fond. Joseph informed her of this in- 
 junction, and when Herod returned, she reproached him with it. Sa- 
 lome, the king's sister, also told him that his uncle had held criminal 
 conversation with his beloved Mariamne. He ordered Joseph to be 
 executed, and Alexandra to be cast into prison. 
 
 Herod after this made a successful expedition against the Arabians, 
 and having given them a terrible overthrow, he was invested with the 
 government of the country. (B. C. 30.) After the defeat of Antony at 
 the battle of Actium, he first put to death Hyrcanus, the last of the 
 Asmoneans, and then hasted to obtain the friendship of Csesar. But 
 as he could hardly expect to be successful on account of his alliance 
 with Antony, he placed his wife and all his family in confinement, and 
 
 What terminated the government of the Asmoneans? — For what was Herod 
 summoned before Antony ? — What stratagems were now discovered ? — To whom 
 did Herod next pay his court ? 
 
IIEKOD, KING OF THE JEWS. 35 
 
 enjoined his brother Pheroras, if he should not return, to despatch the 
 women. 
 
 He so far ingratiated himself with Csesar by his eloquence, and the 
 frankness of his mind, that he held his crown more entirely and firmly 
 than ever. Having conducted Caesar on his way to Egypt, and made 
 magnificent presents to the conqueror and his friends, Herod returned 
 into Judea. He found his domestic affairs all in disorder. Mariamne 
 was grieved that he would not allow her any hopes of surviving him, 
 and received him with evident signs of dissatisfaction at his success. 
 Their mutual love was now turned into hatred, and not long after the 
 ill-fated Mariamne suffered death for a crime of which she was alto- 
 gether ignorant. (B. C. 29.) After her execution, the king's affections 
 for her were rekindled with more violence than ever, and his remorse was 
 so extravagant, that he would call for her as though she were alive. He 
 neglected public affairs, and gave himself up to despair. 
 
 While he was in this miserable condition, Alexandra endeavoured 
 to occasion a revolt, which proved fatal to her, and to her partisans. 
 Herod introduced the foreign manners, games, and standards into his 
 kingdom, and this roused the indignation of his subjects, who laid 
 several conspiracies for him. But the king used every precaution to 
 avert the plots. 
 
 Herod sent his two sons, Alexander and Aristobulus, whom he had 
 by Mariamne, to be educated at Rome ; the former of whom afterwards 
 espoused Glaphyra, the daughter of Archelaus, king of Cappadocia, 
 and the latter Berenice, Salome's daughter. Herod had also another 
 son named Antipater, who, through the intrigues of Salome, became 
 the favourite of his father. This excited the jealousy of his two 
 brothers, and the breach became wider every day. At length the king 
 appeared before Caesar's tribunal, and there accused his two sons, Alex- 
 ander and Aristobulus, of treason. Caesar, believing them to be inno- 
 cent, endeavoured to reconcile them with their father. 
 
 But after a short time their dissensions broke out afresh, which were 
 greatly increased by the malice of their enemies. Alexander was put 
 into confinement, and soon after he wrote four several letters to his 
 father, in which he accused, as his accomplices, Pheroras, the king's 
 brother, Salome, and the whole court. This increased Herod's suspi- 
 cions, and made him completely miserable, for he often fancied he saw 
 his son with a drawn sword, ready to inflict the mortal wound. How- 
 ever, the calumnies raised against the young prince were, beyond all 
 expectation, wiped off. But the plotting malice of the courtiers soon 
 alarmed Herod with fresh conspiracies. Alexander and Aristobulus, 
 after being accused of treason, were strangled, according to their father's 
 order. (B.C. 8.) 
 
 But Herod had the mortification to find a real enemy in his other son, 
 Antipater, who only wanted a fit opportunity to take off his father. A 
 dispute arising between the king and Pheroras, the latter retired into 
 his own tetrarchy in disgust, and joined Antipater in the conspiracy 
 
 For what act was Herod distressed in mind ? — Who were his sons, and whom 
 did they marry ? — What befel his sons, Alexander and Aristobulus? 
 
36 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 against his father. But at the death of Pheroras the whole was un- 
 ravelled, and the wretched son was condemned to death. Soon after 
 this, Herod fell into a grievous disease, of which he died. Before 
 he expired he collected all the Jewish nobility, and ordered them to be 
 confined in the hippodrome, and enjoined his sister, Salome, and her 
 husband, Alexis, that as soon as he was dead they should put them all 
 to death ; for he supposed that he should thereby cast a gloom over the 
 rejoicing at his death. This cruel order, however, was not fulfilled. 
 (A. D. 1.) Archelaus, his son, was appointed his successor. 
 
 In the reign of Herod, Jesus Christ, the Sari our of the world, v:nshorn 
 at Bethlehem, and the Eastern Magi, being directed by a wonderful ap- 
 pearance in the heavens, arrived at Jerusalem, inquiring where he was 
 born. The grand sanhedrim directed them to Bethlehem. Herod 
 was greatly alarmed, and passed a most cruel edict, hoping thereby to 
 insure the destruction of his supposed rival ; but his diabolical arm was 
 frustrated. 
 
 Herod named Archelaus, his son, as his successor; but it was ne- 
 cessary that the appointment should be seconded by Caesar, and he was 
 compelled to go to Rome. Antipas, another of Herod's sons, being 
 flattered by Salome that he would have the succession, also repaired 
 thither. However, the Roman arbitrator appointed Archelaus ethnarch 
 of one half of his father's dominions, and promised to bestow upon 
 him the royal dignity, if he conducted himself worthy of that honour. 
 Caesar divided the other half between Philip and Antipas. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 JUDEA UNDER ROMAN PROCURATORS. 
 
 CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS CHRIST DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM, AND 
 
 FINAL DISPERSION OF THE JEWS. 
 
 In the tenth year of Archelaus's government, the Jews, not being 
 able to bear his barbarous and tyrannical usage towards them, accused 
 him to Caesar, who, after a patient investigation, banished Archelaus to 
 Vienne, a city of Gaul, (A. D. 6,) and taxed Judea as a Roman pro- 
 vince, and it was governed by a procurator sent from Rome. One of 
 these, Pontius Pilate, (A. D. 20,) introduced Caesar's effigies, which 
 were upon the ensigns, into Jerusalem. The Jews earnestly solicited 
 Pilate to remove these images, but he ordered his soldiers to threaten 
 them with instant death if they would not depart. Multitudes of them 
 laid their necks bare, saying that they would rather suffer death, than 
 transgress their ancient laws. Pilate w Eected with tin in- 
 
 constancy, and carried away the hated standards. 
 
 Jesus Christ attracted particular attention in Judea about this tim^, 
 proving the authority of his mission by working the most wonderful 
 
 What cruel orders did he leave al his death? — What most remarkable even! 
 now occurred I — How did Csesar apportion our the Jewish dominions? — What 
 
 change now took place in the government ' 
 
CRUCIFIXION OF JESUS CHRIST. 37 
 
 miracles : raising the dead, casting out evil spirits, healing the sick, 
 giving sight to the blind, speech to the dumb, and hearing to the deaf. 
 He chose for his most intimate friends twelve unlearned fishermen, and 
 commissioned them to preach salvation to a lost world. The Jews, 
 though they had long expected a Messiah, dragged Jesus before Pilate's 
 tribunal, and obtained permission of the judge, though he pronounced 
 him innocent, to crucify him. (A. D. 33.) On the third day after his 
 crucifixion he rose from the grave, and afterwards showed himself to 
 his disciples, and commanded them to spread his gospel over the whole 
 earth. 
 
 On the death of the Emperor Tiberius, Agrippa, who had been cast 
 into prison, was released from confinement, and appointed to be king 
 of the tetrarchy of Philip, his deceased uncle. In the seventh year of 
 his reign, he appeared at Csesarea in a pompous manner, and having 
 made an address to the people, they cried out, " That it was the voice 
 of a God, and not of a man." But the result soon proved that the 
 king was mortal, for he was struck with a dreadful disease, which ter- 
 minated his existence in five days. After his death, Cuspius Fadus 
 was appointed procurator. He was succeeded by Tiberius Alexander, 
 and this last by Cumanus. 
 
 After this, Claudius Felix was appointed to the government of Ju- 
 dea, and under his administration the affairs of the Jews grew worse 
 and worse continually, for the country was filled with robbers, murder- 
 ers, and impostors. To him succeeded Porcius Festus, who found Ju- 
 dea so infested with robbers and impostors, that he was compelled to 
 use the most signal severity. The villages were pillaged and burnt by 
 the rabble. (A. D. 64.) Albinus, on his succession, endeavoured to 
 keep the country in peace, by destroying many of the robbers. He was 
 recalled by Nero, and Gessius Florus appointed his successor. This 
 monster seemed to delight in oppressing the unhappy Jews, till they 
 were compelled to take up arms against the Romans. 
 
 Rapine and murder now became common, and Florus did all in his 
 power to incite them to revolt. Above three thousand were slain at 
 Jerusalem by the Roman troops, (A. D. G9,) twenty thousand were 
 slain in Csesarea ; two thousand at Ptclemais, and two thousand five 
 hundred at Askelon ; and the Jews retaliated their cruelties on the Ro- 
 mans, where they were able, and the whole province was a scene of in- 
 expressible calamities. Cestius, the Syrian governor, drove the Jews 
 into the capital ; but after he had besieged the city for a short time, he 
 retired with some loss. The Jews then appointed Josephus, with many 
 other generals, to have the command of the war, and made preparations 
 for a vigorous defence. 
 
 Nero, the emperor, then commissioned Vespasian to march into 
 Judea to command the Roman army, who marched into Galilee, and 
 took many of the strong cities. The Zealots (A. D. 70) invited the 
 
 Mention the event of Christ's crucifixion. — Was not Agrippa struck with a 
 fatal disease? — What was the state of Judea st this time? — What fatal conflicts 
 occurred between the Romans and the Jews ? 
 
38 HISTORY OF THE JEWS. 
 
 Idumeans into their city for their assistance, and massacred all who 
 dared to oppose them in Jerusalem. The Idumeans having taken the 
 temple, slew with barbarous cruelty all they met, so that the city was 
 deluged with blood and putrified bodies. 
 
 Vespasian remained inactive in Caesarea; for he plainly saw that the 
 power of the Jews greatly declined, through their intestine quarrels 
 and murders. The two factions in Jerusalem were headed by John and 
 Simon, who, although they endeavoured to destroy each other, yet 
 united against the Romans. Vespasian being proclaimed emperor, left 
 his son Titus with a select part of his army to destroy Jerusalem. 
 Accordingly Titus closely besieged the city, which was reduced to a 
 deplorable condition, through a dreadful famine, which was followed 
 by a pestilence, and from the madness of the seditious, who spared 
 neither young nor old whom they suspected. 
 
 However, they made a desperate defence against their besiegers, and 
 at first had some slight advantages ; but, notwithstanding their obsti- 
 nate resistance, Titus compelled them to flee into the temple, which 
 sacred edifice the conqueror w T as desirous to save. But it was burnt to 
 the ground, while the groans of the dying echoed from the adjacent 
 mountains. Titus endeavoured in vain to restrain the fury of his 
 troops, and the city was razed to the ground after a siege of six months. 
 (A. D. 73.) The number of those who perished during the siege 
 amounted to about a million ; and the captives to almost a hundred 
 thousand. The two demagogues, John and Simon, were taken before 
 Titus; the former was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, and the 
 latter reserved to grace the victor's triumph. 
 
 The Roman emperor imposed an annual tribute on the Jews, and 
 caused their lands to be sold for his own use. They have never been 
 able to regain their ancient rights and privileges; but have wandered 
 through all countries as outcasts and strangers; but still expecting the 
 Messiah. 
 
 While the heart-rending tale of the miseries of this infatuated people 
 is repeated, it is consolatory to reflect, that "there is hope in their 
 end," they are not finally cast off; nor have they fallen beyond reco- 
 very. These broken branches will assuredly be grafted in again, and 
 partake once more of the root and fatness of the olive-tree ; or, to 
 express the same animating promise of Holy Writ, without a figure — 
 their privileges will be restored, their covenant blessings renewed, and 
 in a far higher sense than before, Jehovah will be their God, and they 
 shall be his people. 
 
 Wlint caused the city to be deluged with blood ? — What two tactions were bent 
 on each other's destruction? — What Roman general headed the forces? — Describe 
 the conflict that razed the city. — What tributes did the Roman emperors impose? 
 — - What has been the state of the Jews since the destruction of their city? 
 
THE PHOENICIANS, ETC. 39 
 
 CHAPTER 12. 
 ANCIENT NATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE JEWS. 
 
 THE PHOENICIANS. 
 
 The Phoenicians are supposed to have been a portion of the Ara- 
 meoan race, who first settled about the Persian Gulf, and engaged them- 
 selves in trade and commerce. From thence a colony removed to the 
 coast of Syria, and were named the Phoenicians. Their chief city was 
 Sidon, and they afterwards built Tyre, on an island close upon the 
 coast of the Mediterranean. We are indebted to them for the first 
 attempts at commercial navigation, to which they were naturally led 
 by the convenience of their harbours, and the excellent materials for 
 ship-building, with which the surrounding mountains abounded. The 
 fragments of Sanconiathon are the most ancient monuments of writino- 
 after the books of Moses. He was contemporary with Joshua, about 
 1440, B. C, and 500 before the cities of Attica were united by Theseus. 
 
 The Phoenicians (the Canaanites of Scripture) were a commercial 
 people in the days of Abraham. In the time of the Hebrew Judges 
 they had begun to colonize. Their first settlements were Cyprus and 
 Rhodes ; thence they passed into Greece, Sicily, Sardinia, and Spain, 
 and they even formed establishments on the western coast of Africa. 
 But their greatest colony was that of Carthage. The Sidonians car- 
 ried on an extensive commerce at the time of the Trojan war, and the 
 Tyrians bade defiance to the right of Israel, Egypt, and Babylon. 
 
 The Phoenicians appear to have made an early progress in manufac- 
 tures. The glass of Sidon, the purple and fine linen of Tyre, were 
 held in high estimation, luxury flourished in this almost impregnable 
 island-city, whose merchants were princes. The Syrians trafficked 
 largely with the eastern countries ; and in return received the products 
 of the latter to circulate in the west. 
 
 The circumnavigation of Africa, in the time of Nechos, king of 
 Egypt, six centuries before the birth of our Saviour, if entitled to cred- 
 it, was entrusted to the Phoenicians. 
 
 ARABIA. 
 
 From the earliest account of history, the Arabs have led the wander- 
 ing or nomadic life, to which the nature of their country has destined 
 them. The numerous tribes, under the government of their Sheikhs 
 and Emirs, roam the desert apart; at one time in friendship, at another 
 in hostility. The camel and the horse are their companions and sup- 
 port. The strangers who penetrate their wilds have always been re- 
 garded as lawful prizes. We read of them under the various names of 
 Edomites, Ishmaelites, Midianites, &c. 
 
 What is the supposed origin of the Phoenicians ? — What was their character, 
 their trade, colonies, &c. ? — What their manufactories, navigation, <kc. ? — Describe 
 the character of the Arabs, mode of life, &c. ? 
 
40 NATIONS CONNECTED WITH THE .n:\ 
 
 THE MOABITE81 
 
 The Moabites were the descendants of one of the daughters of Lot. 
 (See Genesis.) They possessed themselves of a tracl of land near the 
 borders of Arabia, or Ccslo-Syria, to whioh they gave the name of 
 Moab. Their religion was a mixture of Judaism ana idolatry. It was 
 through the plains of Moab that the Israelites wire passing when 
 Balak ordered Balaam to curse Israel. (B.C. 1451.) 
 
 THE \ viM'iM'i i:s. 
 
 The Ammonites were the descendants of Lot's younger daughter, and 
 occupied the county bordering on Moab. They were often engaged in 
 w.ir with the Israelites. (15. ('. L095.) We read of Nabash, one of 
 their kings in the days of Saul, and of Eiannor, the son of Nabash, 
 treating contemptuously the ambassador of king David. Though they 
 practised the rite of bircumcision, their chief deity was Moloch, to 
 whom they are said i<> have sacrificed human victims. As there is 
 imw no mention of them, they arc supposed ti> have been blended with 
 the Arabians. 
 
 THE MIDIANITES. 
 
 The Midianites were the descendants of Midian, one of the sons of 
 Abraham, by his Becond wife Keturah. They inhabited a tract of 
 country in Arabia-Petrea, between the Dead Sea and the Arabian Gulf. 
 Some addicted themselves to traffic from place to place by caravans; 
 others were shepherds abiding in moveable tents. The religion of the 
 Midianites, though at first free from idolatry, became defiled by the 
 abominations of the neighbouring nations. Tlicy arc now no longer 
 known as a nation, but doubtless Mended with the Arabians. 
 
 THE ED0MITE8. 
 
 The Edomites were the descendants of Esau ot Eldom; the elder son 
 
 of Isaac and Kebecca, who sold his birthright to his brother Jacob. 
 
 The tract of country which they inhabited was situated between the 
 river Jordan and the Mediterranean, known to the heathen writers un- 
 der the name of Iduiiiea. 'They trafficked with the inhabitants of 
 Tyre and Sidon, and other parts of the Mediterranean, and by way of 
 the Bed Sea. Though, like their greal progenitors, they adhered to 
 circumcision and the Worship of one God, yel there were blended with 
 
 them some idolatrous ceremonies. The Kdomites and Israelites, though 
 
 the descendants of brothers, Esau and Jacob, were everal enmity with 
 each other. Bui during the Asmonean dynasty in the second century 
 IJ. ( !., John I [yrcanus compelled them to embrace the Jewish religion, 
 
 and they have since been blended with the conquerors. 
 
 THE AMALEKITES. 
 
 The Amalek&tes were descended from Amalek, the son of Beau's 
 
 From whom were the Moabites descended f — Who was the chief deity of the 
 Ammonites? — Prom whom descended, and where their residence ? — Vvho was 
 the father of the Midianites? ■ What was their occupation, and where their resi- 
 dence? Who was the progenitor of the Edomites? — Where did they reside? — 
 With vsliuin did they traffic I 
 
THE CANAANITES, THE PHILISTINES. 41 
 
 first-born, Eliphaz, by his concubine Timna. For power and distinc- 
 tion they rank among the first of those already noticed. They were a 
 warlike people. Both Saul and David warred successfully against 
 them. But in the days of Hezekiah the prophecy of Balaam was ful- 
 filled — " Amalek was of the first of the nations, but his latter end shall 
 be, that he perish for ever." 
 
 THE CANAANITES. 
 
 The Canaanites occupied that portion of land apportioned to the 
 twelve tribes of Israel after their wanderings in the wilderness. The 
 Canaanites are distinguished in Scripture under the names of Hittit.es, 
 Jebuzitcs, Amorites, Girgashites, Hivites, Perizites, and Canaanites. 
 They appear to have laboured under the curse pronounced against Ham 
 and Canaan his son, who probably was a partaker of his father's 
 deeds. The religion of the Canaanites during the days of Abraham 
 was supposed to be pure, for they acknowledged Melchisedek, a priest 
 of the most high God ; but in the days of xVloses they had become gross 
 idolaters. They were comprehended under a great many states, each 
 state under subjection to chiefs or kings. 
 
 During a war of several years the greater part of the Canaanitish 
 tribes was subdued ; but they were not wholly extirpated as the 
 Lord had commanded, for the Israelites grew weary of the war, and 
 this act was subsequently attended with fatal consequences; the Israel- 
 ites being often induced to join in their impious rites and their licen- 
 tious idolatry. 
 
 THE PHILISTINES. 
 
 This people was descended, at least in part, from the posterity of 
 Mizraim, or originally a colony from Egypt. They took possession of 
 the best part of the Land of Promise, a strip of sea coast south of the 
 Tyrians. In the days of Abraham they were known for the simplicity 
 of their manners and the purity of their religion ; but in the times of 
 the Israelites they had imbibed all the vices of idolatrous nations. 
 Their chief object of worship was Dagon, a sea god. There was, how- 
 ever, a pomp and magnificence in their religious ceremonies, and the 
 arts and sciences were in use among them as among the neighbouring 
 nations. After waging war with the Israelites, they fell with them 
 under the dominion of the Assyrians and the succeeding great mo- 
 narchies, and the prophecies of Zephaniah were verified, " Gaza shall 
 be forsaken, and Askelon a desolation ; they shall drive out Ashdod as 
 the noon day, and Ekron shall be rooted up. The word of the Lord is 
 against you, O Canaan, the land of the Philistines ; I will even destroy 
 thee; there shall be no inhabitant, and the sea coasts shall be dwell- 
 ings for shepherds and folds for flocks." 
 
 From which of Esau's sons were the Amnlekites descended ? — With whom did 
 they war? — What portion of land did the Canaanites occupy? — By what namca 
 were they distinguished,? — What their religion? — By whom were they partly 
 subdued? — Describe the Philistines, — their place of residence, — their descent, 
 — their object of worship, — the people with whom they made war, &c. 
 
 4* 
 
( 44 ) 
 
 ■ 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 (45) 
 
[ 47 ] 
 
 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 DESCRIPTION OF EGYPT— ITS ARCHITECTURE. 
 
 Egypt comprehended anciently, within limits of no very great ex- 
 tent, a prodigious number of cities, some say 20,000, and an incredible 
 number of inhabitants. Ancient Egypt may be divided into three parts : 
 — Upper Egypt, or Thebais, the most southern part ; Middle Egypt, or 
 Heptanomis, so called from the seven Nomi, or districts it contained ; 
 Lower Egypt, which included what the Greeks called Delta, and all 
 the country as far as the Red Sea, and along the Mediterranean. 
 
 Thebes, from whence Thebais had its name, might vie with the 
 noblest cities in the world. Its hundred gates, celebrated by Homer, 
 acquired it the surname of Hecatompylos, to distinguish it from the 
 other Thebes in Boeotia. In Thebes (now called Said) have been dis- 
 covered temples and palaces which are still almost entire, adorned with 
 innumerable columns and statues. 
 
 One palace especially is admired, the remains of which seem to have 
 existed to eclipse the glory of the most pompous edifices. Four walks 
 extending farther than the eye can see, and bounded on each side with 
 sphinxes, serve as avenues to four porticoes, whose height is amazing 
 to behold. A hall which stood in this stately palace was supported by 
 one hundred and twenty pillars, six fathoms round, of a proportionable 
 height, intermixed with obelisks, which so many ages have not been 
 able to demolish. Painting had displayed all her art and magnificence 
 in this edifice. The colours themselves, which soonest feel the injuries 
 of time, still preserve much of their beauty and lustre. Strabo speaks 
 of a famous statue of Memnon, the remains of which he had seen. 
 
 Of Middle Egypt Memphis was the capital. It was situated on the 
 west side of the Nile. Grand Cairo, which seems to have succeeded 
 Memphis, was built on the other side of that river. The castle of 
 Cairo is one of the greatest curiosities in Egypt; and the greatest 
 rarity therein is Joseph's well, which has two stories cut out of a rock to 
 a prodigious depth. The descent to the reservoir is by a staircase seven 
 or eight feet broad, and so gradual as to be scarcely perceptible. The 
 water is drawn up by oxen turning a wheel by a rope to which buckets 
 are fixed. 
 
 How was Egypt divided? — What its population, &c. ? — Describe its palaces, 
 edifices, statues, &c. — What curiosity is mentioned near Cairo I 
 
49 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Egypt seemed to place its chief glory in raising monuments for pos- 
 terity. The Obelisk is a quadrangular high cone, or pyramid, termi- 
 nating in a point; often covered with mystical characters, or hiero- 
 glyphics. Every part of Egypt abounded with this kind of obelisks : 
 they were for the most part cut in the quarries of Upper Egypt, where 
 some are even now to be seen half-finished. The Pyramid is either a 
 solid, or a hollow body, having generally a large square base, and ter- 
 minating in a. point. Three of the pyramids of Egypt, near the city 
 of Memphis, more famous than the rest, have been ranked among the 
 seven wonders of the world. The largest, like the others, was built 
 on a rock having a square base, cut on the outside as so many steps, 
 and decreasing gradually to the summit. The stones were of a prodi- 
 gious size, thirty feet long, covered with hieroglyphics. A hundred 
 thousand men were constantly employed in this work ; and ten years 
 were spent in hewing out stones, either in Arabia or Ethiopia, and 
 twenty years more in building it. 
 
 These pyramids were tombs, and there is still to be seen in the 
 middle of the largest an empty sepulchre, cut out of one entire stone, 
 three feet deep, three broad, and a little more than six feet long. Thus 
 all this expense, and toil of so many thousand men, ended in procuring 
 for a prince a little vault for his remains : which, perhaps, after all, the 
 populace would not, on account of his vices, suffer him to occupy. 
 Pliny calls those pyramids a foolish and useless ostentation of the 
 wealth of the Egyptian kings, — " Regum pecunisc otiosa ac stulta osten- 
 totio." They differed much from the Romans, who sought to immor- 
 talize themselves by works, at once magnificent and of public utility. 
 
 The Labyrinth was still more surprising than the pyramids. It was 
 built near the lake Moeris, the same with Arsinoe. It was not so much 
 a simple palace as a magnificent pile, composed of twelve palaces, 
 regularly disposed, having a communication with each other. Fifteen 
 hundred rooms, interspersed with terraces, were ranged round twelve 
 halls, and discovered no outlet to the observer. There were the like 
 number of buildings under ground, designed for the burying-places of 
 the kings, and for keeping the sacred crocodiles, which this nation, so 
 wise in some respects, worshipped as gods ! In order to visit the inte- 
 rior of this labyrinth, it was necessary to take the same precaution as 
 Ariadne made Theseus use in fighting the Minotaur in the labyrinth of 
 Crete. 
 
 The Lake Moeris has been deemed the most wonderful of all the 
 Egyptian structures. King Moeris, to correct the irregularities of the 
 N'fle, caused that lake to be dug seven or eight leagues in circumt'i r- 
 ence. This lake has a communication with the Nile, by a great canal, 
 four leagues in length and fifty feet in breadth. When the Nile rose loo 
 high, the sluices wore opened to draw off the water; but when the 
 inundation was low, the lake supplied the deficiency. The inundations 
 of the Nile are owing to the great rains which fall in Ethiopia, from 
 whence the river flows. It begins to flow in Egypt at the summer sol- 
 
 Whal is .-lit! of its obelisks and pyramids ' — For what purpose were they 
 erected? — Lcscribc the labyrinth and its use? — Bj whom was the lake Mocrw 
 
 termed '. 
 
DESCRIPTION OP EGYPT. 49 
 
 Slice, that is about the end of June, and continues rising till the end of 
 September, and then decreases gradually during the months of October 
 and November; after which it returns within its channel. 
 
 The overflowing of the Nile was always attended with an unusual 
 joy through all Egypt, as the source of their happiness. The Egyp- 
 tians generally sow in October and November as the waters subside, 
 and their harvest is in March and April. 
 
 All the remains of Egyptian architecture bear evidence to the great 
 wealth and resources of their rulers. Their temples and statues, their 
 tombs and sarcophagi, are colossal in size and almost boundless in 
 extent. The ruins still existing in Egypt strike every beholder with 
 amazement, by their grandeur and extent. No ancient country can 
 produce remains of equal magnitude and number. To enable our readers 
 to form some conception of the size of their temples, we have inserted, 
 at the commencement of this history of Egypt, a picture of the great 
 temple at Edfou, on the Nile. To form a tolerable idea of its vastness, 
 one must notice the comparatively diminutive proportions of the figures 
 in the foreground. 
 
 Lower Egypt in shape resembles a triangle, or the Greek letter A 
 Delta. This part is the best cultivated, the most fruitful, and the richest 
 in Egypt. Its chief cities (very anciently) were Heliopolis, Heracle- 
 opolis, Sais, Tanis, Canopus, Pelusium, &c. ; and in later times, Alex- 
 andria, Nicopolis, &c. It was in the country of Tanis that the Israel- 
 ites dwelt. 
 
 There was at Sais a temple dedicated to Minerva, supposed to be the 
 same as Isis. Heliopolis, or the City of the Sun, was so called from 
 a magnificent temple dedicated to it. It was in Heliopolis that an ox, 
 under the name of Mnevis, was worshipped as a god. Cambyses, king 
 of Persia, exercised his sacrilegious rage on this city, burning the 
 temples, demolishing the palaces, and destroying the most precious 
 monuments of antiquity. 
 
 Alexandria, built by Alexander the Great, vied almost in magnifi- 
 cence with the ancient cities of Egypt. When the Ptolemies had 
 made themselves masters of Egypt, thev soon drew all the trade into 
 the kingdom, and Alexandria possessed the greatest traffic in the 
 world, till a way was discovered to India by the Cape of Good Hope. 
 For the convenience of trade, there was built near Alexandria, in the 
 isle of Pharos, a tower which bore the same name. At the top of this 
 tower was a fire to light such ships as sailed by night near these dan- 
 gerous coasts. The famous architect Sostratus built it by 'order of 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus. It was reckoned one of the seven wonders of 
 the world. In Alexandria the arts and sciences were industriously 
 cultivated. In that stately edifice called the Museum, the literati usu- 
 ally met, and were maintained at the public expense. The famous li- 
 brary, which was augmented considerably by Ptolemy Philadelphus 
 and the munificence of kings his successors, at last contained 700,000 
 volumes. 
 
 How was the overflowing of the Nile received ? — What temple was dedicated 
 to Minerva ? — What is said of Alexandria and the Watcti-tower f 
 5 
 
50 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 LEARNING AND SUPERSTITION OF THE EGYPTIANS — 
 MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 
 
 Egypt was considered by the ancients as the most renowned school 
 for wisdom and politics, and the source from which most arts and sci- 
 ences were derived. Greece was so sensible of this, that its most 
 illustrious men, as Homer, Pythagoras and Plato, its legislators, Ly- 
 curgus, and Solon and many others, visited Egypt to complete their 
 studies. 
 
 Among the peculiar customs of Egypt, there was one by which no 
 man was permitted to borrow money without pawning to the creditor 
 the body of his father, which every Egyptian embalmed with great 
 care, and kept reverentially in his house, whence it might be easily re- 
 moved. The Priests in Egypt held the second rank to kings. They 
 had great privileges and revenues. The Egyptians pretend to have 
 been the first institutors of festivals and processions in honour of the 
 gods. Different animals were sacrificed in different countries or dis- 
 tricts ; but there was one common and general ceremony in all sacrifi- 
 ces, viz. the laying of hands upon the head of the victim, and praying 
 the gods to divert to it all the calamities which might threaten Egypt. 
 
 It is to Egypt that Pythagoras owes his favourite doctrine of his 
 Metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. Never were any people 
 more superstitious than the Egyptians : they had a great number of 
 gods to different orders and degrees ; among whom two, Osiris and 
 Isis, were generally adored. These were thought to be the son and 
 moon ; indeed the worship of these bodies gave rise to idolatry. Be- 
 sides these, the Egyptians worshipped numerous other beasts ; as the 
 ox, the dog, the wolf, the hawk, the crocodile, the ibis, the cat, &c. 
 Of all these, the bull Apis, called Epaphus by the Greeks, was the 
 most famous. Magnificent temples were erected to him, extraordinary 
 honours were paid to him while he lived, and still greater at his death. 
 Egypt then went into a general mourning, and his obsequies were sol- 
 emnized with incredible pomp. 
 
 It is evident that the golden calf set up by the Israelites was owing 
 to their abode in Egypt, and in imitation of the god Apis. The Egyp- 
 tians carried their folly to such an excess as to ascribe a divinity to 
 pulse, and roots of the gardens. It is astonishing to see a nation, 
 boasting of its superiority in wisdom, thus blindly abandoning itself 
 to the most gross and ridiculous superstitions. To read of animals, 
 and vile insects honoured with religious worship, placed in temples, 
 mantained with great care and at an extravagant expense ; to read that 
 those who murdered them were punished with death ; and that these 
 animals w T ere embalmed, and solemnly deposited in tombs, to read that 
 even leeks and onions were acknowledged as deities, are excesses, 
 
 By whom was Egypt visited ? — In whnt veneration were their priests held? — 
 What "were their objects df worship ? — What the sacYed homage paid them ? 
 
MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 51 
 
 which we, at this distance, can scarcely believe, and yet they have the 
 evidence of all antiquity. 
 
 The reasons given for the worship of these animals are first from 
 fabulous history. It is pretended that the gods, in a rebellion made 
 against them by men, fled into Egypt, and there concealed themselves 
 under the form of different animals ; and that this gave birth to the 
 worship afterwards paid to them. The second is taken from the benefit 
 these animals procure to mankind ; oxen by their labour, sheep by 
 their wool, &c. Philosophers, not satisfied with these reasons, have 
 supposed a third, and that it was not offered to the animals themselves, 
 but to the gods of whom they are symbols. But could that be called 
 a raising of the divine attributes, to direct the worshipper to seek for 
 their image in beasts of the most vile and contemptible kinds 1 But 
 these philosophers themselves were not always able to ascend from 
 sensible beings to their invisible author — the scripture tells us, that 
 " while they professed themselves wise they became fools, for having 
 changed the glory of the incorruptible God, into an image, made like 
 unto corruptible man, and to birds, fourfooted beasts, and creeping 
 things." 
 
 In our mention of the pyramids, we have already observed, with 
 what magnificence sepulchres were built in Egypt: for besides their 
 being erected as monuments to the memory of the great princes, they 
 were considered as the mansions where the body was to remain for a 
 long succession of ages. Bodies were embalmed three different ways. 
 The most costly were bestowed on persons of distinguished rank. 
 Many hands were employed in the ceremony. — After emptying the body 
 of the intestines, it was filled with perfumes and odoriferous drugs, 
 myrrh, cinnamon, and all sorts of spices. The body was afterwards 
 swathed in lawn fillets, glued together with a thin gum, and then crust- 
 ed over with the most exquisite perfumes. These embalmed bodies are 
 what we call mummies, brought from Egypt, and are to be seen in the 
 cabinets of the curious. We find that part of these ceremonies were 
 performed in the funeral honours done to Joseph in Egypt. 
 
 The profession of arms was in great repute among the Egyptians. 
 Four hundred thousand soldiers, all natives of Egypt, were kept in 
 continual pay, and trained up to the exactest discipline. Still they 
 were not what is generally termed a warlike people. Egypt loved 
 peace, and soldiers were maintained chiefly for security. The Egyp- 
 tians extended their reputation more by colonizing than by conquest : 
 still Egypt has given birth to illustrious conquerors, which will be duly 
 noticed. 
 
 The first libraries were in Egypt, and the titles they bore inspired 
 numbers to enter them, and penetrate into their secrets. The Egyptians 
 were among the first to observe the course of the planets, and these 
 observations led them to regulate the year, by the course of the sun, 
 into 365 days 6 hours. The overflowing of the Nile led to a know- 
 ledge of geometry, for the admeasurement, and adjusting the property 
 
 What were the reasons assigned for such worship? — How were the bodies 
 usually embalmed ? — Were the Egyptians a warlike people? 
 
52 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 of the lands. What has been observed is sufficient to show the per- 
 fection to which architecture, sculpture, painting, &c, had arrived in 
 Egypt. Of music they entertained but a mean opinion, considering it 
 as a useless and dangerous diversion, not contributing to invigorate the 
 body, while its direct tendency was to enervate the mind. 
 
 There were some plants peculiar to the soil : the Papyrus is a plant 
 from the root of which shoot out a great many triangular stalks to the 
 height of six or seven cubits. The ancients wrote at first upon palm 
 leaves; next on the inside of the bark of trees ; afterwards upon tables 
 covered with wax ; on which the characters were impressed with an 
 instrument called Stylus, sharp-pointed at one end to write with, and 
 flat at the other to efface, if needful, what had been written. At last 
 the use of paper was introduced, and this was made of the bark of Pa- 
 pyrus, divided into thin flakes or leaves. 
 
 But the great and matchless wealth of Egypt arose from its corn, of 
 which we read so early as the days of Joseph's administration. In 
 later ages, it was the resource and the most certain granary of Rome 
 and Constantinople. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 OF THE KINGS OF EGYPT. 
 
 No part of ancient history is more obscure or uncertain than that of 
 the first kings of Egypt. This proud nation thought it glorious to lose 
 itself in an abyss of infinite ages. According to its own historians, 
 first gods, and afterwards demi-gods, or heroes, governed successively 
 through a series of many thousand years ; but the absurdity of this 
 fabulous claim may be easily discovered. The most effectual way to 
 reconcile such contradictions, is to suppose, with almost all modern 
 writers upon this subject, that the kings of the different dynasties did 
 not reign successively, but many of them at the same time, and in diffe- 
 rent countries of Egypt. There were four principal dynasties : that of 
 Thebes, of Thin, of Memphis, and of Tanis. 
 
 The ancient history of Egypt comprehends 2158 years, and is divi- 
 ded into three periods. The first begins with the establishment of the 
 Egyptian monarchy, by Menes or Misraim, the son of Cham (or Ham), 
 in the year of the world 1816, and ends with the destruction of the 
 monarchy by Cambyses, king of Persia, in the year of the world 3479. 
 This first period contains 1663 years. 
 
 The second period is intermixed with the Persian and Grecian history, 
 extended to the death of Alexander the Great, which happened in the 
 year 3681, and consequently includes 202 years. 
 
 The third period commences with the Ptolemies, and ends with Cle- 
 opatra in 3974, and includes a space of 293 years. 
 
 Menes. — Historians are unanimously agreed that Menes was the first 
 king of Egypt; and it is supposed, not without foundation, that he is 
 the same with Misraim, the son of Ham. Ham was the second son 
 
 What studies were they led to pursue ? — What plants were peculiar to Egypt? 
 — Mention the dynasties of Egypt. — How is Egypt divided ? — What its period* r 
 
 
THE KINGS OF EGYPT. 53 
 
 of Noah, and after the dispersion from the tower of Babel he returned 
 to Africa, and it was doubtless he who was afterwards worshipped as a 
 god, under the name of Jupiter Amnion. Ham had four sons, Chus, 
 Misraim, Phut, and Canaan. Chus settled in Ethiopia, Misraim in 
 Egypt. Phut possessed that part of Africa that lies westward of Egypt ; 
 and Canaan of the country which has since borne his name. Menes, 
 or Misraim, was the instructor in the worship of the gods, and in the 
 ceremonies of the sacrifices. 
 
 Busiris some ages after him built the famous city of Thebes, and 
 made it the seat of empire. This prince is not to be confounded with 
 Busiris, so infamous for his cruelties. Osymandias, according to Dio- 
 dorus, raised many magnificent edifices, one of which was adorned with 
 sculptures and paintings of exquisite beauty, representing his expedi- 
 tion against the Hadrians, a people of Asia, with an immense army. 
 Not far from hence was seen a magnificent library, the oldest men- 
 tioned in history ; and near it were statues representing all the Egyptian 
 gods. His Mausoleum discovered an uncommon magnificence. It was 
 encompassed with a circle of gold, a cubit in breadth, and 385 cubits in 
 circumference ; each of which showed the rising and setting of the sun, 
 moon, and the rest of the planets. 
 
 Uchoreus, one of the successors of Osymandias, built the city of 
 Memphis near the point of the Delta, which the Nile divides into sepa- 
 rate branches. This city being so advantageously situated, and strongly 
 fortified, became almost the key of the Nile, and commanded the whole 
 country. It was afterwards chosen as the usual residence of the Egyp- 
 tian kings. It kept possession of that honour till it was rivalled by 
 Alexandria. Moeris made the famous lake to which he gave his name. 
 
 Egypt had long been governed by its native princes, when strangers, 
 called shepherd kings, from Arabia or Phoenicia, invaded and seized a 
 great part of Lower Egypt, A. M. 1920, but Upper Egypt remained un- 
 conquered ; and the kingdom of Thebes existed till the reign of Sesos- 
 tris. These foreign princes governed about 260 years. Under one of 
 those princes, called Pharaoh in Scripture, Abraham arrived there with 
 his wife Sarah, * A. M. 2084, who was exposed to great hazard on ac- 
 count of her beauty. Thetmosis or Amosis, A. M. 2179, having expelled 
 the shepherd kings, reigned in Lower Egypt. Long after his reign 
 Joseph was brought a slave into Egypt by some Ishmaelitish mer- 
 chants, A. M. 2276, and A. M. 2298 Jacob went with his whole family 
 and settled there."}" 
 
 * Genesis xii. 10.20. 
 
 t Exod i.8. Father FoUrnemine makes Scsostris, of whom we shall soon speak, the 
 Pharaoh who raised the persecution against the Israelites, and who employed only 
 foreigners on his Egyptian works ; and, if so, we may place the memorable event of the 
 passage over the Red Sea under his son Pheron, and the characteristic impiety ascribed 
 to him U3 Herodotus strengthens the probability. 
 
 Diodorus, speaking of the Red Sea, says a tradition has been transmitted through the 
 whole nation, from father to son, for many ages, that once an extraordinary ebb dried 
 up the sea so that its bottom was seen ; and that soon after a violent flow brought back 
 the waters to their former channel. It is evident that the miraculous passage of Moses 
 and the Israelites must be here referred to. 
 
 Who are supposed to be its first kings ? — Describe the Mausoleum of Osyman-* 
 dias. — Who reigned in the days of Abraham and Joseph ? 
 
 5 * 
 
54 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Rameses Miamum, according to Archbishop Usher, was the name of 
 the king who is called Pharaoh in Scripture. He oppressed the Israel- 
 ites in a most grievous manner. This king had two sons, Jlmenophis 
 and Busiris. Amenophis, the eldest, succeeded him A. M. 2494. He 
 was the Pharaoh, under whose reign the Israelites departed out of 
 Egypt, and who was drowned in his passage through the Red Sea. 
 
 According to Usher, Amenophis left two sons, one called Sesosthis 
 or Sesostris, and the other Jlrmais. The Greeks call him Belus, and his 
 two sons Egyptus and Danaus. Sesostris was not only one of the most 
 powerful kings of Egypt, but one of the greatest conquerors that anti- 
 quity boasts of. iElian remarks that Sesostris was taught by Mercury, 
 who instructed him in politics and the art of government. This mer- 
 cury is he whom the Greeks call Trismegistus, i. e. thrice great. Egypt, 
 his native country, owes to him the invention or improvement of almost 
 every art. Sesostris fought successfully, first against the Arabians, 
 and then against the Libyans, A. M. 2513. He formed no less a design 
 than the conquest of the world. But before he left his kingdom, he 
 provided for its domestic security. He began his expedition by invading 
 Ethiopia, and making it tributary by an annual remittance of ebony, 
 ivory, and gold. He next overran Asia, and pierced farther into India 
 than Hercules or Bacchus, and, in after times, than Alexander himself 
 had ever done, for he subdued the country beyond the Ganges, and ad- 
 vanced as far as the ocean. The Scythians, as far as the river Tanais, 
 Armenia, and Cappadocia, were conquered. He left a colony in the 
 ancient city of Colchis, situated east of the Black sea, where the 
 Egyptian customs and manners have been ever since retained. Hero- 
 dotus saw in Asia Minor, from one sea to another, monuments of his 
 victories. In several countries we read, engraven on pillars, the fol- 
 lowing' inscription: " Sesostris, King of Kings, subdued this country 
 by the power of his arms." Such pillars were found even in Thrace ; 
 and his empire extended from the Ganges to the Danube. But he never 
 attempted to preserve his acquisitions ; and after having made wild 
 havoc, up and down the world, for nine years, he confined himself 
 almost within the limits of Egypt, and a few neighbouring provinces. 
 He returned, therefore, laden with the spoils of the vanquished 
 nations, dragging after him a numberless multitude of captives, and 
 covered with the falsely-acquired glory of invading provinces in a hos- 
 tile way, and being the wilful cause of innumerable calamities. His 
 officers and soldiers, indeed, he rewarded with a truly royal magnifi- 
 cence, in proportion to their rank and merit. With regard to himself, 
 he enjoyed his repose in raising works that might contribute more to 
 the enriching of Egypt than the immortalizing of his name. An hun- 
 dred famous temples, raised as monuments of gratitude to the tutelary 
 gods of all the cities, were the first testimonies of his victories. He 
 made it his glory to employ only captives on these monuments of his 
 conquests. Sesostris might have been considered as one of the most 
 illustrious heroes of antiquity, had not the lustre of his actions been 
 
 What is related of Sesostris ? — of his power, — of his conquests, — of his tem- 
 ples, — of his cruelties, &c. ? 
 
EGYPTIAN COLONIES. 55 
 
 tarnished with a fondness of his own grandeur. When he went to the 
 temple, or entered his capital, he caused the conquered princes, four 
 abreast, to be harnessed to his car. Being grown blind in his old age, 
 he despatched himself, after a reign of thirty-three years, and left his 
 kingdom immensely rich. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 EGYPTIAN COLONIES. 
 
 About the era in question, the Egyptians settled themselves in divers 
 parts of the earth. The colony which Cecrops led out of Egypt, built 
 twelve cities, or rather towns, of which he composed the kingdom of 
 Athens, A. M. 2448. Danaus, the brother of Sesostris, retired to Pe- 
 loponnesus, A. M. 2530, and seized upon the kingdom of Argos, which 
 had been founded 400 years before, by Inachus. Busiris, A. M. 2533, 
 brother of Amenophis, was infamous among the ancients for his cruel- 
 ties. About the same time, A. M. 2549, Cadmus brought from Syria 
 or Phoenicia, into Greece, the invention of letters. Only sixteen let- 
 ters are ascribed to Cadmus, eight others being added afterwards. 
 
 Pheron, A. M. 2547, succeeded Sesostris in his kingdom — but not 
 in his conquests. In A. M. 2600, succeeded Proteus. He was of 
 Memphis, where his temple was still standing in the time of Herodo- 
 tus. The temple was dedicated to Venus, the stranger; and it is con- 
 jectured that this Venus was Helen : for, in the reign of this monarch, 
 Paris, the Trojan, returning home with Helen, whom he had stolen, 
 was driven by a storm into the mouth of the Nile, and from thence 
 conducted to Proteus at Memphis, who reproached him with his per- 
 fidy and guilt. He detained Helen, with all her riches, and ordered 
 Paris to quit his kingdom in three days. The king's order was obeyed, 
 and Paris pursued his voyage. The ten years' siege of Troy and its 
 fall was the consequence. Menelaus, on his return from Troy, called 
 at the court of king Proteus, who restored him Helen with all her 
 treasures. 
 
 Rhampsinitus is said to have been richer than any of his predeces- 
 sors — Cheops and Cephrenus, brothers, seemed to strive which should 
 distinguish himself most by impiety to the gods, and barbarous inhu- 
 manity to man. Mycerinus was the son of Cheops, but of a character 
 opposite to that of his father. He again opened the temples of the 
 gods, restored the sacrifices, and made his subjects enjoy the blessings 
 of an equitable administration, so that Egypt resounded with his 
 praises. Asychis enacted the law relating to loans, which forbade a 
 son to borrow money without giving the dead body of his father, by 
 way of security. 
 
 If we suppose the six preceding reigns to have continued 170 years, 
 (for the duration of some is not fixed by Herodotus,) there will remain 
 an interval of nearly 300 years, to the reign of Sabacus, the Ethiopian. 
 In this interval may be placed a few circumstances related in Holy 
 Scripture. Pharaoh, (A. M. 2991,) gave his daughter in marriage to 
 
 What settlements and colonies were formed ? — What is said of Pheron and 
 Proteus ? — What of Rhampsinitus, Cephrenus, &c. ? 
 
56 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 Solomon, king of Israel. After him reigned Sosach, or Shishak, other- 
 wise called Susonchis. It was to him, (A. M. 3026,) that Jeroboam fled, 
 to avoid the wrath of Solomon. He abode in Egypt till Solomon's 
 death ; and then returning, he put himself at the head of the ten tribes, 
 over whom he declared himself king. 
 
 This Sosach, in the fifth year of the reign of Rehoboam, marched 
 against Jerusalem and plundered its treasures. Zerah, king of Ethio- 
 pia, and doubtless of Egypt also, made war upon Jlsa, king of Judah, 
 (A. M. 3063.) Asa marched against him in full reliance on the God 
 whom he served, " Lord," said he, " it is nothing for thee to help, 
 whether with many, or with them that have no power. Help us, O 
 God, for we rest on thee, and in thy name we go against this multitude," 
 &c. The prayer of faith was heard, God struck the Ethiopians with 
 terror; they fled, and "were destroyed before the Lord and before his 
 host." (2 Chron. xiv. 9 — 13.) Jnysis was blind, and under his reign 
 Sabachus, king of Ethiopia, being encouraged by an oracle, entered 
 Egypt with a numerous army, and possessed himself of the throne. 
 He reigned fifty years with great clemency and justice. Sethon reigned 
 fourteen years. He is the same with Sevechus, the son of Sabachon, or 
 Saul. 
 
 Till the reign of Se(ho?i, the Egyptian priests computed 341 genera- 
 tions of men, which make 11,340 years, allowing three generations to 
 100 years. Such was the folly of the Egyptians, to lose themselves 
 in a remote antiquity, to which no other people pretended. Thraca, 
 (A. M. 3199,) joined Sethon with an Ethiopian army, to relieve Jerusa- 
 lem. He succeeded Seihon, and was the last Ethiopian king who 
 reigned in Egypt. After his death, the Egyptians, not being able to 
 agree about the succession, were two years in a state of anarchy. At 
 last, twelve of the principal noblemen, conspiring together, seized the 
 kingdom, and divided it into so many parts. 
 
 Psammetichus, (A. M. 3334,) was one of the twelve — and he, by 
 the aid of some Grecian soldiers, Carians and Ionians, that had been 
 cast upon Egypt by a storm, defeated the eleven kings, and remained 
 sole possessor of Egypt. As soon as he was settled on the throne he 
 engaged in a war against the king of Assyria, to settle the limits of the 
 two empires. Psammeiichus died in the 24th year of Josias, king of 
 Judah, and was succeeded by his son Nechao, (A. M. 3388.) 
 
 Nechao is often called in Scripture Pharaoh-Xecho. He attempted 
 to join the Nile to the Red Sea by a canal. They are separated by the 
 distance of at least 118 English miles. After 120,000 workmen had 
 lost their lives in this attempt, Nechao was obliged to desist. The 
 oracle having been consulted, answered that it would open a passage 
 to the barbarians to invade Egypt. He was more successful in another 
 enterprise. Skilful Phoenician mariners, whom he had taken into his 
 service, having sailed out of the Red Sea to discover the coasts of Af- 
 rica, went successfully round them ; and the third year after their set- 
 ting out, returned to Egypt, through the Straits of Gibraltar. This was 
 
 What reference is made to the Scripture history ? — What was the prayer of Asa, 
 king of Judah ? — Did tlie Kgyplians boast of their antiquity I — What is related 
 of rsammetichus ? — What adventure is related of Pharauh Xecho ? 
 
NECHAO, PSAMMIS, APRIES. 57 
 
 an extraordinary voyage, in an age when the compass was not known. 
 It was made twenty-one centuries before Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, 
 discovered a way to India by the Cape of Good Hope, in A. D. 1497. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 NECHAO, PSAMMIS, APRIES — CONQUEST OF EGYPT. 
 
 The Babylonians and Medes having destroyed Nineveh, and with it 
 the empire of the Assyrians, Nechao became alarmed, and advanced to 
 the head of the Euphrates, with a powerful force, in order to check 
 their progress. Josiah, king of Judah, so famous for his piety, observ- 
 ing that he took his route through Judea, resolved to oppose his pas- 
 sage, in which he was not only overthrown by him, but received a 
 wound, of which he died on his return to Jerusalem. (2 Kings xxiii. 
 29, 30. 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 — 25.) Nechao continued his march to- 
 wards the Euphrates ; defeated the Babylonians ; took the city of Car- 
 chemish, and returned to Egypt. Being informed in his march home- 
 ward that Jehoahaz had caused himself to be proclaimed king of Jeru- 
 salem, without first asking his consent, he sent him prisoner to Egypt, 
 where he died ; Nechao gave the sceptre to Eliakim, (called by him 
 Jehoiakim,) another of Josiah's sons : and imposed an annual tribute 
 on the land of an hundred talents of silver, and one talent of gold. 
 
 Nabopolasser, king of Babylon, perceiving his years and infirmities 
 increase, associated his son, Nabuchodonosor, or Nebuchadnezzar, 
 with him in the empire. This young prince vanquished the army of 
 Nechao, near the river Euphrates; and reduced the revolted provinces 
 to their allegiance, as Jeremiah had foretold. Nechao dying after a 
 reign of sixteen years, left the kingdom to his son Psammis, (A. M. 3404.) 
 The reign of Psammis was but six years. He was succeeded by Apries, 
 who, in Scripture, is called Pharaoh Hophrah, (A. M. 3410,) and reign- 
 ed twenty-five years. During the first years of his reign, he was vic- 
 torious at Cyprus and at Sidon ; and made himself master of all Phoe- 
 nicia and Palestine. Such a rapid success so elated his heart, that he 
 boasted it was not in the power of the gods themselves to dethrone him. 
 But the true God, offended at such presumption, expressed his mind to 
 Ezekiel as follows : — " Son of man, set thy face against Pharaoh, king 
 of Egypt, and prophesy. Thus saith the Lord God, behold, I am 
 against thee, Pharaoh, the great dragon that lieth in the midst of his 
 rivers ; which hath said, ' my river is mine own, and I have made it for 
 myself;' but I will put hooks in thy jaws," &c. These and other pre- 
 dictions were fully verified in the calamities with which Egypt was 
 soon to be overwhelmed. 
 
 The king of Babylon, taking advantage of the intestine divisions, 
 which the rebellion of Amasis had occasioned in that kingdom, march- 
 ed thither at the head of his army. He subdued Egypt from Migdol 
 to Magdol, and made so horrible a devastation wherever he came, that 
 the damage could not be repaired in forty years. Nebuchadnezzar 
 having loaded his army with spoils, and conquered the whole kingdom, 
 
 How did Necho treat the kings of Judah ? — What prophecy of Ezekiel was ful» 
 filled ? — Did Nebuchadnezzar make a conquest of Egypt ? 
 
58 HISTORY OF THE EGYPTIANS. 
 
 left Amasis as his viceroy, and returned to Babylon. Apries (Pharaoh 
 Hophrah) hired an army to oppose Amasis, but being overcome, he was 
 carried to Sais, and strangled in his own palace. 
 
 The prophet had foretold that, during forty years, the Egyptians 
 should be visited with great calamities, and then there should be no 
 more princes of the land of Egypt. The event was verified; for, at 
 the termination of that period, the Persians possessed themselves of 
 Egypt, and it was made a province of the Persian empire, and has 
 been governed ever since by foreigners. For since the ruin of the Per- 
 sian monarchy, it has been subject successively to the Macedonians, 
 the Romans, the Saracens, the Mamelukes; and lastly, to the Turks, 
 who possess it to this day. 
 
 After the death of Apries, Amasis became peaceable possessor of 
 Egypt? ana " reigned forty years over it; he was, according to Plato, a 
 native of the city of Sais. He built many magnificent temples. He- 
 rodotus admired a chapel at Sais, formed of one single stone, twenty- 
 one cubits* in front, fourteen in depth, and eight in length. It had 
 been brought from Elephantina, and 2,000 men were employed three 
 years in conveying it along the Nile. Amasis had a great esteem for 
 the Greeks. He granted them large privileges, and permitted such of 
 them as were desirous of settling in Egypt to live in the city of Nau- 
 cratis, so famous for its harbour. He is the only king who conquered 
 the island of Cyprus, and made it tributary. Under his reign Pytha- 
 goras came into Egypt, was initiated into the mysteries of the coun- 
 try, and instructed by the priests in whatever was most abstruse and 
 important in their religion. It was here he imbibed his doctrine of the 
 Metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. 
 
 In the expedition in which Cyrus conquered so great a part of the 
 world, Egypt, doubtless, was subdued like the rest of the provinces, 
 and Xenophon declares this in the beginning of his Cyropaedia. Pro- 
 bably, after the forty years of desolation, which had been prophesied 
 by the prophet, were expired, Egypt, beginning gradually to recover 
 itself, shook off the yoke, and recovered its liberty. Accordingly, we 
 find that Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, on his ascending the throne, car- 
 ried his arms into Egypt. On his arrival there, Amasis w r as just dead, 
 and was succeeded by his son, Psammcnitus. (A. M. 3479.) Camby- 
 ses, having gained a battle, pursued the enemy to Memphis, besieged 
 and took the city. However, he treated the king with clemency, and 
 assigned him an honourable pension ; but being informed that he was 
 secretly concerting measures to reascend the throne, he put him to 
 death. Psammenitus reigned but six months, and all Egypt submitted 
 to the victor. 
 
 From this era the history of this nation will be blended with that of 
 the Persians and Greeks, till the death of Alexander. At that period a 
 new monarchy arose in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, 
 which continued till Cleopatra, or about three hundred years. 
 * The cubit is nearly twenty-two inches. 
 
 To whom were the Egyptians successively subject? — What temple was built by 
 Amasis? — What resulted from the expedition of Cyrus ? — Willi what histories 
 will that of Egypt be henceforward blended ? 
 
( 60 ) 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 (61) 
 
[ 63 ] 
 
 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 ORIGIN OF THE CARTHAGINIANS — THEIR RELIGION, GOVERN- 
 MENT AND COMMERCE. 
 
 The Carthaginians were indebted to the Tyrians, not only for their 
 origin, but also for their manners, language, customs, laws, religion, 
 and application to commerce. They spoke the same language as the 
 Tyrians, and these the same as the Canaanites. If it were not the 
 Hebrew, it was at least a language entirely derived from it, for many 
 of the characters were Hebrew. The word Pceni, from which Punic 
 is derived, is the same with Phoeni, or Phoenicians, because they came 
 originally from Phoenicia. This accounts for the strict union which 
 always subsisted between the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians. 
 
 When Cambyses had resolved to make war upon the latter, the Phoe- 
 nicians, who formed the chief strength of his fleet, told him plainly, that 
 they could not serve him against their countrymen; and this declaration 
 obliged that prince to lay aside his design. The Carthaginians were 
 never forgetful of the country from whence they came, and to which 
 they owed their origin. They sent regularly every year to Tyre a ship 
 freighted with presents, as a quit-rent paid to their ancient country : 
 and its tutelary gods had an annual sacrifice offered to them by the 
 Carthaginians, who considered them as their protectors. They sent 
 thither the first fruits of their revenues, and a tithe of the spoils taken 
 from their enemies, as offerings for Hercules, one of the principal gods 
 of Tyre and Carthage ; and when Alexander was besieging Tyre, the 
 Tyrians sent away their wives and children to Carthage, where they 
 were received and entertained with kindness and generosity. 
 
 It appears, from several passages in the history of Carthage, that its 
 generals began and ended all their enterprises with the worship of the 
 gods. Hamilcar, father of the great Hannibal, before he entered Spain, 
 offered up a sacrifice to the gods ; and his son, treading in his steps, 
 before he left Spain and marched against Rome, went to Cadery, to 
 pay the vows he had made to Hercules. This religious homage was 
 not the ambition of particular persons only, but of the whole nation. 
 Polybius has transmitted to us a treaty of peace concluded by Philip, 
 
 From whom were the Carthaginians derived, and what their language, man- 
 ners, customs, &c. ? — What their attachment to the mother country ? 
 
64 HISTORY OP THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 son of Demetrius, king of Macedon, and the Carthaginians, in which 
 the respect and veneration of the latter for the deity, and their persua- 
 sion that the gods preside over human affairs, are strongly displayed. 
 
 The Carthaginians had two deities to whom they paid particular 
 worship. The first was the goddess Cxlestis, called also Urania, or the 
 moon, who was invoked in great calamities. This has been supposed 
 to be the same deity whom Jeremiah (Jer. vii. 18, and xliv. 17 — 25) 
 calls the queen of heaven, and who was held in so much reverence by 
 the Jewish women, that they addressed their vows to her, burnt in- 
 cense, poured out drink-offerings, and made cakes for her with their 
 own hands. 
 
 The second deity adored by the Carthaginians, and in whose honour 
 human sacrifices were offered, was Saturn, known in Scripture by the 
 name of Moloch. This worship passed from Tyre to Carthage. Philo 
 quotes a passage from Sanchoniathon which shows that the kings of 
 Tyre, in great danger, used to sacrifice their sons, to appease the anger 
 of the gods; and that one of them, by this action, procured himself 
 divers honours, and was worshipped as a god, under the name of the 
 planet Saturn. To this, doubtless, was owing the fable of Saturn's 
 devouring his own children. This custom prevailed long among the 
 Phoenicians and Canaanites, from whom the Israelites borrowed it, 
 though forbidden expressly by heaven. At first, children were inhu- 
 manly burned, either in a fiery furnace, like those in the valley of Hin- 
 nom, so often mentioned in Scripture, or in a flaming statue of Saturn. 
 Mothers made it a part of their religion to view the spectacle with dry 
 eyes, fearing lest the victims being offered with an unbecoming grace, 
 should anger the gods. 
 
 The Carthaginians retained the barbarous custom of offering human 
 sacrifices to their gods till the ruin of the city ; for some time after- 
 wards it was suspended from fear of their drawing upon themselves 
 the indignation and arms of Darius. It appears from Tertullian's 
 Apology, that the custom prevailed to the consulship of Tiberius, who 
 hanged the sacrificing priests themselves on the trees which shaded the 
 temple. 
 
 " Religion," says Plutarch, " is placed between two rocks, equally 
 dangerous to man, and injurious to the Deity — namely, impiety and 
 superstition. The one, from an affectation of freethinking, believes 
 nothing ; the other, from a blind weakness, believes all things. Im- 
 piety, to rid itself of a terror which galls it, denies the very existence 
 of Deity, while superstition, to lull its fears, forges false gods." 
 
 The government of Carthage was founded upon principles of con- 
 summate wisdom. Aristotle ranks this republic among those held in 
 the greatest esteem by the ancients. Me remarks, that from its foun- 
 dation to his time, (upwards of 500 years,) no considerable sedition 
 had disturbed the peace, nor any tyrant oppressed the liberty of Car- 
 thage. The government united three different authorities; these authori- 
 
 Mention what was their strong religious impression. — From whence originated 
 the fable of Saturn destroying his own offspring I — Did the Carthaginians offer 
 human sacrifices I — What judicious remark doea Plutarch make ? 
 
RESOURCES, EXTENT, ETC. OF CARTHAGE. 65 
 
 ties were that of the two supreme magistrates, called Suffetes* — that 
 of the senate, — and that of the people. Then, afterwards, the tribunal 
 of One hundred, which had great influence on the republic. The 
 power of the Suffetes was only annual, and their authority in Carthage 
 answered to that of consuls at Rome. The senate was composed of 
 persons venerable for age, experience, birth, riches, or merit. When 
 the votes were unanimous, the senate decided supremely, and there lay 
 no appeal from it ; but when there was a division, the power of deciding 
 devolved on the people. 
 
 The Trade of Carthage was its predominant characteristic. The 
 power, the conquests, the credit and glory of the Carthaginians, all 
 flowed from their trade. Situated in the centre of the Mediterranean, 
 and stretching their arms both eastward and westward, the extent of 
 their commerce embraced the known world. From Egypt they brought 
 fine flax, paper, corn, and sails and cables for ships ; from the coasts 
 of the Red Sea, spices, frankincense, perfumes, gold, pearls, and pre- 
 cious stones. From Tyre and Phoenicia, purple and scarlet, rich stuffs, 
 costly furniture, and divers curious and artificial works. From the 
 western world, for the commodities carried thither, they brought iron, 
 tin, lead, and copper. They thus enriched themselves at the expense 
 of all nations, and became for a time lords of the sea. The most con- 
 siderable personages of the city were not ashamed to trade. They 
 made settlements on the coast of Spain, and, some time after, New 
 Carthage gave the Carthaginians an empire in that country almost equal 
 to that which they enjoyed in Africa. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 
 RESOURCES, EXTENT, AND EARLY HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 
 
 The gold and silver mines found in Spain were to the Carthaginians 
 an inexhaustible source of w T ealth, that enabled them to sustain such 
 long wars against the Romans. Polybius, as quoted by Strabo, says, 
 " that in his time, upwards of 40,000 men were employed in the mines 
 near Nova Carthago, and furnished the Romans every day with 25,000 
 drachms, or 859/. 7s. 6d. Carthage must be considered not only as a 
 commercial but also as a warlike republic. Its genius and the nature 
 of its government led it to traffic, and the necessity for defending their 
 colonies, and the desire of extending the empire of commerce, led them 
 to war. Their military power consisted in their alliances w r ith kings, 
 with tributary nations, and in mercenary soldiers purchased of neigh- 
 bouring states. From Numidia they drew a nimble, bold, impetuous, 
 and indefatigable cavalry ; from the Balearic Isles, the most expert 
 slingers in the world ; from Spain, an invincible infantry ; and from 
 Greece itself, soldiers fit for all the various operations of war. 
 
 * This word is derived from Sophetim, which, with the Hebrews and Phoenicians, 
 signifies judges. 
 
 What was the mode of government in Carthage ? — Mention the extent and va- 
 riety of the trade of Carthage. — From what gold mines were they enriched, and 
 from whence did they recruit their armies ? 
 
 G* 
 
66 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 In this manner the Carthaginians at once sent powerful forces, com- 
 posed of soldiers which were the flower of all the armies in the uni- 
 verse, without depopulating- either their fields or cities by new levies — 
 without suspending their manufactories — without interrupting their 
 commerce, or weakening their navy. They possessed themselves, by 
 venal blood, of provinces and kingdoms, and made other nations the 
 instruments of their grandeur and glory. But as these forces were for- 
 tuitously brought together, they did not adhere by any natural, intimate, 
 or necessary tie. Thus the grandeur of the Carthaginians being sus- 
 tained only by foreign supports, was shaken to the foundation when 
 they were once taken away ; and the rebellions which harassed Carthage 
 in its later years, ought to have taught the citizens, that no mise- 
 ries are comparable to those of a government which is supported by 
 foreigners ; since neither zeal, security, nor obedience can be expected 
 from them. This was not the case with the republic of Rome. As the 
 Romans had neither trade nor money, they were not able to hire forces ; 
 but, then, as their resources were within themselves, they had a surer 
 dependence in extreme emergencies than the Carthaginians. 
 
 With respect to the glory which results from study and knowledge, 
 Carthage was not entirely deficient. The sending Massinissa, son of 
 a powerful king, thither for education, gives us room to believe that the 
 state was provided with an excellent school. The great Hannibal was 
 not unacquainted with polite literature. Mago, another celebrated gene- 
 ral, did as much honour to Carthage by his pen as by his victories. 
 He wrote twenty-eight volumes upon husbandry, which the Roman 
 Senate held in such esteem, that, after the taking of Carthage, they 
 gave orders to have these books translated into Latin ; and there is still 
 extant a Greek version of a treatise, drawn up by Hanno, in the Punic 
 tongue, relating to the voyage he made with a considerable fleet round 
 Africa. 
 
 Among the writers who have adorned Africa, the celebrated Terence 
 may be placed at their head. But though Carthage was the place of 
 his birth, he received his education in Rome, where he acquired that 
 purity of style, that delicacy and elegance, which have gained him the 
 admiration of all succeeding ages. During the Punic wars he was sold 
 a slave to Terentius Lucanus, a Roman Senator, who, after giving him 
 an excellent education, granted him his liberty, and called him, as was 
 then the custom, by his own name. Notwithstanding what has boon 
 said of the learned men of Carthage, there has been a great scan ity 
 of them — barely furnishing three or four writers in upwards of 700 
 years. Eloquence, Poetry, and History, seem to have been little known 
 among them. 
 
 In Carthage, the study and knowledge of youth were, for the most 
 part, confined to writing, arithmetic, book-keeping, and what related to 
 traffic. Accordingly, there was seldom seen among them that elegance 
 of behaviour, and those sentiments of honour, which are generally the 
 
 Wherein did their forces differ from those of Rome? — What attention did they 
 pay to learning ? — Mention one of the few great men that flourished. — To what 
 was children's knowledge chiefly confined ? 
 
HISTORY OF CARTHAGE. 67 
 
 fruits of a liberal education in all civilized nations. Hence it was, that 
 the merit of the greatest men in Carthage was sullied by great failings, 
 low vices, and cruel passions. Cicero says, "the qualities of the Car- 
 thaginians are craft, skill, industry, and cunning (calliditas)." Craft 
 and cunning lead naturally to lying, hypocrisy, and breach of faith, and 
 this was so notorious, that to signify any remarkable dishonesty, it was 
 usual to call it Punic honour ; and a knavish, deceitful mind, was em- 
 phatically called Punicum ingenium, a Carthaginian mind. 
 
 The history of the Carthaginians, from the foundation of Carthage to 
 its ruin, included about 700 years, and may be divided into two parts — 
 the first extends to the Punic war — the second, to the destruction of the 
 state. Carthage in Africa, was a colony from Tyre, the most renowned 
 city for commerce in the world. Tyre had long before transplanted 
 another colony into that country, which built Utica, made famous by 
 the death of the second Cato, who for this reason is generally called 
 Cato Uticensis. The foundation of Carthage may be fixed about the year 
 of the world 3158, when Joash was king of Judah; 79 years before the 
 building of Rome, and 846 before the birth of Christ. 
 
 It is ascribed to Elisa, a Tyrian princess, better known by the name 
 of Dido. Ithobal, or Ethbaal, king of Tyre, and father of the noted 
 Jezebel, was her great-grandfather. She married her near relation, 
 Acerbas, called also Sicharbas and Sichseus, an extremely rich prince, 
 and Pygmalion, king of Tyre, was her brother. This prince having 
 put Sichaeus to death, that he might possess his immense treasures, 
 Dido eluded the cruel avarice of her brother by withdrawing secretty, 
 with all her dead husband's possessions. She landed on the coast of 
 Africa, on the gulf where Utica stood,* and there settled with her fol- 
 lowers, after having purchased some lands from the inhabitants of the 
 country. Dido, welcomed by the natives of the country, was induced 
 to build her city, which she named Carthada,f a name that, in the Phoe- 
 nician or Hebrew tongue, signifies " new city.":}: It is said that while 
 the foundations were digging, a horse's head was found, which was 
 thought to be a good omen ; and a presage of the future warlike genius 
 of the people. 
 
 The dominions of Carthage were not long confined to Africa. The 
 inhabitants extended their conquests into Europe, by invading Sardinia, 
 seizing a great part of Sicily, reducing almost all Spain, and having 
 sent powerful colonies everywhere, they enjoyed the empire of the seas 
 for more than six hundred years; and formed a state which was able 
 to dispute pre-eminence with the greatest empires of the world, by their 
 wealth, their commerce, their numerous armies, their formidable fleets, 
 and above all, by the courage and abilities of their captains. The first 
 
 * Distant about fifteen miles from where Tunis now stands. 
 
 t Kartha Hadath. 
 
 | There is a tale, though generally exploded by the learned, that Dido put a trick 
 upon the natives, by the purchase of so much land as an ox's hide would encompass. 
 She then cut the hide into the smallest thongs, and with them encompassed a large 
 tract of ground, on which she built a citadel called Byrsa, from the hide. 
 
 What were the usual qualities of the Carthaginians ? — How do you divide the 
 Carthaginian history ? — What is related of Dido, the Tyrian princess ? 
 
68 HXSTO&Y OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 Mars of the Carthaginians were an ineffectual attempt to free them- 
 selves from the annual tribute which they engaged to pay the Africans 
 for the land. They next carried their arms against the Moors and Nu- 
 midians, and won conquests from both, — this enabled them to shake off 
 the tribute, and also to possess themselves of a considerable part of 
 Africa. About this time there arose a dispute between Carthage and 
 Cyrene, on account of their respective limits. Cyrene was a powerful 
 city, situated on the Mediterranean, towards the greater Syrtis, and had 
 been built by Battus, the Lacedaemonian. 
 
 It was agreed on each side that two young men should set out at the 
 same time from each city; and that the place of their meeting should 
 be the common boundary of both states. The two Carthaginians (who 
 were brothers, named Philaeni) made the most haste, and their antago- 
 nists, pretending that foul play had been used, and that these brothers 
 had set out before the time appointed, refused to abide by the appoint- 
 ment, unless the two brothers, to remove all suspicion of unfair dealing, 
 would consent to be buried alive in the place where they had met. 
 They acquiesced with the proposal ; and the Carthaginians erected on 
 that spot two altars to their memory, and paid them divine honours in 
 their city ; and from that time the place was called " Arae Philrenorum," 
 " The altars of the Philaeni," and served as the boundary of the Car- 
 thaginian empire. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 COLONIES OF CARTHAGE — FOREIGN WARS — HAMILCAR — 
 
 HANNIBAL. 
 
 The island of Sardinia, during their wars, supplied the Carthagini- 
 ans with abundance of provisions. The chief town of the southern 
 and most fertile part was Caralis, (or Calaris) now Cagliari. On the 
 arrival of the Carthaginians, the natives withdrew to their almost inac- 
 cessible mountains, from whence the enemy could not dislodge them. 
 The people of the Baleares, now called Majorca and Minorca, were 
 accustomed from their infancy to handle the sling, and they furnished 
 the Carthaginians with the most expert slingers in the world, and were 
 of great service to them in their battles and sieges. They flung large 
 stones above a pound weight ; and it is said that they could throw lead- 
 en bullets with so much violence, that they would pierce even the 
 strongest helmets, shields, and cuirasses; and were so dexterous that 
 they scarcely ever missed their aim. From this practice these islands 
 were called Baleares, and Gymnasiae by the Greeks.* 
 
 The occasion of the Carthaginians first landing in Spain was to assist 
 the inhabitants of Cadiz, who were an ancient colony of Tyre, and who 
 were invaded by the native Spaniards. These Tyrians established 
 
 * Bochart derives the name of these islands from two Phoenician words, Baal-jare, or 
 master of the art of slinging 
 
 What the extent of the Carthage dominions? — How were the boundaries of 
 their country determined ? — What is said of the Balearic Isles ? 
 
HANNIBAL. 69 
 
 there the worship of Hercules, and erected to his honour a magnificent 
 temple, which became famous in after ages. At the time that Hanni- 
 bal set out for Italy, the coast of Spain, which lies on the Mediterra- 
 nean, had been almost wholly subdued by them, and there they built 
 Carthagena, and they were masters of the country as far as the river 
 Iberus, which bounded their dominions. 
 
 The wars which the Carthaginians carried on in Sicily are better au- 
 thenticated. From the triangular form of Sicily, it received the name 
 of Trinacria, or Triquetra. When the Carthaginians first carried their 
 arms into Sicily is not known, but they had already possessed some 
 part of it when they entered into a treaty with the Romans, namely, the 
 same year that the kings were expelled, and consuls appointed, twenty- 
 eight years before Xerxes invaded Greece. Some time after the con- 
 clusion of this treaty, (A. M. 3520,) the Carthaginians made an alliance 
 with Xerxes, king of Persia, by which the former were to invade, with 
 all their forces, those Greeks who were settled in Sicily and Italy, 
 during which Xerxes would march in person against Greece itself. 
 
 The preparations for this war lasted three years; and Hamilcar, the 
 most experienced captain of the age, sailed from Carthage with his for- 
 midable army, landed at Palermo, and marched against Himera. Ge- 
 lon, an able warrior, made a very vigorous defence; Hamilcar was 
 killed, and his ships were fired ; a dreadful slaughter ensued, and the 
 Carthaginians were compelled to surrender at discretion. This battle 
 was fought the very day of the famous action of Thermopylae, in which 
 three hundred Spartans, with the sacrifice of their lives, disputed 
 Xerxes' entrance into Greece. When the news of this disaster was 
 brought to Carthage, consternation, grief, and despair, threw the whole 
 city into confusion. 
 
 The conduct of a second war was committed to Hannibal, who had 
 been invested with the highest dignities of the state — being one of the 
 SufTetes. He was grandson to Hamilcar, who had been defeated by 
 Gelon, and killed before Himera. In his boyhood his father had made 
 him repair to the temple of Jupiter and swear eternal enmity to the Ro- 
 mans. (See engraving at the commencement of the History of the 
 Carthaginians.) In this expedition he was successful, and the victor 
 exercised the most horrid cruelties without showing regard either to 
 age or sex. When Hannibal returned to Carthage, the whole city came 
 out to meet him with the most joyful acclamations. 
 
 Three years after, they appointed Hannibal their general, a second 
 time ; and on his pleading his great age, and refusing the command of 
 the war, they gave him for lieutenant, Imilcon, son of Hanno, of the 
 same family. The number of their forces, according to TimEeus, 
 amounted to above 120,000 men. Agrigentum, a prodigiously rich 
 city, first felt the fury of the enemy. It was situated on the coast that 
 faces Africa. Hannibal opened the campaign with the siege of this 
 city. The besieged, who at first had gained several advantages, were 
 
 How came the Carthaginians to land in Spain ? — Why was Sicily called Trina- 
 cria ? — What event threw Carthage in confusion ? — Was Hannibal successful ? — 
 How was he received on his return ? — What was his success at Agrigentum ? 
 
70 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 at last so pressed by famine, that they were compelled to abandon the 
 city ; and never was a more melancholy spectacle seen. The unhappy 
 exiles arrived at Gela, the nearest city, and there received all the com- 
 forts they could expect in their deplorable condition. In the mean time 
 Imilcon entered the city. The plunder was immensely rich. A num- 
 berless multitude of pictures, vases, and statues of all kinds, were found 
 here ; the citizens having an exquisite taste for the polite arts. 
 
 He afterwards besieged Gela, and took it, notwithstanding the suc- 
 cours which were brought by Dionysius the tyrant, who had seized 
 upon the government of Syracuse. Imilcon ended the war by a treaty 
 with Dionysius, which secured to the Carthaginians the conquests they 
 had gained, and left the Syracusans still subject to Dionysius, who 
 concluded this peace to establish his new authority, and to enable him 
 to gain resources for carrying on the war successfully. 
 
 Dionysius opened the campaign with the siege of Motya, which was 
 the magazine of the Carthaginians in Sicily, and which, after a vigor- 
 ous defence, was taken by storm ; but it was retaken by Imilcon the 
 following year. His army, however, w T as so greatly reduced by the 
 plague, that he sent to Dionysius, during a suspension of hostilities, 
 for leave to carry back with him the remains of his shattered army. 
 Being arrived in Carthage, which he found overwhelmed with grief and 
 despair, he entered his house, shut his door against the citizens, and 
 then gave himself the fatal stroke, to which the heathen falsely gave 
 the name of courage, though, in reality, it is no other than a cowardly 
 despair. 
 
 But the calamities of this unhappy state did not stop here ; for the 
 Africans rose, and, after seizing upon Tunis, marched directly to Car- 
 thage, to the number of more than 200,000 men. Happily for the Car- 
 thaginians, this numerous army had no leader, no provisions or military 
 engines, no discipline or subordination. Divisions, therefore, arising 
 in this rabble of an army, and the famine increasing daily, the indivi- 
 duals withdrew to their respective homes, and delivered Carthage from 
 a dreadful storm. Notwithstanding their late disasters, the Carthagi- 
 nians continued their enterprises on Sicily. Mago, their general, and 
 one of the Suffetes, lost a great battle and his life. After an interval 
 of peace, Mago, the son of him who had been lately killed, gave battle 
 to Dionysius, and obtained a victory, which put them in possession of 
 their former dominions in Sicily, besides 1,000 talents for defraying the 
 expenses of the war. Dionysius died some time after, and was suc- 
 ceeded by his son of the same name. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 HANNO, AGATHOCLES — WAR WITH ROME. • 
 
 A second treaty was concluded with the Romans, not differing mate- 
 rially from the first, about the 402d year of the foundation of Rome. 
 
 Did not Imilcon besiege and take Gela? — What was the fate of Imilcon the 
 Carthaginian? — To what perils were the Carthaginians exposed ? — What deli- 
 vered them from the dreadful storm ? 
 
 
HANNO, AGATHOCLES. 71 
 
 (A. M. 3656.) After the death of the elder Dionysius, Syracuse was 
 involved in great troubles. The son, who had been expelled, restored 
 himself by force, and exercised great cruelties there. The Syracusans 
 had recourse to the Corinthians for assistance, who sent over Timoleon, 
 a man of great merit, with ten ships and about a thousand soldiers. In 
 his march to Syracuse his army continued to increase. Dionysius, 
 having no refuge left, put the citadel into his hands, and escaped by his 
 assistance, to Corinth, where he turned schoolmaster. Mago, being 
 apprehensive of the disaffection of his forces, withdrew from the scene 
 and arrived at Carthage. On his arrival he was impeached, but he 
 prevented the execution of the sentence passed on him by a voluntary 
 death. 
 
 About this time in all probability, there happened at Carthage a 
 memorable incident, related by Justin. Hanno, one of the most power- 
 ful citizens, formed a design of seizing on the republic, by destroying 
 the whole senate, which deed was to have been committed when they 
 all had assembled to celebrate his daughter's marriage. But the con- 
 spiracy was discovered, and Hanno, after further efforts to accomplish 
 his diabolical design, was taken prisoner ; after having been whipped, 
 his eyes were put out, and he was put to death under the most cruel 
 tortures. The Carthaginians, ever severe in their punishments, ex- 
 tended them even to the innocent. His children and all his relations, 
 though they had not joined in his guilt, shared in his punishment. 
 Not a single person of his family was left, either to imitate his crime 
 or to revenge his death. 
 
 Brief notice must now be taken of the war which Agathocles carried 
 on, not only in Sicily but in Africa. (A. M. 3694. B. C. 313.) Aga- 
 thocles was a Sicilian of obscure birth and low fortune. Supported at 
 first by the power of the Carthaginians, he invaded the sovereignty of 
 Syracuse, and made himself tyrant over it. His next design was to 
 make Africa itself the seat of war, and to besiege Carthage. On his 
 landing, the Carthaginians were in prodigiotrs alarm ; they had no 
 arms in sufficient readiness to oppose the enemy. An engagement soon 
 took place ; Agathocles obtained a victory, taking a number of strong 
 holds ; and many Africans joined the victor. 
 
 This descent of Agathocles into Africa doubtless suggested to Scipio 
 the design of making the like attempt upon that republic. While the 
 Carthaginians were thus warmly attacked by their enemies, ambassa- 
 dors came to them from Tyre, imploring their succour against Alexan- 
 der the Great, who was upon the point of taking their city, which he 
 had long besieged. Though the Carthaginians could not relieve them 
 by troops, they sent thirty deputies of their principal citizens. The 
 Tyrians committed their wives, children, and old men to the care of 
 these deputies, and Carthage received them with all possible marks of 
 amity. 
 
 The present unhappy state of the republic was considered by this 
 
 What befel the younger Dionysius ? — What did Hanno attempt? — and what 
 befel him ? — What success had Agathocles in Africa ? — How came the Tyrians 
 to take refuge in Carthage ? 
 
72 HISTORY OF THE CARTHAGINIANS. 
 
 superstitious people as the effect of the wrath of the gods, with regard 
 to two deities, to whom the Carthaginians had been wanting in the duties 
 prescribed by their religion. The one was their neglect to send annually 
 to Tyre, the mother country, the tenth of all the revenues of the re- 
 public, as an offering to Hercules; the other, an inhuman superstition, 
 was their neglect to sacrifice to Saturn, children of the best families in 
 Parthage. To expiate their supposed guilt and horrid impiety, they 
 sent to Tyre great presents, and gold shrines of their deities; and at 
 home two hundred children of the first rank, and upwards of three hun- 
 dred persons offered themselves voluntarily as victims to pacify the 
 wrath of the gods. 
 
 After these expiations, they sent off to Ham il car in Sicily, who was 
 storming Syracuse, to request immediate succours. Hamilcar, after 
 making a last, but ineffectual effort to storm the city, sent 5,000 men to 
 the relief of his distressed country. Some time after, Hamilcar, being 
 returned to the siege, fell into the enemies' hands, who put him to death, 
 and sent his head to Agathocles, in Africa, to be exhibited to the Car- 
 thaginians. To these foreign enemies was joined a domestic one. Bo- 
 milcar, the Carthaginian general, attempted to obtain the sovereignty 
 of Carthage. He, therefore, entered the city with ambitious views, 
 seconded by many of the citizens, who were the accomplices of his re- 
 bellion ; but, after an ineffectual struggle, they surrendered, in conse- 
 quence of the offer of a general pardon. Bomilcar was excepted, who 
 was put to death with the most exquisite torments. 
 
 Agathocles, who, for some time, had been so successful in Africa, 
 experienced a reverse — the Africans deserted him, and his own troops 
 were unable to make head against the Carthaginians. In this extremity 
 he thought only of providing for his own safety ; and this base deserter 
 of his army stole away, and arrived at Syracuse with only a few at- 
 tendants. He died miserably soon after, and ended, by a cruel death, 
 a life that had been polluted by the blackest crimes. 
 
 We now approach the times of Pyrrhus, (A. M. 3727. B. C. 277,) 
 king of Epirus, whose ambitious views excited the apprehension of 
 both the Romans and the Carthaginians. To strengthen themselves 
 against his attempts, they renewed their treaties of mutual assistance 
 with each other. When Pyrrhus turned his arms against Italy, and 
 gained many victories, the Carthaginians sent the Romans a fleet 
 of six-score sail, under the command of Mago. The senate returned 
 thanks for the obliging offer, but declined accepting it. For the secu- 
 rity of Sicily, the Carthaginians transported additional forces thither, 
 and the Syracusans, to oppose them, sent pressingly to Pyrrhus for 
 succours. 
 
 This prince had a particular reason to espouse their interests, having 
 married Danassa, daughter of Agathocles. Pyrrhus arrived in Sicily, 
 and his conquests were so rapid that he left the Carthaginians, in the 
 
 What befel Hamilcar while brtieging Syracuse I — What did Bomilcar attempt, 
 and what was his fete? — To what <lid the superstitious ascribe their calamities? 
 — What dl fete awaited A:Mthoeles? — In the times of Pyrrhus, what succours 
 did the Carthadnianb offer the Romans ? 
 
WAR with ro:.te. 73 
 
 whole island, only the single town of Lilybseum. But the urgent ne- 
 cessity of his affairs called him back to Italy, and the Sicilians re- 
 turned to the obedience of their former masters. Thus he lost the 
 island with the same rapidity that he had won it. As he was embark- 
 ing, turning his eyes back to Sicily, — " What a fine field of battle," 
 said he, "do we leave to the Carthaginians and Romans !" His pre- 
 diction was soon verified. 
 
 After his departure, the chief public employment of Syracuse was 
 conferred on Hiero, who afterwards obtained the name and dignity 
 of king, by the united suffrages of the citizens, so greatly had his 
 government pleased. He was appointed to carry on the war against 
 the Carthaginians, and obtained several advantages over them. But 
 now a common interest united them against a new enemy, who 
 began to appear in Sicily, and justly alarmed both. These were 
 the Romans, who, having crushed all the enemies of Italy, were 
 now powerful enough to carry their arms out of it. Sicily lay com- 
 modious for them, and they crossed the strait. This caused a rupture 
 between them and the Carthaginians, and gave rise to the first Punic 
 v/ar. The account of this, and the third Punic war, and the fall of 
 Carthage, comprising the remaining portion of the history of this em- 
 pire, will be found under their respective heads in the " History of 
 Rome." 
 
 What conquests did Pyrrhus gain in Sicily? — To what dignity did Hiero arrive 
 — What new enemy appeared and gave rise to the first Punic war? 
 

( 76 ) 
 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 GREECE. 
 
 (77) 
 
[ 79 ] 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 EARLY HISTORY OF THE GRECIAN STATES. 
 
 The history of ancient Greece is not so much the history of any par- 
 ticular kingdom, as of a number of petty independent states, sometimes 
 at war, and sometimes in alliance with one another. Passing over the 
 fabulous times of the Grecian republics, we shall begin our account of 
 those different states at that period where real and authentic history 
 commences. 
 
 Sicyon is said to have been the first kingdom that was established 
 in Greece. The beginning of it is placed by historians in the year of 
 the world, one thousand nine hundred and fifteen ; before Christ, two 
 thousand and eighty-nine ; and before the first Olympiad, one thousand 
 three hundred and thirteen. Its first king was iEgialeus; and it lasted 
 a thousand years. 
 
 (A. M. 2148.) The kingdom of Argos, in Peloponnesus, began a 
 thousand and eighty years before the first Olympiad, in the time of 
 Abraham. The first king was Inachus. This was succeeded by the 
 kingdom of Mycenae, to which place the seat of government was trans- 
 ferred from Argos, by Perseus, the grandson of Acrisius, king of Argos. 
 Eurystheus, the third in succession from him, was expelled by the 
 Heraclidae, or descendants of Hercules, who made themselves masters 
 of Peloponnesus. 
 
 (A. M. 2448.) The kingdom of Athens was first formed into a regu- 
 lar government by Cecrops, an Egyptian, who, having married the 
 daughter of Actseus, the king of Attica, at his death succeeded to the 
 throne. He taught the people, who had hitherto led a wandering life, 
 the use of fixed habitations ; and he instituted the celebrated court of 
 Areopagus. Amphictyon, the third king of Athens, established the 
 famous Amphictyonic council. And Codrus, the last prince of this 
 line, in a war between the Athenians and the Heraclidae, devoted him- 
 self for the good of his country. After the death of Codrus, the title 
 of king was abolished at Athens, and that of Archon, or chief-governor, 
 substituted in its stead. The duration of this last office was at first 
 
 When was the kingdom of Sicyon said to be founded ? — Who was its first king? 
 — Who was the first king of Argos 7 — How long before the time of Abraham, and 
 who were the Heraclidae ? — By whom was Athens formed into a regular govern- 
 ment? — Who is said to have established the court of Areopagus ? — And who 
 the Amphictyonic council ? 
 
80 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 for the possessor's life ; it was afterwards limited to ten years, and 
 finally to one. 
 
 (A. M. 2549.) Cadmus was the founder of the kingdom of Thebes; 
 and to him are attributed sixteen letters of the Greek alphabet; though 
 it is probable he borrowed them from the Phoenician characters, rather 
 than invented them. The kingdom of Sparta, or Lacedaemon, is sup- 
 posed to have been first instituted by Lelexa. Helena, the tenth in 
 succession from this monarch, is equally famous for her beauty, and for 
 her infidelity to the marriage-bed. She had not lived above three years 
 with her husband, Menelaus, when she was carried off by Paris, the 
 son of Priam, king of Troy. In revenge the Greeks invested that 
 city, and took it after a siege of ten years ; about the time that Jephtha 
 was judge in Israel. 
 
 (A. M. 2820.) The first sovereign of Corinth was Sisyphus, the son 
 of ^Eolus, and, upon the expulsion of his descendants, Bacchis assumed 
 the reins of power. After this, the government became aristocratical ; 
 a chief magistrate being annually chosen by the name of Prytanis. At 
 last Cypselus usurped the supreme authority, which he transmitted to 
 his son Periander, who was reckoned one of the seven wise men of 
 Greece. 
 
 The kingdom of Macedon was first governed by Caranus, descended 
 from Hercules, and it subsisted till the defeat of Perseus by the Ro- 
 mans, a space of six hundred and twenty-six years. 
 
 Thus we see that kingly government prevailed in all the states of 
 Greece, during the early period of its history ; but this was soon 
 changed everywhere, except in Macedonia, for a republican mode of 
 government, which was diversified into as many various forms as there 
 were different cities. These states, though totally independent, and 
 sometimes at war with one another, were yet united by one common 
 language, and one religion ; by the celebration of public games, at 
 which they all assisted ; and particularly by the famous Amphictyonic 
 council, which met twice a-year at Thermopylae, to deliberate about 
 the general interest of those states of whose deputies it was composed. 
 The states that sent deputies to this council were the Thessalonians, 
 the Thebans, the Dorians, the Ionians, the Perhaebeans, the Magnetes, 
 the Locrians, the Octans, the Phthiotes, the Malcans, the Phocians, and 
 the Dolphians. Each of the states sent two deputies to the council, 
 one of whom was named Hieromnemon, and took care of religion ; the 
 other was called Pylagoras, and attended to the civil interests of his 
 community. After sacrificing to the gods, the deputies took an oath 
 importing that they would never, in war or peace, oppose the interest 
 of the Amphictyons. 
 
 These different motives to confederacy united the Greeks for a time 
 into a body of great power, and greater renown ; by which means they 
 
 Who is said to have founded Thebes, and to have introduced sixteen letters of the 
 Greek alphabet ? — What is related of Helena and of the siege of Troy ? — Who 
 was the first sovereign of Corinth ? — Who was Periander? — By whom was Ma- 
 cedon first governed ? — By what were these separate states united ? — What states 
 met at the Amphictyonic council ? 
 
. INSTITUTIONS OP LYCTJRGUS. 81 
 
 were able to dispute the empire of the world with the greatest mon- 
 archs of the earth ; and not only to oppose, but even to rout and dis- 
 perse the most numerous armies of Persia, and to oblige them to sub- 
 mit to the most mortifying conditions of peace. But of all the states 
 o£ Greece, Athens and Lacedaemon made the most capital figure, 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 INSTITUTIONS OF LYCURGUS. 
 
 Lacedaemon, in the beginning, was governed by kings, of whom thir- 
 teen in succession held the reins of power, of the race of the Pelopidae. 
 Under the Heraclidae, who succeeded them, the people admitted two 
 kings who governed with equal authority. Aristodemus dying, left 
 two sons, Eurysthenes and Procles, who were twins, and their mother 
 pretending not to know which was first born, or which had the best 
 claim, the people invested both with sovereign power; and this form of 
 government continued to subsist for several centuries. It was during 
 this period that the Helots, or peasants of Sparta, took up arms to vin- 
 dicate their rights to the same privileges as the citizens enjoyed, of 
 which Agis had deprived them. After a violent struggle they were 
 subdued, and they and their posterity were condemned to perpetual 
 slavery. To render their condition as disgraceful as it was miserable, 
 all other slaves were called by the general name of Helots. 
 
 To prevent the repetitions of these and the like disorders, Lycurgus 
 instituted his celebrated body of laws, which continued, for a long 
 time, to render Lacedesmon at once the terror and the umpire of the 
 neighbouring kingdoms. But before he gave this proof of his patriot- 
 ism, he gave, if possible, a still more striking proof of his disinterest- 
 edness and love of justice. For having succeeded to the throne by 
 the death of his elder brother, Polydectes, without issue, and the 
 queen-dowager afterwards proving with child, she offered to destroy 
 the birth, provided he would marry her, and admit her into a share of 
 power. Lycurgus dissembled his resentment at so unnatural a propo- 
 sal ; and she being delivered of a boy, he commanded the child to be 
 brought to him, and presenting him to the people as their lawful sove- 
 reign, by the name of Charilaus, he continued thenceforward to act not 
 as king, but as regent. 
 
 Lycurgus, after this, travelled into Crete, from thence into Asia, and 
 afterwards into Egypt; and thus having made himself acquainted with 
 the customs and institutions of the various countries through which he 
 passed, he returned home; and being assisted by some of the leading 
 men of the state, he published his celebrated code of laws, by which 
 it was enacted, that the kings should retain their right of succession as 
 before ; but their authority was greatly diminished by the institution 
 
 Of this confederacy, what states were the most distinguished ? — Mention the 
 first race of kings at Lacediemon. — How came the people to admit two kings with 
 equal authority ? — Did not Lycurgus institute a new code of laws ? — What disin- 
 terested proof did he give of his love of justice ? 
 
82 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 of a senate, consisting of twenty-eight members, chosen from among 
 the principal citizens, into which none were eligible till they were 
 sixty years of age. The kings, however, still enjoyed all their out- 
 ward marks of dignity and respect ; and in time of war they had com- 
 mand of the army ; though upon these occasions they were subject to 
 the control of the senate. 
 
 The senators, too, were the more respectable, a9 they held their 
 places for life ; and besides being possessed of so considerable a share of 
 the executive, they were invested with the whole of the judicial power; 
 and this last part of their duty they executed with such integrity and 
 discretion, that though there lay an appeal from them to the people, 
 their decrees were hardly ever reversed. Their authority, however, 
 was about a century after tempered by the erection of a superior court, 
 called the Court of the E'phori, consisting of five members, chosen 
 annually into office from among the people ; and these had a power to 
 anest and imprison even the persons of their kings, if they acted in a 
 manner unbecoming their station. 
 
 In order to reconcile the people to this mode of government, Lycur- 
 gus resolved to divide all the lands of the state equally among the 
 citizens, and to abolish the use of money. To effect the latter, he 
 thought it sufficient to cry down the value of gold and silver, and to 
 order that nothing but iron money should pass in exchange for any 
 commodity. This coin also he fixed at so low a rate, that a cart and two 
 oxen were required to carry home a sum of ten minae, or about twenty 
 pounds sterling. As this coin had no currency among the other states 
 of Greece, it soon fell into contempt, even among the Spartans them- 
 selves, so that money was at last brought into disuse. 
 
 To enforce the practice of temperance and sobriety, Lycurgus further 
 ordained, that all the men should eat in one common hall in public. 
 To accustom the youth to early habits of discipline and obedience, he 
 took their education out of the hands of their parents, and committed it 
 to masters appointed by the state. Such children as were born with 
 any capital defect, were exposed in a cavern near mount Taygetus ; and 
 such as, upon a public view, were deemed to be sound and healthy, 
 were adopted as children of the state, and delivered to their parents to 
 be nursed with rigour and severity. At the age of seven they were 
 taken from their parents and delivered over to the classes for a public 
 education, where their discipline was still more rigid and severe. 
 
 To enable them the better to endure bodily pain without complaining, 
 they were annually whipped at the altar of Diana, and the boy that 
 bore this punishment with the greatest fortitude came off victorious. 
 Plutarch tells us that he had seen several children expire under this 
 cruel treatment. At twelve years of age they were removed into a class 
 of a more advanced kind. They had now their skirmishes between 
 small parties, and their mock fights between larger bodies ; and in 
 these they sometimes fought with such obstinacy, that they were seen 
 
 At what age were the senators chosen? — With what power were the senators 
 invested? — llow were the lands of the state divided? — How was the practice 
 of temperance enforced? — How taught to endure bodily pain? 
 
INSTITUTIONS OF LYCURGUS. 83 
 
 to lose their eyes, and even their lives, before they gave up the contest. 
 Such was the constant discipline of their minority, which lasted till the 
 age of thirty, before which they were not permitted to marry, to go into 
 the troops, or to bear any office in the state. 
 
 The discipline of the virgins was as severe as that of the young men. 
 They were inured to a life of labour and industry till they were twenty 
 years of age, before which time they were not allowed to be marriage- 
 able. They had also their peculiar exercises. They ran, wrestled, 
 and pitched the bar ; and performed all these feats before the whole 
 body of the citizens. An education so manlike, did not fail to bestow 
 upon the Spartan women equal vigour of body and mind. They were 
 bold, hardy, and patriotic; filled with a sense of honour, and a love of 
 military glory. Some foreign women remarking to the wife of Leoni- 
 das, that the Spartan women alone knew how to govern the men, she 
 boldly replied, " The Spartan women alone bring forth men." A mo- 
 ther was known to give her son, who was going to battle, his shield, 
 with this gallant advice, " Return with it, or return upon it;" thereby 
 in effect telling him, that rather than throw it away in flight, he should 
 be borne home upon it dead. 
 
 The Spartans were expressly forbid to exercise any mechanic art. 
 War was their chief occupation, and in time of peace they employed 
 themselves in hunting, or bodily exercises. The Helots, or slaves, 
 tilled their lands for them, and received for their labour a bare subsist- 
 ence. These unhappy men were in a manner bound to the soil, nor 
 was it even lawful to sell them to strangers, or to make them free : 
 nay, if at any time their numbers increased to such a degree as to ex- 
 cite the suspicion of their cruel masters, there was a Cryptia^ or secret 
 act, by which it was permitted to destroy them without mercy. Thu- 
 cydides relates, that two thousand of these slaves disappeared at once, 
 without ever after being heard of. 
 
 The citizens being possessed, by means of their slaves, of compe- 
 tence and leisure, were almost always in company in their large com- 
 mon halls, where they met and conversed with one another. The love 
 of their country was their ruling passion, and all self-interest seemed 
 lost in the general wish for the welfare of the public. Pedarctus hav- 
 ing missed the honour of being chosen one of the three hundred, con- 
 verted this disappointment into joy, " that there were three hundred 
 better men in Sparta than himself." 
 
 The Spartans were forbid to make frequent war upon the same peo- 
 ple, lest they should teach their discipline to others ; and their first and 
 most inviolable maxim was never to turn their backs on the enemy, 
 however unequal to them in numbers, nor ever to deliver up their arms 
 but with their life. Archilochus, the poet, was obliged to quit the city 
 for having asserted in one of his poems, that it was better for a man to 
 lose his arms than his life. Thus depending upon their valour alone, 
 their legislator would not allow them to wall their city. 
 
 Relate the discipline of the Virgins. — What was the Spartans' chief occupa- 
 tion ? — What appeared to b'e their ruling passion ? — Mention one of their warlike 
 maxims. 
 
84 HISTORY OF 6HEECE, 
 
 In order to render these institutions as lasting as they were excellent, 
 Lycurgus pretended that something- was still wanting to the completion 
 of his plan, and that it was necessary for him to go and consult the 
 oracle of Delphos. In the mean time, he persuaded his countrymen to 
 take an oath for the strict observance of all his laws till his return, and 
 then left Sparta with a firm resolution of never seeing it more, and thus 
 to oblige his countrymen, by the oath they had taken, to observe his 
 laws for ever. When he arrived at Delphos, he inquired of the oracle, 
 whether the laws he had made were sufficient to render the Lacedaemo- 
 nians happy ; and being told that they were, he sent this answer to 
 Sparta, and then voluntarily starved himself to death. Others say that 
 he died in Crete, ordering his body to be burnt, and his ashes to be 
 thrown into the sea. 
 
 The first opportunity which the Spartans had, to display the superi- 
 ority of their power among the neighbouring states, was in the war 
 between them and the Messenians. This war lasted twenty years ; but 
 at length the Messenians being overthrown, and besieged in the city of 
 Ithoe, they were obliged to submit to the Spartans. After a rigorous 
 subjection of thirty-nine years, the Messenians made one effort more 
 for the recovery of their liberty, under the conduct of Aristomenes, who 
 thrice defeated the Spartan army, and as often merited the Hecatom- 
 phonia, a sacrifice due to those who had killed one hundred of the 
 enemy hand to hand in battle. But the Spartans being headed by the 
 famous Athenian poet and schoolmaster, Tyrtaeus, who inflamed their 
 courage by his songs and orations, the Messenians were at last obliged 
 to abandon their country, which was added to the territory of Sparta, 
 (A. M. 3380) ; and thus rendered that kingdom one of the most power- 
 ful states in all Greece. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS OF SOLON. 
 
 The happy effects produced at Sparta by the institutions of Lycur- 
 gus at last inspired the Athenians with a desire of being governed by 
 written laws ; and the first person they pitched upon for a legislator 
 was Draco, a man of equal integrity and wisdom, but rigid and severe 
 in the highest degree. Draco inflicted death on all crimes, without ex- 
 ception, and being asked why he did so, replied, " Small crimes deserve 
 death, and I have no higher punishment even for the greatest." His 
 laws indeed were so severe, that they were said to be written not with 
 ink, but with blood ; but their severity defeated their intention, it being 
 impossible to carry them into execution, and they fell into disuse. The 
 people, from the neglect and contempt of laws, soon grew more licen- 
 tious than ever they had been before any written laws existed. It was 
 in this distressful state of the republic, that Solon was applied to for 
 his advice. 
 
 Why did Lycurgus leave his country ? — In what war were ihe Spartans first 
 engaged ? — What induced the Athenians to improve their government, and whom 
 did they choose aB legislator ? 
 
INSTITUTIONS OP SOLON. 85 
 
 Solon was one of the seven wise men of Greece,* and had given 
 repeated proofs of his wisdom before he was advanced to the office of 
 legislator. He was sensible that there were certain disorders in the 
 state that were altogether incurable ; and with these, therefore, he 
 resolved not in the least to meddle. In a word, as he himself declared, 
 he gave his countrymen not the best of all possible laws, but the best 
 they were capable of receiving. His first step was to abolish the debts 
 of the poor, who had been grievously oppressed by the rich, owing to 
 the exorbitant interest they exacted from them. But to do this with the 
 least injury he could to the creditor, he raised the value of money a 
 little, and by that means nominally increased their riches. 
 
 He next repealed all the laws of Draco, except those against murder. 
 He then proceeded to the regulation of offices, employments, and 
 magistracies, all which he left in the hands of the rich. He divided 
 the rich citizens into three classes, ranging them according to their 
 incomes. Those that had five hundred measures yearly, as well in 
 corn as liquids, were placed in the first rank ; those that had three hun- 
 dred were placed in the second; and those that had but two hundred 
 made up the third. All the rest of the citizens, whose income fell short 
 of two hundred measures, were comprised in a fourth and last class, 
 and were considered as incapable of holding any employment what- 
 ever. 
 
 But to compensate for this exclusion, he gave every private citizen 
 a right to vote in the great assembly of the whole body of the people. 
 And this, indeed, was a right of a most important nature ; for by the 
 law r s of Athens it was permitted, after the decision of the magistrates, 
 to appeal to the general assembly of the people ; and thus, in time, all 
 causes of weight and consequence came before them. 
 
 To counteract the influence of a popular assembly, Solon gave a 
 greater weight to the court of Areopagus, and also instituted another 
 council, consisting of four hundred. He also ordained, that none should 
 be admitted into the Areopagus but such as had passed through the 
 office of archon. By this means the dignity, and consequently the au- 
 thority, of the court were greatly iucreased : and such was its reputa- 
 tion for integrity and discernment, that the Romans sometimes referred 
 causes, which were too intricate for their own decision, to the determi- 
 nation of this tribunal. The business of the council of four hundred 
 was to judge upon appeals from the Areopagus, and maturely to ex- 
 amine every question before it came before the general assembly of the 
 people. 
 
 Solon's particular laws for the administration of justice were more 
 numerous and equally judicious. To promote a spirit of patriotism, 
 and prevent all selfish indifference about the concerns of the republic, 
 he ordained, that whoever in public dissensions espoused neither party, 
 
 *The others were, Thales, the Milesian, Chilo, of Lacedtemon, Pittacus, of Mity- 
 lene, Periander, of Corinth, and Bias and Cleobulus, whose birth-places are uncertain. 
 
 What was the character of Solon ? — What laws of Draco did he repeal?—' 
 What other measures did he adopt? — What was the business of the Four Hun- 
 dred ? 
 
 8 
 
86 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 but remained neuter, should be declared infamous, condemned to per- 
 petual exile, and to have all his estates confiscated. From a similar 
 motive, he permitted every person to espouse the quarrel of any one 
 that was injured or insulted. 
 
 He allowed every one that was childless to dispose of his wealth as 
 he pleased, without being obliged to leave it to the next of kin. By 
 this means, the natural dependence of the young upon the old was 
 strengthened and increased. He lessened the rewards of the victors at 
 the Olympic and Isthmian games, and bestowed the money thus saved 
 upon the widows and children of those who had fallen in the service 
 of their country. To encourage industry, he empowered the Areopagus 
 to inquire into every man's method of procuring a livelihood, and to 
 punish such as had no visible way of doing so. 
 
 With the like view he ordained, that a son should not be obliged to 
 support his father in old age or necessity, if the latter had neglected 
 to give him some trade or calling ; and all illegitimate children were 
 exempted from the same duty, as they owed nothing to their parents 
 but the stigma of their birth. No one was allowed to revile another 
 in public ; the magistrates were obliged to be particularly circumspect 
 in their behaviour ; and it was even death for an archon to be taken 
 drunk. 
 
 This celebrated lawgiver, having bound the Athenians, by a public 
 oath, religiously to observe his institutions, at least for the space of a 
 hundred years, set out on his travels, leaving his countrymen to become 
 habituated to the new form of government. But their former animosi- 
 ties began to revive, when that authority was removed, which alone 
 could hold them in subjection. The factions of the state were headed 
 by three different leaders, Pisistratus, Megacles, and Lycurgus. Of 
 these, Pisistratus was at once the most powerful, the most artful, and 
 in the end the most successful. He had many virtues, and hardly a 
 single vice, except that of an inordinate ambition. He was learned 
 himself, and an encourager of learning in others. Cicero says he was 
 the first that made the Athenians acquainted with the works of Homer; 
 that he disposed them in the order in which we now have them, and 
 first caused them to be read at the feasts called Panathencea. 
 
 By his promises, his professions, his liberality, and address, he had 
 so far gained upon the affections of his countrymen, that he was upon 
 the point of making himself master of the government, when he had 
 the mortification to see Solon return, after an absence often years, fully 
 apprised of his treacherous designs, and determined, if possible, to pre- 
 vent their completion. This, however, he could not do for any length 
 of time; for Pisistratus gave himself several wounds, which he pre- 
 tended to have received in the cause of the people; and in that condi- 
 tion, with his body all bloody, he ordered himself to be carried into the 
 market-place, where by his complaints and eloquence, he so inflamed 
 the minds of the populace, that he obtained a guard of fifty men for 
 
 What laws respecting the leaving of property? — What laws respecting fathers 
 and sons? — Who were the leaders that headed the factions ? — And what was the 
 character of Pisistratus ? — What stratagems did Pisistratus adopt ? 
 
PREPARATIONS OF DARIUS. 87 
 
 the security of his person. Having now got the rudiments of a stand- 
 ing army, he soon increased it to such a degree, as to enable him to set 
 all opposition at defiance. In a little time, therefore, he seized upon 
 the citadel, and in effect, usurped the supreme power. Solon did not 
 long survive the liberties of his country. He died soon after, at the 
 age of eighty, admired and lamented by all the states of Greece, as 
 the greatest legislator, and, excepting Homer, the greatest poet, that 
 had hitherto appeared. 
 
 By adhering to the same arts by which he had acquired his power, 
 Pisistratus contrived to maintain himself in the possession of it to his 
 death, and transmitted it to his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus. These 
 3 r oung men seemed to tread in the footsteps of their father ; they encou- 
 raged learning and learned men ; they invited to their court Anacreon, Si- 
 monides, and other poets, and honoured them with their friendship, and 
 loaded them with presents. Hipparchus was slain by his subjects, 
 after a reign of eighteen years ; and his brother Hippias, dreading the 
 same fate, endeavoured to fortify himself by foreign alliances, and par- 
 ticularly by one with the Lacedaemonians ; but in this he was prevented 
 by the family of the Alcmeeonidae, who had been banished from Athens 
 at the beginning of the usurpation, and who, having rebuilt the temple 
 of Delphos in a most magnificent manner, had secured the priestess in 
 their interest. 
 
 Whenever, therefore, the Spartans came to consult the oracle, they 
 never received any promise of the god's assistance, but upon condition 
 of setting Athens free. This task, therefore, they resolved to under- 
 take ; and, though unsuccessful in their first attempt, they at last de- 
 throned the tyrant the very same year (A. M. 3496,) in which the kings 
 were expelled from Rome. The family of Alcmeeon were chiefly in- 
 strumental in this great work ; but the people seemed fonder of ac- 
 knowledging their obligations to Harmodius and Aristogeton, who had 
 been the principal cause of the death of Hipparchus, and who struck 
 the first blow. Their names were held in the highest veneration ; and 
 their statues were erected in the market-place ; an honour which had 
 never been paid to any one before. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 PREPARATIONS OF DARIUS FOR THE INVASION OF GREECE. 
 
 Though Hippias, upon being driven from the throne, was obliged to 
 abandon his native country, he did not abandon all hopes of being able, 
 some time or other, to recover his lost power. He first applied to the 
 Lacedaemonians, and that people seemed sufficiently willing to espouse 
 his cause. But before they undertook to assist him in re-ascending the 
 throne, they thought it prudent to consult the other states of Greece 
 with regard to the propriety of the measure ; and finding them all to be 
 totally averse to it, they abandoned the tyrant and his cause for ever. 
 
 What did the sons of Pisistratus effect? — Whose names were held in venera- 
 tion? — What success did Hippias receive from the Spartans ? 
 
88 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Hippias, disappointed in his hopes of aid from the Lacedaemonians, 
 had recourse to Artaphernes, governor of Sardis, for the king of Persia. 
 To him he represented the facility with which an entire conquest might 
 be made of Athens; and the Persian court readily adopted the propo- 
 sal. When the Athenian*, therefore, sent a messenger into Persia to 
 vindicate their proceedings with regard to Hippias, they received for 
 answer, "That if they wished to be safe, they must admit Hippias for 
 their king." But these gallant republicans had too ardent a passion for 
 liberty, and too rooted an aversion to slavery, patiently to submit to so 
 imperious a mandate. They, therefore, returned to it a flat and per- 
 emptory refusal. And from that time forward the Athenians and Per- 
 sians began to prepare for commencing hostilities against each other. 
 
 The Persian monarch was, at that time, the most powerful sovereign 
 in the universe ; whereas the small state of Athens did not contain 
 above twenty thousand citizens, ten thousand strangers, and about fiftv 
 or sixty thousand servants. The state of Sparta, which afterwards took 
 such a considerable share, and made so capital a figure in the war 
 against Persia, did not contain above nine thousand citizens, and about 
 thirty thousand peasants. The restoration of Hippias was not the only 
 cause of quarrel between the Persians and the Athenians. The Greek 
 colonies of Ionia, iEolia, and Caria, had been subdued by Croesus, king 
 of Lydia ; and he, in turn, sinking under the power of Cyrus, his con- 
 quests, of course, fell in with the rest of his dominions. These colo- 
 nies seized upon every opportunity of delivering themselves from the 
 Persian yoke, and recovering their ancient independence. In this they 
 "were now encouraged by Histiaeus, the governor, or tyrant, as he was 
 called, of Miletus ; for all the Persian governors of these provinces 
 were by the Greeks called tyrants. 
 
 By his direction, Aristagoras, his deputy, first applied to the Lace- 
 daemonians for assistance ; and failing of success in that quarter, he 
 next had recourse to the Athenians, who were at this time inflamed 
 with the highest resentment against the Persian monarch, on account 
 of his haughty mandate with regard to the restoration of Hippias: and 
 they supplied the Ionians with twenty ships, to which the Eretrians 
 and Euboeans added five more. Aristagoras then entered the Persian 
 territories, and penetrating into the heart of Lydia, he burnt Sardis, the 
 capital city ; but he was soon after deserted by the Athenians, and after 
 maintaining the struggle for the space of six years, he w T as obliged to 
 fly into Thrace, where he was cut off, with all his followers. Histiaeus 
 himself, being taken prisoner with a few of the insurgents, was con- 
 ducted to Artaphernes, and that inhuman tyrant immediately ordered 
 him to be crucified, and his head to be sent to Darius, 
 
 The conclusion of this w T ar tended no less to inflame the pride and 
 presumption of the Persians, than to inspire them with the ambitious 
 thoughts of making an entire conquest of Greece. Accordingly, Darius, 
 in the twenty-eighth year of his reign, having recalled all his otht r 
 generals, sent his son-in-law, Mardonius, to command throughout the 
 
 
 What reply did the Athenians give to the Persian king ? — .Mention the popula- 
 tion of Athens and Sparta. — What occurred to Aristagoras and Ilisticeus i 
 
PERSIAN INVASION. 89 
 
 maritime parts of Asia, and particularly to revenge the burning of Sar- 
 dis. But his fleet being shattered in a storm, in doubling the cape of 
 Mount Athos, his army repulsed, and himself wounded by the Thra- 
 cians, he was displaced, and Darius appointed two older and abler gen- 
 erals, Datis, a Mede, and Artaphernes, son of the late governor of 
 Sardis, in his stead. 
 
 Previously, however, to his invasion of Greece, he sent heralds into 
 that country to require submission from the different states, or to 
 threaten them with his vengeance in case of refusal. The lesser states, 
 intimidated by his power, readily submitted ; but when the heralds 
 demanded of the Athenians and Spartans earth and water, the usual 
 method of requiring submission from inferior states, these spirited 
 republicans threw the one into a well, and the other into a ditch, and 
 tauntingly bid them take earth and water from thence. And they even 
 resolved to punish the iEginetans for having basely submitted to the 
 power of Persia. These people, indeed, made some resistance ; and 
 they carried on a naval war against the Athenians ; but these last hav- 
 ing overcome them, increased their own navy to such a degree, as to 
 render it almost an equal match for that of Persia. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 
 INVASION OF GREECE BY THE PERSIANS. . 
 
 Darius, in the mean time, sent away his generals, Datis and Arta- 
 phernes, with a fleet of six hundred ships, and an army of an hundred 
 and twenty thousand men ; and their instructions were to give up 
 Athens and Eretria to be plundered ; to burn all the houses and temples 
 of both ; and to lead away the inhabitants into captivity, and the army 
 was provided with a sufficient number of chains for binding the pri- 
 soners. To oppose this formidable invasion, the Athenians had only 
 about ten thousand men, but all of them animated with that invincible 
 spirit which the love of liberty ever inspires. 
 
 They were at this time headed by Miltiades, Themistocles, and 
 Aristides, three of the greatest generals and statesmen their country 
 ever produced. The first was looked upon as the ablest commander; 
 the second was so fond of a popular government, and so eager to ingra- 
 tiate himself with his fellow-citizens, that he was frequently accused 
 of acts of partiality. Some one remarking to him that he would make 
 an excellent magistrate, if he had more impartiality, he replied, " God 
 forbid that I should ever sit upon a tribunal where my friends should 
 find no more favour than strangers." Aristides was so rigidly and 
 inflexibly just, that his name has descended to posterity as almost ano- 
 ther term for justice. 
 
 The first brunt of the war fell upon the Eretrians, who shut them- 
 selves up in their town ; which after a siege of seven days, was taken 
 
 Whom did Darius send to the coasts of Asia? — What did the Persian heralds 
 demand from Greece ? — What instructions did Darius give to his generals? — By 
 whom were the Grecians headed ? 
 
 8* 
 
00 HISTORY OP GREECE. 
 
 by storm, and reduced to ashes. The inhabitants were put in chains, 
 and sent as the first fruits of victory to the Persian monarch, who 
 treated them with lenity, and gave them a village in the country of 
 Cissa for their residence; where Apollonius Tyaneeus found their 
 descendants six hundred years after. 
 
 Elated with this success, the Persians marched under the direction 
 of Hippias, into the plains of Marathon, about ten miles distant from 
 Athens. The Athenians, not thinking themselves singly equal to op- 
 pose the enemy, sent to the Spartans for assistance, and would certainly 
 have obtained it, had it not been for the foolish superstition of the Spar- 
 tans, which would not allow them to begin a march before the full 
 moon. They then applied to the other states of Greece ; but these 
 were too much intimidated by the power of Persia to venture to move 
 in their defence. 
 
 Obliged, therefore, to depend upon their own courage alone, they col- 
 lected all their forces, to the number often thousand men, and appoint- 
 ed Miltiades to the chief command ; who, sensible of the inferiority 
 of his numbers when compared to those of the enemy, drew up his 
 army at the foot of a mountain, so that the enemy should not be able 
 to surround him, or charge him in the rear; at the same time he forti- 
 fied his flanks with a number of large trees, that were cut down for the 
 purpose. Datis saw the advantage which the Athenians must derive 
 from this masterly disposition ; but relying on the superiority of his 
 numbers, and unwilling to wait till the Spartan succours should arrive, 
 he resolved to begin the engagement. 
 
 The signal for battle, however, was no sooner given, than the Athe- 
 nians, instead of waiting for the onset of the enemy, according to their 
 usual custom, rushed in upon them with irresistible fury. The Persians 
 regarded this first step as the result of madness and despair, rather than 
 of deliberate courage ; but they were soon convinced of their mistake, 
 when they found that the Athenians maintained the charge with the 
 same spirit with which they had begun it. Miltiades had purposely 
 and judiciously made his wings much stronger than his centre, which 
 was commanded by Themistocles and Aristides. The Persians, avail- 
 ing themselves of this circumstance, attacked the centre with great 
 bravery, and were just upon the point of making it give way, when the 
 wings, having become victorious, suddenly wheeled about, and falling 
 upon the enemy in both flanks at once, threw them into disorder. The 
 rout in a moment became universal, and they fled to their ships with 
 great precipitation. 
 
 The Athenians pursued them as far as the beach, and even set seve- 
 ral of their ships on fire. It was on this occasion that Cynaegirus, the 
 brother of the Poet ^Eschylus, seized one of the enemy's ships with 
 his right hand, as they were pushing it off from the shore. When his 
 right hand was cut off, he laid hold of the vessel with his left; and 
 that likewise being lopped off, he at last, seized it with his teeth, and 
 
 How did the Persians treat the Eretrians? — In what position did Miltiades place 
 his army ? — What superstition delayed the Spartan lbrces? — Describe the battle 
 of the Persians and Athenians. 
 
MARCH OF XERXES TO GREECE. 91 
 
 in that manner expired. Seven of the enemy's ships were taken, and 
 above six thousand of their troops left dead on the field of battle, not 
 to mention those who were drowned as they were endeavouring- to 
 escape, or were consumed in the ships that were set on fire ; while the 
 loss of the Greeks was not above two hundred. (A. M. 3514.) Hip- 
 pias, who was the chief cause of the war, is thought to have perished 
 in this battle, though some say he escaped, and afterwards died mise- 
 rably at Lemnos. 
 
 Of the marble which the Persians had brought with them, to erect a 
 monument in memory of their expected victory, the Athenians now 
 caused a statue to be made by the celebrated sculptor, Phidias, to trans- 
 mit to posterity the remembrance of their defeat. Monuments were 
 also erected to the memory of all those who had fallen in the battle ; 
 and upon these were inscribed their own names, and the name of the 
 tribe to which they belonged. To express their gratitude to Miltiades, 
 they caused a picture to be painted by one of their most eminent artists, 
 named Polygnotus, in which that great commander was represented at 
 the head of the other generals, animating the troops, and setting them 
 an example of bravery. 
 
 But their gratitude to this celebrated warrior, however sincere, was 
 by no means lasting ; for, having received a wound in an expedition 
 against the Parians, and being thereby prevented from appearing in 
 public to defend himself from a charge of bribery, which was brought 
 against him by Xantippus, he was condemned to lose his life. This 
 severe sentence, however, the Athenians had not the effrontery to exe- 
 cute, and they therefore changed it into a fine of fifty talents ; and as 
 this was a sum which Miltiades could not pay, he was thrown into 
 prison, where he soon after died. But the Athenians would not allow 
 his body to be buried till the fine was paid. His son Cimon, through 
 the kindness of his friends, at last paid the fine, and procured his father 
 an honourable interment. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 MARCH OF XERXES TO GREECE. — 480 B. C. 
 
 Darius was preparing for another invasion of Greece when death 
 put an end to his ambitious prospects. His son, Xerxes, however, 
 was determined to execute the plan which his father had formed, and 
 he entered into a confederacy with the Carthaginians, that while the 
 Persians attacked Greece, the Carthaginians should fall upon the Gre- 
 cian colonies that were settled in Sicily. Hamilcar, their general, 
 with the money received from Xerxes, engaged a great number of 
 soldiers, out of Spain, Gaul, and Italy, in his service. Xerxes set out 
 from Susa in the fifth year of his reign, and marched towards Sardis, 
 the place of rendezvous for the whole land army, while the fleet ad- 
 
 What were the losses sustained by the contest ? — What honours were conferred 
 on the victors? — And what their ingratitude to Miltiades? — With whom did 
 Xerxes enter into a confederacy? 
 
92 I11ST0RV OF GREECE. 
 
 vanced along the coast of Asia Minor to the Hellespont. It is related 
 of Xerxes that he gave orders to have a passage cut through Mount 
 Athos, a peninsula in Macedonia, which extends into the Archipelago, 
 either to avoid a tempestuous sea, or for the vanity of signalizing him- 
 self by an extraordinary enterprise. 
 
 But a traveller who lived in the time of Henry VIII., and who pass- 
 ed over Mount Athos, doubts the truth of the fact, as he could per- 
 ceive no traces of such a work. Xerxes, in passing through Cylene, 
 was not only entertained by Pythius, a Lydian, the most opulent 
 prince of those times, but was olfered by him his wealth. With sin- 
 cere expressions of acknowledgment, Xerxes declined the acceptance. 
 Generous as Pythius's offer must appear, yet it is said that he was one 
 of the most penurious princes in the world, and extremely cruel and 
 inhuman to his subjects — keeping them continually employed in the 
 gold and silver mines which he had in his territories, to the neglect of 
 husbandry and the cultivation of his estates. 
 
 When arrived at the Hellespont, Xerxes was desirous to behold a 
 great naval spectacle. For this purpose a throne was erected on an 
 eminence, from which he beheld the sea crowned with vessels, and the 
 land covered with troops. At first his heart was highly elated on be- 
 holding the vast extent of his power, but soon reflecting that of so 
 many hundred thousands, in a hundred years time, not one would be 
 left, his joy was turned into grief, and he wept. Another subject 
 would more justly have merited his tears, had he considered the re- 
 proaches he deserved for being the instrument of shortening the lives 
 of millions of people, whom his ambition was about to sacrifice in an 
 unjust and unnecessary war. Xerxes asked his uncle, Artabanes, his 
 opinion of the war. Artabanes expressed his fears on two accounts — 
 the land and the sea — there is no country that can feed so vast an 
 army, and there are no ports capable of receiving such a number of 
 vessels. Xerxes replied, that if men so narrowly examined all the 
 inconveniences that may attend them, no signal enterprises would be 
 attempted ; and that if his predecessor had observed so timorous a rule 
 of policy, the Persian empire would never have attained its present 
 height of greatness and glory. 
 
 Though Xerxes did not follow the advice of Artabanes, he paid him 
 the highest marks of honour, and sent him back to Susa, to take upon 
 him the administration of the empire during his absence, and for that 
 purpose vested him with his whole authority. Xerxes caused a bridge 
 of boats to be built across the Hellespont for the passage of his forces. 
 A violent storm soon after breaking down the bridge, Xerxes, it is said, 
 in the transport of passion, commanded two pair of chains to be thrown 
 into the sea, as if to shackle and confine it, and ordered his men to 
 lash it with their whips, and tell the troublesome elements that their 
 master will find means to pass its waters in spite of its billows and re- 
 sistance. Xerxes then commanded two other bridges to be built, — one 
 
 
 What the riches and character of Pythius ? — Relate Xerxes' reflection on sur- 
 veying his troops. — What was the ail vice of Artabanes ? — How did Xerxes chas- 
 tise the Hellespont ? 
 
MARCH OF XERXES TO GREECE. 93 
 
 for the army to pass over, and the other for the baggage and beasts of 
 burden. When the work was completed Xerxes poured out libations 
 into the sea, and turning his face towards the sun (the principal object 
 of the Persian worship) he implored the assistance of that god in his 
 enterprise ; this done, he threw the vessel, with a golden cup, and a 
 Persian scimitar, into the sea. Having passed over with his army, 
 Xerxes directed his march across the Thracian Chersonesus, and arri- 
 ved at Dor, where he encamped and reviewed his army. 
 
 The land-army brought out of Asia consisted of 1,700,000 foot and 
 80,000 horse, besides the attendants upon the army, which were 20,000. 
 When he entered Europe, the people that submitted to him added to his 
 army 300,000. His fleet, when it set out of Asia, consisted of 1,207 
 vessels, containing 277,610 men : the European nations augmented 
 his fleet with 120 vessels and 24,000 men. Besides these were his 
 small galleys, transport ships, the vessels that carried provisions, &c. 
 Thus, when Xerxes arrived at Thermopylae, his land and sea forces 
 amounted to 2,641,610 men, without including eunuchs, women, and 
 such as usually follow an army. So that the whole number of souls 
 that followed the expedition amounted to 5,283,220. This is the com- 
 putation of Herodotus, in which both Plutarch and Isocrates aoree. 
 We have no account in history of any army so numerous as this; and 
 amongst all these millions of men, not one could vie with Xerxes in 
 beauty — either in the comeliness of his face or the tallness of his person. 
 But this is a poor pre-eminence when attended with no other. Justin 
 says that this vast body of forces wanted a chief, — " Huic tanto agmini 
 dux defuit" 
 
 Herodotus tells us that, in order to calculate their forces, they as- 
 sembled 10,000 men, and ranked them as close as possible; then de- 
 scribing a circle round them, they erected a low wall upon that circle. 
 The whole army, by passing successively through, and filling this space, 
 was numbered. 
 
 Laced aemon and Athens, the two most powerful cities of Greece, and 
 the cities against which Xerxes was most exasperated, were not asleep 
 while so formidable an army was approaching. They had sent spies 
 to obtain the number and quality of his forces; but being discovered 
 they were about to be put to death. Xerxes countermanded it, and 
 gave orders that they should be conducted through the army and sent 
 home. The Grecians sent deputies at the same time to Argos, into 
 Sicily, to the isles of Corcyra and Crete, to desire succours from them, 
 and to form a league against the common enemy ; they received some 
 denial and some promises, but no assistance. 
 
 The Athenians passed a decree to recall home all the people that were 
 in banishment, and amongst the rest Aristides, who they feared might 
 join their enemies ; and they made peace with the people of iEgina, 
 with w r hom they were then at w r ar. Xerxes proceeded by rapid marches 
 to Thermopylae, a narrow defile twenty-five feet broad, on the Sinus 
 Maliacus, between Thessaly and Phocis. Here the Lacedaemonians 
 
 Of what number did the united armies consist? — How did he calculate the 
 number of his forces ? — What steps were taken by the Athenians ? 
 
94 HISTOKY OF GREECE. 
 
 and Athenians, aided only by the Plateans, Thospians, and iEginites, 
 determined to withstand the invader. 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS IN GREECE. 
 
 It must excite astonishment to see with w r hat a handful of troops 
 the Grecians opposed the almost innumerable army of Xerxes. Pau- 
 sanias says, all their forces together amounted only to 11,200 men ; of 
 which number '4,000 only were employed at Thermopylae to defend the 
 pass. Xerxes, on advancing- near the pass, was surprised to find they 
 were prepared to dispute his passage. He had flattered himself that 
 on his approach they would betake themselves to flight ; and still en- 
 tertaining these hopes, he waited four days to give them time to retreat. 
 He then endeavoured to gain Leonidas, one of the Spartan kings, by 
 magnificent promises, which were rejected with indignation. Xerxes 
 then wrote to him to deliver up his arms ; Leonidas, in a style truly la- 
 conical, answered, "Come and take them." The Median forces were 
 sent first, but they could not sustain the charge of the Grecians. — 
 Xerxes' Persians, called the Immortal Band, next engaged, but with no 
 better success. 
 
 In this extremity he was directed by a secret path to the top of an 
 eminence which overlooked and commanded the Spartan forces. Le- 
 onidas now seeing it no longer possible to repulse the enemy, resolved 
 to stay with three hundred Lacedaemonians who determined to die with 
 their leader, and obliged the rest to retire. The Spartans entertained 
 no hopes of either conquering or- escaping, and looked upon Thermo- 
 pylae as their bury ing-pl ace. The king exhorted his men to take some 
 nourishment, telling them that they should" sup together with Pluto. 
 They set up a shout, as if they had been invited to a banquet, and full 
 of ardour advanced with their king to battle. The shock was exceed- 
 ingly violent. Leonidas was one of the first that fell. At length, op- 
 pressed by numbers, they were all slain, except one man, who escaped 
 to Sparta, where he was treated as a coward, till he had made glorious 
 amends for it at the battle of Platea. 
 
 Xerxes in this encounter lost above 20,000 men ; and he was made 
 sensible of the difference between the valour of a few veteran troops 
 and a confused multitude. The heroism of this band of Spartans was 
 the seed of their ensuing victories. It taught the rest of Greece, by 
 their example, either to vanquish or to perish. The same day on which 
 passed the glorious action at Thermopylae, there was also an engage- 
 ment at sea, between the two fleets, near Artemissa, a promontory of 
 Euboea, upon the northern coast, towards the straits; at night both re- 
 tired with nearly equal loss; and the following day another conflict 
 equally indecisive took place. The Grecian fleet then sailed from 
 thence to Salamis, a little isle near Attica. 
 
 What was the amount of the Grecian forces? — What number were at Thermo- 
 pylae ? — Relate the valour of the Spartans. — What men did Xerxes lose, and what 
 sea engagement happened on the same day ? 
 
DEFEAT OF THE PESSIANS. 95 
 
 In the mean time Xerxes entered Phocis, burned and plundered the 
 cities of the Phocians : and now the inhabitants of Peloponnesus re- 
 solved to abandon the rest of Greece, and bring all their forces within 
 the isthmus ; over which they intended to build a wall from sea to sea, 
 a space of nearly five English miles. The Athenians were highly pro- 
 voked at so base a desertion. Consulting the oracle of Delphos, they 
 received for answer, " There would be no way of saving the city but 
 by walls of wood." The people were much divided about this ambi- 
 guous expression ; but Themistocles supposed it to intend shipping ; 
 and that the people should remove, for a time, from Athens, was mani- 
 festly the will of the gods. It was not without much reluctance that 
 the people consented to leave the city. The major part of them sent 
 their fathers and mothers that were old, together with their wives and 
 children, to the city of Trcezene,* the inhabitants of which received 
 them with great generosity. 
 
 Xerxes had sent off a detachment of his army to plunder the city of 
 Delphi, in which were immense treasures; and if we may believe He- 
 rodotus and Diodorns Siculus, when they advanced near the temple of 
 Minerva, the air suddenly grew dark, and a violent tempest arose, which 
 severed the rocks from the mountains, and buried the greater part of 
 the Persian troops. 
 
 The other part of the army marched towards the city of Athens, 
 which was deserted of its inhabitants, except a small number of citi- 
 zens who had retired into the citadel, which they bravely defended. 
 Xerxes, having stormed the city, reduced it to ashes. 
 
 As the Grecian fleet lay in the bay of Salamis, Xerxes gave command 
 for a great number of his vessels to surround the island by night to pre- 
 vent the Greeks quitting their post. Both sides prepared themselves 
 for the battle. The Grecian fleet, under the command of Themistocles, 
 consisted of 380 sail of ships. The enemy was much more numerous. 
 Themistocles waited for a certain favourable wind, which arose usually 
 at a certain hour, and which would be opposed to the enemy, to give 
 the signal for battle. The Persians advanced with impetuosity — but 
 the heat of their first attack was soon abated ; the wind was directly in 
 their faces ; their heavy vessels were unwieldy — the number of their 
 ships, in so narrow a place, only embarrassed them ; and the Ionians 
 betook themselves to flight, and were soon followed by the rest of the 
 Persian fleet. A great number of the Persian ships were taken, a much 
 greater number sunk on the occasion ; and many of their allies, who 
 dreaded the king's cruelty, made the best of their way into their own 
 country. 
 
 The remains of the Persian fleet retired towards the coast of Asia, 
 and entered the Port of Cuma, a city of iEolia ; where they passed the 
 winter, without daring aftSlivards to return to Greece. Xerxes, being 
 alarmed for his safety, set out by night, leaving Mardonius behind him 
 
 * A small city on the sea side, on the part of the Peloponnesus called Argolis. 
 
 What happened to the Phocians and Athenians ? — What occurred to Xerxes 
 near the Temple of Minerva ? — Relate the events of the battle of Salamis. — 
 Where did the Persian fleet pass the winter ? 
 
96 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 in Thessaly with an army of 300,000 men, to reduce Greece, if possible. 
 The rest of the army Xerxes took with him, and marched home by the 
 way of the Hellespont. When arrived at the bridge, he found it broken 
 down by the violence of the waves; and he was reduced to the neces- 
 sity of crossing the Strait in a small boat, escaping as a fugitive to his 
 own country. 
 
 Mardonius, who wintered with his Persian troops in Thessaly, led 
 them in the sprirrg into Boeotia, and sent several Persian noblemen, 
 with very advantageous proposals, to the Athenian people. He offered 
 to rebuild their city, to advance them a considerable sum of money, to 
 allow them to enjoy their own laws and customs, and to give them the 
 command of all Greece. These proposals not being accepted by the 
 Athenians, Mardonius marched his army a second time into Athens ; 
 wasting and destroying whatever he found in his way. The Athenians 
 a second time abandoned their city, and retired to Salamis. Mardonius 
 then returned to Boeotia, and was followed by the Grecian army, under 
 the command of Pausanias, king of Sparta, and of Aristides, general 
 of the Athenians. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 FINAL EXPULSION OF THE PERSIANS FROM GREECE. 
 
 The Persians were overcome in a pitched battle at Platsea, and a 
 great slaughter* ensued. Mardonius, dying of a wound he received in 
 the engagement, all his army betook themselves to flight. Artabazus 
 made a timely retreat with about 40,000 men he commanded to Byzan- 
 tium, and from thence he returned to Asia. Of all the rest of the Per- 
 sian army, not 4,000 men escaped of that day's slaughter; and the 
 Grecians were delivered from all farther invasions from that nation; 
 no Persian army having ever appeared, after that time, on this side of 
 the Hellespont. 
 
 On the same day the Greeks fought the battle of Platsea, their naval 
 forces obtained a memorable victory in Asia, over the remainder of the 
 Persian fleet. For while that of the Greeks lay at ^Egina, under the 
 command of Leotychides, one of the kings of Sparta, and of Xanthip- 
 pus the Athenian, ambassadors came to those generals from the lonians 
 to invite them into Asia, to deliver the Grecian cities from their sub- 
 jection to the barbarians. On this invitation they set sail for Asia. 
 The Persians, hearing of their approach, retired to .Mycale, a promon- 
 tory of the continent of Asia; where their forces consisted of 100,000 
 men. Here they drew their vessels ashore, and surrounded them with 
 a strong rampart. The Grecians attacked them, and, with the help of 
 the lonians, defeated their land army, fofrod their rampart, and burnt 
 their vessels. 
 
 ♦See engraving at the beginning of the History of Greece. 
 
 What wore Mardonius's proposals to the Athenians? — Describe the final retreat 
 of the Persians. — What occurred to the Persians at M) cult •■( — What orders did 
 Xerxes leave on hie retiring ? 
 
EXPULSION OF THE PERSIANS FROM GREECE. 97 
 
 Xerxes, hearing of these overthrows, fled from Sardis, and retired 
 into Persia, to be as far as possible out of the reach of his victorious 
 enemies. But before he set out, he ordered, at the instigation of the 
 Magi, that all the Grecian temples and images should be burned and 
 demolished ; the Persians being professed enemies to images in divine 
 worship ; and not one escaped except the temple of Diana at Ephesus. 
 Tbe war, commonly called the war of Media, being terminated, (A. M. 
 3526. B. C. 478,) the Athenians returned home, and sent for their wives 
 and children, whom they had committed to their friends during the 
 war, and began to think of re-building their city, which had been 
 almost entirely destroyed by the Persians. They also proposed to sur- 
 round it with strong walls, to secure it from farther violence. The 
 Lacedaemonians, conceiving a jealousy against the measure, sent an 
 embassy to Athens to dissuade them from the attempt; but by the arti- 
 fices of Themistocles, who was sent ambassador to Lacedaemon, the 
 fortifications went on and were completed. 
 
 Themistocles next turned his attention to finish the buildings and for- 
 tifications of the Port of Piraeus ; a work which he began when he 
 entered into office. Before his time they had no other port at Athens 
 but that of Phalerus, which was neither large nor commodious. His 
 design was to make the whole force of Athens, maritime. When the 
 city of Athens was entirely rebuilt, the people endeavoured to make 
 the Athenian state wholly popular. Aristides, seeing that it would be 
 no easy matter to curb too high a people, who, in a measure, had their 
 arms in their hands, passed a decree that the government should be 
 common to all the citizens ; and that the Archons, who used to be 
 chosen only out of the richest of its members, should, in future, be 
 elected by the Athenian citizens, without distinction. By thus giving 
 up the privilege to the people, he prevented commotions which might 
 have proved fatal, not only to the Athenian state, but to all Greece. 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 TREASON OF PAUSANIAS — FLIGHT OF THEMISTOCLES. 
 
 The Grecians (A. M. 3528. B. C. 476,) now sent a fleet to sea to de- 
 liver such of their allies as were still under the yoke of the Persians, 
 out of their hands. Pausanias commanded the fleet of the Lacedaemo- 
 nians : and Aristides and Cimon that of the Athenians. They first de- 
 livered the cities in the isle of Cyprus to their liberty ; then steering 
 for the Hellespont they attacked and made themselves masters of the 
 city of Byzantium. Pausanias, who from this time conceived thoughts 
 of betraying his country, sought to gain the favour of Xerxes, offering 
 to deliver the city of Sparta and all Greece into his hands if he would 
 give him his daughter in marriage. The king returned a favourable 
 answer, and remitted him large sums of money to second his designs. 
 Dazzled with the prospect of his future greatness, Pausanias changed 
 his conduct and behaviour : he laid aside the frugal manners of his 
 
 What decree was passed by Aristides ? — What change occurred in PausaniaB ? 
 
 9 
 
98 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 country, and assumed the dress and state of the Persians. He treated 
 the allies with insufferable insolence, and required extraordinary honours 
 to be paid to him. So different a deportment from that of Aristides 
 and Cimon, at length alienated the Spartan soldiers, who placed them- 
 selves under the command and protection of the Athenians. 
 
 Upon the repeated complaints the Spartan commonwealth received 
 against Pausanias, they recalled him to account for his conduct. The 
 evidence was not thought sufficient to criminate him till a letter, which 
 a slave had orders from Pausanias to deliver to Xerxes, was put into 
 the hands of the Ephori, from which his guilt was evident, and he fled 
 and sheltered himself in the temple of Pallas. His pursuers, as they 
 would not violate the sacred asylum by taking him out by force, closed 
 the entrance with great stones, and tore off the roof to expose him to 
 the inclemency of the weather, and left him to starve to death. 
 
 Themistocles was also charged with being an accomplice of Pau- 
 sanias ; but he ably rebutted the imputation. He was then in exile. 
 A passionate thirst of glory, and a strong- desire to domineer, had made 
 him so very odious to the citizens, that they had banished him from 
 Alliens, by ostracism, and he withdrew to Argos. From thence he fled 
 first to Epirus, and thence to Admetus, king of Molossus. This was 
 a dangerous choice ; for Themistocles had made the king his enemy by 
 refusing him that aid he had previously solicited from the Athenians ; 
 but Admetus, moved with compassion in seeing before him, as a sup- 
 pliant, the greatest man of all Greece, and the conqueror of Asia, pro- 
 mised him protection. 
 
 Hitherto the cities of Greece had contributed sums of money for car- 
 rying on the wars against the barbarians ; which not being made in a 
 just and equal proportion, had caused great feuds. It was now thought 
 proper to lodge in the island of Delos, the common treasure of Greece ; 
 and to fix new regulations with regard to the public moneys ; so that an 
 equitable rate, according to the revenue of each city, might be raised. 
 But the chief business was to find a person of so uncorrupt a mind, as 
 to discharge faithfully the difficult duty. All the allies cast their eyes 
 on Aristides ; accordingly he was invested with full powers to levy the 
 tax, relying entirely on his wisdom and justice ; and the citizens had 
 no cause to repent their choice. He presided over the treasury with a 
 disinterestedness and fidelity that have secured to him, to the latest 
 posterity, the glorious surname of " the Just." 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 
 DEATH OF XERXES. 
 
 Xekxes" ill success in his expedition against the Greeks caused him 
 to renounce all thoughts of war and conquest ; he abandoned himself to 
 luxury and pleasure. Artabanus, captain of the guards,* conspired 
 *Not the uncle of Xerxes. 
 
 What death did Pausanias die' — Whither did Themistorhs fly for Ba&ty? — 
 [n what island was the common treasury of Greece, and to what duty was Axis- 
 hoeen ( ■— Who conspired against the life of Xerxes ? 
 
DEATH OP XEKXES. 99 
 
 against his sovereign ; and flattering himself with the hope of succeed- 
 ing him in the throne, entered the king's chamber, and murdered him 
 in his sleep. 
 
 The Greeks give Artaxerxes, who now succeeded to the throne, the 
 surname of Longimanus, from the length of his right hand. Had it not 
 been for that blemish, he would have been the most graceful man of the 
 age. He was still more remarkable for his goodness and generosity. 
 He reigned about forty-nine years. His first object was to suppress the 
 faction of Artabanus, and the next to overcome his brother Hystaspes, 
 governor of Bactriana. 
 
 According to Thucydides, Themistocles fled to this prince in the be- 
 ginning of his reign; but other authors, as Strabo, Plutarch, and Dido- 
 rus, fix this incident under Xerxes, his predecessor. Dr. Prideaux is 
 of the latter opinion ; he likewise thinks that the Artaxerxes in ques- 
 tion, is the same with him who is called Ahasuerus in Scripture, and 
 who married Esther; but we suppose with Archbishop Usher, that it 
 was Darius, the son of Hystaspes, who espoused this illustrious Jew- 
 ess. We have already noticed that Themistocles had fled to Admetus, 
 king of the Molossi ; but by the threats of the Athenians he was com- 
 pelled to favour his flight. He soon after took refuge in the house of 
 Nicogenes, the most wealthy man of ^Egese in ^Eolae, and intimate 
 with the lords of the Persian court. 
 
 Nicogenes sent him under a strong guard to Susa, in one of those 
 covered chariots, in which the Persians usually conveyed their wives. 
 Being come to the Persian court, and admitted to an audience, he fell 
 on his face before the king, in the Persian manner, and after rising up, 
 " Great king," said he, by an interpreter, " I am Themistocles, the 
 Athenian, who having been banished by the Greeks, am come to your 
 court in hopes of finding an asylum," &c. — History informs us that the 
 king considered Themistocles's arrival as a great happiness. 
 
 The next day, on his being brought before the king, he presented him 
 with 200 talents,* which sum he had promised to any one who would 
 deliver him up, and which, consequently, was his due, as he had deli- 
 vered up himself. He was afterwards desired to give an account of the 
 affairs of Greece ; which he at first did by the assistance of an inter- 
 preter; but it is said that when he had studied the Persian tongue 
 twelve months, he spoke it with an ease and fluency equal to the Per- 
 sians themselves. Artaxerxes treated him with uncommon marks of 
 friendship and esteem; gave him a palace and an equipage suitable to 
 it, and settled on him a noble pension. 
 
 It was afterwards judged necessary for the king's interest, that The- 
 mistocles should reside in some city in Asia Minor. Accordingly, he 
 was sent to Magnesia, situated on the Meander ; and for his support, 
 besides the revenue of the city, which amounted to fifty talents, he had 
 those of Myas and Lampsachus assigned him. Here he resided many 
 years in the utmost splendour. 
 
 * About 45.000Z. sterling. 
 
 Where did Themistocles take refuge? — How was he received by the Persian 
 king ? — What presents did he receive, and where reside ? 
 
100 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 It is said that the conquests of Cimon, and the increasing power of 
 the Athenians, gave Artaxerxes «reat uneasiness. To prevent the con- 
 sequences, he resolved to send Themistocles into Greece, with a great 
 army. Themistocles on this account was in great perplexity. How 
 could he refuse a king who had heaped upon him favours so abundant 1 
 and yet how could he carry arms against his country, and sully the 
 glory of his former achievements 1 To rid himself of these inward 
 struggles, he resolved to put an end to his life. He therefore prepared 
 a solemn sacrifice, to which he invited his friends ; when, after taking 
 a last farewell, he swallowed a dose of poison at Magnesia, in the 65th 
 year of his age. When the king was told the cause and the manner of 
 his death, it raised his admiration. The Magnesians erected a monu- 
 ment to his memory ; and his tomb was still standing in Plutarch's 
 time, 600 years after. Themistocles was certainly one of the greatest 
 men that Greece ever produced. 
 
 The Egyptians, about this time, revolted from Artaxerxes, and made 
 Icarus, prince of the Libyans, their king ; the Athenians also came to 
 their assistance. The Persian forces were at first unsuccessful ; but a 
 second army was victorious; Egypt submitted to the conquerors, and 
 was reunited to the empire of Artaxerxes, in the 20th year of his rei<m. 
 (A.M. 3550. B.C. 454.) 
 
 It is an essential part of the history of this prince to notice what is 
 recorded in Scripture. In the seventh year of the reign of Artaxerxes, 
 Esdras obtained of the king and his seven counsellors, an ample com- 
 mission, empowering him to return to Jerusalem, with all such Jews 
 as would follow him thither, to settle the Jewish government and reli- 
 gion. From the commission given him, it appears that this prince had 
 a high veneration for the God of Israel ; for he adds, (A. M. 3537, 
 B. C. 467. 1 Esdras, 7.) Let all things be performed after the law of 
 God diligently, unto the most high God, that wrath come not upon the 
 kingdom of the king and his son. Esdras exercised these powers faith- 
 fully for thirteen years ; till Nehemiah brought a new commission from 
 the Persian court. 
 
 Nehemiah was also a Jew of distinguished merit and piety, and one 
 of the cup-bearers to king Artaxerxes. One day as he was waiting 
 upon the king, the latter observing an air of sadness in Nehemiah's 
 countenance, asked him the cause of it. Nehemiah mentioned the ca- 
 lamitous state of his country, and humbly asked permission to go to 
 Jerusalem, to repair the fortifications. The kings of Persia, his pre- 
 decessors, he said, had permitted the Jews to rebuild the temple, but 
 not the walls of Jerusalem. The king immediately permitted him, and 
 ordered a body of horse to escort him thither. It is from this decree 
 of Artaxerxes, in the twentieth year of his reign, that we date the be- 
 ginning of the seventy weeks, mentioned in the prophecy of Daniel, 
 after which the Messiah was to appear, and to be cut off, but not for 
 himself. 
 
 What was the cause of his death ? — Was there not a revolt of the Egyptians? — 
 Did not the Persian king favour the Jews? — What is related of .Nehemiah and 
 Esdras ? 
 
 
RISE OF PERICLES. 101 
 
 When Esdras was in power, as his chief object was to restore reli- 
 gion to its ancient purity, he disposed the books of Scripture into their 
 proper order; to these he added the history of his own times, which 
 was finished by Nehemiah. While Esdras and Nehemiah were com- 
 piling the latter part of that great work, Herodotus, whom profane au- 
 thors call the father of history, began to write. Thus the latest au- 
 thors of the Scripture history flourished about the same time with the 
 first authors of the Grecian. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 RISE OF PERICLES — PUBLIC SERVICES OF CIMON. 
 
 From the banishment of Themistocles, and the death of Aristides, 
 two citizens, Cimon and Pericles, divided all authority in Athens. 
 Pericles, who was descended from the most illustrious families of 
 Athens, was much younger than Cimon. He possessed different qual- 
 ities from those of his rival, seeking power by bringing in the wildest 
 democracy. All barriers of the constitution were thrown down by 
 Pericles, and power given to the lowest of the people. 
 
 Pericles w T as brought up under the most learned men of his age, one 
 of whom was Anaxagoras of Clazomene, who instructed him in that 
 part of philosophy which relates to nature, and is therefore called 
 Physics. Pericles, how r ever, did not devote himself to it as a philo- 
 sopher but a statesman. The talent he cultivated with the greatest care 
 was eloquence. To this all his other studies were directed ; exalting 
 the study of philosophy (said Plutarch) with the dye of rhetoric. The 
 poets, his contemporaries, used to say, that his eloquence was so pow- 
 erful, that he lightened, thundered, and agitated all Greece. There 
 was no resisting the solidity of his arguments, or the harmony of his 
 language ; w T hence it was said that the goddess of persuasion, with all 
 her graces, resided on his lips. It is related of him, that he never 
 spoke in public, till he had besought the gods not to suffer any ex- 
 pression to drop from him either incongruous to his subject, or offensive 
 to the people. 
 
 Pericles was not only very like Pisistratus, in the sweetness of his 
 voice, and the fluency of expression, but he also much resembled him 
 in the features of his face, and in his whole air and manner. To pre- 
 vent, therefore, his being obnoxious to the jealousy of the people, he 
 at first rather shunned affairs of government, and was more intent upon 
 distinguishing himself in war and dangers. But on the death of Aris- 
 tides and the banishment of Themistocles, seeing Ciraon engaged in 
 foreign wars, and absent from Greece, he appeared more in public, and 
 devoted himself entirely to the party of the people. This he did not 
 so much out of inclination, but to remove suspicions of his aspiring to 
 the tyranny; and still more to raise a bulwark against the influence 
 
 At what period did Herodotus flourish? — Who divided the chief authority at 
 Athens ? — By whom was Pericles instructed ? — What was said of his eloquence \ 
 — What was the public conduct of Pericles ? 
 9* 
 
102 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 of Cimon, who had joined with the nobles. However, he could not 
 equal the magnificence of his rival, whose immense riches enabled him 
 to bestow such largesses, as appear to us, in our day, almost incredible. 
 But Pericles, to gain the love of the populace, divided the conquered 
 lands among the citizens; distributed among them the public revenues, 
 for the expenses of their games and shows, and annexed pensions to 
 all public employments. These new regulations, however, were un- 
 favourable to the public, as they introduced the people to luxurious 
 and dissolute habits, and corrupted the purity and simplicity of their 
 ancient manners. 
 
 So great an ascendant did Pericles gain over the minds of the peo- 
 ple, that Valerius Maximus makes scarcely any difference between Pi- 
 sistratus and Pericles, except that the one exercised his influence by 
 force of arms, and the other by the powers of his eloquence. 
 
 Pericles' next step was, if possible, to weaken the authority of the 
 tribunal of the Areopagus, of which he had not been chosen a member. 
 By the assistance of E phial tes, one of his creatures, he subverted some 
 of their fundamental laws and ancient customs, and took from the 
 senate of the Areopagus the cognizance of most causes that used to 
 be brought before it. 
 
 Cimon being returned to Athens, the praises he bestowed on the 
 Spartans, and his attempts to restore the power of the aristocracy, ex- 
 cited the people against him. 
 
 In the year B. 0. 470, a most dreadful earthquake happened in 
 Sparta, and the whole city, five houses only excepted, was laid in 
 ruins; the mountains were shaken to their foundations, many of their 
 summits being torn away ; and in several places the country was en- 
 tirely swallowed up. To heighten the calamity, the Helots, or slaves, 
 attempting to Tecover their liberty, endeavoured to murder such as had 
 escaped the earthquake. They also entered into an alliance with the 
 Messenians, who were at that time engaged in a war with the Spartans. 
 
 In this extremity, the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to implore suc- 
 cours. This was opposed by Ephialtes, who gave it as his opinion that 
 the rival of Athens ought to be left in ruins, and the pride of Sparta 
 thereby humbled for ever. But Cimon, on the contrary, declared 
 " That it was inconsistent to leave Greece lame of one of its legs, and 
 Athens without a counterpoise." The people came into his opinion, 
 and accordingly, a succour was voted. Cimon marched to the aid of 
 the Lacedaemonians with 4,000 men. A second army was also sent to 
 oppose the Messenians and Helots, but the Spartans, seeing the intre- 
 pidity of the Athenians, began to dread their power, and declined the 
 acceptance of their services. The Athenians returned full of indigna- 
 tion, declaring themselves enemies to all that favoured the Lacedaemo- 
 nians, and Cimon was banished by the Ostracism. 
 
 This is the first time that the leaven of dissension between these two 
 states, augmented by mutual distrust and bitterness, displayed itself 
 
 With whom was Pericles compared? — What public calamity happened at 
 Sparta > — To whom did they apply for succour ? — What leaven of dissension hap. 
 pened in Greece ? 
 
PUBLIC SERVICES OF CIMON. 103 
 
 openly. And though the blow was suspended for years by hollow 
 truces and treaties, yet it at length broke out in the utmost violence in 
 the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 The Athenians, perceiving the great occasion they had for Cimon, 
 recalled him from banishment, in which he had spent five years. When 
 he returned he stifled the sparks of war which were about to break out 
 among the Greeks. He reconciled the two cities, and prevailed with 
 them to conclude a truce of five years — and he led them a distance from 
 home against the common enemy : thus endeavouring to inure the citi- 
 zens to war, and at the same time, to enrich them. Accordingly, he 
 put to sea with a fleet of 200 sail. He sent sixty to Egypt to the aid 
 of Amyrteus, and he himself sailed with the rest against the island of 
 Cyprus. Artabazus was at that time in those seas, with a fleet of 300 
 sail ; and Megabyzus, the other general of Artaxerxes, with an army 
 of 300,000 men, on the coast of Cilicia. Cimon attacked Artabazus, 
 took 100 of his ships, sunk many, and chased the rest, as far as the 
 coast of Phoenicia. On his return, he made a descent on Cilicia ; at- 
 tacked Megabyzus, and cut to pieces a prodigious number of his troops. 
 He afterwards returned to Cyprus, with this double triumph; and laid 
 siege to the strong city of Citium ; intending, after the reduction of the 
 island, to sail for the assistance of Egypt, and indeed he meditated 
 nothing less than the subversion of the mighty empire of Persia. 
 
 It was at this time that a rumour prevailed, that Themistocles was to 
 command the Persians against him. But we have already seen that 
 Themistocles, to prevent leading an enemy against his country, put an 
 end to his existence. 
 
 Artaxerxes, tired of a war in which he had sustained such, great 
 losses, with the advice of his council, put an end to it. Accordingly 
 he sent orders to his generals, and a peace was concluded with the 
 Athenians. Thus ended a war which, from the burning of Sardis by 
 the Athenians, had lasted fifty-one years. While this treaty was ne- 
 gotiating, Cimon died, universally regretted. He was a great politi- 
 cian; an accomplished general; modest when raised to the highest 
 employments and most distinguished honours, and averse to ostentation 
 even in the midst of riches. 
 
 CHAPTER 12. 
 
 PERICLES AT THE HEIGHT OF HIS POWER. 
 
 The nobles of Athens, to check the authority of Pericles from grow- 
 ing up to monarchy, opposed to him Thucydides, who had displaj-cd 
 great wisdom on numberless occasions ; and, combating Pericles in all 
 his designs, he soon restored things to an equilibrium. Pericles derived 
 his greatest honour from adorning the city with magnificent edifices, 
 and other works which raised the admiration of all foreigners. It is 
 surprising that in so short a space so many works of architecture, 
 
 What forces did Cimon raise, and with whom contend ? — With whom did the 
 Grecians make peace ? — How long had the war lasted t 
 
104 HISTORV OF GREECE. 
 
 sculpture, and painting, should have been performed. One day when 
 the people were severe upon Pericles for lavishing the public money, 
 in gilding and embellishing the city, in magnificent statues, and in 
 raising temples that cost millions,* he offered to defray the whole ex- 
 pense of these works, provided the public inscriptions on them should 
 declare that he only had been at the charge of them. At these words, 
 the people, fired with emulation, with one voice, bid him welcome to 
 the public treasury. Phidias, the celebrated sculptor, presided over all 
 these works. 
 
 At length, the rupture between Pericles and Thucydides rose to such 
 a height, that one or the other of them must necessarily be banished by 
 the Ostracism. The former got the better of Thucydides ; after whose 
 banishment he obtained despotic authority over the city and government 
 of Athens. He disposed, at pleasure, of the public money, troops, and 
 ships. He reigned singly and alone, not only over the Greek, but the 
 conquered nations. Among many great qualities, Pericles possessed 
 one no less rare than valuable. He had a disinclination to the receiv- 
 ing of gifts ; an utter contempt of riches : and though he had long dis- 
 posed of the treasures of Greece, he did not add a single drachm to his 
 patrimonial inheritance. This was the true source of the supreme 
 authority of Pericles, in the republic. Pericles maintained his author- 
 ity for forty years, notwithstanding the opposition of Cimon, of Tol- 
 mides, of Thucydides, and many others. Of these forty years, he 
 maintained it fifteen without a rival, from the time of Thucydides's 
 banishment; and disposed of all things with absolute power. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians began to grow jealous of the prosperity of the 
 Athenians. Pericles, to inspire his fellow citizens with greater mag- 
 nanimity, published a decree, that orders should be sent to all the 
 Greeks, that they should send deputies to Athens, for debating on the 
 ways and means to rebuild the temples that had been burned by the 
 barbarians; and also for establishing such a discipline in their navy, 
 that all ships might sail in safety, and that the Greeks might live in 
 peace one with another. Accordingly, twenty persons were chosen for 
 this embassy, each of whom was upwards of fifty years old, to go to 
 all the several dependencies of Greece ; namely, to the Ionians and 
 Dorians of Asia, to the inhabitants of the islands as far as Lesbos and 
 Rhodes, — to the Hellespont and Thrace, as far as Byzantium — to Boeotia, 
 Phocis, and Peloponnesus ; and from thence by the Locrians, to pro- 
 ceed to the several cities of the upper continent, as far as Acarnania 
 and Ambracia ; to cross Eubcea to mount Veta, and the gulf of Mala? ; 
 and to the inhabitants of Phthiotis, of Achaia, and of Thessal) r . But 
 those solicitations were in vain ; the cities did not send their deputies, 
 owing to the opposition made to it by the Lacedaemonians ; who wore 
 
 * The temple of Minerva alone, called the Parthenon, had cost about 1-15,000/. ster- 
 ling. 
 
 What proposal did Pericles make? — Who was the celebrated sculptor at this 
 pcnud/ — What were the qualities of Pericles? — How long did he maintain hia 
 authority ? — For what purpose were twenty persons chosen? — What was their 
 uge, and to whom were they sent >. 
 
PERICLES AT THE HEIGHT OF HIS POWER. 105 
 
 sensible that Pericles's design was to have Athens acknowledged mis- 
 tress and sovereign of all Greece. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians, having entered armed into the country where 
 the temple of Delphi is situated, had dispossessed the people of Phocis 
 of its superintendence, and bestowed it on the Delphians. On their 
 retiring, Pericles went thither with an army and restored the Phocians. 
 The Euboeans having rebelled at the same time, Pericles marched 
 thither with an army, and subjected all the cities of Euboea to the 
 Athenians. The inhabitants of Megara had also taken up arms ; and 
 the Lacedaemonians, headed by Philistonax their king, were on the 
 frontiers of Attica. On the approach of Pericles, the Lacedaemonian 
 army retired. (B. C. 446.) A truce now concluded for thirty years 
 between the Athenians and the Lacedaemonians, restored things to a 
 present tranquillity — but this calm was not of long duration. The 
 Athenians six years afterwards took up arms against Samos, in favour 
 of Miletus. After sustaining a nine months' siege, the Samians sur- 
 rendered. 
 
 The Peloponnesian war, which we shall soon have occasion to notice, 
 was occasioned principally by the unjust desire of dominion in the 
 Athenians. Pericles, foreseeing that a rupture would soon ensue be- 
 tween the Athenians and Lacedaemonians, advised the former to send 
 aid to the people of Corcyra (now Corfu,) which the Corinthians had 
 invaded; and to win over to their interest that island, which was so 
 very formidable at sea. Another cause of rupture between the Athe- 
 nians and Corinthians was Potidaea, a city and colony of Macedonia. 
 In consequence of some unjust demands of the Athenians, the Potidae 1 - 
 ans declared against them; and several neighbouring cities followed 
 the example. Both Athens and Corinth armed and sent forces thither: 
 the two armies engaged near Potidaea, and that of the Athenians had 
 the advantage. Alcibiades, who was then very young, and Socrates, 
 his master, signalized themselves on this occasion; and it was said, 
 that there was not a soldier in the army who so resolutely supported 
 all the toils and fatigues of the campaign as Socrates. 
 
 Notwithstanding the loss which the Corinthians sustained in the 
 battle, the inhabitants of Potidaea did not change their conduct, and 
 the city was therefore besieged. The Corinthians sent a deputation to 
 Lacedaemon to complain of the Athenians, as having infringed the arti- 
 cles of peace. After considerable debates, the assembly declared, that 
 in their opinion the Athenians were the aggressors. Accordingly the 
 allies were convened, and war was resolved on by general consent. 
 In order to observe the necessary formalities, ambassadors were sent to 
 Athens, to complain of the violation of the treaty, and to require, 
 among other things, that jEgina should be free — that the siege of Po- 
 tidaea should be raised, and the decree against the Megarians should be 
 repealed. Pericles opposed all their demands with the utmost force 
 and eloquence, which his view of the public welfare rendered more 
 
 What did the Lacedaemonians against the Phocians, and what steps were taken 
 by Pericles? — What occasioned the Peloponnesian war? — What city did the 
 Athenians besiege ? 
 
106 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 vehement and triumphant than it had ever appeared before. He ob- 
 served, that were the Athenians to submit to these requisitions, the 
 Lacedaemonians would then prescribe new laws, as to a people seized 
 with dread ; he proposed, however, that arbitrators might be chosen, in 
 order to adjust their differences. The ambassadors returned home — 
 no reply was sent to Athens, and the Peloponnesian war soon com- 
 menced. 
 
 Before we proceed with this war, we will glance at the transactions 
 of the Greeks in Sicily and Italy. We have already noticed that 
 Xerxes, who meditated the destruction of Greece, had prevailed on the 
 Carthaginians to make war on Sicily, and Hamilcar was charged with 
 the expedition ; but the Carthaginians were entirely defeated by Gelon, 
 who at that time had the chief authority in Syracuse. Gelon was born 
 in the city of Gelas in Sicily. He had signalized himself very much 
 in the wars w r hich Hippocrates, tyrant of Gela, carried on with the 
 neighbouring powers. After the death of Hippocrates, Gelon possessed 
 himself of the government ; and some time after he made himself 
 master also of Syracuse ; he extended the limits of that territory, and 
 made himself very powerful. Gelon gained a second victory over Ha- 
 milcar ; and from this defeat of the Carthaginians, Sicily enjoyed a 
 profound peace ; Syracuse was particularly happy in its tranquillity, 
 under the auspicious government of Gelon. The whole of royalty 
 that he assumed were the toils and cares of it, a zeal for the public 
 welfare, and the sweet satisfaction which results from making millions 
 happy by his cares. Tacitus said he found no other example, except 
 in Vespasian, of any one whom the sovereignty made the better man. 
 A revered old age — a name dear to all his subjects — a reputation 
 equally diffuse within and without the kingdom — these were the fruits 
 of that wisdom which he retained on the throne to the last period of 
 his life. A splendid mausoleum, surrounded with nine towers of a 
 surprising magnificence, was erected to his memory. 
 
 After Gelon's death, the sceptre continued for nearly twelve years in 
 his family : he was succeeded by Hiero, his eldest brother. Hiero has 
 been charged with being avaricious, and unjust; and acting as a tyrant 
 over his people, rather than a king ; but an infirm state of health in- 
 duced him afterwards to seek the conversation of men of learning. 
 The most famous poets of the age came to his court, as Simonides, 
 Pindar, Bacchylides, and Epicharmus; and it is affirmed that their 
 interesting conversation greatly contributed to soften the cruel and 
 savage disposition of Hiero. On one occasion the prince asked Simo- 
 nides his opinion with regard to the nature and attributes of the Deity. 
 The latter desired one day's time to consider it ; the next day he asked 
 two, and went on increasing in the same proportion. The prince 
 pressing him to give his reasons for these delays, he confessed that the 
 subject was above his comprehension, and that the more he reflected, 
 the more obscure it appeared to him. Hiero died after having reigned 
 eleven years, and was succeeded by his brother T/irasybulus, who treat- 
 
 What is said of Xerxes? — What of Gelon? — What is the character of Hiero ? 
 — What was the reply of Simonidea? 
 
 
THE PELOroNNESIAN WAR. 107 
 
 ed his subjects with a cruelty that was insupportable. On which ac- 
 count he was besieged even in Syracuse; and, after a feeble resistance, 
 he withdrew into banishment among the Lccrians, when he had reigned 
 but one year. 
 
 CHAPTER 13. 
 THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 
 
 The first act of hostility in the Peloponnesian war was committed 
 by the Thebans, who besieged Platsea, a city of Boeotia in alliance 
 with Athens. The truce being evidently broken, both sides prepared 
 for war, and almost every part of Greece was in motion. The majority 
 were for the Lacedaemonians, as being the deliverers of Greece ; be- 
 cause Athens, by its pride and severity, had incurred their hatred ; and 
 they were apprehensive of becoming its dependents. The confederates 
 of the Athenians were the people of Chios, Lesbos, Plataea, the Mes- 
 senians of Naupactes ; the greatest part of the Acarnanians, Corcyrans, 
 Cephalonians, and Zacynthians ; besides the tributary countries, as 
 maritime Caria, Doria, Ionia, the Hellespont, and the cities of Thrace 
 (Chalcis and Potidaea excepted) ; all the islands between Crete and 
 Peloponnesus eastward, and the Cyclades (Melos andThera excepted). 
 
 The forces of the Lacedaemonians being ready, two-thirds marched 
 to the isthmus of Corinth, and the rest were left to guard the Pelopon- 
 nesus. Achidamus, king of Sparta, who commanded the army, still 
 zealous for the tranquillity of Greece, sent a Spartan to Athens, to pre- 
 vail, if possible, with the Athenians to lay aside their designs ; other- 
 wise his army would soon march into Attica. But the Athenians 
 would not suffer him to enter their city. 
 
 The Athenians, by the advice of Pericles, as they had not forces suf- 
 ficient to oppose the enemy on land, their chief strength consisting of 
 300 galleys, immediately removed with their wives, children, movea- 
 bles, and all their effects from the surrounding country, and took shelter 
 within the city ; intending to shut themselves up without hazarding a 
 battle. In the mean time the Lacedaemonians entered Attica, and laid 
 waste, with dreadful havock, the whole country round Athens ; but 
 finding the Athenians were determined not to leave the city, and having 
 learned also that the Athenian fleet had carried fire and sword into the 
 Lacedaemonian territories, they raised their camp, returned to Pelopon- 
 nesus, and retired to their separate homes. 
 
 In the beginning of the second campaign, (B. C. 430,) the Lace- 
 daemonians made another incursion into Attica, and laid it waste ; but 
 the plague made a greater devastation in Athens than had ever been be- 
 fore known. Hippocrates was actively employed in visiting the sick, 
 but the pestilence baffled the utmost effort of art; and the skill of the 
 physicians was a feeble help to those that were infected. The king of 
 Persia had invited Hippocrates to his court, with the most advanta- 
 geous offers ; but all the glitters of Persian riches and dignities could 
 
 What character is given of the Athenians? — How were the forces of the La- 
 cedaemonians employed ? — What steps were taken by the Athenians? 
 
108 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 not bribe this great physician. He, therefore, in a short reply, declin- 
 ed the invitation, saying, " that he owed all his cares to his fellow 
 citizens and countrymen." The Athenians were struck with the deep- 
 est sense of gratitude for this generous care of Hippocrates, and or- 
 dained, by a public decree, that he should be presented with a crown 
 of gold of the value of 1,000 statens. (£358. 6s. Sd.) 
 
 In the mean time the enemy, having again marched into Attica, laid 
 waste the whole country. Pericles, adhering to the maxim he had 
 established, not to expose the safety of the state to the hazard of a 
 battle, would not suffer his troops to sally out of the city; however, 
 before the enemy left the plains, he sailed to Peloponnesus with 100 
 galleys, in order to hasten their retreat, by his making so powerful a 
 diversion, and after having made as dreadful havoc as he had done 
 the year preceding, he returned into the city. 
 
 The campaign being thus ended, the Athenians, who saw their 
 country depopulated by war and pestilence, began to despond and mur- 
 mur against Pericles. They also sent deputies to Lacedaemon to sue 
 for peace ; but the ambassadors returned without being able to obtain 
 any terms. Pericles was, therefore, deprived of his command, and a 
 large fine was imposed on him ; bait as fickleness and inconstancy 
 were the prevailing characters of the Athenians, his public disgrace was 
 not to be lasting ; the anger of the people was soon appeased, and they 
 wished to see him again in their assemblies. But Pericles now expe- 
 rienced domestic troubles. The plague had carried off Xanthippus, 
 his son, his sister, and many of his relations. 
 
 About the end of the second campaign, ambassadors had been sent 
 from Lacedsemon, to solicit the king of Persia's alliance and assistance, 
 to enable them to enlarge their fleet. This reflected great ignominy on 
 Sparta, and sullied their former glorious actions at Thermopylse, in 
 opposing Persia. The ambassadors, however, were intercepted and 
 sent to Athens, where they suffered death. Potidasa had now been 
 besieged almost three years, by the Athenians, and being reduced, at 
 length, to the utmost extremity, they surrendered. 
 
 Soon after this event, Pericles was infected with the pestilence, and 
 near his end. The principal citizens, and such of his friends as had 
 not forsaken him, were discoursing together in his bed-chamber about 
 his distinguished merit, and the trophies he had won by his many vic- 
 tories ; not imagining that Pericles overheard them. Pericles suddenly 
 broke silence, and expressed his surprise that while they extolled him 
 for actions common to other public men, and in which fortune has so 
 great a share, they should forget the most glorious circumstance in his 
 life; which was, that he had never caused a single citizen to put on 
 mourning. Pericles united most of the qualities that constitute the 
 great man. During forty years he governed the Athenians ; and what 
 
 What was the reply of Hippocrates to the Persian king, and what reward did 
 the Athenians confer on him ? — What occurred between the Spartans and Athe- 
 nians ? — What disgrace and troubles awaited Pericles? — What steps were taken 
 by Lacedzemon ? — What was the fate of the ambassadors ? — Relate the inter- 
 view between Pericles and hie friends. 
 
PELOPONNESIAN WAR. 109 
 
 is more surprising, he gained this great ascendency merely by persua- 
 sion ; without employing mean artifices or force. 
 
 The most memorable transaction of the following years was the 
 famous siege of Platoea, by the Lacedaemonians, — on account of the 
 vigorous efforts of both parties ; but especially for the glorious resist- 
 ance made by the besieged, and for their bold and industrious strata- 
 gems, by which numbers got out of the city and escaped the fury of the 
 enemy. 
 
 The next summer, the fourth year of the war, the people of Lesbos 
 resolved to break their alliance with the Athenians. The affliction of 
 the Athenians was greatly increased, when the news was brought of 
 the revolt of so considerable an island ; and notwithstanding their 
 efforts to retain it, the Lesbians entered into the alliance of Peloponne- 
 sus ; and brought two-thirds of their forces in the gulf of Corinth, 
 intending to invade Attica both by sea and land. The Athenians, to 
 undeceive their enemies, who supposed they were very weak, put to 
 sea with a fleet of 100 sail, and after having shown themselves before 
 the Isthmus of Corinth, they made descents, into whatever parts of 
 Peloponnesus they pleased. The world had never seen, in those days, 
 it has been said, a finer fleet. The Athenians guarded their own coun- 
 try and the coasts of Euboea and Salamis, with a fleet of 100 ships. 
 They cruised round Peloponnesus with another fleet of the like number 
 of vessels, without including their fleet before Lesbos and other places. 
 The whole amounted to 250 galleys. But the expenses of these pow- 
 erful armaments helped materially to exhaust their treasury. 
 
 CHAPTER 14. 
 
 PELOPONNESIAN WAR CONTINUED — AFFAIRS OF PERSIA — 
 
 ALCIBIADES. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians, greatly surprised at so formidable a fleet, 
 returned with the utmost expedition to their own country. A thousand 
 heavy-armed troops had been sent to Mitylene, by whose assistance 
 the city was taken. Many of the factious Mitylenians were put to 
 death, and the city dismantled. The cities which belonged to the 
 Mitylenians on the coast of Asia, were also subjected to the Athenians. 
 In the sixth year of the war of Peloponnesus, the plague broke out 
 again at Athens, and swept off great numbers. But the Lacedaemoni- 
 ans made yearly incursions into Attica, and the Athenians into Pelo- 
 Konnesus. In the seventh year of the war, the Athenians, headed by 
 >emosthenes, had taken Pylo, a small city on the west coast, and for- 
 tified it. The Lacedaemonians attempted its recovery, and Brasidas, 
 one of their leaders, signalized himself here by one of the most extra- 
 ordinary acts of bravery. A battle was fought at sea, in which the 
 Athenians were victorious ; a suspension of arms was the consequence, 
 and the Lacedaemonians sent to Athens to sue for peace. The Atheni- 
 
 Wbat display did the Athenians make of their fleet? — Did the Athenians grant 
 the f'eace eolibitsd ? 
 10 
 
110 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 ans had now a happy opportunity for terminating the war, by a peace, 
 which would have been as glorious to them, as advantageous to all 
 Greece. But Cleon, their present leader, prevented its taking effect; 
 nor would the Athenians restore the Peloponnesians the ships held 
 during the suspension. A haughty oarria<_ r < j in success, and want of 
 faith in the observance of treaties, never fail to involve the ap-crressors 
 in calamities. 
 
 In the seventh year of the Peloponnesian war, Artaxerxes sent to the 
 Lacedaemonians, Artaphernes, an ambassador, with a letter, written in 
 the Assyrian lane mm, ■. acknowledging having received many embassies 
 from them; but the purport of them differed so widely, that he knew 
 not what they requested : and that he had sent a Persian, desiring, if 
 they had any proposal to make, they would send a confidential person 
 back with him. This minister landed in Thrace, and was sent by an 
 admiral of the Athenian fleet to Athens, where he was treated with the 
 utmost respect, and, as soon as the season would permit, he was sent 
 back at the public expense ; and some of the citizens were appointed 
 to attend him to the Persian court. Upon landing at EDphesns, they 
 were informed that Artaxerxes was dead ; upon which the Athenian 
 ambassadors thinking it not advisable to proceed further, and taking 
 leave of Artaphernes, returned to their own country. 
 
 Artaxerxes died about the beginning of the 49th year of his reign, 
 (B. C. 425,) and Xerxes, who succeeded him, was his only legitimate 
 son. Sogdianus, a natural son, in concert with Pharnacias, one of 
 Xerxes' eunuchs, came insidiously, one festival day, to the new king, 
 who, after drinking to excess, had retired to his chamber, and killed 
 him, after he had reigned forty-five days. Sogdianus was declared 
 king in his stead. He was scarcely on the throne, when he put to 
 death Bagorazus, one of his father's eunuchs. By these two murders, 
 he became the horror both of the army and the nobility. He next sent 
 for Ochus, who, suspecting the design, delayed coming, till he could 
 advance at the head of a strong army. A great number of the nobility, 
 and several governors of the provinces joined in his cause, put the tiara 
 on Ochus's head, and proclaimed him king. Sogdianus made but an 
 ill-conducted and cowardly defence to retain the crown ; and falling 
 into Ochus's hands he was thrown into ashes, and died a cruel death.* 
 
 Ochus, now settled in the empire, changed his name from Ochus to 
 that of Darius; and to distinguish him, historians add the epithet 
 No#os, (Xothos,) signifying bastard. He reigned nineteen years. 
 
 Arsites, the third brother, meditated supplanting Ochus (hereafter 
 to be called Darius ;) but both himself and Artyphius, his general, 
 were defeated, and being made prisoners, were smothered in ashes. 
 Another commotion was occasioned by the rebellion of Pisuthenes, go- 
 
 * This was a kind r>{ punishment peculiar to the Persians, and exercised only on great 
 criminals. One of the largest towers was till.,! to a certain height with ashes. The 
 criminal was thrown headlong into them After which the ashes were by a wheel 
 turned perpetually round him till he was suffocated. 
 
 What message was received from Artaxerxes ! — When did ihe Persian monarch 
 die? — How long did he reign, and who succeeded ? — Mention the plots lonned 
 .. t Duriua. 
 
PERSIAN AFFAIRS. Ill 
 
 vernor of Lydia. But he being subdued and made prisoner, met his 
 death, by being sentenced to the same fate as the former rebels. The 
 son of Pisuthenes, Amorges, still rebelling, was at length delivered up 
 to suffering and death. Darius was again involved in fresh troubles, 
 by one of his eunuchs, who, intoxicated by the supreme authority which 
 the favour of his sovereign gave him, resolved to make himself king. 
 However, his plot being discovered, he was delivered up to Parysatis, 
 the queen, who put him to an ignominious death. 
 
 But the greatest revolt in the reign of Darius was that of the Egyp- 
 tians ; who, weary of the Persian government, fled to Amyrtaeus, of 
 Sais ; when he came out of the fens, where he had defended himself 
 from the suppression of the revolt of Inarus. The Persians were driven 
 out, and Amyrtaeus was proclaimed king of Egypt, where he reigned 
 six years. News having been brought to the king of Persia that Amyr- 
 taeus was preparing to pursue them to Phoenicia, he recalled the fleet 
 which he had promised to the Lacedaemonians, to employ it in the 
 defence of his own dominions. 
 
 While Darius was carrying on the war in Egypt, the Medes rebel- 
 led ; they were, however, defeated, and reduced to their allegiance by 
 force of arms ; and to punish them for this revolt, their yoke, till then 
 easy, w T as made heavier. 
 
 Darius afterwards gave Cyrus, the youngest of his sons, the su- 
 preme command of all the provinces of Asia Minor, by which the pro- 
 vincial governors in that part of the empire (B. C.407,) came under his 
 jurisdiction. 
 
 The three or four campaigns, which followed the reduction of the 
 small island of Sphacteria, were distinguished by few considerable 
 events. The Athenians, under Nicias, took the island of Cythera, near 
 the southern coast of Lacedaemonia, and from thence they infested the 
 whole country. Brasidas, on the other side, marched towards Thrace, 
 with a view to divide the Athenian forces. He also marched after- 
 wards towards Amphipolis, an Athenian colony on the river Strymon, 
 and possessed it. 
 
 About the ninth year of the Grecian war, the losses and advantages 
 on both sides being pretty equal, the nations began to grow weary of 
 the contest. A truce for a year was, therefore, concluded between the 
 Athenians and Lacedaemonians, in the hope that it would be followed 
 by a general peace. But there were two men, Cimon of Athens, and 
 Brasidas of Sparta, who opposed the tranquillity of Greece, and raised, 
 but in a very different way, an invincible obstacle to its peace. The 
 Athenian, because the war screened his vices and malversations; the 
 Spartan, because it added new lustre to his virtues. But their death, 
 which happened about the same time, made way for a new accommo- 
 dation. 
 
 The Athenians had appointed Cleon to command the troops, which 
 were to oppose Brasidas, and also to reduce those cities which 
 had revolted from their allegiance ; among which Amphipolis claimed 
 
 And the revolt both of the Egyptians and Medes. — What leading men were 
 opposed to peace, and by what motives were they influenced ? 
 
112 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 their first solicitude, and Cleon encamped before it, intending to invest 
 the place on all sides, and afterwards take it by storm. In the moment 
 of Cleon's temerity, Brasidas made a sally on the Athenians, and be- 
 fore the close of the engagement, both the commanders fell, and the 
 city remained in its alliance with the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 After this engagement, both nations seemed inclined to an accommo- 
 dation, and particularly their chiefs, namely, Phlistonax, king of Lace- 
 daemonia, and Nicias, general of the Athenians. Both states began by 
 renewing a suspension of arms for twelve months ; and after a whole 
 winter had been spent in conference and interviews, a peace was con- 
 cluded (B. C. 421,) for fifty years. But Alcibiades, who had Socrates for 
 his tutor, began now to advance himself in the state, and to appear in 
 the public assemblies. He was not born for repose, and used his ut- 
 most endeavours to infringe the peace, and to break with the Spartans. 
 
 Passing over several minor events, we hasten to the expedition of the 
 Athenians into Sicily, to which they were excited by Alcibiades, in the 
 sixteenth year of the Peioponnesian war. Alcibiades had gained a sur- 
 prising ascendency over the minds of the people, though they knew 
 that his great qualities were united with still greater vices. Timon, 
 the man-hater, meeting him one day as he was coming out of the as- 
 sembly, told him that " his advancement would be the ruin of the Athe- 
 nians." The war of Sicily will show that Timon was not mistaken. 
 
 CHAPTER 15. 
 UNFORTUNATE EXPEDITION TO SICILY. 
 
 The people of Egesta, in Sicily, (B. C. 416,) at this juncture, im- 
 plored the aid of the Athenians against the inhabitants of Selinunta, 
 who were assisted by the Syracusans. The aid was granted, and Alci- 
 biades, Nicias, and Lamachus, were appointed to the command of the 
 fleet, with full powers, not only to succour Egesta, but also to regu- 
 late the affairs of Sicily. When the ships were loaded, and the troops 
 got on board, the trumpet sounded, and solemn prayers were offered up 
 for the success of the expedition ; gold and silver cups were filled 
 everywhere with wine, and the accustomed libations were poured out. 
 And now, the hymn being sung, and the ceremony ended, the ships 
 sailed first to iEgina, and from thence to Corey ra, where the army of 
 the allies was assembling with the rest of the fleet. "When they arrived 
 in Sicily, Alcibiades took Catana by surprise. This was the first and 
 last exploit performed by him in this expedition; he being immediately 
 recalled by the Athenians, to be tried, with some others, for an offence 
 against the sacred mysteries.* 
 
 Alcibiades obeyed the order of the captain, who was commissioned 
 
 ♦The crime was that of wantonly mimicking the ceremonies and mysteries of Ceres 
 and Proserpine ; Alcibiades, representing the high priest, at their head. 
 
 What befel the Spartan and Athenian commanders ? — Who were now for peace ? 
 — Wlio opposed it? — What said Timon, the man-hater, to Alcibiades' — Who 
 implored the Athenians' aid ? — What ceremonies took place beibre the depurtur© 
 of the ships? — For what crime was Alcibiades recalled '. 
 
EXPEDITION TO SICILY. 113 
 
 to recall him from Sicily ; but the instant he had arrived at Thurium, 
 he got on shore and disappeared, and the captain was under the morti- 
 fying necessity of returning to Athens, without his prisoner. Alcibi- 
 ades was sentenced to die for his contumacy ; his estates were confis- 
 cated, and the priests and priestesses were ordered to curse him. Among 
 the latter was one Theano, who alone had the courage to oppose the 
 decree ; saying, " that she had been appointed priestess, not to curse, 
 but to bless." 
 
 After the departure of Alcibiades, Nicias possessed the chief au- 
 thority. As Alcibiades despaired of ever being recalled home, he sent 
 to the Spartans, desiring leave to reside among them, under their guard 
 and protection. He was received hy them with open arms, and soon 
 after his arrival in their city, he gained the esteem of all tire inhabitants 
 by his engaging urbanity. 
 
 Nicias, after some engagements, besieged Syracuse, a city of vast 
 extent, on the eastern coast of Sicily, in the eighteenth year of the 
 war. The Sicilians, in their distress, sent to Corinth, their parent 
 state, for succours ; but none arriving, after having held out a long 
 time, they were resolving to capitulate, and a council was held to settle 
 the articles of capitulation to the Athenian forces. It was at this criti- 
 cal juncture, that an officer named Gylippus, arrived from Corinth with 
 a considerable force, and completely changed the face of affairs. The 
 Athenian generals, though often defeated on land, hazarded a sea fight, 
 and were vanquished. After still holding out on land to the utmost 
 extremity, they surrendered. On the next day a council was held to 
 deliberate on the fate of the prisoners ; the cruel sentence was enforced, 
 that the two Athenian generals should be first scourged with rods, and 
 afterwards be put to death. Thus, the finest fleet that ever sailed from 
 Athens, together with an army of 40,000 men, with their generals, lost 
 life and liberty. The news of this defeat reaching Athens, they vented 
 their griefs against the orators and the soothsayers. Never had they 
 been reduced to so deplorable a condition. Without horse or foot — 
 without money, galleys, or mariners, they were apprehensive every 
 moment that the enemy, elated with so great a victory, would invade 
 Athens by sea and land, with all the forces of Peloponnesus. This 
 defeat of the Athenian army was followed by the taking of Athens ; of 
 which the ancient form of government was changed by Lysander. 
 
 An alteration took place in the constitution of Athens, by the influ- 
 ence of Pisander. Alcibiades was recalled from exile, and afterwards 
 appointed Generalissimo. In several contests he was so successful as 
 to humble the pride of Sparta. Byzantium, and several other cities, 
 submitted to the Athenians. (B. C. 407.) Alcibiades, who passion- 
 ately desired to see his country again, after so many victories over their 
 enemies, now set out for Athens. The sides of his ships were covered 
 with bucklers, and all sorts of spoils, with their ensigns and ornaments, 
 in form of trophies. The people came out in a body to welcome and 
 congratulate him with incredible shouts of joy. 
 
 What was enjoined upon the priests and priestesses? — What fate awaited the 
 Athenian generals ? — To what state were the Athenians reduced ? — What change 
 did Pisander erFect? — Relate Alcibiades' victories, and his visit to Athens. 
 
 10* 
 
114 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Alcibiades soon called an assembly of the people. The Athenians, 
 transported with hearing him speak, decreed him crowns of gold, 
 appointed him general by sea and land, with unlimited power, and 
 restored him all his fortune. He set sail accordingly with 200 ships, 
 and steered for the island of Andros, which had revolted. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians, alarmed at the return and success of Alcibi- 
 ades, thought it needful to oppose him with an able general ; and they 
 gave Lysander the command of the fleet, who sailed for Ephesus. But 
 such was the fame of Alcibiades, never having been overthrown in any 
 battle, either by sea or land, that Lysander dared not encounter him. 
 Alcibiades, however, had occasion to go into Phocaea and Ionia, to raise 
 money for the payment of his troops ; and while absent, Antiochus, to 
 brave the Spartan, entered the port of Ephesus with two galleys. 
 Lysander, enraged at the insult, pursued him, — a general engagement 
 was the result, and Lysander gained the victory. 
 
 Thrasybulus left the camp, and went to Athens to accuse Alcibiades 
 of neglecting his fleet, and of his numerous debaucheries. The Athe- 
 nians gave credit to these impeachments. They had vainly supposed 
 that nothing Alcibiades desired to do was impossible for him ; and they 
 made it a sufficient crime in him, that the rapidity of his conquest did 
 not equal their expectations. Alcibiades was deposed, and ten generals 
 were nominated in his stead. He retired to some castles he had in the 
 Thracian Chersonesus. 
 
 About this time died Phlistonax, one of the kings of Laceda?monia ; 
 and was succeeded by Pausanias, who reigned fourteen years. Calli- 
 cratides was now appointed «to succeed Lysander ; and after having 
 gained several victories over the Athenians, he pursued Cimon, one of 
 their generals, into the port of Mitylene, and kept him blocked up. 
 But Cimon, receiving large supplies from Athens, a battle ensued at 
 Arginusae, in which Callicratides-lost his life, and the Lacedaemonians 
 gave way, and retired in great disorder. 
 
 Plutarch equals Callicratides, the Lacedaemonian general, for his 
 justice, valour, and magnanimity, with all who had ever rendered them- 
 selves most worthy of admiration among the Greeks : and Cicero, before 
 the time of Plutarch, had passed nearly the same opinion of him. 
 
 In the battle of Arginusoe, the Athenian generals ordered some of the 
 officers to return with about fifty galleys, to take up the wrecks and 
 dead bodies, in order to their interment : for the ancients held it a great 
 crime not to provide sepulture for the dead. The officers excused them- 
 selves by alleging the violence of the storm, and appealed for the truth 
 of what they said to the pilots. But it was decreed that the delinquent 
 officers should be punished with death, their estates confiscated, and 
 the tenth part thereof consecrated to the Goddess Minerva. Some 
 senators at first opposed this decree as unjust and contrary to the laws ; 
 but Socrates, the celebrated philosopher, was the only one who per- 
 
 
 How came the Spartans to gain the victory? — What cenerals succeeded Alci- 
 biades? — What is said of Phlistonax, Pausanias, Cimon, At.? — With whom does 
 Flutareh equal Callicratides ? — What cruelties were exercised towards the officers, 
 and was it not opposed by Socrates ? 
 
THE THIRTY TYRANTS. 115 
 
 sisted firmly in his opposition. Six of the officers were scarcely exe- 
 cuted, when the people opened their eyes, and perceived all the horrors 
 of that sentence ; but their repentance could not recall the dead to life. 
 Oallixenes, the orator who spoke against them, was first imprisoned ; 
 and, after making his escape, he ended his days universally detested 
 and abhorred. 
 
 CHAPTER 16. 
 THE THIRTY TYRANTS — THRASYBULUS. 
 
 After the defeat at Arginusse, the affairs of the Peloponnesians 
 declining, the allies sent an embassy to Sparta, to request that the com- 
 mand should be again given to Lysander. The request was complied 
 with. Lysander sailed towards the Hellespont, and laid siege to Lamp- 
 sacus, which he carried by storm. The Athenians followed him close, 
 and halted at vEgospotamus, over against the enemy at Lampsacus. 
 The Hellespont is not above 2,000 paces broad in that place. The two 
 armies, seeing themselves so near each other, expected to come to an 
 immediate engagement. But Lysander manoeuvred for some days, till 
 he found the enemy entirely off his guard, and then made an easy and 
 a complete conquest. Thus Lysander terminated a war in the space 
 of an hour, which had already lasted twenty-seven years. Three thou- 
 sand prisoners taken in this battle were condemned to die. 
 
 When the news of this entire defeat arrived at Athens, the city was 
 in universal consternation. Nothing was heard but cries of sorrow and 
 despair. The two kings of Sparta, Agis and Pausanias, advanced with 
 all their troops towards Athens; and Lysander soon arrived at the 
 Piraeus with his fleet, and shut up the port. The Athenians, besieged 
 both by land and sea, and without provisions, or hopes of relief, sent 
 deputies to Agis, to propose a treaty with Sparta. After much delay, 
 a peace, on these conditions, was concluded, "That the fortifications 
 of the Piraeus, with the long wall that joined it, should be demolished ; 
 that the Athenians should deliver up all their galleys, twelve only ex- 
 cepted ; that they should abandon all the cities they had seized, and 
 content themselves with their own lands and country ; and that they 
 should make a league offensive and defensive with the Lacedaemonians. " 
 
 Lysander caused the wall to be demolished to the sound of flutes and 
 trumpets, and with all the exterior marks of rejoicing, as if all Greece 
 had that day regained its liberty ; and he then established thirty archons, 
 or rather tyrants, over the city. 
 
 It was about the end of the Peloponnesian war, that Darius Nothos, 
 king of Persia, died, after a reign of nineteen years. Cyrus had ar- 
 rived at the court before his death, and Parysatis, his mother, whose 
 idol he was, not contented with having made his peace, pressed the old 
 king to declare him his successor. But Darius did not carry his com- 
 plaisance for her so far; he gave the crown to Arsaces, his eldest son, 
 
 What decisive battle was fought at the Hellespont ? — What disasters happened 
 in consequence Jo Athens? — What Persian king died, and who attempted to suc- 
 ceed ? 
 
116 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 by Parysatis, and bequeathed to Cyrus only the provinces he had al- 
 ready. (B.C. 404.) 
 
 Arsaces, upon ascending the throne, assumed the name of Artaxerxes, 
 to whom the Greeks gave the surname of Mnemon, from his prodigious 
 memory. Cyrus, having resolved to dethrone his brother, employed 
 Clearchus, the Lacedaemonian general, with a body of Grecian troops, 
 under pretence of a war which that Spartan was to carry into Thrace. 
 
 The Council of Thirty , established at Athens by Lysander, committed 
 the most execrable cruelties, upon pretence of restraining the multitude 
 within the bounds of their duty. They had caused guards to be as- 
 signed them — they armed 3,000 citizens for their service, and at the 
 same time disarmed the rest. The whole city was in the utmost terror 
 and dismay. Whoever opposed their oppressions, became their vic- 
 tims. Riches were a crime that never failed to draw a sentence upon 
 their owners ; always followed with death and the confiscation of their 
 estates, which the thirty tyrants divided among themselves. Nothing 
 passed through the city but imprisonments and murders. Every one 
 trembled for himself or his friends. The Athenians seemed to have 
 lost not only their valour, but their speech, lest their words should be 
 construed into a crime. 
 
 Socrates alone remained intrepid, and set all men an example of 
 courage and resolution. Many of the citizens, of any consideration in 
 Athens, quitted a place reduced to such slavery. At the head of these 
 was Thrasybulus, a person of extraordinary merit, who beheld with 
 the most lively affection the miseries of his country. Lysias, an orator 
 of Syracuse, who had been banished by the thirty, raised 500 soldiers 
 at his own expense, and sent them to the aid of the Athenians, and 
 Thrasybulus with these and the force he could raise, took the small fort 
 of Phyla, and then marched to the Piraeus, of which he made himself 
 master; and the tyrants were overthrown and expelled. Ten persons 
 were substituted in their stead, whose conduct proved no better than 
 theirs. 
 
 It is a matter of surprise, that so general and so uniform a conspiracy 
 against the public good, should always actuate the several bodies in the 
 administration of this government. This we have seen in the four 
 hundred, formerly chosen by Athens ; again in the thirty, and now in 
 the ten ; and what augments our wonder is, that this passion for ty- 
 ranny should possess so immediately republicans, born in the bosom 
 of liberty. There must be in the mind of man a strong propensity to 
 imperious rule, and the subjection of his equals. The lust of power 
 seems in some to extirpate the social affections. 
 
 The tyrants, having taken up arms to re-instate themselves in the 
 government, and being present at a parley for that purpose, were all put 
 to the sword, and left Athens in full possession of its liberty. Thra- 
 sybulus at this time proposed the celebrated amnesty, by which the 
 citizens engaged upon oath, that all past transactions should be buried 
 
 How did the Council of Thirty behave at Athens ? — What did Socrates, Thra- 
 sybulus, and Lysias? — What reflections have been drawn from it/ — Wherein 
 consisted the wisdom of Thrasybulus ? 
 
EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 117 
 
 in oblivion. The government was re-established upon its ancient foot- 
 ing ; the laws restored to their pristine vigour, and magistrates elected 
 with the usual forms. The wisdom and moderation of Thrasybulus, 
 so salutary, after a long continuance of domestic troubles, stand here 
 conspicuous. It is one of the finest events in ancient history ; worthy 
 the Athenian lenity and benevolence ; and may serve as a model of 
 good government to succeeding ages. 
 
 Lysander, after his victories which terminated the Peloponnesian 
 war, was carried away by vanity and presumption. He permitted the 
 Grecian cities to dedicate altars to him, to offer sacrifices, and chant 
 hymns and canticles in honour of him. He governed cities with ty- 
 rannic power, nor could those he hated escape his vengeance. The 
 number he caused to be massacred is incredible. Pharnabasus, the 
 satrap of Persia, weary of Ly Sander's repeated acts of injustice, sent 
 ambassadors to Sparta, to complain of the wrongs he had received from 
 that general, and the Ephori recalled him. Lysander was at that time 
 in the Hellespont. The letter to the Ephori threw him into great con- 
 sternation. He returned to Sparta, and was divested of his power. 
 
 CHAPTER 17. 
 EXPEDITION OF CYRUS. 
 
 Young Cyrus, son of Darius Nothos and Parysatis, saw with pain 
 his elder brother Artaxerxes on the throne ; and he attempted to de- 
 prive him of his crown and life together. The tears and entreaties of 
 Parysatis obtained his pardon from Artaxerxes, who dismissed him to 
 his government in Asia Minor. Cyrus was still bent on dethroning 
 him, and for this purpose carried himself courteously, and gained the 
 hearts of those who were under his jurisdiction, that they might aid 
 his design. He was solicitous also to raise a body of Grecian troops, 
 and Clearchus the Spartan, having retired to his court, after being 
 banished from Sparta, was joined by a body of about 13,000 Grecians, 
 the flower and chief force of his army — besides these, Cyrus had 
 about 100,000 Asiatics, under Ariasus the Persian general. 
 
 Artaxerxes assembled a numerous army to receive his brother. 
 The battle was fought at Cunaxa, about twenty-five leagues from 
 Babylon. The forces of the king of Persia amounted to 1,200,000, 
 under four generals, without including 4,000 horse, which never quitted 
 the king's person. In the royal army were also 260 chariots armed 
 with scythes, in that of Cyrus about thirty of such chariots. When 
 the armies approached each other w T ithin four or five hundred paces, 
 the Greeks began to sing the hymn of battle, and then sprung upon the 
 king's army with such impetuosity, that they did not wait the charge, 
 but fled with precipitation, except Tisaphernes who stood his ground 
 with a small portion of his troops. 
 
 Supposing the victory gained, Cyrus was proclaimed king by those 
 
 Was not Lysander intoxicated by his victories ? — What was the attempt of 
 young Cyrus ? — How did the Greeks commence the battle ? 
 
 i 
 
118 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 around him : but he soon perceived that Artaxerxes was wheeling 1 his 
 right to attack him in flank, and marched directly against him with his 
 600 horse, and beholding his brother, he made for him with a head- 
 long impetuosity. The battle then became, in some measure, a sinale 
 combat, between Artaxerxes and Cyrus; and after a doubtful conflict 
 Cyrus fell ; but whether by a flight of darts, which was aimed at him 
 from all sides, or from the king's javelin, is not known. The greatest 
 persons then attendant on Cyrus, were all killed around him. 
 
 The Greeks on their side, and Artaxerxes on his, not knowing what 
 had passed elsewhere, believed, each of them, that they had gained the 
 victory : the former because they had put the enemy to fligfit and pursu- 
 ed them, and the king because he had killed his brother, and plundered 
 his camp. Nor was it till the next day, that the Greeks were certain 
 of Cyrus's death, when Persian heralds arrived from the king to sum- 
 mon them to deliver up their arms. They haughtily replied they 
 would sooner die than part with them, and that they would sell their 
 lives and liberties together. 
 
 The generals of the Greeks, after a conference with Tisaphernes 
 and the queen's brother, were assured of not finding any obstacle to 
 their return to Greece; but in an interview which happened soon after, 
 five of them, namely, Clearchus, Menon, Proxenes, Agias and Socrates, 
 on entering the tent of Tisaphernes, were seized, and sent to the king", 
 who ordered their heads to be struck off; and their attendants, twenty 
 captains, and about 200 soldiers, were put to the sword. 
 
 CHAPTER 18. 
 RETREAT OF THE TEN THOUSAND. 
 
 Their generals having been thus seized and their attendants massa- 
 cred, the Grecian army was in the highest consternation. They were 
 five or six hundred leagues from Greece, surrounded with great rivers 
 and hostile nations, without any supplies of provision. They therefore 
 chose generals and captains to supply the place of those that had been 
 so treacherously murdered, and prepared to commence their retreat. As 
 they were occasionally harassed by detachments sent against them, 
 they began their march in the form of a hollow square, with the bag-- 
 gage in the centre. The first day, they were much annoyed by the horse 
 and slingers sent against them. To oppose these, 200 men were chosen 
 out of the Rhodians in the army, whom they armed with slings, and 
 augmented their pay for their encouragement. They could throw as far 
 again as the Persians ; because they discharged balls of lead, and the 
 others made use of large flints. They mounted also a squadron of 
 fifty men upon the horses, by which a second detachment of the enemy 
 was very severely handled. 
 
 After some days' march, Tisaphernes appeared with all his forces, 
 
 
 What was the result of the conflict between Artaxerxos and Cyrus? — What was 
 the haughty reply of the Greeks >. — How \\«>re the Greeks treated by Tisaphernes ? 
 — In what way did they commence their march \ 
 
RETREAT OP THE TEN THOUSAND. 119 
 
 harassing the Greeks, who still kept moving on till they arrived at 
 the river Tigris ; but as its depth would not allow them to pass at that 
 place without boats, they were obliged to continue the march over the 
 Carducian Mountains. They were told by some peasants that on en- 
 tering Armenia they might cross the Tigris at its source, and not far 
 from it the Euphrates also. To gain these defiles before the enemy 
 could arrive, they set forward in the night. A council of war beino- soon 
 after held, it was judged proper to leave behind them all the beasts of 
 burden not absolutely needful, together with all the slaves lately taken. 
 The passing of the mountains, which took up seven days, fatigued the 
 troops extremely, but at length they arrived at villages, where they 
 found provisions in abundance, and where they rested some days to re- 
 cover the severe fatigues the army had suffered. 
 
 They found themselves soon after exposed to new dangers. Almost 
 at the foot of the mountains they came to a river 200 feet broad, called 
 Centrites, which stopped their march ; and they had to defend them- 
 selves against the enemy, who pursued them in the rear, and the Arme- 
 nians, the soldiers of the country, who guarded the opposite sides of 
 the river. By good fortune they afterwards discovered a place not so 
 deep, — but it required abundance of address and valour to keep off the 
 enemy on both sides. The army, however, passed the river without 
 much loss. 
 
 They afterwards marched with less interruption, passed near the 
 source of the Tigris, and arrived at the beautiful little river, Teleboa, 
 in Western Armenia, which has many villages on its banks. Tiribases, 
 the governor, a satrap much beloved by the king, permitted the army 
 to pass, and the soldiers to purchase what they wanted, provided they 
 committed no ravages. He kept, however, as a check, a flying camp, 
 at a small distance from the army. A fall of snow which occurred 
 soon after gave the troops some inconvenience. After some days' march 
 through deserts, they passed the Euphrates near its source; not having 
 the water above their middles. They afterwards suffered extremely 
 from a north wind which blew in their faces. In order to appease it, 
 they sacrificed to it, according to the custom of their religion ; upon 
 which it seemed to abate. 
 
 They marched on in snow five or six feet deep, which killed several 
 servants and beasts of burden, besides thirty soldiers. They made fires 
 during the night, for they found plenty of wood. Continuing their 
 march the next day through the snow, many, from excess of hunger, 
 were affected with languor and fainting; and some were found lying 
 on the ground through excessive weakness ; but when refreshed and 
 recovered, they continued their march. 
 
 The enemy still pursued them : of whom many, overtaken by the 
 night, remained on the way without fire or provisions ; so that several 
 died of their hardships ; and the enemy that followed took some bag- 
 
 What river did they attempt to cross, and what mountains? — With what new 
 enemies did they encounter? — What refreshments did they obtain ? — What did 
 they do to appease the severity of the .North wind I — What loss did they sustain 
 in the snow ? 
 
120 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 gage. A few soldiers also were left behind that had lost their eyes, 
 and others their toes by the snow. Against the first evil, something 
 black was ordered to be worn before the eyes ; and against the other, 
 the legs were to be kept always in motion, and the feet to be bathed at 
 night. Arriving in a more commodious place, they dispersed them- 
 selves into the neighbouring villages, to recover and repose after their 
 fatigues. The houses were mostly built under ground, with an open- 
 ing at top, through which the descent was by a ladder. Here they 
 were taught to fasten a kind of small hurdles to their feet, to prevent 
 sinking in the snow. The army, after resting seven days in these vil- 
 lages, pursued their route. 
 
 After a march of seven days more, they arrived at the river Araxos 
 or Phasus. A few days after they discovered the Phasians, the Cha- 
 lybes, and the Taochians, who kept the passes of the mountains to 
 prevent their descent; but at length the enemy was put to flight and 
 the passes cleared. They crossed the country of the Chalybes, who 
 are the most valiant of all the barbarians of those parts. Having 
 marched twelve or fifteen days longer, they arrived at a very high 
 mountain called Tecqua, from whence they descried the sea. The 
 view of it caused great delight, and they cried out with exultation, 
 " The sea, the sea ;" while they could not refrain from tears, nor from 
 embracing their generals and officers, and then, without waiting for 
 orders, they heaped up a pile of stones, and erected a trophy, with 
 broken bucklers and other arms. 
 
 From thence they advanced to the mountains of Colchis, of which 
 the Colchians had possessed themselves. The Greeks drew up in bat- 
 tle at the bottom, and their generals encouraged them with its being the 
 last obstacle they had to surmount. Imploring the assistance of their 
 gods, they ascended : but the enemy, not being able to support the 
 charge, dispersed. The Greeks passed the mountain, and encamped in 
 villages, where they found provisions in abundance. A singular cir- 
 cumstance happened there to the army. The soldiers, finding a num- 
 ber of bee-hives in that place, and eating the honey, were taken with 
 violent vomiting and fluxes, attended with raving fits ; so that even the 
 least ill seemed like drunken men, and the rest either furiously mad or 
 dying. The earth was strewed with their bodies, as after a defeat ; 
 however none of them died, and the distemper ceased the next day, 
 about the same time it had taken them. The third or fourth day the 
 soldiers got up, but in the condition of people who have taken a violent 
 medicine. 
 
 Two days after the army arrived at Trebisond, a Greek colony of Si- 
 nopians, situated upon the Euxine, or Black Sea, in the province of 
 Colchis. Here they lay in camp for thirty days, and acquitted them- 
 selves of the vows they had made to Jupiter, and the other deities, to 
 obtain a happy return to their own country. They also celebrated the 
 
 Mention the precautions that they made use of — l'rom what mountain did they 
 descry the sea? — How did the Colchians oppose them ? — What effect hnd the 
 honey eaten by the Grecians ? — Where is Trebicond ? — How long did they en- 
 camp there ? — What games did they celebrate ? 
 
AGESILAtTS. 121 
 
 games of horse and foot races, wrestling, boxing, the pancratium ; the 
 whole attended with joy and solemnity. 
 
 They next deliberated on the best means for their return to Greece, 
 They were inclined to proceed by sea ; but not being able to procure a 
 sufficient number of ships, they marched by land to Cerasus, where 
 they had a general review of the troops, who were found to amount to 
 8,600 men, out of about 10,000; the rest having died in the retreat, of 
 their wounds, fatigues, or diseases. From thence they proceeded to 
 Cotyora, where they embarked, and the next day arrived at Sinope, a 
 city of Paphlagonia. 
 
 Hitherto, during their march, they had no leader ; all affairs were 
 determined in the council of war by the plurality of voices. They were 
 now resolved to nominate a general, and they cast their eyes on Xeno- 
 phon ; but he declining the honour, they elected Chirisophus, a Lace- 
 daemonian, for their general. The soldiers, now approaching near to 
 Greece, were desirous of making some booty, and it was not without 
 difficulty that Xenophon extricated both them and their leaders from 
 some imprudences. At length, partly by land and partly by sea, they 
 reached Chrysopolis, opposite Byzantium, and from thence crossed over 
 that arm of the sea which separates the two continents. 
 
 CHAPTER 19. 
 
 AGESILAUS — VICTORY OF CONON — DECLINE OF THE 
 LACEDAEMONIAN POWER. 
 
 This retreat of the 10,000 Greeks has always passed among the 
 judges of the art of war for a perfect model in its kind, and never had 
 a parallel. No enterprise could be formed with more bravery, or con- 
 ducted with greater prudence, or executed with better success. Ten 
 thousand men, 500 or 600 leagues from their own country, who had 
 lost their generals and best officers, in the heart of the enemy's vast 
 empire, in the sight of a victorious and numerous army ; to retire in a 
 manner from the gates of the king's palace, and to traverse a vast ex- 
 tent of unknown countries, almost all in arms against them, every hour 
 exposed to innumerable obstacles and dangers ; passes of rivers, of 
 mountains and defiles ; open attacks, secret ambuscades, famine, almost 
 inevitable through vast and desert regions, and to return through a 
 thousand dangers triumphant to their own country, these are exploits 
 to which there is no parallel. It was the success of this memorable 
 retreat which filled the people of Greece with contempt for the power 
 of Artaxerxes, and gave birth to those bold enterprises which at length 
 brought the Persian empire to the very brink of destruction. 
 
 (B. C. 397.) Agis, one of the Lacedaemonian kings, died about this 
 time, and the crown was disputed by Leotychides and Agesilaus, the 
 former the son, the latter the brother, of the deceased. Indeed there 
 was a current report that the queen had confessed Leotychides to be 
 
 Whom did the Greeks now nppoint a8 their leader ? — What eulogiums have 
 been bestowed on the above retreat? 
 11 
 
122 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 her son by Alcibiades. Most of the Spartans, charmed with the virtue 
 and great merit of Agesilaus, supported him with all their influence; 
 and he was declared king'. Plutarch observes that Agesilaus, from his 
 infancy, was remarkable for uniting those great qualities in himself 
 which are generally incompatible; a vivacity of spirit, an invincible 
 resolution, and an ardent passion to surpass others, with a docility, 
 gentleness, and nobleness of disposition. He was lame ; but that de- 
 fect was covered by the easy gaiety of his manner, and the gracefulness 
 of his person. 
 
 By such obliging conduct, supported by such extraordinary merit, he- 
 acquired great credit, and almost absolute power, in the city. The 
 Ephori, to prevent its effects, and give a check to his ambition, laid a 
 fine upon him ; alleging, as their sole reason, that he attached the 
 hearts of the citizens to himself alone, which were the right of the 
 republic. Never was a king of Sparta so powerful as Agesilaus ; and 
 it was only, as Xenophon says, by obeying his country in every thing,* 
 that he acquired so great an authority. 
 
 Agesilaus had scarcely ascended the throne when accounts came 
 from Asia that the king of Persia was fitting out a fleet, with intent to 
 deprive the Lacedaemonians of the empire of the sea. The Spartan 
 king took upon himself the expedition, accompanied by Lysander; and 
 his first object was to deliver the Greeks in Asia from their subjection 
 to Persia. He first gained a victory over Tisaphernes, the Persian 
 satrap ; and Tithraustes was commissioned by the Persian king to say 
 that the cities of Asia should enjoy their liberty, paying him the cus- 
 tomary tribute, provided he would withdraw his troops, and return to 
 Greece. Agesilaus had been two years at the head of the army in 
 Asia, and had already made the most remote provinces tremble at his 
 name. He had restored order and tranquillity in all the Greek cities, 
 and reinstated them in the possession of their liberty, not only without 
 shedding of blood, but without banishing a single person. Agesilaus 
 was then about to lead on his troops into the heart of Persia ; but he 
 received orders from the Ephori to return and defend his country. 
 
 Tithraustes, who commanded for the king in Asia, seeing the ten- 
 dency of Agesilaus's designs, and desiring to prevent their effects, had 
 sent Timocrates, of Rhodes, into Greece, with great sums of money, 
 to corrupt the principal persons in the cities, and by their means occa- 
 sion defection against Sparta. The haughtiness of the Lacedemonians, 
 especially since they considered themselves masters of all Greece, had 
 universally disgusted the people ; and from the cities in their depend- 
 ence they exacted a submission, which by their severity was rendered 
 insupportable. 
 
 Tithraustes, therefore, did not find it difficult to draw off Thebes, 
 
 * Simonide^, The poet, called Sparta " the tamer of men ;" because it rendered its in- 
 habitants, by good habits, the most active and vigorous, and, at the same time, the most. 
 obedient to the laws. 
 
 
 
 What saiM Plutarch of Agesilaus? — What did tho Ephori to check his ambi- 
 tion? — How did Agesilaus oppose the Persian forces r — Did nut the Persians 
 attempt to bribe the Grecians ? 
 
DECLINE OF THE LACED.EMONIAN POWER. 123 
 
 Argos, and Corinth, from Sparta; and Athens soon after seconded their 
 efforts with vigour. The Lacedaemonians took the field, and entered 
 Phocis. Lysander, in besieging Haliartus, met his death, and Pausa- 
 nias, who was to act in concert with him, on his return to Sparta, was 
 disgraced. In the mean time, the Lacedaemonians had raised another 
 army, and given the command of it to Aristodemus. Their enemies 
 assembled to concert the operations of the war. Timolaus, of Corinth, 
 said the Lacedaemonians were like a river, that grew larger as it removed 
 from its source ; or a swarm of bees, which it was easy to burn in their 
 hives, but who disperse themselves widely when they fly abroad ; and 
 his opinion was, that they should be attacked in their capital. But the 
 Lacedaemonians did not give them time ; they took the field, and found 
 the enemy near Nemaea, not far from Corinth, where a rude battle en- 
 sued, in which the Spartans had the advantage. 
 
 About this time the Persian and Lacedaemonian fleets came in view 
 of each other near Cnidos, a maritime city of Caria, in Asia Minor. 
 Pharnabazus, the satrap, and Conon, the Athenian, had the command 
 of the former; and Pisander, the brother-in-law of Agesilaus, of the 
 latter. Conon, who had in some measure occasioned the taking of 
 Athens, by the loss of the sea-fight near ^Egospotamus, used extraor- 
 dinary efforts in this to retrieve his misfortune, and to obliterate, by a 
 glorious victory, the disgrace of his former defeat. In the battle he was 
 going to give, the Persians would bear the whole expense, although the 
 victory would redound to the credit of Athens. The battle was con- 
 tested with great valour; but the allies of Sparta betaking themselves 
 to flight, Pisander, the Spartan leader, died sword in hand. Conon 
 took fifty galleys, the rest escaped to Cnidos. The revolt of almost 
 all the allies of Sparta was the consequence of this victory ; and from 
 this battle the power of the Lacedaemonians declined. All their actions 
 in Asia were no more than the feeble efforts of an expiring power, till 
 the defeats of Leuctra and Mantinea completed their downfall. 
 
 Pharnabazus and Conon then made themselves masters at sea, and 
 ravaged the whole coast of Laconia. That satrap, returning to his 
 government of Phrygia, left Conon the command of the naval arma- 
 ment, with very considerable sums for the re-establishment of Athens. 
 Conon, victorious, repaired thither, and was received with universal 
 applause. Providence seemed to decree that this city, formerly des- 
 troyed by the Persians, should be again raised at their own cost. Co- 
 non, seconded by the zeal of the Thebans, soon rebuilt the walls, and 
 restored the city to its ancient splendour. 
 
 Sparta could not see without extreme mortification, so glorious a 
 change in its ancient rival and almost constant enemy. This made them 
 take the resolution of avenging themselves on Athens and on Conon its 
 deliverer, by making peace with the king of Persia, and by accusing 
 Conon of having wasted the king's money, employed in the re-estab- 
 lishment of Athens. Tiribazus, the Persian satrap, seized Conon and 
 
 What Grecian stales were bribed ? — What was said of the Lacedaemonians ? — 
 Who headed the Persian forces? — And who the Spartan? — Who were victori- 
 ous i. — What the effect on the Lacedemonians ? — Did not Conon improve the city 
 ut' Athens ] — What disgrace befel Conon ? 
 
124 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 put him in prison. Some authors, according- to Cornelius Nepos, have 
 written that he was carried to Susa, and there executed by the king's 
 order. The silence of Xenophon, who was his contemporary, in regard 
 to his death, makes it doubtful. 
 
 It was at this time that Evagoras extended his conquests in the island 
 of Cyprus. The war had been feebly conducted for some years between 
 Evagoras and the Persians; but at last Artaxerxes applied himself 
 more vigorously to terminate the conflict. Evagoras was descended 
 from Teucer of Salamis, who, at his return from Troy, built this city, 
 and gave it the name of his country. His descendants had reigned 
 there from that time ; but a stranger of Phoenicia, having dispossessed 
 the lawful king, took his place, and to maintain himself in the usurpa- 
 tion, had filled the city with barbarians, and subjected the whole island 
 to the king of Persia. 
 
 Under this tyrant Evagoras was born. He was distinguished among 
 the youth by the beauty of his aspect, the vigour of his body, and by 
 the gracefulness of his deportment. Evagoras when he grew up ex- 
 pelled the usurper, and established himself in Salamin, the capital, and 
 afterwards, extending his conquests from city to city, endeavoured to 
 make himself master of the whole island. But the Persian king at 
 last attacked Evagoras with all his forces, and besieged the city. A 
 negotiation was then concluded, that Evagoras should continue king of 
 Salamin only, and that he should pay to the king of Persia an annual 
 tribute: Evagoras lived twelve or thirteen years after the conclusion of 
 this treaty. His old age was attended with happiness and tranquillity, 
 uninterrupted by sickness and disease, the probable effect of a sober 
 and temperate life. Nicocles, his eldest son, succeeded him, and in- 
 herited his virtues as well as his throne. 
 
 The next expedition of Artaxerxes (B. C. 372,) was against the Ca- 
 dusians, a people that inhabited part of the mountains situated between 
 the Euxine and Caspian seas. The king marched against them in 
 person, at the head of an army of 300,000 foot, and 10,000 horse. — 
 Artaxerxes had not advanced far into the country when his army suf- 
 fered extremely by famine. The whole camp was reduced to eat their 
 carriage beasts. In this conjuncture, Tiribazus, the satrap, by a strata- 
 gem, saved the king and his army. The Cadusians had two kings, 
 who did not act in concert. Tiribazus went himself to one, and sent 
 his son to the other. Each informed the king to whom he applied, that 
 the other had sent ambassadors to treat privately with Artaxerxes, and 
 advised him to lose no time to make his peace also. The fraud suc- 
 ceeded. Tiribazus and his son brought ambassadors with them to the 
 king, and the treaty was concluded with both parties. 
 
 Who was Evagoras ? — From whom descended ? — Of what city was Evagoras 
 king? — What was his character? — And who succeeded him? — What was the 
 next expedition of Artaxerxes ? — What stratagem was used by Tiribazus, the 
 satrap? 
 
SOCRATES. 125 
 
 CHAPTER 20. 
 SOCRATES. 
 
 About 400 years before the birth of Christ, died Socrates, one of 
 the greatest heathen philosophers. Socrates was born at Athens. His 
 father was a sculptor, and his mother, Phaenarete, a midwife. Crito is 
 reported to have taken him out of his father's shop, from the admiration 
 of his fine genius. He was the disciple of Archelaus, and his first 
 study was that of the works of nature, or physics, and of the move- 
 ment of the heavenly bodies. But finding- how little useful that kind 
 of learning was to the generality of mankind, he conceived the thought 
 of bringing down philosophy from heaven, to place it in cities, and 
 more within the reach of man's capacity; to make them more rational, 
 just, and virtuous. In what consist fortitude, temperance, and wisdom ; 
 what is the end of all government, and what the rules of it, Socrates 
 had a just and piercing judgment, joined with the most exquisite pru- 
 dence. Chffiremon, a zealous disciple of Socrates, happening to be at 
 Delphi, demanded of the oracle whether there was a wiser man in the 
 world than Socrates. The priestess answered there was none. 
 
 So attentive was he to benefit his country, that he seemed the com- 
 mon father of the republic. But, as it was difficult to correct the aged, 
 he devoted his labour principally to the instruction of youth. He had 
 no open school, like the rest of the philosophers, nor set times for the 
 lessons. He was the philosopher of all times and seasons. He 
 taught in all places and on all occasions, — in walking, conversation, 
 and at meals, — in the army — in the midst of a camp, and in the public 
 assembly. 
 
 The services he did the state, by the instructions he gave, and by the 
 disciples he formed, are inexpressibly great. Soon after the expulsion 
 of the thirty tyrants out of Athens, in the sixty-ninth year of his age, 
 Socrates was accused of holding bad opinions with regard to the gods. 
 The contempt into which he had brought the doctrine and morals of the 
 sophists of his time, who were then in high reputation, drew public 
 envy upon him ; and his enemies were bent upon his destruction. The 
 first seeds sown against him were in a satirical comedy, called "The 
 Clouds," introduced in the theatre, — in which Aristophanes lent his 
 pen to the malice of Socrates' enemies, to depreciate the best and most 
 excellent man that ever the pagan world produced. 
 
 Melitus appeared as his accuser : — First, that he did not admit the 
 gods acknowledged by the republic ; second, that he corrupted the 
 youth of Athens. Socrates' reply displayed a noble and intrepid assu- 
 rance, resulting from a consciousness of his truth and innocence. His 
 discourse was bold, manly, and generous ; without passion or emotion, 
 with no other ornament but that of truth. Plato, who was present, 
 
 What is said of the birth and character of Socrates ? — Relate his mode of in- 
 struction. — Of what was he accused ; and what comedy was written against him, 
 and by whom ? — What accusations were brought against him ? — What is said of 
 his imprisonment ; of his wife and familv ; and of his death ? 
 
 II* 
 
126 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 transcribed it afterwards ; and he has given it to the world as the "Apo- 
 logy of Socrates." His defence, able as it was, did not save him ; 
 sentence was passed upon him. The morning before his death his 
 friend Crito proposed that he should escape from prison, and obtain a 
 safe retreat in Thessaly. This offer Socrates declined, and when the 
 fatal cup of hemlock was presented to him, he drank off the draft 
 with an amazing serenity of aspect. His wife and children had visited 
 him in the prison ; but the extremity of her grief made it needful that 
 she should be removed. 
 
 Plato, and the rest of Socrates' disciples, apprehending the rage of 
 his accusers, retired to the house of Euclid, at Megara, till the storm 
 blew over. Euripides, however, to reproach the Athenians with the 
 horrible crime they had committed, composed his tragedy called " Pa- 
 lamedes." But it was sometime after the death of Socrates before the 
 notorious injustice of the sentence appeared to the Athenians in all its 
 horrors. Then the accusers were called to account for the blood they 
 had shed. Melitus was condemned to die, and the rest were banished. 
 A statue of brass was erected to the memory of Socrates, and a chapel 
 was dedicated to him, as to a hero and a demi-god. 
 
 As to the doctrine of Socrates, it must be allowed that the pagan 
 world never produced anything so great and perfect. To what a height 
 did he carry the sublimity of his sentiments, not only with respect to 
 moral virtue, temperance, sobriety, patience in adversity, acquiescence 
 in poverty, forgiveness of wrongs, but, what is far more considerable, 
 in regard to the Divinity, his unity, omnipotence, creation of the world, 
 and providence in the government of it ; the immortality of the soul ; 
 its ultimate end and eternal destiny; the rewards of the good, and the 
 punishment of the w r icked. When w r e consider this train of divine 
 knowledge, we are ready to ask ourselves, whether it is a pagan who 
 thinks and speaks in this manner ; and we can scarcely be persuaded, 
 that from so dark and obscure a source as paganism should shine forth 
 such living and glorious rays of light. 
 
 It is true his reputation was not without alloy ; and it has been 
 affirmed that his manners did not always answer the purity of his sen- 
 timent. He did not dare to give a public testimony to the truths he 
 believed, but observed all the customs and ceremonies as enjoined by 
 the laws of his country. He held peculiar opinions in the schools, but 
 followed the multitude in the temples. He acknowledged in reality 
 only one divinity, and yet worshipped, with the people, that multitude 
 of infamous idols, which ancient superstition had heaped up during a 
 long succession of ages. 
 
 CHAPTER 31. 
 
 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 It is an essential part of history to illustrate the character, genius, 
 and manners of the people. In noticing those of Lacedaemon and 
 
 What is said of Plato, Euripides, Melitus, &c. ? — What is said of the doctrine 
 of Socrates? — Did his conduct always correspond with the purity of his senti- 
 ments ? 
 
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE GREEKS. 127 
 
 Athens, we shall speak of their political government, war, and religion : 
 and first of Sparta. From the time the Heraelides had re-entered Pe- 
 loponnesus, Sparta was governed hy two kings, who were always of 
 the same two families, descended from Hercules by two different 
 branches. Sparta, in its beginning, was always involved in commo- 
 tions and revolts which would infallibly have occasioned its ruin, if the 
 wise foresight of Lycurgus had not prevented the fatal consequences. 
 Lycurgus restored order and peace to Sparta by the establishment of 
 twenty-eight senators, over whom the two kings presided. At length, 
 to prevent an abuse of power, a curb w T as given to it by the nomination 
 of five Ephori, who were elected out of the people. Their office lasted 
 only one year ; and they had authority not only over the senators, but 
 over the kings themselves. 
 
 The power of the kings was extremely limited, especially in time 
 of peace. In war they had the command of the fleets and armies ; and 
 at that time greater authority. There must have been much wisdom in 
 the laws established by Lycurgus, because, as long as they were obeyed, 
 no commotions or seditions of the people were known. The reason 
 assigned is, that in Sparta the law governed with sovereign authority, 
 while many other Grecian cities were abandoned to the arbitrary and 
 irregular sway of private men or despotic power. 
 
 To preserve the Spartan laws without change, particular care was 
 taken to educate the youth according to the laws and manners of the 
 country. The hard and sober manner in which they were brought up, 
 inspired them during the rest of their lives with habits of frugality and 
 temperance, and prepared them for supporting the fatigues of war. 
 From Sparta were banished drunkenness, debauchery, and their conse- 
 quent disorders. Their children were accustomed from their infancy to 
 an entire submission to the laws, to magistrates, and all in authority. 
 Not only the poor and the ordinary citizens, but the rich and powerful 
 also were subject to the same obedience. To this entire submission to 
 the laws of the state Lycurgus added another principle, which removed 
 from Sparta all luxury, profusion, and magnificence, which decried 
 riches and made poverty honourable. 
 
 The epoch of the declension of Sparta began with the violation of 
 Lycurgus's laws. No sooner had the ambition of reigning over all 
 Greece acquainted them with the design of naval armies and foreign 
 troops, and that money was necessary for the support of these forces, 
 than the way was prepared for changes which were ultimately the cause 
 of their ruin. 
 
 It is well known that Lycurgus had formed his plan upon the model 
 of the laws in the island of Crete. Minos, whom fable calls the son 
 of Jupiter, was the author of these laws. He lived about 100 years 
 before the Trojan war. He was a powerful, wise, and gentle prince ; 
 and still more estimable for his moral virtues than for his military abili- 
 ties. The end he proposed in the establishment of these laws was, to 
 
 From whom were the Heraelides descended? — Was the power of the kings 
 much limited ? — What was their mode of educating the young? — Upon whose 
 model did Lycurgus form his laws? 
 
128 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 render his subjects happy by making them virtuous. He banished idle- 
 ness and voluptuousness from his states, and with them luxury and 
 vicious pleasures. He endeavoured to establish a kind of equality 
 amongst them, to remove all envy and dissension. He did not make 
 any new division of the lands, nor prohibit the use of gold and silver. 
 
 He decreed that the children should be brought up and educated 
 together, that they might learn the same principles and maxims. Their 
 life was hard and sober; they were accustomed to suffer heat and cold ; 
 to skirmish with each other; to suffer courageously ; and were so edu- 
 cated that, even in tbeir diversions, everything might form them for 
 war. They were made to learn certain airs of music, but of a manly 
 and martial kind. They excelled in drawing the bow ; and as to 
 archery and light-armed soldiers, fit to execute the stratagems of war, 
 the Cretans pretended to hold the foremost rank. 
 
 Minos, as well as Lycurgus, is reproached with having no other view 
 in his laws than war, which is a great fault in a legislator. But he 
 ordained that war should only be made for the sake of peace. Among 
 the Cretans, the cultivation of the mind was not entirely neglected ; the 
 youth received some tincture of learning. 
 
 One of Minos's regulations, and which Plato admired the most, was 
 to inspire youth with a high respect for the maxims, customs, and laws 
 of the state, and not to suffer them to call in question the wisdom of 
 these institutions. 
 
 The government of Crete was at first monarchical, but the authority 
 of king was of no long duration ; and it gave place to a republican form, 
 as Minos had intended. The senate composed the state council ; but 
 the public affairs were of no force till the people had given them their 
 approbation. The magistrates, to the number of ten, called Cosmi, 
 were the balance between the other two powers. The slaves and mer- 
 cenaries of Crete cultivated the lands. They were called Perioeci. 
 
 Minos committed to his brother Rhadamanthus a share in the admi- 
 nistration of justice in the capital city, and another minister had the 
 care of the other cities. Crete, under so wise a legislature, seemed to 
 become the abode of virtue, purit}', and justice; as we may judge from 
 what fable tells us of the honour conferred on Minos and his two bro- 
 thers in making them the judges of the other world. 
 
 The wise laws of Minos did not expire with him, but subsisted in 
 all their vigour even in Plato's time, that is, more than 900 years 
 after. Notwithstanding this solid merit, the theatres of Athens re- 
 sounded with nothing so much as imprecations against the memory of 
 Minos. This was owing to an unjust and cruel tribute he imposed 
 upon them, in obliging them to send him every nine years seven young 
 men and as many maids to be devoured by the Minotaur. But this was 
 exacted by the grandson of the first Minos. Theseus put an end to 
 this tribute by killing the Minotaur. 
 
 It is true that the Cretans degenerated much from their ancient repu- 
 
 To what habits were the Spartan youths accustomed ? — Wherein did the laws 
 of Minos differ ? — Was not the government of Crete republican ? — What honours 
 were conferred by Jupiter on Minos and Rhadamanthua ? 
 
GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 129 
 
 tation, so that to Cretise became a proverb among the Greeks, implying 
 to lie and to deceive.* St. Paul cites against them, as truth, the testi- 
 mony of one of their ancient poets, (believed to be Epimenides,) who 
 paints them in colours much to their dishonour. But this change of 
 manners does not affect the probity of the ancient Cretans, nor the glory 
 of Minos their king. 
 
 CHAPTER 22. 
 GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 
 
 The government of Athens was neither so permanent nor so uniform 
 as that of Sparta. Athens, after having long been governed by kings, 
 and afterwards by archon.s, assumed entire liberty; which gave place, 
 however, for some years, to the tyrannic power of the Pisistratidae, but 
 was soon after re-established, and subsisted with splendour till the de- 
 feat in Sicily, and the taking of the city by the Lacedaemonians. These 
 subjected them to thirty tyrants, whose authority was not of long dura- 
 tion, and gave place again to liberty. In that state it continued, amidst 
 various events, during a series of years, till the Roman power had sub- 
 dued Greece and reduced it to a province. 
 
 Solon was the first who established the popular government at 
 Athens. Theseus, long before him, had traced out the plan, and began 
 the execution of it. After having united the twelve towns into one 
 city, he divided the inhabitants into three bodies — that of the nobility, 
 to whom the superintendence in religious affairs and all offices was 
 confided — the labourers or husbandmen, and the artizans. But Athens, 
 to speak correctly, did not become a popular state, till the establish- 
 ment of the nine archons, whose authority continued only.for one year — 
 before that, it was for ten; and it was not till many years after, that 
 Solon, by the wisdom of his laws, instituted and confirmed this form 
 of government. 
 
 Solon's great principle was to establish, as much as possible, a kind 
 of equality among his citizens ; which he regarded as the foundation 
 of liberty. He therefore resolved, while he left the public employ- 
 ments in the hands of the rich, to give the poor some share in the go- 
 vernment, from which they had been excluded. For this reason he 
 made an estimate of what each individual was worth. Those who had 
 an annual revenue of 500 measures, as well in grain as in liquid things, 
 were placed in the first class. The second class was composed of such 
 as had 300 ; and those of 200 measures were in the third class. Out 
 of these three classes only, the magistrates were chosen. The citizens 
 below these were denominated hirelings, or workmen, labouring with 
 their hands. These held no office, they had the right only of giving 
 their suffrages in the assemblies and trials of the people. 
 
 * Titus i. 12. The Cretans are always liars, &c. 
 
 Had not the Cretans degenerated in the times of St. Paul? — What changes oc- 
 curred in the government of Athens ? — What is said of the plans of Theseus and 
 Solon ? — Mention the qualifications for Solon's classes. 
 
130 HISTORY OF CREECE. 
 
 But the people of Athens became more haughty after their victories 
 over the Persians ; pretending to have a right to share in all the public 
 offices ; and Aristides, to prevent the disorders which too tenacious 
 opposition might have occasioned, thought proper to yield to them. 
 The citizens of the first three classes paid certain sums into the public 
 treasury, and the proportion of revenue determined the order of the 
 classes. Solon revived and reformed also two councils ; the first was 
 that of the Areopagus : he gave it new lustre by augmenting its power. 
 The second was the Council of the Four Hundred, that is an hundred 
 out of each tribe ; for Cecrops, the first king of the Athenians, had 
 divided the people into four tribes. Calisthenes, long after him, changed 
 that order, and established ten. It was in this Council of the Four 
 Hundred all affairs were considered before they were proposed to the 
 assembly of the people. 
 
 With respect to the inhabitants of Athens, there were three sorts, citi- 
 zens, strangers, and servants. In the account taken by Demetrius Pha- 
 lereus, (B. C. 314,) the number amounted to 21,000 citizens, 10,000 
 strangers, and 40,000 servants. The number of citizens was almost 
 the same in the time of Cecrops, and less under Pericles. A citizen 
 could only be such by birth or by adoption. To be a natural denizen 
 of Athens, it was necessary to be born of a father and mother both free 
 and Athenians. The freedom of the city was also conferred, in honour 
 and gratitude, to strangers who had rendered great services to the state, 
 as to Hippocrates. Even kings have sometimes canvassed that title for 
 themselves and their children. Evagoras, king of Cyprus, thought it 
 much to his honour. 
 
 When the young men attained the age of twenty, they were enrolled 
 upon the list of citizens, after having taken an oath never to dishonour 
 the profession of arms, but always to fight for their religion and civil 
 interests, and submit to the laws, &c, to which they call the gods to 
 witness. 
 
 By the strangers of Athens are meant those who came from a foreign 
 country to settle in Attica, for the purpose of commerce or trade. 
 They had no share in the government, nor votes in the assembly of the 
 people, nor could they be admitted into any office. They paid a yearly 
 tribute, and in default were made slaves. Xenocrates, the celebrated, 
 but poor philosopher, for such default was sent to prison ; but Lycur- 
 gus, the orator, having paid the tax, released him from the farmers of 
 the public revenues. The generous act of Lycurgus was publicly 
 extolled ; and Xenocrates meeting, some time after, the sons of his 
 deliverer, told them, " I pay your father the favour he has done me 
 with usury ; for the world praises him on my account." 
 
 What changes took place after they had conquered the Persians? — What was 
 the census of Athens, B. C. 314, as taken by Demetrius Phalerins, Cecrops, and 
 Pericles? — Who were deemed natural denizens of Athens? — At what age were 
 the oalhs taken by the young citizens? — Who were comprehended under the 
 term strangers ? — What said Xenocrates to the sons of Lycurgus ? 
 
GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 131 
 
 CHAPTER 23. 
 GOVERNMENT OF ATHENS. 
 
 Of Servants there were two kinds — the one, who were free, whose 
 condition was easy ; the other were slaves, who had either been born 
 such, or who had been taken prisoners of war. The masters could dis- 
 pose absolutely of their slaves, though they were generally treated 
 with great humanity. Whenever they were treated with ricrour and 
 inhumanity, they had their action against their masters, and if the fact 
 was proved, they could ransom themselves without their masters' con- 
 sent, when they had laid up money enough for the purpose. Persons, 
 when satisfied with their service, often gave their slaves liberty, and 
 the same acknowledgment was granted them by the public. The 
 humane, equitable usage with which the Athenians treated their ser- 
 vants and slaves, was an effect of the good temper natural to that 
 people ; and very remote from the austere and cruel severity of the 
 Lacedaemonians. 
 
 The Council or Senate of Four Hundred, which Solon instituted, 
 was increased by Calisthenes, about a hundred years after, to five hun- 
 dred. They were chosen by lot, in which they made use of black and 
 white beans. If the number of white beans carried it, that question 
 passed, otherwise not. The senators, before assembling, offered a 
 sacrifice to Jupiter, and to Minerva, as the goddess of good council, 
 asking for prudence and understanding necessary in such wise delibe- 
 rations. After a question had been settled, it was read aloud. Each 
 senator then gave his vote by scrutiny, in putting a bean into each urn. 
 This sort of decree was only a preparatory resolution. It was after- 
 wards laid before the assembly of the people, where, if it was received 
 and approved, it had the force of a law ; — if not, its authority subsisted 
 only for a year. This may show with what wisdom Solon fixed the 
 inconstancy of that people, and how judiciously he contrived to sup- 
 port a wise balance between the different bodies. 
 
 The council of the Areopagus took its name from the place where it 
 assembled, called the Quarter or Hill of Mars. It was believed to be 
 as ancient as the nation, though Cicero and Plutarch attribute the in- 
 stitution of it to Solon ; but he only re-established it. The number of 
 the senators of the Areopagus was not fixed ; at certain times they 
 amounted to two or three hundred. Solon purposed that they only who 
 had borne the office of Archon, should be honoured with that dignity. 
 The orators here were not permitted to excite the passions, but were 
 obliged to confine themselves to the subject matter in dispute. The 
 senate held their sittings in an open place, and during the night. The 
 affairs of religion, the introduction of new ceremonies and new di- 
 vinities were brought before this tribunal. We read in Justin Martyr, 
 that Plato, who in his travels in Egypt had acquired new light concern- 
 
 What were the different kinds nf servants? — How was ihe Council chosen ? — 
 What their number ? — What subjects were discussed in the Areopagus? 
 
132 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 ing the unity of God, when he returned, concealed his sentiments, fear- 
 ing to appear before the Areopagus ; and we know that St. Paul was 
 accused before them, as teaching a new doctrine, and endeavouring to 
 introduce new gods. 
 
 Of the magistrates, a great number were established for different func- 
 tions. We shall speak principally of the archons ,• they succeeded the 
 kings, and their authority at first continued for life. It was then limited 
 to ten years, and at last reduced to one. Solon found them with the 
 number nine ; he did not abolish their office, but limited their power. 
 The first of these nine magistrates was called, by way of eminence, 
 Archon, and the year was denominated from him. " Under such an 
 Archon such a battle was fought." The second was called the king ; 
 the third polemarch, &c. 
 
 Of the assemblies af the people. There were two sorts, the one ordi- 
 nary, and fixed to certain days — the other extraordinary ; and of these 
 the people were informed by express proclamation. All the people, the 
 poor as well as the rich, had a right to give their suffrages. This as- 
 sembly always began with sacrifices and prayers, to obtain from the 
 gods the knowledge necessary to wise deliberations; and they never 
 failed to add the most terrible imprecations against such as opposed the 
 public good. For trials, there were different tribunals; but appeals 
 mio-ht be brought from all other judges. All the allies were obliged to 
 bring their cause to Athens. The parties either pleaded their cause in 
 person, or employed advocates. The time allowed for the hearing was 
 generally fixed, and a water clock regulated its duration. It is re- 
 markable that a friend was not obliged to give evidence against a 
 friend. 
 
 The authority of the Amphictyonic Council had always been of great 
 weight in Greece. Before any were installed into that body, they took 
 a very remarkable oath ; and among other things that, should any at- 
 tempt to steal and take away any of the rich offerings preserved in the 
 temple of Apollo at Delphi, they will use all their powers and faculties 
 to avenge the sacrilege. That oath was attended by the most terrible 
 imprecations; and, knowing this, I am not astonished that the holy 
 war, undertaken by the order of the Amphictyons, should be carried on 
 with so much ardour. 
 
 From the moment, however, that Philip of Macedon was admitted 
 into their body, he set himself above all law, and abused his power. 
 This Demosthenes, in his third Philippic, reproaches him with. " When 
 he does not deign to honour us with his presence, he sends his slaves to 
 reign over us." 
 
 The Revenues of Athens amounted, in the time of the Peloponnesian 
 war, to about 2,000 talents. They were reduced to four kinds: 1st. 
 The revenues arising from agriculture, the sale of woods, the produce 
 of mines, the duties on the import and export of merchandize, and the 
 taxes levied upon the city and its inhabitants. 
 
 What were the Archons; their office, their number, &c. ? — Did not the assem- 
 blies begin with sacrifice and prayer? — Could the parties plead their own cause? 
 — What is said of the Amphictyonic council? — What waB the revenue of Athene 
 
EDUCATION OF THE GREEKS. 133 
 
 The history of Athens often mentions the silver mines of Laurium, 
 a mountain, situated between the Piraeus and Cape Sunium, and those 
 of Thrace, from whence many persons extracted immense riches. The 
 second species of revenue were the contributions paid the Athenians by 
 the allies for the common expenses of the war. Under Aristides they 
 amounted to 460 talents. Pericles augmented them almost a third, and 
 raised them to 600, and some time after they were raised to 1,300. A 
 third sort of revenue were the extraordinary capitation taxes, raised 
 on pressing occasions and emergencies of state. 
 
 CHAPTER 24. 
 EDUCATION AND MILITARY INSTITUTIONS OF THE GREEKS. 
 
 Of the education of youth, and the exercises for forming their bodies 
 and minds, may be mentioned dancing, music, fencing, riding, polite 
 learning, and philosophy. 
 
 Dancing was cultivated by the Athenians with great attention. It 
 made a part of what the ancients called the Gymnastic ; divided, ac- 
 cording- to Plato, into two kinds ; the Orchestric, (0^ekj(9ox, voltare,) 
 which takes its name from the dance, and Palestric, (ria^,) so called 
 from a Greek word signifying wrestling. The exercises of the latter 
 kind conduced to form the body for the fatigues of war, navigation, 
 agriculture, &c. Dancing taught the rules of motion, and contributed 
 to the ease and gracefulness of the figure. 
 
 Music was cultivated with no less solicitude. The ancients ascribed 
 wonderful effects to it. They believed it proper to calm the passions, 
 and soften the manners, and contribute to humanize the barbarous. 
 Polybius, a grave historian, attributes the extreme difference between 
 two people of Arcadia to the influence of music. The one esteemed for 
 the elegance of their manners, humanity to strangers, and piety to the 
 gods ; the other, on the contrary, hated for their malignity, brutality, 
 and irreligion. Socrates himself, in an advanced age, was not ashamed 
 to learn to play on an instrument. But the license of the Grecian stage, 
 which made use of both dancing and music to excite the vicious pas- 
 sions, soon corrupted the art, and the theatre became a school of vice. 
 
 It is probable, however, that the wisest and greatest characters 
 among them did not apply themselves to these arts with any great 
 industry. " Are you not ashamed," said Philip to his son Alexander, 
 *.* Are you not ashamed to sing so well 1" 
 
 The other exercises of the body all the Greeks were very assiduous in 
 performing. The places allotted for these exercises they called Palaes- 
 tra or Gymnasia. These rendered the body more supple, active, hardy, 
 and robust; more capable of bearing fatigue, and effecting great enter- 
 prises. There were masters who taught the youth to ride, to handle 
 
 What other species of revenue? — In what did ihe several exercises consist? — 
 What of dancing > — Was not the study of music and dancing at length said to 
 corrupt the morals of youth ? : — and why I — What said king Philip to his son Alex- 
 ander ? — Name the other manly exercises and pursuits. 
 12 
 
134 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 tlx'ir arms, or fence. Even hunting was considered by the ancients as 
 a fit. exercise for forming youth for the stratagems and fatigues of war. 
 
 Athens, too, was the school and the abode of polite learning. Poetry, 
 eloquence, philosophy, and mathematics, were there greatly cultivated. 
 Hence proceeded the universal fine taste of Athens, where (as history 
 informs us) a simple herb-woman distinguished Theophrastus to be a 
 stranger from the expression of a single word. To the study of rheto- 
 ric-, they annexed that of Philosophy, under which may be comprised 
 all the sciences. 
 
 The Grecians were of all times warlike. During the Trojan war, 
 Greece signalized her valour in battle, and acquired fame by her bra- 
 Y' tv. This expedition, however, was no more than the cradle of her 
 infant glor\-. In these early times there were in Greece several repub- 
 lics; neighbours by situation, but extremely remote in customs, laws, 
 and particular interests. This difference proved a perpetual source of 
 divisions. Two cities distinguished themselves above the rest, Sparta 
 and Athens ; in consequence of which, they either successively or 
 together, held the empire of Greece through a long series of time. 
 Thebes disputed this honour with them for some years, by surprising 
 acts of valour, which had something of prodigy in them — a short-lived 
 blaze of exceeding splendour, which soon disappeared, and left that 
 City in its original obscurity. 
 
 All the laws of Sparta and institutions of Lycurgus seem to have 
 had no other object than war. All other employments were prohibited 
 among them. Arts, polite learning, sciences, trades, and even hus- 
 bandry itself had no share in their applications; from their earliest 
 infancy no other taste was instilled into them but for arms ; but among 
 the Athenians and the other states of Greece, arts, trades, husbandry, 
 commerce, and navigation, were held in honour, and were thought no 
 obstacle to the valour and knowledge necessary for war. The famous 
 battle of Marathon infinitely heightened their courage ; and the battle 
 of Salamis raised them to the highest pitch of glory. 
 
 With respect to the different kinds of troops, both Sparta and Athens 
 had four sorts — citizens, allies, mercenaries, and slaves. The soldiers 
 were sometimes marked in the hand, to distinguish them from the 
 slaves, who had that character impressed on their foreheads. The 
 Spartans never marched without Helots : in the battle of Plataea, every 
 citizen had seven. The infantry consisted of two kinds of soldiers. 
 The one were heavy armed, and carried great bucklers, lances, half- 
 pikes, and scimitars; the other, light armed, with bows and slings. 
 These were commonly placed in the front of the battle, or upon the 
 wings, as a first line, to shoot their arrows, and sling their javelins and 
 stones at the enemy ; then they retired through the intervals behind the 
 battalions, as a second line, and continued their volleys. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians did not begin to use cavalry till after the war 
 with Messene. It was still more rare among the Athenians. After 
 the war with the Persians, the Athenians had no more than 300 horse, 
 
 What is sail of the puriiv of their speech ' — Which two citi< s parlk ulurly dis- 
 linguisbed themselves? — Mention the different kind of Grecian troops. 
 
CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. 135 
 
 but increased them at length to 1,200. In naval affairs the Athenians 
 were much superior to the Lacedaemonians, and to all the other states of 
 Greece. The ships were of two kinds ; the one rowed with oars, 
 which were ships of war, — the other carried sails, and were vessels of 
 burden for commerce and transports. But both kinds sometimes made 
 use of oars and sails together. The ships of w T ar are often cailed long 
 ships, by authors, by which they are distinguished from vessels of bur- 
 den. Some long ships had only one rank of oars on each side ; others 
 had two, three, four, five, &c. Those most commonly used in the bat- 
 tles of the ancients carried from three to five ranks or benches of oars ; 
 and were called triremes, quinqneremes, &c. The rostrum, or beak of 
 the prow, was that part of the vessel of which much use was made in 
 sea fio-hts. The beaks at a single blow often sunk the triremes. Two 
 sorts of people served on board the galleys; 1st. the rem? ges, or rowers, 
 and the nautas, or mariners; 2d. the soldiers intended for the fight. 
 
 This regulation was, however, a modern one. He who took care of 
 the whole crew, and commanded the vessel, was called nauclerus, and 
 was the principal officer ; the second was the gubernator, or pilot. 
 The pay of those who served in these ships varied much at different 
 times. When young Cyrus arrived in Asia, it was only three oboli, 
 which was half a drachm, or five pence ; and the treaty between the 
 Persians and Lacedaemonians was concluded on this foot. Cyrus, at 
 Lysander's request, added to that pay a fourth, which made it sixpence 
 half-penny a day, and on extreme occasions it was raised to a whole 
 drachm, or ten pence. The same may be said of the land troops that 
 has been said of the seamen, except that the horse had double their pay. 
 
 CHAPTER 25. 
 CHARACTER OF THE ATHENIANS. 
 
 If it be asked how the Lacedaemonians, with their iron coin, which 
 would pass nowhere else, could maintain armies — doubtless they raised 
 their resources as did the Athenians, by contributions from their allies ; 
 and still more from the cities to which they gave liberty and protection, 
 or from those they had conquered from their enemies. Their second 
 fund for paying their fleets and armies, was the aid they sometimes 
 drew from the king of Persia. 
 
 The peculiar character of the Athenians may be worth briefly notic- 
 ing. Plutarch says, " they were easily provoked to anger, and as easily 
 induced to resume their sentiments of benevolence and compassion." 
 Of this truth history supplies numerous exumples — the sentence of 
 death passed on the inhabitants of Mitylene, and revoked the next day ; 
 the condemnation of the ten generals, and that of Socrates, both followed 
 by extreme repentance, and the most lively grief. 
 
 They were better pleased with penetrating, and almost guessing at 
 
 Did the Spartans, in early times, use cavalry? — Which state was superior in 
 naval warfare ? — What was the pay of the troops ? — How did the Lacedsemoni- 
 ar.s, with their iron coin, maintain armies I — What was the peculiar character of 
 the Athenians ? 
 
13G HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 an affair themselves, than with taking the pains to be informed tho- 
 roughly respecting it in all its extent. Artificers, husbandmen, soldiers, 
 mariners, &c, are generally slow in their conceptions, but the people 
 of Athens had great penetration, vivacity, and even delicacy of wit. 
 \\ e have already spoken of Theophrastus. He was cheapening some- 
 thing of an old woman at Athens, that sold herbs. " No, Mr. Stranger," 
 said she, " you shall have it for no less." He was surprised to see 
 himself treated as a stranger, who had passed almost his whole life at 
 Athens, and who prided himself in the elegance of his language. The 
 Athenian soldiens knew the finest passages of Euripides by heart. The 
 artificers and common people, from their frequency in public assemblies, 
 were generally versed in affairs of state. Of this we may judge from 
 the orations of Demosthenes, whose style, we know, is ardent, brief, 
 and concise. 
 
 They were attentive to the rules of politeness and benevolence. In 
 the war against Philip of Macedon, having intercepted one of his cour- 
 tiers, they read all the letters he carried except that to Olympias his 
 wife, which they returned sealed up and unopened, out of regard to 
 conjugal love and secrec)\ The same Athenians having decreed that 
 a strict search should be made after the presents distributed by Harpa- 
 lus among the orators, would not suffer the house of Calicles, who had 
 lately been married, to be visited, out of respect for his bride, not long 
 brought home. Such behaviour is indicative of true politeness. 
 
 It was glorious for Athens to have formed so many excellent persons 
 in the art of war and government. In philosophy, eloquence, poetry, 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture, Athens formed a greater number 
 of each kind than any other city in the world, if perhaps we may ex- 
 cept Rome, which had imbibed learning and arts from her. 
 
 The last attribute of the Athenians, which we shall mention, is their 
 ardent love of liberty. In the war with the Persians, they sacrificed 
 every thing for the liberty of Greece, and they answered the Persians, 
 by the mouth of Aristides, that all the gold and silver in the world 
 would not be able to purchase the liberty of Greece. 
 
 The Lacedaemonians, though possessing contrary qualities in many 
 respects, were equally tenacious of liberty. No people could have more 
 wit than the Athenians, nor more solid sense than the Lacedaemonians. 
 
 CHAPTER 26. 
 
 RISE OF THE THEBAN POWER. — PELOPIDAS — EPAMINONDAS. 
 
 The peace of Antalcides, of which mention has been made, excited 
 in the Grecian states much division and discontent. In consequence 
 of that treaty, the Thebans were obliged to abandon the cities of 
 
 Wherein did the Athenians differ from other Grecians ? — And what is men- 
 tioned to prove the purity of their language? — What proofs are adduced of their 
 politeness and delicacy? — What praise is due more particularly to Athens ? — 
 What reply did Aristides give to the Persians? — How do you discriminate be- 
 tween ihe Athenians and the Lacedaemonians ? — What peace excited discontent? 
 — Who were the Spartan kings { 
 
RISE OF THE THEBAN POWER. 137 
 
 Boeotia, and let them enjoy their liberty ; and the Corinthians, to with- 
 draw their garrison from Argos ; the Mantineans were compelled to 
 demolish the walls of their city, and the Lacedaemonians, who were 
 the authors of these changes, saw their power extremely augmented. 
 The Spartan kings were JJgeaipolis and JIgesilaus, persons of very dif- 
 ferent characters. The first was naturally inclined to peace, and dis- 
 posed to suffer the Grecian cities to enjoy their liberties'; the other was 
 restless, active, full of great views of ambition and conquest. 
 
 Complaint arrived at Sparta that Olynthus, a city of Thrace, was 
 extending her influence and making new conquests on every side. 
 The Lacedaemonians lost no time, and their troops marched directly. 
 Thebes was gained possession of by artifice, and the Olynthians, be- 
 sieged and reduced by the want of provision, were obliged to surren- 
 der. All Bceotia was soon in the power of the Lacedaemonians, and all 
 Greece seemed now subject to them, either by force or alliance. E veil 
 the king of Persia, and the tyrant of Sicily, seemed to emulate each 
 other in courting their friendship. But a prosperity founded in injus- 
 tice is seldom of long duration. The greatest blow that was given to 
 the Spartan power came from the people that had been recently op- 
 pressed. 
 
 Two illustrious citizens of Thebes, Pelopidas and Epaminondas, 
 both descended from noble families, and between whom subsisted a 
 perfect union and friendship, and holding the first offices of state, gave 
 a new face to the affairs of Greece. Several campaigns passed be- 
 tween the Thebans and Lacedaemonians without any thing decisive on 
 either side. It was prudent in the Theban general not hastily to hazard 
 a battle till the soldiers had time to become inured and emboldened. 
 When the occasion was favourable, they had a taste of victory, by way 
 of reward. The principal glory of success was due to the generalship 
 of Pelopidas. The engagement at Tegyra, which was a prelude to the 
 battle of Leuctra, added much to his reputation. Having failed in the 
 enterprise against Orchomenos, who had joined the Lacedaemonians at 
 his return, he found the enemy posted to intercept him near Tegyra. 
 As soon as the Thebans perceived them from the defiles, a person ran 
 in haste to Pelopidas, exclaiming, " We are fallen into the enemies' 
 hands." He replied, " Should we not rather say they are fallen into 
 ours ?" And so it proved : for though the Theban forces were not more 
 than two-thirds of the Spartan, the two generals who had charged 
 Pelopidas were presently killed, and the Spartans, after a short con- 
 flict, were dismayed, and fled in disorder. 
 
 This encounter proved the prelude to great actions and events. It 
 had never happened till then, in any war, either with the Persians or 
 Greeks, that the Lacedaemonians, with a superiority of numbers on their 
 side, had been defeated. They now lost that glory ; and the Thebans 
 became the terror and dread of the Grecian states. All Greece being 
 weary of war, deputies were sent to Lacedaemon to concert a general 
 peace ; but, by the influence of Agesilaus, one of the kings of Sparta, 
 
 How did the Lac-edcemonians act towards Thebes ? — Who were the two illus- 
 trious citizens of Thebes I — What king encouraged the war against the Thebans 
 
 12* 
 
138 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 war was determined against the Thebans, who were much alarmed at 
 first, seeing themselves without allies or support, while all Greece 
 looked on them as utterly lost. But Epaminondas, who was a host in 
 himself, was appointed general ; and he had several colleagues joined 
 in commission with him. His army did not amount to more than 6,000 
 foot, and 400 horse, while the enemy had above four times that num- 
 ber. He was supported by Pelopidas at the head of the sacred batta- 
 lion. 
 
 In the battle, Cleombrotus, the Spartan general, died of his wounds; 
 and the Thebans, after a long-continued slaughter, completed the vic- 
 tory. The Lacedaemonians had never received such a blow ; they lost 
 4,000 men. The Thebans had only 300 men killed. The Spartans 
 were celebrating at that time their gymnastic exercises, and the city 
 A\as full of strangers; when the couriers arrived from Leuctra with the 
 terrible news of their defeat, the Ephori, though sensible that the Spar- 
 tan power had received a mortal wound, would not suffer the represen- 
 tations to be interrupted. Agesilaus decreed, " That, for the present 
 day, the laws should be suspended." 
 
 The Thebans now entered Peloponnesus, and caused many states to 
 revolt from the Lacedaemonians — Elis, Argos, Arcadia, and the greater 
 part of Laconia itself. They ran through their country with fire and 
 sword without opposition. Parties had been posted by the Spartans to 
 defend the passes. Ischolaus, the Spartan, who defended one of these, 
 finding it impossible, w T ith his small body of troops, to support the 
 enemies' attack, sent away a part of his men, and devoted himself and 
 the few that remained with him, after the example of Leonidas, to the 
 public good ; and, after making a great slaughter of their enemies, they 
 perished to a man. 
 
 Epaminondas approached the Spartan capital. Agesilaus took the 
 command of the city. He was determined not to quit it, nor to hazard 
 a battle. Epaminondas would have been glad to give battle to Sparta. 
 He did not, however, think proper to attempt forcing the city, and not 
 being able to induce Agesilaus to quit it, he retired. 
 
 Not long after, (B. C. 370,) Pelopidas marched against Alexander, 
 tyrant of Pherse, and was killed in battle. His funeral was magnifi- 
 cent, especially in the sincere affliction of the Thebans and Thessalians. 
 Nor were they content with lamenting Pelopidas, but resolved to 
 avenge him. They sent a small army against Alexander, and compelled 
 him to restore the cities he had taken, and to renounce all future con- 
 quests. Alexander was assassinated not long after, in consequence of 
 a conspiracy formed against him by his wife Thebe and her three bro- 
 thers. 
 
 The extraordinary prosperity of Thebes greatly alarmed the neigh- 
 bouring states, and every thing was in motion in Greece. The people 
 of Tegea had called in the Thebans tj their aid ; and the Mantineans, 
 with whom they were at war, had the aid of the Spartans and Atheni- 
 ans. Epaminondas had the command of the Tegean troops; and being 
 
 Relate the success of the Thebans at Leuctra. — What befel Pelopidas and 
 Alexauder of Phene I — i Who called Epaminondas to their aid >. 
 
DEATH OF EPAMINONDAS. 139 
 
 informed that Agesilaus had left Sparta, and was leading his forces for 
 Mantinaia, he left Tegea in the night with his army, intending to take 
 Sparta by surprise, as it had neither walls nor troops for its defence. 
 He began to attack the city in several quarters, and penetrated as far 
 as the public place, and no doubt but he would have taken the city by 
 surprise, had not Agesilaus been secretly apprised of it, and returned 
 hastily for its defence. Epaminondas, having failed in his aim, return- 
 ed to Tegea, and foreseeing that his command was upon the point of 
 expiring, he held his troops in readiness for battle. 
 
 The Lacedaemonian forces consisted of 20,000 foot and 2,000 horse ; 
 the Theban of 30,000 foot and 3,000 horse. The troops fought on 
 both sides with incredible ardour, the resistance was equally obstinate, 
 and the success of the contest doubtful. Epaminondas made an ex- 
 traordinary effort, without regard to the danger of his person, and re- 
 ceived a mortal wound, with a javelin, in the breast. The conflict was, 
 nevertheless, still vigorously supported, till at length the troops on both 
 sides stood still and rested on their arms, and the trumpets of both armies, 
 as if by consent, sounded a retreat at the same time. Each party pre- 
 tended to the victory, and each erected a trophy. Such was the event 
 of the famous battle of Mantinsea. When Epaminondas was told that 
 the Thebans had gained the victory, and was shown his shield, he se- 
 renely desired his friends not to regard this day as the end of his life, 
 but the beginning of his happiness. " I leave Thebes triumphant, 
 proud Sparta humbled, and Greece delivered from the yoke of servi- 
 tude, &c." Having spoken to this effect, he drew the head of the 
 javelin from the wound, and died. 
 
 With this great man the Theban pow T er expired. Cicero ranks him 
 above all the illustrious men Greece ever produced. Before him, Thebes 
 was not distinguished by any memorable action, and, at his death, it 
 sunk into its original obscurity. Epaminondas sought not power for 
 himself but for his country. His actions were perfectly void of self- 
 interest ; the commands that were conferred upon him w r ere not of his 
 seeking. Spintharus, in giving his character, said, " That he never had 
 met with a man who knew more and spoke less." 
 
 The victory of Leuctra had drawn upon Epaminondas the eyes and 
 admiration of all Greece ; he was beheld as the restorer of Thebes and 
 the triumphant conqueror of Sparta. Epaminondas, little sensible to 
 such a glory, said, " My joy arises from my sense of that which the 
 news of this victory will give my father and mother." Nothing in 
 history seems to me so valuable as such sentiments, proceeding from a 
 heart which neither false glory nor false greatness had corrupted. The 
 Lacedaemonians were never able to recover the reputation and influence 
 which they lost in the Theban war. 
 
 Epaminondas was an exception to the general opinion, that the 
 BoBotians were dull and stupid. Their dullness was imputed to the 
 gross air of the country ; and, on the contrary, the Athenian delicacy 
 
 Relate Ihe events of the battle. — What is the character of Epaminondas ? — 
 What vvus his observation after the victory of Leuctra? — To what was the dull 
 nes3 of the Boeotians ascribed I 
 
140 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 of laste was attributed to the purity of the air they breathed. Pindar 
 and Plutarch, who had very little of the soil in them, are proofs that 
 genius is of all nations. 
 
 CHAPTER 27. 
 
 ARTAXERXES MNEMON UNDERTAKES THE REDUCTION OF 
 
 EGYPT. 
 
 Autaxerxes formed a design of reducing Egypt. Achoris, who then 
 reigned there, and who had given Evagoras, king of Salamis, in the 
 isle of Cyprus, powerful aid against the Persians, foresaw the storm 
 and raised abundance of troops, and took numerous auxiliaries into pay, 
 of whom Chabrias had the command. But the Persians complained to 
 Athens of the appointment, and Chabrias was recalled. The prepara- 
 tions of the Persians went on so slowly that two whole years elapsed 
 before they entered into action. Achoris, king of Egypt, died in that 
 time, and was succeeded by Psammathis, who reigned but one year. 
 Ne^hretitus was the next ; and four months after, Nectanebis, who 
 reigned ten or twelve years. 
 
 At length a Persian camp was formed at Ptolemais, since called 
 Acre, in Palestine, the place appointed for the general rendezvous. — 
 The army consisted of 200,000 Persians, under the command of Phar- 
 nabazus, and 20,000 Greeks, under Iphicrates, and the forces at sea 
 were in proportion to those on land. The war was to open with the 
 siege of Palusium, but so much time had been given to the p]gyptians, 
 that Nectanebis rendered the approach to it impracticable both by sea 
 and land. The Persians, however, found an entrance at another of the 
 mouths of the Nile, called Mendesium, and the fort was carried sword 
 in hand, and no quarter given. Iphicrates purposed, without loss of 
 time, to attack Memphis, the capital of Egypt, and had he done so, it 
 must inevitably have fallen. But Pharnabazus believed it necessary to 
 wait for the concentration of the whole army. Abject jealousy has 
 been ascribed to him as the motive, apprehending that, if the enterprise 
 against Memphis succeeded, the whole glory of the war would redound 
 to Iphicrates. This delay was the preservation of Egypt, and pre- 
 vented the Persians' advance into the country. The inundation of the 
 Nile came on, the Persians returned to Phoenicia, and the best part of 
 their troops were ineffectually lost. 
 
 After the battle of Mantinsea, both parties entered into a general 
 peace with all the states of Greece, by which the enjoyment of its 
 laws and liberties was secured to each city ; and the Messenians wire 
 included in it, notwithstanding the intrigues of the Lacedaemonians to 
 prevent it. 
 
 VV hile this passed in Greece, Tachos, who had ascended the thr< tie 
 of Egypt, in order to defend himself against the king of Persia, invited 
 Agesilaus, king of Sparta, to take the command of the forces. A mis- 
 
 By whom were preparations made against Egypt? — What Egyptian fort did the 
 Persians carry? — Whom did Agesilaus place on the throne ul Egypt? — Wiiut 
 was the age of Agesilaus \ — How long did he reign >. 
 
WARS OF THE PERSIANS. 141 
 
 understanding arising afterwards between him and Tachos, Agesilaus 
 left him, and placed Nectanebis, his cousin, on the throne. On the 
 return of Agesilaus to Lacedsemon, he died at the age of eighty-four 
 years. He had reigned forty-one at Sparta, and had passed as the 
 leader and king of all Greece till the battle of Leuctra. His son Archi- 
 damus succeeded to the throne. 
 
 The end of Artaxerxes' reign abounded with cabals, and the whole 
 court was divided into factions in favour of one or other of his sons. 
 He had many by his concubines, and three by his lawful wife Antossa. 
 To put a stop to these divisions, he declared Darius, the eldest, his 
 successor, and permitted him from thenceforth to assume the title of 
 king. Darius, nevertheless, conspired against his father. But Arta- 
 xerxes having timely notice, Darius and the conspirators were seized, 
 and their lives paid the forfeiture of their crimes. 
 
 Artaxerxes died after a reign of forty-three years, which might he 
 called happy, if it had not been interrupted by so many revolts. Ochus, 
 who succeeded, was the most cruel and wicked of all the princes of 'his 
 race. In a short time the palace and the whole empire were filled with 
 his murders. At one time, 100 of his relations were shut up in a court 
 of the palace and put to death. 
 
 Ochus afterwards turned his thoughts on Egypt, which had revolted, 
 and while preparing for the expedition, he received advice of the revolt 
 of Phoenicia. That people, oppressed by the Persian government, 
 resolved to throw off so heavy a yoke ; and they made a league with 
 Nectanebis, king of Egypt, against whom Persia was marching its 
 armies. As there was no other passage from Persia to Egypt but 
 through Phoenicia, this insurrection was very seasonable for Nectane- 
 bis. He intended to make Phoenicia his barrier. The king approached 
 Sidon, and by treachery, the city was surrendered to him. 
 
 All Phoenicia then submitted to Ochus. The Jews must have had 
 some share in this war of the Phoenicians ; for Sidon was no sooner 
 taken, than Ochus entered Judea, besieged and took Jericho, and car- 
 ried a great number of Jewish captives into Egypt, and sent many 
 others into Hyrcania, where he settled them along the coasts of the 
 Caspian Sea. In his way to Egypt, he reduced the isle of Cyprus, 
 and notwithstanding the vast preparations of Nectanebis, after suffer- 
 ing some severe defeats, and having lost all hope, he escaped with his 
 treasures and best effects into Ethiopia, from whence he never returned. 
 He was the last king of Egyptian race, since which it has continued 
 under a foreign yoke, according to the prediction of Ezekiel. (Ezek. 
 xxix. 14, 15.) 
 
 Ochus having entirely conquered Egypt, dismantled the cities, pil- 
 laged the temples, and returned in triumph to Babylon, laden with 
 spoils, in which were included immense sums of gold and silver. He 
 afterwards abandoned himself to pleasure, leaving the care of his 
 affairs entirely to his ministers. The two principal of them were the 
 
 What revolts did Artaxerxes experience ? — What was the character of Ochus, 
 his successor ? — In what wars was Ochus engaged ? — And with whom ? — What 
 conquests did he make in Phoenicia, Cyprus, &c. ? — What spoils did Ochus carry 
 from Egypt l . 
 
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WAS OF THE ALLIE? AGAINST THE ATHENIAN?. 143 
 
 years of ?-ue. He dared not, indeed, oppose the: in a direct 
 
 manner, lest he should render himself . but he : res .ed 
 
 that it was not consistent with prudence to be precip:. ;o take 
 
 up a resolution upon certain repor furnish so powerful a 
 
 . a just reason to turn his arms against Greece. All that was nee- -- 
 sary now was to fit out a fleet of 300 sail, and also to hold th- 
 in readiness, in case of an attack ; and that the report alone would be 
 sufficient to induce the Persian king, if he had formed such a des a 
 change his measure;. X or was it needful to lay an .immediate tax 
 upon the estates of private persons for the expense of the war. Should 
 the necessity appear, everybody would then be ready to contribute a 
 little, rather than lose their all, &c. This discourse had all the 
 desired. 
 
 Two years after, an enterprise of the Laced smonia _ st Mega- 
 lopolis, a city of Arcadia, gave Demosthenes another oppor. sig- 
 nalize his zeal, and display his eloquence. The Megalcpolitans had 
 recourse to Athens ; the others concerned sent their deputies thither 
 also, and the affair was debated before the people. 
 
 The Athenians, moved by the eloquent address of Demosthenes, sent 
 3.000 foot and 300 horse to the aid of the Megalopolitans, under the 
 command of Pammenes ;* and the : - reinstated in its 
 
 condition. 
 
 The people of Rhodes and Cos, who had been declared free :; 
 Grecian treaty, received the yoke of Mausolus, king of Caria. He 
 died about two years after, having reigned twenty-four years. Arte- 
 missa.~ his wifr. - :ed him; and as she was supported with all 
 
 the influence of the king; of Persia, s ed her power in the is.rS 
 
 lately subjected. This princess immortalized herself by the honour 
 she rendered to the memory of Mausolus. her husband. She caused a 
 magnificent monument to be erected for him in Halicarna — - rich 
 was called the Mausoleum, and for its beauty was esteemed one of the 
 wonders of the world ; and it has given the name of Mausoleum to all 
 srreat and magnificent structures of the kind. She is said also to have 
 gathered his ashes, to have had his bones pounded in a mortar, and to 
 have mingled some of the powder every day in her drink, desiring by 
 that means to make her own body the sepulchre of her husband, 
 survived him onlv two years, and her grief did not end but with her 
 life. 
 
 CHAPTER \ 
 
 PHILIP OF MACEDON. 
 
 Ma .s an hereditary kingdom, situated in ancient Thrace, 
 
 bounded on the south by the mountains of Thessaly. It was formed 
 
 *This is not the Pammenes of Thebes, of whom mention has been made be - 
 
 ' B. CL 354. She nasi not be ' with the that lived about one 
 
 h'j-. a before, and distinguished himself in the time of Xerxes, at the bat; 
 
 Sa'.anirs. 
 
 What events occurred at Megalopolis ! — (Vfaat is recorded of V -nd of 
 
 his queen "' — V. -me of h 
 
144 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 into a kingdom by the aggregation of a considerable number of small 
 tribes. After Philip had conquered part of Thrace and Illyriurn, his 
 dominion extended from the Adriatic sea to the river Styrmon. Edessa 
 was its first capital ; but afterwards Pella, famous for giving birth to 
 Philip and Alexander. 
 
 Philip was the son of Amyntas II., who is reckoned the tenth king 
 of Macedon from Caranus, who had founded that kingdom about 430 
 years before, that is, before Christ 794. The history of all these mo- 
 narchs is sufficiently obscure, and includes little more than several wars 
 with the Illyrians, the Thracians, and other neighbouring states. The 
 kings of Macedon pretended to descend from Hercules by Caranus, and, 
 consequently, to have been Greeks originally. 
 
 Jimyntas, the father of Philip, began to reign B. C. .398. In a con- 
 test with the Olynthians, he sought and received the aid of the Atheni- 
 ans, and this strong alliance was continued after his death with queen 
 Eurydice his widow. 
 
 Philip, one cf the sons of Amyntas, was born the same year in which 
 that monarch declared war against the Olynthians; and this Philip was 
 the father of Alexander the Great. Amyntas died after having reigned 
 twenty-four years. He left three legitimate children whom Eurydice 
 had brought him; viz., Alexander, Perdiccas, and Philip. Alexander 
 succeeded his father, as eldest son ; he reigned but one year. The 
 crown now belonged to Perdiccas, as the elder surviving brother ; but 
 Pausanias, a prince of the blood royal, who had been exiled, disputed 
 it with him. Happily for the new king, Iphicrates was then in that 
 country, whither the Athenians had sent him to make the necessary pre- 
 parations for besieging Amphipolis. Eurydice, hearing of his arrival, 
 requested his assistance against Pausanias. When Iphicrates had ar- 
 rived at the palace, and had seated himself, the afflicted queen, the bet- 
 ter to excite his compassion, took her two children, Perdiccas and Phi- 
 lip, and set the former in the arms, and the latter on the knees of Iphi- 
 crates, and spoke thus — " Remember Iphicrates, that Amyntas, the 
 father of these unhappy orphans, had always a love for your country, 
 and adopted you for his son ; this double tie lays you under a double 
 obligation," &c. Iphicrates, moved by this sight and discourse, ex- 
 pelled the usurper, and restored the lawful sovereign. 
 
 Perdiccas did not long continue in tranquillity. Ptolemy, a natural 
 son of Amyntas, invaded his repose, and claimed the crown. The two 
 brothers preferred their claim to Pelopidas, general of the Thebans, who 
 determined in favour of Perdiccas. And the Theban, having thought 
 it necessary to take pledges on both sides, to oblige the competitors to 
 observe the treaty, among other hostages carried Philip with him to 
 Thebes, where he resided several years. Eurydice, on her parting 
 with this much beloved son, earnestly besought Pelopidas to procure 
 him an education worthy of his birth. Pelopidas placed him with 
 Epaminondas, who had a celebrated Pythagorean philosopher in his 
 
 
 From whom was Philip descended ? — What is related of Philip's sons ? — And 
 what of Eurydice and Iphicrates ? — What occasioned Philip So spend several of 
 ins early years in Thebes ? 
 
THILIP OF 5IACEDON. 145 
 
 house for the education of his son. It is probable that he borrowed 
 from Epaminondas his activity and promptitude in war; but with re- 
 gard to the Theban's many other virtues which rendered him eminently 
 great — his temperance, his justice, his magnanimity, and his clemency; 
 these qualities Philip did not receive from nature, nor did he acquire 
 them \)\ imitation. 
 
 The Thebans were unconscious that they were then forming the most 
 dangerous enemy of Greece.. After Philip had spent nine or ten years 
 in their city, the news of a revolution in Macedon made him resolve to 
 leave Thebes clandestinely* He found the Macedonians had lost their 
 king Perdiccas, who had been killed in battle by the Illyrians ; and he 
 was as much surprised to find that they had as many enemies as neigh- 
 bours. Macedonia at that time wanted a prince to head the government, 
 and had only a child, Amyntas, the son of Perdiccas, and lawful heir 
 of the crown. Philip governed the kingdom for some time, by the title 
 of guardian to the prince ; but the subjects, justly alarmed, deposed the 
 nephew in favour of the uncle. (B. C. 360.) Accordingly Philip, at 
 twenty-four years of age, ascended the throne. 
 
 The new king revived the desponding courage of the Macedonians, 
 and reinstated and disciplined the army, in which he was inflexibly 
 rigid. The ?vIacedonian phalanx, which afterwards became so famous, 
 was of his establishing. Philip, during the first years of his reign, 
 employed his energies in triumphing over his competitors for the throne, 
 in pacifying domestic divisions, and in repelling the attacks of foreign 
 enemies. But he will now appear in another character. Sparta and 
 Athens had weakened each other by their reciprocal divisions, which 
 gave Thebes the opportunity of regaining its former grandeur. But the 
 wars had weakened Thebes also, which gave Philip an occasion of 
 aspiring, in his turn, to the sovereignty of Greece. And as a politician, 
 he considered how he might extend his frontiers, reduce his neighbours, 
 and introduce himself into the affairs of Greece, share in its intestine 
 feuds, make himself its arbiter, join with one side to destroy the other, 
 and obtain the empire over all. 
 
 In the execution of this great design, he spared neither artifices, open 
 force, presents, nor promises. He seized upon Amphipolis, and made 
 it one of the strongest barriers in his kingdom. He possessed himself 
 of Pydna and Potidea, and also of Cremides, which he called by his 
 own name Philippi. It was near this city that he opened a gold mine, 
 which every year produced upwards of 1,000 talents, that is, about 
 144,000/. sterling, and Philip first caused gold to be coined there. By 
 this fund he was enabled to maintain powerful armies, and to bribe 
 persons of influence in the cities of Greece. It is said, that, consult- 
 ing the oracle of Delphi, he received the following answer: — 
 " Make coin thy weapons, and thou'lt conquer all." 
 
 And he scrupled not to own that he had carried more places by money 
 than by arms ; that he never forced a gate till after having attempted to 
 
 On what occasion did Philip return to Macedon? — Was he the rightful heir to 
 the throne ?— Did he not aspire to the sovereignty of Greece '/ — What were the 
 means he employed ? 
 
146 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 open it with a golden key ; and that he did not think any fortress im- 
 pregnable into which a mule laden with silver could find entrance. 
 
 Philip had married Olympias, daughter of Neoptolemus, by whom 
 he had Alexander, surnamed the Great. Philip was absent from his 
 kingdom at the time of his birth, and on the same day the news was 
 brought him, he received information that he had carried the prize in 
 the Olympic games, and that Parmenio, one of his generals, had gained 
 a great victory over the Ulyrians. The king was alarmed at so great a 
 happiness, which the heathens deemed the omen of some mournful ca- 
 tastrophe, and he exclaimed, " Great Jupiter, in return for so many 
 blessings, send me some slight misfortune." 
 
 CHAPTER 30. 
 THE SACRED WAR. 
 
 Discord, (B. C. 355,) which excited in the Greeks dispositions not 
 very remote from open rupture, broke out with great violence upon ac- 
 count of the Phocians. These people who inhabited the territories ad- 
 jacent to Delphi, ploughed up certain lands that were sacred to Apollo, 
 and which were thereby profaned. The neighbouring people exclaimed 
 against them as guilty of sacrilege. The war that broke out on this 
 occasion was called the Sacred War, as undertaken from a religious mo- 
 tive. It lasted ten years. The people guilty of this profanation were 
 summoned to appear before the Amphictyons, or states general of 
 Greece ; and on investigation the Phocians were declared sacrilegious, 
 and were sentenced to pay a heavy fine. On Sparta, also, they laid a 
 fine for having seized the citadel of Thebes. 
 
 Philomelus, one of their chief citizens, having proved from some 
 verses of Homer that the sovereignty of Delphi belonged anciently to 
 the Phocians, excited them to take up arms against the decree of the 
 Amphictyons, and was appointed their general. He immediately ap- 
 plied to Sparta, to engage them to his interest, as the Spartans were 
 much disgusted at the sentence which that court had pronounced against 
 themselves. Archedamus, one of the kings of Sparta, promised to as- 
 sist them with money, and to furnish them secretly with troops. 
 
 Philomelus began by attacking the temple of Delphi, of which he 
 possessed himself without any difficulty. The Locrians, a people in 
 the neighbourhood of Delphi, took up arms against him, and were de- 
 feated in several encounters. Philomelus entered the temple, tore from 
 the pillars the decree of the Amphictyons against the Phocians, and 
 proclaimed throughout Greece that he had no design to seize the riches 
 of the temples, and that his sole view was to restore to the Phocians 
 their ancient rights and privileges. And as it was desirable to have a 
 sanction from the god who presided at Delphi, the priestess, terrified by 
 
 Whom did Philip marry 1 — What occurred at the birth of" his son Alexander ? — 
 What occasioned the sacred war' — What power did Philomelus prevail upon 
 lo aid him ( — vJi' what temple did he possess hirnselt ; — What devastations did he 
 make ? 
 
THE SACRED WAR. 147 
 
 his menaces, replied "That the god permitted him to do whatever he 
 
 Sh The A^c^~ declared war against the Phocians and most 
 of the Greek nations became parties in the quarrel on one side or the, 
 other? The Boeotians, the Locrians, Thessahans and others opposed 
 the Phocians, while Athens, Sparta and other cities of Peloponnesus 
 ioLed them. Philomelus had not yet touched the treasures of the 
 temple but he afterwards thought that they could not be better em- 
 ployed han in the deity's defence. The Thebans having in a skirmish 
 Sn several prisoners, condemned them all to die as sacrilegious 
 wretches. The Phocians did the same by way of reprisal. 
 
 Philomelus, being closely pressed in an engagement from which 
 there was no' retreading, th?ew himself from a rock and penshed. to 
 avoid the torments which would have been inflicted by his enemies. 
 Onomarchns was his successor, and took upon himself the command of 
 the forces. Philip thought it most for his interest to remain neu ter.- 
 It was consistent with his policy, who had but little regard foi -religion 
 or the interests of Apollo, not to engage in a war by wh ch he could reap 
 no benefit He wasno doubt planned to see both parties weaken each 
 
 0t Bein«r desirous of subduing Thrace, he besieged and took Methone 
 and razed it. In this encounter he lost an eye. Philip marched into 
 Thessalv, which had implored his assistance against .the tyrants. Ono- 
 marchus^'in a second engagement with Philip, was slain and his army 
 entirely defeated. By the success of this expedition, Philip acquired 
 ?be Xtien of the Lallans, whose excellent -valry, joine^ t > Urn 
 Macedonian phalanx, had afterwards so great a share in his victories 
 
 an phayli e us! whVsucceeded his brother Onomarchns, from the immense 
 riches he had found in the temple raised a numerous army, and sup- 
 norted by the troops of the Lacedemonians, Athenians, and the other 
 ^lles /e went in'to Bceotia and invaded the Thebans . ™*^ 
 seized with a sudden disorder, died, and was succeeded by Pbalecus 
 ?hen v^ry youncr, the son of Onomarchns. Mnaseas, a man of great 
 experience/was appointed his counsellor. Phalecus, like his prede- 
 es h in. plundered the temple, and by that means enriched his 
 friends the PhoLns became alarmed, and called those to account who 
 had any concern with the public moneys. Upon this Phalecus was de- 
 ptran d nC upon full inqfiry it was found that * ere ad been taken 
 
 force, and he returned into Macedon. __ 
 
 "What sta.es declared war <g***S*^^ffL'S2&Eu 
 
 cessful ? 
 
3 48 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 The ambitious designs of Philip gave rise also to the orations of De- 
 mosthenes. The Athenians became the king's most powerful opposers. 
 But Athens at that time was not what it was in the days of the battles 
 of Marathon and Salamis. They had no longer the same maxims, nor 
 the same zeal for the public good. To those glorious days had suc- 
 ceeded a fondness for repose, an indolence with regard to public affairs, 
 an aversion to military fatigues, and a fondness for the profusion of the 
 public treasures, in games and shows. 
 
 Demosthenes exerted his eloquence to stimulate the Athenians to 
 make a powerful resistance. This is the subject of his orations called 
 his Philippics. Demades, on the contrary, bribed by Philip's gold, 
 opposed the advice of Demosthenes, but in vain. Chares was sent 
 with chosen troops for the protection of Olynthus ; but the year follow- 
 ing, (B.C. 348,) Philip possessed himself of the place. Neither the 
 succours nor the efforts of the Athenians could defend it against its 
 domestic enemies. It was betrayed by two of its most eminent citi- 
 zens, in actual employment at that time. 
 
 CHAPTER 31. 
 
 SIEGE OF PERINTHUS — BATTLE OF CrLERONE A — BANISHMENT 
 
 OF ^ESCHINES. 
 
 Philip carried on the siege of Perinthus with great vigour. He had 
 30,000 troops, and also military engines of all kinds. He had raised 
 towers eighty cubits high, which far outstripped those of the Perinthi- 
 ans, whose foundations he shook by subterraneous mines, and beat 
 down their walls with his battering-rams. The inhabitants of Byzan- 
 tium sent the Perinthians all the succours necessary. The Asiatic 
 satraps, or governors, by the king's order, whose assistance the Athe- 
 nians had requested, likewise threw forces into the place. Philip 
 dreaded the power of the Athenians, and addressed to them an artful 
 letter, which is a masterpiece in the original, so that what was said 
 of Caesar might be justly applied to Philip, " that he handled the pen 
 as well as he did the sword." His letter did him as much service as a 
 good manifesto, and gave his pensioners in Athens a fine opportunity 
 of justifying him to the people. 
 
 Demosthenes, sensible how needful it was to erase as soon as possi- 
 ble these impressions, ascended the tribunal, and boldly and firmly 
 rebutted both Philip and his orators. At the very time this was de- 
 bating, news was brought of the shameful reception Chares had met 
 with in aiding the Byzantians ; and, as Chares was a general without 
 great military knowledge, Phocion was appointed to the command of a 
 body of fresh troops ; and the Byzantians, on his arrival, opened their 
 gates to him with joy, and lodged his soldiers in their houses, as their 
 own brothers and children. 
 
 What gave rise (o the orations of Demosthenes ? — What change had taken 
 place in the Athenians ? — What orator opposed Demosthenes ? — Describe Philip's 
 siege of Perinthus, and his artful address to the Athenians. — Did not Demosthenes 
 rebut Philip's orators ? 
 
MACHINATIONS OF PHILIP 149 
 
 Struck with the confidence reposed in them, the Athenian officers 
 and soldiers behaved with prudence and modesty, and wt.e entirely 
 irreproachable in their conduct. Nor were they less admired for their 
 courage ; and Philip was obliged to abandon his designs both on By- 
 zantium and Perinthus, — and his being beaten out of the Hellespont 
 diminished Philip's fame and glory. 
 
 The Byzantians and Perinthians testified their gratitude to the peo- 
 ple of Athens by a very honourable decree; namely, that they might 
 settle in their countr} r , purchase lands, and enjoy all the privileges of 
 citizens : they also granted them a distinguished place in their public 
 shows, and the right of sitting both in the senate and the assembly of 
 the people next to the pontiffs, &c. The inhabitants of Chersonesus, 
 in full senate, made a similar decree, and, after a full expression of 
 their gratitude, awarded a crown of gold, worth fifty talents, to their 
 benefactors. 
 
 Philip, having been driven from Byzantium and Perinthus, marched 
 against Atheas, king of Scythia, and defeated him without difficulty. 
 He got a great booty, not of gold and silver, the use and value of which 
 the Scythians did not know, but of cattle and horses, and even of wo- 
 men and children. At his return from Scythia, the Triballi, a people 
 of Mcesia, disputed the pass with him, claiming part of the plunder. 
 A severe battle ensued, in which great numbers on each side were slain. 
 Philip himself was wounded in the thigh, and with the same thrust 
 had his horse killed under him. 
 
 The king of Macedon made overtures of peace, but Demosthenes was 
 persuaded that Philip's view was only to amuse and deceive, and he 
 prevented the Athenians listening to his proposals. Philip foresaw 
 that he had now no alternative but by exciting the Thessalians and 
 Thebans to break with Athens, for he could not yet attack that city 
 either by sea or land. For the passage to Attica by land would be shut 
 against him as long as the Thessalians should refuse to join him, and 
 the Thebans should oppose him. 
 
 By the machinations of his pensioners, he raised divisions in the 
 Locrians of Amphissa. Their country was situated between iEtolia 
 and Phocis ; and they were accused of having profaned a spot of sa- 
 cred ground, by ploughing up the Cirrhsean fields, which lay very near 
 the temple of Delphi. The reader has seen that the like cause of com- 
 plaint occasioned the first sacred war. The affair was to be heard before 
 the Amphictyons. By the oratory of ^Eschines, Philip was appointed, 
 by the Amphictyons, general, to act with full power. 
 
 Philip immediately assembled his forces, and possessed himself of 
 Elatea, the greatest city of Phocis, situated most happily for awing the 
 Thebans, who now began to see their danger. The news spread terror 
 through every part of Athens. By the power of Demosthenes' elo- 
 quence the Thebans made a common cause with the Athenians, and 
 
 Did not the Athenians cause Philip to abandon his designs both at Byzantium 
 and Perinthus? — By what decree did they show their gratitude? — Against whom 
 did Philip next march? — Did Demosthenes oppose Philip's hollow truce? — Of 
 what crime were the Locrians accused ? — What fear did Philip's victories excite 
 
 13* 
 
150 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Philip entered Bocotia with all his forces. The united armies of the 
 Athenians and Thebans encamped' near Chscronea, a city of Boeotia. 
 But there were no leaders that could be opposed to Philip. A battle 
 ensued, and more than 1,000 Athenians were left upon the field, and 
 above 2,000 taken prisoners. The loss was as great on the Theban 
 side. The bones of such as were killed in the battle of Cha*ronea were 
 brought to Athens, and received honourable interment. Demosthenes 
 ■was appointed to compose the eulogy of those brave men.* 
 
 It was the very year of the battle of Chzeronea, and two years before 
 the death of Philip, that ^Eschines drew up an accusation against Ctes- 
 iphon, or rather against Demosthenes; but the cause was not pleaded 
 tiJl seven or eight years after. No cause ever excited so much curi- 
 osity, or was pleaded with so much pomp. People flocked from all 
 parts, says Cicero, to be witness between these two orators ; and these 
 orations have been considered as the masterpieces of antiquity; espe- 
 cially that of Demosthenes. iEschines was deservedly banished on 
 account of this rash accusation of Ctesiphon. He therefore removed to 
 Rhodes, where he opened a school of eloquence, the fame of which 
 continued for many ages. He began his lectures with the two orations 
 that occasioned his banishment. Great encomiums were given to them ; 
 but when the Rhodians heard those of Demosthenes, their plaudits and 
 acclamations were redoubled ; and it was then he spoke those words so 
 laudable in the mouth of a rival, " But what applauses would you not 
 have bestowed, had you heard Demosthenes himself deliver them !" 
 
 It is worthy of remembrance that when ^schines left Athens to em- 
 bark for Rhodes, Demosthenes ran after him, and forced him to accept 
 a purse of money. On this occasion iEschines exclaimed, " How will 
 it be possible for me not to regret a country in which I leave an enemy 
 more generous than I can hope to find friends elsewhere'?" 
 
 CHAPTER 32. 
 
 PHILIP IS DECLARED CE.NERALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST 
 THE PERSIANS — HIS DEATH. 
 
 The battle of Chaeronea may be said to have enslaved Greece. It 
 gained for Philip the object he had long had in view — that of being the 
 generalissimo of the Greeks against the Persians. He now made pre- 
 parations to invade that empire ; and forwarded two of his generals, 
 Attalus and Parmenio, to Asia Minor. Philip consulted the gods to 
 know what would be the event. The priestess replied, " The victim 
 is already crowned, his end draws nigh, and he will soon be sacrificed." 
 Philip interpreted the oracle in his own favour, though the ambiguity 
 ought to have kept him in some suspense. After this he offered up a 
 
 * Dsmosthenes, in his oration against Leptines, observes that the Athenians were 
 the only people who caused funeral orations to be Bpoken in honour of those who lust 
 their lives in the defence of their country 
 
 What resulted from the battle of Chaeronea? — Describe the orations of Demos- 
 thenes and /Eschines, and the public curiosity they excited. — Relate the interview 
 between Demosthenes and ^Eschines. — What was the Priestess's reply to Philip? 
 
DEATH OF PHILIP. 151 
 
 solemn sacrifice to the gods ; and prepared to celebrate, with incredible 
 magnificence, the nuptials of Cleopatra, his daughter, with Alexander, 
 king of Epirus, and brother to Olympias his queen. The day after the 
 nuptials, games and shows were solemnized ; and as these formed a 
 part of their religious worship, statues of the gods were carried in it, in 
 one of which Philip himself was represented as a god. 
 
 The hour for his leaving the palace arrived, and he went forth in a 
 white robe, and advanced with an air of majesty, amidst acclamations, 
 towards the theatre. His guards marched before and behind him, leav- 
 ing a considerable space for the better view of him by the spectators. 
 But all this festivity and pomp ended in the murder of Philip. The 
 king had refused to do an act of justice towards Pausanias, a young 
 nobleman, and one of the chief officers of his life guard. He therefore, 
 choosing the instant of this ceremony to put his bloody design in exe- 
 cution, stabbed the king with a dagger, and laid him dead at his feet. 
 The assassin had prepared horses ready for his escape ; but he was 
 overtaken and torn to pieces on the spot. Thus died Philip, at forty- 
 six years of age, after having reigned twenty-four. (B. C. 336.) When 
 the news of Philip's death arrived, the Athenians abandoned themselves 
 to the transports of immoderate joy. 
 
 Demosthenes is said to have appeared in public at Athens, crowned 
 with a wreath of flowers, urging the Athenians to offer sacrifices and 
 to thank the gods for the good news ; an action quite out of character. 
 
 Alexander was born the first year of the 106th Olympiad, (B. C. 
 356,) the same day the celebrated temple of Diana in Ephesus, which 
 had been called one of the seven wonders of the world, was burned. 
 It had been built in the name and at the expense of all Asia Minor. 
 Its length was 425 feet, and its breadth 220. It was supported by 
 127 columns, 60 feet high. One Erostratus had fired the temple on 
 purpose ; and being put to the torture, he confessed it was to hand 
 down his name to posterity. 
 
 The passion which prevailed most in Alexander, even from his early 
 years, was ambition, and an ardent desire of glory. Philip valued 
 himself upon his eloquence, and the beauty of his style ; and he had 
 the vanity to have engraved on his coins the several victories he had 
 won at the Olympic games ; but it was not to this his son aspired ; 
 for being asked one day whether he would not be present to dispute 
 the prize (for he was very swift of foot), he replied, " He would, if 
 kings were to be his antagonists." Alexander's judgment was said to 
 be exceedingly mature for his years. He had several preceptors ; 
 among these were Leonidas, a person of severe morals, and Aristotle, 
 the most learned philosopher of the age, to whom was entrusted the 
 chief care of his education. 
 
 So sensible was Philip of the treasure he possessed in the person of 
 Aristotle, that he settled a considerable stipend upon him, and even re- 
 built and adorned Stagira, the native place of the philosopher. Nor 
 
 By whom and on what occasion was Philip assassinated? — What temple was 
 burned on Alexander's birth ? — Who were his preceptors ? — What reward had 
 Aristotle ? 
 
152 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 was Alexander less sensible of his high value. " He was indebted," 
 he said, " to the one for living, and the other for living well ;" and 
 history informs us that the progress of the pupil was equal to the abili- 
 ties of the preceptor. Alexander's admiration of Homer's.works was 
 very great, and we are told that after the battle of Arbela, when the 
 Macedonians had found among the spoils of Darius a gold box enriched 
 with precious stones, in which were contained the prince's perfumes, 
 Alexander ordered that the box should be employed for no other pur- 
 pose than to hold Homer's Poems ; which he believed to be the most 
 perfect and the most precious productions of the human mind. 
 
 There had been sent from Thessaly to Philip, a very noble warlike 
 horse called Bucephalus, valued by the owner at thirteen talents, about 
 1,900/. sterling; but he appeared so restive and fiery that no one dared 
 to mount him ; and Philip was about to return him to the owner. 
 Alexander regretted that so fine a creature should be lost for want of a 
 rider, and offered to mount him himself. His father permitted him. 
 After some manoeuvres, he mounted Bucephalus, and animated him by 
 degrees to his full speed. The king and attendants, trembling with 
 fear, followed them with their eyes, in breathless silence ; but when 
 the prince returned, having run the first heat, the courtiers endeavoured 
 to outvie each other in their applauses; and Philip shedding tears of 
 joy, said, " My son, seek a kingdom more worthy of thee, for Macedon 
 is below thy merit." 
 
 CHAPTER 33. 
 
 ALEXANDER ASCENDS THE THRONE; AND IS DECLARED GENER- 
 ALISSIMO OF THE GREEKS AGAINST THE PERSIANS. 
 
 Darius and Alexander began to reign the same year ; the latter was 
 but twenty years of age when he ascended the throne. His first care 
 was to solemnize with much pomp the funeral obsequies of his father, 
 and to revenge his death. Upon his accession to the throne, he saw 
 himself surrounded with extreme dangers; for though Philip had made 
 conquests among the barbarous nations, and had subdued all Greece, 
 yet the minds of the vanquished had not been yet calmed and moulded 
 into subjection. 
 
 The Macedonians, reflecting on the precarious situation of things, 
 advised Alexander to relinquish the conquest of Greece, and to bring 
 the Barbarians more firmly under his yoke by gentle and conciliatory 
 methods. Alexander did not listen to these timorous counsels ; firmly 
 persuaded that should he relax in one point, all his neighbours would 
 fall upon him. He therefore first marched against the Barbarians, cross- 
 ing the Danube, and defeating the Triballi in a great battle, and making 
 the Getae fly at his approach. While Alexander was thus employed, 
 all the cities of Greece, which were animated by Demosthenes, formed 
 a powerful alliance against that prince. Alexander now marched to- 
 
 
 
 What poems did Alexander treasure in Darius's gold box ? — Relate Alexander's 
 encounter with the horse Bucephalus. — What difficulties had Alexander to en- 
 counter! — Against whom did he first march I 
 
ALEXANDER. 153 
 
 wards Greece; passed Thermopylae and appeared suddenly in Bceotia. 
 A. great battle was fought, in which the Thebans were surrounded, and 
 the city was taken and plundered. 
 
 The city experienced dreadful calamities on this occasion. Somo 
 Thracians, having pulled down the house of Timoclea, a virtuous lady, 
 carried oft' her goods and treasures. Their captain, having seized the 
 lady and insulted her, inquired whether she had not concealed much 
 gold and silver. Timoclea, animated by revenge, replied that she 
 had hid some in the garden, and that she had thrown it into a well. 
 The officer drew near, and he stooping down to examine its depth, she 
 thrust him in, and killed him by great stones thrown upon him. She 
 was instantly seized and bound in chains, and carried to Alexander. 
 The prince, perceiving by her mien that she was a woman of quality 
 and dignity, asked who she was. Timoclea replied, " 1 am sister to 
 Teagenes, who fought against Philip, and who was killed in the battle 
 of Chaeronea." The prince admiring the generous answer of the lady, 
 and still more the action she had done, gave orders that she should re- 
 tire wherever she pleased with her children. 
 
 Alexander now debated in council how to act with regard to Thebes ; 
 and notwithstanding Cleades made a powerful oration in favour of the 
 city, it was doomed to fall, and was destroyed. However, he set at 
 liberty the priests, the descendants of Pindar, the poet who had done 
 so much honour to Greece, with such as had opposed the revolt, &c. 
 The Athenians were so sensibly afflicted at the sad disaster which had 
 befallen Thebes, that, being about to solemnize the festival of the great 
 mysteries, they suspended them upon account of their extreme grief; 
 and they received with great humanity all those that had fled from the 
 battle and the plunder of Thebes, and made Athens their asylum. 
 
 Alexanders sudden arrival in Greece had abated the haughtiness 
 of the Athenians and extinguished the vehemence of Demosthenes. A 
 deputation was therefore sent to Alexander to implore his clemency. 
 Demosthenes was among them ; but he had no sooner arrived at Mount 
 Cithaeron, than, dreading the anger of that prince, he quitted the em- 
 bassy and returned home. The prince sent immediately to Athens, 
 requiring the citizens to deliver up to him ten orators, whom he sup- 
 posed to have been the chief instruments in forming the league which 
 Philip his father had defeated at Chaeronea. It was on this occasion 
 that Demosthenes related to the people the fable of the wolves and 
 dogs. " The wolves one day," said he, " told the sheep that, in case 
 they desired to be at peace with them, they must deliver up to them 
 their dogs, which were their guard." The application was easy and 
 natural, especially with respect to the orators, whose duty it was to 
 watch and protect the flock. 
 
 In this serious dilemma of the Athenians, the king waived his 
 demand, and required that Chridemus only, who was a native of 
 Euboea, should be sent into banishment. As for the Athenians, ne 
 
 What was Alexander's generous treatment to Timoclea ? — When Thebes was 
 destroyed, whom did Alexander respect?— What had the fable of Demosthenes to 
 do with Alexander I 
 
154 IIIST015Y OF CREECE. 
 
 expressed a particular regard for them — exhorted them to keep a 
 watchful eye over the transactions of the states; because, he observed, 
 in case of his death, their city was to give laws to the rest of Greece. 
 He summoned the assembly of the several states at Corinth, to obtain 
 from them the same supreme command against the Persians that hart 
 been granted to his father. No diet ever debated on a more important 
 subject — it was the western world deliberating on the ruin of the east- 
 ern. To form such a design required a prince bold and enterprising — 
 one that was not to be intimidated by dangers, and above all, one that 
 had the supreme authority over all the states of Greece, — and such 
 a prince was Alexander. The deliberations of the assembly were, 
 therefore, very short; and that prince was unanimously appointed gen- 
 eralissimo against the Persians. 
 
 Diogenes, the cynic of Sinope, was then at Corinth, and Alexander 
 passing by saw him lay down in the sun. The prince, surprised to see 
 so famous a philosopher reduced to such poverty, asked whether he 
 wanted any thing? Diogenes replied, " Yes, that you would stand a 
 little out of my sunshine." This answer raised the indignation of the 
 courtiers, but the monarch was struck with the philosopher's indepen- 
 dent mind. " Were I not Alexander," he said, " I would be Diogenes." 
 All, or nothing, presents us with the true image of Alexander and Di- 
 ogenes. How great soever that prince might think himself, he could 
 not but suppose that he was then inferior to a man to whom he could 
 give, and from whom he could take nothing. 
 
 Before he set out for Asia, Alexander consulted the oracle of Apollo, 
 and he happened to arrive at it on one of those days which are called 
 unlucky ; accordingly the priestess refused to go to the temple. But 
 Alexander, who would have no refusal, took her forcibly by the arm, 
 and was leading her to the temple, when she cried out, " My son, thou 
 art irresistible." This was all he desired. He interpreted it as spoken 
 by the oracle, and set out for Macedonia to make preparations for his 
 great expedition. 
 
 CHAPTER 34. 
 
 ALEXANDER'S EXPEDITION. 
 
 Alexander called a council of the grandees of his court and chief 
 officers, to deliberate on his intended expedition against Persia, in which 
 all concurred. Some few, however, recommended his first making 
 choice of his consort to secure himself a successor; advice which 
 Alexander did not choose to follow. He offered up splendid sacri- 
 fices to the gods, and caused to be celebrated at Dise, a city of Ma- 
 cedonia, scenical games in honour of Jupiter and the muses. He 
 had a tent raised large enough to contain a hundred tables, on which 
 nine hundred covers might be laid. To this feast were invited the 
 princes, ambassadors, generals, and officers. 
 
 Before he set out, he settled the affairs of Macedon, over which he 
 
 
 
 What, deliberation was commenced at Corinth ? — What of ! tiogenes ? — What was 
 Alexander's reply? — What reply did the priestess give to Alexander? — What was 
 the result of Alexander's council ? 
 
EXPEDITION. 155 
 
 appointed Antipater, as viceroy, with 12,000 foot, and nearly the same 
 number of horse. He quitted Macedon, for Asia, in the spring. His 
 army consisted of little more than thirty thousand foot, and four or five 
 thousand horse, but they were all veteran troops, well disciplined, and 
 inured to fatigues. He arrived at Sestos after twenty days march. — 
 The greater part of his army crossed from thence to Abydos. by the 
 assistance of 160 galleys, and several flat-bottomed vessels. When he 
 had gained the shores of Asia, he erected altars to Jupiter, Minerva, 
 and Hercules, for so propitious a descent. 
 
 So greatly did he depend on the success of his arms, and the rich 
 spoils of Asia, that he made but little provision for so great an ex- 
 pedition ; and he inspired his soldiers with so much courage and se- 
 curity, that they seemed to march, not to precarious war, but to certain 
 victory. Being arrived at Lampsacus, which he was determined to 
 destroy, to punish the rebellion of the inhabitants, Anaximines, a native 
 of that place, came to him. The king, suspecting his business, and to 
 be beforehand with him, swore that he would never grant his request: 
 '* the favour I have to desire of you," said Anaximines, " is, that you 
 would destroy Lampsacus." By this evasion, the intercessor saved 
 his city. 
 
 From thence Alexander arrived at Ilion, and paid great honour to the 
 manes of Achilles, and caused games to be celebrated round his tomb. 
 He admired the double felicity of that renowned Grecian, in having 
 found, during his life, a faithful friend in Patrocles, and, after his 
 death, a herald in Horner, worthy the greatness of his exploits. From 
 thence Alexander advanced to the bank of Granicus, a river of Phrygia. 
 The Persian satrap waited his coming on the other side, firmly resolved 
 to dispute his passage. The Persian army consisted of 100,000 foot, 
 and 10,000 horse. Memnon, who was a Rhodian, and commanded 
 under Darius all the coast of Asia, advised the generals not to venture 
 a battle, but to lay waste the country, thereby to starve Alexander's 
 army. But Arsites, a Phrygian satrap, opposed this opinion. 
 
 The two armies continued for some time in sight of each other on 
 the banks of the river, as if dreading the event. The Macedonians, 
 whose cavalry was vastly inferior in number, were severely wounded 
 while crossing ; and, after having lost their first ranks, began to give 
 ground. But Alexander reinforced them with his best troops, headed 
 by himself, after which the whole army followed and attacked the 
 Persians on all sides. The conflict was long, and the slaughter great. 
 A considerable number of the Persian commanders were left dead on 
 the spot. Arsites fled into Phrygia ; 20,000 foot and 2,500 horse were 
 killed in the engagement, on the side of the Persians. 
 
 This victory had all the happy consequences that could be expected 
 from it. Sardis surrendered to Alexander; and, arriving at Ephesus, 
 he restored its popular form of government. He assigned to the temple 
 
 Who was appointed to the care of Macedon ? — With what force did he set out 
 for Persia? — By what artifice was Lampsacus saved? — What homage did Alexan- 
 der pay to old Troy? — What victory obtained on the banks of the Granicus? — 
 What surrenders followed the victory? 
 
156 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 of Diana the tributes which were paid to the kings of Persia. He of- 
 fered sacrifices to that goddess, and solemnized her mysteries with the 
 utmost pomp. The cities of Trallis and Magnesia also waited upon 
 him with the keys of those places. He then marched for Miletus, in 
 which Memnon had shut himself up, and, after a powerful resistance, 
 the city capitulated. 
 
 Alexander next marched into Caria, and laid siege to Hnlicarnassus, 
 in which Memnon had taken shelter, and with vast difficulty demolished 
 its fortifications. Memnon, finding it impossible to hold out any longer, 
 abandoned the city by sea, and took with him most of the surviving in- 
 habitants, and conveyed them to the adjacent island of Cos. Several 
 kings of Asia Minor submitted voluntarily to Alexander, among whom 
 was Mithridates, king of Pontus. 
 
 When Alexander went into winter quarters, he permitted many of 
 his soldiers to return to Macedonia, to spend their winter with their 
 wives and families, upon condition of their returning in the spring. 
 The next year the king began the campaign very early. He directed 
 his march to Phaselis, a city situated between Lycia and Pamphylia ; 
 and, during his residence in this neighbourhood, he discovered and 
 crushed a conspiracy. From thence he proceeded to Ccelcence, which, 
 after holding out some time, opened their gates to him. He then pro- 
 ceeded to Phrygia, the capital of which was called Gordium, the noted 
 residence of king Midas. Having taken this city, he was desirous of 
 seeing the famous chariot to which the Gordian knot was tied with so 
 much art that it was impossible to discover where the strings began or 
 ended. According to an ancient tradition of the country, an oracle had 
 foretold that the man who could untie it should possess the empire of 
 Asia. Alexander, after many fruitless trials, cut it with his sword, and 
 thus either eluded or fulfilled the oracle. 
 
 CHAPTER 35. 
 BATTLE OF ISSUS — SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF TYRE. 
 
 In the mean time, Darius was making preparations for a vigorous 
 defence ; and Memnon advised the king to carry the war into Macedo- 
 nia, which would compel Alexander to return home to defend his own 
 country. Darius approved the counsel ; accordingly Memnon was ap- 
 pointed admiral of the fleet and captain-general of the forces, and he had 
 made himself master of Chios and Lesbos. Preparing to march from 
 thence into Eubcea, he died before Mitylene, and the enterprise was 
 abandoned. 
 
 Darius's whole refuge was now in the armies of the east ; and not 
 placing confidence in the skill of his generals, he resolved to command 
 in person, and he appointed Babylon for the rendezvous of his army, 
 where, upon being mustered, they amounted to four, five, or six hun- 
 dred thousand men. 
 
 What happened to Memnon at ) -alien rnassus? — Relate the circumstance ot" th« 
 Gordian knot. — What did Memnon udvise I — And how was the advice defeated? 
 — Where lay Darius's army >. — What the amount \ 
 
BATTLE OF ISSUS. 157 
 
 Alexander next subdued Paphlagonia and Cappadocia ; and having 
 thence heard of Memnon's death, he was continued in his resolution of 
 marching- immediately into the provinces of Upper Asia. He entered 
 into Cilicia, and arrived at the country called Cyrus's camp. Directing 
 his course to Tarsus, which led through a very narrow strait, through 
 which it was Alexander's good fortune to pass without interruption, 
 though, had it been properly guarded, it might have proved an almost 
 insurmountable barrier to him, — he reached Tarsus, through which city 
 the cold Cydnus runs. In this river Alexander, while suffused with 
 sweat, bathed. He was immediately seized with a violent shivering, 
 which for some time endangered his life, but, by the prescriptions of 
 his physician, he recovered. 
 
 During this interval Darius was on his march, full of confidence in 
 the number of his troops. Instead of availing himself of the plains of 
 Assyria, which his situation afforded him, he resolved to march through 
 narrow passes, where his cavalry and the number of his troops, only 
 encumbered each other. There was, at this time, in the army of Da- 
 rius, one Charidemus, an Athenian, a man of great experience in mili- 
 tary affairs. Darius questioned him as to his opinion of the war. 
 Charidemus, who had been brought up in the bosom of liberty, and for- 
 getting that he was in a country of slavery gave his honest opinion, 
 which cost him his life ; and while he was led to execution, he ex- 
 claimed, " My avenger is at hand, and he will soon punish you for 
 despising my counsel." 
 
 Darius advanced with his troops towards the Euphrates, and his 
 train was encumbered with women, princesses, concubines, eunuchs, 
 and domestics of both sexes, as was the custom of the country. Nothing 
 could exceed the splendid magnificence of the king. His chariot was 
 enriched with images of the gods in gold and silver. He was clothed 
 in a vest of purple, glittering with gold and precious stones : around 
 his waist he wore a golden girdle, from which his scimitar hung, and 
 on his head a tiara or mitre. Surrounded with this mighty pomp, the 
 Persian approached Alexander ; and when in the plains of Assyria, the 
 Grecian commanders that were in his army advised the latter to wait 
 the coming of the enemy. 
 
 The Persian courtiers, on the contrary, advised Darius to attack the 
 Macedonians immediately in the narrow passes and defiles to prevent 
 their escape. Darius, therefore, sent his treasures and most precious 
 moveables to Damascus, a city of Syria, under a small convoy, and 
 marched the main body of his army towards Cilicia, and entered it by 
 the pass of Amanus. His queen, and mother, with the princesses, his 
 daughters, and the little prince, his son, followed the army. The battle 
 was fought near the city of Issus, which the mountains bounded on one 
 side, and the sea on the other. Through the middle of the plain ran 
 the river Pinarius, which separated the two armies. Both sides fought 
 with the utmost bravery ; the battle became a close fight — sword in 
 
 In what river did Alexander bathe ? — During this time what course did Darius 
 take ? — How was Darius's army encumbered ? -— What advice did Darius reject? 
 — Where was the battle fought? 
 14 
 
158 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 hand, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. The routing of the Persian 
 cavalry completed the defeat of the army. Darius, when he saw the 
 left wing broke, fled in nis chariot, till the ruggedness of the roads in- 
 duced him to mount the horse of his armour-bearer; but his mother, 
 wife, and children, fell into the hands of Alexander, who treated them 
 with great respect and tenderness. The consequence of this victory 
 was, that all Syria submitted to the conqueror. 
 
 Alexander sent a message to the queens to inform them that he was 
 coming to pay them a visit. He entered the tent, accompanied only 
 by Hephaestion. They were of the same age — but Hephaestion was 
 taller, so that Darius's mother took him at first for the king; but some 
 captive eunuchs showing them Alexander, Sysigambis fell prostrate and 
 begged his pardon, hoping, that having never seen him, would plead 
 her apology. The king, raising her from the ground, replied, " Dear 
 mother, you are not mistaken, for he also is an Alexander !" a fine ex- 
 pression which does honour to them both. "The princesses and their 
 daughters," says Plutarch; "were in Alexander's camp, not as in that 
 of an enemy, but as in a sacred temple, and a sanctuary assigned for 
 the asylum of chastity." After the first visit of Alexander, which was 
 a respectful and ceremonious one, he, to avoid exposing himself to the 
 danger of human frailty, never paid them a second visit. 
 
 After he had consecrated three altars on the river Pinarius, the first 
 to Jupiter, the second to Hercules, and the third to Minerva, as so many 
 monuments of his victory, Alexander sent Parmenio to Damascus to 
 take possession of Darius's immense treasure, which was deposited in 
 that place. He next marched into Phoenicia : the citizens of Byblos 
 opened their gates to him, but no people with more pleasure than the 
 Sidonians ; and he permitted Hephaestion to elect, as king, whomsoever 
 of the Sidonians he found worthy of so exalted a station. Hephaestion 
 conferred it on Abdolonymus, a poor descendant of the royal family. 
 Tyre, entitled the queen of the sea, alone remained to be subdued, and 
 it made a defence for seven months of the most determined character. 
 The city was at last taken by storm, and a dreadful slaughter ensued. 
 The conqueror offered up a sacrifice to Hercules on its ruins. The number 
 of prisoners amounted to thirty thousand, who were all sold. The loss 
 of the Macedonians was inconsiderable. 
 
 While carrying on the siege of Tyre, Alexander received a second 
 letter from Darius, offering him ten thousand talents as a ransom for 
 the captive princesses, and also his daughter Statira in marriage, with 
 all the country he had conquered, as far as the Euphrates, &c. Alex- 
 ander summoned a council, in which Parmenio was of opinion that 
 those offers should be accepted ; declaring that " he would comply with 
 them were he Alexander." "And so would I," replied Alexander, 
 "were I Parmenio." He therefore returned the following answer: 
 "That he wanted not the money — and that it did not become him to 
 
 Where fled Darius ?— What belli his wife, Ac— What occurred in Alexander'* 
 visit to the queens ?— What altars did Alexander consecrate ?— What was I'arius'i 
 letter, and Alexander's reply? 
 
CAPTURE OF GAZA. 159 
 
 offer what he did not possess, and that a battle would soon determine, 
 &c." Upon receiving this answer Darius lost all hopes of an accom- 
 modation, and prepared for war. 
 
 CHAPTER 36. 
 BATTLE OF ARBELA — DEATH OF DARIUS. 
 
 From Tyre, Alexander marched to Jerusalem, firmly resolved to show 
 it no favour, it not having supplied him with provisions in besieging 
 Tyre. But on entering Jerusalem he was met by the high priest in 
 his robes, whom he had seen in a dream, dressed in like manner, two 
 years before. He was struck with awe at the sight. The high priest 
 showed him the prophecy of Daniel, wherein his conquests were fore- 
 told. Alexander, in consequence, paid him particular respect, and 
 spared the Jews the experience of that cruelty with which he had fully 
 resolved to punish them for their disobedience to his commands. 
 
 He had scarcely left Jerusalem when the Samaritans waited on him, 
 humbly intreating him to visit their temple, which visit he declined, 
 and marched towards Gaza, a place of great strength, and defended 
 with great vigour by Betis, one of Darius's eunuchs. This was also 
 taken, and it opened to him the whole country of Egypt, of which he 
 soon became master. Exasperated at its holding out so long, and his 
 receiving two wounds, he treated the governor, inhabitants, and soldiers, 
 with a barbarity absolutely inexcusable ; for he cut ten thousand men 
 to pieces, and sold all the rest, with their wives and children, for slaves. 
 Betis, the governor, he put to death with singular cruelty. He ordered 
 a hole to be made through his heels, when a rope being put through 
 them, and this tied to a chariot, he ordered his soldiers to drag Betis 
 round the city till he died. 
 
 Having left a garrison in Gaza, Alexander turned the whole power 
 of his arms against Egypt. On arriving at Pelusium, he found a great 
 number of Egyptians, who had assembled to recognize him as their 
 sovereign. The hatred of these people to the Persians was so great, 
 that they cared but little who should be their king, provided he could 
 rescue them from Persian insolence and indignity. Mazaeus, who com- 
 manded in Memphis, opened the gates of the city to the conqueror, and 
 gave up 800 talents, about $700,000, and all the king's furniture. Thus 
 Alexander, without opposition, possessed himself of all Egypt. 
 
 At Memphis he formed a design of visiting the temple of Jupiter 
 Ammon, built in honour of Ham, the son of Noah, and situated twelve 
 days' journey distant, in the midst of the sandy deserts of Libya. A 
 ridiculous vanity was the motive of this journey. Being desirous of 
 passing for a hero, he was determined to have some god for his father, 
 and having fixed upon Jupiter Ammon, he bribed the priests to his pur- 
 pose. In passing from Memphis to the sea, he observed, opposite the 
 
 What prophecy did the High Priest of Jerusalem show Alexander? — What bar- 
 barities occurred' at Ciaza ? — Who welcomed Alexander at Pulusium? — What tem- 
 ple did he visit I— And for what purpose ? 
 
160 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 island of Pharos, a spot well situated for the erection of a city. This 
 city he called after his own name, and it afterwards rose to be the capital 
 of the kingdom. As its harbour was very commodious, having the 
 Mediterranean on one side, and the Nile and the Red Sea in its neigh- 
 bourhood, it drew all the traffic of the east and west, and became one 
 of the most flourishing cities in the universe. 
 
 The king being come to the temple, the senior priest delared him to 
 be the son of Jupiter, which appellation Alexander accepted with joy, 
 and acknowledged Jupiter as his father. The priest also assured him 
 that he should be monarch of the universe. The sacrifice being ended, 
 he offered magnificent presents to the god, nor were the priests for- 
 gotten who had been so faithful to his interest. 
 
 Swelled with the splendid title of son of Jupiter, and fancying him 
 self raised above the human species, he returned from his journey as 
 from a triumph. From that time, in all his letters and decrees, he 
 styled himself, " Alexander, king, son of Jupiter Jimmon." 
 
 Varro observes, that, at the time the king built Alexandria, the use 
 of papyrus for writing was found in Egypt. To hasten the building 
 of his new city, and in order to people it, he invited thither the Jews, 
 and allowed them very advantageous conditions ; not only granting 
 them the free exercise of their religion, but putting them on the same 
 footing with the Macedonians whom he settled there. 
 
 Alexander set out from thence to meet Darius ; he crossed the Eu- 
 phrates at Thapsacus, and continued his journey to the Tigris, where 
 he expected to come up with the enemy. Darius prepared himself for 
 battle. He assembled in Babylon an army, half as numerous again as 
 that of Issus, and marched it towards Nineveh. His forces covered all 
 the plains of Mesopotamia. With such difficulty and hazard did Alex- 
 ander's troops cross the Tigris, that had the Persians known how to 
 conquer, the Macedonians might have been cut to pieces. Darius now 
 renewed his proposal to Alexander, who returned a haughty answer. 
 
 There was a great difference between the two armies in point of 
 numbers, but more so w- ith regard to courage. That of Darius consisted 
 of at least 600,000 foot, and 40,000 horse ; and the other of no more 
 than 40,000 foot, and 7,000 or 8,000 horse. This was the last great 
 and decisive battle w T hich Alexander fought against the Persians. It 
 took place near the town of Arbela. The Persians fought desperately, 
 and victory was for a long time doubtful ; but it was at last decided iu 
 favour of the valour and high discipline of the Macedonians. The 
 Persians lost 300,000 ; the Macedonians not more than 1,200, most of 
 whom were horsemen. This engagement was fought about two years 
 after the battle of Issus. 
 
 Darius, after his defeat, rode with few attendants towards the river 
 Lycus, and from thence fled towards Media, over the Armenian moun- 
 tains. He took this way, supposing that Alexander would proceed 
 
 What effect had the priest's declaration on him ? — For what purpose, and when 
 first was the Papyrus used in Egypt > — What course did Alexander next take > — 
 Describe the numbers in each army. — Where was the decisive battle fought > — 
 Whither did Darius fly after his defeat? 
 
DESTRUCTION OF THE SPARTAN POWER. 161 
 
 towards Babylon and Susa, and because a numerous army could not 
 pursue him by this road. From Babylon Alexander entered the pro- 
 vince of Sitacena, and thence proceeded to Susa and Persepolis. While 
 at Persepolis, the king heard of Darius's arrival at Ecbatana, the capi- 
 tal of Media, and was resolved to pursue him ; but on his arrival there, 
 he found that Darius had left that city five days before ; and in his flight 
 he was assassinated by Bessus, one of his own satraps. Thus termi- 
 nated, 330 years before Christ, the great Persian empire, which had 
 subsisted 209 years, from the time of Cyrus the Great, till it submitted 
 to the all-powerful arms of Alexander. 
 
 Darius was about fifty years of age, six of which he had reigned. 
 He was a gentle and pacific prince ; his reign having been unsullied 
 with injustice or cruelty. His death did not prevent Alexander from 
 pursuing Bessus, who had withdrawn into Baetriana, where he had 
 assumed the title of king, by the name of Artaxerxes. Before Alexan- 
 der's arrival, Spitamines, Bessus's chief confidant, formed a conspiracy 
 against him, and putting him in chains, presented him to Alexander, 
 who delivered him over to Oaxartes, Darius's brother, to suffer all the 
 ignominy he deserved. 
 
 CHAPTER 37. 
 DEATH OF CLITUS — EXPEDITION TO INDIA. 
 
 While these things passed in Asia, we must notice some tumults 
 which broke out in Greece and Macedonia. Memnon, whom Alexan- 
 der had sent into Thrace, having revolted there, and thereby drawn the 
 forces of Antipater on that side, the Lacedaemonians thought this a 
 proper opportunity to throw off the Macedonian yoke, for which pur- 
 pose Agis, their king, advanced with an army of 20,000 foot and 2,000 
 horse. The Macedonian army under Antipater was twice that number. 
 Victory declared for the Macedonians ; and Agis, intrepid and invinci- 
 ble to the last, oppressed by numbers, died sword in hand. This vic- 
 tory not only ruined the power of Sparta, but also of its allies. 
 
 Alexander, insatiable for victory and conquest, still marched forward 
 in search of new nations to subdue, and, after having suffered much by 
 long and dangerous marches, he advanced to the Jaxarthes. Not far 
 from this river the barbarians, rushing suddenly from their mountains, 
 attacked Alexander's forces. The king in repulsing them received a 
 wound in the leg. They acknowledged themselves subdued by his 
 unparalleled bravery, and he accepted their homage. After this he set 
 cut upon his march in a litter, on account of his wound, and arrived at 
 Maracanda, the capital of Sogdiana, which he took. While here, there 
 came an embassy to him from the Scythians, expressing their submis- 
 sion. The last city to which he marched in Persia, was Cyropolis. 
 It had been built by Cyrus, after whose name it had been called. 
 
 What was the age of Darius ? — What was his character? — What troubles broke 
 out in Greece and Macedonia I — With whom did Alexander next engage? — Was 
 he not wounded ? 
 
 11* 
 
162 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 After these conquests, Alexander returned to Jaxarfhes, where he 
 surrounded the whole spot of ground which his army had covered, 
 built a city thereon, and called it Alexandria. All things being now 
 restored to a profound tranquillity, there remained but one strong hold, 
 called Petra Oxiana, or the rock of Oxus, which was strongly defended. 
 The king, after viewing the works, was some time in suspense whether 
 he should besiege it; for nature itself seemed to fortify this rock so as 
 to render it absolutely impregnable. He therefore selected a few moun- 
 taineers from his army, and sent them to gain the heights, by which 
 means he possessed himself of the place. 
 
 From hence he advanced to Maracanda, to the government of which 
 he appointed his friend Clitus ; and the evening before his departure 
 he was invited to an entertainment by the king. Alexander, heated 
 with wine, began to celebrate his own exploits, and to depreciate the 
 warlike acts of his father. Clitus, who was also inebriated, extolled 
 the deeds of Philip before those of his son, and even repeated verses 
 lauding that prince. Alexander, incensed, struck him with a javelin, 
 and laid him dead at his feet, crying out at the same time, " Go now 
 to Philip, to Parmenio, and to Attalus." 
 
 The king's anger being, in a manner, extinguished on a sudden, by 
 the blood of Clitus, his crime displayed itself in the most dreadful light. 
 He threw himself upon his friend's body, and would have despatched 
 himself with the same javelin, had not his attendants prevented him. 
 He passed that night and the next day in tears, and continued speech- 
 less, except giving utterance to deep sighs, groans, and lamentations. 
 
 Alexander soon after entered the country of the Sacae, which he 
 overran and laid waste. Oaxartes received him in his palace, and in- 
 vited him to a sumptuous banquet, in which he displayed all the mag- 
 nificence of the barbarians. He had a daughter called Roxana, a young 
 lady whose exquisite beauty was heightened by all the charms of wit 
 and sense. Alexander found her charms irresistible, and made her his 
 wife. 
 
 Alexander now bent his whole thoughts to carrying the war into 
 India. That country was considered as the richest in the world, not 
 only in gold, but also in pearls and precious stones. He marched for 
 this enterprise at the head of 120,000 men. But, previously to setting 
 out, he revealed the design he had so long meditated, of having divine 
 honours paid to him. He wished not only to be called, but to be be- 
 lieved to be the son of Jupiter, and flatterers were not wanting to che- 
 rish these ridiculous pretensions. He, therefore, appointed a festival, 
 and made a pompous banquet, and during the king's short absence from 
 the banquet, Cleon, one of his flatterers, proposed the offering of in- 
 cense to him, as to a god. Callisthenes, the philosopher, who had 
 accompanied the king, opposed the homage which Cleon had proposed, 
 and his opposition cost him his life. Callisthenes was thrown into a 
 dungeon, loaded with irons, and afflicted with the most grievous tor- 
 
 What strong hold did he besiege ?— and with what success ?— What befel Cli- 
 tus at an entertainment? — Relate the effect it had on the king. — Whom did the 
 king visit? — And whom did he marry ? 
 
163 
 
 ments, in the midst of which he expired. Nothing has reflected so 
 much dishonour on Alexander as this unjust and cruel death of Callis- 
 thenes. 
 
 At length, to appease the murmurs and discontents which arose 
 among his soldiers, Alexander set out for India. He had, doubtless, 
 read in the ancient fable of Greece, that Bacchus and Hercules, both 
 sons of Jupiter, as himself was, had marched so far ; and he was deter- 
 mined not to be surpassed by them. In this ridiculous desire of dis- 
 turbing the tranquillity of nations consists the glory and merit of such 
 pretended heroes; and it is that which many people, dazzled by a false 
 splendour, still admire in Alexander. 
 
 He besieged and took several cities. Among the most powerful was 
 one governed by Porus. Alexander summoned him to surrender, Po- 
 rus replied that he would do so, but it should be sword in hand. Porus 
 advanced to the borders of the Hydaspes, with eighty-five elephants, 
 300 chariots, guarded by 30,000 foot, and 7,000 horse. The prince 
 was mounted on an elephant of a much larger size than the rest, and 
 he himself exceeded the usual stature of man, so that, clothed in his 
 armour glittering with gold and silver, he appeared at the same time 
 terrible and majestic. The greatness of his courage equalled that of 
 his stature, and he was as wise and prudent as it was possible for the 
 monarch of so barbarous a people to be. It was with this prince that 
 the Macedonians had now to fight ; and to overcome him, with his nu- 
 merous elephants, required all the courage and skill of an Alexander. 
 The battle, however, was, after a difficult struggle, decided in favour 
 of the Macedonians ; and when Porus came into his presence, Alexan- 
 der asked him how he desired to be treated 1 " Like a king," replied 
 Porus. " But," continued Alexander, "do you ask nothing morel" 
 " No," replied Porus, " all things are included in that word." Alex- 
 ander, struck with the magnanimous reply, not only restored him to 
 his kingdom, but annexed other provinces to it. 
 
 The conqueror was now meditating about proceeding to the Ganges 
 to attack the Gangaridae and the Prasii, whose king was preparing to 
 oppose his entering his dominions. This raised a general murmur 
 through the army. The Macedonians, who had travelled through so 
 many countries, and grown grey in the field, were incessantly directing 
 their wishes towards their native country : they complained that Alex- 
 ander heaped war upon war, and danger upon danger. The king in 
 vain addressed them ; there arose a sudden murmur, which increased 
 into deep groans, by which the king was much affected. Alexander 
 therefore shut himself up for two days in his tent, in the hopes of some 
 change taking place in the army, but finding them unchanged, he com- 
 manded them to prepare for their return. This news filled the whole 
 army with inexpressible joy. 
 
 What caused the death of Callistenes? — For the conquest of what country did 
 Alexander next march ? — What was the force of Porus ? — What was his reply ? 
 What prevented Alexander's further conquests in India ? 
 
164 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 CHAPTER 38. 
 ALEXANDER RETURNS FROM INDIA — HIS DEATH. 
 
 Alexander's fleet consisted of 800 galleys and boats, to carry the 
 troops and provisions; and the whole army embarked. In passing 
 through the country of Oxydracffi and Malli, they had enemies to oppose, 
 i'i which the kind's person was involved in great danger, and rescued 
 with extreme difficulty. After nine months sailing down the Acescines, 
 the Hydaspes, and the Indus, they arrived at the ocean. Nearchus 
 was appointed admiral of the fleet, which was to return to the Persian 
 Gulf. Alexander returned by land, and in marching through the country 
 of the Oritae, such was his want of provisions that he lost a fourth part 
 of his army. Siekness, bad food, and the excessive heats, had swept 
 them away in multitudes, but famine made a still greater havoc. 
 
 After marching sixty days, Alexander arrived at Gedrosia, where he 
 found plenty of all things for his army. Through Caramania (now 
 Kerman), he passed with the air and equipage of a warrior and con- 
 queror. Nearchus still keeping along the sea coast, from the mouth of 
 the Indus, came at last into the Persian Gulf, and arrived at the island 
 of Hermusa (now Ormus). On his arrival he waited upon the king in 
 'Caramania, who w r as overjoyed to hear of the safety of his fleet, and 
 ordered it to sail up the Euphrates to Babylon. 
 
 Nearchus's interesting account of his voyage had kindled up in the 
 mind of Alexander a desire to visit the ocean. He proposed to himself 
 sailing round Africa, and to return by the Mediterranean, a voyage 
 which had been performed once, by order of Necho, king of Egypt. 
 It was also his design to humble Carthage, cross to Iberia (now Spain), 
 return by the Alps, and coast along Italy, from whence he would have 
 but a short passage to Epirus, and from thence to Macedonia. But 
 these and many other projects were defeated by his early death. 
 
 On arriving at Susa, Alexander found all the captives of quality he 
 had left there. He married Statira, Darius's eldest daughter, and gave 
 the youngest to his dear friend Hepha^stion, and persuaded the greatest 
 men in his court to imitate him. Accordingly they chose from among 
 the noblest families of Persia eighty young females whom they married. 
 From Opis, Alexander arrived at Ecbatana, in Media. There had come 
 to him from Greece 3,000 dancers, makers of machinery, and persons 
 skilled in diversions. During the festivals, to the king's great grief, 
 Hephaestion died. He was the king's most intimate friend, and equally 
 beloved by all the courtiers for his unassuming and even temper. 
 
 Alexander being arrived within a league or two of Babylon, the 
 Chaldeans, who pretended to a knowledge of futurity, predicted that 
 he would be in danger of his life if he entered that city. The great 
 
 In his return, down what rivers did he sail? — At what ocean did his forces 
 nrnve? — Find on the Map, Gedrosia, Kerman, Persian Gulf! die Euphrates, and 
 jiahylon. — What project did Alexander conceive ? — And what defeated them? 
 What matrimonial engagements were entered into ? — Did not the Chaldeans pre- 
 dict Alexander's life in danger? 
 
( 166 ) 
 
DEATH OF ALEXANDER. 167 
 
 reputation of these Babylonian astrologers had such a temporary im- 
 pression on his mind that it delayed his entrance for some time till the 
 principles of Anaxagoras, who held divination in contempt, had coun- 
 teracted their influence. On his arrival at Babylon he found that am- 
 bassadors from all parts of the world had assembled to pay him 
 homage, and he entered the city in triumph. 
 
 During almost a year that Alexander continued in Babylon, its embel- 
 lishments much employed his thoughts, but his death soon after put an 
 end to these projects. The Deity, by the mouth of Isaiah, (Isaiah, 
 xiv. 22, 23,) 390 years before, had pronounced an anathema, which no 
 human power could avert—" I will cut off from Babylon the name and 
 remnant. I will make it a possession for the bittern. I will sweep 
 it with the besom of destruction. It shall never be inhabited," &c. 
 
 Alexander was for ever solemnizing new festivals, and was perpetu- 
 ally at new banquets. After having spent a whole night in carousing, 
 a second was proposed to him. There were twenty guests at table : he 
 drank to the health of every person in company, and then pledged them 
 severally. After this, calling for Hercules' cup, which held six bottles, 
 he pledged Proteus in this furious bumper, drinking down the whole. 
 An attempt to renew it threw him on the floor, which brought on a 
 violent fever, from which he never recovered. Finding himself past 
 all hopes, and his voice faltering, he gave his ring to Perdiccas, with 
 orders to convey his corpse to the temple of Ammon. Notwithstanding 
 his extreme weakness, he presented to the soldiers in attendance his 
 dying hand to kiss. The principal courtiers asking to whom he left 
 the empire, he answered, "To the most worthy ;" foreseeing, doubtless, 
 the struggles there would be for pre-eminence. 
 
 After great contentions about appointing a successor, it was agreed 
 that Aridaeus, natural brother to Alexander, should be declared king, 
 and that, in case Roxana should be delivered of a son, he should share 
 the throne with Aridseus, and that Perdiccas should have the care of 
 both, for Aridceus was of weak intellect. 
 
 In contemplating the character of Alexander, Livy justly observes 
 that it appears different according to the times in which we consider 
 him. Before the siege of Tyre, he appeared temperate, brave, judi- 
 cious, intrepid ; but, during the latter part, arrogant, cruel, enervated 
 by delights and abandoned to intemperance. The first years of his 
 reign are, perhaps, the most glorious of his life. He then displayed 
 presence of mind, strength of soul, courage, intrepidity, and, what is 
 more than all, a consummate prudence ; qualities which form the char- 
 acter of the true hero. But though Alexander possessed great virtues, 
 we may throw into the other scale his errors and vices — the presump- 
 tuous idea he entertained of his own merit, his ridiculous notion of 
 fancying himself to be the son of Jupiter, and of ascribing divinity to 
 himself, his violent anger, which rcse to brutal ferocity, the murder of 
 his most worthy friends, and his frantic ambition, which knew neither 
 law nor limit. These diminished his title to the surname of Great. 
 
 What prophecy has Isaiah against i]al>ylon? — What festival was fatal to Alex- 
 ander? — Who was appointed as his successor? — Describe his character. — What 
 says Livy of him ? 
 
168 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 By his death, Macedonia, the kingdom he inherited, and which his 
 ancestors had governed for so many ages, was possessed by another 
 family. When the news of his death reached Sysigambis, she was 
 inconsolable. " Who now," said she, " will take care of my two 
 daughters'? Where shall we find another Alexander]" At last she 
 sunk under her grief. 
 
 CHAPTER 39. 
 
 SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER— DEATH OF PHOCION. 
 
 After Alexander's death, great contention arose among the principal 
 officers, and as there were thirty-three who had been previously appoint- 
 ed to the superintendence of the provinces, each trusted to his own 
 sword to secure his possession ; but nothing was permanently settled 
 till after the battle of Ipsus, which was fought by Antigonus and his 
 son, against Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus, who had 
 bound themselves to maintain the rights of each other. In this event- 
 ful engagement Antigonus lost his life, and in consequence the whole 
 empire of Alexander was thus divided: to Ptoiemy, Egypt, Libya, 
 Arabia and Palestine ; to Cassander, Macedonia and Greece ; to Lysi- 
 machus, Bithynia and Thrace ; and to Seleucus, the rest of Asia as far 
 as the Indus. This last was called the kingdom of Syria, and became 
 the most powerful of the four. Seleucus built Antioch, and made it 
 his capital, in honour of his father Antiochus. 
 
 In Macedonia, scenes equally sanguinary were carried on. Alexander 
 had left the government of this country in the hands of Antipater, a 
 general who had been highly esteemed by his father Philip. The news 
 of Alexander's death being known at Athens excited great joy, and the 
 people who had reluctantly sustained the Macedonian yoke, now made 
 liberty the subject of their discourse. A war was resolved upon, and a 
 deputation was sent to all the states of Greece to gain their accession 
 to the league, and all, except the Thebans, united. This was called 
 the Lamiacum war, and Leosthenes was appointed to conduct it against 
 Antipater. The Macedonian garrisons were at first expelled, and Anti- 
 pater was obliged to surrender at discretion. He, however, soon extri- 
 cated himself from this difficult situation, and, in his turn, he obliged 
 the Athenians to accept the same conditions as those they had imposed 
 upon him. Antipater falling sick with a disease which proved fatal, he 
 was very solicitous to fill up ably the two great stations which he 
 enjoyed. It was necessary to appoint a governor over Macedonia, and 
 a regent of the empire. Antipater had a son, Cassander, not void of 
 merit; but the preservation of the Macedonian monarchy obliged him 
 to nominate a man of authority — one reputed for his age, experience, 
 and past services. He therefore extinguished the voice of nature, and 
 sacrificed the interests of his own family to the public welfare. History 
 has transmitted to us an expression of the emperor Galba, which does 
 
 What effect had his death on Sysigambis ? — What were the contentions among 
 the officers ? — What countries were assigned to each ? — What effect had Alexan- 
 der's death on Greece I— What is said of Cassander, Antigonus. Polysperchon, &c 
 
DEATH OF OLYMPIAS. 169 
 
 honour to his memory ; " Augustus," said he, " chose a successor out 
 of his own family; and I one from the whole empire." Antipater 
 appointed Polysperchon. 
 
 Cassander was extremely enraged by this choice, and endeavoured 
 to engage Ptolemy and Antigonus to his party against the new regent, 
 whom it was equally their interest to destroy, as well as the regency 
 itself. The death of Antipater had rendered Antigonus the most pow- 
 erful of all the captains of Alexander. His authority was absolute in 
 all the provinces of Asia Minor. Polysperchon, on his part, neglected 
 nothing that could strengthen his interest. He recalled Olympias, with 
 the offer of sharing his authority with her, and he reinstated all the 
 cities of Greece in their ancient privileges. Phocion, who had long 
 presided at Athens, was divested of his office, and accused of treason. 
 He was not allowed to plead his cause. When he arrived at the 
 prison, one of his friends asked him if he had any message to send to 
 his son 1 " Yes," replied he, " it is to desire that he would never re- 
 member the injustice of the Athenians." When he had uttered these 
 words, he took the hemlock, and died. 
 
 Phocion was one of the greatest men Greece ever produced ; in whose 
 person every kind of merit was united. He restored the manner of 
 governing both of Pericles and Aristides, by uniting the talents of each 
 in himself. It was highly glorious for Phocion that he was forty-five 
 times elected general by the people. His wife was fully sensible of 
 the honour; for one day when an Ionian lady of high rank showed, 
 with ostentation, her ornaments, she replied, " For my part, I have no 
 ornament but Phocion, who, for these twenty years, has always been 
 elected general by the Athenians." His infatuated and ungrateful 
 country was not sensible of its criminal proceedings till some time after 
 his death. The Athenians then erected a statue of brass to his memory, 
 and honourably interred his bones at the public expense. 
 
 During the disorder that reigned at Athens, Cassander entered the 
 Piraeus with a fleet of of thirty-five vessels, and held possession of the 
 city. Polysperchon made an ineffectual attempt to besiege him. Du- 
 ring these transactions, Olympias, the mother of Alexander, whom Po- 
 lysperchon had recalled, had made herself absolute mistress of affairs, 
 and had caused Arideeus to be put to death. Eurydice, his consort, 
 sustained the same fate. Olympias afterwards retired to Pydna. Cas- 
 sander advanced thither; and he employed in her murder the relations 
 of those whom she had caused to be put to death. Thus perished the 
 famous Olympias, the daughter, the sister, the wife, and the mother of 
 kings, and whose crimes and cruelties merited so tragical an end ; while 
 we detest the wickedness of a prince who deprived her of life in so 
 unworthy a manner. 
 
 Cassander thus raising himself on the throne of Macedon, Polysper- 
 chon first sheltered himself in Naxa, and thence retired to Thessaly. 
 Antigonus, in order to rid himself of so dangerous an enemy, raised 
 
 What is recorded of Phocien ? — What reply did his wife make to an Ionian lady ? 
 — What occasioned the death of Olympias; the mother of Alexander ? — Who pos- 
 sessed himself of the throne of Macedon? 
 
 15 
 
170 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 an army in Asia, and advanced against Eumenes. Persia and Media 
 were the scene of its operations. Eumenes was taken prisoner, and 
 Antigonus ordered him to be put to death. 
 
 Antigonus now concluded that he should become master of the empire. 
 Many of the governors of the provinces he discarded, or proscribed. — 
 Among the latter was Seleucus, governor of Babylon, who, to escape 
 the danger, threw himself under the protection of Ptolemy, governor 
 of Egypt, and engaged him in a league with Lysimachus and Cassander. 
 Seleucus, on his return to Babylon, was received with acclamation. 
 With this entry commences the famous era of the Seleucides, received 
 by all the people of the east, as well Pagans as Jews, Christians as 
 Mahomedans. The Jews called it the era of contracts, because when 
 they were subject to the Syro-Macedonian kings, they were obliged to 
 insert it in the dates of their contracts. The two books of Maccabees 
 called it .the era of the Greeks. The thirty-one years of the reign as- 
 cribed to Seleucus begin at this period. 
 
 CHAPTER 40. 
 ACILEAN LEAGUE — GREECE REDUCED TO A ROMAN PROVINCE. 
 
 The young Alexander being now about fourteen years old, Cassan- 
 der caused him and his mother, Roxana, to be secretly put to death in 
 the castle of Amphipolis, where they had both been confined for some 
 years. 
 
 Seleucus (B. C. 301) formed his army at Babylon, and marched into 
 Cappadocia to act against Antigonus. At length the confederate army 
 of Seleucus, Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, were opposed to 
 the army of Antigonus and his son, Demetrius. Each army consisted 
 of about 70,000. The battle was fought near Ipsus, a city of Phrygia. 
 
 In the engagement, Antigonus, having received many wounds, fell, 
 after defending himself valiantly to the last. Demetrius, his son, in 
 consequence retired toEphesus; and the four confederate princes di- 
 vided the dominions of Antigonus among themselves, and added them 
 to those they already possessed ; and thus the empire of Alexander was 
 at last divided, as before mentioned, into four kingdoms.* 
 
 The reign of twenty years assigned to Seleucus commences at this 
 period, because he was not acknowledged as king till after the battle 
 of Ipsus ; and if we add to these the twelve years during which he 
 exercised the regal authority without the title, they will make out the 
 reign of thirty-one years assigned him by Usher. The dominions of 
 this prince are usually called the kingdom of Syria ; and his own reign, 
 and those of his successors, are usually termed those of the Seleucida?. 
 
 ♦The Prophecies of Daniel, viii. G— S ; ii. 20, wore exactly accomplished by this last 
 portion of Alexander's empire. 
 
 With whom did Seleucus, and Plolcmy unite 7 — Who caused the young prince 
 Alexander and his mother Roxana to be put to death ' — Whnl great and decisive 
 battle was fought mar [psus? — Over what provineef was Seleucus king I 
 
LYSIMACHUS. 171 
 
 Cassander, when he had destroyed the family of Alexander, took the 
 title of" king. His vicious and feeble sons lost tlieir lives and the 
 throne, which was seized on by Demetrius, son of Antigonus ; and he, 
 in his turn, was expelled by Pyrrhus of Epirus, and Pyrrhus by Lysi- 
 machus, king of Thrace. During sixleen years, twelve kings of dif- 
 ferent houses governed Macedon and the paternal dominions of Alexan- 
 der. In the time of these kings, an army of Kelts devastated Mace- 
 don, penetrated into Greece, and advanced to pillage the temple of 
 Delphi. The Greeks rolled down rocks from the heights — thunder 
 roared through the mountains — the terrified barbarians fled, and the god 
 got the renown of defending the temple. 
 
 Antigonus Gonatas, son of Demetrius, a man of prudence and hu- 
 manity, raised Macedon out of the ruin into which it had been plunged ; 
 and during the reign of forty years he was the protector of Greece. 
 His son, Demetrius II., (B. C. 243,) who succeeded him, emulated his 
 virtues. Demetrius dying, left an infant son, Philip, whose uncle and 
 guardian, Antigonus, surnamed Doson, married the widow of the late 
 king, and usurped the kingdom, which he governed with ability for 
 eleven years, and then left it to the lawful heir, Philip. This prince 
 mixed himself with the affairs of Greece, and was recognized as sove- 
 reign lord of that country. War took place in consequence, between 
 him and the Romans, (B. C. 198,) and Philip was defeated, obliged to 
 withdraw his garrisons from Greece, reduce his shipping, and pay the 
 expenses of the war. His son, Perseus, renew r ed the war with Rome, 
 but was taken, and died in prison ; and Macedon was shortly after 
 reduced to a Roman province. 
 
 The cities of Achsea renewed among themselves an old confederacy, 
 named the Achaean league, which, under the guidance of Aratus, la- 
 boured with vigour for the freedom of Greece against Macedon ; other 
 cities gradually joined the league, and among them Athens. The Mto- 
 lian towns formed a similar union ; but their enmity with the Aehseans 
 and Sparta prevented their arriving at any importance." Civil discord, 
 the perpetual bane of Greece, gave the Romans the wished-for oppor- 
 tunity of intermeddling in its affairs. Corinth was taken and destroyed ; 
 and Greece reduced to a Roman province, under the name of Achsea. 
 The last of the race of the Greeks w r as Philopcemen, the Arcadian gene- 
 ral of the Achaean league. Lysimachus, the king of Thrace, at one 
 time conquered Macedon, and w r as master of part of the countries about 
 the Euxine. His reign was the flourishing period of Thrace; but it 
 was of short duration. Lysimachus fell in battle against Seleucus. 
 The Gauls ravaged the land, which sometimes obeyed Syrian and 
 sometimes Egyptian princes. The native princes at length recovered 
 their power. King Cotys, one of these princes, formed an alliance 
 with the Romans ; and king Sacales gave up Thrace to them. (B.C. 43.) 
 
 At this period some independent states arose in Lesser Asia, which 
 we shall here briefly notice. Bithynia, stretching along the Black 
 
 What occurred to the army that pillaped Delphi ? — With what Grecian king did 
 the Romans war? — What was the Aehiean league? — Was it successful ? — Name 
 the states that tose in Leaser Asia. 
 
172 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 Sea, was at one time tributary to the Lydians, and then to the Persians. 
 After the death of Alexander, internal troubles continually agitated this 
 state. The Gauls had a district assigned them called Galatia. In 
 the reign of Prusias, Hannibal in vain sought a refuge at his court. 
 Nicomedes 4th, seventy-five years before Christ, having no children, 
 made over his dominions to the Romans. 
 
 Pergamus, the ancient Mysia, vanished in the Lydian and Persian 
 empires. The most celebrated of its kings was Eumenes 2d, in whose 
 reign the pergament or parchment was invented. Attalus 3d, having 
 no heirs, left his kingdom to the Romans. (B. C. 133.) 
 
 Pontus, so named from lying near the Pontus Euxinus, is situated 
 east of Bithynia. Mithridates 7th was a talented and ambitious prince, 
 and, during a space of thirty years, he sustained a war against the arms 
 of Rome. It was finally reduced by the emperor Nero to the form of a 
 Roman province. 
 
 Armenia appears not till late in the history of Asia. It obeyed suc- 
 cessively the Assyrian, Persian, and Syrian empires, and the greater 
 part was at one time subject to the Romans. In the time of the empe- 
 ror Adrian it had kings of its own, and was finally absorbed in the Per- 
 sian empire of the Sassanides. 
 
 Syria. — Seleucus, named Nicator, was an active, prudent prince, an 
 encourager of trade, and a founder of cities. His son, Antiochus, ob- 
 tained the name of Soter (the Saver), for having delivered Lesser Asia 
 from the Gauls. Antiochus the Great invaded Greece, but was repelled 
 by the Romans ; and the surrender of all countries west of the Taurus, 
 and the sending his son as a hostage to Rome, were the consequence. 
 The Syrian power was now at an end. Roman influence was para- 
 mount. Parthia rapidly extended its conquests. Judea and Armenia 
 asserted their independence. The empire was finally contracted into 
 Proper Syria and Phoenicia; and the Romans (B. C. 64,) terminated 
 the empire of the Seleucidae, by declaring Syria a Roman province. 
 
 CHAPTER 41. 
 
 AFFAIRS OF JUDEA, EGYPT, AND SYRIA. 
 
 Judea continued in obedience to the Persian Monarchy till the con- 
 quests of Alexander, then to his successors ; first to the king of Egypt, 
 and afterwards to that of Syria. Their rulers had, hitherto, respected 
 their religion; but Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to enforce them to 
 adopt Grecian rites. The Maccabees, a race of heroes, like the Judges 
 of old, arose. Mattathias began, and his valiant son, Judas Macca- 
 beus, continued the warfare. His brothers followed up his successes 
 so ably after his death, that the Syrians were forced to acknowledge 
 the independence of Judea. John Hyrcanus, uniting in his person the 
 dignities of high priest and prince, extended the dominions. But the 
 Jewish power was not of long continuance ; the throne was often dis- 
 
 What is said of Mithridates ?— What power terminated the empire of the Seleu- 
 cides { — What changes did Judea undergo ? 
 
AFFAIRS OF EGYPT. 173 
 
 pitted, and the Romans interposed to settle the succession. In the year 
 39 before Christ they set the Idurnean Antipater over Judea, whose son 
 Herod became king 1 , a prince well known for his cruelty. 
 
 Parthia is the country lying between Media and Aria, south of Hyr- 
 cania. Its inhabitants had obeyed the Persian and Syrian Monarchs. 
 The tyranny of the latter drove them to rebellion. Arsaces, a man of 
 humble birth, but of military talent, placed himself at their head, and 
 achieved their independence. The succeeding- kings were called Arsa- 
 cides. Their dominions extended from India to the Euphrates, and 
 from the Caspian to the Arabian Sea. They were the only people who 
 resisted Rome with success. 
 
 Egypt continued part of the Persian empire till Alexander the Great 
 vanquished Darius. At Alexander's death it fell to the share of Pto- 
 lemy Lagus, (B.C. 304,) or, as he is sometimes called, Soter ; who, 
 however, did not assume the regal title till nineteen years after the death 
 of Alexander. It was in the reign of Ptolemy Lagus that the famous 
 tower of Pharos was finished ; and the image of Serapis was conveyed 
 to Alexandria by permission of the king- of Pontus. Ptolemy also 
 founded the famous library at Alexandria, which before he died con- 
 tained two hundred thousand volumes, and this number was afterwards 
 increased to seven hundred thousand. These books were kept in a 
 magnificent building under the superintendence of several learned men, 
 who lived together in a stately palace, and were maintained at the pub- 
 lic expense. A great part of this famous library was consumed, as 
 some authors assert, by the enthusiasm of the Caliph Omar, under the 
 impression that if the same doctrine was contained in these books as 
 in the Koran, they were useless ; and if not, they were dangerous. 
 
 In the latter part of his reign, Ptolemy Lagus joined with himself 
 in the government his second son, Philadelphus, in preference to Cerau- 
 nus, his eldest son ; and this prudent choice of Ptolemy is to be com- 
 mended, as Ceraunus was a monster of cruelty and matchless barbarity, 
 w r hom neither moral nor divine laws could restrain within the bounds 
 of decorum. 
 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus (B. C. 284,) succeeded his father on the throne 
 of Egypt. In order to revenge himself on Demetrius Phalereus, who 
 had honestly advised Lagus to appoint his eldest son his successor, 
 Philadelphus banished him till the nature of his punishment should be 
 determined ; but he met his death by the bite of an asp, and thus 
 escaped the vengeance of Ptolemy. 
 
 Philadelphus contracted an alliance with the Romans ; and being 
 solicitous to enrich his kingdom by improving its commerce, he had the 
 commodities of Arabia, India, Persia, and Ethiopia, conveyed to Alex- 
 andria by means of a canal which he had cut, which nearly joined the 
 Nile to the Red Sea. Alexandria became famous, as carrying on the 
 most extensive commerce of any city in the world. This prince was a 
 great patron of learned men, and a lover of the arts and sciences. He 
 
 Whom did the inhabitants of Parthia obey ? — And what changes did Egypt un- 
 dergo before Ptolemy Lagus and Ptolemy Philadelphus? — And what alliance did 
 Philadelphus contract with the Romans? 
 
 15* 
 
174 HISTORY OF GREECE. 
 
 had an extraordinary taste for books ; and spared no expense in the 
 augmentation and embellishment of the library founded by his father, 
 and in collecting statues and paintings. He died in the sixty-third 
 year of his age, and the thirty-eighth of his reign, and was succeeded 
 by his eldest son, Ptolemy Euergetes. 
 
 On ascending the throne, this prince declared war against the king 
 of Syria. Euergetes was so successful in this expedition that he made 
 himself master of Syria and Cilicia, after which he passed the Euphra- 
 tes, and conquered all the country as far as Babylon and the Tigris ; he 
 then marched back to Egypt, laden with the spoils he had acquired by 
 his conquests. This prince carried off a prodigious quantity of gold 
 and silver, and two thousand five hundred statues, part of which were 
 those Egyptian idols that Cambyses had carried into Persia. When 
 Ptolemy Euergetes set out on this expedition, his queen Berenice made 
 d vow to consecrate her hair, if he should return in safety. Accord- 
 ingly she caused it to be cut off, and dedicated it to the gods. This 
 consecrated hair is fabled to have disappeared, and to have been con- 
 verted into a constellation in the stars. (B. C. 274.) 
 
 Ptolemy, in his return from his expedition, passed through Jerusa- 
 lem, where he offered a great number of sacrifices to the God of Israel, 
 in order to render homage to him for the victories he had obtained over 
 the king of Syria. He devoted the leisure of peace to the cultivation 
 of the sciences in his dominions, and the enlargement of his father's 
 library at Alexandria with all sorts of books ; but as a proper collec- 
 tion could not be made without an able librarian, Euergetes, upon the 
 death of Zenodotus, who had exercised that function from the time of 
 Ptolemy Soter, sent to Athens for Eratosthenes, the Cyrenian, who 
 was then in great reputation, and had been educated by Callimachus, a 
 native of the same country. Euergetes died (B. C. 2-22,) after a reign 
 of twenty-five years, and was the last of that race in whom any true 
 virtue and moderation were conspicuous. 
 
 Tin degenerate descendants of Ptolemy Lagus succeeded. Murders 
 were perpetrated for empire. The frequent interference of the Romans 
 alone preserved it from dissolution. The last Ptolemy had espoused 
 his sister Cleopatra. Driven from Egypt, she sought the protection 
 of Caesar, who re-established her as sole ruler. After his death, she 
 united herself to Antonius ; and on his decease poisoned herself, rather 
 than grace the triumph of Octavianus. Egypt was then reduced to the 
 form of a Roman province. (B. C. 30.) 
 
 Thus the kingdom of Europe and Asia, whose destinies we have 
 traced in the preceding pages, fell, as we have seen, almost all, into 
 the spreading empire of Rome; a state which embraced nearly the 
 whole civilized world within her sway. 
 
 What expedition did Euergetes undertake? — What vow did his queen Berenice 
 make ? — What farther account have we of Ptolemy Evergetes ? — What are the 
 concluding remarks on Egypt beibre it became a Roman province? 
 
 
( no ) 
 
 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 
 
 ROME. 
 
 (177) 
 
[ 179 ] 
 
 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 — 
 
 CHAPTER 1. 
 
 THE FOUNDATION OF ROME. 
 
 The Romans were particularly desirous of being thought of high 
 descent. iEneas, the son of Venus and Anchises, having escaped the 
 destruction of Troy, arrived in Italy, A. M. 2294,* where he was kindly 
 received by Latinus, king of the Latins, who gave him his daughter, 
 Lavinia, in marriage. On the death of his father-in-law, the kingdom 
 of Latium fell to JEneas.. In an engagement with the Rutuli and the 
 Tyrrhenians, near the banks of the Numicus, he was unfortunately pre- 
 cipitated into that river and drowned. 
 
 ./Eneas was succeeded by Ascanins, his son, born to him by Creusa, 
 before the fall of Troy ; and to him Silvius, the second son of ./Eneas, 
 whom he had by Lavinia ; and that succession continued nearly four 
 hundred years in the same family. Numitor, the fifteenth from ./Eneas, 
 was the last king of Alba, a city that was founded by Ascanius. 
 
 Numitor took possession of the kingdom in consequence of his 
 father's will-; he had a brother named Amulius, to whom were left the 
 treasures brought from Troy, who made use of his riches to supplant 
 his brother, and to the crime of usurpation he added that of murder. 
 Numitor's sons first fell a sacrifice, and he caused Rhea Silvia, his 
 brother's daughter, to become a vestal. The office of a vestal was 
 given to ladies of noble families, whose duty consisted in keeping up 
 the sacred fire in the temple dedicated to the goddess Vesta — they were 
 devoted to perpetual virginity. 
 
 Rhea Silvia was called to the performance of some religious service 
 in the Temple of Mars, where a person, disguised in the military habit 
 like that in which Mars was commonly represented, surprised and forced 
 the vestal. When Rhea Silvia could no longer conceal her shame, she 
 charged the god Mars with being the cause of it. In due time she be- 
 came the mother of two boys, who were no sooner born than devoted 
 
 * The ancient names of Italy were Saturnia, CEnotria, Hesperia, and Ausonia. 
 
 What was the origin of the Romans ? — Tn what part of Italy did they settle? — 
 Who succeeded yEneas > — By what means did Numitor gain possession of the king- 
 dom ? — Relate the origin of Romulus and Remus. 
 
180 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 by the usurper to destruction. The mother was condemned to be buried 
 alive, the usual punishment for vestals who had violated their vows, 
 and the twins were ordered to be flung into the river Tiber. 
 
 It happened at that time that the river overflowed its banks, and the 
 water where the infants were thrown was too shallow to drown them. 
 It is said by some that they were exposed in a cradle, which, after 
 floating awhile, was left on dry ground, and that a wolf descending to 
 drink, ran, at the cry of the children, and nursed them, until Faustulus, 
 the king's shepherd, struck with so surprising a sight, conveyed them 
 home ;uid delivered them to his wife, Acca Laurentia, to nurse, who 
 brought them up as their own. 
 
 Romulus and Remus, the twins, however preserved, seemed early to 
 discover abilities above the meanness of their supposed origin. They 
 led, however, the shepherd's life. But pastoral idleness displeased them, 
 and they betook themselves to the chase. They next turned their 
 strength against the robbers of their country. The youths who con- 
 tinued to join them, increased in number, so as to enable them to hold 
 assemblies and celebrate games. From many circumstances, Faustulus 
 suspected that the twins under his care were the same that Amulius 
 exposed on the Tiber, and at length divulged his suspicions to Romulus. 
 From that time nothing was thought of but the tyrant's destruction. 
 He was beset on all sides, and, during the distraction that ensued, was 
 taken and slain, while Numitor, who had been deposed for forty years, 
 recognized his grandsons, and was once more placed on the throne. 
 
 The two brothers, leaving Numitor the kingdom of Alba, determined 
 to build a city on the spot on which they had been exposed. But a 
 fatal desire of pre-eminence seized them both, and they were advised 
 by the king to take an omen from the flight of birds, to know which of 
 them the tutelary gods would decree the honour of governing the rising 
 city. In compliance with this advice, each took his station on a diffe- 
 rent hill. To Remus appeared six vultures; in the moment after, Ro- 
 mulus saw twelve. Some parties declared for Remus, who first saw 
 the vultures; others for Romulus, who saw the greater number. This 
 produced a contest, which ended in a battle, in which Remus was slain. 
 Another account says that he was killed by his brother, who being pro- 
 voked at his leaping contemptuously over the city wall, struck him 
 dead on the spot. 
 
 Romulus being now sole commander, and eighteen years of age, be- 
 gan the foundation of a city that was one day to give laws to the world. 
 It was called Rome, after the name of the founder, and built upon the 
 Palatine Mount, on which side he had taken his successful omen. 
 (A. M. 3252. B. C. 752.) The city was first nearly square, containing 
 about a thousand houses. It was almost a mile in circumference, and 
 commanded a small territory round it of eight miles over. It was at 
 first poorly inhabited, and the first method made use of to increase its 
 numbers, was the opening of a sanctuary for all malefactors and slaves, 
 and such as were desirous of novelty. 
 
 What wrro the cmplovrnpnte of their youth ? — Ey what means did Remus come 
 by hi death \ — What city did Romulus begin to burirl ? 
 
SABINE WAR. 181 
 
 Scarcely was the city raised above its foundation, when its rude in- 
 habitants began to think of giving some form to its constitution. Ro- 
 mulus left them to choose whom they would for their king, and they 
 concurred in electing their founder for their ruler. He was acknow- 
 ledged as chief of their religion, sovereign, magistrate, and general of 
 the army. Besides a guard to attend his person, he was preceded by 
 twelve lictors, each armed with an axe tied up in a bundle of rods ; 
 these w T ere to serve as executioners of the law, and to impress his new 
 subjects with an idea of his authority. 
 
 The Senate, who were to act as counsellors to the king, w r as com- 
 posed of a hundred of the principal citizens, consisting of men whose 
 age, wisdom or valour, gave them a natural authority over their fellow 
 subjects. The Patricians, who composed the third part of the legisla- 
 ture, assumed to themselves the power of authorizing those laws, 
 choosing magistrates, &c. The Plebeians were to till the fields, feed 
 cattle, and follow trades, but to have no share in the government, to 
 avoid the inconveniences of a popular power. 
 
 The first care of the new king was to attend to the interests of reli- 
 gion. The precise form of their worship is unknown, but it consisted 
 in a reliance on the credit of their soothsayers, who pretended, from 
 observations on the flight of birds and the entrails of beasts, to direct 
 the present, and to dive into futurity. Romulus commanded that no 
 election should be made, nor enterprise undertaken, without first con- 
 sulting them. He next gave orders to ascertain the number of his sub- 
 jects. The wiiole amounted to no more than three thousand foot, and 1 
 about as many hundred horsemen, capable of bearing arms. These 
 were divided into three tribes, and each tribe into ten curiae or compa- 
 nies, consisting of a hundred men each, with a centurion to command 
 it. By these judicious regulations, each day added strength to the new 
 city; multitudes of people flocked in from the adjacent towns, and it 
 only seemed to want women to ensure its duration. 
 
 CHAPTER 2. 
 SABINE WAR— NUMA POMPILIUS — TULLUS HOSTILIUS. 
 
 In this exigence Romulus sent deputies among the Sabines, his 
 neighbours, entreating their alliance ; the proposal was rejected with 
 disdain. Romulus, therefore, proclaimed a feast in honour of Neptune 
 throughout the neighbouring villages. These feasts were generally 
 preceded by sacrifices, and ended in shows of wrestlers, gladiators, and 
 chariot courses. The Sabines were among the foremost who came to 
 be spectators, bringing with them their wives and daughters. While 
 the strangers were most intent upon the spectacle, a number of the Ro- 
 man youths rushed among them with drawn swords, and carried off the 
 youngest and most beautiful women by violence. In vain was all re- 
 
 Who was chosen king ? — With what power was he invested ? — What composed 
 the senate ? — Who were the Patricians? — What was the employment of the Ple- 
 beians? — What was the first care of Romulus ? — By what means did the Romans 
 procure women? 
 16 
 
182 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 sistancc from the parents and the virgins. Perseverance and caresses 
 obtained those favours which timidity at first denied, so that the ravish- 
 ers soon became the partners of their affections. 
 
 A bloody war ensued. The cities of Coenina, Antemnse, and Crustu- 
 minum, were the first to revenge the common cause. But these, by 
 making separate inroads, became an easy conquest to Romulus, who 
 made a merciful use of his victories. Tatius, king of Cures, a Sabine 
 city, was the last, although the most formidable, who undertook to re-' 
 venge the disgrace his country had suffered. He entered the Roman 
 territory at the head of twenty-five thousand men, and made himself 
 master of the Roman citadel. But hostilities were at length terminated 
 by the women whom the Romans had violently seized, and who be- 
 sought the combatants to lay aside their animosity and desist. An ac- 
 commodation ensued, by which it was agreed that Romulus and Tatius 
 should reign jointly in Rome, with equal power and prerogative — that 
 a hundred Sabines should be admitted into the Senate, and that the 
 citizens should be called Quirites, after Cures, the principal town of 
 the Sabines. The conquest of Cameria was the only military achieve- 
 ment under .the two kings ; Tatius was killed about four years after by 
 the Lavinians, and Romulus once more saw himself sole monarch of 
 Rome. Soon after a cruel plague and famine having broken out at 
 Rome, the Camerini embraced the opportunity to lay waste the Roman 
 territory. But Romulus gave them battle, killed six thousand, and 
 returned in triumph to Rome. He likewise took Fidena, a city about 
 forty furlongs from his capital, and reduced the Veientes to submission. 
 
 Successes like these induced the conqueror to affect absolute sway. 
 The Senate was displeased at his conduct, as they found themselves 
 used only as instruments to ratify the rigour of his commands. We 
 are not told the precise manner which they employed to get rid of the 
 tyrant. Some say that he was torn in pieces in the Senate-house; 
 others that he disappeared while reviewing his army : certain it is, that, 
 from the secrecy of the fact, and the concealment of the body, they 
 took occasion to persuade the multitude that he was carried up into 
 heaven. Thus him, whom they could not bear as a king, they were 
 contented to worship as a god. Romulus reigned thirty-seven years; 
 and after his death had a temple built to him under the name of Qui- 
 rinus. 
 
 B. C. 715. Upon the death of Romulus, the city seemed divided in 
 the choice of a successor. The Sabines were for having a king chesen 
 from their own body; but the Romans could not endure to have a 
 stranger advanced to the throne. In this perplexity the senators under- 
 took to supply the place of a king, by taking the government each in 
 his turn for five days, and during that time enjoying all the honours 
 and privileges of royalty. This new form of government continued 
 for a year; but the plebeians, who saw that mode of government only 
 
 What hostilities did the infant state experience? — What conquests did Romulua 
 mnke? — How long did Komulus reign ! — What report was circulated concerning 
 his deaiii I — What was built to his honour ? — What form of government was after- 
 wards adopted ? 
 
THE CURIATII. 183 
 
 multiplied their masters, insisted upon an alteration. Therefore the 
 Senate fixed upon Numa Pompilius, a Sabine, and their choice was 
 received with approbation by the people. 
 
 Numa Pompilius, who was now about forty, had long; been eminent 
 for his piety, justice, moderation and exemplary life. He was skilled 
 in all the philosophy of the Sabines, and lived unambitious of higher 
 honours, and it was not without reluctance that he accepted the dignity. 
 
 No monarch could be more proper for them than Numa, at a conjunc- 
 ture when the government was composed of various petty states but 
 ill-united to each other. Numa inspired his subjects with a veneration 
 for the gods. He built many new temples, instituted sacred offices and 
 feasts. He pretended to a particular correspondence with the goddess 
 -flSgeria, and that by her advice he built the temple of Janus, which 
 was to be shut in time of peace, and open in war. For the encourage- 
 ment of agriculture, he divided the lands which Romulus had gained 
 in war among the poorer part of the people; he regulated the calendar, 
 and abolished the distinction between Romans and Sabines. 
 
 Thus having arrived at the age of fourscore years, and having reigned 
 forty-three in profound peace, he died ; ordering his body, contrary to 
 the custom of the times, to be buried in a stone coffin, and his books 
 of ceremonies, which consisted of twelve in Latin, and as many in 
 Greek, to be buried by his side in another. Upon the death of Numa, 
 the government once more devolved upon the Senate, till the people 
 elected Tullus Hostilius for their king, in which choice the other part 
 of the constitution concurred. He was the grandson of a noble Ro- 
 man, but, unlike his predecessor, was entirely devoted to war. The 
 Albans, by committing some depredations on the Roman territories, 
 gave him an opportunity of indulging his inclinations. Both armies 
 met about five miles from Rome, and the Alban general proposed to 
 decide the dispute by single combat. There were at that time three 
 twin brothers in each army, those of the Romans called Horatii, and 
 those of the Albans Curiatii ; — all six remarkable for their courage, 
 strength, and activity ; and to these it was resolved to commit the man- 
 agement of the combat. 
 
 Victory, after being long doubtful, appeared to declare against the 
 Romans ; they beheld two of their champions lying dead upon the 
 plain, and the three Curiatii, who were wounded, slowly endeavouring 
 to pursue the survivor, who seemed by flight to beg for mercy ; but 
 his flight was only pretended in order to separate his three antagonists, 
 for quickly after, stopping and turning upon the first, he laid him dead 
 at his feet; the second brother, who was coming up to assist, shared 
 the same fate ; the last Curiatius, disabled by his wounds, advanced to 
 offer an easy victory, the conqueror exclaiming, " Two have I already 
 sacrificed to the manes of my brothers ; the third will I offer up to my 
 country." The Alban army now consented to obey the Roman. The 
 
 Whom did the senate choose for king? — For what was Numa Pompilius remark- 
 able ? — What temple did he build ? — Tlow long did he reign ? — Who was chosen 
 his successor? — What war broke out? — By what means was the contest decided? 
 — Who were the victors ? 
 
184 HISTORY OF R031E. 
 
 victorious youth, returning triumphant from the field, found his sister 
 lamenting the loss of her lover, one of the Curiatii, to whom she had 
 been betrothed. This so provoked him that in a rage he slew her. 
 The action displeased the Senate, and drew after it condemnation from 
 the magistrates ; but making his appeal to the people, he was pardoned. 
 Tullus having increased the power and wealth of Rome by repeated 
 victories, now demanded satisfaction of the Sabines for some insults 
 offered to Roman citizens at the temple of the goddess Feronia, which 
 was common to both nations. A war ensued which lasted some years, 
 and ended in the total overthrow of the Sabines. Hostilius died after 
 a reign of thirty-two years; some say by lightning; othfc. with more 
 probability, by treason. 
 
 CHAPTER 3. 
 
 ANCUS MART1US — LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS — SERVIUJs 
 
 TULLUS. 
 
 After an interregnum, as in the former case, Ancus Martius, ths 
 grandson of Numa, was elected king by the people, and confirmed by 
 the Senate. This monarch made Numa the great object of his imita- 
 tion. He instituted the sacred ceremonies which were to precede war, 
 but took every occasion to advise his subjects to return to the arts of 
 agriculture, and lay aside the less useful stratagems of war. These 
 institutions were considered by the neighbouring powers as the effects 
 of cowardice, and the Latins began to make incursions ; but they were 
 conquered by Ancus, their cities were destroyed, and the inhabitants 
 removed to Rome. He quelled also an insurrection of the Veii, the 
 Fidenates, and the Volsci ; and over the Sabines he obtained a second 
 triumph. But his victories over the enemy were not comparable to his 
 works at home, in raising temples, fortifying the city, making a prison 
 for malefactors, and building a sea-port at the mouth of the Tiber, 
 called Ostia, by which he secured the trade of that river, and that of 
 the salt-pits adjacent. Thus having enriched his subjects, and beauti- 
 fied the city, he died after a reign of twenty-four years. 
 
 Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, who was appointed guardian to the sons 
 of the late king, took his surname from the city of Tarquinia, (B. C. 
 610,) the place of his previous residence. His father, a merchant of 
 Corinth, in Greece, who had acquired considerable wealth by trade, 
 settled in Italy. His son Lucumon, married a woman of family in the 
 city of Tarquinia, and removed to Rome. His elegant address, his 
 frequent invitations, and the many benefits he conferred, gained him the 
 esteem of the people. On his removal to Rome, say the historians, as 
 he approached the city gate, an eagle, stooping from above, took off his 
 hat, and, flying round the chariot for some time, put it on again. This, 
 his wife Tanaquil, who it seems was skilled in augury, interpreted as 
 
 What occasioned a war with the Sabines? — How long did Tullus Hostilius 
 reign ? — Who was next elected ? — What remarkable works did Ancus effect ? — 
 How long did he reign ? — Who next obtained the kingdom ( 
 
SERVIUS TULLUS. 185 
 
 a presage that he should one day wear the crown. Tarquin used all 
 his power and art to set aside the children of the late king, and to be 
 elected in their stead. For this purpose he urged the benefits he had 
 done the city. It had the desired effect, and the people elected him for 
 their sovereign. 
 
 A kingdom thus obtained by intrigue was notwithstanding governed 
 with equity. In the beginning of his reign, in order to recompense his 
 friends, he added a hundred members more to the Senate, which made 
 them in all three hundred. But his peaceful endeavours were soon in- 
 terrupted by the Latins, over whom he triumphed. He then turned his 
 arms against the Sabines, who had once more risen and had passed the 
 Tiber. He routed their army, and many who escaped the sword were 
 drowned in attempting to recross the river, while their bodies and 
 armour floating down to Rome, brought the first news of the victory. 
 Tarquin having forced his enemies into subjection, perfected several 
 public works for the convenience and embellishment of the city. Pre- 
 parations for erecting the Capitol were made by him. The city was 
 fortified by additional stone walls, and the cloacee, or common sewers, 
 were constructed for carrying into the Tiber the rubbish and superfluous 
 waters of Rome. 
 
 Tarquin was not content with a kingdom without the ensigns of roy- 
 alty. In imitation of the Lydian kings, he assumed a crown of gold, 
 an ivory throne, a sceptre with an eagle on the top, and robes of purple. 
 It was perhaps the splendour of these roj^alties that first raised the 
 envy of the late king's sons, who had now for above thirty-seven years 
 quietly submitted to his government. They resolved to destroy him, 
 which they effected by hiring two ruffians. The sons of Ancus found 
 safety in flight. Thus fell Lucius Tarquinius, surnamed Priscus, to 
 distinguish him from one of his successors. He was eighty years of 
 age, and had reigned thirty-eight years. 
 
 (B. C. 573.) Servius Tullus, the son-in-law of the late king, by 
 marrying his daughter, came to the crown by the Senate's appointment, 
 and without attempting to gain the suffrages of the people. Upon being 
 acknowledged king, the chief object of his reign was to increase the 
 power of the Senate, by depressing that of the people. The populace 
 who were unable to see into his designs, conferred upon him the full 
 power of settling the taxes. Accordingly he insisted that they should 
 pay their taxes by centuries, and that by centuries they should give 
 their votes in all public transactions. In former deliberations, each 
 citizen gave his suffrage singly, and the numbers of the poor always 
 carried it against the power of thejich ; but, by the regulation of Ser- 
 vius, the Senate was made to consist of a greater number of centuries 
 than all the other classes put together. 
 
 Mention the victories and public works of Tarquin. — What distinction did Tar- 
 quin assume? — Who procured his death I — How long did he reign I — Who then 
 came to the throne ? — What was his chief ohjeei? 
 
 16* 
 
18G HISTORY OF R03IE. 
 
 CHAPTER 4. 
 
 LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS — END OF THE REGAL 
 GOVERNMENT. 
 
 Servius instituted another regulation, called a lustrum.* By this 
 all the citizens were to assemble in the Campus Martius, in complete 
 armour and in their respective classes, and there to give an exact ac- 
 count of their families and fortune. Having enjoyed a long reign, spent 
 in settling the domestic policy of the state, he had thoughts of laying 
 down his power, and, after having formed the kingdom into a republic, 
 to retire into obscurity; but so generous a design was frustrated ere it 
 could be put into execution. 
 
 In the beginning of his reign, he had married his two daughters to 
 the two sons of Tarquin. But Lucius placed his whole affections on 
 his brother's wife, who answered his passion with sympathetic ardour, 
 and they both undertook to murder their respective consorts, and were 
 soon after married together. A first crime ever produces a second, and 
 they next proceeded to conspire the death of the king, which they 
 effected, after he had spent a useful and prosperous reign of forty-four 
 years. 
 
 Lucius Tarquinius, afterwards called Superbus, or the Proud, having 
 placed himself on the throne, supported his dignity by violence, and 
 even refused burial to the late king's body, under pretence of his being 
 an usurper. Many looked upon his accession with detestation and 
 horror, and this act of cruelty served only to confirm their hatred. 
 
 His chief policy was to keep the people employed in w r ars or public 
 works, in order to divert their attention from his unlawful method of 
 coming to the crown. 
 
 He first marched against the Sabines, and reduced them to submis- 
 sion. In the mean time many of the discontented patricians, abandon- 
 ing their native city, took refuge at Gabii, a city of Latium, about twelve 
 miles from Rome. To subdue that city he had recourse to stratagem ; 
 he caused his son Sextus to counterfeit desertion, and to seek refuge in 
 Gabii. When Sextus thought his authority established, he sent a con- 
 fidential slave to his father for instructions. Tarquin made no answer, 
 but taking the messenger into the garden he cut down before him the 
 tallest poppies. Sextus understood the meaning, and found means to 
 destroy or remove, one by one, the principal men of the city ; confisca- 
 ting their estates among the people. In the end they fell under the 
 power of Tarquin, without his even striking a blow. 
 . Tarquin undertook to build the Capitol, the foundation of which had 
 been laid in a former reign ; but an extraordinary event contributed to 
 
 * A space of five years. 
 
 What design did Servius form? — What occasioned his dealh? — Who afterwards 
 succeeded I — What was his policy? — Relate the expedition of Tarquin against the 
 Sabines, and against the city of Gabii. — What event happened to hasten the build- 
 ing of the Capitol ? 
 
DEATH OF LUCRETIA. 187 
 
 hasten the execution of it. A woman in strange attire came to the 
 king, offering to sell nine books, said to be composed by herself. Not 
 knowing the abilities of the seller, or that she was one of the celebrated 
 Sibyls, whose prophecies were never found to fail, Tarquin refused to 
 buy them. Upon this she departed, and burning three of her books 
 returned again, demanding the same price for the six remaining. Being 
 once more despised as an impostor, she again departed, and burning 
 three more returned with the remaining three, still asking the same 
 price as the first. The king, surprised at her behaviour, consulted the 
 augurs, who advised him to purchase them ; and the woman, having 
 recommended special attention to their contents, suddenly disappeared. 
 Tarquin chose proper persons to keep the books, which were deposited 
 in a stone chest, and the newly-designed Capitol was thought the 
 properest place in which to secure them. 
 
 Tarquin upon some frivolous pretence proclaimed war against the 
 Rutuli, and he invested their chief city, Ardea, which lay about sixteen 
 miles from Rome. While the army was encamped before the place, 
 the king's son, Sextus Tarquinius, and Collatinus, a noble Roman, 
 with some others, sat drinking in a tent. The discourse turned upon 
 wives, each man preferring the beauty and virtue of his own. Colla- 
 tinus offered to decide the dispute by putting it to an immediate trial. 
 Being heated with wine, they posted to Rome. There they found the 
 wife of Collatinus spinning in the midst of her maids, and portioning 
 out their tasks. They unanimously gave her the preference, and Sextus 
 became so much inflamed with love, that nothing but possession could 
 satisfy him. 
 
 He therefore visited her privately a few days after, and Lucretia, 
 suspecting nothing, ordered a chamber to be prepared for him. But he 
 having found means to convey himself into her chamber at midnight, 
 achieved what could not otherwise be obtained. In the morning the 
 ravisher returned to the camp ; and Lucretia, sending for her husband 
 Collatinus, and Spurius her father, informed them of the indelible dis- 
 grace that had befallen the family, and after relating to them some 
 particulars and requesting them to avenge her cause, she drew a po- 
 niard from beneath her robe, and plunging it into her own bosom, expired 
 without a groan. 
 
 Junius Brutus, whose father Tarquin had murdered, caused the body 
 of Lucretia to be exposed to the people, calling upon the gods to.wit- 
 ness that he would be her avenger. Their pity was soon changed into 
 rage and revenge. A decree of the Senate banished Tarquin and his 
 family for ever from Rome. Thus this monarch, who had now reigned 
 twenty-five years, being expelled the kingdom, took refuge with his 
 family at Cira, a little city of Etruria. In the mean time the Roman 
 army made a truce with the enemy, and Brutus was proclaimed deliv- 
 erer of the people. Thus ended with Tarquin, after a continuance of 
 215 years, the regal state of Rome. 
 
 Against whom did Tarquin proclaim war? — What event happened in the camp 
 with Sextus, the king's son? — Relate the circumstance which procured the banish- 
 ment of Tarquin, and the elevation of Brutus. — How long had the regal state 
 existed ? 
 
188 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER 5. 
 CONSULS. 
 
 The regal power being overthrown, a republican form of government 
 was sustituted. The Senate, however, reserved the greatest share of 
 the authority, and decorated their own body with the spoils of deposed 
 monarchy. The centuries of the people chose from among the Senators 
 two annual magistrates, whom they called Consuls, with power equal 
 to that of the regal ; and with the same privileges and ensigns of au- 
 thority. Brutus, the deliverer of his country, and Collatinus the hus- 
 band of Lucretia, were chosen the first consuls of Rome. 
 
 But a party was formed in favour of Tarquin, by some young men 
 of the principal families of the state, and who had shared in the plea- 
 sures and luxuries of the court. This party secretly increased, and what 
 may create surprise, the sons of Brutus and the nephews of Collatinus 
 were among the number. The conspiracy was discovered by a slave, 
 and Brutus was placed as a judge upon the life and death of his own 
 children, impelled by justice to condemn, and by nature to spare. Un- 
 moved by any motive but that in favour of what he deemed the public 
 good, he pronounced upon them the sentence of death, and by his of- 
 fice was obliged to see it put in execution, while the multitude looked 
 on with mingled sensations of pity, astonishment, and horror. The 
 lenity of Collatinus rendered him suspected, and he was deposed from 
 the consulship, and banished from Rome. Valerius Publicola was 
 chosen in his stead. 
 
 Tarquin's hopes of an insurrection in his favour being thus frustrated, 
 he now resolved to force himself upon his former throne by foreign aid. 
 He prevailed upon the Veians to assist him, and with a considerable 
 army advanced towards Rome. The consuls were not remiss to oppose 
 him. Valerius commanded the foot, and Brutus, being appointed to 
 head the cavalry, went out to meet him on the Roman border. Aruns, 
 the son of Tarquin, who commanded the cavalry for his father, seeing 
 Brutus at a distance, resolved by one great attempt to decide the fate 
 of the day before the engagement of the armies, when spurring his 
 horse he flew to him with fury. Brutus perceived his approach, and 
 they met with such ungoverned rage that both fell dead on the field to- 
 gether. A bloody battle ensued ; but the Romans, remaining in posses- 
 sion of the field of battle, claimed the victory. 
 
 Tarquin next prevailed on Porsenna, one of the kings of Etruria, to 
 espouse his cause. This prince, equally noted for his courage and con- 
 duct, with a numerous army laid siege to Rome. The siege was car- 
 ried on with vigour; the consuls opposed in vain, and were carried off 
 wounded from the field. The Romans, flying in great consternation, 
 were pursued by the enemy to the bridge, over which both victors and 
 
 Who were the first consuls, and what was their dignity? — Who formed a con- 
 spiracy against the consulship, and what was the event ? — Who were chosen 
 instead of Collatinus ( — Whose aid did Tarquin obtain against the consuls ? 
 
DEATH OP TARQUIN. 1S9 
 
 vanquished were about to enter the city in confusion. All now ap- 
 peared lost, when Horatius Codes, who had been placed there as sen- 
 tinel to defend it, opposed himself to the torrent of the enemy ; and, 
 assisted only by two more, for some time sustained the whole fury of 
 the assault, till the bridge was broken down behind him. He then 
 plunged into the Tiber and swam back victorious. 
 
 Still, however, Porsenna carried on the siege ; the distress of the 
 besieged became insufferable, when another act of fierce bravery brought 
 about its safety and freedom. Mutius, a youth of undaunted courage, 
 entered, disguised, into the camp of the enemy, resolving to die or to 
 kill the king; but mistaking the secretary for the king, stabbed him to 
 the heart. Upon Porsenna's demanding who he was, and the cause of 
 so heinous an action, Mutius replied with such undaunted heroism as 
 amazed Porsenna. He therefore ordered him back to Rome, and offered 
 the besieged conditions of peace. These conditions were accepted, and 
 ne retired from the Roman territory. 
 
 The year after the departure of Porsenna, the Sabines invaded the 
 Roman territories. The war that ensued was long and bloody; but at 
 length the Sabines were compelled to purchase a peace. Tarquin now, 
 by means of his son-in-law, Manlius, stirred up the Latins to espouse 
 his interest, and took the most convenient opportunity, when the ple- 
 beians were at variance with the senators, concerning the payment of 
 their debts. These refused to go to the war, unless their debts were 
 remitted on their return. The consuls finding their authority insuffi- 
 cient, offered the people to elect a temporary magistrate, who should 
 possess absolute power, not only over all ranks of the state, but even 
 over the laws themselves. 
 
 To this the plebeians readily consented, willing to give up their own 
 power for the sake of abridging that of their superiors. Lartius, in 
 consequence, was created the first dictator, (B. C. 495,) and he, enter- 
 ing upon his office surrounded with lictors and all the ensigns of ancient 
 royalty, completed the levies without resistance. Then going forth to 
 oppose the enemy, he concluded a truce with them for a year, and re- 
 turned with his army. In six months he laid down the dictatorship, 
 with the reputation of having exercised it with a blameless lenity. 
 
 The next year required another dictator, and Posthumius was invested 
 with the office. He gave the Latins a complete overthrow, and con- 
 cluded an advantageous peace. About this time died Tarquin, at the 
 advanced age of ninety years, which put an end to all further contests 
 for the crown. But though for that time the people submitted to be led 
 forth, they yet resolved to free themselves from their yoke ; and, as 
 they could not obtain a redress of their grievances, they determined to 
 Hy from those whom they could not move to compassion. They, there- 
 .ore, under the conduct of a plebeian, named Sicinius Vellutus, retired 
 ^o a mountain, hence called Mons Sacer, within three miles of Rome. 
 
 And what occasioned the death of Brutus? — Who next espoused the cause of 
 Tarquin ? — What did he effect ? — What act of bravery delivered the city ? — What 
 event of consequence followed? — Who was the first dictator? — Who was next 
 invested with the office? — How old was Tarquin at his death? — Under whom did 
 the people retire from Rome ? 
 
190 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Upon the news of this defection, the city was filled with consterna- 
 tion. The Senate was not less agitated than the rest. At length it was 
 resolved to send a messenger, entreating the people to return home, and 
 declare their grievances, promising an oblivion of all that had passed. 
 This message not succeeding, Menenius Agrippa, one of the wisest 
 and best of the senators, was of opinion that the demands of the peo- 
 ple were to be complied with, and ten commissioners were deputed. 
 The soldiers gave them a very respectful reception, and the conference 
 began. The commissioners employed all their oratory, while Sicinius 
 and Lucius Junius, who were speakers for the soldiery, aggravated 
 their distresses. 
 
 At length Menenius Agrippa, originally a plebeian, a shrewd man, 
 and who knew what kind of eloquence was likely to please, addressed 
 them with that celebrated fable which is so finely told by Livy — "In 
 times of old when every part of the body could think for itself, they all 
 resolved to revolt against the body. They knew no reason, they said, 
 why they should toil from morning till night in its service, while the 
 body lay at its ease and grew fat upon their labours ; accordingly one 
 and all agreed to befriend it no more. The feet vowed they would no 
 longer carry the load ; the hands vowed the}' would not feed it ; and 
 the teeth averred they would not chew its food. Thus resolved, they 
 all for some time kept their word ; but at length found that, instead of 
 mortifying the body, they only undid themselves ; they languished for 
 a while, and perceived, when too late, that it was owing to the body 
 that they had strength to work, or courage to mutiny." 
 
 This fable had an instantaneous effect upon the people. They cried 
 out that Agrippa should lead them back to Rome ; but Junius Brutus 
 recommended that, as a safeguard against future resentments, certain 
 officers should be created to plead the cause of the people. The senate 
 consented that the new officers should be called Tribunes nf the People.* 
 The Tribunes were at first five in number, but afterwards increased by 
 five more. They were annually elected by the people, and almost 
 always from their body. When they examined any decree, they an- 
 nulled it by the word Veto, " I forbid it," or confirmed it by signing the 
 letter T., which gave it validity. This new office being instituted, the 
 people, after sacrificing to the gods of the mountain, returned back onc9 
 more in triumph to Rome. 
 
 CHAPTER 6. 
 
 TRIBUNES CREATED, U. C. 260. — AGRARIAN LAW. 
 
 During the late separation tillage had been neglected, and a famine, 
 the ensuing season, w r as the consequence. The people erroneously as- 
 cribed the whole of their distress to the avarice of the patricians. But 
 plenty soon after appeased them. A fleet of ships, laden with corn 
 * So called because chosen by the tribes. 
 
 For what were commissioners appointed? — What fable rliil Menenius Agrippa 
 relate ? — How did this affect the people I — What new officers were created I 
 
CORIOLANUS 191 
 
 from Sicily, once more raised their spirits. But Coriolanus incurred 
 their resentment by insisting that the corn should not be distributed till 
 the grievances of the Senate were removed. For this the tribunes sum- 
 moned him to a trial before the people, and Coriolanus was condemned 
 to perpetual exile. He returned home followed by the lamentations of 
 the most respectable senators and citizens, to take leave of his wife, his 
 children, and his mother Veturia, and left the city to take refuge with 
 Tullus Attius, a man of great power among the Volsci. 
 
 Tullus provoked the Romans to a quarrel some time afterwards, and 
 war being declared on both sides, Coriolanus and Tullus were made 
 generals of the Volsci, and accordingly invaded and ravaged the Roman 
 territories, and at length invested Rome itself, fully resolved to besiege 
 it. It was then that deputies were sent to him with proposals for his 
 restoration in case he would draw off his army. Coriolanus, with the 
 sternness of a general, refused their offers. Another embassy was now 
 sent conjuring him not to exact from his native city aught but what 
 became Romans to grant ; but Coriolanus still persisted, and granted 
 them only three days for deliberation. In this exigence a more solemn 
 deputation was sent, composed of pontiffs, priests and augurs, but in 
 vain — they still found him severe and inflexible. 
 
 On their returning without success, the temples were filled with old 
 men and women, who, prostrate at the altars, put up their ardent prayers 
 for the preservation of their country. At length it was suggested that 
 what could not be brought about by the adjuration of the priests might 
 be effected by the tears of a wife, or the commands of a mother ; and 
 the deputation was generally approved of by the Senate and the people. 
 Veturia, the mother of Coriolanus, was accompanied by many of the 
 principal matrons of Rome, with Volumnia, his wife, and his two chil- 
 dren. Coriolanus, who at a distance discovered the mournful train of 
 females, was resolved upon giving them a denial ; but when told that 
 his mother and his wife were among the number, he instantly came 
 down from his tribunal to meet and embrace them. 
 
 At first, the women's tears and embraces took away the power of words, 
 and the rough soldier could not refrain from sharing in their distress. 
 Coriolanus was much agitated by contending passions; his mother 
 seconded her words by the persuasive eloquence of tears ; while his 
 wife and children hung around him intreating for protection and pity. 
 For a moment he was silent, feeling the strong conflict between honour 
 and inclination : at length, as if roused from a dream, he raised his 
 mother, who had fallen at his feet, crying out, " Oh, my mother, thou 
 hast saved Rome, but lost thy son." He accordingly gave orders to 
 draw off the army. Tullus, who had long envied Coriolanus, aggra- 
 vated to the Volsci his lenity, and on their return Coriolanus is said to 
 have been slain by an insurrection of the people. 
 
 Great were the rejoicings of the people at Rome upon the retreat of 
 the Volscian army; but they w r ere clouded soon after by the intrigues 
 
 What happened to Coriolanus ?— With whom did he take refuge?— Who besieged 
 Rome ?— How did the Romans act in the exigency ?— Who were in the female em- 
 bassy from Rome ? — What effect had it upon Coriolanus ? — What was his fate ? 
 
192 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 of Spurius Cassius, who, wishing to make himself despotic, by means 
 of the people, was found guilty of crimes tending towards an alteration 
 of the constitution. He was thrown from the Tarpeian Rock, by those 
 very people whose interests he had endeavoured to extend. 
 
 The year following, the two consuls of the former year, Manlius and 
 Fabius, were cited to appear before the people. The Agrarian law, 
 which had been proposed sometime before, for equally dividing the 
 lands of the commonwealth among the people, was the object invariably 
 pursued ; and they were accused of having made unjustifiable delays 
 in putting it off. The Agrarian law was, however, a grant the Senate 
 could not think of making to the people. The consuls therefore made 
 many delays and excuses ; till at length they were once more obliged 
 to have recourse to a dictator; and they fixed upon Quintus Cincinna- 
 tus, a man who had for some time given up all views of ambition, and 
 retired to his little farm ; where the deputies of the Senate found him 
 holding the plough, and in the attire of a husbandman. 
 
 He appeared but little elevated with the addresses of ceremony, and 
 the pompous habits they brought him, and testified concern that his aid 
 should be wanted. On his leaving he said to his wife, " I fear, my At- 
 tilia, that for this year our little fields must remain unsown." Then 
 taking a tender leave he departed for the city, where both parties were 
 strongly inflamed against each other. However, be sided with neither, 
 but instead of gaining the confidence of a faction, seized the esteem of 
 all. By threats and well-timed submission he prevailed upon the tri- 
 bunes to put off the law for a time. Having, by his wisdom, restored 
 tranquillity, he gave up the splendours of ambition to. enjoy it with a 
 greater relish in his little farm. 
 
 (U. C. 295) Cincinnatus had not long retired from office, when a 
 fresh exigence required his assistance; and the .Equi and the Volsci 
 were making new inroads into the territories of Rome. Minutius, one 
 of the consuls, was sent to oppose them; but his army was driven into 
 a defile between two mountains, from which, except through the enemy, 
 there was no egress. This, however, the iEqui had fortified ; and no- 
 thing remained to the Roman army but famine or immediate death. 
 The Senate turned their eyes upon Cincinnatus, and the messengers 
 found him, as before, labouring in his field. On being made dictator 
 he appointed an unambitious soldier, named Tarquitus, to be master of 
 the horse. 
 
 Upon entering the city the Dictator entreated all those who were 
 able to bear arms to repair to the Campus Martius with arms and pro- 
 visions for five days. At the head of these he marched all night, and 
 arrived early the next morning within sight of the enemy. Upon his 
 approach he ordered his soldiers to raise a loud shout, to apprise the 
 consul's army of the relief that was at hand. The ./Uqui were in i a 
 little amazed when they perceived that Cincinnatus approached, anil 
 
 What is said of Spurius Cnssius? — What compelled them to have recourse to a 
 dictator? — Whom did thev choose? — What effect had Cincinnatus on the factious 
 city ? — What happened after fie had retired from office I — Who was made dictator ) 
 — Whither did he march with the army I 
 
THE DECEMVIRI. 193 
 
 was making entrenchments beyond them to prevent their escape, and 
 inclosing them as they had inclosed the consul. 
 
 To prevent this a furious combat ensued ; but the JEqui, being 
 attacked on both sides, and unable to resist or fly, begged a cessation 
 of arms, offering to the dictator his own terms. He gave them their 
 lives, and obliged them to pass under the yoke, which was two spears 
 set upright, and another across, beneath which the vanquished were to 
 pass. The captains and generals he made prisoners of war, being 
 reserved to adorn his triumph. The plunder of the enemy's camp he 
 gave up entirely to his own soldiers. Thus having rescued a Roman 
 army, and defeated a powerful enemy, refusing any part of the spoil, 
 he resigned his dictatorship, after having enjoyed it fourteen days. 
 The Senate would have enriched him, but he declined their proffers ; 
 retiring once more to his farm, content with competence and fame. 
 
 But the clamours for the Agrarian law were now resumed in the city, 
 still more fiercely, when Siccius Dentatus, a plebeian, advanced in 
 years, but of an admirable person and military deportment, came for- 
 ward to enumerate his hardships and his merits ; and his merits more 
 than supported his ostentation. He had served his country in the wars 
 forty years ; he had been an officer thirty ; he had fought one hundred 
 and twenty battles ; he had obtained many civic, mural, and golden 
 crowns ; and had received forty-five wounds in front, and none be- 
 hind. Yet he had never received any share of those lands which were 
 won from the enemy, but continued to drag on a life of poverty. A 
 case of so much hardship had an effect upon the multitude, and they 
 unanimously demanded that the law might be passed, and that such 
 merit should not go unrewarded. But the resistance of the young pa- 
 tricians prevailed, and their resolution, for the present, put off the Agra- 
 rian law. 
 
 CHAPTER 7. 
 THE CREATION OF THE DECEMVIRI, U. C. 302 — VIRGINIUS. 
 
 The citizens of every rank began to complain of the arbitrary deci- 
 sions of the magistrates, and wished to be guided by a written body of 
 laws, which being known might prevent wrongs as well as punish them. 
 It was thereupon agreed that ambassadors should be sent to the Greek 
 cities in Italy and to Athens, for such laws as experience had found 
 equitable. For this purpose three senators were appointed ; and while 
 they were upon this commission abroad, a dreadful plague depopulated 
 the city at home. In about a year the ambassadors returned with a 
 body of laws, which were formed into ten tables. To these two more 
 were added, and formed that celebrated code called the Law of the 
 Twelve Tables. 
 
 To digest these laws, ten of the principal senators were selected, who 
 were called Decemviri, whose power should be absolute and continue 
 
 How did the contest terminate ? — How long did Cincinnatus enjoy the dictator- 
 ship? — Who enumerated his own hardships, and supported the clamour for the 
 Agrarian law? — For what purpose were commissioners appointed ? — What cod© 
 of laws was formed ? — For what were the decemviri created ? 
 17 
 
194 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 for a year. They agreed to take the reins of government by turns, each 
 to administer justice for a day. The first year they performed well, 
 and entreating of the Senate a continuance in office, the request was 
 granted. But their rapacity became excessive, and they ruled without 
 control, being guardea by the lictors, and a numerous crowd of clients 
 and dependants. In this gloomy situation of the state, the ^Equi and 
 Volsci renewed their incursions, and advanced within about ten miles 
 of Rome. 
 
 The decemviri divided their army into three parts: one continued with 
 Appius to awe the city, one was led against the Volsci, and the other 
 against the jEqui. The Roman soldiers had now adopted a method of 
 punishing their generals, by suffering themselves to be vanquished in 
 the field ; and on this occasion they abandoned their camp on the ap- 
 proach of the enemy. The generals were blamed at Rome for the 
 treachery of their men ; among the rest, old Siccins Dcntatus spoke his 
 sentiments w T ith his usual openness, on account of which, he was marked 
 by Appius for vengeance. He was appointed legate, and put at the 
 head of supplies sent from Rome to reinforce the army. The generals, 
 on his arrival, appointed him at the head of a hundred men to examine 
 a more commodious place for encampment. The soldiers were assas- 
 sins appointed to murder him. Dentatus, on being attacked, determined 
 to sell his life as dear as possible. He set his back against a rock, 
 and killed no less than fifteen of the assailants, and wounded thirty. 
 But some, by throwing javelins upon him at a distance, and others by 
 pouring down stones upon him from above, at length despatched him. 
 
 A transaction still more atrocious than the former inspired the citi- 
 zens with resolution to break all measures of obedience, so as at last to 
 restore freedom. Appius one day saw a maiden of exquisite beauty, 
 aged about fifteen. Her charms caught his attention and fired his heart. 
 Her name was Virginia ; she was the daughter of Virginius, a centu- 
 rion, then with the army in the field. To obtain the object of his pas- 
 sion, Appius fixed upon one Claudius, who had long been the minister 
 of his pleasures, to assert that the beautiful maid was his slave. Clau- 
 dius, acting according to his instructions, seized her, and led the weep- 
 ing virgin to the tribunal of Appius, who adjudged her to be delivered 
 into the custody and the care of Claudius. But this sentence was re- 
 ceived with loud clamours, particularly by the women ; and things now 
 threatened an open insurrection. 
 
 An account of the transaction was sent to Virginius, who, getting 
 permission to leave the camp, hastened to Rome. The day following 
 was fixed for the trial. Claudius, the accuser, began by making the 
 demand ; Virginius replied, proving Virginia to be his daughter. The 
 people, satisfied of the cruelty of his case, raised an outcry ; but Ap- 
 pius confirmed the opinion of Claudius, and adjudged Virginia to hiin ; 
 adding, " Go, therefore, lictors, disperse the multitude, and make room 
 for the master to repossess himself of his slave." Virginius, seeing 
 
 What was their power? — VVlmt happened in the expedition against the Volsci 
 and vEqui ? — What was the fate of Dcnlalus? — Whut circumstance raised the 
 indignation of the people against Appius? — How did Virginius a< t on this occasion^ 
 
MILITARY TRIBUNES. 195 
 
 that all was over, with the most poignant anguish, took his almost ex- 
 piring daughter in his arms and tenderly embraced her. " My dearest 
 lost child," said he, " thus alone is it in my power to preserve thy ho- 
 nour and thy freedom." So saying, he plunged a weapon into her 
 breast. Then drawing it out reeking with blood, he called upon the 
 city to strike for freedom. On his return to the army, who were already 
 disposed to revolt by the murder of Dentatus and other acts of tyranny, 
 they shouted their approbation and decamped, leaving their generals 
 behind. They took their station on mount Aventine, whither they had 
 retired about forty years before. 
 
 Appins, in the mean time, did all he could to quell the disturbances 
 in the city, by urging the punishment of deserters; but the Senate, far 
 from giving him the relief he sought, dispatched messengers to the 
 incensed army, offering to restore their former mode of government. 
 To this proposal all the people joyfully acquiesced ; and the army 
 returned to the city, if not with the ensigns, at least with the pleasure 
 of a triumphant entry. Appius died by his own hands in prison, the 
 other decemvirs went into exile ; and Claudius, the pretended master 
 of Virginia, was ignominiously banished. 
 
 (U. C. 309.) The wars with the ^Equi and the Volsci still continued, 
 and they at last advanced so far as to make their incursions to the very 
 walls of Rome. The tribunes of the people now grew more turbulent ; 
 they proposed two laws — one to permit plebeians to intermarry with 
 the patricians, and the other to permit them to be admitted to the con- 
 sulship also. The senators received these proposals with indignation; 
 but at last, finding their resistance only increased the commotions of 
 the state, they consented to pass that concerning marriages. With 
 respect to the consulship, after many debates, Claudius proposed an 
 expedient ; this was to create six or eight governors in the room of con- 
 suls, of which one half, at least, should be patricians. This project 
 was eagerly embraced by the people. These new magistrates were 
 called Military Tribunes. They had the power and ensigns of consuls. 
 The first that were chosen, continued in office only about three months ; 
 the augurs having found something amiss in the ceremonies of their 
 election. 
 
 The military tribunes being deposed, the consuls once more came 
 into office ; and, to lighten the weight of business, a new office was 
 created, — namely, that of Censors, who were to be chosen every fifth 
 year. Their business was to take an estimate of the number and. 
 estates of the people, to distribute them into proper classes, and to in- 
 spect the lives and manners of their fellow-citizens, &c. The first cen- 
 sors were Papirius and Sempronius — both patricians ; and from that 
 order censors continued to be elected for nearly a hundred years. This 
 new creation served to restore peace for some time ; but a famine press- 
 ing hard upon the poor, the usual complaints against the rich were 
 renewed. 
 
 What effect did it have on the army ? — Who entered the city in triumph ? — What 
 was the fate of Appius ' — Why were the military tribunes created ? — What was 
 their office? — What new officer was created after the military tribunes were 
 deposed ? — What was his office ? 
 
196 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Spurius Maelius, a rich knight, who had bought up all the corn of 
 Tuscany, inflamed with a desire of becoming powerful, distributed com 
 in great quantities among the poor each day. When he had gained a 
 sufficient number of partisans, he procured large quantities of arms, 
 and formed a conspiracy. Minutius soon discovered the plot to the 
 Senate, who resolved to create a dictator, who should have the power 
 of quelling the conspiracy without appealing to the people. Cincinna- 
 tus, who was now eighty years old, was chosen once more to rescue 
 his country from impending danger. He began by summoning Mselius 
 to appear, who refused to obey. He next sent Ahala, master of the 
 horse, to compel his attendance ; and, on his still refusing, Ahala killed 
 him on the spot. The tribunes of the people were much enraged at 
 the death of Maelius, and insisted upon restoring the military tribunes, 
 and the Senate were obliged to comply. The next year, however, con- 
 suls were chosen. 
 
 CHAPTER 8. 
 VEIAN WAR — INVASION OF THE GAULS. 
 
 The Veians had long been the rivals of Rome, and it seemed now 
 determined that the city of Veii, whatever it might cost, should fall ; 
 and the Romans sat down regularly before it. The siege lasted ten 
 years. Various were the successes, and many were the commanders 
 that directed the siege. Furius Camillus was now created dictator, 
 and to him was intrusted the management of the long-protracted war. 
 Camillus had, without stratagem or intrigue, raised himself to the 
 first eminence in the state. He had been made, some time before, one 
 of the censors : he was afterwards a military tribune. His courage 
 and abilities in the above offices, made him to be thought most worthy 
 to serve his country on the present occasion. Upon his appointment 
 numbers flocked to his standard. Conscious that the city could not 
 be taken by storm, he opened a passage under ground, which led into 
 the midst of the citadel. Thus, like a second Troy, was the city of 
 the Veii taken, after a ten years' siege ; and with its spoils enriched 
 the conquerors. Camillus triumphed after the manner of the kings of 
 Rome. 
 
 Camillus's good fortune attended him in another expedition against 
 the Falisci, in which a schoolmaster found means to decoy his scholars 
 into the Roman camp, offering to put them into the hands of Camillus, 
 as the surest means of inducing the citizens to surrender. The general, 
 struck with the treachery of the wretch, ordered him to be stript, his 
 hands to be tied behind him, and to be whipped into the town by his own 
 scholars. For this generous behaviour in Camillus, the magistrates 
 submitted to the Senate, leaving to the general the conditions of the 
 surrender. 
 
 What is related of Spurius Maelius ? — How long was the war with the Veians 
 protracted? — Who took their city and marched in triumph to Rome? — Against 
 whom did Camillus go with success ? — What generous act is recorded of him ? 
 
BRENNUS. 
 
 197 
 
 The popularity of Camillus proved however but of short duration. 
 His demand of a tenth of the spoils to be consecrated to Apollo (accord- 
 ing to a vow he had made in the hour of danger), the extraordinary 
 display of pomp in which he entered the capital on the day of triumph, 
 and the opposition he made to some popular measures, concurred to 
 render him an object of jealousy. His enemies charged him with em- 
 bezzling the property of the state. Indignant at such groundless accu- 
 sation, he retired from Rome before the day of trial, first embracing his 
 wife and children. On leaving the city, he turned his face to the capi- 
 tol, and entreated the gods that his country might be one day sensible 
 of their injustice and ingratitude. So saying he took refuge at Ardea, 
 a town at a little distance from Rome. 
 
 The tribunes had soon reason to repent their injustice, and to wish 
 for his assistance. The Gauls, about two centuries before, had made 
 an irruption from beyond the Alps, and settled in the northern parts of 
 Italy. They had been invited over by the deliciousness of the wines, 
 and the mildness of the climate. A body of these was now besieging 
 Clusium, and the inhabitants entreated the assistance of the Romans. 
 Accordingly three young senators were chosen of the family of the 
 Fabii. Brennus, the king of the Gauls, received them with a degree 
 of complaisance suited to his condition, but observed that the rights 
 of valiant men lay in their swords. The three ardent youths became 
 the partisans of the Clusians, incited them to arms, and even headed 
 their troops in an assault. This violation of honour induced Brennus 
 to turn his arms against Rome, who had sanctioned the treachery of 
 their ambassadors. 
 
 He marched with his numerous army through the lesser Italian States, 
 till he arrived at Alba, not far from the capital, where he completely 
 routed the Roman army. Rome now prepared for every extremity ; 
 most of the inhabitants fled to the neighbouring towns ; some were 
 resolved to await the conqueror's fury ; and the gates were thrown open 
 to receive him. But the senators and priests resolved to devote their 
 lives to atone for the crimes of the people ; and, habited in their robes 
 of ceremony, placed themselves in the forum. Brennus was surprised 
 to find the city gates open to receive him, and feared a stratagem ; after 
 entering the city, he approached the forum, and beheld there the ancient 
 senators sitting in profound silence : their appearance awed the barbarous 
 enemy into reverence. They mistook them for the tutelary deities of 
 the place. But one more forward than the rest stroked the beard of the 
 Papyrius, who lifted up his ivory spear and struck the savage to the 
 ground. This proved to be the signal for general slaughter, and the 
 whole shared the like fate. The fierce invaders pursued their slaughter 
 for three days successively, sparing neither sex nor age, and then set 
 fire to the city. 
 
 All the hopes of Rome were placed in the Capitol ; Brennus first 
 summoned it with threats, and then carried on the siege with vigour. 
 
 What afterwards bef'el Camillus? — Who invaded the Roman territory? — What 
 happened to the city, the senators, and. priests ? — With what success did Brennus 
 storm the Capitol ? 
 
198 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 But he was soon convinced of the futility of his expectations. He 
 next chose a body of men, to ascend the rock by which the Capitol 
 might be surprised. The men had even got upon the wall ; the Roman 
 sentinel was asleep, their dogs gave no signal, and all seemed an easy 
 victory, when the gabbling of some sacred geese saved the Capitol. 
 The garrison became awakened, and each snatching a weapon, opposed 
 the assailants, and the walls were eleared of the enemy with a most 
 incredible celerity. 
 
 From this time, the hopes of the barbarians began to decline, and 
 Brennus wished for an opportunity of raising the siege with credit; and 
 at length the commanders on both sides came to an agreement that the 
 Gauls should immediately quit the city and territories, upon being paid 
 a thousand pounds' weight of gold. When the gold was brought to be 
 weighed, the Gauls attempted fraudulently to kick the beam ; the Ro- 
 mans complaining of this, Brennus insultingly cast his sword and belt 
 into the scale, crying out that the only portion of the vanquished w r as 
 to suffer. While they were debating upon the payment, it was told 
 them that Camillus, their old general, was at the head of a large army, 
 hastening to their relief, and entering the gates of Rome ; and when 
 he arrived soon after at the place of controversy, he demanded the cause 
 of the contest, of which being informed, he ordered the gold to be car- 
 ried back to the Capitol, saying that his sword alone should purchase 
 peace. Upon this a battle ensued ; and the Gauls were routed with 
 such terrible slaughter, that the Roman territories were soon cleared of 
 their formidable invaders. The city being one continued heap of ruins, 
 except the Capitol, and many of its former inhabitants having fled for 
 refuge to Veii, the tribunes of the people asked for the removal of the 
 poor remains of Rome to Veii. But, by the remonstrances of Camil- 
 lus, the people went contentedly to work, and Rome soon began to rise 
 from its ashes. 
 
 The people were not ungrateful to Manlius for his bravery in defend- 
 ing the Capitol. They built him a house near the place where his 
 valour was so conspicuous, and appointed him a public fund for his 
 support. But his ambition aspired at the sovereignty of Rome. With 
 this view he laboured to ingratiate himself with the populace, paid 
 their debts, and railed at the patricians, whom he called their oppres- 
 sors. After the people had been filled with sedition and clamour on 
 his account, Manlius was brought to answer for his life. The place in 
 which he was tried was near the Capitol, where, when he was accused 
 of sedition and aspiring at sovereignty, he only turned his eyes, and 
 pointing thither, put them in mind of what he had there done for his 
 country. At length he was condemned to be thrown headlong from the 
 Tarpeian rock ; and the place which had been the theatre of his glory 
 became that of his punishment and infamy. Thus the Romans went 
 gradually forward with a mixture of turbulence and superstition within 
 their walls, and with successful enterprises without. 
 
 Having triumphed over the Sabines, the Etrurians, the Latins, the 
 
 Who routed the enemy and delivered the cily ? — What was the fate of Camil- 
 Iub? 
 
WAR WITH THE LATINS. 199 
 
 Hernici, the ^Equi, and the Volsci, the Romans now began to look for 
 greater conquests. They accordingly turned their arms against the 
 Samnites, a people descended from the Sabines. Valerius Corvus and 
 Cornelius were the two consuls, to whose care it first fell to manage 
 this dreadful contention between the rivals. Valerius was one of the 
 greatest commanders of his time ; and while his colleague led an army 
 to Samnium, the enemy's capital, he marched to relieve Capua, the 
 capital of the Campanians. Though the Samnites were the bravest 
 men they had ever encountered, the Romans were eventually crowned 
 with success. Some time after this, a mutiny arose among the soldiers 
 stationed at Capua, who marched with Quintius at their head till they 
 came within eight miles of the city. The Senate created Valerius dic- 
 tator, and sent him forth with an army to oppose them ; who, by his 
 moderation and prudence, repaired this defection, which threatened 
 danger to Rome. 
 
 CHAPTER 9. 
 
 WAR WITH THE LATINS AND SAMNITES — PYRRHUS. 
 
 A war between the Romans and the Latins followed soon after. As 
 their habits, arms, and language were the same, the most exact disci- 
 pline was necessary to prevent confusion in the engagement. Orders, 
 therefore, were issued, that no soldier should leave his ranks, upon pain 
 of death. With these injunctions both armies were drawn out and 
 ready, when Merius, the general of the enemy's cavalry, pushing for- 
 ward from his ranks, challenged any knight in the Roman army to sin- 
 gle combat. A general pause ensued, no soldier daring to disobey the 
 orders, till Titus Manlius, son of the consul Manlius, boldly sallied 
 forth against his adversary, and the two champions engaged : Manlius 
 succeeded in killing his antagonist, and returned in triumph to his 
 father's tent. When he was brought before the consul, his father or- 
 dered him to be bound to suffer for disobeying his orders. At this 
 unnatural mandate, the whole army was struck with horror ; but when 
 they saw their young champion's head struck off, and his blood stream- 
 ing upon the ground, they could no longer contain their execrations and 
 groans. 
 
 In the mean time the battle was commenced with mutual fury ; and 
 as the two armies had often fought under the same leader, they com- 
 bated with all the animosity of a civil war. The augurs had foretold 
 that whatever part of the Roman army should be distressed, the com- 
 mander of that part should devote himself for his country, and die as a 
 sacrifice to the immortal gods. Manlius commanded the right wing, 
 and Decius the left; after a time the left wing began to give ground, 
 and Decius resolved to devote himself for his country. After being 
 clothed in a long robe and covering his head, he mounted his horse and 
 
 Repeat the triumphs of the Romans.— Who quelled an insurrection in the army? 
 
 Who disobeyed the consul's orders in the war with the Latins? — What was hia 
 
 punishment ? — What event insured the defeat of the Latins ? 
 
200 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 drove furiously into the midst of the enemy, till he fell covered with 
 wounds. The Roman army considered this as au assurance of success ; 
 nor was the superstition of the Latins less influenced. The Romans 
 pressed them on every side. A total rout ensued, and scarcely a fourth 
 part of the enemy escaped the defeat. 
 
 (U. C.431.) About this time the Roman army sustained a signal 
 disgrace from the Samnites; who, by a stratagem, led them into a de- 
 file, and surrounded them. The Romans were first obliged to pass 
 under the yoke, after having been stripped of all their under garments. 
 They were then marched into Capua disarmed, half naked, and burning 
 with a desire of retrieving their lost honour. But this calamity was 
 transitory ; the state had suffered a diminution of its glory, but not of 
 its power. 
 
 Under the conduct of Papirius Cursor, repeated triumphs were gained. 
 The Samnites, being driven to extreme distress, had recourse to Pyrrhus, 
 king of Epirus, in Greece, who arrived at Tarentum with a large army 
 and twenty elephants. Lavinius was sent with a numerous force to 
 interrupt his progress. Pyrrhus previously sent an ambassador, pro- 
 posing to mediate between the Romans and the Tarentines. Lavinius 
 replied that he neither esteemed him as a mediator, nor feared him as 
 an enemy. 
 
 In consequence of this, both armies approaching, pitched their tents 
 in sight of each other, upon the opposite banks of the river Lyris ; nor 
 is it to this day determined, whether the Greek phalanx or the Roman 
 legion were preferable. The combat was long in suspense ; but when 
 the success seemed doubtful, Pyrrhus sent in his elephants and turned 
 the scale of victory ; for the Romans had never before encountered crea- 
 tures of such magnitude. A dreadful slaughter of the Romans ensued. 
 Night put an end to the combat ; and Pyrrhus, who had been wounded, 
 was heard to exclaim that another such a victory would ruin his whole 
 army. 
 
 The next day, viewing the field of battle, he regarded with admira- 
 tion the bodies of the Romans who were slain having all their wounds 
 in front, and their countenances marked with a noble resolution; he 
 was heard to exclaim, " Had I the Romans for soldiers, with what ease 
 could a conquer the world !" After this victory, Pyrrhus was still will- 
 ing to negotiate a peace, and sent his friend Cineas, the orator; but, 
 with all his art, he found the Romans, with a haughtiness little ex- 
 pected, insisting that Pyrrhus should evacuate Italy, previous to a 
 commencement of a treaty of peace. 
 
 Cineas returned to his master, extolling the virtues and grandeur of 
 the Romans. The Senate, he said, appeared an assembly of demi- 
 gods, and the city a temple for their reception. Notwithstanding the 
 failure of this embassy, Pyrrhus attempted to renew the negotiation, 
 when Fabricius arrived at his camp, relative to an exchange of prison- 
 
 Wliat disgrace did the Roman army sustain ? — To whom did the Samnites apply 
 for help ? — \Vhat reply did Lavinius make to the amhnssador of Pyrrhus ? — For 
 whom did victory decide in the engagement? — Whom did Pyrrhus send to treal 
 with the Romans I — Willi what success ? 
 
 
PYRRHUS. 201 
 
 crs. Pyrrhus received him with kindness, and offered him rich pre- 
 sents, which the Roman refused. The king then tried the equality of 
 his temper, by the sudden appearance of an elephant from behind the 
 tapestry. Fabricius looked unmoved upon the danger, his fidelity was 
 impregnable ; Pyrrhus, pleased to find so much virtue in one he had 
 considered as a barbarian, released the Roman prisoners to Fabricius. 
 
 (U. C. 474.) By this time the Roman army was recovered from its late 
 defeat, and Sulpitius and Decius, the consuls for the following year, 
 were placed at its head. Both armies met near the city of Asculum, 
 and though the numbers were nearly equal, the Grecian discipline, aided 
 by the elephants, prevailed. The next season brought fresh succours 
 from Rome. While the two armies were approaching, a letter was 
 brought to Fabricius, from the king's physician, importing that for a 
 proper reward he would take off the king by poison. Fabricius felt the 
 indignity of the base proposal, and despatched letters to Pyrrhus by 
 an Epirot prisoner informing him of the treachery. So deeply was the 
 king impressed with the generosity of this act, that he is said to have 
 exclaimed, " Admirable Fabricius, it would be as easy to turn the sun 
 from his course as thee from the path of honour." Not to be outdone 
 in magnanimity, he sent to Rome all his prisoners without ransom, and 
 again desired to negotiate a peace ; but the Romans still refused upon 
 any other conditions than had been offered before. 
 
 After an interval of two years, Pyrrhus, having increased his army by 
 new levies, attempted to surprise the enemy by night ; but his men lost 
 their way, and they fell in with the Roman camp. A general engage- 
 ment ensuing, Pyrrhus, finding the balance of the victory turning 
 against him, had recourse to his elephants. But the Romans threw 
 lights, made of balls composed of flax and rosin, against them, which 
 drove them back with terror and confusion upon their own army. Pyrr- 
 hus not only lost twenty-three thousand of his best soldiers, but his 
 camp was also taken. This served as a new lesson to the Romans, and 
 they learned to model and intrench their camps after the Grecian ex- 
 ample. This signal victory was obtained by Curius Dentatus, and it 
 obliged their renowned leader to return with precipitation, leaving only 
 a garrison for the defence of Tarentum. 
 
 Thus ended the war with Pyrrhus, after six years' continuance. The 
 Tarentines, who were the promoters of the war, being oppressed both 
 by the garrison and by the Romans who attacked them, applied to the 
 Carthaginians who blocked up their port, and thus this people were 
 now contended for by three different armies. At length the Romans 
 brought over the garrison to their interest, and became masters of the 
 city, and thus was reduced the whole of the Italian peninsula. 
 
 What happened to Fabricius in Pyrrhus's camp ? — On what occasion was the 
 magnanimity of Fabricius conspicuous ? — What signal victory had the Romans, 
 and by whom obtained ? — Whom did it compel to retreat ? — How long had the war 
 with Pyrrhus continued? — Who gained possession of Tarentum ? 
 
202 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER 10. 
 FIRST PUNIC WAR, B. C. 264. 
 
 Being free from all rival pretensions at home, the Romans began to 
 pant after foreign conquests. The Carthaginians at that time possessed 
 the greatest part of Sicily, and, like the Romans, only wanted an op- 
 portunity of embroiling the natives, in order to become masters of the 
 whole island ; which opportunity at length offered. Hiero, king of 
 Syracuse, entreated aid from Carthage against the Mamertines ; and 
 the latter, to save themselves from ruin, sought the protection of Rome. 
 The Romans, despising such an alliance, instead of professing to assist 
 them, boldly declared war against Carthage ; alleging as a reason, the 
 assistance which that state had lately sent to the southern parts of Italy 
 against the Romans. Thus commenced the first Punic war. 
 
 The Romans had no fleet, or at least what deserved that title, which 
 seemed to be an insurmountable obstacle to their ambition ; while the 
 Carthaginians had the entire command at sea, and kept all the mari- 
 time towns under obedience. But a Carthaginian vessel, accidentally 
 driven on shore in a storm, served the Romans as a model, who applied 
 themselves diligently to maritime affairs, and built a considerable fleet 
 with great expedition. The consul Duillius first ventured to sea with 
 his newly-constructed armament, and he gained a naval victory over 
 the Carthaginians. In this engagement the Carthaginians lost fifty of 
 their ships, and what they valued more, the undisturbed sovereignty of 
 the sea. 
 
 But the conquest of Sicily was to be obtained only by humbling the 
 power of Carthage at home, and for that reason Regulus and Manlius 
 were sent with a fleet of three hundred sail to Africa to make the in- 
 vasion. Regulus was reckoned the most consummate warrior that 
 Rome could then produce, and a professed example of frugal severity. 
 His patriotism was even greater than his temperance ; for all the pri- 
 vate passions seemed extinguished in him, or swallowed up by one 
 great ruling affection, the love of his country. 
 
 The two generals set sail with their fleet, which was the greatest 
 that had then left an Italian port, carrying a hundred and forty thousand 
 men. 
 
 They were met by the Carthaginians, with a fleet equally powerful, 
 and men more used to naval affairs. An engagement ensued, in which 
 the Romans were victorious ; the enemy's fleet was dispersed, and fifty- 
 four of their vessels were taken. (B. C. 245.) The consequence of 
 this victory was an immediate descent upon the coast of Africa, and the 
 capture of the city Clupea, together with twenty thousand men, who 
 were made prisoners of war. The Senate, being informed of these 
 
 What occasioned the first Punic war? — What obstacles had the Romans to their 
 ambition ? — How did they surmount it ? — Who gained a naval victory ? — What 
 generals were sent to invade Airica ? — What were the earliest results of the expe- 
 dition ? 
 
PUNIC WAR. 203 
 
 great successes, commanded Manlius back to Italy, to superintend the 
 Sicilian war, and directed that Regulus should continue in Africa, to 
 prosecute his victories there. 
 
 In another battle the Carthaginians were again defeated, and some 
 of their best troops cut off. More than eighty of their towns had sub- 
 mitted to the Romans. In this distress, the Carthaginians obtained 
 from Laced ajmon a general named Xantippus, a man of great expe- 
 rience. Under his command an engagement took place, in which, 
 after an obstinate resistance, the Romans were defeated with dreadful 
 slaughter, and Regulus himself was taken prisoner. Several other dis- 
 tresses of the Romans followed soon after this. They lost their fleet 
 in a storm; and Agrigentum, their principal town in Sicily, was taken 
 by Carthalo, the Carthaginian general. Another fleet, which they un- 
 dertook to build, shared the fate of the former. 
 
 The Carthaginians, however, suffered losses in Sicily, which more 
 than counterbalanced their triumphs in Africa, and they were desirous 
 of a new treaty for peace. Regulus, after having been kept prisoner for 
 four years, was sent with their ambassador to Rome, promising to return 
 in case of being unsuccessful — and he was given to understand that his 
 life depended on his success. He was received with the acclamations 
 of his friends ; but he refused to enter the gates. The Senate being 
 assembled, Regulus opened his commission, and the Carthaginian am- 
 bassadors seconded his proposals. The Senate were inclined for 
 peace; but Regulus dissuaded them from it, and obstinately persisted 
 in keeping his promise to return ; and, though apprised of the tortures 
 that awaited him, without bidding his friends or family farewell, he 
 departed with the ambassadors. On his arrival at Carthage, his eye- 
 lids were cut off and he was remanded to prison : whence, in a few 
 days, he was taken out and exposed to the burning sun. After this he 
 was put into a barrel stuck with spikes, in which he was kept till he 
 died. 
 
 Both sides renewed the war with greater animosity. And at length 
 the perseverance of the Romans was crowned with success, and the 
 Carthaginians were obliged to sue for peace; which Rome thought 
 proper to grant. Among other things it was stipulated that the Car- 
 thaginians should pay down a thousand talents to defray the expenses 
 of the war, and two thousand two hundred more within ten years ; that 
 they should quit Sicily and all the islands they possessed near it ; that 
 they should never make war against the allies of Rome, &c. Thus 
 ended the first Punic war, which had lasted twenty-four years. 
 (B.C. 241.) 
 
 The war between Carthage and Rome being ended, a profound peace 
 ensued, and for six years after the temple of Janus was shut up for the 
 second time since the building of the city. Being thus in friendship 
 with all nations, the Romans cultivated the arts of peace with diligence. 
 While they were thus engaged, war broke out between them and the 
 
 What disasters did the Roman army meet with ? — Who was sent to negotiate 
 with the Romans? — What was the result ? — What was the end of Regulus? — How 
 did this war terminate ? — What date ? — How did the Romans employ the peace ? 
 
204 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Illyrians. The Romans were victorious, and the Illyrians were forced 
 to conclude a peace upon advantageous terms for them. 
 
 The Gauls next incurred the displeasure of Rome. These barbarians 
 thinking a time of peace, when the troops were disbanded, the proper 
 season for new irruptions, invited fresh forces from beyond the Alps, 
 and entering Etruria wasted all with fire and sword, till they came 
 within three days' journey of Rome. By the superior skill of the Ro- 
 man generals, the Gauls were surrounded, and a miserable slaughter 
 ensued, in which forty thousand were slain, and ten thousand taken 
 prisoners. Another victory soon after gained by Marcellus over the 
 Gauls, and in which he killed their king, Viridomarus, compelled them 
 to sue for peace, the conditions of which greatly enlarged the empire. 
 
 CHAPTER 11. 
 THE SECOND PUNIC WAR. 
 
 The Carthaginians, having made peace solely because they were 
 unable to continue the war, took the earliest opportunity of breaking 
 the treaty. They besieged Saguntum, a city of Spain, then in alliance 
 with the Romans. Consequently ambassadors were sent from Rome 
 to Carthage, complaining of this infraction of their treaty; and requi- 
 ring that Hannibal, the Carthaginian general, who had advised this 
 measure, should be delivered up to them. This being refused, both 
 sides prepared for a second Punic war. The Carthaginians intrusted 
 the management of it to Hannibal, who had been made the sworn foe 
 of Rome almost from his infancy. On his first appearance in the field, 
 he united in his person the most masterly method of commanding with 
 the most perfect obedience to his superiors. Thus he was equally be- 
 loved by his generals, and by the troops he was appointed to command. 
 He was of an invincible spirit ; was equally patient of heat and cold, 
 and was esteemed the most skilful commander of antiquity. 
 
 Having overrun all Spain, he resolved to carry the war into Italy. 
 For this purpose, leaving Hanno with sufficient force to guard his con- 
 quests in Spain, he set out for Italy, with an army of fifty thousand 
 foot, and nine thousand horse. After a march of ten days, attended 
 with extreme dangers, he arrived at the foot of the Alps ; and at the 
 end of fifteen days more, spent in crossing the Alps, he found himself 
 in the plains of Italy, with about half his army ; the other half had 
 died of the cold, or had been cut off by the natives. When the Ro- 
 mans heard that Hannibal was crossing the Alps, the Senate sent 
 Scipio to oppose him ; but the Romans were defeated on the banks of 
 the Ticinus. Hannibal took the most prudent precautions to increase 
 his army, giving orders always to spare the possessions of the Gauls ; 
 and this so pleased that simple people, that they flocked to his stand- 
 ard with alacrity. 
 
 Over whom did they gain a conquest ? — What victory soon followed ? — How did 
 the Carthaginians break the treaty with the Romans? — To whom did the Cart ha 
 gimans entrust the war? — What conque3t had Hannibal already gained ? 
 
HANNIBAL. 205 
 
 A second battle was fought upon the banks of the river Trebia. The 
 Romans were totally routed, with a loss of twenty-six thousand, who 
 were either slain by the enemy, or drowned in the river. The third 
 defeat the Romans sustained, was at the lake of Thrasymene. Han- 
 nibal had disposed his troops on the hills that surround the lake, in a 
 disposition every way favourable for the Carthaginians. Flaminius, 
 the Roman general, led his men to attack him from the valley beneath. 
 The fortune of the day was such as might be expected, from the con- 
 duct of the two generals. About fifteen thousand Romans, with Fla- 
 minius himself, fell in the valley, and six thousand more were obliged 
 to yield themselves prisoners of war. 
 
 Upon the news of this defeat, after the general consternation was 
 allayed, the Senate elected Fabius Maximus, as commander, with abso- 
 lute authority. He was a man of great courage, with a happy mixture 
 of caution, which enabled him to harass the Carthaginians without 
 hazarding a battle. Indeed, he had at one time actually inclosed Han- 
 nibal in the Casiline defile at the mountainous passes on the borders 
 of Campania, where it was impossible to winter ; nor could he extri- 
 cate his army without imminent danger. In this exigence he ordered 
 a number of small fagots and lighted torches to be tied to the horns of 
 two thousand oxen, which should be driven towards the enemy. These 
 advancing up the mountains, seemed to fill the whole neighbouring 
 forest with fire, which so terrified the sentinels, who were placed to 
 guard the approaches of the mountains, that they fled in consternation. 
 By this stratagem Hannibal escaped with his army. Fabius being 
 obliged to resign his office, was succeeded in the command by Teren- 
 tius Varro, a man sprung from the dregs of the people ; and with him 
 was joined ^Emilius Paulus, of a disposition entirely opposite to his 
 plebeian colleague. 
 
 The Romans again resolved to meet Hannibal. A battle was fought 
 near the village of Cannae, in which the Romans, through the temerity 
 of Varro, lost 50,000 men, and so many knights, that it is said Hanni- 
 bal sent three bushels of the gold rings worn by those of this order to 
 Carthage. (B. C. 203.) The brave ^Emilius also was slain in the 
 engagement. By this victory Hannibal became complete master of the 
 south of Italy, and some historians believe, that if he had advanced 
 immediately after the victory, Rome itself would have fallen. A short 
 time after, Varro arrived at the city, having left behind him the wretched 
 remains of his army. As he had been the principal cause of the late 
 calamity, it was natural to suppose that the Senate would severely 
 reprimand the rashness of his conduct. But far otherwise ! The Ro- 
 mans flocked out to meet him, and the Senate returned him thanks that 
 he had not despaired of the safety of Rome. Fabius and Marcellus 
 were appointed to lead the armies; and though Hannibal again offered 
 them peace, they refused it, except upon condition that he should quit 
 Italy. 
 
 What victories did he gain over the Romans ? — With what success did Fabius 
 Maximus oppose Hannibal >. — What stratagem did the Carthaginians use? — What 
 was the result of the battle of Cannae ! 
 
 18 
 
206 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Hannibal, either finding it impossible to march directly to Rome, or 
 willing to give his forces rest after his victory, led them to Capua. — 
 This city had long been considered as the nurse of luxury, and the cor- 
 rupter of all military virtue. Here a new scene of pleasure opened to 
 his barbarian troops, who, from being hardy veterans, became debauched 
 rioters. The senators of Carthage, envious of the glory that Hannibal 
 had acquired, refused to send him the reinforcements necessary to secure 
 his conquests. And now fortune seemed turned against hiin. His first 
 loss was at the siege of Nola, where Marcellus, the Pra?tor, made a 
 successful sally, and soon after he induced a large body of Nurnidian 
 and Spanish cavalry to desert to the Romans. 
 
 For years after, Hannibal fought with various success ; Marcellus, 
 his opponent, sometimes gaining and sometimes losing the advantage, 
 without coming to any decisive engagement. The Senate of Carthage 
 sent his brother Asdrubal to his assistance, with a body of forces drawn 
 out of Spain. But he was intercepted in his march by the consuls 
 Livius and Nero, and both he and his whole army were cut off. Nero 
 ordered Asdrubal's head to be thrown into his brother Hannibal's camp, 
 who was impatiently waiting the arrival of these succours. The Car- 
 thaginian general now began to perceive the downfall of Carthage, and 
 he observed with a sigh, that fortune seemed fatigued with granting her 
 favours. Success now attended the Roman arms in other parts. "Mar- 
 cellus took the city of Syracuse and put the inhabitants to the sword. 
 
 Scipio Africanus, returning from the conquests of Spain, in which 
 country he had been pro-consul, was made consul at the age of twenty- 
 nine. He resolved to carry the war into Africa, and while the Cartha- 
 ginians kept an army near Rome, to make them tremble for their own 
 capital. Scipio was not long in Africa without employment ; Hanno 
 opposed him, but was defeated and slain. Syphax, the usurper of 
 Numidia, led up a large array against him, and in an engagement lost 
 40,000 killed, and 6,000 taken prisoners. The Carthaginians, terrified 
 at their repeated defeats, sent a deputation to Hannibal, with a positive 
 command for him to return and oppose the Roman general, who at that 
 time threatened Carthage with a siege. 
 
 Hannibal obeyed the orders of his infatuated country with the sub- 
 mission of the meanest soldier, and arrived in Africa to meet Scipio. — 
 An engagement soon took place between the two armies, in which the 
 Carthaginians were totally routed, having 20,000 killed, and as many 
 taken prisoners. Hannibal, who had done all that a great and an un- 
 daunted general could perform, fled with a small body of horse to Adri- 
 metum ; fortune seeming to delight in confounding his ability, his 
 valour and experience. This victory brought on a peace. By Hanni- 
 bal's advice, the Carthaginians submitted to the conditions which the 
 Romans dictated, not as rivals, but as sovereigns ; and thus ended the 
 second Punic war, seventeen years after it had begun. (B. C. 188.) 
 
 In what city « 1 i* I Hannibal rest his troops ? — What disasters followed I — What 
 happened to Hannibal s brother I — What city did the Romans take ? — Who com- 
 manded the Romans in Africa, and threatened Carthage with a siege ? — How did 
 this war terminate ? — How lon^ hud it lasted ? 
 
DEATH OF HANNIBAL. 207 
 
 CHAPTER 12. 
 WAR WITH PHILIP, KING OF MACEDON. 
 
 While the Romans were engaged with Hannibal, they carried on 
 also a vigorous war against Philip, king of Macedonia, who, after 
 several defeats and considerable losses, was obliged to beg a peace, 
 upon condition of paying a thousand talents. Antiochus, king of Syria, 
 was next brought to submit to the Roman arms ; after embassies on the 
 one side and the other, war was declared against him, five years after 
 the conclusion of the Macedonian war. In a battle near Magnesia, in 
 Lesser Asia, Scipio gave him a complete overthrow ; and being re- 
 duced to the last extremity, he was glad to procure peace from the 
 Romans upon their own terms, which were to pay 15,000 talents, to 
 quit his possessions in Europe, and in Asia on the hither side of Mount 
 Taurus, — to give twenty hostages as pledges of his fidelity, and to 
 deliver up Hannibal, the inveterate enemy of Rome, who had taken 
 refuge at his court. 
 
 Hannibal, whose destruction was one of the articles of this extorted 
 treaty, being sure of finding no safety or protection with Antiochus, 
 departed by stealth, and took refuge at the court of Prusias, king of 
 Bithynia. The Romans, with a vindictive spirit utterly unworthy of 
 them, sent iEmilius, one of their most celebrated generals, to demand 
 him of this king, who, fearing the resentment of Rome, and willing to 
 conciliate their friendship by this breach of hospitality, placed a guard 
 over Hannibal with an intent to deliver him up. The poor old general, 
 thus implacably persecuted from one country to another, finding every 
 method of safety cut off, destroyed himself by poison, which he carried 
 about with him secreted in the hollow of a ring. 
 
 A second Macedonian war was soon after proclaimed against Per- 
 seus, the son of Philip, (B. C. 170,) who had been obliged to beg 
 peace of the Romans. During the course of this war, which continued 
 about three years, opportunities were offered him of cutting off" the 
 Roman army ; but being ignorant how to take advantage of their rash- 
 ness, he spent the time in empty overtures for peace. At length iEmi- 
 lius gave him a decisive overthrow. He fled into Crete, but he was 
 obliged to surrender himself, and to grace the splendid triumph of the 
 Roman general. 
 
 About this time, Masinissa, the Numidian, made some incursions 
 into a territory claimed by the Carthaginians, who attempted to repel 
 the invasion. This brought on a war between them and that monarch ; 
 while the Romans, who pretended to consider this conduct of theirs as 
 an infraction of the treaty, sent Cato the Censor, with some other depu- 
 ties, to make a complaint. Through the influence of these ambassa- 
 dors, war was declared between Rome and Carthage ; and the consuls 
 set out with a thorough resolution utterly to demolish Carthage. 
 
 How did the war with Philip end ?— What was the deplorable end of Hannibal ? 
 — Relate the war with Perseus. — What caused another rupture with Carthage ? 
 
298 IIISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 The wretched Carthaginians attempted to soften the victors by sub- 
 mission ; but they received orders to leave the city, which was to be 
 levelled to the ground. They implored with tears and lamentations for 
 a respite from such a hard sentence; but finding the consuls inexorable, 
 they prepared to suffer the utmost extremities, and to fight to the last 
 for their seat of empire. Asdrubal, who had been lately condemned 
 for opposing the Romans, was now taken from prison to head their 
 army ; and such preparations were made, that when the consuls came 
 before the city, they met with such resistance as quite dispirited their 
 forces. Several engagements were fought before the walls with disad- 
 vantage to the assailants ; but at length Himilco Pharneas, the master 
 of the Carthaginian horse, deserted to the Romans, and the unhappy 
 townsmen saw the enemy approach ; the walls which led to the haven 
 were soon demolished, and the forum itself was taken, and the most 
 dreadful carnage ensued. The citadel soon after surrendered at dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 All was now subdued but the temple, which was defended by 
 deserters from the Roman army, and those who had been most forward 
 to undertake the war. These expecting no mercy, set fire to the build- 
 ing, and voluntarily perished in the flames. (B. C. 146.) This was the 
 end of one of the most renowned cities in the world, after it had rival- 
 led Rome above one hundred years. This conquest of Carthage was 
 soon followed by that of Corinth, one of the noblest cities of Greece, 
 which city was taken and burned by the consul Mummius. Scipio also 
 laid siege to Numantia, the strongest city of Spain, and the wretched 
 inhabitants, to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy, set fire to the 
 city, and perished in the flames.* 
 
 (B. C. 132.) The Romans being now left without a rival, the 
 triumphs and spoils of Asia introduced a taste of splendid expense, 
 and this produced avarice and inverted ambition. The two Gracchi 
 were the first who saw this strange corruption among the great, and 
 resolved to repress it by renewing the Licinian law, which had enacted, 
 that no person in the state should rent more than 500 acres of the pub- 
 lic land. The above law, though at first carried on with proper mode- 
 ration, greatly disgusted the rich, who endeavoured to persuade the 
 people that the proposer aimed only at disturbing the government and 
 throwing all things into confusion. But Tiberius Gracchus, the elder 
 of the two, who was a man of the greatest eloquence of his time, 
 easily removed these impressions from the minds of the people ; and 
 at length the law was passed. 
 
 On the death of Attalus, king of Pergamus, who had made the Ro- 
 mans his heirs, Gracchus proposed, that the mone) r so left should be 
 divided among the poor. This caused still greater disturbances than 
 before. The Senate assembled upon the occasion. While Gracchus 
 
 ♦See engraving at the beginning of the History of Rome. 
 
 How did the Carthaginians act on the occasion ? — Who defended the temple ? — 
 What other cities were taken? — What effect had this prosperous peace on the 
 Romans ? — Who renewed the Licinian law ? — What was the end of Tiberius 
 Gracchus ? 
 
DEATH OF CAIUS GRACCHUS. 209 
 
 was debating before the people in the Capitol, he found his speech en- 
 tirely interrupted by the clamour raised by the clients of the great on 
 one side, and by that of the favourers of the law on the other. He 
 raised his hand to his head, to intimate that his life was in danger, and 
 in endeavouring to escape he was killed by Saturnius, one of his col- 
 leagues in the tribuneship. (B. C. 130.) The persons of the tribunes 
 were held sacred, and therefore the murderer was obliged to quit Rome 
 to avoid the reproaches and vengeance of the people. The stings of 
 conscience soon broke down his health, and he died in all the horrors 
 of despair. 
 
 Soon after the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, the Romans were 
 alarmed by a formidable insurrection of the slaves in Sicily, who 
 seized the city of Enna, and chose Eunus, one of their number, for their 
 king. For six years the new monarch maintained a fierce and desperate 
 war against superior forces, but at length he was taken and cruelly put 
 to death. Caius Gracchus was but twenty-one at the death of his 
 brother Tiberius. For some time he lived in retirement, unseen and 
 forgotten, employing his solitude in the study of eloquence. When he 
 thought himself qualified to serve his country, he obtained the quaestor- 
 ship to the army in Sardinia, and soon after the tribuneship; he cited 
 before the people, Popilius, his brother's most inveterate enemy, who, 
 rather than stand the event of the trial, chose to go into banishment. 
 He next procured an edict, granting the freedom of the city to the in- 
 habitants of Latium, and soon after to all the people on the hither side 
 of the Alps. He then proceeded to an inspection into the late corrup- 
 tions of the Senate ; and the whole of that body being convicted of 
 bribery, extortion, and the sale of offices, a law was made, transferring 
 the power of judging corrupt magistrates from the Senate to the 
 knights. 
 
 Gracchus, being grown by these means, not only powerful, but 
 popular, was the object at which the Senate aimed all their resentment; 
 for standing a third time for the tribuneship, he was rejected. And soon 
 after one of his lictors, at a controversy, calling some of the opposite 
 party " factious citizens," was instantly murdered. Gracchus, who saw 
 the consequences that were likely to ensue, reprimanded his party for 
 their rashness, and led his followers to Mount Avenline; but being de- 
 serted by many of his friends, and hotly pursued by his enemies, and 
 seeing no way of escape, he prevailed upon an attendant to despatch 
 him. The pursuers coming up, cut off his head and placed it for a 
 while, as a trophy, on a spear. 
 
 Thus died Caius Gracchus. He is usually impeached by historians 
 as guilty of sedition ; but from what we see of his character, the dis- 
 turbance of public tranquillity was rather owing to his opposers, and to 
 the injustice of the Senate, than to him. Indeed this body, once so 
 venerable, was now to be distinguished from the rest of the people only 
 by their superior luxury ; and ruled the commonwealth by an authority 
 
 What happened in Sicily to alarm the Romans? — In what manner did Caiu9 
 Gracchus gain popularity I — Mention the disastrous end of Caius Graechus. — How 
 do historians speak of Gracchus ? 
 
 18* 
 
210 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 gained from riches and mercenary dependencies. In short, the empire 
 at this period came under the government of a hateful aristocracy, and 
 nothing can be more dreadful to a thinking mind, than the government 
 of Rome from this period till it found refuge under the protection of 
 Augustus. 
 
 CHAPTER 13. 
 JUGURTHIAN WAR— MARIUS — SYLLA. 
 
 (B.C. 119.) While the Romans were in this state of deplorable 
 corruption at home, they were successful in their transactions with 
 foreign powers. Among other victories, Jugurtha, king of Numidia, 
 had been entirely- overthrown. He was the illegitimate grandson of 
 Masinissa, who sided against Hannibal with Rome. He was educated 
 with the two young princes, who were left to inherit the kingdom, and 
 being superior in abilities to both, and greatly in favour with the people, 
 he murdered Hiempsal, the elder son, and made the same attempt on 
 Ad herbal, the younger, who escaped and fled to the Romans for succour. 
 Jugurtha, sensible how much avarice and injustice had crept into the 
 Senate, sent his ambassadors to Rome with large presents, which so 
 successfully prevailed, that the Senate decreed him half the kingdom, 
 thus acquired by murder and usurpation. But Jugurtha resolved to 
 possess himself of the whole, and he succeeded in murdering Adherbal. 
 
 The Roman people who had still some generosity remaining, unani- 
 mously complained of his treachery, and procured a decree that Jugur- 
 tha should be summoned in person before them to give an account of 
 all such as had accepted bribes. Jugurtha made no great difficulty in 
 throwing himself upon the clemency of Rome, but not giving the peo- 
 ple satisfaction, he had orders to depart from the city, and Albanus the 
 consul was sent with an army to follow him ; who giving up the direc- 
 tion of it to Aulus, his brother, the Romans were compelled to hazard 
 a battle, and the whole army, to avoid being cut to pieces, was obliged 
 to pass under the yoke. 
 
 In this condition Metellus, the succeeding consul, found affairs upon 
 his arrival in Numidia ; officers without confidence — an army without 
 discipline — and an enemy ever watchful and intriguing. However, 
 by his great attention to business, and by his integrity, which shudder- 
 ed at corruption, Jugurtha, in the space of two years, was overthrown 
 in several battles, forced out of his own dominions, and constrained to 
 beg a peace. But Metellus was frustrated in his expectations of an 
 easy and certain victory, by the intrigues of Caius Marius, his lieuten- 
 ant, who came in to reap that harvest of glory which the other's industry 
 had sown. Caius Marius was born in a village near Arpinum, of poor 
 parents, and he was a man of extraordinary stature, incomparable 
 strength, and undaunted bravery. When Metellus was obliged to solicit 
 at Rome for a continuance of his command, Marius resolved to stand 
 
 What \vq9 the state of Rome at this time? — What is told of Jugurtha. king of 
 Numidia ? — What disgrace did the Roman army sustain ? — What advantages did 
 Metellus gain ? — Who next obtained the consulship ? 
 
MARIUS. 211 
 
 for it himself, and contrary to the expectation and interest of the nobles, 
 he obtained it. 
 
 Marius quickly made himself master of the cities which Jugurtha had 
 still remaining in Numidia. This unfortunate prince then had recourse 
 for assistance to Bocchus, king of Mauritania. But after several signal 
 defeats, in one of which not less than ninety thousand of the Moorish 
 army were slain, Bocchus, not thinking it expedient to hazard his own 
 crown to protect that of his ally, sent ambassadors to Rome imploring 
 protection. The senate granted the suppliant, not their friendship, but 
 their pardon. However, he was given to understand, some time after, 
 that the delivering up of Jugurtha to the Romans would in some measure 
 conciliate their favour and soften their resentment. Accordingly, by 
 his treachery, Jugurtha was made prisoner, and carried by Marius to 
 Rome, loaded with chains. He did not long survive his overthrow, 
 being condemned by the Senate to be starved to death in prison. 
 
 By this and two succeeding victories over the Gauls, who had invaded 
 Italy, Marius, having rendered himself very formidable to distant 
 nations in war, became soon after much more dangerous to his fellow 
 citizens in peace ; the strength which he had given the popular party 
 every day grew more conspicuous. The Italians being frustrated in 
 their aims of gaining the freedom of Rome by the intrigues of the 
 senate, resolved upon gaining it by force. (B. C. 90.) This gave rise to 
 the Social War, which having raged with doubtful success for two 
 years, the Senate began to reflect that, whether conquered or conquerors, 
 the power of the Romans was in danger of being destroyed. But by 
 giving the right of citizenship to such of the Italian states as had not 
 revolted, and soon after offering it to those who would lay down their 
 arms, peace was restored. But the states not being empowered to vote 
 till all the other tribes had given their suffrages, had but little weight 
 in the constitution. 
 
 The Roman arms were next turned against Mithridates, the most 
 powerful and warlike monarch of the East. Sylla was appointed to 
 command the expedition, but Marius succeeded in getting the appoint- 
 ment reversed, and the command of the army appointed to oppose 
 Mithridates was transferred from Sylla to Marius. The officers sent 
 from Rome by Marius, to take command in his name, were slain ; and 
 the soldiers, with Sylla at their head, marched to the city, and entered 
 it sword in hand, as into a place taken by storm. Marius and Sulpi- 
 cius, at the head of a tumultuary body of partisans, attempted to oppose 
 their entrance, but they were forced to flee with precipitation, and to 
 leave Sylla master of the city, who began by new-modelling the laws, 
 so as to favour his outrages. 
 
 Marius, at the age of seventy, was driven from Rome and declared 
 a public enemy. After wandering some time in the most deplorable 
 condition, he concealed himself in the marshes of Minturnae, where he 
 continued a whole night in a quagmire. At break of day, he made 
 
 Who implored the protection of Rome ? — What misfortune befel Jugurtha > — 
 What occasioned the Social War, and what put an end to it ? — What did Sylla at 
 the head of the army ? — What befel Marius ? 
 
212 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 towards the sea side, in hopes of finding n ship to facilitate his escape ; 
 but being discovered, he was conducted to a neighbouring town with a 
 halter round his neck; and without clothes, and covered with mud, 
 was sent to prison. 
 
 The governor soon after sent a Cimbrian slave to despatch him ; but 
 the barbarian no sooner entered the dungeon for this purpose than he 
 stopped short, intimidated by the dreadful visage and awful voice of the 
 fallen general. The slave threw down the sword, and rushing from 
 the prison, cried out that he found it impossible to kill him. The go- 
 vernor, considering the fear of the slave as an omen in the unhappy 
 exile's favour, once more gave him his liberty. After wandering about 
 from place to place for some time, he was joined by his son ; and they 
 were informed that Cinna, one of their party, who had remained at 
 Rome, had put himself at the head of a large army. 
 
 It was not long before they joined their forces at the gates of Rome. 
 Marius entered the city at the head of his guards, and massacred all 
 who had been obnoxious to him, without remorse or pity, and then 
 made himself consul with Cinna. After committing the most dreadful 
 cruelties, he died soon after. These accounts being brought to Sylla, 
 he concluded a peace with Mithridates, and returned home to take ven- 
 geance of his enemies at Rome. Cinna, by his ill-timed severity, pro- 
 duced a tumult and mutiny through his army ; and while endeavouring 
 to appease it he was run through the body. 
 
 Scipio, the consul who commanded against Sylla, was soon after 
 allured by proposals for coming to a treaty ; but a suspension of arms 
 being agreed upon, Sylla's soldiers went into the opposite camp, dis- 
 playing those riches which they had acquired in their expeditions, and 
 offering to participate with their fellow-citizens, in case they changed 
 their party ; consequently the whole army declared for Sylla. Thus 
 both factions, exasperated to madness, and expecting no mercy on 
 either part, gave vent to their fury in several engagements. The forces 
 on the side of young Marius, who now succeeded his father in command, 
 were more numerous, but those of Sylla better disciplined. Carbo, 
 who commanded for Marius, soon after engaged Metellus ; but was 
 defeated with the loss of ten thousand slain, and six thousand taken 
 prisoners. 
 
 Sylla now entered Rome at the head of his army, and became undis- 
 puted master of the country. Happy had he supported in peace the 
 glory which he had acquired in war, or had he ceased to live when he 
 ceased to conquer. He ordered eight thousand men, who had escaped 
 the general carnage, to be slain. The next day he proscribed forty 
 senators, and sixteen hundred knights ; and two days after, forty sena- 
 tors more, with an infinite number of the richest citizens. He next 
 took upon himself the dictatorship ; and after having held it nearly three 
 years he resigned it. After this he retired into the country, where he 
 was seized with a horrible distemper, and died a loathsome and mor- 
 tifying object. 
 
 How did tie regain his liberty ? — Mention the other particulars concerning him. 
 - What factions now appeared ? — How did Sylla behave after his triumph? 
 
CONSPIRACY. 213 
 
 CHAPTER 14. 
 CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY — CAESAR CROSSES THE RUBICON. 
 
 (B. C. 73.) Upon the death of Sylla, the jealousies of Pompey and 
 Crassus began to excite fresh dissensions. They were both conquer- 
 ors, but Pompey was the most beloved general of the age. Each 
 strove to be foremost in obtaining the favour of the people. Pompey 
 gained the superiority, and Manilius, one of the tribunes of the people, 
 procured a law that all the armies of the empire, with the government 
 of all Asia, together with the war which was to be renewed against 
 Mithridates, should be committed to Pompey. On his appointment, 
 Pompey departed for Asia against Mithridates, and soon effected an 
 easy conquest, adding a large extent of dominion to the Roman empire, 
 and returned to Rome at the head of his conquering army. 
 
 But the victories of Pompey rather served to heighten the glory than 
 to increase the power of Rome; for, even while he was pursuing his 
 conquests abroad, the city was at the verge of ruin from a conspiracy 
 at home, projected and carried on by one Sergius Catiline, a patrician 
 by birth, who resolved to build his own power on the downfall of his 
 country. He was possessed of courage equal to the most deperate at- 
 tempts, and of eloquence to give a colour to his ambition ; ruined in his 
 fortunes, profligate in his manners, and vigilant in pursuing his aims, 
 he was insatiable after wealth, only with a view of lavishing it on his 
 guilty pleasures. Having assembled about thirty of his debauched 
 associates, and informed them of his settled plan of operations, it was 
 resolved that a general insurrection should be raised throughout Italy ; 
 that Rome should be fired in several places at once ; and that Catiline 
 should, in the general confusion, possess himself of the city, and mas- 
 sacre all the senators. But Cicero, by the intrigues of a woman named 
 Fulvia, gained over Curius her lover, and one of the conspirators, to 
 send him a punctual account of all their deliberations, and he made 
 them known to the Senate. Upon considerable rewards for further dis- 
 coveries being offered, Catiline left Rome by night, and Lentulus, Ce- 
 thegus, Cassius, and several other conspirators, were soon after stran- 
 gled in prison. 
 
 While his associates were put to death in the city, Catiline had 
 raised an army of twelve thousand men ; and being informed of the 
 fate of his confederates, he endeavoured to escape over the Apennines 
 into Gaul. But he was hemmed in on every side by an army superior 
 to his own ; and in a fierce and bloody battle, his whole army was 
 destroyed. Pompey was now returned in triumph from conquering the 
 East. Crassus was the richest man in Rome ; and, next to Pompey, 
 he possessed the greatest authority. They had long been disunited by 
 an opposition of interests and of characters. Julius Caesar had returned 
 with great riches and glory from being praetor in Spain ; and he resolved 
 
 What victory did Pompey achieve ? — What conspiracy threatened the ruin of 
 Rome ? — What befel Catiline ? 
 
214 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 to convert their mutual jealousies to his own advantage. This cele- 
 brated man espoused the side of the people, and shortly after the death 
 of Sylla, he procured those whom Sylla had banished to be recalled. 
 He quickly obtained the confidence and protection of Pompey. 
 
 Crassus was disposed to become still more nearly his friend. At 
 lonnrth, finding neither of them averse from a union of interests, Caesar 
 had art enough to persuade them to forget former animosities. A com- 
 bination was thus formed, by which they agreed that nothing should 
 be done in the commonwealth but what received their mutual approba- 
 tion. This was called the First Triumvirate. (B. C. GO.) Csesar 
 offered himself for the consulship; and though the Senate were obliged 
 to concur in choosing him, yet they gave him for a colleague Bibulus, 
 who, after a slight attempt in favour of the Senate, remained inactive. 
 Caesar shared the foreign provinces of the empire with his confederates. 
 Pompey chose Spain, Crassus Syria, and to Caesar were left the pro- 
 vinces of Gaul for five years. 
 
 Caesar fought many battles and subdued numerous nations in his 
 expedition into Gaul and Britain, which continued eight years. He 
 overcame the Helvetians, the Germans, the Belgee, the Nervii, and the 
 Celtic Gauls ; after them, the Suevi, the Menapii, and all the nations 
 from the Mediterranean to the British Sea. He next crossed over into 
 Britain, (B. C. 54,) upon pretence that the natives had furnished his ene- 
 mies with continual supplies. The Britons, being terrified at Caesar's 
 power, after they had been routed several times, sent to desire a peace, 
 which Caesar granted, and then returned to the continent. Pompey, 
 who remained in Rome, steadily co-operated with Caesar's ambition, 
 and advanced his interests, while he vainly supposed he was forward- 
 ing his own, and by his means Caesar was continued five years longer 
 in Gaul. Nor was Pompey roused from his lethargy, till the fame of 
 that great commander's valour, riches and humanity, made him suspect 
 they would soon eclipse his own. The death of Julia, Pompey's wife, 
 and the destruction of Crassus, tended greatly to hasten the separation. 
 
 Caesar, who now became sensible of the jealousy of Pompey, soli- 
 cited for the consulship, together with a prolongation of his govern- 
 ment in Gaul. In this affair Pompey seemed to be quite inactive; but 
 at the same time he privately employed two of his creatures, who 
 alleged in the Senate, that the laws did not permit a person that was 
 absent to offer himself as a candidate for that high office. The Senate, 
 which was devoted to Pompey, ordered home two legions belonging 
 to him, which were in Caesar's army. Caesar having previously 
 attached the officers to himself by benefits, and the soldiers by boun- 
 ties, sent them. The next step of the Senate was to recal Caesar from 
 his government, as his time was very near expiring. 
 
 Curio, his friend in the Senate, proposed that Caesar should not leave 
 his army till Pompey had set him the example. Caesar, who was 
 instructed in all that passed, though he was still in Gaul, was willing 
 to lay down his employment when Pompey should do the same. But 
 
 Who obtained the confidence of Pompey? — Who composed the Triumvirate? — 
 Repeat the conquests of Julius Caesar. — What did Csesar solicit? — Was it granted ? 
 
JULIUS CESAR. 215 
 
 the Senate rejected his propositions, blindly confident of their power, 
 and relying on the assurances of Pompey. Caesar, (B. C. 49,) finding 
 all attempts at an accommodation fruitless, and conscious, if not of the 
 goodness of his cause, at least of the goodness of his troops, marched 
 his army to the Rubicon, a little river which separates Italy from Cisal- 
 pine Gaul, and which terminated the limits of his command. The 
 Romans had ever been taught to consider this river as the sacred bound- 
 ary of their domestic empire. Caesar, therefore, stopped short on the 
 bank, pondering a while, as if impressed with terror at the greatness 
 of his enterprise. " If I pass this river," he exclaimed, " what mise- 
 ries shall I bring upon my country ! and if I now stop short, I am 
 undone. Let us go where the gods and the injustice of our enemies 
 call us." Saying this, he plunged into the river, and his soldiers 
 quickly followed him. Having crossed the Rubicon, they soon arrived 
 at Ariminum, and made themselves masters of the place. (See Fron- 
 tispiece.) 
 
 This unexpected enterprise excited the utmost terrors in Rome, every 
 one imagining that Caesar was leading his army to lay the city in ruins. 
 In this universal confusion, Pompey felt all that repentance and self- 
 condemnation which must necessarily arise from the remembrance of 
 having advanced his rival to his present pitch of power. Many of his 
 former friends were ready to tax him with his supineness, and sarcas- 
 tically to reproach his ill-grounded presumption. Being at length wea- 
 ried with these reproaches, he endeavoured to encourage and confirm 
 his followers. He told them that his two lieutenants were at the head 
 of a very considerable army in Spain, composed of veteran troops that 
 had made a conquest of the East; besides these there were numerous 
 other resources. This, in some measure, revived the hopes of the con- 
 federacy. 
 
 Being in no capacity to resist Caesar at Rome, Pompey led his forces 
 to Capua ; and Caesar, not being able to bring him to an accommoda- 
 tion, pursued him, and marched on to take possession of the cities that 
 lay between him and his rival, not regarding Rome, which he knew 
 would fall to the conqueror. Corfinium was the first city that endea- 
 voured to stop his march. Caesar quickly invested it ; and Domitius, 
 who defended it, was obliged to endeavour to escape privately. His 
 intentions being divulged, the garrison resolved to consult their own 
 safety, by delivering him up to the besiegers. Caesar readily accepted 
 their offers ; and when Lentulus the consul, one of the besieged, im- 
 plored forgiveness for himself and his confederates, reminding him of 
 their ancient friendship, Caesar generously replied, that he came into 
 Italy, not to injure the liberties of Rome and its citizens, but to restore 
 them. This humane reply being known in the city, the senators and 
 the knights, with their children, and some officers of the garrison, came 
 out to claim the conqueror's protection ; and he gave them their liberty. 
 
 What step did Cssar take ? — Did Pompey wait his approach with courage ? — 
 What success had Ca'sar at Corfinium ? 
 
216 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER 15. 
 BATTLE OF PHARSALIA — DEATH OF POMPEY. 
 
 Pompey, being unable to continue in Rome, wben he knew what had 
 passed on this occasion, retreated to Brundusium, where he resolved to 
 stand a siege ; and after having employed Csesar for some time before 
 the place, he privately carried his forces over to Dyrrhachium, where 
 the consul had levied a body of troops for his assistance. Caesar, being 
 unable to follow him for want of shipping, returned to Rome, and took 
 possession of the public treasury, from which he took three thousand 
 pounds weight of gold, and an immense quantity of silver. He then 
 marched his army to meet Pompey's two lieutenants in Spain, at the 
 head of a veteran army, which had ever been victorious. Caesar soon 
 obliged them to yield at discretion; and in the space of about forty 
 days, he became master of all Spain. He returned victorious to Rome ; 
 and was received by the citizens with fresh demonstrations of joy. He 
 was created dictator and consul ; but the former office he laid down 
 when he had held it eleven days. 
 
 Pompey in the mean time was actively making preparations in Epirus 
 and Greece ; and all the East had declared in his favour, and had sent 
 him large supplies. He was master of nine effective Italian legions, 
 and had a fleet of five hundred ships, under the conduct of Bibulus, an 
 experienced commander. He had attacked and defeated Antony and 
 Dolabella, who commanded for Csesar, the latter of whom was taken 
 prisoner. He was joined by crowds of the most distinguished citizens 
 and nobles of Rome ; and he had, at one time, above two hundred 
 senators in his camp, among whom were Cicero and Cato. Notwith- 
 standing these preparations, Caesar shipped part of his forces at Brun- 
 dusium. The first place where the two armies came in sight of each 
 other, was on the opposite banks of the fiver Apsus. But neither of 
 the generals was willing to hazard a battle upon this occasion. 
 
 Pompey, being compelled to retreat, led his forces to Asparagium, 
 and pitched his camp upon a tongue of land which jutted into the sea, 
 where was a small shelter for his ships. In this advantageous situa- 
 tion he began to entrench his camp, which Caesar perceiving, began 
 also to entrench behind him, hoping, by a blockade, to force his oppo- 
 nent to a battle, which he ardently desired, and which the other with 
 equal industry declined. At length the two armies engaged. The 
 conflict was for some time carried on with great ardour, and with equal 
 fortune ; but Csesar's army, being entangled in some old entrenchments, 
 began to fall into disorder, and great numbers of them perished. Pom- 
 pey pursued his successes to the very camp of Caesar, but fearing an 
 ambuscade, he withdrew his troops into his own camp. 
 
 After this defeat, which was by no means decisive, Caesar united all 
 his forces into one body, and soon possessed himself of nearly all 
 
 What other victories did Cucsar obtain ? — Where did the two armies come in Bight 
 of each other? — What was the event of the battle ? 
 
BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. 217 
 
 Thessaly. In the mean time, Pompey's officers continually soliciting 
 their commander to come to a battle, he marched into Thessaly, and 
 drew down upon the plains of Pharsalia, where he was joined by 
 Scipio, his lieutenant, and the troops under his command. Thither 
 Caesar advanced to meet the enemy. The approach of these two 
 armies, composed of the best and bravest troops in the world, together 
 with the greatness of the prize for which they contended, filled every 
 mind with anxiety. Pompey's army, being more numerous than that 
 of his antagonist, turned all their thoughts to the enjoyments of the 
 victory ; Ctesar's, with better aim, considered only the means of obtain- 
 ing it. 
 
 After a short delay, Caesar drew up his troops in order, and advanced 
 to the place of battle. His forces did not amount to above half those 
 of Pompey. The army of the one was about forty-five thousand foot, 
 and seven thousand horse ; that of the other not exceeding twenty-two 
 thousand foot, and about a thousand horse. (B. C. 43.) 
 
 When the signal for battle was given, a terrible pause ensued, in 
 which both armies continued to gaze upon each other with mutual 
 terror and dreadful serenity ; at length the engagement began with great 
 fury. Pompey's cavalry were totally routed in a short time, and fled 
 to the neighbouring mountains ; but his infantry withstood the charge 
 of the enemy for some time with great bravery. At length they gave 
 way, and Caesar marched with his victorious troops to the enemy's 
 camp, where he met with a formidable resistance from the cohorts 
 which were left to defend the camp ; but nothing could resist the ardour 
 of Caesar's victorious army ; the enemy were driven from the trenches, 
 and all fled to the mountains. 
 
 Caesar, seeing the field and camp strewed with his fallen countrymen, 
 was strongly affected at the melancholy prospect, and cried out, " they 
 would have it so." Upon entering the camp every object presented 
 fresh instances of the blind presumption and madness of his adver- 
 saries. On all sides were to be seen tents adorned with ivy and myrtle, 
 couches covered with purple, and sideboards loaded with plate. Every 
 thing gave proofs of the highest luxury, and seemed rather the prepara- 
 tives for a banquet, or the rejoicings for a victory, than the dispositions 
 for a battle. A camp so richly furnished might have been able to en- 
 gage the attention of any troops but Caesar's ; but he permitted them 
 not to pursue any other object than their enemies. A considerable body 
 of Pompey's army having retired to the adjacent mountains, Caesar pre- 
 vailed on his soldiers to join him in pursuing these ; and the greater 
 part surrendered themselves to him. 
 
 Thus Caesar gained the most complete victory that had ever been 
 obtained ; and by his great clemency after the battle seems to have 
 deserved it. His loss amounted only to two hundred men; and that 
 of Pompey to fifteen thousand. Twenty-four thousand men surrendered 
 
 What was tho conduct of the two generals after the battle? — Tn what place 
 were the forces drawn together ? — What number of forces had each general ? — 
 For whom did victory decide ? — What were Crcsar's feelings on viewing the field 
 of battle ? 
 
 19 
 
218 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 themselves prisoners of war ; and the greater part of these entered into 
 Ccesar's army. To the senators and Roman knights who fell into his 
 hands he generously gave liberty to retire wherever they thought pro- 
 per ; and all the letters which Pompey had received from those who 
 wished to be thought neutral, Caesar burned unread, as Pompey had 
 done upon a furmer occasion. Thus, having performed all the duties 
 of a general and a statesman, he set out on his march, and the same day 
 arrived at Larissa. 
 
 As for Pompey, when he saw his cavalry, on which he placed his 
 sole dependence, flee in disorder, he returned to the camp, and in his 
 tent waited the issue of the battle; and when he was told that the camp 
 was attacked, he fled on horseback to Larissa ; thence, perceiving that 
 he was not pursued, he slackened his pace, giving way to all the ago- 
 nizing reflections which his situation must naturally suggest. Finding 
 his affairs desperate, he embarked in a vessel and steered for Lesbos, 
 to take with him his wife Cornelia, whom he had left there, at a dis- 
 tance from the dangers and distress of war. She, who had long flat- 
 tered herself with the hopes of victory, now felt the agonizing reverse 
 of fortune. Pompey, taking her under his protection, determined upon 
 applying to Ptolemy, king of Egypt, to whose father he had been a 
 considerable benefactor. Ptolemy was yet a minor, and had not the 
 government in his own hands, but was under the direction of an admi- 
 nistration. His council insidiously contrived that Pompey should be 
 invited on shore, and murdered before he could come into the king's 
 presence. Achillas, commander of the forces, and Septimus, a Roman, 
 who had formerly been a centurion in Pompey's army, undertook to 
 carry the treacherous design into execution. Attended by three or four 
 more, they put off in a little bark, and rowed to Pompey's ship that lay 
 a mile from the shore. 
 
 Having returned to shore with Pompey, Septimus stabbed him in the 
 back, and Achillas instantly seconded the blow. Pompey, perceiving 
 his death inevitable, calmly disposed himself to meet it with decency ; 
 and, covering his face with his robe, without a word resigned himself 
 to his fate. At this horrid sight, Cornelia and her attendants, who 
 remained in the vessel, and were still in sight, shrieked so as to be 
 heard to the shore. But the danger they were in allowing no time to 
 look on, they immediately set sail,- and the wind proving favourable, 
 fortunately escaped the pursuit of the Egyptian galleys. 
 
 In the mean time Pompey's murderers having cut off his head, em- 
 balmed it for a present to Caesar ; while the body was thrown naked 
 on the strand, and exposed to the view of those whose curiosity was to 
 be satisfied. However, Philip, his faithful freedman, and an old Ro- 
 man soldier, who had served under Pompey in his youth, burned the 
 corpse, and carefully collecting the ashes, carried them to Cornelia, 
 who deposited them at his villa, near Alba, in Italy. The Egyptians 
 afterwards erected a monument to him, on the spot on which his fune- 
 ral pile had been raised, with an inscription to this purpose, " How 
 
 How did he behave to the vanquished ? — Relate the unhappy fate of Pompey.— 
 Did his wife see him murdered ? — Was Pompey interred with funeral honours ? 
 
C,ESAR IN EGYPT. 219 
 
 poor a tomb covers the man who once had temples erected to his ho- 
 nour!" From Pompey's death we date the extinction of the republic. 
 From this period the Senate was dispossessed of its power, and Rome 
 henceforward was never without a master. 
 
 CHAPTER 16. 
 CAESAR IN EGYPT — CATO IN UTICA. 
 
 Cjesar (B. C. 47,) has been much celebrated for his good fortune, but 
 his abilities seem equal to the highest success. He possessed shining 
 qualities with the intermixture only of ambition. He resolved to pur- 
 sue Pompey to whatever country he had retired. Accordingly he ar- 
 rived at Alexandria with about four thousand men. The first accounts 
 he received were of Pompey's miserable end ; and soon after one of the 
 murderers came with his head and his ring, as a most grateful present 
 to the conqueror. But Caesar had too much humanity to be pleased 
 with so horrid a spectacle, and turning from it in disgust, he gave vent 
 to his pity in a flood of tears. He ordered the head to be burned with 
 the most costly perfumes, and placed the ashes in a temple dedicated 
 to the goddess Nemesis, the avenger of cruel and inhuman deeds. 
 
 There were at that time two pretenders to the crown of Egypt; Pto- 
 lemy, the acknowledged king, and the celebrated Cleopatra, his sister, 
 to whom, by the custom of the country, he was married, and who, by 
 his father's will, shared jointly in the succession. Still she aimed at 
 governing alone ; but being opposed in her views by the Roman Senate, 
 she was banished into Syria, with Arsinoe, her younger sister. Csesar 
 gave her new hopes of aspiring to the kingdom, and sent for her and 
 her younger brother to plead their cause before him. Pothinus, the 
 young king's guardian, disdaining to accept this proposal, backed his 
 refusal by sending an army of twenty thousand men, under the com- 
 mand of Achillas, to besiege Caesar in Alexandria. 
 
 Caesar bravely repulsed the enemy ; and soon after possessed him- 
 self of the isle of Pharos, and there determined to withstand the united 
 force of the Egyptians. 
 
 In the mean time, Cleopatra, having heard of the present turn in her 
 favour, resolved to depend on Caesar's favour for gaining the govern- 
 ment, rather than on her own forces. But no arts, as she justly con- 
 ceived, were so likely to influence Caesar as the charms of her person, 
 which were irresistible. She was then in the bloom of youth and 
 beauty, while every feature borrowed grace from the lively turn of her 
 temper. To the most enchanting address she joined the most harmo- 
 nious voice. She possessed a great share of the learning of the times, 
 and could give audience to the ambassadors of seven different nations 
 without an interpreter. She was privately conveyed to Cassar, who 
 
 What were Caesar's feelings when he was informed of his rival's death ? — Was 
 he pleased when the murderer presented Pompey's head ? — Who were the rivals 
 to the crown of Egypt ? — Who besieged Caesar in Alexandria ? — Who was pri- 
 vately conveyed to Caesar ? 
 
220 HISTORY OP ROME. 
 
 was captivated by her beauty, and he was soon brought to second her 
 claims. 
 
 While Cleopatra was thus employed in forwarding her own views, 
 her sister Arsinoe was also strenuously engaged in the camp in pursu- 
 ing a separate interest. She had found means, by the assistance of 
 Ganymede, her confidant, to make a large division in the Egyptian 
 army in her favour ; and soon after she caused Achillas to be murdered, 
 and Ganymede to take the command in his stead, and to carry on the 
 siege with greater vigour than before. In a short time he made him- 
 self master of a bridge which joined the isle of Pharos to the conti- 
 nent, from which post Caesar was resolved to dislodge him. In the 
 heat of the action, some mariners, partly through curiosity, and partly 
 through ambition, joined the combatants ; but, being seized with a 
 panic, instantly fled, and spread a general terror through the army. All 
 Caesar's efforts to rally his forces were ineffectual ; and great numbers 
 were drowned or put to the sword in attempting to escape. 
 
 The Alexandrians, finding themselves unable to take the palace, 
 which Caesar had defended, endeavoured to get their king out of 
 Caesar's power, as he had previously seized upon his person. For this 
 purpose they professed the utmost desire for peace, and only wanting 
 the presence of their lawful prince to give a sanction to the treaty. 
 Caesar, though he was sensible of their dissimulation and perfidy, gave 
 them their king. Ptolemy, however, instead of promoting the peace, 
 made every effort to give vigour to his hostilities. Caesar was at last 
 relieved from this mortifying situation by Mithridates Pergamenus, one 
 of his most faithful partisans, who came with an army to his assistance. 
 They attacked the camp of the Egyptians, and slew many of the 
 enemy. Ptolemy attempting to make his escape on board a vessel, 
 was drowned, by the ship's sinking. Caesar being thus master of all 
 Egypt, appointed Cleopatra, with her younger brother, joint governors, 
 according to the intent of their father's will, and banished Arsinoe and 
 Ganymede. 
 
 Having thus subdued all Egypt, instead of quitting that country to 
 go and quell the remains of Pompey's party, he abandoned himself to 
 his pleasures, passing whole nights in feasting, and in all the excesses 
 of high-wrought luxury, with the young queen. Being at length roused 
 from his lethargy by the reprehensions of those brave veterans who had 
 followed his fortune, he left Cleopatra, by whom he had a son, who 
 was named Caesario, to oppose Pharnaces, the king of Bosphorus, who 
 had made some inroads upon the dominions of Rome in the East. This 
 prince, who had cruelly deposed his father, the great Mithridates, being 
 desirous of reconquering these dominions, seized upon Armenia and 
 Colchis. Caesar conquered him with so much ease, that, in writing to 
 a friend at Rome, he expressed the rapidity of his victory in these 
 words, " Vent, vidt, vici .•" "I came, I saw, I conquered." 
 
 Caesar having settled affairs in this part of the empire, embarked for 
 
 What is said of Arsinoe ? — What defeat did Caesar sustain ? — Did Caesar gain pos- 
 session of Egypt? — Whom did he appoint to reign? — How did Ccesar pass his Ume 
 after the conquest? — Whom did he afterwards conquer? 
 
CATO IN UTICA. 221 
 
 Italy, where he arrived sooner than his enemies could expect, but not 
 before his presence there was absolutely required. During his absence 
 he had been created consul for five years, dictator for one, and tribune 
 of the people for life. But Antony, who in the mean time governed for 
 him in Rome, had filled the city with riot and debauchery, and many 
 commotions ensued, which nothing but the arrival of Caesar could ap- 
 pease. Having restored his authority at home, he prepared to inarch 
 into Africa, where Pompey's party had rallied under Scipio and Cato, 
 assisted by Juba, king of Mauritania. Scipio soon after received a 
 complete and final overthrow, with little or no loss to the victor. Juba 
 and Petreius, his general, killed each other in despair, and Scipio was 
 slain in attempting to effect his escape into Spain. 
 
 Cato was now in the city of Utica, which he had been left to defend. 
 The enthusiasm for liberty subsiding among his followers, he was re- 
 solved no longer to force men to be free who seemed naturally prone to 
 slavery, and with fierce resolution killed himself. The war in Africa 
 being ended, Caesar returned in such triumph to Rome, as if he had 
 abridged all his former triumphs only to increase the splendour of this. 
 The citizens were astonished at the magnificence of the procession, and 
 at the number of the countries he'had subdued. It lasted four days ; 
 the first was for Gaul, the second for Egypt, the third for his victories 
 in Asia, and the fourth for that over Juba in Africa. 
 
 The people, intoxicated with the allurements of pleasure, thought 
 their freedom too small a return for such benefits. They seemed eager 
 only to find out new modes of homage, and unusual epithets of adula- 
 tion. He was created Magister Morum, or Master of the Morals of the 
 People ; and he received the title of Emperor and Father of his country. 
 His person was declared sacred ; and upon him alone were devolved 
 for life all the great dignities of the state. It must be owned that so 
 much power could never have been intrusted to better keeping. He 
 immediately began his empire by repressing vice and encouraging virtue. 
 He committed the power of judicature to the senators and the knights 
 alone, and by many sumptuary laws restrained the scandalous luxuries 
 of the rich. He took the most prudent methods of repeopling the city, 
 which had been exhausted in the late commotions. 
 
 CHAPTER 17. 
 
 DEATH OF CAESAR— THE TRIUMVIRATE. 
 
 C^sar, having thus restored prosperity once more to Rome, again 
 found himself under a necessity of going into Spain, to oppose an army 
 which had been raised there under the two sons of Pompey, and also 
 Labienus, his former general. (B. C.40.) He proceeded in this expe- 
 dition with bis usual celerity, and arrived in Spain before the enemy 
 
 In what state did Ccesar find Rome at his return? — What was the end of Cato? 
 -- In what mannner did Ctrsar triumph at Rome ? — What power did the people 
 intrust him with? — Was he worthy of it? — With whom did Caesar contend in 
 Spain ? 
 
 19* 
 
222 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 thought him yet departed from Rome. Cneius Pompey, and Sextus, 
 Pompey's sons, profiting by their unhappy father's example, resolved 
 to protract the war as much as possible. However, Caesar, after taking 
 many cities, and pursuing the enemy with unwearied diligence, com- 
 pelled them to come to a battle upon the plain of Munda. In this en- 
 gagement Cneius Pompey was totally routed ; thirty thousand of hi9 
 men were killed, and among them Labienus, whom Caesar ordered to 
 be buried with the funeral honours of a general officer. Pompey escaped 
 with a few horsemen to the seaside ; but finding his passage intercepted 
 by Caesar's lieutenant, he sought for a retreat in an obscure cavern. He 
 was quickly discovered by Caesar's troops, who presently cut off his 
 head, and brought it to the conqueror. Sextus, however, concealed him- 
 self so well that he escaped all pursuit, and afterward, from his pira- 
 cies, he became formidable to the people of Rome. 
 
 By this last blow, Caesar subdued all his avowed enemies, and the 
 rest of his life was employed for the advantage of the state. He com- 
 menced the erection of several magnificent buildings ; he rebuilt Car- 
 thage and Corinth ; he undertook to level several mountains in Italy ; 
 to drain the Pontine marshes near Rome ; and he designed to cut 
 through the isthmus of Peloponnesus. But the greatest of all his 
 mighty projects was his intended expedition against the Parthians ; by 
 which he designed to revenge the death of Crassus, whom they had 
 put to a cruel death, by pouring molten gold down his throat, as a pun- 
 ishment for his former avarice. But the jealousy of a few individuals 
 put an end to Caesar's aims of ambition. 
 
 Having been made perpetual dictator, and receiving from the Senate 
 accumulated honours, it began to be rumoured that he intended to make 
 himself king. In fact he was already possessed of the power ; but 
 the people, who had an aversion to the name, could not bear the title. 
 A deep conspiracy was therefore laid against him, composed of no less 
 than sixty senators ; and at the head of it were Brutus, whose life 
 Caesar had spared after the battle of Pharsalia, and Cassius, who was 
 pardoned soon after, both praetors for the present year. Brutus prided 
 himself on having descended from that Brutus who first gave liberty to 
 Rome. The passion for freedom seemed to have been transmitted to 
 him with the blood of his ancestors. But though he detested tyranny, 
 he could not forbear loving the tyrant from whom he had received the 
 most signal benefits. When Caesar was advised to beware of Brutus, 
 in whom he had for some time reposed the greatest confidence, he 
 opened his breast, all scarred with wounds, saying, " Can you think 
 Brutus cares for such poor pillage as this?" And, to convince the 
 world how little he apprehended from his enemies, he disbanded his 
 Spanish guards, and thus facilitated the enterprise against his life. 
 
 The conspirators, to give a colour of justice to their proceedings, put 
 off the execution of their design till the ides of March, the day on 
 which Caesar was to be offered the crown. The augurs are said to have 
 foretold that this day would be fatal to him. This, with several omens 
 
 What was the result? — What public works did Caesar engage himself in? — Who 
 formed a conspiracy against Caesar? — What duy was fixed for executing the plot ? 
 
( 224 ) 
 
DEATH OP CESAR. 225 
 
 which occurred at that time, together with a dream of his wife's, in 
 some measure began to change his intention of going to the Senate ; 
 but one of the conspirators, by rallying his superstition, and telling 
 him of the preparations that were made for his appearance, prevailed 
 upon him to keep his resolution. As he went along to the Senate, a 
 slave attempted to inform him of the conspiracy, but was prevented 
 from coming near him by the crowd. Artemidorus, a Greek philoso- 
 pher, who had discovered the whole plot, delivered him a memorial 
 containing the heads of his information ; but Caesar gave it, with other 
 papers, to one of his secretaries without reading. 
 
 As soon as Csesar had taken his place in the Senate, he was attacked 
 by the conspirators ; and Casca, one of their number, stabbed him in 
 the shoulder. Caesar sprang round, and with the stylus of his tablet 
 wounded him in the arm. He defended himself with great vigour, 
 rushing among them, and throwing down such as opposed him, till he 
 saw Brutus among the conspirators, who struck his dagger into his 
 thigh. From that moment he thought no more of defending himself, 
 but looking on Brutus he exclaimed, " And you, too, my son !" Then 
 covering his head, and spreading his robe before him, he sunk down at 
 the base of Pompey's statue, after having received three-and-twenty 
 wounds, in his fifty-sixth year, and about fourteen years after he began 
 the conquest of the world. (B. C. 43). 
 
 As soon as the conspirators had despatched Caesar, they retired to the 
 Capitol, and guarded its access by a body of gladiators which Brutus 
 had in pay. The friends of the late dictator soon perceived that this 
 was the time for coming into greater power than before, and for satis- 
 fying their ambition under the veil of promoting justice. Of this 
 number was Antony, the consul for that year, and Lepidus, a man fond 
 of commotions, and who, like Antony, was ambitious to gain that power 
 which Caesar had died for usurping. 
 
 They first possessed themselves of Caesar's papers and money ; and 
 then convened the Senate to determine whether Caesar had been a legal 
 magistrate or a tyrannical usurper ; and whether those who killed him 
 merited rewards or punishments. Many of the senators had received 
 all their promotions from Caesar, and acquired large fortunes in conse- 
 quence of his appointments : to vote him a usurper, therefore, would 
 be to endanger their property, and yet to vote him innocent might 
 endanger the state. In this dilemma they seemed willing to reconcile 
 extremes, by approving all the acts of Caesar, yet, at the same time, 
 granting a general pardon to the conspirators. 
 
 This decree was far from giving Antony satisfaction, as it granted 
 security to a number of men who were the avowed enemies of tyranny, 
 and who would be foremost in opposing his schemes for restoring abso- 
 lute power. As the Senate had ratified all Caesar's acts without dis- 
 tinction, Antony, being possessed of Caesar's books of accounts, so far 
 gained upon his secretary as to make him insert whatever he thought 
 
 Repeat the account of Caesar's murder. — Who were among Caesar's friends ? — 
 What was the decree of the senate? — Did the decree satisfy Antony ? — How did 
 lie proceed ? 
 
226 HISTORY OF R031E. 
 
 proper. By these means, great sums of money were there distributed 
 among the people, and every man who had any seditious designs against 
 the government was there sure to find a gratuity. Antony next de- 
 manded of the Senate that Caesar's funeral obsequies should be per- 
 formed. This being granted, the body was brought forth with great 
 solemnity, and Antony first read Caesar's will, in which he had made 
 Octavius, his sister's grandson, his heir; and to the Roman people 
 were left the gardens which he possessed on the other side of the Tiber ; 
 and to every citizen, three hundred sesterces. Unfolding Caesar's 
 bloody robe, pierced by the daggers of the conspirators, he observed to 
 them the number of stabs in it. This so inflamed the minds of the 
 people, that they unanimously cried out for revenge; and the conspira- 
 tors, perceiving the general rage of the populace, thought it safer to 
 retire from the city. 
 
 Antony, who had excited this flame, resolved to make the most of 
 the occasion ; but he found Octavius, afterwards Augustus, a formida- 
 ble obstacle to his ambition. A third competitor for power appeared 
 in Lepidus, a man of some authority and great riches. At first the 
 ambition of these three seemed to threaten fatal consequences to each 
 other; but uniting in the common cause, they resolved to revenge the 
 death of Caesar ; and, dividing their power, formed what is called the 
 second triumvirate. The meeting of these three usurpers of their coun- 
 try's freedom w r as upon a little island of the river Parnarus.* Their 
 conference lasted for three days, and in this period they fixed a division 
 of government, and determined upon the fate of thousands. 
 
 The result of this was, that the supreme authority should be lodged 
 in their hands, under the title of the triumvirate, for the space of five 
 years : that Antony should have Gaul ; Lepidus, Spain ; and Augustus, 
 Africa and the Mediterranean Islands. Italy and the eastern provinces 
 were to remain in common, till the general enemy should be subdued. 
 It was also agreed that all their enemies should be destroyed, of whom 
 each presented a list ; in which were comprised not only the enemies, 
 but also the friends of the triumvirate, since the partisans of the one 
 were often found among the opposers of the other. Thus Lepidus gave 
 up his brother Paulus; Antony, Lucius; and Augustus, the celebrated 
 Cicero, w r ho was assassinated soon after by Antony's command. Bru- 
 tus and Cassius, the principal of the conspirators against Caesar, being 
 compelled to quit Rome, went into Greece, where they persuaded the 
 Roman students at Athens to declare in the cause of freedom ; then 
 parting, the former raised a powerful army in Macedonia, while the 
 latter went into Syria, where he soon became master of twelve legions. 
 In short, having quitted Italy like distressed exiles, without having one 
 soldier or one towm that owned their command, they soon found them- 
 selves at the head of a flourishing army, and in a condition to support 
 a contest, on the event of which the empire of the world depended. 
 
 * Now the Rheno, which runs through Bologna, and falls into the Po. 
 
 
 What wa9 Caesar'9 will ? — Who formed the second triumvirate?— What was the 
 result of their conference I — What became of Brutus and Cassius? 
 
BATTLE OP PHILIPPI. 227 
 
 Their first expedition was to reduce the Rhodians and Lycians, who 
 had refused their usual contributions. By this means extraordinary 
 contributions were raised ; the Rhodians having scarcely any thing left 
 them but their lives. The Lycians suffered still more severely, for 
 having shut themselves up in their capital town, Xanthus, they de- 
 fended the place against Brutus with so much fury that neither his arts 
 nor entreaties could prevail on them to surrender. At length, the town 
 being set on fire by their attempting to burn the works of the Romans, 
 the citizens, instead of attempting to extinguish the fire, with desperate 
 obstinacy, resolved to perish in the flames, and the whole soon became 
 a heap of undistinguishable ruins. 
 
 CHAPTER 18. 
 BATTLE OF PHILIPPI — DEATH OF BRUTUS. 
 
 Brutus and Cassius met once more at Sardis, where they had a pri- 
 vate conference together; after which, it was alleged that Brutus saw a 
 spectre in his tent. It was in the dead of the night that Brutus, read- 
 ing by a lamp that was just expiring, thought he heard a noise as if 
 some one was approaching. Looking up, a gigantic figure of frightful 
 aspect stood before him, and continued to gaze upon him with silent 
 severity. Brutus is reported to have asked, " Art thou a demon or a 
 mortal 1 And why comest thou to me 1" " Brutus," answered the 
 phantom, "I am thy evil genius — thou shalt see me again at Philippi." 
 " Well, then," replied Brutus, without being discomposed, " we shall 
 meet again." Upon this the phantom was supposed to vanish. Struck 
 with so strange an occurrence, Brutus mentioned it to Cassius, who 
 rightly ascribed it to the effect of an imagination too much excited by 
 vigilance and anxiety. 
 
 In the mean time Augustus and Antony had marched with forty 
 legions to oppose Brutus and Cassius, and had drawn up their forces 
 near to Philippi, whither the enemy followed them. The republican 
 army consisted of eighty thousand foot, and twenty thousand horse ; 
 that of the triumviri, of a hundred thousand foot, and thirteen thousand 
 horse. Mankind now began to regard the approaching armies with 
 terror and suspense. The empire of the world depended upon the fate 
 of a battle. Brutus was the only man who looked upon these great 
 events with calmness and tranquillity. " If I am victorious," said he, 
 " I shall restore liberty to my country ; if not, by dying I shall myself 
 be delivered from slavery. My condition is fixed ; I run no hazard." 
 
 Near the town of Philippi were two little hills, about a mile distant 
 from each other; upon these hills Brutus and Cassius fixed their 
 camps. In this commodious situation they could act as they thought 
 proper, and give battle when it was thought to their advantage to 
 engage. Behind was the sea, which furnished them with all kinds of 
 provision ; and the island of Thasos, twelve miles distant, served therq 
 
 What conquests did they make?— What is told of Brutus and his evil genius? — 
 What was the number of each army ? — Where did they meet ? 
 
228 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 for a general magazine. The triumviri, on the other hand, were 
 encamped on the plain below, and were obliged to bring provisions from 
 fifteen leagues distant ; so that it was their interest to forward a battle 
 as soon as possible. They offered battle several times, drawing out 
 their men from the camp, and provoking the enemy to engage. 
 
 Cassius, sensible of his advantage, and knowing that to postpone the 
 battle was the only chance the republicans had for victory, resolved to 
 harass rather than engage the enemy. But Brutus, who began to sus- 
 pect the fidelity of some of his officers, used all his influence to per- 
 suade Cassius to change his resolution. " I am impatient," said he, 
 44 to put an end to the miseries of mankind ; and in this I hope to suc- 
 ceed, whether I conquer or fall." 
 
 At length, both armies, in attempting to possess themselves of a road 
 which communicated with the island of Thasos, resolved to come to a 
 general engagement. Brutus having expressed his resolution of kill- 
 ing himself, in case of being unfortunate, Cassius exclaimed, 44 My 
 friend, now may we venture to face the enemy; for either we shall be 
 the conquerors, or we shall have no cause to fear those that are so." 
 Augustus being sick, the forces of the triumviri were commanded by 
 Antony alone, who began the engagement by a vigorous attack upon 
 the lines of Cassius, which he soon broke, and put his cavalry to 
 flight. Cassius exerted himself to the utmost to make his infantry 
 stand ; stopping those that fled, and himself seizing the colours to rally 
 them. 
 
 But the valour of an individual was insufficient to inspire a timorous 
 army, and at length despairing of success, he retired to his tent and 
 killed himself. In the mean time Brutus had broken through the army 
 of Augustus, and had penetrated as far as the camp, and having 
 slaughtered those who were left to defend it, his troops immediately 
 began to plunder. He was soon informed of the defeat and death of 
 Cassius, whom he greatly lamented. (B. C. 35.) 
 
 Brutus now became sole general, and having assembled the dispersed 
 troops of Cassius, he animated them with fresh hopes of victory. After 
 a respite of twenty days, he was obliged, by the frequent solicitations 
 of his army, to try the fate of battle. The republicans were routed, 
 and Brutus, after fighting long with amazing valour, was obliged to 
 flee. The whole body of the enemy were intent on the person of 
 Brutus alone, and his capture seemed inevitable ; but he escaped from 
 them by the fidelity of Lucillus his friend, who, throwing himself 
 between his general and his pursuers, said that he was Brutus. When 
 he was taken before Antony, he boldly confessed the fraud : the con- 
 queror, struck with his fidelity, generously pardoned him and honoured 
 him with his friendship. Brutus finding his affairs desperate, escaped 
 the hands of the enemy by a voluntary death, in the forty-third year 
 of his age. A. U. 711. 
 
 Who offered battle several times? — What was the opinion of Cassius? — What 
 of Brutus ? — How did the battle commence ?. — Did Brutus intend to destroy him- 
 self if beaten ? — What was the fate of Cassius ? — Did Brutus pain any advantage ? 
 — What was the event of the next engagement ? — How did Brutus escape ilio 
 hands of the enemy ? — What was his end > 
 
ANTONY IN EGYPT. 229 
 
 CHAPTER 19. 
 ANTONY IN EGYPT. 
 
 From the moment of Brutus's death, the triumviri began to act as 
 sovereigns, and to divide the Roman dominions among themselves, as 
 their own by rioht of conquest. Their earliest care was to punish those 
 whom they had formerly marked for vengeance. But the people chiefly 
 lamented to see the head of Brutus sent to Rome to be thrown at the 
 foot of Caesar's statue. It is observed, that of all those who had a hand 
 in murdering Caesar, not one died a natural death. 
 
 The power of the triumviri being thus established upon the ruin of 
 the commonwealth, they began to think of enjoying that homage to 
 which they had aspired. Antony went into Greece to receive the flat- 
 tery of that refined people. Thence he passed over into Asia, where 
 all the monarchs of the East who acknowledged the Roman power, 
 came to pay him their obedience. In this manner he proceeded from 
 kingdom to kingdom, exacting contributions, distributing favours, and 
 giving away crowns with capricious insolence. 
 
 But among all the sovereigns of the east, Cleopatra, the celebrated 
 queen of Egypt, was the most conspicuous. For having received 
 orders from Antony to clear herself of an imputation of infidelity to his 
 cause, she resolved to attend his court in person, and Antony soon be- 
 came captivated with her beauty. When Cleopatra returned to Egypt, 
 Antony, quitting every other object, presently flew after her, and there 
 he continued in all that ease and softness to which his vicious heart 
 was prone. 
 
 While Antony remained thus idle in Egypt, Augustus, who took 
 upon him to lead back the veteran troops, and settle them in Italy, was 
 assiduously employed in providing for their subsistence. He had pro- 
 mised them lands at home, as a recompense for their past services, but 
 they could not receive their new grants without turning out the former 
 inhabitants. In consequence of this, multitudes of women with chil- 
 dren in their arms daily filled the temples and the streets with their 
 distresses. Numbers of husbandmen and shepherds came to deprecate 
 the conqueror's intention, or to obtain a habitation in some other part 
 of the world. 
 
 Among this number was Virgil the poet, who, in an humble manner, 
 begged permission to retain his patrimonial farm. Virgil obtained his 
 request, but the rest of his countrymen of Mantua and Cremona were 
 turned out without mercy. A dispute arising between Antony and 
 Augustus about the distribution of lands, Antony left Egypt to oppose 
 Augustus. However, a reconciliation was effected ; all offences and 
 affronts were mutually forgiven, and to cement the union, a marriage 
 was concluded between Antony and Octavia, the sister of Augustus. 
 
 What is observed of Ccesar's murderers? — Into what countries did Antony tra- 
 vel? — Who received his particular attention? — What did Augustus promise the 
 veteran troops ? — What was the consequence? — What is told of the poet Virgil ? — 
 Did he gain his request? 
 
 20 
 
230 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 A new division of the Roman empire was made between them ; Au- 
 gustus was to have the command of the West ; Antony, of the East ; 
 while Lepidus was obliged to content himself with the provinces in 
 Africa. 
 
 Augustus having dispossessed Lepidus, the only obstacle that re- 
 mained to his ambition was Antony, whom he resolved to remove. Tn 
 fact, Antony's conduct did not a little contribute to promote the en- 
 deavours of his ambitious partner. He seemed alive only to pleasure, 
 and totally disregarding the business of the state, he spent his whole 
 time in the company of Cleopatra, who studied every art to increase 
 his passion and vary his entertainments. By resolving to repudiate his 
 wife Octavia and to marry Cleopatra, he exasperated the people of 
 Rome still more against him. 
 
 This gave Augustus a sufficient pretext for declaring war, and he in- 
 formed the Senate of his intentions. Preparations were made on both 
 sides, but the delays of Antony at Samos, and afterwards at Athens, 
 whither he had carried Cleopatra to receive new honours, were ex- 
 tremely favourable to his opponent, who was at first scarcely in a dis- 
 position to oppose him had he gone into Italy ; but Augustus soon put 
 himself in a condition for carrying on the war, and shortly after declared 
 it against him in form. The one was followed by all the forces of the 
 East, the other by those of the West. 
 
 The great decisive engagement, which was a naval one, was fought 
 near Actium, a city of Epirus, at the entrance of the gulf of Ambracia. 
 Antony ranged his ships before the mouth of the gulf, and Augustus 
 drew up his fleet in opposition. The two land armies remained on oppo- 
 site sides of the gulf only as spectators of the engagement, and en- 
 couraged the fleets by their shouts to engage. They fought with gTtat 
 vigour, without advantage on either side, till the conduct of Cleopatra 
 determined the fortune of the day. Wearied with expectation, and 
 struck with fear, she suddenly tacked about in the heat of the engage- 
 ment, and fled towards the Peloponnesus with her sixty sail, and An- 
 tony quickly followed, leaving his fleet at the mere) 7 of the enemy. — 
 They submitted to the conqueror, and the army on land, being abandoned 
 by their general, presently did the same. 
 
 Augustus resolved to pursue Antony into Egypt, and while his gene- 
 ral, Cornelius Gallus, took possession of Paretonium, himself advanced 
 with another army before Pelusium, which, by its strong situation, 
 might have retarded his progress for some time. But the governor of 
 the city, either wanting courage to defend it, or previously instructed 
 by Cleopatra to give it up, permitted him to take possession, so that 
 Augustus had now no obstacle in his way to Alexandria, whither he 
 marched with all expedition. Antony, upon his arrival, sallied out to 
 oppose him, righting with desperation, and putting the enemy's cavalry 
 to flight. This slight advantage once more revived his declining hopes ; 
 
 What was tho conduct of Augustus and Antony? — Who prepared fir war? — Did 
 Antony march with haste? — Where was the decisive engagement (ought 7 — How 
 was the scale of victory turned ? — What city did Augustus take ? — Whither did he 
 pursue Antony ? 
 
DEATH OF CLEOPATRA. 231 
 
 and he resolved to make a bold and decisive effort both by sea and land, 
 previously offering to fight his adversary in single combat. To this 
 proposal Augustus coolly replied, " Antony has ways enough to die 
 beside single combat." 
 
 The day after, Antony posted the few troops he had remaining upon 
 a rising ground near the city, whence he sent orders for his galleys to 
 engage the enemy. There he waited to behold the combat, and at first 
 he had the satisfaction to see them advance in good order ; but his joy 
 was soon turned into rage when he beheld his ships only saluting those 
 of Augustus, and both fleets, uniting together, sailed back into the har- 
 bour, and at the same time his cavalry deserted him. He tried, how- 
 ever, to lead on his infantry ; but these were easily vanquished,, and 
 he himself compelled to return into the town. His fury was now un- 
 governable, and he cried out that he was betrayed by Cleopatra, and 
 delivered up to those who for her sake alone were his enemies. In 
 those suspicions he was not deceived, for it was by secret orders from 
 the queen that the fleet had passed over to the enemy. 
 
 Cleopatra had for a long while dreaded the effects of Antony's jea- 
 lousy, and she had seme time before prepared a method of obviating 
 any sudden sallies it might produce. Near the temple of Isis she had 
 erected a building which was seemingly designed for a sepulchre. 
 Into this building she retired from the fury of Antony, and gave orders 
 to have it reported that she was dead. This report soon reached An- 
 tony, who now lamented her death with the same violence that he had 
 just before seemed to desire it. He called to him one of his freedmen, 
 named Eros, whom he had engaged by oath to kill him whenever for- 
 tune should drive him to his last resource, and commanded him to per- 
 form his promise. Eros drew his sword as if going instantly to strike 
 the blow, when, turning his face, he plunged it into his own bosom, 
 and dropped at his master's feet. Antony for awhile hung over his 
 faithful servant, admiring his fidelity; then snatching up the sword, he 
 stabbed himself^in the belly, and expired soon after in the fifty-third 
 year of his age. 
 
 In a short time Augustus made his entry into Alexandria, and granted 
 his pardon to the citizens. Soon after he honoured Cleopatra with a 
 visit, who made use of every art to propitiate the conqueror. She tried 
 apologies, entreaties, and allurements, to obtain his favour, and soften 
 his resentment. When Augustus departed he assured her that in every 
 thing she should be indulged to the height of her expectations. But 
 being secretly informed that Augustus intended to send her and her 
 children to Rome to grace his triumphant entry, she contrived to have 
 an asp conveyed to her in a basket of fruit. She then wrote to the con- 
 queror to inform him of her fatal purpose, desiring to be buried in the 
 same tomb with Antony. Upon receiving the letter, Augustus instantly 
 despatched messengers in hopes to stop her intentions ; but they ar- 
 rived too late. Upon entering the chamber, they beheld Cleopatra 
 lying dead on her couch, arrayed in her royal robes. 
 
 What was the result of another engagement ? — What was the miserable end of 
 Antony ? — What iai told of Cleopatra's death ? 
 
232 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 CHAPTER 20. 
 
 CONSOLIDATION OF THE IMPERIAL POWER BY AUGUSTUS. 
 
 By the death of Antony, (13. C.28,) Augustus became master of the 
 Roman empire. He returned to Rome in triumph, where by feasts and 
 mao-nificent shows, he began to obliterate the impressions of his former 
 cruelty, and thenceforward resolved to secure by his clemency a throne, 
 the foundations of which were laid in blood, fie was now at the head 
 of the most extensive empire mankind had ever beheld. The city was 
 inhabited by a concourse from all the countries of the world ; and being 
 consequently divested of all patriotic principle, perhaps a monarchy 
 was the best form of government that could be found to unite its 
 members. The first care of Augustus was to assure himself of the 
 friends of Antony, to which end he publicly reported that he had burned 
 all Antony's letters and papers without reading them, convinced that 
 while any thought themselves suspected, they would be fearful of even 
 offering him their friendship. 
 
 He had gained the kingdom by his army, but he resolved to govern 
 it by the Senate. This body, though greatly fallen from its ancient 
 splendour, he knew to be the best constituted and most capable of 
 wisdom and justice. To the Senate therefore he gave the chief power 
 in the administration of his government, while he kept the people and 
 the army steadfast to himself by donations and acts of favour. By 
 these means the odium of justice fell upon the Senate, and the popu- 
 larity of pardon was solely his own. Thus restoring splendour to the 
 Senate, and discountenancing corruption, he pretended to reserve to 
 himself only an absolute power to compel all ranks of the state to do 
 their duty ; and the misguided people began to look upon his modera- 
 tion with astonishment. 
 
 He considered a long time whether he should keep the empire, or 
 restore the people to their ancient liberty. But he adopted the advice 
 of Mecaenas, which was to continue in power ; and he was afterwards 
 swayed by him on every occasion. By the advice of that minister he 
 became gentle, affable, and humane; he encouraged men of learning, 
 and gave them much of his time and friendship. These in their turn 
 relieved his most anxious hours, and circulated his praises through the 
 empire. 
 
 Augustus resolved upon impressing the people with an idea of his 
 magnanimity by making a show of resigning his authority. To this 
 end he avowed his intentions to the Senate in a studied speech import- 
 ing the difficulty of governing so extensive an empire; but the majority 
 received his proposal with pretended indignation. These unanimously 
 besought him not to resign the administration ; and upon his continu- 
 ing to decline their request, they in a manner compelled him to comply. 
 
 What power did Augustus now assume ? — How did lie commence his govern- 
 ment? — How did he conduct himself towards his subjects ? — By what means did 
 he secure the kingdom ? 
 
AUGUSTUS. 233 
 
 However, he assumed the government for ten years only ; but he 
 laid his measures so well that his power was renewed every ten years 
 to his death. This show of resignation only served to confirm him in 
 the empire and in the hearts of the people. He was now first called 
 Augustus, a name we have hitherto used as that by which he is best 
 known in history. A laurel was ordered to be planted at his gates ; 
 wherever he made his abode, that house was called the palace, he was 
 confirmed in the title of father of his country, and his person declared 
 sacred and inviolable. 
 
 (B. C.23.) When he entered into his tenth consulship, the Senate, 
 by oath, approved of all his acts ; set him wholly above the power of 
 the laws ; and soon after offered to swear, not only to all the laws he 
 had made, but also to such as he should make for the future. An ac- 
 cumulation of titles and employments did not in the least diminish his 
 assiduity in filling the duties of each. By his command several very 
 wholesome edicts were passed, tending to suppress corruption in the 
 Senate and licentiousness in the people. He ordained that none 
 should exhibit a show of gladiators without an order from the Senate, 
 and then not oftener than twice a year. 
 
 It had been usual also with the knights and women of the first 
 distinction to exhibit themselves as dancers upon the theatre ; he order- 
 ed that not only these but their children and grandchildren should be 
 restrained from such exercise for the future. He enacted that the sena- 
 tors should be held in great reverence, adding to their dignity what he 
 had taken from their power. He appointed new rules and limits to the 
 manumission of slaves, and was himself very strict in the observance 
 of them. These and other laws, all tending to extirpate vice or deter 
 from crimes, gave the manner of the people another complexion, and 
 the rough character of the Romans was now softened into that of the 
 refined citizen. 
 
 Indeed his own example a good deal tended to humanize his fellow- 
 citizens ; for being placed above all equality, he had nothing to fear 
 from condescension. He was familiar with all, and suffered himself to 
 be reprimanded with the most patient humility. When one of his vete- 
 ran soldiers entreated his protection, Augustus bid him apply to an 
 advocate. " Ah !" replied the soldier, " it was not by proxy that I 
 served you at the battle of Actium." Augustus was so pleased with 
 this reply, that he pleaded his cause and gained it for him. One day a 
 petition was presented to him with so much awe as to displease him. 
 " Friend," cried he, " you seem as if you were offering something to 
 an elephant rather than to a man — be bolder." Cornelius Cinna, Pom- 
 pey's grandson, had entered into a conspiracy against Augustus ; he 
 sent for the rest of the conspirators, reprimanded them, and dismissed 
 them. But resolving to mortify Cinna by the greatness of his gene- 
 rosity — " I have twice," said he, " given you your life — as an enemy 
 and as a conspirator ; I now give you the consulship ; let us therefore 
 
 How did the senate approve of his proceedings? — What wholesome laws did he 
 enact? — What is told of his personal virtues? 
 
 20* 
 
234 HISTORV OF ROME. 
 
 be friends for the future ; let us only contend in showing whether my 
 confidence or your fidelity shall be victorious." 
 
 Augustus had married Livia, the wife of Tiberius Nero, by the con- 
 sent of her husband ; she had two sons, Tiberius, the elder, and Drusus, 
 who was born three months after she had been married to Augustus, 
 and who was thought to be his own son. Tiberius, whom he after- 
 wards adopted, gave him great trouble; for he was obliged to send him 
 into exile for five years to the island of Rhodes. But his greatest 
 affliction was the conduct of his daughter Julia, whom he had by Scri- 
 bonia, his former wife, and who set no bounds to her lewdness. Au- 
 gustus at first had thoughts of putting her to death; but he banished 
 her to Pandataria, and sent her mother to bear her company. 
 
 Augustus at length retired from the fatigues of the state, and in some 
 measure constituted Tiberius his successor. (A. D. 9.) He died soon 
 after, in the seventy-sixth year of his age, and the forty-first of his 
 reign. He was studious of serving his country to the last, and the sor- 
 row of the people seemed equal to his assiduity. It was decreed that 
 all the women should mourn for him a whole year. Temples were 
 erected to him ; divine honours were allowed him ; and one Numericus 
 Atticus received a large sum of money for swearing that he saw him 
 ascending into heaven. 
 
 Such were the honours paid to Augustus, whose power began in the 
 slaughter, and terminated in the happiness of his subjects ; so that it 
 was said of him, " that it would have been good for mankind if he had 
 never been born, or if he had never died." It is possible that the cru- 
 elties exercised in his triumvirate were suggested by his colleagues. 
 In the case of Caesar's death, he might think that revenge was virtue. 
 Certain it is that severities were necessary to restore public tranquillity; 
 for until the Roman spirit should be eradicated, no monarchy could be 
 secure. During his reign, our Saviour was born in Judea. 
 
 CHAPTER 21. 
 
 TIBERIUS— CALIGULA. 
 
 (A. D. 10.) Tiberius was fifty-six years old when he took upon him 
 the government of the Roman empire. He had lived in a state of pro- 
 found dissimulation under Augustus, and in the beginning of his reign 
 nothing appeared but prudence, generosity and clemency. Germanicus, 
 son of his brother Drusus, soon became an object of jealousy to Tibe- 
 rius on account of his success over the Germans. Tiberius, therefore, 
 recalled him home; and he was soon after appointed to a new dignity. 
 He departed from Rome to an eastern expedition ; but he soon after 
 met his death through the machinations of Cneius Piso, governor of 
 Syria, who had been instructed by Tiberius to oppose Germanicus upon 
 
 What domestic troubles did Augustus experience? — What age did he attain? — 
 Whom did he appoint his successor? — What has been Baid of Augustus? — What 
 particular personage was born during his reign? — How did Tiberius commence his 
 reign ? 
 
DEATH OF TIBERIUS. 235 
 
 every occasion, and even to procure his death. Nothing could exceed 
 the distress of the whole empire upon hearing - of the fate of Germani- 
 cus : but the people of Rome seemed to put no bounds to it: Piso was 
 marked for destruction, and, to avoid the public fury, he put an end to 
 his life in his own house. 
 
 Tiberius, having- now no object of jealousy to keep him in awe, 
 began to pull off the mask, and to appear in his natural character. In 
 the beginning of his cruelties he took into his confidence Sejanus, a 
 Roman knight, who gained his affections by the most refined degree of 
 dissimulation. Sejanus used all his address to persuade Tiberius to 
 retire to some agreeable retreat remote from Rome. From this he 
 expected many advantages, since there could be no access to the empe- 
 ror but through him. Tiberius soon after withdrew himself into the 
 beautiful island of Cap rasa. Buried in this retreat, he gave himself up 
 to abandoned pleasures, regardless of the miseries of his subjects. 
 
 Drusus and Nero, the children of Germanicus, being declared ene- 
 mies to the state, were starved to death in prison, while Agrippina, 
 their mother, was sent into banishment. In this manner Sejanus pro- 
 ceeded, removing all who stood between him and the empire, and every 
 day increasing in confidence with Tiberius, and in influence with the 
 Senate. The number of his statues exceeded even those of the em- 
 peror ; people swore by his fortune, in the same manner as they would 
 have done had he been upon the throne, and he was more dreaded than 
 the tyrant who actually enjoyed the empire. But the rapidity of his 
 rise seemed only preparatory to the greatness of his fall. He was ac- 
 cused to the emperor of treason ; and soon after he was strangled by 
 the order of the Senate. His innocent family, after being subjected to 
 the most barbarous outrages, shared his fate. 
 
 The death of Sejanus only lighted up the emperor's rage for further 
 severities. He began to grow weary of single executions, and gave 
 orders that all the accused should be put to death together, without 
 further examination ; and thus the whole city was filled with slaughter 
 and mourning. In this manner he lived, odious to the world, and trou- 
 blesome to himself; an enemy to the lives of others, a tormentor of 
 his own. At length, in the twenty-second year of his reign, he began 
 to feel the approaches of his dissolution, and he fixed upon Caligula as 
 his successor. He left his favourite island ; went upon the continent; 
 and at last fixed at the promontory of Misenum. 
 
 It was there that he fell into faintings, which all believed to be fatal. 
 But it being reported that he was likely to recover, Marcia ordered that 
 the dying emperor should be despatched, by smothering him with pil- 
 lows, or as some will have it, by poison. Thus died Tiberius, in the 
 seventy-eighth year of his age, and in the twenty-second of his reign. 
 (A. D. 37.) 
 
 It was in the eighteenth year of this emperor's reign that Christ was 
 crucified ; as if the universal depravity of mankind wanted no less a 
 
 What did Sejanus persuade the emperor lo do ? — What was the fate of Sejanus? 
 — In what manner did Tiberius spend his life ? — What is reported of his death ! — 
 What happened in the eighteenth year of his reign? 
 
23G HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 sacrifice to reclaim them. Pilate sent to Tiberius an account of Christ's 
 passion, resurrection, and miracles : the emperor made a report of the 
 "u hole to the Senate, desiring that Christ might be accounted a God by 
 the Romans. But the Senate, displeased that the proposal had not come 
 first from themselves, refused to allow of his apotheosis ; and they even 
 went so far as to command by an edict, that all Christians should leave 
 the city ; but Tiberius, by another edict, threatened death to such as 
 should accuse them ; by which means they continued unmolested during 
 his reign. 
 
 The enormities of Caligula were concealed in the beginning of his 
 reign ; but, in less than eight months, every appearance of moderation 
 and clemency vanished ; while furious passions, unexampled avarice, 
 and capricious cruelty, began to take their turn in his mind. His pride 
 first appeared in his assuming to himself the title of ruler, which was 
 usually granted only to kings. Not long after he claimed divine honours, 
 and jjave himself the names of such divinities as he thought most 
 agreeable to his nature. For this purpose, he caused the heads of the 
 statues of Jupiter and some other gods to be struck off, and his own to 
 be put in their place. 
 
 He frequently seated himself between Castor and Pollux, and ordered 
 that all who came to their temple to worship should pay their adoration 
 only to himself. Such was the extravagant inconsistency of this unac- 
 countable idiot, that he changed his divinity as often as he changed his 
 clothes, being at one time a male deity, at another a female. He even 
 built and dedicated a temple to his own divinitjr, and he had numbers 
 of priests. He admitted his wife and his horse to that dignity; and, 
 to give a finishing stroke to his absurdities, he became a priest to him- 
 self. 
 
 Of all his vices, prodigality was the most remarkable. The luxuries 
 of former emperors were simplicity itself when compared with those 
 which he practised. He sometimes had services of pure gold presented 
 before his guests instead of meat, observing that a man should be an 
 economist or an emperor. He built a stable of marble, and a manger 
 of ivory, for his horse Incitatus. He appointed the animal a house, 
 furniture, and kitchen, in order to treat all its visitors with proper 
 respect; and, it is said, he would have raised it to the consulship had 
 not his death prevented. 
 
 His impiety was but subordinate to his cruelties. He slew many 
 of the Senate, and afterwards cited them to appear, as if they had killed 
 themselves. He cast numbers of old and infirm men to wild beasts, to 
 free the state from such unserviceable citizens. He usually fed his 
 wild beasts with the bodies of those wretches whom he condemned ; 
 and every tenth day sent off numbers of them to be thus devoured, 
 which he jocosely called clearing his accounts. Upon one occasion he 
 wished that all the Roman people had but one neck, that he might des- 
 patch them at a single blow. Such insupportable and capricious bar- 
 
 What extravagances marked Caligula's reign ? — What divinity did he assume? 
 — to whom did he build a temple f — What is told of his prodigality : — Of his horse/ 
 —What other barbarities was he guilty i>f>. 
 
CLAUDIUS. 237 
 
 barities produced many secret conspiracies against him ; but these were 
 for a while deferred upon account of his intended expedition against 
 the Germans and Britons. 
 
 (A. D. 41.) For this purpose he caused numerous levies to be made, 
 and talked with so much resolution, that it was universally believed 
 he would conquer all before him. His march perfectly indicated the 
 inequality of his temper ; sometimes it was so rapid that the cohorts 
 were obliged to leave their standards behind them ; at other times it 
 was so slow that it more resembled a pompous procession than a mili- 
 tary expedition. However, all these mighty preparations ended in 
 nothing. Instead of conquering Britain, he gave refuge to one of its 
 banished princes ; and this he described in his letter to the Senate, as 
 taking possession of the whole island. Instead of conquering Ger- 
 many, he drew up his forces in order of battle, on the sea-shore of 
 Batavia, and going on board his galley, he commanded his trumpets to 
 sound, and the signal to be given, as if for an engagement. 
 
 His men, having had previous orders, immediately fell to gathering 
 the shells that lay upon the shore into their helmets, as the spoils of 
 the conquered ocean. After this, calling his army together, like a gene- 
 ral after a victory, he harangued them in a pompous manner, — highly 
 extolling their achievements; and then distributing money among 
 them, dismissed them with orders to be joyful, congratulating them 
 upon their riches. At length the world was freed from this tyrant; for 
 he was assassinated by Oassius Cherea, tribune of the praetorian bands, 
 who, with some other persons of distinction, had formed a conspiracy 
 against him, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, and the fourth of his 
 reicm. 
 
 C 
 
 CHAPTER 22. 
 CLAUDIUS — EXPEDITION TO BRITAIN. 
 
 (A. D. 42.) As soon as the death of Caligula was made public, it 
 produced the greatest confusion. The conspirators, who only aimed at 
 destroying the tyrant, without attending to a successor, had all retired 
 to private places for safety. Some soldiers happening to run about the 
 palace, discovered Claudius, Caligula's uncle, lurking in a secret 
 place, where he had hid himself. Of this personage, who had hitherto 
 been despised for his imbecility, they resolved to make an emperor ; 
 accordingly, they carried him to the camp, where they proclaimed him, 
 at a time he expected nothing but death. Claudius was now fifty years 
 old. The complicated diseases of his infancy had in some measure 
 affected all the faculties of his mind as well as body. He seemed in 
 every part of life incapable of conducting himself. 
 
 The beginning of his reign, however, gave the most promising hopes. 
 He showed himself more moderate than his predecessors, with regard 
 to titles and honours. He was assiduous in hearing and examining 
 
 On what expedition did he set out? — What was the result? — By what means 
 did he die? — Who was next proclaimed ? — What was his character? — What dis- 
 tinguished the commencement of his reign ? 
 
238 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 complaints ; and frequently administered justice in person with great 
 mildness. He even undertook to gratify the people by foreign conquest. 
 The Britons, who had for nearly a hundred years been left in sole pos- 
 session of their island, sought the mediation of Rome to quell their 
 intestine commotions. Accordingly, Plautius, the praetor, commanded 
 the expedition ; and the Britons, who were conducted by their king 
 Cynobelin, were several times overthrown. 
 
 (A. D. 46.) These successes induced Claudius to go into Britain in 
 person ; but the time he continued on the island, which was about six- 
 teen days, was taken up more in receiving homage than extending his 
 conquests. He returned to Rome in triumph ; triumphal arches were 
 erected for his honour; and annual games were instituted to comme- 
 morate his victories. The war was vigorously prosecuted by Plautius, 
 and his lieutenant Vespasian, who fought thirty battles, and reduced a 
 part of the island into the form of a Roman province. (A. D. 51.) 
 
 This war broke out afresh under the government of Ostorius, who 
 succeeded Plautius. The Iceni, the Cangi, and the Brigantes, made a 
 powerful resistance, though they were at length overcome ; but the 
 Silures, or inhabitants of South Wales, under their brave king Carac- 
 tacus, made a gallant defence, and for nine years kept the Romans in 
 continual alarm. At length Caractacus was taken prisoner, and led 
 captive to Rome. The emperor being struck with his magnanimity, 
 generously pardoned him, and Ostorius was decreed a triumph. 
 
 Claudius, in the beginning of his reign, gave the highest hopes of a 
 happy continuance ; but he soon committed to his favourites all the 
 concerns of the empire. One of his instructors was his wife Messalina, 
 whose name is become a common appellation for women of abandoned 
 characters. By her Claudius was urged on to commit cruelties which 
 he considered only as wholesome severities, while her debaucheries 
 became every day more notorious, and exceeded what had ever been in 
 Rome. For her crimes and enormities, however, she, together with her 
 paramour, Caius Silius, suffered that death they both had so justly 
 deserved. 
 
 Claudius took for his second wife, Agrippina, the daughter of his 
 brother Germanicus, a woman of a cruel and ambitious spirit, whose 
 only aim was to procure the succession for Nero, her son by a former 
 marriage. She therefore caused a poison to be given to the emperor 
 among mushrooms. Shortly after having eaten, he dropped down in- 
 sensible ; but this caused no alarm, as it was usual with him to eat till 
 he had stupified his faculties, and was obliged to be carried off to his 
 bed from the table. His constitution seeming to overcome the potion, 
 Agrippina directed a wretch of a physician, her creature, to introduce a 
 poisoned feather into his throat, under pretence of making him vomit, 
 and thus to dispatch him. 
 
 What expedition did he undertake ? — What king was taken prisoner to Rome ? — 
 What effect had the wife of Claudius on his government >. — What was the end of 
 
 Claudius? 
 
NERO. 239 
 
 CHAPTER 23. 
 NERO — GALBA. 
 
 (A. D. 55.) Nero, though but seventeen years old, began his rei<m 
 with the general approbation of mankind. He appeared just, liberal, 
 and humane. But as he increased in years his wickedness increased 
 in proportion. The execution of his mother, Agrippina, (A.D.60,) 
 was the first alarming instance he gave of his cruelty. There was a 
 sort of odd contrast in his disposition, — for while he practised cruelties 
 sufficient to make the mind shudder with horror, he was fond of those 
 amusing arts which soften and refine the heart. He was particularly 
 addicted to music, and was not totally ignorant of poetry ; and chariot 
 driving was his favourite pursuit. 
 
 But his cruelty exceeded all his other extravagances. A great part 
 of the city of Rome was consumed by fire in his time, (A. D. 64,) and 
 to him most historians ascrihe the conflagration. It is said that he 
 stood upon a high tower, during the continuance of the flames, enjoying 
 the sight, and singing in a theatrical manner verses upon the burning 
 of Troy. He used every art to throw the odium of so detestable an 
 action from himself, and to fix it upon the Christians, against whom a 
 most dreadful persecution was raised. Some were crucified, and others 
 burned alive. In this persecution St. Paul was beheaded, and St. Peter 
 was crucified with his head downwards. 
 
 A conspiracy formed against Nero by Piso, a man of great power 
 and integrity, which was prematurely discovered, opened a new train 
 of suspicions that destroyed many of the principal families of Rome. 
 Suspecting Seneca, the philosopher, as an accomplice, he sent him or- 
 ders to die. Seneca seemed no way discomposed at the command ; 
 and he caused the veins of his arms and legs to be opened, and soon 
 after expired. Lucan the poet, and nephew to Seneca, met the same 
 fate. He died while he was repeating that beautiful passage in his 
 Pharsalia, descriptive of a person dying in similar circumstances, which 
 begins thus,— 
 
 Nee, sicut vulnere, sanguis 
 
 Emicuit lentus: ruptis cadit undique venis," &c. 
 
 C. Petronius was accused of being privy to Piso's conspiracy, and 
 was committed to prison. Petronius, who could not endure the anxiety 
 of suspense, resolved upon putting himself to death, by causing his 
 veins to be opened and closed again from time to time. Shortly after 
 him, Numicius Thermus, Bareas Soranus, and Psetus Thraseas were 
 put to death. Nor did the empress Poppaea escape. At length human 
 nature grew weary of bearing her persecutor; and the whole world 
 seemed to rouse, as if by common consent, to rid the earth of a monster. 
 
 Sergius Galba, governor of Spain, who was remarkable for his 
 
 What atrocities are told of Nero? — Did he set fire to Home? — On whom did he 
 fix the odium? — Who suffered martyrdom? — What conspiracy was formed against 
 him ? — Who perished through ii ? 
 
240 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 wisdom in peace, and courage in war, accepted an invitation from Vin- 
 dex to march with an army towards Rome. From the moment he de- 
 clared against Nero, the tyrant considered himself as fallen, and cried 
 out, *■* that he was utterly undone." The revolt becoming general, he 
 was driven to a state of desperation, and desired that one of his fa- 
 vourite gladiators might despatch him; but even with this request no 
 one would comply. 
 
 In this distress, Phaon, one of his freedmen, offered him his country- 
 house, about four miles distant, where he might for some time remain 
 concealed. Nero accepted the offer, and arrived at the house with four 
 of his domestics, after a journey crowded with dangers and adventures. 
 The Senate, finding the przetorian guards had taken part with Galba, 
 declared him emperor, and condemned Nero to die. When he was told 
 of the resolution of the Senate, by the assistance of Epaphroditns, his 
 freedman and secretary, he gave himself a mortal wound with a dagger 
 and expired, after he had reigned thirteen years, seven months, and 
 twenty-eight days, and in the thirty-second year of his age. 
 
 (A. D. 69.) Galba was seventy-two years old when he was de- 
 clared emperor, and was then in Spain with his legions. He soon found 
 that being raised to the throne was but an inlet to new disquietudes. 
 He seemed to have three objects in view : to curb the insolence of the 
 soldiers; to punish those vices which had risen to an enormous height 
 in the last reign ; and to replenish the exchequer, which had been 
 drained by the prodigality of his predecessors. But, permitting him- 
 self to be governed by favourites, he at one time showed himself severe 
 and frugal, at another, remiss and prodigal ; condemning some illus- 
 trious persons without any hearing, and pardoning others though 
 guilty. 
 
 In consequence of this, seditions were kindled and factions promoted. 
 Galba was sensible that, beside his age, he was less respected for want 
 of an heir. He resolved, therefore, to adopt a person whose virtues 
 might deserve such advancement, and protect his declining age from 
 danger. He chose Piso Lucinianus, whose conduct showed that he 
 was highly deserving this distinction. The adoption of Piso, however, 
 was coldly received by the army and the Senate, who had been so long 
 used to bribery and corruption, that they could now bear no emperor 
 who was not in a capacity for satisfying their avarice. 
 
 CHAPTER 24. 
 
 OTHO — VITELLI US — VESPASIAN. 
 
 Otho, who had long been a favourite of Galba, and hoped to be 
 adopted as successor in the empire, finding himself disappointed, re- 
 solved upon obtaining the empire by force, and publicly avowed his in- 
 tention of dethroning Galba. The soldiers seconded his views, and 
 
 Who marched against Nero? — By what means did Nero die ? — How long had 
 he reigned ? — Who succeeded ? — What \\;:s Ins character ? — Whom did he adopt 
 for his successor ? 
 
VESPASIAN. 241 
 
 immediately proclaimed him emperor. Soon after, finding Galba in 
 some measure deserted by his adherents, the soldiers rushed in upon 
 him, and struck off his head, which they presented to Otho, who ordered 
 it to be contemptuously carried round the camp. His short reign of 
 seven months was as illustrious by his own virtues as it was contami- 
 nated by the vices of his favourites. 
 
 Otho, who was now elected emperor, began his reign by a signal 
 instance of clemency, in pardoning Marius Celsus, who had been highly 
 favoured by Galba; and also advanced him to the highest honours, 
 asserting that " fidelity deserved every reward." In the mean time, 
 the legions in Lower Germany, having been purchased by the large 
 gifts and specious promises of Vitellius their general, were induced to 
 proclaim him emperor. Otho departed from Rome with all haste to 
 give Vitellius battle. The army of Vitellius, which consisted of se- 
 venty thousand men, was commanded by his generals Valens and Ce- 
 cina, he himself remaining in Gaul in order to bring up the rest of his 
 forces. In a general engagement, Otho's forces were totally overthrown, 
 and himself killed shortly after, having reigned three months and five 
 days. 
 
 Vitellius was declared emperor by the Senate, (A. D. 70,) and 
 received the marks of distinction which were now accustomed to follow 
 the appointments of the strongest side. Upon his arrival at Rome, he 
 entered the city, not as a place he came to govern with justice, but as 
 a town that was become his own by the laws of conquest. He soon 
 gave himself up to all kinds of luxury and profuseness ; but gluttony 
 was so much his favourite vice, that he brought himself to a habit of 
 vomiting, in order to be able to renew his meals at pleasure. By his 
 vices and enormous cruelties, he became a burden to himself and odious 
 to all mankind ; and having become insupportable to the inhabitants of 
 Rome, the legions of the east unanimously resolved to make Vespasian 
 emperor. 
 
 Vitellius, though buried in sloth and luxury, was resolved to make 
 an effort to defend the empire. His two commanders, Valens and Ce- 
 cina, were ordered to make all possible preparations to resist the invad- 
 ers. The first army that entered Italy with a hostile intention was 
 under the command of Antonius Primus, Vespasian's commander, who 
 soon arrived before the walls of the city ; but the forces of Vitellius 
 resolved upon defending it to the utmost extremity. It was attacked 
 with fury ; while the army within, sallying upon the besiegers, de- 
 fended it with equal obstinacy ; but at length the besieged were driven 
 into the city, and a dreadful slaughter made of them in the streets, 
 which they vainly attempted to defend. Vitellius was put to death by 
 the conquering soldiers, who, after dragging the dead body through the 
 streets with a hook, threw it, with all possible ignominy, into the river 
 Tiber. 
 
 Vespasian (A. D. 70,) was declared emperor by the unanimous con- 
 
 What is remarkable of Galba 's short reign? — Who procured his death? — What 
 distinguished the reign of Otlio? — Who was his rival \ — How long did he reign? — 
 What is the character of Vitelline ? 
 
 21 
 
242 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 sent both of tho Senate and the army. lie was now in Egypt ; but 
 giving' his son Titus the command of the army tliat was to lay siege to 
 Jerusalem, he set out for Rome, and was met many miles from the city 
 by the Senate and the inhabitants, who gave the sincerest testimony of 
 their joy, in having an emperor of such great and experienced virtue. 
 Nor did he in the least disappoint their expectations; being equally 
 assiduous in rewarding merit, and pardoning his adversaries. In tho 
 mean time Titus carried on the war against the Jews with vigour, and 
 after a siege of six months, their city was entirely rased by the plough, 
 so that, according to our Saviour's prophecy, not one stone remained 
 upon another. The greatest part of the populace were put to the sword ; 
 those who perished in this siege amounted to above a million ; and the 
 captives to a hundred thousand, at the least. 
 
 The return of Titus to Rome in triumph with Vespasian, his father, 
 was marked with all the magnificence and joy in the power of man to 
 eNpress. This was the first time that Rome saw the father and the son 
 triumph together. A triumphal arch was erected upon this occasion, 
 on which were described all the victories of Titus over the Jews, and 
 it remains almost entire to this day. Few emperors have received a 
 better character from historians than Vespasian ; yet his numerous 
 acts of generosity and magnificence could not preserve him from the 
 imputation of rapacity and avarice ; but even this may in some degree 
 be excused by the deplorable state of the finances, the extravagances 
 of former conquerors having quite exhausted the treasury. 
 
 Having reigned ten years, beloved by his subjects, and deserving 
 their affection, he was surprised with an indisposition at Campania, 
 which he declared would be fatal. Perceiving his end approaching, as 
 he was just expiring he exerted himself, and cried out, "An emperor 
 should die standing," whereupon, raising himself upon his feet, he 
 expired in the arms of those who sustained him. 
 
 CHAPTER 25. 
 TITUS — DOMITIAN. 
 
 Titus was joyfully received as emperor, and began his reign with 
 the practice of every virtue that became a sovereign and a man. Dur- 
 ing the life of his father there had been many imputations against him, 
 both for cruelty, lust, and prodigality ; but, on his exaltation to the 
 throne, he seemed to have taken leave of his former vices. His first 
 step was the moderation of his passions, and the bridling of his incli- 
 nations. He had long loved Berenice, sister and wife of Agrippa, 
 Icing of Judea, a woman of great beauty and refined allurements ; 
 but knowing; that the connexion was disagreeable to the people of Home, 
 be gained the victory over his affections, and sent her away, notwith- 
 
 Where was Vespasian when he was declared emperor? — Did the people approve 
 of Vespasian's ;i< <■< ssion f — Whal u;is the result of the Jewish war ' v\ hat in I he 
 rem t.iI character of Vespasian .' — Whal expression • * i « 1 he use hrfor* his death '-~ 
 How long -ii J lio reign?— What characterizes the beginning of Titus's reign / 
 
DOMITIAN. 243 
 
 standing their mutual passion. He next discarded those who had been 
 the ministers of his pleasures. This moderation, added to his justice 
 and generosity, procured him the appellation of The delight of mankind. 
 
 His courtesy and readiness to do good have been celebrated even by 
 Christian writers ; his principal rale being not to send away a person 
 dissatisfied. One night recollecting that he had done nothing benefi- 
 cial to mankind during the day, he cried out " I have lost a day." In 
 the first year of his reign an eruption of Mount Vesuvius overwhelmed 
 many towns, particularly those of Pompeii and Herculaneum ; throw- 
 ing the ashes into countries more than a hundred miles distant : upon 
 this occasion Pliny the naturalist lost his life ; being impelled by curi- 
 osity to observe the eruption, he was suffocated in the flames. This 
 and other disasters were in some measure counterbalanced, by the suc- 
 cesses in Britain, under Agricola. This excellent general having been 
 sent into Britain towards the end of Vespasian's reign, showed himself 
 equally skilful in quelling the refractory and civilizing those that had 
 submitted to the Roman power. 
 
 The Ordovices, or inhabitants of North Wales, with the isle of An- 
 glesey, were the first that were subdued. He introduced the Roman 
 mode of dress and living. He caused the sons of the nobility to be 
 instructed in the liberal arts, and to be taught the Latin language. He 
 induced them to build temples, theatres, and stately houses. Thus, by 
 degrees, this barbarous people began to assume the manners of their 
 conquerors. Upon account of these successes in Britain, Titus was 
 saluted Imperator for the fifteenth time ; but he did not long survive 
 this honour, being seized with a violent fever, a little distance from 
 Rome. He expired shortly after, but not without suspicion of treachery 
 from his brother Domitian, in the forty-first year of his age, having 
 reigned two years, two months, and twenty days. A. D.81. 
 
 The beginning of Domitian's reign was equally remarkable for his 
 clemency, liberality and justice. But he soon began to show the natu- 
 ral deformity of his mind. He neglected all kinds of study, addicting 
 himself to meaner pursuits, such as archery and gaming. He instituted 
 contests in music, horsemanship, and wrestling ; but banished philoso- 
 phers and mathematicians from Rome. The meanness of his occupa- 
 tion in solitude was a contrast to these exhibitions ; he spent his hours 
 in catching flies and piercing them with a bodkin. Of his natural 
 malevolence, his ungrateful treatment of Agricola afforded a convincing 
 proof; being jealous of his military honours acquired in Britain, he 
 was recalled, and ended his days in retirement. 
 
 Domitian ordered his statues to be made only of gold or silver. He 
 assumed to himself divine honours, requiring to be addressed by the 
 same appellation which they gave to the divinity. He caused num- 
 bers of the most illustrious senators to be put to death upon the most 
 trifling pretences, and often threatened to extirpate their whole body 
 entirely. Lucius Antonius, governor of Upper Germany, knowing how 
 
 What eruption happened in this reign ? — What successes did his general gain 
 in Britain ? — How long did Titus reign? — Describe the character of Domitian. — 
 What honour did he assume ? — Who contended against him I 
 
244 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 much the emperor was detested, resolved upon striking for the throne, 
 at the head of a formidable army. His success was for some time 
 doubtful, but lie was at length totally routed. 
 
 But a period was soon to be put to this monster's cruelties. Among 
 those whom he had suspected was his wife Domitia. It was the 
 tyrant's method to put down the names of such as he meant to destroy 
 in his tablets, which he kept about him. Domitia, fortunately happen- 
 ing to get a sight of them, was struck at finding her own name in the 
 catalogue. Housed both by her fears and her resentments, she com- 
 municated the fact to several senators and officers of the household, 
 who, like herself, were proscribed. A conspiracy was entered into, 
 and the assassination of the tyrant was effected in the forty-fifth year 
 of his age, and the sixteenth of his iniquitous reign. It was in this 
 reign that John, the beloved Apostle, was banished to the isle of Pat- 
 mos. Domitian was the last of the emperors commonly called the 
 twelve Caesars, among whom only three, Augustus, Vespasian, and 
 Titus, have any claims upon the respect of posterity. 
 
 CHAPTER 26. 
 NERVA— TRAJAN — ADRIAN. 
 
 The Senate loaded the memory of Domitian with every reproach. 
 His statues were taken down, his inscriptions erased, and his funeral 
 obsequies omitted. But the soldiers, whom he had loaded with favours, 
 sincerely regretted their benefactor. The Senate chose Cocceius Nerva 
 as his successor. He is said to have been of an illustrious family, 
 either of Spain or of Crete (now Candia), and above sixty-five years 
 old when called to the throne ; an elevation which he owed solely to 
 his virtues, moderation, respect to the laws, and the blameless tenor of 
 his life. The people, long accustomed to tyranny, regarded Nerva's 
 gentle reign with rapture. He made a vow that no senator of Rome 
 should be put to death by his command, during his reign. 
 
 A sovereign of such generosity and mildness was, however, not with- 
 out his enemies. Vigilius Rufus, who opposed his accession, was not 
 only pardoned, but made his colleague in the consulship. Calpurnius 
 Crassus, with some others who formed a conspiracy against him, he 
 banished. But the most dangerous insurrection was that of the praeto- 
 rian bands, of which it was difficult to stop the progress. So disagree- 
 able a constraint upon the emperor's inclinations was attended with the 
 most happy effects, as it caused the adoption of Trajan to succeed him. 
 About three months afterwards, while in a violent passion with one 
 Regulus, a senator, he was seized with a fever, of which he died, after 
 a reign of one year, four months, and nine days. He was the first 
 foreigner that had reigned in Rome. 
 
 On the death of Nerva, Trajan quitted Germany, where he had been 
 
 And with what success? — Repeat the particulars of his death. — What race ended 
 in Domitian? — Who succeeded I — What was .Nerva's character ? — Whom did he 
 udopt ] — How long did iNerva reign? 
 
TKAJAN. 245 
 
 governor ; and when he arrived at Rome, he received a letter from Plu- 
 tarch,* the philosopher, who had the honour of being his tutor, con- 
 gratulating him on his elevation, and, after some excellent suggestions, 
 adding, " if you follow these instructions, then shall I glory in having 
 presumed to give them; if you neglect what I advise, then will this 
 letter be my testimony that you have not erred through the counsel of 
 Plutarch." 
 
 This good monarch's application to business, his moderation towards 
 his enemies, his modesty in exaltation, his liberality to the deserving, 
 his frugal management of the resources of the state, were the subjects 
 of panegyric among his contemporaries, and continue to be the admira- 
 tion of posterity. The first war he was engaged in after coming to the 
 throne was with the Dacians, who, after a severe struggle, were routed 
 with great slaughter, and Decebalus, their king, compelled to acknow- 
 ledge himself a vassal to the Roman empire. The Roman soldiers in 
 the above battle, wanting linen to bind up their wounds, the emperor 
 tore his own robes to supply them. 
 
 The Dacians a second time renewed hostilities ; and Trajan, to facili- 
 tate his conquest, built a stupendous bridge of twenty-two arches across 
 the Danube. Then pursuing the war with vigour, he subdued the whole, 
 and added it to the empire. On his return, he entered Rome in triumph. 
 Having given peace and prosperity to the empire, he was loved, honoured, 
 and almost adored. He adorned the city with public buildings, he freed 
 it from such as lived by their vices, he entertained persons of merit 
 with familiarity, and so little did he fear his enemies, that he could 
 scarcely be induced to believe that he had any. 
 
 It would have been happy for Trajan's memory had he shown equal 
 clemency to the Christians ; but, about the ninth year of his reign, he 
 looked upon them with a suspicious eye, and numbers of them were 
 put to death. But, on finding that the Christians were an innocent and 
 inoffensive people, he suspended their punishments. 
 
 During this reign, there was a dreadful insurrection of the Jews in 
 most parts of the empire. This infatuated people, ever expecting some 
 signal deliverance, took advantage of Trajan's expedition to the east, 
 to massacre all the Greeks and Romans whom they could get into their 
 power. The rebellion began at Cyrene, in Africa ; from thence the 
 flame extended to Egypt, and next to the isle of Cyprus. Shocking 
 were the barbarities exercised on the unoffending inhabitants. How- 
 ever, the governors of the respective provinces opposed the tumultuous 
 fury, and retaliated with much severity the cruelties of the Jews. 
 
 Trajan, on his return to Rome from his conquests in the east, died 
 of an apoplexy, in the city of Seleucia, in the sixty-third year of his 
 age, after a reign of nineteen vears, six months, and fifteen days. 
 (A. D. 117.) 
 
 * A native of Greece, who wrote the lives of illustrious men, &x. 
 
 Who wrote to Trajan at his elevation? — What is recorded of his character? — 
 What conquest did he make ? — Was he beloved by his people ? — Did he reward 
 merit ? — What is a stain on Trajan's character ? — Wliat shocking barbarities were 
 perpo:raied by the Jews I — How long did Trajan reign? 
 
 21* 
 
240 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 Adrian, the nephew of Trajan, was chosen to succeed him. He 
 began his reign hy pursuing a course opposite to that of his predeces- 
 sor, taking every method of declining war, and promoting the arts of 
 peace. He made peace with the Parthians, and, satisfied with preserv- 
 ing 1 the ancient limits of the empire, he seemed no way amhitious of 
 extensive conquest. Adrian was one of the most remarkable of the 
 Roman emperors for the variety of his endowments. He was highly 
 gifted in all the accomplishments both of the body and mind. He com- 
 posed with great beauty, both in prose and verse ; he pleaded at the 
 bar, and was one of the best orators of his time. 
 
 Nor were his virtues fewer than his accomplishments. His mode- 
 ration and clemency appeared by pardoning the injuries he received 
 when he was yet but a private man. One day meeting - a person who 
 had been his inveterate enemy, "my good friend," said he, "you have 
 escaped, for I am made emperor,." He was affable to his friends, and 
 gentle to persons of meaner stations. It being his maxim, that he had 
 been elected emperor, not for his own good, but for the benefit of man- 
 kind. These virtues were, however, contrasted by vices of consider- 
 able magnitude ; or rather, he wanted strength of mind to preserve his 
 rectitude of character without deviation. 
 
 CHAPTER 27. 
 ADRIAN'S EXPEDITION — ANTONINUS PIUS — MARCUS AURELIUS. 
 
 He was scarcely settled on the throne, when several of the northern 
 barbarians began to be truly formidable to Rome. Adrian broke down 
 the bridge over the Danube, which his predecessor had built, sensible 
 that the same passage which was open to him was equally convenient 
 to the incursions of his barbarous neighbours. Having first seen that 
 all things were regulated at Rome for the safety of the public, he com- 
 menced his progress through the empire. It was one of his maxims 
 that an emperor should, like the sun, diffuse vigour over all parts of the 
 earth. 
 
 He therefore, with a splendid court, entered Gaul. From Gaul he went 
 into Germany, thence to Holland, and he afterwards passed over into 
 Britain, where, reforming many abuses, he built, for the security of the 
 southern parts of the kingdom, a wall of wood and earth, extending 
 from the river Eden, in Cumberland, to the Tyne, in Northumberland. 
 From Britain, returning through Gaul, he went to Spain, his native 
 country, where he was received with great joy. Returning to Koine, 
 after continuing some time, he prepared for his journey to the east, 
 which was hastened by a new invasion of the Parthians. lie then 
 visited the famous city of Athens, where, making a considerable stay, 
 he was initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries,* which were accounted 
 
 * These were instituted in honour of Ceres. 
 
 What course did Adrian pursue? — What virtues did he possess? — Had he any 
 vices ? — What incursions were made by the barbarians { — Relate Adrian's travels. 
 
ANTONINUS PIUS. 247 
 
 the most sacred in the Pagan mythology. In this place, he remitted 
 the severity of the Christian persecution. He was even so far recon- 
 ciled to this sect as to think of introducing Christ among the number 
 of the gods. 
 
 From thence he crossed to Africa, and spent much time in reforming 
 abuses and erecting magnificent buildings. Among the rest he ordered 
 Carthage, in Africa proper, to be rebuilt ; and Adrianople, the second 
 city of European Turkey, to be repaired. After returning to Rome, 
 he travelled a second time into Greece ; passed over into Asia Minor, 
 Syria and Palestine, Arabia and Egypt, where he ordered Pompey's 
 tomb to be repaired and beautified. He gave orders for the rebuilding 
 of Jerusalem, which was performed with great expedition, by the 
 assistance of the Jews, who now began to conceive hopes of being 
 restored to their long-lost kingdom. These expectations only served 
 to aggravate their calamities ; for being incensed at the Pagan and 
 Christian worshippers, they fell upon them with merciless cruelty. 
 The Jews were retaliated upon by the Romans, with the demolition of 
 their best towns, and the loss of many thousands who fell in battle. 
 
 Having spent thirteen years in travelling and reforming the abuses 
 of the empire, Adrian resolved to end his days at Rome; and nothing 
 could be more grateful to the people than this resolution. Though he 
 now began to grow old and unwieldy, he remitted not his former assi- 
 duity to the public welfare. His chief amusement was in conversing 
 with the most celebrated men in every art and science. He extended 
 the protection of the law to slaves, forbidding masters to kill them, as 
 had been before allowed. At length finding his strength declining, he 
 adopted Antoninus as his successor. 
 
 His bodiJy infirmities became at last so insupportable, that he desired 
 some of his attendants to despatch him. Antoninus, however, would 
 by no means permit any of his domestics to be guilty of so great an 
 impiety, but used all the arts in his power to reconcile the emperor to 
 sustain life. He was frequently heard to cry out, " how miserable a 
 thing is it to seek death and not to find it." At length the moment 
 arrived which terminated his mortal sufferings. He expired while 
 repeating the stanzas so well known,* in the sixty-second year of his 
 age, after a prosperous reign of twenty-one years and eleven months. 
 
 Titus Antoninus, (A. D. 183,) at the time he succeeded to the throne, 
 was above fifty years old, and had passed through the most important 
 offices of the state with great integrity and application. His virtues in 
 
 * Animula, vagula, blandula, Oh fleeting spirit, wandering fire, 
 
 Iluspes, comesque, corporis ; That long hast warmed my tender breast ; 
 
 Q,uffi nunc abibis in loca ? Wilt thou no more my frame inspire? 
 
 Pallidula, rigida, nudula, No more a pleasing, cheerful guest ? 
 
 Nee, ut soles, dabis jocos. Whither, ah whither art thou flying? 
 
 To what dark undiscovered shore? 
 Thou seem'st all trembling, shivering, dying, 
 And wit and humour are no more. 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Did he order Cartilage to be rebuilt? — What disaster happened to the Jews? — 
 How long did the emperor Adrian spend in travelling I — How long did he reign ? 
 — What was his age ? 
 
248 HISTORY OF R03IE. 
 
 private life were no way impaired by exaltation, as he showed himself 
 one of the most excellent princes for justice, clemency, and modera- 
 tion. He was surnamed the Pious, both for his tenderness to his pre- 
 decessor, Adrian, when dying-, and for his attachment to the religion 
 of his country. He was an eminent rewarder of learned men, to whom 
 he gave large pensions and great honours; drawing them from all parts 
 of the world. He sent for Apollonius, the famous Stoic philosopher, 
 to instruct his adopted son, Marcus Aurelius. But while the good 
 emperor was thus employed in making mankind happy ; in directing 
 their conduct by his own example; or reproving their follies with the 
 keenness of rebuke, he was seized with a violent fever. In the pre- 
 sence of his friends and principal officers, he confirmed the adoption 
 of Aurelius, and expired in the seventy-fifth year of his age, after a 
 prosperous reign of twenty-two years and almost eight months. 
 
 -Marcus Aurelius, (A. D. 161,) though left sole successor, took 
 Lucius Verus as his associate and equal in the government. Aurelius 
 was as remarkable for his virtues and accomplishments as Verus was 
 for his ungovernable passions and debauched morals. The one was an 
 example of the greatest goodness and wisdom; the other of ignorance, 
 sloth, and extravagance. Shortly after the two emperors were settled 
 on the throne, the empire was attacked on every side by the barbarous 
 nations which surrounded it. The Catti invaded Germany and Rhaetia, 
 but were repelled by Victorinus. The Britons likewise revolted, but 
 were repressed by Callifurnius. The Parthians, under their king Volo- 
 geses, made an irruption more dreadful than either of the former, 
 destroying the Roman legions in Armenia, then entering Syria, driving 
 out the Roman governor, and filling the whole country with terror and 
 confusion. Verus marched in person to oppose these barbarians ; but 
 upon entering Antioch, he gave an indulgence to every appetite, leaving 
 all the glory of the field to his lieutenants, who fought against the 
 invaders with great success. 
 
 In four years the Romans entered far into Parthia, and subdued it; 
 but on their return, more than half their army perished by pestilence 
 and famine. However, Verus resolved to enjoy the honours of a 
 triumph, so hardly earned by others, and he returned to Rome, to par- 
 take of one with Aurelius, which was solemnized with great pomp and 
 splendour. But his return seemed fatal to the empire; for his army 
 carried the plague from Parthia, and disseminated the infection into the 
 provinces through which it passed. 
 
 Nothing could exceed the miserable state of the empire upon the 
 return of Verus. He himself, unawed by example or the calamities 
 surrounding him, was giving way to unheard-of debaucheries ; a raging 
 pestilence was spreading terror and desolation through -all parts of the 
 Western world ; the barbarous nations around the empire were making 
 their irruptions even into Italy itself; a violent persecution raged 
 
 What was the character of Antoninus? — How long did he reign ? — Whom did 
 lie adopt ? — Did Aurelius reign alone? — What were the characteristics of the two 
 emperors I — What eruptions were made ? — What was the success of the Parthian 
 expedition > — In what state was the empire at the return oi" Verus i 
 
MARCUS AURELIUS. 249 
 
 against the Christians in all parts of the empire; and Justin Martyr, 
 Polycarp, and a prodigious number, suffered martyrdom. In this scene 
 of universal tumult, desolation, and distress, there was nothing left but 
 the virtues and the wisdom of one man to restore tranquillity, and bring 
 back happiness to the empire. Aurelius began his endeavours by 
 marching against the Mareomanni and Quadi, taking Verus with him. 
 They came up with the Mareomanni, near the city of Aquileia, and, 
 after a furious engagement, routed their whole army. Verus was seized 
 with an apoplexy on his return to Rome, and expired, after he had 
 reigned, in conjunction with Aurelius, nine years, at the age of thirty- 
 nine. (A. D. 171.) 
 
 Aurelius, who had hitherto sustained the fatigues of governing not 
 only an empire, but his colleague, began to act with greater diligence 
 and more vigour than ever. After subduing the Mareomanni he re- 
 turned to Rome, where he resumed his endeavours to benefit and im- 
 prove mankind. This good emperor, having detected Avidius in a 
 conspiracy against him, generously granted him his pardon. Some who 
 were near his person took the liberty to blame his conduct, saying, that 
 Avidius would not have been so generous had he been conqueror; to 
 this the emperor sublimely replied, " I never served the gods so ill, or 
 reigned so irregularly, as to fear Avidius could be conqueror." 
 
 Having restored prosperity to his subjects and peace to mankind, he 
 was informed that the Scythians, and other barbarous nations of the 
 north, were invading the empire. He once more resolved to expose 
 his aged person in the defence of his country, and made speedy prepa- 
 rations to oppose them. He spent three days in giving the people lec- 
 tures on regulating their lives ; and then departed upon his expedition, 
 amidst the prayers and lamentations of his subjects. Upon going to 
 open his third campaign, he was seized at Vienna with the plague, 
 which stopped the progress of his success. His fears for the youth 
 and unpromising disposition of Commodus, his son and successor, 
 seemed to give him great uneasiness. He therefore addressed his 
 friends and the principal officers that were gathered round his bed, that, 
 as his son was now losing one father, he hoped he would find many in 
 them : he expired soon after, in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having 
 reigned nineteen years ; and with him seemed to die the glory and pros- 
 perity of the empire. 
 
 CHAPTER 28. 
 
 COMMODUS— PERTINAX— SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS. 
 
 The merits of Aurelius procured Commodus an easy accession to the 
 throne. Great care had been taken of his education ; and though it 
 was notorious that weakness of intellect had made him the slave of 
 unworthy favourites, it was hoped that the bright example of his father 
 would lead him to reject the counsellors of his youth and the compa- 
 
 How long did Verus reign? — What conduct did Aurelius pursue after the death 
 of Verus ? — Where did Aurelius die ? — How long had he reigned ? 
 
250 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 nions of his follies, when ho came to direct an empire. Bat his whole 
 reign was a tissue of wantonness and folly, cruelty and injustice, rapa- 
 city and corruption. Ho wont with his associates to hrothels ; spent 
 the day in feasting, and the night in the most abominable debaucheries, 
 lie would sometimes go about the markets, in a frolic, with small wares, 
 as a petty chapman ; sometimes he affected to he a horse-courser; at 
 other times he drove his own chariot in a slave's habit. 
 
 It was his method, like that of Domitian, to set down in a roll the 
 names of such as he intended to put to death. Marcia, his concubine, 
 accidentally obtained a sightef this roll, and was alarmed at seeing her 
 own name in it, and also those of Laetus, his general, and Electus, his 
 chamberlain. She immediately revealed her terrors to Laetus and Elec- 
 tus, who, perceiving their dangerous situation, instantly resolved upon 
 the tyrant's death, and they succeeded in strangling him, in the thirty- 
 first year of his age, after an impious reign of twelve years and nine 
 months. (A. D. 192.) 
 
 Helvius Pertinax, whose virtues and courage rendered him worthy 
 of the most exalted station, and who had been previously fixed upon to 
 succeed, was carried to the camp by the conspirators, and proclaimed 
 emperor, in the sixty-eighth year of his age ; and, soon after, the citi- 
 zens and senate acknowledged him. Nothing could exceed the justice 
 and wisdom of this monarch's short reign. But the praetorian soldiers, 
 whose manners he had attempted to reform, having been long corrupted 
 by the indulgence and profusion of their former monarch, resolved to 
 dethrone him ; and, marching through the streets in a tumultuous man- 
 ner, they entered his palace, without opposition, where a Tungrian sol- 
 dier struck him dead with a blow of a lance, after he had reigned but 
 three months. 
 
 (A. D. 201.) The soldiers made proclamation that they would sell 
 the empire to him that would give the most. Two bidders were found, 
 Sulpician and Didius ; the former, a consular person, prefect of the city, 
 and son-in-law to the late emperor Pertinax; the latter, a consular 
 person likewise, and the wealthiest man in the city. The offers of 
 Didius, who produced immense sums of money, prevailed. The sol- 
 diers instantly swore to obey him as emperor ; and being conducted to 
 the senate-house, he addressed the few that were present in a laconic 
 speech: "Fathers, you want an emperor, and I am the fittest person 
 you can choose." The choice of the soldiers was confirmed by the 
 Senate, and Didius was acknowledged emperor in the fifty-seventh year 
 of his age. He gave himself up to ease and inactivity, utterly regard- 
 less of the duties of his station. He was mild and gentle, indeed, but 
 that avarice, by which he became opulent, still followed him in his ex- 
 altation, and it soon made the army detest him. The people also, against 
 whose consent he was chosen, were not less his enemies. 
 
 Soon after, Septimius Severus, an African by birth, being proclaimed 
 
 How did Commodus conduct himself? — What occasioned his death? — What 
 date ? — How long did Ilelveiius Pertinax reign P— How wus the kingdom then dis- 
 posed of? — Did Didius give satisfaction ? — What was his particular vice ? — Who 
 was Severus ? 
 
SEVERUS, CARACALLA A3JD GETA. 251 
 
 by his army, began by promising;- to revenge the death of Pertinax. — 
 Didius, upon being informed of his approach towards Rome, sent am- 
 bassadors, offering to make him a partner in the empire. But Severus 
 rejected his offer; and the Senate, perceiving the weakness and timidity 
 of their present master, abandoned him. Didius was despatched soon 
 after by order of the Senate, and Severus was proclaimed in his stead. 
 
 Severus having overcome Niger and Albinus, who were his com- 
 petitors for the empire, assumed the reins of government, uniting great 
 vigour with the most refined policy ; yet his African cunning was con- 
 sidered as a singular defect in him. He is celebrated for his w T it, learn- 
 ing, and prudence, but execrated for his perfidy and cruelty. In short, 
 he seemed equally capable of the greatest acts of virtue and the most 
 bloody severities. Having previously confided the government, out of 
 domestic policy, to one Plautian, a favourite, to whose daughter he 
 married his son Caracalla, he set out against the Parthians, (A. D. 198,) 
 who were then invading the frontiers of the empire. He prosecuted the 
 war with his usual expedition and success, and at length returned to 
 Rome in triumph. 
 
 During this interval, Plautian, who had been left to direct the affairs 
 of Rome, began to think of aspiring to the empire himself. Upon the 
 emperor's return, he employed a tribune of the praetorian cohorts to as- 
 sassinate both him and his son Caracalla. The tribune informed Seve- 
 rus of his favourite's treachery, and Caracalla shortly after despatched 
 him with his sword. 
 
 Severus afterwards undertook an expedition into Britain, (A. D. 208,) 
 where the Romans were in danger of being destroyed, or compelled to 
 flee the province. After appointing his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, 
 joint successors in the empire, he landed with them in Britain; and 
 leaving Geta in the southern parts of the province, which had continued 
 in obedience, he marched, with Caracalla, against the Caledonians. — 
 He prosecuted his successes with such vigour, that he compelled the 
 enemy to sue for peace. For the better security of that province, he 
 built that famous wall w T hich still goes by his name, extending from 
 Sol way Frith on the west, to the German ocean on the east. He did 
 not long survive his successes here, but died at York, in the sixty-sixth 
 year of his age, after an active, though cruel reign, of about eighteen 
 years. 
 
 CHAPTER 29. 
 
 CARACALLA AND GETA — ALEXANDER SEVERUS — MAXIMIN — 
 PHILIP — DECIUS — GALLUS. 
 
 Caracalla and Geta, (A. D. 211,) being acknowledged emperors 
 by the. army, began to show a mutual hatred to each other, even before 
 their arrival at Rome. But Caracalla, being resolved to govern alone, 
 
 How did he gain the throne ? — In what manner did he govern ? — What is he 
 celebrated for? — What conspiracy was formed against Severus? — Relate his expe- 
 dition into Briraip ?— What wall did he build .'—Where did he die ?— How long had 
 he reigned ' — Who succeeded ? 
 
252 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 furiously entered Ota's apartment, and followed by ruffians, slew him 
 in his mother's arms. The barbarities of this monster exceeded what- 
 ever was clone by Domitian or Nero. His tyrannies at length exeited 
 the resentment of Macrinus, the commander of the forces in Mesopo- 
 tamia, who employed one Martial, a centurion of the guards, to despatch 
 him, sfter a cruel reign of six years. 
 
 The soldiers, after a suspense of two days, fixed upon Macrinus to 
 succeed, (A. D. 217,) who took all possible methods to conceal his being 
 privy to Caracalla's murder. The Senate confirmed their choice shortly 
 after, and permitted him to take his son, Diadumenianus, as a partner 
 in the empire. Macrinus was fifty-three years old when he entered 
 upon the government of the empire. He was of obscure parentage, 
 some say by birth a Moor, who, by the mere rotation of office, being 
 made first prefect of the praetorian bands, was now by treason and ac- 
 cident called to fill the throne. lie, together with his son, Diadume- 
 nianus, was assassinated, after a reign of one year and two months. 
 
 The Senate and citizens of Rome being obliged to submit to the ap- 
 pointment of the army, Heliogahalus, (A. D. 218,) son of Caracalla, 
 ascended the throne at the age of fourteen. His short life was a mix- 
 ture of effeminacy, lust, and extravagance. In the small space of four 
 years, he married six wives, and divorced them all. He built a senate- 
 house for women, of which his mother was made president. To his 
 other follies he added cruelty and boundless prodigality. But his sol- 
 diers mutinying, as was now usual with them, they dragged him through 
 the streets with the most bitter invectives, and having despatched him, 
 they threw his body into the Tiber, with heavy weights affixed to it, 
 that none might afterwards find or give it burial. This was the igno- 
 minious death of Heliogabalus, in the eighteenth year of his age, after 
 a detestable reign of four years. 
 
 (A. D. 222.) Alexander Severus, his cousin-german, succeeded 
 Heliogabalus, and was declared emperor without opposition. To the 
 most rigid justice he added the greatest humanity. He loved the good, 
 and was a severe reprover of the lewd and infamous. Such were his 
 talents, and such the solidity of his judgment, that, though but sixteen 
 years of age, he was considered as having acquired the wisdom of ex- 
 perience. About the thirteenth year of his reign, the Upper Germans, 
 and other northern nations, passed the Rhine and the Danube with such 
 fury that all Italy was thrown into the most extreme consternation. — 
 The emperor made what levies he could, and went in person to stem the 
 torrent, which he speedily effected. It was in the course of his suc- 
 cesses against the enemy that he was cut off by a mutiny among his 
 own soldiers, in the twenty-ninth year of his age, after a prosperous 
 reign of thirteen years and nine days. 
 
 Maximin, (A. D. 235,) who had been the chief promoter of the se- 
 dition against Alexander, was chosen to succeed. He was born of ob- 
 scure parentage, being the son of a poor herdsman of Thrace. He had 
 
 What was his end? — Who next asrrnded the throne ? — How long did he reign ? 
 — What is the character of Heliogabalus f — How did Alexander govern ; — 1 low- 
 long did he reign ? 
 
PHILIP, DECIUS, GALLUS. 253 
 
 enlisted into the Roman army, where he soon became remarkable for 
 his great strength and courage. This gigantic man, we are told, was 
 eight feet and a half high ; and his strength was so great that he was 
 able to draw a carriage which two oxen could not move. He had been 
 equally remarkable for his simplicity, discipline, and virtue ; but upon 
 coming to the empire, he showed himself one of the greatest monsters 
 of cruelty that had ever disgraced power; fearful of nothing himself, 
 he seemed to sport with the terrors of all mankind. 
 
 However, his cruelties did not retard his military operations. He 
 overthrew the Germans in several battles, and wasted a great extent of 
 their country with fire and sword. In every duty of the camp, he him- 
 self took as much pains as the meanest sentinel, showing incredible 
 courage and assiduity. This remarkable man was assassinated by the 
 army, after a usurpation of about three years, in the sixty-fifth year of 
 his age. Pupienus (A. D. 238,) and Balbinus succeeded, and continued 
 emperors for some time, but the preetorian soldiers at length slew them 
 both, and proclaimed Gordian, the grandson of him who was slain in 
 Africa. He was but sixteen years old when he began to reign ; but 
 his virtues seemed to compensate for his want of experience. He was 
 killed, after a successful reign of nearly six years, by the order of 
 Philip, an Arabian, whom he had appointed to succeed him. 
 
 Philip, having thus murdered his benefactor, was acknowledged 
 emperor by the army. He associated his son, a boy of six years old, 
 as his partner in the empire. Philip commanded in Mesopotamia, and, 
 in order to secure his power, made peace with the Persians, and march- 
 ed his army towards Rome. However the army revolting in favour of 
 Decius his general, he was murdered by one of his sentinels, after a 
 reign of about five years. He died in the forty-fifth year of his reign. 
 
 Decius was universally acknowledged his successor. His activity 
 and wisdom seemed in some measure to retard the hastening decline of 
 the Roman empire. The Senate deemed him not inferior to Trajan, 
 and indeed he appeared to consult the dignity and the benefit of the 
 empire, if we except his cruel persecution of the Christians. But the 
 disputes between the Pagans and the Christians, within the empire, 
 and the irruptions of barbarous nations from without, enfeebled it 
 beyond the power of remedy. He was killed in an ambuscade of the 
 enemy, in the fiftieth year of his age, after a short reign of two years. 
 
 Gallus, who had betrayed the Roman army, had address enough to 
 get himself declared emperor, (A. D.251). He was the first who 
 bought a dishonourable peace from the enemies of the state ; paying a 
 tribute to the Goths, whom he ought to have repressed. He was lost 
 in debauchery and sensuality. The Pagans were allowed the power 
 of persecuting the Christians through all parts of the state. 
 
 These calamities were succeeded by a pestilence from heaven, which 
 widely extended for several years ; and also by a civil war, which 
 followed between Gallus and iEmilianus, who, having gained a victory 
 
 How did Maximin conduct himself? — How long did he reign ? — Who succeeded ? 
 — By what means did Philip gain the empire? — How was he killed ? — What age? 
 — Relate the particulars of the reign of Decius. — What was the conduct of Gallus? 
 
 22 
 
25 i HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 ovot the Goths, Was declared emperor by his conquering army. Both 
 Gallus and his Bon were slain by (Emilianus, in a battle fought in 
 Mcesia. He died in the forty-seventh year of his age, after an unhappy 
 reign of two years and four months, in which the empire sufFererJ inex- 
 pressihle calamities. (A. D. 253.) The Senate refused to acknowledge 
 the claims of yEmilianus, and lie was slain hy his own troops, after a 
 short reign of three or four months. 
 
 CHAPTER 30. 
 VALERIAN AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 
 
 Valerian was chosen hy the army to succeed to the throne. He 
 seemed to set about reforming the state with a good and vigorous mind ; 
 but reformation was grown almost impracticable. In a war with the 
 Persians, their king Sapor took him prisoner, and the indignities and 
 cruelties practised upon this unhappy monarch are almost incredible. 
 Sapor used him as a footstool for mounting his horse, observing that it 
 w T as the best attitude for a statue to be erected to his memory. After 
 a seven years, sufferance of such horrid indignities, the cruel Persians 
 commanded the prisoner's eyes to be plucked out, and afterwards caused 
 him to be flayed, his skin dressed, dyed red, and exposed as a monu- 
 ment of the Persian monarch's triumph. 
 
 When Valerian was taken prisoner, Gallienus, his son, promising to 
 revenge the insult, was chosen emperor. (A. D. 259.) But it was soon 
 discovered that he sought rather the splendors than the toils of empire, 
 and he gave himself up to ease and luxury. At this time no fewer 
 than thirty pretenders, who are commonly known by the mame of the 
 thirty tyrants, were contending for the crown. After supporting their 
 claims for a short time, by force of arms, they returned to their original 
 obscurity. Gallienus having been killed by his own soldiers, when 
 engaged in the siege of Milan, was succeeded, (A. D. 268,) by Flavins 
 Claudius. 
 
 Claudius, was joyfully accepted by all orders of the state. He was 
 a man of great valour and conduct, whose reign was chiefly occupied 
 in repelling the attacks of the Gothic invaders, who had long continued 
 to make irruptions into the empire. After a great victory obtained over 
 them, he was seized with a pestilential fever in Pannonia, which termi- 
 nated a reign of little more than two years; to the great regret of his 
 subjects, and the irreparable loss of the Roman empire. 
 
 Aurelian was next chosen by the army on account of his military 
 talents, and acknowledged by all the states of the empire. This active 
 monarch was of obscure parentage, and had passed through all the 
 gradations of military duty. He was of unshaken courage and amaz- 
 ing strength. In one engagement he killed forty of the enemy with 
 
 How whs ( ialluta slain ? — What date? — Was /Emilianus acknowledged emperor? 
 
 — What was the unhappy late of Valerian? — Did any pretenders contend with 
 
 ( lallienue lor the crown I — What art- the principal events in the reign ol'l 'laudius ? 
 
 — What was remarkable in Aurelian? 
 
TACITUS, CARUS, DIOCLETIAN. 255 
 
 his own hand, and at different times above nine hundred. In valour 
 and expedition he was compared to Julius Caesar, and only wanted 
 mildness and clemency to be his equal. 
 
 Among 1 those who were compelled to submit to his power was the 
 famous Zenobia, queen of Palmyra. He subdued her country and 
 took her prisoner, and she was reserved to grace his triumph. She was 
 afterwards allowed such an income as maintained her in almost her 
 former splendour. But the emperor's severities were the cause of his 
 destruction : his secretary, having been threatened by him for some 
 fault, formed a conspiracy against him, and slew him as he was travel- 
 ling in Thrace towards Byzantium, in the sixtieth year of his age, after 
 a very active reign of almost five years. 
 
 After an interregnum of about eight months, the Senate made choice 
 of Tacitus, a man of great merit, but by no means ambitious of the 
 honour, being at that time seventy-five years old. His measures were 
 wise, his habits temperate, and his disposition amiable. After enjoy- 
 ing the empire about six months, he died of a fever, in his march to 
 oppose the Persians and Scythians. 
 
 Upon the death of Tacitus, his half-brother took upon himself the 
 title of emperor, in Cilicia ; but being defeated by Probus, the army, 
 as if by common consent, exclaimed that Probus should be emperor. — 
 He had been early distinguished for his discipline and valour, nor were 
 his activity and courage less apparent when elected to the empire. 
 Every year produced fresh irruptions, which threatened universal deso- 
 lation. 
 
 Perhaps, at this time, no abilities, except those of Probus, were ca- 
 pable of opposing such united invasions. He was slain by some of 
 his soldiers, whom he had offended by employing them in draining a 
 fen, after an active reign of six years and four months. He was suc- 
 ceeded by Carus. The reign of Carus, and that of his two sons, Ca- 
 rinus and Numerian, were short and destitute of interest. Carus was 
 killed by lightning in his tent. Numerian was assassinated by his 
 father-in-law, Aper, who aspired to the crown, but was defeated by 
 Diocletian, who slew the murderer, and ascended the throne with the 
 approbation of the army and Senate. 
 
 Diocletian was a person of mean birth ; he received his name from 
 the town in which he was born, (A. D. 284.) He owed his exaltation 
 to his merit, having passed through all the gradations of office with 
 sagacity, courage, and success. In his time the northern hive, as it was 
 called, the Scythians, Goths, Sarmatians, Alani, &c, poured down its 
 swarms of barbarians upon the southern empire. On account of the 
 numerous enemies which Diocletian had to oppose, he made Maximian 
 his associate ; and afterward took two other colleagues, whom they 
 termed Caesars — Constantius Chloncs, and Galerius. In 303, Diocletian 
 began to persecute the Christians with great cruelty. 
 
 What occasioned his death? — How old was he? — Who was next chosen? — 
 How long did he reign? — Who succeeded Tacitus? — What was lie distinguished 
 for? — How long did Probus reign? — Who succeeded? — What happened in the 
 reign of Diocletian? — Whom did he take as partner? — Did he persecute the 
 Christians ? 
 
250 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 After gaining many victories over the barbarians, and in the midst 
 of his triumphs, Diocletian and Maximian (his partner in the empire,) 
 surprised the world by resigning their dignities on the same day — 1st 
 May, A. D. 304, and both retiring to private stations. Diocletian's reign 
 of twenty years was active and vigorous. His authority, though tinc- 
 tured with severity, was supposed to be adapted to the depraved state 
 of morals at that time. 
 
 Upon the resignation of the two emperors, the two Caesars, whom 
 they had before chosen, were universally acknowledged as their suc- 
 cessors. Constantius w r as virtuous, valiant, and merciful ; Galerius 
 was brave, but brutal, incontinent, and cruel. On coming into power 
 they readily agreed to divide the empire ; Constantine was appointed 
 to govern the western parts, and died at York, in Britain, A.D. 306, 
 appointing Constantine, his son, as his successor. Galerius was seized 
 with a disorder, which baffled the skill of his physicians, and carried 
 him off. 
 
 CHAPTER 31. 
 
 CONSTANTINE. 
 
 Constantine, afterwards surnamed the Great, had some competitors 
 at first for the throne. Among the rest was Maxentius, who was at 
 that time in possession of Rome, and a steady asserter of Paganism. 
 It was in Constantine's march against that usurper, we are told, that 
 he was converted to Christianity, by a very extraordinary appearance. 
 One evening, the army being on its march towards Rome, Constantine, 
 sensible of the dangers of his expedition, sent up his ejaculations to 
 heaven to direct him in the path he should pursue. As the sun was 
 declining there suddenly appeared a pillar of light in the heavens, in 
 the fashion of a cross, with this inscription — TOTTil NIK A, In this 
 overcome. 
 
 An appearance so extraordinary created astonishment, both in the 
 emperor and his whole army. The account goes on to say, that the 
 emperor was further encouraged by visions the same night ; and that 
 the day following, he caused a royal standard, like that which he had 
 seen in the heavens, to be carried before him in his wars, as an ensign 
 of victory and celestial protection. After this he consulted with the 
 principal teachers of Christianity, and made a public avowal of that 
 holy religion. 
 
 Constantine, having thus attached his soldiers to his interest, who 
 were mostly of the Christian persuasion, entered Italy with ninety 
 thousand" foot, and eight thousand horse, and advanced almost to the 
 gates of Rome. Maxentius advanced from the city with a large army. 
 The engagement was fierce and bloody ; but victory declared in favour 
 of Constantine. Maxentius was drowned in his flight, by the breaking 
 
 Did they resign their government? — Whfll date ? — Who divided the empire? — 
 Where did Constantine die ? — What date ? — What is told of < '(Histamine the Great'* 
 conversion? — Did he publicly avow Christianity I — Did Constantine overcome his 
 rival for the crown ? 
 
CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 257 
 
 down of the bridge as he attempted to cross the Tiber. Constantine, 
 on entering 1 the city, caused the cross to be placed at the right of all 
 his statues. Edicts were soon after issued, declaring that the Chris- 
 tians should be eased of all their grievances, and received into places 
 of trust and authority. 
 
 Things continued in this state for some time, Constantine contribut- 
 ing to the interests of religion and the revival of learning. But in the 
 midst of these assiduities the empire was again disturbed by the pre- 
 parations of Maximin, who governed in the east, and who seemed desi- 
 rous to resume his power. A general engagement ensued between him 
 and Licinius (whom Constantine had associated with him in the gov- 
 ernment), in which Maximin suffered a total defeat. He was preparing 
 however another army, when his death prevented the conflict. As he 
 died by a. very extraordinary kind of madness, the Christians ascribed 
 it to the judgment of heaven. But this was an age in which false 
 opinions and false miracles made up the bulk of every history. 
 
 Constantine and Licinius thus remaining undisputed possessors of 
 the empire, a rupture soon occurred between them, and both sides exert- 
 ed their power to gain the ascendency ; and at the head of very formida- 
 ble armies came to an engagement near Cybalis, in Pannonia. Con- 
 stantine, previous to the battle, in the midst of his Christian bishops, 
 begged the assistance of heaven ; while, Licinius, with equal zeal, 
 called upon the Pagan priests to intercede with the gods in their favour. 
 Constantine was victorious; and in a second engagement Licinius was 
 entirely defeated, and rendered himself up to the victor, who, for his 
 rebellion, some time afterwards, put him to death. 
 
 Constantine, thus becoming sole monarch, resolved to establish 
 Christianity on a sure basis. He commanded, that in all the provinces 
 of the empire, the orders of the bishops should be implicitly obeyed. 
 He called, also, a general council at Nice, to repress the heresies that 
 had already crept into the church. But, though he restored tranquillity 
 to his dominions, he could not ward ofF calamities at home. Histori- 
 ans are much at variance as to the motives which induced him to put 
 his wife Fausta, and his son Crispus, to death. The most plausible 
 account is, that Fausta, the empress, — a woman of great beauty, but 
 of extravagant desires, had long, though secretly loved Crispus, Con- 
 stantino's son by a former wife. She attempted in vain to inspire this 
 youth with a mutual passion. This produced an explanation, which 
 proved fatal to both. Constantine, fired at once with jealousy and rage, 
 condemned both to death. 
 
 Constantine now found leisure to execute his design of removing 
 the seat of government from Rome to Byzantium, a more central part 
 of the empire, which he enlarged, and named from himself Constanti- 
 nople, (A. D. 330). The city he beautified with magnificent edifices, 
 and dedicated it to the God of Martyrs ; and in two years after repaired 
 thither with his whole court. 
 
 What is told of Maximin ? — What was told of his death ? — Did Constantine con- 
 tend with Licinius > — What domestic troubles did Constantine encounter? — Whither 
 did he remove the seat of government? 
 
 22* 
 
258 HISTORY OP ROME. 
 
 This removal produced no immediate change in the government of 
 the empire. The inhabitants of Rome, though reluctant, submitted to 
 the change, nor was there for two or three years any disturbance in the 
 state ; until at length the Goths, finding that the Romans had with- 
 drawn all their garrisons along the Danube, renewed their inroads, and 
 ravaged the country with unheard-of cruelty. Constantine, however, 
 soon repressed their incursions. 
 
 A great error ascribed to Constantine, is the dividing the empire 
 among his sons. Constantine, the eldest, commanded in Gaul, and the 
 western provinces: Constantius, the second, governed Africa and Illy- 
 ricum: and Constans, the youngest, ruled in Italy. This division of 
 the empire further contributed to its downfall : for the united strength 
 of the state being no longer brought to repress invasions, the barba- 
 rians, though often defeated, conquered at last. When Constantine 
 was above sixty years old, and had reigned above thirty, he found his 
 health decline. His disorder, which was an ague, increasing, he went 
 to Nicomedia, where, finding himself without hopes of a recovery, he 
 caused himself to be baptized. He soon after received the sacrament 
 and expired. 
 
 CHAPTER 32. 
 
 SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE — JULIAN. 
 
 The character of Constantine has been as extravagantly lauded by 
 his friends as it has been unjustly depreciated by his enemies; but in 
 truth his conduct varied with his circumstances, and the hero, whom 
 adversity could not subdue, degenerated into a cruel and dissolute tyrant, 
 under the influence of uninterrupted prosperity. The private assassi- 
 nation of his son Crispus, and the murder of his nephew, and of a 
 great number of the most respectable imperial officers, affix an indelible 
 stain on the character of Constantine, which is aggravated by the know- 
 ledge, that in the midst of these cruel executions, the imperial court 
 was the theatre of the most degrading licentiousness and profligate de- 
 bauchery. Christian writers have been too eager to extenuate the vices 
 and palliate the crimes of the first Christian emperor; as if the cha- 
 racter of a great religious revolution was to be estimated by the de- 
 merits of the instrument by which it was effected ; but they should re- 
 member that God has, in many instances, made even the vices of men 
 subservient to the great designs of his moral government. 
 
 On the death of Constantine, his three sons, Constantine, Constan- 
 tius, and Constans, succeeded to the empire. Though they had been 
 carefully educated, they resembled each other as much in their vices as 
 their names. They planned a conspiracy for the judicial murder of 
 their nearest relation ; and a forged scroll, purporting to be the will of 
 the late emperor, was produced by the Bishop of Nicomedia, who had 
 
 What is said of the Goths at this time? — Were they Bucceasfu.il — How did Con> 
 stand ne divide the kingdom' — How long did he reign! — How old was he at his 
 death \ — What character do historians give to Constantine ? — What course did his 
 sous pursue on coining to the throne ( 
 
SUCCESSORS OF CONSTANTINE. 259 
 
 been bribed for the purpose, in which Constantine was made to declare 
 that he had been poisoned by his brothers, and represented as suppli- 
 cating his children for vengeance. Under this pretext the whole of the 
 Flavian family was menaced with destruction, and it was with diffi- 
 culty that Gallus and Julian, the youngest children of Julius Constan- 
 tius, were saved from the hands of the assassins. 
 
 This was followed by a partition of the empire among the three 
 brothers. Constantine, the elder, received titular supremacy, and the 
 possession of the capital ; Thrace, and the Asiatic provinces, were as- 
 signed to Constantius ; while Constans was acknowledged master of 
 Italy, Africa, and Illyricum. 
 
 Constantius was soon involved in a long and dangerous war for the 
 defence of his new dominions against Sapor, king of Persia. After a 
 series of campaigns, in which the provinces were greatly devastated, 
 the war was concluded by treaty, after it had lasted twelve years. — 
 Three years had scarcely elapsed since the partition of the empire, when 
 Constantine fell in a civil war with his brother Constans, (A. D. 350,) 
 whose subsequent administration of ten years completely alienated the 
 affections of the soldiers and the people. The general discontent in- 
 duced Magnentius, a soldier of fortune, to raise the standard of revolt in 
 Gaul, and Constans, before he had time to escape, was taken and slain. 
 Immediately after, the Ulyrian regions saluted their general Vetranio 
 emperor, and his rebellion was sanctioned by the princess Constantia. 
 However, Constantius, on his return from Syria, easily seduced the 
 simple Vetranio into a treaty, and reduced him to a private station. 
 War was then declared against Magnentius, who received a decisive 
 overthrow at Mursa, in Pannonia, and soon after he slew himself in 
 despair. 
 
 Gallus, who, with his brother Julian, had escaped the ruin of the 
 Flavian family, had been released from prison by Constantius, associ- 
 ated in the government with the title of Caesar, and united in marriage 
 to the princess Constantia. But the latter circumstance proved his 
 ruin : stimulated by his wife, an ambitious and depraved woman, he 
 provoked the jealousy of Constantius by outraging his authority, and 
 after a mock examination, he was put to death like the meanest cri- 
 minal. 
 
 Besides the reigning emperor, Julian was now the only surviving 
 member of the Flavian family, and he owed his safety to the generous 
 interference of the empress Eusebia. Educated in the philosophical 
 schools in Athens, he had been induced to reject the pure doctrines of 
 Christianity for the delusive dreams of Pagan philosophy, and thus 
 earned the title of the Apostate. He was raised to the dangerous ele- 
 vation his brother had enjoyed, and invested with the dignity of a 
 Csesar. 
 
 He was sent to defend the province of Gaul, then devastated by the 
 German barbarians, and showed by his conduct that the cultivation of 
 
 How was the empire divided ? — What country had each ? — What struggles dis- 
 turbed the empire? — Relate what happened to Gallus. — Who was the cause of it? 
 — Who was Julian? — What title did he obtain? 
 
260 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 polite literature is not incompatible with the wisdom of a statesman, 
 the skill of a general, or the courage of a hero. His soldiers had re- 
 solved to proclaim him emperor ; and a civil w.ir was on the point of 
 commencing, when it was prevented by the death of Constantius, who, 
 (A. D. 361,) notwithstanding his rebellion, named Julian as his suc- 
 cessor. 
 
 The news of Julian's accession was hailed by the philosophers and 
 the adherents to the old heathen system with extravagant pleasure, but 
 it filled the hearts of the Christians with suspicion and dismay. The 
 principles of enlightened toleration formed no part of his philosophy ; 
 rewards were proffered to all who would apostatize to the imperial creed, 
 and penal disqualifications imposed on those who adhered to the pure 
 religion of the gospel. It is said, indeed, that Julian did not persecute 
 the Christians, and it is true that he made no martyrs ; but it were idle 
 to deny that penal and disqualifying laws are as much instruments of 
 persecution as the torture of the rack, or the axe of the executioner. 
 The condition of the Jews, so directly in accordance with the prophecy 
 of Christ, was a standing proof of Christianity, too decisive to escape 
 the notice of its crafty adversary. To remove its effects, Julian re- 
 solved to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem ; but the workmen were mi- 
 raculously dispersed, and the attempt was not repeated. 
 
 Julian led a powerful army against the Persians, and for some time 
 enjoyed uninterrupted success. But at length he was mortally wounded 
 in a skirmish with the Persian troops. 
 
 Jovian, one of the imperial domestics, was chosen by the army, and 
 the first act of his reign was to conclude a dishonourable peace with 
 Sapor. He then made a public profession of the Christian faith, and 
 issued an edict for the establishment of universal toleration; but on 
 his way to Constantinople, he unfortunately was suffocated by the me- 
 phitic vapours of a room freshly plastered, after a short reign of eight 
 months. 
 
 CHAPTER 33. 
 
 VALENTINIAN — VALENS — G RATIAN — THEODOSIUS. 
 
 After an interregnum of ten days, Valentini in, the son of a Panno- 
 nian nobleman, was elected to fill the vacant throne. He shared his 
 authority with his brother Valens, to whom he entrusted Constantinople 
 and the eastern provinces ; the western dominions he reserved for him- 
 self, and made Milan the seat of his government. Thus were the Ro- 
 man territories divided into the Eastern and Western empires. (A. D. 
 364.) 
 
 The empire of Valens was disturbed by the revolt of Procopius, 
 whose only merit was his relationship to the emperor Julian ; and after 
 his defeat by the bitter persecution of the Catholic Christians, whom 
 
 Whom did Constantine name as his successor ? — How did Julian behave towards 
 the Christians ? — Did he succeed in building the temple at Jerusalem ' — Plow did 
 Julian come by his death >. — What are the particular events of Jovian's reign ? — 
 Who next enjoyed the empire ? — How was it divided \ — What was the state of each 
 empire ? 
 
GRATIAN, THEODOSIUS. 261 
 
 Valens, a zealous professor of the Arian heresy, determined to destroy. 
 Valentinian, on the contrary, established perfect toleration in his do- 
 minions, and studiously discouraged all persecution on account of re- 
 ligious opinions. 
 
 But the barbarous nations on the northern frontiers of the empire 
 began now to threaten the calamities that they subsequently inflicted. 
 The Gothic and Sarmatic nations could no longer be confined by the 
 line of the Danube; a formidable coalition of the German tribes called 
 the Allemanni, menaced Gaul ; and Southern Britain was invaded by 
 the Picts and Scots. To the latter province the emperor sent Theodo- 
 sius, the bravest and most popular of the imperial generals ; while he 
 himself hasted to meet the barbarians of the Rhine and Upper Danube. 
 In Britain, Theodosius not only repelled the invaders, but extended the 
 boundaries of the Roman province. Nor was the emperor's success 
 less decided, and he drove his enemies to sue for peace. When the 
 ambassadors came into the presence of Valentinian, he upbraided them 
 in the most bitter terms, and worked himself into such a convulsion of 
 passion, that he burst a blood-vessel, and expired in a few moments in 
 the arms of his attendants. 
 
 Gratian succeeded his father ; but was forced to associate with 
 himself in the empire his brother Valentinian II., as yet an infant. 
 Scarcely had he assumed the government, when he received pressing 
 solicitations from his uncle Valens to aid in the defence of the eastern 
 empire which the insurrection of the Goths menaced with destruction. 
 These Goths, being driven from their native soil by the Huns, had sup- 
 plicated the emperor Valens to locate them in some part of his domin- 
 ions. He readily assigned to them the waste lands of Thrace, but 
 neglecting to provide for their immediate support, hunger drove them 
 to rebellion, and they now seemed on the point of destroying the em- 
 pire that had afforded them protection. 
 
 Gratian readily prepared to aid his uncle ; but was delayed by a new 
 war with the Allemanni till Valens had been forced to an engagement 
 near Adrianople, in which he perished with the greater part of his army. 
 When Gratian received the fatal news, he was on his march ; but it 
 was too late to save his uncle. Being too sensible of the dangers that 
 threatened the western empire, to distract himself with the affairs of 
 the eastern, he chose as his colleague, Theodosius, the son of the con- 
 queror of Britain, and invested him with the imperial purple. Theo- 
 dosius soon restored the sinking fortunes of the eastern empire, and 
 compelled the Goths to submit. 
 
 Hitherto the conduct of Gratian had merited and obtained the ap- 
 plause of his subjects; but from a variety of causes, his popularity 
 began rapidly to decline. This induced Maximus, who commanded 
 in Britain, to make an attempt for empire, and passing over to Gaul, he 
 was joined by the legions quartered in that country. Gratian, after 
 
 What inroads were now made by the barbarians? — Did Valentinian suppress the 
 insurrection ? — What was the cause of his death ? — Who succeeded ? — What hap- 
 pened in the empire of Valens? — What was the fate of Valens? — Whom did Gra- 
 ter, onnnint to his uncle's kingdom ? 
 
262 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 vainly endeavouring to revive the loyalty of his soldiers, fled from 
 Paris, where he resided ; but he was treacherously betrayed at Lyons 
 to his pursuers, and instantly murdered. 
 
 Theodosius thought it prudent to enter into an alliance with Maxi- 
 mus, stipulating that Italy should be secured to Valentinian II., then 
 at Milan. But the perfidious usurper soon after led an army across the 
 Alps, and Valentinian lied with his mother Justinian, to Thedosius for 
 safety. Theodosius prepared an army to chastise the perfidy of Maxi- 
 mus. The success of the war was equal to its justness. Maximus 
 was slain ; and Valentinian was restored ; but he was assassinated 
 soon after by Arbogastes, one of his generals, who procured tho 
 elevation of the rhetorician Eugenius to the throne of the western 
 empire. 
 
 Theodosius once more proceeded to Italy, as the punisher of usurpa- 
 tion ; on this occasion he found his enemies waiting his approach 
 beyond the Alps, and so strongly posted that, but for the disaffection of 
 one of the hostile bodies, he must have been irretrievably ruined. In 
 the battle that ensued the two usurpers were slain, and the eastern and 
 western empires were once more united under one head. But the health 
 of the emperor, already weakened by military toils, was quite unable 
 to sustain the festivities that celebrated his triumphs. He died, uni- 
 versally lamented by all classes of his subjects, after a glorious reign 
 of sixteen years. 
 
 CHAPTER 34. 
 
 THE BARBAROUS NATIONS WHO SUBVERTED THE ROMAN 
 EMPIRE — FALL OF THE EMPIRE. 
 
 The Barbarous Nations that contributed to the overthrow of the 
 Roman Empire, were the Vandals and Alans, the Goths, the Hans, the 
 Allemanni and the Suevic Tribes, the Franks, the Angles and Saxons, 
 the Normans, the Bulgarians and Avars, the Saracens or Arabs, and the 
 Turks. 
 
 During the later reign of the Caesars, the ancient military glory of the 
 Romans disappeared, and their armies were recruited from among the 
 distant provinces, and when those mercenary tribes returned home, 
 they made known to their countrymen the riches and the weakness of 
 the empire. It was about the beginning of the fifth century that the 
 Vandals, the Suevi and the Alans poured their hordes into the empire. 
 The Franks, Saxons, Allemanni, &c, laid waste the countries about 
 the Rhine, and the Persians made dreadful incursions on the provinces 
 of the east. 
 
 Relate Gratian's unhappy death. — Where was he killed ! — Did the usurper long 
 enjoy his power? — What was the end of Valentinian II. I — Who succeeded \ — With 
 what success did Theodosius march against the usurpers ' — How long did he reign > 
 — Name the barbarous nations that contributed to (he overthrow of the Roman 
 empire. — What discovered the riches of the Romans to the but banana ! 
 
THE BARBAROUS NATIONS. 263 
 
 The Vandals issued from Scandinavia (now Sweden) and occupied 
 the northern part of Germany, between the Elbe and the Vistula, and 
 formed a part of the great Suevic nation. They extended themselves 
 towards the lower Danube, and came in contact with the Jllans, a Scy- 
 thian race from the chain of Mount Caucasus, that had previously made 
 incursions into southern Asia. Another portion or tribe of these Van- 
 dals overran Gaul ; and from thence entered Spain ; and one of the 
 proviuces, Vandalusia (now Andalusia) retains the memory of their 
 conquests. From Spain they passed, (A. D. 429,) into Africa, under 
 the command of king Genseric and his successors. Their dominion 
 lasted for a century, when they were totally subdued, and their name 
 obliterated from Africa, by Belisarius, the general of the eastern em- 
 peror, Justinian. 
 
 The Goths are said to have been originally from Scandinavia; but 
 the first historical accounts introduce them north of the lower Danube, 
 between the Vistula and the Don. Those eastward of the Boristhenes 
 or Dnieper, were termed Ostrogoths ; and those to the west of the Bo- 
 risthenes were named Visigoths. Both were the most civilized of the 
 barbarous tribes, and the first that embraced Christianity. After being 
 provoked by the emperors, they twice ravaged Italy, and plundered 
 Rome, and they erected new states in Gaul and Spain, which attained 
 considerable distinction. The Thuringians, who appear to have been 
 a branch of the Goths, established a kingdom in the centre of Ger- 
 many. 
 
 The Huns appear, from the accounts of the ancient historians, to have 
 belonged to the race of the Mongolian Tartars. On their entering Eu- 
 rope, they drove before them the Goths, and other nations, down upon 
 Italy. In the year 391, they entered Mcesia and Thrace. Attila, the 
 leader of the Huns, who, for his cruelty, was called " the scourge of 
 God," was defeated by jEtius and Theodoric, the king of the Visigoths. 
 They lost their chief in Italy, and with his death their power terminated. 
 The nation was broken by their petty chiefs into small septs, and the 
 conquests of Charlemagne, about the year 800, A. D., blotted the name 
 of the Huns from the list of nations. 
 
 The Allemanni and the Suevic tribes. — The Allemanni were a con- 
 federacy of several tribes in northern Germany ; they possessed them- 
 selves of those parts which border on the Rhine, and from thence Ger- 
 many is at present called Allemagne. 
 
 The Burgundians originally inhabited the banks of the Vistula (now 
 Prussia.) In 215, they were driven by the Gepidae beyond the Elbe. 
 About the year 275, they approached the Rhine, which they crossed, 
 and took numerous towns, which they were soon, by the emperor Pro- 
 
 • 
 Mention the origin and incursions of the Vandals. — Of the Goths — What is the 
 history of the Huns ? — Their origin ! — Who conquered them ? — Who were the 
 Allemanni? — What country did they possess ? — What country did the Burgundians 
 possess? 
 
264 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 bus, compelled to yield. They some time afterwards overran Alsace, 
 and advanced to Geneva. The seat of their government was next re- 
 moved to Vienne, in Dauphine, and lastly to Burgundy; since which 
 it has formed a province of France. 
 
 The Suevic tribes occupied the space between the Vistula and the 
 Elbe ; and in language and race appear to be closely connected with the 
 Scandinavians. One portion of them settled in the southwestern part 
 of Germany, and gave the name Swabia to that duchy. They accom- 
 panied the Vandals into Spain, and received the province of Galicia for 
 their share. 
 
 Two Scandinavian tribes, the Gepid^e and the Heruli, forced the 
 Burgundians to quit their habitations. The Heruli, after having given 
 a king to Italy, were soon lost among the other tribes. 
 
 The Lombards, more properly Longobardi, or the long-bearded-na- 
 tion, were the last of the Suevic tribes that emigrated. They entered 
 Italy after the destruction of the Gothic kingdom, and erected a state 
 in 563, called Lombardy, in the northern part of that country, which 
 lasted till 774, when it fell under tbe dominion of Charlemagne. 
 
 The Franks, or Freemen, had at one time the whole country, from 
 the Rhine to the Elbe, under their control. In the third and fourth 
 centuries they possessed themselves of Gaul, to which they gave the 
 name of France. 
 
 The Angles and Saxons inhabited the provinces about Holstein, and 
 were as conspicuous for their expeditions by sea, as their incursions by 
 land. The Britons, to protect themselves against the Picts and Scots, 
 entreated the aid of these pirates. They landed in Kent, about A. D. 
 449. But they soon became masters of the country which they came 
 to protect. They founded the seven kingdoms called the Heptarchy, 
 and changed its name to Angle-land, since corrupted to England. 
 
 The Normans, or North-men, did not appear till after the former 
 tribes had nearly settled themselves in their new habitations. They 
 came from Norway and Denmark, and their piratical excursions, not 
 only on the coasts of the Atlantic, but in the Mediterranean, filled Eu- 
 rope with dismay. They made frequent settlements on the north of 
 France, and wrested Normandy from the French monarchs. Their de- 
 scendants, under the guidance of William the Conqueror, made them- 
 selves masters of England. 
 
 The Bulgarians and Avars. The Bulgarians were probably from 
 Southern Tartary. They appeared on the banks of the Volga towards 
 the middle of the seventh century. In their farther progress a part of 
 them penetrated to Benevento in Italy, where their descendants may 
 be distinguished to this day. A still larger portion formed the province 
 of Bulgaria, in the Greek empire. The Avars came to the same 
 
 Repeat the history of the Suevi and Scandinavians. — What is told of the Lom- 
 bards! — What of the Franks? — What is ihe history of the Angles and Saxons ? — 
 Who were the Normans? — The Bulgarians und the Avars? 
 
BOUNDARIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 265 
 
 country as the Bulgarians, and soon after their appearance, merged in 
 that people. 
 
 The Saracens, or Arabs, and the Turks. — In the early part of the 
 seventh century, Mahomet, a native of Mecca, in Arabia, proclaimed 
 himself an inspired Apostle, and in a few years, he became the leader 
 of a host of converts. The natives of Africa were called Saracens 
 (which signifies Easterns). Their habits are predatory, and they have 
 been always formidable to their neighbours, but when united under a 
 popular leader their prowess was invincible, especially when the Greek 
 empire and Persian kingdom were in the lowest state of degradation. 
 Within a century from the flight of Mahomet, the Saracens had wrested 
 from the Byzantine Emperors of Constantinople, their fairest Asiatic 
 provinces, they subjugated Persia, made themselves masters of Egypt 
 and North Africa, and founded a kingdom in Spain. But success 
 proved the ruin of the empire. The different tribes divided and 
 warred against each other, and thus made way for another powerful 
 people to exalt themselves upon their ruins, about the ninth and tenth 
 centuries, — these were the Turks. 
 
 The Turks were a Tartaric horde, from the eastern borders of the 
 Caspian, who were first employed as mercenaries by Motassem, around 
 his throne at Bagdad, and who finally became masters of the empire. 
 
 CHAPTER 35. 
 BOUNDARIES OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 The boundaries of the Roman Empire, at its greatest extent, were 
 in Europe, — the Rhine and the Danube; in Asia — the Euphrates and 
 Syrian desert; and in Africa, — the sandy regions. In Europe, besides 
 Italy, the Romans possessed 
 
 i 
 
 Pannonia - - - - Hungary. 
 Mcesia - Bulgaria and Servia. 
 Illyricum ----- Croatia. 
 Thrace. 
 Macedon. 
 Thessaly. 
 Epirus. 
 Greece, 
 
 And the Greek Islands. 
 All the islands in the Mediterrane- 
 an, and part of Britain. 
 
 In Asia, the empire extended over Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, and 
 Palestine. — In the reign of Trajan, Armenia and Mesopotamia were 
 reduced to provinces, but they were abandoned by his successor, Adrian. 
 
 HlSPANIA 
 
 lusitania 
 
 Insula Ba- 
 learic^ 
 
 Gallia 
 Helvetia ■ 
 Belgium 
 Vindelicia 
 Rhcetia 
 
 NORICUM 
 
 - - Spain. 
 
 Portugal. 
 Minorca, 
 Majorca, 
 and Ivica. 
 
 - - France. 
 Switzerland. 
 
 Belgium. 
 
 - - Swabia. 
 
 - The Tyrol. 
 
 - - Austria. 
 
 Who was the distinguished leader of the Saracens? — What conquests did they 
 make ? — What date ? — Who were the Turks ? — What empire did they obtain ? 
 What were the possessions of the Romans in Europe ? — What was their empire in 
 Asia? 
 
 23 
 
266 HISTORY OF ROME. 
 
 The African Provinces were — 
 
 Cvrenaica - 
 Africa proper 
 
 - - Tripoli. 
 The Jllgcrinc 
 territory. 
 
 Egypt 
 Numidia - 
 Mauritania 
 
 - - - Barhary. 
 Fez and Morocco. 
 
 The most remarkable states not subject to the Romans were the 
 northern Germanic tribes, — the Scythian barbarians (now the Russian 
 Empire). In Asia the Parthian Empire and the Arabic tribes. They 
 had heard of Taprobana (Ceylon), of the Chersonesus aurea (Malacca), 
 and of the still more remote region inhabited by the Seres (Chinese). 
 
 What were the most remarkable states not subject to the Romans ? 
 
 THE END. 
 
WORKS FOR EDUCATION. 
 
 HOGAN AND THOMPSON, 
 
 WHOLESALE BOOKSELLERS, STATIONERS, AND PUBLISHERS, 
 
 No. 30 NORTH FOURTH STREET, 
 
 TWO DOORS BELOW SANDERSON'S HOTEL, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, 
 
 Offer to the School Committees, Teachers, Country Merchants, 
 Booksellers, and others, the following valuable Books of their 
 own publication. The School Books they particularly recom- 
 mend to the attention of Teachers, Parents, and Guardians of 
 the Young. 
 
 The series by Emerson, are particularly worthy of attention. 
 They have recommendations from the highest sources in this 
 country ; the most eminent teachers, school committees, and 
 the controllers of public schools, have concurred in introdu- 
 cing them into the institutions under then: respective charge, and 
 in recommending them to others. 
 
 Emerson's School Books. 
 
 The series consists of 
 
 THE FIRST CLASS READER. 
 
 THE SECOND CLASS READER. 
 
 THE THIRD CLASS READER. 
 
 THE FOURTH CLASS READER. 
 
 THE NEW NATIONAL SPELLING BOOK. 
 
 THE NORTH AMERICAN ARITHMETIC, PART FIRST. 
 
 THE NORTH AMERICAN ARITHMETIC, PART SECOND. 
 
 THE ACADEMICAL SPEAKER, and 
 
 EMERSON'S PROGRESSIVE PRIMER. 
 
 Emerson's Class Readers. 
 
 Mr. Emerson, in his Suggestions to Teachers, at the commence- 
 ment of the First Class Reader, recommends the introduction into 
 our American schools, of the explanatory system of instruction 
 uccessfully practised in the Edinburgh Sessional School under 
 
2 HOGAN AND THOMPSON^ 
 
 the direction of Mr. Wood. An account of the Edinburgh Ses* 
 sional School was published some time ago in Boston, and a de- 
 tailed notice also of the methods of examination therein will be 
 found on reference to Mr. Emerson's First and Third Class Read- 
 ers. We cannot better explain this system, in its application to 
 the exercise of reading, than by presenting an extract from Mr. 
 Wood's valuable work. The following is one of the methods of 
 applying the principles of examination laid down by Mr. Wood. 
 
 " Before entering upon the consideration of the reading department, it may 
 be proper to premise some general observations, on that method of explana- 
 tion, which has been so highly approved of in the Sessional School. Its ob- 
 ject is threefold : first, To render more easy and pleasing the acquisition of the 
 mechanical art of reading ; secondly, To turn to advantage the particular in- 
 struction contained in every individual passage which is read ; and, above all, 
 thirdly, To give the pupil, by means of a minute analysis of each passage, a 
 general command of his own language. 
 
 " It is of great importance to the proper understanding of the method, that 
 all these objects should be kept distinctly in view. With regard to the first, 
 no one, who has not witnessed the scheme in operation, can well imagine the 
 animation and energy which it inspires. It is the constant remark of almost 
 every stranger who visits the Sessional School, that its pupils have not at all 
 the ordinary appearance of school-boys, doomed to an unwilling task, but rather 
 the happy faces of children at their sports. This distinction is chiefly to be 
 attributed to that part of the system of which we are here treating ; by which, 
 in place of harassing the pupil with a mere mechanical routine of sounds and 
 technicalities, his attention is excited, his curiosity is gratified, and his fancy is 
 amused. 
 
 "In the second place, when proper books are put into the hands of the scholars, 
 every article which they read, may be made the means, not only of forming in 
 their youthful minds the invaluable habit of attention, but also of communica- 
 ting to them, along with facility in the art of reading, much information, which is 
 both adapted to their present age, and may be of use to them the rest of their 
 lives. How different is the result, where the mechanical art is made the ex- 
 clusive object of the master's and the pupil's attention ! How many fine pas- 
 sages have been read in the most pompous manner, without rousing a single 
 sentiment in the mind of the performer ! How many, in which they have left 
 behind them only the most erroneous and absurd impressions and associa- 
 tions. 
 
 " But, in the last place, they little know the full value of the explanatory 
 method, who think it unnecessary, in any case, to carry it beyond what is ab- 
 solutely essential to enable the pupil to understand the meaning of the indivi- 
 dual passage before him at the time. As well, indeed, might it be maintained, 
 that, in parsing, the only object in view should be the elucidation of the parti- 
 cular sentence parsed ; or that, in reading Ccesar's Commentaries in a gram- 
 mar school, the pupil's sole attention should be directed to the manner in which 
 the Gallic war was conducted. A very little reflection, however, should be 
 sufficient to show, how erroneous such a practice would be in either case. 
 The passages gone over in school must of course be very few and limited, 
 and the direct information communicated through them extremely scanty. The 
 skill of the instructor must therefore be exhibited, not merely in enabling the 
 pupil to understand these few passages, but in making every lesson bear upon 
 the proper object of his labours, the giving a general knowledge and full com- 
 mand of the language, which it is his province to teach, together with as much 
 other useful information, as the passage may suggest and circumstances will 
 admit. As in parsing, accordingly, no good teacher would be satisfied with 
 examining his pupil upon the syntactic construction of the passage before him 
 
BOORS FOR EDUCATION. d 
 
 as it stands, and making him repeat the rules of that construction, but would 
 also, at the same time, call upon him to notice the variations, which must ne- 
 cessarily be made in certain hypothetical circumstances ; so also in the depart- 
 ment of which we are now treating, he will not consider it enough, that the 
 child may have, from the context or otherwise, formed a general notion of the 
 meaning, of a whole passage, but will also, with a view to future exigencies, 
 direct his attention to the full force and signification of the particular terms 
 employed, and likewise in some cases at least, to their roots, derivatives, and 
 compounds. Thus, for example, if in any lesson the scholar read of one hav- 
 ing ' done an unprecedented act,' it might be quite sufficient for understanding 
 the meaning of that single passage, to tell him that 'no other person had ever 
 done the like;' but this would by no means fully accomplish the object we 
 have in view. The child would thus receive no clear notion of the word un- 
 precedented, and would, therefore, in all probability, on the very next occasion 
 of its recurrence, or of the recurrence of other words from the same root, be as 
 much at a loss as before. But direct his attention to the threefold composition 
 of this word, the un, the pre, and the cede. Ask him the meaning of the syl- 
 lable un in composition, and tell him to point out to you (or if necessary, point 
 out to him) any other words, in which it has this signification of not, (such as 
 uncommon, uncivil) and, if there be leisure, any other syllables which have in 
 composition a similar effect, such as in, with all its modifications of ig, il, im, 
 ir, also dis, and non, with examples. Next investigate the meaning of the 
 syllable pre in composition, and illustrate it with examples, (such as previous, 
 premature. Then examine in like manner the meaning of the syllable cede and 
 having shown that in composition it generally signifies to go, demand the signi- 
 fication of its various compounds, precede, proceed, succeed, accede, recede, exceed, 
 intercede. The pupil will in this manner acquire not only a much more dis- 
 tinct and lasting impression of the signification of the word in question, but a 
 key also to a vast variety of other words in the language. This too he will do 
 far more pleasingly and satisfactorily in the manner which is here recommend- 
 ed, than by being enjoined to commit them to memory from a vocabulary at 
 home as a task. It is very true that it would not be possible to go over every 
 word of a lesson with the same minuteness, as that we have now instanced. A 
 certain portion of time should therefore be set apart for this examination; and, 
 after those explanations have been given, which are necessary to the right un- 
 derstanding of the passage, such minuter investigations only may be gone into 
 as time will admit. It is no more essential, that every word should be gone 
 over in this way, than that every word should always be syntactically parsed. 
 A single sentence well done may prove of the greatest service to the scholar in 
 his future studies." 
 
 In applying this system of instruction to the First Class Reader. 
 I would recommend that the pupils have the reading exercise for 
 the day, previously assigned to them, in order that there may be 
 an opportunity for them carefully to study the same, in reference 
 to the examination that is to follow. In reading the book the first 
 time, the examination should be general, rather than otherwise: 
 let the pupils be questioned in regard to the general sense of the 
 piece, and the meaning of prominent words in it. Explanation 
 and illustration should be given by the teacher ; such as the mean- 
 ing of any passage, its allusions, figures, &c, may require. Care 
 should be taken that the scholars do not forget these explana- 
 tions; this may be prevented by recurring to them at subsequent 
 examinations. In order to show the nature of this first examina- 
 tion, a specimen is subjoined. 
 
 In going through the volume the second time, a more particular 
 
4 HOGAN AND THOMPSON'S 
 
 examination should be instituted. Not only the same kind of 
 questions, which have already been put, are to be repeated, but 
 the pupils should be examined with reference to the analysis of 
 words, their inflections and analogies ; and also with reference to 
 the rhetorical features of the composition, and the topics of gene- 
 ral information suggested by the text. 
 
 Of this second examination, a specimen, such as our limits 
 would allow, is also subjoined. Its nature and character, the ex- 
 tent to which it may be carried, and the interest, which it may be 
 made to impart to the exercise, will at once be felt and apprecia- 
 ted by every intelligent teacher. 
 
 We will take for an example of the following examinations, an 
 extract from the writings of the Rev. Sidney Smith. 
 
 APPEAL IN BEHALF OF THE BLIND. 
 
 The author of the book of Ecclcsiastcs has told us," that the light is sweet, 
 that it is a pleasant thing for the eyes to behold the sun." The sense of sight 
 is, indeed, the highest bodily privilege, the purest physical pleasure, which man 
 has derived from his Creator : — to see that wandering fire, after he has finished 
 his journey through the nations, coming back to us in the eastern heavens ; 
 the mountains painted with light; the floating splendour of the sea; the earth 
 waking from deep slumber ; the day flowing down the sides of the hills, till it 
 reaches the secret valleys; the little insect recalled to life; the bird trying her 
 wings; man going forth to his labour; each created being moving, thinking, 
 acting, contriving, according to the scheme and compass of its nature ; by 
 force, by cunning, by reason, by necessity. Is it possible to joy in this ani- 
 mated scene, and feel no pity for the sons of darkness ? for the eyes that will 
 never taste the sweet light ? for the poor clouded in everlasting gloom ? 
 
 If you ask me why they are miserable and dejected ; I turn you to the plen- 
 tiful valleys ; to the fields, bringing forth their increase ; to the freshness and 
 flowers of the earth ; to the endless variety of its colours ; to the grace, the 
 symmetry, the shape of all it cherishes, and all it bears. These you have for- 
 gotten, because you have always enjoyed them ; but these are the means by 
 which God Almighty makes man what he is ; cheerful, lively, erect ; full of 
 enterprise, mutable, glancing from heaven to earth ; prone to labour and to act. 
 
 This is the reason why the blind are miserable and dejected — because their 
 soul is mutilated, and dismembered of its best sense ; because they are a laugh- 
 ter, and a ruin, and the boys of the streets mock at their stumbling feet. 
 
 Therefore I implore you, by the son of David, have mercy on the blind. If 
 there is not pity for all sorrows, turn the full and perfect man to meet the in- 
 clemency of fate. Let not those who have never tasted the pleasures of exist- 
 ence, be assailed by any of its sorrows. The eyes that are never gladdened 
 with light, should never stream with tears. 
 
 Fitwt examination on the foregoing extract. 
 
 What is the title of the piece? Who is the author? What 
 sacred writer does he quote? What is the quotation? What is 
 the " highest bodily privilege?" What is meant by the word 
 " bodily ?" What is here meant by the word " physical?" What 
 pleasures are higher and purer than bodily or physical ones? 
 What other senses have we, besides that of sight? Whose gift 
 are they ? What is the " wandering fire," mentioned in the text ' 
 Why is it spoken of as " coming back to us in the eastern hea- 
 
BOOKS FOE EDI' CATION. •' 
 
 Tens f" What are the effects of its rising, so beautifully described 
 in the text? What wakes the insects and the birds, and sends 
 man forth to his labour? W T hat are the effects of its return, on 
 other created beings? Do these effects of light prove the truth 
 of the sacred writer's assertion quoted above? What feeling 
 should our enjoyment of the morning light excite towards the 
 blind? W T hat beautiful objects of sight are spoken of? Why do 
 we forget their beauty and value ? What is the effect of the beau- 
 ties of nature on man? Why are the blind sad and dejected ' 
 Why are the blind peculiarly entitled to our compassion ? 
 
 NEW SYSTEM OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR 
 
 This work is in preparation by John Frost, Esq., of Philadelphia. The 
 object of it is not merely to lay down the principles and rules of English 
 Grammar, in order to enable the Student to analyse sentences in the waj 
 technically called parsing; but to furnish very copious practical directions 
 and exercises for the correct speaking 1 and writing- of the language. In short, 
 to treat the subject not only as a science but as an art. It will in fact be 
 treated chiefly as an Art, applicable to the every day purposes of life, and intro- 
 ductory to a similar treatise on the Art of English Composition, which t he 
 Author has been several years in preparing ; and which is intended for 
 cation in a few months after the present work. 
 
 The new National Spelling Book. 
 
 AND PRONOUNCING TUTOR ; 
 
 On an improved plan, exhibiting the precise sound of each syllable m a 
 word, according to the most approved principles of English Orthoepy, wit: 
 progressive Reading Lessons ; — designed for the use of Schools in the Unite J 
 States. By B. D. Emersox, late Principal of the Adams Grammar Schoo:. 
 Boston. 
 
 The following is from Abraham Andrews, Cornelius Walker, N. K. G. OL- 
 ver, Charles Fox, Wm. Adams, Barnum Field, John Frost, Masters of t. : t 
 Department of Reading and Grammar in the Public Schools in Boston. — 
 M This Spelling Book bears every mark of having been compiled with strict 
 reference to the actual purpose of instruction. Great pains have evidently 
 been taken to render it highly superior in character, and worthy of beco; 
 3. National Work." — Journal of Education. 
 
 It is also recommended by Ebenezer Bailey, Principal of the Young LaaW 
 High School, Boston. — John Pierpoint, Compiler of the American First Clas< 
 Book, National Reader, &c. — John Pierce, D.D., Brooklyn. — Benjamin Greet - 
 leaf, Bradford Academy. — Andrew Yates, Pres.of the Polytechny Instit., Chit- 
 tcnango, N. Y. — John M. Brewer, S. C. Walker, Samuel Jones, Jos. R. East- 
 burn, J. H. Brown. — B. B. Wisner, D. D., and Wm. Jenks, D. D., Boston. — 
 Jeremiah Evarts, Cor. Sec. to the Am. Board of Com. for For. Miss. — Franc.- 
 Wayland. Jr., D. D., Brown University. — B. F. Farnsworth, Academical and 
 Theolog. Ins., N. Hampton, N. H. — Rev. S. C. Loveland, Reading, N. H . 
 Author of a Greek and Eng. Lex. of the N. T. — Daniel Adams, M. D., Author 
 of the Scholar's Arithmetic, School Geog., &c. Sec. — Rev. N. Bouton, and B • 
 N. W. Williams, Concord, N. H. — J. I. Hitchcock, Instructor, Baltimore — 
 
6 HO<iAN and Thompson's 
 
 Walter R. Johnson. Princ. of the High School, Franklin Ins. Phila. — L. Cole- 
 man, M. Lawrence, M. Shaw, School Committee of Belchertown. — Capt. Pat- 
 ridge, Sci. and Military Academy, Middletown. — John Richardson, Leicester 
 Academy. — R. G. Parker, Roxbury. 
 
 ID" The School Committee of the city of Boston, after a very critical ex- 
 amination, have ordered its introduction into all the public schools of this city. 
 And the Vermont Commissioners, appointed by the Legislature, have recom- 
 mended this Spelling Book, as one of the best, for use in all the public schools 
 of that State. 
 
 Copy of Resolutions of the Directors of the Public Schools of Chamber sburg. 
 
 Resolved, that the following books, and no others, viz: Emerson's National 
 Spelling Book, Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4; Class Readers by Emerson, Nos. 1, and 2; 
 Arithmetic by Emerson, be used in the Public Schools of the Chambersborg 
 District, as soon as they can be obtained, and that notice of this resolution be 
 given to the Teachers. FRED'K SMITH, Sec'ry. 
 
 August 8th, 1835. 
 
 September, 1834. 
 It was ordered, by the Controllers of the Public Schools of the first School 
 District of Pennsylvania, that Emerson's New National Spelling Book, Emer- 
 son's First, Second, and Third Class Readers, and Emerson's North American 
 Arithmetic, parts 1 and 2, be used, and none other, in the Public Sshools of the 
 District under their care. 
 
 THE NORTH AMERICAN ARITHMETIC, 
 Part I. and Part II. By Frederick Emerson. 
 
 The above is the title of two books, denominated Part First and Part Second. 
 The FIRST PART is a small book, designed for the use of Children from five 
 to eight years of age. The SECOND PART contains within itself a complete 
 system of Mental and Written Arithmetic, sufficiently extensive for all the pur- 
 poses of common business ; and is designed as the standard book for Common 
 Schools. These books are the result of years of labour; and although recently 
 completed, their reputation appears to be already established by the uniform 
 approval of gentlemen in the department of education, who do not lend their 
 names to give countenance to indifferent works. 
 
 Williams College, Oct. 2, 1832. 
 To Mr. Frederick Emerson. Sir, — I have received the First and Second 
 Parts of your North American Arithmetic, and am highly pleased with the plan 
 of the work, and the manner of its execution thus far. It unites simplicity 
 with fulness, and will thus be sure to interest the beginner, whilst it furnishes, 
 at the same time, an ample guide to the more advanced pupil. 
 
 Respectfully and truly yours, ALBERT HOPKINS, 
 
 Prof, of Mathematics and Nat. Phil. Williamstown College. 
 
 New York, Oct. 6, 1832. 
 I consider the plan and execution of Emerson's North American Arithmetic 
 — Part First and Part Second, with the Key — as perfect a School Book as I 
 have ever examined. None of this branch of instruction has so well and truly 
 illustrated the subject. It is plain and easy, and the characteristics which dis- 
 tinguish it as a school book are those which should prevail in every introduc- 
 tory work offered for the use of youth. SAM'L W. SETON, 
 
 Visiter for the Public School Society, New York. 
 
BOOKS FOR EDUCATION. ' 
 
 These books are of little more than one year's publication, and yet they art 
 already introduced into the greater part of the Schools of New England, New 
 York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Kentucky, and Ohio, and into many 
 of the towns in Tennessee, Indiana, Illinois, &c. 
 
 The Spelling-Cook, Readers, Academical Speaker, and Progressive Primer, 
 are by Benjamin D. Emerson, late principal of the Adams Grammar School, 
 Boston. 
 
 The Arithmetics are by Frederick Emerson, Principal of the Department of 
 Arithmetic in Doyston School, Boston. 
 
 Both of these gentlemen have consumed the greater part of their lives in im- 
 parting knowledge to youth, and after years of study and reflection have given 
 the above series of useful books, as the result of their own observation and 
 labour. 
 
 Mr. B. D. Emerson was several years in preparing the New National Spel- 
 ling-Book, and it was not given to the public until it had passed through a 
 number of careful revisions. A work so prepared, could not fail to be of a high 
 grade ; eminent Orthographists have pronounced it to be the best of any before 
 the public. 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. 
 
 A Convention consisting of two Delegates from each Board of Common 
 School Directors, of all the City Wards and Neighbouring Townships, asssem- 
 bled on the 19th last month, to determine on the best School Books, and most 
 suitable to establish uniformity in the same, throughout the School Districts. 
 Whereupon, a Committee was appointed of three of their numbers, namely : the 
 Rev. J. Pressly, Dr. George D. Bruce, and Benjamin P. Harlshorne, Esq. to 
 examine and compare Emerson's Scries, and Russell's Histories with other 
 School Books. And the said Committee having this day delivered their report 
 to an adjourned meeting of the Convention, it was, in accordance therewith 
 unanimously recommended, that Emerson's Series, composed of the New Na- 
 tional Spelling Book ; First Class, Second Class, Third Class, and Fourth Class 
 Readers ; and First, and Second Part Arithmetic ; together with Russell's 
 Histories of the United States, England, France, Greece, and Rome, be used 
 in all the Schools throughout the City and County. 
 
 Attest, Pittsburgh, Alleghany County, December 7, 1838. 
 
 In behalf of the Convention, 
 
 BENJAMIN P. H ARTSHORNE, Secretary. 
 
 At a Convention of the School Directors of Susquehannah County, Pennsyl- 
 vania, held at Montrose, December 28th, 1838, the Hon. Judge Jessup from 
 a Committee appointed for that purpose, submitted the following resolutions : 
 
 1. Resolved, That the sole object of this Convention is, to attempt the im- 
 provement of the system of instruction in the Common Schools of this County. 
 
 2. Resolved, That by endeavouring to produce uniformity in teaching, we 
 have no disposition to proceed in an arbitrary or compulsory manner, and while 
 the school law has, of necessity, given large powers in this respect to school 
 directors ; yet, in that office, we hold ourselves to be the servants of the people, 
 bound to consult their interests and their wishes, and only at liberty to exercise 
 those powers confined by law in such manner, as the high trusts reposed in us 
 by ihem, demand. 
 
 3. Resolved, That we believe the introduction of an uniformity of Books in 
 the schools, would greatly subserve the interests of education, by enabling 
 teachers to devote more time to their classes, by exciting a spirit of emulation 
 among the pupils, and by promoting uniformity in teaching. 
 
 4. Resolved, That, with a view to produce this important result, we recom- 
 mend to the Boards of Directors in the several districts, and to all others con- 
 cerned in Common School Education, at the commencement of the Schools in 
 
8 HOGAN AND THOMPSON'S 
 
 the fall of 1839, or earlier if practicable, the introduction into all the Schools of 
 
 the following- Book?, to wit: 
 
 EMERSON'S NEW NATIONAL SPELLING BOOK. 
 
 EMERSON'S FIRST SECOND, THIRD. AND FOURTH CLASS READERS . 
 
 EMERSON'S FIRST AND SECOND PART ARITHMETIC. 
 
 KEITH'S ARITHMETIC AND BOOK KEEPING. 
 
 OLNEY'S GEOGRAPHY AND ATLAS. 
 
 SMITH'S GRAMMAR. 
 
 WEBSTER'S DICTIONARY. 
 
 RUSSELS HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 RUSSEL'S HISTORY OF FRANCE. 
 
 BUSSEL'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, SCOTLAND, AND IRELAND. 
 
 RUSSEL'S HISTORIES OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME. 
 
 The two first named of the above Histories, The United States and France, 
 are already published ; the two others are in progress now through the press, 
 and will be published in the ensuing spring. They are written with the ex- 
 press design of use in the American schools, and particularly harmonise in their 
 character with the system of Public School Instruction. They are not merely 
 a dry detail of facts, but render History subservient to the advancement of the 
 thinking faculties and the elevation of moral character, enlivened with anec- 
 dotes of eminent and virtuous individuals. The grave study of History is de- 
 lightfully relieved by the innumerable interesting points of Biography. 
 
 Extract from the "Journal of Education." 
 
 11 It is with no little pleasure that we have examined the new series of School 
 Histories, at the head of this article, recently published by Messrs. Hogan 
 Thompson of Philadelphia. They are far the best of any that we have seen, 
 and until their appearance, we had thought that nothing superior to those in 
 general use, could be brought forward ; the appearance of these volumes, con- 
 vinces us thai we have been in error. The books are pure and simple in style, 
 correct in outline, and admirably arranged in chronological order, the illustra- 
 tions are of a superior class, and beautifully executed by the first artists. Re- 
 presenting as they do, some of the most soul-stirring events of the world, they 
 cannot fail to attract the eye of youth, and indelibly fix in their minds a recol- 
 lection that such things have been ; whilst the text of the author, teaches both 
 to reason and think on their cause and effect. 
 
 " We congratulate the talented author, the liberal publishers, and the grow- 
 ing youth of our country, on the appearance of these volumes. 
 
 ** To Teachers we cannot say too much in recommendation of this work." 
 
 From Chandler's Gazette. 
 
 HISTORY OF FRANCE. 
 
 Messrs. Hogan and Thompson, 30 North Fourth Street, have published the 
 History of France, from the earliest time to the present day, on the basis of 
 Sadler's history, and arranged for the use of Schools, with questions for the ex- 
 amination of students, by John Russel, A. M. 
 
 We referred with commendation, a few days since, to a History of the Uni- 
 ted States by the same author. A careful perusal of the History of France, 
 leads us to believe that Mr. Russcl has, in that, acquitted himself with even 
 more of success than on his former attempt. The History of France is inte- 
 resting, from the lofty character of the actors on its scene, and the importance 
 of the events with which they were connected. The story has indeed been told, 
 
BOOKS FOR EDUCATION. 9 
 
 but rarely in a form for school classes, and never, certainly, better, than by Mr. 
 Russel. In general, we remark, that in the account of the civil wars he seems 
 anxious to do all the justice to each party which existing or attainable records 
 will allow him. The plan of the work is fine, and the execution highly com- 
 mendable. 
 
 Individual commendation of these books, by competent judges, 
 is almost without end, and the Investigating Committees which 
 have been appointed in the cities of Boston, New York, Philadel- 
 phia. Pittsburgh, Louisville, Maysville, and many othei towns and 
 cities, to make selection of the best books for the Public Schools, 
 having pronounced Emerson's Series of Books, "the best suited to 
 the wants of all classes of scholar s, and the most convenient for the 
 purposes of instruction" they have been adopted accordingly. 
 They have likewise been recently chosen in all the School Dis- 
 tricts of many Counties of this State, and as they are always, with- 
 out exception, preferred wherever they are seen, it is confidently 
 expected, they will very shortly be used throughout this and other 
 States, and produce that uniformity in the Schools, which is so 
 urgently desired by all, and so important for the training of the 
 general mind. 
 
 The paper and print of Emerson's and Russel's books, are be- 
 sides, of such superior quality, and the binding is so much better 
 and stronger than usual, that for these additional reasons, they 
 have a decided preference, and are allowed to be much the cheap- 
 est books. 
 
 IMPORTANT WORK ON EDUCATION. 
 
 HINTS ON A SYSTEM OF POPULAR EDUCATION, addressed to R, 
 S. Field, Esq. Chairman of the Committee on Education in the Legislature of 
 New Jersey, and to the Rev. A. P. Dod, Professor of Mathematics in the Col- 
 lege of New Jersey, by E. C. WINES, Author of" Two Years and a half in the 
 Navy," and late principal of Edgehill School. 
 
 LARDNER'S OUTLINES OF UNIVERSAL HISTORY, 
 
 Embracing a concise History of the World from the earliest period to the pre- 
 sent time, arranged so that the whole may be studied by periods, or the history 
 of any country may be read by itself. With questions for the examination 
 of students. The work is beautifully illustrated with 49 superior engravings, 
 representing some of the most interesting historical scenes. 
 
 The author in his u Advertisement" to this work, says — " The object of the 
 writer of the present volume has been to give a correct, and, as far as the limits 
 would permit, a comprehensive epitome of the history of the world, which accu- 
 racy of narrative and chronology would render valuable as a book of reference, 
 and in which general views and reflections would remove the dryness insepa- 
 rable from a mere enumeration of facts. And it is hoped, that the tyro who 
 studies it with attention, will find himself at the termination of his labour, ig- 
 norant, of few of the great characters and events which occur in the history of 
 the world," 
 
10 HOGAN AND THOMPSON^ 
 
 The book is arranged with the chronological dates in the margin of eaeh 
 page, so that the student may at a moment ascertain the time of any particular 
 transaction. Besides, it has a copious index ; a tabular view of royal dynasties ; 
 a chronological table of eminent persons, showing the time of their birth and 
 death, and a chronological view of important events from the first olympiad till 
 the year 1829. 
 
 Every parent should place this volume in the hands of his children, and 
 schoolmasters who value the time and improvement of those entrusted to their 
 care, would do well to examine and place the work before tbeir scholars. In 
 it they would find much that is new in arrangement, and a vast collection of 
 facts that have never yet appeared in any one work of History. 
 
 ELEMENTS OF MYTHOLOGY, 
 
 Or, Classical Fables of the Greeks and Romans — to which are added notices of 
 Syrian, Hindoo, and Scandinavian superstitions, together with those of the 
 Aboriginal American Nations ; the whole comparing Polytheism with true 
 religion. 
 
 This book has been prepared expressly for the youth of this country, and it 
 will prove a valuable acquisition to those, who do not or cannot study the su- 
 perstitions of the ancient in his original language. But few works of this kind 
 have appeared before; the public, none in fact, embracing as much as the pre- 
 sent volume — most of those already published, have contained so many indeli- 
 cate passages relative to the rites and ceremonies of the ancients, as to almost 
 forbid the use of them in female schools — this has been particularly guarded 
 against in the present publication. A work, perfectly pure, and though ele- 
 mentary, embracing all the prominent facts of the most voluminous on the 
 subject, was much wanted, and the publishers think they have succeeded in 
 placing such an one within the reach of all. 
 
 KAMES' ELEMENTS OF CRITICISM. 
 
 Being an abridgment of the large work of the celebrated Lord Karnes. 
 
 The original book has long been known as a standard in most of the Colleges 
 —a smaller work of the kind having been in much demand, the pesent pub- 
 lishers deemed it advisable to issue an abridgment — accordingly, an able 
 editor was procured and the work effected ; it is arranged with questions for 
 the examination of students, foe, and is calculated to be of much service in 
 improving the style of scholars. The work is popular. 
 
 MARSH'S BOOK-KEEPING, 
 
 Or, the Science of Double Entry Book-Keeping, simplified by an infallible rule 
 for Debtor and Creditor, calculated to insure a complete knowledge of the 
 theory and practice of accounts, by C. C. Marsh, Accountant. 
 
 The above is the system by which nearly all the mercantile accounts of the 
 Atlantic cities are kept. 
 
 JAUDON'S EXPOSITOR, 
 
 Or, the English Orthographical Expositor ; being a compendious selection of 
 the most useful words in the English language, alphabetically arranged, 
 divided, accented, and explained, according to the most approved modern 
 authorities; also a list of more than eight hundred words, similar, or nearly 
 similar in sound, but of different spelling and import, by Daniel Jaudon, 
 Thomas Watson, and Stephen Addington. Fifteenth Edition. 
 
 This book is much better adapted to primary schools than the larger diction- 
 aries, it is more convenient, more explicit, and better suited to the comprehen- 
 sion of the young, in its definitions and expositions of the different words. 
 Teachers will do well to examine the work. 
 
BOOKS FOR EDUCATION. 11 
 
 CORDERII COLLOQUIA, 
 
 Or Corderius' Colloquies, with a literal translation of the first forty, and parsing 
 exercises on the first eight. To which is added a vocabulary of all the words 
 which occur in the book. A new edition, much improved. 
 The advantages of literal translations of the easier authors in the Latin 
 tongue for the use of beginners, is so very great, and so very obvious, that it 
 will appear to all, upon a little reflection, a wonder, that our schools should 
 have remained so long without helps of this kind. A thorough knowledge of 
 the French and other living languages is acquired in one half the time usually 
 occupied by the student of Latin — the reason of this is obvious : at the com- 
 mencement of the study of a living language, a book of colloquial phrases, or a 
 literal translation of some easy author is placed in the hands of the student; 
 and he is therefore enabled to proceed with greater rapidity, than he could in 
 any other manner, at the same time sufficient thought is required to exercise 
 the mind, and form a retentive memory. If a system of this kind can be pur- 
 sued, as it has, in one language, it certainly may in another, and the success 
 that has attended the use of Corderius, amply proves, that as much benefit may 
 be derived from the studying of an ancient tongue in this manner, as from that 
 of a modern ; and teachers who value the time and advancement of their scho- 
 lars, would do well to use this little volume. 
 
 CICERO DE OFFICES, 
 
 Or M. Tullii Ciceronis de Officiis Libri Tres. Accedunt in usum juventatis 
 
 notae quoedam Anglice scriptse. 
 
 This is a new and very handsome edition, much improved and enlarged, with 
 English notes, comments, &c. Sir Roger L'Estrange in his preface to an 
 English translation observes, that this is one of the commonest school books we 
 have ; and as it is the best of books, so it is applied to the best of purposes, the 
 training of youth to the study and exercise of virtue. 
 
 CICERO'S ORATIONS, 
 
 Or M. T. Ciceronis Orationes, qusedam selecte in usum Delphini, cum interpre- 
 tatione et historia succincta verum gestarum et scriptorum M. T. Ciceronis. 
 In this edition are introduced all the valuable notes of the Dauphin edition, 
 translated into English, selections from Duncan and other commentators and 
 original observations. By John G. Smart. With a life of Cicero. 
 
 WILSON'S GREEK TESTAMENT, 
 
 Or the books of the New Testament in the original Greek, prepared for the use 
 of schools. By C. P. Wilson, LL.D. 
 
 PERRIN'S FRENCH VOCABULARY, 
 
 Or the elements of French and English conversations, with new, familiar, and 
 easy Dialogues, each preceded by a suitable vocabulary in French and Eng- 
 lish, designed particularly for students in the French language. By John 
 Perrin. 
 
 PERRIN'S FRENCH FABLES. 
 
 A selection of Fables in French, with an interlinear translation, designed to 
 aid the student in acquiring a correct idea of the idiom of that language. 
 This work and the vocabulary are much used as elementary books in learn- 
 ing the French. The best teachers of Philadelphia recommend them. 
 
 LEBRUN'S TELEMAQUE, 
 
 Or the Adventures of Telemachus in its original French, with a key containing 
 the English of most of the difficult French words. 
 This work, from the poetical beauty of its language, is more generally used 
 
12 BOOKS FOR EDUCATION. 
 
 in learning French than any other; it has an immense circulation which is 
 daily increasing. 
 
 BARBAROUX'S HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES, IN 
 
 FRENCH, 
 
 Designed as a school-book for children in their study of the French language. 
 The history is pronounced correct and the language of a superior style. 
 Whilst the youthful student is acquiring a foreign language, he also learns 
 something of the history of his own country. 
 
 BERNAY'S GERMAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 A compendious German Grammar, with dictionary of prefixes and affixes alpha- 
 betically arranged, by Herman Bokum, instructor of the German language 
 and literature in the University of Pennsylvania. 
 
 BOKUM'S INTRODUCTION 
 
 To the study of the German language, comprising extracts from the best Ger- 
 man prose writers, with an English interlinear translation, explanatory notes, 
 and a treatise on pronunciation, affording the means of a ready and accurate 
 comparison of the idioms of the language. 
 
 GERMAN AND ENGLISH COLLOQUIAL PHRASES, 
 
 Or Dialogues in German and English, on every topic necessary to maintain 
 conversation; with directions for pronunciation. By John Ehrenfried. 
 The prevalence of the German language, in many parts of the United States, 
 should form a powerful inducement, for men in every situation of life to become 
 at least partially acquainted with it. Towards an easy acquisition of a lan- 
 guage nothing will contribute more than a collection of easy dialogues and ap- 
 propriate phrases treating on the most familiar subjects and incidents of life ; 
 and it is hoped that the present attempt will on that account be favourably re- 
 ceived. 
 
 The above series offer a ready and easy means of acquiring a knowledge of 
 the German, either with or without the aid of a teacher. They are the only 
 regular and graduated series of German elementary books published in this 
 country. 
 
 CAVALLO'S PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 The Elements of Natural or Experimental Philosophy. By Tiberius Cavallo, 
 F. R. S. &c; fifth American edition with additional notes, selected from va- 
 rious authors. By F. X. Brossius. 2 vols. 8vo. in one. 
 The high reputation of Mr. Cavallo, as a Philosopher, created in this country 
 a demand for his works; the frequent application for them and their great 
 scarcity first induced the publishers to issue an American edition — since then 
 the sale has been sufficiently great to warrant their having many improvements 
 and additions in the shape of notes, appended to the work : it is now considered 
 the standard in Natural and Experimental Philosophy, and used as a text book 
 in most of the colleges. 
 
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