.0* ,.v •<$' >''i/J^^ <'. \^ ^ ^ ., -^^ »^.^^t%- !'^iW< 0^ '°^ 1-^** ^i:.;;-. ^^ ^^^ _j;4- *:^, v^-^i- ■ ^>. •<' !^.-nV ^^^* * «.^ . .1- A^ <5\ ' ' « " . ^ .^v . . . . -^^ ^% .^a'^ ^^. _c3>^' y^^^- ^^'^- v--^ <^' •'<^. "' y ■■/^--.: -•-»:• .^^^^-^^ «t.'/\.;- ■^o /.-: H o o V "^0^ 4 O .^ 1776. AMERICA:^ ENTERPRISE. 1876. BURLEY'S UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 1876. COMTAININO Plans of thk Centennial BuiLniNCJS and Grounds of the International Ex- hibition OF THE United States in 1876, and the Classification into Groups AND Departments of the Various Articles for Exhibition; Historical Sketch of the United States, General Information relative to THE Topography, Physical Geography, Resources and Pros- pects, Products of the Soil and Climate and the Mines, and Census and Statistics of the United States. Sketches of Progress during the Past Century in Arts, Manufactures, Lit- erature, Education, Inventions, Railroad Facilities and Steam Naviga- tion, etc., and Articles on the Press, the Government and Laws, and OTHER Matters of Interest to both Citizens and Visitors from Foreign Countries. A General Dpscriptive and Statistical Ac- count OF THE Business of the United States at the Present Time; together with some of the Principal and Promi- nent Business Houses in the Various Branches of Trade and Manufacture as herein represented. PROPERLY INDEXED, CLASSIFIED AND ARRANGED UNDER THE PERSONAL SUPER- VISION OF THE PROPRIETOR. CHARLES HOLLAND KIDDER, Editor. A OENEBAL ENCYGLOPJEDIA OF THE UNITED STATES. PHILADELPHIA: Sy W. BURLEY, PROPRIETOR AND PUBLISHER. ^ 1876. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by S. W. BURLEY, In tlie Office of tlie Librarian of Congress, at Washington. x< % Westcott & Thomson, Collins, Pkintek, Slereotyjjers and Electrotypers, Philada. 705 Jayne iU. PREFACE. Had the past hundred years been spent in arranging plans for the proper celebration of the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence, nothing could have been devised more appropriate for the occasion than a Centennial International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures and Products of the Soil and Mine. At the beginning of our existence as a nation the development of the resources of this country was scarcely begun ; every species of manufacture which would interfere with trade with Great Britain had been restrained as far as possible by the mother-country, and the min- eral wealth which abounds in every portion of this favored land was almost entirely unnoticed or unappreciated. When the colonists, numbering less than three millions, who occupied a narrow belt of land on the Atlantic coast, declared themselves "free and independent," their attempts at self- government met, of course, Avith little fixvor from the friends of monarchy and of aristocracy, who had no faith in popular sovereignty, and who prophesied the speedy downfall of the infant Republic. Ancient history was raked over for examples of "the incurable evils inherent in every form of republican policy." Free institutions were to be weighed in the balances, and questions which had been warmly debated by writers upon government were now to be settled by " the logic of events." The result of the Revolutionary War and of the War of 1812 — that Second War of Independence — the peaceful adoption of a Federal Constitution, the rapid increase in population and territory of the new Republic during the first fifty years of its existence, encouraged the friends of freedom throughout the world ; and now, when the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence is approaching, how could it be more fitly celebrated than by an International Exhibition, in which Columbia (wellnigh the young- est of nations, although she will then be a centenarian) may invite her sisters to participate? This Exhibition has been planned and will be car- ried on, not in a spirit of self-adulation, but of honest pride. Pointing to 11 12 PREFACE. our works of art, to our own manufactures and to the products of our own soil and mines, it may be said, " See what has been accomplished during a hundred years of independence in the development of the resources of a new country." There can be given a practical, a convincing, a decisive answer to the arguments of those who are opposed to free institutions. In spite of wars, foreign and domestic, in spite of financial " panics" (of which even monarchies and empires have had their share), in spite of many hotly-contested " presidential campaigns," during which each party knew that the country would be ruined by the success of their political oppo- nents, the progress of the United States in everything that constitutes the greatness of a nation has been marvellously rapid. The infant nation has grown to manhood — a manhood so honored and vigorous that it is not afraid to challenge a comparison of its past exploits and its present condi- tion with those of any country on the face of the globe. Millions of visitors, coming from various portions of this country, as well as from every civilized nation in the world, will doubtless attend the Cen- tennial International Exhibition of 1876. It is the dictate not merely of national pride, but of national self-respect, that we should be prepared to ofler, both to the American public and to foreigners, a gazetteer of our country and a guide to our public institutions, our commercial interests, our manufocturing industries and our almost unlimited resources. While it is generally admitted that our country is great, wealthy and prosper- ous, it is a difficult matter for many even of our most intelligent citizens to answer specific questions as to matters of detail. It is to be regretted that more has not been done to keep our statistical literature up with the times, and to give our youth (too often woefully ignorant of these matters) accu- rate notions of the resources and prospects of our country. Our resources are so ample, our progress has been so rapid, our prospects are so full of promise, that we need not fear the test of the most accurate of figures, nor dread to have carefully-prepared statements put in the place of the vague generalities which form the staple of oration, lecture and essay. " Truth is stranger than fiction ;" and accurate statistics will rather increase than diminish the satisfaction which every true American feels in the growth and progress of his country. Statistics, however, serve a better purpose than to foster national pride. By showing with exactness what has been accomplished in the past, they enable those who attentively study them to make suitable arrangements for the future. In no country are statistics PREFACE. 13 more carefully collected and preserved than in France. This fact has doubtless had much to do with the careful management which has enabled the French to recover so rapidly after a disastrous foreign war, followed by the terrible Communist insurrection. Statistics are of especial import- ance to an American. Possessing a country of almost unbounded re- sources, it is due to our credit as a nation that the nature of those re- sources should be properly stated. What has been accomplished during the past century in bringing to light the wealth that had lain hidden for ages, and in making the wilderness to blossom as the rose, should also be set forth, as well as what remains to be done. The intelligent foreigner who remembers that one hundred years ago the greater part of this coun- try was a wilderness, when he sees, at the Centennial Exhibition, the vast and varied results of the American energy and inventive genius, and the numerous productions of this favored land, will naturally desire accurate information concerning the intermediate period. He will also ask particu- lar questions which can be answered in no other way than by giving relia- ble statistics. It is to answer these questions that this work has been at- tempted. It is a gazetteer of the country, not in the ordinary sense of the word — i. e., a mere geographical dictionary, naming even every insignifi- cant hamlet — but as giving general information upon subjects of import- ance both to citizens and foreigners, and depends for its interest upon the eagerness felt not only in this country, but in every part of the world, for instruction upon the very topics of which it treats. These topics are dwelt upon as fully as is possible in a condensed work of this nature ; and in order to make it a worthy exponent of our national life, the amount of reading matter has been extended from the five hundred and fifty pages promised in the Prospectus to upward of seven hundred pages, including the Syn- opsis OF Classification of Articles for Exhibition, with the details (pages 853-869) and the Appendix (pages 871-886), without a proportion- ate increase in price. The Historical Sketch gives the principal events in the history of the United States, from the first discovery of the mainland by John and Sebas- tian Cabot to the celebration of the centennial of the battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1875). The late civil war, which is sometimes passed over in con- densed sketches with a very brief notice, is treated as fully as any of the pre- ceding wars. Impartiality has been aimed at; and if errors have crept in, they are errors each of which is endorsed by at least one leading authority. 14 PREFACE. The article on Physical Geography gives general information with reference to the physical features, the climate, rainfall and storms, and the mineral and metallurgical products of this country. A larger amount of space has been given to the section devoted to climate, etc., than is usual in works which promise only general information, and an attempt has been made to gather the cream of what has been said of the meteorology of the United States in special treatises upon the science, also to bring up the scientific portions to the standard demanded by the great advance recently made in the knowledge of meteorology. At the same time, technical terms have been as far as possible avoided, or if used they have been explained. To treat such a subject with scientific accuracy, yet with suf- ficient clearness to be both intelligible and interesting to the average reader, is a difficult task ; it is hoped that this fact will be remembered by those who pass judgment upon this portion of the work. The Resources and Prospects of the country are dealt with in a special article, which is brief, as the setting forth of those resources in order to give the reader an opportunity to estimate the value of the prospects is the leading object in the composition and publication of this work. The article on the Topography of the United States contains a sketch of eveiy State and Territory in the Union, in which series of sketches the leading topics, "Situation and Extent, Physical Features, Soil and Climate, Agricultural Productions, Manufactures, Minerals and Mining, Commerce and Navigation, Railroads, Public Institutions and Education, Cities and Towns, Population, Government and Laws" and " History " are distinguished by a different type heading the paragraphs. As these topics are treated in the same order for each State, and as the headings in title-letter are so prominent as to be easily caught by the eye, this portion of the work is, so to speak, an index to itself Every eflfort has been made to obtain the latest and most trustworthy data ; and it can be safely asserted that in no other work which has yet appeared can such a variety of information with reference to each State and Territory in the Union be found. The article on the Centenniai City contains in small space a very valuable account of Philadelphia, in which some facts are noted which will probably be news to not a few even of the residents of the City of Brotherly Love. PREFACE. 15 In the article on Coins and Currency a brief sketch is given of the colonial and Revolutionary currencies, and of the first formation of banks in the modern acceptation of the term, together with information relative to the present coinage and banking system of the country. Thirty pages are devoted to the history, progress and present condition of the Commerce and Navigation of the United States. The trials of the early colonists and the effect of the Navigation acts are set forth, and considerable space is given to the republication of Sheffield's gloomy prophecies concerning American commerce, for comparison with the bril- liant success which proved his lordship incorrect in almost every important statement, and 'which showed, so to speak, the financial and commercial value of free institutions and the superiority of independence to the one- sided " colonial system." The article concludes with a rapid sketch of the progress made during the present century, and notices of the principal arti- cles of export and import, of shipping and of steam navigation. The three succeeding essays are upon The Press, American Litera- ture and American Education. The marvellous progress made in American journalism and in American authorship during the present cen- tury is described as fully as was considered advisable in a work for popular circulation; and in the third article just mentioned the rise of the free- school system, the founding of the principal colleges established before the Revolution and the national land-grants to schools, with statistics of the number of schools in recent census years, receive due attention ; also the returns of illiteracy and the relation of education to pauperism and to crime. The Government and Laws of the United States are then described, each cabinet department coming (by the same arrangement of type already mentioned) under the title of its executive head. Statistics of the army are therefore given under the title " Secretary of War," and those of the navy under the title " Secretary of the Navy." Congress, the United States courts, the laws of the United States (so far merely as their sources are concerned) and the naturalization laws are then noticed, and the article concludes with the Constitution of the United States, the careful perusal of which needs, or ought to need, no recommendation from us. The Declaration of Independence, with a brief historical introduc- tion, claims the next place, as its omission in a work of this nature would resemble "the play of Hamlet with the part of Hamlet left out." 16 PREFACE. American Agriculture is the subject of the next extended essay, in the course of which essay the latest attainable statistics of the cro})s ,and of the number of the leading domestic animals in this country are worked in after the progress of agriculture in the United States has been tracec" from the earliest settlements to recent times. American Manufactures claim a space equal to that given to the foregoing article (84 pages), the early history being traced in a similar manner, the progress made during the several decades since 1810 being followed up by the aid of the census reports, and statistics of leading branches being given with increasing fulness up to 1870. The remaining statistics for the last-named year will be found in the General Descriptive and Statistical Account of the Business of the United States, to which we have not yet referred, but in which will be found many interesting personal statistics of the number, nativity and ages (at the time of taking the census) of workers not only in manufacturing branches, but in many other occupations. Those who are engaged in any business which employs more than 20,000 people arc given these personal statistics in some portion of this department, and the headings are alphabetically arranged, together with the names of advertisers in those branches, or in a special collection of "Additional Statistics," given immediately before the Advertisers' Index, or in the introduction to the article. For the capitalist and the investor census statistics are worked in of every leading manufacture, giv- ing the number of establishments, of steam-engines and water-wheels, with the aggregate horse-power; of the hands employed, and the amount of the capital, wages, materials and products. Ten pages have been allotted to the Signal Service Bureau, an organ- ization of great value and efficiency, which has not hitherto received its due meed of commendation in any work similar to the present. It is a service of which this country may well be proud ; and a description of its workings is absolutely essential to complete the plan of an attempt to set forth the progress and present condition of the United States, the only nation in the world in which every leading daily newspaper publishes weather prognostications which are in eight cases out of ten correct. An article on the Railroads of the United States then follows, in which the latest obtainable statistics are given, together with a sketch of the first attempts at using these now indispensable highways of travel and transportation. PREFACE. 17 American Art is treated in a somewhat popular style for the general reader, not for the art critic — a fact which we hope may be remembered by any of the latter class into whose hands this work may come. This state- ment will account for the almost entire absence of technical terms, and for their explanation in the few instances where they are used. American Inventions have been so numerous and so valuable that many volumes of the size of the one now oifered to the public could be written upon this subject alone without exhausting the theme. We have therefore noted only a few of the principal ones, and have shown the hope- lessness of giving an adequate condensed view of all that has been done in this line by presenting statistics of the number of patents issued each year for thirty-five years, the total number being upward of one hundred and seventy thousand. The information with reference to the United States Centennial International Exhibition, drawn from official sources, with engrav- ings of the various edifices and plans of buildings and the grounds, will serve to render this work of value to all who are interested in the celebra- tion of the One Hundredth Anniversary of American Independence, and who desire to preserve a memorial of such celebration. The previous International Exhibitions of the World have not been forgotten, brief articles upon them (each accompanied with a cut of the principal building used) being scattered at appropriate intervals through the work. Though these articles are short, it is hoped that suf- ficient information has been condensed in them to make them worthy of the perusal of all who are interested in such undertakings. The statistics given throughout this work have been drawn from the most trustworthy sources — from ofiicial documents and statements wherever these have been accessible; and the task of combining them in the various gen- eral articles so as to be interesting to the average reader has been one of no small difficulty. Too few figures would leave the amount of real infor- mation given comparatively meagre. Too many figures would repel many who are unaccustomed to the study of statistical returns. The tabular form has therefore been avoided as far as possible; and where it has been used, the table has been usually given in the Appendix (pages 871-886;. We now come to the pleasing task of acknowledging the assistance which has been rendered by those who have felt an interest in the spread of 18 PREFACE. statistical information. Mr. Cliarles Holland Kidder, the editor, has been engaged on the book since the summer of 1874. The work throughout will bear witness to his great carefulness and ability. The preparation of the articles upon the " Topography of the United States " (with few excep- tions) and the "Centennial City " was entrusted by him to the Rev. Moseley H. Williams. The advertisers who have given their support, many of whom have been connected with the work since the early part of 1873, and several of wdiom have greatly assisted by furnishing the latest statis- tics in their various branches, are worthy of special mention as co-operators in the task which we have just completed. Some of these firms are among the leading houses in the world in their respective lines of business. Thanks are due to the Hon. Lorin Blodget for kindly giving the use of valuable charts and of public documents which could not elsewhere be ob- tained; also for suggestions and hints which were of great service in work- ing up several of the articles. The Hon. Edward Young, Chief of the Bureau of Statistics, forwarded documents and information in advance of the annual reports with a prompt- ness and courtesy which added another to the many proofs of his eminent fitness for the laborious and responsible but inadequately compensated oflace which he now holds. Acknowledgment should be made to the stereotyping establishment of Messrs. Westcott & Thomson, and especially to their proof-readers, Messrs. Forbes aiid Peck, whose constant vigilance has helped to secure accuracy. The care and responsibility attending the publication of a work like this can be estimated and appreciated only by those having knowledge of the business. The work was planned and begun in the year 1872 with a view to furnishing useful and valuable information concerning this country at a time when all the world shall assemble here to see what has been accomplished during one hundred years of American energy and inventive genius, the publisher feeling that an International Exhibition of the United States would be an occasion of extraordinary interest, which at this date promises to be a more splendid success than was anticipated. The labor of several years is completed with the consciousness that no effort has been spared to make the work worthy in every particular. S. W. BURLEY. January, 1876. INDEX PAGE Advertisers' Index 35 American Agriculture 549 Art G33 Education 491 Inventions 641 Literature 481 Manufactures 583 Appendix 871 Articles for Exhibition, Classification 853 Attorney-General 519 Building-Stones 179 Census of 1820 607 Centennial City 427 Climate 161 Coal 180 Coins and Currency 437 Commerce and Navigation 445 Congress 519 Constitution of the United States 525 Copper 191 Cotton-Gin....r 645 Cyclones 177 Declaration of Independence 539 Electric Telegraph 646 Exports and Imports 469 General Descriptive and Statistical Account of Business of the U. S... 21 Gold and Silver 188 Government and Laws 505 Hamilton's Report on Manufactures.. 602 Historical Sketch 91 International Exiiibition, London 425 PAGE International Exhibition, Lond., 1851. 151 New York, 1853 321 Paris, 1855 203 Paris, 1867 547 Vienna, 1873 689 United States Centennial, 1876... 651 Agricultural Building, 1876 676 Art Gallery, 1876 66S Horticultural Building, 1876 674 Machinery Building, 1876 671 Main Exhibition Building, 1876. 664 Classification, etc., Synopsis of... 868 Ground Plan of Agricultural Building 677 Art Gallery 669 Horticultural Building 675 Machinery Building 672 Main Exhibition Building... 665 Plan of Centennial Grounds 678 System of Awards 682 Iron 183 Laws of the United States 522 Lead 193 Manufactures in 1820 607 1830 608 1840 608 1850 609 1860 61(1 1870 612 Mineral and Metallic Products 179 Naturalization Laws 523 Patents 649 19 20 INDEX. PAGE Petroleum 186 Physical Geography 153 Postmaster-General 517 Precious Stones 179 Quicksilver '. 194 Railroads of the United States 627 Rainfall 169 Resources and Prospects 195 Salt 179 Secretary of State 506 of the Treasury 507 of War 507 of the Navy 511 of the Interior 516 Sewing-Machine 648 Sheffield's Observations on American Commerce 456 Sheffield; Replies to 463 Shipping 470 Signal Service Bureau 617 Snow 173 Steamboat, The 642 Steam Navigation 474 Storms 175 Tench Coxe's Statement of Manufac- tures 604 The Press 475 Topography of the States. Alabama 205 Arkansas 210 California 214 Connecticut 220 Del aware 224 Florida 228 . Georgia 232 Illinois 237 Indiana 242 Iowa 246 Kansas 250 Kentucky 254 Louisiana 258 PAGE Topography of the States. — Continued. Maine 263 Maryland 268 Massachusetts 272 Michigan 277 Minnesota 283 Mississippi 288 Missouri 292 Nebraska 298 Nevada 302 NcAV Hampshire 307 New Jersey 313 New York 323 , North Carolina 332 Ohio 337 Oregon 343 Pennsylvania 347 Rhode Island 355 South Carolina 359 Tennessee 364 Texas 368 Vermont 373 Virginia 378 West Virginia 383 Wisconsin 387 The District of Columbia 393 The Territories. Alaska 396 Arizona 399 Colorado , 402 Dakota 405 Idaho 408 Indian Territory, Tiie 410 Montana 412 New Mexico 415 Utah 417 Washington 420 Wyoming 422 Tornadoes 1 7,5 United States Courts 521 Zinc 193 GEI^ERAL DESCEIPTIVE AI^D STATISTIC- AL AOGOU]^T OF THE BUSINESS OF THE UNITED STATES. Introcllictioil. — General statistics for the whole country are pro- cured only once in ten years, at the taking of the United States census. In a few branches later reports are obtainable; but however much the census returns are open to criticism, the statistician is obliged in most cases to fall back upon the figures obtained by the census marshals. The census of 1870 was, as we have said elsewhere (page 612), superior to any of its predecessors, but there were local diflferences in the methods of taking the returns and of filling up the schedules, which caused considerable variation in the value of the figures obtained. Too often the deputy-marshals, when manufacturers refused to give the desired information, forgot that the census is taken for the benefit of the whole country, and applied the principle of the directory agent, who thinks a man who refuses to give his name is justly punished by being omitted from the list. In Philadelphia, for in- stance, 2300 establishments, having an average production for the census year of about fifty thousand dollars each (aggregate ^115,000,000), were omitted from the first returns. The Superintendent of the Census solicited the fullest aid that could be afforded in making the account complete, and the Hon. Lorin Blodget of Philadelphia was commissioned by the Depart- ment of the Interior with full authority to obtain returns under the census laws, and to make a complete revision of the schedules already forwarded, as well as to prepare supplemental returns embracing everything not in- cluded in the first canvass. The result of this revision was the discovery of the omission just mentioned, and of the inclusion of about $40,000,000 of railroad earnings among the products of the manufactmea of Philadel- phia. The committee of the City Councils on the United States census of 1870 published the corrected returns, and say in their report: " It is proper to state that the figures given are the result of Mr. Blodget's calculations, not reviewed by the census office, but believed by both the superintendent and Mr. Blodget to be practically identical, the computations of the census office not being sufficiently advanced to make exact comparisons, but pre- cisely the same returns in duplicate being used for each." The corrected returns for Philadelphia were as follows : Establishments, 8339 ; steam- 21 22 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES engines, 1877 (horse-power, 49,674); hands employed, 137,876 (men, 1)2,112; women, 35,478; youths, 10,286); capital, $185,000,357; wages, S61,948,874 ; materials, $181,261,223 ; products, $334,852,458. The clas- sification of the various branches was much more minute in the special report than in the census figures for the whole country. Special statistics were given of 548 branches and of a group of unclassified establishments, producing an aggregate of $1,666,564. The regular census report divided the manufiictures of the country into only 390 classes, several minor branches being frequently grouped together under one general heading. In giving special statistics, therefore, for the several businesses represented we have been obliged occasionally to group together several branches, or rather to jDlace under one branch or general heading the statistics as found in the census, then to refer under the other branches included in the group to the title under which the combined statistics of the group will be found. In many cases, on account of the minute subdivision in Mr. Blodget's report, it is possible to give special statistics for Philadelphia in branches which were omitted or included under a general heading in the regular census report. The manufactures of Philadelphia in 1875 are estimated by Mr. Blodget at $500,000,000. The census return for the manufactures of Alleghany county, Pa., was also about $100,000,000 short, as it gives a total of only $88,789,414, while the manufacturers paid tax that year on an aggregate product of about $190,000,000. Personal statistics have also been given sometimes in lieu of, and sometimes in connection with, returns of production. These statistics have been obtained from the " Table of Occupations" in the census report. Though this table is in some respects incomplete, the adult males of the country are as fully accounted for as could be expected. Of 10,429,150 between the ages of 16 and 59, inclu- sive, 9,486,734 were assigned gainful occupations. The great discrep- ancies which will be noticed between the number of " hands employed " in the factories producing or working over certain articles and the number returned in the Table of Occupations as working in these branches can be easily understood when it is remembered that the establishments mentioned in the "Table of Manufactures" are mainly those conducted on the factory principle, that the number of "hands employed" is the average number employed, and that in this number both unskilled laborers and skilled workmen were frequently returned (a practice which tended, of course, to increase the number credited to this branch), while, on the other hand, those not in factories, or who were not directly engaged in the manufacturing department of their business, were excluded by the plan of the "Table of Manufactures," but included in the returns of the "Table of Occupations." The nature of these personal statistics can be seen by examining the following return for persons "10 years old and over" engaged in all occupations: Number, 12,505,923 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 23 (males, 10,669,635; females, 1,836,288); ages, 10 to 15, 739,164; 16 to 59, 11,081,517; 60 aud over, 685,242; born in the United States, 9,802,- 034; Germany, 836,418 ; Ireland, 947,234 ; England and Wales, 301,795; Scotland, 71,922; British America, 189,318; Sweden, Norway and Den- mark, 109,658 ; France, 58,200 ; China and Japan, 46,274. According to the leading subdivision, these people are classed as engaged in agriculture, in "professional and personal services," in " trade and transportation" and in " manufactures and mining," with the following personal statistics : 1. Persona engaged in Agriculture, 5,922,471 (males, 5,525,503 ; females, 396,968); ages, 10 to 15, 499,558; 16 to 59, 4,959,890 ; 60 and over, 463,- 023 ; born in the United States, 5,303,363 ; Germany, 224,531 ; Ireland, 138,425; England and Wales, 77,173 ; Scotland, 17,850; British America, 48,288 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 50,480 ; France, 16,472 ; China and Japan, 2861. 2. Persons engaged in Professional and Personal Ser- vices, 2,684,793 (males, 1,618,121; females, 1,066,672); ages, 10 to 15, 149,491; 16 to 59, 2,428,147; 60 and over, 107,155; born in the United States, '1,858,178; Germany, 191,212; Ireland, 425,087; England ami Wales, 49,905 ; Scotland, 12,672 ; British America, 48,014; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 29,333; France, 13,102; China and Japan, 19,471. 3. Persons engaged in Trade and Transportation, 1,191,238 (males, 1,172,- 540; females, 18,698); ages, 10 to 15, 14,472; 16 to 59, 1,149,042; 60 and over, 27,724 ; born in the United States, 862,653; Germany, 112,435; Ireland, 119,094; England and Wales, 32,086; Scotland, 8440; British America, 16,565 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 9564 ; France, 8654 ; China and Japan, 2250. 4. Persons engaged in Manufactures and Mining, 2,707,421 (males, 2,353,471; females, 353,950); ages, 10 to 15, 75,643; 16 to 59, 2,544,438 ; 60 and over, 87,340; born in the United States, 1,777,- 840; Germany, 308,240 ; Ireland, 264,628 ; England and Wales, 142,631 ; Scotland, 32,960; British America, 76,451; Sweden, Norway and Den- mark, 20,281; France, 19,972; China and Japan, 21,962. 'The two lead- ing occupations included in the second class just given furnished employ- ment to nearly four-fifths (2,007,400) of the whole number engaged in personal and professional services, the returns being as follows : Domestic Servants, 975,734 (males, 108,380; females, 867,354); ages, 10 to 15, 109,- 503; 16 to 59, 838,400; 60 and over, 27,822; born in the United States, 729,180; Germany, 42,866; Ireland, 145,956; England and Wales, 12,531; Scotland, 3399; British America, 14,878; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 11,287; France, 2874; China and Japan, 5420. Laborers (not .-specified), 1,031,666 (males, 1,010,345; females, 21,321); ages, 10 to 15, 32,159 ; 16 to 59, 948,404 ; 60 and over, 51,103 ; born in the United States, 602,075; Germany, 96,432 ; Ireland, 229,199; England and Wales, 21,- 932; Scotland, 5723; British America, 25,394; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 15,459; France, 4832; China and Japan, 9436. The largest 24 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES single entry under the heading " persons engaged in trade and transporta- tion " was the following : Clerks in Stores, 222,504 (males, 216,310 ; females, 6194); ages, 10 to 15, 7085; 16 to 59, 213,588; 60 and over, 1831; born in the United States, 181,478; Germany, 16,886; Ireland, 9532 ; England and Wales, 5341 ; Scotland, 1537 ; British America, 2732 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 1044; France, 1166; China and Japan, 207. There was also the following separate return : Bookkeepers and Accountants in Stores, 31,177 (males, 30,884; females, 293); ages, 10 to 15, 63; 16 to 59, 30,563 ; 60 and over, 551 ; born in the United States, 24,494 ; Germany, 2250; Ireland, 1524; England and Wales, 1259; Scotland, 490; British America, 447 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 74 ; France, 186 ; China and Japan, 38. In the class engaged in manufactures and mining the number of " manufacturers " returned as such (meaning, of course, pro- prietors of establishments) was 42,877 (males, 42,687 ; females, 190) ; 16 to 59, 40,898; 60 and over, 1979; born in the United States, 31,962; Germany, 4896 ; Ireland, 1817; England and Wales, 2189; Scotland, 447 ; British America, 506; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 151; France, 308; China and Japan, 22. The question of the nativity of the inhabitants of this country (how many are native- and how many are foreign-born, with the nationalities of the latter) is so interesting that we feel that no apology is necessary for giving some facts from the census with reference to this important matter. The total foreign-born population of the United States in 1870 was 5,567,- 229, while the native population was 32,991,142. The foreign-born popu- lation in 1850 was 2,244,602, or 9.68 per cent, of the total population. In 1860 it was 4,138,697, or 13.16 per cent, of the total population; and in 1870 it was 14.44 per cent, of the total population. This increase in the proportion indicates a greater increase in the foreign-born population than in the native, and the exact figures are as follows : Increase of native pop- ulation between 1850 and 1860, 31.80 per cent.; increase of foreign-born population during the same period, 88.84 per cent. Increase of native population between 1860 and 1870, 20.83 per cent. ; increase of foreign- born population during the same period, 34.50 per cent. The leading States in foreign-born population in 1870 were New York (1,138,353), Pennsylvania (545,309), Illinois (515,198), Ohio (372,493), Wisconsin (364,499) and Massachusetts (353,319). The following statement from the census report gives — The Foreign-born Population, distributed according to Place of Birth among the principal Foreign Countries. Austria 30.508 Bc4gium 12,553 Bohemia 40,289 British America 493,464 China 63,042 Denmark 30,107 France 116,402 Germany 1,690,533 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 25 Great Britain (not specified)... 4,122 England 550,922 Ireland 1,855,827 Scotland 140,835 Wales 74,533 Hungary 3,737 Italy 17,157 Luxemburg ... 5,802 Mexico 42,435 Norway 114,246 Poland 14,436 Portugal 4,542 Russia 4,644 Holland 4(!,802 Spain 3,764 Sweden 97,332 Switzerland 75,153 West Indies 11,570 The German population came from so many different States that a special table was prepared in the census office of the German Population distributed according to Place of Birth among the principal States and Free Cities of Germany. Baden 153,366 Bavaria 204,119 Brunswick 4,876 Hamburg 7,829 Hanover 104,365 Hessen 131,524 Liibeck 279 Mecklenburo; 39,670 Nassau Oldenburg Prussia (not specified).... Saxony Weimar Wiirtemberg Germany (not sj^ecified). 8,962 10,286 596,782 45,256 1,628 127,959 253,632 The leading States in German population were New York (316,902), Illi- nois (208,758), North Carolina (182,897), Wisconsin (162,314) and Penn- sylvania (160,146), these five States containing 1,026,017 (60.75 per cent.) or more than three-fifths of the total German population. There were 151,216 Germans in the city of New York, 59,040 in St. Louis, 52,318 in Chicago, 50,746 in Philadelphia and 49,448 in Cincinnati. The leading States in Irish population were New York (528,806), Pennsylvania (235,- 798), Massachusetts (216,120) and Illinois (120,162), making for these four States 1,100,886 (59.32 per cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the total number of natives of Ireland in this country. The leading States in Eng- lish population were New York (110,070), Pennsylvania (69,665), Illinois (53,871), Ohio (36,561), Michigan (35,051) and Massachusetts (34,099), making for these six States 339,318 (61.61 per cent.), or more than three- fifths of the total English population in this country. The leading States in Scotch population were New York (27,282), Pennsylvania (16,846), Illinois (15,737), Massachusetts (9003) and Michigan (8552), making for these five States 77,420 (55 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total Scotch population in this country. The leading States in Welsh popula- tion were Pennsylvania (27,282), Ohio (12,939), New York (7857) and Wisconsin (6550), making for these four States 54,628 (73.33 per cent.), or nearly three-fourths of the total Welsh population in this country. There were 234,594 "natives of Great Britain and Ireland" in the city 26 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES of New York, 123,408 iu Philadelphia, 97,475 in Brooklyn, 64,787 in Boston, 54,800 in Chicago and 38,961 in St. Lonis. The leading States in British-American population were Michigan (89,590), New York (79,042), Massachusetts (70,055), Illinois (32,550), Vermont (28,544) and Maine (26,788), making for these six States 326,467 (66.15 per cent.), or very nearly two-thirds of the British-American population in this country. The leading States in Sivedi^h population were Illinois (29,979), Minnesota (20,987) and Iowa (10,796), making for these three States 61,752 (63.46 per cent.), or more than three-fifths of the total Swedish population in this country. The leading States in Nonvegian population were Wisconsin (40,046), Minnesota (35,940), Iowa (17,556) and Illinois (11,880), making for these four States 105,422 (92.31 per cent.), or more than nine-tenths of the Norwegian population in this country. The leading States in French population were New York (22,302), Ohio (12,781), Louisiana (12,341), Illinois (10,911), Pennsyl- vania (8695) and California (8068), making for these six States 75,098 (^64.52 per cent.), or nearly two-thirds of the total French population in this country. There were 8845 natives of France iu New Orleans, 8265 in New York, 3547 in San Francisco, 2788 in St. Louis and 2479 in Phil- adelphia. The returns of the native and foreign-born population of all nationalities for the principal cities were as follows: New York city, native, 523,198; foreign-born, 419,094; Philadelphia, native, 490,398; foreign-born, 183,624; Brooklyn, native, 251,381; foreign-born, 144,718; St. Louis, native, 198,615; foreign-born, 112.249; Chicago, native, 154,- 420 ; foreign-born, 144,557 ; Baltimore, native, 210,870 ; foreign-born. 56,484 ; Boston, native, 162,540 ; foreign-born, 87,986 ; Cincinnati, native. 136.627; foreign-born, 79,612; New Orleans, native, 142,943; foreign- born, 48,475; San Francisco, native, 75,754 ; foreign-born, 73,719; Buf- falo, native, 71,477; foreign-born, 46,237; Washington, native, 95,442; foreign-born, 13,757 ; Newark, native, 69,175 ; foreign-born, 35,884. In- teresting statistics were also collected of the population (whether native or foreign-born) of foreign parentage, the following being the figures : Hav- ing one or both parents foreign, 10,892,015; leading States, New York ^^ 2^225,627), Pennsylvania (1,151,208), Illinois (986,035\ Ohio (849,815), Wisconsin (717,832) and Massachusetts (626,211), making for these six States 6,556,728 (60.20 per cent.), or more than three-fifths of the total number ; having foreign father and native mother, 786,388 ; having foreign mother and native lather, 370,782; having both parents foreign, 9,734,845; leading States. New York (2,043,112), Pennsylvania (991,851), Illinois (890,823), Ohio (731,345), Wisconsin (670,759) and Massachusetts (590,- 352). making for these six States 4,918,242 (50.52 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total number. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 27 Additional Statistics from the Table of Occupations and the Table of Manufactures. Though a promise was given of a statistical and descriptive account of those departments only which are represented in the Advertisers' Index, various collateral branches have been put in under the proper headings in order to give as full a description as possible of the business of the country. The following statistics, taken from the two tables upon which we have been obliged to place our main reliance, will be of interest to the i-eader, and will tend to make this portion of the work still more complete. Two of the three so-called learned professions are given under Electropathic Physicians and Patent Lawyers. The number of Clergymen was 43,874 (males, 43,807 ; females, 67) ; ages, 16 to 59, 39,489 ; 60 and over, 4385; born in the United States, 35,668; Germany, 2745; Ireland, 1740; Eng- land and Wales, 1566 ; Scotland, 318 ; British America, 485 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 198 ; France, 416 ; China and Japan, 6. The longevity of clei-gymeu, as shown by this table, is specially noteworthy, the number of those who were 60 and over lacking only three of being ten per cent. (4388) of the total. Actors. Number, 2053 (males, 1361; females, 692); ages, 10 to 15, 25; 16 to 59 ; 2002 ; 60 and over, 26 ; born in the United States, 1328 ; Germany, 153; Ireland, 99; England and Wales, 234 ; Scotland, 11; British Amer- ica, 35 ; France, 31 ; China and Japan, 95. Agricultural Laborers. Number, 2,885,996 (males, 2,512,664; females, 373,332); ages, 10 to 15,499,474; 16 to 59, 2,287,708 ; 60 and over, 98,814 ; born in the United States, 2,700,268 ; Germany, 57,261 ; Ireland, 43,398; England and Wales, 19,122; Scotland, 3798; British America, 20,589; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 19,917; France, 4026; China and Japan, 1766. Auctioneers. Number, 2266 (males, 2254; females, 12); ages, 16 to 59, 2155; 60 and over. 111; born in the United States, 1907; Germany, 97; Ireland, 96; England and Wales, 87 ; Scotland, 17 ; British America, 19 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 3 ; France, 18. Bags (paper). Establishments, 39 ; steam-engines, 17 (horse-power, 321) ; water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 127) ; hands employed, 444 (men, 205 ; women, 206 ; youths, 33); capital, §473,100; wages, $134,932; materials, $1,053,483; products, $1,483,963. 28 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Bags (other than paper). Establishments, 89 ; steam-engines, 14 (horse-power, 239) ; water-wheels, 4 (horse-power, 125); hands employed, 1097 (men, 486: women, 502; youths, 109) ; capital, $1,290,500 ; wages, $452,517 ; materials, $3,827,678, products, $8,261,679. Bankers and Brokers of Money and Stocks. Number, 10,631 (males, 10,616; females, 15) ; ages, 10 to 15, 3; 16 to 59, 10,137 ; 60 and over, 491 ; born in the United States, 9004 ; Germany, 684; Ireland, 258 ; England and Wales, 311 ; Scotland, 90 ; British Amer- ica, 74 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 15 ; France, 85 ; China or Ja- pan, 1. Barkeepers. Number, 14,362 (males, 14,292; females, 70); ages, 10 to 15, 159; 16 to 59, 14,043 ; 60 and over, 160 ; born in the United States, 7330 ; Ger- many, 3508; Ireland, 1824; England and Wales, 444; Scotland, 81; British America, 221 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 89 ; France, 341 ; China and Japan, 4. Boarding- and Lodging-House Keepers. Number, 12,785 (males, 5725; females, 7060) ; ages, 16 to 59, 11,772; 60 and over, 1013; born in the United States, 7496; Germany, 1336; Ire- laud, 2173; England and Wales, 572; Scotland, 108; British America, 349 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 243 ; France, 153 ; China and Japan, 112. Brewers and Maltsters. Number, 11,246 (males, 11,238 ; females, 8) ; ages, 10 to 15, 45 ; 16 to 59, 11,037 ; 60 and over, 164; born in the United States, 2715; Germany, 6780; Ireland, 520; England and Wales, 389; Scotland, 73; British America, 92 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 44 ; France, 271 ; China and Japan, 5. Brooms and Whisk Brushes. Establishments, 35 ; steam-engines, 6 (horse-power, 178) ; water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 118) ; hands employed, 5206 (men, 3056 ; women, 992 ; youths, 1158) ; capital, $2,015,602 ; wages, $1,268,875 ; materials, $3,672,. 837 ; products, $6,622,285. Carpet-Makers. Number, 15,669 (males, 10,292; females, 5377) ; ages, 10 to 15, 522 ; KJ to 59, 13,628 ; 60 and over, 1519 ; born in the United States, 8518 ; Ger- many, 1725; Ireland, 2706; England and Wales, 1524; Scotland, 06} ; British America, 362 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 49 ; France, 70 ; China or Japan, 1. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 29 Clerks and Bookkeepers in Banks. Number, 7103 (males, 7081; females, 22) j ages, 10 to 15, 25; 16 to 59, 6994; 60 and over, 84; born in the United States, 6547; Germany, 198; Ireland, 91 ; England and Wales, 104 ; Scotland, 30 ; British America, 30; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 28; France, 37. Clerks and Bookkeepers in Insurance OflBces. Number, 1568 (males, 1562; females, 6); ages, 10 to 15, 13; 16 to 59, 1527 ; 60 and over, 28 ; born in the United States, 1437 ; Germany, 42 ; Ireland, 24; England and Wales, 34; Scotland, 5; British America, 12; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 4; France, 4. Coal-Oil (refined). Establishments, 170 ; steam-engines, 198 (horse-power, 4214) ; hands em- ployed, 1870 (men, 1834; woman, 1; youths, 35); capital, $6,770,383; wages, $1,184,559; materials, $21,450,189; products, $26,942,287. Cotton-Mill Operatives. Number, 111,606 (males, 47,208 ; females, 64,398) ; ages, 10 to 15, 19,946 ; 16 to 59, 88,840; 60 and over, 2820; born in the United States, 71,547; Germany, 1214; Ireland, 18,713; England and Wales, 10,091; Scotland, 1714 ; British America, 7683 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 35 ; France, 1 10 ; China and Japan, 3. Daguerreotypers and Photographers. Number, 7558 (males, 7330; females, 228); ages, 10 to 15, 32; 16 to 59, 7429 ; 60 and over, 97 ; born in the United States, 6327 ; Germany, 410; Ireland, 146; England and Wales, 287; Scotland, 42; British America, 165 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 54 ; France, 50 ; China and Japan, 5. Employes of Insurance Companies (not clerks). Number, 11,611 (males, 11,587 ; females, 24); ages, 10 to 15, 2 ; 16 to 59, 11,157; 60 and over, 452 ; born in the United States, 10,218; Ger- many, 625; Ireland, 205; England and Wales, 238; Scotland, 55; Brit- ish America, 126 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 17 ; France, 36. Employes of Telegraph Companies (not clerks). Number, 8316 (males, 7961 ; females, 355) ; ages, 10 to 15, 260 ; 16 to 59, 8027 ; 60 and over, 29 ; born in the United States, 7577 ; Germany, 98 ; Ireland, 226 ; England and Wales, 164 ; Scotland, 31 ; British Amer- ica, 159; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 21; France, 10. 30 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Farmers and Planters. Number, 2,977,711 (males, 5,955,030 ; females, 22,681); ages, 16 to 59, 2,618,000; 60 and over, 359,711; boru in the United States, 2,569,023; Germany, 159,114; Ireland, 88,923; England and Wales, 54,880 ; Scot- land, 13,050; British America, 27,171; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 30,259; France, 11,459; China and Japan, 366. Fishermen and Oystermen. Number, 27,106 (males, 27,071; females, 35); ages, 10 to 15, 827; 16 to 59, 24,882; 60 and over, 1397; born in the United States, 21,551;' Germany, 564; Ireland, 872; England and Wales, 443; Scotland, 95; British America, 1573; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 345; France, 165 ; China and Japan, 310. Gardeners and Nurserymen. Number, 31,435 (males, 31,202; females, 233); ages, 16 to 59, 27,748; 60 and over, 3687; born in the United States, 13,845; Germany, 6259; Ireland, 5079 ; England and Wales, 2378 ; Scotland, 756 ; British Amer- ica, 318; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 178; France, 679; China and Japan, 676. Hucksters. Number, 17,362 (males, 16,147; females, 1215); ages, 10 to 15, 157 ; 16 to 59, 16,297 ; 60 and over, 908; born in the United States, 10,909 ; Ger- many, 2296 ; Ireland, 2214 ; England and Wales, 455 ; Scotland, 71 ; Brit- ish America, 138 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 41 ; France, 295 ; China aind Japan, 55. Iron Foundry Operatives. Number, 34,235 ; ages, 10 to 15, 646 ; 16 to 59, 33,122 ; 60 and over, 477 ; born in the United States, 18,538 ; Germany, 4409 ; Ireland, 6826 ; England and Wales, 2196; Scotland, 732; British America, 742; Swe- den, Norway and Denmark, 184; France, 254. Iron Furnace Operatives. Number, 7452 ; ages, 10 to 15, 158; 16 to 59, 7068 ; 60 and over, 236; born in the United States, 4294; Germany, 562; Ireland, 1780; England and Wales, 612; Scotland, 48; British America, 61; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 14 ; France, 43. Iron and Steel Rolling'-Mill Operatives. Number, 17,249 ; ages, 10 to 15, 566 ; 16 to 59, 16,430 ; 60 and over, 253 ; born in the United States, 8703 ; Germany, 1793 ; Ireland, 3451 . England and Wales, 2717 ; Scotland, 155 ; British America, 138 ; Swe- den, Norway and Denmark, 46; France, 75 ; China or Japan, 2. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 31 Iron and Steel "Works Operatives. Number, 22,141 (males, 21,646; females, 495); ages, 10 to 15, 864; 16 to 59, 20,931 ; 60 aud over, 346 ; born in the United States, 14,278; Ger- many, 1410; Ireland, 3775; Eugland and Wales, 1878; Scotland, 222; IJiitisIi America, 291; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 22 ; France, 100. Journalists. Number, 5286 (males, 5251 ; females, 35) ; ages, 16 to 59, 5180; 60 and over, 106 ; born in the United States, 4411 ; Germany, 314 ; Ireland, 174 ; England and Wales, 183; Scotland, 55; British America, 54; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 20; France, 34; China or Japan, 1. Lumbermen and Raftsmen. * Number, 17,752 ; ages, 10 to 15, 48 ; 16 to 59, 17,357 ; 60 and over, 347 ; born in the United States, 13,550 ; Germany, 443 ; Ireland, 567; England and Wales, 263 ; Scotland, 171 ; British America, 1908 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmai'k, 356; France, 47 ; China and Japan, 111. Mechanics (branch not specified). Number, 16,514 (males, 13,955; females, 2559); ages, 10 to 15, 367 16 to 59, 15,514; 60 and over, 663; born in the United States, 11,865 Germany, 1870 ; Ireland, 1119 ; England aud Wales, 777 ; Scotland, 190 British America, 264 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 55 ; France, 166 China or Japan, 1. Mill and Factory Operatives (not specified). Number, 41,619 (males, 33,509 ; females, 8110); ages, 10 to 15, 3720 16 to 59, 37,233 ; 60 and over, 666 ; born in the United States, 29,392 Gei'many, 3099 ; Ireland, 3852 ; England and Wales, 1805 ; Scotland, 496 British America, 1597 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 343 ; France, 154 China and Japan, 203. Millers. Number, 41,582 (males, 41,343; females, 239); ages, 10 to 15,122; 16 to 59, 39,125 ; 60 and over, 2335 ; born in the United States, 35,290 Germany, 2614 ; Ireland, 867 ; England and Wales, 1434 ; Scotland, 323 British America, 431; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 133 ; France, 273 China and Japan, 11. Musicians (professional). Number, 6519 (males, 6346; females, 173) ; ages, 10 to 15, 46; 16 to 59, 6295 ; 60 and over, 178 ; born in the United States, 2663 ; Germany, 2401 ; Ireland, 351 ; England and Wales, 273 ; Scotland, 35 ; British America, 66 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 50; France, 131; China and Japan, 36. 32 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Nurses. Number, 10,976 (males, 806; females, 10,170); ages, 16 to 59, 9636; 60 and over, 1340; born in the United States, 8325; Germany, 458 ; Ire- land, 1346; England and Wales, 387; Scotland, 92; British America, 170 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 71 ; France, 54. OflBcials of Government. Number, 44,743 (males, 44,329; females, 414) ; ages, 16 to 59, 42,058; 00 and over, 2685 ; born in the United States, 38,461 ; Germany, 1800 ; Ireland, 2534 ; England and Wales, 867 ; Scotland, 226 ; British America, 302; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 116; France, 164; China and Ja- pan, 4. Peddlers. Number, 16,975 (males, 16,697 ; females, 278) ; ages, 10 to 15, 187 ; 16 to 59, 16,090; 60 and over, 698 ; born in the United States, 7072 ; Germany, 4799 ; Ireland, 2180 ; England and Wales, 571 ; Scotland, 108 ; British America, 211 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 78; France, 319; China and Japan, 152. Porters in Stores and "Warehouses. Number, 16,631 ; ages, 10 to 15, 286; 16 to 59, 15,964; 60 and over, 381; born in the United States, 8418; Germany, 2888; Ireland, 4100; England and Wales, 377 ; Scotland, 122 ; British America, 120 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 79; France, 164; China and Japan, 83. Produce Dealers. Number, 11,809 (males, 11,746; females, 63); ages, 16 to 59, 11,468; 60 and over, 341; born in the United States, 9171; Germany, 1056; Ire- land, 643 ; England and Wales, 356 ; Scotland, 78 ; British America, 155; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 29 ; France, 69 ; China and Japan, 27. Real Estate (Traders and Dealers in). Number, 8933 (males, 8919 ; females, 14); ages,'16 to 59, 8446; 60 and over, 488 ; born in the United States, 7391 ; Germany, 351 ; Ireland, 425; England and Wales, 269; Scotland, 63; British America, 77; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 15 ; France, 63 ; China and Japan, 2. Salesmen and Saleswomen. Number, 14,203 (males, 11,428; females, 2775); ages, 10 to 15, 365 16 to 59, 13,692; 60 and over, 146; born in the United States, 11,306 Germany, 973 ; Ireland, 1025 ; England and Wales, 374 ; Scotland, 158 British America, 184 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 10 ; France, 55. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 33 Ship-Carpenters. Number, 15,900 ; ages, 10 to 15, 10 ; 16 to 59, 15,102 ; 60 aud over, 788; born in the United States, 11,720 ; Germany, 644 ; Ireland, 1176 ; England and Wales, 545; Scotland, 295; British America, 1072; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 252 ; France, 74 ; China or Japan, 1. Soldiers (United States Army). Number, 22,081 ; ages, ] 6 to 59, 22,059 ; 60 aud over, 22 ; born in the United States, 11,478; Germany, 2997; Ireland, 4964; England and Wales, 986 ; Scotland, 328 ; British America, 392 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 171 ; France, 210. Stock Raisers. Number, 6588 (males, 6558; females, 30); ages, 16 to 59, 6888; 60 and over, 200 ; born in the United States, 5321 ; Germany, 214 ; Ireland, 222; England and Wales, 178; Scotland, 51 ; British America, 75 ; Swe- den, Norway aud Denmark, 26 ; France, 44. Teachers of Music. Number, 9491 (males, 3911 ; females, 5580) ; ages, 10 to 15, 19 ; 16 to 59, 9247 ; 60 aud over, 225 ; born in the United States, 7246 ; Germany, 1231; Ireland, 162; England and Wales, 339; Scotland, 36; British America, 125 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 38 ; France, 106. Teachers (not specified). Number, 126,822 (males, 42,775 ; females, 84,047); ages, 10 to 15, 336 ; 16 to 59, 124,030 ; 60 and over, 2456 ; born in the United States, 116,606 ; Germany, 3215 ; Ireland, 2568 ; England and Wales, 1290 ; Scotland, 390; British America, 1156 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 198 ; France, 696; China aud Japan, 6. Tobacco Factory Operators. Number, 11,985 (males, 9695; females, 2290); ages, 10 to 15, 2496; 16 to 59, 9369; 60 and over, 170; born in the United States, 10,266; Germany, 936 ; Ireland, 451 ; England and Wales, 96 ; Scotland, 10 ; Brit- ish America, 24 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 6 ; France, 36 ; China ur Japan, 1. Wheelwrighting". Establishments, 3613 ; steam-engines, 32 (horse-power, 554) ; water- wheels, 75 (horse-power, 983); hands employed, 6989 (men, 6915; womeu, ] 1 ; youths, 63) ; capital, $2,839,316 ; wages, $1,353,474 ; materials, $1,907,- 418; products, $5,846,943. 34 BUBLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. Wheel^wrights. Number, 20,942; ages, 10 to 15, 15; 16 to 59, 19,153; 60 and over, 1774; born in the United States, 14,477 ; Germany, 1416; Ireland, 652; England and Wales, 419 ; British America, 529 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 65; France, 130 ; China and Japan, 3. Wood-choppers. Number, 8338 ; ages, 10 to 15, 130 ; 16 to 59, 7931 ; 60 and over, 277 ; born in the United States, 6201 ; Germany, 322 ; Ireland, 196 ; England and Wales, 100; Scotland, 30; British America, 735; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 88 ; France, 81 ; China and Japan, 419. Woollen-Mill Operatives. Number, 58,836 (males, 36,060; females, 22,776) ; ages, 10 to 15, 7427 ; 16 to 59, 50,212; 60 and over, 1197; born in the United States, 32,083 ; Germany, 2664; Ireland, 12,231; England and Wales, 6609; Scotland, 1306 ; British America, 3175 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 69 ; France, 138; China and Japan, 97. S^^ Too Late for Classification. "'^M. Distillers. (For statistics of Distilled Liquors see under Wines and Liquors, p. 89.) The Hannis Distilling Company, 218 and 220 South Front street, Phil- adelphia, see page 891. Distillers and Rectifiers. Number, 2874 (males, 2868 ; females, 6) ; ages, 16 to 59, 2799 ; 60 and over, 75; born in the United States, 1610; Germany, 692; Ireland, 334 ; England and Wales, 79 ; Scotland, 11; British America, 23 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 7 ; France, 49. Wines and Liquors. (For statistics see under Wines and Liquors, page 89.) The Hannis Distilling Company, 218 and 220 South Front street, Phil- adelphia, see page 891. Tobias & Company, Joseph F., 241 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, see page 892. ADYEETISEES^ CLASSIFIED I^DEX, WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. Note. — The location of the houses mentioned under the various headings throughout this Index, where only the address of the street and number is given (except where it is otherwise stated), is in Philadelphia. .6®= The figures immediately following the addresses of the advertisers indicate the pages on which their cards appear. Agricultural Implements. (For statistics see American Manufactures, page 614.) Boyer Wm. L. & Brother, 2101 Gerraantowu avenue, 749. Buist Robert, Jr., 922 and 924 Market street, 799. Dreer Henry A., 714 Chestnut street, 721. Jones Wm. H., 1621 Market street, 844. Landreth David & Son, 23 South Sixth street, 841 and 842. Alcohols, etc. Locke Z. & Co., 1126 Market street, 775. Alcohol. — Establishments in 1860, 22; hands employed, 208; capital, ^000 ; wages, $82,068 ; materials, 13,567,062 ; products, $4,168,360. No special statistics for the whole country were given in the census of 1870, but the figures for Philadelphia were as follows : Alcohol (redistilled). — Establishments, 3 ; steam engines, 3 ; horse-power, 80 ; hands employed, 20 ; wages, $13,236 ; materials, $515,000 ; products, $640,250. Aquarium and Vivarium Manufacturers. Seal & Stephens, 622 Arch street, 780. Taxis E. W., 60 North Sixth street, 730. Artificial Limbs. Palmer B. Frank, M. D., 1609 Chestnut street, 784. During the civil war there were 12,000 soldiers in the Northern army, and 10,000 in the Southern army, who lost limbs and survived, and 10,000 artificial limbs were put on within one year after the end of the war. The United States government paid to the Federal soldiers (and pays every five years to the survivors) $50 for an arm and $75 for a leg, giving the peu- 35 36 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, sioner the option of receiving either the limb or the money. The number now put on is very materially reduced, and the census figures are as follows : Establishments, 24 ; steam engine, 1 (horse-power, 10) ; hands employed, 78 (70 men, 1 woman, 7 youths); capital, $122,300; wages, 636,079; materials, $59,894 ; products, $166,416. Artists. Winner W. E., 146 South Eighth street, 827. There were 2948 artists (not specified) in the United States in 1870. Males, 2663 ; females, 285. Ages, 10 to 15 years, 7 ; 16 to 59, 2843 ; 60 and over, 98. Born in the United States, 2029 ; Germany, 420 ; Ireland, 81; England and Wales, 176; Scotland, 24; British America, 48; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 14 ; France, 68 ; China and Japan, 2. The following are the statistics of those specified (as painters or sculptors) : Painters. — 775 (males, 717; females, 58); ages, 16 to 59, 755 ;' 60 and over, 20; born in the United States, 529; Germany, 114; Ireland, 15; England and Wales, 52 ; Scotland, 5 ; British America, 13 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 12 ; France, 15. Sculptors. — 250 (males, 246 ; females, 4) ; ages, 16 to 59, 238 ; 60 and over, 12 ; born in the United States, 130 ; Germany, 47 ; Ireland, 15 ; England and Wales, 10 ; Scotland, 4 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 2 ; France, 15. Artists' Materials. Janentzky & Co., 1125 Chestnut street, 739. Winner & Co., 146 South Eighth street, 827. Establishments, 8 ; steam-engines, 4 (combined horse-power, 40) ; hands employed, 50 (men, 38 ; women, 3; youths, 9) ; aggregate capital, 843,800 ; annual cost of labor, $20,062, and of materials, $21,680 ; value of artists' materials pi'oduced in 1870, $94,150. Auger and Bit Manufacturers. (For statistics see Hakdware.) De Witt, Morrison & Kelley, Twenty-second above Market street, 834. Pugh Job T., rear 3112 to 3120 Market street, 749. Awnings, Flags, etc. Scheible William F., 49 South Third street, 743. Establishments, 45 ; hands employed, 219 (men, 162 ; women, 49 ; youths, 8); capital, $132,475 ; annual wages, $87,424; materials, $371,677 ; value of product (awnings and tents), $625,269. In 1860 there were only 3 establishments; aggregate capital, 35000; hands employed, 25 (men, 9; women, 16); materials, $7225; wages, $6840; value of products, $18,500. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 'J' Bakers — Bread, etc. Cassady C. D., 45 North Thirteeuth street, 704. Fisher Michael, 639 North Fifteenth street, 839. Heinold Jno. M., 1432 Parrish street. Jaus Johu, 1717 Chestnut street, 735. Johnson Thomas, 302 North Thirteenth street. Junker John, 1233 Locust street. Kolb John G., 1407 to 1413 South Tenth street, 713. Langer P. J., 1131 Green street, 730. Lipp H. C. & Brother, 217 North Ninth street, 717. Mosebach H. (Cake), S. E. corner Eleventh and Poplar streets, 839. Mills Frank, Nineteenth street, below Spring Garden, 717. Mullin Hugh, 3924 Market street, 713. Partridge Thomas, 237 South Tenth street, 826. Rupp Thomas, 918 Race street. Wood A. W., 609 North Fifth street, 839. Young George, 3342 Market street, 704. Bakers — Cracker, etc. Camp W. E. & N. H., 625 and 627 North Broad street, 731. Carrick D. & Co., 1903 Market street, 742. Keebler Godfrey, 258 to 264 North Twenty-second street, 796. Wattson & Co., 157 North Front street, 847. Wilson Walter G. & Co., 212 and 214 North Front street, 742. Bakers — Pie. Hutchison W. D., 806 to 810 South Twelfth street, 839. Thumlert Charles, 476 North Fifth street, 758. Statistics of " bread, crackers and other bakery products:" Establish- ments, 3550; steam engines, 187 (combined horse-power, 2370); water- wheels, 2 (combined horse-power, 218) ; hands employed, 14,126 (men, 12,598; women, 842; youths, 686); capital, $10,025,966; annual cost of labor, $5,353,184, and of materials, $22,211,856 ; value of products in 1870, $36,907,704. This must have included only the larger bakeries, for in the table of occupations are found the following returns : Number of bakers in 1870, 27,680 (males, 27,442 ; females, 238) ; ages, 10 to 15, 537; 16 to 59, 26,592; 60 and over, 551; born in the United States, 11,167; Germany, 10,863 ; Ireland, 2421 ; England and Wales, 897 ; Scotland, 487 ; British America, 377 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 134; France, 628 ; China and Japan, 31. Exports of bread and biscuit during the year 1872-3, 11,700,767 pounds, worth $690,832; year ending June 30, 1874, 11.142,439 pounds, worth $676,197. 38 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX. Barbers' Supplies. Hambieton Job & Sou, 221 Spruce street, 735. Number of barbers and hair-dressers iu the United States iu 1870, 23,935 (males, 22,756; females, 1179); ages, 10 to 15, 315 ; 16 to 59, 23,340; 60 and over, 280; born in the United States, 16,377; Germany, 4814; Ire- land, 423; England and Wales, 381 ; Scotland, 71 ; British America, 350 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 67 ; France, 433 ; China and Japan, 243. Number of apprentices to barbei's, 859 (males, 853 ; females, 6) ; ages, 10 to 15, 265; 15 to 21, 594 ; born iu the United States, 685 ; Germany, 134 ; Ireland, 4 ; England and Wales, 12 ; Scotland, 1 ; British America, 7 ; France, 3. Bath Boilers and Tanks. (For statistics see Tin, Copper and Sheet-Iron Ware.) Myers George, 204 North Broad street, 746. Bed Coverlet Manufacturer. Schmidt George F., 1429 and 1431 Franklin street, 739. Table-cloths, quilts and counterpanes (cotton) manufactured iu 1870, 493,892 ; coverlids (woollen), 226,744. Belts and Belting Manufacturers. Alexander Brothers, 410 and 412 North Third street, 721. Arny Charles W., 148 North Third street, 836. Eckfeldt & Richie, 418 North Third street, 720. Forepaugh Wm. F., Jr., and Bros., Randolph and Jefferson streets, 747. Rorer Thomas J., 112 North Third street, 792. Belting and Hose (leather) : Establishments, 91 ; steam-engines, 13 (combined horse-power, 302) ; water-wheels, 3 (combined horse-power, 42); hands employed, 808 (men, 784; women, 8 ; youths, 16); aggregate capital, $2,118,577; annual cost of labor, $454,187, and of material, $3,231,204; value of products in 1870, $4,558,043. The India-rubber belting and hose made in 1870 amounted to 906,000 pounds. Billiard Table Manufacturers. Schaffer J. & Brother, 471 and 473 North Third street, 785. Establishments in 1870, 39 ; steam-engines, 4 (combined horse-power, 86) ; hands employed, 505 (men, 493 ; women, 2 ; youths, 10) ; aggregate cap- ital, $805,000 ; annual cost of labor, $383,768, and of materials, $650,864 ; value of products, $1,692,943. Value of billiard tables and apparatus ex- ported in 1872-3, $25,857, and in 1873-4, $48,799. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 39 Blacking Manufacturers. Bartlett H. A. & Co., 113 to 117 North Front street, 731. Cragin I. L. & Co., 119 South Fourth street, 741. Mason Jas. S. & Co., 140 N. Front, 806. Establishments in 1870, 32 ; steam-engines, 8 (combined horse-power, 91); hands employed, 305 (men, 134 ; women, 158 ; youths, 13) ; aggregate capital, $266,750 ; annual cost of labor, $107,450, and of material, $428,716; annual value of products, $817,768. According to the special report as revised by Mr. Blodget, there were 8 establishments in Phila- delphia. Steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 40) ; hands employed, 164 (men, 41; women, 113; youths, 10) ; capital, $140,500; wages, $60,500 ; mate- rials, $279,137 ; products, $455,572. Value of blacking exported from the United States during 1873-4, $67,987. Blacksmiths. Blacksmlthlng Establishments, 26,364 ; steam-engines, 69 (horse-power, 747) ; water-wheels, 66 (horse-power, 628) ; hands employed, 52,982 (men, 52,527; women, 9; youths, 446) ; capital, $15,977,992; wages, $9,246,549 ; materials, $13,223,907; products, $41,828,296. Blacksmiths, 141,774; ages, 10 to 15, 599 ; 16 to 59, 135,186 ; 60 and over, 5989 ; born in the United States, 101,567; Germany, 14,012; Ireland, 12,339; England and Wales, 5005; Scotland, 1401; British America, 3712; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 1236 ; France, 866 ; China and Japan, 44. Blank Books and Bookbinders. Arnold James, 22 South Fifth street, 825. Clark John C. & Sons, 230 Dock street, 739. Jones John, 712 Sausom street, 732. Southwick, McCay & Co., 38 Hudson street, 762. Establishments in 1870, 500 ; steam-engines, 77 (horse-power, 773) ; hands employed, 7967 (men, 3972; women, 3175; youths, 550); capital, $5,319,410 ; wages, $3,095,821 ; materials, $8,026,870 ; products, $14,077,- 309. The returns in the table of occupations are as follows : Bookbinders and finishers, 9104 (males, 6375 ; females, 2729) ; ages, 10 to 15, 448 ; 16 to 59, 8496; 60 and over, 160; born in the United States, 6460; Ger- many, 944 ; Ireland, 778 ; England and Wales, 498 ; Scotland, 93 ; British America, 120 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 52 ; France, 39. Bluing-. Bartlett H. A. & Co., 113 North Front street, 731. Wiltberger D. S., 233 North Second street, 739. Establishments, 11 ; steam-engine, 1 (horse-power, 60) ; hands employed,. 40 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, 54 (meu, 36; women, 11 ; youths,?); capital, $52,500; wages, $17,975; materials, $37,422 ; products, $92,100. Bobbin and Spool Manufacturers. (For statistics see Wood, Turned and Carved.) Cundey E. & Brother, 848 North Fourth street, 724. Bolts, Nuts, Screws, etc. M. J. Coleman Bolt and Nut Co., Hancock, Mascher and Columbia avenue, 728. Shields William, Twenty-third above Race street, 838. Sykes L. & Son, 723, 725 and 727 Richmond street, 779. Bolts, Nuts, Washers and Rivets. — Establishments, 93 ; steam-engines, 69 (horse-power, 2480) ; water-wheels, 24 (horse-power, 743) ; hands employed, 4423 (men, 3632 ; women, 89 ; youths, 702) ; capital, $4,263,227 ; wages, $1,665,426 ; materials, $4,021,070 ; products, $7,191,151. >S'crei«s.— Estab- lishments, ]8; steam-engines, 11 (horse-pow'er, 978); water-wheels, 3 (horse-power, 138) ; hands employed, 1582 (men, 924 ; women, 476 ; youths, 182); capital, $9,147,880; wages, $664,408; materials, $1,248,- 135 ; products, $3,425,473. Boiler-Makers. (See Steam-Engines and Boilers.) Boiler (Steam) Cleansing Compound. Lord George W., 232 Arch street, 819. Bone Work — Buttons, Dominoes, Fancy-Work, etc. Emil Wahl, 2342 Marshall street, 747. Buttons. — Establishments, 64 ; steam-engines, 31 (horse-power, 281) ; water-wheels, 20 (horse-power, 316) ; hands employed, 1912 (men, 617 ; women, 949; youths, 346); capital, $1,013,700; wages, $580,380; mate- rials, $751,183 ; products, $1,778,893. Bookbinders' Furnishing-House. (For statistics of bookbinding see Blank Books and Bookbinding.) Copper John C, S. E. corner Sixth and Minor streets, 823. Paquet E. R. (Bookbinders' Dies), 24 South Fifth street, 847. Booksellers and Publishers. Baker, Davis & Co., 17 South Sixth street, 827. Barnes A. S. & Co., New York, 760. Burley S. W., 152 South Fourth street, 793. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 41 Printing and Publishing (not specified). — Establishments, 311 ; steam- engines, 187 (horse-power, 2698) ; watei'-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 20) ; hands employed, 10,668 (men, 8718; women, 1231; youths, 719); capital, $16,839,993 ; wages, $7,156,332 ; materials, $11,398,131 ; products, $25,- 995,214. Book Printing and Publishing. — Establishments, 40 ; steam- engines, 28 (horse-power, 458) ; hands employed, 1390 (men, 920 ; women, 352; youths, 118); capital, $2,128,993; wages, $760,275; materials, $1,525,773; products, $3,568,823. Booksellers and Stationers, 3392 (males, 3337 ; females, 55) ; ages, 16 to 59, 3272 ; 60 and over, 120 ; born in the United States, 2417 ; Germany, 324 ; Ireland, 259 ; England and Wales, 188 ; Scotland, 65 ; British America, 29 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 21 ; France, 32; China oi- Japan, 1. Boots and Shoes. Funk George F., 633 Arch street, 744. Ilelweg & Co., 614 Arch street, 721. Meyer C. A. Adolph, 228 South Fourth street, 788. Smith George W., 3508 Market street, 835. Boot and Shoe Upper Manufacturers. Gremer J. F., 221 North Fourth street, 738. Ryan Joseph, 236 North Fourth street, 749. For statistics of the manufacture of boots and shoes in 1860 and 1870 see pages 612 and 614. The following statistics with reference to boot- and shoemakers are found in the table of occupations. Number in 1870, 171,- 127 (males, 161,485; females, 9642); ages, 10 to 15, 2328; 16 to 59, 159,542; 60 and over, 9257; born in the United States, 108,320; Ger- many, 28,226; Ireland, 16,998; England and Wales, 5082; Scotland, 1041 ; British America, 5506 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 1402 ; France, 1520 ; China and Japan, 489. Boring- Machines. Flanders L. B., Eleventh and Hamilton streets, 829. Bottle Moulds. Weidig & Yockel, 235 Bread street, 749. Box Makers — Cigar. Brecht Fred., Hillsdale street, between Third and Fourth, 836. Wemmer N. J. & Son, 215 Pear street, 812. Box Makers — Packing*. Belz Adam, 312 Cherrv street, 789. 42 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Meyer Martin, 217 Quarry street. Myers C, 514 North street, 836. Cigar Boxes. — Establishments, 104 ; steam-engines, 17 (horse-power, 200) ; water-wheels, 5 (horse-power, 73) ; hands employed, 783 (men, 486 ; women, 139; youths, 158); capital, $274,610 ; wages, $242,130 ; materials, $477,499 ; products, $960,222. Wooden PacHn^z-io-res.— Establishments, 489; steam-engines, 195 (horse-power, 4303); water-wheels, 148 (horse- power, 2642); hands employed, 4509 (men, 4084 ; women, 195; youths, 230); capital, $3,571,972; wages, $1,909,088; materials, $4,236,745; products, $8,222,433. Boxwood, Mahogany, etc. Wemmer N. J. & Son, 215 Pear street, 812. Entered into consumption in the United States in 1872-3 : Rosewood (value), $199,859 ; sandalwood, $266 ; all other cabinet woods not other- wise specified, $177,657; in 1873-4, rosewood, $208,160; all other cabinet woods, etc., $194,614.43. Brass Cock Manufacturers and Brass-Work. Lehman B. E., Bethlehem, Pa., 756. Everhart James M., Scranton, Pa,, 824. Brass Founders. Bradford John, 721 East York street. Halstead & Spencer, 1129 Cherry street, 819. Reeves Paul S., 760 South Broad street, 789. Brass and Copper Tubing. — Establishments, 3 ; steam-engines, 2 (horse- power, 80); hands employed, 121 (males above 16, 114 ; youths, 7) ; capi- tal, $203,600; wages, $60,434; materials, $345,875; products, $500,000. Brass Founding and Finishing. — Establishments, 275 ; steam-engines, 146 (horse-power, 1882); water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 266) ; hands employed, 3377 (men, 3102; women, 39; youths, 236); capital, $4,783,585 ; wages, $1,731,306 ; materials, $3,293,629 ; products, $6,855,756. Brewers, (See Wines and Liquors.) Brick Machines and Presses. Carnell F. L. & D. R., 1844 Germantown avenue, 724, Chambers, Bro. & Co., Fifty-second street and Lancaster avenue, 803. Brick. — Establishments, 3114; steam-engines, 372 (horse-power, 10,333); water-wheels, 19 (horse-power, 218) ; hands employed, 43,293 (men, 39,541 ; women, 258; youths, 3494) ; capital, $20,504,238 ; wages, $10,768,853; ma- WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 43 terials, ^7,413,097; products, $29,028,359. Brick- and Tile-makers, 26,007 (males, 25,996; females, 74); ages, 10 to 15, 1456; 16 to 59, 24,216; 60 and over, 398; born in the United States, 15,268 ; Germany, 3340; Ireland, 3443 ; England and Wales, 731 ; Scotland, 85 ; British America, 2269 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 305 ; France, 159 ; China and Japan, 62. Bridge Builders. Burton A. B., 430 Walnut street, 796. Cofrode J. H. & Co., 530 Walnut street, 731. Continental Bridge Company, 110 South Fourth street, 706. Keystone Bridge Company, 218 South Fourth street, 807. Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851, 852. Bridge Building. — Establishments, 64 ; steam-engines, 36 (horse-power, 1034); water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 40); hands employed, 2090 (men, 2069; youths, 21); capital, 82,973,250; wages, 81,123,353; materials, $3,239,771 ; products, $5,476,175. Bridge Builders and Contractors, 1029; ages, 16 to 59, 1013; 60 and over, 16; born in the United States, 860; Germany, 23 ; Ireland, 80 ; England and Wales, 22 ; Scotland, 9 ; British America, 7 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 3 ; France, 3. Bronze Ware. (See Hardware.) Clamer Francis J. & Co., 909 North Ninth street, 740. Bronze Work — Statuary Bronzes, etc. Wood Robert & Co., 1136 Ridge avenue, 700. Bronze Castings. — Establishments, 9 ; steam-engines, 2 (horse-power, 45) ; hands employed, 187 (men, 156; women, 29; youths, 2); capital, $539,300; wages, $111,714; materials, $63,375; products, $280,400. Builder — Composite and Iron Houses. Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851, 852. Builders' Supplies. French E. D. & W. A., Third and Vine streets, Camden, N. J., 707. Builders and Contractors, 7511 (males, 7508; females, 3); ages, 16 to 59, 7177; 60 and over, 334; born in the United States, 4977; Ger- many, 483; Ireland, 1263; England and Wales, 404; Scotland, 104; British America, 145 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 36 ; France, 44 ; China or Japan, 1. Butchers' Tools. Nittiuger August, Jr., 828 North Fourth street, 759. 44 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Butchers, 44,354; ages, 10 to 15, 838 ; 16 to 59, 42,841 : 60 and over, 1175. Born in the United States, 23,412; Germany, 13,227; Ireland, 2646; England and Wales, 2089; Scotland, 247; British America, 504; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 123; France, 1076; China and Japan, 85. Butchering Establishments (including only the larger ones), 509 ; steam-engines, 18 (horse-power, 247) ; water-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 6); hands employed, 1881 (men, 1851 ; women, 11; youths, 19) ; capital, $2,099,905; wages, $546,346; materials, $11,039,928; products, 113,686,061. Cars, Railroad and Repairing. (See Railroads.) Card and Card-Board. Beck Charles, 16 South Sixth street, 720. Collins A. M., Son & Co., 18 South Sixth street, 718. Restein Brothers, 1218 South Eighth street, 839. Cards. — Establishments, 18; steam-engines, 11 (horse-power, 179); hands employed, 653 (men, 235 ; women, 373 ; youths, 45) ; capital, $984,600 ; wages, $247,136 ; materials, $864,800 ; products, $1,519,000. Carpentering and Building-. Establishments, 17,142 ; steam-engines, 289 (horse-povver, 4654) ; water- wheels, 73 (horse-power, 1140) ; hands employed, 67,864 (men, 67,306 ; women, 5; youths, 553) ; capital, $25,110,428 ; wages, $29,169,588 ; mate- rials, $65,943,115 ; products, $132,901,432. Carpenters and Joiners, 344,- 596; ages, 10 to 15, 864; 16 to 59, 329,962; 60 and over, 13,770; born in the United States, 264,531 ; Germany, 29,704 ; Ireland, 16,566 ; Eng- land and Wales, 9784; Scotland, 2845; British America, 11,288 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 3500 ; France, 1796 ; China and Japan, 155. Carpets. Gould & Co., Ninth and Market streets. See inside front cover. Carpets (rag). — Establishments, 474 ; steam-engines, 2 (horse-power, 60) ; water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 24) ; hands employed, 1016 (men, 874 ; women, 116; youths, 26); capital, $310,744; wages, $141,148; materials, $498,595; products, $1,005,327. Carpets (other than rag). — Establish- ments, 215 ; steam-engines, 45 (horse-power, 3017) ; water-wheels 18 (horse-power, 702) ; hands employed, 12,098 (men, 6808 ; women, 4316 ; youths, 974) ; capital, $12,540,750 ; wages, $4,681,718 ; materials, $13,577,- 993 ; products, $21,761,573. Carriage and Coach Manufacturers. Allgaier John, S. E. corner of Fifth and Buttonwood streets, 819. Beckhaus Joseph, 1204 Frankford avenue, 815. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 45 Caffrey Charles S., Caniden, N. J., 794 and 795. Cuuningham P. B. & Co., Bethlehem, Pa., 827. Duulap Henry, 475 North Fifth street, 834. Eaches William, 410 Girard avenue and 1168 North Fourth street, 763. Fleming James, S. E. corner of Twelfth and Thompson streets, 721. Gardner William D., 214 South Fifth street, 796. Lane David M. & Son, 3432 Market street, 709. Rech Jacob, S. E. corner of Eighth and Girard avenue, 746. Rogers William D. & Co., 1009 and 1011 Chestnut street, front of book. Rodgers, Dean & Monteith, 1537 Filbert street, 745. Wallis & Blackiston, 1541 Ridge avenue, 763. Weaver & Lyle, 216 and 218 North Broad street, 818. Wenzler G., 329 and 331 North Broad street, 789. Carriage Wood-Work. Clymer F. T., Wilmington, Delaware, 779. Carriages and Sleds {children's). — Establishments, 53 ; steam-engines, 22 (horse-power, 366) ; water-wheels, 21 (horse-power, 391) ; hands employed, 913 (men, 780 ; women, 89 ; youths, 44) ; capital, $746,628 ; wages, 8407,- 327 ; materials, $495,281 ; products, $1,432,833. Carriages and. Wagons. — Establishments, 11,847; steam-engines, 279 (horse-power, 4169); water- wheels, 363 (horse-power, 4651) ; hands employed, 54,928 (men, 54,280 ; women, 76; youths, 572 ;. ; capital, $36,563,095; wages,-$21,272,730 ; ma- terials, $22,787,341 ; products, $65,362,837. Carriage- and Wagon-makers, 42,464 (males, 42,432 ; females, 32) ; ages, 10 to 15, 208 ; 16 to 59, 40,738; 60 and over, 1518; born in the United States, 32,244; Germany, 5196; Ireland, 1590; England and Wales, 1162; Scotland, 222; British Amer- ica, 977 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 288 ; France, 288 ; China and Japan, 3. Cattle Powder. Miller F. A., 129 North Front street, 808. Cement. French E. D. & W. A., Third and Vine streets, Camden, N. J., 707, Mitchell J. E., 310 York avenue. Portland Cement, pure as imported. Establishments, 45 ; steam-engines, 23 (horse-power, 1190) ; water-wheels, 23 (horse-power, 900); hands employed, 1632 (men, 1508; youths, 124); capital, $1,521,500; wages, $631,993; materials, $773,192; products, $2,033,893. Cemeteries. Mount Vernon Cemetery Company, corner of Ridge and Lehigh ave- nues, office, 137 South Fifth street, 801. 46 ADVEETISEBS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Chemical Stoneware Manufactory. Remmey Richard C, 2363 Frankford avenue, 727. iStone and Earthemvare. — Establishments, 777 ; steam-engines, 82 (horse- power, 1586); water-wheels, 8 (horse-power, 122) ; hands employed, 6116 (men, 5059; women, 316; youths, 741); capital, $5,294,398; wages, $2,247,173 ; materials, $1,702,705 ; products, $6,045,536. Chemists, Manufacturing. (For statistics, see Dritgs and Chemicals.) Browning & Brothers, 42 and 44 North Front street, 719. Hauce Brothers & White, Philadelphia, 796. Harrison Brothers & Co., 105 South Front street, 704. Phillips Moro, Philadelphia, 702. China Decorators. Haden Thomas, 3633 Market street, 762. Phillips .Joseph W., Jr., 132 North Seventeenth street, 736. Entered into consumption in the United States in 1871-2, China, Por- celain and Parian Ware, Plain White, $470,749.50; in 1872-3, $479,617.15 ; in 1873-4, $397,729.90. China, Porcelain and Parian Ware, Gilded and Ornamented, in 1871-2, $814,133.52 ; in 1872-3, $867,205.77 ; in 1873-4, $676,655.61. Chiropodist. Burdict S. P., 1338 Parrish street, 742. Chiropodists, 65 (males, 63 ; females, 2) ; ages, 16 to 59, 60 ; 60 and over, 5 ; born in the United States, 47 ; Germany, 4 ; Ireland, 3 ; Eng- land and Wales, 5 ; Scotland, 1 ; British America, 1 ; France, 2. Cigar Manufacturers. (For statistics of cigars and tobacco, see pages 571, 615, 616.) Batchelor Brothers, 808 Market street, 783. Cigar-makers, 28,286 (males, 26,442 ; females, 1844) ; ages, 10 to 15, 1209; 16 to 59, 26,893; 60 and over, 184; born in the United States, 13,833 ; Germany, 9292 ; Ireland, 547 ; England and Wales, 804 ; Scotland, 51 ; British America, 177 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 114 ; France, 162 ; China and Japan, 1727. Civil Engineers. , (For statistics, see Engineers, etc.) Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851, 852. Clocks, Regulators, etc. Cooke B. J., 137 North Third street, 781. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 47 Establishments, 26 ; steam-engines, 12 (liorse-power, 502) ; water-wheels, 14 (horse-power, 277); hands employed, 1330 (men, 1177; women, 66; youths, 87); capital, $882,700; wages, $805,340; materials, $808,409; products, $2,509,643. Clothiers. Rockhill & Wilson, 603 and 605 Chestnut street, 746. Men's Clothing. — Establishments, 7838 ; steam engines, 37 (horse-power, 457); water-wheels, 3 (horse-power, 96); hands employed, 106,679 (men, 46,934 ; women, 58,466 ; youths, 1279); capital, $49,891,080 ; wages, $30,- 535,879 ; materials, $86,117,231 ; products, $147,650,378. Womeiis Cloth- ing. — Establishments, 1847; steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 35); water- wheels, 2 (horse-power, 125) ; hands employed, 11,696 (men, 1105; women, 10,247 ; youths, 344) ; capital, $3,520,218 ; wages, $2,513,956 ; materials, 86,837,978 ; products, $12,900,583. Coal Miners and Shippers. (For Iron Coal, Breaker see page 851. For statistics of coal see Physical Geog- raphy, pp. 180, 181, and Pennsylvania, in Topography, pp. 349, 350.) Pardee A. & Co., 303 Walnut street and Trinity Building, N. York, 768. 3Iiners, 152,107 (males, 152,061 ; females, 46) ; ages, 10 to 15, 3524 ; 16 to 59, 144,420 ; 60 and over, 4163 ; born in the United States, 57,388 ; Germany, 8579 ; Ireland, 22,822 ; England and Wales, 28,877 ; Scotland, 5515 ; British America, 2489 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 1559 ; France, 1731; China and Japan, 17,069. Commercial and Mercantile Ag-ency. Dun R. G. & Co., 618 Chestnut street, 823. Traders and Dealers {not specified), 100,406 (males, 97,573 ; females, 2883); ages, 10 to 15, 387; 16 to 59, 96,067; 60 and over, 3952; born in the United States, 74,381 ; Germany, 11,078 ; Ireland, 5647 ; Eng- land and Wales, 2992; Scotland, 800; British America, 985; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 376; France, 1308; China and Japan, 604. Com- mercial travellers, 7262 (males, 7230; females, 32); ages, 10 to 15, 4; 16 to 59, 7103; 60 and over, 155 ; born in the United States, 6203; Germany, 350 ; Ireland, 222; England and Wales, 235 ; Scotland, 51 ; British Amer- ica, 84 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 27 ; France, 19. Concrete. (For statistics see Cement.) Mitchell J. E., 310 York avenue, Philadelphia, Tiles, House Fronts, etc., of pure Cement and Silica. 48 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Confectioners' Tools and Machines, Andress Thomas J. & Co., 229 Vine street, 774. Mills Thomas & Bro., N. E. cor. Eighth and Thompson streets, 817. Confectioners, Manufacturing. Campbell S. S. & Co., 422 Market street, 752. Croft, Wilbur & Co., 125 North Second street, 693. Greer G. N., K E. corner Tenth and Walnut streets, 702. Harbach Bros., 36 North Eighth street and 809 Filbert street, 708. j Holt A. W., 1009 Walnut street, 804. Whitman E. G. & Co., 812 Chestnut street, 815. Whitman Stephen F. & Son, Twelfth and Market streets and 1004 Chestnut street, 716. Confectionery. — Establishments, 949 ; steam-engines, 41 (horse-power, 550) ; w-ater-wheels, 3 (horse-power, 23) ; hands employed, 5285 (men, 4151; women, 1225; youths, 449); capital, $4,995,293; wages, $2,091,826; materials, $8,703,560; products, $15,922,643. Confectioners, 8219 (males, 7607; females, 612); ages, 10 to 15, 84; 16 to 59, 7881; 60 and over, 254; born in the United States, 4350; Germany, 2185; Ireland, 477; England and Wales, 312; Scotland, 101 ; British America, 114; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 30 ; France, 225 ; China and Japan, 6. Cooper. Wischman Herman, 122 Pegg street and 123 Willow street, 756. Cooperage. — Establishments, 4961 ; steam-engines, 153 (horse-power, 3653) ; water-wheels, 147 (horse-power, 2644) ; hands employed, 23,314 (men, 22,764; women, 20; youths, 530); capital, $9,798,847; wages, $7,819,813; materials, $12,831,796; products, $26,863,734. Coopers, 41,789; ages, 10 to 15, 349; 16 to 59, 38,830; 60 and over, 2610; born iu the United States, 25,903 ; Germany, 8954 ; Ireland, 3484 ; England and Wales, 706 ; Scotland, 232 ; British America, 973 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 272; France, 589 ; China and Japan, 11. Cordage, Rope and Twine. Baumgarduer, Woodward & Co., 38 South Delaware avenue, 698, 847. Establishments, 201 ; steam-engines, 36 (horse-power, 2381) ; water- wheels, 30 (horse-power, 664); hands employed, 3698 (men, 2115; women, 779; youths, 804); capital, $3,530,470; wages, $1,234,272; materials, $5,739,608 ; products, $8,978,382. Cork Manufacturers and Dealers. Butz Alfred L., 829 and 831 North Third street, 835. Brauer & Brueckinann, 248 North Front street, 847. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 49 Guimaraes Jose de Bessa, 130 Waluut street, 833. Murphy & Mouaghan, 522 South Fifth street, 839. Pearsou S. B. & Co., Fifty-secoud street and Lancaster avenue, 740. Eossell Charles N., 417 North Third street, 729. Wilkie Samuel, 842 North Third street, 737. Cork wood {alcornoque) or bark (unmanufactured) entered into con- sumption in the United States in 1870-71, $266,644.97 ; in 1871-2, $484,- 348.04 ; in 1872-3, $645,928 ; in 1873-4, $435,270. Cork (manufactured), in 1870-71, $144,578; in 1871-2, $125,480; in 1872-3, $159,602; in 1873-4, $115,727. Costumer. Desmond W. C, 917 Race street, 835. Cotton Bale-ties. Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851, 852. Cotton and Woollen Machinery. (For statistics of cotton, see Table VI. in Appendix ; also pages 570, 571, 614 ; and for woollen goods, see page 615.) Bridesburg Manufacturing Company, 65 North Front street, 822. Cotton and Woollen Machinerxj. — Establishments, 338 ; steam-engines, 136 (horse-power, 3383) ; water-wheels, 115 (horse-power, 2543) ; hands em- ployed, 8918 (men, 8438 ; women, 326 ; youths, 154) ; capital, $10,603,424 ; , wages, $4,632,913 ; materials, $5,246,874 ; products, $13,311,118. Crucible Manufacturers. Strow, Wile & Co., 1330 to 1334 CallowhiU street, 837. Newkumet Adam, 1537 North Front street, 704. Taylor Robert & Co., corner of Nineteenth and CallowhiU streets, 768. Establishments, 10; steam-engines, 7 (horse-power, 155); hands era- ployed, 119 (men, 112; youths, 7); capital, $699,000; wages, $127,188; materials, $538,712; products, $1,117,463. Crucibles of foreign manufac- ture entered into consumption in the United States in 1870-1, lead, $85; sand, $2191 ; in 1871-2, lead, $3983; sand, $4102; in 1872-3, lead, $451 ; sand, $981 ; in 1873-4, lead, $328 ; sand, $813. Cutlery Manufacturers. Herder L. & Son, 606 Arch street, 809. Cutlery and Edge Tools (not specified). — Establishments, 184; steam- engines, 61 (horse-power, 1405) ; water-wheels, 87 (horse-power, 2601) ; hands employed, 4428 (men, 3966 ; women, 226 ; youths, 236) ; capital, $4,127,547 ; wages, $2,131,758 ; materials, $1,624,043 ; products, $5,621,841. Cutlery of foreign manufacture entered into consumption in the United 4 50 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, States in 1870-1, $1,986,,010.09 ; in 1871-2, $2,160,886.45; in 1872-3, $2,244,352.41 ; in 1873-4, $1,615,984.04. Dentistry. Thomas Dr. J. D., 912 Walnut street, 778. Wardle Tliomas, M.D., D.D., 1029 Race street, 694. Dentists' Gold Foil. Abbey Charles & Sous, 230 Pear street. Dentistry, Mechanical. — Establishments, 650 ; steam-engines, 2 (horse- power, 6); hands employed, 1020 (men, 991; women, 15; youths, 14); capital, $621,762; Avages, $184,272; materials, $441,534; products, $1,634,844. Dentists, 7839 (males, 7815; females, 24); ages, 16 to 59, 7678 ; 60 and over, 163 ; born in the United States, 7299 ; Germany, 146 ; Ireland, 58; England and Wales, 116; Scotland, 24; British America, 106 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 9 ; France, 21. Gold Leaf and Foil. — Establishments, 51 ; steam-engines, 4 (horse- power, 98); hands employed, 613 (men, 373; women, 189; youths, 51); capital, $412,905; wages, $264,408; materials, $621,773; products, $1,411,431. Dredging. American Dredging Company, 10 South Delaware avenue, 775. Druggists (Retail). Brown Frederick, N. E. corner of Fifth and Chestnut streets, 778. Davis G. H., 1050 Germantown avenue, 724. Davis Robert Coulton, S. E. corner of Sixteenth and Vine streets, 834. Hufnal J. T., 1900 Green street, 713. Knight William E., S. E. corner of Tenth and Locust streets, 742. Keys Roger, N. W. corner of Twelfth and Pine streets, 736. Kunkel E. F., 259 North Ninth street, 729. Marks James N., 3742 Market street, 713. Mussou W. A., 2043 Chestnut street, 839. Shiun James T., S. W. corner Broad and Spruce streets, 717. Van Buskirk & Apple, Second and Dauphin streets, 804. Witnier D. L. & Brother, junc. of Fifth and Germantown avenue, 786. Wyeth John & Brother, 1412 Walnut street, 806. Druggists (Wholesale). Mackeown, Bower, Ellis & Co., 1000 Market street, 827. Shoemaker Robert & Co., N. E. corner of Fourth and Race streets, 728. Drugs and Chemicals. — Establishments, 292; steam-engines, 114 (horse- power, 3637) ; water-wheels, 17 (horse-power, 445) ; hands employed, 4729 WITH SPECIAL Sl'ATISTICS. 51 (men, 4026; women, 452; youths, 251); capital, $12,750,800; wages, ^2,141,238; materials, $11,681,405; products. $19,417,194. Druggists, 17,369 (males, 17,335 ; females, 34) ; ages, 16 to 59, 16,977 ; 60 and over, 392; bora in the United States, 14,273; Germany, 1470; Ireland, 339; England and Wales, 607 ; Scotland, 88 ; British America, 189 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 64; France, 118; China and Japan, 51. Dry Goods (Wholesale and Retail). (For statistics of Cotton and Woollen Goods, see pages 570, 571, 614, 615.) Homer, Colladay & Co., 1412 and 1414 Chestnut street, 757. Sharpless & Sous, N. W. corner of Eighth and Chestnut streets, 812. Williams-, Yerkes & Co. (wholesale), 611 Market street, 887. Traders in Dry Goods in 1870, 39,790 (males, 39,129; females, 661); ages, 16 to 59, 38,543 ; 60 and over, 1247 ; born in the United States, 31,180; Germany, 4564; Ireland, 1505; England and Wales, 786; Scot- land, 319; British America, 242; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 122; France, 369 ; China and Japan, 4. Dye-Woods, Dye-Stuffs, etc. Browning & Brothers, 42 and 44 North Front street, 719. Dye- Woods, Stvffs and Extracts. — Establishments, 19 ; steam-engines, 22 (horse-power, 1004) ; water-wheels, 7 (horse-power, 565) ; hands employed, 548 (men, 517 ; women, 5 ; youths, 26) ; capital, $1,227,500 ; wages, $300,- 755; materials, $1,275,434 ; products, $2,053,300. Dyers and Scourers. Klauder R., Howard, corner of Oxford street, 730. Bleaching and Dyeing. — Establishments, 250; steam-engines, 101 (horse- power, 4278); water-wheels, 26 (horse-power, 1384); hands employed, 4172 (men, 3279 ; women, 680; youths, 213); capital, $5,006,950 ; wages, $1,783,449; materials, $53,166,634; products, $58,571,493. Bleachers, Dyers and Scourers, 4901 (males, 4582; females, 319); ages, 10 to 15, 141 ; 16 to 59, 4552 ; 60 and over, 208 ; born in the United States, 2013 ; Germany, 705; Ireland, 1091 ; England and Wales, 614; Scotland, 165; British America, 39 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 22; France, 162. Electro-Magnetic Machines. Neff William C, Philadelphia, 758. Electropathic Physician. Armitage Dr. Thomas, N. E. corner Fifteenth and Cherry streets, 736. Physicians and Surgeons, 62,383 (males, 61,858 ; females, 525) ; ages, 16 to 59, 57,947; 60 and over, 4436; born in the United States, 55,920; 52 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Germany, 2362 ; Ireland, 918 ; England and Wales, 983 ; Scotland, 268; British America, 793; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 82; France, 308; China and Japan, 193. Elevators, Hoists, Dumb-waiters. Murtaush's, Isaac Richards, 2217 Chestnut street, 836. Stokes & Parrish, N. W. corner Thirtieth and Chestnut streets, 756. Encaustic Floor Tiles. Sharpless & Watts, 1325 Market street, 714. Encaustic Tiles entered into consumption in the United States in 1870-71, (value), S4771 ; 1871-2, $8083; 1872-3, $18,717; 1873-4, $14,193. Engineers, Contractors, etc. (See also Bridge Builders.) Starr Jesse W. & Son, 435 and 437 Chestnut street, 726. Civil Engineers, 4703; ages, 10 to 15, 1; 16 to 69, 4574; 60 and over, 128 ; born in the United States, 3959; Germany, 191; Ireland, 167 ; Eng- land and Wales, 206 ; Scotland, 39 ; British America, 42 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 17; France, 31. Engineers and Firemen, 34,233; ages, 10 to 15, 33 ; 16 to 59, 33,857 ; 60 and over, 343 ; born in the Uni- ted States, 24,286; Germany, 2098; Ireland, 3317; England and Wales, 2550 ; Scotland, 742 ; British America, 653 ; Sweden, Norway and Den- mark, 127; France, 179. Engravers. Crosscup & West (wood), 702 Chestnut street, 709. Gafney James F., 53 North Seventh street, 788. Paquet E. R. (general), 24 South Fifth street, 847. Sartain John (plate), 728 Sansom street, 734. Taylor & Smith (wood), 113 South Fourth street, 754. Engravers, 4226 (males, 4197; females, 29); ages, 10 to 15, 48 ; 16 to i 59, 4102; 60 and over, 76; born in the United States, 2286; Germany, 890; Ireland, 230; England and Wales, 434; Scotland, 103; British America, 49; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 18; France, 113; China or Japan, 1. Engraving. — Establishments, 157 ; steam-engines, 13 (horse- power, 151) ; hands employed, 1407 (men, 1047 ; women, 269 ; youths, 91) ; capital, 81,744,795; wages, $1,022,090; materials, $452,072; products, $2,093,482. Fancy Cabinet-ware. Goft' R. W. P., 625 and 627 Wall street, 844. Traders and Dealers in Cabinet-ware, 4087 (males, 4071 ; females, 16) ; ages, 16 to 59, 3928 ; 60 and over, 159 ; born in the United States, 2756 ; WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 53 Germany, 673; Irelaud, 258; England and Wales, 179; Scotland, 34; British America, 62; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 16; France, 41. Cabinet-makers, 42,835 (males, 42,123; females, 712); ages, 10 to 15, 886; 16 to 59, 39,854; 60 and over, 2095; born in the United States, 25,293; Germany, 11,798; Ireland, 1595; England and Wales, 1020; Scotland, 240; British America, 849 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 632 ; France, 518; China and Japan, 11. See also Furniture Manufacturers, etc. Fancy Goods. Binder Mrs. M. A., Eleventh and Chestnut streets, 761. Bond Francis, 139 South Eighth street, 766. Fancy Articles. — Establishments, 13; steam-engines, 2 (horse-power, 77); water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 22); hands employed, 191 (men, 82; women, 94; youths, 15); capital, $172,650; wages, $65,435; materials, $77,627; products, $188,830. Fertilizers. Jones William H., 1621 Market street, 844. Phillips Moro, Philadelphia, 702. Fertilizers (not plaster, ground). — Establishments, 126; steam-engines, 69 (horse-power, 2307) ; water-wheels, 33 (horse-power, 644) ; hands em- ployed, 2501 (men, 2470; women, 19 ; youths, 12); capital, $4,395,948; wages, $766,712; materials, $3,808,025; products, 85,815,118. Special statistics for Philadelphia: Fertilizers, Phosphate, Poudretie. — Establish- ments, 8; steam-engines, 6 (horse-power, 325); hands employed, 246; capital, $1,105,000; wages, $137,744; materials, $509,660; products, $1,035,952. Files and Rasps. Barnett G. & H., 41 Richmond street, 730. Disstou H. & Sons, Front and Laurel streets, 750. Files. — Establishments, 121; steam-engines, 30 (horse-power, 780); water-wheels, 18 (horse-power, 216); hands employed, 1581 (men, 1356; women, 59 ; youths, 166) ; capital, $1,659,370; wages, $638,982 ; materials, $468,303 ; products, $1,649,394. Fire-brick Manufacturers. (For general stcatistics of Bricks, see Brick Machines and Presses.) Neukumet Philip, Twenty-third and Vine streets, 828. Remmey Richard C, 1100 East Cumberland street, 727. No special statistics for Fire-bricks were given for the whole country, but for Philadelphia the statistics were as follows : Establishments, 8 ; using steam, 6 (horse-power, 117); hands employed, 209 (men, 188; youths, 54 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, 21); capital, $530,000 ; Avages, $108,686; materials, $228,250 ; products, $501,850. Fire Extinguishers. Piatt W. K. & Co., 212 Market street, 826. Fire Hydrants. Starr Jesse W. & Son, 435 and 437 Chestnut street, 726. Florist. Mackenzie Thos. J., Broad street and Columbia avenue, 778. Florids, 1085 (males, 1046; females, 39); ages, 16 to 59, 1044; 60 and over, 41 ; born in the United States, 522 ; Germany, 183 ; Ireland, 104 ; England and Wales, 135; Scotland, 63; British America, 9; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 6 ; France, 48. Forwarding and Transportation. (See Railroads ; also, American Railroads, pages 627-632.) Clyde W. P. & Co., 12 South Delaware avenue, front of book. The following personal statistics, taken in connection with those of rail- roads, will give some idea of the number and nationality of persons whose occujjations are connected with the business of forwarding and transporting both freight and passengers. Boatmen and Watermen, 21,332 (males, 21,302; females, 30); ages, 10 to 15, 408; 16 to 59, 20,484; 60 and over, 440; born in the United States, 17,499; Germany, 737; Ireland, 2019; Eng- land and Wales, 312; Scotland, 91 ; British America, 326; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 131 ; France, 63. Draymen, Hachnen, Teamsters, etc., 120,756 (males, 120,560; females, 196); ages, 10 to 15, 1427; 16 to 59, 116,815 ; 60 and over, 2514; born in the United States, 83,078; Germany, 11,261; Ireland, 17,925; England and Wales, 2616 ; Scotland, 630; Brit- ish America, 2613 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 457 ; France, 549 ; China and Japan, 26. Sailors, 5Q,QQo; ages, 10 to 15,312; 16 to 59, 54,()18 ; 60 and over, 1733 ; born in the United States, 42,064 ; Germany, 2247 ; Ireland, 4087; England and Wales, 2170; Scotland, 704; British America, 1656; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 1710; France, 265 ; Chi- na and Japan, 86. Frames (Looking-glass and Picture). Reukauff Geo. C, 1312 Chestnut street, 788. Thiery A., N. E. corner Fourth and Branch streets, 725. Looking-glass and Picture Frames. — Establishments, 320 ; steam-engines, 49 (horse-power, 1107); water-wheels, 4 (horse-power, 93); hands em- ployed, 3587 (men, 2976; women, 196; youths, 415); capital, $2,590,020; wages, $1,623,653 ; materials, $2,466,313; products, $5,962,235. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 55 Fruit Butter Manufacturers. Scliimmel J, O. & Co., Pliihulelphia, Chicago and New York, 722. Fruits, Canned, etc. Anderson & Campbell, Camden, N. J., 791. Fruits and Vegetables, Canned and Preserved. — Establishments, 97; steam- engines, 45 (horse-power, 742) ; hands employed, 5869 (men, 1658 ; women, 3434; youths, 777); capital, $2,335,925; wages, $771,643; materials, $3,094,846 ; products, $5,425,677. Fur Dealers and Furriers. Keinath W., 812 Arch street, 737. Reisky Nav. C, 237 Arch street, 789 and 806. Furs, Dressed. — Establishments, 182 ; steam-engines, 6 (horse-power, 76) ; water-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 10); hands employed, 2903 (men, 1306; women, 1525; youths, 72); capital, $3,472,267; wages, $1,042,305 ; ma- terials, $4,816,122; products, $8,903,052. Fur Workers, 1191 (males, 836 ; females, 355) ; ages, 10 to 15, 33 ; 16 to 59, 1127 ; 60 and over, 31 ; born in the United States, 435 ; Germany, 372 ; Ireland, 183 ; England and Wales, 111 ; Scotland, 8; British America, 17 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmariv, 5 ; France, 17. Furniture Manufacturers and Dealers. Gould & Co., Ninth and Market streets, 37 and 39 North Second street and 272 South Second street, inside front cover. Heacock William, 18 North Ninth street, 776. Loth Henry, 645 North Broad street, 769. Mauger I. B., 349 North Second street, 789. Richardson W. T., corner Sixth and Oxford streets, 840. Furniture. — Establishments, 5423; steam-engines, 764 (horse-power, 14,811); water-wheels, 406 (horse-power, 6920) ; hands employed, 40,554 (men, 38,023; women, 657; youths, 1874) ; capital, $35,740,029 ; wages, $17,901,379; materials, $21,669,837; products, $57,926,547, Chairs.— Establishments, 529; steam-engines, 117 (horse-power, 3203); water- wheels, 184 (horse-power, 4740); hands employed, 12,462 (men, 6975; women, 3168; youths, 2319); capital, $7,643,884. For personal statistics of cabinet-makers see Fancy Cabinet-ware. Gas Apparatus. Starr Jesse W. & Son, 435 and 437 Chestnut street, 726. Gas-burners and Gas-heating Apparatus. Gefrorer C, 248 N. Eighth street, 742. 56 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Gas- and Lamp-shades, etc. V. Quarre Co., 832 and 834 Arch street, 827. Gas Machines. Huhne George W., 12 North Seventh street, 705. Gas— Establishments, 390; steam-engines, 160 (horse-power, 2747); water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 21); hands employed, 8723 (men, 8705; youths, 18); capital, 871,773,694; wages, $6,546,734 ; materials, $10,869,- 373 ; products, $32,048,851. Gaso?«e/ers.— Establishments, 2 ; steam-en- gines, 2 (horse-power, 7); hands employed, 30 ; capital, $35,000; wages, $15,000; materials, $74,000; products, $140,000. Gas i?eerks and American streets, 821. Cars, Railroad and Repairs. — Establishments, 170 ; steam-engines, 134 (horse-power, 5609) ; water-wheels, 4 (horse-power, 163); hands employed, 15,931 (men, 15,690; women, 20; youths, 221); capital, $16,632,792; wages, $9,659,992; materials, $18,117,707; products, $31,070,734. Rail- WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 77 road Repairing Machinery. — Establishments, 150; steam-engines, 160 (horse-power, 5760) ; water-wheels, 5 (horse-power, 282) ; hands employed, 20,015 (men, 19,886 ; women, 6 ; youths, 123) ; capital, $23,222,761 ; wages, $12,541,818; materials, $11,952,840 ; products, $27,565,650. Clerks and Bookkeepers in Railroad Offices, 7374 (males, 7364 ; females, 10) ; ages, 10 to 15, 28 ; 16 to 59, 7300 ; 60 and over, 46 ; born in the United States, 6387 ; Germany, 139 ; Ireland, 368 ; England and Wales, 257 ; Scotland, 74; British America, 76 ; Sweden; Norway and Denmark, 11 ; France, 16. Employes of Street Railways {not Clerks), 5103 (males, 5102; female, 1); ages, 10 to 15, 26 ; 16 to 59, 5054 ; 60 and over, 23 ; born in the United States, 3481; Germany, 577; Ireland, 763; England and Wales, 125; Scotland, 23; British America, 66; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 13; France, 29. Employes of Railroad Companies (not Clerks),- 15-i,027 (males, 153,965; females, 62); ages, 10 to 15, 874; 16 to 59, 151,589; 60 and over, 1564 ; born in the United States, 94,505 ; Germany, 7855 ; Ireland, 37,822 ; England and Wales, 3860; Scotland, 913; British America, 2857; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 3930; France, 381 ; China and Japan, 568. For additional statistics see American Railroads, pp. 627-632. Razor-Strop Manufacturers. Evans W. D. & Co., 117 South Second street, 816. Hunt W. & Co., 605 and 607 Arch street, 705. Reeds and Harnesses. Miller James, Twenty-second and Hamilton streets, 702. Reed- and Shuttle-makers, 200 (males, 194; females, 6); ages, 10 to 15, 4; 16 to 59, 189; 60 and over, 7; born in the United States, 156; Ger- many, 5 ; Ireland, 9 ; England and Wales, 21 ; Scotland, 6 ; British America, 1. Roofers, Ehret Michael, Jr., 404 Walnut street and Broad and Cumberland streets, 707. Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851, 852. Thomason William J. & Bro., 108 Arch street, 844. Roofers and Slaters, 2750 ; ages, 10 to 15, 27 ; 16 to 59, 2669 ; 60 and over, 54; born in the United States, 1707 ; Germany, 219; Ireland, 483; England and Wales, 193; Scotland, 75; British America, 38; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 5 ; France, 10. Roofing Materials. — Establish- ments, 198 ; steam-engines, 27 (horse-power, 442) ; water-wheels, 15 (horse- power, 274); hands employed, 1919 (men, 1884; women, 13; youths, 22); capital, $2,448,680; wages, $883,341; materials, $1,293,116; products, $3,257,403. 78 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Safe Manufacturers. Farrel & Co., 807 Chestnut street, 799. Safes, Doors and Vaults (fireproof ^.-Est^hWshments, 65; steam-engines, 35 (horse-power, 659); water-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 10); hands employed, 1639 (men, 1599; woman, 1; youths, 39); capital, $2,075,200; wages, ^917,263 ; materials, $967,810 ; products, $2,728,336. Sailors. ' (For personal statistics see Forwarding and Transportation.) Salve Manufacturers. Powell W. F., 412 South Second street, 838. Richelderfer J. H., 1032 Chestnut street, 752. No special statistics were given for this branch, the returns being in- cluded in those of patent medicines and compounds. Sand Dealer. Walter B. R., 611 Beach street, 736. Sash, Doors and Blinds. (See also Planing Mills.) Establishments, 1605 ; steam-engines, 999 (horse-power, 27,061) ; water- wheels, 367 (horse-power, 7758); hands employed, 20,379 (men, 19,496 ; women, 43; youths, 840); capital, $21,239,809 ; wages, $10,059,812 ; ma- terials, 817,581,814; products, $36,625,806. Saw Manufacturers. Disston H. & Sons, Front and Laurel streets, 750. McNiece William, 515 Cherry street, 838. Saivs. — Establishments, 72 ; steam-engines, 40 (horse-power, 1303) ; water-wheels, 13 (horse-power, 246); hands employed, 1595 (men, 1457; women, 8; youths, 130); capital, $2,883,-391 ; wages, $995,609 ; materials, $1,332,891;' products, $3,175,289. Saw-mill Operatives. Xumber, 47,298 (males, 47,263; females, 35); ages, 10 to 15, 797; 16 to 59, 45,969 ; 60 and over, 532; born in the United States, 33,527; Germany, 3404; Ireland, 1793; England and Wales, 689 ; Scotland, 304 ; British America, 4894; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 117; France, 135 ; China and Japan, 40. Scales, Balances, etc. Riehle Bros., Philadelphia, 798. Troemner II., 710 Market street, 763. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 79 Scales and Balances. — Establishments, 49 ; steam-engines, 16 (horse- power, 508) ; water-wheels, 10 (horse-power, 205) ; hands employed, 1003 (men, 955; women,?; youths, 41) ; capital, $1,019,500 ; wages, $668,451 ; materials, $920,870 ; products, $2,823,816. Seeds. Buist Robert, Jr., 922 and 924 Market street, 799. Dreer Henry A., 714 Chestnut street, 721. Jones Wm. H., 1621 Market street, 844. Landreth David & Son, 23 South Sixth street, 841, 842. Sewing-Machine Cases, etc. Loth Heury, 645 North Broad street, 769. Sewing-Machine Manufacturers. American Sewing-Machine Co., 1318 Chestnut street, 715. Sewing-Machines. — Establishments, 49 ; steam-engines, 37 (horse-power, 1688) ; water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 145) ; hands emjjloyed, 7291 (men, 6709; women, 384; youths, 248) ; capital, $8,759,431 ; wages, $5,142,248 ; materials, $3,055,786 ; products, $14,097,446. Sewing-Machine Fixtures. — Establishments, 20 ; steam-engines, 13 (horse-power, 490) ; Avater-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 75); hands employed, 1130 (men, 1075; women, 11; youths, 44); capital, $761,800 ; wages, $638,973 ; materials, $585,909 ; products, $1,749,858. Sewing-Machine Factory Operatives, 3881 (males, 2015; fe- males, 1866) ; ages, 10 to 15, 150 ; 16 to 59, 3710 ; 60 and over, 21 ; born in the United States, 2614 ; Germany, 195 ; Ireland, 742 ; England and Wales, 190 ; Scotland, 28 ; British America, 44 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 4; France, 22. Sewing-Machine Operators, 3042 (males, 182; females, 2860) ; ages, 10 to 15, 176 ; 16 to 59, 2856 ; 60 and over, 10 ; born in the United States, 2337 ; Germany, 77 ; Ireland, 470 ; England and Wales, 71 ; Scotland, 17 ; British America, 52; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 5; France, 6. Sewing Silks and Twists. Aub, Hackenburg & Co., 20 North Third street, 836. Hooley B. & Son, 226 Market street, 704. Hovey F. S., 248 Chestnut street, 752. Sewing Silk and Twist. — Establishments, 35 ; steam-engines, 20 (horse- power, 450) ; water-wheels, 21 (horse-power, 332) ; hands employed, 2523 (men, 465; women, 1368; youths, 690); capital, $2,223,500; wages, $624,917; materials, $4,197,752; products, $5,672,875. 80 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Shafting- Manufacturer, (No special statistics in tliis branch were given, the returns being included under those of Machinery (not specified).) Cresson George V., S. E. coruer of Eighteenth and Hamilton, 697. Shawls, Hosiery, Knit Goods. Landenberger's M. Sous, Frankford avenue and Wildey street, 767. Murphy James S., 1024 Lombard street, 755. Steffiiu F. & Co., 1344 and 1346 North Front street, 709. Hosiery (including Knit Goods). — Establishments, 248 ; steam-enghies. 81 (horse-power, 2223); water-wheels, 124 (horse-power, 4275) ; hands em- ployed, 14,788 (men, 4252 ; women, 7991 ; youths, 2545); capital, $10,931,- 260; wages, $4,429,085; materials, $9,835,823; products, $18,411,564. Number of shawls made in 1870, 2,312,761. Ship-building-. Ship Materials and. Repairs. — Establishments, 762 ; steam-engines, 119 (horse-power, 3311); water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 109); hands employed, 11,063 (men, 10,978; women, 2; youths, 83); capital, $9,102,335; wages, 85,594,686 ; materials, $8,252,394 ; products, $17,910,328. Shirt Manufacturers. Eshleman & Craig, 821 Chestnut street, 789. No special statistics for the whole country were given. The figures for Philadelphia were as follows : Establishments, 25; steam-engines, 2 (horse- power, 20); hands employed, 685 (men, 77; women, 602; youths, 6); capital, $255,000; wages, $204,050; materials, $349,400; products, $929,510. Shoe Manufacturers' Goods. Eveland Charles S. & Co., 138 North Third street, 705. Laing & Magiunis, 30 North Third street, 725. 5/«oe-pe(7s.— Establishments, 26; steam-engines, 10 (horse-power, 257); water-wheels, 8 (horse-power, 365); hands employed, 279 (men. 175; women, 98 ; youths, 6) ; capital, $169,900 ; wages, $78,051 ; materials, $63,- 736; products, $264,847. See also Boot and Shoe Manufacturers, Lasts, Leather, etc. Shovels, Spades, etc. Halfnian k Co., 211 to 215 Quarry street, 737. Leliigh Shovel Works, Bethlehem, Pa, 703. Shovels and ^/)arfe«.— Establishments, 13; steam-engines, 11 (horse- power, 614); water-wheels, 21 (horse-power, 540); hands employed, 849 WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 81 (men, 837 ; women, 2 ; youths, 10) ;' capital, $757,100 ; wages, $489,100 ; materials, $1,424,944 ; products, $2,445,526. Show-Cards. Tallman's Superior Show-Cards, 708 Market street, 816. Sho-w-Cases. Irons James, 132 North Fourth street, 735. Show-cases. — Establishments, 47 ; steam-engines, 2 (horse-power, 9) ; hands employed, 353 (men, 340; woman, 1; youths, 12); capital, $178,300; wages, $219,834 ; materials, $419,466 ; products, $838,699. Silicate of Soda. Philadelphia Quartz Company, 9 North Front street, 783. Silk Goods (not specified). Establishments, 53 ; steam-engines, 28 (horse-power, 672) ; water-wheels, 26 (horse-power, 457); hands employed, 4176 (men, 1269; women, 2203; youths, 704); capital, $4,019,630 ; wages, $1,328,389; materials, $4,126,- 821 ; products, $7,066,487. Skivers, Mantifacturers of. Hummel J. M. & Sons, 955 North Third street, 720. Slate Quarries. Kimes J. B. & Co., 1215 Race street, 734. The Locke Slate Company, 1126 Market street, 775. Quarrying {including Marble and Slate). — Establishments, 1120 ; steam- engines, 118 (horse-power, 2445); water-wheels, 28 (horse-power, 599); hands employed, 15,117 (men, 15,001; youths, 116); capital, $11,207,- 693 ; wages, $6,580,134 ; materials, $1,135,541 ; products, $12,086,892. Soap Manufacturers. Dobbins' Electric Soap, I. L. Cragin & Co., Philadelphia, New York and Boston, 741. Soap and Candles. — Establishments, 614 ; steam-engines, 158 (horse- power, 3909); water-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 20); hands employed, 4422 (men, 3828; women, 309; youths, 285); capital, $10,454,860; wages, $1,925,951; materials, $15,232,587 ; products, $22,535,337. Soapstone. Pratt E., 521 Cresson street, 737. Prince S. F., 2214 Chestnut street, 839. 82 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, Soapstone Stoves, Fire-places, Sinh and a'sierns.— Establishments, 9; steam-engine, 1 (horse-power, 50); water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 87); hands employed, 74; capital, $127,500 ; wages, 838,944; materials, $98,- 325 ; products, $189,115. Soda-Water Apparatus Manufacturers. Hindermyer Jos. & Son, 911 and 913 Vine street, 799. Lippincott Charles & Co., 916 and 925 Filbert, 849. Soda-water Apparatus.— Estahlishments, 13; steam-engines, 9 (horse- power, 97); hands employed, 307 (men, 300; woman, 1; youths, 6); cap- ital, $424,150 ; wages, $140,751 ; materials, $304,246 ; products, $813,075. Spice and Mustard Manufacturers. Fell C. J. & Bro., 120 South Front street, 787. Spices and Mustard entered into consumption in the United States in 1870-71 (value), $1,893,244.94; in 1871-2, $1,682,493.58; in 1872-3, $1,957,596.39; in 1873-4, $2,087,261.65. Spool Cotton. Bates & Coates, 209 Church street, for J. & P. Coats, of Paisley, Scot- land, 701. Spool Thread manufactured in the United States in 1870, 11,560,241 dozens; Connecticut, 3,397,130 ; Rhode Island, 3,341,200 ; Massachusetts, 2,595,358 ; New Jersey, 1,650,000 ; Tennessee, 466,829 ; Alabama, 105,- 724; Louisiana, 4000. Cotton-thread Tndne and Yarns. — Establishments, 123; steam-engines, 40 (horse-power, 2093); water-wheels, 122 (horse- power, 4820) ; hands employed, 6077 (men, 2052 ; women, 2938 ; youths, 1087); capital, $7,392,295; wages, $1,743,651; materials, $5,135,303; products, $8,726,217. Stained Glass Works. Gibson J. & G. H., 123 and 125 South Eleventh street, 739. Smith H. J. & Co., 617 South Broad street and 1727 Chestnut street, 713. Stained Glass. — Establishments, 18 ; steam-engines, 8 (horse-power, 44) ; hands employed, 170 (men, 156; women, 10; youths, 4); capital, $148,- 800 ; wages, $99,739 ; materials, $90,277 ; products, $297,480. Stationers. (For personal statistics, see Booksellers and Stationers, and for additional figures, see Gold Pens, Paper, Ink, etc.) Bush I. A., 114 South Tenth street, 826. Clark John C. & Sons, 230 Dock street, 739. Lead Pe)ia7*\— Establishments, 7 ; steam-engines, 6 (horse-power, 265) ; ' WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 83 hands employed, 156 (men, 61; women, 95); capital, $241,150; wages, $48,150 ; materials, $44,510 ; products, $160,800. Wooden Penholders.— Establishments, 4 ; steam-engine, 1 (horse-power, 2) ; water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 60) ; hands employed, 24 (men, 19 ; women, 5) ; capital, $32,500; wages, $7700; materials, $11,591 ; products, $34,096. , Steamship Companies. (For statistics, see Table III, in Appendix, and Commerce and Navigation, page 474. For personal statistics of SAiiiORS, see Forwarding and Transporta- tion.) Clyde W. P. & Co., 12 South Delaware avenue, front of book. Inman Line, O'Donnell & Faulk, 402 Chestnut street, 833. Steam-Engines, Boilers, etc. Moseley Thomas W. H., 147 South Fourth street, 851 and 852. Steam- Engines and Boilers. — Establishments, 663; steam-engines, 515 (horse-power, 11,076); water-wheels, 33 (horse-power, 764); hands em- ployd, 22,962 (men, 22,444 ; women, 8 ; youths, 510) ; capital, $25,987,- 452; wages, $12,572,244; materials, $19,734,404 ; products, $41,576,264. Personal statistics of engineers and firemen are given under Engineers. Steel Manufacturers (Steel Rails and Axles). Pennsylvania Steel Company, 216 South Fourth street, 704. Steel {including Steel Springs). — Establishments, 71 ; steam-engines. 111 (horse-power, 12,533) ; water-wheels, 12 (horse-power, 457) ; hands em- ployed, 3458 (men, 3374; women, 4; youths, 80); capital, $8,771,900; wages, $2,252,838 ; materials, $6,828,923 ; products, $12,538,979. Stencil-Cutters. Quaker City Stencil Works, 234 Arch street, 835. Scheible William F., 49 South Third street, 743. Engraving and Stencil- Cutting. — Establishments, 136; steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 13) ; water-wheel, 1 (horse-power, 10) ; hands employed, 431 (men, 381; women, 5; youths, 35); capital, $244,000; wages, $155,- 968 ; materials, $103,035 ; products, $509,644. Stereotypers, Electrotypers, etc. Fagan J. & Son, 621 Commerce street, 732. George S. A. & Co., 15 North Seventh street, 744. Hears, Dill & Hears, Electrotypers, 323 Harmony street, 804. Westcott & Thomson, 710 Filbert street, 751. Stereotyping and Electrotyping. — Establishments, 36 ; steam-engines, 8 (horse-power, 91); hands employed, 766 (men, 659; women, 15; youths, 84 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, 92); capital, $1,033,200; wages, $446,532; materials, $220,774; pro- ducts, $1,075,080. Stone-Cutters' Tools. Beck William P., Twenty-second and Barker streets, 834. No special statistics for this branch were given. The following were the figures for Edge Tools and Axes : Establishments, 97 ; steam-engines, 36 (horse-hower, 1292); water-wheels, 119 (horse-power, 4431); hands em- ployed, 3520 (men, 3470; women, 11; youths, 39); capital, $4,219,205; wages, $1,997,795; materials, $2,413,555 ; products, $5,482,539. See also Cutlery and Edge Tools, and the personal statistics of Stone-Cutters, are combined with those of Marble- and Stone-Cutters, which see. Stove Manufacturers. Sheppard Isaac A. & Co,, Fourth and Montgomery avenue, Phila., and Eastern avenue and Chester, Baltimore, 696. The Leibrandt & McDowell Stove Company, 133 North Second street, 703. Stoves, Heaters, Ranges, etc. (See also Heaters, etc.) Borden J. & Brother, 637 North Nineteenth street, 732. Dickson James, 1116 Market street, 762. Kershaw John, 1840 Market street, 788. McCoy & Eoberts, 1208 and 1210 Market street, 837. Stoves, Heaters and Hollow Ware. — Establishments, 326 ; steam-engines, 248 (horse-power, 5733) ; water-wheels, 34 (horse-power, 491) ; hands em- ployed, 13,325 (men, 12,740; youths, 585) ; capital, $19,833,720; wages, $8,156,121 ; materials, $9,044,069 ; products, $23,389,665. Stove Polish. Bartlett II. A. & Co., 113 and 117 North Front street, 731. Strow, Wile & Co., 1330 to 1334 Callowhill street, 837. Polishinrj Preparations.— Establishments, 21; steam-engines, 4 (horse- power, 85) ; water-wheels, 3 (horse-power, 33) ; hands employed, 98 (men, 73 ; women, 16 ; youths, 9); capital, $370,800 ; wages, $37,087; materials, $214,696 ; products, $323,015. Tailors' Measures and Fashions. Ward A. F., 138 South Third street; res. 618 South Ninth st., Phila. Tailors. Aschenbach & Hahn, 170 North Fourth street, 732. Mattson <& Dilkes, 1346 Chestnut street, 732. WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 85 Tailors, Tailoresses and Seamstresses, 161,820 (males, 64,613 ; females, 97,207); ages, 10 to 15, 2718 ; 16 to 59, 153,977; 60 and over, 5125; bom in the United States, 94,875 ; Germany, 33,200 ; Ireland, 18,009 ; Eng- land and Wales, 4785; Scotland, 1196; British America, 2795; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 1961 ; France, 1496 ; China and Japan, 145, Tanners. Forepaugh Wm. F., Jr., & Bros., Randolph and Jefferson streets, 747. Curriers, Tanners and Finishers of Leather, 28,702 (males, 28,642 ; females, 60); ages, 10 to 15, 257; 16 to 59, 26,425; 60 and over, 2020; born in the United States, 18,005 ; Germany, 3458; Ireland, 4764; Eng- land and Wales, 756 ; Scotland, 256 ; British America, 893 ; Sweden, Nor- way and Denmark, 165 ; France, 169. For statistics of leather tanned and curried see American Manufactures, page 615. Taxidermists. Galbraith A., 209 North Ninth street, 745. Taylor James, 1916 Callowhill street, 838. Taxidermy. — Establishments, 8; hands employed, 18; capital, $20,200; wages, $5700; materials, $11,464; products, $26,650. Teas, Coffees and East India Goods. (For imports of Teas and Coffees see Commerce and Navigation, page 470, and for personal statistics of Grocers see under Groceries.) Bond Francis, 139 South Eighth street, 766. Fell C. J. & Bro. (Tea dealers and importers), 787. Terra Cotta. French E. D. & W. A., Third and Vine streets, Camden, N. J., 707. Galloway & Graff, 1723-5 Market street, 845. Mitchell J. E., 310 York avenue, Philadelphia. Drain-pipe. — Establishments, 68; steam-engines, 15 (horse-power, 339); water-wheels, 3 (horse-power, 110); hands employed, 758 (men, 733; women, 2; youths, 23); capital, $977,375; wages, $316,521; materials, $415,360 ; products, $1,294,256. Tinsmiths, Tin-roofers, etc. Powell W. F., 412 South Second street, 838. Thomason Wm. J. & Bro., 108 Arch street, 844. Tin-, Copper- and Sheet-iron-ware. — Establishments, 6646 ; steam-engines, 68 (horse-power, 1236); water-wheels, 6 (horse-power, 270); hands em- ployed, 25,823 (men, 24,201; women, 631; youths, 991). Traders and Dealers in Iron-, Tin- and Copper-wares, 9003 (males, 8981 ; females, 22) ; 86 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, ages, 16 to 59, 8766 ; 60 and over, 237 ; born in the United States, 7313 ; Germany, 794 ; Ireland, 316 ; England and Wales, 250 ; Scotland, 83 ; British America, 95; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 24; France, 46; China or Japan, 1. Tinners, 30,524 (males, 30,507; females, 17); ages, 10 to 15, 449 ; 16 to 59, 29,581 ; 60 and over, 494 ; born in the United States, 22,337 ; Germany, 3835 ; Ireland, 1732 ; England and Wales, 1019 ; Scotland, 241 ; British America, 529 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 155 ; France, 264 ; China and Japan, 13. Toy Manufacturers. Greiner A. C. & H. G. (Doll Heads), 414 North Fourth street, 834. Lacmanu J. & Sons (Doll Bodies, etc.), 809 Race street, 717. Toys and Games. — Establishments, 49 ; steam-engines, 7 (horse-power, 57); water-wheels, 16 (horse-power, 270); hands employed, 615 (men, 357; women, 184; youths, 74); capital, $312,800; wages, $182,255; materials, $159,946 ; products, $579,865. Trunks, Valises, etc. Trunks, Valises and Satchels. — Establishments, 222 ; steam-engines, 15 (horse-power, 358) ; water-wheels, 4 (horse-power, 55) ; hands employed 3479 (men, 2798; women, 457; youths, 224); capital, $2,185,964; wages, $1,810,798 ; materials, $3,315,038 ; products, $7,725,488. Trusses, Bandages, etc. Everett B. C, 14 North Ninth street, 717. Trusses, Bandages and Supporters. — Establishments, 36 ; steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 31) ; water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 9) ; hands employed, 275 (men, 154; women, 110; youths, 11); capital, $154,305 ; wages, $101,070 ; materials, $108,512; products, $363,205. Undertakers' General Supplies. Paxson, Comfort & Co., 231 Market street, 819. Undertakers. Home Cyrus, 23 North Eleventh street, 783. Rulon John C, 1313 Vine street, 814. Undertakers, 1996 (males, 1976 ; females, 20) ; ages, 16 to 59, 1853 ; 60 and over, 143 ; born in the United States, 1480 ; Germany, 173 ; Ireland, 216 ; England and Wales, 74 ; Scotland, 9 ; British America, 13 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 6; France, 15. a#u.s.— Establishments, 642; steam-engines, 19 (horse-power, 359) ; water-wheels, 13 (horse-power, 183); WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 87 hands employed, 2365 (men, 2292; women, 42; youths, 31); capital, $2,- 592,862 ; wages, $1,011,397 ; materials, $1,412,078 ; products, $4,026,989. Varnish Manufacturers. Felton, Rau & Sibley, 138 and 140 North Fourth street, 754. Varnish. — Establishments, 59 ; steam-engines, 5 (horse-power, 95) ; hands employed, 415 (men, 410; women, 2; youths, 3); capital, $2,168,740; wages, $252,059 ; materials, $3,311,097 ; products, $4,991,405. Personal statistics of Varnishes are combined with those of Painters, under Paint- ers and Varnishers. Vat- and Tank-Makers. Burkhardt George J. & Co., 1341 Buttonwood street, 813. Fisher & Hall, 1143 to 1147 North Front street, 833. No special statistics for this branch were given for the whole country, but the following were the figures for Philadelphia : Vats (ivoodeii). — Estab- lishments, 4 ; steam-engine, 1 (horse-power, 19) ; hands employed, 29 ; capital, $30,000 ; wages, $19,584; materials, $29,530 ; products, $88,800. Wadding Manufacturer. Gorgas Matthias, 17 North Front street, 732. Cotton Batting and Wadding. — Establishments, 27 ; steam-engines, 14 (horse-power, 240); water-wheels, 11 (horse-power, 161); hands employed, 244 (men, 159 ; women, 31 ; youths, 54) ; capital, $276,800; wages, $78,876; materials, $533,451; products, $720,117. Watches, Jewelry, etc. Conover David F. & Co., Seventh and Chestnut street, 699. Kretzmar E., 1311 Chestnut street, 836. Philadelphia Watch Company, 618 Chestnut street, 836. Watches. — Establishments, 37 ; steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 145) ; hands employed, 1816 (men, 1202 ; women, 592 ; youths, 22); capital, $2,666,133; wages, $1,304,304 ; materials, $412,783 ; products, $2,819,080. Jeivelry (not specified). — Establishments, 681 ; steam-engines, 78 (horse-power, 805) ; wa- ter-wheels, 13 (horse-power. 111); hands employed, 10,091 (men, 8141; wo- men, 1545 ; youths, 405); capital, $11,787,956 ; wages, $4,433,235 ; mate- rials, $9,187,364 ; products, $22,104,032. Traders and Dealers in Gold and Silver Ware and Jewelrij, 6402 (males, 6382; females, 20) ; ages, 16 to 59, 6208 ; 60 and over, 194 ; born in the United States, 4315 ; Germany, 1084 ; Ireland, 139 ; England and Wales, 272 ; Scotland, 52 ; British America, 81 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 96 ; France, 100 ; China and Japan, 88 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX, 48; Gold and Silver Workers,18,rm(ma\es,17, 279', females, 1229) ; ages, 10 to 15, 357 ; 16 to 59, 17,621 ; 60 and over, 530; born in the United States, 11,690 ; Germany, 3088 ; Ireland, 1021 ; England and Wales, 1135 ; Scotland, 190 ; British America, 239 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 238 ; France, 312 ; China and Japan, 16. "Wax Fruit and Flowers. Maxwell John, 226 North Ninth street, 814. Artificial Feathers, Flowers and i^nafs.— Establishments, 54 ; hands em- ployed, 1451 (men, 400; women, 842 ; youths, 209); capital, $418,650; wages, $276,331 ; materials, $369,004 ; products, $986,125. Weather Vane Manufacturer. Henis William G., 641 and 643 North Ninth street, 745. Whips and Canes. Glendinning & Truitt, 9 North Fourth street, 831. Whips and Canes. — Establishments, 103 ; steam-engines, 7 (horse-power, 142); water-wheels, 9 (horse-power, 125); hands employed, 961 (men, 621 ; women, 301 ; youths, 39) ; capital, $883,561 ; wages, 384,544 ; materials, $503,502; products, $1,243,118. White Lead Manufacturers. Harrison Brothers & Co., 105 South Front street, 704. Lewis John T. & Brothers, 231 South Front street, 781. Wetherill & Brother, Thirty-first street below Chestnut, 797. No special statistics of this branch were given for the whole country, the returns being included in those of Paints, Lead and Zinc. The figures for Philadelphia were as follows : White Lead. — Establishments, 3 ; steam- engines, 3 (horse-power, 120); hands employed, 106; capital, $525,000; wages, $64,800 ; materials, $750,100 ; products, $1,108,000. Whiting Manufacturers. Philadelphia and Boston Whiting Company, York and Almond sts., 792. Window-Glass. Magee John A., 1235 Vine street, 835. Sharp J. E., 707 and 709 Filbert street, 848. Witmer D. L. & Bro., Fifth street and Germantown avenue, 786. Window-Glass. — Establishments, 35; steam-engines, 20 (horse-power, 381); water-wheels, 2 (horse-power, 110); hands employed, 2859 (men, WITH SPECIAL STATISTICS. 89 2403; women, 37; youths, 419); capital, $3,244,560; wages, $1,503,277; materials, $1,400,760; products, $3,811,308. Window-Shade Manufacturers. Free Martin, 956 North Second street, 763. Louderbach Edwin, 222 North Fifth street, 745. No special statistics of this branch were given for the whole country. The figures for Philadelphia were as follows : Windoio- Blinds and Shades. — Establishments, 25 ; steam-engine, 1 (horse-power, 3) ; hands employed, 130 (men, 80; women, 36; youths, 14); capital, $94,050; wages, 54,980 ; materials, $63,605; products, $201,311. Wines and Liquors. Daly H. M., 222 South Front street, 890. Daly Philip, 128 South Ninth street, 889. Hartley W. H., 52 North Fifth street, 754. Leith Syl. A. & Co., 210 South Front street, 772. Schneyer Charles, 154 and 156 Fairmount avenue, 746. Liquors, Distilled. — Establishments, 719; steam-engines, 411 (horse- power, 12,853); water-wheels, 82 (horse-power, 811); hands employed, 5131 (men, 5068; women, 6 ; youths, 57); capital, $15,545,116; wages, $2,019,810; materials, $19,729,432; products, $36,191,133. Liquors, Malt. — Establishments, 1972; steam-engines, 726 (horse-power, 10,438); water-wheels, 30 (horse-power, 324); hands employed, 12,443 (men, 12,320; women, 29; youths, 94) ; capital, $48,779,435; wages, $6,758,602; mate- rials, $28,177,684; products, $55,706,643. Liquors, Vinous. — Establish- ments, 398 ; steam-engines, 4 (horse-power, 39) ; hands employed, 1486 (men, 1426; women, 32; youths, 28); capital, $2,334,394; wages, $230,- 650; materials, $1,203,172 ; products, $2,225,238. Traders and Dealers in Liquors and Wines, 11,718 (males, 11,612; females, 106); ages, 16 to 59, 11,504; 60 and over, 214; born in the United States, 4559; Germany, 2672; Ireland, 3211; England and Wales, 387; Scotland, 99; British America, 102 ; Sweden, Norway and Denmark, 45 ; France, 357 ; China and Japan, 4. Wire-Work, Sieves, Screens. Bayliss & Darby Manufacturing Co., 231 Arch and 114 North Sixth street, 808. Macready J. W., 1411 and 1413 Vine street, 747. Needles Joseph A., 54 North Front street, 717. Watson & Kelso, 46 and 48 North Front street, 798. Wire-Wo7-k. — Establishments, 141 ; steam-engines, 22 (horse-power, 470) ; water-wheels, 20 (horse-power, 422) ; hands employed, 2526 (men, 1316; 90 ADVERTISERS' CLASSIFIED INDEX. women, 1053; youths, 157); capital, $1,667,900; wages, $719,633; ma- terials, $1,548,006; products, $2,959,227. Fire.— Establishments, 32; steam-engines, 23 (horse-power, 2082); water-wheels, 25 (horse-power, 745) ; hands employed, 1733 (men, 1475 ; women, 226 ; youths, 32) ; cap- ital, $2,520,800; wages, $1,078,184; materials, $2,955,925; products, $5,030,581. Wood-Turners. Cundey E. & Brother, 848 North Fourth street, 724. Kue J., 805 Master street, 747. Wood, Turned and Carved. — Establishments, 733; steam-engines, 221 (horse-power, 3830) ; water-wheels, 235 (horse-power, 4323) ; hands em- ployed, 4103 (men, 3777; women, 103; youths, 223); capital, $2,751,544; wages, $1,499,565; materials, $1,648,008 ; products, $4,959,191. Wool, Cotton and Woollen Yarns. Whilldin Alexander & Sons, 20 and 22 South Front street, 850. Statistics of Cotton and Woollen Goods are given on pages 614, 615, and those of Wool produced and imported are found on page 576. Advertisements will be received for the second and all succeeding editions of this book, and the names of those who avail themselves of these opportunities will also be incorporated in the index to each successive edi- tion. Apply either by letter or personally at the office, 152 South Fourth street, Philadelphia. S. W. BURLEY, Publisher. BURLEY'S United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. HISTORICAL SKETCH UI^ITED STATES OF AMEEIOA. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENTS [1497-1733]. FOURTEEN months before Columbus had seen the mam land of the New World, and two years before Americus Vespucius had sailed west of the Canaries, John and Sebastian Cabot, sailing under a commis- sion from Henry VII. of England, discovered the American continent (June 24, 1497). In the following year Sebastian returned and coasted the present territory of the United States for more than seven hundred miles, landing at various points, and planting on the soil the banner of England. By that act he took possession of the country in the name of his royal master. The memory of Columbus, the pioneer in Western dis- covery, is held in deserved honor. That of Americus Vespucius is per- petuated in the name of the continent which he was the first to describe. It is generally thought that he bought the honor too cheaply by merely happening to be the first reporter in the field. His description of the country was published at Strasburg in 1505, by a German map-publisher. In a letter written to the duke of Lorraine (September 4, 1504) he falsely claimed that he had discovered the main land in 1497. On account of the letter and the description his name was given to the New World. How different the fate of Sebastian Cabot ! Though he made a subsequent voyage in 1517, entering Hudson's Bay ninety years before the great Dutch navigator whose name it bears ; though for sixty years his advice was sought concerning every important maritime enterprise undertaken by 91 92 SUELEY'S UNITED STATES more tliau one nation ; though he ga^e to England such a claim for the possession of this country as discovery and the formalities above men- tioned could procure ; though even when the navigator was seventy-five years old the emperor Charles V. sent, through his ambassador to Eng- land, a special request that Cabot should be sent back to his service,— the date of his death and even his burial-place are not known. The remains of Columbus, who died in poverty and neglect, rest in the cathedral at Havana.* Those of Cabot, who was honored all his lifetime, are covered, so far as is known, by not even a simple memorial stone. The voyages of CalDot were of more immediate importance to the destinies of the United States than any others undertaken during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, excepting, of course, the first voyage of Columbus, upon which all the rest depended. The banners planted upon the coast became the prey of the elements or were carried away by the Indians, but the claim which they symbolized was never forgotten in England. Not count- ing the effort of Hore and his companions, w^ho were "starved out" of Newfoundland in 1536, eighty years elapsed before the first attempt was made by Englishmen to plant settlements in their new possessions, and more than a century before they obtained a i^ermanent footing. During this long interval, however, their right to the coast was generally respected, even by their inveterate enemies the French, who planted most of their colonies in the inclement climate of Canada. Spain, it is true, laid claim to the whole coast, even as far as Newfoundland, under the name of Florida; but the failure of De Soto's expedition, and the death of De Soto himself on the bank of the Mississippi, discouraged Spanish efforts at colonization. What the Spanish wished were plenty of gold and as little work as possible. These they had obtained in both Mexico and Peru, but when they went farther north the gold they did not find, and the Indians whom they met in their travels seemed very poor material for slaves. It remained for the great Anglo-Saxon race to reclaim these fertile regions, uncultivated, or mis-cultivated, by people well-nigh as wild as the * Nearly every history of any size gives his first epitaph, which was ordered to be put upon his tomb by the ungrateful Ferdinand of Spain : " To Castile and Leon Columbus gave a new world." We translate the following description of his present resting-place from a Spanish work. La Ma de Cuba, by Don Jose G. de Arbolena: "A modest stone, with a bust in bas-relief and a thoroughly prosaical inscription, covers the remains of the immortal navigator who bore to these regions the torch of faith, and gave to civilization the conquest of a new world. Here is the inscrip- tion : ' O remains and image of tlie great Columbus ! Remain for a tliousand centuries kept in this urn And in the remembrance of this nation !' " Arbolena very pertinently asks, " Where were the Muses when these lines were composed ?" CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 93 beasts of chase upon which they mainly subsisted. That race, after con- quering the ancient Britons, though conquered in war by the Normans, gained a substantial and durable victory over the latter in language, in literature, and, if legal antiquarians are to be believed, in the more im- portant matter of legal principles. Composed of men who were able and willing to work, who despised danger, who bore imprinted on their heart of hearts a reverence for law combined with an ardent love of liberty — the Anglo-Saxon race possesses so strong an element of vitality that it has assimilated the various nationalities which enter into the composition of American society, and has made the United States an English-speaking nation. Under a patent from Queen Elizabeth, Sir Walter Raleigh attempted to plant a settlement on the island of Roanoke in 1585. The colonists were reduced to such straits by the want of provisions that they were obliged to kill two mastiffs which they had with them, and make " dogge's por- ridge." They were taken off a year after their arrival by the fleet of Sir Fi-ancis Drake, just two weeks before Sir Richard Grenville arrived with reinforcements and ample supplies. Fifty men left as a garrison by Gren- ville were murdered by the Indians. A colony sent out in the following year probably met with the same fate. Raleigh had spent nearly £40,000 ($200,000), yet had accomplished nothing. These successive failures made it evident that it was not in the power of any one man, however wealthy, to plant a permanent colony in the terri- tory then claimed by England, which extended from Cape Fear in North Carolina to Halifax in Nova Scotia, and westward to the Pacific. Two companies were therefore formed — the London Company, of " noblemen, gentlemen and merchants," to colonize South Virginia, extending from the thirty-fourth to the thirty-eighth degrees of north latitude, and the Plymouth Company, to colonize North Virginia, extending from the forty- first to the forty-fifth degrees of north latitude. The name of the latter division was changed to New England by Captain John Smith, who explored the coast and made a map of it in 1614. The strip of territory, two hundred miles broad, between these divisions, was left free to both companies, to prevent disputes about boundaries. The first settlement was made by the London Company at Jamestown, on the James River, in Virginia, in 1607. The first colonists were not very good material for the formation of a commonwealth, being afllicted with the gold fever. Farming was so much neglected that for several years the main supply of food was purchased from the Indians with goods sent over by the company. When the Indians were hostile a "starving time " ensued. The wise management of the famous Captain John Smith ; the gradual cure of the gold fever by the failure of all attempts to find any of that precious metal ; the abandonment of the " community-of- 94 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES goods " system, which resembled that of the " International Association of Workiugmen," and the stern enforcement of the scriptural rule that " if any would not work, neither should he eat,"— placed the colony on a firm basis. The progress made was not steady and regular, as the follow- ing statements of the population at different dates will show. In October, 1609, when Smith left the colony, it contained 490 settlers. In April, 1610, fhe number was reduced to 60. In 1619 the number had increased to 600. In 1624, 9000 immigrants had been brought over, counting from the first planting of the colony, out of which only 1800 remained. In the following year Virginia was made a royal province, but the House of Burgesses was left in existence, and the government was really freer than that of England under Charles I. In 1649 the colonists numbered 15,000, and the little commonwealth was in a very prosperous condition. The dif- ficulties which caused so great a fluctuation in the number of inhabitants were sickness, famine, massacres by the Indians, and desertions from the colony through fear of the savages. The fact that a permanent state was founded, in spite of so many and so great obstacles, is a proof that we have not been too lavish in our praises of Anglo-Saxon energy and per- severance. For thirteen years the Plymouth Company existed, but it accomplished little more than one unsuccessful attempt at settlement in Maine and some explorations of the coast. In 1620 it was superseded by the Coun- cil OF Plymouth, composed of forty of the wealthiest and most powerful men in England. The very names of these two corporations bring to mind the first successful attempt to settle in New England. The landing of the "Pilgrim Fathers " on Plymouth Rock in 1620 ; the bravery and steadfastness with which they struggled against all the difiiculties which beset the Virginian settlers, together with a climate comparatively bleak and a soil comparatively barren ; their ardent religious zeal, which fre- quently carried them beyond the bounds of that toleration which it was the professed object of their self-imposed exile to secure for themselves ; — these and kindred themes have served so frequently as subjects for poet and painter, for orator and lecturer, for historian and novelist, that " the wayfariug man, though a stranger," cannot be wholly ignorant of them. We shall, therefore, iustead of attempting to tell a story which has been told so often and so well, condense a report of the results of thirty years' colonization, from a pamphlet entitled ' Wonder-ivorking Providences of Zion's Saviour in New England' published by Captain Edward Johnson in 1650, as quoted by Hildreth : "The wigwams, huts and hovels the English dwelt in at their first coming are turned into orderly, fair and well-built houses, well furnished, many of them, with goodly fruit trees and garden flowers." Many laboring men who had not enough to bring them over were now " worth scores, and some hundreds, of pounds. Those who CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 95 were formerly forced to fetch most of the bread they ate and the beer they drank a thousand leagues by sea, are so increased that they have not only fed their elder sisters, Virginia, Barbadoes and the Summer Islands, but also the grandmother of us all, even the fertile isle of Great Britain, besides Portugal, that hath had many a mouthful of bread and fish from us in exchange for their Madeira liquors, and also Spain. Good white and wheaten bread is no dainty, but every ordinary man hath his choice. Flesh is now no rare food, beef, pork and mutton being frequent in many houses, so that this poor wildei*ness hath equalized England in food." As many as thirty-two trades were carried on in the colony, those of coopers, tanners and shoemakers being the most successful, and shoes were already manufactured for exportation. As this description gives a fair idea of the results attained by nearly every attempt at settlement, we shall devote the remainder of our limited space to giving the dates of the settlements of the remaining eleven of " the thirteen original colonies." The first loermanent settlement in New York was made by the Dutch in 1623, the colony being named New Netheriand, and the present city of New York was called New Amsterdam. In 1664 the prov- ince was seized by the English, and received its present name. New Jersey was settled in 1623 by the Dutch, passing into English hands at the same time with New York. New Hampshire was settled in 1623 by English settlers ; Connecticut in 1633 by English and Dutch, but the number of the latter was so small that even that fierce old warrior, Peter Stuyvesant, was glad to give up the claim by treaty in 1650. Maryland was settled in 1631 by William Claiborne, and in 1634 by a colony under Leonard Calvert, the brother of Cecil, Lord Baltimore. Rhode Island was settled in 1636 by Roger Williams; Delaware in 1638 by Swedes, who named the colony New Sweden. In 1655, New Sweden was conquered by the Dutch, and in 1664 it followed the fortunes of New Netheriand, falling into the power of the English. The first permanent settlement was made in North Carolina in 1665, and in South Carolina in 1670. In these two colonies, which were not politically separated until 1729, an attempt was made to carry out a scheme of government devised by the celebrated philosopher John Locke. This scheme provided for two orders of nobility, and contained various other features which rendered it totally unsuit^d for the management of a free colony. The result showed that however able Locke was in writing upon the theory of government, concerning the practice he possessed no " innate ideas," and those procured by " sensation and reflection" possessed little value. Although scattering parties of Swedes and Finns had reached the western bank of the Delaware as early as 1627, 1682 is given as the date of the permanent settlement of Penn- sylvania. The " peace policy " toward the Indians, inaugui-ated by William Penn at the famous elm of Shackamaxon, preserved the Pennsylvania 96 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES settlers for many years from the horrors of Indian warfare. Georgia was settled in 1733 by a party of colonists under the command of General James Oglethorpe. In 1689 the population of the colonies was about 200,000. In 1715 it had more than doubled, being 434,600. In 1733 the number of inhab- itants in the twelve colonies first settled was not far from 750,000. For more than a thousand miles the coast was occupied, but the settlements did not extend very far inland. The nature of the country in the interior was not known, nor was there any accurate notion even of the breadth of the continent. COLONIAL HISTORY [1733-1776]. While the English were busily engaged in settling the coast, the French were exploring the interior of the country, and building forts along the great lakes and down the Mississippi, from Montreal to New Orleans. These French posts finally amounted to more than sixty in number, and their positions were selected with great care. In 1688 the French in America numbered only 11,249, little more than one-twentieth part of the number of the English. Their strength lay in their skill in managing the Indians. Count Fronteuac, the French governor of Canada, when he had nearly completed his allotted span of threescore years and ten, was still young enough to sing the war-song and dance the war-dance with his Indian allies. By such condescensions as these the good-will of the sav- ages was conciliated, and an auxiliary force was secured which for a long tune fully compensated for the lack of regular troops. The Avars in America between the French and English were generally excited by those between the mother-countries, and were therefore named by the English colonists after the reigning monarch of England. King William's War (1689-1697) consisted of plundering and massacring raids on the part of the French, and ineffectual expeditions against Quebec and Montreal on the part of the English. The main result of Queen Anne's War (1702-1713) was the permanent acquisition by the English of the French province of Acadie, the name of which was changed to Nova Scotia. During King George's War (1744-1748), Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, then one of the strongest fortresses in America, was cap- tured, after a six weeks' siege, by a force commanded by a colonial gene- ral (William Pepperell) and almost entirely composed of colonists. The latter were much disgusted when their conquest was restored to the French in 1748 by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. Still, the exploit was not with- out its fruits. It revealed the strength of the colonists both to themselves and to the home government. A contest was approaching which was not entirely dependent upon the position of the mother-countries, as it was commenced a year and a half before the beginning of the " Seven Years' CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 97 War," and was practically ended, ,so far as the French and English in America were concerned, two years and a half before the treaty of Paris. We allude, of course, to the well-known " French and Indian War." In 1754 the free and slave poj)ulation of the colonies amounted to about 1,425,000. Then, as now, the surplus population was poured out toward the great West, and the English pioneers soon came in contact with the French, who held the line of forts above mentioned. In 1753, George Washington, then not yet twenty-two years of age, was sent to remonstrate with the French commandant on the Ohio. The only result of his mission Avas the discovery that the French intended to hold their ground. The war began May 28, 1754, with an insignificant skirmish at Great Meadows, in the south-eastern part of Fayette county, Pa. Not more than fifty men were engaged on each side, and the advantage lay with the English detachment, which was led by Washington. Little was accomplished during this year, but in 1755 several expeditions were planned by the English. One against Fort Duquesne (upon the present site of Pittsburg) resulted in " Braddock's defeat." Another against Crown Point, under Generals Johnson and Lyman, suffered a partial defeat, then gained a complete victory at Fort Edward ou the same day (Sept. 8), but failed in its main object. In 1756 the home governments took up the quarrel. The earl of Loudoun was appointed commander-in- chief, with General Abercrombie as his lieutenant. The latter was unwill- ing to make any forward movement in the absence of his chief, who was daily expected, but who did not arrive until late in the summer. In the mean time the vigilant and active Montcalm had taken Oswego, with one hundred and thirty-five pieces of artillery and an immense quantity of military stores. In 1757 Lord Loudoun left New York with the inten- tion of taking Louisburg. Uj)on learning that the garrison was larger than had been supposed, he stopped to deliberate. The arrival of seven- teen French ships of the line in Louisburg harbor put a speedy end to his cogitations, by making an attack wholly out of the question. In the mean time Montcalm had taken and dismantled Fort William Henry. Such glaring exhibitions of inefficiency naturally awakened the con- tempt and disgust of the colonists, as well as of the people of England. William Pitt was called to the head of afluirs in the home government, and in 1758 vigorous measures were taken. Pitt promised that the expenses incurred by the colonies during the campaign should be reim- bursed — a promise which was fixithfully kept. Upward of thirty thousand men were raised by the colonists, and the regulars made up the number to fifty thousand. Abercrombie, the commander-in-chief, showed at Ticon- deroga, in the first part of the camjiaign, bungling rashness, then relapsed into masterly inactivity ; but Louisburg was taken by Amherst and Wolfe, Froutenac (now Kingston, Out.) by Colonel Bradstreet, and 98 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Fort Duquesne by au expedition in which Washington had a command. In 1759 the unsuccessful and feeble Abercrombie was superseded by the successful and able Amherst, who took Ticonderoga and Crown Point, while Wolfe, being sent against Quebec, fell ou the Plains of Abraham, leaving as a legacy to his country the key of the French dominion in America. In 1760 the war in America was virtually ended by an unsuc- cessful attempt of the French to recapture Quebec, and by the surrender of Montreal (Sept. 8, 1760), with all other French posts in Canada. The French and Indian War resulted in something more than a mere conquest of territory. It had served as a valuable school for the military men of the colonies. In that severe school were graduated Washington (as we have seen), Schuyler, Putnam, Stark, and many others who were prominent in the Kevolutionary War. They learned something more than tactics. They saw that the British regulars were not invincible, and that the practice of firing point-blank was not superior to the unscientific American habit of taking aim, unless it was the soldier's object to burn as much powder as possible. The military knowledge then acquired was to be of use for a purpose which did not then enter into the mind of one of the colonists, Pontiac, an Ottawa chief, got up a consj)iracy (which broke out in June, 1763) for the purpose of expelling the English from the country west of the Alleghanies, which was put down with some diffi- culty, but there was another conspiracy brewing against the liberties of a growing nation hitherto uncouscious of its strength. George III. ascended the throne of England Oct. 25, 1760. He found in Pitt an obstacle to the carrying out of his views of government, and got rid of him as soon as possible. The first move upon the liberties of the colonies was the authorization of "Writs of Assistance" or general search-warrants, which empowered the king's officers to break open any citizen's store or dwelling to search for smuggled goods, and ordered that sheriffs and others should assist in this work. Few of these were issued, and those were ineffectual. Then George Grenville, the prime minister, procured the passage of the Stamp Act (Feb. 27, 1765), declaring that no legal instrument in writing should be valid unless it bore a government stamp. This act received the royal assent on the 22d of March, at the same time witli the "Quartering Act," which obliged the colonists to find quarters, fire-wood, bedding, drink (cider or rum), soap and candles for as many troops as the home government saw fit to send over to enforce the Stamp Act and other tyrannical measures. Kobert Walpole, when prime minister in 1732, had said, "I will leave the taxation of America to some of my successors who have more courage than I have." Pitt had said, in 1759, "I will never burn my fingers with an American Stamp Act." The result of Grenville's policy proved the wisdom of these remarks. The effect of these ill-judged measures was to bring about a feeling of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 99 union among the colonists, which was shown by the assembling of a Co- lonial Congress at New York (Oct. 7, 1765). The king and Parliament were petitioned, and a ''Declaration of Rights" was adopted. In the mean time associations had been formed which called themselves the " Sons of Liberty," leagued with the avowed determination to resist oppression to the uttermost. Many of the stamps which came over were hidden or burned, and on the day when the act was to take effect (Nov. 1, 1765) bells were tolled, flags were placed at half-mast, and newspapers were " put in mourning," but there were no officials courageous enough to enforce the obnoxious law. The repeal of the Stamp Act (March 18, 1766) caused great joy in America, and was celebrated with bonfires and public thanksgivings ; but with that repeal was connected a " declaratory act," stating that Parliament possessed the power " to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." To carry out this principle, in 1767 an act was passed levying duties on tea, glass, paints, paper and lead. The immediate cause of this act was the taunting language of George Greuville, who was dissatisfied with his failure to enforce the Stamp Act. He said in open Parliament, to the ministry who succeeded him, "You are cowards; you are afraid of the Americans; you dare not tax America!" Townsend, who was in the ministry, replied, " I dare tax America. I will." The colonists renewed the non-importation associations which they had formed to resist the Stamp Act. Troops were sent over to overawe the malcontents and to enforce the collection of the duties, but the trade of England with the colonies suffered so much from the course pursued by the Americans that in 1770 all the duties were taken off, except three pence a pound on tea. This was retained by the express command of the king, who said that " there should always be one tax at least to keep up the right of taxing." Here can be seen the fatal error of the British government. It was not the amount of the taxes, but "the right of taxing," against which the Americans were contending. Arrangements were made by which they could pay the duty and yet buy their tea nine pence a pound cheaper than the rate at which it was sold in England, but they were not to be bribed. On the night of December 16, 1773, three cargoes of tea were thrown overboard in Boston harbor, and in 1774 the home government retaliated by closing the port of Boston, by virtually annulling the charter of Massachusetts, and by ordering that all persons charged in the colonies with murder com- mitted in support of the government should be taken to England for trial. On the 5th of September, 1774, the First Continental Congress assembled in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelj^hia. They put forth a " Bill of Rights," an "Address to the People of Great Britain," and various other state papers, which were marked by such signal ability and wisdom that William Pitt, now earl of Chatham, said in the House of Lords, " For 100 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES solidity of reasoning, force of sagacity and wisdom of conclusion, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the general Congress of Phil- adelphia." It was soon seen that war was inevitable, and preparations were begun by the Americans, but independence was not even thought of until after the battle of Lexington (April 19, 1775). On the 10th of May, 1775 (the very day upon which Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold captured Ticonderoga), the Second Continental Congress convened at Philadel- phia. While that body was in session the citizens of Mecklenburg county, North Carolina, in convention assembled, anticipated by more than a year the acticm of the whole country, and declared themselves "a free and independent people" (May 21, 1775). The general Congress, though not yet prepared to proceed to such extremities as this, voted to raise an army of twenty thousand men, adopted the troops engaged in the siege of Boston as a " Continental army," and elected Washington commander-in- chief (June 15, 1775). Before he could reach his forces the battle of Bunker Hill had been fought (June 17). The breach between the colo- nies and the mother-country became daily wider. The siege of Boston was so vigorously pressed that on the 17th of March, 1776, the British troops evacuated that city. Within eighty days after that event almost every provincial Assembly had spoken in favor of Independence. On the 4th of July, 1776, in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, Congress adopted that Declaration of Independence* which gave to republican institutions an oi)portunity for untrammelled development under the genial influence of A CENTUEY OF FREEDOM. THE FIRST DECADEf [1776-1786]. The joy of the-Americans at hearing of the Declaration was tempered by their thorough appreciation of the magnitude of the struggle in which they were engaged. The expulsion of the British from Boston and the gallant defence of Fort Moultrie (June 28, 1776) gave them reasonable encouragement, but they knew that seventeen thousand foreign troops had been hired by the British government. This had been done because the war was un^wpular with the people of England, and it was therefore diffi- cult to induce them to enlist. An aggregate land and naval force of fifty-five thousand men had been voted for the American service, and " As this instrument deserves more than a passing notice, it shall be made the subject of a separate article. [See Declaration op Ikdependence.] t Tlic word decade may mean ten of anything, though it is probably used most frequently in the sense in which we now employ it, and shall continue to employ it througliout this work— viz.. to denote a period of ten years. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 101 before the first of August thirty thousand British troops, many of them veterans, were ready to fall upon the American army of seventeen thou- sand men, mostly militia. A battle was fought on Long Island (Aug. 27) in which the Americans were defeated with great loss — a defeat which obliged Washington to abandon New York and to retreat up the eastern bank of the Hudson. The army daily diminished. When Washington crossed the Hudson (Nov. 12) he had only four thousand men. When he crossed the Delaware to Pennsylvania (Dec. 8), after having been closely pursued across New Jersey by the British, he had less than three thousand weary, half-starved, dispirited soldiers. The Americans took with them all the boats on the New Jersey side of the river, and General Howe or- dered Cornwallis, who commanded in the 2)ursuit, to wait for the river to freeze and cross over on the ice. Within three weeks after leaving New Jersey, at a time when floating ice made the river almost impassable, Wash- ington returned (Dec. 26) with twenty-four hundred men, captured more than a thousand Hessians at Trenton, stole away from the superior forces of Cornwallis, then defeated the reserve of the latter at Princeton, and so managed matters that on the 1st of March, 1777, neither a British nor a Hessian soldier could be found in New Jersey, excej^t at New Brunswick and Amboy. Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, certainly a competent and an impartial judge, declared that the achievements of Washington and his little band, between the 25th of December and the 4th of January following, were the most brilliant of any recorded in the annals of military performances. By'^the 30th of June, 1777, the British were entirely ex- pelled from New Jersey, but during the remainder of the year the army under Washington sufiered great privations and met with several reverses. Howe left General Clinton in command at New York, and sailed with 18,000 men to the Delaware. On the Brandywine the Americans were defeated (Sept. 11), the British entered Philadelphia (Sept. 26), and again defeated the patriots at Germantown (Oct. 4). Washington went into winter-quarters at Valley Forge (Dec. 11), leaving the enemy in possession of Philadelphia. The sufferings of the Americans on their march to Valley Forge, when their course could be tracked on the snow by bloody footprints, and their subsequent privations, form, as has been well said, " some of the gloomiest, as well as some of the most brilliant, scenes in the record of American patriotism." Their hearts had been cheered, how- ever, by good news from the North. Burgoyne started in the latter part of June, 1777, from Canada, intending to come down the Hudson and co-operate with Clinton. He took Crown Point and Ticonderoga (July 6), but Schuyler put so many obstacles in his way, by felling trees, breaking down bridges, etc., that his march toward New York was very slow. A large foraging party which he sent out was defeated at Bennington, Vt. (Aug. 16), he, himself, failed to gain the two battles of Stillwater (Sept. 102 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES 19 aud Oct. 7), and on the ITtli of October his forces, numbering 5791 men, were surrendered to General Gates at Saratoga. He kept his promise to eat his Christmas dinner in Albany, but it was as a captive, not as a conqueror. On the 6th of February, 1778, a treaty of alliance with France was signed at Paris. It is now known that Louis XVI. reluctantly gave his consent to this proceeding, and called his ministers to witness that it was done contrary to his judgment. Congress did not receive the announce- ment of this treaty until the 2d of May, but had refused in the mean time offers of conciliation made by the British government, being resolved to accept nothing short of independence. A French fleet and army were immediately sent over to the assistance of the Americans, and the British commanders received orders to abandon Philadelphia and the Delaware, aud to concentrate their forces at New York. The British army under the command of Clinton, who had superseded Howe, left Philadelphia (June 18), but Washington pursued and intercepted it. A battle was fought at Monmouth (June 28), in which the Americans had the advantage, and which they were prepared to renew on the following day, but dui'ing the night the enemy stole away under cover of the darkness. Clinton said in his despatches to England, " I took advantage of the moonlight to rejoin General Knyphausen," etc. As the moon was quite new, aud had set two hours before Clinton began his march, this statement caused much merriment among the patriots. Little more happened during the remain- der of the year except an unsuccessful attempt of the Americans to take Newport, and the massacres perpetrated in the Wyoming, Mohawk, Scho- harie and Cherry Valleys. Almost all our historians, with the exception of Lossing aud Hildreth, have made such grave errors in describing the "massacre of Wyoming" that we feel it our duty to give a portion of even our limited space to the correction of a few of the more important misstate- ments. For more than twenty years it has been known that Brant was not present at the battle ; that Forty Fort was not burned together with its inmates; and that Colonel John Butler did not answer "The hatchet!" when asked what terms he would give the garrison. He granted humane terms by a treaty still in existence, which would have been faithfully car- ried out had he been able to restrain the Indians. Horrible as the ex- cesses committed really were, they have been much exaggerated in nearly all the accounts published. During the first six months of the following year the combined efforts of the British and Tories accomplished the temporary subjugation of Georgia. An attempt of the British to take Charleston, S. C, failed (May 11), while the Americans and French were equally unsuccessful in an assault upon Savannah, Geo. (Oct. 9). In the North, the principal events were the capture of Stony Point, on the Hudson (July 16), by " Mad CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 103 Anthony Wayne" (one of the most brilliant exploits of the war), the surprise and capture of the British garrison at Paulus Hook (now Jersey City), and a campaign against the Seneca Indians by General Sullivan, in retaliation for the massacres above mentioned. In the West, Major George Rogers Clarke cajitured (Jiily 4, 1778) Kaskaskia, 111., and Ca- hokia. 111. (July 9, 1778), and Vincennes, Ind., the following month. In January, 1779, the British recaptured Vincennes ; but when Clarke heard of it, with 175 men he waded through the snow-flood of the "drowned lands" of Illinois and received the surrender of Vincennes from the astonished British garrison, whose amazement could not have been much greater if Clarke and his force had dropped from the clouds. On the 24th of September, 1779, occurred one of the most desperate naval bat- tles on record, which resulted in the capture of the British frigate Serajns by the American frigate Bon Homme Richard, commanded by the famous John Paul Jones. Sir Henry Clinton sailed from New York for the South (Dec. 25, 1779), and Washington sent Baron De Kalb and others to aid the southern patriots. The two armies were thus so much weakened at their head- quarters that military operations at the North almost ceased during the year 1780. Clinton took Charleston (May 12), after a warmly-contested siege of more than six weeks ; and then the country was overrun, and appeared to be so completely reduced that Clinton sailed for New York (June 5). Cornwallis was left behind in command, and the cruel Tarleton ravaged the country with his dragoons, in one instance killing so many who had surrendered that "Tarleton's quarter" became a proverbial expression for faithless cruelty. Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, was given the chief command in the South ; but by his defeat in the disastrous battle of Sanders' Creek, and the subsequent flight of the Americans, he exchanged (as General Lee had predicted that he would) " his northern laurels for southern willows." Still, the southern patriots did not despair. The famous Mai-iou, Pickens, John Clarke and Sumter carried on a par- tisan w^arfare with varying success, and in a severe engagement at King's Mountain (Oct. 7), 1500 Tories were defeated by 1800 patriots, with a loss of 300 killed and wounded and 800 prisoners. The very mention of the name of Benedict Arnold, now a synonym for traitor, will bring to mind his treason, his plan to deliver West Point into the hands of the British, the capture of Major Andre (Sept. 22, 1780) by John Paulding, David Williams and Isaac Van Wart (who nobly refused all bribes to let him pass), the execution of Andre and the escape of the arch-traitor. In noble contrast with the course of Arnold is that of some soldiers of the Pennsylvania line, who mutinied (Jan. 1, 1781) on account of heavy arrearages of pay due them and the belief that their tei-m of service, as they understood it, had expired. Emissaries sent by Sir Henry Clinton. 104 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES (with teniptiug offers of bribes if they would desert, singly or in a body) were seized and delivered into the hands of General Wayne. By refusing the reward offered for the apprehension of the British agents, the mutineers proved that their motives were not merely mercenary ones— that their love of country had not been quenched even by their alleged wrongs. The cause of this and similar troubles was the depreciation of the Continental currency [see Coins and Currency], which was owing both to the large amount already issued (more than $200,000,000), and to the^ immense quantity of cleverly-executed counterfeits set afloat by the British. To one man, Robert Morris, is due the credit of having upheld the national finances during this trying time. We can indeed say credit, for frequently his individual credit procured funds when that of Congress was gone. The year 1781 was practically the last of the war. Greene took the command in the South, and the first severe blow was struck at Cowpens (Jan. 17, 1781) by Daniel Morgan, commander of the fiimous rifle-corps, w^ho defeated a superior force of the British under Tarleton. Greene retreated into Virginia from the main army under Cornwallis, being saved three times from being taken at a disadvantage by the sudden rising of rivers after he had passed over them. As soon as his force was large enough, he returned and fought a severe battle at Guilford Court-house (Mar. 15). The British remained masters of the field, but were so cut up and dispirited that Charles Fox said, in the British House of Commons, "Another such victory will ruin the British army." The subsequent operations of Gi'cene met with varying success. At Hobkirk's Hill (near Camden, S. C.) he was surprised and defeated (Apr. 25), but retreated in good order. At Eutaw Springs (Sept. 8), the British were at fii'st driven off the field in confusion, then they suddenly renewed the battle and drove the Americans back, and finally they retreated in the night. At the close of the year, the British in the South were confined to Charleston and Sa- vannah. In the mean time Cornw'allis had been attempting the subjuga- tion of Virginia (leaving Lord Rawdon to contend with Greene), had been ordered by Sir Henry Clinton to take post near the sea, and in xVugust had commenced fortifying Yorktown. Washington intended to attack New York ; but learning that Clinton had been reinforced, he turned his thoughts toward Virginia, wrote deceptive letters to Greene, wdiich he caused to be intercepted by Clinton, and long before the stratagem was discovered was far on his way to Yorktown— too far for successful pursuit. The allied American and French armies reached Yorktown on the 28th of September. They began a regular siege, while the French fleet, under De Grasse, guarded the entrance to Chesapeake Bay, cutting off all hope of supplies or assistance by sea. The siege was vigorously pressed ; Clinton could not relieve the garrison, and on the 19th of October, 1781, Corn- wallis surrendered the posts of Yorktown and Gloucester, with almost CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 105 7000 British soldiers and his shipping and seamen, to Washington and De Grasse. The surrender of Cornwallis virtually put an end to the war. Amer- ican armies were still watching the forces stationed in "New York, Charles- ton and Savannah, but actual hostilities were at au end before orders went forth from England (March 4, 1782) for their cessation. On the 11th of July, 1782, the British evacuated Savannah, and on the 14th of December following they left Charleston. A preliminaiy treaty was signed on the 20th of January, 1783, and a definitive treaty on the 3d of September following. On the 25th of November, 1783, the British army sailed from New York, thereby freeing the United States from the last sign of British domination. Peace had been secured, independence had been achieved, but the pros- pects of the new-fledged nation were, apparently, not very brilliant. A heavy debt encumbered the government, and a similar burden rested upon almost every confederation within it. The common danger, which had cemented the union of the States much more closely than the " Articles of Confederation," was gone, and, so far as could be seen, these victorious States, after they had fought and won the battle for indei^endence and the rights of man, after they had established their claims to a free and equal position in the family of nations, were themselves on the very brink of anarchy and political destruction. Under the Articles of Confederation Congress had exclusive power for a number of purposes, but had no ability to execute any of them. They were empowered to make and conclude treaties, but they could only recommend the observance of them. They could appoint ambassadors, but they could not defray their ex2:)enses. They could Ijorrow money in their own name on the faith of the Union, but they could not pay a dollar. They could coin money, but they could not import a single ounce of bullion. Thoy could make war and could determine upon the number of troops necessaiy, but they could not raise a single regiment. In short, they could declare everything, but could do nothing. This was the more unfortunate, as no country ever more required a well-ordered government than the United States immediately after the Revolutionary war. Trade and commerce were destroyed ; agriculture had decayed ; manufactures were ruined, and the inhabitants of the country were so impoverished that many of them were nearly destitute of clothing. As if to shoot a "Parthian shaft" when relinquishing this country, imme- diately after the peace was announced the British sent over a great quan- tity of cloths of an inferior quality, which were sold at an exorbitant price. In this manner almost all the money of the country was collected and carried abroad. " Disordered finance, prostrate commerce and ruined credit" called for a work of organization, the completion of which was reserved for — 106 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES THE SECOND DECADE [1786-1796]. President, George AVashington [1789-1797]. In September, 1786, commissioners from New York, New Jersey, Penn- sylvania, Delaware and Virginia met at Annapolis, Mel, to consider the state of the trade of the United States, and to digest and report such mea- sures as would enable Congress effectually to provide for the same. Nothing was done with reference to the special object of the meeting, for it was seen that the evils which infested the body politic were too deeply seated to yield to mild measures. Kadical constitutional treatment was evidently required. The Annapolis Convention therefore advised a revisal of the constitution of the federal government, to render it adequate to the exigencies of the Union. To secure this revisal a second convention was proposed, to which all the States should be invited to appoint commis- sioners, to meet at Philadelphia in the following May. This invitation was accepted, and thus originated the government which gave stability and prosperity to the young republic. The convention was originally called together by a resolution adopted by Congress (Feb. 21, 1787), and met on the appointed day (May 14, 1787), in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, which was thus given another claim to be considered the cradle of the nation ; but a quorum was not present until the 25th of May. George Washington was unanimously chosen to preside over the deliberatioas of this body, in which all of the thirteen original States were represented except Rhode Island and New Hamp- shire. The former State did not send any delegation, but commissioners from New Hampshire began to attend on the 23d of July. As particular remarks on the Constitution adopted and the subsequent amendments thereto are reserved by our plan for another article [see Government AND Laws], we shall mention some of the propositions which were rejected, some of them by a small majority: That the president and members of the senate should hold office ''during good behavior;" that there should be more than one chief magistrate, to prevent the possibility of the incum- bent's becoming an elective king; that the President should be elected by the national legislature, "because the people would never concur in a majority, but would generally vote for a citizen of their own State." All of these propositions were successively voted down, though the last— viz., the election of the President by the national legislature— was at first adopted by a vote of seven States to four, while the present method, by means of electors, was at first negatived by six votes to five. On the 17th of September, after nearly four months of deliberation and of debates which were, at times, so warm that it was doubtful whether the members would come to any agreement or not, the present federal Constitution was CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 107 adopted. Perhaps its best recommendation was that it did not fully sat- isfy any party, but a spirit of mutual forbearance was shown which was worthy of all praise. Mr. Hamilton, for instance, expressed his anxiety that every member should sign. " No man's ideas were more remote from the plan than his own, but he could not hesitate between anarchy and convulsion and the chance of good to be expected from the plan." The conventions of the requisite number of States (nine) had ratified the Con- stitution by the 21st of June, 1788, though not without earnest debate. It is remarkable that a system deemed so imperfect, not only by the mass of its framers, but by many eminent men throughout the country, should have been found to answer so fully the jKirposes of its formation as to require during a period of seventy years no essential alteration. The first eleven amendments were mere additions, and the twelfth only changed the method of electing the President and Vice-President. The workings of this instrument have been so beneficial that it has deserved the title given it by an eminent legal authority, who styles it "the great charter of our national renown." At the first election under the Constitution, George Washington received the unanimous vote of the electors (sixty-nine in number), which made him President. Each elector at that time voted for two persons, without des- ignating the ofiice, and the one who received the highest number of votes became President ; and the one standing next on the list, or, rather, whose vote was the greatest after the President was chosen, became Vice-President. John Adams, therefore, though he had not received a majority (his vote was 34), was elected Vice-President. The vote was counted by Congress (April 6, 1789), Washington was officially notified (April 14), and he was inaugurated (April 30) at Federal Hall, New York, which was on the site of the present custom-house. New York had become the "federal city" in January, 1785, when Congress (which, after leaving Philadelphia in June, 1783, had successively tried Princeton, N. J., Annapolis, Md., and Trenton, N. J.) first met there. Thomas Jefferson was appointed 'Secretary of For- eign Affairs (his title was changed to Secretary of State in September, 1789) ; Alexander Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury ; and Henry Knox, Secre- tary of War. The offices of Secretary of the Navy and Secretary of the Interior were not yet created, and the Postmaster-General and Attorney- General were not members of the cabinet. Though some historians count the latter official in when giving the first cabinets, he was first considered a, cabinet-officer, according to Hildreth, in 1814, but according to another authority, not before Tyler's administration (1841-1845). During the first portion of Washington's administration, the work of organizing under the new Constitution was vigorously jirosecuted, and two political parties made their appearance, viz., Federalists, who wished to make the general government as powerful as was possible without abolishing the 108 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES State governments; and Eepublicans, who wished the general government to have as little power as W'as possible, without rendering it so weak as to be utterly inefficient. Washington, Adams, Hamilton and Jay were reck- oned with the Federalists, and Jefferson, Madison, Gallatin and Edward Livingston were accounted among the Republicans. It is, however, an act of simple justice to state that \yashingtou was never a partisan, and that he was called a Federalist simply on account of his known views, and not because he was a party standard-bearer. The unanimous vote in his favor at two presidential elections is a proof of the truth of this assertion. Hamilton's office imposed upon him the difficult task of adjusting the national finances. The Continental Congress had incurred a debt of fifty- four millions of dollars, and the debt of the States, incurred in the same cause, amounted to twenty-five millions of dollars. Hamilton advocated the assumption of both of these debts by the general government — a course which was adopted by Congress after a spirited debate. On the 28th of June, 1790, an act of Congress was passed removing the seat of government to Philadelphia, where it was to remain until the year 1800, at which time it was to be permanently fixed at some place on the Potomac, to be selected by the President within certain specified limits. In 1788 Maryland had ceded sixty square miles to the United States, and in 1789 Virginia had ceded forty square miles, Avithin the limits mentioned. The Virginia por- tion was returned to the State in 1846. Washington performed the duty of selecting the place in the following year, when he was making a tour through the South. In 1790 trouble arose with the Indians of the North- west. General Harmar was defeated near Chillicothe, Ohio, and in the following year (Nov. 4, 1791) General St. Clair was also beaten, with great loss, in a battle fought eighty miles north of the present city of Cincinnati. General Wayne, the "Mad Anthony" of the Revolution, was given the command of all the troops engaged against the north-western Indians, and by his bravery in the field and his skilflil diplomacy, he succeeded in securing a peace which lasted many years. In 1791 (March 4) Vermont was admitted into the Union, and in 1792 (June 1) Kentucky was received into the confederation, making the number of States fifteen. A new appor- tionment of presidential electors was made in accordance with the first census, which had been taken in 1790. Tl^e presidential election of 1792 resulted in the unanimous re-election of Washington, and in the re-election of Adams as Vice-President, by a majority of nine electors ; the whole num- ber of electors being 132. In April, 1793, information was received of the declaration of war by France against Great Britain, Spain and Holland. The general sympathy of the American people was in favor of the sister-republic, but Washington hac the wisdom and firmness to issue a neutrality proclamation. In spite of tins decided measure, Citizen Genet, the minister from the French re- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 109 public, begau to fit out privateers iu American ports, aud threatened to ajipeal to the j^eople. This action was, of course, deemed an insult to our government, and Washington promptly demanded and obtained the recall of Genet. In 1794 an insurrection broke out in Western Pennsyl- vania, caused by an attempt to collect a tax upon domestic distilled liquors, imposed by an act of Congress passed in 1791. This outbreak, which is known in history as the " Whisky Insurrection," was promptly quelled by a force of militia ordered out by the President. In 1795 treaties were con- cluded with Great Britain aud Spain. That with Great Britain was not very satisfactory, and Mr. Jay, the minister who negotiated it, was burned iu effigy. The treaty with Spain secured the navigation of the Mississippi to its mouth, and settled the boundary-line between the United States and the Spanish possessions. On the 1st of June, 1796, Tennessee was admitted into the Union, making the number of States sixteen. THE THIRD DECADE [1796-1806].* Presidents, George Washington, John Adams [1797-1801], Thomas Jefferson [1801-1809]. In September, 1796, Washington issued a farewell address, iu which he laid before the nation his views respecting its true policy. This parting advice, which is full of wisdom and patriotism, has ever been regarded by the people of the United States as one of the most valuable legacies left them by the Father of his Country. Had the warnings against party spirit and sectional feeling which are contained in this admirable valedic- tory been heeded, much subsequent trouble might have been avoided. As the only man upon whom the whole nation could unite was about to retire from public life, the presidential election of 1796 gave an opportunity for the first great struggle between the Federalists and the Republicans. The former nominated John Adams, and the latter Thomas Jefferson, for the presidency. Of the electoral votes Adams received 71 and Jefferson 69. By the provisions of the Constitution as it was, Adams therefore became President and Jefferson Vice-President; and it was seen that among the inconveniences attendant upon that method of election was the strong probability that the President and Vice-President would always be opposed to each other in politics — a circumstance not calculated to secure harmo- nious action in the administration of the national government. President Adams was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1797, aud adopted the cabinet of Washington as his own. The first important matter requiring the attention of the government was a difficulty with * As the first decade began with the 4th of July, the history of each subsequent decade will, of course, begin and end with that date ; but that of the last decade, for obvious reasons, will be incomplete. 110 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES France arising out of the refusal of the United States to act with France against Great Britain. C. C. Piuckney, the American minister, was ordered to leave France, and the government of that country authorized depreda- tions upon our commerce. A special session of Congress was therefore convened (May 15, 1797), and in July, Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry and John Marshall were appointed envoys extraordinary to adjust all diffi- culties. They were refused a hearing unless a large sum of money should first be paid into the French treasury, and were told that the refusal to accede to this demand would bring on a war. " War be it, then!" replied Pinckney; " millions for defence, but not one cent for tribute !" Marshall and Piuckney were ordered to leave France, Gerry being permitted to remain because he belonged to the Republican party, the members of which Avere more favorably disposed toward France than the Federalists were. Seeing that negotiation was in vain. Congress authorized a large army (May, 1798), and appointed Washington its commander-in-chief. A naval department was now formed in the government, with Benjamin Stoddard, of Maryland, as the first Secretary of the Navy, and hostilities were actually commenced on the water, several ships being captured on either side. These spirited measures brought the French government to terms ; the Directory made overtures for peace, but went out of power before the American envoys arrived. Napoleon Bonaparte, who held the reins of government as First Consul, readily received the United States ambassadors, and a treaty was concluded (Sept. 30, 1800) by which all disputed matters were satisfactorily adjusted. The army was disbanded; but before the news of peace had come its revered commander-in-chief had gone to his rest (Dec. 14, 1799). Impressive funeral services were held throughout the country, eulogies were delivered, and Congress recommended that the people of the United States should wear a badge of mourning for thirty days. The presidential election of 1800 was warmly contested. The "Alien and Sedition acts" (of which one empowered the President to order out of the country aliens who were conspiring against the peace of the United States, while the other restrained the liberty of speech and of the press) rendered the Federalist administration unpopular. These acts had been passed at the time when a war with France seemed imminent, and were justified by the Federalists with the plea that the emissaries of the French government were endeavoring to incite an insurrection, and that many of the newspapers were conducted by refugees and adventurers from Great Britain. President Adams was renominated by the Federalists for the presidency, with C. C. Pinckney as candidate for the vice-presidency. Thomas Jefferson and Aarou Burr were the nominees of the Republicans. As each elector voted for two persons without designating the office, and as Jefferson and Burr each received 73 votes, the contest for the presi- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. Ill dency was really between them, although Burr had been nominated as a candidate for the vice-presidency. Each had a majority of the 138 elec- toral votes ; but as Congress was not bound to take any notice of the inten- tion of the party Avho had nominated them, it was considered a tie vote between them for the presidency, and the election went, for the first time, to the House of Representatives. A number of the Federalist Congress- men voted for Burr; but after a close contest, which extended through 36 ballots, Jefferson was elected President and Burr Vice-President. This difficulty caused the adoption of the Twelfth Amendment to the Consti- tution, which obliges the electors "to name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice- President." This amendment was announced as adopted and ratified Sept. 25, 1804, it having been approved by 13 of the 16 States. Jefierson's cabinet consisted of James Madison, Secretary of State; Henry Dearborn, Secretary of War; Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury; and Robert Smith, Secretary of the Navy. On the 10th of June, 1801, the bashaw of Tripoli, a petty prince of one of the Barbary States, in the North of Africa, declared war against the United States. The insolence of the Mediterranean pirates had been for a long time scarcely endurable. Ships of Algiers, Tunis, Tripoli and Morocco cap- tured American vessels ; and not satisfied with ordinary piratical plunder- ing, they reduced the crew and passengers of the captured vessels to a condition of servitude. Captain Bainbridge was ordered to cruise in the Mediterranean in order to protect American commerce; but no further notice was taken of the declaration of war until 1803, when Commodore Preble was sent to Tripoli with a large squadron. On the olst of October, Captain Bainbridge was sent into the harbor of Tripoli to reconnoitre. His vessel (the Philadelphia, of 44 guns) advanced too far in eager pur- suit of a small Tripolitan gunboat, and struck on a rock. The officers were treated as prisoners of war, but the crew were made slaves. In Feb- ruary, 1804, Lieutenant Stephen Decatur sailed from Syracuse, Sicily, in a small schooner, having on board but 76 men, entered the harbor of Tripoli undiscovered, and recaptured the Philadelphia, which was anchored under the guns of a powerful battery. As it was impossible to take her out, she was set on fire and abandoned. Lieutenant Decatur and his party making their escape without the loss of a single man, and with only four wounded. This exploit, one of the most brilliant recorded in the annals of naval warfare, greatly exalted the reputation of the American arms throughout all the piratical States. Tripoli was bombarded several times, a severe action was fought with the Tripolitan gunboats (Aug. 3), but an honorable conclusion to the war was attained by an enterprise directed from another quarter, and conceived with a boldness which was equalled only by the skill and perseverance displayed in its execution. William 112 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Eaton, who liad been a ca})taiu in the army, was at this time the United States consul at Tunis. He there became acquainted with Hamet Cara- mauly, the elder brother of the bashaw of Tripoli, who had usurped the government and had driven Hamet into exile. With the latter, Captain Eaton planned an expedition against the reigning bashaw% then returned to the United States to obtain permission and means to undertake it. With these secured, he started from Alexandria (March 6, 1805) with seventy American seamen, Hamet and his followers, and a band of mounted Arabs. His march lay across a thousand miles of desert, yet it was accomplished, with indescribable fatigue and suiTeriug, in fifty days. On the 25th of April he arrived before Derne, a Tripolitan city, which he took by assault, then defended it successfully against an army ten times as numerous as his own. On the 15th of June he again defeated the Tripolitan forces, and threatened to advance upon the capital; but in the mean time (June 4) l^eace had been made with the reigning bashaw, who was thoroughly frightened by this unexpected attack. Hamet's claims were disregarded, much to his disgust and to that of Eaton, who had hoped to play the part of a " king-maker," and who felt that the deposed prince had deserved better treatment at the hands of our government. On the 12th of July, 1804, Hamilton died of a wound received in a duel with Aaron Burr on the previous day. As Burr was the aggressor, and Hamilton, who had accepted the challenge with great reluctance, had fired in the air, the afiivir was justly deemed a murder, and Burr Avas forced into concealment. At the presidential election which took place in the follownug autumn, George Clinton Avas nominated for the vice-presidency, and Jeffer- son was renominated for the presidency. Since the previous election, Ohio had been admitted into the Union (1802), and a new allotment of presi- dential electors had been made in accordance with the census of 1800. The electoral vote Avas 176, of which Jefferson and Clinton received 162, and Pinckney and King, the Federalist candidates, obtained only 14. The population of the United States by the first census, which Avas taken in 1790, was 3,929,214. At the expiration of ten years, it was found, upon taking the second census, that the population was 5,318,483, an increase of 35 per cent. In 1806 Aaron Burr began plotting to carry out a plan which he had conceived during the previous year, the description of which, as the arrest of Burr took place in 1807, we reserve for the history of— THE FOURTH DECADE [1806-1816]. Presidents, Thomas Jefferson [1801-1809], Jabies Madison [1809-1817]. As early as the winter of 1805-6, Burr had begun to talk of his designs to Captam William Eaton, the hero of the Tripolitan war, encouraged by CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 113 the latter's well-knowu ill-humor on account of the treatment which he and Hamet Caramauly had received. As noted above, the claims of Haraet had been disregarded when a peace was arranged between the United States and the usurping bashaw. Burr had come, however, to the wrong man. Satisfied that Burr was a dangerous person, Eaton went to the President and suggested the appointment of the conspirator to some foreign mission, giving as a reason that if he were not so disposed of there would be an insurrection, if not a revolution, in the West. The President did not think that such a danger was imminent; and as Eaton's relations with the government were not friendly, he did not px'ess the matter further, but related Burr's conversations with him to several congressmen, who regarded Burr's projects as too chimerical and his circumstances as too desperate to furnish any ground for alarm. Burr was arrested at Fort Stoddart, on the Tombigbee River, in the present State of Alabama (Feb., 1807), when it was discovered that Eaton's warning had been dictated by fears which were only too well grounded. During the year 1806 the ex- Vice-President had been endeavoring to attract to his cause all who were discontented, for any reason whatever, with the government ; and though he was acquitted at his trial on account of the lack of proper legal evidence, there is little doubt that he contemplated the establishment of an independent government, either in the south-western part of the United States or in one of the rich provinces of Mexico. In 1806 the struggle between England and France caused serious trouble to the commercial interests of this country. The British government, by an "order in council," declared the whole coast of Europe, from the Elbe River in Germany to the port of Brest in France, to be in a state of block- ade. Napoleon retaliated by issuing (Nov. 21) the "Berlin decree," de- claring a blockade of all the ports of the British islands. Another British oi'der in council prohibited all coast trade with France. American vessels were, therefore, seized by both French and English cruisers — by the French for trading with England, and by the English for trading with France. Our commerce, which had been remarkably prosperous on account of the neutral position of the country, was nearly destroyed. Great Britain also claimed the right to stop and search American vessels on the high seas, ostensibly in order to recover men who had deserted from the British naval service; but if a British war vessel was short of men, its commander had no scruples against the practice of seizing and impressing American seamen. On the 22d of June, 1807, the American frigate Chesapeake was chased and attacked by the British frigate Leopard. Barron, the American com- mander, was unprepared for an attack, and after losing three men killed and eighteen wounded, he was brought to, and four men were carried away by the Leoptard, three of whom, as was subsequently discovered, were native Americans. This outrage caused the issue by the President of a 114 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES proclamation prohibiting all British vessels from continuing in or entering the harbors of the United States until reparation was made. In November, 1807, another order in council was issued, forbidding neutral vessels to enter French ports until they had previously stopped at a British port and paid a duty. In December came Napoleon's " Milan decree," confiscating every vessel which should submit to British search or had paid the exacted tribute. Then Congress decreed an embargo which detained in our ports all vessels (Dec. 22, 1807). The election of 1808 resulted in the choice of James Madison, the Republican candidate, as President, and in the re-election of George Clin- ton as Vice-President. Madison received 122 electoral votes and Clinton 113. Pinckney and King, the Federalist candidates, received only 47 votes apiece. Before Jefferson went out of office the embargo was raised (Mar. 1, 1809). It had caused great distress in commercial circles, and it rendered Jefferson's administration unpopular with some people who were members of his own party; but his friends claimed that his administration had accomplished much good, dwelling especially upon his foreign policy, and upon the acquisition of Louisiana, which had been purchased from France in 1803 for $15,000,000. Madison's 'cabinet consisted of James Monroe, Secretary of State ; Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury; William Eustis, Secretary of War; and Csesar Rodney, Secretary of the Navy. Troublesome complications with foreign nations gave this administration abundance of work to per- form, which required the most skilful of management. The irritation between this country and Great Britain continually increased ; and Napo- leon issued another decree (Mar. 23, 1810), which declared that all American vessels which had entered French ports since the 1st of March, or which might thereafter enter, were and should be forfeited, together with their cargoes. American merchant vessels were still captured by British cruisers, which were continually hanging around our coasts. By the census of 1810 the population of the United States was found to be 7,239,881, an increase of 36 per cent, since 1800. A free people, increasing so rapidly in population and resources, could no longer endure the insults and injuries of a nation which modestly claimed to "rule the waves," and which attempted to make good that claim by repeatedly transgressing the plainest precepts of international law. The British cruisers did not always escape. The Little Belt, a sloop-of-war, was overhauled and hailed by the American frigate President, and replied with a shot which struck the main- mast of the latter. The fire was returned, the guns of the sloop were silencerl, and her captain was obliged to give a civil answer to the inquiry which had been made by Commodore Rodgers, the American commander (May 16, 1811). During. the summer of 1811 it was discovered that the famous Indian CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 115 chief Tecumseh was confederating the tribes of the North-west iu a war against the people of the United States, having been incited thereto by British emissaries. General Harrison, who was then the governor of Indiana Territory, marched against him, and defeated him in the bloody battle of Tippecanoe (Nov. 7, 1811). As the British orders in council were still rigorously enforced, as more than nine hundred American vessels had been seized and confiscated since 1803, as insult after insult was being offered to the American flag, while the British press insolently boasted that the United States " could not be kicked into a war," forbearance was no longer a virtue, and on the 18th of June, 1812, an act of Congress was passed declaring war against Great Britain, by a vote of 79 to 49 in the House of Representatives, and of 19 to 13 in the Senate. Thus began what has been appropriately called "the second war for independence," though it is usually known as "the war of 1812." Congress authorized the President to enlist 25,000 regulars, to accept 50,000 volunteers, and to call out, if necessary, 100,000 volunteers for the defence of the coast. The American navy consisted of 8 frigates, 2 sloops, and 5 brigs, while the British navy numbered 1060 vessels, with 144,000 men. Henry Dearborn, an officer of the Revolution, was appointed commander-in-chief of the army, with James Wilkinson, Wade Hampton, William Hull and Joseph Bloomfield as his principal brigadiers. As these officers were all veterans, much was expected of them, but the results of the militaiy operations of the first year of the war were not in accordance with these expectations. General Hull, who was also governor of Michigan Territory, crossed, with 2000 men, the river dividing the United States and Canada (July 12, 1812), issued a pompous proclamation, tendering to the Canadians the blessings of civil and religious liberty, and wasted a month in ruinous delay. In the mean time a large force of British and Indians captured Fort jNIacki- nac, and Hull was forced to retire to Detroit, where he surrendered his whole army (Aug. 16) without standing an assault. Though he was sub- sequently found guilty of cowardice when tried by a court-martial, his memory has been successfully vindicated. His force had dwindled down to 800 men; and as the British commander had 700 whites and 600 Indians, he wished to avoid the terrible bloodshed which would have ensued from a conflict with a superior detachment containing so many savages. An attempt to invade Canada on the Niagara frontier was equally unsuccessful. The British government declared all of the American coast except that of the New England States iu a state of blockade (Dec. 12, 1812); but no large naval force ajipeared on our coasts until February, 1813. A naval battle had been fought, however, which retrieved the national honor, and which had a powerful effect upon the public mind in both countries. On the 19th of August the United States frigate Constitution, of 44 guns, Captain Isaac Hull, met the British frigate Guerriere, of 38 guns. Captain 116 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES Dacres, which was cruising around in search of au American frigate, with a flag at her masthead bearing the taunting inscription " No Little Belt." The Little Belt had carried only 18 guns, while the President was a 44 guu frigate, and the taunt ijnplied that an American frigate might disable a small vessel, but that the Gnerriere was not likely to be beaten. Within forty minutes after the beginning of the fight the Guerriere was surren- dered, being so shattered that the victor burned her. The Constitution was so little damaged that she was ready for action on the following day. Her loss in killed and wounded was 14, while her opponent lost at least 79 in killed and wounded ; but according to one account the correct number is 114. Several other British vessels were soon afterward captured. The United States sloop-of-war Wasp, of 18 guns, met the Frolic, of 22 guns, and forced her to surrender (Oct. 18, 1812) after a battle of 45 minutes, with a loss of 80 killed and wounded, while that of the victor was only 8. Thf frigate United States, Captain Decatur, with a loss of only 11 men killed and wounded, captured (Oct. 25) the British frigate Macedonian, the latter losing 104 killed and wounded. These results showed that the American vessels were better handled and that their guns were better served than those of the enemy. The presidential election of 1812 resulted in the re-election of Madison, with El bridge Gerry as Vice-President. The electoral vote was 217, it having been reallotted in accordance with the census of 1810. Madison received 128 and Gerry 131 electoral votes, while their opponents, De Witt Clinton and Jared Ingersoll, received, respectively, 89 and 86 votes. This result was i-egarded as an approval of the war by a majority of the people of the United States, and had a perceptible effect upon the vigor with which military operations were conducted. Harrison, who deservedly pos- sessed the confidence of the Western people, was appointed to the command of the army of the West ; Dearborn, with the army of the Centre, was on the bank of the Niagara River ; Hampton had the army of the North on the shore of Lake Champlain. The result of the first action of this year was not very encouraging to the Americans. Frenchtown, on the Raisin River, in Michigan, was captured by the Americans under Colonels Allen and Lewis (Jan. 18, 1813), and the arrival of General Winchester, with 300 troops, brought the number of the party up to 800. 1500 British and Indians, under General Proctor, defeated this force, and the greater part of the prisoners \yere massacred by the Indians, though General Proctor had promised them his protection. "Remember the river Raisin!" be- came the war-cry of the Kentuckians, who had lost many friends and relatives. In April, General Pike, with 1700 men, captured Toronto, but was himself killed by the explosion of a mine. In May, General Harri- son, having 1200 men, was besieged in Fort Meigs, on the Maumee River, in Ohio, for nearly two weeks, by 2000 British and Indians, under General CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 117 Proctor and Tecumseh. Colonel Dudley, with 800 men, attempted to relieve the fort, and his attack was at first successful ; but while pressing on rashly in the pursuit, he fell into an ambush, and the greater part of his troops were cut off. A sallyiug-party of 300 men from the fort did somewhat better, spiking the cannon of the principal British batteries and returning with 42 prisoners. The Indians saw that it would be slow work, so they deserted with Tecumseh, their leader, and the siege was soon after- ward raised ; but on the 21st of July, Proctor and Tecumseh returned with 4000 British and Indians. General Clay, who was in command, gave them a warm reception; and Proctor, leaving Tecumseh to watch the fort, started to take Fort Stephenson, on the Lower Sandusky, in Ohio, which was garrisoned by 150 young men, under Major Croghan, who successfully defended it against the attack of the 500 regulai's and 800 Indians under Proctor. The enemy then gave up all hope of taking the American forts until they could gain the ascendency on the lakes. On the 1st of June the American frigate Chesajjeake was captured by the British frigate Shannon, after a desjierate battle of only fifteen minutes. It was then that Lawrence, the commander of the Chesajyeake, who was mortally wounded, uttered those memorable words, " Don't give up the ship !" which served as a motto for Commodore Perry at the battle of Lake Erie, fought on the 10th of September following. The Americans had on this occasion two 20-gun vessels, and seven the combined armament of which amounted to only 14 guns, making in all 9 vessels and 54 guns. The British had six vessels, with 63 guns. After a battle of three hours, dur- ing which the Lawrence, Commodore Perry's flag-ship, was so disabled that he was obliged to shift his quarters to the Niagara, the victory of the Americans was complete, and Perry could say, in a despatch to General Harrison, " We have met the enemy, and they are ours." On the 5th of October, General Harrison defeated Proctor in the battle of the Thames, fought in Canada West, at a Moravian town about 80 miles from Detroit. Tecumseh was killed, his Indians were scattered, and nearly all of the British were killed or captured. Proctor himself narrowly escaping. This ended the war in the North-west. A plan to invade Canada with the armies of the Centre and of the North, the former numbering 7000 men and the latter 4000, was defeated by a lack of concert between their respective generals (Wilkinson and Wade Hampton), and the military operations of the year were ended by the abandonment of Fort George, in Canada, and the burning of Newark (Dec. 10) by the American general McClure, which latter severity ^vas retaliated by the massacre of the gar- rison of Fort Niagara, which the British surprised on the 19th of Decem- ber, and the burning of Lewistown, Manchester, Youngstown, Black Rock and Buffalo. In March, 1814, General Wilkinson, with 4000 men, attacked La Colle lis BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES ^UU, a IbrtiHed stone building situated within the Canadian boundary, three miles below Kouse's Point. The garrison, consisting of 2000 men, successfully defended the post; and this failure (which was not the first made by General Wilkinson) caused the suspension of the unsuccessful leader from command. The Peace of Paris now enabled Great Britain to send 14,000 of Wellington's veterans to America. They were not made use of to any great extent until August. On the od of July, Fort Erie, on the Canadian side of the Niagara River, was taken by General Brown, and two days afterward the enemy were met and defeated in the open field at Chippewa. On the 25th of July, 3000 men, under General Scott, de- feated 5000 British troops at Bridgewater, or Lundy's Lane. The main result of these battles was the increase of the confidence of the Americans iu their ability to meet the enemy in the field; but during the months of August and September occurred events of greater importance. The British bad been for several months making descents at various points on the coast, and on the 19th of August General Ross landed at Benedict, on the Patuxent, and marched on the city of Washington with 5000 men. The ' little American army of 1500 seamen and marines, and about as many un- disciplined militia, was easily disposed of (Aug. 24), the capital was taken and the Capitol was burned, together with the President's house and various other public and private buildings. Elated by these magnificent exploits, Ross now approached Baltimore, and landed (Sept. 12) within fourteen miles of that city, while a portion of the fleet went to bombard Fort McHcnry. The city and fort were successfully defended. The British army lost its commander, and the British fleet rendered to the country a real service by the bombardment, which drew from Francis S. Key that beautiful lyric. The Star-spangled Banner. On the 3d of September, Sir George Prevost, with 10,000 men, almost all of them being Wellington's veterans, crossed the boundary-line between the United States and Canada, and laid siege (Sept. 6) to Plattsburg, on Lake Cham plain. He was supported by a squadron of 17 vessels, with 95 guns and 1050 men. The American squadron, which was commanded by the gallant McDonough, consisted of 14 vessels, carrying 86 guns and 826 men. Brigadier-General Macomb, who was in command at Plattsburg, called to his aid the militia of New York and Vermont. Between the 6th and the 11th of September the British made several attempts to cross the river Saranac, but they were constantly driven back, and on the 11th of September a battle was fought upon land and lake. In two hours and twenty minutes irom the first attack the whole British fleet was surrendered. The land forces fought until dark, but during the night Prevost hastily re- treated, having lost 2000 in killed, wounded and prisoners, and 500 men who deserted with the intention of settling in a country the love of which mspirited its inhabitants to such deeds of valor. The loss of the Ameri- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 119 caus in the land-battle was only 121, and in the naval battle the Americans lost 110 killed and wounded, the British 194 killed and wounded and 856 prisoners. Negotiations for a peace, which had been slowly dragging along at Ghent, were hastened by the news of this victory, and a treaty was signed (Dec. 24, 1814); but before the news of it could cross the ocean, General Pakenham, with 12,000 British soldiers, attacked N'ew Orleans (Jan. 8, 1815), which was defended by General Jackson, who had 6000 troops, strongly entrenched, 3000 of them being Kentucky riflemen. The British were defeated, with a loss of 2000 killed and wounded, while the American loss was only seven killed and six tvounded. It is a remarkable fact that by the Treaty of Ghent the United States did not obtain a single concession upon the two jDrinciples for which they began the war — that the flag covers the merchandise, and that the right of search for deserters is inadmissible. Still, the moral effect of the war, and especially of the victory of New Orleans, secured both points, for British commanders dis- continued the practices which had given rise to the second struggle for independence. During the year 1815 a war was carried on with Algiers, to which country the United States had paid an annual tribute for twenty years, without securing that freedom from injury which had been guaran- teed in return. The Dey of Algiers was humbled, and forced to make a new treaty without the tribute. Tunis and Tripoli were also brought to terms ; and Commodore Decatur accomplished in a single cruise what the combined powers of Eui'ope had not dared to attempt. THE FIFTH DECADE [1816-1826]. Presidents, James Madison [1809-1817], John Quincy Adams [1825-1829]. The presidential election of 1816 resulted in the choice of James Monroe, of Virginia, as President, and Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, as Vice- President. They were nominated by the Republican party, and received 183 of the 217 electoral votes, the remaining 34 being given to Rufus King, the nominee of the Federalist party. Indiana was admitted into the Union this year, being the nineteenth State (Dec. 11). The cabinet of President Monroe consisted of John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State ; William H. Crawford, Secretary of the Treasury; John C. Calhoun, Sec- retary of War; Benjamin Crowninshield, Secretary of the Navy; and William Wirt, Attorney-General. This administration had to perform the diflScult task of restoring order after such confusion and disorganization as is attendant upon the continuance and conclusion of any war. Manufac- tures had been stimulated to an extraordinary degree by the "war-prices" and the almost entire cessation of the import trade; but when peace was declared, and the overloaded wai-ehouses of England flooded the market. 120 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES with cheap goods, widespread ruin ensued, and thousands of men were thrown out of employment. This was, however, a hlessing in disguise; a steady stream of emigration was forced toward the West and South, and before the close of Monroe's second term four flourishing Western or Southern States were admitted into the Union, viz., Mississippi (Dec. 10, 1817), Illinois (Dec. 3, 1818), Alabama (Dec. 14, 1819), and Missouri (March 2, 1821). In 1818 the Seminole Indians of Florida, who were attacking settlers on the frontiers of Georgia, were temporarily subdued by General Jackson, so that they abstained from any serious outrage until 1835. The leading event during Monroe's first term was the debate concerning the admission to the Union of Missouri. One party wished the prohibition of slavery to be made a condition of admission, while the other opposed any such re- striction. On the 21st of February, 1821, the famous Missouri Compromise was adopted, which permitted slavery in Missouri, and in all territory south of thirty-six degrees and thirty minutes of north latitude, and for ever pro- hibited it north of that line. At the presidential election of 1820 Monroe received all but 1 of the 231 electoral votes; and Tompkins was also re-elect- ed, by a vote of 218. In Februaiy, 1821, a treaty with Spain was ratified by which Florida was ceded to the United States for $5,000,000, and General Jackson took possession (July 1) as the first territorial governor. In 1822 the United States recognized the independence of the republics of Mexico, Chili, Buenos Ayres and Colombia. In the following year the President promulgated the famous "Monroe doctrine," declaring in his annual mes- sage that, "as a principle, the American continents, by the free and inde- pendent position which they have assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European power.""^In August, 1824, La Fayette revisited America and spent eleven months in this country, during which he took a tour of more than 5000 miles, receiving everywhere an enthusiastic welcome. Congress voted to him $200,000 and a township of land in Florida ; and when he returned to France, a United States vessel was placed at his disposal. The presidential election of 1824 was warmly contested. The Federalist party as an organization was extinct, and the candidates represented dif- ferent sections of the country, being John Quincy Adams in the East, William H. Crawford in the South, Andrew Jackson and Henry Clay in the West. The electoral vote was now 261, making 131 votes necessary for a choice. Jackson received 99 votes; Adams, 84; Crawford, 41; and Clay, 37. As no one had received the requisite vote, the election went to the House of Representatives. The vote was taken by States, the number of States being 24; and 13 States voted for Adams, 7 for Jackson and 4 for Crawford. Clay had withdrawn in Adams' favor; and when he afterward accepted from the successful candidate the position of Secretary CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUIDE. VH of State, his enemies made charges of bargain and corruption, which were probably unfounded. The remaining members of Adams' cabinet were Richard Rush, Secretary of the Treasury; James Barbour, Secretary of War; Samuel L. Southard, Secretary of the Navy; and William Wirt, Attorney-General. The most exciting topic, at the beginning of the ad- ministration, was a difficulty between the national government and the , governor of Georgia concerning the removal of the Creek and Cherokee Indians from that State. The United States had made a treaty with the Indians, by the terms of which the latter agreed to go west of the Missis- sippi. Thinking that this stipulation was not quickly enough enforced, Governor Troup assumed the right to attend to the matter himself, and began to have the lands of the Indians surveyed and to take measures for removing the savages. The national government resented this inter- ference, and took the attitude of defenders of the Indians. A civil war was threatened; but better counsels prevailed, and the controversy was settled by the gradual removal of the Indians and the purchase, at a reasonable rate, of the lands in dispute. In October, 1825, the Erie Canal was completed. This was one of the grandest works of internal improvement which had, up to that time, been anywhere pro- jected. Constructed by the State of New York alone, at an expense of seven millions of dollars, its revenues soon extinguished its debt, and it did much to assist in the development of the West by affording facil- ities for transporting agricultural and other productions to the sea- board. De Witt Clinton, who was the prime mover in this great enter- prise, consulted ex-President Jefferson beforehand, wishing to obtain his weighty opinion in its favor. Jefferson replied : " Your plan is a noble one — magnificent — and may be carried into effect a hundred years hence." Still, Clinton persevered; and his failures as a politician were nobly re- deemed by this work, which proved that he was a far-seeing statesman. On the 4th of July, 1826, the semi-centennial anniversary of American independence, occurred a remarkable coincidence : Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Declaration of Independence, and John Adams, its principal supporter in the Continental Congress, died on that day, and at almost the same hour. They had both been members of the committee which framed the Declaration ; both had signed it, both had heen foreign ministers, both had been Vice-Presidents and then Presidents of the United States, and both had lived to a great age, the age of Jefferson, at the time of his death, being 83 years, that of Adams, nearly 91. These numerous coinci- dences, which were dwelt upon in the eulogies and funeral orations which were pronounced in many places throughout the Union, "struck to the hearts of the American people an indescribable feeling of awe and astonishment. 122 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES THE SIXTH DECADE [1826-1836]. Presidents, John Quincy Adams [1825-1829], Andrew Jackson [1829-1837]. During the latter part of the year 1826 and the whole of 1827 affairs moved along so quietly that the period mentioned "is conspicuous," says a historian, " in the chronological tables for its absence !" In 1827, how- ever, a national convention was held at Harrisburg to discuss the tariff question. Only four of the Southern States were represented. The result of the convention was a memorial to Congress asking for an increase of duties on several articles then manufactured in the United States. Con- gress took the matter in hand during the following session, and on the 15th of iMay, 1828, a tariff law was passed which laid heavy protective duties on woolen and cotton fabrics. This law was very distasteful to the Southern people, who denounced it as oppressive and unconstitutional, and it was afterward the cause of serious difficulties between the North and the South. The presidential election of 1828 was warmly contested. John Quincy Adams and Kichard Rush ran against Andrew Jackson and John C. Calhoun. Jackson received 178 of the 261 electoral votes, and Adams the remaining 83. Jackson's cabinet consisted of Martin Van Buren, Secretary of State ; Samuel D. Ingham, Secretary of the Treasury ; John H. Eaton, Secretary of War; John Branch, Secretary of the Navy; John McPherson Berrien, Attorney-General ; and William T. Barry, Postmaster-General. The Postmaster-General was at this time made a cabinet officer. President Jackson's first term was a stormy one. In his annual message he took strong ground against the reneAval of the charter of the United States Bank [see Coins and Currency], and the wholesale removal of officials and reappointment of political friends, which he introduced, gave rise to a great deal of hostile criticism at the time, and served as an example which succeeding Presidents have been only too ready to follow. The first six Presidents, during their combined term of forty years, removed only seventy-four oflScials, and most of them for suffi- cient cause, while President Jackson, in one year, removed four hundred and ninety postmasters and one hundred and sixty-seven who filled other positions under the government. On the 29th of January, 1829, Senator Foot introduced a resolution with reference to the sale of the public lands, of which more than a hun- dred millions of acres which had been surveyed remained unsold. As the average annual sales were only about a million of acres, it was thought by the supporters of the resolution that the land-market was abundantly stocked, and that the office of surveyor-general might be abolished without detrnnent to the public interest. Mr. Hayue, of South Carolina, made CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 123 upon this occasion the celebrated speech which brought about his debate with Webster upon the much more important question of State-rights. A chiim of the State of Georgia to lands held by the Cherokee Indians caused the promulgation by the President of a remarkable "peace policy" toward the savages. He said that regard to the national honor brought forward the question whether something could not be done to preserve the race. He suggested that an ample district should be set apart and guaranteed to the Indian tribes, each to have distinct control of the part designated for its use, free from any interference of the United States, except for the purpose of preserving peace on the frontier. The grand difficulty of the project — one which w'ould have caused almost any one else to give it up in despair — President Jackson met in a characteristic manner. He said : " The emi- gration should be voluntary, for it would be as cruel as unjust to compel the aborigines to abandon the graves of their fathers and to seek a home in a distant land." The undertaking was sanctioned by Congress, the President was empowered to carry it out, and thenceforth it was his settled jjolicy to cause the Indians to emigrate voluntarily for their own good. In January, 1831, the disputed northern boundary-line between the United States and British America was settled by the King of the Netherlands. In April the whole cabinet, with the exception of the Postmaster-General, resigned, and the President selected as their successors, during the following summer, Edward Livingston, Secretary of State ; Louis McLane, Secretary of the Treasury ; Lewis Cass, Secretary of War ; Levi Woodbury, Secretary of the Navy; Roger B. Taney, Attorney-General. On the 4th of July ex-President Monroe died. It is considered (and with reason) a remarkable coincidence that no less than three ex -Presidents have died on the same day, and that day the anniversary of our national independence. On the 1st of October a free-trade convention met in Philadelphia, and on the 26th of the same month a tariff convention met in New York. Both adopted ' memorials to Congress requesting legislation favoring their resj^ective views. In April, 1832, the "Black Hawk War" broke out between the United States and the Winnebago Indians, the latter being led by the chief Black Hawk, his son, and "the Prophet," a brother of Tecumseh, who was always engaged in inciting the massacres and plots of the savages. The leader last named was a shrewd impostor, and it is said that, having learned from a white man's almanac the time of an eclipse of the sun, he told his people that he could darken the sun by his enchantments ; and selecting the time given in the almanac, his apparent success greatly increased his in- fluence among his red brethren. After committing many ravages, the Indians were defeated in several battles, Black Hawk and other chiefs were captured (Aug. 27), and after being detained for a few mouths they were carried through the principal cities of the United States, and were then sent home to their people, fully convinced of the folly of attempting 124 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES to contend against the power and discipline of the whites. During this year Asiatic cholera paid its first visit to America. It first broke out in Canada (Juue 9), and it seemed to follow the great highways of travel, reaching New York on the 26th of June, and many hundreds of victims fell before its force was exhausted. In the presidential election of 1832 Jackson and Van Bureu ran against Clay and Sergeant, and were elected, receiving 219 of the 286 electoral votes. On the 19th of November, just two weeks after the election, a convention met at Columbia, S. C, and issued the famous "Nullification Ordinance," which declared that the tariff acts were unconstitutional, and therefore null and void. They made preparations for military resistance to the enforcement of the obnoxious laws, and civil war appeared inevitable. President Jackson immediately took measures to meet the crisis. He caused Castle Pinckney and Fort Moultrie to be strongly garrisoned; he issued a proclamation (Dec. 10) denying the right of a State to nullify any acts of the federal government ; and it is said that he privately sent word to the leaders of the "nullifiers" that if they did not desist from their rash course he was ready to take the field in person, and to appear in South Carolina at the head of a large array. The efiect of these decided measures was soon seen. The authori- ties of South Carolina agreed not to oppose the collection of the duties before the 1st of March, 1833; and v/hen that day arrived, Mr. Clay's compromise bill (which provided for a gradual reduction of the duties, and their total extinction by the 30th of September, 1842) had passed both branches of the national legislature, and soon afterward it received (March 3) the signature of the President. In his annual message of 1832 Presi- dent Jackson recommended the removal of the public funds deposited in the United States Bank, and the sale of the stock which the United States held in that institution. Congress refused to authorize the measure, so the • President took the responsibility, after the adjournment of that body, of requesting William J. Duane, the Secretary of the Treasury, to withdraw from the bank, and to deposit in certain State banks, the government deposits, amounting to $10,000,000. Duane refused, and was dismissed from ofiice (they had no Tenure-of-oftice Act then), and Roger B. Taney, then Attorney-General and afterward Chief-Justice of the United States. was appointed in his place. Mr. Taney removed the deposits, as directed by the President, and the result was sudden and widespread commercial distress— a result which confirmed the President in his opinion that the bank was a dangerous institution. Intense excitement prevailed through- out the country. The Senate, by a vote of 26 to 20, passed a resolution censuring the administration ; but the House of Representatives supported the President, who persevered and triumphed. The resolution of censure was afterward (March 28, 1837) expunged from the journal of the Senate; and the wisdom of Jackson's course has since been almost universally CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 125 acknowledged. The leader of the few who disseut from this opiuion is Mr. James Parton, who even in his lectures still pursues the memory of "Old Hickory" with unrelenting severity. At the time the course of the President produced a perceptible diminution in the strength of the admin- istration. A number of his suj)porters joined the opposition party, and the combined force assumed the name of "Whigs," while the administra- tion party retained the name of "Democrats." In 1834 the Seminole Indians of Florida showed an unwillingness to be compelled to voluntarily leave their homes in accordance with the "peace policy" which had been sketched out by the President. When General Thompson, the government agent, reported this state of affairs to the War Department, he was told that the Semiuoles were to be removed for their own benefit, and could not be suffered to remain. Two chiefs who were willing to submit were killed ; the famous half-breed chieftain Osceola took command of the Seminoles and their allies, and a war was inaugurated which lasted seven years and cost 1466 lives and $10,000,000,* which was twice as much as Florida originally cost. The wife of Osceola was the daughter of a fugitive slave- woman, and was claimed as a slave and carried off by the owner of her mother. Osceola was heard uttering some threatening expressions, and was seized by order of the Indian agent. General Thompson, and put in irons. Being released soon afterward, he dissembled his wrath, and was even entrusted by Thompson with several pieces of service; but six months after his release he surprised General Thompson and several friends who were having a convivial jDarty at a house which was a short distance from Camp King (Dec. 28, 1835). Osceola was afterward captured by treachery, after having kept up the war for nearly three years, and died at Fort Moul- trie (Jan. 31, 1838); but he had infused so much of his indomitable s})irit into the savages that the war continued for four years after his death, with the results above given. On the 15th of June, 1836, Michigan and Arkan- sas were admitted into the Union, making the number of the States twenty- six ; and on the 23d of the same month the course of President Jackson with reference to the United States Bank was fully endorsed by the passage of an act of Congress making State banks the depositories of the govern- ment funds. * We have given the lowest estimate of the cost of this war. Another estimate makes it $15,000,000; and still another, which is contained in the same work from which the one given in the text is taken, fixes the cost of this contest at the enormous sum of $40,000,000. The two chiefs whose murder is mentioned were killed by their own people, because they were in favor of compliance with the wishes of President Jackson. 126 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES THE SEVENTH DECADE [1836-1846]. Presidents, Andrew Jacksox [1829-1837], Martik Van Buken [1837- 1841], WiLEiAM Henry Harrison [March 4-April 4, 1841], John Tyler [1841-1845], James K. Polk [1845-1849]. On the 11th of July, 1836, a circular was issued from the treasury department, "by order of the President," instructing the receivers of public money to take nothing but gold and silver (with the exception of Virginia land-scrip in certain cases) in payment for the public lands. Large purchases of public lands had been made on speculation with money which had been borrowed out of State banks, which institutions now held on deposit a lai»ge amount of the public funds. The " specie circular," as it was called, cut short the opei-atious of the speculators; but as every- thing was "going at high pressure," it caused great distress among our merchants and manufacturers. Congress partially repealed it, but Presi- dent Jackson was as firm as usual, and practically vetoed the bill which modified the circular by keeping the former in his hands, without signing it, until after Congress adjourned. The presidential election of 1836 resulted in the election of Martin Van Buren as President, he having received 170 of the 294 electoral votes. The remaining 124 votes were divided as follows : W. H. Harrison, 73 ; Hugh L. White, 26 ; Daniel Webster, 14; W. P. Mangum, 11. Richard M. Johnson, who had run for the vice-presidency in company with Van Buren, received only 147 votes (just half of the whole tiumber) ; Francis Granger, 77 ; John Tyler, 47 ; William Smith, 23. The election for Vice-President went, of course, to the Senate, and Johnson was elected by that body. President Van Buren's cabinet consisted of John Forsyth, Secretary of State ; Levi Wood- bury, Secretary of the Treasury ; Joel R. Poinsett, Secretary of War ; Mah- lon Dickinson, Secretary of the Navy; Amos Kendall, Postmaster-Gene- ral; Benjamin F. Butler, Attorney-General. The first important event during this administration was "the panic of 1837." The speculation mentioned in the history of the preceding decade had reached its climax. City lots were the rage. The old cities were extended on paper to limits which were far beyond any immediate requirements either for business purposes or for residences, and new cities were mapped out which pre- sented a fine appearance on paper, but which did not appear so attractive to the unfortunate purchaser, who frequently discovered, when he Avent to view his possessions, that they were situated in "the wild howling wilder- ness." Fortunes were made in an hour and by a single bargain. There was only one result to be expected from the abandonment of the regular channels of trade. At first every kind of business was stimulated to an extraordinary degree; then came the reaction. The failures in the city of ■CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 127 New York duriug this panic amouuted to more tliau $100,000,000. In New Orleans, during a period of two days, houses stopped payment which owed an aggregate of $27,000,000. On the 10th of May all the banks of New York stopped specie payments — an example which was speedily fol- lowed throughout the country. Widespread distress ensued, and the administration was appealed to for aid. An extra session of Congress was called, and met (Sept. 4) to consider measures for relief Treasury-notes were issued to the amount of $10,000,000, and the financial atmosphere, cleared up to some extent by this storm, gradually approached a healthier condition. One of the most important results of this monetary crisis was the recommendation by President Van Bureu (in his message at the open- ing of the special session of Congress) that the government should for the future keep its money in its own hands by means of a sub-treasury, or, as it was called by its supporters, an independent treasury; so that there would be an entii'e sepai'ation of the business and funds of the government from those of the banks. This scheme met with vehement opposition. Both at this session and at the subsequent session of Congress the bill was passed in the Senate, but lost in the House of Representatives. Its oppo- nents regarded it as putting the public treasure entirely in the power of the executive, and its unpopularity was probably the principal cause of Mr. Van Buren's losing the next presidential election. Still, the adminis- tration persevered ; this important question was debated at several subse- quent sessions, and the bill finally became a law on the 4th of July, 1840. Iji December, 1837, a revolt in Canada caused the organization of a fili- bustering expedition, designed to assist the insurgents in achieving the independence of the Canadas. A party of 700 men, well provisioned and provided with 20 pieces of cannon, took possession of Navy Island, on the British side of Niagara River, two miles above the Falls. They fortified their position so strongly that they were able to defend it against the attack of Sir Francis Head, the British commander. They had hired a small steamer (the Caroline) to bring them supplies from the American side, and seemed to be on the high road to success ; but a party of Canadian loyalists captured the steamer, set her on fire and sent her over the Falls wdiile in full blaze; and the neutrality proclamations, which were at once issued both by the President of the United States and by the governor of New York, were more effectual than had been expected. Navy Island was evacuated, Van Rensselaer of New York, who had commanded the garri- son, was arrested, and though many people went across the frontier and joined the insurgents, no movement was again attempted by awj organized band as large as that which captured Navy Island. Yet secret revolu- tionary societies, called " Hunters' Lodges," continued to be formed for several years, with the design of assisting Canadian insurrections; and it was four vears before the death or exile of the leaders of the revolt and 128 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES the firm stand taken by the United States government put an end for a time to these breaches of international law. Another difficulty arose, however, between the government of the United States and that of Great Britain, which threatened more serious consequences. We refer to the "North-eastern Boundary" question, which involved the ownership of a tract of land containing seven millions of acres, or about twice the area of the State of Connecticut; also a right of way across from the province of New Brunswick (either by, or south of, the St. John's River) to Quebec, on the St. Lawrence. This dispute, which had once been partially decided by the King of the Netherlands, in 1831, broke out afresh, and waxed so warm that in March, 1839, an act of Congress was passed empowering the President to call out 50,000 volunteers; authorizing the equipment and reinforcement of the navy ; appropriating $10,000,000 for the purpose of executing the provisions of the act ; and finally, in the interest of peace, making an additional appropriation of $18,000 for the salary and outfit of a special minister to Great Britain, should the President deem it expe- dient to appoint the same. At the time when this act was passed the troops of Maine were already assembled, and were iiastening to the dis- puted territory, when the discussion took a peaceful turn. General Scott was ordered to take command of all military operations and "to preserve peace;" and some of the subsequent proceedings seem, at the present day, almost ludicrous. Engineers were sent over by the British government, who made a survey, working for full three months, and then returning to England, leaving their task unfinished. They had learned enough, how-* ever, to make a report occupying, in print, fifty folio pages, in which report the right of Great • Britain to all of the disputed territory was, in their opinion, conclusively proved. Thereupon Lord Palmerston commu- nicated this valuable decision of the engineers to the American government in a courteous but decided note. The effect of said note was just the reverse of what the writer desired. It excited the ambition of the Amer- ican government to equal or surpass, if possible, the wonderful exploit just narrated. Two engineers conducted the British survey ; Jive were entrusted with the task of going over the ground and searching for the boundary- line with American spectacles. The search was, of course, successful, and the United States engineers reported that all of the disputed land certainly belonged to the United States; and their report was so satisfactory that it was toasted, together with its authors, at a public dinner given in their honor. Finally, the question was settled, in the beginning of the year 1842, by Daniel Webster, who was then Secretary of State, and Lord Ashburton, the British ambassador. Both sides made concessions, and the decision was satisfactory to all reasonable men on either side of the Atlantic. The presidential election of 1840 was warmly contested. The Whigs concentrated all their strength on AVilliam Henry Harrison for President CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 129 aud John Tyler for Vice-President. The Democrats renominated Van Buren for the presidency, leaving the question of the vice-presidency open. Harrison and Tyler each received 234 of the 294 electoral votes. Van Buren received 60 votes, and James K. Polk, R. M. Johnson and L. W. Tazewell received 20 votes apiece for the vice-presidency. President Har- rison's cabinet consisted of Daniel Webster, Secretary of State; Thomas Ewiug, Secretary of the Treasury; John Bell, Secretary of War; George E. Badger, Secretary of the Navy ; Francis Granger, Postmaster-General ; and J. J. Crittenden, Attorney-General. The President's inaugural speech was well received by all parties. Everything promised an administration honorable to the executive aud useful to the country; but just one month after taking the oath of office the President died, and for the first time since the formation of the Constitution the duties of the chief magistracy devolved upon the Vice-President. The only important official act per- formed by the deceased President had been the issuing of a proclamation calling an extraordinary session of Congress, which commenced its session on the ajipointed day (May 31, 1841), aud took up the subjects of finance and revenue, upon which it had been convened to legislate. The sub- treasury act was repealed, and a bankrupt act was passed to relieve the victims of the recent panic. An attempt was made to secure a charter for another United States Bank (a favorite Whig measure), but two bills for that purpose were vetoed by President Tyler, who thereby secured the ill- will of the party which had elected him, aud furnished the American vocabu- lary with a uew word ("Tylerize") wherewith to describe the course of a Vice-President who, having been raised to the jDresidency by the death of the incumbent of that office, forthwith refuses to support the pet schemes of those to whom he is indebted for his election. The second veto was the cause of the resignation of the whole cabinet, with the exception of the Secretary of State. Mr. Webster was severely criticised for remaining in office ; but as he was then engaged in settling the boundary question, the negotiations concei'uing which would certainly have fallen through for the time being had he resigned, the sober judgment of posterity has awarded him praise rather than blame, as it is now known that his motive was l^atriotism aud not a love of office. The vacancies were filled as follows: Walter Forward, Secretary of the Treasury ; John C. Spencer, Secretary of War ; Abel P. Upshur, Secretary of the Navy ; Charles A. Wickliffe, Postmaster-General; and Hugh S. Legare, Attorney-General. On the 3d of March, 1843, Congress made an appropriation of S30,000 to enable Professor Morse to erect an experimental telegraph between Washington and Baltimore. This was the first electric telegraph in the world which was of practical use and not a scientific toy. The claims of America for the honor of having been in advance of Europe in this important matter are discussed in another article [see American Inventions]. Iu June, 9 130 SUBLEY'S UNITED STATES 1843, an insurrection broke out in Rhode Island, caused by a movement to adopt a new State constitution. The State government had been carried on for 180 years under the old charter granted by Charles II. Disputes arose as to the manner of making the change, and two parties were formed — the " suffrage " party and the " law-and-order " party. Each faction formed a constitution and elected a governor and legislature, then armed in defence of their respective claims. Each party rebelled against the authority of their opponents ; but as the " suffrage " party were defeated, and the governor whom they had elected (Thomas W. Dorr) was arrested, tried for and con- victed of treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life, history, with great impartiality, has deemed them the rebels, and has given to the contest the name of "Dorr's Rebellion," which name is, however, possibly correct, as Dorr was the first to appeal to arms. In 184-4 the Democrats nominated James K. Polk for the presidency, and George M. Dallas for the vice- presidency. The Whig nominees were Henry Clay and Theodore Fre- linghuyseu. The chief questions at issue were the annexation of Texas and the claim for the parallel of 54° 40' for the northern boundary of Oregon, The Democrats favored the former measure ; and their opinion on the boundary question can be learned from their party watchword — "54-40 or fight." Polk and Dallas received 170 electoral votes; their opponents, 105. Mr. Calhoun, who was the last Secretary of State in President Tyler's changeable cabinet (the six offices of which were occupied by no less than twenty men during thi-ee years and eleven mouths), had negotiated with Texas a treaty of annexation in April, 1844, which was rejected by the Senate by a vote of 35 to 16. On the 25th of January, 1845, joint resolutions for annexing Texas were adopted by the House of Representatives by a vote of 120 to 98. They passed the Senate three days before President Polk's inauguration, and were immediately signed by President Tyler. President Polk's cabinet consisted of James Buchanan, Secretary of State; Robert J. Walker, Secretary of the Treasury; William L. Marcy, Secretary of War; George Bancroft, Secretary of the Navy; Cave Johnson, Postmaster-General ; and John Y. Mason, Attorney-General. Texas assented to the annexation resolutions (July 4, 1845), General Tay- lor was sent to the Rio Grande, and a collision with the Mexicans occurred (April 24, 1846). As soon as Congress learned that hostilities were actually commenced, the sum of S10,000,000 was appropriated for war purposes, and the President was authorized to call out 50,000 volunteers, these measures receiving a vote of 142 to 14 in the House, and of 40 to 2 in the Senate (May 11, 1846). The brilliant victories of Palo Alto (May 8) and Resaca de la Palma (May 9) had been in the mean time gained by General Tay- lor; and thus the country was fairly launched into the Mexican war, the account of which belongs to — CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 131 THE EIGHTH DECADE [1846-1856]. Presidents, James K. Polk [1845-1849], Zachary Taylor [March 4, 1849- July 9, 1850], Millard Fillmore [July 9, 1850-March 4, 1853], Franklin Pierce [1853-1857]. The Secretary of War, assisted by General Scott, devised a plan of invasion which was greater in the territorial extent of its operations than any other recorded in history. The Pacific coast of America was to be attacked by a fleet, which was obliged, of course, to go around Cape Horn. An "array of the West" was to invade New Mexico and California, co-operating with the fleet. An "army of the Centre" was to march iuto the heart of Mexico and co-operate with General Taylor's forces, which were known as "the army of occupation." Volunteers were not lacking. Before the close of July, 1846, 12,000 men wei*e received into the service, 9000 of whom were despatched to the aid of General Taylor. An effort was also made to secure a powerful friend in the enemy's camp. Santa Anna was, at the beginning of the war, an exile at Havana. The Ameri- can commodore commanding the gulf squadron was instructed to connive at his return to his native land, as it was thought that he would immediately form a " peace party" which would, perhaps, bring about a close of the war upon terms advantageous to our government. The Mexicans were in want of an able leader, so they deposed Paredes and elected Santa Anna Presi- dent. He showed his gratitude to the United States by raising and equip- ping an army of 20,000 men and taking all other measures required for a vigorous prosecution of the war. His array was not ready until December ; and in the mean time Taylor had taken Monterey (Sept. 23), after several days of hard fighting, having previously effected a junction with General Wool. The latter brought 3000 men whom he had been disciplining at San Antonio, Texas. General Worth, with 900 men, had taken Saltillo (Nov. 15, 1846), and Taylor was making preparations for a vigorous winter cam- paign, when he received an order from General Scott to send him a large portion of his best officers and troops to assist against Vera Cruz, and he was also directed to act thereafter only on the defensive. Having shown at Monterey that he could " take a city," General Taylor displayed at Vic- toria, upon receiving the above order, his ability to "rule his spirit" bv promptly obeying the command. He was speedily rewarded. His whole force, including the troops of General Wool, did not amount to 5000 men. Santa Anna advanced upon him with four times that number of well- equipped troops. Taylor determined to fight the Mexicans, and selected (Feb. 21, 1847) a mountain defile near Buena Vista for his battle-field. On the following day the Mexicans arrived, and Taylor Avas summoned to surrender within an hour. This request met with a courteous but firm 132 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES refusal. Both armies slept ou their arms, and early next moruiiig began a desperate and bloody conflict, which continued until sunset. The Mexi- cans were defeated, and lost in killed, wounded and missing nearly 2000 men, while the American loss was 746. Taylor soon after returned to the United States, where he was received with well-deserved honors. General Scott invested Vera Cruz on the loth of March, 1847, with an army of about 13,000 men, assisted by a powerful squadron undel- Commodore Connor. On the 18th his arrangements were completed, and he sum- moned the town and fortress, for the last time, to surrender. Upon the refusal of this demand, a bombardment was opened from his batteries and the fleet, and in nine days Vera Cruz, the strong fortress of San Juan de Ulloa, 5000 prisoners and 500 pieces of artillery were surrendered to the Americans (March 27, 1847). On the 8th of April, Scott's advanced guard, under General Twiggs, was sent forward on the Jalapa road, toward the city of Mexico. He found Santa Anna posted at the mountain pass of Cerro Gordo w'ith more than 12,000 men, and was therefore obliged to await the arrival of General Scott, who soon followed with the main body of the army, having left a very strong garrison in Vera Cruz. The Amer- ican forces, now numbering 8500 men, attacked the enemy on the 18th of April, and gained a complete victory, with a loss of 431 in killed and wounded, while the Mexican loss in killed and wounded was more than 1000, besides 3000 prisoners. Every important detail of the battle and the subsequent pursuit had been so carefully arranged in the celebrated order which General Scott had issued on the previous day that no time was lost in securing the fruits of this victory. Santa Anna narrowly escaped capture by fleeing upon a mule taken from his carriage. He had had for some time one foot in the grave, and his retreat was so hasty that he left behind him his wooden leg to serve as a trophy of the battle. Before the conflict he had said, " I will die fighting rather than permit the Americans to proudly tread the imperial city of Azteca." Several battles were doubtless saved by the admirable arrangements which General Scott had made for the immediate advance of his army, as the Mexicans were driven so rapidly before him that they were unable to concentrate in force at many places which were well suited for making another stand. On the 22d of April, Perote, the strongest fortress in America, next to San Juan de Ulloa, was taken without a blow, together with 54 cannon and a large quantity of munitions of war. On the 15th of May the Americans en- tered, without resistance, Puebla, the second city in Mexico, situated only 76 miles from the capital. At this place the army rested for nearly three months while N. P. Trist, an agent sent by the government, attempted to negotiate a peace. His efforts were unsuccessful ; and the Mexicans replied to his offers by boasting of their patriotism, valor and strength, while they were abandoning post after post in their retreat toward the capital. Ou CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 133 the 7th of August, General Scott, having been reinforced during this interval, commenced his march on the city of Mexico. As the direct road -was barred by very strong fortifications, another route was selected, and a road was made under the direction of skilful engineers. On the 18th of August, Scott had his whole army of 10,000 men at St. Augustine, within 10 miles of Mexico. The city was strongly fortified ; Santa Anna had more than 30,000 soldiers at his disposal, thoroughly acquainted with the rocky and mountainous country with which their capital is surrounded. The fortified camp at Coutreras, the strongly-garrisoned village of ('huru- busco, the fort of San Antonio and the redoubtable Santa Anna himself, with a powerful reserve,— such were the obstacles in the path of the victor of Cerro Gordo. At sunrise, on the 20th of August, the camp at Cou- treras was taken by an assault which lasted only seventeen minutes. Before the day was over, San Antonio and Churubusco were also captured, and Santa Anna had fled to "the imperial city of Azteca," again remembering the adage, "He that fights and runs away Will live to fight another day." The Americans lost nearly 1100 killed and wounded during the day, while the Mexicans lost 3000 killed and wounded, 4000 prisoners and 37 cannon. Their capital was filled with consternation, and Mexico might have been immediately entered in triumph, but Santa Anna asked for a truce, which was granted with the hope that a lasting peace might be negotiated. Mr. Trist, the agent of the United States government, went into the city (Aug. 24) to treat with the Mexican authorities, but returned in twelve days with the intelligence that his propositions had been insolently rejected, and that Santa Anna was violating the truce by strengthening the defences of the capital. Hostilities recommenced with an attack made by 4000 Amer- icans upon 14,000 Mexicans under Santa Anna at El Molinos del Reij (_the King's Mills). The assailants were at first repulsed with great slaughter, but returned to the charge, and drove the Mexicans from their position. The American loss in killed and wounded was 800 ; that of the Mexicans was never fully ascertained, but they left nearly a thousand dead on the field. On the 12th of September the castle of Chapultepec was bom- barded, and on the 13th it was taken by assault. That night Santa Anna, his army and the officers of the Mexican government departed in haste, leaving "the imperial city of Azteca" to take care of itself. On the fol- lowing day the American flag was raised on the National Palace, and the victorious generals took formal possession of the Mexican empire. Santa Anna made several feeble efforts to retrieve his disasters ; but in six weeks he had lost everything, and was obliged to live in concealment for several months, when permissiou was given him by our government (March, 1848) "to seek an asylum on a foreign soil." 13-1 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES The "army of the West" (2000 strong), under General Kearney, left Fort Leavenworth in June, 1846, marched 900 miles across the plains, and reached 8anta Fe on the 18th of August. Kearney took peaceable posses- sion of New ^Mexico, and was two hundred miles on his way to Califoi'nia, when Kit Carson, the famous scout, met him with the intelligence that Commodore Stockton and Lieut.-Col. Fremont had already nearly com- pleted the conquest of California. He passed rapidly on with 100 men, sending the remainder of his force back to Santa Fe, and arrived in time to share in the honor of the final battle of San Gabriel (Jan. 8, 1847). On the 2d of February a treaty was signed at Guadalupe-Hidalgo (a small village near the city of Mexico), by which the United States paid 815,000,000 for New Mexico and California, boundaries were fixed, and other matters in dispute were adjusted. The bargain with reference to California was made just in time; for in February, 1848, the very month in which the treaty was made, gold was discovered in the Sacramento val- ley ; and hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of the precious metal have since been taken from the apparently inexhaustible stores of this genuine El Dorado. Had the existence of this wealth been known to the Mexicans, it is jjrobablc that their patriotic zeal would have been much more ardent when Fremont and Stockton invaded their country. The presidential elec- tion of 1848 was a ti'iangular contest. The Whigs, remembering the suc- cess with which they had employed in 1840 the watchword "Tippecanoe, and Tyler too!" were attracted by General Taylor's sobriquet of "Old Rough and Ready," and fairly forced upon him the nomination for the presidency, in company with Millard Fillmore as candidate for the vice-presidency. The Democrats nominated General Lewis Cass and General William O. Butler ; and Martin Van Buren and Charles Francis Adams were the nominees of the Free-soil Democrats. Taylor and Fillmore received 193 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,362,024. Cass and Butler received 127 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,222,419. The Free-soil can- didates received no electoral votes. Their popular vote was 291,678. President Taylor's cabinet consisted of John M. Clayton, Secretary of State; AVilliam M. Meredith, Secretary of the Treasury^ George W. Craw- ford, Secretary of War; William B. Preston, Secretary of the Navy; Thomas Ewing, Secretary of the Interior (an oflice recently established) ; Jacob Collamer, Postmaster-General; Reverdy Johnson, Attorney-General. The first important question which this adniinistratiou had to deal with was tlie admission of California into the Union. The discovery of gold soon attracted sufticient population to the Pacific coast to form a Stkte. The would-be State was almost equally divided by the parallel of north latitude (36° 30') which was the line of the Missouri Compromise [see The Fifth Decade]; and it was new territory, acquired long after that act liad been passed. The inhabitants of California adopted a constitution CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 135 (Sej)t. 1, 1849) which contaiued a, clause jirohibitiug slavery. On this account the pro-slavery party, led by Mr. Calhoun, were opposed to the admission of the State. Those opposed to the extension of slavery (a class which contained many who w'ere not abolitionists) w^ere in favor of the immediate admission of California with her constitution unaltered. The question was debated with great warmth ; a dissolution of the Union was threatened; but the matter Avas temiwrarily settled by a series of com- promise measures introduced by Henry Clay, which provided, 1st. That California should be admitted into the Union with its anti-slavery consti- tution ; 2d. That Utah and New Mexico should become territories without any mention of slavery, and that $10,000,000 should be paid to Texas out of the Federal treasury in purchase of her claim to a portion of New Mexico ; 3d. That the slave-trade in the District of Columbia should be abolished ; 4th. That slaves who escaped to the free States should be arrested and returned to their owners. The last measure produced much dissatisfaction at the North ; and "the Fugitive-slave Act," as it was called, caused by its execution, its evasion, and its violation in several instances, serious disturbances and a bitter sectional feeling, which eventually led to the civil war which put an end to the very institution which this law was enacted to defend. On the od of March, 1851, the postage on prepaid letters to all parts of the United States was reduced to three cents; and in the following year postage-stamps and stamped envelopes were ordered. In August, 1851, General Lopez took a party of 480 "filibusters" to Cuba, where he was speedily attacked, defeated, captured and executed, with a number of his followers. In December, 1851, Louis Kossuth, the Hungarian patriot, visited this country. His eloquence, which his thorough acquaintance with the English language enabled him to display to full advantage, gained him admiring hearers w^herever he went ; but the main object of his visit, viz., to obtain aid for Hungary, was defeated by the change of the French gov- ernment brought about by Louis Napoleon — a change which rendered the achievement of Hungarian independence impossible. In 1852 difficulties arose between the United States and Great Britain concerning the fisheries on the coast of British America. It had been stijiulated by the treaty of 1818 that American fishermen should not cast lines or nets in British bays, except at a distance of three miles or more from the shore. Now the British government claimed the right to draw a line from headland to headland of these bays, and to exclude the Americans from the waters within that line. Armed vessels were s^t by both governments to the disputed waters ; but the matter was settled in the following year by mutual concessions. In the latter part of the year 1852 France and England modestly requested the United States to enter with them into a treaty whereby they would agree to disclaim "now- and for ever all intention to obtain possession of the Lsl- r.){j BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ami of Cuba," and "to (liscounteuancc all attempts to that cflbct on the part of any power or individual whatever." Edward Everett, who was tlien Seeretaryof State, politely replied that the question was an American, not a European one, and not properly within the scope of their interference; and added other remarks, in which thelNIonroe doctrine was set forth more strongly, if possible, than by Monroe himself, or by J. Q. Adams, the real author of the "doctrine." In the election of 1852 Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire, and William R. King, of Alabama, the Democratic nominees for the presidency and the vice-presidency, were elected, receiving 'I-'A elec- toral votes and a popular vote of l,587,2r)(i; while their AVhig competitors, General "Wiutield Scott and William A. Gndiam, received an electoral vote of 42 and a popular vote of 1,384,577. President Pierce's cabinet consisted of William L. ]\Iarcy, Secretary of State; James Guthrie, Secretary of the Treasury ; Jetlerson Davis, Secretary of War ; James C. Dobbin, Secretary of the Navy ; Robert McClelland, Secretary of the Interior ; James Camp- bell, Postmaster-General; and Caleb Cushing, Attorney-General. During this administration several im})ortant treaties were made, by one of which Arizona was purchased of INIexico; and by another, obtained by "Perry's Expedition," several Japanese ports were thrown open to American com- merce. In ^Nlay, 1854, the IMissouri Compromise was repealed, by a vote in the Senate of 37 to 14, and in the House of 113 to 100. In October, 1854, took place the famous "Ostend Conference," at which three Ameri- can ministers, ^Messrs. Buchanan, Mason and Soulc, recommended their government to purchase Cuba, if possible; at the same time asserting the right of the United States to take the island by force should Spain refuse to sell. In 1855 a filibustering expedition, under the famous William Walker, invaded Nicaragua, obtained a temiiorary footln>ld, and established a government, which was recognized by that of the United States. In the same year a civil war broke out in Kansas between the free-State party and the pro-slavery men. Two constitutions had been adopted and two legislatures elected. The anti-slavery party finally prevailed after a long and tedious struggle. THE NINTH DECADE. Presidents, Franklin Pierce [1858-1857], James Buchanan [1857- 1861], Abraham Lincoln [1861-April 15, 1865], Andrew John- son [April 15, 1865-:March 4, 1869]. Three presidential candidates were before the people in the autumn of 1856. James Buchanan was nominated by the Democrats, J. C. Fremont by the Republicans, and Millard Fillmore by the Native Americans, or Kuow-Nothings, as they were called. Buchanan received 174 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,838,169, the same vote being given to John CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 137 C Breckenriclge for Vice-President. Fremont received 114 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,341,264. Fillmore received 8 electoral votes and a popular vote of 874,534. President Buchanan's cabinet consisted of Lewis Cass, Secretary of State ; Howell Cobb, Secretary of the Treasury ; John B. Floyd, Secretary of War; Isaac Toucey, Secretary of the Navy; Jacob Thompson, Secretary of the Interior; Aaron V. Brown, Postmaster- General; and Jeremiah S. Black, Attorney-General. The agitation of the -lavery question continued throughout this administration. The growing strength of the Republican party was shown by the election of their can- didate, Nathaniel P. Banks, as speaker of the House of Representatives, after 133 ballots, which occupied the attention of that body from the 3d of December, 1856, to the 2d of February, 1857. The Mormons, who were angry because their territory was not admitted as a State, commenced revolutionary proceedings in the early part of 1857; but the arrival of United States troops in the following year made them glad to accept a pardon for all the seditions and treasons which they had committed. In 1859 John Brown, a man w'ho had suffered severely in the Kansas civil war, attempterl, with only twenty-one followers, to excite an insurrection among the slaves of Virginia, and to establish their freedom by force of arms. He seized the arsenal at Harper's Ferry (Oct. 16, 1859), but on the second day the insurrection was quelled by United States marines; and Brown, who was captured, was delivered over to the authorities of Virginia, tried for insurrection and treason, and hanged. This greatly increased the bitterness of feeling between the North and the South, and the presidential election of 1860 was contested with great spirit. Four candidates were before the people. One wing of the Democratic party nominated Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois ; while John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, was nomi- nated by the other. The Republicans supported Abraham Lincoln, of Illi- nois; and John Bell, of Tennessee, was the nominee of a new party calling themselves the " Constitutional Unionists.'' Lincoln received an electoral vote of 180 and a popular vote of 1,857,610. Douglas received 12 electoral votes and a popular vote of 1,365,976. Breckenridge received an electoral vote of 72 and a popular vote of 847,952; leaving to Bell the remaining 39 electoral votes (those of the "border States" — Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee), with a popular vote of 590,631. When the result of the elec- tion was known, a convention was called in South Carolina to consider the question of secession, which met TDec. 17, 1860), and passed an ordinance of secession. The example of South Carolina was followed by Mississippi (Jan. 8, 1861) ; Florida (Jan. 10; ; Alabama Man. 11) ; Georgia (Jan. 19) ; Louisiana (Jan, 26); Texas (Feb. 1;; Virginia (xVpr. 25j; Arkansas (May 6); North Carolina (May 20); Tennessee (June 8). The reasons given for this course were "the refusal of fourteen of the States, for years past, to fulfil their constitutional obligations," and "the election of a man to the mS BURLEY'S UNITED STATES hii-h office of Presideut of the Uuited States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery." Kentucky and INIissouri were divided, and had representatives in the governments and armies of hoth sections. On the 4th of February, 1861, a convention met at Montgomery, Alabama, in which all the States whicli had seceded previous to that date were repre- sented. A constitution was formed and adopted, and the title of "Cou- iederate States of America" was given to the new organization. Jefiersou Davis, of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, was elected Vice-President of the confederacy. Hostilities commenced with the bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861), which was held for the Federal government by Major Anderson, with 70 men. The fort was several times set on fire, and on the 14th of April the garrison surrendered and marched out with the honors of war. On the following day President Lincoln issued a jn-oclamation calling out 75,000 volunteers ibr three months, which was speedily followed (May 3) by a call for 64,000 men for the army and 18,000 for the navy, to serve "during the war." The President also declared the ports of the seceded States blockaded (April 19). In the South preparations for war were vigorously carried on. General Robert E. Lee was appointed commander of the Confederate troops in Virginia (May 10), and the Mississippi River was blockaded at INIemphis (May 23). A Union force numbering 6000 men was repulsed at Big Bethel, Va. (June 10) ; and the main body of the Confederates, about 30,000 strong, which was concentrated at Mauasses Junction, defeated an equal number of Federal troops, under General McDowell, in the famous battle of Bull Run (July 21). On the following day General George B. ]\IcClellan was appointed commander of the army of the Potomac. He had been successful in wresting the western part of Virginia out of the hands of the Confederates, and in the following year (Dec. 31, 1862) that section was admitted into the Union under the name of " West Virginia." "When the Federal Congress met (July 5, 1861), the President had asked for 400,000 men and §400,000,000. The result of the battle of Bull Run showed that the war was likely to be protracted, and Congress voted 500,000 men and 6500,000,000. The Confederate Congress authorized the enlist- ment of 400,000 men. During the remainder of this year (1861), however, the military operations were not very decisive, both sides being fully occu- pied in arming and disciplining troops. The Union force, 1900 strong, commanded by General Stone, which was sent across the Potomac at Ball's BIuH; and left without support, was attacked by a superior force of Con- federates and nearly annihilated. On the 7th of November a Union force under General Grant, after capturing the Confederate camp at Belmont, ]\I()., was finally repulsed with loss. On the same day a naval force under Aihniral Dn Pont made its way into Port Royal entrance, on the coast of Soutli Carolina, and captured Forts Walker and Beauregard. On the day CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 139 after this victory, Captain Wilkes, commanding the United States frigate San Jacinto, overhauled the British mail steamer Trent, and took from her Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Confederate ambassadors to England and France. This act caused great excitement in Great Britain and in the United States; another war seemed inevitable; but the disavowal of the act by the Federal government and the surrender of the envoys averted the threatened danger. At the beginning of the year 1862 the entire Union force in the field was about 450,000 men, 200,000 of whom were in the vicinity of Wash- ington, under McClellan. The whole Ctmfederate force was not far from 350,000 men, occupying about half of the States of Kentucky, Missoui'i and Virginia, and the whole of the remaining Southern States. During the month of January, Kentucky was the sole field of military operations. Colonel Humphrey Marshall was defeated near Prestonburg (Jan. 10) by a Union force under Colonel Garfield, and driven into Virginia, and Gen- eral Thomas defeated the Confederates under Generals Crittenden and Zollicoffer, in the battle of Mill Spring (Jan. 19). General Grant, assisted by Commodore Foote with liis flotilla of gunboats, took Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River (Feb. 6). The greater part of the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, which General Grant cap- tured, together with 12,000 prisoners and 40 cannon, ten days later. An expedition under General Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, which sailed from Fortress Monroe (Jan. 12, 1862), captured Roanoke Island (Feb. 8), Newberu, N. C. (March 14), and Beaufort (April 25). On the 9th of March occurred one of the most remarkable naval battles on record. The Confederate iron-clad Virginia, formerly the United States frigate Merrimac, had made a descent upon the Union fleet, near Fortress Mon- roe, on the preceding day, and had destroyed the wooden vessels Cumber- land and Congrefss. During the night the floating battery Monitor arrived ; and when the Virginia returned to the attack, she was beaten off, after an action of five hours, and forced to return to Norfolk. This was the "trial trip" of the Monitor, and the result was so satisfactory to the Federal government that a fleet of monitors was built with all possible despatch. On the 8th of March an important battle was finished at Pea Ridge, in the western part of Arkansas, between Union troops under General S. R. Curtis and Confederates under General Earl Van Dorn. The conflict had lasted for three days, and the Union forces were finally victorious. The great activity now displayed at so many different points was owing to an order issued by President Lincoln commanding all the Union armies to advance on the 22d of February, 1862. On the 6th of April, General Grant was defeated and driven back to the Tennessee River, in the battle of Shiloh, losing 2500 prisoners, including General Prentiss. On the fol- lowing day reinforcements arrived under General Buell ; the battle was renewed, and the Confederates were forced to retreat. On the same day 140 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES (April 7), Island No. 10, in the Mississippi River, a short distance below its junction with the Ohio, was taken from the Confederates by General Pope and Commodore Foote, who had been acting together, the one with land-forces, the other with a flotilla of gunboats. The prisoners numbered 8000. Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, Ga., was captured, after a bombard- ment of 30 hours, by Captain (afterward Major-General) Gillmore' (April 11), and during the same mouth Farragut and Porter, with a gunboat and mortar fleet, began (April 24) to bombard Fort St. Philip, on the eastern bank, and Fort Jackson, on the western bank, of the Mississippi, below New Orleans. On the 24th the fleet ran past the forts and fought a ter- rific battle with a Confederate fleet. On the 26th NeAV Orleans was taken, and it remained from that time in the possession of the Union forces. AVe have reserved the most important movements, or at least those of the largest army, for the last. The army of the Potomac, having been taken in transports to Fortress Monroe, commenced (April 3d) its march toward Richmond, under the command of General McClellan. The siege of York- town consumed a month ; and when that place was evacuated (May 4), the Confederates had greatly strengthened the defences of their capital. On the 23d of May, McClellan reached a point within 7 miles of Richmond, but his efficient force was very much diminished, while that of the Con- federates was constantly increasing. "Stonewall Jackson" and Ewell had forced General Banks out of the Shenandoah valley, and threatened Washington. Not only the forces intended for McClellan, but militia called from the Northern States, were required for the defence of the Fed- eral capital. McClellan gained (May 31) the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines; but Jackson now moved rapidly southward to co-operate with Lee. McClellan was obliged to change his base of supplies from the York River to the James. This hazardous movement was accomplished at the expen-se of a succession of the most desperate battles ever fought upon this continent— viz., those of Oak Grove (June 25), Mechanicsville (June 26), Gaines' Mill (June 27), Savage's Station (June 29), White Oak Swamp (June 30) and Malvern Hill (July 1). Both armies fought with desperate valor, the advantage finally remaining with the Confederates ; for though the Union forces reached the James Elver, the peninsular cam- paign was a failure so far as its object (the taking of Richmond) was con- cerned, and the Confederates were so encouraged that they assumed the offensive during the month of August. McClellan was recalled and placed (Sept. 1) in command of all the troops about Washington. Lee pushed across the Potomac into Maryland, and occupied Frederick (Sept. 6) and Hagerstown (Sept. 10), but was defeated at South Mountain (Sept. 14) and at Antietam (Sept. 17), the latter battle lasting from early dawn nntil twi- light. Lee was forced to recross the Potomac. The campaign in Mary- land had cost the Confederates 30,000 men; but between the battles of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 1-il South Mouutaiu aud Autietam Stonewall Jacksou had taken Harper's Ferry'(Sept. 15), with 11,583 men and an immense quantity of munitions of war. On the 7th of November, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside, who led the army against the Confederates massed at Freder- icksburg, Va., and there met (Nov. 13) with a disastrous defeat, losing 12,000 men. During the year 1862, President Lincoln had issued a call for 300,000 volunteers for the war, and on the 9th of August another for 300,000 men for nine months, who were to be drafted unless they volun- teered promptly. On the 2d of September was issued the notice of the memorable emancipation proclamation, declaring that all the slaves in the States and p)ortious of States which should be " in rebellion against the United States" on the 1st of January, 1863, should be "thenceforward and for ever free." The proclamation itself was issued on the day just named. This measure gave rise to much excited discussion. On the 25th of January, 1863, General Burnside was relieved, at his own request, and succeeded by General Joseph Hooker. The latter led his army across the Rappahannock (April 28), and six days afterward fought the battle of Chancellorsville, in which, on the 2d of May, the Union troops were disastrously defeated. On the 3d they recovered all that they had lost; but on the 4th they were forced to retire, having lost more than 11,000 'men. In the following month, Lee, emboldened by his success, invaded Maryland (June 14), and moved on toward Pennsylvania. The army of the Potomac, the command of which was transferred (June 28) from Gen- eral Hooker to General George G. Meade, followed on the right flank of the Confederates, and General Lee was forced to concentrate his forces at Gettysburg, Pa., aud to give battle (July 1). The struggle was contested for three days with the most desperate courage on both sides, and Lee was finally defeated, with the loss of thirty thousand killed and wounded, 14,000 prisoners and 25,000 stand of small arms. The Federal loss was nearly 23,000 in killed, wounded and missing. The Confederates recrossed the Potomac and retreated slowly through Virginia to a good position on the Rapidan. Meade followed closely but cautiously, and by the middle of August he also was beyond the Rappahannock, and there the armies lay for a long time confronting each other. On the 5th of October, Lee again advanced northward and compelled Meade to fall back upon the line of Bull's Run. After destroying the railroad from Manassas Junction to the Rapidan River, he established a strongly-fortified camp between that stream and Orange Court-House. During these manoeuvres, from the 8th to the 23d of October, there was heavy skirmishing. On the 7th of No- vember, 2000 Confederates were captured by Generals Sedgwick and French, and on the 20th the army of the Potomac advanced against Lee; but his position was found to be too strong, and the Federals returned to their previous camps on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. Daring 142 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES the spriug of this year (1863) important events were taking place on the Mississippi. After the iall of Memphis, Vicksburg was the only remain- ing Confederate stronghold on that river; and several naval and laud attacks were made upon this important post, beginning in June, 1862, and extending over a period of more than a year. The first effort to take the place being unsuccessful, an attempt was made to change the course of the Missi^:sippi River by digging a canal, with the design of making Vicksburg an inland town. Various endeavors to reach the rear of the place were made, in one of which General Sherman was repulsed with heavy loss (Dec. 27, 1862). During the following month, Avith the assistance of Admiral Porter, he captured Arkansas Post, with 5000 prisoners. On the 2d of February, General Grant assumed the command of the army of» the Mississippi, which he moved down the west side of the river, while Porter boldly ran by Vicksburg with his fleet and met Farragut coming up. On the 30th of April, Grant recrossed the river at Bruinsburg, and marched inland to the rear of Vicksburg, which place he regularly invested on the 18th of May, after fighting the battles of Port Gibson (May 1), Raymond (May 12), Jackson (May 14), Champion Hills (May 16) and Black River Bridge (May 17). Attempts were made to take the town by assault (May 21 and 22), but the assailants were repulsed with heavy loss, and it was therefore resolved to resort to a reg- ular siege. The approaches and parallels were daily pushed nearer and nearer, the city was exposed to an almost constant bombardment from the army and from the gunboats on the river. The garrison held out as long as possible, in the hope that General Johnston, who was straining every nerve to raise a sufficieut army for the purpose, would come to their relief. This hope was vain, as the reinforcements were driven back. Provisions grew scarce ; even the flesh of mules began to fail. On the 4th of July^ the day after the battle of Gettysburg, General Pemberton surrendered the place with 30,000 prisoners, arms and munitions of war for an army of 60,000 men, together with steamboats, cotton aud other property of immense value. During June and July, 1863, a raid was made by Gen- eral Morgan, a famous Confederate leader, with about 3000 cavalry and six cannon. They crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, and moved rapidly eastward, plundering as they went. Home-troops killed or captured nearly all of this force, and General Morgan, with a remnant of 400 men, sur- rendered to General Shackleford, in Morgan county, Ohio, on the 26th of July. During this same period. General Rosecrans, by a series of vigor- ous movements, had driven the Confederates under General Bragg out of :Middle Tennessee, and in August the Federals followed them over the Cumberland Mountains, and by a flank movement compelled them to march on in the direction of Georgia. Bragg was afterward reinforced by Longstreet and his corps, from Lee's army, and turned suddenly upon CENTENNIAL OAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 143 lii.^ pursuer. They fought until night ; the battle was renewed on the fol- lowing day, and the Federals were compelled to fall back to Chattanooga. General Grant, a large portion of whose army had been ordered from Vicksburg to Chattanooga, now superseded Rosecrans, and was not long in assuming the offensive. Lookout Mountain was brilliantly carried (Nov. 24) by Hooker's men, who fought much of the time above the clouds, and were thus hidden from the view of the anxious spectators below. On the 25th the Confederates were driven from Missionary Ridge, and Bragg and his army were retreating toward Georgia. The Federal army had made great progress during the year 1863. They held Missouri, Arkansas, Kentucky, Tennessee, a large portion of Louisiana, ♦Mississippi and Florida, and the Rio Grande frontier of Texas, and had the control of the Mississippi River. Some of these districts were great food-producing regions, which made their loss a serious matter for the Confederates. Early in May, 1863, a draft for 300,000 men was ordered by President Lincoln, in accordance with an act of Congress j^reviously passed (March 8); but as exemption could be purchased for $300, this measure had resulted at the end of the year, in the twelve States in which it had been enforced, in adding 50,000 men to the army and in the accu- mulating of a fund of $10,518,000, to be used for bounties, etc. The opening military events of the year 1864 were, on the whole, favor- able to the Confederates. On the 10th of March General A. J. Smith left Vicksburg with a large body of troops and went up the Red River, accom- panied by the fleet of Admiral Porter. On the 13th he captured Fort de Russey from the Confederates; and on the 16th he entered Alexandria, where he was joined by General Banks with a large force from New Orleans. The fleet and a portion of Smith's army advanced toward Shreveport. At Cane River they met and defeated the Confederates (March 26) ; but near Mansfield they were drawn into an ambuscade, and were attacked in front and on both flanks by the whole force of the Confederates. The Federals were driven back to Pleasant Hill, where, on the following day, they re- pulsed another attack, and finally reached the river with the loss of 3000 men and 20 pieces of artillery. Banks now directed Porter, who had gone on toward Shreveport, to return, as he could afford him no suj)port. The fleet started back, annoyed all the way by Confederate batteries and sharp- shooters. The water had fallen very low, and the fleet would have been lost had not Lieutenant-Colonel Bailey, of Wisconsin, proposed and super- intended the construction of a dam across the river, by means of which the fleet was extricated (May 11). The Federal armies met with disasters elsewhere. On the 5th of February General Seymour left Port Royal for a campaign in Florida ; but on the 20th he was met by a superior force at Olustee, 50 miles south-west of Jacksonville, and defeated with the loss of 1200 killed, wounded and missing. On the 3d of February General Sher- 14-i BVRLEY'S UNITED STATES man started from Vicksburg and penetrated tlie State of Mississippi as far east as IMerjdian, where lie expected a cavalry force from MemiDliis to join him ; but this force having been driven back, General Sherman was forced to retrace his steps to Vicksburg. On the 12th of April Fort Pillow, on tlie ^lississippi, 70 miles above Memphis, was taken by the Confederates ; and a few days later they captured Fort Williams, near Plymouth, N. C, together with 1600 men. These and other successes on the part of the Con- federates showed the necessity of abandoning the desultory mode of warfare which had caused the loss of so many lives upon both sides, yet had not, apparently, brought about the beginning of the end. General Grant was accordingly promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general (Mar, 3, 1864), and given the powers of commander-in-chief (Mar. 14). Turning over thee army of 100,000 men at Chattanooga to General Sherman, and making his headquarters in the field, with the army of the Potomac, Grant ordered a simultaneous advance to be made by both bodies early in May — by the former upon Atlanta, Ga., and by the latter against Richmond. Sherman's men were in motion on the 7th of May. The Confederate general John- ston, with 60,000 men, was posted at Dalton, which place he was forced from by a flank movement. He fell back to Resaca, where a desperate battle was fought (May 13, 14), in which he was defeated. The Confed- erates continued their retreat, occasionally stopping to give battle; but they were finally (July 10) driven into their strong fortifications before Atlanta. Johnston was severely censured by the Confederates for retreating, and was superseded by General Hood, who made three furious attacks on Sherman's army before Atlanta (July 20, 22, 28), but was defeated in all with very heavy loss. After a siege of nearly two months, Sherman at last (Sept. 2) gained possession of the city. In the mean time, the army of the Potomac was not idle, but broke camp (May 3) under the immediate command of General Meade, crossed the Rapidan, and soon reached "the Wilderness." Here the advance was met on the 5th, and a battle began Avhich raged furi- ously all day. At sunrise on the 6th the conflict was renewed, and it did not close until darkness set in. On the 7th Lee fell back to Spottsylvania, where six days of continuous fighting ensued, the advantage remaining with the Federals. Lee again fell back; and by flanking and fighting he was forced back early in June to a point within a few miles of Richmond. Finding the defences upon the north and east of Richmond too strong to be at that time successfully attacked, General Grant abandoned his northern line of advance, and with little opposition, between the 12th and 15th of June, removed his army to the south side of the James River. He did this with the view of taking Petersburg, 22 miles south of Richmond, and thus necessitating the evacuation of the latter city. During this campaign of 43 days more than 100,000 men upon each side, each receiving frequent reinforcements, had been engaged in almost one continual battle, resulting CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 145 in heavy but nearly equal losses to both. Lee at once threw a large por- tion of his army into the defences of Petersburg, the siege of which was vigorously pushed. On the 30th of July a mine was exploded under one of the Confederate forts ; but the assault that followed through the breach thus made was repulsed, with a loss to the Federal army of 5000 men. On the 18th of August the Federals seized and held the Weldou Railroad, despite the most desperate efforts of the Confederates to recover it. Nothing further of a decisive nature occurred before Petersburg during the re- mainder of the year. On the 15th of November Sherman left Atlanta and started to Savannah, in the neighborhood of which city he arrived on the 10th of December. On the loth Fort McAllister was carried by assault, and on the 20th Savannah was evacuated by the Confederates and occupied by the Federal troops. While Sherman was thus engaged, the Confederate general Hood invaded Tennessee and drove back the Federal forces under General Thomas from point to point; but was finally defeated near Nash- ville (Dec. 15), with a loss of over 13,000 prisoners and 72 pieces of artil- lery. During the year 1864, 1,200,000 men were called for by President Lincoln. The first call (Feb. 1) was for 500,000 men ; but it was interpreted to mean the deficiency under the previous call and 200,000 additional men. The second (March 14) was for 200,000 men; the third (July 18), for 500,000 volunteers; the fourth (Dec. 20), for 300,000. At the presidential election of 1864 two candidates were presented — Abraham Lincoln by the Republicans, for re-election, and General McClel- lan by the Democrats. Twenty-five States took part in this election, and the electoral vote cast was 233, of which Lincoln received 212, and McClellan 21, being the votes of New Jersey, Delaware and Kentucky. The popular vote of Lincoln and Johnson was 2,223,035, and that of McClellan and Pendleton was 1,811,714. After Sherman had allowed his army a short rest at Savannah, he again took the field (Feb. 1, 1865). He marched through South Carolina, took possession of Columbia (Feb. 17), and on the following day the force under Gillmore, which had been besieging Charleston, entered that city, which had been under bombardment 542 days. Sherman pushed on toward North Carolina ; while Schofield, from Newbern, and Terry, from Wilming- ton, were co-operating with him. After some fighting, the three armies met at Goldsborough (Mar. 22); while General J. E. Johnston, with the main army of the Confederates in that region, was held at bay at Raleigh. At last, on the 24th of March, General Grant issued orders for a general movement of the armies operating against Richmond, to be made on the 29th. On the 25th, however, Lee made a desj)erate effort to break through the Federal lines on the Appomattox River, and Fort Steedman was taken by the Confederates, but was soon recaptured. Sheridan, after a partial repulse on the 31st of March, the next day defeated the Confederates at 10 146 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Big Five Forks, and took 6000 prisoners. Immediately afterward (Apr, 2) Grant made an attack along the whole line in front of Petersburg, and was everywhere successful. Petersburg was evacuated that evening ; Rich- mond also was abandoned, and Lee retreated toward Lynchburg, but was intercepted by Sheridan, and finally (Apr. 9) surrendered his army, now reduced to 25,000 men. Johnston surrendered his army of 30,000 men on the 26th of April. Between these two events, on the evening of the 14th of April, President Lincoln was shot by John Wilkes Booth, and died at 22 minutes past 7 the following morning. In less than six hours after his death Andrew Johnson, the Vice-President, had taken the oath of office as President of the United States, and the government went steadily on in its course. The war, which for four years had been consuming milliQUS of treasure and hundreds of thousands of human lives, was now at an end ; but there were difficult problems to solve before the question of " Recon- struction" could be settled. Early in 1865 Congress passed a resolution proposing an amendment to the Constitution abolishing slavery throughout the United States. Three-fourths of the States having ratified this amend- ment, it was announced on the 18th of December, 1865, that it had become a part of the Constitution ; and slavery in the United States ceased to exist. In June, 1866, great excitement was caused by the invasion of Canada by bodies of Fenians, an Irish organization, formed for the purpose of wresting Ireland from the British government and establishing the independence of "the Emerald Isle." President Johnson issued a proclamation cautioning all against the enterprise as a violation of neutrality; and the vigorous measures of General Meade, who was sent to the frontier, put a stop to the movement. THE TENTH DECADE [1866-187-6].* Presidents, Andrew Johnson [April 15, 1865-March 4, 1869], Ulysses S. Grant [1869—]. During 1866 and 1867 the country was deeply agitated by the question of Reconstruction— that is, of readmitting the seceded States to their former position in the Union. The difficulty was greatly increased by a diflTerence of opinion between the President and Congress. The President recognized loyal governments as existing in Virginia, Tennessee, Arkansas and Louisi- ana. He appointed provisional governors for the other seceded States, *.For obvious reasons, the history of this decade will be incomplete, as this por- tion of the work is devoted to history and not to prophecy ; and we do not possess the pecnliar ability of certain journalists who, knowing that a banquet was going to take place to which they could not obtain admission, published a full report, with cha- racteristic speeches by prominent guests, only to learn on the following day that the banquet had been postponed, and to see their ruse de guerre thoroughly exposed. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 147 with the power to call conventions for the purpose of establishing perma- nent governments ; and his policy was to recognize such governments, and to restore the States to their former I'ights as soon as they should repeal their ordinances of secession, repudiate their Confederate debt, and ratify the Thirteenth Amendment, which Congress had proposed for the abolition of slavei-y. Most of the States in question complied with these conditions ; but Congress would not recognize them as reconstructed without further guarantees, A Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution was proposed, for which the reader is referred to that instrument [see Government and Laws], and the ratification of both the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amend- ments was required by Congress of States desiring readmission. Tennessee, having promptly complied with this last requirement, was in July, 1866, restored to her position in the Union. Two years later, after a long and bitter struggle between the President and Congress on this and other ques- tions, Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Louisiana were also readmitted. Their senators and representatives had been absent from their seats in Congress for more than seven years. The difficulties between the President and Congress were aggravated by the attempt of the former to remove *Mr. Stanton, the Secretary of War, from his position. The Tenure-of-office Act, ]3assed shortly before, made the consent of the Senate necessary to such removals (Feb., 1868). On the 24th of February the House of Representatives passed a resolution to impeach the President "of high crimes and misdemeanors," on account of his violation of the Tenure-of-office Act.* He was tried by the Senate, in accordance with the provision made by the Constitution for such cases. A vote was taken on three of the articles of impeachment ; and as two-thirds of the Senate had not pronounced the President guilty, he was acquitted on those articles, and the impeachment trial came to an end. In the sum- mer of 1868 an embassy from China came to the United States, under the charge of Mr. Burliugame, who had been United States minister to China. A treaty was negotiated at Washington and ratified by the United States Senate (July 16), which guaranteed liberty of conscience to citizens of the United States in China, and permission to attend all public educational institutions, without being subjected to any political or religious test, to the Chinese residing in the United States. At the Presidential election of 1868 the Republicans nominated for the presidency General U. S. Grant, of Illinois, and for the vice-presidency Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana. Horatio Seymour, of New York, was nomi- * There is a great deal of confusion with reference to the meaning of the word "impeach," many persons thinking that it carries with it the lAe^ oi conviction of the crimes charged. So far as President Johnson's case is concerned, this definition will suffice: "To cite before a tribunal for judgment of official misconduct; as, to impeach a judge." President Johnson was impeached, but was acquitted of the charges. 148 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES uated by the Democrats for the presidency, aud General Francis P. Blair, Jr., of Missouri, for the vice-presidency. The Republican candidates were successful, and General Grant was inaugurated on the 4th of March, 1869. On the 25th of the previous mouth the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution was proposed by a joint resolution of Congress; aud the ratification of this amendment was afterward (April 10) made one of the conditions for the readmission of the three States which were still unrep- resented in Congress. Virginia ratified the amendment in 1869, Missis- sippi and Texas in 1870, aud in the latter year the States named were restored to their position in the Union. The census of 1870 showed an aggregate population of 38,558,371, an increase during ten years of 22^^ per cent. In 1871 the governments of the United States and of Great Britain appointed a joint high commission, which met at Washington and concluded a treaty (May 8, 1871), which was ratified by the Senate (May 24). This treaty (known as "the Treaty of Washington") provided that a tribunal of arbitration should be constituted, consisting of one member from Great Britain, one from the United States and three from foreign countries (Switzerland, Italy and Brazil). This tribunal was to decide upon the amount of the " Alabama Claims " — i. e., the claims of the United States against the British government for damages on account of the injury done to the American commerce by certain Confederate cruisers which were fitted out in British ports. The first formal meeting of the "Geneva Tri- bunal of Arbitration" was held on the 15th of December, 1871. The " printed cases " of the respective governments were presented, another formal meeting was held on the following day, and the tribunal then ad- journed to meet at Geneva on the 15th of June, 1872. At this date its sessions were renewed, aud at the thirty-second conference, held on the 14th of September, a decision was announced, which states that "The tribunal, by a majority of four voices to one, awards to the United States a sum of $15,500,000 in gold, as the indemnity to be paid by Great Britain to the United States for the satisfaction of all the claims referred to the consid- eration of the tribunal." The dissenting voice was, of course, that of the British member of the tribunal. Sir Alexander Cockburn, who verbally "stated the grounds of his own decision, which the tribunal ordered to be recorded." Sir Alexander "recorded his reasons by publishing them in the London Gazette for Sept, 24, 1872, and he "annexed" them to the ofii- cial protocol by sending a copy of the paper containing them to the agent of the United States. Such is the statement which we have seen appended to a report of the proceedings of this conference in the Annual Cydojxedia for 1872. It is on\j fair, however, to give the account of Mr. Cushing, who certainly cannot be accused of an exhibition of favoritism when speak- ing of the British arbitrator. " He withheld his argument from the tri- bunal at the proper time for its presentation as the 'reasons' of au arbi- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 149 trator. At the last moment, without its beiug read by the tribunal or printed for the information of agents or counsel, as a resolution of the tribunal, adopted on his own motion, required, he presents this argument as his Reasons for Dissenting from the Decision of the Tribunal of Arbi- tration." The publication of all of the Beasons, etc., could not have been made in the London Gazette, if, as Mr. Gushing says, they filled 296 pages of folio letter-press, 180 of which were devoted to opinions on the various vessels, and the remaining 116 "partly to the discussion of the special questions," says Mr. Gushing, with great courtesy, " in all of which he is inordinately prolix, and partly" (here Mr. Gushiug's courtesy is overpow- ering) " to a general outpouring of all the bile which had been accumu- lating on his stomach during the progress of the arbitration." In the latter part of 1872 and in the beginning of 1873 was fought the famous " Modoc War." The Modoc Indians took possession of the Lava Beds, near Fort Klamath, in Oregon. Under their chief, Gaptain Jack, they kept concealed in the caverns which abound in that locality, and it was exceedingly difficult to force them into action. They were armed with rifles equal, if not superior, to those of our soldiers. They were holding positions which gave them a decided advantage over any attacking party. They were commanded, moreover, by a skilful and unscrupulous leader, and their flexible system of tactics enabled them to take the fullest advan- tage of their thorough acquaintance with " the seat of the war," while the routine methods of attack and defence which are preserved in the regular army left our soldiers to a certain extent at the mercy of their wary foes. Nor was there perfect freedom on the part of some of the officers from the careless spirit displayed by Braddock more than a century before, if, as we have been informed by a soldier who passed through the whole campaign, a detachment of twenty or thirty men was permitted to halt for dinner without having a single sentry posted ; whereupon the savages stole upon their unwary foes and killed nearly every man of them. After a number of almost fruitless skirmishes, General Gauby, who commanded the De- partment of the Golumbia, together with the peace-commissioners, Thomas and Meacham, attempted negotiations for a peace, were met by Gaptain Jack and several of his warriors under a flag of truce, and were treacher- ously fired upon (Apr. 11). Gen. Gauby and Mr. Thomas were killed, and Mr. Meacham was wounded. Gol. JeflTerson G. Davis was immediately assigned to the command of the department, and by the 1st of June his vigorous measures had resulted in the capture of the whole tribe, includ- ing Gaptain Jack, Sconchin, Hooker Jim, Black Jim, Bogus Gharley, Boston Gharley and Steamboat Frank. The seven just named were tried by a military court-martial, and found guilty of murder. Gaptain Jack, Sconchin and Black Jim were hanged (Oct. 3), but the others were spared and transported to Dakota with the rest of the tribe. 150 BURLETS CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. On the 31st of October, 1873, the Virginim, a ship sailing under the American flag, was captured on the high seas, near Jamaica, by the Span- ish steamer Tornado. It was alleged that the captured vessel was laden with men and arms for the Cuban insurgent army. She had 170 men on board, including the crew, and these were all held as prisoners. On the morning of the 4th of November four prominent Cubans who were among the passengers were shot. On the 7th and 8th, Captain Fry was shot, too-ether with 86 of the crew, and a few days later seventeen British subjects were disposed of in the same manner. Further executions were stopped by orders from Madrid. Prompt action Avas taken by the United States government. War with Spain seemed at one time inevitable, but a peace- ful settlement was brought about by negotiation. Spain stipulated "to restore forthwith the vessel referred to, and the survivors of her passengers and crew, and on the 25th day of December (1873) to salute the flag of the United States ;" but the salute was to be dispensed with if before the time specified Spain should prove that the Virginius was not entitled at the time of her capture to carry the American flag. This was not a very difficult task; the Spanish minister easily obtained the required evidence within the stipulated time ; so the Virginius was delivered up without the salute, on the 16th of December. She sailed for New York, but sank before reaching her destination. It was, however, a great satisfaction to the country that when she sank she was under the American flag. On the 5th of September, 1874, the centennial anniversary of the meet- ing of the First Continental Congress [see Historical Sketch, p. 99] was celebrated by a meeting held in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, in the very building and room where that historic body had assembled. On the 19th of April, 1875, the centennial of the opening scenes of the Revolution was celebrated at Lexington and Concord. At Concord French's statue of "The Minute-Man" was unveiled. An address was delivered by Ralph Waldo Emerson and an oration by George William Curtis, while the poem was read by James Russell Lowell. At Lexington the oration was delivered by Richard H. Dana, Jun., and the poem was read by John G. Whittier. On the 17th of June the celebration of the centennial of the battle of Bunker Hill took place at Boston. The lead- ing feature was the enthusiastic reception of the Southern soldiers who came to participate in the ceremonies. Here, then, our record closes, with the expression of the hope that the greater Centennial, now near at hand, may be the occasion of still kinder and more brotherly feelings between those who in the past " contending have stood apart," until in fact as well as in name, in heart and sentiment as well as in outward form of government, this country may deserve the name of " The United States of America." Engraved expressly for Burley's United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. THE CRYSTAL PALACE, LONDON, 1851. rilHE " Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations," which was X given in the buildiDg above represented, was the first of all interna- tional exhibitions. It was fancifully resolved that the length of the building should indicate its date. It therefore extended 1851 feet, with a breadth of 450 feet and a height of 66 feet. It was situated in Hyde Park, and covered an area of 13 acres. It was constructed of iron and glass, and the contractors agreed to have it completed within four months. The glass-maker was to be I'eady within that time with 900,000 square feet of glass, weighing 400 tons and composed of the largest panes of sheet- glass which had ever been made, each being 49 inches long. The iron- master was to furnish 3300 columns, vaa-ying from 14J to 20 feet in length, 34 miles of guttering-tube to connect every individual column under ground, 2224 girders and 1128 bearers for supporting galleries. The carpenter was to provide 205 miles of sash-bar, flooring for an area of more than 3,300,000 square feet (one account says 33,000,000 cicbic feet !), besides a vast amount of wooden walling, louvre-work and partition. These extra- ordinary engagements were interfered with by no important accident, and all went on with admirable regularity toward completion. Sir Joseph Paxton was the architect. A royal commission had the management of 151 152 BURLETS CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. the wliole affiiir, and a guarantee-fund was subscribed, the queen heading the list with £1000. The exhibition was oj^eued by the queen on the 1st of May, 1851, was open 144 days, and was closed October 11. The number of exhibitors is variously stated, the lowest figures given being 13,937, and the highest 17,000. The entire number of visitors was 6,201,856, averaging 43,068 per day. The largest attendance was on Tuesday, the 7th of October, when 109,915 persons were admitted. Between eleven and twelve o'clock on that day 28,853 persons entered the building. Pecuniarily, this exhi- bition was a decided success. The gross receipts w'ere £505,107 5s. 7d., wdiile the expenses were £330,000, so that there was no call on those who had subscribed to the guarantee-fund. The surplus was expended in pur- chasing a site for a National Gallery. Only 600 articles were sent to this exhibition from the United States, yet the Americans carried off five grand-council medals and ninety-five prize medals. One article (a reaper), exhibited by a citizen of the United States, was considered by the London Times " so important that it would repay England if the exhibition had done nothing else than make that invention known." The closing scene of the exhibition was very impressive. At five o'clock p. M. on the 11th of October, Mr. Belshaw, one of the managers, appeared at the west corner of the transept gallery, on the north side, bearing in his hand a large red flag, which he displayed just as the clock struck. In- stantly all the organs in the building sent forth the notes of the well-known national anthem, " God save the Queen." These were continued for seve- ral minutes ; then ensued a silence to be broken by a tremendous rolling sound like that of thunder, caused by thousands of feet stamping their loyalty (or their courtesy) upon the boarded floors. This demonstration caused every portion of the edifice to tremble, and as it swept from west to east many an eye was raised with anxiety to the girders and pillars ; and now the time had arrived for the death-knell of the exhibition to be rung out. It came, and a perfect storm of bell-peals broke over the build- ing. Immediately before this closing signal some one hung out from the gallery of the transept the following lines— a well-selected epilogue from Shakespeare's Tempest : " Our revels now are ended. These our actors. As I foretold you, were all spirits, and Are melted into air, into thin air; And, like the baseless fabric of this vision. The cloud-capiied towers, the gorgeous palaces, The solemn temples, the great globe itself, Yea, all wliich it inherit, shall dissolve, And, like this insubstantial pageant faded, Leave not a rack behind." PHYSICAL GEOGEAPHY, EESOUECES AISTD PEOSPECTS AND TOPOGEAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES. GENERAL DESCRIPTION. THE United States of America occupy the central portion of North America. They extend from the Atlantic Ocean on the east to the Pacific on the west, from the chain of great lakes in the north to the Gulf of Mexico on the south. The area of the territory thus bounded is 3,026,494 square miles. In addition to this they possess the Territory of iVlaska, purchased of the Russian government, and formerly known as Russian America, with an area of 577,390 square miles. This brings the total area of the land-surface up to 3,603,884 square miles. As Alaska is detached, we shall omit it for the present, and confine our remarks to the main body of the territory contained within the limits above mentioned. The greatest length of this region is 2650 miles, and its greatest breadth 1600 miles. It possesses a geographical position eminently fitted for the growth and rapid development of a great and powerful people. It is happily situated between the extremes of heat and cold, its flora is abundant and varied, and its climate is such as conduces to physical and intellectual vigor. Its eastern coast, washed by the Atlantic, is filled with numerous bays and roadsteads, which present every facility for commercial intercourse with Europe ; while its western shores, bounded by the Pacific, open their harbors and inlets to the rich traffic of Asia and Oceanica. The extent of the coast-line has been estimated by geographers at figures ranging from 6200 miles up to 12,000 miles; but Professor Brocklesby, by counting in many of the smaller bays, obtains the following figures, which are much more accurate: "The length of the eastern coast-line is 7000 miles, that of the southern 3400 miles, while that of the Pacific is 3700, giving a total length of 14,100 miles.'^ The prin cipal branches of the sea extending into the land are the Chesapeake, Delaware and Massachusetts Bays and Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds on the Atlantic coast, and the Bay of San Francisco on the Pacific coast. The principal bodies of land projecting into the sea are the peninsulas of Florida on the south-east and Cape Cod on the east, both extending into th§ Atlantic Ocean, Numerous islands are scattered along the various coasts of the United States, nearly all of which give evidence, both by their 153 154 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES geological structure and their iDositiou, that they were once a part of the maiii land, and have been separated from it by a convulsion of nature or by the action of the waters of rivers and of the ocean. The islands of the Atlantic coast, north of Cape Cod, are mostly high and rocky, being of granite formation. Those south of Cape Cod on the same coast are generally low and sandy. Long Island, east of New York, is the largest, and contains an area of 1682 square miles. On the Pacific coast the prin- cipal islands are the Santa Barbara Islands, which are barren and rocky, but contain several good harbors. The mountain-chains of the United States are the Alleghany or Appa- lachian systems in the east, and the Rocky Mountain and Pacific systems in the west. That last named is also called the California system, and is sometimes, but incorrectly, considered a part of the Rocky Mountain system. The Alleghany Mountains extend from the St. Lawrence through Western New England, the Middle States and the Southern States to Alabama, in a line nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast. In some parts of its extent this system consists of a single chain, but it is generally composed of several parallel ranges, with valleys between. The White Mountains of New Hampshire, noted for their grand and beautiful scenery, the Green Mountains of Vermont and the Highlands of Maine, are also portions of this range. The Alleghanies proper are about 1300 miles long, with an average width of about 70 miles. North of the 40th parallel of latitude they are known as the "Blue Mountains," and south of that parallel as the "Blue Ridge." Mount Mitchell, in North Carolina, 6732 feet high, was long thought to be the highest peak of the range, but it is now known that that pre-eminence belongs to Mount Clingman, in the same State, which rises to the height of 6941 feet. The remainiug principal mountains of this chain and its spurs and outlines are, with their respective heights, in the White Mountains, Mount Washington, 6234 feet, and Mount Adams, 5960 feet; in the Adiroudacks, Mount Marcy, 5402 feet; and in the Maine Highlands, Mount Katahdin, 5385 feet. The Rocky Mountain system is a part of the great American chain which extends ii-om the Arctic Ocean to the most southern point of South America. The main chain of this system extends in a southerly direction entirely across the United States, forming the water-shed between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. From the boundary of British America to the 38th parallel of latitude this chain is known as the Rocky Mountains, and thence to the southern boundary of the United States it is called the Sierra Madre, a Spanish name signifying " Mother Range." A spur called the "Black Hills" branches ofi" at the 40th parallel, and extends north- east nearly to the Missouri River. An expedition under the command of General Custer penetrated this region during the months of July tind August, 1874, and it was reported that large quantities of gold were then CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 155 discovered upon one of the Indian reservations, but the truth of this report was denied by Professor Winchell, the chief geologist of the party. The principal peaks of the Rocky Mountains, with their respective heights, are Fremont's Peak, 13,750 feet; Long's Peak, 14,270 feet, and Pike's Peak, 14,147 feet. The California or Pacific system consists of the Coast Mountains, the Sierra Nevada (Spanish for "Snowy Range," the word "Nevada" mean- ing literally " white as snow ") and the Cascade Range. The Coast Moun- tains extend along the Pacific coast from the southern boundary of Cali- fornia to Vancouver's Island. They are covered with vegetation to their summits, but the loftier heights of the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada are barren and inaccessible, many of the peaks being perpetually covered with snow. The Sierra Nevada branches off from the Coast Mountains at the 35th parallel of latitude, and extends in a northerly direction to about the 43d parallel, where it is merged into the Cascade Range, which is the loftiest chain of mountains in the United States. The principal peaks of the Pacific system are, with their respective heights. Mount St. Elias, in Alaska, 17,900 feet; Mount Fairweather, also in Alaska, 14,700 feet; and south of Vancouver's Island, Mount Hood, 14,000 feet; Mount Shasta, 14,000 feet, and Mouut St. Helens, 13,300 feet. Several of these are volcanoes, and Mount Hood, in Oregon, and Mount St. Helens, iu Washington, have both been seen in a state of eruption. The great lakes, Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie and Ontario, com- prising together an area of 92,000 square miles, contain most of the lake waters in the United States. The boundary-line between Canada and the United States passes through the middle of all except Lake Michigan, which lies entirely within the territory of the latter. The area of Lake Superior is 31,500 square miles, its length is 480 miles, and its average depth 1000 feet. The area of Lake Huron is 23,100 square miles, its length is 252 miles, and its average depth 1000 feet. The area of Lake Michigan is 23,150 square miles, its length is 320 miles, and its average depth 1000 feet. By accurate observations it has been ascertained that this lake has a lunar tidal wave of about three inches. The area of Lake Erie is 7800 square miles, its length 250 miles, and its average de2:)th 120 feet. The area of Lake Ontai'io is 6900 square miles, its length is 190 miles, and its average depth 500 feet. The value of these lakes to the commerce of the United States can scarcely be over-estimated, as they form, in connection with the St. Lawrence River, a natural outlet for one of the i-ichest grain- producing countries in the world. A vessel of six hundred tons burden can be loaded with grain at Chicago and taken to Liverpool, getting around Niagara Falls by the use of the Welland Canal. In describing in a general way the surface of the United States, all geographers have freely used the principle of hydrodynamics, upon which 156 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES rests the assertion that "water will not run up hill." In other words, they have divided the country into regions answering to the great river systems, considering as one division all the country drained by any one system. They have not, however, arrived at the same results, but for our jiurpose the following divisions will suffice : 1st. The St. Lawrence Basin, including the country drained by rivers flowing into the St. Lawrence, or into the chain of great lakes of which that river is the outlet. 2d. The Atlantic Slope, drained by rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean, or into the Gulf of Mexico east of the Mississippi. 3d. The Mississippi Valley, drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries. 4th. The Texas Slope, drained by rivers flowing into the Gulf of Mexico west of the Mississipj)i. 5th. The Pacific Slope, the rivers of which flow into the Pacific Ocean. 6th. The Great Inland Basin, in which the rivers are lost in the sand or by evaporation, or flow into some lake which has no outlet. 7th, The basin of the Red River of the North, including a small tract of about 20,000 square miles, the waters of which make their way to Hudson's Bay through the river above mentioned, Lake Winnipeg and Nelson's River. The boundary which separates one basin or slope from another is called the water-shed, because the waters on different sides of that line go in different directions. Sometimes this consists of a lofty chain of mountains, but more often it is a less elevated ridge. A mythical account has been published of a house so accurately placed upon the line between the Mis- sissippi Valley and the Atlantic Slope that the water from one side of the roof ran off to the Atlantic, while that from the other side made its way to the Mississippi. The St. Lawrence Basin embraces a part of Vermont, New York, Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin and Minnesota, and all of Michigan. The entire region is a well-watered, fertile plain, varying in elevation above the level of the sea from 300 to 1500 feet. The rivers of this system within the United States are insignificant. The Atlantic Slope embraces all the New England States except Vermont, all of New Jersey, Delaware, the District of Columbia, South Carolina and Florida, and a part of New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi. It consists of a sea- board plain and an upper belt, which constitutes the true slope. Its rivers generally flow through a mountainous or hilly country, and are obstructed by rapids not far from the sea. On this account they are not usually navigable for any great distance, but large vessels can ascend the Hudson River to Hudson, the Delaware to Philadelphia, and the Potomac to Washington. The passage of these rivers through mountain-gorges and over steep descents is often marked by the most striking scenes of natural beauty, and the water-power furnished by their rapids and falls is immense, giving rise to large manufacturing cities. The soil of the Atlantic Slope CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 157 is varied in its character. In the northern portion, which has been longest under cultivation, it has been so thoroughly worked as to require the use of fertilizers to a much greater extent than the fresh soil of the Western prairies, but the nearness to large city markets and the great wealth of this section of country amply compensate for the requisite outlay. South of the Roanoke the plain near the coast abounds in swamps, but there are also extended sandy tracts covered with pine forests, and a large extent of rich alluvial soil. The upper belt or true slope is a well-watered, beau- tiful and fertile section — one of the richest districts of the United States. The Mississippi Valley embraces portions of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louis- iana, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Dakota, Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico and Texas, and all of Kentucky, Ten- nessee, Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Nebraska, Kansas and the Indian Terri- tory. It covers more than 1,300,000 square miles, more than one-third of the entire area of the United States, including Alaska, and is for the most part a region of unrivalled fertility. That portion which is east of the Mississippi River has a very gradual ascent to the base of the Alleghany Mountains, the average elevation being about 500 feet. This is a magnificent, undulating country, well watered, and blessed with a rich soil and a favorable climate. Formerly it was almost covered with dense forests, but the woods have now to a great extent disappeared, to give place to crops adapted to its varying climatic conditions. West of the Mississippi the character of the surface changes, and it spreads out into slightly-rolling or perfectly-level prairies, covered with long grass, with scarcely a tree or shrub except on the banks of streams. From the Missis- sippi to the Rocky Mountains the land has a gradual ascent of about six feet to the mile. The principal rivers of this valley are the Mississippi, the Missouri and the Ohio. The source of the Mississippi River is Itasca Lake, in Min- nesota, which is not more than fifteen miles from Elbow Lake, the source of the Red River of the North. Its length is 2900 miles, and it is navi- gable for steamboats from the Gulf of Mexico to the Falls of St. Anthony, a distance of 2200 miles. The uniformity of its width is remarkable, as it is about half a mile wide at New Orleans, and does not matei'ially vary from that width, except at the bends, for more than 2000 miles. Even when the Missouri, with a stream more than half a mile wide, joins it, the river below is not so broad as either one above. It contains many islands, which have been numbered below the mouth of the Ohio, but as many have been washed away, while others are continually forming, the numbers are now very irregular. The Missouri River is really the main stream, as it is somewhat larger at the point of junction, and the combined stream receives from it its most distinguishing characteristics. It rises in the 158 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Rocky Mountains, and the springs which form its source are not more than a mile from the head-waters of the Columbia. Its waters are turbid and muddy, while those of the Mississippi above the junction of the rivers are comparatively clear; hence the name, Missouri, which means "Smoky River," or, by another interpretation, "Mud River." Its length to the junction is 3096 miles, more than twice that of the Upper Mississippi to the same point, and this gives the Missouri another very strong claim to be considered the parent stream. It is navigable for more than 2500 miles, and when this distance is added to the length of the lower Mis- sissippi (1410 miles) the sum-total shows a continuous navigable river nearly 4000 miles long. Its entire length, taken in connection with the same addition, is 4506 miles, making the longest river in the world. We have given so much space to these details in order to explain the various calculations of the length of the Mississippi. As that name has been given to, and clings to, the lower stream, some geographers, owing to their anxiety to give this country proper credit for the possession of the mightiest of rivers, have stated the combined length of the Missouri and the lower. part of the Mississippi in connection with the name of the latter strearn. Their figures then vary from 4100 miles to the number which we have given. Others have stated, in connection with the same name, the length of the Mississippi proper, making it 2800 or 2900 miles, hence a confusion has arisen with reference to this matter in the minds of many people, of whom it is our hope that some, at least, may see and be bene- fited by this explanation. The Ohio River is formed in the western part of Pennsylvania, at Pittsburg, by the junction of the Monongahela and Alleghany Rivers. By the latter the drainage-valley of the Mississippi is extended into New York, and in Potter county. Pa., it reaches a point where the Mississippi Valley, the St. Lawrence Basin and the Atlantic Slope are so near to one another that over an extent of a few acres it is a mere chance whether the water which falls upon the surface reaches the ocean by the Gulf of Mexico, the Gulf of St. Lawrence or' Chesapeake Bay. The length of the Ohio is about 1000 miles, and it is navigable for steamboats throughout its whole course, with the exception of a rocky rapid at Louisville, which is avoided by the use of a canal two and a half miles long. Its current is generally uniform, smooth and placid, but it is subject to sudden elevations and depressions, having been known to rise twelve feet in a single night. Other large rivers of this system, with their respective lengths, are— the Yellowstone, 550 miles ; the Platte, 2000 miles; the Kansas, 1200 miles; the Arkansas, 2000 miles, and the Red River, 1500 miles. All of these are navigable for long distances, and this great river system is as valuable to the country as 10,000 additional miles of sea-coast would be. The Texas Slope embraces nearly all of Texas and New Mexico, and CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 159 part of Colorado aud Louisiana. It consists of, 1st. A low plain border- ing immediately upon the gulf, which is an extremely fertile region ; 2d. A gently-undulating prairie-country, gradually rising toward the north-east to the elevation of a thousand feet, which is also fertile and admirably adapted for grazing; 3d. A lofty table-laud, traversed in the western part by several ranges of mountains; while the eastern part is a barren plain, nearly as large as the State of Pennsylvania, called by the Mexicans the Llano Estacado, or "Staked Plain," because they drove stakes into the ground to mark out their route across it. The principal rivers are the Rio Grande (Spanish for Great River), which is 1800 miles long, aud the Texan Colorado River (there is another river of the same name on the Pacific Slope), the length of which is 900 miles. The Pacific Slope embraces the greater part of California, all of Ore- gon, and a part of Washington, Idaho, Nevada, Utah, Colorado, Wyoming, New Mexico and Arizona Territories. It forms three separate divisions, the northern, southern and Avestern. The northern division embraces the section north of the Great Inland Basin, between the Rocky Mountains aud the Cascade Range. This entire region is a table-land with an aver- age elevation of from 2500 to 3000 feet above the sea, and it is traversed by many broken mountain-ridges. It is a region of general sterility, with the exception of some valleys where the soil is better constituted for fer- tility and the rains are more abundant ; but even these oases are better adapted for grazing than for agriculture. The southern division includes the country lying between the Wahsatch and Rocky Mountains, which is drained by rivers flowing into the Gulf of California. It is in general a table-land, with an average elevation of about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, and it is traversed, like the northern division, by many broken mountain-ranges. The western division embraces the country between the Coast Mountains and the Pacific, and the valleys between this chain and the Cascade Range and Sierra Nevada. This is a region 1200 miles in length by 120 miles in breadth, containing an area of about 144,000 square miles. It is well watered aud exceedingly fertile, and is the only extensive section of the Pacific Slope which is naturally capable of sup- jwrting a dense population. In the southern part of this division, so extraordinary are the prolific influences of the soil and climate, that the grasses, trees, fruit and grains attain a very remarkable development. The soil of other portions of the Pacific Slope is not hopelessly barren, for it has been discovered that in many places where it was deemed almost irreclaimable it could be made to produce excellent crops by the use of artificial irrigation. The principal rivers of the Pacific Slope are the Colorado, the Columbia and the Sacramento. The Colorado is one of the most remarkable rivers in the world. Rising from numerous sources ten or twelve thousand feet 160 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES above the level of the sea, ou the western side of the Rocky Mountains, this great river descends into the plateau of the same name, through which it has worn its present wondrous channel, the walls of which sink down perpendicularly from the edge of the table-land for a distance of more than 300 miles. The distance from the top of the bank to the surface of the river varies from 1000 to 6000 feet. The most remarkable part of its course is the Big Canon, canon (pronounced can-yone') being a Spanish word meaning the place of passage of a river between perpendicular rocky walls of great height. The Big Canon is in the north-western corner of Arizona Territory, and begins at the mouth of the Diamond River, about 35 miles from Yamais Village. At this point its walls have an altitude of 3000 feet, but a few miles farther eastward the table-land rises to the alti- tude of more than 7000 feet above the sea, and the vast cliffs of the canon tower to the height of more than a mile above the stream. The length of the Colorado is about 1100 miles. The Columbia has its sources in the Rocky Mountaius, and plunging from these lofty ranges in cataracts and rapids through canons more than 1000 feet in height enters the Pacific after a course of 1200 miles. The passage of the Columbia River through the Cascade Mountains, which is known as "The Cascades," is a scene of great grandeur and beauty. The Sacramento and its tributary, the San Joaquin, drain one of the richest countries in the world, viz., the famous gold-producing valleys of California. The Great Inland Basin, sometimes called " Fremont's Basin," embraces nearly all of Nevada and parts of Oregon, California, Idaho and Utah. This singular region is a plateau with an average elevation of 5000 feet above the level of the sea, surrounded by rugged mountains. It is a dreary, desolate country, abounding in salt lakes and "alkaline springs" — i. e., springs strongly impregnated with carbonate of soda and other alka- line ingredients ; and it has a system of lakes and rivers of its own, having no connection with the ocean. Great Salt Lake is 291 miles in circum- ference, and has an area of 1875 square miles. Its water is almost satu- rated with salt, the amount of saline matter being so large that no living thing can exist in it. It contains about 22 per cent, of chloride of sodium, and forms one of the purest and most concentrated brines known. Utah Lake, a beautiful sheet of pure fresh water, thirty miles long and about ten miles broad, communicates with Great Salt Lake through the River Jordan, which is fifty miles long. The longest river in the Great Inland Basin is the Humboldt River, which empties into Humboldt Lake, called its "sink," because there is no outlet. This river is 350 miles long, but is in no place larger than a mill- stream. The basin of the Red River of the North embraces a part of Minnesota and Dakota. It is a plain elevated about 1500 feet above the level of the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 161 sea, and is similar in all respects to the adjoining regions which are drained by the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence. We have already noted how- near the source of the principal river of this system is to that of the Mis- sissippi. The elevation of the water-shed between them is so slight that during high water, caused by heavy rains, boats can pass from one basin into the other. CLIMATE, RAINFALL AND STORMS. Climate.^- We use the word climate in its popular sense, as applying mainly to the temperature; but technically the climate of a country sig- nifies "its condition relative to all those atmospheric phenomena which influence organized beings." The degree of heat, the winds, the rainfall, the changes in atmospheric weight as indicated by the barometer, are all comprehended under this term when correctly applied, although popular usage is satisfied with describing a climate as warm or cold. Taking the word in its correct sense, as given above, the climate of a country is a subject of the greatest importance. The great variety of climate to be found within the limits of the United States has doubtless been one of the leading reasons for the rapid development of their resources of every de- scription. It seems to indicate that a bountiful Providence designed this laud for the home of the oppressed of every land and clime. The first subject claiming our attention, then, is the temperature; and as this article does not claim to be a treatise on the science of physical geography, we shall deal mainly with the average annual temperature, unless some other average is specified. Some definitions are requisite, however, for those who have not made physical geography the subject of special study. The very name indicates that the average annual tempera- ture of a place is the result obtained by daily taking observations of the thermometer for a year at that place (usually three times a day), adding up the sum of the degrees of all the observations taken, then dividing that sum by the number of these observations. The quotient will be the av- erage for one year ; but it is thought necessary to take the averages for several years, ten if possible, add them together and divide by the number of years, thus obtaining a new general average, the correctness of which will, of course, depend upon the number of years taken. Now, it is true that the equator is warmer than the poles, and that generally the climate is colder on approaching the poles, and warmer on approaching the equator. It was, however, very soon discovered by those of modern times who first gave attention to this subject that the latitude of a place does not deter- mine its climate, any more than the length of its longest day — a mode of estimating which was handed down from the second century of our era, and which amounts, of course, to the same thing as reckoning by the lati- tude. The wider the range of geographical knowledge was extended, the 11 162 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES more plainly it became evident that countries in the same latitude did not necessarily have the same temperature; nay, more, the thoughtful student of history detected the fact that in the course of a century or more a de- cided change might take place in the temperature of a whole country. Some interesting remarks of this nature are made in Observations on the Climate in different Parts of America, by Dr. Hugh Williamson, published in 1811. He says : " It is well known that in the Atlantic States the cold of our winters is greatly moderated. As the surface of the country is cleared, a greater quantity of heat is reflected ; the air becomes warmer, and the north-west winds are checked in their progress. It is generally admitted that in Massachusetts and New Hampshire the quantity of snow that fell during the winter fifty years ago was more than [the] double of what has fallen in any .winter for several years past. The river Delaware, in the latitude of forty degrees, used to be frozen by the middle of No- vember, but of late it has seldom been frozen before Christmas ; and there are winters in which it is never frozen across. As the westerly winds decrease the easterly winds prevail. They have become more frequent and they extend to a greater distance across the country than before. It is well known that ships from Europe make their passages now in less time by one-third than they required about fifty years ago ; for the north-west- erly winds that formerly prevailed on the coast frequently kept oflT the shipping for several weeks. They are now favored by easterly winds, which have increased so much of late that they are likely to be our pre- vailing winds during the summer." These remarks, which we have given at length, as being specially appropriate in a work of historical and sta- tistical information, were written six years before Humboldt placed the science of climatology upon a comparatively firm basis by publishing his Isothermal Lines, and the Distribution of Heat on the Surface of the Globe. An isothermal line is a line passing through all those places where the average annual temperature is the same. Now, if the latitude of a place determined its climate, the isothermal lines would all run in the same direction as the parallels of latitude — every place, for instance, where the average annual temperature is 59° F. would be in the same latitude, and the line connecting those places would consequently pass directly around the earth without altering its distance from the equator or from the nearest pole. This, however, is not the case. While in Europe this isothermal line of 59° goes as high as the 42d parallel of north latitude, in America it descends as low as the 35th parallel, so that the mean annual temperature at Beaufort, N. C, is nearly the same as that of Rome, although the dif- ference in latitude is more than seven degrees. It is not necessary to go to Europe for examples. The isothermal line of 50° F. passes through New Haven, Conn., Pittsburg, Pa., and Burlington, Iowa, then near Fort Lar- amie, Wyoming Territory, in latitude 42° 12' N., it turns due south and CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 163 nearly touches the 35th parallel of latitude, then, after crossiag the Rocky Mountains, it turns sharply to the north and crosses the 50th parallel of latitude in the neighborhood of Vancouver's Island. Fort Vancouver, W. T., and the city of New York have, therefore, nearly the same mean annual temperature. We have given so much upon this subject, and shall give more, because this important matter is not generally understood, and great injustice is thereby done to a large section of this country. The following remarks from the Agriculturist for May, 1872, are worthy of considera- tion: "On April 10 we received by mail a cluster o/ peach blossoms, plucked on March 18 at Olyrapia, Washington Territory. Coming at a date when our own peach trees were still enjoying their winter's rest, it occui'red to us to say a word about the climate of the North-west. There is a general impression that Oregon, Washington Tei-ritory and Montana must be very cold, as they are so far north, forgetting that isothermal lines (lines of the same temperature) do not correspond with parallels of lati- tude." The mean temperature for four cold mouths (December, 1871, and January, February and March, 1872) is then given for the following places: Louisville, Ky., 34°; St. Louis, Mo., 31|°; Chicago, 26°; Balti- more, 33P; Philadelphia, 30°; Washington, 33°; New York, 29|; He- lena, Montana, 30° ; Kalama, W. T., 36°. The editor of the Agriculturist then continues : " The temperature at Helena, Montana, may properly be taken as a fair average for the territory. It is on the general route of the Northern Pacific Railroad, directly in the mountains, and but a few hun- dred feet below the highest point on the line. Notwithstanding the past winter has been the coldest ever known in Montana, it will be observed that the average temperature at Helena (latitude 46 i°) for the four months was the same as that of Philadelphia, although the latter city is 4200 feet lower and 450 miles farther south. Similar comparisons may be made with Chicago and other cities. The average winter temperature at Kal- ama, Washington Territory, on the finished portion of the Northern Pacific road (in latitude 46°), was several degrees warmer than at Louisville or Baltimore, in latitude 39°. The gx-eatest cold of the past winter at Kalama was 14° above zero." An examination of a map upon which the isothermal lines are marked will show the great difference made in the climate by the Rocky Mount- ains and the warm winds from the Pacific Ocean, though some of the windings baffle all ordinary eflTorts to give their causes. The reader will please remember that (unless otherwise specified) the lines referred to in what follows are those divisible by five, as 45°, 50°, etc. The coui'se of the line of 50° has already been described. The other lines, from 50° to 65°, inclusive, are also comparatively straight east of the RockyMount- ains, running nearly parallel with the equator, but the line of 45° seems to have struck out an independent course. It passes near Dover, N. H., 164 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES then turns north, traversing nearly the whole State of Vermont, and pay- ing a visit to the British possessions. Its course is then nearly due west, passing nearKingston (Ontario) and Toronto, and through St. Paul, Minn.; then it slants off to the north-west and takes another dip into British America, crossing the 50th parallel of latitude; then it sweeps around toward the south and comes down to a point within a hundred miles of Santa Fe ; then it crosses the Kocky Mountains, after which, with a course nearly due north, it makes again for British America, crossing the bound- ary at a point a few miles west of the Rocky Mountains. The way in which these lines approach each other near Santa Fe is one of the most puzzling phenomena of climatology. Five of them pass so near to the capital of New Mexico that any one who is at Santa Fe can have his choice of climate varying in average temperature from 45° to 65°, without going more than three hundred miles to the south or one hundred miles to the north. We hope that the reader will pardon us for the length to which we have drawn these remarks, for it is impossible to treat this important subject properly without entering somewhat into detail. Many who have not made the science of climatology a subject of special study are still under the thraldom of the old climatic division of the earth into the Torrid, North Temperate, South Temperate, North Frigid and South Frigid zones. To such it may seem to be a species of treason to break loose from that thraldom. We offer for their consideration the following remarks of the Hon. Lorin Blodget, the highest authority with reference to the climate of the United States, whose work elicited an expression of strong approval from the illustrious Baron Humboldt : " The definition of zones, which was so long in vogue, has really no place in nature, and the actual mea- sures of heat alone constitute the various belts of climate. With the variable surface and continental position of the temperate latitudes, no definition is possible except from actual measurement, and belts actually vary much more than could be inferred from any theory— at the Pacific coast of this continent in a manner incredible, if the statistics were not so abundant and conclusive. A summer heat of the fiercest character, as at Fort Miller, San Joaquin Valley, California, is but a few miles removed from a summer of even more extreme refrigeration, cold enough to require winter clothing at the midday of the summer. Both of these points are constant or fixed, and not less important as physical facts than the pres- ence of the mountains of the vicinity. To give these measures of heat a permanent form for temperate latitudes requires an actual survey, as it may be called, of every considerable district and the accumulation of the statistical elements of thermometric observation. Though the isothermal lines may appear an arbitrary or artificial mode of representation, they are; in truth, less artificial than the measures of temperature, since the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 165 nomenclature of the thermometer is wholly artificial." If anything could be added to strengthen these remarks, it may be the statement that no mode of representing climates could be found more arbitrary, artificial or wide of the truth than the old division into zones. The reader will now be enabled to understand why it is that the United States, though not pos- sessing a square mile of land within the tropics, contain some regions in which the climate is what is called "tropical." Professor Guyot says: " The true torrid zone may be regarded as terminating, on each side of the equator, at the isothermal of 70° Fahrenheit, beyond which the character- istic plants and animals of tropical regions disappear." Portions of Flor- ida, of Texas and of California which lie south of the isothermal of 70° are, therefore, in the true torrid zone. Professor Guyot makes another statement, upon which, as its acceptance would discredit a great part of what we have just written, we feel obliged to put a large grain of salt fur- nished by the highest scientific authority. He says : " In tracing the isothermals, according to Humboldt's example, the local influence of alti- tude is usually eliminated. This is done, as in the accompanying map, by adding to the observed temperature of a place 1° for every 333 feet of its elevation, thus reducing the temperature to that which the place would have if situated at the level of the sea." While this statement is strictly true with reference to European physicists, among whom Professor Guyot, by his method, may be classed, in America the nature of the country is such that a series of isothermal lines drawn upon the plan mentioned by Professor Guyot would be, for all practical purposes, worse than worthless. Suppose, for instance, that the average annual temperature at a station situated 7000 feet above the level of the sea is ascertained by actual obser- vation to be 49° above zero. This statement would give its true tempera- ture; but if the rule be applied, twenty-one degrees must be added to the number given, and the station which has a very temperate climate would then belong on the isothermal line of 70°, which, as Guyot has just informed us, is at the edge of the true torrid zone. Of what practical value is a purely theoretical climate which can only be found by burrowing down to the sea-level ? The very influence which modifies the climate is thus made use of to vitiate the statement of the temperature, and the greater the altitude of the stations, the more unreliable are the isothermal lines drawn through them. We have been assured by the Hon. Lorin Blodget that the isothermal lines drawn on the charts accompanying his Climatology of the United States represent actual climates, no such allowance as that sug- gested by Professor Guyot having been made. As Mr. Blodget's lines have been followed in nearly all of the published charts (those of Warren, Professor Brocklesby and others), the reader will understand that the remarks of Guyot refer almost exclusively to his own charts and to those of European savans. One eminent American scientist attempted to use 166 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES this foreign method, and presented a chart drawn in accordance with its requirements for the inspection of one of our learned societies, but the experiment was not deemed a success by his associates. Tlie climate of America was so misrepresented during the eighteenth century by European writers that the book by Dr. Williamson from Avhich we have quoted was written in its defence. How great an injustice was done will appear from Williamson's complaint: "America is described by writers of great celebrity [Buffon, Reynolds, Robertson and Kames] as a world lately risen from the ocean ; as a country in which the frigid tem- perature of the air seems to be impressed upon its animal productions ; as a country in which some vice of the climate, or some combination of the elements, prevents the expansion of animated nature, and causes man and beast to degenerate; a country for which a new and inferior race of men has been created." Dr. Williamson combats these assertions with great zeal and vigor. He enters into an elaborate argument to disprove the assertion of Kames that Indians have no beards, and, like a skilful advo- cate, he grudges neither labor nor pains to find materials for his plea. We have given elsewhere in this article some of his statements with refer- ence to the changes in the climate of America caused by settlement and cultivation. He says in another place: "When our ancestors came to New England, the seasons and weather were uniform and regular. Au- tumn began with September, and the winter set in about the end of November, continuing until the end of February, when the spring began, and advanced without sudden fluctuations in temperature. The summer lasted but six weeks, and was insufferably hot. Now the seasons are totally altered, and the weather is far more changeable: the autumn begins and ends later, and the winter does not set in, in its severity, before the first of December." It was Dr. Williamson's object to "compare the present state of the climate in these parts with observations that were made fifty or sixty years ago. If it will appear that the climate of the United States is mate- rially altered in the memory of man, it will then be proper to consider what has been the cause of that alteration ; whether the cause is capable of pro- ducing great effects, and how long it may be expected to operate." In estimating the power of "the cause of that alteration," the patriotism of Dr. Williamson carries him to great lengths. He says, for instance, "Cold climates are greatly improved by cultivation. When a considerable part of our mountains shall be subjected to the plough, and the Atlantic States shall be fully peopled, I deem it probable that cotton will be produced in Pennsylvania and oranges in Maryland." While it is true that changes are caused by cultivation and the clearing away of forests, there is a limit to the power of such causes. Professor Brocklesby says: "In countries covered by dense forests the winters are longer and more uniform in tem- perature than in dry cultivated regions, and in summer the mean tempera- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 167 ture of the latter is higher than that of the former. When the woods are levelled and the surface of the earth is exposed to the light of the sun, the summer becomes longer and the winter less uniform in temperature." The climate of New England has been changed in this manner (as is shown above) within the past two hundred and fifty years ; but the causes men- tioned have by this time exhausted their force, and no one expects the introduction of a tropical or semi-tropical climate into the "land of hasty pudding." There is another important fact the statement of which will explain why it is that Helena, Montana, and other places which are situated at a con- siderable distance above the level of the sea and in comparatively high latitudes, can have so mild a climate as that which they certainly possess. It is the general impression that the greater the elevation of a place above the level of the sea, the colder is its climate. This is in the main true, but there is an important exception to this rule which some of the earlier physical geographers have not sufficiently dwelt upon — viz., that upon lofty plateaus or table-lands, where large areas of surface are raised above the level of the sea, the effect of the altitude seems to be counteracted by the extent of land exposed to the action of the sun. Denver, Colorado, is 6000 feet above the level of the sea, and yet it is as warm as Baltimore, which is in the same latitude. At Fort Benton, Montana (latitude 47° 50), which is nearly 2700 feet above the level of the sea, the average tempera- ture is 10° warmer than at St. John's, Newfoundland, which is one-third of a degree further south and (at the point where the observations were taken) 140 feet above the sea-level. The important question now arises, How does the climate of the United States compare with that of various parts of Europe and of Asia ? There are, perhaps, few questions which have received so many conflicting and irreconcilable answers as the one which we have just stated. Williamson says (writing in 1811): "The medium temperature of our winters in the Northern States of America has been marked at twenty-eight degrees below the temperature of corresponding latitudes in Europe, and the me- dium temperature of our summers at eight degrees above the temperature of similar latitudes." He was not, however, prepared to receive this state- ment as a positive truth, for he continues : " Hasty conclusions have been drawn from observations of this kind without considering the climate in other parts of America, the changes which cultivation has produced in the climate of the old continent, or the changes which the same cause has already produced in some parts of America." We have frequently heard the general statement that, " As a rule, the climate at every place in Amer- ica is the same as that at a point in Europe ten degrees farther north." We have already shown that the average annual temperature at Beaufort, N. C, is the same as that at Rome, though the difference in latitude is 168 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES nearly seven degrees. New York and Dublin have about the same mean temperature, though the difference in latitude is 13° ; and near Lake Su- perior, in latitude 50, the same mean temperature is found as at the North Cape, in latitude 72°. There is evidently a difference, but ten degrees of latitude do not fit in at every point as the proper number. The eastern portion of America is colder than the western portion of Europe, and the difference in temperature increases on approaching the north pole. Another point which is certain is that the climate in the eastern portion of America is changeable. We once heard an Englishman say with great emphasis, while shivering under the influence of one of the coldest days of a winter on the Atlantic Slope, "This is a terrible climate. In the summer the weather is intolerably hot, and the winter is worse." This is something which the average annual temperature does not indicate. Pro- fessor Loomis says, in his excellent Treatise on Meteorologxj : " The mean temperature of New York is the same as that of Liverpool, yet the differ- ence between the mean temperature of the three summer months and that of the three winter months is twice as great in New York as in Liverpool. Throughout England the heat of summer is insufficient to ripen Indian corn, while the ivy which grows luxuriantly in England can scarcely sur- vive the severe winters of New York." In New York (latitude 40° 33') the thermometer has risen to 104°, while in Singapore, Malacca (latitude 1° 17' N. — i.e., it is nearly under the equator), the thermometer has never been known to rise above 95°. On the other hand, in New York, the thermometer has fallen as low as 10° below zero, while at Singapore it has never, so far as is known, gone below 66° above zero. The range of the thermometer at New York is therefore 114°, while at Singapore it is only 29°. This is not the largest range known in the United States. At Al- bany, N. Y., the range is 131°; at Kinderhook, N. Y., and Chicago, 111., it is 132°; at Montgomery, N. Y., and Fort Snelling, Wis., it is 137°; at Fort Howard, Wis., it is 138°; and at Lowville, N. Y., it is 140°. More than twice the range at Singapore during the entire year has been passed over in a single day in the north-eastern part of the United States. Pro- fessor Loomis says : " In Hanover, N. H., Feb. 7, 1861, at noon, the ther- mometer stood at 40 degrees above zero; the next morning it stood at 32 degrees below, making a range of severity two degrees in eighteen hours'' At Hartford, Conn., at the same time, the thermometer fell sixty degrees in sixteen hours. Such sudden changes (at least through so great a range of tem- perature) are not known in Western Europe. The greater severity of the wind here during the colder months also renders the actual difference to the senses much more decided than is apparent from examining the thermom- eter. Dr. Kane, while in the Arctic regions, found that the temperature of 40° below zero without a wind was more endurable than 10 below zero with one. " The piercing and violent winds which follow a storm, or a period of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 169 warm weather, appear colder, or are felt to the senses as colder, than the thermometer would indicate, and the intense cold of the winter in the inte- rior is not so uncomfortable as it is at Boston, though the thermometer may fall many degrees lower." The remark of Mr. Blodget which we have just quoted ajDplies mainly to the north-eastern part of the United States, and what we have said of a changeable climate does not refer to the country west of the Rocky Mountains. When the climate of the Pacific coast is compared with that of the At- lantic coast and of the interior, it is found that the former is much more uniform. San Francisco, St. Louis and Fortress Monroe are in about the same latitude. The difference between the mean summer and winter tem- perature of San Francisco is less than seven degrees, of St. Jjowi^, forty-four degrees, and of Fortress Monroe, thirty-six degrees. The Pacific coast has a climate very similar to that of Western Europe. The atmosphere is dry and invigorating as far north as the Columbia River. The summers are comparatively cool and the winters warm and equable. " These peculiar climatic features," says Professor Brocklesby, "are attributed to the combined influence of the heated regions of the interior and the pres- ence of masses of cold water off the coast, which appear to flow down from the Arctic Sea." The climate of that portion of the United States which lies within the true torrid zone is also much more uniform than on the North Atlantic coast and in the interior. • The mean annual temperature of eighteen dif- ferent places, as reported in the Army Meteorological Register, is 12A^°. The mean summer temperature of the same places is 82.73°, and that of the winter, 60.31°. The mean annual temperature of Key West, Fla., is 76.4°; that of the summer is 82.3°, and that of the winter 69.7°. The mean annual temperature of New Orleans is 67.6° ; that of the summer is 79.6°, and that of the winter is 55°. The difference between the mean temperature of the summer and that of the winter is therefore, at Key West, less than thirteen degrees, and at New Orleans, twenty-four degrees, while at Cambridge, Mass., it is forty-two degrees, at Hanover, N. H.., forty- six degrees, and at Fort Kent, Maine, it is fifty degrees. Further remarks upon the climate are reserved for the articles on the separate States [see Topography]. Rainfall. — In giving the rainfall, the amount of melted snow is, of course, included in the reckoning. Even with this included, the rain of summer is, in that section which lies east of the Rocky Mountains, every- where somewhat greater than the rain of winter. " In New England," says Professor Loomis, " the difference between the rain for these two sea- sons is less than 10 per cent. ; in the State of New York it is nearly 50 per cent.; in Virginia and the Carolinas, 100 per cent.; in Florida, 200 per cent.; in Texas, 75 per cent.; in Ohio, 25 per cent.; in Michigan and 170 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Wisconsin, 140 per cent. ; while in Iowa and Kansas it is 300 per cent.— that is, the fall of rain in summer is four times as great as it is in winter. On the Pacific coast this law is reversed. In California the rain of winter is more than twenty times as great as the rain of summer, and in Oregon it is seven times as great." Much greater care is required in collecting materials for giving the av- erage yearly rainfall than is requisite for reckoning the average tempera- ture. The average temperature of one year at a given point differs very slightly from that of another year at the same place; but rain is the most capricious of all the meteorological phenomena, both as regards its fre- quency and the amount that falls within a given time. To obtain the mean fall of rain at any place requires the continuance of observations for a considerable number of years, for it not unfrequently happens that the rain of one year is double that of some other year at the same place. It is interesting and amusing to notice that so important an observation as that of the quantity of water falling in rain had its origin, some two hun- dred years ago, in bold doubts of the prevailing theory that fountains and rivers were supplied from internal masses of water — arteries and veins of the sea, circulating the life-blood of the earth. "A French author, Denys Papin, printed a work at Paris, in 1674, to prove that the supply of rain and snow-water was sufficient to keep the fountains and rivers constantly running. He had taken observations for three years, the result showing an annual fall, respectively, of 18.7 inches, 8J inches and 27J inches. He then struck the average, making it eighteen inches and two and one-third lines (or tenths). His conclusion was that but a sixth part of the fall was necessary to keep the rivers and fountains running continuously through the whole year." The average annual fall of rain for various States is thus given by Pro- fessor Loomis : Alabama and Louisiana, 56 inches ; Oregon, 49 ; Florida, Virginia, the Carolinas, Tennessee and Kentucky, 48 ; Georgia, 44 ; Ar- kansas and Missouri, 42 ; Maryland and Pennsylvania, 41 ; Ohio and New England, 40 ; New York, 37 ; Michigan and Wisconsin, 32 ; Iowa and Kansas, 31; Texas, 29; California, 18; New Mexico, 13. This claims, of course, to be only an approximation. An instance of the difficulty of positive statement, and of the necessity of continuing the observations for a long time, is found in the reports of the rainfall at Key West, Fla. Six years' observations at one tim^ gave an average of 30.78 inches ; six years' observations, taken somewhat later, gave an average of 47.65 inches.* * The reader will now be able to estimate the difficulty of the task of Mr. Blodget, who, wiien constructing his hyetal, or rain-chart, of the United States, had not a single reliable station in the North-west to assist him in his estimates, and was there- fore obliged to trust entirely to his accurate and extensive acquaintance with the general principles of climatology and with the nature of the country in question. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 171 Perhaps as convenient a division of the country as could be devised is that adopted by Warren, into the region of frequent rains, the region of periodical rains and the region of scanty rains. The region of frequent rains extends from the Atlantic coast westward to about the 100th merid- ian of longitude. This region, considered as a whole, is exceedingly well watered, and the rain is quite equally distributed throughout the year. Along the Atlantic coast, as far south as Washington, very nearly the same annual quantity of rain falls. In the Gulf States, and along the Atlantic Slope south of AVashington, the annual amount of rain is much greater than in the other sections, and the summer rains (as we haye shown above) are much more abundant than those of the winter. In the interior the annual quantity is less, and generally much less rain falls in the winter than in the other seasons. The annual rainfall on the Atlantic coast from Florida to Maine varies from 63 to 40 inches, and from the Gulf of Mexico to Wisconsin, from 63 to 32 inches. The region of periodical rains comprises the western division of the Pa- cific Slope. Throughout most of California but little rain falls except during the six colder months, and during the four mouths from June to September rain is almost unknown. The quantity in winter somewhat exceeds that which falls in the spring. Thus, at Fort Humboldt, Cal. (latitude 40° 46'), the annual rainfall is 34.59 inches, of which amount 13.51 inches descend in the spring, 1.18 in the summer, 4.87 in the autumn and 15.03 in the winter. There is so little rain during the summer months, when the wind blows almost uninterruptedly from the south-west, because this air comes from a colder ocean ; and passing over a heated land, its vapor is not condensed until it meets the Sierra Nevada Range, on the eastern border of California. Along the shores of the Pacific the annual amount of rain increases with the increase of latitude; for while the annual rainfall of San Francisco, in latitude 37° 38' N., is only 22.18 inches, that of Astoria, latitude 46° 11', is 53.49 inches, and that of Sitka, in Alaska, is 89.94 inches. In this particular the Atlantic coast differs from the Pacific, for the rainfall there decreases with the latitude. The The figures given on the chart for the North-west and for the Great Interior Basin are purely hypothetical, yet subsequent extensive and reliable observations, both by amateurs and by the Signal Service Bureau, have served only to confirm these remarkable calculations of Mr. Blodget. His work, published in 1857, is still con- sidered the authority, with reference to all the topics upon which it treats, both in this country and in Europe. The only error of any importance on the chart in ques- tion — one which we confess that we could not have detected if he had not himself called our attention to it — arose from a geographical uncertainty for which 'Mr. Blodget is not responsible. On all previous maps the now famous Black Hills [see page 154] had been located " by guess," and had been placed many miles out of their true position. This led to a corresponding error in determining the limit of the "Arid Plains." 172 SUBLEY'S UNITED STATES southeru portion of the Great Inland Basin, with much of New Mexico and Arizona, is also a region of periodic rains; but the summer and autumn are rainy and the other portions of the year dry. Mr. Blodget says that the district of periodic rains " extends eastward in a modified ibrm to embrace a part of Texas." The region of scanty rains embraces the country between the 100th meridian of west longitude and the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mount- ains. It includes the northern and southern divisions of the Pacific Slope, the northern and central portions of the Inland Basin of Utah, the table-lands of the Texas Slope, and the sterile region east of the Rocky Mountains. Among the mountains of this region a considerable quantity of rain falls, and violent showers are experienced at all seasons of the year. Some of the mountain valleys are also comparatively well watered, but the annual rainfall in the regions most favored with moisture is seldom more thau twenty inches. Thus, at Santa Fe, sit- uated on a plateau enclosed by mountains, the annual rainfall is 19.83 inches, and that of Fort Laramie is 19.98 inches. In the desert region through which the Colorado River passes, it is three inches; in the Great Inland Basin, five inches; in the Great Plain south of the Columbia River, ten inches; iu,the Llano Estacado [see page 159], ten inches; and in the sterile region east of the Rocky Mountains, from fifteen to twenty inches. The causes of the dryness of this section " are to be sought," says Professor Brocklesby, " in the high mean temperature it possesses, notwith- standing its elevation and the fact that the lofty mountain-ranges on the west arrest the constant and humid current which flows easterly over the Pacific Ocean. The greatest amount of rain reported for any given year at any place within limits of the United States (excluding Alaska, see page 153) is probably the fall in 1846, at Baton Rouge, of 116.6 inches and the smallest, the fall at Fort Yuma (at the southern extremity of Cal- ifornia), in 1853, of 1.78 inches. The average annual rainfall at the latter place is only 3.24 inches. The average annual number of rainy or snowy days — i. e., days upon which rain or snow falls at all — in various States and Territories, is thus given in the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge : Maine, 93 days ; New Hampshire, 76 ; Vermont, 89 ; Massachusetts and Connecticut, 98 ; Rhode Island, 96 ; New York, 109 ; New Jersey, 118 ; Pennsylvania, 119 ; Delaware, Maryland and District of Columbia, 83 ; Virginia, 85 ; North and South Caroliua, 89 ; Georgia, 83 ; Florida, 91 ; Alabama, 98 ; Mis- sissippi and Louisiana, 92 ; Texas, 58 ; Arkansas, 75 ; Kentucky, 89 ; Ohio, 116; Michigan, 117; Indiana and Illinois, 107; Wisconsin and Minnesota, 89 ; Iowa, 98 ; Missouri, 70 ; Indian Territory, 73 ; Kansas, 77 ; Arizona and Nebraska, 75 ; Wyoming, 72 ; New Mexico, 56 ; Cali- fornia, 50 ; Oregon, 131 ; Washington Territory, 132 ; Alaska, 235. The CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 173 average for New Mexico is very uncertain, varying between 31 and 93 and depending in a great measure upon the elevation of the place above the level of the sea and other causes. The extremes in California — Fort Yuma, 11 days; Fort Humboldt, 82 days; and Fort Crook, 83 days — were not included in the calculation ; and in this State, as well as in Oregon and Washington Territory, local causes render it difficult to give an average for the whole extent of the district. Some foreign figures will now be given for comparison with the above data. At'the Stye, in the lake district of England, being, so far as is known, the wettest spot in Great Britain, 38.9 inches of rain fell in the ;month of January, 1831. The average annual rainfall at that place is 206 inches, and in 1866 the fall was 224J inches. In the West of Great Britain and Ireland, in the immediate neighborhood of high hills, the average rainfall is from 80 to 150 inches, and in some years it is higher. Thus, at Seathwaite, in Cumberland, it was 183J inches in 1861. Away from the hills, however, in the West of Great Britain, it is from 30 to 45 inches, while in the east of the island it is only from 20 to 28 inches. Lima, Peru, Thebes, Egypt, and Tatta, North Africa, according to Loomis' tables, have no rain. Cairo, Egypt, has 1.31 inches; Kurrachee, Hindostan, 1.5 inches. On the other hand, Aracan, Hiudostan, has an annual rainfall of 200 inches ; Maranhao, Brazil, 280 inches ; Matouba, Guadeloupe, 290 inches ; and Cherapoonjee, Hindostan, 592 inches. Snow. — It is to be regretted that greater care has not been exercised by observers of meteorological phenomena in obtaining and retaining statistics of the average annual fall of snow as such. As we have already noted, it appears in the above figures, included in the rainfall. Snow, when melted, makes a very small quantity of water, as compared with its depth in its previous condition. It requires at least ten inches of snow to give one inch of water, and some w^'iters place the proportion as high as twelve to one. When the snow has drifted to any great extent, it is obvi- ous that the difiiculty of obtaining correct figures is greatly increased. Professor Loomis, with his usual fulness, gives some figures for various localities. In the State of Maine the average annual fall of snow is seven and a half feet, and the amount in a single year has been known to exceed twelve feet ; but this amount is not all seen at the same time. In Vermont and New Hampshire the annual fall is six feet. In Central Massachusetts the annual fall is four and a half feet, and the snow has been known to lie five feet on a level. In Connecticut the average annual fall is three and a half feet; in New Jersey, two and a half feet; in Southern Ohio, one foot and a half; and in Iowa, (me foot. A slight fall of snow occasionally occurs at San Francisco, Cal., at New Orleans, and at Galveston, Texas. Snow sufiicient for sleighing has been known at Charleston, S. C. The frequent occurrence of snows in April, and even in May, in the latitude of 174 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Wasbingtou is a striking phenomenon of the climate. In recent years a quantity of snow has sometimes fallen in April in the interior valleys of Virginia — in several instances a foot or more in depth. It has been well said that " It is the most decisive proof, perhaps, of the extreme character of the American climate, in comparison with the European, that the snows of winter are thrown so far south, and into latitudes where the summer heats are tropical." On January 10, 1800, there fell at Savannah the deepest snow, accompanied by the greatest cold, ever remembered in lower Georgia. The snow was three feet deep on a level. On March 6, 1843, snow fell for fifteen hours at Augusta, Ga., covering the ground fifteen inches deep. IVIr. Blodget sums up the snow question, as to the amount remaining on the ground in winter, with his usual clearness, as follows: " The quantity of snow is always large in the New England States, the elevated and northern districts having an average of perhaps two feet con- stantly remaining on the ground in winter. In Northern New York it is the same, and as much or more is found in Canada at all points north of Lake Ontario. In the elevated portions of Southern and Eastern New York the average persistent quantity does not reach a foot in depth except on mountains. In the basin of Lake Ontario, as it is sometimes called, there is no regular quantity on the ground in winter, and for half the time, on an average, none remaining. The winter snows are often ex- cessive from Buffalo eastward, and they are much more likely to be so [in that section] than at points west of Lake Erie. In the Lake Superior region there are snows which may be called profuse in comparison with those of the plains, yet none equal to the extremes in New York. The southern part of the lake district — including the south end of Lake Mich- igan, the State of Michigan bordering on Detroit, and the whole country bordering Lake Erie on the south — is one in which the snows melt almost immediately as they fall, and rarely lie on the ground as a winter covering. At Cincinnati the careful observations of Dr. Ray show an average of nineteen inches annually for sixteen years, most of this melting immedi- ately after falling. Farther west the quantity is less, and is not more regular in remaining on the ground, though the temperature is much lower. It is small over the upper plains of the Missouri and the Sas- katchawan. Some minor inundations of the rivers of the plain are caused by the melting of the snows, but they are never equal to those caused by the rains of early summer. Below or south of the 41st parallel the snows are extremely irregular, and yet often profuse and excessive. They are more likely to occur in February and the spring months as extraordinary phenomena than in the early part of the winter, and instances are frequent of profuse April snows." IlaiL— In the United States large hail falls chiefly in summer and the latter part of spring. On the 13th of August, 1851, hailstones fell in New CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 175 Hampshire weighing eighteen ounces. In 1850 a very destructive hail- storm occurred at Pittsburg, Pa. Many of the stones weighed from eight ounces to a pound and over, and measured from nine to fourteen inches in circumference. So great was the force with which the hail descended that the roofs of warehouses covered with sheets of iron were completely riddled with holes, some of them so large that a man's arm could be thrust through them. Hailstones weighing half a pound have fallen in several places in this country. Storms. — The storms of America seem to take their rise in the vast plain which lies immediately to the east of the Rocky Mountains, and then generally advance in an east-north-easterly direction across the country. The direction has been observed to vary from about due east to north 54° east. When a great storm springs up near the Mississippi, the wind at St. Louis is generally easterly, while throughout New York and Ohio the wind is from the west. Subsequently this easterly wind is felt at Cincin- nati, then at Pittsburg, and afterward at New York, while the entire storm is travelling steadily eastward— that is, the easterly wind is propagated from St. Louis to New York in a direction opposite to that in which the wind in the district over which it passes is blowing before its arrival. The rate at which a storm thus travels varies from zero to 4-1 miles per hour. It generally makes the distance from St. Louis to New York in about 24 hours, and from New York to Newfoundland in another 24 hours. When a storm in North America is stationary, or nearly so, its form — that is, the area occupied by it — is nearly circular; but when it travels rapidly, it takes an oval form, with the longest axis at right angles to its onward course. The winter storms of the United States are therefore said to move side- ways. As rain and snow are produced under circumstances exactly alike, with the exception of temperature, the same storm frequently furnishes snow in the northern part of the United States and rain in the southern part. After the centre of the storm has passed, a west wind springs up at St. Louis, and is felt successively at Cincinnati, Pittsburg, and finally at New York, having been propagated in the same direction as that in which the wind was blowing in the district passed over by the storm before the latter arrived. Tornadoes. — Tornadoes have been classed by some writers among tropical storms. They occur more frequently in the tropics than elsewhere, but this country has its full share of them. They should not be confounded with hurricanes, but have been correctly defined as "whirlwinds of limited extent and duration, though not inferior to hurricanes in power." They vary in diameter from a few feet to several hundred yards, and continue but a short time at any one place. They advance at a velocity of from thirty to fifty miles an hour, and leave tracks marked out only too plainly by the evidences of their terrible power. The wind revolves with such 176 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES violence as to prostrate the largest trees, demolish buildings and transport heavy bodies to a great distance. Fowls are often entirely stripped of their feathers, and light bodies have been carried as much as twenty miles by these violent visitors. In one which occurred in Northern Ohio, February 4, 1842, large buildings were lifted entire from their foundations, carried a distance of several rods and then dashed to pieces. The fragments were strewn all along the track, and some of the pieces were carried a distance of seven or eight miles. Large oak trees two feet in diameter were snapped off like reeds, and others were so twisted as to be reduced to a mass of splinters not much thicker than a man's finger. The breadth of the track did not much exceed half a mile, and the most destructive por- tion was still more limited. The duration of this tornado at one place did not much exceed one minute. In one which passed over Maysville, Ohio, in the same year, a barn containing three tons of hay and fo^ir horses was lifted entirely from its foundations. In another, at Natchez, Miss., May 7, 1840, " houses were burst outward," being drawn into the vacuum formed at the centre of the whirlwind. Three hundred and seventeen persons were killed in the city and on the river. Sheet-tin was carried twenty miles; windows were taken thirty miles from their point of depart- ure. The leaves and buds of plants were in a measure seared, so that those which did not die outright were so crisped that their growth was suspended, and it was more than ten days before they recovered sufficient life to begin growing again. In May, 1855, a tremendous tornado passed over Cook county, Illinois. The trunks of trees of the largest dimensions were twisted off, and a heavy frame house, containing nine persons, was carried up into the air; the building was torn to pieces, three persons were killed and the rest severely injured. During the same year, a tornado that swept over Cass county, Missouri, moved from their places large rocks weighing more than a ton, which were imbedded in the earth. On the 23d of February, 1875, a similar visitant passed over Pettis county, Missouri. The principal damage was done at Housatonia, a village on the prairie of three hundred inhabitants. A train of thirteen freight-cars was hurled from the track, and some of the cars were carried a distance of from 50 to 90 yards. Nineteen residences and business houses were totally demolished, two of the latter burning, with their contents. Several persons were mortally wounded. Half of the depot building was torn off, and, according to one account, "a man on the platform was lifted 200 feet and somewhat injured." The width of the track of this storm is stated at from 150 to 300 yards, and just out of its path was a school-house containing forty pupils. The duration at any one point was only thirty seconds. These tornadoes generally appear in summer or in the warmer months, but in rare instances they occur in the cold months as the nucleus of a widely- extended and violent general storm. The length of their track rarely CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 177 exceeds fifty miles. One which occurred at New Harmony, Ind. (April 30, 1852), was traced for a distance of more than 200 miles, and the rate of progress was calculated at nearly 60 miles per hour ; but this was an exception to the general rule. The frequency and distribution of these tornadoes is a subject of great practical interest. TJiey occur over every part of the United States where the rain falls in abundance, and at the seasons when the rainfall is largest. There are none on the great plains, so far as is known, at a distance from the Mississippi sufficient to reach the dry regions. They are most numerous m the Mississippi Valley, and thence eastward they are quite equally distributed from Canada to Georgia. In the old forests, particularly those of New York and Pennsylvania, the tracks of the tornadoes which prostrated the older growth a century since are still traceable by the belt of trees of uniform size and of peculiar aspect which have grown up subsequently. Judging of their frequency by the number of such tracks, these storms must be placed at very remote inter- vals for any one locality. Such traces would be visible for several hun- dred years, and they now exist in only a few conspicuous lines, averaging about fifty miles apart, and lying in threads of from thirty to two hundred rods in width and ten to fifty miles in length. Cyclones. — We have purposely reserved for the last the mention of the cyclones, which are "those tremendous rotaiy tempests which, under the various names of 'hurricanes,' 'storms' and 'typhoons,' prevail for the most part within or near the tropics, near the equatorial limits of the trade-winds, but extend likewise into the higher latitudes." They are called cyclones, a name derived from the Greek word kuklos, meaning circle or whirl, because the wind revolves around an axis, while the body of the storm has at the same time a progressive motion. In the Southern Hem- isphere the cyclone rotates in the same direction as that of the hands of a watch, while in the Northern Hemisphere its rotation is in the contrary direction. The direction and velocity of the wind are, however, entirely distinct from those of the storm's progress. While the storm advances at the rate of from 10 to 40 miles per hour, the velocity of the wind may exceed 100 miles per hour. These terrible storms extend over a circle from 100 to 500 miles in diameter, and sometimes 1000 miles. In the West Indies their diameter is occasionally the smallest just given, but on reaching the Atlantic it is increased from 600 to 1000 miles. Sometimes, on the contrary, they contract in their progress, and while contracting increase terribly in violence. The vehemence of the wind increases from the margin to the centre, with the exception of a limited space exactly at the centre, where the atmosphere is frequently quite calm. The distances traversed by these desolating tempests is immense. The gale of August, 1830, which fell upon St. Thomas, in the West Indies, on the 12th, reached the Banks of Newfoundland on the 19th, having travelled more than three 12 178 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES thousand nautical miles in seven days; and the observed track of the Cuba hurricane of 1844 was but little inferior in length. The area over which the latter prevailed throughout its whole length was computed by Mr. Redfield to be 2,400,000 miles, an extent of surface equal to two-thirds of that of all Europe. . The West India cyclones generally originate between latitude 10° and 20° North, and longitude 50° and 60° West— that is, in the Eastern An- tilles or in their vicinity — and move north-westwardly to the coast of Flor- ida. Near the parallel of 30° their course is almost exactly north, and soon they begin to veer to the east, after which their course is nearly par- allel to the coast of the United States, over the eastern shore of which and the adjacent ocean they sweep along; then, crossing the ocean, they reach Western Europe, beyond which they finally expire. They occur most frequently from July to October, inclusive. Of 127 West India cyclones, recorded in 354 years, from 1493 to 1847, 15 occurred in July, 36 in August, 25 in September and 27 in October, making a total for the four months of 103, and leaving only 24 to distribute through the remaining eight months, of which January, April and May are the only ones which, according to this record, are entirely free from these destructive storms. Some idea of the immense force of these tempests may be derived from the description of the hurricane at Barbadoes, August 10, 1831 : " By this awful visitation the whole face of the country was laid waste, 2500 persons perished and 5000 were wounded. The force of the wind may be esti- mated from the fact that a piece of lead weighing 400 pounds was lifted and carried to a distance of 1800 feet." The Gulf States and those on the southern portion of the Atlantic coast are the only portions of the United States which are exposed to these terrible visitors. " When a storm has encountered the Gulf Stream, it continues to follow its progress eastward," so that most of the storms which prevail on the coast of the United States have their centre over the Gulf Stream and follow the path of the stream in its eastward course. It is doubtless this well-established fact which saves the northern portion of the United States from the worst effects of the cyclones, which generally leave the immediate vicinity of the coast long before reaching the latitude of New York. Even upon that portion of the Atlantic coast which is exposed to cyclones, many of them are so far out at sea as to be felt but moderately on the coast, and some not at all ; but the more common line is very near the coast-line for the centre of the storm or its track of greatest violence. We shall now give some notes of the effects of some of these cyclones, taken for the most part from the list compiled by Mr. Blodget. At Charleston, S. C, September 15, 1752, all wooden houses above one story in height were either beaten down or shattered. Trees which were stripped of their leaves again blos- somed and bore fruit in the late autumn which followed. This remark- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 179 able pbenomeaon has been noted several times in connection with these storms. After the hurricane of September, 1804, "fruit trees flowered and bore fruit a second time;" and this was also the case with the mulberry- trees of the Gulf States after the cyclone of September, 1772. In 1780 a hurricane which swept over the province of Louisiana destroyed all crops, tore down buildings and sunk every vessel or boat which was afloat on the Mississippi River, The town of Brazos Santiago, Cameron county, Texas, must possess a great deal of vitality, for it was destroyed by the hurricane of October 2, 1837, and we read that within seven years, when the hurricane of August 4-6, 1844, passed over the southern portion of Texas, after its departure not a vestige of a single house remained at Brazos Santiago ; yet it still exists as a port of entry, with a commerce worth about $1,500,000 per year. MINERAL AND METALLIC PRODUCTS. Precious Stoiies. — Scarcely any precious stones have been found in the United States. A single diamond has been discovered in Rutherford county. North Carolina, and it is said that some of these gems have been found in California. Topaz occurs at Monroe, in Connecticut, chalcedony in many localities, and agates and carnelians are numerous along the banks of the Upper Mississippi and the shores of Lake Superior. The more valuable precious stones, however, the ruby, the emerald, etc., have not yet been found in this country. Builtliiig'-stoiies. — Granite, marble, limestone and sandstone are the principal building-stones of the United States. Granite is abundant in New England, and especially in New Hampshire, where it forms one of the principal articles of export, as it is extensively employed for building purposes throughout the country. Buildings constructed of this material may be found in all the principal towns and cities along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Texas. Immense deposits of sandstone, of an excellent quality, occur throughout the Connecticut Valley and many other regions. Marble is also very widely distributed, being found in New England, in the Middle, Southern and Western States, and also in California. The white marble of Vermont is of a very superior quality. Variegated or clouded marbles also occur in this State, and likewise in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Tennessee and California. The marbles of the two last-named States are extremely beautiful. Both sandstone and marble are much used for the construction of buildings in the chief cities of the Atlantic Slope. Limestone abounds in the Mississippi Valley, and is there the principal building-stone. Salt. — No beds of rock-salt, such as are mined in Europe, have yet been discovered in the United States, though vast quantities of this com- modity cover the saline plains of the Great Inland Basin. The salt of 180 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES commerce is obtained in this country by the evaporation of the water obtained from saline springs. Among the most productive of these are the salt springs of Syracuse, N. Y. (where from four to five millions of bushels are manufactured annually), the salt springs of Western Pennsylvania, and those of the Kanawha Valley in Virginia. The salt springs of Ken- tucky and of Southern Ohio are also very productive; and springs of this kind occur in many localities, being found in Utah, Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, and in other parts of the country. Coal. — The coal-beds of the United States are more extensive than those of any other part of the world. The coal is of two kinds, viz., an- thracite and bituminous. Great advances have been made during the past thirty years in the knowledge of the precise extent of these coal-fields. In 1845 it was stated at 145,000 miles. In 1866 it was known to ex- ceed 200,000 square miles. In 1873 it was estimated by Mr. Daddow at 291,485 square miles as certain, with the strong probability of the exist- ence of 333,000 square miles in addition in the West. If Ave admit the correctness of this last estimate — and judging by previous experience, it will be exceeded rather than diminished by the reality — the coal-fields of the United States cover the immense area of 624,485 square miles, or more than one-third of the largest estimate made for the coal-producing fields of the Avhole world. The 291,485 square miles which Mr. Daddow" regards as certain are thus divided by him : New England anthracite field, in Vermont and Massachusetts, 500 square miles ; Pennsylvania anthracite fields, 470; Southern Jurassic coal-fields (in Virginia and North Carolina), 220 ; Alleghany coal-field (extending from Lake Erie to Tuscaloosa, Ala., and occupying portions of Penusylvania, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Kentucky, Tennessee, Georgia and Alabama), 53,895; Central coal-field (extending through Indiana, Illinois and Kentucky), 40,000 square miles, of which of 6700 are in Indiana, 30,000 in Illinois, and 3700 in Ken- tucky; Northern coal-field, 13,000; Western coal-field (outside the Per- mian), 134,000; Rocky Mountain and fiir west Tertiary coals, 50,000. When this area is compared with that of the productive coal-fields of the rest of the world, it gives a result very flattering to this country until the amount produced is examined. The productive coal region of the United States is, as given above, nearly 300,000 square miles in extent, while that of other countries is less than 100,000— so far, that is, as is certainly known ; but the annual production of coal in the United States is less than 50,000,000 tons, while Great Britain alone, with a coal-field covering only 9000 square miles, produces annually more than 100,000,000 tons. The decided diff'erence in this relative product of coal in the two countries was noted by Sir Morton Peto, who, writing in 1866, says, "I have been rather surprised at the small quantity of coal raised— only 14,000,000 tons [the figures in the census of I860]. The best authorities in England gave the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 181 Americaus credit for raising at least one- third more — 21,000,000 tons. Undoubtedly the supply of 1860 exhibited a very considerable increase — an increase, it is said, of as much as 182 per cent. — upon the produce of 1850; but still 14,000,000 tons of coal, looking at the population and man- ufactures of America, appears singularly small." If Sir Morton had had more recent statistics, he would have discovered that "the best authorities in England" had a more correct idea of the situation than himself, for the production of coal in the United States during the year 1865 was 22,500,000 tons. According to the census of 1870, the statistics of coal production for the year ending June 1, 1870, are as follows : Number of collieries, 1566; hands employed under ground, 65,000; hands employed above ground, 29,854; total, 94,854; capital employed, $110,008,029; wages paid, $44,316,491. Bituminous coal mined, 17,199,415; value, $35,029,247. Anthracite coal mined, 15,664,275 tons; value, $38,495,745. Total coal mined, 32,863,690 tons; value, $73,524,994. The production of the whole country for the year 1872 is given by Mr. Daddow as 44,156,253, of which nearly one-half — 22,030,263 tons — was anthracite; and of the remaining 22,126,000 tons, which consisted of bituminous coal, Pennsylvania contributed 10,817,864 tons, so that this one State produced nearly three-fourths of the whole amount. It is a remarkable fact that the anthracite coal which forms so important an item in this account comes from one of the smallest of the coal-fields, the area of which is not more than the 470 square miles given above. The State geologist computed its area at 410 square miles; and the Broad Top semi-anthracite (or semi- bituminous as some call it) amounts to only 24 square miles more, which would bring the sum-total up to 434. The limited extent of this area renders it a comparatively easy matter to obtain reliable statistics con- cerning anthracite coal, some of which will be given in the article on the State of Pennsylvania [see Topography]. It is to be hoped that the production of coal may increase in the future even more rapidly than it has in the past. As an instance of the change effected in two years, we may note that in Wyoming Territory in 1870 there was only one colliery, which produced during the year ending June 1, 1870, 50,000 tons; while at the end of the year 1872 there were at least six collieries (belonging to two companies), which produced during that year 221,728 tons. We say "ai least six," because this is only the return of "the two principal mining companies." One reason why the demand for coal has not been so great in this country as in England is that the supply of wood in many of the States, and especially in the North-west, is so abundant and cheap that the want of coal has not been much felt. Water-power has also been employed in working a great deal of the stationary machinery, and thus a great saving of fuel has been effected. As the first use of anthracite coal as a common fuel is comparatively 182 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES recent, and was made in this country, we shall give some account of it. As early as 1769, Obadiah Gore, a blacksmith who had come from Con- necticut to Wyoming Valley as one of the first settlers, succeeded in using anthracite coal in his forge. Other blacksmiths, upon learning this, began to employ the new fuel ; and in 1776 coal was taken in " arks " from the Wyoming mines down the Susquehanna to the government arsenal at Car- lisle, Pa., where "stone-coal" continued to be used throughout the Revo- lutionary war. This trade on the Susquehanna was continued after the close of the war, but only for the supply of smiths or forges. It was not until nearly forty years had elapsed from the time of Gore's first success- ful experiment that it was known that anthracite coal was fit for any other use. In 1808, Jesse Fell, whose nephew had been using the coal in his forge for many years, tried to burn it in a wooden grate. His grate was burned through, and he was thereby justified in making an iron grate, using which, he found that his experiment was equally successful, though not so destructive, as the first attempt. Judge Fell was a good Freemason. He realized the importance of his discovery ; and wishing to record the event in the most solemn place and manner possible, short of the page and style of holy writ, he made the following entry upon the fly-leaf of his Freemason's Monitor : "Feb. 11, of Masonry 5808. — Made the experiment of burning the common stone-coal of the valley in a grate, in a common fireplace in my house, and find it will answer the purpose of fuel, making a clearer and better fire, at less expense, than burning wood in the common way. "Borough of Wilkes-Barre,* February 11, 1808. (Signed,) "Jesse Fell." This experiment established the reputation of the new fuel in Wyoming Valley, but its progress elsewhere was slow. In 1812, Col. George Shoe- maker took nine wagon-loads of coal from his mine near Pottsville to * Tlie present city of Wilkes-Barr^, although by a clerical error its name appears in its ciiarter of incorporation as a borougli as " Wilksburg," was originally named after John Wilkes and Col. Isaac Barrd. Both were friendly to this country during the Revolutionary war, but the characters of the two were essentially different. That of Wilkes, who possessed suflBcient courage combined with impudence to call the king a liar, was so bad that a conviction for immorality could not blacken it. Barre was physically, morally and intellectually Wilkes' superior. Upon what prin- ciple, then, have English dictionaries of every description obscured the derivation of the name, which is unique, by giving it as " W^ilkesbarre"? If a town were named after Smith and Jones, would the name be written Smithjones f The Free- mason's Monitor, containing the above entry, is in the collection of the Wyoming Historical and Geological Society at Wilkes-Barre, which society originated in a meeting held upon an anniversary of the event recorded, and in the very room where the "stone-coal" was thus first burned. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 183 Philadelphia. With great difficulty he sold two loads for the cost of trans- portation, and it was almost equally difficult to induce blacksmiths and others to take the remainder eitlier as a gift or for a trifle bearing no comparison with the expense and trouble to which he had been subjected. The latter class of customers did not know how to use their gift or pur- chase, and obtained a writ from the city authorities for his arrest as an impostor and swindler. He was obliged to beat a hasty retreat, and nar- rowly escaped capture and the penalty of his crime of attempting to impose Toclcs upon his customers as coal. In the mean time one of his first cus- tomers, who was a proprietor of a nail and wire factory, was attempting to give a fair trial to the newly-acquired combustible. With several of his men, he worked a whole morning over one of his furnaces. They raked their fire, poked it, stirred it up and blew upon the surface through open furnace-doors with great energy, but in vain. When dinner-time came they shut the furnace-doors and went away, wearied and disgusted with their futile efibrts to make use of what is, at present, the main de- pendence of the furnaces of Eastern Pennsylvania. When they returned they found the furnace-doors red-hot and the whole furnace in danger of being melted by a heat which it had not as yet experienced. The anthra- cite problem was solved ! Iron. — The ore of this metal is found in one or more of its species in the States of Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Ohio, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Mis- souri, New Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia and Wisconsin, and in the Territory of Colorado. The fi)llowing particulars with reference to the most important of these regions are mainly condensed from Wiley's Iron Trade Manual. The leading State in the possession of ore is Missouri. Iron Mountain [see Missouri, in Topography] is thought to be the largest single deposit of ore in the known world. The ores of Pilot Knob, Shep- herd Mountain, Cedar Hill and Buford Mountain are next in interest, and present curious features to the geologist. Ore lands in newer regions could still be purchased in 1874 for from $5 to $50 per acre, according to local- ity, contiguity to a railroad and amount of development. The Iron Moun- tain ore may be taken as a type of all the Missouri specular ores. It is nearly pure peroxide, containing about 70 per cent, of metallic ore, and is nearly free from mechanical admixture of foreign matter; color, bluish black to steel gray. No ore with active magnetism, constituting a natural magnet and attracting iron filings, is found on the mountain. The Pilot Knob ore is slightly peculiar; color, steel gray to pearl gray, with a marked tint of sky-blue. Its structure is crystalline to granular, with a very fine grain. None of these ores affect a compass-needle, though all are slightly attracted by a magnet when ground fine. The ore from Shepherd Moun- 184 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES tail! is a little more like a magnetite than any other ore found in Missouri, but in the main it is a specular ore, very similar to that of Iron Mountain. Its magnetic qualities are much more pronounced than those of either of the ores above described, many specimens being strong natural magnets. The ore is very uniform in chemical composition, very rich in metallic iron and almost entirely free from phosphorus and sulphur. The ores from Pilot Knob, Shepherd Mountain and Cedar Mountain are mixed for fur- nace uses and make a nearly neutral iron, with a slightly redshort tend- ency, that from Shepherd Mountain being a black oxide and that of Pilot Knob a blue specular. In 1872, 11,000 tons of this ore mixture made 6300 tons of pig-iron, showing its richness in metallic iron. The devel- opment of these ores has been going on for some years, and the total ship- ments from the State have reached some 400,000 tons annually. Unfor- tunately, Missouri does not possess the large coal-fields of some regions, but the coal found in Illinois is now successfully coked and furnishes good fuel for blast-furnace purposes. Charcoal timber, in sufficient quantity for the necessities of many years to come, is found in the State. Though Mas- sachusetts is not one of the leading States in iron mining, the following ex- tract from Dr. James Thatcher's Observations on Iron Ores, published in 1804, may prove of interest : " There are in the county of Plymouth sev- eral ponds in which are found copious beds of iron ore. The generating principle and pi'ocess of nature in producing iron ore in these ponds affords a phenomenon which will probably elude the assiduity of philosophical research. The period of its growth is supposed to be about twenty-five years, and it is found in various depths of water from 2 to 20 feet. A man accustomed to the employment, being in a small boat with an instrument similar to a pair of oj^ster tongs, can raise from its watery bed about half a ton of this ore in a day." Ore had been taken from these ponds for sixty years, and from another similar deposit, discovered in 1751, 3000 tons were taken in a few years, which yielded the not very large proportion of " 25 per cent, of excellent iron," furnishing materials for a considerable quan- tity of the cannon-shot used during the Revolutionary war. Michigan contains the " Lake Superior Iron Region," which, though probably not so rich as the deposits in Missouri, is being more extensively worked and is giving a larger annual yield. The Lake Superior ore was first submit- ted to a thorough test in a blast-furnace in 1854, since which time the ship- ments of ore from this quarter have grown from nothing to 1,000,000 tons annually. Only two general classes of ores have as yet been found in this region — the hematites or sesquioxides, containing two equivalents of iron to three of oxygen, and yielding when absolutely pure seventy per cent, of metallic iron, and the magnetic ores, or proto-sesquioxides, consisting of three equivalents of iron to four of oxygen, which yield 72.41 per cent, of metallic iron when equally pure. There are, however, a number of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. ' 185 varieties belonging to each class ; thus, under the general name of hema- tite are found the "specular," "specular slate," "slate," "massive" and other forms ; also the soft red and brown ores containing water, to which alone the name of "hematite" is technically applied in this region. Among the magnetic ores the difference is chiefly one of structure; thus there are coarse- and fine-grained and steely ores, differing merely in hardness and fusibility. New York has been celebrated for the variety and quality of various ores in very numerous localities, but especially for the magnetic and specular ores of the Lake Champlain region, which have supplied not only her own furnaces, but those of other States, and have furnished to all the rolling-mills east of the Alleghanies the requisite materials for fettling or lining the plates of the puddling-furnaces. So important have these ores become to the rolling-mill owners of the East that they are contracted for at the opening of each year, and orders not in the hands of the ore-bed owners by a certain date receive no attention. The shipments in 1872 from this quarter amounted to 375,000 tons. It is a remarkable instance of the slowness with which the value of mineral deposits is sometimes realized that in one place in this region where the ore is mixed with phosphate of lime works were once built for the manufacture of this fertilizer, to the neglect of the iron ore. Of Pennsylvania it has been said : " Pennsylva- nia has been frequently spoken of as the greatest iron-producing State of the Union, and in figures of iron manufacture she is pre-eminent; but this is due rather to the wealth in fuel of this State and to the patient industry of her people than to any mineral abundance. Indeed, there is scarcely one of the States noted for iron ores which does not surpass Pennsylvania in ore wealth, and, be it added, not one of them that has made the use of what she possesses that Pennsylvania has. In magnetic ores New York, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, Missouri and Michigan far surpass her. Massachusetts, Vermont, Virginia and Tennessee far exceed her in brown hematites. The fossiliferous ores of Pennsylvania are not to be mentioned with those of Alabama; the carbonates cannot compare with those of Ohio, Kentucky and West Virginia ; and yet Pennsylvania pro- duces more pig-iron than all the other States conjoined. It has been patient industry, hard work, frugality and plenty of coal that have made Pennsyl- vania the great iron-making State she is." The magnetic ores of New York and New Jersey almost disappear in Pennsylvania, but some mag- netites were formerly worked near Eastou, mixed with quartz and felspar. At Bethlehem are small quantities of magnetites, and also just south of Allentown; and south of this region, in Colebrookdale, they are found in the Mount Pleasant mines. The great Cornwall mine of Lebanon county is to the furnaces of Pennsylvania what the Lake Champlain deposits are to those of New York, though in a lesser degree. Brown hematite ores are found much more generally in Pennsylvania than magnetic ores, and form 186 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES the principal dependence of the very numerous furnaces of their location, which is general throughout Eastern, South-eastern and Middle Pennsyl- vania. In Montgomery county, at Spring Mill, the belt of ore, about a mile wide, runs north of Barren Hill, on the east side of the ScTiuylkill, and ft-om here toward Norristown is considerably worked. In Eastern Penn- sylvania brown hematites are worked in Berks, Lehigh and Northampton counties, near Bethlehem, Alleutown, Emaus and Millerstown. Between the Lehigh and Schuylkill Rivers are the ores which furnish the Catasauqua, Hokendauqua and Easton group of furnaces with hematites. These beds are numerous, the quality is good and the supply is abundant, and with their contiguity to the anthracite coal-field and the neighboring magnetites of New Jersey have made the Lehigh Valley the great iron-producing region it is. Mr. Dunlap thus sums up the situation : " While Pennsylva- nia cannot boast of the extremely rich ores of Northern New York, or of Michigan, Missouri or the South-west, there is abundance of good workable ore, sufficient in quality and abundance to thoroughly sustain the very exten- sive iron industry conducted. Constant discoveries of ores are made in all sec- tions of the State, and the increasing population and demand for ores clearly indicate the necessity of a new geological survey." The production of iron and steel in the United States, in 1872, was, in tons, as follows : Iron and steel rails, 941,922; other rolled and hammered iron, 1,100,000; forges and bloomeries, 58,000; cast-steel, 32,000; Bessemer steel, 110,500; Mar- tin steel, 3000 ; pig-iron, 2,830,070. Though a panic caused a stagnation of business during the last quarter of 1873, which bore with special weight upon this industry, a few of the figures for the whole year show an increase upon the amounts just given. The quantity of Bessemer steel produced rose to 140,000 tons, a portion of which was converted into 120,000 tons of rails. If this is not included in the return of 850,000 tons of "railroad iron," the quantity of iron and steel rails for 1873 was 970,000 tons. Other rolled iron amounted to 980,000 tons. The quantity of pig-iron fell to 2,695,434 tons, and that of cast-steel to 28,000 tons. The importation of "railroad bai-s or rails" has been decreasing during the past four years, as is shown by the following figures: 1871, 512,277 tons (of 2000 pounds); 1872, 472,760 tons; 1873, 240,505 tons; 1874, 20,380 tons. The imports of pig-iron for the same years were: 1871, 171,627 tons (of 2000 pounds) ; 1872, 204,517 tons; 1873, 277,283 tons; 1874, 103,087 tons. Petroleiun.— Rock oil (popularly but incorrectly termed "coal oil") is found in Pennsylvania, Ohio and West Virginia. The production of this valuable commodity in large quantities is a business of recent origin and growth. The ancient method of obtaining it is thus given by Eaton : "A point was selected where the oil appeared to bubble up most freely, when a pit was excavated to the depth of two or three feet. Sometimes this pit was rudely walled up, sometimes not. Sometimes it was near the edge of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUTDE. 187 the water, on the bank of the stream, sometimes in the bed of the stream itself, advantage being taken of a time of low water. In these pits the oil and water would collect together until a stratum of the former would form upon the surfiice of the latter, when a coarse blanket or piece of flannel was thrown in. This blanket soon became saturated with oil, but rejected the water. The blanket was then taken out, wrung into a tub or barrel, and the operation was repeated." The product was figuratively "a drug in the market," and literally was used only as a drug. " Most families through the country kept a supply for their own use, yet for all ordinary purposes a pint bottle was sufficient for a year's consumption. Evei'y good housewife was supposed to have a small store of Seneca Oil, as it was popu- larly called, laid by in case of accident, for the medication of cuts, bruises and burns. It was carried abroad in small bottles to distant neighborhoods, uiitil eventually it was purchased by the druggists, put up in small vials and labelled sometimes 'British Oil,' sometimes 'American Oil,' or 'Rock Oil,' according to the popularity of the terms at the time or place." The first shipment of petroleum to Pittsburg was made at some time near the beginning of the present century by a Mr. Gary, whose cargo consisted of two five-gallon kegs, slung one on each side of a horse. In 1865 more than fifty thousand times this quantity was the average shipment for a single day during the busiest part of the season. The oil trade of that day was liable to suffer terrible fluctuations. A flatboatman or raftsman would occasionally glut the market with a barrel or two, brought down at once. The demand would then entirely cease until this large surplus was con- sumed. At a later period the business became a monopoly. Gen. Samuel Hays purchased all the oil produced in the country (the highest annual yield being sixteen barrels) and sold it at Pittsburg for about one dollar per gallon. The gross receipts of this pioneer among American monopo- lists during that best year were nearly six hundred and forty dollars. Even this immense sum (from which, to ascertain his profits, the prime cost and expenses should be deducted) was not sufficient to awaken either envy or competition. The presence of large quantities of petroleum was frequently made evident when wells for salt water were bored, and even when ordi- nary wells were dug ; but the value of the fluid was not known until the man- ufacture of genuine " coal oil " out of cannel coal began and it was discovered that the artificial oil thus produced was almost identical with the natural oil which had hitherto served as a mere liniment. In 1854 several barrels of petroleum were sent to Professor Silliman of Yale Callege for analysis. He made a report which Eveleth & Bissel (who had purchased the "ter- ritory" where the principal oil-springs were found) published in 1855. In this year the first oil company, " The Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company," was organized, with Professor Silliman as president. Until 1857 oil was obtained by digging pits and ditches and pumjjing the oil and water into 188 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES vats. The substitutiou of artesian wells for this tedious process was then decided upon. The first efforts were unsuccessful, but Col. E. L. Drake, who acted as agent and superintendent, was unremitting in his attempts, and on the 28th of August, 1859, the first oil well in America was struck, near Titusville, Pa. It yielded ten barrels per day with a hand-pump, and when a larger pump, worked by an engine, was attached, the yield rose to forty barrels. As oil was then worth one dollar per gallon, or forty dol- lars per barrel, this yield was of considerable value. Speculators were attracted, other wells were bored and many were fin- a while "flowing wells." One well yielded for a time more than 3000 barrels per day; and in this case and others the oil came up more rapidly than it could be pro- vided for, so that much of it ran away and was wasted. The " oil excite- ment" culminated in 1864-5, when 1100 companies were formed, with a nominal aggregate capital of $600,000,000, though only about 15 per cent, of this amount, or S90,000,000, was really paid in, and even this sum so far exceeded the quantity of capital required that some of it received but a poor return. Since that time, though local "excitements" occasionally occur, the oil business has settled down upon a comparatively legitimate and solid basis. The use of powerful "torpedoes" (the main ingredient in the explosive material of which is nitro-glycerine) has greatly improved the chances of obtaining oil and of retaining the productive power of a w'ell. These valuable auxiliaries are put down into the wells and exploded, the result frequently being the tapping of hitherto inaccessible deposits of oil. Statistics of the production of petroleum in Western Pennsylvania and of the exports of this article from the United States in various years are as follows: 1859, production, 82,000 barrels; 1860, 500,000; 1861, 2,113,000; 1862, 3,056,000; 1863, 2,611,000; 1864, 2,116,000; 1865, 2,497,000; 1866, 3,597,000; 1867, 3,347,000; 1868,3,583,186; daily av- erage, 9811 barrels; 1869,4,210,720; daily average, 11,528; 1870,5,673,- 198; daily average, 15,543; 1871, 5,715,900; daily average, 15,660; 1872, 6,531,675; daily average, 17,895 ; 1873,7,878,029; daily average, 21,568. These figures have been given in barrels (containing 40 gallons), but the exports are reckoned by gallons, and since 1863 have been as follows: 1863,28,250,721; 1864,31,872,972; 1865,29,805,563; 1866,67,430,451; 1867, 67,052,029; 1868, 99,281,750; 1869, 102,808,604; 1870,140,761,- 931; 1871,156,475,469; 1872,154,064,904; 1873,238,008,187; year end- ing June 30, 1874, 245,978,684. The greater part of these exports con- sisted of refined oil, the proportions during the last year mentioned being as follows : Mineral oil, crude (including all natural oils without regard to gravity), 17,776,419; mineral oil (refined or manufactured), naphthas (benzine, gasoline, etc.), 9,737,457; illuminating oil, 217,220,504; lubri- cating (heavy, paraffine, etc.), 1,244,305 gallons. Gold and Silver.— Xjold has been obtained for many years from a CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 189 metalliferous belt which extends along the eastern base of the Alleghany Mountains from Northern New England to Georgia, the southern portion being the most productive. In North Carolina the gold-fields extend over an area of more than 100 square miles. Native gold began to appear in the mint at Philadelphia in 1824, and the receipts increased rapidly, so that in a few years it eonstituted the principal supjily of this metal. The first mint deposits from South Carolina were $3500, in 1829; from Vir- ginia, $2500 in the same year; and from Georgia, $212,000 in 1830. The production soon became so great that branch mints were established at Charlotte, N. C, and at Dahlonega, Ga. [see CoiKs and Currency]. The total amount of Southern gold deposited at the mints and assay-offices of the United States from the opening of the mines to June 30, 1874, was $1,633,776.66 from Virginia, $10,090,655.98 from North Carolina, $1,379,- 077.47 from South Carolina, $7,298,746.92 from Georgia, $79,173.56 from Tennessee and $212,087.12 from Alabama ; total, $20,503,617.71. Only a small portion of this, however, has been deposited in recent times, as the " placer " deposits and many of the veins in the South were abandoned when the discovery of gold in California was announced. The deposits from the Southern States for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, amounted to only $141,507.04, divided as follows: Virginia, $2163.88; North Caro- lina, $107,070.10; South Carolina, $896.70 ; Georgia, $30,962.16 ; Tennes-. see, $154.87; Alabama, $259.33. The main source of the supply of this precious metal is found west of the Rocky Mountains, especially in Cali- fornia. On the 21st of December, 1846, Mr. L. W. Sloat read a paper before the Lyceum of Natural History of New York, entitled The Mines of Upper California. In this essay he says : " At San Fernando, near San Pedro, by washing the sand in a plate any person can obtain from one to five dollars per day of gold, which brings seventeen dollars per ounce. The gold has been gathered for two or three years, although but few, at least of the native Californians, have the patience to look for it. There is not the least doubt in my mind that gold, silver, quicksilver, copper, lead, sulphur, asphaltum and coal are to be found in that region. . . . The Indians have always said that there are mines, but refused to give their locality, and the Californians [of Spanish descent] did not choose, or have been too lazy, to look for them." It was more than a year after the date just given when the discovery of gold in its abundance was made. James W. Marshall, who was at the time superintending the construction of a saw-mill for Capt. Sutter (on the American Fork of the Sacramento, near the town of Co- loma, in El Dorado county), saw some glittering particles in a heap of mud and sand which had been washed together by the river (Feb. 9, 1848). Another account attributes the discovery to his little daughter, who "picked up in the race a lump of gold, and showed it to her father as a pretty stone." Tremljling with excitement, Marshall hurried to his employer and 190 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES told his story. Capt. Sutter at first thought that it was a fiction and that the narrator was insane. He therefore, as he afterward confessed, kept a sharp eye upon his loaded rifle while this astouuding disclosure was made ; but when Marshall threw an ounce or two of the shining dust upon the table before him, his doubts were dispelled. The two agreed to keep the matter secret and quietly share the golden harvest between them ; but "The best-laid plans of mice and men Gang aft aglee." As they went carefully over the ground, gloating with eager gestures and ejaculations of delight over their new-found treasures, they awakened the suspicious of a Mormon laborer employed in the neighborhood, who closely watched them, appointed himself a committee of one to investigate the cause of their excitement, and speedily became as wise as the unwary Sutter and Marshall. Having slight motive for secresy, he spread the intelligence. The result is elsewhere given [see California in Topogra- phy, p. 217]. Down to 1874, inclusive — i. e., during a period of 27 years —the gold mines of California yielded more than $1,000,000,000. The California gold-field, which extends almost continuously over seven degrees of latitude, covering with its longest axis a distance of five hundred miles, includes an area larger than the State of New York. In no portion of this territory have mines been completely exhausted. The sands of the sea-beach from Coos Bay for 200 miles south are worked with profit, and may be termed "the gold coast of the United States." The total amount of gold deposited at the United States mints and assay-ofiices up to June 30, 1874, from California, was $648,411,230.56. The gold deposits from Colorado up to the same date amounted to $21,741,203.66, while those from Montana were worth $36,640,618.66; from Idaho, $19,417,494.53; from Oregon, $12,314,071.10; and from Nevada, $3,551,751.63. Total deposits of domestic gold since the organization of the mints, $871,265,- 517.05. The existence of gold in the Black Hills is no longer doubted [see General Description, page 154]. An Associated Press despatch of Aug. 2, 1875, says: "The gold region of the Black Hills comprises about 1000 square miles, and Professor Jennings defines its northern limit as lying between Rapid and Box Elder Creeks. The new diggiufrs on bprmg Creek have attracted hundreds of miners from other gulches and from outside the Black Hills." Arrangements are being made by the gov- ernment to purchase the auriferous district from the Indians, and pending the negotiation many miners entered the lands in question ; but active measures being taken by the government to protect this region from intru- sion, it was decided to abandon it for the present. A despatch of August 10 says that "there were fifteen hundred miners in the region who were preparing to leave." Silver.— This metal is found in comparatively pure CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 191 ores, also in combination with copper, lead and other metals, in various parts of the United States. The deposits at the mints and assay-offices up to June 30, 1874, amounted to $43,381,419.40. An idea of the increase in the production of this precious metal can be gathered from the fact that very nearly one-fourth of this total amount ($10,822,658.16) was deposited during the year ending June 30, 1874, this quantity being divided, accord- ing to source, as follows: California, $44,345.89; Colorado, $1,391,856.32; Idaho, $17,323.49 ; Montana, $16,898.10; Nebraska, $50,455.37 ; Nevada, $4,230,765.36; New Mexico, $77,880.70; North Carolina, $46.67; Utah, $1,764,937.86 ; Lake Superior, $353,766.19. The remainder of this amount came under the heads of "refined silver," "contained in gold," "parted from gold" and "other sources." The receipts of American silver at the mints, etc., during the year ending June 30, 1861, amounted to only $600,- 000. As a much larger proportion of silver is used for plate and other manufactured articles than that of gold, the deposits at the mint give only an approximation (and sometimes a poor one) to the amount actually pro- duced. In Califoi'uia, for instance, many veins of lead ore combined with silver were discovered. The proportion of silver was in some cases very large ; but as the ores were in some places very complex, and the requisite metallurgical works and skill for reducing them were lacking in this coun- try, they were transported to the Pacific coast and shipped to England via New York. As many of them contained silver to the amount of $2000 per ton, the cost of transportation was not a large item in comparison with their value. In 1840 the Washington mine, Davidson county, N. C, which had attracted attention on account of its being the only lead mine which up to that time had produced much silver, excited expectations of great richness at lower depths by a display of native silver in arborescent forms, and disseminated through the magnesian limestone in a very striking man- ner. This expectation was not realized so far as the discovery of pure silver ore was concerned, though the lead was found so rich that in 1 844 $24,009 of silver and $7253 of gold were separated from 160,000 pounds of lead, an average of 240 ounces of auriferous silver to 2000 pounds. In 1851 the proportion of auriferous silver ran as high as 279 ounces to 2000 pounds. This was, however, but little more than one-third of the proportion found in the California ore above mentioned. Copper. — The number of copper mines in the United States in 1870 is given at 40, divided as follows: Michigan, 27; Arizona, 2; Maryland, 2; Pennsylvania, 2 ; Vermont, 2 ; Tennessee, 2 ; Nevada, 1 ; North Carolina, 1 ; Virginia, 1. The number of hands employed was 5404; invested capital, $7,789,374; value of product, $5,201,302, of which Michigan produced 82.91 per cent. ; Vermont, 6.89 per cent. ; and Tennessee, 5.96 per cent., making for the three States 95.76 per cent., or more than nineteen-twen- tieths of the total value. The leading copper mines in this country are 192 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES those ou the southern shore of Lake Superior. These mines were worked in some places by the predecessors of the Indians on this continent. A large mass of ore, detached, and some stone tools were found by the first white visitors to one of the mines, and these were not left there by the In- dians, who were ignorant of the art of mining. The working of these deposits by white people began in 1845, and it is stated that between that time and 1858 the entire production of this region was 18,954 tons of ore, producing 13,955 tons of ingots, worth $9,000,000. From that date there has been a marked increase in the production, as is shown by the follow- ing table of the products of copper mining in the UiDper Peninsula of INIichifran : Year. Ore, Tons. Ingots, Tons. Value. To 1858 18,954 4,100 4,200 6,000 7,500 9,962 8,548 8,472 10,791 10,376 11,735 13,049 15,288 16,183 16,071 15,166 18,688 21,729 13,955 3,500 3,500 4,800 6,000 8,000 6,500 6,500 7,000 7,000 8 '>00 $9,000,000 1,886,000 1,890,000 2,610,000 3,337,500 3,402,000 4,420,000 6,110,000 5,145,000 4,760,000 A ^^c\ c\c\c\ 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 9 985 4 '^Q'^ (^t\c\ \ 1869 1870 12,200 12,946 12,857 12,132 14,910 17,383 5,368,000 5,696,240 6,171,360 7,774,720 8,200,500 7,996,180 1871 1872 1873 1874 Total 206,761 167,368 $92,500,000 It will be seen, upon examining this table, that the production in 1874 exceeded that of the whole twelve years preceding 1858; also that the processes for extracting pure copper have been so much improved that in 1873 18,688 tons of ore gave 955 tons more of pure copper than were afforded by 18,954 tons of ore during the twelve years mentioned. In 1872 the Calumet and Hecla mine alone yielded 8000 tons of fine copper, about one-tenth of the entire product of the globe. A single sheet of copper was found in the IMinnesota mine which was computed to weigh at least 250 tons. There is a copper region of great importance in adjacent parts of Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Georgia, in which there are nu- merous mines which have been worked in an imperfect manner. Professor Hunt says of it : " With the present augmented price of copper and with the aid of improved processes for the extraction of the metal from its ores, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 193 this region may become a second Cornwall." Deposits of copper ore were formerly worked to a considerable extent in New Jersey and Connecticut, and recently rich veins of this ore have been opened in Chester county, Pa. Lead. — The ore of this metal is found iu Iowa, Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, New York, Pennsylvania, Vir- ginia, Tennessee, North Carolina and Kentucky. The most important lead deposits in the United States are in the Mississippi Valley. The Upper Mines are within the adjoining States of Wisconsin, Illinois and Iowa. The area of this region is 4000 square miles, of which 2200 square miles, or 55 per cent., lie in Wisconsin ; but the most productive portion is in Iowa and Illinois. The first extensive mining began iu 1826. In 1829 the annual production was 6000 tons ; in 1839 it had risen to 10,000 tous; and in 1845 it reached its maximum, amounting to nearly 25,000 tons. Since that time it has greatly fallen oflT, and it is difficult, or rather impossible, to obtain trustworthy figures with relation to it. The lead deposits of Missouri have been divided by mineralogists into three districts, the south-west, the middle and the south-east, the last being the most important, covering an area of about 500 square miles. In 1811 Mine Shibboleth, in this region, produced 15621 tons of lead from 2500 tous of ore. In 1816 the average annual product of Mine a Burton and the Potosi diggings for the preceding eighteen years was estimated at over 250 tons. From 1834 to 1837 the yearly production of Mine La Motte was 518 tons. The State geologist makes the annual product of all the lead mines in Missouri for the 14 years ending with 1854, inclusive, more than 1916 tons. There are numerous deposits of lead ore in the Atlantic States, but they have not been very extensively worked. Some of them are highly argentiferous ; ore from the Shelburne Mine, in New Hampshire, giving 84 ounces of pure silver to the ton of lead, and some from the Warren Mine, in the same State, yielding 60 to 70 ounces per ton. Shipments of ore made in colonial times to England from the neighbor- hood of Middletown, Conn., yielded from 25 to 75 ounces per ton, and contrary to the usual rule, that portion of the ore which was fine grained, and was consequently expected to give the largest amount of silver, fur- nished the 25 ounces, while the 75 ounces per ton was obtained from the coarsely cubical ore. The imports of lead into the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1873, were 71,371,692 pounds (35,685 tons of 2000 pounds), and for the year ending June 30, 1874, 43,513,017 pounds (21,755 tons), showing a decrease of nearly 40 per cent. Zinc. — Zinc ores have been found in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Mis- souri, North Carolina, Arkansas, Wisconsin, Tennessee and in several other States. The first zinc was made in this country iu 1838, for the brass standard weights and measures ordered by Congress. A block from New Jersey weighing 16,400 pounds was exhibited at the World's Fair iu Lon- 13 194 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. don, iu 1851. It was estimated, several years since, that of tlie entire product of the world Prussia yields 58 per cent., Belgium 27, Russia 7 and the United States 3. The proportion to be credited to this country is now undoubtedly larger. Franklinite, or the red oxide, is obtained near Franklin and Sparta, in New Jersey ; and both calamine and blende are worked at Friedensville, near Bethlehem, Pa., the works of the Lehigh Zinc Company being at the latter place. This company manufactured about 1700 tons of white oxide of zinc, an equal quantity of spelter, and rolled about 1000 tons of sheet zinc, during the year ending April 1, 1874. The sheet-zinc made from Pennsylvania ores is deemed fully equal to the famous brand La Vielle Montugne, of France, some considering it even better, on account of its freedom from arsenic and iron. The great difficulty in com- peting with French sheet-zinc arose from an ignorance of the secret of the polishing process. The very simplicity of this operation baffled research, as it is performed by passing several heated sheets through iron rollers, when by mutual friction they polish each other. The purity, smoothness of surface and durability of this zinc have led to its adoption as the mate- rial for the cartridge-cases used by the Russian and Turkish governments. Quicksilver. — The quicksilver mines of California are elsewhere mentioned [see California, in Topography]. According to the reports of the Paris Exposition, California yielded, iu 1867, 3,960,000 pounds out of a total for all countries of 7,083,120 pounds. The product of the New Almaden mine for 21^ years, ending with December 31, 1873, was 573,- 150 flasks (containing 762 pounds each), or 43,845,975 pounds. It is said that the Old Almaden mine in Spain controlled the Chinese market until a few years ago, when the manager of the New Almaden shipped 10,000 flasks to Hong Kong, and sold tliem so far below cost as to drive the Eu- ropean quicksilver back to Spain. California then supplied China ; but Spain, by the same tactics, obtained the control of the London market. In 1869, for instance, the exports of quicksilver from the United States to England amounted to only 152,924 pounds, while those to China amounted to 824,052 pounds. The total exports for the year 1869 were 2,152,499 pounds, Mexico taking even more than China (834,776 pounds). Since that time the production has fallen away, the yield for 1873 being little more than 2,000,000 pounds ; and during the year ending June 30, 1873, foreign countries took only 714,783 pounds of American quicksilver, none of this amount going to England. In the year ending June 30, 1874, the quantity exported was 501,389 pounds. Note.— Tlie agricultural i)rodiicts are treated elsewhere [see American Agricul- TURe], and the retiiaining niiiior topics, which usually come under tlie head of Phys- ical Geography, are treated in the articles on the several States [see Topography, p. 205 €t seg.] as fully as space will allow.— Ed. U. S. Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. EESOUROES AjSTD PROSPECTS OF THE u:n^ited states. BEFORE treating of the several States separately, it seems proper, as we have just been takiug a general view of the physical features of this country, to say a few words concerning the resources and prospects of the United States. A work upon this subject was written by Sir Morton Peto, and published in 1866. The kindly spirit in which he wrote, the special facilities afforded him while he was in America collecting information, the skill with which he has arranged his materials, combine to render the work of Sir Morton very valuable, even at the present day, when his statistics (a few of which were somewhat superannuated when he wrote) have become almost too stale for reproduction, except for comparison with the later figures of the years which have elapsed since his visit to America, in 1865. Americans are so busy, so thorouglily occupied with the interests which demand immediate attention, so little given to day-dreaming, that it is probable that few among them have any adequate conception of the vast- ness of the resources of their favored land. Vague general statements, which form the staple of the Fourth of July oration or the popular lecture, are couched in language so stereotyped that a great part of their effect is lost ; and though they are acknowledged as truisms, the frequency with which they are heard, in nearly the same form of words, makes them seem almost like vain repetitions. The more specific, however, the inforniatiou obtained, the more evident becomes the fact that statements apparently l)ombastic — assertions which seemed at first to be the offspring of an over- weening national pride — have been below rather than above the mark. A comparison of some of the figures given for the United States with those for Europe, or for separate countries of the latter, gives a very favorable showing for the young republic. In the matter of territory, for instance, the area of Europe is 3,600,000 square miles, while that of the United States is 3,603,884 square miles. The area of the United Kingdom of Great Britain (83,827) and Ireland (28,800) is 112,627 square miles; that of France (including Corsica), 204,711 square miles. A larger amount of land (140,000,000 acres, or 218,750 square miles) than either of these lias been given away to the States and Territories by the various national land- grants for the establishnient and maintenance of public schools [see Amer- 195 196 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ICAN Education, page 498]. Texas (area 274,356 square miles) is larger than Spain (area 196,031 square miles); California (a'rea 188,981 square miles) contains more territory than the kingdom of Italy (area 114,409 square miles) ; our States match in size the countries of Europe ; our country is larger than that " grand division " of the globe. Sir Morton Peto* awards the United States this superiority even when (by including lakes and rivers ) he made the area of this country 3,250,000 square miles ; and the addition of Alaska puts it beyond question, even if the larger estimate of 3,600,000 square miles be the area of Europe. This territory, with the exception of Alaska, is compact and contiguous. For the most part it is united by lines of communication which consist of lakes, rivers, canals and telegraphs. By the settlement of California and Oregon the country has the great ad- vantage of fronting the two great oceans, the Atlantic and Pacific. Of this territory the public lands embrace an area of nearly 3,000,000 square miles. The exact figures on the 30th of June, 1874, were 2,867,185 square miles, or 1,834,998,400 acres, of which 649,393,052 had been surveyed up to June 30, 1874, leaving 1,185,605,348. In 1867 the aggregate area, according to Hawes, was 1,446,716,072 acres, of which 485,311,778 acres, or about one-third, had been surveyed up to July 1st of that year. The increase is owing to the addition of Alaska to the public domain — an addi- tion amounting to 577,390 square miles, or 369,529,600 acres. The lands are surveyed by the government and divided into uniform rectangular tracts, six miles square, called " townships," each township being subdivided into thirty-six ''sections" one mile square, containing 640 acres each, and each section into "quarter sections" of 160 acres each, which are set apart for homesteads. By the " system of squares " every section and quarter section is bounded by lines running due north and south (as far as the convergency of the meridians, or their coming nearer together as they are extended northward, will permit), crossed by other lines running east and west. As the country is filled up and settled new surveys are made, and it is doubtless one of the greatest attractions of the United States that they possess so great an expanse of territory that it will be many years before the price of land in the West is raised by immigration, however great may be the influx of population. The application of industry to the cultivation of the soil will be for a long time the principal reason for an increase in the value of land, and such increase will be the certain and just reward for the labor of the industrious immigrant. There is no description of prod- uce, European or tropical, which may not be raised in some part of this territory. Every part of the country produces wealth. The Western and Pacific States aflford abundant crops of the two great cereals, wheat and * We acknowledge here, once for all, onr indebtedness to this author, and shall con- tinue to borrow freely from his work without further reference.— Ed. U. S. Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 197 Indian corn, with the additional advantage that the first of these is gath- ered in the summet and the other in the fall, thus affording a double har- vest to the fanner. The Southern States grow sugar, rice, tobacco and corn. The agricultural resources have been fully dwelt upon elsewhere, both generally [see American Agriculture] and particularly, in connec- tion with the separate articles on the several States and Territories [see Topography]. The mineral resources have also been treated both gen- erally [see Physical Geography] and in detail [see Topography]. Every portion of this territory possesses some special advantage. Even in many places where the soil is barren that soil consists of valuable chem- icals, prepared (iu a nearlj^ pure form) in Nature's laboratory, or it covers metals worth more than the aggregate crops for many years gathered from an equal extent of the most fertile soil, or it affords some other yield which makes it of value to the man who intelligently endeavors to ascertain and to develop its capabilities. This leads us to speak of another resource of this country — viz., the intelligent industry of the people. The vast increase made during the past thirty years in the annual value of manufactured articles [see American Manufactures] is a proof that this resource is one to be relied upon as an important auxiliary to the advance of this nation in wealth, in comfort and iu the ability to sustain a large popula- tion. The opinion of Sir Morton Peto (and of other writers who could not possibly look upon the question disinterestedly) that it would be the best policy for the people of the United States to devote their attention exclusively to agriculture, and to entirely depend upon England and other foreign countries for supplies of manuflictured articles, — this opinion, we say, however pleasant and plausible it may appear to those who desire to furnish this country with all the necessaries of life except food, will not meet with the approval of the true American who desires his country to take a leading position among the nations of the world. To follow out this policy, to permit our almost boundless resources of coal, of iron, of water-power, of the industry of a free people, to slumber unused, would be to scorn the gifts of a bountiful Providence which has richly showered upon this favored nation not only the blessings pronounced by the patri- archs upon their posterity — "the dew of heaven, the fatness of the earth and plenty of corn and wine" — but has also given "a land whose stones are iron and out of whose hills" may be dug not only brass (or its ingre- dients, copper and zinc), but more gold and silver than the famed Ophir ever produced. Nor is it any kindness to the American farmer to sup])ort a doctrine which would make all men farmers, would cause an overpro- duction of all agricultural products, and would leave the unfortunate agri- culturist entirely at the mercy of foreign markets for the disposal of the- immense surplus which would be left were every man to become a firmer. It would, doubtless, be a comfortable state of affairs for all the foreign. 198 • BURLEY'S UNITED STATES nations requiring our breadstuffs or other products of the farm. They would be able to take their choice of the best, to name their own price and to repay the American farmer Avith a small portion of the raw material taken from this country to be worked up, and to have its value thereby enhanced, for the benefit of the foreign nation or nations above mentioned. A true friend of the farmer (if the zeal and energy with which he has col- lected statistics may be considered "a proof of his right to this title), the Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, expresses the hope (in an address the eoncludiug words of which may be found at the end of the article on American Agriculture) that the day may be hastened "when 25 per cent, of our people shall furnish a better and more varied agricul- tural supply than is now obtained by the 47 per cent, engaged in agricul- ture," and " when the 21 per cent, now engaged in mining, manufacturing and the mechanic arts may become 42." This is a hope the fulfilment of which would be a benefit to the agriculturist as well as to the miner, the manufixcturer and the mechanic. The resources of the United States have always been found equal to their necessities. There came a time not long since when those resources were sorely tried, when brother warred against brother, when a land which had for a time been rent with civil feud was drenched with fraternal blood. An- other country under such circumstances might have been irreparably ruined. A monarchy so situated would have probably become a prey to anarchy and confusion. We have, however, to deal with the important question. How did the resources of the country bear the drain put upon them by the de- mands of the four years of war? The answer is one so flattering to national pride that we prefer to give it in the words of one whose opinion with ref- erence to American manufactures we have just opposed, but whose position as a foreigner will give considerable weight to his statement with reference to the question just proposed. Sir Morton Peto says : "Although a million of the population had been withdrawn from their industrial occupations to assume arms, the progress of peaceful industry had not been arrested. . . . To this may be added the most remarkable feature of the civil war in the United States — namely, the marvellous sustentation of credit in the North. On the European side of the Atlantic the inquiry was constantly repeated, 'When will the finances of America collapse?' Speculations were made in the money markets on the assumption that the American resources must inevitably fail. Yet on the American side not only was there no idea of failure, but, despite the increase of debt, which accumulated with a rapidity absolutely unknown in any previous history, the pressure of taxation was unflinchingly borne and the payment of interest was regularly made. Nor was this all. Although the country might have been expected to be drained both of men and stores to supply the immense armies which were sustained, the requirements of the entire population were met without any increase CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 199 of prices beyond that which resulted from a depreciation of the currency. Throughout the war the nation gave evidence of rapidly-increasing wealth. Probably the parallel of this is not to be found in the "world's history. All records, of whatsoever period, show that during fierce and desolating strug- gles the populations engaged in them have suffered fearful privations and miseries, and that protracted periods have elapsed before they have been able to recover from their effects. America, which in so many respects has shown herself superior to ordinary rules, has, in regard to the effects of war, shown that the heaviest and most costly conflict can be borne not only without exhaustion, but even with an increase of national prosperity. If I am asked to account for this, I can only do so by attributing it to the wonderful elasticity of the resources of the United States. In my travels through the United States during the autumn of last year the abundant resources of the country was the feature which struck me most forcibly. It appeared to be the key to everything else. I saw wild terri- tories, both of forest and prairie, being cleared up and populated ; I saw- villages springing into towns and towns into cities with a rapidity so mar- vellous that one's first idea was to attribute it all to the work of some pow- erful magician ; I passed through whole regions where every description of grain seemed to spring up spontaneously; I went over lines of railway seemingly constructed for the express purpose of conveying this produce to ports from which it could be shipped to countries where there was a suiDerabundant population to consume it; I passed down immense rivers sw\arming with steamboats and other vessels filled with produce; I was brought into communication with the merchants who conducted the varied commerce to which all this gave rise; and looking at all that I met with, I could not fail to be struck, as a practical man, with the extraordinary and wonderful character of American resources, surpassing by far any- thing of which we have the slightest experience in the Old World, great as are our own products and remarkable as is the industry of our teeming population." It is by looking at the way in which this country passed through that most trying of ordeals, a civil war, that we are able to form some idea as to the prospects of the republic. If that which usually cripples a nation served only to show the magnitude of the resources which had been suffered to lie idle; if the development of these resources continued and increased, even at the time when more than a million of men were drawn away from industrial pursuits and employed in destroying one another, — what may not be expected from a united land, from a people whose swords have been beaten into ploughshares and their spears into pruning-hooks? Peace and unity, twin blessings, are the earnests of a still greater advance in agri- culture, in commerce, in manufactures, in all that makes a nation wealthy and prosperous at home and respected abroad. The public spirit of the 200 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES l^eople, which leads them to lend their aid, frequently with only too great readiness, to any scheme which promises to assist in the improvement of the natural advantages of their country, will every year have a better op- portunity to impel its possessors to works of national utility. It is this very public spirit which specially strikes foreigners, who frequently have difficulty in appreciating at its full value the influence of a free govern- ment in developing a love of country which leads its possessor to feel how thoroughly his country's interests are his own. Sir Morton Peto says: " In a recent article on ' Cheese as a Staple Article of Export,' written by the secretary of the Maine Board of Agriculture, I find the following curious facts adduced to support an argument that ^cheese is as good as gold:' 'The export demand governs the price of cheese. In June, 1862, prime cheese was bringing in Herkimer county, N. Y., 8 cents per pound ; but as soon as specie payments were suspended and gold bore a premium the price of cheese advanced with even step. When gold fell, the price of cheese receded ; when gold rose, the price of cheese advanced ; and all the while just in proportion to the current rate of exchange. This proves con- clusively that to cancel indebtedness or to pay for goods purchased in Eng- land cheese was as good as gold, and answered the same purpose exactly. With a market of such great capacity open to us, it. seems as certain as anything in this uncertain world can be that the manufacture of cheese will increase annually; and I see no reason why all farmers who possess really good grazing-land may not share in the profits.' I quote this pas- sage the more readily because it illustrates the sort of enthusiastic feeling which appears to enter into every enterprise an American embarks in. On this side of the Atlantic it is difficult to realize the sort of feeling which induces an American to treat such a product as cheese as a substi- tute for gold in commercial transactions. Yet it is this sort of enterprising calculation which drives forward the United States. They try to make everything — even cheese — as ' good as gold.' " The prediction of the American author quoted by Sir Morton is being verified. In 1867 the exports of cheese amounted to 52,352,127 pounds; in 1868 to 51,097,203 pounds; in 1869 the quantity exported fell to 39,960,367 pounds, but during the year ending June 30, 1873, it had risen to 80,366,540 pounds, and the quantity exported during the year ending June 30, 1874, was 90,611,077 pounds. There is another article of export which promises to be "as good as gold"— viz., bacon and hams, the exports of which, during the year just named, were as follows: 25,648,226 pounds in 1867; 43,659,064 pounds in 1868; 49,228,165 pounds in 1869; 395,381,737 pounds in 1873 ; and 347,405,405 pounds in 1874. It is by the aggregate of such articles as these that " the balance of trade " is being turned in favor of the United States ; and knowing how great the resources of Amer- ica are, her citizens can look hopefully toward the future with the feeling CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 201 that there is sufRcieut energy aud enterprise in the country to make the most of the gifts of a beneficent Providence. One of the most important facts upon which to rest bright hopes with reference to the future of America is tlie feeling of unity which is per- vading the country, and which will doubtless be greatly increased by the remembrances of the past awakened by the celebration of the one hun- dredth anniversary of American independence. The descendants of those who fought shoulder to shoulder the battles of freedom — who laid the foun- dations of a national edifice which still exists — will surely lay aside then, if ever, animosities of recent origin, and remember that they are brethren. The scenes at the celebration (June 17, 1875) of the centennial of the battle of Bunker Hill, elsewhere alluded to [see Historical Sketch, page 150], were a proof that the feeling of brotherhood is stronger than the bitter feeling awakened by the civil war. It will be remembered that the United States has a mission, that the eyes of the Avorld are upon this republic, that dissension and strife among her citizens would cause joy to tyrants only, but unutterable grief to the oppressed of every land and clime. It is the mission o% the United States to prove that the free gov- ernment which has stood for a hundred years is stronger to-day than ever, not only in armies and armaments, but in the affectionate regard which every citizen feels for a national unity of which he is not a mere append- age, but a part. In order to fulfil his share in this mission, each citizen of the republic will endeavor to forget the time of internecine strife, and to look forward to a future when in peace or in war there will be no North, no South, no East, no West — when civil war will be impossible, and the united front presented to every foreign foe will cause the latter to deem a conflict with this country undesirable. Toward such a state this nation is rapidly hastening — nay, it has in part attained it. Were a just war to be declared to-morrow, were an invading foe to appear upon our shores, it would soon become evident that " E pluribus unum " is still the national motto in fiict as well as upon shields and banners, in Fourth-of- July orations and stump speeches. Admitting, then, that this country will preserve the republican form of government v*hich distinguishes it among the nations of the earth, there is another resource which is no small item in the inventory of our national wealth. We allude to the constant flow of immigration into this country, and to the rapidity with which the fertile lauds of the West are being peopled. It may seem strange to the reader at first sight that this should be mentioned as a resource ; yet when he remembers that (although there is considerable fluctuation in the annual number of immigrants) the num- ber of the foreigners who have come to reside in this country since 1846 has exceeded five and a half millions, he will at once see that this is no inconsiderable item on the credit side of our national account. Men who 202 BURLETS CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. in Europe would have dragged out a miserable existence without any hope of rising, have come to this country and become the possessors of com- fortable homes, earned by the honest labor of their own hands. Every such man (and they could be counted by hundreds of thousands) is an addition to the national wealth. For such immigrants there is abundance of room. Proof of this statement can be found elsewhere [see Table VIII. in Appendix]. If Texas were as densely peopled as Massachusetts, it would hold all of the present population of the United States. Because, therefore, this country offers special advantages for the industrious immi- grant ; because the offer of a home is yearly accej^ted by many tens of thousands ; because the resources of the United States are so ample that every such addition to their population is an addition to their wealth ; be- cause the progress made in the past has exceeded the most sanguine expec- , tations of the friends of the great republic, — for these and for many other reasons equally valid, but which we have not space even to mention it is not too much to hope that the progress of the future will not belie the promise of the present — will not make void the record of the past — but will prove beyond controversy the superiority of a republic to every other form of government, and the value (not the theoretical but the prac- tical value) of free institutions to assist and to direct the development of the resources of a continent. Engraved expressly for Barley's United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. PARIS EXPOSITION, 1855. THE Paris Exposition of 1855 was held in tlie building above repre- sented, which is still standing on the Avenue des Chamios Elysee, and which was named the " Palace of Industry." The Art Department was in another building, situated a short distance to the east of this edifice on the Avenue de Matignon, and named the "Palace of the Fine Arts." The Exposition was opened on the 15th of May by the emperor in person, and lasted six months. The arrangements for it were made and the whole affair was managed by an Imperial Commission, of which the prince Napo- leon was appointed president. When it is remembered that it was carried on during the Crimean war, it must be acknowledged that it had a large degree of success. The number of exhibitors, according to the official report, was 21,779, and the number of visitors to the Industrial Depart- ment was 4,180,117, to the Art Department 935,601, and to the Chinese Museum, in the same building with the latter, 46,612, making a grand total of 5,162,330. Every assistance was rendered to the exhibitors by the French government. Articles which were prohibited or partially pro- hibited by the existing customs regulations were admitted for the Exposi- tion on a special tariff of twenty per cent, ad valorem, and the authorities 203 204 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. winked at the admission of large quantities of goods not very necessary for the occasion, such as pottery, alpacas, woolen and cotton goods, etc. This was done to oblige exhibitors and to gratify the desires of French purchasers, especially these of the poorer class. An instance of the extent to which this complaisance was carried is the fact that 296 crates of pottery, weighing 58 tons, were introduced under this tariff after the Exposition was opened, and even after its close 100 crates, weighing 15 tons, were admitted in the same manner. Another circumstance shows still more strikingly the good-will' of the government toward those who took part in the display. All the taxes and customs were increased two-tenths after this special tariff had been granted. As no exceptions were made, this duty was, of course, increased to twenty-four per cent. The official report of the Exposition, however, says : " The question having been examined by the Imperial Commission and by competent authorities, it was decided that Article 48 should be interpreted in the sense which was most favorable to foreign exhibitors, and that the duty of twenty per cent, should be collected without the addition of the tenths." The care and consideration of the management extended to the smallest details. Even the packing-cases of the exhibitors were received, stored away, and delivered again in good order at the close of the Exposition, all for the moderate fee of one franc seventy-five centimes, or about thirty-five cents apiece for a single one or for a number of them. For foreigners 10,387 cases were thus stored, and for natives 5457. The official report of this Exposition, to which we have several times referred, is rendered doubly interesting by details which are not usually given, and some of which could be procured only in a country with a police service like that of France. Some of these details show that the effect of the Exposition upon the number of travellers arriving in Paris, and upon other matters likely to be affected by this enterprise, was not so transient as one would suppose. The number of travellers coming into Paris by the railroads in 1854 was 3,328,386, in 1855 it was 4,081,121, and in 1856 it was 3,923,360. The number of travellers admitted into the hotels, etc., in 1854 was 358,719, in 1855 it was 497,285, and in 1856 it was 438,005. The receipts of the theatres, museums, balls and concerts in 1854 amounted to 12,401,264 francs ($2,480,252), in 1855 to 16,149,476 francs ($3,229,895), and in 1856 to 14,130,039 francs ($2,826,007). ^An examination of these figures will show that, though the figures for the year of the Exposition are the largest, those for the year 1856 are much larger than those of the year 1854, showing that the effect of the enter- prise still continued. The American exhibitors numbered only 131, but carried off a goodly number of prizes. Fourteen States were represented by commissioners, among whom were Maunsell B. Field and T. H. Wales from New York, James Swaim from Pennsylvania, and other well-known citizens; California had no less than four couiraissioners. TOPOGEAPHY OF THE UITITED STATES, rPHE United States of America comprise 37 States, 11 Territories and 1 J- Federal District. They are classified in five geographical divisions — viz., the Eastern or New England States, Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut ; Middle States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Delaware ; Southern States, Maryland, Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mis- sissippi, Louisiana and Texas ; Western States, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ken- tucky, West Virginia, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, Iowa, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Kansas, Nebraska ; Pacific States, California, Oregon and Nevada. The Territories are the Indian Country, New Mexico, Col- orado, Wyoming, Dakota, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Arizona, Washington and Alaska (which is unorganized). The District of Columbia, being under the immediate government of Congress, is also classed as a Territory. The original thirteen States which declared their independence of Great Britain were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia. The area of the United States at the close of the Revolutionary war, in 1783, was 841,107 square miles. By successive accretions the territory of the great republic has grown to 3,603,884 square miles. The additions have been as follows : Louisiana Territory, purchased from Fi-auce in 1803, 930,928 square miles ; Florida, acquired from Spain in 1821, 59,268 square miles ; Texas, annexed to the Union in 1845, 237,504 square miles ; Oregon, as settled by treaty in 1846, 280,425 square miles ; California, New Mexico and other territory acquired from Mexico in 1847 and 1854, 677,262 square miles ; Alaska, purchased from Russia in 1867, 577,390 square miles. The aggregate population in 1870 was 38,925,598, of whom 33,592,245 were white, 4,886,387 colored, 63,254 Chinese and 383,712 Indian. There were 10.70 persons to a square mile. ALABAMA. Situation and Extent.— Alabama is bounded on the N. by Ten- nessee, E. by Georgia and Florida, S. by Florida and the Gulf of Mexico and W. by Mississippi. It is situated between latitudes 30° 10' and 35° N. and longitudes 8° 05' and 11° 35' W. from Washington, or 85° 5' and 205 206 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES 88° 35' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length of the State is 335 miles; extreme breadth, 200 miles ; area, 50,722 square miles, or 32,462,080 acres. Physical Features.— /S'u?/ace.— The Alleghany Mountains enter Alabama at the north-east corner, and have a breadth of about 50 miles. One range extends in a westerly direction almost to the Georgia line ; an- other range stretches south-west as far as Tuscaloosa. The ridges gradu- ally sink away into hills and then into a vast plain, broken by gentle swells and interspersed with pine barrens and rich alluvial river-bottoms. Fivers and Bays. — The Tennessee River makes a sweep of nearly 300 miles through Alabama, and drains the water-shed north of the Allegha- nies. Steamboats ascend as far as Knoxville, Tenn., but the Muscle Shoals, at Florence, are a serious impediment to navigation. The enlargement of the old canal is projected, together with otlier improvements, which the United States engineer estimates will require an appropriation of $750,000 for the year ending June 30, 1876. The Mobile River, which drains the whole water-shed south of the mountains, is formed by the confluence of the Alabama and the Tombigbee Rivers, 50 miles above Mobile Bay. The Alabama, formed by the union of the Tallapoosa and the Coosa, is 600 miles long and navigable to Montgomery, 320 miles. The Tombigbee, 450 miles long, is navigable to Columbus, Miss., 420 miles above Mobile. The main branch of the Tombigbee is the Black Warrior, navigable for large steam- boats to Tuscaloosa, 300 miles north of Mobile. Along the eastern bound- ary of the State runs the Chattahoochee River, navigable 300 miles to Columbus, Georgia. Alabama has a coast-line of 60 miles on the Gulf of Mexico. Mobile Bay, 35 miles in length, has a depth of 21 feet in its main channels, but vessels drawing more than nine feet of water cannot reach the docks at Mobile. Extensive improvements were begun in 1870; Congress has made five annual appropriations, amounting in the aggregate to 8375,000. Dog River Bar has been widened through its whole length (7 J miles) to 120 feet, with a depth of 13 feet of water at low tide. Choc- taw Bar Channel has been enlarged to the same dimensions. The estimated cost of the work will be half a million of dollars. Forests. — The low, sandy country near the coast produces immense quantities of yellow pine, which yields lumber, turpentine, tar and pitch. The other principal trees are the cypress, cottonwood, magnolia, oak, hickory, cedar, poplar, elm, ash, walnut, locust, gum, chestnut, dogwood, maple, etc. Bea,rs, wolves, foxes, deer, raccoons*, opossums and many other wild animals still range the forests. Soil and Climate.— Among the hills of the northern counties the soil is only moderately fertile. The valley of the Tennessee, from 5 to 25 miles in width, is very rich, as are also the large prairies and river-bottoms of the central region, which produce from 800 to 1000 pounds of cotton to CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 207 the acre. lu the south are extensive forests and pine-barrens, with many fertile alluvial lauds. The summer climate, tempered by the mountains in the north and by the sea-breezes in the south, is in the main healthful, although there are malarious districts along the rivers. Cattle thrive in the woods all winter, and the streams are never frozen. The isothermal lines for the northern aud southern portions are respectively: Spring, 60°-75° ; summer, 77°-82° ; autumn, 60°-70° ; winter, 40°-55° ; yearly mean, 60°-70°. The annual rainfall at Mobile was 76.68 inches ; at Mont- gomery, 65.80 inches. Warden says that peach trees are in blossom Febru- ary 15; green peas and strawberries fit for the table May 2; blackberries, mulberries aud whortleberries ripe May 16; sweet corn large enough for roasting June 29. Ag-ricviltviral Productions. — Alabama is distinctively an agri- cultural State. Only Mississippi and Arkansas have a larger percentage of the working population engaged in tilling the soil. According to the census of 1870, the value of the farms, farm implements and live-stock was $97,716,055 ; value of all farm products, $67,522,335 ; number of farms, 67,392 ; average size, 222 acres. Among the productions were 429,482 bales of cotton (of 400 pounds each), 31 hhds. of cane-sugar, 433,281 gallons of molasses, 5156 of domestic wine, 381,253 pounds of wool, 222,945 of rice, 320,674 of houey, 1,871,360 bushels of sweet pota- toes, 156,574 of peas and beans. Alabama stood third in the production of cotton (next to Mississippi and Georgia) and sixth in rice. In 1873 there were grown 21,751,000 bushels of Indian corn, 884,000 of wheat, 200,000 of rye, 813,000 of oats, 170,000 of Irish potatoes, 200,000 pounds of tobacco and 17,000 tons of hay. The number of animals in Jauuaiy, 1874, was 106,600 horses, 102,500 mules (only Tennessee had a larger number), 334,100 oxen and other cattle, 173,400 milch cows, 189,900 sheep, 990,100 swine. The value of farms in Alabama was diminished by $108,000,000 in the decade from 1860 to 1870, which shows the destructive effects of the civil war. Manilfactvires. — The census of 1870 reported 2118 establishments; hands employed, 8248 ; value of annual product, $13,040,644. Among the establishments there were for the manufacture of firearms 16, furniture 21, iron 22, leather 141, liquors 2, paper 1, printing and publishing 15, tobacco 14, agricultural implements 3, boots and shoes 6, cotton 13, wool- len 14, flour 613. There were 284 mills for sawing lumbei", employing 1428 hands; value of ];aw material used, $520,513; value of products, $1,359,083. Of resin the production was 53,175 barrels, value $112,150; of turpentine, 409,950 barrels, value $168,053. Minerals and Mining-. — Extensive beds of bituminous coal, from one to eight feet thick, cover an area twice as large as that of the State of Delaware. Iron, lead, ochres, manganese, marbles (white, black, clouded 208 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES and buff-eolored), limestone and granite are found in considerable quanti- ties. Three raining establishments were reported by the last census, pro- ducing to the value of $52,500. Commerce and Navigation.— A river navigation of 2000 miles centres at Mobile, which is also the chief port for foreign commerce. In 1874 the amount of revenue collected was $96,765 ; vessels arrived, 188 ; cleared, 164; value of imports, $833,644; of exports, $10,235,293. Among the articles exported were 170 barrels of flour, 130,880 bales of cotton, 2172 barrels of resin and turpentine, 4,670,008 feet of lumber. Four sailing vessels and two steamers were built. 132 vessels are registered in the customs district, of which 30 are steamers, 80 sailing vessels, 22 barges. Railroads.— The State had 46 miles of railroad in 1844. In 1873 the statistics were: Miles of railroad, 1722; total capital account, $61,- 001,839; cost per mile, $37,016 ; receipts, $4,957,941 ; receipts per mile, $3008; receipts per inhabitant, $4.84; net earnings, $1,155,811; number ( f locomotives, 201 ; passenger-cars, 141 ; freight-cars, 2421. Pnblic Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary is at Wetumpka, the Hospital for the Insane at Tuscaloosa, the Asy- lum for the Blind at Mobile, the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Tal- ladega. There were 611 blind, 401 deaf and dumb and 555 insane reported by the last census. The Constitution prescribes that all children between the ages of five and twenty-one shall be educated free of charge. The latest school statistics accessible are as follows : School population, 403,735; children enrolled, white, 61,942, colored, 41,673; schools, 2561 ; teachers, 2650; expenditures, $606,517. The University of Alabama, founded in 1831, has an endowment of $300,000. Its buildings were burned during the w^ar, but have been replaced. An annual appropria- tion of $24,000 is made by the State. The academic department has six courses of study. Howard College has ten departments. The Agricultu- ral and Mechanical College, at Auburn, owns a property valued at $327,- 000, and has 102 students. Talladega College affords to its pupils pre- paratory, normal, collegiate and theological departments. The Medical College of Alabama, at Mobile, was attended by 84 students in 1873-4, and graduated a class of 29. It has 12 professors ; $75,000 have been expended on the medical museum. The 8 colleges of the State report 63 teachers, 1026 pupils and an income of $108,800. There were 1430 libra- ries in Alabama in 1870, 89 newspapers and periodicals, and 2095 church organizations, having 1958 edifices. Cities and Towns.— Mobile, the chief city, and next to New Or- leans the greatest cotton mart in the United States, is situated on the Mobile Kiver, 30 miles above the Gulf of Mexico. Mention has already been made of its commerce. The city is the centre of 4 railroads. There are several manufactories, 2 daily newspapers and 30 churches. Population in 1870, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 209 32,034, of whom 13,913 were colored. Montgomery, the capital and second city of the State, stands on a high bluff on the Alabama River, 330 miles above Mobile. Large steamers navigate the river and four railroads enter the city. The State-house is an imposing structure, and there are other fine public buildings. It has 14 churches and 3 daily newspapers. Pop- ulation, 10,588, of whom the colored people numbered 5183. The other cities are Selma, on the Alabama River (population 6487), Huntsville (4907), Talladega (1933), Tuscaloosa, the former capital (1689), Eufala (3185) and Tuscumbia (1214). Poj) Illation. — Alabama was peopled largely by immigration from the other Southern States. Virginians and Tennesseeans settled the north- ern part, Georgians the eastern, North Carolinians the western and southern. About Montgomery the Georgians predominated. Some French refugees made a home here after the downfall of Napoleon. The number of inhab- itants in 1820 was 127,901 (slaves, 41,879); 1830, 309,527 (slaves, 117,- 549); 1840, 590,753 (slaves, 253,536); 1850,771,623 (slaves, 342,844); 1860, 964,201 (slaves, 435,080); 1870, 996,864 (free colored, 475,510). Only 9962, less than one per cent., were of foreign birth. There were born in the United States 987,030, in Alabama 744,146, in Georgia 93,028, in North Carolina 30,290, in Virginia 29,636. Of natives of Alabama 129,554 were residing in other parts of the Union. GrOVenimeilt and Laws.— The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 33 members, elected for four years, and a house of represent- atives of 100 members, elected for two years. The executive authority is vested in a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of State, auditor, treasurer and attorney-general. The judicial authority is vested in a supreme court (of three judges), twelve circuit courts, five courts of chan- cery, and sixty-five probate courts, one for each county. The judiciary is elective. The civil divisions of a county are called "beats" instead of " districts," as in Georgia and the neighboring States. History. — The territory now called Alabama, which signifies in the Indian tongue "here we rest," was entered by Ferdinand de Soto in 1540. Coming in from Georgia, near the headwaters of the Coosa River, he jour- neyed southward as far as Mavilla (Mobile). The Indians, who resisted his entrance into the town, were defeated, and many hundreds of them slain. In the burning of the settlement the baggage of the Spaniards was consumed. De Soto retreated toward the north and passed over into Mis- sissippi. Bienville, the French governor of Louisiana, built a trading-post and fort on Mobile Bay in 1702. By the treaty of Paris, in 1763, the French possessions were ceded to Great Britain. The territory of Missis- sippi, which included the present State of Alabama, was organized in 1798. In 1819 Alabama was admitted into the Union as a State. January 11, 1861, it passed an ordinance of secession, and March 13 united with the 14 210 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Southern Confederacy. The first battalion for the Confederate army started for Virginia May 1. Huutsville was taken by Gen. O. M. Mitchell, April 9, 1862, and the Union forces held possession of the territory north of the Tennessee River. Rear- Admiral Farragut reduced Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines, in Mobile Bay, August, 1864. Major-General Wilson occupied Selma April 3, 1865, and Montgomery April 12. On the same day Mo- bile was taken, and "the last gun was fired for the Confederacy" [see Historical Sketch, page 146]. A new State Constitution was ratified February 4, 1868. ARKANSAS. Situation and Extent. — Arkansas is bounded on the N. by Mis- souri, E. by Tennessee and Mississippi (separated by the Mississippi River), S. by Louisiana and W. by Texas and the Indian Territory. It is situated between latitudes 33° and 36° 30' N., and longitudes 12° 45' and 17° 40' W. from Washington, or 89° 45' and 94° 40' W. from Greenwich. The State is 250 miles long from north to south and from 160 to 270 miles wide from east to west. The area is 52,198 square miles, or 33,406,720 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — The eastern part is swampy and low. Near Little Rock the hill-country begins, with summits from 400 to 500 feet high. In the west and north-west are many mountain-peaks and ranges, none of them of very great elevation. The Mamelle is a conical peak 1000 feet high. A "Sugar- Loaf" mountain is found in each of the four counties of Izard, Searcy, Marion and Van Bui en. The Boston Range attains an elevation of more than 1000 feet above the general drainage of the country. Boat Mountain (1527 feet above the Little Red River), the Pilot and Stack Mountains are a conspicuous group. All these peaks have sandstone summits. In Perry and Yell counties are the Fourche la Fave (probably a corruption of Fourche de la Fauve — deer's fork) and the Petite Jean. In Polk county is a complicated range called the Cossi- tott Mountains. Along the southern flunk of a ridge in Hot Spring county are the famous " hot springs of the Washita," more than a hurdred in number. Forty-two are of sufficient size to be located upon the geological chart. Their temperature ranges from 100° to 154°, and eggs have been cooked in them. "The Mammoth Spring" of Fulton county discharges 8000 barrels of water per minute. It never freezes, and the mean annual temperature is 60°. In the north-west is a natural dam formed by a solid bed of limestone from six to eight feet thick. Rivers. — The Mississippi River washes the eastern boundary for 230 miles in a direct line and 400 by its windings. The Arkansas, 2000 miles long, flows across the State in a tortuous channel of 500 miles. At high water steamboats ascend as far . as Fort Gibson, in the Indian Territory. The St. Francis, 450 miles long, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 211 forms the eastern boundary between Arkansas and South-eastern Missouri. It is navigable for 150 miles, but there is danger from " snags." The snag- boat operations for the year ending June 30, 1876, will require an appro- priation from the general government of $194,000. A great earthquake in 1811 widened the river channel from five to twenty miles, producing Lake St. Francis. White River is navigable since the snag-boat opera- tions of 1874 as far as Jacksonport, 340 miles. The Washita, a branch of the Red River, can be ascended by steamboats for 350 miles. Water communication is afforded to the south-western counties by the Red River, which makes a detour into the State. Arkansas has altogether more than a thousand miles of steamboat navigation upon its rivers. Forests. — A great variety of trees grow in the woods, among the most common of which are the cottonwood (which attains to a greater size than any other tree), black walnut, white poplar, honey locust, swamp, red and scarlet oak, box, hickory, elm, prickly ash, sweet-gum, sycamore, cypress, hackberry, maple, pecan, buckeye, yellow pine and beech, together with a very large under- growth of papaw, cane and spice-wood. The bear, wolf, deer, raccoon, wildcat, etc., are frequently seen. Soil and Climate. — Along the Mississippi River is the "gum- swamp," or " bayou," laud and the "black-wax" land, formerly overflowed by the back-water. Since the construction of levees the land has been reclaimed, and sometimes produces two bales of cotton to the acre. The cotton plant sends its roots down from four to six feet into the alluvial sediment. There are vast alluvial meadows along the Arkansas River which produce from 1000 to 1100 pounds of cotton and from 80 to 100 bushels of corn to the acre. The " black-sand land " along tlie Red River is also remarkable for its fertility. In some sections of the north-west the soil is gravelly and almost worthless, but large tracts are well suited for grazing and produce cereal grains and apples of the finest quality. The climate is subject to very sudden changes from the cold north winds. A traveller records in his diary that in the latter part of January he found the fields of a vivid green, the flowers blooming, the birds singing and the thermometer at 67°. Nearly two months later (March 21) ice formed and the mercury sank to 22°. The isothermal lines for the several seasons are as follows : Spring, 60° ; summer, 77°-80° ; autumn, 60°-65° ; winter, 40°-45° ; annual mean, 60°. The mercury has been known to reach 90° on as many as 50 days during a single summer. T^e range for the year is from 8° to 99.5°. At Little Rock the mean for 1874 was 62.6°. Agricultural Productions. — The census of 1870 reported the number of acres in farms as 7,597,296, of which 1,714,466 acres (24.5 per cent.) were improved. The total value of all farms, farm imple- ments and live-stock was $59,489,613 ; value of firm productions, $40,- 701,699 ; per acre of improved land, $21.88. There were produced 247,- 212 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES 968 bales of cotton, 214,784 pounds of wool, 73,021 of rice, 92 hhds. of cane-sugar, 72,008 gallons of cane-molasses, 147,203 of sorghum, 75 of maple molasses, 890,631 bushels of sweet potatoes, 47,376 bushels of peas and beans, 276,824 pounds of honey, 3743 gallons of wine. In 1873 there were raised 16,208,000 bushels of Indian corn, 785,000 of wheat, 39,700 of rye, 780,000 of oats, 408,000 of potatoes, 945,000 pounds of tobacco, 12,800 tons of hay. The total value of these seven staple crops, grown on 822,293 acres, was $15,510,090, an average of $18.74 per acre. In 1874 the State had 162,500 horses, 83,600 mules, 256,000 cattle, 151,800 milch cows, 176,300 sheep, 960,500 swine. There were 49,359 farms, averaging 154 acres each. Manufactures. — But little attention has been given to manufac- turing. The last census gives 1079 establishments; hands employed, 3206; value of products, $4,629,234. For the manufacture of firearms there Avere 8 establishments, iron 2, leather 35, tobacco 4, boots and shoes 2, cot- ton goods 2, ginning cotton 283, Avool-carding 13, flour and meal 272. There were 211 saw-mills, cutting 78,692,000 feet of lumber; value of timber, staves, shingles, etc., cut, $1,344,403. Minerals and Mining. — The State geologist expresses the opinion that Arkansas is destined to take the lead of all the Western States in her resources of zinc and manganese. Anthracite, bituminous and caunel coal is found in considerable quantities ; limestone is abundant; iron, lead, cop- per, gypsum, nitre-earths, kaoline (porcelain clay), granite, freestone, mar- ble and slate exist in many localities. Near the hot springs is a quarry of oil-stone or Arkansas whetstone, said to be equal to any in the world. The saline springs yield an excellent quality of salt. This State has no direct foreign commerce, but large quantities of cotton, corn, hides, wool, lumber, etc. are exported through ISTew Orleans. llailroads.— In 1860 Arkansas had 38 miles of railroad. In 1873 this had increased to 700 miles ; cost per mile, $63,296 ; receipts per mile, $1591 ; receipts per inhabitaht, $1.73; total receipts, $927,609; total cap- ital account, $36,901,408; cost of railroad and equipment, $35,721,095. In the adoption of the new Constitution provision was made for aiding, by an issue of bonds, five railroads to a length not exceeding 800 miles, at the rate of $10,000 and $15,000 per mile. The amount of these bonds will be about six millions of dollars. Public Institutions and Education.— The Penitentiary, the Institute for the Blind and the Deaf Mute Institute are all located at Little Rock. The Industrial University, at Fayetteville, founded on the basis of the Congressional land grant, is to embrace four' colleges and thirteen subordinate schools. A fine building, to accommodate 700 students, was erected in 1875. The entire property of the university is $300,000 ; num- ber of students, 241. St. John's College, at Little Rock, has 102 students CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 213 and 6 iustriictors. Cane Hill College, at Boonsboro', has also a prepara- tory department. The last statistics attainable report a school popula- tion of 196,237 ; school-houses erected during the year, 187 ; whole num- ber of school-houses, 1292; teachers, 2641 ; amount of permanent school- fund, $95,501 ; total expenditures for two years, ^970,307. The number of libraries was 1181; newspapers and periodicals, 56 ; church organiza- tions, 1371; edifices, 1141. Cities and Towns. — Little Rock, laid out in 1820 as the capital, and the principal city of the State, is built upon a low bed of rocks (whence its name), 250 miles from the mouth of the Arkansas River. Steamboats can ascend to it, even at the lowest water. Three railroads centre here. It has several manufactories, founderies and flouring-mills. There are nine churches and six newspapers, three of them issued daily. Population in 1870, 12,380 (5274 colored). Helena, on the Mississippi River, is the second city in the State. It is the terminus of two railroads. There are two daily and three weekly newspapers, and seven churches. It is the capital of Phillips county. Population, 2249. Camden, the head of steam- boat navigation on the Washita, is a ■ place of considerable trade. It has one daily and three weekly newspapers. Population, 1612 (612 colored). Hot Springs is a place of resort for invalids on account of the medicinal quality of its springs. It has five churches and two newspapers. Popu- lation, 1276 (296 colored). Fort Smith, on the Arkansas River, near the Indian Territory, is at the head of steamboat navigation and the terminus of a railroad. The city has four newspapers and nine churches. Popula- tion, 2227. Pine Blufl[* (population 2081) has an extensive trade with the cotton regions. Population. — The whole territory had but 1052 inhabitants in 1800, although the first settlement was made 115 years before. The population in successive decades was as follows: 1820, 14,273 (slaves, 1615); 1830, 30,388 (slaves, 4576); 1840, 97,554 (slaves, 19,935); 1850, 209,897 (slaves, 47,100); 1860, 435,450 (slaves, 111,115); 1870, 484,471 (free colored, 122,169). There were also 89 Indians. The number born in the United States was 479,445, of whom 232,881 were natives of Arkansas and 246,- 564 (51.43 per cent.) were immigrants from other parts of the Union. Alabama contributed 28,318, Georgia 25,234, Mississippi 22,088. The number of inhabitants of foreign birth was 5026 (1.04 per cent.). 54,951 people born in Arkansas were residing outside of their native State. Pop- ulation to a square mile, 9.28. GrOVernment and Laws. — The legislature, which meets bien- nially, consists of a senate of 26 members, elected for four years, and a house of representatives of 82 members, elected for two years. The governor receives a salary of $5000 a year. The supreme court consists of a chief-justice appointed by the govei-nor and four judges elected by the 214 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES people. There are ten circuit courts. A registration of voters is required. Political disabilities may be removed from those who have returned to their allegiance to the Federal Government, by special act of the general assembly. History. — Arkansas takes its name from an Indian tribe, said to be the tallest and most finely formed of all the savages of the continent. In 1685, the Chevalier de Touti, failing in his efforts to reach La Salle, en- tered the Arkansas River and left ten of his men to settle with the Indians near the present town of Arkansas Post. Several families of Canadians soon joined them, and the descendants of those hardy pioneers are still occupying that region. This State was a part of the domain of Louisiana purchased from France in 1803. It was made a separate territory on the admission of Missouri, and was admitted into the Union as a sovereign State in 1836. An ordinance of secession was passed May 6, 1861. The State authorities bad previously taken possession of the arsenal at Little Rock and Fort Smith. Helena was occupied by the Federal forces after the battle of Pea Ridge, March 6, 1862, and a military governor was ap- pointed for the State. Little Rock was occupied by the Army of Arkansas Sept. 10, 1863. The surrender of Lieut.-Gen. E. Kirby Smith, command- ing the trans-Mississippi department of the Confederate States, ended active hostilities. More than 10,000 men from Arkansas fought on the Federal side. A new Constitution was ratified by the people in March, 1868, and on the 22d of June the administration of afiairs was transferred to the civil authorities. CALIFORNIA. Situation and Extent.— California is bounded IST. by Oregon, E. by Nevada aud Arizona, S. by Lower California, a province of Mexico, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. Its length is 775 miles and its greatest ])readth 350 miles ; area, 188,981 square miles, or 120,947,840 acres. It lies between latitude 32° 20' and 42° N., and longitude 37° 20' and 47° 25' W. from Washington, or 114° 20' and 124° 25' W. from Greenwich. Physical Features.— &ulation. — The early population was of pure English origin, but the demand tor labor in the tacto'ries has brought in a large percentage of foreigners. In 1670 the number of inhabitants was 15,000 ; in 1756, 131,805; at the beginning of the Revolutionary war, about 200,000. Even before that period the tide of emigration had begun to set toward Dutchess and Columbia counties, on the east bank of the Hudson Eiver, which were then " the West." People from Connecticut also settled Ver- mont and ]!^ew Hampshire along the line of the Connecticut River. The population at successive decades has been : In 1790, 237,946 ; in 1800, 251,002: in 1810, 261,942; in 1820, 275,148; in 1830, 297,675; in 1840, 309,978 ; in 1850, 370,792 ; in 1860, 460,147 ; in 1870, 537,454. Of the last number, 423,815 were native and 113,639 foreign born ; of the resi- dents, 350,498 were born in the State; 136.630 natives of Connecticut were residing in other parts of the Union. The density of the population (^113.15 to the square mile) is greater than in any otlier of the States, with the exception of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Cities and Toatiis. — There are nine incorporated cities. Xew Haven, on the bay of the same name, 74 miles from Xew York, is a rap- idly-growing city. It has a considerable coasting trade. The manufac- tures are very various. There were formerly more than fifty carriage lactones. Besides Yale College, there are several thriving educational institutions. Five railroads centre here. Four daily newspapers are pub- lished. The number and magnificence of its shade-trees has given to Xew Haven the title of " the Elm City." Population, 50,840. Hartford, the sole capital of the State since 1873, is at the head of steamboat navigation on the Connecticut River. The stream is crossed by a bridge 1000 feet long. An immense tobacco trade is carried on. The insurance and book- publishing interests are very large. Among the famous manufiictures are Colt's pistols. Sharp's rifies and Cheney Brothers' silks. There are 4 rail- roads, 3 daily newspapers and 40 religious societies. A new State-House, to cost §1,500,000, will be completed in time for the Centennial. Popula- tion, 37,180. Bridgeport (population 18,969) is the third city of the State. It has grown tip almost entirely on the manufacture of sewing-machines, 224 £UBLEY'S UNITED STATES carriages, iron, etc. Norwich (population 16,653) is beautifully situated on the Thames, and is the steamboat terminus of one of the great Boston and New York lines. Waterbury (population 10,826), on the Naugatuck River, makes clocks, buttons, and a great variety of brass-ware. New London is again reviving the whale-fishery, which was once so important. Middletown, on the Connecticut River, which has here 10 feet depth of water, is a place of considerable river trade. The public and literary institutions located here have been mentioned. Meriden (population 10,495) claims to have the largest Britannia ware factory in the world. New Britain (population 9480) has very extensive hardware and hosiery establishments. Goveriiiiieiit and Laws. — The legislature consists of a senate of 21 members and a house of representatives of 247 members. The gov- ernor (salary $2000) and other executive officers are chosen annually. The supreme court of errors consists of five judges. The superior court consists of the five supreme court judges and six other judges. Each has S3500 salary. There are courts of common pleas in the four most popu- lous counties. Justices of the peace are elected in every town. History. — The Dutch of the New Netherlands first explored the Connecticut River. They erected a fort in 1633. In 1636 colonists from Massachusetts settled along the river. Two years later, New Haven was settled under Davenport, who was the leading minister of this colony, as was the Rev. Thomas Hooker of the colony at Hartford. The royal charter was saved by being hid in the " charter oak " when Sir Edmund Andros tried to get possession of it, in 1687. Connecticut did efficient ser- vice in the Revolution under Governor (" Brother Jonathan ") Trumbull. DELAWARE. Situation and Extent. — Delaware is bouuded on the N. by Pennsylvania, on the N. E. and E. by Delaware River and Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, on the S. and W. by Maryland. It is situated between latitudes 38° 28' and 39° 50' N. and longitudes 1° 10' and 1° 55' E. from Washington, or 75° 5' and 75° 50' W. from Gi-eenwich. It is 93 miles long from north to south, and varies in width from 12 to 38 miles ; the area is 2120 square miles, or 1,356,800 acres. The boundary-line between Pennsylvania and Delaware is the segment of a circle, with a radius of 12 miles, the centre of which is at New Castle. This boundary was deter- mined by Mason and Dixon in 1763 [see Maryland], and the name of " Mason and Dixon's line " is still retained. Physical Features.— /Sw/ace.— The northern section is of a pri- mary rocky formation. Hills of a beautifully-rounded outline rise to a height of several hundred feet above tide-water. The creeks run through deeply-cleft valleys with rounded or abrupt rocky sides. Below this pri- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 225 maiy region is a compamtively level coimtry. A table-land not more than 75 feet high extends through the peninsula and slopes gently toward the east and west. In the swamps and morasses several small streams have their rise, which empty into the Delaware and the Chesapeake. Along the Maryland line is a cypress swamp containing 50,000 acres and furnishing valuable timber ; it is infested with poisonous reptiles. Rivers. — The Delaware River, navigable for the lai'gest vessels, washes the eastern shore. Brandywine Creek rises in Chester county, Pennsylvania, and unites with Christiana Creek near Wilmington. It is forty miles long and navigable 13 miles for vessels drawing six feet of water. Duck Creek forms the boundary between Kent and New Castle counties, and the Mis- jDilion River the boundary between Kent and Sussex. The Murderkill, Indian and Broadkill Rivers flow into Delaware Bay; the Rocomoke, Nanticoke and Choptank run through Maryland into the Chesapeake. Soil and Climate. — Along the Delaware River are rich clay lands. Newcastle county contains almost every variety of soil to be found east of the Alleghany Mountains — -jagged hills, broad plains, extensive meadows, swamps and marshes. A green sand stratum, averaging 21 feet in thick- ness, furnishes an abundance of marl for fertilization. In the northern part is a clayey soil, and a vegetable mould in the marsh-lands. Sandy soils prevail extensively in Kent and Sussex. Hundreds of acres of the swamp and submerged lands along the Delaware River have been re- claimed by drainage. More than 1100 distinct species of flora have been enumerated in New Castle county. The climate is modified by the sea- breezes which sweep across the whole peninsula. The isothermal lines which cross Delaware are : Spring, 55° ; summer, 75° ; autumn, 55° ; win- ter, 35° ; annual mean, 55°. Observations at Newark show a mean annual temperature of 53°. Agricultural Productions.— There were in 1870 1,052,322 acres of farm laud, of which 698,115 acres were improved; average size of farms, 138 acres. Value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $52,171,837 ; value of farm productions, $8,171,667. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, potatoes and hay-crops of 1873 was 83,727,930. In 1874 there were 20,000 horses, 4000 mules, 31,700 oxen and other cattle, 24,900 milch coavs, 32,200 sheep, 48,200 hogs. Immense quantities of fruits are sent to the Northern markets. From three to four million baskets of peaches are shipped annually. The shipment of straw- ])erries in 1874 was 7,470,400 quarts. Manufactures. — The first cotton factory was built in 1795. As early as 1814, Dupont's powder-mills made 15,000 pounds of powder per week. In 1817 the Messrs. Gilpin established the first manufactory in America for making paper by machinery in continuous rolls. There were 800 manufacturing establishments in 1870, employing 9710 hands and 15 226 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES producing a value of $16,791,382. Among these were 26 iron-mills, 6 cotton-factories, 103 flour-mills (annual product, $2,067,401), 10 tanneries, 80 saw-mills (annual product, .^405,041). Commerce and Navigation. — The ocean shore of Delaware consists of long sandy beaches, affording no good harbors or offings. The Delaware Breakwater was constructed by the United States government as a shelter for vessels. It consists of a surf-breaker 2748 feet long and 15 feet above low-water mark, and an ice-breaker, toward the Delaware River, 1710 feet long. The cost was more than $3,000,000. A ship-canal connects the Delaware and Chesapeake Bays. It was completed in 1829, at a cost of two and a quarter millions of dollars. The length is 16 miles, width 66 feet, depth 10 feet. For four miles the channel is cut through a hill 90 feet high, A new company was chartered in 1873, to construct a tidal canal, navigable for the largest class of vessels that now enter Balti- more harbor. The distance is 32 miles, which can be traversed in 5 hours, thus bringing Baltimore by water 225 miles nearer New York and the Eastern markets. A million and a half tons of coal were shipped from Baltimore to the East in 1873, and the amount would be largely increased by a canal. The number of sailing-vessels is 170 ; steamboats, 15 ; total vessels of all kinds, 196 ; tonnage, 15,633 ; vessels cleared in 1873, 9 ; vessels entered, 3; imports, $12,516. Seven steam-vessels, having a ton- nage of 9550 tons, were built at Wilmington in 1873. The State has but one customs district. The number of national banks is 17. Railroads. — In 1844 Delaware had 39 miles of railroad. In 1873 there were reported 264 miles (being one mile to every 500 inhabitants and to every 80 square miles of territory); cost per mile, $18,815; receipts, $666,801 ($3299 to each mile and $5.04 to each inhabitant) ; total capital account, $3,819,479 ; cost of railroads and equipment, $3,487,140. Edncation. — The State is divided into school districts, and the voters of each district decide all questions relating to the schools. There is no superintendent of public instruction, and the county superintendents, ap- pointed by the governor, have no pay, and consequently few duties. In 1873 the number of schools was 349 ; pupils, 18,790 ; school population, 47,825. There is no provision by law for the education of the colored people, but a voluntary association has organized 25 schools to supply the deficiency in part. Delaware College, at Newark, has classical, scientific and agricultural departments. St. Mary's and the Wesleyan Female Col- lege, at Wilmington, and Brandywine College, at Brandywine, are flourish- ing institutions. Delaware has 17 newspapers, of which 3 are daily, 1 tri- weekly and 1 semi-weekly. There are 252 church edifices, with 87,899 sittings. Cities and Towns. — Wilmington, the chief city, stands on a rising .ground commanding an extensive view. The Old Swedes Church was CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 227 founded in 1698. A stone meeting-house was built by the "new light" converts of George Whitefield. The mills have been run for the greater part of a century. Extensive new structures have replaced the quaint old buildings. In 1873 the number of new buildings erected was 448 ; capital employed in manufactures, $12,625,000. Population in 1870, 30,841, of whom 25,689 were born in the United States; 3211 were colored. Dover, the capital, situated on Jones' Creek, has a fine State-house fronting an open public square. Population, 1906 (501 colored). The fruit-canning trade centres here. Smyrna, near Duck Creek, is a place of considerable business. Population, 2110. Other leading towns are New Castle ('popu- lation 1766), Delaware City (population 1545), Seaford, on the Nanticoke River (population 1308), Lewes, opposite the Breakwater (population 1090), North Milford (population 1150), Georgetown (population 710). Gro^wth in Population.— In 1790 the number of inhabitants was 59,094 (slaves, 8887); 1800, 64,273 (slaves, 6153); 1810, 72,674 (slaves, 4177); 1820,72,749 (slaves, 4509) ; 1830,76,748 (slaves, 3292) ; 1840, 78,085 (slaves, 2605); 1850, 91,532 (slaves, 2290); 1860, 112,216 (slaves, 1798) ; 1870, 125,015 (free colored, 22,794). Population to a square mile, 58.97. The number born in foreign countries was 9136; in the United States, 115,879; in Delaware, 94,754. Grovernment and Laivs. — ^The legislative authority is vested in a general assembly, which consists of a senate, having 9 members, and a house of representatives, having 21 members. The legislature holds biennial sessions. The governor serves for four years. There are five judges. Ministers of the gospel are not allowed to hold any civil office. There is no State-prison ; criminals are confined in the county jails. The whipping-post and the pillory are still in vogue. The State debt, January 1, 1875, was $1,250,000. History. — Delaware was one of the original thirteen States, and the first to ratify the Federal Constitution, which it did by a unanimous vote, December 7, 1787. On the 28th of August, 1609, Henry Hudson discov- ered the Delaware River, which, however, afterward took its name from Lord Delaware, who entered it in 1610. Colonists from Holland settled near Lewes in 1630, but the Indians destroyed them. In 1638 the Swedes built a fort at the mouth of Christiana Creek. The Dutch of the New Netherlands took possession of the country in 1655, and the English wrested it from them in 1664. These were all bloodless wars. It is be- lieved that not a single life was lost in hostile contests during the whole period of the Swedish dominion. The Indians were friendly, and called the Swedes "their own people." In 1682 William Penn obtained a grant of the territory, and governed it as a part of Pennsylvania. It was allowed a separate general assembly in 1703. The amended Constitution of 1831 is still the fundamental law of the State. 228 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES FLORIDA. Situation and Extent.— Florida, the most southern State of the Union, approaches within one degree of the torrid zone. It lies between latitudes 24° 30' and 31° N. and longitudes 3° and 10° 45' W. from Wash- ington, or 80° and 87° 45' W. from Greenwich. In shape it bears some resemblance to a boot sole upward, with a foot 350 miles long from east to west, and a leg 400 miles long from north to south. The area is 59,268 square miles or 37,931,520 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Western Florida is a rolling and hilly country, but there are no mountains. ' On the northern border is the Okefinokee Swamp. The eastern section is level and sandy, the central contains vast prairies interspersed with lakes and swamps. The Ever- glades, in the south, are a vast shallow lake containing innumerable islands, covered with a growth of live-oak and water-oak. Rivers. — The St. John's River, 400 miles long, is one of the widest in America. For 150 miles it has an average breadth of 1^ miles, and sometimes expands to 6 and 10 miles. It is said to discharge more water than the Rio Grande. Steamboats ascend to Enterprise, 205 miles. The Appalachicola, navigable for 75 miles, is formed by the union of the Chattahoochee and the Flint, rising in Northern Georgia. Other rivers are the Suwauee, Ockloconee, Choctawhatchee, Perdido and St. Mary's. There are many beautiful lakes. Three central counties have a lake surface of 200 square miles, with an average depth of 15 feet. Lake Okeechobee, in the Everglades, is 40 miles loug and 30 broad. Soil and Climate. — The lands have been divided into three classes, swamp, hummock and pine. The swamps, when drained, make ex- ceedingly rich land, which retains its fertility longer than any other soil in the United States. The sugar-cane matures here, and produces four hogs- heads of sugar to the' acre. Upon the hummock lands there is a growth of underbrush and hard wood. After clearing and ditching, the low hum- mocks are adapted for the growth of the sugar-cane. The high hummocks yield all the various crops of the country. The pine lands, when cleared, yield 400 pounds of cotton to the acre in many places, where beneath the sandy soil is a subsoil of mould or marl, with fragments of marine shells. The peninsula rests upon a coral formation. Florida boasts of having the finest climate in the world. The average temperature of 1874 was, at Jacksonville, 69.3°; Key West, 76.8°; Lake City, 67.7°; PuntaRassa, 73.5°. In Southern Florida frost is unknown, but the northern section is not safe from it. Jan. 3, 1776, the mercury fell to 26°, and the lime, citron and banana trees about St. Augustine were destroyed. In 1774 there was a snow-storm. In February, 1835, the St. John's River was frozen, and most of the fruit trees were killed. Usually, in the latter part CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 229 of January the calla-lily, rose-geranium, camellia and yellow jessamine are in bloom. Green peas and new potatoes are ready for the market by the first of April. May brings the fruits and vegetables of August at the North. The isothermal lines are for the spring, 70° at St. Augustine, 75.8° at Key West ; summer, 82° at both places ; autumn, 70° and 78° ; winter, 55° and 70°; annual mean, 70° and 75°. Florida reverses the order of wet and dry times which prevails in California, and has its rainy season in the summer. Trees, Animals and Birds. — Rene Laudonniere, who visited Florida in 1652, wrote : " There groweth in those parts great quantity of pine trees which have no kernels in the apples which they bear. Their woods are full of oaks, walnuts, black-cherry trees, mulberry trees, lentisks, and chestnut trees, which are more wild than those in France. There is great store of cedars, cypresses, bays, palm trees, hollies, and wild vines which climb up along the trees and bear good grapes. There are also plum trees which bear very fair fruit, but such as is not very good. The beasts best known in this country are stags, hinds, goats, deer, leopards, divers sorts of wolves, wild dogs, hares and a certain sort of beast that dif- fereth little from the lion of Africa. The fowls are: turkey-cocks, par- tridges, parrots, pigeons, ring-doves, turtles, blackbirds, crows, falcons, herons, cranes, storks, wild geese and an infinite sort of wild fowl." To his list of trees may be added the palmetto, oleander, pomegranate, ba- nana, cocoa-nut, lemon and orange. The orange grows spontaneously, but the better varieties are obtained only by cultivation. They can be raised from the seed so as to bear in six years. Blossoms and green and ripe fruit may be seen upon the branch together. A single tree sometimes produces 8000 to 10,000 oranges. Agricultural Productions. — Market-gardening is very profit- able. Early tomatoes, cucumbers, melons, peas, beans, cabbages, turnips, beets, onions, squashes, sweet-potatoes, etc., are sent to the New York and Philadelphia markets. Cotton is the leading staple. Wheat is grown in the northern part. The ramie, or jute, has been introduced. Indigo, castor-beans, rice, arrow-root, tobacco and hemp are successfully cultivated. Florida is the best-timbered State on the continent. It has 30,000,000 acres of forest. According to the census of 1870, there were 2,373,351 acres in farms, of which 736,172 acres were improved ; number of farms, 10,241 ; average size, 232 acres ; value of farms, implements and live- stock, $15,664,521 ; value of farm productions, including betterments, orchards, market-gardens, etc., more than nine millions of dollars. The quantity of Indian corn produced in 1873 was 2,112,000 bushels, value S2,344,320; oats, 109,000 bushels, value $111,180; tobacco, 80,000 pounds, value $26,400. In January, 1874, the number of horses was 16,600 ; mules, 10,000 ; oxen and other cattle, 383,600 ; milch cows, 69,000 ; sheep, 31,900 ; swine, 183,400. About 70 per cent, of the popu- 230 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES lation are engaged in agriculture. The State Agricultural College has a fund of $100,000. Manufactures. — Florida has few manufacturing establishments, and those are of small capacity. The number reported by the last census was 659, employing 2749 hands and producing a value of ^4,685,403. The fisheries are not largely developed. There were 43 establishments, employing 150 hands and producing to the value of $101,528. Commerce and Navigation. — The sea-coast of this State is more than 1100 miles long. In 1772 the export of indigo was 40,000 pounds ; turpentine, 20,000 barrels. In 1778 the exports were valued at £48,000. There are 7 customs districts, having 229 vessels enrolled ; 17 were built in 1873. The number of vessels entered was, foreign, 750, coast- wise, 1546; total entered, 2296; vessels cleared, foreign, 770, coastwise, 1546 ; total cleared, 2316 ; value of imports, $505,751 ; value of exports, . $2,984,975. Railroads. — In 1873 the number of miles was 466 ; cost per mile, $18,455; total capital account, $7,142,000; receipts, $479,000; receipts per mile of railroad, $1267 ; receipts to each inhabitant, $2.18. Cities and Towns. — St. Augustine is the oldest town on the West- ern Continent. It was founded in 1565, earlier than Jamestown, Va., by 42 years, and 55 years before the pilgrim settlers of Massachusetts landed on Plymouth Rock. The quaint old town has known more of "battles and of sieges" than any other in America. In 1586 it was bombarded by Sir Francis Drake ; in 1611 it was pillaged by the Indians ; English buc- caneers sacked it in 1665; Gov. Moore of South Carolina captured and burnt it in 1702 ; Gov. Oglethorpe of Georgia bombarded its fort for 38 days in 1740 ; the fort and arsenal were seized by the Confederates Jan. 7, 1861 ; and St. Augustine was retaken by the Federal forces in 1862. The city lies upon low ground, and is protected from the surf by a sea-wall built by the United States government. A sea-wall is put down on a map published in 1665. The Roman Catholic church has a bell cast in 1682. Fort Marion was begun in 1620. In 1648 St. Augustine had 300 house- holders. The population in 1740 was 2143; in 1870, 1717; estimated population at present, 3500. A writer in 1696 says : " The houses are most of them old buildings, and not half of them inhabited." Jacksonville (named after President Jackson) is the largest city below Savannah. It is situated on the St. John's River, 25 miles from its mouth. There are 12 churches, 2 tri- weekly newspapers and a United States court. Fifty million feet of lumber are shipped yearly. Population in 1870, 6912. Tallahassee, the capital, has 2 newspapers. Population, 2023. Feruan- dina, founded by the Spaniards, has a capacious land-locked harbor. There are 7 churches and 2 newspapers. Population, 1722. Pensacola, founded by the Spaniards in 1698, has a fine harbor, with 24 feet of water CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 231 ou the bar. Fort Pickens guards the entrance. Population, 3343. Key West is situated on an island of the same name, 11 feet above the sea-level. It has 5 churches and 2 newspapers. Here is a United States naval sta- tion. Other leading towns are Gainesville (1500), Lake City (2000), Palatka and Appalachicola (1000 each). Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1830 was 34,370 (slaves, 15,501); 1840, 54,477 (slaves, 25,717); 1850, 87,445 (slaves, 39,310); 1860, 140,424 (slaves, 61,745); 1870, 187,748 (free colored, 91,689); natives of Florida, 109,554; of other parts of the United States, 73,227 ; of foreign countries, 4967 ; population to a square mile, 3.17. There were 14,594 natives of Florida residing in other parts of the Amer- ican Union. Education. — A uniform system of free schools is provided for by law for all children between the ages of 4 and 21. In 1874 the value of school-houses was $250,000 ; receipts for school purposes, $160,000; pupils enrolled, 27,000 ; number of teachers, 500. Flourishing seminaries are in operation at Tallahassee and Gainesville. Florida has 75 libraries (other than private), 23 newspapers, 390 churches. Government ant? Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 24 members, elected for 4 years, and an assembly of 53 mem- bers, elected for 2 years. The legislature meets annually. The governor and lieutenant-governor are elected by the people for a term of 4 years. Other executive officers are appointed by the governor and confirmed by the senate. The salary of the governor is $5000 and that of the lieutenant- governor $2500. The supreme court has three judges, holding office for life or good behavior. There are seven circuits, with judges appointed for eight years, and a county court for each county, the judges of which hold office for a term of four years. The State debt, Jan. 1, 1875, was $1,599,479. History. — Florida was the first part of the United States occupied by Europeans, and is associated with some of the most thrilling and ro- mantic events in American history. Sebastian Cabot discovered the coast in 1497. Juan Ponce de Leon, who had the Spanish love for gold and long life, hoj)ed to secure both in the region which was fabled to contain all the treasures of El Dorado and the " Fountain of Youth." On Easter Sunday — Pascua Florida meaning " feast of flowers " in Spanish — (not on Palm Sunday, as many authorities ha\e it), he planted a cross and took possession of " The Land of Flowers " in the name of the Spanish monarch. On a second visit, in 1521, De Leon was severely wounded, and soon after died. He found in Florida the w^aters of " Lethe " instead of the " foun- tain of life." An attempt at Spanish colonization, in 1528, was defeated by the Indians. Ferdinand de Soto passed through Florida in 1539. Some French Huguenots sought refuge there, and 850 of them were mas- sacred " at the bloody river of Matanzas " by a Spanish officer whose re- 232 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ligious zeal impelled liim to refuse a proffered ransom of 200,000 ducats. The Spanish supremacy lasted for 250 years. In 1763 the country was ceded to Great Britain. After a twenty years' occupation it was re-ceded to Spain in 1784. After holding it for thirty-five years, Spain ceded the whole to the United States for five millions of dollars, and on the 10th day of July, 1821, the standard of Spain, which had been first raised 309 yead-s before, gave place to "the star-spangled banner." The Seminole war broke out in 1835 [see Historical Sketch, p. 125, note]. General Jackson was the first territorial governor. The State was admitted to the Union March 3, 1845, passed an ordinance of secession Jan. 10, 1861, and repealed the ordinance Oct. 28, 1865. A new Constitution was ratified in May, 1868. GEORGIA. Situation and Extent. — Georgia is bounded on the N, by Ten- nessee and North Carolina, on the N. E. by South Carolina, on the S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, on the S. by Florida, and on the W. by Florida and Alabama. It is situated between latitudes 30° 21' and 35° N. and longi- tudes 3° 48' and 8° 40' W. from Washington, «r 80° 48' and 85° 40' W. from Greenwich. The area is 68,000 square miles, or 37,120,000 acres. PliysiCcll Features. — Surface. — An extensive plain, of tertiary formation, extends from the Atlantic coast inward for more than a hun- dred miles, with a gradually ascending slope of from ten to twenty feet. Then there is an abrupt rise of seventy feet, and after twenty miles an- other similar elevation. The geologists infer that these are old sea-mar- gins. At the head of navigation on the Savannah and Oconee Rivers the swells attain a height of 500 feet. A series of undulating hills rise to the summits of the Blue Ridge Mountains, which are from 1200 to 4000 feet high. Toward the west the descent is precipitous. Between the ranges of liills are fertile valleys, abundantly supplied with water. The southern sections are level and sandy. In the south-east is .the Okefinokee Swamp, 180 miles in circumference, which is the haunt of a great variety of noxious and venomous reptiles. Rivers. — The Savannah River, 500 miles long, which forms the boundary between Georgia and South Carolina, rises in the Blue Ridge, and is navigable for steamboats to Augusta, 248 miles. Toccoa Falls, on a small tributary, are 186 feet high. The Altamaha River is formed by the union of the Oconee, navigable to Milledgeville, 200 miles, and the Ocmulgee, navigable to Macon, 300 miles. On the western boundary is the Chattahoochee River, 350 miles long, and naviga- ble to Columbus. The Flint River, which unites with the Chattahoochee to form the Appalachicola, is 200 miles in length. The St. Mary's River, rising in the Okefinokee Swamp, separates Georgia from Eastern Florida. The whole State is most abundantly watered, having more than fifty streams, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 233 designated as rivers, which belong to the three great water-sheds of the AthiDtic Ocean, the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi Valley. Soil and Climate. — Along the sea-coast are many islands, having a light sandy soil which is especially suited to the production of the fliraous "sea-island" cotton. Rice plantations occupy the tide-swamps. Georgia is surpassed only by South Carolina in the amount of its rice production. Along the rivers are alluvial lands, growing enormous crops of cotton, rice, sugar-cane, corn, etc. The soil is a blue clay mixed with fine sand and vegetable mould. Fossil bones of extinct mammalia are found in this formation. Portions of the extensive plain back from the coast are of little value for cultivation, but the pine-barrens yield timber, pitch, tar and turpentine. The lands in the western counties, formerly occupied by the Cherokee Indians, are of great fertility. Concerning the climate of Georgia, an English traveller wrote, in 1784 : " I think it is the finest climate in the world, for it is neither too warm in the summer nor too cold in the winter. They have certainly the finest water in the world, and the land is extraordinary good ; this may certainly be called the land of Canaan." Gov. Ellis, who w'rote on the 7th of July, 1757, when the thermometer was 102° in the shade, exj)ressed a different opinion: "I think it highly probable," he says, "that the inhabitants of this place [Savannah] breathe a hotter air than any other people on the face of the earth." The same writer tells us that on the 10th of December the mer- cury rose to 86°, and on the following day sank to 38°, a range of 48 degrees. Nov. 25, 1775, snow fell to the depth of 18 inches. In May 1837, hail-stones lay upon the ground for twelve days after the great storm. Most of the whites withdraw to the uplands during the warm season to escape the malaria of the rice plantations. The climate of the interior is cooler and very healthful. The mean annual temperature for 1874 was 65.9° at Savannah and 64.1° at Augusta. The mean distribution of heat, as indicated by the isothermal lines of the chart, is, spring, 60° to 70° ; summer, 75° to 82° ; autumn, 60° to 70° ; winter, 40° to 55° ; annual mean, 60° to 67°. The japonica, narcissus, rose and wild jasmine bloom about the middle of February. Forests. — In the forests are found the oak, hickory, catali)a, sycamore, birch, walnut, chestnut, cedar, poplar, cypress, gum, ash, tulip, elm, fir, spruce, palmetto, pine, beech, cottonwood, live-oak of the finest quality for ship-building, and ilex trees which Fanny Kemble says ai'e " like those of the Roman Campagua." Animals. — Among the animals may be mentioned the black bear, raccoon, weasel, mink, otter, wolf (black and gray), fox (gray and red), panther, wildcat, squirrels (gray, ground, fox, cat and flying), ground-hog, rabbit, opossum and deer. Birds. — Audubon noted 508 species of birds in the United States, of which 273 have been found in Georgia. A few of the most common are the bald eagle, hawk, turkey-buzzard, kite, owl, wren, mocking-bird, thrush, gold- 234 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES fiuch, crossbill, bob-o-liuk, oriole, lark, bluejay, cuckoo, paroquet, ibis, heron, curlew, grouse, plover, flaniiugo, swan and canvas-back duck. Reptiles.— The gopher, terrapin, alligator, lizard, scorpion, viper and rat- tlesnake are frequently seen. Fish.— UocMsh, trout, bass, mackerel, stur- geon, shark, devil-fish, crab, etc., are plenty. Nearly 250 varieties of sea- shells have been noted. AgTiciiltviral Productions. — The great staples are cotton (in which only Mississippi surpasses Georgia) and rice. In 1873 the produc- tion of Indian corn was 24,014,000 bushels; wheat, 2,176,000 bushels; oats, 4,800,000 bushels ; tobacco, 343,000 pounds. In 1870 the number of acres in farms was 23,647,941 ; acres improved, 6,831,856 ; value of farms, implements and live-stock, $129,330,486 ; value of farm, orchard and market-garden products (including betterments and additions to stock), $80,936,420. Jan. 1, 1874, the number of horses was 116,100; mules, 92,700; oxen and other cattle, 405,300; milch cows, 257,400; sheep, 235,700 ; swine, 1,497,000. A single acre of Bermuda grass, in 1873, produced nearly 5 if tons, valued at $20 per ton. The early settlers told marvellous stories about the fertility of their new domain. In 1739 a woman found three grains of rye in a quantity of Indian corn. One of these grains, on the third year, produced 170 stalks and ears, and the three together yielded to her "a bag of corn as large as a coat-pocket." Another woman had "a like bag of beans, all grown out of one bean." Manufactures. — There were 3836 manufacturing establishments in 1870, employing 17,871 hands; value of products, $31,196,115. The number of establishments for making agricultural implements was 10; boots and shoes, 244; carriages and wagons, 178; cotton, 34; iron, 30; leather, 186; lumber, 539; printing and publishing, 45; wool-carding and woollen goods, 46. Commerce and Navigation.— Georgia has a sea-coast of 100 miles in a direct line, and more than 400 miles with all its windings. In 1750 the exports were valued at $8897.76; in 1756 they had increased to $74,485.44; in 1759 the export of raw silk amounted to 10,000 pounds. The exports of the colonial period were almost exclusively rice, indigo, raw silk, skins, furs, lumber and provisions. The Indians then gave (according to a fixed schedule of prices) ten buckskins for a gun, five for a blanket, two for a white shirt, two for an axe. For the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of exports was $31,848,402 ; value of imports, $751,104. Cotton and lumber are almost the only articles exported. The total number of vessels and steamers entered (foreign and coastwise) was 1106; number cleared, 1149. A "union" has beenformed to secure a "direct line" to Liverpool. When the dredging operations now in progress are completed, it is expected that vessels drawing 22 feet of water can reach the Savannah wharves at all stages of the tide without ground- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 235 iug. The estimated amount needed for this work for the fiscal year end- ing June 30, 1876, is $175,000. Mineral Resources. — Previous to the discovery of the wonderful gold treasures of California, Georgia was the principal source of the pre- cious metal in the United States. The gold-field stretches along the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge for a width of from 15 to 20 miles. The first nugget discovered weighed three ounces. It was found near Duke's Creek, in 1829. A branch-mint was for a time maintained at Dahlouega [see Coins and Cukrency, p. 442]. The total gold product has been about 7 J millions of dollars. Iron, copper and kaolin have been discovered in small quantities. There are quarries of white marble. The product of the mines and quarries for 1870 was valued at $49,280. Kailroatls. — In 1844 Georgia had 452 miles of railroad. In 1873 the number of miles was 2260 ; inhabitants to a mile of railroad, 547 ; square miles to a mile of railroad, 25.7 ; total capital account, $41,143,172 ; cost per mile, $23,457 ; receipts, $7,695,955 ; receipts to a mile, $4393 ; receipts to each inhabitant, $6.23 ; net earnings, $2,265,472. Education and Public Institutions. — A general school law was passed in 1870. The governor and his council constitute the State Board of Education, in conjunction with the school commissioner, whose salary is $2500 per annum. There are separate schools for white and colored children. The returns for 1874 report 1974 schools (412 for colored children) and 85,184 scholars (colored, 20,786). The University of Geor- gia, at Athens, chartered in 1795, graduated a class of 9 at its first com- mencement. May 31, 1804. It has preparatory, academic, law and agri- cultural departments. The last named has a fund of $243,000, derived from the Congressional land-grant. The North Georgia Agricultural Col- lege, at Dahlonega, opened Jan. 1, 1873, is "a part and parcel of the University of Georgia." Other colleges are, Atlanta University (Congre- gational), Bowdon College, Emory College (Methodist Episcopal, South), Hamilton Female College, Le Vert College, Mercer University (Baptist) at Macon, Monroe and Wesleyan Female Colleges, and the Augusta and Savannah Medical Colleges. The census of 1870 reports 3 universities, 28 colleges, 1 law and 2 medical schools, 1735 libraries, 110 newspapers and 2873 churches. The State Penitentiary, at Milledgeville, has 664 convicts (571 colored). It was established in 1811. The State Lunatic Asylum, at the same place, was opened Dec. 15, 1842. There is an insti- tution for the blind at Macon, and one at Cave Spring for the deaf and dumb. Growth in Population. — In 1790 the population was 82,548 (slave, 29,264); 1800, 162,101 (slave, 59,404); 1810, 258,433 (slave, 105,218); 1820, 340,433 (slave, 149,656); 1830, 576,823 (slave, 217,531), 1840, 691,392 (slave, 280,944); 1850, 906,185 (slave, 381,682); 1860, 236 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES 1,057,286 (slave, 462,198); 1870, 1,184,109 (free colored, 545,154). In colored population Georgia ranks first, and in total number of inhabitants twelfth; population to a square mile, 20.42; number of native born, 1,172,982 (933,962 born in the State); foreign born, 11,127; number of native Georgians residing in other parts of the Union, 374,142. Cities and Towns. — Savannah, the oldest, largest and most wealthy city of the State, is beautifully situated, on a plain 40 feet above the Savannah Eiver, 18 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. It was founded in 1733, and the following year contained 40 houses. In 1820 a fire de- stroyed 463 buildings, inflicting a loss of more than four millions of dol- lars. The numerous fine shade-trees have given it the title of " The Forest City." Regular lines of steamers run to Boston, New York, Philadelphia and other ports. Population, 28,235. Atlanta, the capital of Georgia since 1868, is situated 1100 feet above the sea. It has 5 railroads, 3 daily papers, 2 banks, several large manufectories and 28 churches. The city was burned during the civil war. Population, 21,789. Augusta, at the head of navigation on the Savannah River, 230 miles above its mouth, was settled in 1735. It has 4 railroads, 2 daily papers, 6 banks, 21 churches, 4 founderies, and is the centre of a large trade. Population, 15,386. Macon has extensive founderies and machine-shops. It is well built, the houses being mostly of brick. Five railroads centre here. Population, 10,810. The other principal towns are Columbus, at the head of navigation on the Chattahoochee River, population 7401, and Milledgeville, the former capital, population 2750. Government and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of a senate of 44 members, and a house of representatives of 175 members. The legislature meets annually. The executive officers are a governor, secretary of State, comptroller-general, treasurer, surveyor-general, attorney-general and State school commission- ers, each holding office for a term of four years. The judicial authority is vested in a supreme court of three judges, 19 circuit courts, and county courts for the most populous counties. History.— Sir Walter Raleigh was the first European who trod the soil of Georgia. It appears from his diary that he visited the present site of Savannah in 1584 or 1585. In 1717 "all that tract of land which lies between the rivers Altamaha and Savannah " was granted to Sir Robert Montgomery. In July, 1732, a meeting was held in London with a view to establishing a colony in Georgia. Gov. Oglethorpe selected the present site of Savannah for his new town. The colonists spent their first night on shore Feb. 1, 1733. John Wesley preached here in 1736. Whitefield arrived in May, 1738, and established his famous "orphan house" in March, 1740, under the patronage of Lady Huntington. The first general assembly met in Savannah, Jan. 15, 1751. Slavery was at first prohibited ; CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 237 but the restrictiou was removed iu 1750, aud in 1773 the uumber of skves was 14,000. Although Georgia was the youngest of the thirteen colonies which declared their independence in 1776, she yielded to none of them in })atriotic service during that " heroic age of American history." When tidings came of the first blood shed at Lexington, a few bold patriots broke open the king's magazine and took 500 pounds of powder, of which a part was forwarded to Boston aud used by the Americans in the battle of Bunker Hill. Pulaski, Sergeant Jasper, Mcintosh, D'Estaing, were among those who sealed their devotion to their country with their life's blood. Savannah was captured by the British, Dec. 29, 1778. For many years there were serious difficulties with the Creek Indians. In 1838 the remnant of the tribe was removed beyond the Mississippi River. An ordinance of seces- sion was passed Jan. 19, 1861. Fort Pulaski, Fort Jackson and the arsenal at Augusta were seized. Gen. Sherman made his march through Georgia in 1864. In July, 1867, an act was passed for the readmission of the State into the Union. ILLINOIS. Situation and Extent. — Illinois is bounded on the N. by Wis- consin, E. by Lake Michigan and Indiana, S. by the Ohio River, separating it from Kentucky, and W. by the Mississippi River, separating it from Missouri and Iowa. It is situated between latitudes 36° 59' and 42° 30' N., and longitudes 10° 35' and 14° 40' W. from Washington, or 83° 35' and 91° 40' W. from Greenwich. The area is 55,410 square miles, or 35,462,400 acres. The length from north to south is 378 miles, the greatest breadth 210 miles. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — Illinois is more nearly level than any of the other States, with the exception of Louisiana and Delaware. In the north-west there are "mounds" rising 250 feet above the level of the surrounding country aud 1150 feet above the ocean. The lead region is the most elevated part of the State. There is a gradual descent toward the south as far as the valley of the Big Muddy River, in Jackson county. From this point there is a rapid rise to a range of hills 600 feet high, which cross the southern portion of the State. Along the rivers are bluffs from 100 to 150 feet high. The 'prairies (French for meadows), which cover most of the State, are immense level tracts, with occasional mounds, like islands in the ocean, rising to a height of 50 or 100 feet aud covered with a heavy growth of timber. In the centre and the north-east there is a deficiency of wood. Ford county has only six acres of timber to the square mile, which is less than 1 per cent. Randolph county, in the south- west, has 44 per cent, of woodland (280 acres to the square mile), aud the whole State has 5,061,578 acres (14 per cent, of its area) in timber. Among the principal trees are the oak (black, white, swamp and scarlet), 238 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES hickory, maple, linden, black gum, persimmon, elm (red, white and slip- pery), ash (black and white), dogwood, birch, beech, sycamore, Cottonwood, locust, hackberry, walnut, pecan, willow, cypress, cedar, poplar, pine, etc. Elvers. — Illinois is bounded by rivers on three sides. The Mississippi washes its western border for 700 miles. The Ohio and the Wabash afford navigation for the southern and eastern sections. The Illinois is the largest river within the State. It is 500 miles long and navigable for 250 miles. Rock River is 300 miles long. The other principal streams are the Kaskaskia, Little Wabash, Vermilion and Embarras. Soil and Climate. — Prof. Voelcker says : " I have never before analyzed soils which contain so much nitrogen." The prairies have a black, soft, vegetable mould, sometimes more than four feet thick, and of inexhaustible fertility. In the south-west are small prairies, with a choco- late-brown loam on a subsoil of yellow clay. The alluvial valleys of the Mississippi and the Illinois Rivers are from 5 to 10 miles wide, and pro- duce abundant crops. The State geologist says of Illinois : " It embraces a climatic range of five and a half degrees of latitude, and consequently comprises a greater variety in its zoological and botanical productions than can be found within the area of any other State in the Union." The great- ness of the difference will appear when we consider that Cairo, in Southern Illinois, is on the same parallel of latitude as Fortress Monroe, in Virginia, while the northern State line is above the parallel of Boston, in Massachu- setts. The mean temperature at Cairo for the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 58.4° ; at Chicago, 49.5°. The extremes at Chicago, during two years, were 23° helow zero and 99° above, a range of 122°. The extremes at Cairo were 8° below zero and 101° above; range, 109°. The above tem- peratures were taken from the report of the chief signal officer for 1873 and 1874. Observations at Peoria for 16 years gave a minimum of — 22° and a maximum of 104° ; range, 126°. At Sandwich, during 20 years, the minimum was — 30°, the maximum 105° ; range, 135°. The extensive prairies give free scope to the winds, which blow with great violence. The isothermal lines crossing Northern and Southern Illinois are as follows : Spring, 45°-60° ; summer, 70°-75°; autumn, 50°-57°; winter, 25°-37°; mean for the year, 47°-55°. Ag-ricultural Productions.— Illinois claims to be the "Empire State of the West" in agriculture. She had, in 1870, 19,329,952 acres (53 per cent, of her area) in improved farm lands. New York, which ranks next, has less than 16 millions of acres improved. The total value of farms, farm implements and live-stock was $1,104,839,639 ; value of farm productions, $210,860,585. In 1873 Illinois stood first in the pro- duction of corn (56 bushels to every inhabitant) and in oats, Iowa took the precedence in wheat and in hogs, which Illinois had formerly held. In rye, Illinois was next to Pennsylvania ; in hay, next to New York ; in CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 239 barley, next to California and New York ; in honey, first of all the States ; in wine and in orchard products, fourth. She had the largest number of horses (3 for every 7 inhabitants), and only Texas surpassed her in cattle. The very abundance of the crops is sometimes a disadvantage to the farmer. In 1873 corn sold for 20 to 25 cents per bushel, and oats for 15 to 18 cents. It took four bushels of corn to pay the freight of the fifth bushel to New York. A single county could load a train of 40 cars every day in the year. The i^roduction might be indefinitely increased were there sufficient facilities for transportation. In 1872 a premium offered for the largest production of corn was awai'ded to a farmer who raised 1313 bushels from a field of 10 acres. Sweet-potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco and broom-corn are largely produced. The average size of the fiirms is 12S acres. One farm in Ford county contains 40,000 acres. Manufactures. — Illinois ranks sixth among the States in manufac- tures. In 1870 there were 12,597 establishments, employing 58,852 hands; value of annual products, $205,620,672. The leading articles were agri- cultural implements, boots and shoes, carriages and wagons, saddlery and harness, doors, sashes and blinds, clothing, etc. The product of the flour- and grist-mills was $43,876,775 (next to New York and Pennsylvania). In pork-packing Illinois leads all the rest. The number of hogs packed in 1873-4 was 1,887,328 (more than twice as many as in Ohio, which ranks next); average net weight, 219 pounds. Mines and Mining. — Mining began at the famous lead mines of Galena about 1821, and the product for the first two decades was 58,694,- 488 pounds. The yield of 1870 was 159,050 pounds of ore, valued at S182,280. Coal formations underlie 30,000 square miles of Illinois, and the annual product of coal is two millions of tons. There were 356 min- ing establishments; hands employed, 7504; annual product, $6,968,201. Commerce and IVavig-ation.— The river and lake system of Illinois gives the State ample fiicilities for navigation. Chicago has direct commercial relations with foreign nations. The number of vessels clear- ing to foreign ports for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, was 476, tonnage, 139,515; vessels arrived, 212, tonnage, 61,300; number of vessels arriving coastwise, 11,632, tonnage, 3,231,793; number clearing, 11,305, tonnage, 3,142,292; number of crew of foreign vessels, 8210; of coastwise vessels, 207,224. The amount of revenue collected was $1,377,896.03. One-third of the entire commerce of Chicago is in its grain trade. In 1873 the receipt of grain and flour (reduced to grain-bushels) was 98,935,- 418 bushels, valued at $63,500,000. The receipt of flour was 2,487,376 barrels. For the improvement of Chicago harbor Congress appropriated, from 1870 to 1874, $455,000. The original estimate of the amount needed for the work in hand was $900,000. The number of vessels belonging to this customs district is 743. There are four other ports, Alton, Cairo, Ga- 240 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES lena and Quincy, having in the aggregate 124 vessels enrolled. Twenty- one vessels were built in 1873. Railroads and Canals.— In 1848 Illinois had 22 miles of rail- road. In 1874 it surpassed every other State in railroad mileage, leading Pennsylvania, which stands second, by more than a thousand miles. The number of companies was 48; length of railroad, 6759 miles; total amount of stock and debt, $636,458,641 ; gross receipts, $96,816,868 ; average re- ceipts per mile of road, $5095; per train mile, $1.32; operating and cur- rent expenses, $64,869,979 ; excess of receipts, $30,570,433. There are nearly ten thousand miles of telegraph lines. A canal from Chicago to La Salle, 96 miles, connects Lake Michigan with the Illinois Kiver, and through that with the Mississippi. Eight million bushels of grain and 50 iiiillion feet of lumber have passed through this canal in a single year. Public Institntions and Education. — The State Penitentiary, at Joliet, has 1300 prisoners. The labor of the convicts makes it self-sus- taining. At Jacksonville is an Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, an Asylum for the Blind, a Hospital for the Insane and an institution for the education of feeble-minded children. The Northern Asylum for the Insane is at El- gin, the Southern Asylum at Anna. The first school in Illinois was opened at Bellefoutaine, in 1783. A general law establishing free schools was passed in 1823. The present school system was adopted in 1872 and amended in 1874. White and colored children have equal privileges. The superintendent of public instruction gives the following statistics for the year 1874: Number of schools (public and private), 13,001; teachers. 22,484; pupils, 722,177; expenditures, $7,865,682. The State Normal School had 764 scholars. Attached to it is a museum of natural history, containing 132,200 specimens, valued at $95,000. The Southern Illinois Normal University, at Carboudale, was opened July 1, 1874, in a building which cost $265,000. The Illinois Industrial University, at Urbana, opened in 1868, has 623 acres of ground and a property valued at $760,000. This institution, which comprises separate colleges of agriculture, engineering, natural science, literature, military science and commerce, had 406 stu- dents in 1874. The State has 26 colleges, 10 schools of theology, 6 schools of medicine, 2 schools of law, 9 normal schools and 9 seminaries for the higher education of women. The census of 1870 reports 13,570 libraries, 505 newspapers and periodicals, 3459 church edifices. Poi)ulation.— Illinois is the fourth State in the Union in the num- ber of inhabitants. The population in 1800 was 2458; 1810, 12,282 (slaves, 168); 1820, 55,211 (slaves, 917); 1830, 157,445 (slaves, 747); 1840, 476,183 (slaves, 331); 1850, 851,470 (free colored, 5436); 1860, 1,711,951 (free colored, 7628); 1870, 2,539,891 (free colored, 28,762). Of the decade between 1850 and 1860 Superintendent Kennedy says, "So large a population more than doubling itself in ten years by the regular CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 241 course of settlement is without a pai'allel." The increase between 1860 and 1870 was 48.36 per cent.; population to a square mile, 45.84. The number of native birth was 2,024,693; born in Illinois, 1,189,503; born in foreign countries, 515,198. Of natives of Illinois, 289,907 were residing iu other States. The school census of 1874 reports the number of persons under twenty-one years of age as 1,444,141. Cities Jllicl Towns. — Chicago, the metropolis of the North-west, has had a growth altogether unprecedented in the history of modern cities. In 1831 four vessels arrived; in 1832 there were five small stores and about 250 inhabitants ; in 1836 the number of vessels entering the port was 436; in 1837 the census showed a population of 4170. The popula- tion in successive decades has been : 1840, 4853 ; 1850, 29,963 ; 1860, 112,172; 1870,298,281. Local authorities estimate the present number of inhabitants at 400,000. The Chicago River affords 25 miles of good water frontage, and the lake shore is made available for docks by the j)ro- tectiou of immense breakwaters. The trade of the city is worth more than $500,000,000 annually. The capacity of its grain elevators Oct. 31, 1874, was 15,250,000 bushels. The receipts for the year 1873-4 were 153,540 car-loads and 1053 boat-loads. The amount of grain received into public warehouses was 65,251,188 bushels; number of hogs packed, 1,520,024; number of cattle packed, 21,712. To accommodate the immense trade in live-stock, union stock-yards have been constructed, at a cost of $1,675,000, which cover 350 acres and have a capacity for 118,000 animals. Chicago has been supplied with water from the lake by a tunnel, at an expenditure of upwards of five millions of dollars. In October, 1871, occurred tlie ever memorable fire, which burned over 2100 acres, destroyed 17,450 buildings (including 32 hotels, 10 theatres and halls and 41 churches), made a hundred thousand people homeless and inflicted a loss of two hun- dred millions of dollars. However, its citizens find some consolation in- asserting that the new Chicago rising out of the ashes of the conflagration is the finest-built city upon the American continent. Springfield, the cap- ital since 1837, w^as settled in 1819; it has been called "The City of Flowers." The new State-House, begun in 1868, is one of the finest public buildings in America. Springfield was the home of Abraham Lincoln, and a fine monument has been erected to his memory. Population, 17,364. Quincy, on an elevated bluff* of the Mississippi River, is the centre of eight railroads. Population, 24,052. Jacksonville is the seat of several State institutions, Illinois College and three female seminaries. Population, 9203. Among the other principal towns are Alton, three miles above the mouth of the Missouri River; Galesburg, the seat of Knox College and Lombard University; Galena, the centre of the lead-mining district; and Peoria, on the Illinois River. Goveriiineut and Laws. — The legislative power is vested iu a 16 242 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES senate of 51 members and a house of representatives of 153 members. The sessions are biennial. The governor and other executive officers are elected for four years. There is an elective judiciary. The supreme court consists of seven judges, receiving a salary of $4000 per annum and chosen for a term of nine years. The circuit judges are elected for a term of six years. There is a county court for every one of the 102 counties. History. — Father Marquette, a French Jesuit, visited the Illinois Indians in 1673. Mission stations were established at Kaskaskia and Peoria in 1693, and glowing descriptions were sent home of the beauty of the new country. All the French possessions east of the Mississippi River were ceded to Great Britain in 1763. During the Revolutionary war the British posts were captured by Major Rogers Clark [see Historical Sketch, p. 103]. The settlers suffered much from the Indians, who were on the British side in the war of J 81 2. Illinois was admitted as a State Dec. 3, 1818. The Black Hawk AVar broke out in 1832. Joseph Smith, the founder of Mormouism, and his brother were murdered by a mob in 1844. Soon after, the Mormons left Nauvoo for a new home beyond the Mississippi, and ultimately settled in Utah. The present Constitution was adopted July 2, 1869. INDIANA. Situation and Extent. — Indiana, the smallest of the Western States, is bounded on the N. by Lake Michigan and the State of Michigan (the boundary line being ten miles north of the southern extreme of the lake), on the E. by Ohio, on the S. by the Ohio River, which separates it from Kentucky, on the W. by the Wabash River, and then by a due north line from the town of Vincennes, separating it from Illinois. It is situated between latitudes 37° 47' and 41° 46' N. and longitudes 7° 45' and 11° 2' W. from Washington, or 84° 49' and 88° 2' W. from Greenwich. The State is in the form of a parallelogram, 276 miles long and 140 miles wide, having an area of 33,809 square miles, or 21,637,760 acres. Physical Features.— /Sm/ace. — Most of the State is level or gently rolling. Along the Ohio River are ranges of hills, or "knobs," from 400 to 500 feet high. The Ohio Valley, containing as many square miles as the State of Connecticut, is hilly and broken, and was originally covered with heavy timber. The valleys of the White and Wabash Rivers are level, heavily timbered and abundantly watered. In the north there are many swamps. Near Lake Michigan are sand mounds covered with stunted pines. A " terrace topography " shows the action of water in the geological formation. Rivers.— The Ohio River washes the State on the south from the Miami to the Wabash, 380 miles by the river Avindings. The Wabash River, which, with its branches, drains three-fourths of the State, rises near the eastern boundary and runs in a westerly and southerly CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 243 course, forming the western boundary for a hundred miles. It is 500 miles long. White River, the principal tributary of the Wabash, is formed by the union of the two streams called the East and West Forks. Forests. — The forests afford a great variety of trees, among the most common of which are the oak (white, red, black and burr), hickory, ash, beech, butternut, maple, basswood, locust, elm, mulberry, cedar, poplar, sycamore aud Cot- tonwood. Black-walnut trees, from three to five feet in diameter, are found. Birds. — Some of the most noteworthy birds are the eagle, turkey- buzzard, hawk, owl, cuckoo, thrush, wren, mocking-bird, cross-bill, red- bird, oriole, meadow-lark, bluejay, pheasant, heron, wood-ibis, snipe, loon and woodcock. Soil and Climate. — Along all the rivers, except the Ohio, there are rich alluvial deposits from two to thi'ee feet deep. Gen. Harrison, the first territorial governor of Indiana, said that the laud of the Miami Indians was " the finest country in all the western world." Large crops of corn have been produced for fifty years in succession. Portions of the Ohio Valley are hilly and sterile, but India,na has an unusually small pro- portion of waste laud. The level country gives free access to the winds, and there are very sudden changes of temperature. Fine weather lasts until near Christmas, and the peach trees blossom in March. The mean temperature at Indianapolis for the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 54.4°. The isothermal lines traversing the northern and southern portions of the State respectively are : Spring, 45° to 55° ; summer, 70° to 75° ; autumn, 50° to 55° ; winter, 30° to 35° ; annual mean, 50° to 55°. Agricultural Proclvictions. — In agriculture Indiana takes a leading place, ranking fifth among the States in the value of farm prop- erty, and also in the production of Indian corn and wheat. It had, in 1870, 161,289 farms, averaging 112 acres each, aud valued, with their im- plements and live-stock, at $736,257,562. The value of all farm produc- tions was $122,914,302. lu 1873 the value of the Indian corn and wheat crops was $52,551,080. Other leading articles of production are rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, peas, beans, potatoes, flax, hemp, tobacco, etc. The number of horses, Jan, 1, 1874, was 649,500; mules, 58,500; oxen and other cattle, 780,300; milch cows, 448,400; sheep, 1,722,500; hogs, 2,496,- 700. In view of present facts, it is curious to read a remark of a writer in 1819: "In many places the land is too rich for this grain (wheat), which, though it does not become smutty, is not so good as in the State of New York." Fruit is produced to the value of nearly three and a half millions of dollars annually. Manufactures. — The manufactured products in 1810 were valued at $159,029. Sixty years multiplied this amount 685 times. In 1870 there were 11,847 manufacturing establishments, employing 58,852 hands and producing articles valued at $108,617,278. A few of the leading 244 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES industries were : Lumber, 613,698,859; flour, $25,371,322; woollen goods, 84,212,737; iron, $6,629,747; machinery, $3,871,024; furniture, $3,463,- 270; cars, freight and passenger, $3,616,068; boots and shoes, $2,699,114. Minerals and Mining-.— A part of the great Illinois coal-field extends into Indiana, covering an area of 6500 square miles. The "block " coal is of very great value for iron smelting ; 5000 tons a day are mined. Bog-iron ore exists in large quantities, and excellent limestone and sand- stone are quarried. Salt springs are found, yielding a good quality of salt. There are no precious metals. The number of hands employed in mining, in 1870, was 1723; value of products, $1,137,172. Commerce and IVavigation. — Lake Michigan on the north and the Ohio Eiver on the south give to Indiana fine facilities for water communication. The State is traversed also by the Wabash and Erie Canal (340 miles in length, and, next to the Erie Canal, the longest in the United States), which connects Lake Erie with the Ohio River. There is no direct commerce with foreign countries. The State contains 7000 miles of telegraph. Railroads. — In 1873 there were 3714 miles of railroad ; inhabitants to a mile of railroad, 474; total capital account, $193,541,002; cost per mile, $44,274 ; receipts, $54,279,062 ; receipts per mile, $6432 ; receipts per inhabitant, $13.79. In 1844 the State contained only 22 miles of railroad. Public Institutions and Education. — There are two State- Prisons, the northern at Michigan City and the southern at Jeffersonville, each having accommodations for about 400 prisoners. The State Institute for the Blind, the Asylum for the Insane, the Institute for the Deaf and Dumb and the Reformatory Institution for Women and Girls are at In- dianapolis. There is also a Soldiers' Home at Knightsville and a House of Refuge at Plainfield. All the above institutions are supported by the State. A general system of free instruction extends from the primary school to the State University, under the direction of a State superintend- ent and a State Board of Education. The school fund amounts to $8,618,931. In 1873-4 the number of school-houses was 9202 (465 built during the year); teachers, 12,056; scholars, 465,154. The State Univer- sity at Bloomington is open to pupils of both sexes. It has departments of law, medicine, military science and civil engineering, in addition to the regular collegiate course. Purdue University received the land-scrip granted by Congress for an agricultural college. This fund amounts to $340,000, and the entire property of the institution is valued at $510,000. Indiana lias 6 universities, 16 colleges, 1 school of theology, 3 schools of law, 2 medical and 2 normal schools. There were, in 1870, 5301 libraries, 293 newspapers and periodicals, and 3106 church edifices. Growth in Population.— The population has multiplied with great rapidity. The per cent, of increase in the decade from 1800 to 1810 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 245 was 402.9 ; from 1810 to 1820, 502.2. In 1800 the number of inhabitants was 5641 (slaves, 135); 1810, 24,520; 1820, 147,178; 1830, 343,031; 1840, 685,866; 1850, 988,416; 1860, 1,350,428; 1870, 1,680,637 (free colored, 24,560); 1,539,163 were of native birth, of whom 1,048,575 were born in the State ; 320,836 natives of Indiana were residing in the other States and territories. .There were 49.71 persons to a square mile. Cities and Towns. — Indianapolis, the capital, is situated on an extensive plain almost at the exact centre of the State. In 1820 a dense forest stood where is now the site of this bustling city. It is the seat of several educational and State institutions and the centre of ten railroads. A new State-house is in the process of erection, at a cost of $4,000,000. There are 64 churches and 6 daily newspapers. Population in 1870, 48,244 ; estimated population in 1875, 80,000. Evansville, the second city of the State, is on the Ohio River. It has extensive manufactories and a large river trade. There are 24 churches and 4 daily newspapers. Population, 21,830. Fort Wayne, named after General Anthony Wayne in 1794, is on the Maumee River and the Wabash and Erie Canal. There are large founderies and machine-shops. Five railroads intersect at this place. Population, 17,718. Viucennes, formerly St. Vincent, on the Wabash River, contained 100 houses in 1816. It was the centre of a large trade with the Indians in furs and skins. The inhabitants were principally of French extraction. Population, 5440 in 1870. Terre Haute, on the Wabash River and the Wabash and Erie Canal, has exten- sive foctories. Population, 16,103. Among the other leading places (In- diana has 27 cities) are Lafayette (population, 13,506), Logansport (8950), New Albany (15,396) and Madison (10,709). Government and Laws. — The general assembly consists of a senate of 50 members, elected for four years, and a house of representa- tives of 100 members, elected for two years. They receive $8 per day during the biennial sessions. The governor's salary is $8000 per annum. The supreme court consists of five judges, chosen by popular election and paid a salary of 84000 each. There are 38 circuit judges, also elected by the people, and receiving a salary of S2500. The divorce laws have been so modified that "an Indiana divorce" will be a less frequent j)anacea for domestic woes hereafter. History. — The Indiana territory, which was originally the property of the Miami confederacy of Indians, was claimed by France on account of La Salle's discovery of the Mississippi, in 1682. As early as 1702 a mission was established at Vincennes. In 1763 the territory was ceded to the British. The early settlers suffered greatly from the Indians. Gen. Harrison broke the power of the savages by defeating Tecumseh at the battle of Tippecanoe, Nov. 7, 1811. The State was admitted into the Union Dec, 11, 1816. A new Constitution was adopted in 1851. 246 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES IOWA. Position and Extent. — Iowa (meaning, in the Indian tongue, '•'the beautiful land") is bounded on the N. by Minnesota, on the E. by the Mississippi River, separating it from Wisconsin and Illinois, on the S, by Missouri, and on the W. by the Missouri River, separating it from Nebraska and Dakota. It is situated between latitudes 40° 20' and 43° 30' K, and between longitudes 13° 12' and 19° 38' W. from Washington, or 90° 12' and 96° 38' W. from Greenwich. The State has nearly the figure of a rectangular parallelogram, 300 miles long from east to west and a little over 200 miles in breadth from north to south. Its area is 55,045 square miles, or 35,228,800 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The whole State is remarkably level and contains no mountains. Starting from the Mississippi River, the ground gradually rises toward the water-shed between the two great river systems of the Mississippi and Missouri, where the elevation is 967 feet above the level of the Mississippi. The latter river is 444 feet above the sea-level at the mouth of the Des Moines, and the Missouri at Council Bluffs is 1023 feet above the sea. The highest land in the State, at Spirit Lake, near the Minnesota line, has an elevation of 1694 feet. The north- east section is broken and irregular, and the channels of the rivers are cut deep in the rocks. Bluffs from 300 to 400 feet high extend along the Iowa River. Isolated "mounds" in the lead region attain a height of nearly 500 feet. Rivers. — The Mississippi River winds along the eastern border for 450 miles, and the Missouri along the western border for two-thirds the breadth of the State. The principal river flowing within the State is the Des Moines, which rises in a group of lakes near the border of Minnesota and runs in a south-easterly direction for 450 miles, forming the southern boundary of Iowa for 25 miles. It is navigable for about half its length. The Iowa River, 300 miles long, is navigable for 80 miles. Its main branch is the Cedar River. About three-fourths of the State is drained by the tributaries of the Mississippi and one-fourth by those of the Mis- souri. There are many beautiful lakes in the northern counties. Forests. — The bottom lands along the rivers are heavily timbered with elm, black- walnut, white and burr oak, poplar, ash, maple, hickory, locust, sycamore, linden, cottonwood, etc. Twenty-five different kinds of forest trees are indigenous to Iowa. About 3,552,880 acres are in timber, giving one acre of woodland to ten acres of prairie. Trees grow with great rapidity when planted on thfe prairies, and there is said to be more wood in the State now than when it was first settled. Soil and Climate. — Iowa has a less acreage of barren land than any other State. Nine-tenths of the surface is prairie of a somewhat more rolling and diversified character than that of Illinois. Sandy, gravelly CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 247 and clayey soils are fouud, but a black vegetable mould, from one to two feet thick, is the most common. The summers are usually warmer aud the winters colder in the upper part of the Mississippi Valley than in the same latitude along the Atlantic seaboard. A country so largely level, and without trees, is exposed to the full power of the sun in the one season and the wind in the other. Observations continued for 30 years at Muscatine and Iowa City give the highest temperature as 100° and the lowest as 30° below zero, a range of 130 degrees. The mean temperature of spring was 47.44°; summer, 70.37°; autumn, 44.52°; winter, 23.37°; yearly mean, 47.57°. The average rainfall was 44.27 inches; snowfall, 33.23 inches; earliest snow, Oct. 17, 1859; latest snow, April 29, 1851. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Davenport was 49.5°; at Dubuque, 48.6°. Peach trees blossom from the middle of April to May. Upon the isothermal chart the lines passing through Iowa are : Spring, 50° ; summer, 72°-74° ; autumn, 42°-52° ; winter, 20°-25° ; annual mean, 47°-50°. Agricultural Productions. — In 1873 Iowa stood first in the production of wheat, second in Indian corn (but emphatically j^/'s^ in pro- portion to population, as Iowa produced 88 bushels for each inhabitant to 56 bushels per inhabitant in Illinois ), third in barley and in cattle, fourth in horses and milch cows and fifth in oats. In raising pork, also, Iowa had taken the precedence from Illinois, having more than three hogs for each inhabitant. In 1870 there were in the State 116,292 farms, averaging 134 acres each; value of farms, implements and live-stock, $496,159,156; value of farm productions, 8114,386,341 ; value of orchard products, $1,075,169. Corn was so abundant that it was burned for fuel, as cheaper than coal, and that, too, in a State which has a coal area of 20,000 square miles. Iowa suffers, like the other Western States, for want of cheap transporta- tion. " King Corn" is made bankrupt by excessive travelling expenses. Manufactures. — The last census reports the number of manufac- turing establishments as 6566, employing 25,032 hands. The value of the annual product was $46,534,322. Among the leading industries were : Agricultural implements, 55 establishments, value of products, $829,965 (the value of agricultural implements sold in the State was nearly ten rail- lions of dollars); boots and shoes, 530 establishments, $1,218,480; car- riages aud wagons, 449 establishments, $1,952,143; flouring- and grist- mills, 502, $15,635,345; lumber, 566 mills, §6,671,700; woollen goods, 68 mills, 61,561,341. Mines and Mining*. — Bituminous coal of an excellent quality is mined in more than 30 counties. The lead mines near Dubuque cover an area of 12 or 15 square miles, and are the most productive of any in the Upper Mississippi Valley. As many as 6,000,000 pounds of ore have been smelted in a year, but the production is falling off. Most of it is consumed in the 248 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES West. Iron ore is fouud, and there are inexhaustible stores of the finest building-stone. The number of persons employed in mining in 1870 was 1628; value of products, $1,063,484. Coiiiiiierce and Navig-ation. — Iowa is an interior State and has no direct foreign commerce, but its river trade is large. There are three United States ports of delivery, Keokuk, Burlington and . Du- buque, in which 30 vessels were owned and 3 were built during the year ending June 30, 1874. Navigation upon the Upper Mississippi is impeded by the upper and lower rapids at Rock Island and the mouth of the Des Moines. Extensive improvements are in progress, under the direction of the United States government. The amount expended dui'ing the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, was $396,681.21; amount required for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1876, $560,000. Railroads. — The first locomotive crossed the Mississippi River into Iowa in 1855. There were 68 miles of railroad in that year, which in- creased to 2683 miles in the decade ending with 1865. Five great trunk- lines cross the State from east to west. Three of these lines connect with the Union Pacific Railroad at Omaha. The statistics for 1873 were as follows : Miles of railroad, 3728 ; inhabitants to a mile of railroad, 375 ; total capital account, $84,174,115 ; cost per mile, $35,471 ; receipts, 87,983,988 ; receipts per mile, $3411 ; receipts per inhabitant, $5.83. Public Institutions and Education. — The Penitentiary is at Madison. It had 18 convicts in 1854, 160 in 1867 and 276 at the be- ginning of 1874. The earnings of the convicts pay all the expenses of the institution. There are hospitals for the insane at Mt. Pleasant and at In- dependence which have about 650 inmates. At Vinton there is an insti- tution for the free instruction of the blind, and at Council Bluffs one for the deaf and dumb. Three soldiers' orphans' homef are supported by the State. A Reform School for girls has been established at Salem, and one for boys at Eldora, near the centre of the State. Free instruc- tion is provided by law for all between the ages of 5 and 21. The ex- penditure for schools during the year ending Sept. 15, 1873, was $4,429,- 455; amount per capita for each person of school age, $6.24; number, of schools, 8937; pupils enrolled, 347,572; teachers, 16,648; permanent school fund, $3,294,742. The State University, at Iowa City, founded in 1860, has academical, medical, law and normal departments. It had 620 students in 1875. The State Agricultural College, at Ames, is open for both sexes, and provides instruction in agriculture, horticulture, forestry, stock-breeding, engineering, military science, bee-keeping and "general science for ladies." It has 16 instructors and 263 students. The entire property of the college is valued at $968,899. Iowa College (Congrega- tional) is tlie oldest in the State. Iowa has 1 university, 21 colleges, 4 Bc-hools of theology, 2 schools of law, 3 medical schools and 3 normal CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 249 schools. There were, in 1870, 1153 libruries, 233 newspapers and period- icals, 2768 religious organizations, of which 1446 had edific&s. Growth ill Population. — The population in 1840 was 43,112; 1850, 192,214 (increase, 345.8 per cent.); 1860, 674,913 (increase, 303.2); 1870, 1,194,020 (increase, 43.5 per cent.). Of the 989,328 of native birth, 428,620 (only 43.3 per cent.) were born in Iowa. The principal immigra- tion was, from Ohio, 126,285 ; Illinois, 65,391; Indiana, 64,083; Michi- gan, 13,831; Pennsylvania, 73,435; Virginia, 19,558; Vermont, 12,204; New York, 79,143 ; Massachusetts, 8929 ; Wisconsin, 24,309 ; all foreign countries, 204,692. More than 89,000 natives of Iowa were residing in other parts of the Republic. A State census, taken in 1873, gave the number of inhabitants as 1,251,333. Population to a square mile, 22.7. Cities and Toaviis. — Des Moines, the capital, is situated near the centre of the State, at the bead of navigation on the river of the same name. It was incorporated as a city in 1857, and has very fine public buildings. The post-office, erected by the general government, cost S200,- 000, and the county court-house cost $100,000. A new State Capitol is in process of erection, at a cost of a million and a half of dollars. The city has 15 churches, 3 daily newspapers, a law library of 15,000 volumes and a public library of 3000 volumes. Population, 15,061. Dubuque, the largest city and the oldest town in the State, was founded by Dubuque, a French Canadian, in 1788. It has a large trade and is the principal point for the shipment of lead. Five railroads centre here. There are 18 churches and 3 daily papers. Population, 22,151. Davenjaort, oj)po- site Rock Island, with which it is connected by a bridge built at an expense of a million dollars, is an important grain depot. It has several large manufactories, 4 daily papers and 25 churches. Population, 20,550. Bur- lington, also on the west bank of the Mississippi, has large founderies, mills and pork-packing houses. It is the centre of 4 railroads. There are 15 churches and 2 daily papers. Population, 20,156. Keokuk, "the gate city of Iowa," is the southernmost town of the State. It is situated at the confluence of the Des Moines River with the Mississippi. The rapids above make this the head of navigation for large steamboats. There are 17 churches and 2 daily papers. Six railroads intersect at this point. The College of Physicians and Surgeons is a flourishing institution. Keokuk signifies "the watchful fox," and was the name of a chief of the Sacs and Foxes. Population, 12,766. Council Bluffs is an important town on the Missouri River, opposite Omaha, the terminus of the three rival railroad lines leading from Chicago westward to connect with the Union Pacific. The river io crossed by a railroad bridge 2750 feet long and having eleven spans, which are elevated 50 feet above high-water mark. Besides the railroads mentioned, 3 others centre at Council Bluffs. Population, 10,525. Other important towns are Muscatine (population 6718), Cedar Rapids 250 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES (5940), Iowa City, the former capital (5914), Ottumwa (5214), Lyons (4088), Fort Madisv^n (4011). Government and La\%^s. — The legislative authority is vested iu a senate of 50 members, elected for four years, and a house of repre- sentatives of 100 members, elected for two years. There are biennial ses- sions. The governor (salary $3000) and most of the State officers are chosen for two years. The supreme court consists of four judges (salary S4000), chosen by popular election for a term of six years. There are 13 district courts, the judges of which are elected for four years. Capital punishment was abolished iu 1872. History. — The first white man who visited this region was Father Hen- nepin, a Roman Catholic priest. He came down the Mississippi River about the year 1680. Moi'e than a century elapsed before the first settlement. Du- buque obtained a grant of land about the city now called by his name in 1788. Until 1833 there were no white men but Indian traders and hunters resid- ing within the limits of the great State which 40 yea.rs later contained a million and a quarter of souls. This section was first a part of Michigan, and then of Wisconsin, Territory. The separate Territory of Iowa, which also included Minnesota and Dakota, was organized June 12, 1838. Iowa was admitted into the Union, as the twenty-ninth State, Dec. 28, 1846. The present Constitution was ratified August 3, 1857. KANSAS. Situation and Extent.— Kansas is bounded on the N. by Ne- braska, E. by Missouri, S. by the Indian Territory and W. by Colorado. It is situated between latitudes 37° and 40° N. and longitudes 17° 40' and 25° W. from Washington, or 94° 40' and 102 W. from Greenwich. The State has the form of a rectangular parallelogram, 410 miles long from east to west and 210 miles wide from north to south. The area is 81,318 square miles, or 52,043,520 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Kansas has no mountains or high hills. The country is a rolling prairie, with a continual succession of gently undulating hills and valleys. There is an average rise of 3 feet to the mile toward the west. The eastern border is 900 feet above the sea. At Fort Atkinson the elevation is 2330 feet, and on the western boundary 3500 feet. Blufis, in some cases rising to the height of 300 feet, skirt the river bottoms. There are no lakes or swamps. Eivers. — The Kansas River, with its principal branch, the Smoky Hilt Fork, runs across the whole State and empties into the Missouri at Kansas City. Its other prin- cipal tributary, the Republican Fork, 400 miles long, flows in from Ne- braska. The total fall is 2000 feet in 400 miles, an average of 5 feet to the mile. The Missouri River washes the north-eastern border of Kansas for 150 miles. Rising among the Rocky Mountains, the Arkansas River CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 251 winds through this State for 500 miles. There are numerous other small streams, affording abundance of water for every section. Timber. — The alluvial lands along the rivers sustain heavy growths of forest trees, among which are the cottouwood, sycamore, maple, elm, birch, ash, honey locust, willow, oak, hickory, black-walnut, linden, cedar, pecan, pawpaw, mul- berry, etc. Trees grow with great rapidity when the prairie fires cease. Soil and Climate. — Most of the soil is of very great fertility, and has a depth of from 1 to 6 feet. A black vegetable mould, mingled with sand, predominates in the east ; in the west the soil is lighter, and contains a larger admixture of sand. Prairie grasses sometimes grow to such a height as to conceal a man on horseback. The "buffalo grass" is short, and especially good for the fattening of stock. The summers are long and temperate ; the winters short, mild and dry ; but the changes of tempera- ture are very sudden and very great. The winds from the Rocky Moun- tains, the Great Plains and the Gulf of Mexico all have their turn, and sometimes take it the same day. The hot breath of the south-west wind sends the mercury up to 108°. Observations continued at Fort Leaven- worth for thirty years show a mean temperature of 52.81° ; maximum, 108°; minimum, 30° below zero; range of variation, 138° ; average rain- fall, 31.34 inches. At Fort Riley the annual mean was 53.47° ; maximum, 106°; minimum, — 23°; range, 129°. The monthly increase of heat from March to May is 10° ; the monthly deci'ease from September to November is 12°. The isothermal lines which cross the State are: Spring, 55°; summer, 75° ; autumn, 52°-55° ; winter, 25°-40° ; annual mean, 55 degrees. Agricultural Productions. — The staple crops are corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, sorghum, potatoes, hemp, flax, tobacco and hay. In 1873 the average yield of corn per acre (39.1 bushels) was greater than that of any other State except California (41 bushels). Ohio, which ranked third, averaged 35 bushels. The average yield of hay per acre was 1.5 tons ; Texas produced the same amount ; Oregon and Nebraska stood next, with an average of 1.4 tons. According to the census of 1870, the number of farms was 38,202, averaging 148 acres each. There were 13 containing over 1000 acres. The value of farms, farm implements and live-stock was $117,553,537 ; value of productions, $28,286,567. On the 1st of Jan., 1874, the number of horses was 220,700; mules, 19,100; oxen and other cattle, 507,200; milch cows, 231,100; sheep, 141,000; hogs, 484,600; total value of live-stock, $31,163,058; an increase of $7,989,873 since the Federal census of 1870. The number of acres under cultivation in 1874 was 3,669,769. Manufactures. — The numerous water-courses of Kansas afford an abundance of power; but as in all new States, the people have devoted themselves chiefly to the development of the land. The number of man- 252 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES ufacturiug establishments in 1870 was 1477 ; hands employed, 6844; value of products, Sll,775,838. Minerals and Mining. — The coal-formations underlie 17,000 square miles ; 22 separate beds have been noted, 10 of which are from 1 to 7 feet thick. Salt is found in large quantities. Sandstones crop out in many localities, and limestones are abundant. Among the other minerals are lead, alum, iron ore, etc. Mining gave employment to 351 men, and the annual product was valued at $174,278, in 1870. Kailroatls. — Kansas had 40 miles of railroad in 1865. Nearly a mile of additional track was constructed for every working day of the ensuing eight years. The statistics of 1873 were as follows : Miles of rail- road, 2379 ; inhabitants to a mile of railroad, 236 ; total capital account, 8131,802,443; cost per mile, 850,744; receipts, $10,062,437; receipts per mile, 63833; receipts per inhabitant, $17.97; net earnings, $4,123,438. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary, at Leavenworth, had 425 convicts at the close of 1874. There is an Asylum for the Insane at Ossawatomie, containing 115 patients in 1874, an Institution for the Blind at Wyandotte and an Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Olathe. A Reform School is also projected. A compulsory edu- cation act was passed in 1874, compelling parents and guardians to send children to school for at least twelve weeks of every year. School-directors must see that this law is enforced, under penalty of a fine. According to the latest statistics, the amount of the permanent school fund was $3,017,- 589; receipts for school purposes, $1,863,101; number of persons of school age, 184,957; number enrolled in public schools, 121,690; number of schools, 4395 ; teachers, 5000; school-houses, 3133 (703 in 1867); value, $3,408,956. The State University at Lawrence is designed to crown and complete the educational system of the State. There is already a classical and a scientific course, and other departments will soon be added. Tbjp Kansas State Agricultural College, at Manhattan, has three principal de- partments, literary, agricultural and mechanical. It is designed to give an industrial as di.stinguished from a professional education. The nursery contains 45,000 fruit and forest trees. Each student is required to work one hour daily. The entire property of the institution amounts to $458,782, and the income is $20,000 a year. Other colleges are : Baker University, College of the Sisters of Bethany, St. Benedict's, St. Mary's, Washburne College, at Topeka, and Highland University. There are four normal schools, of which the one at Quindaro is for the training of colored teach- ers. The last Federal census reported 574 libraries, 97 periodicals, 530 religious organizations, with 301 church edifices. Growth in Poi>ulation.— At the beginning of the year 1854 there was not a town or village of whites in all Kansas or Nebraska. With the exceptions of the United States forte and a few missionary sta- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 253 tious, the Iiidiaus held full possession. The Territories we^e organized in ]\Iay, 1854, and immigrants began to pour in. The settler selected the best spot he could find unoccupied, and "squatter sovereignty" ensured him the title to "the best land in the world" on the payment to the government of $1.25 per acre. In 1855 the population was 8501 ; in 1860, 107,206 (an increase in 5 years of 1261.09 per cent.); in 1870, 364,690 (a gain in the decade of 239.91 per cent.); in 1873, by the State census, 610,863 (a gain in three years of 67.63 per cent.). The native born in 1870 were 316,007, of whom 63,321 were born in Kansas. Among the immigrants from other States, there were born in Alabama, 718; Arkansas, 2087; California, 207 ; Connecticut, 1402 ; Delaware, 307 ; Florida, 28; Georgia, 789; Illinois, 35,558 ; Indiana, 30,953 ; Iowa, 13,073; Kentucky, 15,918; Louisiana, 408; Maine, 1837; Maryland, 2067; Massachusetts, 2894; Michigan, 4466; Minnesota, 708; Mississippi, 529; Missouri, 29,775; Nebraska, 639; Nevada, 32; New Hampshire, 1158; New Jersey, 1845; New York, 18,558; North Carolina, 3612; Ohio, 38,205; Oregon, 99; Pennsylvania, 19,287; Rhode Island, 364; South Carolina, 404; Tennes- see, 6209; Texas, 975; Vermont, 2370; Virginia, 9906 ; Wisconsin, 4128; the Territories, 1048 ; all foreign countries, 48,392. Cities and Towns. — Topeka, situated on the south side of the Kansas River, 25 miles above Lawrence, is the State capital. It was first settled in December, 1854. The State-house, of which the eastern wing cost §450,000, is one of the finest buildings west of the Mississippi. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 5790. Lawrence, so named from the Hon. Amos Lawrence of Massachusetts, was settled in July, 1854. It is situated on both banks of the Kansas River, which has been dammed and affords an extensive water-power. There are several large factories. Five railroads centre at this city. The State University has a beautiful location upon a hill near the river. There are 13 churches and 3 daily papers. There are graded public schools (including a high-school department) attended by about 1200 pupils, and a library containing 3500 volumes. Population, 8320. Leavenworth, on the west bank of the Missouri River, has 6 lines of railroad, 6 daily newspapers and 26 churches. Population, 17,873. The other leading towns are Atchison (popu- lation, 7054), Fort Scott (4174), Ottawa (2941) and AVyaudotte (2940). Government and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 33 members and a house of representatives numbering 105 members. There are annual sessions, and the comiDensation is $3 per day during actual service. The governor (salary, $3000) and other executive officers are chosen for a term of two years. The supreme court consists of three judges, elected by the people, and there are 15 district courts. Kansas is entitled to three representatives in Congress. Twelve per cent. 254 HURLEY'S UXITED STATES intorost is tlic; lojral rato. T'.io voivipts of the tivasurv during tho last tist-al yoar woiv 895>">JO;> ; amount ot' bouilod debt. Jan. 1. 1875, Sl.o4lJ75. History. — Tho valley of the Kansas was disoovorod in 171l> by M. Dutisno, a Fronoh oftioor sent out by Bionvillo, tho giwornor of I^niisiana. Tins was a part ot' tho territory ceded to the United States by Franco in 180o. A bill organizino; the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska was passed by Congress ^lay. 18o4, in which the Missouri Coniproiuise [see Historical Skktoh. p. 1-0] was declared "inoperative and void." The question of freedom or slavery was left to the decision of the inhabitants. Kach party strove to obtain the majority. Settlei-s poured in from the North and the South. Two separate governments were organized. A statf oi' civil war onsueil. Tho motto ou the seal of the State of Kjiusas — " J(f a.0 iuiU\< loui" and largo ouough tor sto:inilHnitj< to asooud 8() miloj?: GrovMi l\ivor, oOO iuiU\>s lone: :uul uavigablo tor two-thirds of it^ oxtout; the Oiuuborland, 000 mili\< long and navigable to Na.^hvillo, Tonn., 'Jt)0 niiU\<. The Toiuu\[ississippi. in 1811. by an eartlu|nake. ./■ort\<,vv\ — The primitive torests have not yet been entirely eleared away, and Kentneky has an abnndanee of the best quality o\' timber. -Vmong the tnvs are the walnut, ash, oak. hiekory. elm, gum. poplar, ehestnnt. sug;vr-maple, magnolia, oottonwood. peean. redbud, loeust, walnut, etc. The Mammoth Cove. — This is one of the wonders of the world. It has bvvn mappoii out like the plot of a city underground. There are "2'JO avt.^ lines, 47 domes, 2o pits. 8 oataraets and a largo nun\ber of rivers and lakes, among the nu^st noteworthy of whioh uiv the river Styx, 15 to 40 feet wide and oO to 40 foot deep: Echo River, '200 feet wide and three quarters of a mile long: Lake Linhe, 4o0 feet in length and 40 feet in width. Boats navigj\te these streams and eyeless tish are drawn up out ot' the blaok depths. There are erystiUlizatious of gyi"ksum of suowy whiteness and stal- aetites and stalagmites oi' marvellous beauty. The temperature, whioh does not vary winter or sun\n\er. is o9\ A hunter discovered the Mam- moth Cave ix\ 1809 while following a bear which had taken refuge in it. The cave, with *200 acres of laud, was bought for S40. Saltpetre was made in large quantities during the war of 181*2. There are four other caverns near, which are a mile in length. Soil and Oliiuate. — The g-ardeu of Kentucky is in the blue lime- stone or " blue grass " region, stretching fron\ the Ohio as tar south as Lex- ington. The Kentuckians say "the sun never shone upon a fairer country." Its soil is " loose, friable and of a deep black or nuilatto color." l"^pou a single acre 1400 pounds of tobacco have been grown. The " barrens." whicli were formerly considered of little value, and given to seitlei-s by the State, have been found quite productive. The temperature of Kentucky is a pleas:\nt mean between the extremes of the North and South. The range of the thermometer at Ix>uisville, as reporteii by the chief signal oihcer for the yeai^ l87o and 1874, was from 4'-^ below zero to 102""' above. There is an annual mean of 00.20"^, which is 1.5'^ warmer than the city of Washington, and about one-tifth of a degivo cooler than San Francisco. Snow does not remain long, and cattle range the fields all winter. The isothermal lines which cross the State are. for the spring. o5'^-l>0'^ ; sum- mer. 74'""'-77'"~: autumn, oo"-^; winter, oo"^; mean for the year. o5 degrees. Agfrioultiiral Productions. — The great staple is tobacco, of 25G BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES xvhich Kentucky produced 152,000,000 pounds in 1873, valued at $10,944,- 000. This was 47.72 per cent, of the wliole crop of the United States (372,810,000 pounds), and more than three times the product of Virginia, which ranks second in tobacco culture. Of hemp Kentucky produced 7777 tons in 1870, Avhich was 61.01 per cent, of the whole amount grown in the country (12,746 tons). The hemp crop of 1860 in this State was 39,409 tons. There were, in 1870, 118,422 farms in the State, averaging 158 acres each; total value of ftirms, implements and live-stock, $383,099,- 155; value of farm productions, $87,477,374; per capita for farming pop- ulation, $335; value of orchard products, $1,231,385; forest products, $574,994. The number of horses, in 1874, was 343,900 ; mules, 83,600 ; cattle, 380,400; milch cows, 229,400; sheep, 808,100; hogs, 2,008,000. For thoroughbred horses Kentucky is famous. Au average price of $955.30 each was obtained for 17 colts at a sale in 1873 ; one colt brought $5550. Manufactures. — The census of 1870 reported 5390 manufacturing establishments ; hands employed, 30,636 ; value of products, $54,625,891. The value of some of the leading industries was : Flour, $7,886,734 ; all iron products, $7,990,013 ; liquors, $4,532,730 ; lumber, $4,245,759. Minerals and Mining. — Twenty of the eastern counties of Ken- tucky are included in the great Appalachian coal-field, and twelve of the south-westeru counties in the middle coal-field of the Mississippi Valley. Very valuable iron ores, and also limestone, clay and salt, are found. The annual production of 925 men employed in mining, in 1870, Avas $509,245. Commerce and Navigation. — There are two United States customs districts, Louisville and Paducah. On the 30th of June, 1874, there were belonging to these districts 67 vessels, of which 50 were steamers ; tonnage, 13,368 ; vessels built, 31 ; tonnage, 8288. There is no direct for- eign commerce, but the products of the State find their way to foreign markets down the Mississippi River or by the Atlantic sea-ports. Railroads.— -There were 44 miles of railroad in 1844, and 242 miles in 1854. In 1873 the number of miles was 1320; total capital account, $53,210,579; cost per mile, $40,464; receipts, $7,199,993; receipts per mile, $5475 ; receipts per inhabitant, $5.21 ; net earnings, $2,019,795. Pviblic Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary at Frankfort has over 600 convicts. There is a school for the blind at Louisville, an Institution for Deaf Mutes at Danville, an Institution for Feeble-minded Children at Frankfort, an Asylum for the Insane at Lex- ington and another at Hopkinsville. Three of the institutions mentioned above are not "asylums," but schools. The whole school system of the State was reorganized in 1873. The estimated receipts for the year ending July 1, 1873, were $912,426; number of school children, 416,763. A uuiform system of schools for colored children was provided for by an act CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 257 passed ou the last day of the legislative, session of 1874. There were, iu 1870, 11 universities and colleges, 11 colleges exclusively for women, 5 schools of theology, 3 of medicine, 1 of law and 1 of science. The Ken- tucky University had, in 1874, five departments, 30 instructors, 558 students and a property valued at $802,254. There were, in 1870, 89 newspapers and periodicals, 5546 libraries and 29(59 religious organizations, having 2696 edifices. Poi^ulatioil. — In 1784 the number of inhabitants was 30,000. Dur- ing 1787 there were 20,000 immigrants, coming chiefly from North Carolina and Virginia. The population in 1790 was 73,077; in 1800, 220,595 (an increase of 203.3 per cent.); 1810, 406,511 (84 per cent, increase); 1820, 564,317 (38.8 per cent, increase); 1830, 687,917 (increase 21.9 per cent.); 1840, 779,828 (13.3 per cent, increase); 1850, 982,405 (25.9 per cent, in- crease); 1860, 1,155,684 (17.63 per cent, increase); 1870, 1,321,011 (14.3 per cent, increase) ; population to a square mile, 35.33 ; number of families, 232,797, averaging 5.67 persons each ; native born, 1,257,613 ; foreign born, 63,398 ; colored, 222,210 ; born in Kentucky, 1,081,081 ; in Indiana, 11,687 ; Massachusetts, 792; North Carolina, 12,877; Ohio, 19,533; South Carolina, 2204; Tennessee, 49,952 ; Virginia, 44,121 ; natives of Kentucky residing in other parts of the United States, 403,126. There were 1080 clergymen, 1552 lawyers, 2414 physicians. Cities and To^viis. — Frankfort, the State capital, laid out in 1787, is situated on both sides of the Kentucky River. It has a large lumber trade. The capitol is a fine building, 300 feet long, 225 feet in height to the dome, and costing $800,000. Daniel Boone is buried in the cemetery. Louisville, at the Falls of the Ohio, 150 miles below Cincinnati, is the chief city of the State and the fourteenth city of the Union in population. It has 95 churches, 7 railroads, and 5 daily newspapers. There are two medical schools and a law school. The Couit-house and City Hall are handsome structures. A bridge, 5218 feet long and costing two millions of dollars, spans the Ohio. Louisville is a gi'eat tobacco, pork and whisky market. The value of the hogs packed in 1873-4 was $226,947. The whole trade of the city is $250,000,000. In population there has been a rapid growth. The number of inhabitants in 1810 was 1357 ; in 1870, 100,753 — an increase of 7327.7 per cent, in six decades. Lexington, the former capital, was founded in 1 775. When the news of the battle of Lexington reached the settlers, they gave the name to their new town. It contains a State Hospital for the Insane and the Kentucky University, the grounds of which include Ashland, the home of Henry Clay. Population in 1870, 14,801. Covington is connected with Cincinnati by a wire siispeusion-bridge, and is really a suburb of that city. It has many large factories and 25 churches. Population, 24,505. Newport, on the opposite side of the Licking River, is also a suburb of Cinciunati, and contains many fine res- 17 258 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES idences. Population, 15,087. Paducah, with 6866 inhabitants, has a very large river trade. Government and Laws.— The legislative authority is vested iu a senate of 38 members and a house of representatives of 100 members. The governor (salary, $5000) and other executive officers are elected for a term of four years. Four judges, having a salary of $5000 each, con- stitute the court of appeals. The circuit judges receive $3000 salary. County courts are also established ; there are 102 counties. For the first time a general law regulating the sale of intoxicating liquors was passed in 1874. History. — The honor of being the first white men to visit Kentucky was claimed by a party under the leadership of James McBride, who landed at the mouth of the Kentucky Kiver in 1754 and carved their names with the date upon a tree which was standing 30 years later. They returned, saying that they had discovered " the best tract in North Amer- ica, and probably in the world." In 1769 Daniel Boone and John Finley, with four others, explored this new region. In 1773 Boone's family re- moved thither. His wife and daughter were the first white women who ever stood on the banks of the Kentucky. The name signifies " the dark and bloody ground," from the continual wars which the Indians waged with one another upon this middle ground. They received the whites with the bitterest hostility. Many were the victims of the savage tomahawk and scalping-knife. Col. Boone, who styles himself " an instrument or- dained to settle the wilderness," wrote, "We passed through a scene of suf- fering that exceeds description." June 1, 1792, Kentucky was admitted into the Union as the fifteenth State. Aaron Burr attempted to enlist its citizens in his scheme for a Western republic [see Historical Sketch, pp. 112, 113]. The Kentucky volunteers won distinction in the war of 1812 and the Mexican war. During the civil war the State remained in the Union, and was the scene of several battles, of which the most import- ant were the battle of Mill Spring, Jan. 19, 1862, and the battle of Perry- ville, Oct. 8, 1862. LOUISIANA. Situation and Extent. — Louisiana is bounded on the N. by Ar- kansas and Mississippi, E. by Mississippi, S. E. and S. by the Gulf of Mexico, and W. by Texas. The Mississippi River forms the eastern boundary for 450 miles by its windings; the coast-line on the Gulf of Mexico is 1250 miles, and the Sabine River constitutes the western bound- ary for 200 miles. The State is situated between latitudes 29° and 33° N. and longitudes 12° 5' and 17° W. from Washington, or 89° 5' and 94° W. from Greenwich. The area is 41,346 square miles, or 26,461,440 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — No other State in the Union is so nearly level. The highest elevations do not rise above 200 feet. One-fifth CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 259 of the whole surface lies below the high-water mark of the rivers, and was periodically overflowed before the construction of levees. The southern portion is a vast morass. When the French first entered the Mississippi, there were but two trees for a distance of eleven leagues from its mouth, if we are to credit the early chroniclers. Baton Rouge is the first elevated land. Above it the ground is somewhat undulating, and blufts 100 feet high skirt the river. Toward the west are prairies, and north of these pine barrens. Extensive marshes stretch through the Red River country. There are numerous lakes, of which the largest is Lake Pontchartrain, 40 miles long and 24 miles wide. Along the coast are many bays, which are usually too shallow for the entrance of large vessels. Rivers. — The Missis- sippi Hows by and through Louisiana for 800 miles. It has many outlets in flood-time, the most considerable of which are the Atchafalaya, Bayou PJaquemine, La Fourche and Grand River. The Red River, flowing in from Arkansas, is navigable to Shreveport, above which is the "great raft," an immense mass of fallen trees and driftwood. A channel was cut through this raft 40 years ago at an expense of $300,000, but it closed again. An- other channel was cut in 1873, involving an outlay of $230,000. The work of destroying raft material and guarding against jams will require an annual expense of from $10,000 to $25,000. The Sabine River is navigable for small steamboats. Soil and Climate. — The delta of the Mississippi, 200 miles long and 100 miles wide, is the best land in the United States for the production of sugar; the wild cane sometimes grows to the height of 30 feet. In the upland region are prairies, destitute of trees and yielding only moderate crops. The pine barrens have a thin and poor soil. The winters are mild, but the "northers" sometimes produce very sudden changes of tempera- ture. In 1811 the Mississippi River was frozen over. About the first of February the peach and plum trees, peas and strawberries are usually in bloom. The isothermal lines for the several seasons are : Spring, 65°-70° ; summer, 82°; autumn, 65°-70° ; winter, 50°-55°; annual mean, 65°-70.° The mean temperature at New Orleans, as reported by the chief signal officer for the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 69.5; at Shreveport, 66.2 degrees. Trees. — Among the forest trees are the ash, beech, birch, catalpa, cypress, elm, gum, oak, hickory, black-walnut, locust, laurel, linden, mag- nolia, maple, mistletoe, mulberry, myrtle, palmetto, poplar, pine, sycamore, Cottonwood, buckeye, pecan, persimmon, etc. The fruit trees are the orange, lemon, lime, fig, pine-apple, olive, pomegranate, peach, plum, apple, etc. Birds. — Louisiana is the winter home of may wild fowl that frequent the northern lakes during the summer. Among those specially belonging to the State may be mentioned the eagle, wild turkey, paroquet, swan, hal- cyon, pelican (with a pouch holding five gallons), flamingo, owl, etc. Agricultural Productions. — There were, in 1870, 28,481 I 260 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES forms, containing 7,025,817 acres; average size of farms, 248 acres; total value, $91,303,942; value of farm production, $52,006,622. Sugar, cotton and rice are the great staples. The sugar production of the United States was reported as 87,043 hogsheads, of which 80,706 hogsheads (92.72 per cent.) were credited to Louisiana. This State ranked fourth in the pro- duction of cotton and third in rice. Wheat, rye, barley and buckwheat are so little cultivated that there are no returns of those crops in the agri- cultural report of 1873, although they have a place in the census of 1870. The potatoes are less farinaceous than those grown farther north. In January, 1874, the live-stock consisted of 75,700 horses, 78,400 mules, 173,900 oxen and other cattle, 90,700 milch cows, 64,600 sheep, 247,100 hog.-!. Manufactures. — There were 2557 manufacturing establishments ; hands employed, 30,071; value of products, $24,161,905. Among the articles manufactured were boots and shoes, bricks, carriages and wagons, cars, cotton goods, drugs and chemicals, iron, liquors, lumber, machinery, tobacco and segars. Only two men were engaged in mining, and the value of the annual product was $1200. No other State, with the single excep- tion of Texas, has such small mineral resources as Louisiana. Commerce aii€l Navigation. — The products of the great States of the Mississippi Valley along 17,000 miles of navigable waters pass through Louisiana on their way to foreign ports. New Orleans ranks sixth among the cities in the value of its imports, but its domestic exports surpass in value those of Philadelphia, Boston and Baltimore combined. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $14,533,- 864; of exports, $93,259,299. Among the articles exported were 1,170,- 270 bales of cotton (value,' $84,467,155), 1,192,597 bushels of corn, 56,081 l)ushels of oats, 262,959 bushels of wheat, 369,392 barrels of flour, 44,100.- 293 pounds of oil-cake, 504,034 pounds of beef, 1,350,626 pounds of lard, 38,159,868 pounds of tobacco. The number of vessels belonging to the two customs districts of New Orleans and Teche was 572, of which 162 were steamers ; number of vessels entered, 851 (547 foreign) ; vessels cleared, 855 (558 foreign) ; vessels built, 35, of which 11 were steamers. When the United States purchased Louisiana, the exports and imports were valued at less than five millions of dollars, and the revenue accruing to the king's treasury was $120,000. Only 268 vessels of all descriptions entered the Mississippi River, and 265 passed out,, during the year 1802. Railroads.— The State had 40 miles of railroad in 1841 and 80 miles in 1851. In 1873 the number of miles was 539; total capital ac- count, $34,440,020; cost per mile, $62,962; receipts, $2,740,489; receipts per mile, $5010; receipfs to an inhabitant, $3.65 ; net earnings, $1,083,260. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary, at Baton Rouge, contained 410 convicts in 1874. The Insane Asv- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 261 lum, at Jacksou, had 186 inmates. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb has been very much crowded, as a portion of its buildings are occupied by the State University. There is also an Asylum for the Blind at Baton Rouge. The Charity Hospital at New Orleans, founded in 1786, receives from 5000 to 6000 patients every year. Free schools are established by law, open to all children from 6 to 21 years of age, without distinction of color. There is a State superintendent of education elected for a term of four years, with a salary of $5000 per annum. In 1873-4 the statistics were : School districts, 483; school-houses erected during the year, 101; pupils enrolled, 57,433 ; teachers employed, 524 ; number of illiterate children, 92,105; amount of State school fund, $1,050,000. The Univer- sity of Louisiana, at Baton Rouge, has a classical, scientific and com- mercial course. Other institutions for higher education are : Centenary College, College of the Immaculate Conception, Leland University; New Orleans University, mainly intended for coloi;.ed people; St. Charles Col- lege ; Straight University, with classical, agricultural, normal, theological, law and medical departments, open to both sexes and all races ; St. Mary's, Jefferson College and the Silliman Female Collegiate Institute. An agri- cultural college was established in 1874 upon the basis of the land- grant of Congress, the value of which, with accumulated interest, was $327,000. The last census reports 2332 libraries, 92 newspapers and periodicals, 638 church organizations, with 599 edifices. Poi)Ulatioil. — The number of inhabitants, in 1712, was 420, of whom 20 were slaves; in 1769, when the Spaniards took possession, about 14,000; in 1803, when purchased by the United States, 60,000; in 1810, 76,556 (slaves, 34,660); 1820, 153,407 (slaves, 69,064); 1830, 215,739 (slaves, 109,588 ) ; 1840, 352,411 (slaves, 168,452) ; 1850, 517,762 (slaves, 244,809) ; 1860, 708,002 (slaves, 331,726); 1870, 726,915 (free colored, 364,210). Of the population, 665,088 were born in the United States, 501,864 in Louisiana, and 61,827 in foreign countries; 63,139 natives of this State were living in other parts of the Union. The density of population was 17.58 persons to a square mile ; population in 1875, 854,490. Cities and Towns. — Baton Rouge, the former capital (population, 6498) is situated on the Mississippi River, 130 miles above New Orleans. It is the seat of the Louisiana State University and has two daily news- papers. New Orleans is situated on a bend of the Mississippi River (whence the name of the "Crescent City"), 100 miles above its mouth. At high water the river is above the level of the city, which is protected by a levee from 5 to 30 feet high. The limits of the old city under the French and Spanish rule were defined by Canal, Rampart and Esplanade Streets, which are each 200 feet wide. Among the finest public buildings are the Custom- house, United States Mint, the St. Charles and St., Louis Hotels, Municipal Hall and the Church of St. Louis. The Charity Hospital has received 262 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES nearly 20,000 patients in a single year. As already noted, New Orleans ranks as the second city of the Union in the value of its exports. The receipts of flour and grain during the year ending Aug. 31, 1874, showed a grand total of 12,295,333 bushels. The population in 1810 was 24,552 ; 1820, 41,350; 1830, 49,826; 1840, 102,191 ; 1850, 126,375 ; 1860, 168,675; 1870, 191,322, The growth is retarded by frequent visitations of the yel- low fever during the mouths of July, August, September and October. The first settlement was made in 1817; a conflagration in 1778 destroyed 900 houses ; a city charter was obtained in 1805. The famous battle of New Orleans was fought Jan. 8, 1815 [see Historical Sketch, page 119]. Algiers is a flourishing suburb on the opposite side of the river. Carroll- ton, 7 miles above New Orleans, is a popular place of resort and residence. Other leading towns are Shreveport, the centre of the Red River country trade (population, 4607), Monroe and Nachitoches. GrOVeriliueilt and Laws.— The code of Louisiana is made up of materials drawn from the old Spanish laws, promulgated by Don O'Reilly, the Roman civil law, the English common law and the Code Napoleon, modified by local enactments. The legislature consists of 36 senators and 170 representatives. The governor (salary, $8000) and other State officers are elected for a term of four years. Five judges constitute the supreme court. The chief-justice receives a salary of $10,000 per annum, and his associates $9500 each. There also district and parish courts. The civil divisions which are called counties in other States take the name of "pai'ishes" in Louisiana. History. — Robert Cavelier de la Salle first discovered the mouth of the Mississippi River, April 7, 1682. New Orleans was founded in 1718. The territoiy was ceded to Spain by a secret treaty in 1762. Spain re-ceded it to France in 1800. Napoleon thought it unwise to retain his new pos- session. To his ministers he said: "The English have despoiled France of all her northern possessions in America, and now they covet those of the south. I am determined that they shall not have the Mississippi. . . . 1 am inclined, in order to deprive them of all prospect of ever possessing it, to cede it to the United States." Furthermore, the emperor needed money. A treaty was signed, April 30, 1803, by which the whole of the vast region stretching from the Gulf of Mexico to the lakes, and from the Mississippi to the Rocky Mountains was conveyed to the United States for the sum of $15,000,000. Napoleon, pleased with his bargain, said : " By this cession of territory I have secured the power of the United States and given to England a maritime rival who at some future time will humble her pride." Little more than a decade had passed before his prediction was fulfilled by the naval victories of "the last war with England" and by the battle of New Orleans. Louisiana was admitted into the Union as the eighteenth State, April 8, 1812. An ordinance of secession was passed CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 263 Jan. 26, 1861. New Orleans was captured by a combined naval and land force of Federals, and May 1, 1862, Maj.-Gen. Benjamin F. Butler took possession of the city. The Red River expedition, in 1864, proved disas- trous to the Federals. After the cessation of hostilities the State was gov- erned for a time by martial law, but finally was given over to the civil authorities, the task of "reconstruction," however, being more difficult in this State than in any other. MAINE. Situation and Extent. — Maine, the most easterly State of the Union, is situated between latitudes 43° 6' and 47° 28' N. and longitudes 10° 3' and 14° 13' E. from Washington, or 62° 47' and 66° 57' W. from Greenwich. It is bounded on the N. W. by Canada East, N. E. by New Brunswick, S. E. and S. by the Atlantic Ocean and W. by New Hamp- shire. The extreme length is 302 miles and the extreme width 224 miles. Its outline boundaries are 946 miles in length. The area is 35,000 square miles, or 22,400,000 acres, which is more than the area of all the other New England States combined. Physical Features. — Surface. — The whole surface is moderately hilly, with the exception of the tide-water marshes. In the north-west are high mountain ridges (a continuation of the White Mountains of New Hampshire), with bald rock-summits and heavily-wooded bases. The basin of the Penobscot is irregular and mountainous until it blends with the more level lands of the Aroostook, in the north-east. Mount Katah- din (an Indian name signifying " highest land ") is, next to Mount Wash- ington, the most elevated peak in New England; its height is 5385 feet. Mounts Carrael, Saddleback, Haystack, Abraham, Bigelow and Mars Hill are noted landmarks. Forests. — The northern part of Maine is an un- broken forest, "just as nature made it," says Thoreau. The woods are so dense that "a squirrel could travel the whole length of the country on the tops of the trees." Those primeval woods are seven times the size of the famous " Black Forest" of Germany. Massachusetts or New Jersey might be lost in the woods of Maine so that " it would need a compass to find them." More than 21,000 square miles are in woodland. Among the trees are the fir, black and white spruce, maple, birch, larch, aspen, cedar, hemlock, elm, black ash, beech, Norway, red and white pine. The forests are the home of the moose (sometimes taller than a horse and weisrhino- 1000 pounds), bear, caribou, wolf, catamount, wolverine, beaver, hedgehog, raccoon, deer, etc. The birds are the bald eagle, fish-hawk, owl, pewee, thrush, sparrow, cuckoo, kingfisher, black duck, blue heron, grouse, loon and many others. Lakes, Rivers, Bays and Islands. — No other State has so many natural reservoirs and water-courses. There are 1620 lakes and 5151 streams represented on the State map of Maine. The water-surface 2G4 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES is 3200 square miles. Moosehead Lake, 1071 feet above tide-water, is 38 miles long and 12 wide. Eangley Lake is almost as high (1511 feet) as Itasca, at the head of the Mississippi. Other lakes are Umbagog, Moose- tocmaguntic, Chesuncook, Schoodic and Sebago, 50 miles square, which supplies the city of Portland with water. The principal rivers, beginning at the west, are the Saco, rising in the White Mountain region, 95 miles long and 600 feet wide near the falls ; the Androscoggin, 157 miles long and draining an area of 2750 square miles ; the Kennebec, 155 miles long, draining 5800 square miles, descending 9.1 feet to the mile, navigable to Augusta, 50 miles, where it is 750 feet wide ; the Penobscot, draining 8200 square miles, 800 feet wide at Bangor, which is 55 miles from its mouth and at the head of steamboat navigation ; the St. Croix, 97 miles long, 500 feet wide, and forming the boundary lin^ between Maine and New Bruns- wick. The river St. John, which is mainly in "New Brunswick, drains 7400 square miles of Northern Maine. The sea-coast is nearly 3000 miles in length, by the windings of the shore, although only about 225 miles in a direct line. The coast is rock-bound and furnishes land-locked harbors, deep enough to float the largest vessels. Casco Bay, on which Portland is situated, is said to contain 365 islands ; between 200 and 300 are laid dowii upon the chart of the coast survey. Mount Desert Island, 15 miles long and 12 miles wide, contains several mountain peaks from 1500 to 2000 feet high, with beautiful lakes near their summits. Hundreds of other islands are scattered along the coast, some just large enough for a loon's nest and others containing thousands of acres. Soil and Climate.— The Aroostook Valley claims to have the most fertile lands in the New England States, with the possible exception of the valley of the Connecticut. The soil is a deep yellow and very porous loam upon a stratum of limestone. This region is almost unset- tled, and lands have been sold for half a dollar an acre. A farmer reports raising per acre 85 bushels of corn, 75 of oats, 400 of potatoes and 980 of carrots. There are alluvial soils along the rivers which are very fertile. Much of the upland is stony and barren. The winters are very long and severe. In the north the ground is covered with snow from the middle of November to the middle of , April. There is hardly any spring; summer comes as soon as the snows are melted. Bangor is shut off from naviga- tion for 125 days. The earliest opening of the Penobscot for 50 years was March 21st. There is exemption from frost usually for about three and a half months, from May 31 to Sept. 14. The mean annual temperature at Portland is 43.51°. For the whole State the mean of the thermometer is 41.65° ; rainfall, 43.24 inches ; snow-fall, 83.02. The isothermal lines are : Spring, 35°-40°; summer, 60°-67°; autumn, 40°-47°; winter, 10°-25°; annual mean, 40°-45°. More than 25 per cent, of the deaths are from consumption. Malarious diseases are almost unknown. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 265 Ag'ricultural Productions. — Maine ranks seventh among the States in the amount and fifth in the value of its hay crop. In 1873 the value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley and buckwheat grown was $4,176,888 ; value of the hay crop, $14,691,240 (three and one-half time's as much as the other six staples). Other leading productions are peas, beans, flax, wool, hops, butter, cheese, maple-sugar, honey, etc. One exhibitor showed 30 varieties of apples at an agricultural lair. Many horses are reared for the city markets. The last census reported the num- ber of acres in farms as 5,838,058 ; average size of farms 98 acres ; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $131,128,193; value of produc- tions, 133,470,000. In 1874 there were 78,000 horses, 198,000 oxen and other cattle, 153,500 milch cows, 446,900 sheep and 60,800 swine. The increase in the value of farms during the decade from 1860 to 1870 was $24,273,426. The State laud office has been closed, only 146,000 acres of public laud being still set apart for settlement. Manufactures. — This State has more available water-power than any other portion of the earth's surface of equal extent. There have been enumerated 3100 water-privileges, which together afford a power greater than is used by all the manufacturing establishments of Great Britain. As early as 1837, 250 saw-mills were in operation on the Penobscot and its tributaries above Bangor, and two million feet of lumber was the annual product. One tree cut 4500 feet and was worth $90 in the log. The last census reported 1099 establishments for sawing lumber ; hands employed, 8506; value of products, $11,395,747. The number of manufacturing establishments of all kinds was 5550, employing 49,180 hands, and pro- ducing an annual value of $79,497,521. Cotton has taken the place of lumber as the leading industry. Tlie value of cotton goods was $11,739,- 781, giving Maine the sixth rank among the States. Manufactures have very largely increased within the last decade. The legislature of 1874 granted charters to 23 manufacturing companies with a capital of $7,130,- 000. The State law allows any town to exempt from taxation for a term of ten years all manufacturing establishments. Capitalists from other States have taken advantage of this liberal offer. The industrial statistics for 1873, although incomplete, reported 6072 establishments, employing 55,614 hands and producing an annual value of $96,209,136. Among the leading industries were: Boots and shoes, $8,820,986 (more than doubled in three years); cotton goods, $12,151,750; iron, 1,649,630; leather, $3,187,000; paper, $3,041,600; woollen goods, $6,605,292. Ship-huUding, which ceased almost entirely during the. civil war, has revived again. Maine was surpassed only by New York in the number of vessels built during 1873-4. From her ship-yards were launched 10 ships, 25 barks, 12 brigs, 206 schooners, 12 sloops, and 9 steamers and 2 barges; total, 276 vessels, of 89,817 tons. Quarrying. — Everywhere there is an abundant 266 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES supply of l)uilding-stone. The Maine granite has no superior in the world. Dressed stone from the quarries of Knox and Lincoln counties is used in the construction of the finest public buildings. The product of 57 estab- lishments, with 733 workmen, was valued at $621,738. Ice was cut for exportation to the value of more than half a million of dollars. Commerce and Navigation. — There are 14 United States cus- toms districts on the Maine coast: The value of exports for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, was $5,372,102; value of imports, $3,628,425. Among the articles exported were 2257 bales of cotton, 32,460 bushels of apples, 6,777,502 pounds of lard, 76,200 pounds of sugar, 7,476,000 feet of lumber. The number of vessels registered was 3221 ; vessels entered, 3041 (of which 750 were from foreign countries); vessels cleared, 3015 (1489 for foreign countries). Cod- and mackerel-fishing employ 861 ves- sels and 2000 men. Maine ranks next to Massachusetts in the product of fisheries ; value in 1870, $979,610. Lobsters are caught in great numbers. The tide rises 18 feet at Eastport and 8.9 feet at Portland. Railroads. — A tax is assessed on all railroads whose stock has a market value ; the amount of this assessment for the year 1874 was $105,- 069. The number of miles of railroad in 1873 was 905; inhabitants to a mile of railroad, 702; total capital account, $38,195,948; cost per mile, $40,249 ; receipts, $4,363,741 ; receipts per mile, $4822 ; receipts to each inhabitant, $6.86 ; net earnings, $1,388,855. The completion of the Eu- ropean and North American Railroad opened an all-rail route from St. John's, New Brunswick, to San Francisco, California. The completion of the railroad to Halifax will materially shorten the length of ocean-travel required for a trip to Europe. Public Institutions and Education. — The State-prison, at Thomaston, has its expenses nearly defrayed by the labor of the convicts. The Reform School, near Portland, receives boys from 8 to 16 years of age; its expenses were $14,000 in excess of earnings during 1874. There is an Industrial School for girls at Hallowell and there are Orphans' Asylums at Bath and Bangor. The Hospital for the Insane at Augusta usually con- tains about 400 patients ; the receipts for the last fiscal year were $105,192. The United States Marine Hospital and the Maine General Hospital are at Portland. In 1873-4 the number of children registered in schools was 128,134; number of school-houses, 4083; teachers, 5998; amount of per- manent school fund, $561,893; expenditure for school purposes, $1,147,- 242. There are normal schools at Farmington and Castine. Bowdoin College has classical, medical and scientific departments. It numbers Longfellow and Hawthorne among its alumni. Bates College, at Lewis- ton, educates both sexes. It has a theological department (Free-Will Baptist). Colby University was formerly known as Waterville College. Bangor Theological Seminary is a Congregational institution. The Maine CENTENNIAL OAZETTEEB AND GUIDE. 267 State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, at Orouo, possesses a property valued at $258,620; it had 121 students in 1874. The census of 1870 reported 3334 libraries, 65 newspapers and periodicals and 1326 religious organizations, having 1102 edifices. Population. — The number of inhabitants at successive decennial periods has been as follows: 1790, 96,540 (colored, 538); 1800, 151,719 (colored, 818); 1810, 228,705 (colored, 969) ; 1820, 298,269 (colored, 929); 1830, 399,455 (colored, 1192); 1840, 501,793 (colored, 1355); 1850, 583,- 169 (colored, 1356); 1860, 628,279 (colored, 1327); 1870, 626,915 (col- ored, 1606). The number of foreign born was 48,881; native born, 578,- 034; born in Maine, 550,629; natives of Maine residing in other States, 149,205. Cities and To\vns. — Portland, the largest city on the Atlantic coast east of Boston, has an extensive foreign and domestic trade. It is the terminus of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and lines of first- class steamers run to Liverpool and Glasgow daring the winter. Five other lines of railroad and eight steamboat lines centre at this city. The Post-Office, Custom-house and City Hall are fine edifices. A great fire, on the 4th of July, 1866, burned 1500 buildings, destroyed nearly ten million dollars' worth of property and made 10,000 people homeless. The burnt district has been rebuilt. Population in 1870, 31,413. Augusta is the State capital (population, 7808). Bangor (18,289), on the Penobscot, is a great lumber port. Lewiston (13,600) and Auburn (6168) have large cotton-mills and boot- and shoe-factories. Biddeford (10,282) and Saco (5755), on opj)osite sides of the Saco River, are largely engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods. Other leading towns are Bath, Gardiner, Rockland, Calais, Belfast, Ellsworth and Brunswick. Kittery has a United States navy-yard. Government and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 31 members and a house of representatives of 151 members. The govei-nor is elected annually. His council consists of seven members chosen by the legislature. The supreme court consists of eight judges, having a salary of $3000 each. An annual session is held in each of the three judicial districts. There are trial-terms of court in each county. The prohibitory liquor law has made Maine famous in the temperance reform. During the year 1874 there were 276 convictions under this law, 41 sent to jail and $30,898 dollars in fines collected. White persons are prohibited from marrying Indians or negroes ; 487 divorces were granted in 1874. The estimated receipts for State purposes, in 1875, were $1,753,202. History. — It is asserted that a settlement was made on the St. Croix River in 1604, thus antedating Jamestown and Plymouth. A fort was built on the Penobscot in 1626, and a trading-house at Machias in 1633. 268 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES The French cousidered the region above Kennebec a part of Acadia. Indian attacks gave the early settlers great annoyance. A part of the country was held by the British during the war of 1812. Maine separated from Massachusetts in 1820, and was admitted into the Union as a State. The disputed boundary-line between the United States and British territory was settled by ti-eaty in 1842. MARYLAND. Situatiou and Extent.— Maryland is bounded on the N. by Pennsylvania, E. by Delaware and the Atlantic Ocean, S. and W. by Vir- ginia and West Virginia. It lies between latitudes 37° 53' and 39° 44' K and longitudes 1° 56' E. and 2° 33' W. from Washington, or 75° 4' and 79° 83' W. from Greenwich. The length from east to west is 196 miles, and the breadth varies from 5 to 120 miles. The whole periphery of the State is 766 miles and the area 11,124 square miles, or 7,119,360 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Between the Chesapeake and the Delaware Bays and the Atlantic Ocean is a })eninsula containing 5980 square miles. Of this the part belonging to Maryland, comprising 3386 square miles, divided into eight counties, is called the "Eastern Shore." The "Western Shore" comprises another peninsula, lying between the Chesa- peake and the Potomac River, and containing 3698 square miles. It includes the whole of six counties and parts of three others. Both the above sections are alluvial. To the north and west is a third district, which is crossed by the ranges of the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany Mountains. Some of the most conspicuous summits are South Mountain, Sugar Loaf, Catoctin, Kittatinny, Rugged and Will Mountains. Rivers and Bays. — The Susquehanna, which empties into the head of Chesapeake Bay, is navigable beyond the State line. On the Eastern Shore are the Elk, Chester, Sassafras, Choptauk and Nanticoke, of which only the latter two are navigable. On the Western Shore are the Patapsco, navigable for 22 miles, and the Patuxent, navigable for 50 miles. The Potomac, which borders Maryland for 320 miles, is 7-} miles wide at its mouth. Vessels ascend it to a distance of 125 miles. There are falls in the upper waters and the descent is very rapid, being 1117 feet in 213 miles, an average of 51 feet to the mile. Chesapeake Bay is 200 miles long, from 7 to 30 wide, covers an area of 2835 square miles and, with its tributaries, drains 70,000 square miles of territory. It is navigable for the largest vessels. Canvas- back ducks are very numerous about the Chesapeake. Sinepuxent Bay, 30 miles long and from 1 to 5 wide, is very shallow, and the 30 miles of Atlantic coast afford not a single good harbor. Soil and Climate.— The Eastern and Western Shores are low and sandy, with occasional stagnant marshes, which are malarious. Warden says : " Of oats and barley it is stated that an English wagon could carry CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 269 away the produce of 10 acres." In the northern part there is a mixture of chiy and loam which produces a soil very profitable for tillage. Among the mountains are beautiful valleys, in which luxurious crops are grown. The rainfall is copious (average annual fall for the two years ending Sept. 80, 1874, 44.22 inches). The mean temperature at Baltimore during 1873-4 was 54.3° ; extremes (for two years), 2° and 97.5°. The isothermal lines are for the spring, 55°; summer, 72°-75° ; autumn, 52°-55°; winter, 30°-35° ; mean for the year, 55 degrees. A«^ricultural Productions. — Maryland contained, in 1870, 27,000 farms, averaging 167 acres each ; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $194,072,058; value of productions, $85,343,927; of or- chard products, $1,319,405; of market-gardens, $1,039,782. The value of Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, tobacco and hay, in 1873, was $22,382,390. Other leading crops are sweet potatoes, flax, hops and sorghum. Maryland ranks fifth in its tobacco crop. In January, 1874, there were 104,500 horses,' 10,700 mules, 125,600 oxen and other cattle, 96,900 milch cows, 1 33,200 'sheep, 256,200 swine. Maiiufactvires. — Before the Avar for independence there was but one factory in the State; that was for the manufacture of woollen goods. The last census reported 5812 manufacturing establishments; hands em- ployed, 44,860; value of products, $76,593,613. Among the leading articles in value were : Molasses and sugar, refined, $7,007,857 ; flouring- and grist-mill products, $6,786,459; clothing, $5,970,713; iron, $6,725,395; cotton goods, $4,852,808; boots and shoes, $3,111,076; copper, milled and smelted, $1,016,500. Minerals and Mining*. — The Cumberland coal is semi-bitumin- ous. Twenty-two mines yielded 1,819,824 tons, valued at nearly two and a half millions of dollars. There were 43 iron mines; value of product, $600,246; 2 copper mines, $71,500; 2 marble quarries, $275,000; total number of establishments for mining, 80 ; hands employed, 3801 ; value of products, $3,444,183. Commerce and IVavig-ation. — In 1790 the exports from Bal- timore were, valued at $2,027,777. The value of imports in the year 1874 was $29,302,138 ; exports, $27,692,709. The leading articles of export were tobacco ($5,868,405), Indian corn ($5,287,444), flour ($3,240,967), cotton ($2,669,219), lard ($1,325,636); 1973 vessels entered, 2217 cleared and 104 were built, including six steamers. There are 3 customs districts. Onlj- 5 States surpass Maryland in the amount of foreign commerce. The oyster trade of the Chesapeake supplies most of the markets of the United States. Canals and Railroads.— It was a favorite idea of Wasliington that there might be a canal from tide-water to the Ohio River by way of the Potomac. Surveys were made by order of Congress with a view to 270 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES this more thau fifty years ago. Tlie canal lias been built as fiir as Cum- berland, at a cost of $7,000,000. The estimated expense for continuing it to Connollsville (127^ miles) is $20,268,085, averaging $158,887 per mile. A shii)-canal connects the Chesapeake and Delaware Bays, and a larger one is projected [see Delaware]. Maryland (including the District of Columbia) had, in 1873, 1046 miles of railroad, cost per mile, $54,833 ; receipts, $15,310,942; receipts per mile, $14,403 ; receipts per inhabitant, $15.78; net earnings, $5,756,550; total capital account, $58,295,517. By a State law passed in 1874 railroad companies are taxed one half of one per cent, of their gross receipts. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary, at Baltimore, usually contains between 700 and 800 prisoners. The earnings in 1873 were $71,105, a surplus of $5000 over all expenditures. The Hospital for the Insane, established at Baltimore in 1828, was removed to Spring Grove in 1872. An Asylum for the Blind was opened in 1854; 238 patients were treated during the year 1873. The Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, at Frederick, receives pupils between the ages of 9 and 21 years ; it was opened in 1868. Youthful criminals are sent to the House of Refuge, near BaUimore; 411 were received dur- ing the year 1873. A House of Correction has been provided for the con- finement of those sentenced to brief terms of imprisonment ; the new buildings are at Jessup's Station, 14 miles from Baltimore. Free schools are established by law. The number of schools in operation in 1874 was 1742; scholars enrolled, 99,258 ; teachers, 2555; expenditures for school purposes, $1,354,067. There are 19 colleges, 1 law, 2 medical and 4 theo- logical schools. The Agricultural College has 6 insti'uctors, 130 students and property valued at $210,000. The Medical Department of the Uni- versity of Maryland was established in 1807. The oldest dental college in the world, it is said, is that at Baltimore, chartered in 1840. There were, in 1870, 3353 libraries, 88 newspapers and 1389 church edifices. Poi)Ulation. — The number of inhabitants in 1665 was estimated at 16,000; in 1755, 153,564; in 1790, 319,728 (slaves, 106,036); 1800, 341,- 548 (slaves, 105,635); 1810, 380,546 (slaves, 111,502); 1820, 407,350 (slaves, 107,397); 1830, 447,040 (slaves, 102,994); 1840, 470,019 (slaves, 89,737); 1850,583,034 (slaves, 90,368) ; 1860,687,049 (slaves, 87,189); 1870, 780,894 (free colored, 175,391). Of the population in 1870, there were born in the State, 629,882 ; in the United States, 697,482 ; in foreign countries, 83,412 ; natives of Maryland residing in other States, 175,666. Persons to a square mile, 70.20, giving to Maryland the sixth rank in density of population. Cities and Towns. — Baltimore, the seventh city of the Union in size, had a population of 267,354 in 1870. The city is situated on an arm of the Patapsco, 14 miles from Chesapeake Bay. The harbor is 3 miles CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 271 long, and its channel is dredged so as to afford a depth of 24 feet at meau low tide. It is defended by Fort McHenry, which was attacked by the British fleet in 1814. Druid Park contains 600 acres, and there are 12 public squares. There are many fine public buildings, among which are the Exchange, Athenseum, Maryland Institute, Court-House and the new City Hall, to cost $3,000,000. The " Monumental City" contains a mon- ument to Washington 180 feet high, and the Battle Monument, erected to the memory of those who fell in the defence of the city in 1814. Two lines of foreign steamers connect Baltimore with the Old World. The receipt of grain in 1873 was 19,099,517 bushels. The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad is an immense trunk-line connecting with all parts of the West. The value of articles manufactured is more than $50,000,000 a year. There are nearly 200 churches and 123 public schools, with 40,183 pupils. In 1775 the town contained 564 houses and 5934 inhabitants. Annapolis, the State capital, 80 miles south of Baltimore, on the Chesapeake Bay, was founded iu 1649. The United States Naval Academy is located on the bank of the Severn River. Population of the city, 5744. Frederick (population, 8526) is the second city in the State. Cumberland (8036) is the depot of the mining regions and has an important trade along the canal. Hagerstown (5779) is an important railroad centre. Among the other leading towns are Chesapeake City, Eastou, Havre de Grace, Port De]Dosit, Sharpsburg and Westminster. Goverilinent and Laws. — The general assembly consists of a senate of 26 members elected for 4 years and a house of delegates of 85 members elected for 2 years. Biennial meetings are held, and the members are paid §5 a dgiy during the session." No minister of the gospel is eligible to the legislature. The governor (salary, $4500) is chosen for a term of four years. The State is divided into eight judicial districts. The court of appeals consists of the chief-justices of the first seven circuits, together with a judge elected by the people of Baltimore. Justices of the peace are appointed by the governor. Maryland has six representatives in Congress. The public debt of the State was $11,095,019 on the 30tli of September, 1874, History. — William Claiborne (not Clayborne, as many histories give it) settled on Kent's Island, in the Chesapeake, in the year 1631. "The pilgrims of Maryland," led by Leonard Calvert, lauded at St. Mary's in 1634. They were a Roman Catholic colony. Liberty of religious oj)inion was proclaimed to all who acknowledged Jesus Christ as Lord. The law said that any person denying the Holy Trinity "shall be punished with death." Baltimore was laid out in 1730 and Georgetown in 1751. The boundary-line between Pennsylvania and Maryland was long disputed. Mason and Dixon, "the London surveyors," landed at Philadelphia Nov 15, 1763, for the purpose of determining the conflicting claims by an accU' 272 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES rate survey. They ran the line westward for 244 miles from the Delaware, when their Indian escort told them, " It is the will of the Six Nations that the surveys be stayed." That authority was not to be resisted, and the work was stayed. Maryland suffered much in the French and Indian wars. Her troops were active and efficient in the contest for independence. Con- gress met at Annapolis in 1783, and Washington resigned his commission. Several towns on the Chesapeake were plundered and burned during the last war with Great Britain. The State contributed 50,000 men to the Federal army during the civil war. The battle of Antietam, September, 1862, was the most bloody engagement fought on the Maryland soil. Gen. Lee invaded the State, on his way to Pennsylvania, in June, 1863, and Gen. Early's troops made another invasion in July, 1864. The present Constitution was adopted Sept. 18, 1867. MASSACHUSETTS. Situation and Extent. — Massachusetts is bounded ou the N. by Vermont and New Hampshire, E. by the Atlantic Ocean, S. by the At- lantic Ocean and the States of Rhode Island and Connecticut and W. by New York. It is situated between latitudes 41° 15' and 42° 53' N. and longitudes 3° 28' and 7° 5' E. from Washington, or 69° 55' and 73° 32' W. from Greenwich. The length is 160 miles, from east to west, and the breadth 90 miles on the east and 48 miles ou the west ; area, 7800 square miles, or 4,992,000 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The south-east section is low and sandy, the northern and central hilly and rolling, the western broken and mountainous. The Hoosac and Taconic Mountains are extensions of the Green Mountains. Greylock, or Saddle Mountain, in the north-west corner, attains an altitude of 3600 feet, and is the highest land in Massa- chusetts. Upon one side of it is the " Hopper," a chasm 1000 feet deep. Mount Washington, in the south-west corner, is 2624 feet high, and has a village upon its slope more than 2000 feet above the sea. In the Connec- ticut Valley are several peaks, of which the highest are Mettawampe (1200 feet). Mount Tom (1300 feet) and Mount Holyoke (1120 feet). From the summit of the latter East and West llock, near New Haven, can be seen. Wachusett (2018 feet high) is an isolated peak in the northern part of Worcester county. Cape Cod is a low and barren sand-waste stretching out into the ocean in the shape of a bent arm. Rivers. — The Connecticut flows across the whole breadth of the State. Its principal tributaries are the Deerfield, Chicopee and Westfield Rivers. The Merrimac, which rises among the White Mountains, has a course of 40 miles parallel with the north-east boundary of Massachusetts ; it is navigable to Haverhill, 18 miles. No other river in the world turns so many spindles. The mean annual flow at Lowell is 5400 cubic feet per second, and in freshets the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 273 volume swells to 90,000 cubic feet per second. The Housatonic drains Berksliire county west of the Hoosac Mountains. Other small rivers are the Blackstone, Charles, Concord and Taunton. Bays, Sounds mid Islands. — Massachusetts and Cape Cod Bays extend along the whole eastern coast as far north as Cape Ann. Buzzards' Bay, on the south, is 30 miles long and 7 miles wide. Nantucket Sound lies between the island of the same name and the main land. Vineyard Sound separates the Elizabeth Islands, 16 in number, from Martha's Vineyard, which is an island 21 miles long and from 3 to 9 wide. On its north side is Vineyard Haven, or Holmes's Hole, a favorite shelter for eastward bound vessels when the weather is too stormy for doubling Cape Cod. Nantucket Island, 15 miles long and from 3 to 4 miles wide, is very sandy and almost destitute of trees. It has been inhabited since 1659. Forests. — Among the principal trees are the ash, aspen, beech, birch, butternut, cedar, chestnut, elm, hickory, larch, bass- wood, maple, oak, pine, spruce, sycamore and tupelo. A catalogue has been published which enumerated 802 genera and 3153 species of animals and 594 genera and 1737 species of plants. Soil and Climate. — A rich alluvial soil is found in the valleys of the Connecticut and of tlie Housatonic. Much of the land is sterile, but by careful tillage it is made to produce good crops. The average yield per acre, in 1873, was as follows : Indian corn, 35 bushels ; wheat, 19 ; rye, 17 ; oats, 33.3; barley, 22; buckwheat, 15.6; potatoes, 125; tobacco, 1459 pounds; hay, 1.04 tons. The climate is one of extremes. On the 6th of June, 1816, snow fell to the depth of several inches in Berkshire county. In July, 1825, the mercury at Williamstown stood above 90° on every day from the 10th to the 23d ; on the latter date it reached 98°, while the recorded temperature at Boston was 100°. The mean at Boston for the year 1873-4 was 48.2° ; minimum, 0° ; maximum, 98° ; the wind was east on 127 days. During a period of twenty years, at Roxbury (now a part of Boston), the earliest flowering of the peach tree was April 16th, and the latest May 27th. Upon the isothermal charts the lines crossing Massachusetts are: Spring, 45°; summer, 67°; autumn, 47°-52°; winter, 25°-30°; annual mean, 45°-47°. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the rainfall was 56.47 inches. Agricultural Productions. — There were, in 1870, 26,500 farms, containing 2,730,283 acres (an average of 103 acres for each farm), of which 1,736,211 acres (63.6 per cent.) were improved. The value of farms, farm implements and live-stock was $138,482,891 ; value of farm productions, $32,192,378 ; value of productions per acre of improved land, $18.54 ; value of orchard products, $939,854 ; of market-garden produce, $1,980,321 ; of forest products, $1,618,818. The product of the principal crops, in 1873, was 1,446,000 bushels of Indian corn, 31,000 of wheat, 246,000 of rye, 665,000 of oats, 110,000 of barley, 50,000 of buckwheat, 2,425,000 of potatoes, 8,200,000 pounds of tobacco, 409,200 tons of hay; total valua- is 271 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES tiiin of (he jihove nine staple crops, $15,433,010. The cstinuited total miniher of live-stock in Jan., 1874, was 102,800 horses, 122,000 oxen and other cattle, 136,300 milch cows, 76,300 sheep, 78,000 hogs. Only 72,810 were em|)loyed in agriculture of the 579,844 reported as engaged in all classes of occupation. ]>IailutJU*tliri'S. — jMassachusetts is the greatest manufacturing State of the l^nion in proportion to its population ; it is surpassed only by the very nnich larger States of New York and Peiuisylvania in the amount of capital invested and in the value of the annual products. In the man- ufacture of boots and shoes, cotton goods, woollen goods, cutlery and chairs Massachusetts ranks first. In a few of the leading industries the value of the products was reported iu 1870 as follows: Boots and shoes, $88,399,583; cotton goods, $56,257,580; woollen goods, $39,489,242 ; bleaching and dye- ing, $22,252,429; men's clothing, $20,212,407; leather, tanned and curried, $29,195,827; printing (cotton and woollen goods), $17,325,150; paper, $12,696,491 ; printing and publishing, $8,391,976; worsted goods, $8,280,- 541; lumber, planed and sawed, $6,551,690; ilouring- and grist-mill pro- ducts, $9,720,374; machinery, $11,554,416; molasses and sugar, refined, $7,665,485 ; straw goods, $4,869,514. The total number of manufactur- ing establishments reported was 13,312; hands employed, 279,380, of whom 86,229 were females above the age of 15 years; wages paid, $118,051,886; value of materials, $334,113,982; value of products, $553,912,568. Miiiiiij»: and IJuarryinj*-. — The State is not rich in minerals, but there is an abundance of building-stone of the finest quality. From the extensive marble quarries of Berkshire county the stone was cut for the Capitol at Washington, the City Hall of New York, Girard College and many of the marble fronts of riiiladelphia. Quincy granite was used in the construction of Bunker Hill IMonument and the Astor House. There are large i^uarries in Monson and Pelhain. The number of mining estab- lishments was 65; hands employed, 1595 ; value of products, $1,493,522, of which $1,294,148 was for quarried stone. Coniinoroc and lVavij>"a(ioii.— For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, the value of exports (domestic and foreign) from the 11 customs districts was $30,736,287 ; value of imports, $52,737,280 ; vessels entered, 5721 (3066 in the foreign trade); cleared, 5682 (2982 for foreign ports). Five steamers and 72 other vessels were built during the year. Fisheries. — More than half the product of all the fisheries iu the United States at the time of the last census was credited to Massachusetts, which had employed in cod- and mackerel-fishing 1026 vessels, 8993 men and a capital of $4,287,871; value of the annual product, $6,215,325. The vessels are from 40 to 120 tons each, carry from 12 to 20 men as a crew and are en- gaged in fishing from May to October. The whale-fisheries employ 170 vessels. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 275 Railroads. — The railroad statistics for 1874 were as follows : Miles of railroad, 2418; average cost per mile, $50,884; amount invested, $165,624,136; number of passengers carried, 42,480,494 ; total earnings, $34,632,483. There are 45 distinct railroads, some of them having sev- eral branches. Cheap trains have been run on the Eastern road, which, at a fare of five cents, afforded a fair profit to the corporation. The receipts per trip were $19.28 and the cost of running $14.14. The Hoosac Tunnel, 41 miles in length and, next to the Mt. Cenis Tunnel, the longest in the world, was completed in 1875, at a total cost, up to Jan. 1st, of $12,973,822.31. Public Institutions and Edut^ation. — The State Prison, in Charlestown, has from 600 to 700 convicts ; a new prison is to be erected at Concord. A sepai'ate reformatory prison for women will soon be com- pleted. There are three reformatory schools — viz., a Reform School for boys at Westboro', an Industrial School for girls at Lancaster and a Nautical School in Boston harbor. The average number confined in all prisons was 3483. The State Almshouse is at Tewksbury. Pauper chil- dren are provided for at the Monson institution. The Bridgewater Alms- house has been changed into a workhouse. Liberal provisions have been made for the insane, of whom there are 4000 in the State, distributed at Worcester, Taunton and Northampton (State hospitals), Tewksbury (alms- house), Somerville, South Boston and Ipswich. Other institutions which care for State beneficiaries are the Eye and Ear Infirmary, School for Idiots, Asylum for the Blind, 2 schools for Deaf Mutes and an Infant Asy- lum. The Massachusetts General Hospital affords free treatment to the poor. The system of public schools is very excellent. In 1874 the num- ber of public schools was 5435 ; pupils, 297,025 ; teachers, 8715; total paid for public instruction, $6,180,848. There are five State normal schools, having 47 instructors and 902 pupils. The number of colleges is seven — viz., Amherst, Boston College (Roman Catholic), Boston University (Meth- odist), College of the Holy Cross, Harvard University [see American Education], Tufts College and Williams College ; number of instructors, 278 ; students, 2529. For professional instruction there are 7 schools of theology (Baptist, Congregational, Methodist, Protestant Episcopal, New Jerusalem, Unitarian and Universalist), 2 schools of law, 2 schools of jnedicine, 2 dental colleges and 1 college of pharmacy. A university of modern languages has been organized at Newburyport. The State Agri- cultural College is at Amherst. Among the leading institutions for the instruction of women are ^Mount Holyoke Seminary and Smith College at Northampton. Phillips Academy at Andover and Willistou Seminary at Easthampton are famous boys' schools. The number of libraries in 1870 was 3169, containing 3,017,183 volumes. The Boston public library con- tains about 270,000 volumes, and the library of Harvard College more 276 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES than 200,000. There were 259 newspapers and periodicals (increased to 321 in 1874) and 1848 religious organizations, having 1764 edifices. Population. — The original Pilgrims who landed at Plymouth num- hered about 100. The population was estimated at 40,000 in 1692, 120,000 in 1731 and 220,000 in 1755. The national census reported in 1790, 378,- 787; 1800,422,845; 1810,472,040; 1820,523,159; 1830,610,408; 1840, 737,699; 1850, 994,514; 1860, 1,231,066; 1870, 1,457,351. Of the 1,104,032 persons of native birth, 903,297 were born in Massachusetts, 55,571 in Maine, 47,773 in New Hampshire, 22,110 in Vermont, 14,356 in Rhode Island, 17,313 in Connecticut; 353,319 were of foreign birth; 243,784 natives of Massachusetts were residing in other States. The num- ber of inhabitants to a square mile was 186.84; no other State in the Union is so densely populated. Cities and Towns. — Nearly half the people of the commonwealth (48.7 per cent.) reside in cities. Boston, "the metropolis of New England," was originally comprised within the limits of a peninsula 3 miles long and 1 mile wide. Several of the adjacent towns and cities have been annexed, of which the most populous were Charlestown, Roxbury, Dorchester and Brighton. The population in 1764 was 15,520; in 1870, 250,526; and in 1874, with the new towns added, 360,000. Boston ranks next to New York in foreign commerce. Its jobbing trade in boots and shoes, woollen and cotton goods, leather, etc., is immense. Among the noted public buildings are Faneuil Hall, "the cradle of Liberty," built in 1742; the old State- house (1748), the present State-house (1793), the City Hall, Masonic Tem- ple, Quincy Market, etc. The Cochituate Avater was introduced in 1848. Boston Common and the Public Garden occupy 75 acres in the heart of the city. Bunker Hill Monument, 220 feet high, and the Charlestown Navy Yard are now within the city limits. The great fire, in November, 1872, burned over 65 acres, destroyed 800 buildings, most of them massive warehouses, and inflicted a loss of 80 millions of dollars. Cambridge (population, 39,634), the seat of Harvard College, is a place of great lit- erary and historic interest. The poet Longfellow now occupies the house which was Washington's head-quarters after he assumed command of the American army. Lowell (40,928) has 75 mill buildings and 16,000 operatives. Lawrence (28,921) has 25 mill buildings and 9000 operatives. Haverhill (13,092) is largely engaged in the manufacture of boots and shoes. Worcester (41,105), the second city of the State, has extensive machine-shops. Springfield (26,703), on the Connecticut River, is the location of the United States Armory. Other important and busy towns are: Fall River (26,766), Salem (24,117), Lynn, famous for its shoe-fac- tories (28,233); New Bedford (21,320), largely engaged in whale-fishery; Taunton (18,629); Gloucester, the head-quarters of the cod and mackerel fishermen (15,389); Newburyport (12,595); and Holyoke, on the Connec- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 277 ticut River (10,733). A city charter is not granted in Massachusetts to any town having less than 10,000 inhabitants. Government and Laws. — The legislature consists of 40 senators and 240 representatives. The governor (salary, 85000) and other execu- tive officers, as well as the membei-s of the Legislature, are elected annu- ally. The supreme judicial court consists of 7 judges, of whom the chief- justice receives a salary of §6500 and the others 86000. The superior court has 10 judges ; salary, $5000, except the chief-justice, who receives $5300. AH judges are appointed by the governor. The funded debt, Jan. 1, 1875, was 829,465,204. History. — In 1602 a company of English colonists landed on the Elizabeth Islands, but soon abandoned their settlement. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Dec. 22, 1620. Xearly half their number perished before spring. During King Philip's war, in 1676, a dozen towns were destroyed, 600 houses burned and as many of the settlers killed. The de- struction of tea in Boston harbor took place in 1773, and the battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775, began the war for independence. Maine was separated from Massachusetts in 1820. Attempts were made to repeal the prohibitory liquor law in 1874, bnt the bill was vetoed by Governor Tal- bot. The law was, however, repealed and a stringent license law was enacted in 1875. May 16, 1874, a reservoir at Williamsburg gave way; the flood destroyed 200 lives and $1,500,000 worth of property. MICHIGAN. Sitnation and Extent. — Michigan is bounded on the N. l>y Lake Superior, E. by Lake Superior, St. ^Mary's River, Lake Huron, St. Clair River and Lake, the Detroit River and Lake Erie, S. by Ohio and In- diana and W. by Lake Michigan and Wisconsin. It is situated between latitudes 41° 45' and 48° 20' N. and longitudes 5° 25' and 13° 34' W. from Washington, or 82° 25' and 90° 34' W. from Greenwich. The State comprises two peninsulas entirely separated from each other. The upper peninsula is 318 miles in length from east to west and from 30 to 160 miles wide ; the lower peninsula has a length of 280 miles and a breadth of 250 miles. The area of Michigan is 56,451 square miles, or 36,128,640 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The eastern shore of Lake Erie is low and swampy, thickly wooded and drained by several small and slug- gish streams. Farther inland the country is rolling and picturesque, with hills from 100 to 200 feet high. Along the water-shed between the lakes there is an elevation of 600 or 700 feet. Bordering Lake Superior is a rough primary formation, with rugged hills and deep valleys. The "Pic- tured Rocks" are sandstone bluffs from 200 to 300 feet high, which have been worn by the Avaves into curiously fantastic forms. The highest eleva- 278 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES tions of the northern peninsula are from 1500 to 2000 feet above the level of the sea. Lakes. — Four great lakes wash the shores of this State, which together constitute one half the fresh water on the globe [see Physical Geography, p. 155]. In the northern peninsula there are many small lakes covering from one to a thousand acres. Fish are very abundant. Among those most frequently caught are the sturgeon, white-fish, Mackinaw trout (sometimes weighing fifty pounds), herring, pike, pickerel, bass, perch, cat- fish, etc. The value of the lake fisheries in 1870 was -f 567,576. Rivers.— Mr. Schoolcraft says there are 100 streams which empty into the lakes, but most of them are of small size. Grand River is 270 miles long, 50 rods wide and navigable for steamboats to Grand Rapids, 40 miles. The St. Joseph is 30 rods wide for 120 miles from its mouth. Other streams which empty into Lake Michigan are the Kalamazoo, Muskegon, Manistee and Grand Traverse. The Saginaw (navigable for 40 miles), Au Sable and Cheboygan empty into Lake Huron. Menomonee river forms a part of the western boundary of Michigan. The Detroit and St. Clair form the outlet of the great lakes and are navigable for the largest vessels. Forests. — Much of the northern peninsula is covered with a dense growth of tim- ber, iij which the pine and other soft trees predominate. The southern peninsula has many prairies and oak openings, but the early settlers found much of the land covered with forests, which were cleared away at an av- erage expense of $15 per acre, by cutting the trees, rolling them together and burning them. The principal growths are beech, black-walnut, elm, maple, hickory, oak, basswood, linden, sycamore, hackberry, cottonwood, aspen, locust, butternut, poplar, hemlock, spruce, cedar, cypress, chestnut, pawpaw, white, yellow and Norway pine. Soil and Climate. — The heavily-timbered lands have a consider- able variety of soils, consisting of clay, or muck, or dry sandy loam. A layer of dark vegetable mould, mingled with sand, clay and yellow loam, is the predominant soil of the white-oak openings. The prairies have a black vegetable mould from one to five feet deep, based on a stratum of clay, rock or gravel. There are fertile valleys in the Lake Superior region, but much of the land is cold, broken and barren. In climate the differ- ence between the northern and southern peninsulas is very marked. The mean annual temperature at Detroit, for 18 years, was 47.25°, and at Fort Brady, near the southern extremity of Lake Superior, for 21 years, 40.37°. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean at Escauaba was 40.1°; at Marquette, 40.8°; at Grand Haven, 47°; at Detroit, 47.9° (minimum, 0°, maximum, 97°). Marquette was colder than Eastport, Me. (40.9°), while Detroit was warmer than New London, Conn. (47.7°). Upon the iso- thermal charts the lines passing through Michigan are: Spring, 40°-45°; summer, 65°-70° ; autumn, 45°-50°; winter, 15°-25°; annual mean, 40°-47°. The amount of rainfall at Marquette was 21.32 inches ; at De- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 279 troit, 31.31 inches. The Straits of Mackinaw are usually closed by ice from the first of December to the fii-st of May. AgTicultural Productions.— The whole number of farms re- ported by the census of 1870 was 98,786; average size of farms, 101 acres; land in farms, 10,019,142 acres, of which 5,096,930 were improved ; value of farms, farm implements and machinery, $411,952,557 ; value of farm productions, betterments and additions to stock, $81,508,623; of orchard products, $3,447,985; of market-garden produce, $352,658. A few of the items reported by the State census of 1874 were as follows : Bushels of Indian corn, 20,792,905 ; wheat, 15,45(^,202 ; potatoes, 5,618,863 ; apples, 5,928,275 ; cherries, 66,746 ; strawberries, 48,922 ; pears, 40,857 ; peaches, 22,069; butter, 27,972,117 pounds; cheese, 4,101,912; wool, 7,729,011; grapes, 2,960,100 pounds; wine, 50,871 gallons; hay, 1,134,077 tons. Of live-stock there were 281,394 horses, 38,901 working oxen, 321,732 milch cows, 307,554 other cattle, 401,720 swine and 1,649,199 sheep. Manufactures. — In 1810 the value of manufactured articles was $37,018 ; in 1850, $11,169,002 ; in 1860, $32,658,356. The whole number of establishments in 1870 was 9455 ; hands employed, 63,694; wages paid, $21,205,355 ; value of products, $11 8,894,676. In lumber products Mich- igan ranked first, surpassing Pennsylvania by four millions of dollars and New York 'by ten millions. The number of saw-mills was 1571; hands employed, 20,058; value of products, $31,946,396. The flouring- and grist-mill business ranks next in importance, the value of its products being $21,174,247. Among the other leading industries in value were: Boots and shoes, $2,552,931 ; carriages and wagons, $2,393,328 ; leather, tanned and curried, $2,670,608 ; machinery, $2,330,564 ; iron castings, $2,082,532; tobacco and cigars, $2,572,523 ; clothing, $2,577,154; agricultural imple- ments, $1,569,596; printing and publishing, $1,071,528; woollen goods, $996,203. Minerals and 3Iining'. — The upper peninsula is very rich in min- erals, among which have been found agate', chalcedony, cornelian, jasper, opal and sardonyx. The copper mines are said to be the richest in the world, with the exception of those in Chili. In the copper region, which is 135 miles long and from 1 to 6 wide, there were, in 1870, 27 mines, em- ploying 4188 hands and yielding a value of $4,312,167, which was 82.95 per cent, of the whole product in the United States ; 194,333 tons of cop- per ore were mined between the years 1845 and 1873. Michigan ranks next to Pennsylvania in the production of iron. The number of mines was, in 1870, 11; hands employed, 2005; tons of ore, 690,393; value, $2,677,965. In 1873 the product of iron ore had increased to 1,250,000 tons. Coal formations underlie 12,000 square miles of the State. There are salt wells which yielded 1,026,979 barrels in 1874. Commerce and Navigation. — For each of the great lakes there 280 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES is a customs district— viz., Lake Superior, port of entry, Marquette; Lake Michigan, port of entry, Grand Haven ; Lake Huron, port of entry, Port Huron ; Lake Erie, port of entry, Detroit. In 1810 the exports from the latter port were valued at $3615. The first steamer arrived Aug. 28, 1816. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of exports, domestic and foreign, was $9,526,624; value of imports, $2,353,786; vessels entered in the foreign trade, 4682; cleared, 4718; vessels entered in the coastwise trade, 21,769; cleared, 21,484; total of entrances and clearances, 52,658. There were 110 vessels built (36 steamers), of 32,881 tons. Railroads and .Canals.— The number of miles of railroad, in 1873, was 3309; total capital account, $111,373,671 ; cost per mile, $52,489 ; total receipts, $14,295,988; receipts per mile, $6811; receipts to an inhab- itant, $10.77 ; net earnings, $3,950,624 ; operating expenses, $10,345,364 ; dividends paid, $899,345. A ship-canal around the falls of St. Mary's allows the passage of the largest vessels between Lake Superior and Lake Huron. The Portage and Lake Superior Canal was completed in 1873, through which vessels may avoid Keweenaw Point. Public Institutions antl Education.— The State-Prison, at Jackson, established in 1838, contains 648 cells, and has received more than 5000 prisoners; the number of convicts, Sept. 30, 1874, was 703. The Reform School, at Lansing, opened in 1856, has 243 inmates ; a farm of 225 acres affoi-ds employment for the boys during a few hours of each day. A State Public School for neglected and dependent children was opened at Coldwater, May 22, 1874, and in the following August had 135 inmates. The Asylum for the Insane, at Kalamazoo, established in 1859, has accommodations for 300 females and 260 males ; number of patients, in 1874, 465. The grounds of the institution contain 195 acres. An ap- propriation of $400,000 has been made for the construction, at Pontiac, of another Asylum for the Insane. The Institution for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind, at Flint, was opened in 1854. Michigan contains 50 jails and 51 almshouses. The value of the grounds and buildings used for correc- tional and charitable purposes is $3,388,806 ; number of persons supported at the public charge in 1874, 4099 ; estimated cost of their maintenance, $631,458. A compulsory school-law is in force, which compels parents and guardians to send all children between the ages of eight and fourteen years to school for at least twelve weeks in every year. The statistics for 1874 were : School population, 436,694 ; number of school-houses, 5702 ; teachers, 12,276; total expenditures, $3,423,922. The University of Michigan, opened in 1842, has departments of law, medicine, literature, science and the arts. It had, in 1874-5, 44 instructors and 1183 students of both sexes. Other institutions for higher education are Adrian, Albion, Hillsdale, Hope, Kalamazoo and Olivet Colleges. The State Agricultural College has been in operation since 1857. The institutions for professional CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 281 iustruction are 2 schools of theology, 1 of law, 3 of niedicme and 1 of science. There are also 7 business colleges aud a State Normal School. The last census reported 26,763 libraries, 211 newspapers aud 2239 religious organizations, with 1415 edifices. Grrowtll ill Population. — The earliest settlers were mostly from Canada. After the organization of a Territorial government, large com- panies of immigrants came from New England and Neif York. The number of inhabitants in 1800 was 555; 1810, 4762; 1820, 8896; 1830, 31639 (an increase of 255.6 per cent.); 1840, 212,267 (570.9- per cent, increase); 1850, 397,654; 1860, 749,113; 1870, 1,184,059 (a gain of 58.06 per cent.) ; 1874 (by the State census), 1,333,861. Of the 916,049 persons of native birth, 507,268 were born in Michigan, 231,509 in New York, 62.207 in Ohio, 28,507 in Pennsylvania, 3932 in Maine, 3633 in New Hampshire, 14,445 in Vermont, 10,839 in Massachusetts, 1486 in Rhode Island, 7412 in Connecticut; natives of this State residing in other parts of the Union, 65,720. There were 268,010 persons of foreign birth, 4962 Indians, 1 Chinaman and 1 Japanese. Cities and Towns. — Michigan contains 38 cities. Detroit, on the river of the same name, was early occupied as a trading-post. So numer- ous were the French-speaking inhabitants in 1817 that the leading news- paper divided its matter between the French aud the English lan- guages. The city extends for seven miles along the river front. Among the fine public edifices are the new City Hall, costing ^600,000, Custom- house and Board of Trade building. There are many extensive manufac- tories ; the value of the iron work is estimated at ten millions of dollars annually. Detroit has 8 lines of railroad, 8 daily newspapers and nearly 70 churches. The population was 79,577 in 1870, and 101,255 in 1874. Grand Rapids (population, 25,993), situated on the Grand River, at the head of steamboat navigation, carries on a large lumber trade. It is at the intersection of six railroads, and has 3 daily newspapers and 20 churches. Lansing (7445), the capital, has a new State-House in process of erection, 343 feet long, 191 feet deep and estimated to cost $1,200,000. The State Reform School and Agricultural College are located here. It has 4 railroads, 2 weekly papers and 15 churches. East Saginaw (17,084) extends for 3 miles along the Saginaw River, which is crossed by 3 bridges. It contains 5 founderies and machine-shops, 2 daily papers and 10 churches. Saginaw City (10,064), is on the opposite side of the river. These two places are the principal depots for the lumber and salt trade of the valley; the largest steamers can come up to the docks. Jackson (13,859), on the Grand River, is at the intersection of 6 railroads and has large machine- and repair-shops. The manufactures are valued at three millions of dollars a year. Two daily papers are published, and there are 13 churches. Bay City (13,690), at the mouth of the Saginaw River, contains 16 saw-mills 282 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES and numerous salt-wells, which produce 100,000 barrels annually. Fish are exported to the amount of 50,000 barrels a year. Six lines of steamers and 3 railroads afford ample freighting facilities. The city supports 9 churches and a daily newspaper. Adrian (8863), the seat of Adrian Col- lege, has 11 churches, 3 newspapers, a car-factory, founderies and flouring- raills. Muskegon (8505) ships 300,000,000 feet of logs a year. It sup- ports 3 papei'S and 10 churches, and is. at the intersection of 4 railroads. Port Huron. (8240), at the southern extremity of Lake Huron, is the principal depot of the Canadian trade. Flint (8197), the seat of the Deaf and Dumb Asylum, has 10 saw-mills, 7 planing-mills, 3 weekly papers and 8 churches. Ann Arbor (6692) is best known as the location of Michigan University. The city extends on both sides of Huron Kiver and contains several woollen- and flour-mills, breweries, tanneries, saw- mills and 10 churches. Marquette (5242), on the southern shore of Lake Superior, is the supply and shipping depot for the iron mines. It has a weekly newspaper, 3 banks, 6 churches and a number of furnaces. Kal- amazoo, on the river of the same name, 60 miles from its mouth, contains an Insane Asylum, a college, a female seminary and 16 churches. Kail- I'oads from six directions converge at this place. Among the other prin- cipal towns are Battle Creek, Ypsilanti, Manistee, Niles, Grand Haven, Coldwater, Alpena, Pontiac, Lapeer and Almont. Goveriiinent and Laws. — The legislature consists of 32 senators and 100 representatives, who, together with the governor and other execu- tive officers, are elected for a term of two years. There are commissioners of insurance, railroads and immigration, and a State board of health, con- sisting of seven members. Appropriations for any religious sect and the .granting of licenses for the sale of intoxicating liquors are prohibited. The supreme court consists of 4 justices (salary, S4000 each), elected by the people for 8 years. There are 20 judicial circuits, each presided over by a circuit judge. There are circuit and probate courts for each of the 77 counties and four justices of the peace for every township. Treason is the only capital crime; murder is punishable with solitary imprisonment for life. History.— A mission was established at Sault Ste. Marie, by Father Marquette, in 1668; this was the first European settlement. In 1671 Michilimackinac fort and chapel were built, at the present site of Macki- naw. A military post was established at Detroit in 1701. The French remained in possession until 1763, when the territory was ceded to Great Britain. A bloody war was waged by the Indians under the leadership of Pontiac. At the close of the war for independence Michigan came under the dominion of the United States, but formal possession was not taken until 1796. The Territory of Michigan was organized Jan. 16, 1805. Detroit was taken by the British in 1812. The public lands were brought CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 283 into market in 1818. The upper peninsula became a part of Michigan in 1836, and the State was admitted into the Union Jan. 26, 1837. The name of Michigan is abbreviated from two Chippewa words (mitchi and sawgye- gan) meaning the Great Lake. MINNESOTA. Situtltioii and Extent. — Minnesota is bounded on the N. by British America, E. by Lakes Superior and Wisconsin, S. by Iowa and W. by Dakota. It is situated between latitudes 43° 30' and 49° N. and longitudes 12° 39' and 20° 5' W. from Washington, or 89° 39' and 97° 5' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length north and south is 880 miles and the extreme breadth east and west 387 miles ; area 83,531 square miles, or 53,459,840 acres. Physical Features.— /S'(«;/cYce. — The general elevation of the State is 1000 feet above sea level. In the northern part are the " Heights of Land," constituting a water-shed between three great river systems — viz., those of the Mississippi Valley, Hudson's Bay and the St. Lawrence. The most elevated lands reach a height of nearly 1700 feet about Lake Itasca. Other elevations are: Near Lake Shotek, 1578 feet; Lake Pemidji, 1456 feet; Leech Lake, 1330 feet. The north-eastern section has been charac- terized as "the region of swamps and bogs." Westward of the Mississippi the open rolling prairie begins. A gentle descent of 400 feet leads to the valley of the Red River of the North. This valley, or plain, is from 30 to 35 miles wide, and "a more complete dead level cannot be found in the whole country." The St. Paul and Pacific Railroad crosses it for 40 miles "without a curve, a fill or a cut, save what is necessary to remove the sod." Forests. — Nearly one-third of the whole area of the State in the north-east is almost entirely covered with coniferous forests. Twenty-one thousand square miles are included in the pine region. The swamps have a growth of tamarac of little value for timber. Deciduous trees predominate west of the Mississippi ; the oak, elm and ash are most frequent, but every spe- cies of tree known to the Upper Mississippi Valley is found here, with the possible exception of the beech and sycamore. An immense forest, known as the Bois Franc by the early French settlers, and now as the "Big Woods," extends over the centre of the State; it is 100 miles long, 40 miles wide and covers an area of 4000 square miles, which is larger than the combined areas of Rhode Island and Delaware. Lakes and Rivers. — Min- nesota has a coast-line of 120 miles on Lake Superior. Along the north- ern boundary are the Lake of the Woods, Rainy, Mountain and Arrow Lakes. Other lakes are the Red, Vermilion, Leech, Winibigoshish, Swan and Mille Lacs. These bodies of water are from one to thirty miles in diameter, and some of them cover an area of 400 square miles. Many of them have no visible outlet. There are said to be 10,000 lakes in the 284 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES State, most of which abound iu fish aud are surrounded by a heavy growth of timber. The Mississippi River rises iu Lake Itasca and flows through and by the State for 800 miles (for 540 miles of which it is navigable), constituting the eastern boundary for 135 miles. At the Falls of St. An- thony it is 350 yards wide and has a descent of 58 feet. One of its aflHu- ents, the St. Croix, navigable for 60 miles, constitutes the eastern boundary- line for 130 miles farther. The Minnesota River rises in Dakota, flows through the State for 450 miles (navigable for 300 miles) and empties into the Mississippi above St. Paul. Emptying into the head of Lake Superior is the St. Louis River, 135 miles long, which boats ascend for 20 miles. The Red River of the North, after flowing through a chain of small lakes, turns almost due north and forms the western bouudaiy of Minnesota for 380 miles. It is a deep and sluggish sti'eam which steamboats traverse for 250 miles, carrying on a considerable trade with Fort Garry and other parts of Manitoba. Soil and Clilliate. — The north-eastern section may be made pro- ductive by drainage when the timber is cleared away. In the central counties the soil has a considerable mixture of sand. Farther west it is mixed with more of clay and gravel. The prairies have a rich dark loam upon a gravel and clay subsoil. In winter the weather is intensely cold, but the air is dry and still. Snow covers the ground from November until March. In summer there are very frequent thunder-showers. Observa- tions continued for 17 years, from 1844 to 1861, showed that the shortest season for navigation at St. Paul was in 1857, from May 1 to Nov. 14 — 198 days — and the longest season was in 1846, from March 31 to Decem- ber 5—245 days. Feb. 18, 1848, the mercury sank to 37° below zero. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Breckeuridge (latitude 46° 11', longitude 96° 17'), near the western line and about mid- way between the northern and southern boundaries, was 37.2°. This was the lowest mean temperature at any one of the 89 United States Signal Service stations, with the single exception of Pembina, Dakota (34.3°). The mercury at Breckeuridge was below zero on 78 days — viz., 4 days in November, 20 in December, 21 in January, 22 in February, 11 in March; the minimum was —33°, on the 24th of January, and the maximum, 96°, on the 10th of May; range, 129°. At Duluth the mean was 39.4°; at St. Paul, 42.6° ; minimum, —23°, and maximum, 99° ; range, 122°. The isothermals are: Spring, 40°-45° ; summer, 65°-72°; autumn, 43°-47°; winter, 5°-15° ; annual mean, 35°-45°. The death-rate in 1872 was 1.035 per cent, of the whole number of inhabitants. A killing frost, destroying corn and other unripe crops, was reported along the line of the Lake Superior Railroad on the night of the 22d of August, 1875. Ag-ricultural Productions.— Wheat is the great staple of Min- nesota, occupying, in 1873, 63.53 per cent, of the entire acreage of culti- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 285 vated land. The quantity produced was 28,056,000 bushels (only Iowa and Illinois produced more); number of acres in wheat, 1,533,115; aver- age yield per acre, 18.3 bushels; value per bushel, 80 cents; total valua- tion, $22,444,800. The enormous increase during two decades will be seen when we state that only 1401 bushels of wheat were grown in 1850, 5,001,- 432 in 1860 and 18,866,073 in 1870. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato and hay crops of 1873 was $37,198,- .350. At the beginning of 1874 there were in the State 152,200 horses, 3060 mules, 282,700 oxen and other cattle, 196,900 milch cows, 201,200 hogs and 157,400 sheep. According to the last census, the number of acres in farms was 6,483,828, of which 2,322,102 were improved ; average size of farms, 139 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $124,687,403; value of farm productions, $33,446,400. The early at- tempts at fruit culture were discouraging. One farmer reported that of the 8000 or 10,000 trees he first set out not 40 remained ; but the hardy varieties are now thoroughly naturalized. In 1872 the number of apple trees in the State was reported as 1,734,861; bushels of apples, 39,663; quarts of strawberries, 277,716. Manufactures and Mining-. — The water-power of Minnesota is practically unlimited. At the Falls of St. Anthony alone 100,000 horse- power daily could be utilized. In 1873, 318,509,285 feet of logs were scaled in the North Mississippi, St. Croix and Duluth districts. The value of the lumber sawed was $4,299,162; grist-mill products, $7,534,575; ma- chinery (railroad repairing), $788,074; cars, freight and passenger, $788,- 300; boots and shoes, $653,165; 2270 manufacturing establishments were reported; hands employed, 11,290; total value of products, $23,110,700. Valuable deposits of co])per and iron are found in the north-east, salt springs in the Red River country and large beds of peat in many local- ities. Only small attention has been given to mining. The number of establishments in 1870 was 9; hands employed, 51; value of products, $35,350. Commerce and Navigation. — Navigable waters to the extent of 1500 miles afford good facilities for trade. There are two customs dis- tricts, Duluth and Pembina (on the Red River). During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of exports, chiefly lumber, flour and oats, was $706,406; value of imports, $194,183; number of vessels entered in the foreign trade, 95 ; cleared, 93 ; in the coastwise trade, 259 vessels entered and 264 cleared. Nine vessels were built, of which five were steamers. Railroads. — Railroad corporations have received grants of 13,200,- 000 acres of land, which is nearly one-fourth the Avhole area of the State, In return for these grants the companies are required to pay a tax of 1 per cent, on their gross earnings for 3 years, 2 per cent, for the next 7 years and 3 per cent, thereafter. Thirty-one miles of railroad were in operation 28G BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES iu 1863. The statistics for 1873 were: Miles of railroad, 1950; cost per mile, $55,036; total capital account, $94,992,253; receipts, $4,212,844; receipts per mile, $2441 ; receipts to an inhabitant, $7.53 ; net earnings, $809,842. Growth in Population. — The number of civilized inhabitants iu 1849 was 4857; in 1850, 6077; in 1860, 172,023; in 1870, 439,706. Dur- ing the decade from 1850 to 1860 the increase was 2730.72 j;er cent, ivhich is altogether unprecedented. Wisconsin increased 886.2 per cent, between 1840 and 1850, but no other State has ever augmented its population 600 per cent, in a decade. The foreign born numbered 160,697 and the native 279,009, of whom 126,491 were born in the State, 2350 in Connecticut, 10,979 in Illinois, 9939 in Maine, 5731 in Massachusetts, 3742 in Michigan, 39,507 in New York, 12,651 iu Ohio, 11,966 in Pennsylvania, 24,048 in Wiscon- sin, 385 in the Territories. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Prison at Stillwater has cells for 300 convicts ; 134 were in confinement at the close of 1874. A Reform School for boys and girls under 16 years of age was established at St. Paul in 1868, and contained 113 inmates at the last report. The Hospital for the Insane, at St. Peter, has accommodations for 450 patients ; 497 were treated during 1874, with a daily average of 341. An Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind has been in operation at Faribault since 1863; 104 deaf and dumb and 22 blind persons were treated during 1874, at an expense of $30,818. There is a Soldiers' Or- plians' Home at Winona. The Constitution provides for a general system of public schools in each township. A permanent fund is derived from the proceeds of the sale of school lands, which had realized more than two and a half millions of dollars up to the year 1872. The educational sta- tistics for 1873-4 were: School districts, 3137; persons between 5 and 21 years of age, 196,065; teachers, 5206; school-houses, 2571, valued at $2,090,001. Carleton College, at Northfield, and St. John's College, at St. Joseph, are thriving institutions. The University of Minnesota had during the last collegiate year 15 instructors and 285 students, of whom about SO were ladies. Connected with it is the College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, with a property valued at $357,250. There are 3 normal schools and 2 schools of theology (Evangelical Luthei-an and Roman Catholic). The census reported 1412 libraries, 877 religious or- ganizations, with 582 edifices, and 95 newspapers, of which 6 were daily. The number of newspapers had increased to 139 in 1875, Cities and Towns. — St. Paid, the capital, is situated upon a blufi' on the east bank of the Mississippi River, 2070 miles above its mouth. The State liouse, State Arsenal, Opera House and Athenaeum are among the most prominent buildings. Several lines of steamboats ply upon the river, and there are immense lumber- aud flouring-mills. The town CEXTEyXIAL GAZETTEER AXD GUIDE. 287 was settled in 1840, and iu July, 1847, contained two small log stores. Population iu 1870, 20,130. Fifteen periodicals are published here, of which two issue daily, tri-weekly and weekly editions. Jlinneapolis (popu- lation in 1870, 13,066) is situated on both sides of the Mississippi Eiver, at the Falls of St. Anthony. St. Anthony (population, 5013) was united with it in 1872, and the consolidated city Avas estimated to contain 32,000 inhabitants in 1874. Lines of steamboats run up the river to St. Cloud. There are three railroads, and the wholesale trade is estimated at 15 mil- lions of dollars annually. There were 18 lumber-mills in 1873, which employed more than 2000 hands, and 18 flouriug-mills, whose products were valued at five millious of dollars. The State University is located on a high bluff overlooking the ^Mississippi Eiver. Minneapolis is also the seat of a Lutherau theological seminary. The city has 48 churches, 2 daily and 9 weekly newspapers. Winona, the third city of the State, con- tained 7172 inhabitants iu 1870, and 10,743 in 1875. It is situated on the Mississippi Eiver, 175 miles below St. Paul, and is a large wheat market. A State Normal School and Soldiers' Orphans' Home are located here. Three newspapers are published, of which one is a daily. Duluth, at the north-western extremity of Lake Superior, is an important business cen- tre. It is the terminus of 2 railroad and 6 steamboat lines. There are several large saw-mills and factories, 12 churches, 2 daily and 3 weekly newspapers. The harbor, which is protected by a breakwater, will have a frontage of 20 miles on deep water. The population in 1860 was 71; in 1870, 3131; iu 1875, upwards of 5000. JJankato (^population in 1870, 3482, and in 1875 more than 6000) contains 4 newspapers and 11 churches. IIai:tings ^3458^ and Bochcster (3953) are prosperous towns. Goveriillieut aud Laws. — f he legislative authority is vested in a senate of 41 members aud a house of representatives of 106 members. Annual sessions are held, which are limited to 60 days. The governor (salary §3000) and other executive ofiicers are elected for 2 years. The supreme court consists of 3 judges (salary $3000 each). There are 9 dis- trict courts. A court of probate is held in each of the 75 counties. All judges are elected by the people. A State board of health, a commis- sioner of railroads aud a commissiouer of insurance are appointed. On the 1st of January, 1875, the bonded debt was 8480,000 : the revenue for the preceding year was 81,112,812, and the expenditures 81,148,150. History. — Minnesota, which in the Sioux language signifies " smoky water," was the name given to the principal river. Father Hennepin vis- ited the Falls of St. Anthony in 1680. On the 8th of May, 1689, posses- sion was taken of the country in the name of France. The authority of the United States was extended over it in 1812. Barracks were erected at Fort Snelling iu 1819. Minnesota Territory was organized March 3, 1849, and on the 11th of May, 1858, Minnesota was admitted into the 288 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Union as the thirty-second State. The present Constitution was adopted Oct. 13, 1857. MISSISSIPPI. Situation and Extent.— Mississippi is bounded on the N. by Tennessee, E. by Alabama, S. by the Gulf of Mexico and Louisiana and W. by Louisiana and Arkansas. It is situated between latitudes 80° 13' and 35° N. and longitudes 11° 7' and 14° 41' W. from Washington, or 88° 7' and 91° 41' W. from Greenwich. Its extreme length from north to south is 331.65 miles and its breadth from east to west 210 miles. The area is 47,156 square miles, or 30,179,840 acres. Physical Featvires. — Surface. — Along the Gulf of Mexico the country is low and sandy, with frequent cypress swamps and marshes. The central part of the State is hilly or undulating and interspersed with prairies. A belt of level country, covered with forests and designated as the " flat woods," extends from the northern boundary through the eastern counties half the length of the State, and terminates in Kemper county. In the north-east is a carboniferous formation, elevated some 500 or 600 feet above the level of the sea. Bluffs extend along the Mississippi River as far north as Vicksburg. Above that city the bottom lands stretch to the Tennessee line, with a width of 50 miles. As far east as the Yazoo and Tallahatchie Rivers the ground is low and swampy. Nearly 7000 square miles are liable to inundation. The levees were neglected during the war, and large tracts once cultivated have become the prey of the river. The waters remain stagnant in the morasses, lagoons and slashes, which are the retreats of alligators, snakes, lizards and swarms of venomous insects. Rivers and Harbors. — The Mississippi River forms the western boundary of the State for more than 500 miles. Its principal affluents are the Yazoo, 280 yards wide at its mouth, 290 miles long, navigable as far as the junction of its two branches, the Tallahatchie and Yalabusha, and draining a basin of 13,850 square miles; the Big Black, 200 miles long and navigable for 50 miles ; the Bayou Pierre and the Homochitto. The Tennessee River forms the north-eastern boundary for 20 miles. The Tombigbee rises in this State and is navigable for steamboats to Aberdeen. Pearl River, which forms a part of the boundary between Mississippi and Louisiana, empties into Lake Borgne; it is 250 miles in length, and small boats navigate it for 100 miles, but the channel is much obstructed by sand- bars and drift-wood. The Pascagoula, which flows into the Gulf of Mex- ico, has a broad bay at its mouth, in which the depth of water is only four feet. Every part of the State is well watered, and the river system affords more than 2000 miles of steamboat navigation. The coast-line on the Gulf of Mexico is 90 miles in length. None of the harbors are deep enough for the admission of large vessels. A chain of low islands extends beyond CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 289 Mississippi Sound about 10 miles from the main land. Forests. — In the south-east are extensive and dense groves of pine, principally of the loug- leaved variety. Live-oak and red cedar, for ship-building, are abundant; the live-oak does not flourish above the olst parallel of latitude. Cypress grows in swamps which are submerged for half the year and furnishes the most durable timber. Among other ti'ees are the ash, basswood, bay, beech, cherry, chestnut, cotton wood, elm, gum, holly, hickory, locust, mul- berry, magnolia, poplar, plum, sassafras and black-walnut. Fig and peach trees are abundant and prolific. Soil and Climate. — Along the gulf the soil is sandy. Above the 31st parallel the swamps bordering the Pearl and Pascagoula Rivers are very rich. The cane grows to a height of from 20 to 40 feet. When the floods recede, they leave behind, in the bottom lands, " a sediment as fine and fertilizing as the Nile mud." In the Yazoo swamps the alluvial de- posit is sometimes 35 feet thick. Along the Mississippi River there are 4? million acres of alluvial land of inexhaustible fertility, producing from 60 to 80 bushels of corn and from 1 } to 2 bales of cotton to the acre. Around the Tombigbee River are prairies with a rich, black, adhesive loam. In the north-east is a poor sandy soil which washes off" from the hills. Mis- sissippi stretches through five degrees of latitude and from the low shores of the gulf to the elevated lands of the north, exhibiting a great varietv of climate. Near the gulf is a semi-tropical region, where the extreme heat of summer is tempered by the sea-breeze. Malarial fevers are quite prevalent in autumn. Cattle are not housed, but pick up their living out of doors all winter. Farmers plough in February, plant corn in March and harvest winter wheat in May. The isothermal lines which cross the State are: Spring, 65°-70° ; summer, 80°-82° ; autumn, 65°-70° ; winter, 45°-55° ; annual mean, 60°-70°. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Vicksburg was 66.5° and the maximum 96.5°. The mercury rose to or above 90° upon 10 days in May, 27 in June, 18 in July, 29 in August and 10 in September; total, 94 days. The rainfall was 65.24 inches. Agricultural Productions. — Mississippi is almost exclusively an agricultural State. Of the 318,850 persons engaged in all occupations, 259,199 were employed in agriculture. It ranked first in the production of cotton at the last census (564,938 bales), sixth in rice (374,627 pounds) and fifth in sweet potatoes (1,743,432 bushels). The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, potato, tobacco and hay crops of 1873 was S17,- 064,320. At the beginning of 1874 there were in the State 88,300 horses, 99,100 mules (only Tennessee and Alabama had more), 329,800 oxen and other cattle, 180,100 milch cows, 819,100 hogs, 153,600 sheep. The num- ber of farms in 1870 was 68,023, averaging 193 acres each and including 13,121,113 acres, of which 4,209,146 acres were improved; value of farms, 19 290 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES 881,716,576; of farm implements, $4,456,033; of live-stock, $29,940,238; of farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $73,- 137,953. Marl beds, which are sometimes 100 feet thick, underlie 2000 square miles. There are also immense deposits of porcelain clay, silica for the finest glassware and valuable building-stones. Manufactures. — Very little attention has been given to manufac- tures. The Federal census reported 1731 establishments; hands employed, 5941 ; value of products, $8,154,758. Among the leading articles were : Lumber, $2,229,017; grist-mill products, $2,053,567 ; carriages and wag- ons, $268,031; cotton goods, $234,445; machinery, $223,130; woollen goods, $122,973. Coinmerce and Navigation. — The foreign trade is carried on largely through New Orleans and Mobile, cottcm and lumber being the chief articles of export. Shieldsborough, the port of entry for the Pearl River district, had a foreign commerce, during _the year ending June 30, 1874, amounting to $233,406, of which $219,214 was the value of domes- tic exports, mostly lumber, boards and shingles; vessels entered in the foreign trade, 93; vessels cleared, 94; in the coastwise trade, cleared, 96; entered, 68. The number of vessels belonging in the State was 117. Vicksburg and Natchez are also ports of entry. Kailroads. — Twenty-six miles of raih'oad were in operation in 1844. The report for 1873 returned 990 miles of railroad ; cost per mile, $36,322; total capital account, $42,424,194; receipts, $5,424,326; receipts per mile, $4644; receipts to an inhabitant, $6.34; net earnings, $1,936,050. In 1874, 1038* miles were in operation. Public Institutions and Education. — The Penitentiary con- tains 200 cells, which is an insufficient number; there were 320 convicts in 1874. The institutions for the deaf and dumb and for the blind are de- signed to be training-schools i-ather than asylums. The Asylum for the Insane has upward of 300 inmates. All of the above institutions are located at Jackson. Free public schools are required by the Constitution for all between the ages of 5 and 21 years. Six colleges are reported — viz., Jefferson, Madison, Mississippi, Pass Christian, Tougaloo University and the University of Mississippi. There are also 6 colleges for young ladies, 2 normal schools, 1 school of law and 2 schools of science. The plan of the University of Mississippi includes a preparatory department and three general departments— viz., scientific, literary and professional. The College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, connected with it, received part of the Congressional land grant. The Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Rodney, has a property valued at $136,055. Ac- cording to the census of 1870, Mississippi contained 2788 libraries and 1829 religious organizations, with 1800 edifices. In 1875, 104 newspapers and periodicals were published. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 291 Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1800 was 8850 (shives, 3489); 1810,40,352 (slaves, 17,088); 1820, 75,448 (slaves, 32,814); 1830, 136,621 (slaves, 65,659); 1840, 375,651 (slaves, 195,211); 1850, 606,526 (slaves, 309,878); 1860, 791,305 (slaves, 486,631); 1870, 827,922 (free colored, 444,201). The ratio of increase between 1800 and 1810 was 355.95 per cent.; between 1860 and 1870, 4.63 per cent. Mississippi ranked 18th in total population and 4th in the number of colored inhabit- ants. The foreign born numbered 11,191 and the native born 816,731, of whom 564,142 had their birthplace in the State, 59,520 in Alabama, 28,260 in Georgia, 9417 in Louisiana, 27,911 in North Carolina, 35,956 in South Carolina, 33,551 in Virginia ; 252,589 native Mississippians were residing in other parts of the Union. The density of population was 17.56 to a square mile. Cities and Towns. — Jackson, the capital, is situated on the west bank of the Pearl River. It is the seat of the four public institutions before mentioned. The State-House is a fine building, which cost more than $600,000; there is a State library containing 15,000 volumes. Rail- roads extend to the north, south, east and west, dividing the State into four parts. The city has 10 churches and 4 weekly papers. Population, 4234. VicJcsburg (population, 12,443), on the east bank of the Mississippi River, 395 miles above New Orleans, has a very extensive river trade. The busi- ness, as at Natchez, is conducted "under the hill," and the bluffs are cov- ered with handsome residences. There is a fine Court-House Four period- icals are published, two of them daily. Natchez (pojiulation, 9057) is situated upon the Mississippi River, 279 miles above New Orleans. Among the principal buildings are the Court-House, Masonic Temple and Roman Catholic Cathedral. Several lines of steamboats are employed in the ship- ment of cotton. The river has a depth of 118 feet at the docks. The city was incorporated in 1803. It contains 8 churches and 3 newspapers, one of them published every morning. Columbus (4812), on the Tombig- bee River, receives large quantities of cotton for shipment through Mobile. The other principal towns are Meridian (2709), Holly Springs (2406), Canton (1963), Grenada (1887). Government and Laws. — The legislature, which meets annually, consists of 37 senators, elected ibr 4 years, and 115 representatives, elected f )r 2 years. The executive officers are chosen for a term of 4 years. The supreme court consists of 3 judges, appointed by the governor and con- firmed by the senate, who hold office for 9 years. A circuit court, presided over by a single judge, is held in each of the 15 judicial circuits. Chan- cery courts are held at least 4 times a year in every one of the 73 counties. No one who denies the existence of a Supreme Being can hold office. The value of the real and personal property in 1860 was $607,324,911, in 1870, 292 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES $209,197,345, a diminutiou which shows how disastrous were the effects of the civil war. History. — De Soto visited this region iu 1540 [see Alabama]. In 1682 La Salle took possession of it iu the name of the king of France, and called it Louisiana. In 1699 a fort was erected on the bay of Biloxi. The Choctaws, Chickasaws, Natchez and other Indians Avere bitterly hos- tile, and committed great depredations upon the settlers. Natchez was first settled in 1716. On the 29th of November, 1729, the Natchez Indians made an attack upon the town and massacred 200 of the French colonists. Mississippi Territory was organized April 7, 1798. It comprised also the present State of Alabama north of the 31st parallel. The region south of that parallel, between the Pearl and Perdido Rivers, which had been claimed by Spain, was taken possession of by the United States in 1811, as a part of the Louisiana purchase, and added to the territory of Mississipjii. On the 10th of December, 1817, Mississippi was admitted into the Union as the twentieth State. An ordinance of secession was passed Jan. 9, 1861, and the Constitution of the Confederate States was ratified March 30. Biloxi was captured by the Federal forces Dec. 31, 1861. Several battles were fought in 1862, among which were the battle of luka, Sept. 19th, and the battle of Corinth, Oct. od and 4th. Vicksburg, after a long siege, was captured by the Federal troops, July 4, 1863. On the 22d of August, 1865, the ordinance of secession was repealed. The 14th and 15th Amend- ments were ratified in January, 1870; Congress passed an act of readmis- sion Feb. 23, 1870, and the civil authorities assumed control on the 10th of March. MISSOURI. Situation and Extent. — Missouri is bounded on the N. by Iowa, E. by Illinois and Kentucky, S. by Arkansas and W. by the Indian Ter- ritory, Kansas and Nebraska. It is situated between latitudes 36° 30' and 40° 30' N. and longitudes 12° 2' and 18° 42' W. from Washington, or 89° 2' and 95° 42' W. from Greenwich. The extent from north to south is 280 miles; from east to west, 20S miles along the northern border and 312 miles along the southern. It is larger than any State east of the Missis- sippi, covering an area of 65,350 square miles, or 41,824,000 acres. Physical Features.— /S-wr/ace.— Along the Mississippi River are bluffs, sometimes reaching a height of 350 feet. The eastern section of the State is broken by irregular ridges and its streams have a rapid descent. In the south-east are " the submerged lands of Missouri," which are low, marshy and covered with a rank growth of vegetation. These lands oc- cupy the greater part of 9 counties and embrace 1,856,120 acres. The great earthquake of 1811, which formed Reel Foot Lake, in Kentucky, also submerged a large tract on the opposite side of the Mississippi River, in Missouri. In the south-west is a prairie region broken by many knobs, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 293 or mounds, with steep sides and flat tops. The Ozark chain, which consti- tutes the water-shed between the Missouri and the Mississippi, "has no peaks which deserve the name of mountains." North of the Missouri the face of the country is somewhat rolling and broken. Forests. — Along most of the streams there is a heavy growth of timber, and some of the trees reach an immense size. A sycamore measured 43 feet in circumference, a tupelo 30 feet in circumference and 120 feet in height, a cypress 29 feet in circumference and 125 feet in height. From an extensive catalogue of the trees and shrubs in Missouri we select a few of the most common — viz., ash, basswood, birch, buttonwood, cedar, cherry, cottonwood, elm, gum, hackberry, hickory, locust, maple, mulberry, cypress, oak, pawpaw, per- simmon, pine, red plum, prickly ash, sycamore, walnut, willow, etc. There is a great variety of animals and birds, among which are the elk, deer, bear, wolf, raccoon, opossum, rabbit, gray and fox squirrel, wild turkey, grouse, duck, snipe, partridge, plover, pheasant, gray and bald eagle, raven, crow, buzzard, magpie, paroquet and mocking-bird. Rivers. — The Missis- sippi River constitutes the eastern boundary for 470 miles, and the Missouri the western boundary for 250 miles. The latter river enters the State at Kansas City and runs in a southerly and easterly direction for 450 miles, dividing Missouri into two nearly equal parts. Its largest tributary is the Osage, rising in Kansas, which is 400 yards wide and navigable for small steamers 200 miles above its mouth. The Des Moines River constitutes a part of the north-eastern boundary for 30 miles, separating Missouri from Iowa. The river St. Francois runs between Arkansas and Missouri for 60 miles. Navigation is possible at high water on the White, Black, Current, Gasconade, Grand and Chariton Rivers. Among the smaller streams, which are numerous, clear and well stocked with fish, are the Big Tarkeo, Nodaway, Little Platte, Salt, Fabius, Piney, Castor and Whitew^ater. Soil and Climate. — Along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers there are " two millions of acres of the most productive land in the world, based upon the alluvial strata of saud, clay, marl and humus," says the State geologist. Next to these are one million acres of savannas, or bot- tom prairies. The alluvium is a light, siliceous soil, porous, rich and deep, and specially adapted to the growth of corn and hemp. A light deep soil, of a brownish ash color, called "hemp soil," is characteristic of the blufi' region. Sometimes a predominance of clay makes it inferior, and it is called " hickory" or "mulatto" soil; but it is well adapted for corn, wheat, oats and tobacco. Some of the high prairies and timber ridges in the north-east have a thin sandy soil. Observations, continued for 25 years, at St. Louis, show a mean annual temperature of 55.4 degrees. The lowest monthly mean was 19.3°, in January, and the highest 83.5°, in July. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean at St. Louis was 56.1°. The maximum temperature was 101°, and the minimum 1 degree below zero. 294 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Upon the isothermal charts the lines crossing Missouri are : Spring, 55°-60°; summer, 75°-77°; autumn, 52°-55°; winter, 45°-55°; annual mean, 55°-60°. Agricultural Productious. — Missouri -is a great agricultural State. According to the census of 1870, it ranked next to Texas and Illi- nois in cattle, next to Illinois in swine, next to California in wine, fourth in corn and sixth in tobacco. There were 92,752 farms (averaging 215 acres each), which contained 21,707,220 acres; 9,130,615 acres were im- proved. The value of farms, farm implements and live-stock Avas $392,- 908,047 ; of farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $103,035,759. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops in 1873 was $54,105,240. The number of live-stock in 1874 was 543,000 horses, 89,200 mules (rank- ing next after Tennessee, Alabama and Illinois), 806,300 oxen and other cattle, 421,400 milch cows, 2,603,300 hogs and 1,408,500 sheep. Cotton, flax and hemp thrive in the southern counties. There are a million acres of land adapted to the culture of the vine; the average product of grapes per acre is 6900 pounds, yielding 4833 gallons of wine. Manufactures. — This State ranked fifth in the value of manufac- tured products and seventh in the amount of capital invested. In 1860 the number of establishments was 3157; hands employed, 19,681; value of products, $41,782,731. In 1870 there were 11,871 establishments; hands emi:»loyed, 65,394 ; value of products, $206,213,429. The increase during the decade was nearly 400 per cent. Missouri ranked first in bridge-building, harness, saddlery and paints ; next to New York in to- bacco and next to Illinois and Ohio in pork-packing. Among the leading industries in value were: Flouring-mill products, $28,332,160; pork packed, $13,621,995; men's clothing, $7,271,962; malt liquors, $6,519,- 548; sawed lumber, $5,838,127; steam-engines and boilers, $3,825,100; bags, other than paper, $5,037,250; pig-iron, $2,991,618; tobacco, $8,356,- 511 ; saddlery and harness, $5,424,635. The number of hogs packed in 1873-4 was 746,366; average gross weight, 259 pounds; average net weight, 207.01 pounds ; average cost per 100 pounds net, $5.37. Minerals and Mining-.— The State geologist. Professor Swallow, says: "There is no territory of equal extent on the continent which con- tains so many and such large quantities of the most useful minerals as the State of Missouri." Iron ore of the very best quality can be obtained in inexhaustible quantities. Iron Mountain is 228 feet high, and covers 500 acres at the base, which would give 230,187,375 tons above the surface level; and it extends down indefinitely, containing three million tons of ore for every foot of descent. Pilot Knob is 581 feet in height, and covers 360 acres. A large part of the immense mass is pure ore. It is estimated that this region would furnish ore enough for one million tons of mauufac- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 295 tiired iron annually during the next 200 years. These mineral treasures were first discovered in the year 1720. In 1809 the product of the Mis- souri mines was estimated at a value of $40,100. Iron-smelting began in 1823—4. According to the authority above mentioned, this is also "one of the best lead regions in the world." Forty-five lead mines were worked as early as the year 1819 [see Physical Geogkaphy, p. 193]. Several large deposits of copper have been discovered ; zinc is abundant, and nickel, platinum, cobalt and manganese occur. Coal formations underlie 26,887 square miles in the northern and western counties. The veins are some- times 15 feet thick, and it is estimated that 100,000,000 tons of coal per annum could be furnished for 1300 years. Marble, granite and limestone are abundant enough to supply all demands. The Federal census reported 142 mining establishments, which employed 3423 hands and yielded products valued at $3,472,513 annually. Commerce and jVavig'ation. — There are three United States ports of delivery — viz., St. Louis, St. Joseph and Kansas City. The num- ber of vessels belonging to the j^orts of Missouri, June 30, 1874, was 333, of which 177 were steamers. Twenty-nine vessels, 16 of them steamers, were built during the year. The imports in bond direct to St. Louis for the previous year were valued at $1,167,690. Kailroads. — As early as February, 1836, the mayor of St. Louis, in an ofiicial communication, urged the building of railroads in Missouri. Only 38 miles were in operation in 1853. Twenty years later the number of miles of railroad was 2858 ; cost per mile, $60,953 ; total capital ac- count, $132,146,499; receipts, $12,188,908; receipts per mile of railroad, $5622; receipts to an inhabitant, $6.42; net earnings, $4,822,694. In 1874 the number of miles was 2985. The completion of the great bridge over the Mississippi River has given a great impetus to the development of the railroad system. Public Institutions and Education. — The State Peniten- tiary, at Jefferson City, contained 1000 convicts in 1874. By the labor of the inmates the institution is made self-sustaining. The Asylum for the Insane, at Fulton, established in 1851, had 338 patients in 1875. Another asylum was opened at St. Joseph in 1874, and the St. Louis County Asylum receives State aid. There is an Institution for the Deaf and Dumb at Fulton, and an Institution for the Blind at St. Louis. Free schools are established by law. The statistics for 1874 were : Children between 5 and 21 years of age, 485,249; public schools, 7829; school-houses erected dur- ing the year, 548; teachers, 9676 ; receipts for school purposes, $2,117,- 662. There are 18 colleges, 4 schools of theology, 2 of law, 7 of medi- cine, 3 of science and 4 normal schools. Nine institutions for the superior- instruction of women report an aggregate of 1136 pupils, with 97 instruct- ors. The University of Missouri comprises seven departments, in which 296 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES instruction is given by 31 professors; 553 students were in attendance during the year. Connected with it is the Agricultural and Mechanical College, with a property valued at $455,875. The last census reported 5645 libraries, 3229 religious organizations, having 2082 edifices, and 279 newspapers, 21 of which were daily. In 1875 there were 401 newspapers and periodicals, including 30 published daily and 314 Aveekly. Growth ill Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1799 was 6028; in 1810, 20,845 (slaves, 3011); 1820, 66,586 (slaves, 10,222); 1830, 140,455 (slaves, 25,091) ; 1840, 383,702 (slaves, 58,240) ; 1850, 682,- 044 (slaves, 87,422); 1860,1,182,012 (slaves, 114,931 ;) 1870,1,721,295 (free colored, 118,071). The percentage of increase between 1810 and 1820 was 219.6; between 1860 and 1870, 45.62. Those of foreign birth numbered 222,267 ; natives of the United States, 1,499,028 ; of whom 874,- 006 were born in Missouri, 102,661 in Kentucky, 76,062 in Ohio, 72,623 in Illinois, 70,212 in Tennessee, 61,306 in Virginia, 51,303 in Indiana, 31,805 in New York; 171,262 natives of Missouri were residing in other States and Territories. There were 26.34 persons to a square mile, and the State ranked fifth in total population. Cities and Towns. — Jefferson City, the State capital, is situated on the south bank of the Missouri River, 143 miles above its mouth. It con- tains the Penitentiary, a fine State House built of stone, flouriug-mills, founderies, wooden-ware and carriage-factories, 8 churches, a daily and 2 weekly newspapers. The population in 1870 was 4420, and was estimated at 7500 in 1875. St. Louis, the fourth city of the United States in popu- lation, is situated on the west bank of the Mississippi River, 1378 miles above its mouth. It is near the geographical centre of the Mississippi Valley, which contains 1,300,000 square miles. The city extends for 12 miles along the river front and is 5 miles in width. The most conspicuous buildings are the Court House, which cost $1,000,000, City Hall, Custom House, United States Arsenal and the Merchants' Exchange, which will have cost, when completed, $5,000,000. St. Louis is the third city of the Union in manufactures, ranking next to New York and Philadelphia. In 1860 the amount of capital invested was $12,733,948; value of raw ma- terial, $16,212,699; products, $27,610,070. The increase was nearly four- fold during the next decade. In 1870 the capital invested was $48,387,150 ; value of raw material, $63,427,509; of products, $109,513,950. Among the leading articles of manufacture are iron, flour, doors, sashes and blinds, tobacco, white-lead and oil-paints. The trade in dry-goods and groceries has doubled in four years. Crossing the Mississippi is a bridge 2230 feet long and 54 feet 2 inches wide. It has 3 spans, the centre one 520 feet in length, and cost 9 millions of dollars, including the tunnel at the west end. Thirteen railroads are expected to have their terminus on the Illinois side, and 28 distinct railroads converge toward St. Louis, which is also the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 297 centre of 13,000 miles of river navigatiou. Tlie first settlement was made Feb. 15, 1764. In 1775 there were 800 inhabitants; in 1830, 6694; in 1840, 16,469; in 1850, 77,850; in 1860, 160,773; in 1870, 310,864. The same ratio of increase would give a population of half a million in 1880; 425,000 are claimed in 1875. The first steamboat arrived in 1817, and the city was incorporated Dec. 9, 1822. There are 116 churches. Kansas City, the second city of the State, is 235 miles west of St. Louis, upon the south bank of the Missouri River, which is spanned by a bridge 1387 feet long and constructed at a cost of a million dollars. Seven railroads centre at a union passenger depot, affording facilities for an extensive freighting business. There is a large trade in hogs and in Texas cattle. The city contains 30 churches and 2 theatres ; 4 daily and 8 weekly newspapers are published. Population in 1860, 4418; in 1870, 32,260; estimated in 1875, 40,000. St. Joseph is situated on a great bend of the Missouri, 566 miles from St. Louis, with which it is connected by railroad and steamboat lines. It contains very large steam flouring- and saw-mills, pork-packing houses and manufactories. Three daily newspapers are published. St. Joseph was formerly the point of departure for emigrant trains across the plains ; but this primitive fashion has been mostly done away by the extension of railroads, of which five now centre at this city. Population, 19,565. Ha7i- nibal, on the Mississippi River, 132 miles north of St. Louis, is the terminus of 4 railroads and a station uj^on a fifth. A bridge adapted for both wagon and railway travel spans the great river. Hannibal ranks next to St. Louis as a lumber mart. It has several large tobacco-houses, founderies, saw- mills, pork-packing houses, car-works, etc. There are 13 churches and a daily and weekly newspaper. Population, 10,125. Other leading towns are Springfield (5555), Lexington (4373), Sedalia (4560), Louisiana (3679), Cape Girardeau (3585), Macon (3678), St. Charles (3479), Independence (3184) and Booneville (3506). Goveriimeilt and Laws. — The legislature, which holds biennial sessions, consists of 34 senators and 131 representatives. The governor (salary, $5000) and other State officers are elected for two years. The supreme court consists of five judges elected by the people for six years. Twenty-nine circuit courts are held, presided over by a single judge. The circuit court of St. Louis has five judges. County courts are held in the 114 counties. Every voter must be able to read and write. Imprisonment for debt is prohibited by the Constitution. The bonded debt Jan. 1, 1875, was $20,839,000; receipts into the State treasury for the current year, $3,307,419. History. — Missouri was visited by Joliet and Marquette in 1673. The first settlement was made at St. Genevieve, in 1755. Up to 1751 there were but six settlements within 100 miles of the present site of St. Louis, which was founded in 1764. A combined attack upon the town by the 298 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES British and Indians, in 1780, was successfully repulsed. Spain obtained the jurisdiction of the country from France in 1763. It was again trans- ferred to France in 1800, and purchased by the United States in 1803. On the 9th of March, 1804, the stars and stripes were unfurled over what was called the Territory of Upper Louisiana. The Territory of Missouri was organized June 4, 1812. Missouri was admitted into the Union as the twenty-fourth State, and the proclamation of the President announcing the fact was issued Aug. 10, 1821. Early in the civil war there were conflicts between the State militia and the United States troops. Governor Jackson issued a proclamation declaring the State out of the Union. The battle of Wilson's Creek, in which Maj.-Gen. Lyon was killed, was fought Aug. 10, 1861. Maj.-Gen. Fremont declared martial law throughout the State on the 31st of August. In the early part of 1862 the Confederate troops held half of Missouri, until Gen. Price was driven into Arkansas by a strong Federal force. A distressing guerrilla warfare kept the inhabitants in continual alarm. To the Federal side 108,773 soldiers were furnished during the war. Gen. Price again invaded Missouri in 1864, and was again forced to retreat. Jan. 6, 1865, a convention assembled to frame a new Constitution, which was ratified by the people in the following June. NEBRASKA. Situation and Extent. — Nebraska is bounded on the N. by Da- kota, E. by Iowa and Missouri, S. by Kansas and Colorado and "W. by Colorado and Wyoming. It is situated between latitudes 40*^ and 43° N. and longitudes 18° 25' and 27° W. from Washington, or 95° 21' and 104° W. from Greenwich. The extreme length from east to west is 412 miles, and the breadth from north to south 208 miles ; area, 75,995 square miles, or 48,636,800 acres. Physical Features.— *Sitr/«cc. — The surface of the country is chiefly an elevated, undulating prairie, without mountains or high hills. Above the level river-bottoms there is a rise of 30 or 40 feet to the table- lands, or second bottoms, and above these are sometimes bluffs reaching to a height of 200 or 300 feet above the river. " The prairie resembles the waves of the ocean suddenly arrested in their swell and changed into soil and rock," says the Report of the General Land Office. In Western Ne- l)raska begin the outlying hills of the Rocky Mountain range. Along the Niobrara and White Rivers, extending into Dakota, are " sand-hills," ex- hibiting only a scanty vegetation, and very difficult to traverse on account of the loose sand. Twenty thousand square miles of this formation are unfit for cultivation and almost destitute of timber. Fossil remains of great interest to geologists have been discovered in great quantities. The White River fauna comprises 35 species of animals now extinct. The " Bad Land " formations extend over into Nebraska [see Dakota]. In- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 299 diau hieroglypliics which antedate the traditions of all living tribes are cut deep in the bluffs along the Missouri River in places now inaccessible. Forests. — Geologists are of the opinion that the prairies have grown no trees during the present geological era, but many fossil remains of tropical and subtropical vegetation are found in the tertiary formation. Since the prairie-fires ceased many young trees have been planted, which grow with great rapidity. One farmer set out 120,000 trees in a single year. A Cot- tonwood, 7 years old, measured 2 feet 6 inches in circumference ; a maple, 10 years old, 2 feet 8 inches ; a locust of the same age, 2 feet. '' The com- mon trees can be raised from the seed as well as corn or beans," says Prof. Haydeu's Report. Peach trees bear in 3 years and apple trees in 4 or 5 years. The indigenous trees, growing chiefly along the watei'-courses, are the Cottonwood, soft maple, elm, butternut, basswood, oak, black-walnut, honey locust arfd willow. Timber is most abundant in the south-eastern counties. Rivers. — The Missouri River forms the whole of the eastern iDoundary of Nebraska. • The Platte, or Nebraska, River, from which the State received its name, is formed by the union of two streams — viz., the North Fork, rising in the mountains of Wyoming, and the South Fork, which has its sources among the peaks of Colorado. The Platte is a broad and shallow stream, fordable almost everywhere at low water. Its prin- cipal tributaries are the Coldwater, Loup Fork (made up of the North Branch, South Branch, Calamus and Beaver) and Elkhorn. The southern part of the State is drained by the various branches of the Kansas River, of which the largest are the Republican Fork (its tributaries being White Man's Fork, Medicine Creek and Beaver Creek), Little Blue and Big Blue Rivers. The northern counties are drained by the Niobrara, a rapid stream 400 miles long, which forms a part of the northern boundary and empties into the Missouri. Soil and Climate. — Along the streams are wide fertile bottom lauds with a rank vegetation. The soil has a siliceous marl, like the "loess" along the Rhine. Sometimes the vegetable humus extends to a depth of from 10 to 20 feet. From 2 to 4 tons of grass or 52 bushels of wheat to the acre is not an uncommon yield. A height of 6 feet is attained by the "blue joint" grass. The upland soil is 18 or 20 inches thick. It is claimed that there is hardly a foot of land in Eastern Nebraska which is not susceptible of cultivation. The winters are not very long; open weather continues until the end of November and spring weather begins with March. Corn is planted in April. High winds sweep over the plains, and the storms are sometimes of terrible severity. There is a deficiency of rain in the western part. The average rainfall for 5 years was 31.47 inches. In the southern district the average was only 23.21 inches. The mean temperature at Omaha for the year ending September 30, 1874, was 49.7°; mean for January, 22.3°; for July, 80°; maximum, 105° (upou 300 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES five days in Jul)' the mercury reached 100^); minimum — 9° (the zero mark was reached upon 6 days in January). The isothermals for the State are: Spring, 50°; summer, ••72°-75° ; autumn, 50°-52°; winter, 20°-25°; annual mean, 47°-50°. The rainflxll at Omaha was 25.65 inches. AgTicultiiral Productions. — During a period of five years the average yield of several staple crops per acre was as follows : Wheat, 17.7 bushels; corn, 32.54; rye, 20.66; oats, 36.65; barley, 26.75; buckwheat, 26.33 ; potatoes, 79.80. Of apples 146 vai'ieties were on exhibition at an agricultural fair. One hundred and fifty species of grass have been noted. The various vegetables and fruits, such as turnips, carrots, sweet-potatoes, beets, pai'snips, pumpkins, squashes, melons, grapes, cabbages, rhubarb, onions, radishes, lettuce, grapes, cherries, currants and berries of various kinds, are of the finest quality. Nebraska -wheat brings the highest prices in the St. Louis market. The last census reported 2,073,781 acres in fiirms, of which 647,031 acres were improved; average size of farms, 169 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $38,343,187; value of farm productions, $8,604,742. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato and hay crops, in 1873, was $6,848,882. There were in the State, in 1874, 56,700 horses, 4400 mules, 87,800 oxen and other cattle, 49,900 milch cows, 128,500 hogs, 39,100 sheep. Manufactures and. Mining-. — Manufactures are as yet very little developed. There were i-eported 670 establishments, employing 2558 hands; value of products, $5,738,512. Flouring-mill products were valued at $1,072,544, and machinery, railroad repairing, at $797,423, Few im- portant minerals have been discovered. There are excellent quarries of limestone and large deposits of peat and potters' clay. Salt-basins are quite numerous; the "Great Basin" covers 400 acres, and considerable quantities of salt are made. Coal is found on the eastern slopes of the mountains, between Cheyenne and Denver, In 1870 the mining products were valued at $30,130, from 7 establishments. Railroads. — Nebraska is deficient in navigable waters, except along the Missouri (Omaha is the only United States port of delivery), and most of the transportation is done by railroads. More than a million and a half bushels of grain were sent to market by a single railroad line in 1874. Only 122 miles were completed in 1865. In 1873 the number of miles was 1075; cost per mile, $69,532; total capital account, $115,311,976; receipts, $11,358,447; receipts per mile, $6541; receipts to an inhabitant, $59.78; net earnings, $5,612,050; the mileage in 1874 was 1120, Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary and the Asylum for the Insane are at Lincoln, An Institute for the Deaf and Dumb was opened at Omaha in 1869, with 12 pupils, Au act was passed in 1875 providing for an Asylum for the Blind at Nebraska CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 301 City. The school lauds comprise 2,700,000 acres, which, at the estimated value of seveu dollars per acre, would afford a school fuud of $18,900,000. Jan. 1, 1875, the uumber of school-houses was 1516; children, 72,991; attending school, 47,718; teachers, 2735; value of school-houses and grounds, $1,546,480; total expenditures for school purposes, $1,004,957. The State Normal School comprises three departments. There are three colleges — viz., Doane College, at Crete, a Congregational institution; Ne- braska College, at Nebraska City, which has also a divinity school, under the auspices of the Protestant Episcopal Church ; and the University of Nebraska, at Lincoln, founded in 1871. This is open for both sexes, and is designed to afford instruction in six departments, including law, medi- cine, pi'actical science and civil engineering, and the fine arts. The last census reported 390 libraries, with 147,040 volumes, 181 religious organ- izations, having 108 edifices, and 42 newspapers, 7 of them dailies. In 1875 the number of newspapers and periodicals was 98, of which 10 were published daily. Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1860 was 28,841 ; in 1870, 122,993, of whom 789 were colored, 30,748 foreign born, and 92,245 natives of the United States. Of the latter number 18,530 were born in Nebraska, 9655 in Illinois, 1083 in Maine, 997 in Massachusetts, 4650 in INIissouri, 10,729 iu Ohio, 6991 in Pennsylvania, 2036 in Virginia, 3756 in Wisconsin and 633 in the Territories ; 4704 natives of Nebraska had re- moved to other jDarts of the Union. There are about 6500 Indians, not taxed nor included in the census, who reside upon reservations of 892,800 acres, allowing 135.7 acres of laud to each Indian man, woman and child. They belong mostly to the tribes of the Santee Sioux, Pawnees, Winneba- goes, Omahas, Sacs and Foxes, Otoes and Missouris. Cities and Towns. — Lincoln, the State capital, was laid out in 1867. The State-House is of white limestone, and cost $100,000. The State University has a building erected at an expense of $150,000. A United States Post-Office and Custom-House is iu process of erection. This city is at the intersection of 3 railroads. It is the seat of the State Penitentiary and Asylum for the Insane. There are 10 churches, 5 banks and 7 newspapers, 3 of them published daily. The population iu 1870 was 2441, and in 1875 about 6500. Omaha, ou the Missouri River, oppo- site Council Bluffs and 490 miles west from Chicago, is the principal city. Its altitude is 1060 feet above sea level. The town was laid out in 1854 and the city incorporated in 1857. Among the fine buildings is a United States Post-Office and Court-House which cost $350,000. Ten millions of dollars a year is the estimated amount of the wholesale trade. Gold and silver to the value of $1,350,000 and lead to the value of $800,000 were smelted in 1874. Omaha is the terminus of the Union Pacific Railroad and the site of its extensive repair-shops. Pork-packing is largely carried 302 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES on. There are 25 cliurches and 9 periodicals, 3 of them dailies. The Higli School was erected at an expense of nearly $250,000. In 1860 the number of inhabitants was 1950; in 1870, 16,083; in 1875, about 20,000. Ne- braska City, founded in 1855, is situated on the Missouri River, 35 miles below Omaha. It is the terminus of the Midland Pacific Railroad, and has a Court- House, Opera-House, 3 banks, 13 churches, 2 daily newspa- pers, a public library and several factories and flouriug-mills. Nebraska Col- lege is located here. The population of the city in 1870 was 6050. Other leading towns are Fort Kearney, Columbus, Fremont, Bellevue, Browu- villc and Plattsmouth. Government and Laws. — In 1858 the civil code of Ohio and the criminal code of Illinois were adopted. Sixty-five counties have been formed, and a large part of the State is as yet unorganized. The legisla- ture, which holds biennial sessions, consists of 13 senators and 39 represent- atives. All executive ofiicers are elected for a term of 2 years, except the auditor, who serves for 4 years. The supreme court consists of 3 justices, with a salary of $2000 each, who are elected by the people, for a term of 6 years. Two terms of the court are held annually at the State capital. Three judicial districts have been established, in the courts of which the supreme court judges preside. Probate courts, which also have jurisdic- tion in minor civil cases, are held in each county. The total valuation of the State in 1874 was $81,218,813, and the tax 6i mills on the dollar. Ten per cent, is the legal rate of interest. History. — This Territory was organized in accordance with the Kansas-Nebraska Act, passed May 30, 1854. Parts of Colorado and Da- kota were included within its original boundaries. Indian outrages marked the early history of Nebraska, as of every other liew State. Many settlers lost their lives and others were compelled to abandon their homes. On the 1st of March, 1867, Nebraska was admitted into the Union as the thirty- seventh State. It is the youngest member of the Republic. The Constitu- tion proposed by the constitutional convention was rejected by the people Sept. 19, 1871. Another convention met in 1875. The summer of 1874 was made memorable by the ravages of the locusts, or grasshoppers, which in their flight filled the air as far as the eye could reach and, descending, devoured every green thing. In many counties the corn and wheat crops were totally destroyed. Congress appropriated $30,000 for the relief of the destitute, and nearly $70,000 were contributed by individuals. NEVADA. Situation and Extent.— Nevada is bounded on the N. by Oregon and Idaho, E. by Utah and Arizona, S. W. and W. by California. It is situated between latitudes 35° and 42° N. and longitudes 37° and 43° W. from Washington, or 114° and 120 W. from Greenwich. The portion CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 303 above the 39th parallel is a rectangular parallelogram and the portion below a right-angled triangle, with one angle cut away by the Colorado River, which constitutes the extreme south-eastern boundary. The length of the State from north to south is 485 miles and its greatest breadth from east to west 320 miles; area, 104,125 square miles, or 66,640,000 acres. Only Texas and California are larger. Physical Features. — Surface. — Most of Nevada belongs to the "Great Basin," a table-land elevated 4500 feet above the sea. This is broken by successive mountain ranges, running parallel from north to south, the highest peaks of which are always covered with snow. Star Peak reaches an altitude of 11,000 feet. Between the mouutaius are deep valleys and broad basins. The Sierra Nevada, from 7000 to 13,000 feet in height, extends along the western boundary. Marked signs of volcanic agency are shown in the formation of the mountains, rocks, minerals and lakes. Rivers and Lakes. — The largest river is the Colorado, navigable for 600 miles [see- Arizona]. Humboldt River rises in the mountains and empties into the lake of the same name after a course of 300 miles. Walker River (formed by the union of the East and West forks) and Carson River rise in the Sierras and flow into lakes which have no visible outlet. Many of the streams, among which is Reese River, in the centre of the State, disappear in the porous soil and reappear, or terminate in sloughs called "sinks." Lake Tahoe, lying partly in California, is 21 miles long, 10 miles wide and 1500 feet deep. Although it is elevated 6000 feet above the sea, the water never freezes, and has a mean temperature of 57° for the year. The other principal lakes are: Pyramid Lake (33 miles long and 14 miles wide), Walker (30 miles long and 7 wide). Mud, Franklin, Goshute and Preuss Lakes. A large number of "sinks," or mud lakes, contain only a foot or so of alkaline, brackish water, and in summer are entirely dry. Hot Springs. — Among the remarkable physical features of Nevada are its hot springs, some of which are 100 feet in diameter, 150 feet deep and have a temperature of 200 degrees. The Steamboat Springs, in Washoe county (so called because the steam issues in puffs, as if from an engine), register a temperature of 204 degrees. Chemical analysis shows that the mineral ingredients of these Avaters are the chlorides of mag- nesium and sodium, lime, sulphur and iron. Cold springs are very numer- ous in the mountain regions. Forests. — A heavy growth of timber, princi- pally pine, fir and spruce, covers the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevadas. The other mountain ranges are but scantily wooded and the trees are usually of the dwarf variety, such as nut-pine, juniper and mountain mahogany. White Pine county has. a considerable growth of white pine and white fir; yellow pine grows on the slopes of the Spring Mountains. Large portions of the valleys and plains are entirely destitute of wood. Wild animals are few; those most frequently met with are the wolf, cayote, hare, etc. 304 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Soil and Climate.— There are fertile valleys in the west. A con- siderable portion of the plains has but a scanty vegetation, and the great Colorado Basin is worthy of the name of " desert." Good crops can be procured by irrigation. Nevada has in general an equable climate. The mercury very frequently rises to 90° at midday, but sinks to 70° at night. There is an excessive heat in the south-east, sometimes reaching to 115°. The isothermal lines are: Spring, 55°-60°; summer, 70°-85°; autumn, 52°-60° ; winter, 35°-40° ; annual mean, 55°-60°. The rainy season in the north and west extends from January to May. Agriculture. — The census of 1870 reported 1036 farms, averaging 201 acres each; laud in farms, 208,010 acres; improved, 92,644; value of farms, $1,485,505; of farm implements, $163,718; of live-stock, $1,445,445; total, $3,094,672; value of farm productions, including bet- terments and additions to stock, $1,659,713. Some of the leading produc- tions of 1873 were: 12,000 bushels of corn, 345,000 of wheat, 75,000 of oats, 420,000 of barley, 175,000 of potatoes, 55,000 tons of hay. Of live- stock, in 1874, there were 10,100 horses, 1000 mules, 44,000 oxen and other cattle, 9000 milch cows, 4900 hogs, 18,000 sheep. The foot-hills afford most nutritious pasturage for cattle, and Nevada offers great facil- ities for the keeping of stock. Minerals and Mining. — Since the year 1871 the State of Nevada has ranked first in the i^rodudion of the precious metals, oidstripjnng even California. The bullion product from 1861 to 1871 was estimated at $160,854,143, and from 1871 to 1875 at $244,580,000; total product from 1861 to 1875, $405,474,143. The Comstock lode is one of the wonders of the world. In the autumn of 1870 the stock sold for $3 per share; in the following June it was held at $340 per share. The yield of the lode from July 1, 1872, to Sept. 1, 1873, was $22,122,666. In the four years from 1871 to 1875 the yield was $169,000,000. Between 1859 and 1871 the product, as estimated by the United States Commissioner of Mines, was $125,000,000; total yield from 1859 to 1875, $294,000,000. Yet the won- derful riches are by no means exhausted. Recent discoveries give promise of even larger treasure. The Great Bonanza is estimated, in 1875, to contain silver to the value of $1,500,000,000. The ore yields -$600 per ton. A tunnel is in progress which will extend for 20,000 feet. The bul- lion product of the State during 1874 was $35,457,233, surpassing that of any other year. In connection with the precious metals, cinnabar, man- ganese, plumbago, magnesia, platinum, zinc, tin, nickel, cobalt and arsenic are found. Copper is quite extensively mined. There are deposits of kaolin, nitre, alum and mineral pigments. Soda aqd salt " occur in incred- ible quantities." On a lake near the centre of the State soda forms in an almost pure state. A thousand acres near Sand Springs are covered with the borates of soda and lime. Salt-beds extend over fifty square miles in CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 305 Esmeralda county, much of which is covered with incrustations of pure salt. In the south-east there are " salt-bluffs " 500 feet high, forming a mass of rock-salt 2 miles long and IJ miles wide. Most of the manufacturing of Nevada is in close connection with its mines. The census reported 330 manufacturing establishments, employing 2859 hands and yielding products valued at ^15,875,439. Of this last amount, the value of quartz milled was $12,119,719; gold and silver, reduced and refined, $260,000; lead, pig, $894,600; iron, castings, $641,250; machinery, $273,500; lum- ber, $447,500. Railroads. — Nevada has fewer miles of water communication than any other State in the Union. Only one navigable river (the Colorado) touches it, and that but for a few miles. Hence railroads are especially needed for transportation. Three railroads are now in operation — viz., the Union Pacific, Virginia and Truclcee, and Pioche and Bullionville, having in the aggregate 629 miles of track. Public Institutions and Education.— New buildings for the State Prison are now in process of erection at Reno. The blind, deaf and dumb and insane are supported by the State in the institutions of Califor- nia. A uniform system of common schools is required by the Constitution. By the provisions of an act passed in 1873, parents and guardians are re- quired to send every child between the ages of 8 and 14 years to a public school for a period of at least six weeks in each school J^ear. The report of the State Superintendent of Public Education for the year ending Aug. 31, 1874, gives the following statistics: Children of school age, 6315; school districts, 71; schools, 108; teachers, 115; pupils enrolled, 4811; receipts for school purposes, $126,094. By an act passed in March, 1873, the State University was located at Elko ; the institution was opened in 1874, and $20,000 were appropriated for its support in 1875. The land granted by Congress for an agricultural college in each State will be ap- propriated to the University of Nevada. There were, in 1870, 314 libra- ries, with 158,010 volumes, 32 religious organizations, having 19 edifices, and 12 newspapers, of which 5 were daily. There were 22 papers, 12 of them daily, in 1875. Cities and Towns. — Carson City, the capital, is situated in Eagle Valley, 190 miles north-east of San Francisco. It has a fine State-House and a United States Branch Mint, at which the deposits of bullion up to Jan. 1, 1875, were $14,093,487.86 in gold and $14,109,017.19 in silver; total, $28,202,505.05. There are several large quartz-mills. Two daily papers are published. The population, in 1870, was 3042, of whom 697 were Chinese. The other principal towns are: Virginia City (population, 7048), Gold Hill (4311), Hamilton (3913), Treasure (1920), Austin (1324), Elko (1160), Pioche City (1144), Reno (1035), Dayton (918) and Silver City (879). 20 306 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Cirovvtli ill ropiilJitioii.— Silver wuH discovered in 1859. The whole Territory did not then contain more than 1000 inhabitants. In 1860 the population was 6857; in 1870, 42,491, of whom 357 were colored and 38,959 white; 32,379 males and 10,112 females; 18,801 foreigners (includ- ing 3152 Chinese) and 23,690 natives. Of the latter 3356 were born in Nevada, 105 in Alabama, 103 in Arkansas, 2390 in California, 285 in Connecticut, 72 in Delaware, 27 in Florida, 87 in Georgia, 1144 in Illi- nois, 520 in Indiana, 492 in Iowa, 11 in Kansas, 603 in Kentucky, 195 in Louisiana, 1083 in Maine, 298 in Maryland, 997 in Massachusetts, 389 in Michigan, 24 in Minnesota, (57 in Mississippi, 1053 in Missouri, 19 in Ne- braska, 289 in New Hampshire, 331 in New Jersey, 3256 in New York, 109 in North Carolina, 1858 in Ohio, 70 in Oregon, 1458 in Pennsylvania, i;U in Rhode Island, 73 in South Carolina, 324 in Tennessee, 73 in Texas, 419 in Vermont, 541 in Virginia, 330 in Wisconsin and 1085 in the Terri- tories ; 1532 natives of Nevada had removed to other parts of the Union. There were 9880 families, averaging 4.3 persons each, and 12,970 dwell- ings, averaging 3.27 persons each — a lower average for both families and dwellings than existed in any other State. Indian reservations of 320,000 acres each have been set apart near Lake Walker and Pyi-amid Lake, and there is a reservation of 2,496,000 acres in tlu; south-east. Upon these lands there were, in 1875, about 5000 tribal Iiulians, including Pah Utes, Pi Utes, Goship Utes and Shoshones. Ooveriiiiioiit and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 25 mend)ers, chosen for 2 years, and an assembly of 50 mem- bers, chosen for 4 years. Each member receives $8 per day and 40 cents a mile for travel between his home and the seat of government. Biennial sessions arc held, which are limited to 60 days. The governor (salary, $6000) and other executive officers are chosen for a term of 4 years. The supreme court consists of 3 judges, elected for 6 years and receiving an animal salary of $7000 each. Nine judicial circuits are established, with courts presided over by a single judge. Justices of the peace are elected in every city and township. In the trial of civil cases three-fourths of a jury may render a verdict. Ten per cent, is the legal interest, but any rate may be lawfully agreed upon. The assessed value of property, in 1874, was $26,630,279 ; receipts into the State treasury, $570,277; expend- itures, $641,856, of which $64,090 were approi)riatcd for the State Prison, $50,601 for the new prison at Reno, $.".0,510 for schools and $15,652 for the State University. On the 1st of January, 1875, the State debt was $735,528. History. — Nevada formerly belonged to Mexico, and was ceded to tlie llnitinl States in 1848. Settlements were made by Mormons in the Carson, Eagle and AVashoe Valleys during the same year. Gold was dis- covered in 1849 and silver in 1859. A Territorial government was organ- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 307 ized March 2, 1801, and Nevada was admitted to tlie Union as the tliirty- sixth member of the sisterhood of States on the 31st of October, 1804. So late in the year was the Convention hehl that it was ueoessary to telegraph the Constitution to Washington in order to secure the aihuissiou of the State before the presidential election. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Situatiou and Extent. — New Hampshire is bouudei.1 ou the N. by the Province of Quebec, E. by Maine and the Atlantic Ocean, S. by Massachusetts antl W. by Vermont. It lies between latitudes 42^ 40' and 45^ 18' N. and longitudes 4'' 25' and (y^ 20' E. from Washington, or 70° 40' and 72^ 35' W. from Greenwich. The State has somewhat the shape of a rigiit-angled triangle, with a })eri)endicular of 175 miles, a base of 75 miles and a hypotenuse of 190 miles. The uorthern boundary runs for 110 miles along the water-shed between the St. Lawrence and the Conuec- ticut Rivers. An iron post at a point 2590 feet above the sea-level marks the north-easteru terminus. The area of New Hampshire is stated at 9280 square miles iu the United States census report; but the computation of the State geological survey gives 9392 square miles, or 6,010,880 acres. Physical Features. — Mountains. — Along the 18 miles of sea-coast are sandy beaches and salt marshes. The back country is diversilied and r()lling, with many hills and mountain peaks, among the most elevated of which {^outside the White Mountain group) are Orand ^lonadnock, in Jaffrey, 3180 feet high, Mt. Kearsarge (,2943 feet ), Tri Pyramid, in Grafton (4080), Mt. Passacouaway (4200), Moosilauke (4811), Chocorua (3358). The White Mountain District covers an area of 1270 square miles, mostly wooded aud very sparsely inhabited. The Saco River cuts it very nearly in the centre. Ten groups of mountains have been noted. From Gorham to Bartlett, a distance of 22 miles, the main range stretches in a direction from north-east to south-west. The principal peaks, taking them in suc- cession from the north, ai'e Mt. Madison, 5305 feet in height, Adams (5794), Jefferson (5714), Clay (pb^'i), Washington (0293), Monroe (5384), Franklin (4904), Pleasant (4704), Clinton (4320), Jackson (4100), Web- ster (4000). Mt. Washington is the only one of the group which reache-s an altitude of 6000 feet; 8 are jnore than 5000 feet high, 14 more than 4500, 20 more than 4000 and 28 equal, or exceed, 3000 I'eet. jNIt. Lafay- ette, at Franconia Notch, is 5500 feet iu height, and the Twin Mountains 5000 feet. In only one other State east of the Rocky Mountains are there such elevations [see North Carolina]. No ascent of JNIt. Washington was made by white men until the year 1042. It is a remarkable fact that while so many of the streams and lakes of New Hampshire are known by Indian names, the great mountains had no individual designation in the Indian vocabulary. It is said in explanation that the superstitious savages never 308 BVBLEY'S UNITED STATES visited the summits, because they feared to expose themselves to the wrath of the spirits with which their imagination j^eopled the heights. The name of Agiocochook was applied to the whole group in one dialect; in another the designation was AVaumbckket Methna, signifying "mountains with snowy foreheads." An Indian tradition says that the whole country was once flooded, and all the inhabitants were drowned save one Powaw and his wife, who fled to the summit of the Agiocochook, and thus survived to repeople the earth. The White Mountain Notch was discovered in 1771. It soon became a considerable thoroughfare, and long strings of teams from Vermont and Northern New Hampshire found their way to Portland through this avenue. The Notch, which is 2 miles long, is onl}^ 22 feet wide at "the gate," and through it runs the Saco River. The first horse taken through the gap, to prove that the route was feasible, was let down over the rocks by ropes. On the 28th of August, 1826, occurred the great avalanche which buried tlie Willey family of 9 persons. The house from which they fled is still standing. Not more than 10 or 12 persons from a distance visited the mountains in 1819. August 21, 1820, a party spent the night upon the summit. The throng of summer visitors now numbers 10,000 a year. The elevated railway has a maximum grade of 1980 feet to the mile or 13i inches to the yard. Among the objects of special inter- est to tourists are the "Lake of the Clouds" and the "Old Man of the Mountains," wlwse profile, elevated 1200 feet above the lake beneath, mea- sures 36 feet from the chin to the top of the head. In Coos county there are two other mountainous districts, separated from the White Hills by deep valleys. New Hampshire has an average elevation of 1400 feet above the sea. Lakes and Rivers. — One-sixth of the whole area is covered with water. No less than 1500 streams are delineated upon the maps. Almost upon the Canada line, elevated 2551 feet above the ocean level and sur- rounded by a dense forest of evergreens, is the lake which is the source of the Connecticut River. After flowing through two other small ponds and receiving several little tributaries the stream passes into the Connecticut Lake, which is 4 miles long, 2! miles wide and 1619 feet above the sea. Lake Magalloway, the source of the river of the same name, covers 320 acres and is elevated 2225 feet. Lake Umbagog (1256 feet high) extends over into Maine. Lake Winnipiseogee is 25 miles long, 81 miles wide and contains 274 islands. A little north-west of this is Squam Lake, 5 miles in length and 4 in breadth. Other considerable bodies of water are Suna- pee and Ossipee Lakes. Perched 5009 feet above the sea is the Lake of the Clouds, the source of the Ammonoosuc River. The State is divided into five hydrographic districts— viz., the Connecticut, Merrimack, Piscata- qua, Saco and Androscoggin. (1.) The Connecticut Basin is 185 miles long, from 5 to 30 wide and covers an area of 3060 square miles in New Hampshire. For 211 miles this river constitutes the western boundary of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUIDE. 309 the State. Its priucipal tributaries are the Upper and Lower Ainiiiouoo- suc, Sugar, Cokl and Ashuclot Rivers, all of them originating; on the west- ern side of the "Heights of Laud." (2.) The basiu of the Merrimack is 98 miles long, from 15 to 60 miles wide and comprises 3825 square miles. The Peraigewasset and the Winnipiseogce unite to form the Merrimack. (3.) The Piscataqua Basin of 825 square miles is 45 miles in length and from 10 to 20 in width. This river is made up of the Cocheco and the Salmon Falls, which come together at Dover. (4.) The basiu of the Saco is 46 miles long by 18 wide ami contains 850 square miles. (5.) The An- droscoggin Basiu is 71 miles loug, from 10 to 30 miles wide and covers an area of 825 square miles. All of the above streams are subject to sudden floods; they are abundantly stocked with fish, aud salmon were so plentiful that laborers in the olden times stipulated that they should not be fed upon salmon diet more than five days in a week. Off the coast are the Isles of Shoals, 8 in number, of which 3 are under the jurisdiction of New Hamp- shire aud 5 belong to Maine. Their total area is only about 600 acres. Forests. — A dense growth of trees originally extended over most of the State. Clearing land was the first work of the early settler. Coos county is still covered with an almost unbroken primeval forest. Two-thirds of the Connecticut and one-third of the Piscataqua basins are still in timber laud. The hills and mountains are covered with a growth of pine, oak (6 species), walnut, cedar, hemlock, fir, beech, maple, balsam, poplar aud butternut;- white oak aud chestnut flourish on the hard, stony tracts, and spruce and hemlock ou the thin, cold soils. Other trees are the ash, bass- wood, birch (4 species), buttonwood, larch, locust, etc. Pines sometimes grow to a height of 200 feet and to a diameter of 40 inches. There is a very marked diflerence between the vegetation of the northefli and south- ern parts. More than 1000 species of plants have been noted. Forest trees grow ou the White JNIountains below the line of 3000 feet antl in sheltered localities up to 4000 feet. Above that the plants common to Greeuland and Labrador are found. The bear, wolf, moose and other wild animals are occasionally seen. Soil ailtl Climate.— About oue-twelfth of the area is above the liue of successful cultivation. The alluvial lauds along the Connecticut are the most fertile. In the Merrimack Valley there are no swamps or low meadows, but elevated sandy plains above the clay banks. The up- lands, though rocky, have a strong and quick soil. In Belknap's history we read: "A storm is always expected in May, and till that is past the chimuey is not closed. We therefore reckon eight months of cold weather in the year." "Cattle are housed from the beginning of November; . . . good husbandmen do not permit them to feed till the twenty-first of May." Light frosts have been known in every month of the year. In 1816 snow fell in Southern New Hampshire ou the 16th of June, and August was the 310 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES only month exempt from frost. Observations continued for six years showed that the earliest closing of Lake Wiunipiseogee by ice was Dec. 17, and the latest Jan. 23; the earliest opening April 10, and the latest May 4 ; the shortest time during which it remained open was 7 months and 13 days, in 1873. Umbagog Lake closes about the middle of November, and was not clear of ice in 1873 until May 11. At Hanover the mean temperature, for 14 years, was 40.67° ; at Concord, for 8 years, 44.5° (max- imum, 98°, minimum, —32°); at Portsmouth, for 29 years, 45.42°. The lowest mean reported (not including the mountains) was at Stratford, 39.85°; and the highest at Manchester, 48.72°, and at Wakefield, 52.78°. A scientific party of 5, under the direction of Prof C. H. Hitchcock and J. H. Huntington, spent the winter of 1870-71 (from November 12 to May 12) upon Mt. Washington. The climate for this altitude would correspond with that of the middle of Greenland, latitude 70° N. On the 5th of Feb- ruary, 1871, the temperature was 59 degrees below zero. Feb. 7 it rose to 62°, a change of 121° between Sunday and Tuesday. A wind velocity of 105 miles per hour was measured (the greatest velocity ever noted at the Central Park, in New York, was 45 miles) ; but even this was surpassed on the 15th of November, 1871, when the anemometer showed that the wind was blowing 151 miles an hour. The annual rainfall on Mt. Wash- ington -is 55 inches ; in the centre of the State, 46 inches ; along the sea- coast, 35 inches. The isothermals for New Hampshire are : Spring, 40° ; summer, 62°-67°; autumn, 43°-47°; winter, 15°-25°; mean, 45°. The climate, although rigorous, is favorable to longevity. Deaths are recorded at the ages of 120, 116 and 115 years, Belknap's history gives a list of 91 persons who lived to the age of a century. Thirteen centenarians were living in 1850. Agricultural Productions.— The number of farms in 1870 was 29,642, averaging 169 acres each; 6 contained over 1000 acres. The whole acreage in farm lands was 3,605,994, of which 2,334,487 acres were improved and 1,047,090 acres in woodland; value of farms, $80,589,313; of implements, $3,459,943; of live-stock, $15,246,545; of forest products, $1,743,944; of orchard products, $743,562; of market-gardens, $119,997. Among the products were 1,800,704 pounds of maple-sugar, 16,884 gallons of maple-molasses and 2446 gallons of wine. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops of 1873 was $14,704,900. In 1874 there were in the State 47,500 horses, 118,100 oxen and other cattle, 92,700 milch cows, 37,800 hogs, and 237,700 sheep. Manufactures.— New Hampshire has fine water-power, and ranks fourth in the value of cotton and woollen goods. A canal was built around the Amoskeag Falls in 1816; but Manchester did not become a manufac- turing town until 25 years later. A blast-furnace was erected at Franconia CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 311 iu 1811; an ore was obtained from a mountain in Lisbon which yielded from 56 to 63 per cent, of pure iron. The number of manufacturing estab- lishments reported at the last census was 3342; hands employed, 40,783; value of products, $71,038,249. Among the leading values were: Cotton goods, $16,999,672; woollen goods, $8,703,307; boots and shoes, $4,780,- 020; printing, cotton and woollen goods, $4,670,333; lumber, $3,920,522; tanned leather, $1,965,576; paper, $1,913,595; flouring-mill products, $1,270,226; fire engines, $800,000; etc. There were 36 cotton and 156 woollen mills. In 1874 the number of cotton-mills was 42, having 855,189 spindles. 3Iiiierals and Mining^. — Copper, lead, zinc, tin and arsenic are found. Gold has been mined in Lisbon to the value of $30,000 ; mica is quarried ; soapstone is abundant, and the granite of New Hampshire is extensively used. The product of the mines was $323,805 in 1870, of which $309,720 was the value of quarried stone. Coniinerce and jVavigation. — Before the Eevolution a large trade in lumber and fish was carried on with the West Indies and Great Britain. This commerce was annihilated by the war, at the close of which, in 1783, there was not a single square-rigged vessel in a seaworthy condi- tion. Commerce gradually revived, and in 1806 the tonnage of Ports- mouth was 22,798, and the total exports were valued at $795,263 ; 123 vessels cleared for the West Indies. This bright season of commercial prosperity was closed by the embargo, Dec. 22, 1807 [see Historical Sketch, page 114]. During the year ending June 30, 1874, 54 vessels en- tered and 63 cleared in the foreign trade; value of imports, $41,388. Three vessels were built during the year, and there were 74 belonging to the cus- toms district, of which 26 were employed in the cod- and mackerel-fisheries. Railroads. — Ninety-two miles of railroad had been constructed up to 1844. In 1873 the number of miles was 877 ; cost per mile, $24,009 ; total capital account, $13,781,413 ; receipts, $3,618,460 ; receipts per mile, $4126; receipts to an inhabitant, $11.24; net earnings, $1,166,274. The mileage in 1874 was 946, under the control of 22 corporations. Rail- roads are taxed at the same rate as other property, the " present value " of the capital being fixed by the judges of the superior court. Public Institutions and Education. — The State Prison at Concord, established in 1812, has less than 100 inmates. The surplus earnings of the prisoners amounted to more than ten thousand dollars. The Asylum for the Insane, also at Concord, was opened in 1842. It had received legacies and donations amounting to $244,180 up to 1874; number of inmates about 275. A Reform School for boys and girls has been in successful operation at Manchester since 1855, and receives about 150 pupils annually. The blind are supported at the Perkins Institute iu Boston, and the deaf and dumb at the American Asylum in Hartford. A 312 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES compulsory education law has been in force since 1871. All children be- tween the ages of 8 and 14 years are required to attend school for at least 6 weeks in every year. In 1873-4 the State was divided into 2148 school districts; value of school-houses, $2,208,025; pupils enrolled, 69,178; teachers, 3812 ; amount of State school fund, $488,104; total expenditures, S606,846. A normal school was opened at Plymouth in 1871. Five in- stitutions afford to young women the opportunities for higher education, Phillips Academy, at Exeter, established in 1781, and Kimball Union Academy, at Meriden, are ancient and flourishing schools. Dartmouth is the only college [see American Education]. The census reported 1526 libraries, 633 religious organizations, with 624 edifices, and 51 news- papers, 7 of them dailies. In 1875 there were 9 daily newspapers and 68 of all kinds. Cities and Towns. — Concord, the State capital, situated on the Merrimack River, has a fine State-House, rebuilt in 1866. Water is drawn from Long Pond at an expense of $200,000. The city has extensive quar- ries, 120 factories, the products of which are valued at $3,616,000 annu- ally, 16 churches, 4 railroads, 2 daily newspapers, and the State library of 11,000 volumes. Population, 12,241. Manchester is also on the Merri- mack River, which is spanned by 5 bridges. There are 5 corporations for the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, with a capital of $6,650,000 ; number of looms, 7654 ; operatives, 9000, of whom 6300 are females. The city library contains 18,000 volumes. Two daily and three weekly news- papers are published. Population, 23,535, of whom 7158 were foreign born. Nashua, at the junction of the Nashua River with the Merrimack, has extensive cotton- and iron- mills, a library of 6000 volumes, 2 daily and 2 weekly newspapers, 11 churches and 6 railroads. The number of inhabitants was 10,543. Dover (population, 9294) is the oldest town in the State. It is situated on the Piscataqua River, 12 miles from the ocean, and is engaged very largely in the manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, boots and shoes, etc. There are three weekly new^spapers, 8 churches and 2 railroads. Portsmouth (9211) is the only sea-port in New Hampshire, and its commerce has already been noted. Its situation at the mouth of the Piscataqua aflPords a deep harbor never impeded by ice. On the opposite side of the river is the Kittery Navy Yard. The other leading towns of New Hampshire are Keene (5971), Rochester (4103), Claremont (4053), Exeter (3437), Lebanon (3094), Milford (2606), Lit- tleton (2446), Newport (2163), Hanover (2085). Popnlation.— The number of inhabitants in 1790 was 141,885; 1800,183,858; 1810,214,460; 1820,244,022; 1830,269,328; 1840,284,- 574; 1850, 317,976; 1860, 326,073; 1870, 318,300. The number of for- eign birth was 29,611 ; native birth, 288,689, of whom 242,374 were born in the State. New Hampshire had received 46,495 from other States, while CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 313 she had given to them 124,972 of her children, showing a loss to the Granite State of 78,477. There was a decrease in jiopulation during the last decade of 7773. The number of inhabitants to a square mile was o4.3. The original settlers of New Hampshire were principally of Scotch and Irish descent. Goverilineilt and Laws. — The general court, or legislature, con- sists of 12 senators and 341 representatives. Biennial sessions are held. The governor (salary, $1000) and his council are elected annually. Only Protestants are eligible to the legislative and judicial offices according to the Constitution. Three justices preside over the superior court, two terms of which are held each year at Concord. The circuit court also has 3 judges, and at least 2 trial terms per year are held in each of the 10 coun- ties. Judges ai'e appointed by the governor and his council. A law has recently been passed prohibiting marriages between first cousins. On the 1st of June, 1874, the State debt was $3,826,590; revenue for the year, $740,062.24. History. — The Piscataqua River was explored in 1603. Capt. John Smith visited the Isles of Shoals in 1614. A settlement was begun near the mouth of the Piscataqua in 1623 by a party of Englishmen who came to fish and to trade. Dover was settled the same year. Exeter was settled in 1638 by Wheelwright and his sister, Anne Hutchinson. Dover was attacked by the savages June 27, 1689. Many houses were burned, 23 persons were massacred and 29 carried into captivity. Lovewell's fight took place April 18, 1725. Only 9 out of a band of 34 men returned unhurt. From 1680 to 1775 the seat of government was at Portsmouth. The sons of New Hampshire bore a conspicuous and honorable part in the struggle for independence. On the 21st of June, 1788, the Constitution of the United States was ratified, and in 1792 the State Constitution was adopted. NEW JERSEY. Situation and Extent. — New Jersey is bounded on the N. by New York, E. by New York and the Atlantic Ocean, S. by the Atlantic Ocean and Delaware Bay and W. by the Delaware Bay and River, sepa- rating it from the States of Delaware and Pennsylvania. It lies between latitudes 38° 56' and 41° 21' N. and longitudes 1° 27' and 3° 6' E. from "Washington, or 73° 54' and 75° 33' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length, from Cape May to the northern angle, is 1671 miles, and the great- est breadth 59 miles. At the narrowest point, between Bordentown and South Amboy, the State is but 32 miles in width. The geological survey of New Jersey, with scientific accuracy, says: "In shape it bears some resemblance to a bean." Its area is 8320 square miles, or 5,324,800 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — The southern portion is almost en- tirely alluvial. A strip of marsh girts the sea-shore, with broad tracts of 314 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES salt meadow. Next to this is an immense sandy plain, seldom rising to a height of 60 feet above the sea-level, until it reaches the Nevisjnk Hills, opposite Sandy Hook, which have an elevation of 375 feet. Above Tren- ton the country is more rolling and based upon the old red sandstone formation. The north-western section is rugged and mountainous. A range of hills, beginning at Bergen Point, skirts the Hudson River as the Palisades and passes over into New York. Toward the Hudson the sides present an almost perpendicular wall from 300 to 400 feet high. On the west side the slope is very gradual. Rutherford Hill has an elevation of 1488 feet. Twenty miles west of the Palisades there is another nearly parallel range of hills. Six miles from Paterson is Sugar Loaf Peak, 1000 feet high. Along the north-west boundary are the Blue Mountains, through which the Delaware River breaks at the Water Gap, the sides of which are 1600 feet high. At High Point, near the New York line, is the most ele- vated land in the State, having a height of 1800 feet. Rivers, Lakes and Bays. — The Hudson River runs for 28 miles along the eastern border, re- ceiving scarcely a tributary from New Jersey on account of the Palisades, and the Delaware River constitutes the whole of the western boundary. The three principal rivers within the State are the Hackensack, 80 miles long and navigable for 15 miles, which joins the Passaic at the head of Newark Bay; the Passaic, which has a fall of 72 feet at Paterson; and the Raritan, emptying into the bay of the same name, which is navigable to New Brunswick, 17 miles. Little Egg and Great Egg Rivers are the principal streams which discharge their waters into the Atlantic Ocean. Maurice River, emptying into Delaware Bay, is the largest stream in Southern New Jersey. There are several lakes in the northern part, of which the best known are Greenwood Lake, on the New York boundary, 16 miles in circumference. Lake Hopatcong, 5? miles long, Budd's Lake and Green Pond. Newark Bay is 5 miles long and 2 miles broad. Staten Island Sound separates Staten Island from the main land. From Sandy Hook to Cape May is a long line of sandy beaches, interrupted by salt water marshes and numerous inlets and bays. Barnegat Bay, 40 miles long, and Great and Little Egg Harbors afford a safe anchorage for small vessels, but there are no good harbors. Forests.— The sandy plains of the south were originally covered with a growth of pine and shrub-oak. When these are cut over, another growth is ready for the axe in from 25 to 40 years. In the hilly district the principal trees are the oak, walnut, beech, birch, ash, elm, sugar-maple, pine, cedar, hemlock, etc. Soil and Climate.— Sand and clay are blended in the alluvial distri(3t of the south, forming in many places a fertile loam. Beyond this strip of loam are the sand-plains, which have been but scantily cultivated. Eighty years ago these lands were worth from 6 to 10 cents an acre. Beds of marl underlie large portions of this district, and by its use the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUIDE. 315 sandy soil is made to produce abundant crops. The last few years have witnessed great changes in this portion of the State. Along the Hacken- sack and Passaic Rivers are deposits of alluvium from 12 to 20 feet thick. The climate is very variable. On the 22d of March, 1789, orchards were in full bloom, but on the 23d snow fell to the depth of two feet, destroying all the fruits for the year. In 1779 peach-blossonjs and dandelions were seen in February. The Delaware was entirely unobstructed by ice during the winter of 1827-8. Several years of observation gave a mean temper- ature of 50.2° at Newark, 51.2° at Paterson, 54.4° at New Brunswick and 52.4° at Cape May. The isothermals for the State are : Spring, 50° ; sum- mer, 70°-75° ; autumn, 52°-55° ; winter, 15°-25° ; mean, 50°-55°. During three years the rainfall at Paterson was 57.86 inches, and at Newark 46.82 inches. AgTicultural Productions. — A considerable part of New Jer- sey is a huge market-garden for New York and Philadelphia. Its fruits and vegetables are of excellent quality. As early as 1680 a settler wrote: " I have seen an apple tree from a pipkin kernel yield a barrel of curious cyder, and peaches in such plenty that some people took their carts a peach gathering. They are a very delicate fruit, and hang almost like our onions that are tied on ropes. My brother Robert had as many cherries this year as would have loaded several carts." The last census reported 30,652 farms, containing an average of 98 acres each ; cash value of farms, S257,- 523,376; of farm implements, $7,887,991; of live-stock, $21,443,463; of farm productions, including betterments and additions to stock, $42,725,- 198; of market-garden produce, $2,978,250; of orchard products, $1,295,- 282. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato and hay crops of 1873 was $24,310,570. In 1874 there were in the State 115,700 horses, 15,000 mules, 83,900 oxen and other cattle, 147,900 milch cows, 163,000 hogs, 125,900 sheep. Cranberries are extensively grown in " The Pines " of the southern seaboard counties, a region contain- ing 1,200,000 acres, heretofore uncultivated; the yield in 1873 was 125,000 bushels, worth from $2.50 to 3.75 per bushel. Farming lauds in New Jersey have an average value of $86.14 per acre, which is greater than in any other State. Maiiuftictures. — The first saw-mill was built in 1682. Ship-build- ing was begun in 1683. The second paper-mill in the country was built in 1728, at Elizabeth. Window-glass was made in 1780. In 1830 the manufactures of iron were valued at a million of dollars and of glassware at half a million. In 1870 New Jersey ranked seventh in the value of manufactured products and eighth in the capital invested. It stood next to Pennsylvania in steel, next to New York in hats and caps and next to Connecticut in India-rubber goods. The value of the molasses and sugar refined was $11,199,740; flouring-mill products, $10,557,070; hats aud 316 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES caps, 15,007,270 ; bleaching aud dyeing, $4,889,695 ; trunks, valises, etc., $3,793,000 ; jewelry, $3,315,679 ; printing, cotton and woollen goods, $5,005,997. There were 17 cotton-mills in 1874, with 150,968 spindles. Minerals and Mining*. — Copper mines have been worked for 150 years. The deposits of zinc are very extensive and valuable. Freestone from Little Falls built Trinity Church, New York, aud other sandstones of New Jersey are in high repute for building purposes. Marble, slate and the finest porcelain clay are found in large quantities. Iron mines are worked in the north-west counties. The product of the mines, quarries aud clay-banks was estimated at five millions of dollars in 1875. Commerce and Navigation. — The situation of the State gives it immense facilities for commerce. Hudson county has been styled " the land aud ocean gate of America." A network of railways centre at Jer- sey City, bringing produce from every part of the West directly to the docks, where it is shipped for Europe. But this city belongs to the cus- toms' district of New York, which receives credit for the business trans- acted on the Jersey side. For the year ending June 30, 1874, the exports at Newark were $83,997, at Perth Amboy, $3635 ; imports at Newark, $19,020, at Perth Amboy, $58,821. Seventy-five vessels were built in the six customs' districts, to which 1196 vessels belong. The State ranks sixth in the value of its fisheries, having 204 establishments, employing 947 hands; the value of the product was $383,121, of which $152,352 was credited to the oyster trade. Railroads and Canals. — Nine companies had been chartered to build railroads previous to the year 1833, with an authorized capital of $7,140,000. The Camden and Amboy company was incorporated Feb. 4, 1830, with a capital stock of $1,000,000. Horses were the motive power in carrying passengers from February until September, 1833; after Sep- tember locomotives were applied to one of the three daily trains. The railroad statement for 1873 was : Miles of railroad, 1418 ; cost per mile, $115,829; capital account, $151,388,606; receipts, $25,840,923; receipts per mile, $18,224; receipts to an inhabitant, $26.21 ; net earnings, $9,008,- 513. In 1874 there were 1438 miles of railroad. Only Massachusetts and Connecticut surpassed New Jersey in the proportion of railroad mileage to extent of territory (one mile of railroad to every 5.8 square miles of area). A general railroad law was passed in 1873, so that the old stigma of mo- nopoly is removed from New Jersey. Railroad corporations are taxed l- of 1 per cent, on the value of their property. The Morris Caual, 101 miles long, connects Jersey City with the Delaware River, at Phillipsburg; it was completed in August, 1831, at a cost of 2 million dollars, which was swelled by subsequent improvements to 3* millions. The Delaware and Raritau Canal connects the Delaware at Trenton with the ocean via Rari- tan River and Bay. This canal is 651 miles long, and cost $4,580,395. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 317 Population. — The early colonists were a mixture of Dutch, Swedes and English. Settlers from New England came in considerable numbers. The number of inhabitants in 1701 was 15,000; in 1737, 47,402, of whom 3981 were slaves; in 1745, 61,383; in 1790, 184,139; in 1800, 211,149; in 1810, 245,562; in 1820, 277,426; in 1830, 320,823; in 1840, 373,306; in 1850, 489,555; in 1860, 672,035; in 1870, 906,096. Of the latter num- ber 188,943 were foreign born, and 717,153 native; 575,245 were born in New Jersey, 5448 in Connecticut, 3359 in Delaware, 1948 in Maine, 6068 in Massachusetts, 1202 in New Hampshire, 1390 in Vermont, 1868 in Ohio, 3384 in Maryland, 74,750 in New York, 31,947 in Pennsylvania, 2810 in Virginia and 434 in the Territories ; 148,830 native Jersey- men were residing in other parts of the Union, and 141,908 persons had come in from other States, showing a loss of only 6922. This deficiency has been more than made up since the census by the overflow from New York and Philadelphia. Dr. Franklin said : " New Jersey is like a cider- barrel tapped at both ends." The past few years have seen \t filling up at both ends with great rapidity. In density of population New Jersey ranked fourth among the States. The number of inhabitants to a square mile was 108.91, while Massachusetts contained 186.84, Rhode Island, 166.43 and Connecticut 113.15 persons to a square mile. Public Institutions and Education. — The State-Prison at Trenton contained 653 prisoners on the 31st of October, 1874 ; receipts for the year, $104,041, leaving a surplus over all expenditures of ^45,234. Prior to 1870 the prison was a tax upon the State, receiving an appropria- tion of about $60,000 annually. An Industrial School for girls has been established at Trenton. The State Reform School for Juveniles, at James- burg, received nearly 300 pupils during 1874. An Asylum for the Insane was opened at Trenton in 1868, which received 4588 patients within six years; 655 remained at the close of 1874. Another institution for the insane will be opened at Morristown in 1876. The building in process of erection, at a cost of $2,000,000, is 1243 feet long and 542 feet in depth, and will accommodate 1000 patients. The grounds comprise 416 acres. About 840,000 is expended annually for the support of the deaf and dumb, blind and feeble minded in the institutions of other States. All the j^ublic schools were made free by an act passed in 1871. A compulsory education law was passed in 1873. Corporal punishment is forbidden. No religious service or ceremony whatsoever is allowed in the public schools of this State •except reading the Bible and repeating the Lord's Prayer. At the close of the school year, August 31, 1874, there were 1493 school-buildings, 186,- 392 pupils enrolled in the public schools and 3216 teachers; $2,304,398 were appropriated for educational purposes ; the valuation of school prop- erty was $6,000,732. Twenty-five of the buildings are worth from $50,000 to $80,000 each. A large and flourishing Normal School is located at 318 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Trenton. The College of New Jersey, at Princeton, ranks among the oldest institutions of the country [see American Education]. Rutgers College, at New Brunswick, was chartered by King George III., and called Queen's College after his consort. Its scientific school constitutes the State College of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, with a property valued at $292,200. Burlington College is a Protestant Episcopal institution, and Seton Hall, at South Orange, is under the control of the Roman Catholics. The Stevens Institute of Technology, at Hoboken, has an endowment of $650,000. Four schools of theology are in successful operation — viz., the Theological Seminary of the Presbyterian Church, at Princeton ; Theological Seminary of the Reformed (Dutch) Church in America, at New Brunswick; Drew Theological Seminary (Methodist Episcopal), at Madison; and a German (Presbyterian) Theological Seminary, at Newark. New Jersey has no law or medical schools. There were, in 1870, 2413 libraries, 1402 religious organizations, having 1384 edifices, and 122 newspapers, 20 of which were published daily. In 1875 the whole number of newspapei-s and periodicals was 177, of which 23 were dailies. Cities and Towns. — Trenton, the State capital, situated on the east bank of the Delaware River, is the seat of several State institutions already mentioned. It has very extensive potteries and iron mills and 5 daily papers. Population, 22,874. Newark, settled in May, 1666, by fam- ilies from New Haven and Milford, Conn., had 4838 inhabitants in 1811, and 105,542 in 1870; the estimate for 1875 is not less than 125,000. It contains more than a thousand manufacturing establishments, employing nearly 30,000 hands and producing an annual value of $75,000,000. There are about 100 churches and 6 daily and 11 weekly newspapers. Newark is connected with New York by 3 railroads, over which are 215 trains daily. Jersey City had a population of 6856 in 1850, and 85,335 in 1870 (including Greenville, which was subsequently consolidated with it). It is the terminus of 6 great railway lines, and 300 passenger trains arrive and depart daily. The Cunard steamers have their docks at Jersey City. Five lines of steam-ferries connect it with New York. It has 60 churches and 3 daily newspapers. Paterson (population, 33,579), 17 miles from New York, at the falls of the Passaic, has 60 factories, 25 churches and 2 daily newspapers. Camden (population, 20,045 in 1870, and 33,966 in 1875), is on the east side of the Delaware River, opposite Philadelphia, with which it is connected by 5 steam-ferries. It is the terminus of 4 rail- roads and has large iron founderies and glassworks. Elizabeth (20,832) is the home of many New York business men. There are 123 passenger trains a day to and from the metropolis. Elizabethport is a great coal- distributing point and the location of the Singer sewing-machine works, which have 4^ acres under roof. The city contains 75 miles of ave- nues; 400 dwellings have been erected in a single year. Orange, which CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 319 received a city charter in 1872, is situated at the base of Orauge Mouutaiu, 12 miles from New York. Within the limits of the original township there are 6 railroad stations and 22 churches. Llewellyn Park contains 750 acres, and there are 10 miles of carriage roads. Population of the city, about 10,000. Rahway (6258 j contains 10 churches; 47 passenger trains stop at its depots. Morristown (5674) has the house still standing which was General Washington's head-quarters. New Brunswick (15,058), on the banks of the Raritan, is the seat of Rutgers College. Other leading- towns are Hoboken (20,297), Viueland (7029), Bridgeton (6830), Borden- town (6041), Burlington (5817), Plaiufield (5095) and Princeton (3986). Long Branch, Cape May and Atlantic City are popular seaside resorts. It has been proposed to unite Jersey City, Newark, Elizabeth, etc., into a single city, containing 122 square miles (less than the area of Philadel- phia), which would form a metropolis of 400,000 inhabitants. Between 1860 and 1870 New York city increased 14 per cent, and New Jersey 40 per cent. Goveriiineut and Laws. — The legislature is composed of 21 sen- ators (one from each couuty)_and a house of representatives, which cannot exceed 60. Members are paid S3 per day. The legislature is forbidden to grant divorces or to authorize lotteries. A salary of $5000 per annum is paid to the governor, who continues in office for three years. The chan- cellor, who presides over the court of errors and appeals, is elected for a term of 7 years, and receives a salary of $5500, besides fees. Aliens may hold real estate. This law was originally passed for the benefit of Joseph Bonaparte, the eldest brother of Napoleon, who had been made king of Spain in 1808. After the downfall of Napoleon I., Joseph Bonaparte sought an asylum in the United States, accompanied by his nephew Prince Murat, the son of Caroline Bonaparte and of the king of the Two Sicilies. Popular opinion credited them with the possession of enormous wealth. To enable aliens to hold real estate required a special act of the legislature. Pennsylvania refused to pass such an act, but New Jersey yielded, and the distinguished exiles made that State their home. They purchased a large tract of land at Bordentown, commanding a fine view of the Delaware River, and erected a magnificent mansion. Joseph assumed the title of Count de Survilliers, and lived in retirement until the year 1830, dispensing his money with a lavish hand. The Pennsylvanians, regretting when it was too late that they had not allowed the two foreigners to possess an estate within their own boundaries, charged the Jerseymen with importing a king from Spain to rule over them. Such is said to be the origin of the humorous taunt that New Jersey is " out of the Union." History.— On the 3d of September, 1609, the "Half Moon," com- manded by Henry Hudson, cast anchor near Sandy Hook. On the 6th a boat sailed through " a narrow river " (the Kills) and saw an " open sea " 320 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. (Newark Bay). There were no permanent settlements during the contin- uance of the Dutch dominion, although in 1661 New Jersey was spoken of thus : "It is under the best clyraate in the whole world ; seed may bee thrown into the ground, except six weeks, all the yere long." Settlers from Long Island began a town near Newark in 1664. Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret purchased the claim of the Duke of York to these lands, and, as Sir George had been governor of the Island of Jersey, the name of New Jersey was given to his new possessions. His brother Philip Car- teret was sent out from England as governor in 1665 and established him- self at Elizabethtown, now Elizabeth. lu July, 1673, the Dutch recap- tured New York and claimed the whole province of New Jersey, to which they gave the name of Achter Kol. The following year Great Britain again obtained possession of it. In 1682 the whole territory was purchased by William Penn and other Quakers. William Temple Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin, was the last royal governor. On the 2d day of July, 1776, New Jersey declared "all civil authority under the king to be at an end in this colony," and adopted a form of government by the people. William Livingston was elected governor. The first legislature met at Princeton in August, 1776. Several battles were fought on the soil of this State during the war for independence, of which the most noted were the battles of Trenton, Dec. 26, 1776 [see Historical Sketch, page 101], Princeton, Jan. 3, 1777, and Monmouth Court-House, June 28, 1778. By a unanimous vote the Federal Constitution was ratified Dec. 18, 1787. The present State Constitution was adopted on the 13th of August, 1844. Various amendments to the Constitution proposed by the constitutional convention were approved by the legislature in 1875. By the provisions of these amendments the word " white " was stricken out of the article on suffrage and the word " male" was restored, thus disposing of the question of woman suffrage. Members of the legislature shall receive $500 annu- ally, and no other allowance or emolument whatsoever. The legislature shall provide for an efficient system of free public schools for the instruc- tion of all children in the State between the ages of five and eighteen years. Property shall be assessed for taxes under general laws and by uniform rules, according to its real value. Judges of the inferior courts shall be appointed by the governor. The amendments were submitted to the people at a general election held on Tuesday, Sept. 7, 1875. Considerable oppo- sition was manifested in the eastern counties to the "Five County Act," taxing mortgages which had been heretofore exempt; but all of the amendments were adopted by a majority of from 10,000 to 30,000 votes. Engraved exprt-s^ly for Barley's United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. NEW YOEK EXHIBITION, 1853. THE New York Crystal Palace, in which this exhibition was held, was situated in Reservoir Square, and was designed, by Messrs. Carstensen and Gildemeister. The main building was two stories high, the first story being in the form of an octagon, and the second in that of a Greek cross. In the centre was a dome 148 feet in height and 100 feet in diameter. The corners of the octagon were furnished with towers 70 feet high, each surmounted by a flag-staff, which added greatly to the lightness of their appearance. The area of the main building, including that of the galler- ies, Avas 173,000 square feet, and there was an additional building with an area of 33,000 square feet. The whole structure was composed of 45,000 square feet of glass, in panes of 16 by 38 inches, 1200 tons of cast iron and 300 tons of wrought iron. It was destroyed by fire on the 5th of October, 1858. The exhibition was suggested, planned, pursued, com- pleted and sustained by private enterprise. All that the government ever did for it was to say that the building should be considered as a bonded warehouse, and to write a few letters to foreign countries where the sanc- tion and co-operation of governments are thought to be indispensably necessary to such an undertaking. There was much delay in the opening of the exhibition, the proposed time being the 2d of May, while the cere- mony did not take place until the 14th of July. The capital of the stock company which undertook the affiiir, and which sustained the pecuniary 21 321 322 BUBLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. loss which ensued, was limited by its charter to S300,000, and the cost of the building was restricted by the same instrument to $200,000. When the smalluess of the amount invested is considered, the wonder is that so much was accomplished by the managers of the enterprise. Both the delay in opening the exhibition and the failure to realize the expenses are easily accounted for when all attendant circumstances are taken into con- sideration. The number of miles of railroad in operation in the whole country was not equal to the number of miles which can now be found in four or five of the Atlantic States. Visitors and articles from the Pacific coast had to undergo the tedious journey " across the plains," or the still more tedious voyage around the Horn, or the trip across the Isthmus of Panama, two years before the completion of the Panama railroad. San Francisco is now practically much nearer to the Atlantic coast than any portion of the State of Illinois Avas in the year 1853. Communication by mail was slow, and the mail service not very widely extended, the rate of three cents for a half ounce for any distance under 3000 miles, and the use of postage stamps having been but recently introduced. This was the first attempt to hold an international exhibition in the United States. The work was a new one, and it was difficult for the managers, the exhibitors or the general public to realize the magnitude of the undertaking and the great necessity of promptness in all the preparations. Still, it had its measure of success. The juries were selected with great care, and con- tained many men who had distinguished themselves by their attainments in the several branches in which they were called upon to exercise their discrimination, and some whose re2Dutation for general culture was deserv. edly high. Profs. Sillimau, Dana and Porter of Yale College, Prof Agas- siz of Harvard, Profs. James C. Booth and Henry D. Rogers of Phil- adelphia, Profs. John W. Draper, James Renwick and E. Felix Foresti of New York, Profs. Joseph Henry and A. D. Bache of Washington ; in the department of printing, stationery, etc., Messrs. Conger Sherman of Philadelphia, William H. Appleton and Robert Hoe of New York, also Richard Grant White; in the class of Fine Arts, etc.. Prof S. F. B. Morse, Charles A. Dana, then of the Neiv York Tribune, now of the Stin, and the Hon. Edward Everett ; in the department of tapestry, decorative furniture, marble ornaments, etc., John Sartain of Philadelphia and Prof Van der Weyde of New York, — such were some of the men to whom was entrusted the delicate and difficult task of deciding upon the merits of the various articles exhibited. This work was thoroughly performed. The members of the juries spent a great part of the day in taking copious notes concerning the hundreds of things in their bailiwicks ; then a secret session was hekl, sometimes lasting for three hours or more, where the utmost latitude of debate was indulged in, every one being given a full opportunity for equal discussion. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 323 NEW YORK. Situation and Extent. — New York, "the Empire State," is bounded on the N. W. and N. by Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, the River Saint Lawrence and the province of Quebec ; E. by Lake Chaniplaiu, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and the Atlantic Ocean ; S. and S. W. by the Athuitic Ocean, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. It is situated be- tween latitudes 40° 30' and 45° N., and longitudes 5° 9' E. and 2° 46' W. from Washington, or 71° 51' and 79° 46' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length from east to west is 412 miles, and the width from north to south 311 miles. Portions of Long Island are only 8 or 10 miles wide, and the south-western boundary-line, below Lake Erie, is not more than 19 miles long. The State has a water boundary of 880 miles (of which the ocean constitutes 250 miles, the rivers 280 and the lakes 350) and a land boundary of 540 miles. It ranks nineteenth among the States in area, and contains 47,000 square miles, or 30,080,000 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Long Island is flat and sandy. On both sides of the Hudson River are the Highlands, which finally pass over into Western Connecticut. A few of the summits reach an elevation of 1700 feet. North of these are the Catskill Mountains, situated princi- pally in Greene county. The most conspicuous peaks are Round Top and High Peak, which are about 3800 feet in height and aflbrd a magnificent view. Beyond the water-shed which turns the drainage toward the north, the country is rolling and diversified. Extending over a considerable part of the 4 north-eastern counties, Clinton, Franklin, Hamilton and Es- sex, is the Adirondack wilderness. It contains the most lofty summits of the northern spur of the Appalachian range, with the exception of the White Mountains of New Hampshire. The late survey of the Adiron- dacks made under the direction of Mr. Verplanck Colvin reports the height of the most elevated peaks as follows : Mt. Marcy, 5402 feet ; Mc- Intyre, 5106; Haystack, 5006; Skylight, 4997; Clinton, 4937; Gothic Mountain, 4744 ; Giant of the Valley, 4530. Snow and ice linger in the Indian Pass through the whole summer, and even until fresh snows begin to fall. A dense forest extends over this region, in which the bear, panther, wolf, moose, deer and other wild animals are sometimes seen. There are numerous lakes, ponds and streams, affording an extensive water communi- cation. In this elevated table-land are the sources of the Hudson River. The Saranac and Ausable empty into Lake Champlain, and other small streams flow toward the St. Lawrence. It has been proposed to set apart a large tract in the Adirondacks for a State park. Rivers and. Lakes. — The Hudson River, having its sources 4000 feet above the sea, is 300 miles long. Large steamboats ascend as far as Troy, 150 miles. As early as 1682 it was called the North River to distinguish it (not from the East Kivor. as nianv suppa-io, but'^ t'lvin tho Dolawaiv, which was known bv the Dutch as tl>o South Kivor. Tlio Pohv>Yaiv rUt\«; on tl\o wostoru doolivity (^t" tl\o (.'atskill Mouutaius. an«l fornvs tho houuvhirv Wtwtvu Now York and ronusvlvauia tor TO \nilos. (.'•tsogv^ Unko is tho sour^v of tho north branch o( tho Susquehanna. Mohawk Kivor. ll?0 mih^ long, runs tluvugJi tho contiv of tho State in an easterly tliroction. a»\vl empties into tho Ihul- son 10 miU\s above Tivy. Tho Krio Canal toUows tho Mv>ha\vk tVom KvMuo to its n\outh. Oswog\> Kivor dmins n\any ot" tho lakes ot' the inte- rior ami dischariivs into l*ako Ontario. Gonestv Kivor has its sounvs in rennsvlvania. and tlowing north empties into lijiko Ontario. The Alle- ghany «uakes a ciivnit into Kow York, and then jvissos into Pennsylvania to mingle its watoi-s with the system ot" tho Missis^sippi Valley. The St. l.awrvnvv Kivor. which drains the tivo givat lakes, issues t'tvm I^ako Onta- rio and soivtnites Now York ti\>ni Canada West. The Knjpiro State con- tains a largv number of lakes. I'pon its northern boundary are Lake Ontario and Lake Krio [seo l^iYSUWi. CvxxnjAiniw j^:\gt^ 147 J. Lake (.'hamplain. upon tho east, was disiwoiwl Only 4. U>01\ by San\nel Chan»- plaiii. a Fivnch navig~5itor. It is KiO n\iles long. i\vn\ i to 10 miles wide, and from oO to 280 tWH deep, l^ake (.uvrgv, ot? miles long and 400 foot dtvp, ivntains nearly oOO little islands, and is famous for its picturesque sivnery. In the ivntiv and western jnvrt of the State is a chain of lakes of ciwsiden^blo siio, among the princijwl of which aro Otsego, Oneida, Skaneateles. Cayugj*. S over the Givat Falls, which aiv ItU ftvt high and 1 100 t'tvt wide on the American side, a«d 2000 tVvt wide on the Canadian side. The total desanu of the river is ooo ftvt. and its wivlth below the falls 1000 tVvt, Tho Genestv Kivor has a descent cvi' 2t?0 tVvt in r» falls within the spjitv of 2 miles near its sonrvv, and theiv are i^her tails nojir Koohester with a dt^cout of 200 foot. Tivntou Falls aiv a sni\\>ssion of o cas».>jides. having 200 ttvt of fall in a ivui-so of tw^vthinls of a mile. Cohot^s and Little Falls, in the Mohawk, fonu grand caianicts in tinus of freshet. In the Catskills a small stivam is prtvipitatoil down a ItHlgx^ 180 tWn high. hlamU, i>\iyvntains a numWr i>i" small islands among which aiv Governor's. W^xxl's, Kllis\ etc. Stateu Island. 14 miU^ loug and frvnu 4 to 8 miU^ wide, ivnstitutt^ Kichmond wunty. In the Ejist Kiver art^ Blackwell's, Kamlalls and Ward's Islands, which an^ iXYupitxi by the city institutions. Long Island. 140 miles in length and 20 in its givatest bivadth. has a rvx-ky ridg^^ or back-binio running thrv>ngh tho ivntr\^ and terminating in Brvx^klyn Heights, Ou its east side are Ganli- ner's and Givat Pmniic Ixays. I^nke Champlain ivntains many small Kxlit's of huul. and the Thous;ind Islands of the St, Lawivnoo aW ot^lo- CKNTKNMAL (,' A/Jri'TKIH! .\M> , and was open auain I'^ehrnary '10. Navi^^'ition was ohstrncled fur- oid\' I'J days, which is the shorlesl, period recorded. In JHIKl |||(^ rivci' opened April I, havinLi; heeif closed {'2,^) days. The mean ieni^th of ihe summer season, from the |jm(^ of fruit-Mossomin^- to t,h(^ (irst, frost, is 171 days, and the mean temperalnre of lh<' whole Stat-c l(!. 11) '. The rainfall is 10.!):; inches. Upon the isolhermal charts the lines crossiii;r JS(5W York are as follows: Sprini;-, lO'-ir)"; summer, ()7°-72" ; anfiimn, ify'^-fyf)'^ ; winter, 'iO"~-l>()"; aiuiual mean, 4f>°-h0'\ Aecordin^^ to the icpoi'ls of the United Slates Signal Service Bureau for tli<( year ending' S(;pl. .'!(), I.H71, the mean temperature at liulliilo was ■ir).7" ((^xtniuuis — '2" and ^7 ' ) ; luichestcr, U'tfi" (tsxtnwiiOH — f)" and 90"); Ortwej,^), Myf)" ((ixtrcmes, and !)."."); New York, 51.4" (extremes T^ iind !)1°). The- iinumil aimaint of the raiid'all at linlfalo was ;'!)..")7 inches; Osvveijjo, '11.22; ItochcHler, 47.17; N.'w V..rk, iL'.d:! inches. A^l*i<'llll IIImI ri'odiMM ioilM. — New York occupies a, liu'cmost place in agriculture. A nundxr of the particulars in which it must \n' writien JirsI arc i^iveu elsewhen! [see Am i;iM(!AN Aoitlcill/riMM; ). The valu<' of the Indian corn, wheat, ry(!, oats, harley, buckwheat, [xttato, tobacc. and hay crops, in 1H7:{, wn,s .1|;i;{r),212,()()(). New York contained at the last census 21(t,2r»;{ fai'uis, avei'ajfin^i; l().'> acres each; .'!(! farms con- lained each more than lOOU acres. The value of farms was |;], 272,857,- 2<;(;; of farm implcnu'iits, $ir),!)!)7,7 ll^ ; live-stock, |l7r),«H2,7r2 ; total value, J)?! , 1!)1,7.')9i);i; value of fai-rn pr-oduction.-^, inclndin^^ betternu'UtH, etc., .1ii253,^)20,- l 5;?. At the be-,dnnin^r,,f 1«71 the; State contained (IfjD.IJOO horses, 18,f)()0 mules, (W:{,(;()() oxen and other cattle, 1 ,1 lO.COO milch (;ows, (55 1, 500 hogH and '2,0;;7,200 sheep. 326 BURLETS UNITED STATES Mauufactures. — New York occupies the first place in the value of manufactured articles, although Pennsylvauia surpasses her iu the amount of capital invested and in the number of establishments. In 1870 there were in New York 36,206 manufacturing establishments; hands employed, 351,800, of whom 63,795 were females above the age of 15; capital, $366,- 994,320; wages, $142,466,758; materials, $452,065,432 ; products, $785,- 194,651. Among the leading industries were: Flouring-mill products, $52,636,861 ; men's clothing, $44,718,491 ; molasses and sugar, refined, $42,837,184; leather, tanned, $26,988,320; lumber, sawed, $18,778,406; boots and shoes, $17,813,048 (next to Massachusetts); iron, forged and rolled, $16,834,480; furniture, $16,275,111; malt liquors, $15,818,863; woollen goods, $14,152,645; cheese (factory), $12,164,064; agricultural implements, $11,847,037; cotton goods, $11,178,211; lead pipe, $10,732,- 800. One-sixth of all the manufactures of the United States were credited to New York. Minerals and Mining'. — Iron is mined extensively in the 4 coun- ties of Orange, Clinton, Dutchess and Essex. Marble quarries are worked in Westchester county, and other fine building-stones are found in Ulster. There were, in 1870, 454 mining establishments ; hands employed, 5177 ; value of products, $4,324,651. In Onondaga county are the most exten- sive salt-works in the Union. They are under the control of the State, and yielded in 1874 6,594,191 bushels. Commerce and IVavig-ation. — The State has 10 customs' dis- tricts. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, the imports were valued at $414,947,941; exports, $359,948,084; vessels entered in the foreign trade, 13,861; cleared, 9587; entered, in the coastwise trade, 8729; cleared, 11,777. The number of vessels belonging to the two Atlantic ports. New York and Sag Harbor, was 6861 (791 steamers), with a ton- nage of 1,331,759; the eight lake ports owned 2957 vessels (212 steamers), having a tonnage of 379,742; total, 9818 vessels, of 1,711,501 tons. There were built in the Atlantic ports 403 vessels, of which 60 were steamers, and in the lake ports 224, 40 of them steamers; total number of vessels built during the year, 627, of 93,576 tons. The value of the fisheries reported was $235,750. Belonging to Sag Harbor are 133 vessels em- ployed in cod- and mackerel-fishing. Railroads and Canals — The first railroad was opened for travel in 1831. In 1873 New York ranked next to Illinois and Pennsylvania in railroad mileage. The figures were: Miles of railroad, 5165; cost per mile, $83,391; total capital account, $441,887,961; receipts, $68,825,007; receipts per mile, $13,326; receipts to an inhabitant, $15.12; net earnings, $23,782,428. New York has a very extensive system of canals under the control of the State. The Erie Canal, which connects Lake Erie at Buf- falo with the Hudson River at Albany, was completed in 1825, at a cost CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 327 of $7,143,789. Subsequent expenditures have swelled the cost of construc- tion and repairs to more than fifty millions of dollars. This canal is 70 feet bi-oad at the water-line, 56 feet at the bottom and 7 feet deep. It has 71 locks which will admit boats 96j feet in length and 17i feet in width. The maximum burden of boats is 240 tons. The canals of the State have a lineal length of 900 miles, of which the Erie comprises 352 miles. Of the others, which are feeders to the trunk line, the principal are the Cham- plain, Oswego, Ca}aiga and Seneca, Chemung, Chenango, Black River and Genesee Valley. For the construction and maintenance of canals there has been an expenditure of nearly 90 millions of dollars. Property to the value of seven thousand millions of dollars has been transported. Be- tween the years' 1836 and 1874 the amount of tolls collected was $115,- 318,504. Six million tons of freight were transported in 1874, the value of which was 8196,674,322. Public Iiistitutious and Education. — A State Board of Charities has general supervision over the public institutions, with the ex- ception of prisons. New York has three State-Prisons — viz., Auburn, with 1292 cells; Clinton, with 548 cells; and Sing Sing, with 1200 cells and 1306 prisoners. There are 6 county penitentiaries, located respect- ively at New York, Brooklyn, Albany, Syracuse, Rochester and BuiFalo. The. population of all the prisons, in 1874, was 5940. Asylums for the Insane have been opened at Utica (with accommodations for 600 patients), at Ovid, where 1000 can be provided for, at Poughkeepsie, Buffalo and Middletown. Insane immigrants are taken care of by the State at the hospital on Blackwell's Island. Besides the six institutions above men- tioned, there are several incorporated and private asylums, of which the one at Bloomingdale is most widely known. For the blind there are State institutions at Batavia and New York city. In the latter city also is the School for the Instruction of the Deaf and Dumb, Avhich accommodates 550 pupils. At Binghamton is an Asylum for Inebriates, having 200 patients. An Asylum for Idiots has been established at Syracuse. The House of Refuge for boys, on Randall's Island, will contain 1000, and the Western Institution, at Rochester, 600. Free schools are established for all between the ages of 5 and 21 years. A compulsory education law went into effect Jan. 1, 1875, which requires all children between the ages of 8 and 14 to attend school for at least 14 weeks in every year. In 1874 the number of school districts was 11,995; teachers, 18,295; children of school age, 1,560,820; school-houses, 11,739; total expenditures for school purposes, $12,088,763. There are Normal Schools located at Albany, Brockport, Buffalo, Cortland, Fredonia, Geneseo, Oswego and Potsdam. These schools had, in 1874, 121 instructors and 2875 pupils. A new Nor- mal College was opened in New York city in 1873 which will accommo- date 1600 pupils. Twenty-six colleges and universities are reported, among 328 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES which are Columbia, Cornell, Harailtou, Union and Vassar. Thirteen institutions for the higher education of young ladies report an attendance of 2132 pupils. Professional instruction is afforded by 14 schools of the- ology (among which are Auburn, the General Theological Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church, Hamilton, Rochester and Union Theological Semhiaries, Dr. Talmage's Lay College and Dr. Tyng's House of the Evangelists!, 4 schools of law (Albany, Hamilton, Columbia and the Uni- versity of New York), 14 schools of medicine and 6 schools of science. The Industrial College of Cornell University has received the land-grants of Congress for agricultural education. All departments of the univer- sity have a property estimated at $3,627,200. Located within the limits of New York State, although not belonging to it, is the United States Mil- itary Academy at West Point [see Government and Laws]. In 1870 the State contained 20,929 libraries, 5627 religious organizations, with 5474 edifices, valued at $66,073,755, and 835 newspapers and periodicals, of which 87 were published daily; 1086 periodicals (100 of them daily news- papers) were enumerated in 1875. Cities and Towns. — New York has 24 chartered cities, which con- tained in 1870 1,965,660 inhabitants, or 43.25 per cent, of the total popu- lation of the State. In 1825 the entire city populatiou was 279,031. Albany, the capital, is situated on the Hudson River, 1 45 miles above New York, at the terminus of the Erie and Champlain Canals. A bridge 1953 feet long and costing $1,100,000 spans the Hudson. Among the most prominent buildings are the City Hall, Merchants' Exchange, Dudley Observatory, Penitentiary and the new Capitol building, begun in 1871 and designed to surpass any building in America. The city contains 60 churches and supports 8 daily newspapers. Population in 1870, 69,422, and in 1875, 85,584. New York, the metropolis of America and the third city of the civilized world, occupies the whole of the island of Manhattan, 132 miles long and 2\ miles in extreme breadth, and 20 square miles of Westchester county, which was annexed in 1873. The principal public buildings are the City Hall, new Court-House, new Post-Office, costing $7,000,000, sub-Treasury building, Custom-House, Grand Central depot, 692 feet long, 240 feet wide and costing 21 millions of dollars. Masonic Tem- ple, Academy of Design, Booth's theatre and the Young Men's Christian Association building. Trinity church, with a spire 284 feet high, is one of the most conspicuous objects in the lower part of the city. St. Patrick's Cathedral (beguu in 1858), on Fifth Avenue, is 322 feet long. Many of the business edifices rival the public buildings in cost and magnificence. Among the most conspicuous of these are the Western Union, Drexel, Tribune, Evening Post and Herald buildings. There are about a hun- dred hotels, of which 20 are first class. The poor and vicious classes are provided for on the most liberal scale. Blackwell's Island is entirely oc- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 329 cupied by public institutions, including several hospitals, woi'khouses, a penitentiary, almshouse, insane hospitals, etc. The number received into all these institutions during the year 1874 was 195,438. More than 2500 men are employed upon the police force. The registrar of vital statistics reported 28,597 deaths, 25,663 births and 8397 marriages during the last year. New York has 25 miles of water-front available for docks. At low tide there is a depth of 32 feet of water over the bar at Sandy Hook, so that the largest vessels in the world can pass unimpeded. Six lines of steamers run to South America and the West Indies, and 18 lines, with 175 steamships, to Europe. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, $109,549,798 in duties were collected; .the value of imports was $395,133,622; of exports, $340,360,269; total foreign commerce, $750,127,354, which was 57 per cent, of the whole foreign trade of the United States. There were 19,640 vessels entered and cleared ; 6630 ves- sels belonged to the port, and 396, including 60 steamers, were built during the year. For the month of July, 1875, the value of imports was $26,189,364; of domestic exports, $23,671,774. More than 140,000 im- migrants arrived during the year. In manufactures, also, New York ranks as the leading city. It contained at the time of the last census 7624 manufacturing establishments, which employed 129,577 hands and pro- duced articles valued at $332,951,520. The city valuation in 1875 was $1,154,029,176, and the taxation, $34,620,874 ; the receipts into the trea- sury for the year ending Aug. 1, 1875, were $40,133,614. During 1874 1357 new buildings were erected. The number of schools reported was 249 ; teachers, 2679 ; pupils, 236,543 ; number of colleges, 6 ; medical schools, 6 ; theological schools, 2. There are 380 churches and 398 news- papers and periodicals, of which 28 are published daily. An abundance of pure water is supplied by the Crotou aqueduct, 40 •> miles long and completed at a cost of $25,000,000. Central Park, which contains 2 Cro- ton reservoirs covering 142 acres, is 21 miles long and embraces an area of 843 acres. The number of inhabitants in 1656 was 1000 ; in 1673, 2500; in 1773, 21,876; in 1800, 60,489; in 1870, 942,292; and in 1875 (State census), 1,064,272. Brookhjn, the third city of the republic in size, is really a part of the commercial metropolis, with which it is con- nected by 13 steam ferries. The union is to be made still closer by the construction of a bridge 6000 feet in length, having a central span 1595 feet long and 135 feet above high water. Ten millions of dollars was the early estimate of its cost. Later developments indicate that " the utmost resources of the calculus " are inadequate to determine the amount of money that will be required to finish the structure. The city is 71 miles long and 5 miles in its greatest breadth, and covers an area of 21 square miles. Its water frontage extends for 8-2 miles, along which are immense warehouses receiving goods to the amount of $260,000,000 annually. 330 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Three railroads terminate at the water-frout, and most of the 25 street railways run to the New York ferries. Brooklyn is noted as the " City of Churches " (it contains 240), among the most prominent of which are Plymouth Church (Rev. Henry Ward Beecher's), St. Ann's and Holy Trinity, the Church of the Pilgrims, the Roman Catholic Cathedral and Talmase's Tabernacle, Most of the dead of New York are interred in the cemeteries of Brooklyn. Greenwood Cemetery, containing 413 acres. Cypress Hills, Evergreen and the Cemetery of the Holy Cross are among the most beautiful. Prospect Park, begun in 1866, contains 550 acres, and commands a magnificent view of the great cities and the bay. In 1706 the town contained 64 freeholders ; in 1802, almost a century after, the number had increased to 86. There were only 56 buildings at the close of the Revolutionary war. In 1820 the number of inhabitants was 7475 ; in 1870, 396,099 ; in 1875, 483,252. During the year 1874, 1470 new buildings were erected. Williamsburg constitutes the eastern divis- ion of Brooklyn. It contains a United States navy yard, with a dry-dock constructed at a cost of 2 million dollars. The value of the manufactured products from 1043 establishments, employing 18,545 hands, was $60,848,673. Water is supplied from the Ridgewood works. Buffalo, the eleventh city of the Union in size, is situated on Lake Erie at the head of Niagara River, 295 miles from New York. It is the western terminus of the Erie Canal, and is an important shipping-point for cattle, grain and coal. There are very large iron-mills ; ship-building is an important in- dustry. The city has 80 churches and 9 daily newspapers. Population in 1870, 117,714, and in 1875, 134,238. Rochester, which contained 63,522 inhabitants in 1870 and 81,813 in 1875, is situated at the Falls of the Genesee (96 feet in height), 7 miles from Lake Ontario. An al- most unlimited water-power is afforded for the huge flouring-mills, ma- chine-shops and other factories. Five daily newspapers are published, two of them in the German language. Tro]), situated at the head of tide- water on the Hudson River, has extensive manufactories of iron. All the railroads are concentrated at a union railroad depot 400 feet long. Pop- ulation in 1870, 46,465, and in 1875, 48,708. Syracuse, at the head of Onondaga Lake, is the depot for immense salt-works, and contains numer- ous furnaces, machine-shops, breweries, etc. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 43,051 ; in 1875, 49,808. The other leading cities with their populations in 1870 and 1875 respectively are Utica (28,804 and 32,689), Kingston (21,943), Oswego (20,910 and 22,280), Poughkeepsie (20,080 and 20,097), Yonkers (18,357 and 17,742, a decrease), Auburn (17,225 and 19,616), Newburgh (17,014 and 17,433), Elmira (15,833 and 20,093), Cohoes (15,357 and 25,677), Lockport (12,426 and 14,323), Sclienectady (11,026 and 12,807), Rome (11,000 and 12,511), Ogdensburg (10,076 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND O UIDE. 331 and 10,503), Watertown (9336 aud 10,005), Long Island City (20,287 and 26,351) and Flushing (14,673 and 16,045). Growth ill Populatioil. — The number of inhabitants in 1701 was about 30,000; in 1731, 50,000; in 1771, 163,388. According to the Federal census, the population at successive decennial periods has been as follows: 1790, 340,120; 1800, 589,051; 1810, 959,049; 1820,1,372,111; 1830, 1,918,608; 1840, 2,428,921; 1850, 3,097,394; 1860, 3,880,735; 1870, 4,382,759. Of the latter number, 1,138,353 were born in foreign countries and 3,244,406 in the United States ; 2,987,776 had their birth- place in New York. While New York had received 256,630 from other States, 1,073,573 of her own children were residing in other parts of the Union, showing a loss to her, in native population, of 816,942. This State ranked fifth in 1790, third in 1800 and second in 1810; the first place was secured in 1820, and has since been held. The density of population is 93.25 to a square mile. Over 5000 Indians, belonging to the Six Nations and settled upon seven reservations, are not included in the census. Government and Laws. — The legislature consists of 32 sena- tors aud 128 assemblymen. Sessions are held annually, and each member receives a salary of S1500 a year. Executive ofiicers are elected for a term of two years, with the exception of the governor and lieutenant-gov- ernor, who serve for three years. Ten thousand dollars a year aud a house are the governor's remuneration. Seven judges constitute the court of appeals, of whom the chief-justice receives $9500 annually and his asso- ciates $9000 each. There are 8 judicial districts, of which the- New York district has 5 judges and the others 4 each. County courts are held in all of the 60 counties except New York. The two cities of New York aud Brooklyn have special courts. All judges are elected by the people. The value of taxable property in 1874 was $2,169,307,873. New York is entitled to 33 representatives in Congress. History. — As early as the spring of 1524 John de Veri'azzano, a Florentine in command of a French vessel, landed upon the soil of New York. Henry Hudson sailed up the river which now bears his name in September, 1609. A tradiug-post and fort were built near Albany in 1614. In May, 1626, Peter Minuit bought the island of Manhattan for 60 guil- ders (about 24 dollars). The Swedish territory to the south was annexed by Governor Stuyvesant in 1655. In August, 1664, the Dutch dominions were surrendered to the English. Numerous battles were fought upon the soil of New York during the .French and Indian wars. The part which New York took in the Revolutionary war is described elsewhere [see Historical Sketch, p. 101]. During the war of 1812 the towns along the Canadian frontier were much exposed to British depredations. Several amendments have been made to the State Constitution, the last in 1874. 332 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES NORTH CAROLINA. Situation and. Extent. — North Carolina is bounded on the N. W. by Tennessee, N. by Virginia, E. and S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean, S. W. and S. by South Carolina and Georgia. It is situated between latitudes 33° 53' and 36° 33' N. and longitudes 1° 35' E. and 7° 30' W. from Wash- ington, or 75° 25' and 84° 30' W. from Greenwich. From east to west the extreme length is 490 miles and the extreme breadth from north to south 185 miles. The area is 50,704 square miles, or 32,450,560 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Near the sea-coast are extensive swamps and salt marshes. Between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds is a tract 75 miles in length and 45 miles in breadth and extending over four counties, which is called Alligator, or Little Dismal, Swamp. Back of the submerged lands, a low and nearly level sandy plain, with an average slope of one foot to the mile, extends inland for 150 miles to the falls of the Roanoke, the Yadkin and the Cape Fear. These falls mark the begin- ning of the "hill country," which rises in a series of steps, at the average rate of ten feet per mile, toward the Blue Ridge. In this section there are elevations from 200 to 1200 feet high. Mountains. — At the foot of the Blue Ridge the ground rises from 1200 to 1500 feet, within a distance of five or six miles, to a mountainous plateau elevated some 2500 feet above the sea. The highest elevations east of the Rocky Mountains are in the spurs of the Alleghany Mountains, which extend through the western part of North Carolina. More than 20 peaks reach an altitude of 6000 feet, while of the White Mountains [see New Hampshire] only Mount AVash- ingtou attains that height. The principal summits are : Clingman's Peak (6941 feet high), Buckley's Peak (6775 feet). Mount Mitchell (6732 feet) and Roan Mountain (6306 feet), all of which overtop the monarch of the White Hills. Of inferior height are the Richard Balsam (6225 feet), Grandfather's Peak (5897 feet) and Sugar Loaf (5312 feet). West of the Blue Ridge 14 counties which belong to North Carolina are drained through the Tennessee Valley. Rivers. — Seven rivers of considerable size, all flow- ing toward the Atlantic Ocean, have a part or the whole of their course in North Carolina. Beginning on the north, the first river is the Chowan, navigable for 75 miles, which rises in Virginia and empties into Albemarle Sound. Roanoke River is formed by the union of the Dan and the Staun- ton, which have their sources in Southern Virginia. The length of the main stream is 250 miles. Steamboats ascend as far as the falls, at Wel- don, 150 miles. The Tar, navigable for 100 miles, and the Neuse, which is a broad lagoon for 40 miles and navigable for 120 miles, empty into Pamlico Sound. Cape Fear River, formed by the confluence of the Haw and Deep Rivers, has a suflicient depth of water for sloops to ascend as far as Fayetteville, 120 miles. The Yadkin rises in the flanks of the Blue Ridge, and after a course of 350 miles passes over into Sf)uth Carolina, CEiSTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 333 ■where it becomes the Great Pedee. The Catawba also flows into South Carolina. West of the Blue Ridge are several small streams, which run into the Ohio and Mississippi system. Sea-coast. — Sandy and barren islands stretch along the 400 miles of coast, and shoals extend far out to sea, mak- ing the North Carolina coast a terror to all mariners. Cape Hatteras is the extreme headland. Cape Lookout and Cape Fear are less extended; but their names do no injustice to their dangerous character. Back of the sandy islands are extensive sounds and deep bays. Pamlico Sound is 80 miles long, from 10 to 30 wide, and 20 feet deep. Albemarle Sound is 60 miles in length and from 4 to 15 in breadth. Currituck Sound, running parallel with the ocean, is separated from it by a low sand-beach from 2 to 10 miles in width. Forests. — More than two millions of acres of swamp land in the east are covered with a growth of cedar and cypress, very val- uable for timber. The " piney woods" extend across the State in a belt from 30 to 80 miles wide. Here grows to its perfection the long-leaved yellow pine, or turpentine tree. Hard woods predominate in the western section. Among the trees are tlie oak, hickory, walnut, maple, pojilar, bay, mistletoe, chestnut, tulip, aspen, ash, sycamore, beech, elm, mulberry, black-walnut, live-oak, black thorn, myrtle, hawthorn, palmetto, etc. Game is very abundant ; canvas-back ducks and wild geese are so numer- ous that shooting them is a regular and profitable business for gunners during the winter. The bear, deer and other wild animals are sometimes seen. Soil and Climate. — The swamp lands have a soil from 5 to 10 feet deep, of which nine-tenths is a vegetable mould with a small admixture of fine sand and clay. When drained, these lands produce very abundant crops. Some of them have been under cultivation for a century and still show no signs of diminished fertility. Much worn-out laud is seen in the great midland district, comprising 30 counties ; but with sufficient fertiliza- tion it can be profitably cultivated. The mountain region is well adapted for grazing. A semi-tropical climate is indicated in the vegetation of the south-east. Palmetto trees are found as far north as Cape Hatteras. The fig and pomegranate attain the dimensions of large trees. Vegetation is green all the year round in swamps and savannas, where cattle range with- out need of any artificial shelter. Potatoes, cabbages and other vegetables are planted in December to be ready for use in February and the early spring months. In the hill-country the climate is cooler, but at Raleigh peach trees blossom in March and the fruit ripens in June. In the valleys of the mountain district exemption from frost can be expected only be- tween April 25th and October 10th. The isothermal lines crossing North Carolina are: Spring, 55°-65° ; summer, 72°-80°; autumn, 55°-65°; winter, 35°-50°; annual mean, 60°-65°. Observations continued for a series of years give the mean annual temperature at Smithville (near Cape 334 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Fear) as 65.7°; Beaufort, 62.2°; Ealeigh, 60°; Chapel Hill, 59.7°; Ashe- ville (among the mountains), 54.45°. The auuual raiufall is 45.65 inches. AgTiciiltiiral Productions. — Cotton is grown over nearly half the State. There were 42 counties which produced over 400 bales each in 1860. In 1870 the production of cotton was 144,935 bales; flax, 59,552 pounds; wool, 799,667 pounds; rice, 2,059,281 pounds; tobacco, 11,150,- 087 pounds; cane-molasses, 33,888 gallons; sorghum, 621,855 gallons; sweet-potatoes, 3,071,870 bushels (outstripping Texas, which ranked next, by more than 900,000 bushels). Rice is grown very largely in BrunsAvick, the most south-eastern county. In the production of peas and beans North Carolina is surpassed only by New York. Pea-nuts, or ground-nuts, are raised for exportation in immense quantities. The last census returns re- ported the number of farms as 93,565, of which 116 contained more than 1000 acres each, while the average size was 212 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $104,287,161 ; value of productions, including betterments, etc., $57,845,940; value of the Indian corn, wheat, lye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops, in 1873, $22,964,647. In January, 1873, the State contained 131,800 horses, 48,400 mules, 316,- 100 oxen and other cattle, 199,100 milch cows, 823,300 hogs and 278,500 sheep. Manufactures. — One of the most prosperous industries is the man- ufacture of tar, turpentine and resin from the long-leaved pine (Pimis jmIus- tris). In 1870 there were 147 establishments, affording employment to 959 hands. The productiou was 3,779,449 barrels of turpentine (total for all the States, 6,004,887 barrels), 456,131 barrels of resin (all the States, 646,- 243 barrels) and 300 barrels of tar; value of all these products, $2,338,- 309. Lumber was sawed to the value of $2,000,243. The value of flour- iug-mill products was $2,232,404; cotton goods, $1,345,052; tobacco, $717,- 765; carriages and wagons, $340,284; total number of manufacturing establishments, 3642; hands employed, 13,622; value of products, $19,021,327. Minerals and Mining.— Gold has been obtained in moderate quantities for many years. A branch mint was established at Charlotte [see Coins and Currency, page 106], where $5,118,645 in gold had been deposited previous to its discontinuance, while $4,666,026 were sent to the Philadelphia Mint from North Carolina. The total gold product up to June 30, 1874, was $10,090,656. A nugget weighing 28 pounds was once found in Cabarrus county. Silver to the value of nearly $50,000 has also been sent to the mint. There is an important zinc mine in Davidson county. Copper, lead, plumbago, limestone, marble, manganese, porcelain clay, etc., are found, and marl is abundant. Bituminous coal exists in large beds on the Cape Fear and Dan Rivers. The Shocco and White Sulphur Springs are places of considerable resort. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 335 Commerce and Navig-atioil. — There are 4 customs districts— viz., Albemarle, Beaufort, Pamlico and Wilmington, to which 279 vessels belong. For the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of exports was ^3,581,618; imports, $144,017. In the foreign trade 219 vessels entered and 289 cleared; in the coastwise trade, 682 entered and 300 cleared, making a total of 1490 vessels. Twenty-five vessels were built during the . year. The fisheries are of considerable importance. Herring, shad, rock ,and bluefish, mullet, etc., are caught in large quantities. A hundred thou- sand barrels annually are packed on Albemarle Sound. Only Massachu- setts and Maine employ more men in fisheries. The number engaged in this business in 1870 was 1606; value of products, $265,839. Railroads and Canals.— Eighty-seven miles of railroad had been completed up to the year 1842. In 1873 the number of miles was 1265; cost per mile, $29,399 ; total capital account, $35,425,096 ; receipts, $2,897,488 ; receipts per mile, $2405 ; receipts to an inhabitant, $2.61 ; net earnings, $1,312,062; 1447 miles were in operation in 1874. Dismal Swamp C-anal connects Albemarle Sound with Chesapeake Bay. Pnblic Institntions and Education. — The State Peniten- tiary contained 445 convicts, November 1, 1874. A State Insane Asylum was opened in 1856, which has treated over 1100 patients; 247 remained at the close of 1874, The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind contained 208 pupils, of whom 64 were colored ; an annual appro- priation of $40,000 is made for its support by the State. The above three institutions are all located at Raleigh, the capital. The Constitution pro- vides for a permanent school fund for the maintenance of free public schools. This fund in 1874 amounted to $2,190,564. The number of children between the ages of 6 and 21 years was 348,603; public schools, 3311; teachers, 2690. Separate schools are provided for colored children. The Ellensdale Teachers' Institute, aided by the Peabody fund, and the Normal School at Wilmington, supported by the American Missionary Association, give instruction to teachers. There are five colleges— viz., Davidson, North Carolina, Rutherford Male and Female, Trinity, Univer- sity of North Carolina and Wake Forest College. The University of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, chartered in 1789, was temporarily sus- pended in 1871. A College of Physicians and Surgeons has been organ- ized. Instruction in theology and law is afforded by Trinity College. The census reported 1746 libraries, 64 newspapers and periodicals (increased in 1875 to 106, 9 of which were published daily) and 2683 religious organizations, having 2497 edifices. Cities and Towns.— i?a/e/(//t, the State capital (population, 7790), situated near the Neuse River, contains a State-House, built of granite, which cost $500,000, and was, at the time of its erection, one of the finest Capitols in the Union. Three of the State institutions before mentioned 336 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES are located at this city. It is connected with all quarters of the State by railroads. Ten periodicals were published in 1875, two of them daily. Wilmington (population, 13,446), the largest city and principal sea-port, is situated on the Cape Fear River, 34 miles from the sea. During the civil war this was the favorite port of the blockade runners. Nearly 400 vessels ran the blockade between October, 1863, and December, 1864. The export and import trade during the year ending June 30, 1864, was $65,185,000. Ten years later, June 30, 1874, the total was $3,677,822 (less than one-seventeenth as much). Wilmington has steam saw- and planing-mills, machine-shops and turpentine distilleries and three daily newspapers. Newbern, on the River Neuse, 40 miles above its entrance into Pamlico Sound, has direct steamboat communication with Norfolk, Baltimore and New York, and carries on a large trade in cotton, lumber, fish and naval stores. It is also a place of considerable manufactures, having founderies, machine-shops, turpentine-works, grist- and saw-mills, etc. There are 6 churches and 4 neAvspapers, one of which is puljlished daily. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 5849, of whom 3829 were colored. Fayetteville (population, 4660), 100 miles above Wilmington, on the Cape Fear River, has a large trade in lumber, tar, turpentine, etc. Charlotte (population, 4473) is the centre of the gold-mining district, and now has an assay-ofiice, which was formerly a United States mint. It is at the intersection of 3 railroads, and has 6 newspapers, 3 of which are published daily. The other jirincipal towns are Beaufort, Asheville, Washington, Plymouth, Goldsboro', Tarboro' and Edenton. Popvilatioil. — The original settlers were Irish and French. Some Scotch refugees came in after the battle of Culloden. A few Germans have made their home in North Carolina; but the number of persons of foreign birth in 1870 was only 3029, which is less than one-third (.2827) of 1 per cent, of the entire population. The number of inhabitants at succes- sive decennial periods has been as follows: 1790, 393,751 (slaves, 100,572); 1800, 487,103 (slaves, 133,296); 1810, 555,500 (slaves, 168,824); 1820, 638,829 (slaves, 204,917); 1830, 737,987 (slaves, 245,601); 1840, 753,- 419 (slaves, 245,817); 1850, 869,039 (slaves, 288,540); 1860, 992,622 (slaves, 331,059); 1870, 1,071,361 (free colored, 391,650). The native population was 1,068,322, of whom 1,028,678 were born in North Caro- lina and 39,644 were immigrants from other States, while 307,362 native North Carolinians were residing in other parts of the Union, showing a loss to this Commonwealth of 267,718. The Old North State ranked third in population in 1790, held the fourth place until 1820, and in 1870 ranked fourteenth. There were 21.13 inhabitants to a square mile. Government and Laws.— The legislature consists of a senate of 50 members and a house of representatives of 120 members, elected for CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 337 two years and paid $5 per day besides mileage during the sessions, which are held biennially. The governor (salary, $4000) and other executive officers are chosen for a term of four years. Appellate jurisdiction is ex- ercised by the supreme court, which consists of 6 judges. There are 12 judicial districts, in each of which terms of the superior court are held, presided over by a single judge. All judges are elected by the people for a term of 8 years. Persons who deny the being of Almighty God are ineligible to office. The State debt on the 1st of October, 1874, was $38,921,848. North Carolina is entitled to 8 representatives in Congress. History. — In 1584 Queen Elizabeth granted letters patent to Sir Walter Raleigh " for the discovering and planting of new lands and coun- tries." The first explorers landed on Roanoke Island July 4 (0. S.) of that year. Charles II. granted Carolina to 8 noblemen in 1668. Six years later the population was about 4000. The division between North and South Carolina was made in 1697. War was waged with the Tuscaroras until 1713. "The first blood for liberty" was shed at Alamance, in May, 1771, and the first declaration of independence in the United States was made at Charlotte, Mecklenburg county [see Historical Sketch, page 100]. The battle of Guilford Court-House, March 15, 1781, drove the invading British army under Cornwallis from North Carolina. In 1789 the Constitution of the United States, which had been rejected in 1788, was adopted. In February, 1861, the people voted against calling a conven- tion to consider the question of secession. After the attack upon Fort Sumter the governor of North Carolina seized possession of the forts at Wilmington and Beaufort, the Mint at Charlotte and the United States Arsenal at Fayetteville. An ordinance of secession was passed, and the Constitution of the Confederate States was adopted May 21. Fort Hat- teras and Fort Clark were taken by the Federal forces Aug. 29. Gen. Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough captured Roanoke Island Feb. 8, 1862, and the city of Newborn March 14. Wilmington was taken on the 22d of February, 1865. Hostilities were closed by the surrender of Gen. •Johnston's army April 26. The present Constitution was ratified in 1868. OHIO. Situation and Extent. — Ohio is bounded on the N. by Michigan and Lake Erie, E. by Pennsylvania and West Virginia, S. by West Vir- ginia and Kentucky and W. by Indiana. It is situated between latitudes 38° 27' and 41° 57' N. and longitudes 3° 34' and 7° 49' W. from Wash- ington, or 80° 34' and 84° 49' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length is 228 miles, the breadth 220 miles and the area 39,964 square miles, or 25,576,960 acres. Physical Features.— /Siw/aee. — The general surface of Ohio is 22 338 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES that of a great plain, descending from the foot of the Alleghanies toward the Mississippi Valley. The lowest point is 425 feet above the sea level and the highest 1540 feet, on the summit between the Scioto and Miami. Among the principal elevations are Round Knob (1409 feet). Bald Moun- tain (1391 feet), Mount Tabor (1365 feet), Little Mountain (1340 feet), Stultz's Mountain (1301 feet) and Fort Hill (1286 feet). Cincinnati is 523 feet above tide-water, Cleveland 685 feet, Urbana 1044 feet and Hud- son 1137 feet. A chain of low hills, which constitutes the water-shed be- tween Lake Erie and the Ohio River, extends along the 41st parallel of latitude. Along the lake are cliffs, sometimes attaining a height of 750 feet above the water surface. The south-east section of the State is undulating, and precipitous hills, 600 and 700 feet in height, extend along the banks of the Ohio. Numerous "mounds," supposed to be the work of a race now extinct, still exist, together with the remains of very extensive fortifi- cations. Rivers and Lakes. — The Ohio River winds along the southern boundary with a gentle current for 435 miles. It is subject to great fresh- ets. In the spring of 1832 the stream rose to a height of 63 feet above low-water mark. The width opposite Cincinnati is about 1600 feet. Flow- ing into the Ohio are the Muskingum, navigable to Dresden, 95 miles; the Scioto, 200 miles in length; the Great Miami, 150 miles long, and the Little Miami. The principal streams emptying into Lake Erie are the Maumee, Sandusky, Cuyahoga and Chagrin Rivers. Fish are abundant, including the catfish (sometimes weighing 90 pounds), sturgeon, pike, perch, shad, etc. Lake Erie affords a navigable water frontage of 230 miles on the north. There are many small lakes and basins along the water-shed ; more than one hundred have been noted in Summit county within a radius of 20 miles. Forests. — Forty-five species of trees have been noticed which grow to a height of more than 40 feet. When the whites first came to the State, in 1810, they found in the primitive forests the buttonwood, butter- nut, dogwood, slippery and white elm, buckeye, sassafras, spice wood, red- bud, coffee tree, linden, pawpaw, poplar, locust, mulberry, birch, beech, chestnut, hornbeam, black-walnut, hickory, hemlock, sycamore, oak (white, black, Spanish and red), arbor vitse, mistletoe, ash, aspen, yew, red cedar, maple, spruce, gum, pine, willow, hackberry, persimmon and many others. Seven species of maple, 11 of walnut and 26 of oak are catalogued. It has been observed that the timber of the Western country is softer and weaker than in the Atlantic States, owing probably to its more rapid growth. Birds. — Among the native birds are the turkey-buzzard, hawk (3 species), pheasant, partridge, bluejay, wood duck, sparrow, redbird, woodpecker (5 species), eagle, raven, crow, kingfisher, wren, owl, grouse, etc. Soil and Climate.— Over more than half the State the soil is of diluvial origin. In the north the drift deposit is principally clay. The CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 339 southern counties of the "Reserve" have more of gravel and sand. This is a line grazing country. The river bottoms contain an alluvium of very great fertility. The climate is subject to great variations. On the morn- ing of June 5, 1859, there was a remarkable frost, which killed much of the wheat and fruit in the State. " There were frosts on 8 days of May in 1861, and light ones on the 27th of June and 3d of July" (Bureau of Statistics). The extremes of temperature at Marietta during 28 years were 22° below zero and 99° above. During a series of years the mean temperature at Cleveland was 49.77°; at Marietta, 51.86°; at Cincinnati, 54.67°. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the minimum temperature noted by the Signal Service Bureau for Ohio was 2° at Toledo, and the maximum 103° at Cincinnati. The isothermal lines for the State are: Spring, 50° ; summer, 70°-74° ; autumn, 50°-55° ; winter, 30° ; annual mean, 50°-55°. Cincinnati is on the same isothermal lines with Lyons, Milan and Constantinople. The annual rainfall is 33.38 inches at Cincin- nati and 38.43 inches iit Cleveland. AgTiculturill Productions. — Ohio at one time ranked first in the production of grain. It 1873 it occupied the third rank in the pro- duction of Indian corn, fourth in oats, fifth in barley and seventh in wheat. The number of farms reported in 1870 was 195,953, of which 69 contained more than 1000 acres each, while the average size was 111 acres. The acreage of improved land was 14,469,133 (only Illinois and J^ew York had more); value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $1,200,458,541 (next to New York) ; value of farm productions, including betterments, etc. §198,256,907 (next to New York and Illinois). In 1874 Ohio contained 738,600 horses (only Illinois had more), 22,300 mules, 882,900 oxen and other cattle (next to Texas and Illinois), 778,500 cows (next to New York), 4,639,000 sheep (next to California) and 2,017,400 hogs. Fruits grow in great abundance, and nearly 350,000 acres are devoted to orchards. In 1872, which was an exceptionally good year, the apple crop was 23,000,000 bushels and the peach crop 405,619 bushels. Manufactures. — This State ranks third in the number of manufac- turing establishments and fourth in the value of products. It stood first in the fabrication of agricultural implements, and next to Illinois and Mis- souri in pork-packing. The total number of manufacturing establishments reported at the last census was 22,773; hands employed, 137,202; value of products, $269,713,610. The principal industries in value were: Flour- ing-mill products, $24,965,629; clothing, $13,194,998; iron, rolled and forged, $13,033,169; agricultural implements, 611,907,366; iron, pig, $10,- 956,938 ; pork packed, $10,655,950. The number of hogs packed in the winter of 1874-5 was 871,736; value, $16,597,490. Minerals and Mining*. — Fields of bituminous coal extend over 10,000 square miles of area. There are 30 counties in which it is profit- 340 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES ably mined. The production of 1873 was 87,794,240 bushels. Iron is mined in 20 counties to the amount of nearly 350,000 tons per year. More than 4 million bushels of salt and 1,315,000 gallons of petroleum were produced in 1873. Gypsum, lime, potter's clay and the finest quality of building-stone are found in abundance. The mining product of 1870 was $7,751,544, from 535 establishments. Coniinerce and IVavigation. — The 200 miles of coast on Lake Erie afford direct communication with the Atlantic Ocean through the River St. Lawrence, and the 435 miles of Ohio River navigation are con- nected, through the Mississippi, with the Gulf of Mexico, so that vessels built in Ohio can sail direct to foreign ports. The customs districts on the lake have their ports of entry at Cleveland, Sandusky and Toledo. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $554,376, and the value of exports $3,528,729 ; 1362 vessels entered and 1388 cleared, in the foreign trade; 8417 entered and 8460 cleared, in the coastwise trade; 219 vessels belonged to Cincinnati and 609 to the lake ports. Twenty- eight vessels were built upon the lake and 40, of which 19 were steamers, upon the Ohio. Cincinnati is a port ©f entry and delivery. The value of fisheries in 1870 was $383,121, givhig to Ohio the fifth rank among the States. Railroads and Canals. — The four great trunk-lines from the At- lantic cities to the Mississippi cross this State. In 1842 the first mile of railroad was completed; in 1874 the statistics were: Miles of railroad, 4378; cost per mile, $74,254; total stock and debt, $298,931,461; gross earnings, $37,177,129; net earnings, $10,182,894. Of navigable canals the State has 796 miles, including feeders and side-cuts. These were con- structed between the years 1825 and 1844, at a total cost of $14,688,667; average cost per mile, $18,453. The Ohio and Erie Canal, connecting the river at Portsmouth with the lake at Cleveland, is 309 miles in length and cost $4,695,204. The Miami and Erie, connecting Toledo with Cincinnati, extends for 250 miles, and was constructed at a cost (with improvements and repairs") of $7,463,694. The State also contains more than 6000 miles of turnpikes and plank roads. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- tiary, erected in 1813, contained 1005 prisoners Nov. 1, 1874. The Deaf and Dumb Asylum, opened Feb. 11, 1869, was constructed at a cost of $625,000. Both the above institutions, together with the Asylums for the Deaf and Dumb, the Blind and the Idiotic, and the Central Ohio Lunatic Asylum, are located at Columbus. Other Asylums for the Insane have been opened at Newburg, Dayton, Athens, Longview and Toledo, of which the first three are wholly, and the last two partially, supported by the State. Upwards of 1000 patients were sent to these hospitals for the insane during the year 1874. An Industrial School for girls has been CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 341 established at White Sulphur Springs, and a Reform School for boys was opened near Lancaster in 1857. The latter institution has a farm of 1170 acres; nearly 2000 boys have been already admitted. The school statistics for 1873-4 were: Schooldiouses, 11,688; value, $18,829,586; teachers, 22,375; children of school age (6 to 21 years), 985,947; revenue for school purposes, $8,300,594. There are 32 colleges (of which Oberlin had 1330 students), 12 schools of theology, 3 of law, 11 of medicine and 4 of science. Ohio Agricultural and Mechanical College, at Columbus, pos- sesses a property valued at $904,000. A building has been erected which will accommodate 500 students. The last census reported 17,790 libraries, 395 newspapers and periodicals, 26 of them daily, and 6488 religious organizations, having 6284 edifices. In 1875 the number of newspapers had increased to 537, of which 35 were published daily. Cities and Towns. — Ohio contains 31 cities. Columbus was made the State capital by an act passed Feb. 14, 1812. It occupies a central position on the Scioto River, at the intersection of eight railroads, 110 miles north-east of Cincinnati. The principal State institutions are concentrated here, including the Penitentiary and the several asylums for the insane, blind, deaf and dumb and idiotic; there are also State and United States Arsenals. The Capitol was completed in 1861, 15 years after its commence- ment, at a cost of $1,365,171. Eight periodicals are issued, 2 of them daily, and there are 45 churches. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 31,274. Cincinnati, the "Queen City of the West," is situated upon the Ohio River, 500 miles above its mouth. A suspension bridge, 2252 feet long, spans the river. There are 8 lines of river packets ; steamboats 300 feet long and 90 feet wide come up to the docks. The city has a water frontage of 10 miles. A line of hills from 400 to 450 feet high extends in semicircular form some distance back from the river, affording the finest sites for residences. Among the principal public edifices are the Court- House, Hospital, Public Librarj^ Opera-House, St. Peter's Cathedral and the United States government buildings. The manufactures are very ex- tensive; there are 4000 establishments, employing 58,000 hands and pro- ducing au annual value of $145,000,000. Pork-packing is a leading industry, although Chicago has taken the first place, which was once held by Cincinnati. During the season of 1873-4, 581,253 hogs were packed. The city contains 25,000 dwellings, 160 churches and 11 public libraries. Sixty-two periodicals are published, 9 of them daily. The population in 1800 was 750; in 1810, 2540; in 1820, 9602; in 1830, 24,831; in 1840, 46,338; in 1850, 115,436; in 1860, 161,044; and in 1870, 216,239, of whom 136,627 were natives of the United States. The valuation of prop- erty in 1873 was $185,645,740. Thirteen railroads enter 4 depots. Cleve- land (population, 92,829), situated on the shore of Lake Erie, is called the " Forest City." The Court-House, City Hall and United States buildings 342 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES are fine stone edifices. The Ohio aud Erie Caual brings a large business to the city. Five railroads centre in a mammoth union depot. There are nearly 1000 manufacturing establishments, 90 churches and 6 daily news- papers. Toledo (population, 31,584), on the Mauraee River, near the western extremity of Lake Erie, has a fine harbor, aud is connected with Cincinnati and Evansville, Indiana, by canals. Six railroads meet in one depot. Five daily newspapers are published. The other principal towns are Dayton (30,743), Sandusky (13,000), Springfield (12,652), Hamilton (11,081), Zanesville (10,011), Akron (10,006), Chillicothe (8920), Canton (8660), Steubenville (8107), Youugstown (8075), Mansfield (8029) and Newark (6698). In 1873, 19,750 new buildings were erected in the State, of which 15,172 were dwellings and 145 factories. Growth in Population. — At the beginning of the present cen- tury Ohio ranked eighteenth in population among the 20 States then com- posing the American Union. She took the third place in 1840, and has since retained it. The number of inhabitants at successive decennial periods has been as follows: In 1800, 43,365; 1810, 230,760; 1820, 581,- 295; 1830, 937,903; 1840, 1,519,467; 1850, 1,980,329; 1860, 2,339,511; 1870, 2,665,260. Between 1800 and 1810 the increase was 408.7 per cent. ; during the last decade, 13.92 per cent. The number of inhabitants to a square mile was 66.69. A stream of emigration has been pouring from Ohio westward. Indiana, Illinois and Iowa were settled to a considerable extent by people from this State ; 70,000 went to Iowa in 7 years. The returns of 1870 showed that 806,983 of the children of Ohio Avere residing in other parts of the Union, while it contained 450,454 natives of other States and 372,493 persons of foreign birth, making a total of 822,947 residents who were not native to the soil. It has been computed that the centre of population for the republic is at Wilmington, Clinton county, Ohio, 45 miles north-east of Cincinnati. Government and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a general assembly, consisting of 36 senators and 105 representatives. Biennial sessions are held. Executive officers are elected for a term of two years. Four thousand dollars salary is paid to the governor. The supreme court consists of 5 judges, who receive $3000 salary each. Courts of common pleas and also probate courts are held in each of the 88 coun- ties. All judges are elected by the people. The value of taxable property in 1874 was $1,580,379,324; 168 national banks were in operation, having a capital of .$28,883,000. The State debt was $7,988,205 on the 15th of November in the above-mentioned year. History.— La Salle sailed along the Ohio River in 1680. In March, 1786, a plan was formed in Connecticut for the planting of a colony upon the banks of the Ohio. A company of 47 emigrants reached the site of Marietta on the 7th of April, 1787, and began the first settlement. About CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 343 the same time Cougress began to exercise jurisdiction over the territory north-west of the Ohio. The old story of Indian outrages was repeated. General St. Clair was defeated by the Miamis in 1791. In 1794 Gen. Wayne achieved a brilliant victory over the savages, and hostilities were soon suspended. Ohio was admitted to the Union as the seventeenth State on the 19th of February, 1803. Conflicting claims to the laud were urged by several States, and most of it was ceded to the General Government. Connecticut reserved 3,666,921 acres in the north-east, along Lake Erie, which has since been known as the "Western Reserve." OREGOK Situation and *Extent. — Oregon is bounded on the N. by Wash- ington Territory, E. by Idaho, S. by Nevada and California and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It is situated between latitudes 42° and 46° 20' N. and longitudes 39° 44' and 47° 35' W. from Washington, or 116° 40' and 124° 35' W. from Greenwich. The length from east to west is 360 miles, the breadth from north to south 275 miles and the area 95,274 square miles, or 60,975,360 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Along the Pacific coast the ground is very much broken and the mountain spurs jut out in bold headlands and capes, among the most prominent of which are Capes Orford, Arago, Per- petua, Foulweather and Lookout. Some twenty-five miles back are the Coast Mountains, from 1000 to 5000 feet high. East of this range is the Willamette Valley, having a width of from 50 to 100 miles. The valley of the Umpqua and the valley of the Rogue Rivers, separated from each other by the Umpqua Mountains, occupy the territory to the south. The regions above described belong to Western Oregon, which covers an area of 31,000 square miles and extends from the Pacific coast inland for 130 miles to the Cascade Mountains. These mountains, which are a continua- tion of the Sierra Nevada, extend in a direction almost due north and south across the State. The altitude of the highest peaks has been some- what exaggerated. Late measurements give the following results : Mount Hood, 11,225 feet; Mount Pitt, 11,000 feet; Mount Jeflfersou, 10,500 feet; the Three Sisters, 9420 feet; and Diamond Peak, about the same. Exten- sions of the Cascade Range, under the general name of the Blue Moun- tains, stretch toward the east and north-east, sometimes attaining an eleva- tion of 7000 feet. Eastern Oregon is in general an elevated country, broken by hills, mountains and deep canons. These gradually give place to prairies and level plains, which fall away toward the Great Interior Basin. Rivers. — The Columbia River forms the boundary between Oregon and Washington Territory for 300 miles. It has a width of from 3 to 7 miles for 40 miles above its mouth. Large steamboats can ascend 140 miles to the rapids where the river breaks through the Cascade Mountains. 344 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Around these rapids is a railroad portage, above which navigation is pos- sible to White Bluffs, a distance of 205 miles. The largest tributary of the Columbia is the Lewis, or Snake, River, which rises in the mountains of Idaho and constitutes the boundary between that Territory and Oregon for 150 ©liles. Steamboats sail into Southern Idaho, within 200 miles of Salt Lake City. The Deschutes, 250 miles long, John Day's River, about the same length, and the Walla Walla discharge their waters into the Co- lumbia east of the Cascade Mountains. Draining the valley to the west of the mountains is the Willamette River, navigable for 130 miles, which runs due north and empties into the Columbia, 110 miles above its mouth. The Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, which are about 200 miles long, flow directly into the Pacific. Klamath River runs through the lakes of the same name and passes into California. Forests. — All of Western Oregon, with the exception of the river valleys, is covered with a dense growth of timber. Toward the California boundary are said to be some of the most magnificent forests in the world. It is estimated that they would yield a million feet of timber to the acre. Upon the mountains the principal growths are the yellow, white and sugar pine, the red, black, yellow and balsam fir, and the Oregon cedar, which sometimes attains the dimensions of 300 feet in height and 20 feet in diameter, the yew, juniper, oak, ash, hemlock, myrtle and spruce. In Eastern Oregon the timber supply is deficient. The forests are still inhabited by the black and grizzly bear, panther, wolf, wildcat, cayote, elk, deer, antelope and other wild animals. Soil and Climate. — The valleys of the Willamette, the Umpqua and Rogue Rivers have a dark porous soil, formed by the mixture of vege- table mould with clayey loam, and are exceedingly fertile. Above the alluvial bottoms are open and slightly rolling prairies, whose soil is a gray, calcareous, sandy loam, admirably adapted for wheat and other cereals. Along the spurs of the mountains are good grazing lands, based upon a brown, clayey loam. Eastern Oregon is especially adapted for dairying and stock-raising. The nutritious " bunch grass " grows to a height of from 6 to 18 inches. Parts of the Great Basin ai-e totally unfit for culti- vation. Very great climatic variations are shown in different parts of the State. In portions of Eastern Oregon frosts come in October, winter lasts for three months and snow falls to the depth of 12 inches. West of the Cascade Mountains the climate is mild and uniform. The seasons are the rainy, lasting from November to April, and the dry; very little snow falls, and thunder and lightning are almost unknown. Upon the isothermal charts the lines passing across Oregon are: Spring, 52°-55°; summer, 57°-70°; autumn, 50°-55° ; winter, 30°-45° ; annual mean, 50°-55°. The average temperature at Port Orford is 53.5° ; at Astoria, 52°, and at Portland, 52.8°. Astoria has an annual rainlall of 60 inches and Port- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 345 land of 43.69 inches. The rainfall in some of the eastern districts does not exceed 15 or 20 inches. Agricultural Productions. — There were 7587 farms reported by the last census, of which 88 contained more than. 1000 acres each, while the average size was 315 acres ; 2,389,252 acres were included in farms, of which 1,116,290 acres were improved. The total value of farms, farm implements and live-stock Avas $30,475,381 ; value of farm productions, 67,122,790. In 1873 the production of Indian corn was 94,000 bushels, an average of 30 bushels to the acre. Only Nevada produced less in total amount; but the yield to the acre was greater in Oregon than in 21 other States. The wheat crop was 3,127,000 bushels; 16 States produced less, and the average yield to the acre (19 bushels) was only surpassed by Ne- vada (20 bushels). The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato and hay crops was $5,571,866. At the beginning of 1874 the State contained 86,400 horses, 3700 mules, 123,700 oxen and other cattle, 73,500 milch cows, 171,200 hogs and 561,500 sheep, an aver- age of more than 6 sheep to every inhabitant. Manufactures. — Oregon possesses a large water-power, but manu- facturing is yet in its infancy. In 1870 there were 969 establishments, which employed 2884 hands; the value of the annual product was $6,877,- 387, of which the principal items were : Flouring-mill products, $1,530,229 ; lumber, $922,576 ; woollen goods, $492,857. Minerals and Mining.— Gold was discovered in 1852, and silver is also found. The bullion product of the State up to 1875 has been esti- mated at more than 25 millions of dollars. Coal has been mined in con- siderable quantities. Granite, sandstone, slate, limestone, soapstone, etc., are abundant. The product of the 168 mining establishments reported in 1870 was $417,797. Commerce and Navigation. — A harbor 5 miles wide, and with a depth of 20 and 25 feet in its two channels, is afforded by the Columbia River. Coos Bay, 10 miles long and 2 miles wide, has a depth of from 3 to 4 fathoms. Oregon contains 3 customs districts, at which, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $490,480, and the value of exports $2,659,510. In the foreign trade the entrances were 50 and the clearances 96 (of which 43 were American vessels) ; in the coastwise trade there were 309 entrances and 218 clearances. Sixty steam- ers and 48 other vessels belong to the customs districts, and 12 were built during the year. Fisheries. — The Columbia River salmon fisheries are very profitable; 3500 barrels of salted salmon and 150,000 cases, valued at $6 per case, were put up during the season of 1873. Cod, sturgeon, halibut, lobsters, etc., are caught in large quantities. Kailroads. — At the last report 257J miles of railroad had been opened for travel. The principal line extends from Portland south 346 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES througli the Willamette Valley for 200 miles, and is to be extended so as to form a connection with the Central Pacific Railroad. Public Institutions and Education.— A Penitentiary was established in 1854, and contained in 1874 about 100 prisoners. The Hos- pital for the Insane, opened at East Portland in 1862, has 200 inmates. Institutions for the Blind and the Deaf and Dumb are in successful opera- tion. The school statistics for 1874 were as follows: Public schools, 530; teachers, 860; school-houses, 555; value, $332,764; receipts for school purposes, $204,760; number of children of school age (4 to 20 years), 40,898. The institutions for higher education are: Christian College, at Monmouth, which has classic, scientific and prepai-atory departments; Cor- vallis College, connected with which is the State Agricultural School, hav- ing a property valued at $239,000; McMinnville College; Pacific Uni- versity, having classical, scientific and normal departments ; , Willamette University, which embraces a school of medicine and a school of science; and the University of Oregon, at Eugene City. The State contained, in 1870, 2361 libraries, 220 religious organizations, having 135 edifices, and 35 newspapers and periodicals, of which 4 were published daily. Six dailies, 36 weeklies and 1 semi-monthly were published in 1875. Cities and Towns. — Salem (population, 1139), the State capital, is situated on the Willamette River, 50 miles south of Portland. Two daily and 2 weekly newspapers are published here. Portland, on the Wil- lamette River, 12 miles above its entrance into the Columbia, is the chief city of Oregon. It contains the State Penitentiary. The other principal towns are Astoria (named after John Jacob Astor), Oi*egon City, Forest Grove, Corvallis, Eugene City, Harrisburg, Baker City, Roseburg and Jacksonville. Population. — In 1850 the number of inhabitants was 13,294; in 1860, 52,465; and in 1870, 90,923, which is less than one person to a square mile; 11,600 were born in foreign lands and 79,323 in the United States, of whom 37,135 were natives of Oregon, 1710 of California, 4722 of Illi- nois, 3451 of Indiana, 3695 of Iowa, 2387 of Kentucky, 7061 of Missouri, 3092 of New York, 4031 of Ohio, 1930 of Pennsylvania, 996 of the Ter- ritories, etc. ; 6225 natives of Oregon were residing elsewhere. Only Ne- vada had a smaller population. There are about 8000 tribal Indians, who occupy 7 reservations. Government and Laws.— The legislature consists of 30 senators, elected for 4 years, and 60 representatives, elected for 2 years. Biennial sessions are held, during which the members are paid $3 per day. Exec- utive oflScers are chosen for a term of 4 years. A salary of $1500 per annum is paid to the governor. The supreme court, which has only appel- late jurisdiction, consists of 5 judges. Circuit courts are held at least twice a year in every county. Probate matters and inferior civil and criminal CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 347 cases are under the jurisdictiou of a county court, the presiding judge of which is elected by the j^eople of the county. Ten per cent, is the legal rate of interest. History.— On the 7th day of May, 1792, Capt. Robert Gray, of Bos- ton, entered the Columbia River. In 1805 Lewis and Clarke visited this region. In 1810 John Jacob Astor organized the Pacific Fur Company. A party sent out by this company reached the Columbia on thd-" 24th of March, 1811, and founded Astoria. The Hndson's Bay Company claimed jurisdictiou over the whole country. In 1846 the 49th parallel of latitude was made the boundary between British America and the United States. Immigrants began to enter Oregon by the overland route as early as 1833. From 3 to 5 months were consumed in the journey from the Missouri River. The passage around Cape Horn required six months. Congress passed a "donation law" in 1850, giving 320 acres of land to each actual settler aud 320 acres more to the wife. Oregon, which had been organized as a Territory by an act passed Aug. 14, 1848, was admitted into the Union ou the 4th day of February, 1859. Indian hostilities have been a source of very great trouble to the settlers. An account of the recent Modoc war is given elsewhere [see Historical Sketch, page 149]. PENNSYLVANIA. Situation and Extent. — Pennsylvania is bounded on the N. by Lake Erie aud New York, E. by New Jersey, S. by Delaware, Maryland and West Virginia, and W. by West Virginia and Ohio. It is situated between latitudes 39° 43' aud ^42° 15' N. and longitudes 2° 18' E. aud 3° 36' W. from Washington, or 74° 42' and 80° 36' W. from Greenwich. The State is 310 miles long, 175 miles in extreme breadth and contains an area of 46,000 square miles, or 29,440,000 acres. Its southern boundary is Mason and Dixon's line [see Maryland, page 171]. Physical Features. — Surface. — There are three natural divisions which are quite distinctly marked. (1.) The eastern slope extends from the Delaware River westward, from 75 to 80 miles to the Blue Mountains, exhibiting a surface slightly rolling aud diversified. (2.) The mountain region of Central Pennsylvania includes a belt of country more than a hundred miles in width. Several chains of hills belonging to the Great Appalachian range extend in a parallel direction from north-east to south- west across the State. These are known by various local names, as Kitta- tinny, Broad Mountain, Tiiscarora, Sideling Hill, Bald Eagle Ridge, etc. The Alleghanies constitute the water-shed between the Atlantic Ocean and the valley of the Ohio. Still farther west are the Laurel and Chestnut Ridges, sometimes attaining an altitude of 3000 feet. (3.) The western, or Ohio River, slope sinks away gradually from the mountain summits toward the great interior valley. Rivers. — The Delaware River, 320 miles 348 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES long, constitutes the eastern boundary of Pennsylvania. Ocean steamers of the largest size ascend as far as Philadelphia, and small steamboats can reach Trenton. Its principal tributaries are the Lehigh, 90 miles long and an important channel for the coal and lumber trade, which enters the Del- aware at Easton; and the Schuylkill, taking its rise among the mountains of the coal region, which supplies Philadelphia with water and unites with the Delaware below that city after a course of 130 miles. The Susque- hanna River rises in Otsego Lake, New York, flows across Pennsylvania and, passing into Maryland, discharges its waters into Chesapeake Bay. It is a broad stream, haviug a width of a mile and a quarter at Harris- burg, but is too shallow for navigation. The chief aflluents of the Sus- quehanna are the West Branch, the Tioga and the "blue Juniata," famous among tourists for its beauty. Draining Western Pennsylvania are the two rivers which united form the Ohio — viz., the Alleghany and the Monougahela. The former rises in Potter county, sweeps into the State of New York, affording water communication as far as Olean, 240 miles above its mouth, and then, flowing southward, unites at Pittsburg with the Monongahela, which has its sources in the highlands of West Virginia. Lake Erie extends for 40 miles along the north-western boundary, thus affording to Pennsylvania a connection with the great system of lake navi- gation. Forests. — Large tracts of mountain land are covered with a dense growth of timber. Around the headwaters of the West Branch of the Susquehanna are primeval forests from which immense quantities of lum- ber are cut evei-y year. Among the forest trees are the pine, cedar, spruce, hemlock, larch, ash, elm, linden, beech, mulberry, hornbeam, chestnut, aspen, persimmon, locust, sassafras, birch, gum, catalpa, sycamore, poplar, pawpaw, magnolia, maple, oak, hickory, walnut, etc. The bear, panther, wildcat, wolf, fox, raccoon, otter, opossum, deer and other wild animals are met with in the parts remote from civilization. Soil and Climate. — The eastern counties have a fertile loam, which is brought to a high state of cultivation and produces large crops. In the counties along the Maryland line there is a strong and quick soil, resting upon a limestone formation, and well adapted for wheat and other grains. The mountain region is generally unproductive, the soil being cold and thin, but there are warm and deep alluvial lands in the valleys. West of the Alleghanies the soil has the fertility characteristic of the great valley of the Ohio. The isothermal lines crossing the State are : Spring, 45°-50° ; summer, 67°-72°; autumn, 47°-55°; winter, 25°-30°; annual mean, 45°-55°. According to the report of the United States Signal Service Bureau, the average tempei-ature for the three years ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 51.92° at Philadelphia and 51.33° at Pittsburg. The mean for the three summer months was 71°, and the maximum 97°, at the former city. During the month of August, 1875, the maximum temperature was 85°, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 349 on the 6tb, and the minimnm 58°, on the 2d. The annual rauifiill for two years was 40.17 inches at Pittsburg and 51.81 inches at Philadelphia. Agricultural Productions. — Pennsylvania ranked first in the production of rye in 1873, being credited with 3,283,000 bushels, which was one-fifth of the whole production of the United States. It was first also in oats (31,229,000 bushels), and ranked next to New York in buck- wheat, potatoes and hay. The value of the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops was $115,965,700 (next to New York and Illinois). In 1874 the State contained 557,000 horses, 24,900 mules, 722,600 oxen and other cattle, 812,600 milch cows (next to New York), 1,034,400 hogs and 1,674,000 sheep. The last Federal census reported 17,994,200 acres in farms, of which 11,115,965 acres were im- proved; value of farms, implements' and live-stock, $1,194,786,853; value of productions, $183,946,027; average size of farms, 103 acres. About 252 per cent, of the population were employed in agriculture. Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments at the time of the last census was 37,200; hands employed, 319,487; value of materials, $421,197,673; value of products, $711,894,344. Pennsyl- vania ranked first among the States in the number of establishments, but was surpassed by New York in the number of hands employed and in the value of the products. Among the leading industries in value w'ere iron, $122,605,296 (moi'e than twice as much as in New York); textiles, $63,- 436,186 (next to Massachusetts) ; building materials, $55,630,364 (first) ; building, not marine, $38,348,344 (first); lumber, $35,262,590 (first); flouring-mill products, $31,124,017; molasses and sugar, refined, $26,731,- 016; men's clothing, $21,850,319; leather, tanned, $19,828,323; coal oil, rectified, $15,251,223; printing and publishing, $13,651,396 (next to New York) ; drugs and chemicals, $8,451,991 (first) ; paper, $6,511,446 (third) ; brass and brassware, $2,144,055 (next to Connecticut). Mineral Resources and Mining. — Nearly one-half the value of all the mining products of the United States was credited to Pennsyl- vania by the Federal census. The number of mining establishments was 3086; hands employed, 81,215; capital, $84,660,276; wages, $38,815,276; value of products, $76,208,390. In her resources of coal and petro- leum this State has no rival. Full and specific information concerning these sources of wealth and prosperity will be found in tlie article upon Physical Geography, pp. 180-189 [see also American Manufac- tures]. Coal-mining is attended with no inconsiderable peril. During a single year (1872) 223 persons were killed and 609 w'ere maimed in the anthracite region; 109 wives were made widows and 381 children were made orphans. One life was lost for every 100,660 tons of coal mined. At Avondale, on the 6th day of December, 1869, 108 men were suffocated by the smoke from a burning coal-breaker at the mouth of the only 350 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES entrance to the mine. Not a single one was brought out alive. The in- crease of the coal-caiTying trade has been enormous. In the year 1820 the whole amount sent out from the Lehigh region was 365 tons'. In 1874, according to the Report of the Auditor- General, there were transported by railroad 29,201,029 tons of anthracite, 10,444,657 tons of bituminous and 4,036,080 tons of serai-autliracite and semi-bituminous, making a total of 43,681,786 tons ; 3,703,143 tons of anthracite and 3,047,089 tons of bitu- minous coal were transported upon the canals, making the total amount for the year 50,532,018 tons. A part of the above amount, however, was transferred from one line to anotlier, and so reckoned two or three times over. The actual production of anthracite coal for the year ending Dec. 31, 1874, was 21,667,386 tons, and of bituminous,ll,053,615 tons; total,32,721,- 001 tons. The long " strike " in 1875 caused a five months' suspension of the anthracite trade. Up to September 11, the total production of all kinds for the coal year was 15,455,200 tons. Copper, zinc, plumbago and lead are also mined in considerable quantities. Marble is quarried in Chester and Mont- gomery counties; and limestone, sandstone, slate and other building-stones are abundant. Salt is manufactured extensively in Western Pennsylvania. Commerce and Navigation. — Pennsylvania is favorably sit- uated for commerce, being connected with the three great systems of water communication of the Atlantic Ocean, the Mississippi and the lakes, through the ports of Philadelphia, Pittsburg and Erie. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $26,676,712, and of exports, $33,- 169,060. In the foreign trade 511 American and 682 foreign vessels entered at Philadelphia, and 481 American and 741 foreign vessels cleared. At Eiie the entries were 29 American and 41 foreign vessels, and the clear- ances 11 American and 37 foreign, making the total number entering and clearing in the foreign trade at the ports of the State 2533 vessels. Be- longing to the customs districts there were 3586 vessels, of which 449 were steamers. Ship-building. — The construction of iron steamships has been brought to great perfection at the shipyards of John Roach, upon the Del- aware. Twenty-four vessels, representing an aggregate of 47,000 tons, have been built since 1871, involving an annual expenditure of three mil- lions of dollars; and Philadelphia has an American line of iron steamships of the largest class running to Liverpool. In all the shipyards of Penn- sylvania there were built during the year ending June 30, 1874, 281 vessels, of which 57 were steamers. Railroads and Canals.— From the comprehensive report of the auditor-general of Pennsylvania for the year 1874 we have gleaned the following facts. The whole number of railroad corporations whose lines are wholly or partly within the limits of the State is 146; capital stock authorized by law, $603,311,814; amount paid in, $482,931,393.50; total amount of funded and floating debt, $471,633,998.02; cost of railroads CESTEyyiAL GAZETTEER A XL GUILE. 351 and equipment?, $744,701,826.99; length of main line.? in Pennsylvania, 4392.91 miles; double track, 1806.28 miles; number of locomotive.-^, 4100; pa.ssenger-cars, 1859 ; freight-cars, 53,193 ; coal-, stone- and tank-cars, 79,839; depots or stations, 3018; miles run by passenger-trains, 21,907,- 390; by freight-trains, 68,036,173; total number of miles run, 89,943,563: passengers carried, 42,297,158 ; gross receipts, §137,446,345.16 (a diminu- tion of 010,561,687.67 from the previous year); expenses, $82,940,105.49. The gross amount of freight carried was 78,992,785 tons, among the lead- ing items of which were 43,681,786 tons of coal, 1,653,226 oX pig iron, 354,633 of railroad iron, 1,104,588 of other iron or castings, 4,160,295 of iron and other ores, 2,381,111 of lime, limestone, sandstone and slate, 6,027,360 of agricultural products, 4,434,775 of merchandise and manu- factured articles, 1,827,967 of live-stock and 5,946,142 tons of lumber. By railroad accidents 540 persons were killed and 1142 injured. The sta- tistics of street railways were: Length of roads, 311.51 miles ; co-st of roads and equipments, $9,695,843.57; passengers carried, 91,036,500; receipts, $5,828,690.27. Thirteen persons were killed and 26 maimed by street-cars during the vear. There are nine canals in the State, having an aggregate length of 8691 miles, and constructed at a cost, including equipments, of $36,816,728.14. The amount of the funded and floating debt was $46,- 239,173.12 in 1874; receipts, $2,289,824.55; expenses, $1,179,890.75; amount of freight transported, 7,925,883 tons. Ten telegraph companies have lines in Penn.=ylvania, extending for 6586 miles. The expenses in the State were $237,228.72, and the receipts $253,838.67; 586,275 mes- sages were .sent and 515,252 were received. Public In.stitutions and Education.— There are two Peni- tentiaries, of which the Ea.stern, at Philadelphia, is conducted on "the separate system," and the Western, at Pittsburg, upon "the combined" system. About one thousand prisoners are confined in the two institution.?. The House of Refiige, at Philadelphia, will accommodate 820 inmates, and the Keform School at Pittsburg provides for 228 pupils. Almshouses to the number of fifty-eight have been established, with real estate and build- ings valued at $5,427,800, in which 13,207 paupers can be cared for. There are four State Hospitals for the Insane, located at Harrisburg, Dix- mont, Danville and Warren. A department for the insane is connected with the Philadelphia AJmshouse, and the Pennsylvania Hospital for the Insane (Kirkbride's} and the Friends' Asylum are in the same city. Up to the year 1873, 9843 males and 9143 females had been received into th^e various asylums for lunatics. The Pennsylvania Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb and for the Blind are schools rather than asylums. Pupils are received from Xew Jersey and Delaware at the expense of those States. By the new Constitution the legislature is required to pro- vide for the maintenance and support of an efficient system oi public schooh, 352 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES and to appropriate at least one million dollars every year for that purpose. No public money shall be used for the support of any sectarian school. Women are eligible to any office in connection with the common-school system. The latest accessible educational statistics are : Number of schools, 16,305; pupils, 834,020; teachers, 19,089; total sum expended for school purposes under the direction of the school department, $8,812,969.25. Eight normal schools are in successful operation, with more than 100 in- structors and 3000 pupils. Six universities and 33 colleges Avere credited to Pennsylvania by the last Federal census ; but several of them do not possess full collegiate rank. The University of Pennsylvania has recently erected at West Philadelphia "one of the finest structures for educational purposes to be found in America." Girard College has under its care between 500 and 600 orphans. The Peunsylvania State College (Agricul- tural), in Centre county, possesses a property valued at $897,589. Tuition is free to all ; twenty-five young ladies were in attendance last year. Six- teen institutions exclusively for women report an aggregate of 1267 pupils. For professional instruction there are 14 schools of theology, 2 of law, 8 of medicine (including dentistry and pharmacy) and 7 of science. The Federal census reported 14,849 libraries, 5984 religious organizations, hav- ing 5668 edifices, and 540 newspapers and periodicals, of which 55 were published daily. In 1875 the periodicals had increased to 707 (New York alone had more), of which 78 were published daily and 511 weekly. Cities and Towns. — Philadelphia, the metropolis of Pennsylvania and the second city of the United States, in which more new buildings were erected during the past year than in both New York and Brooklyn com- bined, is described elsewhere [see Centennial City]. Harrisburg, which was made the State capital in 1812, is situated upou the east bank of the Susquehanna River, 95 miles west of Philadelphia. The State-House was completed in 1822. Five diverging railroads afford easy communication with all parts of the commonwealth. The city contains large fouuderies, machine-shops and rolling-mills. Water is supplied from the Susquehanna River by works constructed at a cost of two millions of dollars. There are 32 churches and 13 newspapers, of which 4 are published daily. The State library contains 30,000 volumes. John Harris, in honor of whom the place was named Harrisburg, settled in this neighborhood as early as 1726. The number of inhabitants in 1850 was 7834; in 1860, 13,405; in 1870, 23,104; in 1875, 26,000. Pittsburg, the second city of Pennsylvania in importance, is situated at the junction of the Alleghany and Monouga- hela Rivers, 354 miles west of Philadelphia. The principal public build- ings are the Court-House, Custom-House, Western Penitentiary, House of Refuge, United States Arsenal and Roman Catholic Cathedral. For all kinds of heavy manufactures Pittsburg possesses the largest facilities. Iron ore in abundance is near at hand; coal is brought from the neighbor- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 353 iDg hills directly to the factory doors ; the rivers and canals and seven railroads afford cheap and quick transportation. Even to catalogue the leading industries would require too much space. There are rolling-mills, furnaces, iron- and brass-founderies, machine- and boiler-shops, steel-works, flouring-raills, cotton-factories, chemical-works, tanneries, plauiug-mills, car- riage-factories, glass-works, ropewalks, paper-mills, etc. Ship-building is a leading business; during the year 1874 158 vessels, 23 of them steamers, were built. Coal, iron, lumber and merchandise are shipped down the Ohio in immense quantities. Ten daily newspapers and 35 periodicals of all kinds are issued. Upon the opposite side of the river and connected with it by 4 bridges is Alleghany City, really a part of Pittsburg. The joint population of the two cities in 1870 was 149,256 (Pittsburg 86,076 and Alleghany 53,180); in 1875, 2i)8,485 (Pittsburg 138,485 and Alleghany 70,000). Scranton has taken the third place among the cities of the State since 1870. In 1853 the number of inhabitants was 3000; in 1860, 9223; in 1870, 35,092 (an increase of 280.48 per cent, during the decade) ; and in 1875 it was estimated at 45,000. This rapid growth is explained by the position of Scranton in the centre of the most northern of the anthracite coal-basins and in the neighborhood, of immense deposits of iron ore. The Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad, the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company and the Pennsylvania Coal Company all ship coal, iron ore, pig- and railroad-iron largely from this point. There are 9 newspapers, 2 of which are issued daily. Reading, on the Schuylkill River, 58 miles above Philadelphia, is an important railroad and manufacturing centre. It has 11 periodicals, of which 3 are daily newspapers. The population was 33,930 in 1870, and is estimated at 40,000 in 1875. Lancaster, the county seat of. the county of the same name, is the centre of an extensive coal and lumber trade. It has a fine Court-House and 14 newspapers, of which 4 are issued, daily. The population was 20,233 in 1870, and 22,360 in 1875. Erie possesses one of the finest harbors upon the lakes. Belong- ing to the port ai'e 79 vessels, with an aggregate tonnage of 25,507. Com- modore Perry's flagship, the Lawrence, sunk in Erie harbor in 1813, was raised on the 13th of September, 1875. After being submerged for 62 years the bottom was found to be in a good state of ^^reservation, and it was proposed to exhibit it at the Centennial. Seven newspapers are pub- lished in the town, and the estimated population is about 23,000 (19,646 in 1870). Wilkes-Barre [see page 182, note], on the North Branch of the Susquehanna, in the lovely valley of Wyoming, has been incorporated as a city since the last census, with extended limits, which contain an esti- mated population of 23,000. It has 4 newspapers, 1 of which is issued daily, and 3 street railways, and contains one of the finest hotels in the State; also an elegantly furnished "Music Hall," which seats 1200 people. The coal business of the " Wyoming Region " centres at this flourishing city. 23 354 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Williamsport, on the West Braucli of the Susquehanna, is one of the most important lumber depots in the United States. Its population increased from 4253 in 1860 to 16,030 in 1870, and is now estimated at 19,000. Among the other cities and towns of Pennsylvania, with their population by the Federal census, are Allentown (13,884), Pottsville (12,384), York (11,003), Easton (10,987), Norristown (10,753), Altoona (10,610), Chester (9485), Danville (8436), Lebanon (6727), Chambersburg (6308), Bethle- hem (4512), Franklin (3908) and Gettysburg (3074). The last-named place contains a National Cemetery, dedicated on the 19th of November, 1863, wherein 3580 soldiers are buried. By the present law of Pennsyl- vania no place having less than 10,000 inhabitants can obtain a city charter. Poi)lllation. — Pennsylvania is surpassed by New York alone in the number of its inhabitants. During the pej-iod between 1860 and 1870 the absolute increase was 615,737, which was 113,722 more than the increase of New York, Fourteen of the sovereign States contained fewer j^eople than were added to Pennsylvania during the decade. The population at each census has been as follows: 1790, 434,373; 1800, 602,365; 1810, 810,091 ; 1820, 1,047,507; 1830,1,348,233; 1840,1,724,033; 1850,2,311,- 786; 1860, 2,906,215; 1870, 3,521,951. Of the last number 2,726,712 were natives of Pennsylvania; 249,930 had come in from other parts of the United States and 545,309 from foreign countries, thus adding to the commonwealth 795,239 persons, while 674,544 native Pennsylvanians were residing in other parts of the Union. These figures indicate that the total immigration had been greater than the emigration by 120,695; but the State had lost 424,614 in native population. There were 76.56 persons to a square mile. Goveriimeilt and Laws.— The legislature consists of 50 sena- tors, chosen for four years, and 200 representatives, chosen for two years. Biennial sessions are held, beginning on the first Tuesday of January. The governor holds ofifice for four years, and is not eligible for re-election at the term next succeeding that for which he was first chosen. The supreme court consists of 7 judges, elected by the people for a term of 21 years and not eligible to re-election. In Philadelphia there are four sep- arate and distinct courts of co-ordinate jurisdiction, composed of three judges each. Alleghany county has two such courts. Each county con- taining 40,000 inhabitants constitutes a separate judicial district, A sep- arate orphans' court is established in every city and county having a population of 150,000. A registration of legal voters is made by the assessors, and every ballot is numbered in the order in which it is received. The State election is held on the Tuesday after the first Monday of Novem- ber, instead of on the second Tuesday of October, as formerly — a provision which breaks the force of the old election proverb, "As Pennsylvania goes, so goes the Union." Any candidate for office guilty of fraud or bribery shall CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 355 be for evei' disqualified from holding any office of trust or profit in the com- monwealth. Any association or corporation organized for the purpose may construct and operate a railroad or canal between any two points in the State. The property of railroad companies shall be for ever subject to taxa- tion, and railroad companies shall not grant free passes to any person not an employe of the company. The above provisions are in accordance with the new State Constitution, which made many sweeping changes in the old order of administration. Pennsylvania is entitled to 27 representatives in Congress. The public debt on the 30th of November, 1874, was $24,568,836. History. — AVilliam Penn received from the English Crown a grant of " all that tract of land bounded on the east by the river Delaware, ex- tending westward five degrees, and north and south between the 40th and 42d parallels, except an area around New Castle (Delaware) circumscribed by a radius of twelve miles." In October, 1682, Penn, accompanied by 2000 settlers, arrived at New Castle, and in 1683 Philadelphia was chosen as the site for the new colony. It was declared that "none acknow- ledging one God and living uprightly shall be molested for his opinion or practice, or compelled to maintain or frequent any ministry whatsoever." Very amicable relations were established wdth the Indians, and Penn's people were exempt from the horrors of savage warfare which were inflicted upon almost every other colony. The part which Pennsyl- vania took in the American Revolution has been described elsewhere [see Historical Sketch]. A convention to draft an amended Constitution for the State was in session at Harrisburg and Philadelphia from Nov. 12, 1872, to Nov. 3, 1873. The expenses of the convention were $410,- 723.80. On the 16th of December, 1873, the amended Constitution was appi'oved by the people by a vote of 253,744 against 108,594. Pennsyl- vania is called "the Keystone State," not, as is supposed by many, because it occupied the central position among the thirteen original colonies, but because the casting vote of her delegate secured the unanimous adoption of the Declaration of Independence. RHODE ISLAND. Situation and Extent.— The State of Rhode Island (the smallest in the Union) is bounded on the N. and E. by Massachusetts, S. by the Atlantic Ocean and W. by Connecticut. It is situated between latitudes 41° 8' and 42° 3' N. and longitudes 5° 7' and 5° 52' E. from Washington, or 71° 8' and 71° 53' W. from Greenwich. The greatest length is 48 miles, the breadth 39 miles and the area 1306 square miles, or 835,840 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Near the sea-coast the ground is level; in the interior it is slightly rolling and hilly. Mount Hope, in the east, 300 feet in height, Hopkins Hill, near the centre, and Woonsocket Hills, in the north, are the most elevated lands in the »State. Elvers. — 356 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES The rivers are mostly too small for navigation, but have a sufficient descent to furuish abundant water-power. Pawtucket Eiver is a continuation of the Bluckstoue of Massachusetts. It takes the name of the Seekonk below the falls at Pawtucket, which are 40 feet high. The Providence River discharges its waters into the northern arm of Narraganset Bay. Large vessels ascend it as far as the city of Providence. The Pawcatuck drains the south-western part of the State, and marks the boundary between Rhode Island and Connecticut. Bays and Islands. — Narraganset Bay is 30 miles long and from 3 to 12 miles wide. Its north-eastern, northern and western extensions are called respectively Mount Hope, Providence and Greenwich Bays. Rhode Island, 15 miles in length and 4 of a mile in width, divides Narraganset Bay into two unequal parts. For its beauty and salubrity this island has been called " the Eden of America." Conau- icut and Prudence are the other principal islands of the bay. Twelve miles from the coast is Block Island, 7 miles long and 4 miles wide and containing a large salt water pond. Forests. — There are no large forests in the State. The trees are of the same varieties as in Massachusetts and Connecticut, with the chestnut, walnut and oak predominating. Soil and Climate. — The most common soil is a loam, having a large admixture of sand and gravel and only moderately fertile. It is better adapted for grazing than tillage, but by careful cultivation is made to produce large crops. Both the winter and summer climate are moder- ated by proximity to the sea. Careful observations upon meteorology were made by Professor Caswell, of Brown University, at Providence, during a period of 29 years. The mean of February (the coldest month) for the whole period was 26.73°, and the mean of July (the warmest month), 70.69°. The highest annual mean was 49.86°, and the lo^\est, 44.62°; ,uiean for the 29 years, 48.19°. Fifteen degrees below zero was the lowest temperature recorded, and 94 degrees above the highest, giving a range of 109 degrees. The largest annual rainfall was 53.27 inches, and the smallest, 30.96 inches; mean for the whole period, 40.38 inches. The isothermal lines crossing Rhode Island are: Spring, 47°; summer, 68°; autumn, o0°-52° ; winter, 25°-30° ; me,an, 47°-50°. Ag-ricultiiral Productions. — According to the last Federal census, the number of acres of land in farms was 502,308, of which 289,- 030 were improved; number of farms, 5344; average size, 94 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $25,496,346 ; of farm jDroduc- tions, $4,761,163. In 1873, 103,903 acres were devoted to Indian corn, rye, oats, barley, potatoes and hay (no wheat, tobacco or buckwheat was reported), and the total value of these crops was $2,970,765. At the be- ginning of 1874 the State contained 14,700 horses, 16,000 oxen and other cattle, 20,400 milch cows, 17,100 hogs and 25,600 sheep. Manufactures.— The first cotton-mill in the United States was CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 357 erected in Ehode Island [see American Manufactures]. The census of 1870 returned 1850 manufacturing establishments, which employed 49,417 hands and produced articles to the value of $111,418,354. The leading industries in value were: Cotton goods, $22,139,203 (next to Mas- sachusetts) ; printing cotton and woollen goods, $17,842,480; bleaching and dyeing, $16,138,723; woollen goods, $12,558,117; machinery, cotton and woollen, $4,316,376; jewelry, $3,043,846; worsted goods, $2,835,950; screws, $1,882,318; India-rubber and elastic goods, $1,804,868. In 1874 the State contained 115 cotton-mills, having 24,706 looms and 1,336,842 spindles, which consumed 125,317 bales of cotton annually. Minerals and Mining*. — Anthracite coal exists in veins of con- siderable thickness, but the mining has not proved profitable. Serpentine is abundant. Marble, freestone and limestone are quarried. The product of mines and quarries in 1870 was $59,000. Commerce and Navigation. — There are three customs districts — viz.. Providence, Newport and Bristol — at which, during the year ending June 30, 1874, 284 vessels were enrolled, registered and licensed. In the foreign trade 41 American and 120 foreign vessels entered and 27 Ameri- can and 105 foreign vessels cleared. The value of imports was $379,621, and the value of exports, domestic and foreign, $135,049. One vessel was built. Cod- and mackerel-fishing employed 98 vessels. Bluefish, scup, tautogs, etc., are caught in large quantities. Railroads. — From Providence railroads radiate toward Bristol, New London, Hartford, Springfield, Worcester and Boston. The number of miles of railroad in 1873 was 159; total capital account, $5,168,783; cost per mile, $46,989; total receipts, 81,115,672; receipts per mile, $7017; receipts to an inhabitant, $4.75; net earnings, $424,371. Public Institutions and Education. — The State Prison is located at Providence. A new building is being erected. The deaf and dumb, blind, and idiotic are supported at the expense of the State in the insti- tutions of Massachusetts and Connecticut. The Butler Hospital for the Insane is partially endowed by the State. A Board of State Charities and Corrections was established in 1869, and a farm was purchased at Cranston, upon which a Workhouse and House of Correction, Almshouse and Asy- lum for the Insane are in successful operation. The expense of these insti- tutions for the year 1875 is estimated at 8112,000. A Reform School for boys was opened at Providence in 1850. During the year 1874 the num- ber of children in the State between the ages of 5 and 1 5 years was 43,800 ; number attending school, 39,401 ; schools, 732 ; teachers, 805 ; expenditures for school purposes, $690,852. Brown University is the only college. An agricultural and scientific department has been added to it. The boarding- school of Friends at Providence has a property valued at $850,000. The State contained in 1870, 759 libraries, 295 religious organizations, with 283 358 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES church edifices, aud 19 newspapers and periodicals. In 1875 there were 27 newspapers, 6 of which were published daily. Cities and Towns. — Rhode Island contains 5 counties, in which are 2 cities aud 34 towns. Providence, the second city of New England in wealth aud population, is situated upon the Providence River, at the head of Narraganset Bay. The river divides the city into two nearly equal parts, which are connected by several bridges. Vessels of 900 tons burden can come up to the wharves, aud an extensive coasting trade is carried on. Six railroads centre at Providence. Among the principal buildings are the State-House, Custom-House, Butler Hospital for the Insane, Dexter Asylum for the Poor, State-Prison, Reform School, Arcade, Athenseum and Brown University. The manufactures are very extensive aud vai'ious. Jewelry, cotton and woollen goods, screws, hardware, machinery, locomo- tives and steam-engines, stoves, etc., are among the articles most largely produced. Ten periodicals are published, of which five are issued daily. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 68,004. North Providence, with a population of 20,495, was annexed iu 1874, making the aggregate popu- lation, by the figures of the Federal census, 88,499. It is estimated that the consolidated city coutained iu 1875 not less than 100,000 people. New- port, upon the south-west shore of the island of Rhode Island, has "one of the finest harbors of the world " — deep, easily accessible aud sheltered from the winds. In former times there was an extensive trade with the West Indies, but " Oldport wharves " are now going to decay. Many New Yorkers, Philadelphians aud Bostonians make Newport their summer- home, aud some of its modest "cottages" cost from a hundred thousand to half a million of dollars. Bellevue Avenue afibrds a fine drive for the distance of two miles. Amoug the objects of interest is the Old Stone Mill, "the ouly thing on the Atlautic Shore," says Higginson, "which has had time to forget its birthday." The Redwood Library contains 20,000 volumes, aud the People's Library 15,000. One daily and two weekly newspapers are published. Population, 12,521. Woonsocket (population 11,527) includes a cluster of villages upon the Blackstone River, near the Massacliusetts line. It contains large cotton- aud woollen-mills and ma- chine-shops. There are two weekly newspapers, one of which is published in the French language, aud one daily. Warwick (10,453) is a very busy manufacturing town. The other leading towns of the State are Lincoln (7889), Pawtucket (6619), Bristol (5302), Crauston (4822), Westerly (4709), South Kingstown (4493) and Coventry (4349). Popvilation.— In 1730 the number of inhabitants was 18,000; in 1790,68,825; in 1800,69,122; iu 1810,76,931; in 1820,83,015; in 1830, 97,199; in 1840, 108,830; in 1850, 147,545; iu 1860, 174,620; in 1870, 217,353. Of the latter number, 55,396 were born in foreign countries, 125,269 in Rhode Island and 36,688 in the other States and Territories, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUIDE. 359 while 45,371 natives of Rhode Island were residing iu other parts of the Union. The number of inhabitants to a square mile (166.43) is greater than iu any other State except Massachusetts. About a hundred of the once powerful tribe of Narragauset Indians are still remaining. Goveriinieut autl Laws. — The legislature consists of a senate of 34 members (one from each town) and a house of representatives of 72 members (one for every 2794 inhabitants). The supreme court consists of a chief-justice (salary, $3500) and 3 associate justices. The governor and other executive officers are elected annually. Prisoners, when released from confinement, are paid a portion of the money earned by their labor during confinement. A stringent prohibitory liquor law and a "constab- ulatory act" for ensuring its enforcement were passed in 1874. On the 1st of December, 1874, the bonded debt was $2,563,500. The amount of deposits in savings' banks was $48,771,502. History, — It is supposed that the Northmen visited this region as early as the tenth century. Roger Williams has linked his name indissol- ubly with the history of Rhode Island. Driven from Massachusetts on account of his religious opinions, in 1636, he passed down the Pawtucket River and erected a dwelling, calling the place of his new home Provi- dence, as a memorial of "God's merciful jDrovidence to him in his distress." "Liberty of conscience" was the fundamental law of his colony. In 1663 a charter was obtained from King Charles II. for " the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations." A long-protracted and bloody Indian war was terminated by the death of King Philip, who was killed near Mount Hope in August, 1676. A British army occupied portions of the State in 1778-9. Rhode Island ratified the Federal Constitution after all the other States May 29, 1790. The charter of King Charles granted in 1663 remained the basis of government until 1841. By it suffrage was limited to the holders of a certain amount of real estate and to their eldest sons, Not more than one-third of the male population above the age of twenty-one possessed the franchise. A new Constitution was framed in 1841, and the "suffrage party," under the leadership of Thomas Dorr, secured its adoption. The "charter 23arty" claimed that many of the votes cast were fraudulent, and that the whole proceeding was seditious. Two State governments were organized. Civil war was threatened ; but the Dorr, or suffrage, party dispersed without resistance when attacked by the State militia [see Historical Sketch, page 130]. A Constitution extending the suffrage was adopted in May, 1843. SOUTH CAROLINA. Situation and Extent. — The State of South C/irolina is bounded on the N. and N. E. by North Carolina, S. E. by the Atlantic Ocean and S. W. by Georgia. It is situated between latitudes 32° and 35° 10' N.. 360 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES and longitudes 1° 35' and 6° 30' W. from Washiugtou, or 78° So' and 83° 30' W. from Greenwich. The shape is that of an irregular triangle 240 miles long from east to west, 210 miles wide from north to south and con- taining an area of 34,000 square miles, or 21,760,000 acres. Physical Features.— AS'«T/«ce.— Along the coast the land is low and marshy. Farther inland are the sandy plains and rolling sand hills of the "middle country," extending for a hundred miles. Beyond this region is a rolling and picturesque country, rising by a gradual slope toward the Blue Ridge Mountains. Table Mountain has an elevation of 4000 feet. King's Mountain, upon the North Carolina border, is a con- spicuous landmark. Bivers and Bays. — The principal rivers of the State take their rise in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina and flow in a south-easterly direction toward the ocean. Beginning on the north, the first important stream is the Great Pedee, called the Yadkin in North Carolina, which empties into Winyaw Bay. Steamboats ascend it for 150 miles. The San tee River, formed by the junction of the Wateree and the Congaree near the centre of the State, discharges its water through two mouths, called the North and South Santee. Both the main branches are navigable almost to the boundaries of North Carolina for small boats. Ashley and Cooper Rivers find their outlet through Charleston Bay. The Edisto is a considerable stream, divided by a large island near its mouth into two parts, called the North and South Edisto. Savannah River forms the boundary between South Carolina and Georgia. It is 450 miles long and navigable for large steamers to Augusta, 230 miles. Numerous bays indent the coast, which is 200 miles long in a direct line. Winyaw Bay, 14 miles long and 2 miles wide, affords a good harbor. St. Helena's Sound, from 3 to 5 miles broad, extends inland for 10 miles. Beaufort harbor will admit vessels drawing 24 feet of water. Charleston harbor is spa- cious, but the entrance is obstructed by bars. Stretching along the coast and cut off from the main land by narrow channels are many islands. Forests. — The islands, in their primitive state, were covered with a growth of trees, underbrush and rank weeds so thick as to be almost impenetrable. Extending along the adjacent shores were dense forests of live-oak, pitch pine, palmetto, yucca, laurel, hickory, etc. Six millions of acres are in- cluded in the pine woods. Orange trees flourish in the South. The moun- tains of the north-west are covered with a hard-wood growth, comprising most of the trees which are common to North Carolina and Virginia. Soil and Clilliate. — The famous sea-island cotton, "which has no superior in the world," is grown to perfection upon the deep, rich soil of the islands. It is estimated that a million acres of the most productive lands can be mdde by draining the swamps, which have an inexhaustible fertility. Rice-fields occupy many of the tide-swamps. Upon the oak and hickory openings large crops of cotton, corn, potatoes and other vegetables CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 361 are produced. The pine lands are less fertile, but well repay cultivation. Nearly half the soil of the State is of an alluvial formation, having clay as its substratum. The lowlands and swainps are malarious, but most of the State is healthful. Sea-breezes relieve the coast from excessive heats, and the mountains of the north-west afford cool summer-breezes. The iso- thermal lines crossing the State are : Spring, G0°-65° ; summer, 75°-82° ; Autumn, 60°-65°; winter, 40°-50°; annual mean, 60°-67°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Charleston was 65.6°. Upon 4 days the mercury fell below the freezing-point, and upon 21 days rose above 90 degrees. The minimum was 23° and the maximum 96°. The rainfall was 67.70 inches, which was greater than the fall at any other of the Signal Service stations, with the- exception of Mount Washington (82.97 inches) and New Orleans (67.98 inches). Agricultural Productions. — The Federal census of 1870 re- ported 12,105,280 acres in farms, of which 3,010,539 acres w'ere improved; average size of farms, 233 acres; value of farms and farm implements, 847,091,709 (a decrease of $98,712,456 from the valuation of 1860, which was 6145,804,165); value of productions, including betterments, etc., $41,- 909,402. In 1873 the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, potato, to- bacco and hay crops occupied 1,140,425 acres, and were valued at $11,167,- 150. Cotton was produced to the amount of 224,500 bales in 1870, giving to South Carolina the sixth rank in this staple. In rice she distanced all the rest, producing 32,304,825 pounds, which was more than three-sevenths of the whole crop of the United States. In 1874 there were in the State 56,400 horses, 45.200 mules, 184,900 oxen and other cattle, 157,800 milch cows, 322,600 hogs and 153,400 sheep. Of those whose occupations were returned 78.48 per cent, w^ere engaged in agriculture. Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments re- ported was 1584; hands employed, 8141; value of materials, $5,855,736; value of products, $9,858,981. The value of the leading industries was as follows: Cotton goods, $1,529,937; lumber, $1,032,194; flouring-mill products, $825,465; tar and turpentine, $774,077; fertilizers, $425,000; machinery, $286,550; printing and publishing, $257,155. Mineral Resources. — The gold belt of the Atlantic slope crosses the western part of South Carolina. As early as 1827 gold was gathered in small quantities, the amount returned for that year being $3500, and the average annual production afterward for 40 years was more than $30,000. Iron, copper, lead, manganese and bismuth are found. Porcelain clav and marble, granite, limestone and other, building-stones are abundant. Commerce and Navigation.— There are three customs dis- tricts — viz., Charleston, Beaufort and Georgetown — at which 203 vessels, 30 of them steamers, belong. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $864,758; value of exports, $18,698,527. Cotton is 362 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES the principal article of commerce ; 249,478 bales were exported, valued at $17,567,175. Of naval stores (rosin, turpentine, tar and pitch) the exports were 96,933 barrels, valued at §334,220. In the foreign trade 288 vessels entered and 330 cleared. Twenty-four vessels, six of which were steamers, were built during the year. Kailroatls. — There were 204 miles of railroad in 1844 and 1320 miles in 1873; total capital account at the latter date, $30,307,216; cost per mile, $29,597 ; .total receipts, 83,560,027 ; receipts per mile, $3477 ; receipts to an inhabitant, $4.98; net earnings, $1,376,318. Public Institutions and Education. — A new Penitentiary, having 500 cells for male and 48 for female convicts, was completed in 1868. It is located at Col umbia,- where is also the State Asylum for Lu- natics. Propositions have been made to remove to the same city the Insti- tution for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind, which is now at Cedar Springs. The new Constitution requires the General Assembly to provide for a uni- form system of free public schools, open to all the children and youth of the State, Avithout regard to race or color. In 1874 the number of school districts was 463; school-houses erected during the year, 109; pupils en- rolled in the public schools, 85,594 ; teachers, 2357 ; white scholars in the State, 84,975; colored scholars, 145,127; receipts for school purposes, $449,969. The higher institutions for education are: Claflin University, College of Charleston, Furman University, Mount Zion College, Newberry College, Wofford College and the University of South Carolina. Connect- ed with the last named are schools of law and medicine. The South Caro- lina Agricultural College, having a property valued at $200,800, is a part of Claflin University. There are two schools of theology, one under Bap- tist and the other under Presbyterian control. The number of libraries in 1870 was 1663; church organizations, 1457; church edifices, 1308; newspapers and periodicals, 55. The newspapers had increased to 84 in 1875, of which 7 were published daily. Cities and To-wns.— Columbia, the capital, is situated on the Con- garee River, very near the centre of the State. The Capitol is a granite edifice, erected at a cost of $4,000,000. Among the principal buildings are the City Hall and Opera House, United States Building, Market- House, Penitentiary, Lunatic Asylum, Ursuline Convent and the Gover- nor's house. The State Library contains 3500 volumes. Two theological seminaries and the University of South Carolina are located here. There are large machine-shops, car-shops and other iron-works. Ten newspapers are issued, two of them daily. Four railroads centre at Columbia. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 9298, of whom 5295 were colored. Charleston, the chief city of South Carolina, is built upon a peninsula be- tween the Ashley and Cooper Rivers. The harbor is defended by four forts— viz., Moultrie, Sumter, Ripley and Castle Pinckney. The ship- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUILE. 363 channel has sixteen feet of water at h)\v tide. Regular lines of steamers run to Savannah, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York and Boston. Among the most noteworthy buildings are the new Custom-House, City Hall, Acad- emy of Music and St. Michael's Church, erected in 1752. Manufacturing is carried on extensively. There were, at the last census, 224 factories, employing 2579 hands; value of products, $2,431,733. The principal articles were fertilizers, machinery, flour, tar, turpentine, etc. The rice- mills are the most extensive in the country. Three railroads have their terminus at Charleston. The city has about 40 churches and 12 period- icals, 4 of which are issued daily. Population in 1870, 48,956, and esti- mated at 55,000 in 1875. Beanj'ort (population, 5511), on Port Royal Island, 16 miles from the ocean, has a fine harbor and is a popular place of summer resort. The other leading towns are Georgetown (3520), Pick- ensville (3164), Greenville (3135), which is the seat of several educational institutions, Baton Rouge (3098) and Abbeville (3034). Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1790 was 249,073 (slaves, 107,094); 1800, 345,591 (slaves, 146,151); 1810, 415,115 (slaves, 196,365); 1820, 502,741 (slaves, 258,475); 1830, 581,185 (slaves, 315,- 401); 1840, 594,398 (slaves, 327,038); 1850,668,507 (slaves, 384,984); 1860, 703,708 (slaves, 402,406); 1870, 705,606 (free colored, 415,814). Of the total population 8074 were born in foreign lands, and 697,532 in the United States, 678,708 of whom were natives of South Carolina and 18,824 of other parts of the Union; 246,066 native South Carolinians were residing in other States and Territories. The density of population was 20.75 to a square mile. Goveriimeiit and Laws. — The legislature consists of 33 sen- ators, elected for 4 years, and 124 representatives, elected for 2 years. The governor (salary, $3500 and a furnished house) and lieutenant-governor are chosen for a term of two years. Three judges, appointed by the Gen- eral Assembly for 6 years each, constitute the supreme court. The chief- justice is paid a salary of $4500, and the others $3500 each. There are two circuit courts, of which the court of common pleas has civil jurisdic- tion and the court of general sessions has criminal jurisdiction only. A court of probate is established in each county. Ministers of the gospel are ineligible to the legislature or to the office of governor or lieutenant- governor. The State debt on the 31st of October, 1874, was $17,017,651. History. — In 1562 a party of French Huguenots built a fort upon an island in Port Royal Harbor and called it Carolina, in honor of Charles IX. of France. This colony w'as soon dispersed. The first permanent settlement was made by a company of English colonists, at Port Royal, in 1670, In 1685 a large company of French Huguenots established them- selves in the State. The model Constitution prepared by John Locke was for a time the basis of go'verumeut [see Historical Sketch, page 95]. 364 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES South Carolina bore an honorable part in the struggle for independence. The battles of Camden, King's Mountain, Cowpens, Eutaw Springs and others of lesser note were fought upon her soil. An incident from the life of Mrs. Rebecca Motte illustrates the spirit of patriotism which actuated the breasts of not a few. A British army occupied the mansion of Mrs. Motte. It was necessary that they should be dislodged, and the lady her- self furnished Major-General Lee with the bow and arrows by which he threw combustibles upon the roof and drove out the enemy at the expense of burning her dwelling. The part which this State took in the beginning of the civil war is described elsewhere [see Historical Sketch, page 137]. A new Constitution was ratified hi 1868. TENNESSEE. Situation and. Extent. — Tennessee is bounded on the N. by Ken- tucky and Virginia, S. E. by North Carolina, S. by Georgia, Alabama and Mississippi and W. by Arkansas and Missouri. It is situated between lat- itudes 35° and 36° 35' and longitudes 4° 40' and 13° 28' W. from Wash- ington, or 81° 40' and 90° 28' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length from east to west is 430 miles, the breadth from north to south 110 miles and the area 45,600 square miles, or 29,384,000 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The State is divided by its geo- graphical configuration into three sections, called respectively Eastern, Middle and Western Tennessee. Eastern Tennessee embraces the moun- tainous district extending from the Alleghanies, upon the North Carolina border, westward to the Cumberland Mountains. Between these ranges is the valley of the Tennessee, a region of very great beauty and fertility. Middle Tennessee extends from the west flank of the Cumberland Moun- tains to the Tennessee River, near the 88th parallel of longitude. This division, which includes 35 counties, has no very high mountains or hills, but is rolling and picturesque. Western Tennessee, comprising the district between the Tennessee and the Mississippi Rivers, is more nearly level, and contains large tracts of alluvial land. Numerous caves exist in Eastern Tennessee, some of which have been explored for a distance of several miles below the surface. Rivers. — The Mississippi River constitutes the western boundary for 160 miles. The Tennessee River, after its junction with the Clinch and the Holston, both rising in the mountains of Virginia, flows toward the south-west and makes a detour into Northern Alabama ; then, re-entering Tennessee, it runs almost due north across the State, afford- ing steamboat navigation for 200 miles. Its principal tributaries are the Elk, Duck, Sequatchie and Hiawassee. Discharging their waters into the Mississippi are the Wolf, Hatchie, Obion and Reelfoot Rivers, navigable for a short distance only. Every part of the State is abundantly watered. Forests. — Heavy growths of timber cover the" mountains of the eastern CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 365 section. Among the most common trees are the sugar-maple, black-walnut, red cedar, poplar, juniper, hickory, oak, beech, locust, cypress, sycamore, Cottonwood, hacmatac and pawpaw. Pine is very abundant. Soil aiitl Climate. — The eastern section rests upon a limestone formation, and the soil is calcareous. Very fertile lands are found in the valleys, and the mountain slopes admit of cultivation to some extent. As a grazing country this has great advantages. Middle Tennessee is a fine agricultural region, showing quite a variety of loamy soils, in which some- times clay and sometimes sand predominates. The western section has a deep, rich, dark mould, producing very large crops of cotton, tobacco and all the leading grains and vegetables. Canebrakes grow to an enormous size along the rivers. The isothermal lines crossing the State are: Spring, 55°-60°; summer, 72°-77° ; autumn, 55°-60° ; winter, 35°-40°; yearly mean, 60°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Knoxville was 57.5°, and the maximum 99°. At Nashville the mean was 61.3°, and the maximum 106°; upon 63 days during June, July and August the mercury rose to 90°, and upon 7 days it reached 100°. At Memphis the thermometer indicated a temperature of 100° upon 4 days, and one day rose to 101.5°; the mean was 61.6 degrees.' The rainfall at Memphis was 49.39 inches, at Nashville 59.76 inches and at Knoxville 63.50 inches. Agricultural Productious. — The last Federal census reported 19,581,214 acres in farms, of which 6,843,278 acres were improved; aver- age size of farms, 166 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live- stock, $282,027,308; value of productious, $86,472,847. The production of cotton was 181,842 bales; of rice, 3399 pounds; of cane-sugar, 1410 hogsheads; of cane-molasses, 3629 gallons. In 1873, 3,385,984 acres were devoted to Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, to- bacco aud hay, and the value of these crops was $41,372,410. In tobacco, Tennessee ranked next to Kentucky, Virginia and Ohio ; seven States pro- duced more Indian corn. In 1874 there were 302,900 horses, 103,200 ;nules (more than in any other State), 355,100 oxen and other cattle, 247,- 700 milch cows, 1,420,900 hogs and 350,000 sheep. Engaged in all classes of occupations there were 367,987 persons, of whom 267,020 (72.56 per cent.) were employed iu agriculture. Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments was 5317; hands employed, 19,412; value of materials, $19,657,027; value of products, $34,362,636. The leading industries in value were: Flouring- mill products, $5,666,698; lumber, sawed, $2,876,946; iron, jjig, $l,147,- 707; printing aud publishing, $1,022,600; cotton goods, $941,542; car- riages aud wagons, $938,647 ; leather, curried, $922,641 ; leather, tanned, $921,497; clothing, $597,607; lumber, planed, $525,750; copper, milled and smelted, $510,677; wool-carding and cloth-dressing, $491,847. The 366 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES uumerous streams furnish abundant water-power for manufacturing jDur- poses, which has been improved only to a small extent. Mineral Resources. — Iron exists in three extensive belts, which stretch over 28 counties. Some of the ore yields from 40 to 50 per cent, of tough gray iron. Coal measures extend over 5100 square miles. Gold has been discovered in small quantities. Copper, lead, gypsum and marble are also found. There are sulphur and mineral springs in Eastern Ten- nessee. The value of the product of 22 mines, employing 1239 hands, in 1870, was S776,292. Commerce and Navigation. — Memphis and Nashville are United States ports of delivery, but the foreign commerce is transacted principally through Ncav Orleans, Mobile and Charleston. During the year ending June 30, 1874, eight vessels, all steamboats, were built. Sixty- eight vessels, having a tonnage of 10,916, belong to the ports of Tennessee. Railroads. — In 1848 there were 28 miles of railroad open for travel. A very extensive system of internal communication has been devised and partly completed by which Nashville, Memphis and Knoxville have rail- road connections with every quarter of the State and of the Union. The statistics in 1873 were: Miles of railroad, 1620; cost per mile, $29,372; total capital account, $24,966,565; receipts, $4,451,517; receipts per mile, $5237; receipts to an inhabitant, $3.39; net earnings, $1,138,593. Pulblic Institutions and Education.— The Penitentiary at Nashville, which is conducted on the "silent system," contained 963 pris- oners at the beginning of 1875. The State Hospital for the Insane and the Institution for the Blind are also at Nashville. Bills for the establish- ment of two additional hospitals for the insane have passed the legislature, and Knoxville has been selected as the site of the institution for Eastern Tennessee. A law providing for a general system of public schools was passed in March, 1873. These schools are declared free to all between the ages of six and eighteen years, provided that white and colored children shall be taught in separate schools. The permanent fund is $2,512,500, the interest of which is distributed semi-annually among the counties of the State, according to school population. In 1874 the number of children was 418,185; schools organized, 4059; teachers licensed, 4680. Sixteen universities and colleges were reported, of which the University of Nash- ville, founded in 1785, is the oldest. Fisk University has college-grounds containing 25 acres, purchased with the funds obtained by the " Jubilee Singers." Vanderbilt University possesses an endowment of $500,000, the gift of Commodore Vanderbilt. For professional instruction there are 2 schools of theology, 1 of law, 3 of medicine and 1 of science. The last- named school is a department of Tennessee Agricultural College, at Knox- ville, which has a property valued at $397,190. There were enumerated, in 1870, 3505 libraries, 987 religious organizations, having 918 edifices, and CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 367 91 newspapers; in 1875, 141 newspapers and periodicals were pul)lished, 9 of them daily. Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1790 was 35,791 (slaves, 3417) ; 1800, 105,602 (slaves, 13,584) ; 1810, 261,727 (slaves, 44,535) ; 1820, 422,813 (slaves, 80,107); 1830, 681,904 (slaves, 141,603); 1840, 829,210 (slaves, 183,059); 1850, 1,002,717 (slaves, 239,459); 1860, 1,109,847 (slaves, 275,784); 1870, 1,258,520 (free colored, 323,331). The foreign born numbered 19,316 and the native born, 1,239,204, of whom 1,029,134 had their birthplace in Tennessee and 210,070 in other parts of the Union; 402,215 native Tennesseeans were residing in other States and Territories. The density of population was 27.60 to a square mile. Cities and Towns. — Nashville, the State capital, is situated on the Cumberland River, 200 miles from its confluence with the Ohio. The State-House, on Capitol Hill, which was erected at a cost of $1,000,000, has a tower 206 feet in height. Other fine edifices are the Court-House, Penitentiary, ]\Iarket-House and the Asylums for the Blind and for the Insane. Nashville takes a high position as an educational centre, since it is the seat of four colleges — viz.. Central Tennessee College, Fisk Univer- sity, University of Nashville and Vanderbilt University. Connected with these also are various professional schools. Nashville is at the intersection of four railroads. The wholesale trade amounts to more than $50,000,000 a year. Flour-, saw- and planiug-mills, tanneries, fouuderies, m'achine- shops, paper-mills, etc., furnish employment to a large number of hands. Thirty-five churches represent all the leading denominations. The popula- tion of the city was 25,866 in 1870, and is estimated at 40,000 in 1875. "The Hermitage" of Andrew Jackson is about 12 miles distant from Nashville. Memphis, the largest city of Tennessee, is built upon the east bank of the Mississippi. Regular lines of steamers ply to the leading ports upon the river, and the wholesale trade is estimated at between 60 and 70 millions of dollars per year. The city contains very large mills for the manufacture of cotton-seed oil. There are 6 railroads, 5 daily and 9 weekly newspapers and about 50 churches. The population was 40,222 in 1870, and Avas estimated at from 60,000 to 65,000 in 1875. Knoxville carries on an extensive wholesale trade with the towns of Eastern Ten- nessee, with which it is connected by railroads radiating in four directions. It has 2 daily and 4 weekly newspapers. Population, 8682 in 1870, and now estimated at 11,000. Chattanooga, upon the Tennessee River, near the Georgia line, is an important shipping-point. It is not far from the base of Lookout Mountain and at the junction of 4 railroads. Three daily newspapers are published. Population, 6093 in 1870, and about 10,000 in 1875. The other leading towns are Murfreesboro' (3502), Clarksville (3200), Pulaski (3041), Columbia (2550), Gallatin (2123), Fayetteville (1206), Greeneville (1039). 368 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Governmeilt and Laws. — "The General Assembly of the State of Tennessee " consists of a senate and a house of representatives. The number of representatives is based upon the number of voters in each county, "and shall not exceed seventy-five, until the population of the State reaches a million and a half, and shall never be more than ninety-nine. The senators shall not be niore than one-third as many as the represent- atives." Biennial sessions of the legislature are held, during which the members are paid $4 per day. The governor and other executive officers are chosen for a term of two years, with the exception of the secretary of State, who continues in office for four years. Five judges, chosen by pop- ular election, constitute the supreme court. Circuit and chancery courts have been established by the legislature. The term of office forjudges is eight years. Priests and ministers of the gospel are ineligible to the legis- lature. The State is entitled to ten representatives in Congress. The taxable property in 1874 was valued at $289,533,560. History. — It is probable that Ferdinand de Soto visited the present site of Memphis in 1549. In 1754 a settlement was made by colonists from North Carolina, who were soon di-iven away by hostile Indians. The first permanent settlement west of the Alleghanies was made on the Ten- nessee River, in the year 1756, when Fort Loudon was erected. Four years later the Cherokee Indians captured the fort and butchered or reduced to captivity all the whites. Until 1789 the territory was regarded as belong- ing to North Carolina. In that year it was ceded to the general govern- ment. A territorial government was organized in 1794, and Tennessee was admitted to the Union as the sixteenth State June 1, 1796. On the 8th of June, 1861, a majority voted to separate from the United States and to unite with the Southern Confederacy. Fort Henry, upon the Tennessee, and Fort Douelson, upon the Cumberland Rivers, were captured by the Union forces in February, 1862 [see Historical Sketch, pp. 139, 142]. Full relations to the Union were restored July 24, 1866. A new Constitu- tion was ratified by the people March 26, 1870. Tennessee takes its name from the Indian designation for its principal river. TEXAS. Situation and Extent.— Texas is bounded on the N. W. and N. by New Mexico and the Indian Territory, E. by Arkansas and Louisiana, S. E. by the Gulf of Mexico and S. W. by Mexico. It is situated between latitudes 25° 50' and 36° 30' N. and longitudes 16° 30' and 30° W. from Washington, or 93° 30' and 107° W. from Greenwich. The extreme length is 810 miles, the breadth 750 miles and the area 274,356 square miles, or 175,587,840 acres. All of the New England and Middle States, together with Maryland, Virginia and North Carolina, have a smaller extent of territory than this one State of Texas. Were all the inhabitants of the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 369 United States placed within its boundaries, the population would be less dense than it now is in the State of Massachusetts. Physical Features. — Surface. — There are three great divisions of the State — viz., Eastern Texas, extending from the Sabine to Trinity River ; Middle Texas, from the Trinity to the Colorado ; and Western Texas, from the Colorado to the Rio Grande. Along the coast are many narrow islands and peninsulas of alluvial formation, the configuration of which is some- times entirely changed by the terrible West Indian hurricanes. For a distance of from 30 to 60 miles inland the land is almost monotonously flat. Beyond this is an undulating country, extending for 200 miles, consisting of high rolling prairies, well watered, sufficiently wooded and covered with luxuriant vegetation. Next is a hilly and mountainous district, and beyond this is an elevated table-land. The Llano Estacado [see Phts- ICAL Geography, page 159], which covers an area of 100,000 square miles in the north-west, has a general elevation of 2500 feet above the sea: it is scantily wooded and subject to severe droughts. The prin- cipal elevations above the sea level which have been noted are Leon Spring, 4240 feet; Eagle Spring, 4842 feet; Painted Camp, 5020 feet; Providence Creek, 5492 feet ; and " Highest Point," 5896 feet. Riven. — The Red River constitutes the boundary between Texas and the Indian Territory for 400 miles. Navigation is obstructed by the " great raft" above Shreveport [see Louisiaxa, page 259]. The Sabine consti- tutes the boundary between Louisiana and Texas; and the Rio Grande, 1800 miles long and navigable for 450 miles, separates Texas and the ter- ritory of the United States from Mexico. Within the limits of the State are the Trinity, Brazos, Colorado, Guadalupe and San Antonio, all flowing with a rapid current in a south-easterly direction and discharging their waters into the Atlantic. During the rainy season steamboats ascend these streams to a distance of from 100 to 350 miles. The rivers and bays abound in fish, of which the principal varieties are the redfish (sometimes weighing 50 pounds), pike, codfish, trout, flounder, etc. Forests. — Eastern Texas is very heavily timbered. Immense forests of yellow pine extend through the river valleys, yielding pitch, tar and turpentine. Many " motts,'" or " islands," of timber exist in the prairies. Live-oaks are abundant along the coast. The other most common trees are the ash, beech, cedar, cotton- wood, cypress, elm, gum, hickory, hackberry, mesquit, mulberry, oak, pecan, poplar, tapulo, walnut, willow and yapon, or tea tree. Wild Animals and Birds. — The black bear, wolf, peccary, moose, deer, antelope, fox, opos- sum, raccoon, etc., are met with in the forests, and vast herds of buffaloes and mustangs range the prairies. Among the many species of birds are the wild turkey, wild goose, canvas-back duck, pheasant, grouse, plover, woodcock, swan, pelican, paroquet, oriole and mocking-bird. Soil and Climate. — A deposit of alluvial soil, 30 feet deep and 370 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES of inexhaustible fertility, is often found along the river-bottoms. The prairies have a rich, chocolate-colored or "black- wax" loam, resting upon a subsoil of gray clay. A remarkably uniform and pleasant temperature prevails throughout most of the year. Ice seldom forms, and cattle thrive all winter without artificial shelter or food. However, the "Northers" prevail during November, December and January, and there are sometimes storms of terrible severity. During the winter of 1855-6 it is said that one-quarter of all the neat cattle in the State perished from the effects of the cold. The lowest temperature observed was 17 degrees. Hurricanes of very great violence prevail upon the coast. The " September cyclone," or equinoctial storm, is always looked for with apprehension. An account of the ravages of a cyclone in Texas is given in another article [see Phys- ical Geography, page 179]. The isothermal lines crossing the State are: Spring, 55°-75° ; summer, 75°-85° ; autumn, 55°-75° ; winter, 35°-60° ; annual mean, 55°-75°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Galveston was 72.8°, and the maximum was 98.5°. Upon 57 days during June, July and August the mercury rose above 90°. The mean for the coldest month (January) was 55°, and for the warmest (Au- gust) 84.4°. At Indianola the mean was 70°, the minimum (in February) 36° and the maximum (in August) 100 degrees. Agricultural Productions.— As a cotton State Texas ranked fifth in 1870. The production during the years 1873 and 1874 was 742,- 565 bales. Rice and sugar-cane are important crops. Wheat thrives above the 32d parallel of latitude. The Federal census reported 18,396,- 523 acres in farms, of which 2,964,833 acres were improved; average size of farms, 301 acres (those of California and Oregon alone were larger); value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $100,971,937; value of productions, $49,185,170. In 1873 the number of acres devoted to Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, potatoes and tobacco was 1,373,895, and the value of the crops was $22,356,720. The number of live-stock reported in 1874 was 699,100 horses (next to Illinois and Ohio), 97,900 mules, 2,415,800 cattle (more than double the number in Illinois, which ranked second, and nearly one-seventh of all the neat cattle in the United States), 526,500 milch cows, 1,147,400 hogs and 1,338,700 sheep. Most of the fruits common to the Northern States are grown in Texas, and the orange, lemon, banana, lime, fig, pine-apple, nectarine and olive thrive. Manufactures.— The census reported 2399 manufacturing estab- lishments ; hands employed, 7927; value of materials, $6,273,193; value of products, $11,517,302. The leading industries in value were : Lumber, $1,736,482; beef, packed, $1,052,106; cotton goods, $374,598; saddlery and harness, $348,307; tin, copper and sheet-iron ware, $334,665; car- riages and wagons, $289,124; hides and tallow, $272,740; flouring-raill products, $254,264. Stoves and hollow-ware of excellent quality are CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 371 produced. The numerous rivers afford an abundance of water-power, which has been, as yet, very little improved. Mineral Resources. — Speaking of the mineral wealth of the country. Col. Forney says : " God in his generosity seems to have given a share of all his best gifts to Texas." Horace Greeley, who made a journey through Texas in 1871, wrote : " As yet the mineral wealth of Texas sleeps undisturbed and useless. She has iron enough to divide the earth by rail- roads into squares ten miles across, but no ton of it was ever smelted. She has at least five thousand square miles of coal (probably much more), but no ton of it was ever dug for sale. She has gypsum enough to plaster-the continent annually for a century, but it lies quiet and valueless — a waste of earth-covered stone." Gold, silver, copper, lead, nickel, alum, cobalt, man- ganese, arsenic and various precious stones, such as the ruby, agate, garnet, amethyst and opal, have been found. There are large deposits of potters' clay, fire-clay and marl, and extensive quarries of granite, marble, slate, soap-stone, etc. Salt is very abundant. These mineral resources are almost untouched. The total value of the mining products of the State, as reported by the census in 1870, was only $900. Coiiiiuerce and Navigation. — There are five customs districts — viz., Brazos de Santiago, Corpus Christi, Paso del Norte, Saluria and Texas. For the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $4,366,183; value of exports, $21,639,402; number of vessels entered in the foreign trade, 250, of which 103 were American and 147 foreign; ves- sels cleared, 284, of which 137 were American. The tonnage of all Texas ports Avas 20,008, divided among 335 vessels. Twenty vessels were built during the year. Cotton was exported to the amount of 274,379 bales. Railroads. — There were 32 miles of railroad in 1854. In 1874 the mileage had increased to 1650; total capital account, $64,565,342; cost per mile, $40,079; total receipts, $6,968,886; receipts per mile, $4464; receipts to an inhabitant, $7.26; net earnings, $2,798,277. The Texas Pacific Railroad is designed to extend from Shreveport, Louisiana, across Texas, New Mexico and Arizona to the Pacific Ocean, at San Diego. Public Institutions and Education. — The State Peniten- tiary, at Huntsville, contains 278 cells, and a new building has just been completed, having 125 cells. Both these buildings are inadequate, as the number of prisoners in 1874 was 1453. The number of homicides reported from Texas during 1870 was 323. Seven paupers were relieved in 1850 and 202 in 1870. An Institution for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was opened in 1857. The new Constitution makes it the duty of the legis- lature to provide for the support and maintenance of public schools through- out the State, free to all children between the ages of six and eighteen. In 1874 the school population was 300,000, of whom 129,542 were enrolled in the public schools. The average daily attendance was 83,082 ; number 372 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES of schools, 1874; teachers, 2236. There are 12 colleges and univer- sities, 1 school of theology, 2 schools of medicine and 1 school of science. The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, at Bryan, possesses a property valued at $291,240. Five institutions are reported for the higher education of young ladies. In 1870 the number of libraries was 455, re- ligious organizations 843, with 647 edifices, newspapers 112. In 1875 21 daily newspapers and 168 periodicals of all kinds were published. Cities and Towns. — Austi7i, the State capital, is situated on the Colorado River, 160 miles above its mouth. Steamboats ply upon the river, and there is railroad connection with Houston. Three daily and two weekly papers are published. The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 4428, and was estimated at 7500 in 1875. Galveston, upon an island at the entrance of Galveston Bay, 290 miles west of New Orleans, is the lead- ing city of Texas. It is an important port for the shipment of cotton, lumber, cattle and hides. Steamers run regularly to New Orleans, Ha- vana, New York and Liverpool. It is the seat of the Texas Medical Col- lege and the University of St. Mary. The most important buildings are the Custom-House, Court-House, City Hall, Opera-House and House of Refuge. There are 15 churches and 11 newspapers, of which 5 are issued daily. The population was 13,815 by the Federal census, and is estimated, in 1875, at 25,000. Houston, on Buffalo Bayou, 45 miles above Galveston, is a rapidly-growing city. It was settled in 1836, and named in honor of Gen. Sam. Houston. The City Hall and Market-House was erected at a cost of $400,000. There are extensive machine- and car-shops, iron- and brass-founderies and lumber-yards. Three daily and six Aveekly news- papers are published, and 12 churches represent the various denominations. Railroads diverge from Houston in six directions. The population is esti- mated at 20,000; it was 13,818 in 1870. San Antonio was settled by the Spaniards in 1694. It has two daily newspapers and is the principal town in Western Texas. Population, 12,256. Other leading towns are Browns- ville, Corpus Christi, Jefferson, Sherman, Dallas, Georgetown, Indianola and Matagorda. Population. — No census of the population of Texas was taken while it was under Mexican rule. The estimated number of inhabitants in 1806 was 7000, and in 1836, 52,000. According to the United States census, the population in 1850 was 212,592 (slaves, 58,161) ; 1860, 604,215 (slaves, 182,566) ; 1870, 818,579 (free colored, 253,475). The foreign-born num- bered 62,411, and the natives 756,168, of whom 388,510 were born in Texas and 367,658 in other parts of the United States. Only 26,050 native Texans were residing outside the State of their birth. The density of population was 2.98 to a square mile. Government and Laws.— The legislature consists of 30 senators and 90 representatives, who meet biennially and are paid eight dollars per CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 373 day. The executive officers are a governor, lieuteuant-governor, comp- troller, treasurer and commissioner of the general land-office. Judicial authority is vested in a supreme court of three judges, and thirty-five dis- trict courts, presided over by a single judge, who is required to hold three terms of his court annually in each county of his district. A superintend- ent of immigration is appointed by the governor, and holds his office for four years. General elections are held on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November of every alternate year, beginning with 1872. Homesteads are exempt from execution for debt. The public debt on the 1st of January, 1875, was $4,012,421. History. — Fort St. Louis was erected near the present site of Mata- gorda by a company of French colonists, in 1687. In 1690 the Spaniards established, not far from the same spot, the mission of San Francisco. The territory was long under the government of Mexico, and shared in the internal dissensions of that country. The privilege of maintaining a State government of their own was refused to them, and the Texaus took up arms. The first battle was fought Oct. 2, 1835. Hostilities continued at intervals for ten years. On the 1st of March, 1845, Texas became one of the United States. The Mexican loar followed [see Historical Sketch]. An ordinance of secession was passed Feb. 5, 1861. A new Constitution was adopted in 1869. In the summer of 1874 six companies of soldiers were organized for service against hostile Indians, and many of the settle- ments were thus saved from destruction. A terrible cyclone desolated a belt of country 40 miles wide on the 16th and 17th of September, 1875. Water stood five feet deep in the streets of Galveston, twenty-five buildings were blown down, several persons were killed and property was damaged to the amount of $200,000. The town of Velasco was entirely swept away ; only two houses remained standing at Matagorda ; and the word from In- dianola was : " One-quarter of the people are gone. Dead bodies are strewn for twenty miles along the bay. Nine-tenths of the houses are destroyed." Only five out of the three hundred houses in the town were left standing. Four hundred lives were destroyed in the State by this cyclone. VERMONT. Situation aucl Extent. — Vermont is bounded on the N. by Canada East, E. by New Hampshire, S. by Massachusetts and W. by New York. It is situated between latitudes 42° 44' and 45° N. and longitudes 3° 35' and 5° 27' E. from Washington, or 71° 33' and 73° 25' W. from Greenwich. The length from north to south is 158 miles, the breadth be- tween 40 and 90 miles and the area 10,212 square miles, or 6,535,680 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — The Green Mountains, called by the early French travellers Monts Verts, extend through the whole length of Vermont and form the water-shed between the affluents of the Conuec- 374 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ticut River ou the east and those of Lake Champlain and the Hudson on the west. The most elevated summits are: Mount Mansfield, 4359 feet; Camel's Hump, 4188 feet; Killington's Peak, 3675 feet; and Ascutney, 3320 feet. Most of the hills are smooth and rounded and wooded or cov- ered with grass to the very top. Rivers and Lakes. — The Connecticut Eiver constitutes the eastern boundary, and drains an area of 3750 square miles in the State. At Bellows Falls the river has a descent of 44 feet in the course of half a mile. Its principal affluents are the Passumpsic, White, Queechy, Black and West Rivers. Flowing westward are the Missisquoi, Lamoille, Onion or Wiuooski and Otter Rivers, which dis- charge their waters into Lake Champlain. This lake, which constitutes the boundary betAveen Vermont and New York for 140 miles, has an ex- treme width of 16 miles and is deep enough to float the largest vessels. Its waters find an outlet through the Richelieu, or Sorel, into the St. Law- rence. Salmon-trout, bass, whitefish, pickerel, etc., are caught in great numbers from the lake. It contains several islands, of which the largest are North Hero, South Hero and La Motte. Lake Memphremagog, on the Canada line, lies partly within the limits of Vermont, and receives sev- eral small tributaries from that State. Forests. — Upon the Green Moun- tains are heavy growths of the various evergreen trees, such as the fir, cedar, spruce, pine and hemlock. Hard wood is also abundant, including the ash, beech, birch, elm, hickory, basswood, butternut, oak, sugar-maple and most of the trees common to the Northern States. Soil and Climate. — A deep, black, alluvial soil, of very great fer- tility, is characteristic of the river valleys. Some of the uplands have a loam which is strong and quick and produces large crops. Excellent pas- turage is afforded on the slopes of the hills and mountains. The valley of Lake Champlain, protected from the north-east winds by the mountains and open toward the south, is very favorably situated for agriculture. Very great variations of temperature are experienced. The mercury reached 106° at Montpelier on the 8th of June, 1871, and on Christmas day, 1872, the mercury congealed, which indicated a temperature of at least 40 degrees helow zero. Thus the range of the thermometer was 146 de- grees. East Calais enjoyed Christmas day, 1873, with the mercury indi- cating —38 degrees. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Burlington was 43.6°, the maximum 89° and the minimum —20.5°. Upon eleven days the mercury fell below zero. The isothermal lines crossing Vermont are: Spring, 40°; summer, 62°-67°; autumn, 43°-47°; winter, 15°-20°; annual mean, 45°. Snow falls about the middle of November and remains until the end of April. Agricultural Productions.— Vermont has a smaller proportion (32.1 per cent.) of its farm lands unimproved than any other States except Illinois (25.3 per cent.) and New York (29.6 per cent.). The last census CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 375 reported 4,528,804 acres iu farms, of which 3,073,257 acres were improved; average size of farms, 134 acres; value of forms, farm implements aud live-stock, 8168,506,189; value of productions, $34,647,027. The forest products were valued at $1,238,929, and the orchard pi'oducts at $682,241. This State ranked first in the production of maple-sugar (8,894,302 pounds), and next to New York and Ohio iu cheese (4,830,700 pounds). In 1873 the Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crojis occupied 1,065,334 acres, and were valued at $18,568,796. The number of live-stock iu 1874 was 71,000 horses, 128,000 oxen and other cattle, 195,700 milch cows, 53,500 hogs and 543,600 sheep (more than iu any other New England State). Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments reported was 3270; hands employed, 18,686; value of materials, $17,007,- 769; of products, $32,184,606. The value of the leading industries was: Woollen goods, $3,550,962; lumber, sawed, $3,142,307; lumber, planed, $2,526,228; flouring-mill products, $2,071,594; leather, tanned, $1,249,- 942; carriages and sleds, $839,029; cotton goods, $546,510; scales and balances, $1,629,000. A firm iu this State, which has been in existence for forty-five years, manages " the largest scale manufactory in the world." Its workshops cover ten acres, and the products are sent to every im- jwrtant nation on the globe; the annual sales amount to $2,000,000. Minerals and Mining". — Numerous deposits of iron ore have been found among the mountains. Copper, lead and manganese exist iu small quantities. Kaoline, or potters' clay, is abundant. The marble quarries are of great extent, and furnish marble both white and variegated. Pro- fessor Collier is of the opinion that " there is hardly a farm in the State where hidden [mineral] wealth may not exist." The product of 54 min- ing establishments, at the last census, was valued at $905,410, and the value of the mai'ble- and stone-work was $960,984. Commerce and Navig-ation. — Burlington is the only port of entry. Quite au extensive commerce is carried on with the Canadas through Lake Champlain. During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports was $7,282,166, and of exports, $4,076,355; 98 Ameri- can and 859 foi-eigu vessels entered, and 76 American and 865 foreign vessels cleared. Six steamers and 19 other vessels, with an aggregate capacity of 5494 tons, belong to the district of Vei'raont. Railroads and Canals. — The mileage of railroads in 1874 was 778; total capital account, $27,755,284; cost per mile, $35,638; receipts, $4,463,678 ; receipts to an inhabitant, $13.36 ; receipts per mile of railroad, 86002; net earnings, $1,782,571. Real estate belonging to railroads is subject to taxation. A canal connects Lake Champlain with the Hudson River. Public Institutions and Education. — A State-Prison was 376 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES established at Windsor in 1807. The Asylum for the lusaue, which pos- sesses a property valued at $500,000, is not a State institution, although it has often received aid from the State. The deaf and dumb are supported at the asylum in Hartford, Connecticut. A Reform School was established at Waterbury in November, 1865. The buildings were burned December 12, 1874, and in January, 1875, the legislature appropriated ^30,000 for a new building to be located at Vergennes. There is a Home for Destitute Children at Burlington. A compulsory school law was passed in 1867. Every child of good health, between the ages of 8 and 14 years, is required to attend school for at least three months in each year. From 5 to 20 years is the legal school age. In 1874 the number of school districts was 2754; children in the State, 89,541; pupils enrolled, 78,139; teachers, 4406; ex- penditures for schools, $622,227; value of school buildings, $1,334,364. There are three colleges— viz., Middlebury College, Norwich University (military) and the University of Vermont and State Agricultural College, which possesses a property valued at $416,972; it embraces classical, med- ical and scientific departments, and admits young women upon the same c(mditious as young men. The last census reported 1792 libraries, 47 periodicals, 3 of which were daily (increased to 6 daily newspapers and 68 periodicals of all kinds in 1875), and 699 religious organizations, having 744 edifices. Population. — The number of inhabitants at successive decennial periods has been as follows: 1790, 85,425; 1800, 154,465; 1810, 217,895; 1820,235,966; 1830,280,652; 1840,291,948; 1850,314,120; 1860,315,- 098 (an increase of 978, which is about one-third of one per cent.); 1870, 330,551 (an increase of 15,453, which is less than 5 per cent.). The foreign born numbered 47,155, and the native, 283,396, of whom 243,814 were born in Vermont and 39,582 had come in from other States; 177,164 natives of Vermont were residing in other parts of the Union, showing a loss of 137,582 in native population. There were 32.37 persons to a square mile. Cities and Towns. — Montpelier, the capital, occupies a central position in the State. The Capitol is a fine granite building, erected at a cost of $150,000. More than 15,000 volumes are contained in the State library. The town has several manufactories, seven churches and five newspapers. Population, 3023. Burlington, the largest city of Vermont, had a population of 14,387 in 1870. Its harbor, protected by a break- water, is the finest on Lake Champlain. There is a very extensive lumber trade. Five periodicals are published. The University of Vermont occu- pies a site commanding a fine view. Rutland (population, 9834) has very extensive quarries of marble and slate. It is at the intersection of three railroads, and supports two daily newspapers. Bennington (5760) is the centre of a fine agricultural region. Porcelain ware is manufactured in CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 377 large quantities. Brattleborovgh (4933) Avas settled in 1724, aud is the oldest town in the State. The Asylum for the Insane is the most prominent building. Six newspapers are published. Middlebury (8086) is the seat of Middlebury College, and contains several factories, large marble quar- ries, five churches and a newspaper office. The other leading towns are St. Albans (7014), which contains the railway-shops of the Vermont Cen- tral, St. Johnsbury (4665), Brandon (3571), Northfield (3410), Castleton (3243), Randolph (2829), Waterbury (2623), Newbury (2241) aud Wind- sor (1699). Goveriinient and Laws. — A council of 14 members assembles once in seven years to propose such amendments to the Constitution as may be deemed necessary. There was no senate until the year 1836. The Gen- eral Assembly, which meets biennially, consists of a senate of 30 members and a house of representatives of 249 members (one from each town and city). Executive officers are elected for a term of two years. The supreme court consists of six judges, chosen by the legislature, and receiving a sal- ary of §2500 each. There are also county courts for each of the 14 coun- ties, courts of chancery and probate courts. Justices of the peace are elected for each town. A prohibitory liquor law is in force, and the liquor- seller is responsible for damages done by an intoxicated person. History. — Champlain, with two other French officers, traversed a portion of this territory in 1609. The first settlement was made in 1724, at Fort Dummer, within the limits of the present town of Brattleborough. A settlement was begun on the eastern shore of Lake Champlain by the French in 1731. New Hampshire claimed jurisdiction over the territory, and Gov. Wentworth made grants of land to settlers in 138 townships. New York also based a claim upon the grants of King Charles II., and tried to exert her authority. Attemjots to dispossess them of their lands W'Cre resisted by the settlers, who applied the "beech seal" (whipping with beechen rods) to the New York officers, until none could be found willing to serve writs. The "Green Mountain Boys" thus defended themselves for several years. An amicable adjustment was finally made by the pay- ment to New York of $30,000 in settlement for all her claims. In Janu- ary, 1777, a general convention proclaimed that the territory known as the New Hampshire Grants was of right a free and independent jurisdiction, to be henceforth called by the name of " New Connecticut, alias Vermont." During the Revolutionary war the Green Mountain Boys bore an honor- able and conspicuous part. At Bennington, on the 16th of August, 1777, the British regulars were routed by the undisciplined yeomanry. Vermont was admitted to the Union on the 4th of March, 1791. During the war of 1812 the frontiers were threatened, but the capture of the British squad- ron on Lake Champlain saved Vermont from further molestation from that quarter, until the Confederate raid upon St. Albans (Oct. 19, 1864). 378 BURLEY'8 UNITED STATES VIRGINIA. Situation and Extent. — The State of Virginia is bounded on the W. and N. W. by Kentucky and West Virginia, N. E. and E. by Mary- land, Cliesapeake Bay and the Atlantic Ocean, and S. by North Carolina and Tennessee. It is situated between latitudes 36° 30' and 39° 40' N. and longitudes 1° 85' E. and 6° 35' W. from Washington, or 75° 25' and 83° 35' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length is 425 miles, the breadth 205 miles and the area 38,348 square miles, or 24,542,720 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — By its natural configuration the State is divided into three districts. (1.) Tide-water Virginia, extending from the coast to the falls of the rivers, contains no mountains or high hills, but is an alluvial country, having low and marshy lands along the seaboard, which terminate in the south-east in the Great Dismal Swamp. (2.) Piedmont Virginia, which extends from the river-falls to the Blue Ridge, is rolling and picturesque, and in its western part broken by ranges of low hills. (3.) The great valley of Virginia includes all the region between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghanies. The great Ai^palachian chain of mountains extends over a breadth of 150 miles, in parallel ridges and low summits, with occasional lofty spurs. The Peaks of Otter attain an elevation of 5307 feet above the sea level. John Randolph of Roanoke once visited this summit, and as he saw the sun rise over the magnificent scene he said to his servant: "Never from this time believe any one who tells you that there is no God." Five States can be seen from the top of Bald Knob, upon the side of which, 4500 feet above the sea, is Salt Pond (containing fresh water, but called salt from an adjacent salt lick), with a depth said to be unfathomable. Virginia contains very many objects of interest to tourists. The Natural Bridge has an arch 215 feet above the stream, with a span of 93 feet and a width of 80 feet. A stage road runs over it. The Natural Tunnel, in Scott county, is said by Pollard to be "undoubtedly the greatest wonder in Virginia." It extends for 800 feet through the solid rock, and has a height of 80 feet. A remarkable cascade, called Puncheon Run Falls, down which the water plunges 2000 feet, has lately been brought into notice. There are many caverns, among the most noted of wiiich are Weyer's Cave, 1600 feet in length, Madison's Cave and the " Cave of the Unknown." Mineral springs abound along the mountain chain from the borders of North Carolina to the Potomac, making this region "a sufHcient sanitarium for all America." There are white, yellow, blue, red and salt sulphur springs, offering medicines compounded in Nature's laboratory for the cure of a multitude of human ailments. A tem- perature of 106 degrees has been noted in the warm springs. Rivers. — The Potomac separates Virginia from Maryland and affords navigation for large vessels as far as Alexandria, where it is a mile and a quarter wide. Its principal tributary is the Shenandoah, which drains the great valley of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 379 Virginia west of the Blue Eidge and unites with the Potomac at Harper's Ferry. The Rappahannock, the York and the James take their rise in the mountains, and flowing nearly parallel to the Potomac in a south-easterly direction, discharge their waters into Chesapeake Bay. Rapids and falls limit the navigable course of each to about 100 miles. South-eastern Vir- ginia is drained by the Meherrin and the Nottoway, which unite in North Carolina to form the Chowan. The Holston, the Clinch and Powell's Rivers drain the south-western counties and afterward combine with the Tennessee. Forests. — Timber is very abundant. The hickory, white and black oak, ash, chestnut, beech, maple, cedar, pine, etc., grow to an enor- mous size. When oak lands are cleared a growth of pines springs up, and when pines are removed oaks take their places. Fields once cultivated, if left to themselves, are quickly covered with pines. The last census reported 8,294,734 acres of woodland upon farms. Soil and Climate. — The soil in the east is composed of a vegetable mould, ]-esting upon an alluvial, clayey sand of great depth. Piedmont Virginia has a limestone basis for its fertile clay and loam. The valleys of the south-west contain the celebrated "blue-grass" soil, which is impreg- nated with lime and exceedingly productive. A book published in London in 1757 speaks of the Virginia climate as follows: "The heats in summer are excessively great, but not without the allay of refreshing sea-breezes. Their winter frosts come on without the least warning. After a warm day, toward the setting in of winter, so intense a cold often succeeds as to freeze over the broadest and deepest of their great rivers in one night ; but these frosts, as well as their rains, are rather violent than of long continuance." The writer must have generalized from an exceptional winter, as the rivers are entirely unobstructed by ice throughout many seasons. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the maximum temperature at Cape Henry was 98 degrees; at Lynchburg the maximum was 97°, and the mean for the year 56.5° ; at Wytheville, among the mountains, the maximum was 95°, and the mean 51.3° (more than a degree lower than the mean for Phila- delphia); at Norfolk the mean was 58.4°, the minimum 15° and the max- imum 102°; upon 19 days the mercury sank below 32°, and upon 34 days rose above 90°. The rainfall at Wytheville was 40.66 inches, at Lynch- burg 44.74 inches and at Norfolk 55.27 inches. Upon the isothermal charts the lines crossing Virginia are: Spring, 55°; summer, 72°-77° ; autumn, 52°-60° ; winter, 30°-40°; mean, 55°-60°. Agricultural Productions. — The great staple, from the earliest settlement, has been tobacco, which grew "as tall as an ordinary-sized man" [see American Agriculture]. In 1873 the product of 82,200 acres devoted to tobacco culture was 50,000,000 pounds (Kentucky grew three times as much), valued at $4,600,000. The total value of the Indian corn, Avheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potato, tobacco and hay crops 380 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES grown upon 2,427,804 acres was $30,768,950. The last Federal census reported 18,145,911 acres in farms, of which 8,165,040 acres were im- proved; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $246,132,550; value of productions, $51,774,801; average size of farms, 246 acres. Some cotton was grown in the southern counties. In 1874 the State con- tained 189,300 horses, 29,600 mules, 405,700 oxen and other cattle, 234,- 000 milch cows, 753,100 hogs and 367,500 sheep. Nearly 60 per cent, of the workers were employed in agriculture. Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments was 5933; hands employed, 26,694; value of materials, $23,832,884; value of products, $38,364,322. Among the leading industries in value were: Tobacco, chewing, smoking and snuff, $6,935,249 ; flouring-mill products, $6,581,396; iron, forged and rolled, $1,994,146; iron, castings, $769,274; iron, pig, $619,820; lumber, $1,609,966; cotton goods, $1,435,800; cars, freight and passenger, $613,036; machinery, $511,485. Minerals and Mining*. — Coal formations underlie 21,000 square miles. Anthracite coal is found between the James and the Potomac ; the bituminous seams are of great thickness. Iron, lead, gold, copper, man- ganese and zinc are found. The deposits of marl, plaster, limestone and marble are extensive. Salt-wells exist, which yielded 10,000 bushels of salt per day during the war. South-western Virginia is especially rich in minerals. The product of 27 mines reported at the last census, which era- poyed 997 hands, was $409,914, Commerce and. Navigation. — An extensive commerce was car- ried on from Virginia during the colonial days. The imjiorts of this State and Maryland during the year 1770 were valued at upward of three mil- lions of dollars, and the exports at nearly two millions. There are now seven customs districts — viz., Alexandria, Cherrystone, Norfolk and Ports- mouth, Petersburg, Richmond, Tappahannock and Yorktown. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, 65 American and 45 foreign vessels en- tered and 80 American and 78 foreign vessels cleared in the foreign trade; the value of imports was $236,566, and of exports, $5,299,670. Belong- ing in the State were 1017 vessels, of which 74 were steamers. Fifty vessels, including nine steamers, were built. Railroads and Canals. — The railroad statistics for 1874 were: Miles of railroad, 1638; total capital account, $96,324,418; cost per mile, $46,332; receipts, $6,842,633; receipts per mile, $4112; receipts to an in- habitant, $5.36 ; net earnings, $2,196,418. The James River and Kanawha Canal was projected to connect the James with the Ohio, but it is estimated that $40,000,000 would be needed to complete it. A canal 23 miles long passes through the Dismal Swamp, connecting Chesapeake Bay and Albe- marle Sound. Public Institutions and Education.— The State Peniten- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 381 tiary, at Richmond, is conducted on the " silent system." There are three Asyhims for the Insane, located at \yilliamsburg, Staunton and Richmond. The Eastern Asylum is the oldest in the United States, having been estab- lished in 1773. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb and the Blind is at Staunton. A general school law was passed July 11, 1870. In 1874 the number of public schools was 3696; pupils enrolled, 160,859; average attendance, 91,175; teachers, 3757; value of school property, $524,638. There are eight colleges and universities. William and Mary College was founded in 1692, and is the oldest collegiate institution in the country, with the exception of Harvard [see American Education]. At the Univer- sity of Virginia all the studies are elective. Professional instruction is afforded by five schools of theology, three of law, two of medicine and six of science. A school of instruction, under the direction of the United States Signal Service Bureau, has been established at Fort Whipple. The number of libraries in 1870 was 4171 ; newspapers, 114, of which 16 were daily; religious organizations, 2582, with 2405 edifices. In 1875 the period- icals had increased to 142, of which 21 were published daily. Cities and Towns. — Pddimond, the capital, is situated upon the James River. Large vessels come up to the docks, and railroads radiate from the city in five directions, giving facilities for a very extensive whole- sale trade. There are large tobacco warehouses, iron-works, founderies, machine-shops, etc. Twenty-two periodicals are published, of which seven are issued daily. The number of inhabitants was 51,038 in 1870, and is estimated at 70,000 in 1875. Norfolk, upon the south side of Chesapeake Bay, has a harbor open at all seasons of the year, which admits vessels drawing 30 feet of water. Steamers run regularly to Richmond, Balti- more, Philadelphia and New York. The shipment of fruits and vegetables during 1874 was 1,300,000 barrels and crates. For the season of 1874-5 the receipts of cotton 'were estimated at 500,000 bales. The city has 26 churches and three daily newspapers. Population, 19,229 in 1870, and estimated at 25,000 in 1875. Gosport Navy Yard is near Norfolk. Lynchburg, on the James River, carries on a large trade with South- western Virginia. It contains nearly 50 tobacco warehouses, and large founderies and iron-works have been established in the vicinity. There are 10 churches and 6 newspapers. Population, 6825 in 1870, and now about 13,000. Petersburg (population, 18,950), thirty miles south of Rich- mond, is an important railway centre, having lines extending in five direc- tions. Three daily newspapers are issued. Lexington (population, 2873) has been called the "Athens of Virginia." Washington College was estab- lished at this place, under the name of Liberty Hall, in 1776, and received its endowment from General Washington. The Virginia INIilitary Insti- tute was founded in 1839. Alexandria, on the Potomac River, seven miles below Washington, belonged to the District of Columbia until 1846, when 382 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES it was ceded back to Virginia, Population, 13,570. Bristol, in the valley, near the Tennessee line, is the centre of a large trade carried on by wagons, "the white ships of the mountains." Other important towns are Ports- mouth (10,492), Staunton (5120), Winchester (4477), Fredericksburg (4046), Danville (3463) and Charlottesville (2838). Population. — In 1649 there were 15,000 English inhabitants and 300 negroes. During the eighteenth century the population doubled every 27 years, and Jefferson computed that if the same ratio of increase con- tinued Virginia would contain upward of four and a half millions of people in 1863. By the Federal census, the number of inhabitants at successive decennial periods (including West Virginia until 1870) was as follows : 1790, 747,610 (slaves, 292,627); 1800, 880,200 (slaves, 345,796); 1810, 974,600 (slaves, 392,516); 1820,1,065,116 (slaves, 425,148); 1830, 1,211,- 405 (slaves, 469,757); 1840, 1,239,797 (slaves, 448,987); 1850, 1,421,661 (slaves, 472,528); 1860, 1,596,318 (slaves, 490,865) ; 1870 (West Virginia excluded), 1,225,163 (free colored, 512,841). Virginia ranked first in population from 1790 to 1810, second in 1820, third in 1830, fourth in 1840 and 1850, fifth in 1860 and tenth in 1870. In slave population it ranked first during the whole period from 1790 to 1860. In free-colored population it ranked next to Georgia in 1870. Of the total number of inhabitants (1,225,163) at the last date, 1,163,822 were born in the orig- inal State, 13,754 wei*e foreign born and 47,587 had come in from other States, of which number 16,869 were born in North Carolina, 7344 in Maryland, 4908 in -New York, 4046 in Pennsylvania, etc. The density of population was 31.95 persons to a square mile. Goveriiiuent and Laws. — The legislature consists of a senate of 43 members and a house of delegates of 138 members. The supreme court of appeals has five judges, holding office for twelve years. There are sixteen judges of the circuit court, whose term of service is eight years. The county and city judges serve for three years. All judges are elected by the legislature. The State election is held on the first Monday in No- vember. A convention met at Richmond, Dec. 3, 1867, for the revision of the Constitution, and the new Constitution was ratified by the people July 6, 1869. The State is divided into 99 counties. By a constitutional amendment, ratified by a large majority in 1874, the township system was abolished. History. — Sir Walter Raleigh bestowed the name of Virginia upon this territory, in honor of the virgin queen Elizabeth. Jamestown, which was founded May 13, 1607, claims the honor of being the oldest English settlement in America. Colonists came over in large numbers during a few succeeding years. Indian hostilities might have proved fatal to the new colony but for the intervention of Pocahontas, who saved Capt. John Smith from death, and afterward disclosed a plot formed by the savages CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 383 for the massacre of the settlers. In spite of the precautions taken, more than 350 were killed by the Indians on the 22d of March, 1622. The Church of England was established by law in 1662. In 1754 hostilities began between the French and the English. After the defeat of Braddock, in 1755, George Washington was put in command of the Virginia troops, and gained a military experience which fitted him for the command of the Continental army in the struggle for independence twenty years later. Eastern Virginia suffered very severely during the Revolutionary war, which was virtually terminated by the surrender, uix)n her soil, of Lord Cornwallis, Oct. 19, 1781, An ordinance of secession was passed April 17, 1861, and Richmond soon after became the capital of the Southern Con- federacy. The citizens of the western counties dissented from this action, and withdrawing, formed the new State of West Virginia. On the 27th of January, 1870, the government of the State was transferred to the civil authorities. On the 27th of April, in the same year, the floor of the cap- itol at Richmond gave way, and 60 persons were killed and 120 wounded, WEST VIRGINIA. Situation and Extent. — West Virginia is bounded on the N. W. by Ohio, N, E. by Pennsylvania and Maryland, S, E. and S. by Virginia and S. W. by Kentucky. It is situated between latitudes 37° 5' and 40° 37' N. and longitudes 0° 40' and 5° 35' W. from Washington, or 77° 40' and 82° 35' W. from Greenwich. The extreme length from N. E. to S. W. is 270 miles and the breadth 125 miles. Between Ohio and Pennsylvania is "the Pan Handle," having in some places a width of only 6 miles. The area of the State is 23,000 square miles, or 14,720,000 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Extending over a breadth of 100 miles in the east are the ridges and spurs of the Alleghany Mountains, the peaks of which have an average elevation of 2500 feet.. The "Summit" reaches a height of 2650 feet. Although the hillsides are steep, they are seldom rocky, and vegetation clothes them to the very top. Greenbrier county has most of its surf\ice from 1800 to 2000 feet above the sea level. The country gradually falls away toward the Ohio River, where the up- lands have a height of from 600 to 800 feet. Bluffs rise abruptly from the Kanawha River, giving an elevation of 1000 feet to the surrounding lands. The "Hawk's Nest," in Fayette county, affords a very extensive view. Rivers. — The Ohio washes the western boundary for 300 miles, affording steamboat navigation for the whole distance. Its principal tributaries are the Guyandotte, Little Kanawha and the Great Kanawha ("River of the Woods," in the Indian dialect), 400 miles long, which rises in North Carolina and drains 10,000 square miles of territory. It is navigable for 100 miles to the falls, where the water has a descent of 50 feet. Flowing into the Great Kanawha are the Greenbrier, Gauley, Elk and Coal Rivers, 384 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Big Sandy River and Tug Fork constitute a part of the boundary between West Virginia and Kentucky. In the mountains of Randolph county are the sources of the Monongahela, which is navigable as far as Fairmouut. The Potomac constitutes the north-eastern boundary for 100 miles. Forests. — Every part of the State is well wooded, while the mountains and the counties south of the Kanawha are covered with immense primeval forests, affording the finest varieties of timber. Among the trees are found the oak, curl- and sugar-maple, black-walnut, hickory, locust, ash, chest- nut, butternut, hemlock, white and yew-pine, cherry, etc. Mineral Springs. — Many of the sulphur springs which have given celebrity to Virginia since Washington and his compeers congregated at the Berke- ley are now within the limits of West Virginia. Twelve thousand gallons of water per minute flow from a single spring. Chemical analysis shows that these waters are rich in a great number of mineral ingredients which make them a fountain of health to invalids. Soil and Climate. — Soils are found of every grade, A friable loam, i-csting upon a substratum of clay, slate, sandstone or limestone, is very common upon the hillsides, while a deep and fertile alluvium is cha- racteristic of the river valleys. Even among the mountains there is said to be little land which might not be made productive. The climate has no great extremes either of heat or cold. During a period of five years the average of the five hottest days was 90 degrees, and of the five coldest days 6 degrees. The mean for tw^o years at Lewisburg was 54.6°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean at Morgantown was 53.5° ; mean of the coldest mouth (November), 38.2°; mean of the warmest month (June), 74.2°. The thermometer indicated 1° below zero January 17, and 97° above zero July 8. Upon 16 days the mercury reached 90°. On the isothermal charts the lines crossing West Virginia are: Spring, 50°-52° ; summer, 70°-72°;^ autumn, 52°-55°; winter, 30°; annual mean, 50°-52°. Agricultural Productions. — The last census reported 8,528,- 394 acres in farms, of which 2,580,254 acres were improved; average size of fiirms, 214 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $120,892,738; value of productions, $23,379,692. The product of 945,- 349 acres devoted to Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, tobacco and hay, in 1873, was $14,187,511. In 1874 there were in the State 104,600 horses, 2390 mules, 242,500 oxen and other cattle, 124,300 milch cows, 334,000 hogs and 555,900 sheep. Of those whose occupations were reported, 64.19 per cent, were employed in agriculture. Manufactures. — The number of manufacturing establishments was 2444; hands employed, 11,672; value of materials, $14,503,701; value of products, $24,102,201. Products of iron were the leading industries, and were valued as follows : Nails and spikes, cut and wrought, $4,665,- 000; iron, forged and rolled. $4,025,620; iron, pig, $577,200; iron, cast- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 385 ings, $291,972; stoves, hoiitcrs und hollow ware, $274,100. Salt was pro- duced to the value of $1,507,005; lumber, $1,344,512; leather, tanned, $527,016, and 'leather, curried, $313,229; coal oil, rectified, $432,650; cooperage, $488,476; woollen goods, $870,191; carriages aud wagons, $303,690; tobacco, cigars, $268,348. Minerals and Mining". — West Virginia has mineral treasures of immense value. Iron ores are abundant, and some of the best yield 83 per cent, of pure metal. Coal measures underlie thousands of square miles, yielding bituminous, splint, ])eacock and cannel coal. Petroleum is plenty enough to have afflicted most of the inhabitants with the "oil fever" [see Physical Geography, pp. 186-189]. Marble, limestone, flagstones, etc., exist in nearly every section. Silver, copper, nickel, lead, antimony, arsenic, sulphur, gypsum, borax, sodium, alum and fire-clay have been found. Salt-wells yield millions of bushels of salt every year. In 1870 there were 185 mining establishments; hands employed, 1527; value of products, $2,538,531. Commerce and Navigation. — No direct foreign commerce is carried on from the ports of this State, but 234 vessels, with an aggi-egate tonnage of 23,652, are employed in the river trade. Thirty-five vessels, of which seven were steamers, were built during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874. Railroads and Canals. — Extending across the State is the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad, which ascends 1900 feet within a distance of 17 miles. The railroad mileage in 1874 was 576; average cost per mile, $35,322; receipts per mile, $10,240. The Ohio and Chesapeake Canal, extending along the Potomac, has a course of 100 miles across West Vir- ginia ; and the James River Canal is designed to extend through to the Great Kanawha River. Public Institutions and Education. — The State Peniten- tiary, at Watson, contains 224 cells. The Asylum for the Insane, at Weston, is situated upon a farm of 273 acres ; the original plan provided for buildings having a frontage of 1200 feet. An Asylum for the Deaf, Dumb and Blind has been established at Romney. In 1865 a system of free schools was established, and the laws were amended in 1873. Educa- tional statistics for 1873-4 were given as follows: Number of schools, 2857; teachers, 3082; children, 171,793; pupils, enrolled, 81,100; value of school-houses, $1,216,892; expenditures for schools, $748,064; amount of State school fund, $211,825. Three normal schools are in successful operation. The colleges, three in number, are Bethany College, West Vir- ginia College aud West Virginia University. With the last the Agricul- tural College is connected, and the entire property of the University is valued at $200,000. Theological instruction is given at St. Vincent's Col- lege. The census reported 1728 libraries, 59 periodicals (increased to 75, 25 386 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES of which 6 were published daily, in 1875) and 1529 religious organizations, having 1018 edifices. Cities and. Towns. — Wheeling, the capital of West Virginia and its leading commercial and manufacturing city, -is situated on the Ohio River, 95 miles below Pittsburg and 365 miles above Cincinnati. A wire suspension bridge 1010 feet long spans the river. Railroads radiate in four directions. The manufactories are very numerous and extensive, including founderies, stove-works, glass-works, breweries, tanneries, paper-mills, oil- distilleries, planing-mills, machine-shops, iron-works for the production of bar-, sheet-, plate- and railroad-iron, etc. There are six newspapers, three of which are issued daily. Population in 1870, 19,280, and estimated at 27,000 in 1875. Parkersburg, the second city of the State, is situated at the junction of the Little Kanawha River with the Ohio. This is the geo- graphical and business centre of the "oil region," and has grown with extreme rapidity. A large wholesale trade is carried on, and there are several manufacturing establishments, tanneries, oil-refineries, breweries and pork-packing houses. A daily newspaper and six other periodicals are issued. The population numbered 5546 in 1870, and was estimated at 8000 in 1875. Charleston, upon the Great Kanawha River, 60 miles above its mouth, was made the capital of West Virginia by an act which took effect April 30, 1870. A State-House was erected at a cost of $60,000 ; but the citizens of many parts of the State found Charleston difficult of access, and a bill passed the legislature providing for the removal of the capital to AVheeling. The constitutionality of the act was questioned and the matter was brought before the Supreme Court, which, on the loth of September, 1875, declared, with the unanimous concurrence of all the judges, that the capital removal bill was constitutional. The trade of the Kanawha valley, which is rich in salt, iron, timber, coal and agricultural products, centres at Charleston. There are four newspapei's and eight churches. Population, 3162 in 1870, and about 5000 in 1875. Martins- hurg, in the north-eastern corner of the State, contains extensive railroad repair-shops, eleven churches and two newspapers. Population, about 7000, in 1875 ; in 1870, 4863. The other most populous towns are Bolivar (2892), Mill Creek (2821), Moorefield (2676), Morgan (2536) and Blue Sulphur (2148). Population.— The population of AVest Virginia in 1870 (which was the first Federal census taken after it became a separate State) was 442,- 014, of whom 17,980 were colored; 17,091 were foreign and 424,923 native born; 381,297 were born in Virginia or West Virginia, and 43,626 had come in from other States. There were 19.22 persons to a square mile. Twelve of the States were less densely peopled and ten contained a smaller number of inhabitants. Government and Laws.— The legislature consists of a senate CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 387 of 22 members, elected for two years, and a house of delegates of 57 mem- bers, elected for one year. Senators and delegates are paid $3 per day during the sessions, which are annual and limited to 45 days. The execu- tive officers are a governor (salary, $2000), secretary of State, treasurer, auditor and attorney-general, all of whom hold office for two years. State elections are held on the fourth Thursday in October. The supreme court consists of three judges, whose term of office is twelve years. There are eleven judicial districts, in each of which circuit courts are held. A gen- eral law authorizes the formation of corporations, the capital of which "may not exceed one million dollars." The State is divided into 53 coun- ties. For the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the receipts into the treasury were $695,951 ; disbursements, $657,183 ; balance in the treasury, $282,364. History. — The Blue Ridge Mountains marked the western boundaries of settled Virginia until a century ago. Eastern Virginia possessed half a million of population at that time, while West Virginia was yet an almost unbroken wilderness. Settlements were made in Greenbrier and Berkeley counties before the close of the Revolutionary war. Soon afterward the tide of emigration passed over the mountains and rolled westward. The pioneer settlers were of English, Scotch and Irish descent, with a slight intermixture of Pennsylvania German blood. "West Virginia began its separate histor}'^ on the 13th of May, 1861, when delegates from 25 coun- ties met in convention at Wheeling and passed resolutions opposing the ordinance of secession which Virginia had passed. On the 11th of June representatives from 40 counties assembled, and measures were taken for the establishment of a provisional government. The first legislature as- sembled at Wheeling July 2. A constitutional convention met Nov. 26, and the Constitution proposed was ratified by the people May 3, 1862. An act of Congress providing for the admission of West Virginia as a State was approved by the President on the 31st of December, 1862. WISCONSIN. Situation and Extent. — Wisconsin is bounded on the N. and N. E. by Lake Superior and the State of Michigan, E. by Lake Michigan, S. by Illinois, S. W. and W. by Iowa and Minnesota. It is situated be- tween latitudes 42° 30' and 46° 58' N. and longitudes 10° and 15° 30' W. from AVashington, or 87° and 92° 30' W. from Greenwich. The length from north to south is 310 miles, the breadth from east to west 285 miles and the area 53,924 square miles, or 34,511,360 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The general elevation of the sur- face is from 600 to 1500 feet above the sea level. There are many hills, but no high mountains. Lake Superior is 627 feet and Lake Michigan 583 feet above the ocean. The eastern section of the State, between Lake Michigan and Lake Winnebago, is an undulating plain, elevated 300 feet 388 BIJRLEY'S UNITED STATES above the lake. The lead region of the south-west has three general divis- ions — bottom-lands, bluffs and upland, or prairie. Precipitous slopes rise to a height of 200 or 300 feet, and above these is a gradual ascent of 600 or 700 feet. West Blue Mound, the highest summit, is elevated 1151 feet above Lake Michigan and 1734 feet above the ocean. North of the Wis- consin River are rolling prairies. The northern region is rough and broken and intersected by ridges of rocks, while the valleys contain many swamps and marshes. This section is drained in three directions — south toward the Mississippi, north toward Lake Superior and east toward Lake Michi- gan. Rivers and Lakes. — The Montreal and the Menomonee Rivers con- stitute a part of the boundary between North-eastern Wisconsin and Mich- igan. The former, flowing north-west into Lake Su23crior, has a descent of 800 feet in the course of 30 miles, and the latter falls 1050 feet as it flows south-east to Green Bay. Running through the centre of the State is the Wisconsin River, which rises near the northern boundary, and after a course of 600 miles, for 200 of which it is navigable, discharges its waters into the Mississippi. Other affluents of the Mississippi are the Bad Axe, Black, Chippewa and the St. Croix, which, with the Mississippi, marks the western boundary of Wisconsin and affords steamboat navigation for 350 miles. Emptying into Green Bay is the Fox River, 200 miles long ; its principal tributary, the Wolf, has a length of 150 miles. Lake Michigan washes the eastern shore for 200 miles, and Lake Superior the northern shore for 100 miles. Within the limits of the State are a great number of lakes, varying in length from one to thirty miles, and abounding in fish. Lake Winnebago is 28 miles long and 10 wide. The " Four Lakes," in Dane county, celebrated for their beautiful scenery, are from ^l to 9l> miles long and navigable for small steamboats. Forests. — Immense forests of white and Norway pine and of hard wood extend over the central and northern districts. The bottom-landa along the rivers are also thickly wooded. Among the forest trees are the ash, aspen, basswood, birch, black- walnut, cedar, elm, hemlock, hickory, linden, maple, poplar, spruce, syca- more and tamarac ; 3,437,442 acres of woodland were contained in farms at the last census. Soil and Climate. — The prairie soil is a vegetable mould of a dark- brown color, from one to eight feet deep and of great fertility. There is a large proportion of silex and but little clay. Good crops are raised from the cleared timber lands. Oak openings, where the undergrowth has been kept down by prairie-fires, afford some of the finest lands already pre- pared for the husbandman. The mineral region, in the north-west, is not well adapted for agriculture. Winter gives " bracing weather" in Wiscon- sin. The first fall of snow often remains upon the ground until spring. Rivers and lakes close about the middle of December and open the last of March or the first of April. Upon the isothermal charts the lines crossing CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 389 the Stale for the several seasons are: Spring, 40°-45° ; summer, 65°-70° ; autumn, 43°-50°; winter, 15°-25° ; annual mean, 40°-47°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at La Crosse was 45.9° ; minimum, 19° below zero; maximum, 101°; range, 120°; mean of the coldest month (January), 20.2°; warmest mouth (July), 77.1°. Upon 16 days the mercury fell below zero, and upon 27 days rose above 90°. At Milwaukee the mean for January was 23°, for July 71.5° and for the year 45.8°; the highest observed temperature was 98°. A frost, which badly damaged corn and other crops, was reported from 13 counties in various parti> of the State on the 22d of August, 1875. Agricultural Productions. — According to the last Federal census, Wisconsin contained 11,715,321 acres in farms, of which 5,899,343 acres were improved; average size of farms, 114 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $359,964,310; value of productions, ^78,- 027,032. In 1873 the number of acres devoted to Indian corn, wheat, rye, oats, barley, buckwheat, potatoes, tobacco and hay was 3,967,328, and the value of the crops $58,814,400. The live-stock in 1874 consisted of 335,- 300 horses, 4800 mules, 444,800 oxen and other cattle, 442,700 milch cows, 618,800 hogs and 1,187,600 sheep. Of the working population 54.53 per cent, were employed in agriculture. Manufactures. — Manufacturing establishments were reported to the number of 7013; hands employed, 43,910; value of material, $45,851,266 • value of products, $77,214,326. Among the leading industries in value were: Flouring-mill products, $16,035,734; lumber, planed and sawed, $15,744,989 (but three States produced more); carriages and wagons, $2,596,534; agricultural implements, $2,393,428; leather, curried, $2,360,- 347; leather, tanned, $2,013,093; clothing, $2,340,438; sash, doors and blinds, $1,852,370; malt liquors, $1,790,273; furniture, $1,542,356; iron, castings, $1,137,324; stoves, heaters and hollow-ware, $285,869; pig-iron, $737,268; woollen goods, $1,115,646; pig-lead, $514,402; and brick, $509,606. Minerals and Mining*. — The lead region of Wisconsin, contigu- ous to that of Illinois and Iowa, extends over 2200 square miles, an area larger than the State of Delaware. The first mention of lead in this region was made by Captain Carver, who visited the country in 1766. In the spring of 1828 lead was discovered at Mineral Point, and before autumn the district contained 8000 inhabitants. The Lake Superior copper region, " one of the richest in the world," extends into this State. Iron and zinc have also been found in large quantities. Marble and limestone furnish an abundance of building material. The product of 80 mines reported by the Federal census was $510,982. Commerce and Navigation. — Great advantages for navigation are afforded to Wisconsin by the lakes and rivei's which wash its bounda- 390 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES ries aud penetrate its interior counties. Steamers have loaded their cargoes at the docks of Milwaukee and discharged them at the docks of Liverpool, thus showing the possibility of "direct trade with Europe." During the year ending Juue 30, 1874, the arrivals of steamers and sailing vessels at Milwaukee numbered 8447 and the departures 8331 ; amount of duty col- lected, $192,443. At Racine there w^ere 1010 arrivals and the same num- ber of departures. Belonging to the ports of Wisconsin were 339 vessels, of which 80 were steamers ; 33 vessels were built during the year. Im- provements are in progress for the purpose of connecting Lake Michigan with the Mississippi River through the Fox and Wisconsin Rivers. Con- gress appropriated $600,000 during 1873 and 1874, aud the report of the chief engineer says that $750,000 can be profitably expended during the year ending June 30, 1876. Three millions of dollars is the estimated cost of the improvements. Railroads. — The mileage of railroads in 1854 was 97; in 1874 it had increased to 2428 ; cost per mile, $35,717 ; total capital account, $97,- 417,063; receipts, $11,181,149; receipts per mile, $4255; receipts to au inhabitant, $9.40 ; net earnings, $3,823,607. Public Iiistitutioiis and Education. — The State Prison at Waupun, in Fond du Lac county, contains about 200 convicts, of whom more than 30 have been sentenced to imprisonment for life. Connected with the prison is a school, in which from 40 to 70 of the convicts receive instruction. A State Hospital for the Insane was established in 1860 on the banks of Lake Mendota, seven miles from Madison. Another asylum, near Lake Winnebago, was opened in April, 1873. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb is at Delavan, and the Asylum for the Blind at Janesville. An Industrial School for boys is in successful operation at Waukesha. The school statistics for 1873-4 were: Number of children between the ages of four and twenty years, 436,001 ; attending school, 283,477 ; number of schools, 5540 ; teachers, 8903 ; school-houses, 4957 ; valuation of school-houses, $3,995,422; income for school purposes, $2,628,- 027 ; expenditures, $2,093,412 ; amount of school funds, $2,389,488. Four normal schools have been established for the training of teachers. There are 10 colleges and universities, of which Beloit ranks, as the oldest. The University of Wisconsin has 26 instructors and more than 500 students ; its property is valued at upward of $800,000. Professional instruction is affi)rded by three schools of theology, one school of law and one of science. In 1870 there were 2883 libraries, 190 periodicals (increased to 253, of which 19 were published daily, iu 1875) and 1864 religious organizations, having 1466 edifices. Cities and Towns.— 3fadlson, the capital, is situated between Lakes Mendota and Monona, the largest of the celebrated "Four Lakes." The land on which the city stands was purchased for $1500 in 1836. In the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 391 same year the territorial legislature passed an act locating the capital at this point. The village was "staked out" in February, 1837, and on the 4th day of July the corner-stone of the capitol was laid. The State Insane Asylum, the University of Wisconsin and the Soldiers' Orphans' Home are located here. Railroads radiate in six directions. Seven periodicals are published, of which two are issued daily. The library of the State Historical Society contains 60,000 volumes, and there are three other public libraries. Population, 9176 in 1870, and about 11,000 in 1875. Milwau- kee, the commercial metropolis of the State, is situated on both sides of the Milwaukee River, upon the western shore of Lake Michigan. Its harbor is one of the best upon the lakes, and the shipping business is very exten- sive and constantly increasing. Grain, flour, lumber and pork are the leading articles of shipment. Five I'ailroads concentrate the produce of the surrounding country at the docks of Milwaukee. Among the manu- factories are iron-works, founderies, machine-shops, flouring-mills, brew- eries, tanneries, woollen-mills, boiler-shops, etc. Twenty-nine periodicals are published, of which nine are issued daily; four dailies and four week- lies are printed in the German language. The first settlement was made in 1835. In 1838 the population was 700 ; in 1846, 9655 ; in 1870, 71,440, and in 1875 (State census), 101,049. Fond du Lac, at the southern ex- tremity of Lake Winnebago, has steamboat connection with Green Bay, and railroads radiate in five directions. The city contains 45 mills and factories, 16 churches and 4 newspaper offices. Population estimated at 20,000; in 1870 it was 12,764. Oshkosh, upon the western shore of Lake Winnebago, at the mouth of the Fox River, carries on a mercantile and manufacturing business of $10,000,000 a year. It is the seat of an Asylum for the Insane, which was erected at an expense of $600,000. There are 19 churches and 4 newspapers. Population, 12,663 in 1870, and about 15,000 in 1875. Racine has a commodious harbor upon Lake Michigan, and is an important port of shipment for grain and other produce. One manufacturing establishment carries on a business of $1,500,000 annually. Population, 9880 in 1870, and about 15,000 in 1875. La Crosse, at the mouth of the river of the same name, is the most important city of Wis- consin upon the Mississippi. It has eight newspapers, of which two are issued daily. Population about 10,000; in 1870, 7785. Janesville, on Rock River, at the junction of two railroads, is an important and growing town, having 3 newspapers and 11 churches. Population, 8789. Other leading towns are Watertown (7550), Sheboygan (5310), Mineral Point (4825), Beloit (4396), Kenosha (4309), Ripon (4119), Portage (3945) and Prairie du Chien (3661). The last named is one of the oldest towns in the State, and in 1766 contained about 300 families and houses " well built after the Indian fashion." Growth iu Population. — The number of inhabitants in 1840 392 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES was 30,945; in 1850, 305,391; in 1860, 775,881; in 1870, 1,054,670. The rate of increase between 1840 and 1850 was 886.2 per cent., a rajiidity of growth which was never equalled in any of the United States, with a single exception [see Minnesota, page 286]. Wisconsin ranked last in popula- tion in 1840, while in 1870 22 of the States contained a smaller number of inhabitants. The foreign-born numbered 364,499 and the natives 690,- 171, of whom 450,272 were born in Wisconsin and 239,899 had come in from other States. New York supplied 105,697; Ohio, 23,164; Pennsyl- vania, 21,358; Vermont, 16,421; Illinois, 12,234; Massachusetts, 10,403. The density of population was 19.56 to a square mile. Goveriiment and Laws. — The legislative authority is vested in a senate of 33 members, elected for two years, and an assembly of 100 members, chosen annually. The executive and administrative officers are a governor, lieutenant-governor, secretary of State and an attorney-general, all of whom hold office for a term of two years. The judicial power is vested in a supreme court, circuit courts, courts of probate and justices of the peace. Three judges constitute the supreme court. Judges of probate are chosen for each county and justices of the peace for each town. Cap- ital punishment was abolished in 1852. At the expiration of 20 years, dur- ing which time 71 had been sentenced to the Penitentiary for life, of whom 36 remained. Gov. Washburn said, "No State in the Union can boast greater exemption from crime than Wisconsin." The State is entitled to 8 representatives in Congress. In 1874 the value of taxable property was $346,476,464. History. — An agent of the Canadian government first visited this region in the summer of 1639. On the 14th of June, 1671, the French took formal possession of the countries " which are bounded on the one side by the Northern and Western Seas and on the other by the South Sea, including all its length and breadth, in the name of the most high, most mighty and most redoubtable monarch Louis the Fourteenth of the Chris- tian name. King of France and Navarre." Marquette and Joliet reached Green Bay May 13, 1673. They crossed from the Fox to the Wisconsin River and sailed down it to the Mississippi, which they discovered June 17. The French jurisdiction was surrendered to Great Britain by the treaty of Paris Feb. 10, 1763. By the ordinance of July 13, 1787, all the territory north-west of the Ohio was organized. About the year 1809 the first saw- and grist-mill was built. Wisconsin became a part of the Terri- tory of Michigan Oct. 16, 1818, was organized as a separate Territory April 20, 1836, and on the 29th of May, 1848, received admission into the Union as the twenty-ninth State. The name is derived from the Wisconsin River, which near its head is called, in the Chippewa dialect, "Wees-kon- san," signifying "gathering of the waters." CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 393 THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. Situation and Extent. — The District of Columbia, Avhich con- tains the capital of the United States, is situated upon the north bank of the Potomac River, 295 miles from the Atlantic Ocean. It is separated from Virginia by the river, and is bounded upon three sides by Maryland. The Observatory, from which longitude is determined for the United States, is in latitude 38° 53' 38" N. and longitude 77° 3' 6" W. from Greenwich. The District is ten miles in length, six miles in average breadth and con- tains an area of 64 square miles, or 40,960 acres. From the Potomac the ground rises into low hills, affording fine sites for buildings. Observatory Hill is 96 feet and Capitol Hill 90 feet above the river. Rock Creek, the Anacostia, or Eastern Branch, and the Tiber are small streams which dis- charge their waters into the Potomac. Climate. — For a considerable portion of the year the climate is so delightful as to constitute one of the great attractions of residence. Dur- ing the year ending September 30, 1874, the mean temperature was 55.8°, which was very nearly the same as at San Francisco (55.5°). The mean for the coldest mouth (February) was 36.4°, and for the warmest mouth (July) 78.4° ; upon the coldest day (January 18) the thermometer indi- cated 9°, and upon the hottest (June 9) 102.5°. The mercury fell to the freezing point upon 87 days and rose to 90° upon 34 days, while a temper- ature of above 100° was suffered upon 3 days. The isothermal lines cross- ing the District are: Spring, 55°; summer, 75°; autumn, 55°; winter, 35°; annual mean, 55°. Agriculture and Manufactures. — The Federal census re- ported 11,677 acres in farms, of which 8266 acres were improved; aver- age size of farms, 56 acres; value of farms and farm implements, $3,839,- 680; value of productions, including betterments, etc., $319,517; of market-garden products, $112,034; of orchard products, $6781. The District contained 6029 horses and 1801 neat cattle. Manufacturing establishments were reported to the number of 952; hands employed, 4685; value of products, $9,292,173, of which $1,541,886 was credited to the fiour-mills and $688,603 to printing and publishing. Commerce and Navigation. — At the close of the fiscal year June 30, 1874, there were belonging to the District, of which Georgetown is the port of entry, 472 vessels, of 28,196.5 tons; the value of imports was $173 and of exports $1610. Twenty-seven vessels were built, includ- ing 17 canal-boats. The Chesapeake and Ohio Canal extends to Cumber- land, Md., 180 miles ; for its construction and repair $13,943,278 have been expended. Three railroads enter the District, the statistics of which are combined with those of Maryland. Public Institutions and Education. — Among the leading: 394 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES charitable institutions are the Government Hospital for the Insane, Colum- bia Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, National Soldiers' Home, National Soldiers' and Sailors' Orphans' Asylum, Washington City Asylum and Columbia Hospital. Congress passed a compulsory school act in 1864. The school population in 1873 was 31,671 ; pupils in public schools, 16,770; in private schools, 6759; teachers, 271; value of public school property, $1,005,407; expenditures, $298,281. There are five colleges (one of which is for deaf mutes), two schools of theology, four of law and four of medi- cine. The Smithsonian Institution, " for the increase and diffusion of know- ledge among men," was founded by James Smithson, of J^ngland. Its grounds occupy 522- acres, and the building has a length of 447 feet. The Naval Observatory contains one of the largest equatorial telescopes in the world, with a lens 26 inches in diameter. At the time of the last census there were 696 libraries, of which 127 were other than private. The Library of Congress contains 270,000 volumes and 55,000 pamphlets. There were 111 religious organizations, having 112 edifices; and 23 period- icals, of which 3 were issued daily; 5 dailies and 27 periodicals of all kinds were issued in 1875. PoiJlllatioil. — The number of inhabitants at successive decennial periods has been as follows: In 1800, 14,093; in 1810, 24,023; in 1820, 33,039; in 1830, 39,834; in 1840, 43,712; in 1850, 51,687; in 1860, 75,080; and in 1870, 131,700 (an increase of 75.41 per cent.). Four of the States and all of the other Territories contained a smaller population. There were 2057.81 persons to a square mile. The number of foreign-born was 16,254 and of native-born 115,446, of whom 52,340 were natives of the District and 63,106 had come in from other parts of the Union. The National Capital. — Washington is situated 226 miles from New York and 1203 miles from New Orleans. It is laid out with rectan- gular streets, which are crossed obliquely by avenues bearing the names of the States. These avenues are 21 in number and have a width of from 120 to 160 feet. The principal avenues centre at the Capitol, which is the most imposing building in the United States. It has a length of 751 feet, a depth of 324 feet and a height, to the top of the statue upon its dome, of 3072 feet. More than 3 J acres of ground are covered by the structure, which was erected at a cost of $13,000,000. The weight of the iron dome is 8,000,000 pounds. The Executive Mansion, or "White House," is 170 feet in length and 86 feet in depth. The Treasury Department building is 582 feet long, 300 feet wide and cost $6,000,000. The Patent Office, 406 i feet long and 275 feet wide, cost $2,700,000. Other offices of the Department of the Interior are in this building. The State, War and Navy Departments have occupied buildings of inferior appearance, but a new edifice for their accommodation was begun in 1871, which is 567 feet in length and 342 feet in width ; it is built of Maine granite and designed CENTEXXIAL GAZETTEER AXD G UIDE. 395 to be absolutely fireproof. Among the other noteworthy buildings are the General Post-Office, Smithsonian Institution, Cbrcoran Art Gallery, Arse- nal, City Hall and the Xaval Observatory. The population of the city, which was 109,199 in 1870, was estimated in 1875 at 150,000. George- town (population, 11,384^ is separated from Washington by Kock Creek, whicl^ is spanned by four bridges. Steamers run regularly to Baltimore, N"orfolk, Philadelphia, New York and Boston. It is the seat of George- town College, which was founded in 1791. The city was incorporated Dec. 25, 1789. Outside the old limits of Washington and Georgetown are several small villages within the county of Washington, which is coexten- sive with the District of Columbia. The number of inhabitants in these districts was 11,117. GoTermiieiit and Laws. — The District of Columbia is under the immediate jurisdiction of the Congress of the United States. On the '21st of February, 1871, an act was passed establishing a local government for municipal purposes throughout the District. The city charters of Washington and Georgetown were repealed and their municipal govern- ment vested in that of the District. Legislative power is vested in an assembly, which consists of a council of 11 members and a house of dele- gates of 22 members, chosen annually by the people. A governor and secretary and five judges of the supreme court are appointed by the Pres- ident and paid by the United States. Minor administrative officers and justices of the peace are chosen by the local authorities. Between the years 1797 and 1870 more than §42,000,000 was paid by the general government for the expenses of the District. The amount so paid for the year 1873 was §2,864,889.92; for 1874, $1,079,614.76; and for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1875, 82,044,299.98. History. — It was not until after long discussion that the site of the national capital was fixed upon the banks of the Potomac. A tract of ter- ritory ten miles square was ceded to the United States by Maryland and Yii'ginia in 1788 and 1789. The corner-stone of the District was fixed April 15, 1791, and on the 18th of September, 1793, the corner-stone of the Capitol was laid by George Washington. Li June, 1800, the execu- tive offices were removed from Philadelphia to the new capital. On the 14th of August, 1814, the public buildings were burned by the British. The Capitol was rebuilt, and completed in 1825. That portion of the Dis- trict south of the Potomac was ceded back to Virginia July 9, 1846. In 1851 the corner-stone of the Capitol extensions was laid, and on the 12th of December, 1863, the new dome was crowned with the statue of Freedom. 39G BUELEY'S UNITED STATES THE TERRITOEIES. ALASKA. Situation and Extent. — The (unorganized) Territory of Alaska is bounded on the N. b}^ the Polar Sea, E. by British America, S. by tlie Pacific Ocean and W. by the Sea of Karatschatka (or Behring Sea) and Behring Strait. Including the Aleutian Islands, it extends from latitude 51° 30' to 72° 55' N. and from longitude 53° 2' to 110° 34' W. from Wash- ington, or from 130° 2' to 187° 34' W. (172° 26 E.) from Greenwich. The continental portion is included between the parallels of 130° 2' and 169° 59' W. longitude. The area of the Territory is estimated at 577,390 square miles, or 369,529,600 acres. Physical Features. — Mouniaiiis.— The St. Elias range (a contin- uation of the Coast Mountains of Califox'nia) stretches along the coast to the extremity of the peninsula of Alaska. At longitude 142° W. it blends with a chain of mountains coming from the north and east, in the Alaskan Range. North of this is a broken and rocky country, beyond which are elevated table-lands of immense extent. Bordering the Arctic Ocean is a low range of hills. Sixty-one volcanic peaks are known, of which only ten are now active. The most elevated summits are Mount St. Elias (the height of which, by the measurement of the Coast Survey, is 14,970 feet, though formerly reckoned at from 16,000 to 17,900 feet), Fairweather (14,700 feet), Crillon (13,500 feet), Iliamna Volcano (12,066 feet), Go- ryalaya (11,270 feet), Mount Calder (9000 feet) and the Peaks of the RoraanzofF (from 5000 to 8000 feet). Rivers and Adjacent Watei^s. — The principal rivers emptying into the Pacific, beginning at the south, are the Chilkaht, the Alsekh, Atna or Copper and the Suchitna, "supposed to be several hundred miles long." Discharging their waters into the Behring Sea are the Kuskoquim, from 500 to 600 miles long, and the Yukon, "the Missouri of the north-west," which is 2000 miles long and sometimes has a width of 20 miles ; steamboats drawing four feet of water can ascend it for 1513 miles, and for much of the distance the water has a depth of two fathoms or more. There are several large lakes in the interior; Lake Iliamna is half the size of Lake Ontario. Prince William Sound has a surface area of 2500 square miles. Cook's Inlet is 160 miles long and 65 miles in its greatest breadth. Behring Sea extends from the Aleutian Islands northward to Behring Strait ; Bristol Bay and Norton Sound are its eastern prolongations. Above the strait is the Frozen Sea. On some parts of the coast the tides rise and fall 30 feet ; the greatest range ob- served at Sitka is 13 feet. Islands. — As many as 1100 islands are con- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 397 tained iu the Alexander Archipelago, which includes Sitka and extends down the coast to British Columbia. South of the peninsula of Alaska is the Kadiak Archipelago, the largest island of which (Kadiak) has a length of 85 miles. The Catharina Archipelago sweeps westward almost to the Sea of Kamtschatka. The most important of its several groups are the Aleutian Islands, which extend in a regular curve for 875 miles. In the Arctic Ocean a large island, or extent of land, has been discovered, but not yet explored. Forests. — The coast region as far north as Prince William Sound is densely wooded, and the trees grow to a gigantic size. The Sitka sjiruce attains a height of from 180 to 200 feet. The yellow cedar, which is the most valuable timber, sometimes has a diameter of 8 feet. Willows are very abundant. Other common trees are the hemlock, balsaiu fir, scrub-pine, arbor vitDs, larch, pojilar, red and white alder, etc. Very few trees grow on the Aleutian Islands. Birch is the only hard wood seen in the Yukon district. Soil and Climate. — Travellers have observed that Alaska is nat- urally divided into three districts, differing greatly from each other in soil and climate. (1.) The Yukon district extends from the Polar Sea as far south as the Alaskan Mountains. IMuch of the soil is described by Dall as "a rich alluvial, composed of very fine sand, mud and vegetable matter brought down by the river, and forming deposits of indefinite depth." In some localities sand and in others clay predominates. Below the depth of three or four feet there is usually a layer of frozen soil six or eight feet in thickness. In summer the thermometer at Fort Yukon, which is north of the Arctic Circle, has indicated a temperature of 112°; and spirit ther- mometers graduated up to 120° have burst under the scorching rays of the sun. The lowest temperature noted was 70° beloiv zero (making a range of 182 degrees), and the annual mean was 16.92°. (2.) The Aleutian dis- trict has in many localities a rich soil of vegetable mould and dark-colored clay. The climate is moist and warm, and said to be as mild as in the Highlands of Scotland. Observations continued for five years showed a mean temperature of 37.8° ; the maximum was 77° and the minimum zero. The great warm current of the North Pacific (the " Black Stream " of the Japanese) washes these coasts, and greatly modifies the climate. (3.) The Sitkau district extends southward from the Peninsula of Alaska to the British line. The soil is a vegetable mould upon a subsoil of dark clay or gravel. At Sitka the mean temperature for 12 years was 42.9°. For the winter the average was 33° (which was warmer than Philadelphia), but the highest mean for a summer month was 58.3°, in Juh'. The greatest rainfall was 95 inches, and the average 83.39 inches. Upon 245 days of the year there was rain, hail, snow or heavy fog. Productions. — Agriculture. — At Sitka attempts have been made to cultivate fruit, but without success. Turnips attain to a very large size; 398 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES potatoes are small and watery. Cranberries grow wild, and berries of many kinds are very abundant. At Kadiak beans, peas, beets, lettuce, parsnips, cabbages, radishes, carrots and other vegetables have been raised. Grass grows to a height of two feet. Barley has matured at Fort Yukon. One hundred and eighteen species of indigenous plants have been cata- logued. Minerals. — Of these not much is known. Coal, iron, bismuth and petroleum are among the minerals discovered. Specimens of pure cop- per have been brought in by the Indians from Copper River. Fur-hearing Animals. — Alaska has thus far been valued chiefly for the number of ani- mals whose skins brought a high price in the market. Among these ani- mals are the sea-otter, beaver, fur-seal, fox (black and silver, cross, red, white and blue), marten, wolverine, wolf, mink, bear, muskrat, hair-seal and w^ildcat, or lynx. Six million arctic seal-skins have been taken since 1841. The length of a full-sized skin of the sea-otter is six feet, and its width about four feet. These are the Russian sables, worth $100 or more each. Fisheries. — The Report of the Coast Survey says: "As the banks of Newfoundland have been to the trade of the Atlantic, so will the greater banks of Alaska be to the Pacific." The cod and salmon are innumerable. Herring are so plentiful that "an Indian will fill his canoe in twenty min- utes." Alaska also furnishes good whaling-ground. - Commerce and Navigation. — During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, 12 vessels were registered; 36 vessels entered and 33 cleared; the value of exports was $9381; of imports, $1167. Population and Towns. — The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 29,097, of whom 26,843 were born in the Territory, 483 were Russians and 350 natives of the United States and other foreigners not Russians. Not more than 1300 were civilized; 1421 were half-breeds. Sitka, or New Archangel, the capital, is situated on an island 1296 miles north of San Francisco. It contains about 1000 inhabitants and 150 buildings, of which the principal are the Governor's House, Hospital, Barracks and Greek Church. St. Paul, on Kadiak Island, contains about 100 houses. There are many small villages of Aleutians. History. — Vitus Behring, a Russian navigator, visited the country on the 18th of July, 1741. Captain Cook sailed up the inlet called by his name in 1788. In 1799 the Russian American Fur Company was organ- ized. Its charter expired in 1862. Before the laying of the Atlantic cable explorations were made to determine the feasibility of a telegraph line over land and across Behriug Strait. On the 28th of May, 1867, a treaty was ratified by which the whole Territory was transferred to the United States for the sum of $7,200,000, and on the 18th of October, in the same year, it was formally surrendered to the United States commis- sioner. The name Alaska is a corruption of a Russian word, the root- meaning of which is "a great country." CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 399 ARIZONA. Situation and Extent. — Arizona is bounded on the N. by Utah, E. by New Mexico, S. by Mexico and W. by California and Nevada, from the latter of which it is separated by the Colorado River. The Territory is situated between latitudes 31° and 37° N. and longitudes 32° and 37° 40' W. from Washington, or 109° and 114° 40' W. from Greenwich. Its greatest length from north to south is about 400 miles and its greatest breadth from east to west 325 miles. The area is 113,916 square miles, or 72,906,240 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — There are four distinctly-marked varieties of surface. (1.) The river-bottoms, of which the most extensive are in the valleys of the Santa Cruz, San Pedro and Gila Rivers. (2.) Dry plains, of vast extent, containing very little vegetation and elevated but a few hundred feet above the sea-level. The region south of the Gila and east of the San Pedro is of this character. (3.) Elevated plateaus or table-lands, called mesas, at a height of from 3000 to 8000 feet above the sea, with occasional peaks rising 2500 feet higher. These plateaus cover the central and north-eastern portions of the territory. (4.) The moun- tain ranges, which run nearly parallel from the north-west to the south- east, with deep valleys between. The highest peaks are Mount San Fran- cisco, more than 11,000 feet high, and Bill Williams Mount. South of these are the Juniper Mountains, a chain of low, rolling hills. Eastward are the Black Hills, rugged and steep, and a favorite stronghold of the hostile Indians. Forests. — The delta of the Colorado and the Gila has a dense growth of timber. Extensive pine woods cover the grand Colorado plateau, alternating with open parks. The Juniper Mountains are thickly wooded, and this region has been styled "the Black Forest" country. Along the streams the cottonwood flourishes, and back of this grows the mesquit, palo verde and greasewood. The brown and grizzly bear and other wild animals are sometimes encountered, and there are many herds of deer and antelope. Rivers. — The Colorado River, which is more than 1100 miles long, is formed by the union in Utah of the Green River, rising in the mountains between Idaho and Wyoming, with the Grand River, rising in the Rocky Mountains near the centre of Colorado. Its principal branches are the Little Colorado, Bill Williams Creek and the Gila. The river flows through deep canons, of which one, called the Grand Canon, has a perpendicular wall fully 6000 feet in height. Steamers ascend the Col- orado to Callville, more than 600 miles above its mouth. The Gila, rising in New Mexico, flows across the southern part of Arizona and empties into the Colorado 180 miles above its mouth. Flat-bottomed boats are able to pass up it for a considerable distance. All of Southern Arizona is drained through the tributaries of the Gila, of which the principal are the San 400 ^BUELEY'S UNITED STATES Domingo, San Pedro and Santa Cruz on the south, and the Bonito, San Carlos, Salt and Verde Rivers on the north. Many of the streams run through deep ravines, which are called box canons, from the steepness of their sides. Soil and Climate. — The river valleys contain a considerable quan- tity of fertile, alluvial laud, which by irrigation is made to produce boun- tiful crops. South of the Gila is a sterile waste, with only scant vegetation. On the plateaus of the central and northern sections grass grows luxuriantly, and the immense herds of cattle need no artificial shelter during the winter, as frosts are rare and snow seldom falls. A United States exploring expe- dition, sent out in 1871, experienced variations of temperature ranging from 8° to 109°. The mercury is said to rise sometimes to a height of 130° Fahrenheit. The rainy season extends from June to September, but the quantity of water falling is very small. The rainfall of 1857 in Lower Arizona w^as less than one-third of an inch, but in the following year it reached 8.57 inches. Upon the isothermal charts the lines of mean tem- perature for Arizona are: Spring, 45°-70° ; summer, 70°-90° ; autumn, 45°-75° ; winter, 30°-55° ; annual mean, 50°-70°. Agriculture and Manufactures. — The number of acres of land in farms at the last census was 21,807, of which 14,585 acres were imjiroved ; average size of farms, 127 acres; value of farms, $161,340; of implements, $20,105; of live-stock, $143,996; total value, $325,441; value of farm productions, $277,998; value of productions per acre of improved ground, $19.06, which Avas greater than the production of any of the Atlantic States except New Jersey. Corn yields from 30 to 60 bushels per acre, and wheat from 20 to 40 bushels. A crop of wheat and of corn can be raised upon the same gi'ound in one season. All the cereals and vegetables of the Northern States may be grown, and in addition figs, oranges and lemons thrive well. The number of manufacturing establish- ments was 18; hands employed, 84; capital, $150,700; wages, $45,580; materials, $110,090; value of products, $185,410. Railroads. — The Texas Pacific Company has been chartered, and received large grants of land to build a railroad along the 32d parallel of latitude, from Marshall, Texas, to San Diego, California. The Atlantic and Pacific Railroad, running from St. Louis westward, will cross Arizona at about the 35th parallel. Mines and Mining-. — Arizona shares in the mineral wealth with which the territory west of the Rocky Mountains is so abundantly endowed. Rich mines were opened by the Mexicans, and abandoned on account of the enmity of the fierce Apaches. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron, platinum and quicksilver have been found in considerable quantities. There are very extensive deposits of salt and beds of gypsum and coal. The bullion product from 1869 to 1873 was estimated at $3,225,000. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 401 Education. — The governoi- of the Territory is ex officio superiiiteud- eut of public instruction. Many of the children are of Mexican parentage and speak the Spanish language. A general school law was passed in 1871, and amended in 1873. In July, 1874, the superintendent wrote: " We now have free schools in every district in the Territory." The edu- cational statistics for 1873-4 were: Number of children between 6 and 21 years of age, 1660; value of school-houses and furniture, $6247; average monthly salary of teachers, SlOO; receipts for school purposes, $13,832.53. The number of librai'ies at the last census was 6 ; volumes, 2000 ; church organizations, 4; newspapers, 1. There were 4 newspapers in 1875. Population and Towns. — The civilized population in 1870 was 9658, of whom 5809 were foreign born and 8849 native. Of the latter, 1240 were born in the Territory, and immigrants had come in from every State of the Union except Nevada. There were 20 Chinese and 32,050 Indians sustaining tribal relations, making the total number of inhabitants 41,710. Tucson is the capital and principal town. It contains a popula- tion of 3224. Arizona City (population, 1144) is admirably situated for trade, at the junction of the Colorado and Gila Rivers, nearly opposite Fort Yuma. Prescott (population, 668) is situated on the great central plateau, 6000 feet above the sea. It was formerly the capital, and is the head-quarters of the army for Arizona. A daily newspaper is published, for which the terms of subscription are $20 per year. Government and Laws. — The governor and other executive officers and the judges of the supreme court are appointed by the President of the United States, as is the case with all the Territories. A salary of $2500 is paid to the governor and judges. Sessions of the supreme court are held annually at the capital. The people elect members for the legis- lature and a delegate to Congress. History. — Arizona is a part of the Territory obtained from Mexico by "the Gadsden Purchase," in 1853, for ten millions of dollars. As early as 1526 Spanish explorers crossed the country. In 1687 a Jesuit mission- ary from Sonora explored the region about the Gila River, and soon after missions were established. A map drawn in 1757 laid down more than 40 towns and villages; the accompanying notes give more than a hun- dred gold and silver mines which were worked by the Spaniards. Solid silver to the value of $40,000 adorned the altar of the church of San Xavier del Bac. Many of the priests and settlers were massacred by the Apaches, and the country was finally abandoned. The banks of the Gila show the ruins of houses and fortifications built of stone in the most sub- stantial manner, and indicating a large population. Arizona was organ- ized as a Territory Feb. 24, 1863. Great losses were inflicted upon the early settlers by the hostile Indians, and the development of the country has been very seriously retarded. 26 402 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES COLORADO. Situation and Extent. — Colorado is bounded on the N. by Wy- oming Territory and Nebraska, E. by Nebraska and Kansas, S. by the Indian Territory and New Mexico and W. by Utah. It lies between lati- tudes 37° and 41° N. and longitudes 25° and 32° W. from Washington, or 102° and 109° W. from Greenwich. The Territory is 375 miles long from east to west, 275 miles wide from north to south, and contains an area of 104,500 square miles, or 66,880,000 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — There are three natural subdivis- ions, of nearly equal size. The eastern section, called "the plains," is a high, rolling plateau, from 4000 to 6000 feet above the sea-level, well wa- tered by mountain streams and scantily timbered. The western section slopes away toward the Great Interior Basin. Near the centre are the Rocky Mountains, about 125 miles broad at the base and consisting of jiarallel and cross ranges which enclose four immense natural parks, each of them as large as some of the smaller States. The North Park contains 2500 square miles and is elevated 9000 feet above the sea-level. Middle Park, 93 miles long and 60 miles wide, has an area of 5600 square miles. Its drainage is westward into the Colorado. In this park are found hot sulphur springs, the waters of which are considered beneficial to invalids. Surrounding this basin on all sides are lofty mountains. Long's Peak, 14,270 feet high, has on one side an almost perpendicular precipice 3000 feet high. Gray's Peak reaches an altitude of 14,340 feet. South Park, 40 miles long, contains 1200 square miles. From the summit of Mount Lin- coln (14,296 feet high) more than 200 peaks upward of 12,000 feet in height can be seen, while 50 peaks reach an altitude of 14,000 feet. San Luis Park, partly in New Mexico, is larger than all the other three combined, and is better adapted for agriculture on account of its southern exposure and lower altitude. Other conspicuous mountain peaks are Pike's Peak (14,147 feet). Mount Evans (14,330 feet), Torrey's (14,336 feet), Prince- ton (14,199 feet). The Mountain of the Holy Cross (13,478 feet) takes' its name from huge fissures in the form of a cross, which are filled with snow and can be seen for 80 miles. Cathedral Rocks are a noteworthy feature in "the Garden of the Gods." Forests and Wild Animals. — Hard woods, such as the oak, maple, elm, birch, etc., are almost unknown. The principal trees are the cedar, cottonwood, fir, hemlock, pine, spruce, larch, box-elder, quaking-aspen, etc. The timber line on the mountains is at an elevation of from 11,500 to 12,080 feet. Fires often sweep through the forests, and trees are prostrated by the heavy winds. Among the wild ani- mals are the antelope, badger, bear, buffalo, cougar, deer, elk, fox, hare, lynx;, mink, marten, prairie-dog and wildcat. Game-birds are plenty. .Mivers.—Tha Arkansas River, at its head, in Tennessee Pass, near Mount CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE 403 Lincoln, has an elevation of 10,176 feet above the ocean. It flows through Colorado for 500 miles, and is swelled by numerous tributaries, of which Purgatory River and Sandy Fork are the most irajiortant. The South Platte, with its branches, drains the north-east section. The Southern Basin is drained by the Rio Grande and the Western by the Colorado, which empties into the Gulf of California. Soil and Climate. — The plains and parks' are fertile along the water-courses. Irrigation brings good crops even on the arid plains, but large sections are unprofitable for cultivation. There is much of excellent grazing country. Often a heavy snow comes late in Octoljer and closes up the mountain passes for the winter. Sometimes these storms delay until February. The snowfall on the last of March has been three feet at Denver and five feet among the mountains. Six feet fell during a single storm on Snake River the latter part of October. A snowfall of three inches was reported September 20, 1875. The average rainfall at Den- ver is 12 inches; in Middle Park, 18 inches; on the mountains, 25 inches. During two years at Denver the mercury ranged from 18° below zero to 99° above; annual mean, 48.19°. The isothermal lines are: Spring, 40°-50°; summer, 60°-72°; autumn, 45°-55°; winter, 20°-30° ; an- nual mean, 40°-50°. The exhilarating mountain air and the magnificent scenery are making Colorado a favorite resort for invalids and summer tourists. Agricultural Productions. — Wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, tur- nips, peas and the hardier garden vegetables thrive at an elevation of 7500 feet. Most of them can be raised as high up as 9000 feet, but they are in danger from frost. At the last census there were 320,346 acres in farms ; improved, 95,594 acres ; average size of farms, 184 acres ; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, 16,529,454; of products, $2,335,106; number of persons engaged in agriculture, 6462. Manufactures.— In 1870 there were 256 establishments, employing 876 hands; value of materials, $1,593,280; of products, $2,852,820. The principal industries were: Flour, 17 establishments, products, $593,506; lumber, 29 establishments, products, $380,260; quartz milled, 15 establish- ments, products, $769,324. Minerals and Mining.— The geological report catalogues 150 different minerals, of which a few are: Agate, amethyst, beryl, chalcedony, jasper, onyx, opal, sardonyx, gold, silver, iron, lead, sulphur, zinc and petroleum. Gold-mining began in 1858-9; the gold-hunters flocked to Pike's Peak as ten years before they did to California. Colorado Gulch yielded $75 a day to each man. One lode yielded $1000 per day. Four millions of dollars in gold were taken out of the placers in California Gulch. Towns grew up in a day. Then the reaction came. The miners were all eager to "sell out." An embryo city which boasted of 2000 in- 404 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES habitants retained but a single family. The yield of gold in 13 years was estimated at $60,000,000. The shipments of gold and silver for the three years 1870-72 were valued at $12,999,46-5. Railroads. — The railroad statistics for 1874 were: Miles of railroad, 687; capital stock, $11,014,300; total capital account, $19,543,414; cost per mile, $44,685; receipts, $1,041,063; receipts per mile, $2392; receipts to an inhabitant, $10.4l; net earnings, $523,713. Education. — There was not a public-school building in the Territory in 1869. In 1870 Black Hawk, Central City and Denver each erected fine buildings; the aggregate cost of the three was $115,000. The returns of 1873-4 reported the value of the school-houses as $260,185; receipts for school purposes, $257,558; teachers, 241; school population, 14,417, of whom 7456 are enrolled in schools. Jarvis Hall, at Golden City, is designed as the foundation for a future university. It has a divinity school and a school of mines. The Rocky Mountain University, to be located at Denvei", has been chartered. Population. — Sixteen years ago Colorado was a part of the " Great American Desert," which was not supposed to be habitable. The first cabin was put up at Denver in 1858. In 1860 the number of inhabitants was 34,277; in 1870, 39,864. The subsequent increase has been very rapid. Cities and Towns. — Denver, the capital, is situated 5197 feet above the sea-level. Five distinct railroads centre here. Four daily newspapers are published. Seven millions of dollars in gold have been received at the branch mint. There are establishments for the manufacture of flour, woollen goods, iron, carriages, etc. Population in 1870, 4759; in 1875 (estimated), 15,000. The other leading towns, with the estimated population in 1875, were: Central City (3000), George- town (3500), Colorado Springs (2500), Golden City (2000), Black Hawk (1500). Government and Laws. — The executive and judicial officers are appointed by the President of the United States. The judges receive a salary of $4500 each. The supreme court consists of 3 judges, each of whom also holds terms of the district court. The legislature, which meets biennially, consists of a council of 13 members and a house of represent- atives of 26 members. History. — Vasquez Coronado, from Mexico, entered the present Terri- tory of Colorado in 1540. United States exploring expeditions were con- ducted by Lieut. Pike in 1806, by Col. Long in 1820, and by Col. John C. Fremont in 1842. Only Mexicans and Spaniards, with a few American hunters, trappers and traders, inhabited the Territory previous to the dis- covery of gold, in 1858. A territorial government was organized Feb. 28, 1861. Congress passed an act in 1875 enabling Colorado to form a State CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 405 government. An election, to be held Oct. 25, 1875, was ordered by the governor, to choose delegates to a constitutional convention, which was to meet December 20 of the same year. This was preparatory to taking ad- vantage of the opportunity given by the above act for admission into the Union. * DAKOTA. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Dakota is bounded on the N. by British America, E. by Minnesota and Iowa, S. by Nebraska and W. by Wyoming and Montana. It is situated between latitudes 42° 30' and 49° N. and longitudes 19° 40' and 27° W. from AVashington, or 96° 20' and 104° W. from Greenwich. The length from north to south is 450 miles, the breadth from east to west 350 miles and the area 150,932 square miles, or 96,596,480 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — In the north-east is the valley of the Red River of the North, which is a level meadow covered with tall grass and an occasional fringe of trees. West of this valley treeless plains stretch out in long rolling swells. Gradually the land ascends, and is broken by rounded ridges and hillocks covered with the short "bunch" or " butfalo " grass, while the streams run through deep, narrow valleys. Two elevated plateaus are noteworthy features of the country : (1.) The Coteau des Prairies extends southward and divides, the eastern arm passing into South-western Minnesota and the western stretching to the Dakota or James River valley; this plateau, 200 miles long and from 15 to 20 miles wide, has an elevation of 2000 feet above the sea. (2.) The Coteau du Missouri, which stretches along the valley of the Missouri River to the mouth of the Yellowstone and passes over into British America, is from 30 to 50 miles wide and from 1500 to 2000 feet above the sea. In the south-west are the Bad Lands (Mauvaises Terres), a deep valley 90 miles long, 30 miles broad and 300 feet below the level of the surrounding country. Fossil remains of many species of animals now extinct are found in great abundance. To the west of the Bad Lands are the Black Hills, extending over into Wyo- ming, and occupying an area 100 miles long and from 50 to 60 miles wide. Some of the peaks attain a height of 6750 feet. Timber. — We quote from the report of Prof. Hayden : " It [Dakota] possesses, probably, the smallest amount of timber of any State [or Territory] in the Union, the forests bearing a ratio of not more than 3 to 5 per cent, to the entire area." Cot- tonwood, which is planted extensively by the farmers, affords plenty of fuel in five years from the seed. Pine forests cover large tracts in the Black Hills. Along the rivers there is a growth of cotton wood, whitewood, poplar, ash, maple, elm, oak, black-walnut, pine and willow. The black bear, wolf, wolverine, otter, marten and mink are common, and immense herds of buffalo, antelope, deer and elk range the vast plains. Rivers and Lakes. — The Red River of the North forms the eastern boundary of Da- 406 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES kota for 250 miles [see Minnesota]. Eight rivers of considerable size flow into it from the west — viz., the Wild Rice, Cheyenne, Elm, Goose, Turtle, Big Salt, Park and Pembina. The Missouri River traverses the Territory from the north-west to the south-east and forms a part of the southern boundary. It is navigable into Montana, near the boundaries of which Territory it receives its principal affluent, the Yellowstone. Other tributaries upon the west are the Little Missouri, Big Knife, Cannon Ball, Big Cheyenne, White and Niobrara. Among the tributaries upon the east are the Dakota, or James River, which flows nearly south for 400 miles and empties into the Missouri below Yankton; the Vermilion, 150 miles long; and the Big Sioux, which forms a jwrtion of the eastern boundary. Devil's Lake, or Minniwakan, 1467 feet above the sea-level, 40 miles long and 10 miles wide, is the largest of a number of salt lakes. Other lakes and ponds, varying in size from one to ten thousand acres, are scattered over the Territory in vast numbers. Soil and Climate.— Along the Missouri River bottoms the soil is a rich, dark, sandy loam, with a large mixture of vegetable mould. Grass yields three tons to the acre. The uplands are especially adapted for wheat, 30 bushels to the acre being an ordinary yield ; and large crops of corn, oats and vegetables are produced. Through the Red River valley, 200 miles long and from 40 to 60 wide, the predominant soil is a black, sandy loam, from two to four feet deep, resting upon a subsoil of yellow clay, which sometimes extends to a depth of ten feet. "All west of the James River is a district not sufficiently supplied with rain," says the report before quoted. During a period of five years, from 1867 to 1871, the average rainfall was 14.09 inches, which is less than half the amount fall- ing in Minnesota, Iowa or Eastern Nebraska. The average depth of the snow, which remains from the middle of November to March, is 16 inches. The variations of temperature are extremely great, as is shown by the report of the United States Signal Service Bureau for the year ending September 30, 1874. At Yankton the mercury fell below zero upon 21 days and rose to 90° upon 32 days; minimum, — 20°; maximum, 101°; yearly mean, 46.4°. At Fort Sully the yearly mean was 46.2°, the mini- mum — 27° and the maximum 106°. Upon 81 days the temperature was below zero, upon 68 days above 90° and itpoji 19 days above 100 degrees. Pembina, in the extreme north-east, near the borders of British America, had a lower mean temperature (34.40°) than that of any signal station in the United States [see Minnesota]. The mercury fell to zero upon 94 days — viz., 10 in November, 21 in December, 25 in January, 20 in February, 16 in INIarch and 2 in April — while upon 4 days it rose to 90°. The minimum Mas 44 degrees below zero and the maximum 96°, a range of 140 degrees. Upon the isothermal charts the lines crossing Dakota are: Spring, 40°-50°; summer, 67°-74°; autumn, 43°-50°; winter, 10°-25°; annual CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 407 mean, 40°-50°. The cold in the north seems less severe because of the absence of high winds. Ag-ricultiire and Manufactures. — The census of 1870 reported 302,376 acres in farms, of which 42,(345 were imj^roved ; average size of farms, 176 acres; value, $2,085,265; value of productions, including bet- terments, etc., $495,657. Seventy bushels of corn, 50 of wheat, 75 of oats and 500 of potatoes have been grown to the acre. Little atten- tion had been given to manufactures. The number of establishments re- ported was 17; hands employed, 91; cajiital, §^79,200; value of products, $178,570. Minerals and Mining-. — The mineral resources of Dakota are yet a subject of investigation and of considerable dispute. Prof. Janney, of the United States Exploring Expedition, in an official report, dated July 31, 1875, says: "It is remarkable that so few valuable minerals have been found in the [Black] Hills, although the country is overrun with miners, and everything in the shape of a rock in any way peculiar in its appearance is brought to me for identification ; but I have not yet seen any mineral containing lead, copper or silver; only iron pyrites, iron ores resulting from its decomposition, mispickel, graphite, black tourmaline, rose quartz, garnets and staurotide as mineralogical curiosities." Railroads. — The number of miles of railroad reported in 1874 w'as 275; total capital account, $2,700,000; cost per mile, $43,548; total re- ceipts, $158,147; receipts per mile, $2592; receipts to an inhabitant, $6.06 ; net earnings, $67,946. Education. — -Up to the year 1865 there were no public schools in the Territory. A school law was passed in 1867 and amended in 1871 and 1873. District schools are free to all children between the ages of 5 and 21 years. In 1873 there were 200 school districts, 100 teachers and 4006 children attending the public schools; expenditure for school purposes. $21,748. The Territory contained, when the last census was taken, 19 libraries, 17 religious organizations, having 10 edifices, and 3 newspapers. In 1875 the newspapers had increased to 14, all of which were published weekly. Population and Towns.— The number of inhabitants in 1870 was 14,181, of whom 4815 were of foreign and 9366 of native birth; 2088 were born in the Territory and 7278 in other parts of the Union. There were 30,200 Indians, mostly Sioux, for whose accommodation 35,000,000 of acres had been set apart in various reservations. Seven hundred Rus- sian Mennonites arrived at Castle Garden in September, 1875, on their way to Dakota. Yankton, the capital and chief city of the Territory, is situated on the north side of the JNIissouri River. The streets cross each, other at right angles. Douglass Avenue and Broadway are 120 feet wide. Three weekly newspapers are published. The city was first settled in 1859.. 408 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Population 737 in 1870, and estimated at 3000 in 1875. Other leading towns are Elk Point (775), Jefferson (616), Brule Creek (600; and Civil Bend (570). Goveriinieiit and Laws. — The executive and judicial officers are appointed by the President of the United States. The legislature, which holds biennial sessions, consists of 13 councillors and 26 representatives. Ten per cent, is the legal rate of interest, but 2 per cent, a month, by special agreement, is lawful. History. — Dakota, which formed a part of the Louisiana purchase of 1803, was organized as a Territory March 2, 1861. The first perma- nent settlements were made in 1859. In the summer of 1863 the settlers suffered greatly from hostile bands of Sioux. Five children of one family were massacred in the absence of their parents. " Every cabin on the frontier in those days was a small fortress well stocked with guns, revolvers and ammunition." Gen. Sully, with 2000 troops, routed the savages at Whitestoue in June, and since then they have been held in check. The first legislature met on the 17th of March, 1862. Large discoveries of gold in the Black Hills were reported during 1874-5, and several expedi- tious were organized for this new El Dorado. Negotiations carried on with the chiefs who visited Washington in the summer of 1875 were un- successful; but past experience teaches that the extinguishment of the Indian title to the lands is only a question of a little time. IDAHO. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Idaho is bounded on the N. by British Columbia, N. E. and E. by Montana and "Wyoming, S. by Utah and Nevada and W. by Oregon and Washington Territory. It is situated between latitudes 41° and 49° N. and longitudes 32° 30' and 40° 10' W. from Washington, or 109° 30' and 117° 10' W. from Green- wich. Idaho has the general form of a right-angled triangle, w'ith a base 430 miles long and a perpendicular of 490 miles, while the Rocky and Bitter Root Mountains, which constitute the eastern boundary, are the hypotenuse. The area is 86,294 square miles, or 55,628,160 acres. Physical Features.— S'ur/aee.— Spurs from the great Rocky Mountain chain extend across the Territory. Between these are broad table4ands, having an elevation of from 2000 to 8500 feet above the sea- level. There are many well-watered valleys, and the streams run through canons sometimes a thousand feet in depth. Conspicuous among the moun- tain peaks are the "shark teeth summits" of the Grand Tetous, of which the most northerly, named Mount Hayden, has an altitude of 13,833 feet. Near its summit is a circular enclosure, supposed to have been built by the Indians. If this supposition is correct, the savages of the West were less superstitious than their brethren in the East [see New Hampshire]. A CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 409 lake of perpetual ice is found at the height of 10,300 feet. Mount Moran (12,800 feet high). Mount Leidy (11,300 feet), Mount Sheridan (10,343 feet) and the Three Buttes are prominent landmarks. Rivers and Lakes. — A small district in the south-east is drained through the Bear River into Great Salt Lake. The Snake River, or Lewis Fork, and Clarke's Fork drain all the rest of the Territory into the Columbia. The sources of the Snake River are in the Rocky Mountains, not far from the Yellowstone Lake; it receives numerous tributaries, among which are the Malade, Boise, Salmon and Clearwater. Navigation is impeded by rapids and shallows. There are three great falls, over the highest of which the waters are j^recipitated 200 feet. Lakes are numerous, and some of them of large extent; the area covered by these bodies of water is estimated at 575,000 acres. Several groups of hot springs, varying in temperature from 88° to 158°, have been discovered. Forests. — The northern and eastern sections are well timbered. There are immense forests of pine, cedar and fir. It has been estimated that 7,500,000 acres are covered with timber. The basin of the Snake River is destitute of trees. Among the animals are the grizzly bear, black bear, red squirrel, striped squirrel, yellow-footed marmot, American beaver, yellow-haired porcupine, etc. Soil and Climate. — Less than one-third of the total area is suited for agriculture. One quarter of it is sterile and produces only wild sage and buftalo-grass ; but much of this might be made fertile by irrigation. The river basins contain a rich soil, and good grazing-lands are abundant. It is seldom necessary to use hay for the wintering of cattle in the valleys, while the mountains afford a perpetual arctic climate. The isothermal lines crossing the territory are: Spring, 45°-52° ; summer, 60°-70°; au- tumn, 45°-52° ; winter, 20°-30° ; year, 40°-50°. Agriculture aud Manufactures. — The number of acres in farms, by the last census, was 77,139, of which 26,603 acres were im- proved; average size of farms, 186 acres; value of farms, farm imple- ments and live-stock, ^1,072,735; value of farm productions, $687,797. There were 101 manufacturing establishments, which employed 265 hands; value of materials, $691,785; of products, $1,047,624. Milled quartz constituted more than one-half of the amount ($523,100). Mines and Mining;. — The bullion product of Idaho for nine years, from 1864 to 1873, was $55,275,000. In 1869 the product was $7,000,000, and in 1872, $2,695,870. The diminution has been explained by saying that mining is less profitable than in the other Territories on account of the high price of tools, provisions and labor, resulting from the deficiency of means for transportation. A railroad is the remedy prescribed for these troubles. "Two-thirds of the claims now worked are in the hands of the Chinese." Eight millions of acres are designated as " mineral lan,ds." An immense ledge of isinglass was discovered in the fall of 1875. 410 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Education. — In 1874 the number of children was 3233; enrolled in schools, 2196 ; average attendance, 891 ; school-houses, 41 ; schools, 51 ; expenditures, $27,181.60; expenditure per pupil of average attendance, $80.50. Steps were taken in June, 1874, for the organization of a univer- sity. The Federal census reported 43 libraries, containing 10,625 volumes, and 15 religious organizations, with 12 edifices. In 1875 five periodicals were published, of which one was issued daily at Silver City. PoiJlilatioil and Towns. — In 1870 the number of inhabitants was 14,999, of whom 7885 were foreign born (4274 Chinese) ; 946 were born in Idaho, and settlers to the number of 6168 had come in from all of the 49 States and Territories, with the exception of Alaska and Arizona. Population to a square mile 0.17. -The principal towns are Boise City, the capital, Idaho City, Malade City, Silver City and Lew- iston. Government and Laws. — A governor and secretary are ap- pointed by the President for a term of four years. Other administrative officers are chosen by the people. The legislature consists of a council of 13 meiiibers and a house of representatives of 26 members, elected bien- nially. The supreme court consists of three judges appointed by the President. There are three judicial districts, in which courts are held by a judge of the supreme court. Probate courts are established for each county. The Territory of Idaho, which included parts of Montana and Wyoming, was established by act of Congress upon the 3d of March, 1863. THE INDIAN TERRITORY. Situation and Extent. — The Indian Territory (unorganized, and more properly designated as the Indian Cowitry) is bounded on the N. by Colorado and Kansas, E. by Missouri and Arkansas, S. by Texas and W. by Texas and New Mexico. It is situated between latitudes 83° 35' and 37° N. and longitudes 17° 20' and 26° W. from Washington, or 94° 20' and 103° W. from Greenwich. The greatest length from east to west is 465 miles, the greatest breadth 285 miles and the area 68,991 square miles, or 44,154,240 acres. Physical Features.— /SW/aee.— The Ozark and Washita Moun- tains extend from Arkansas into the Territory, and the Witchita Moun- tains give a rugged character to the south-west. Dome Rock and the Antelope Buttes are considerable elevations in the west, but there are no high mountains. The mean elevation of the Territory is 1250 feet above the sea. Rivers. — The Arkansas and the Red Rivers, with their numerous tributaries, drain the country. Flowing into the Arkansas are the Neosho, Verdigris, Chicaskia, Big Salt, Red Fork and Canadian Rivers. The Red River constitutes the southern boundary. Its principal affluents are the Kiumishi, Boggy, False Washita and North Fork. Forests. — Along the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 411 river-bottoms there is a plentiful growth of trees, and the north-eastern section is heavily wooded. An extensive forest, called the "Cross Tim- bers," extends over into Texas. The trees most common are the ash, elm, Cottonwood, oak, yellow pine, pecan, sycamore and walnut. Game is abundant, and vast herds of bufialo and wild horses roam over the plains. Soil and Climate. — In the north-east much of the laud is rocky and unpx'oductive, and in the central and western sections the plains are sterile. Fertile soils are found in the valleys. The isothermal lines crossing the Territory are: Spring, 55°-60°; summer, 75°-80°; autumn, 55°-60° ; winter, 35°-40° ; annual mean, .55°-60°. At Fort Gibson, dur- ing the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature was 60.3° ; mean of the coldest mouth (January), 39.5° ; of the warmest month (August), 86.1°; minimum, 11°; maximum, 106°. Upon 88 days the mercuiy rose to 90°, and upon 21 days the temperature was at or above 100 degrees. Ag'riculture. — The statistics of the Indian Territory are not given in the United States census, but are reported by the Commissioner of In- dian Affairs. In 1873, 217,790 acres of land were under cultivation. Indian corn, wheat, oats, potatoes, sorghum, tobacco, beans, rice and cotton were cultivated, and the value of the crops was more than $4,000,000. The live-stock numbered 212,155 horses, 322,354 cattle, 13,100 sheep and 430,455 swine, having a total value of $9,408,178. Lumber was sawed to the amount of 3,930,468 feet, and the value of furs sold was $193,560. No statistics of manufactures were given. Education. — Each of the civilized tribes provides by law for the support of public schools, which are of three grades — primary, intermedi- ate and grammar. Two high-school buildings, belonging to the Chero- kees, cost $80,000. The number of schools in the Territory at the last report was 176; teachers, 216; scholars, 4769; value of school fund (in- cluding the orphan and asylum fund), $2,909,113. There are three weekly newspapers, published in the Cherokee, Choctaw and English lan- guages. More than 7000 communicants are connected with the various religious denominations. Population and Towns. — The population in 1873 was 72,468, of whom 17,217 were Cherokees, 16,000 Choctaws, 6000 Chickasaws, 13,000 Creeks, 2438 Seminoles, 1219 Quapaws and 16,594 of other tribes. Included in the last number were Osages, Pottawattomies, Delawares, Shawnees, Kioways, Comanches, Apaches and the representatives of many other tribes. About one-half of the Indians are nomadic and the other half settled upon seventeen reservations, which contain 44,154,240 acres. There are about 2500 whites and 6500 negroes in the Territory. The prin- cipal towns are Talequah, the capital of the Cherokee Nation ; Tishemingo, the capital of the Chickasaws; Armstrong Academy, the capital of the Choctaws; Okmulkee, the capital of the Creeks; We-wo-ka, the capital 412 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES of the Semiuoles; New Boggy and Caddo. About one-fifteenth of the houses are frame buildings; the rest are built mostly of logs. Twenty- eight United States post-offices have been established. The Territory con- tained 279 miles of railroad in 1874. Goveriiineiit and History. — An agent is appointed for each of the tribes, under the superintendence of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs. Cases in which a white man is concerned are within the jurisdic- tion of the United States courts for Arkansas. Each of the civilized tribes has a regularly-constituted government, with a written constitution and code of laws. The " Principal Chief of the Cherokee Nation " is elected for a term of four years. Many of the Indians desire an organized terri- torial government, and a constitution was framed in 1870, but it did not receive the approval of Congress. By an act passed June 4, 1834, "all that part of the United States west of the Mississippi, and not within the States of Missouri and Louisiana or the Territory of Arkansas," was in- cluded in the Indian Country. That magnificent domain of the aborigines was greater than the combined area of all the States then organized. A single generation passed, and the census of 1870 enumerated seven States whose area, taken singly, exceeded all that was left of the " Indian Country." MONTANA. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Montana is bounded on the N. by British America, E. by Dakota, S. by Wyoming and S. W. and W. by Idaho. It is situated between latitudes 44° 10' and 49° N. and longitudes 27° and 39° W. from Washington, or 104° and 116° W. from Greenwich. The extreme length from east to west is 550 miles, the breadth 280 miles and the area 143,776 square miles, or 92,016,640 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The Territory is naturally divided by its physical conformation into four sections, (1.) The north-western district, between the Rocky and Bitter Root Mountains, is broken and ragged, and intersected by many mountain spurs. (2.) The northern dis- trict, extending for 350 miles along the Milk and Missouri Rivers, is an open plain, destitute of trees, and descending towaixl the east at the rate of five feet to the mile. (3.) The south-eastern section is more rolling and better wooded. (4.) The south-western section, containing 15,000 square miles, is mountainous and covered with dense forests. Among the highest mountains are Electric Peak (10,992 feet). Emigrant Peak (10,629), Mount Delano (10,200) and Mount Blackmore (10,134). Three-fifths of the Territory is a broad open plain, and the mean elevation is 3950 feet. Rivers. — Clark's Fork of the Columbia and its tributaries, the Bitter Root, Hell Gate, Big Blackfoot and Jocko Rivers, drain 30,000 square miles of North-western Montana into the Pacific, while the remaining four- fifths of the Territory belong to the Great Central Basin of the Mississippi, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 413 and are drained through the Missouri and its branches. The head streams of the Missouri River, of which the Gallatin, Madison and Jefferson are the most important, have their sources in the Rocky Mountains of Mon- tana, near the boundary line of Wyoming and Idaho. Steamboats ascend the Missouri as far as Fort Benton. Its principal tributaries are the Ma- rias and Milk Rivers, on the north, and the Muscle Shell and Yellowstone (navigable for 400 miles) on the south. There are numerous hot springs and geysers in the south-west, belonging to the general system, which is described more fully elsewhere [see Wyoming]. Forests. — Evergreen trees, such as the pine, fir, spruce, cedar, hemlock, etc., are most common in the dense forests of the mountain district, while the river valleys con- tain the Cottonwood, willow, alder, aspen, etc. The elevation of the timber line is from 8800 to 9600 feet. Large tracts in the east are almost entirely destitute of wood. The buffalo, antelope, grizzly bear and other wild animals are often seen. Soil and Climate. — The great plains are sterile, owing to a defi- ciency of moisture ; many of the valleys are fertile, and excellent grazing- laud is found on the lower mountain slopes. Very great and sudden changes are characteristic of the climate. At Fort Ellis the thermometer has marked 53 degrees below zero. At Deer Lodge, during the mouth of March, 1867, the mercury stood below zero upon 28 out of the 31 morn- ings. The lowest temperature observed was — 34°. The mean for Janu- ary, 1868, was — 1.5°, and for January, 1869, 20.4° ; annual mean for the two years, 40.7° ; rainfall, 16.5 inches. Forty-eight snow-storms have been counted in a season, but the greatest depth of snow was only 12 inches. At Fort Shaw the mean temperature is 47.33°. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the mean temperature at Fort Benton was 42.5°. Upon 50 days the mercury fell below zero, and the lowest point reached was — 34°. The interval between frosts was 142 days (from April 22 to Sept. 12). At Virginia City the minimum was — 18°, and the mercury reached 90° upou only one day. The isothermal lines crossing the Territory are: Spring, 40°-50°; summer, 65°-73°; autumn, 45°; winter, 15°-25°; annual mean, 40°-45°. Agriculture antl Manufactures. — The climate is rather cold for Indian corn, but grain and vegetables, such as beans, beets, carrots, cu- cumbers, melons, onions, potatoes, squashes, tomatoes, turnips, etc., mature well, and small fruits are very abundant. The census of 1870 reported 851 farms, containing 139,537 acres, of which 84,674 acres were improved; average size of farms, 164 acres; value of farms, fiirm implements and live-stock, $2,693,324; value of productions, $1,676,660. In 1874 the live-stock included 19,905 horses, 104,777 cattle, 1606 mules and 10,597 sheep. The number of manufacturing establishments was 201 ; hands em- ployed, 701 ; value of materials, ^1,316,331 ; value of products, $2,494,511. 414 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES The leading industries in value were: Quartz, milled, $801,87'3; lumber, $428,957; flouring-mill products, $365,859. Mines and Mining. — Gold was discovered as early as 1852, but mining did not begin until late in 1861. The bullion product in 1862 was $500,000, and in 1866 it reached $16,500,000. For thirteen years, ending with 1875, the total product was estimated at $120,901,386. Montana ranked next to Nevada and California in the production of the precious metals. Copper is mined in considerable quantities. Iron, lead, antimony, zinc, arsenic and manganese have been discovered. Beds of bituminous coal exist in several localities; and granite, limestone, slate and other building-stones are abundant. Education. — The territorial superintendent of education is required " to keep his office at some place where there is a post-office." The school districts are larger than many an eastern county. A general school law was passed in 1874. In 1873-4 the number of children of school age (5 to 21 years) was 3517; attending school, 2030; number of schools, 101; receipts for educational purposes, $33,162. In 1870 there were in the Ter- ritory 141 libraries, containing 19,790 volumes, and 15 religious organiza- tions, having 11 edifices. Seven newspapers, two of which were issued daily, were published in 1875. Population and Towns. — The census of 1870 reported 20,595 inhabitants, of whom 1693 were born in the Territory, 10,933 had come in from other parts of the Union and 7979 from foreign countries ; popu- lation to a square mile, 0.14. Helena, which was made the capital in 1875, is the principal town. It is situated in the centre of a rich mining district, and contains several factories and churches. One of its two daily newspapers is mailed to subscribers at $24 a year. The population of the town in 1870 was 3106; there were 641 Chinese and 3 Indians. Other principal towns are Virginia City (867), the former capital. Deer Lodge City (788), Fort Shaw (473), Diamond City (460), Fort Benton (367) and Radersburg (311). The tribal Indians numbered 22,486 in 1874, includ- ing Crows, Blackfeet, Sioux, Piegaus and representatives of ten other tribes. Government and History. — A governor and secretary and three judges of the supreme court are appointed by the President. The legislature consists of a council of 13 members and an assembly of 26 members, elected for two years. Judicial authority is vested ia a supreme court, district courts, probate courts (for each county) and justices of the peace. A territorial Penitentiary has been established at Deer Lodge City. In the spring of 1863, 18 steamers passed up the Missouri, bearing passen- gers and freight to the mining districts of Montana. The Territory of Montana was established by act of Congress May 26, 1864. On the 17th of February, 1873, 2000 square miles from Dakotah were annexed. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 415 NEW MEXICO. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of New Mexico is boimded on the N. by Colorado, on the E. by the ludiau Territory and Texas, S. by Texas and Mexico and W. by Arizona. It is situated be- tween Latitudes 31° 20' and 37° N. and longitudes 26° and 32° W. from Washington, or 103° and 109° W. from Greenwich. The greatest length from north to south is 395 miles, the greatest breadth 355 miles and the area 121,201 square miles, or 77,568,640 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — The mean elevation of the Terri- tory is 5400 feet above the sea. In the south-east is the Llano Estacado, extending from Texas, which is an immense plateau scantily clothed with vegetation, and having an altitude of from 3200 to 4700 feet. Stretching through the centre of the Territory from north to south are a series of broken mountain ranges, with elevations varying from 6000 to 10,000 feet. About 150 miles to the westward is the parallel range of the Sierra Madre, which constitutes the water-shed between the Atlantic and the Pacific. Between these mountain chains is the great valley of the Rio Grande, which Haydea regards "as one great volcanic crater" comprehending many smaller craters. The streams have cut canons sometimes 1000 feet in depth and with almost perjDendicular walls. The sands and marls are fashioned in unique forms resembling the " Bad Lands " of Dakota. Rivers. — The north-eastern district is drained by the Canadian River, a branch of the Arkansas ; the south-eastern by the Rio Pecos, which unites with the Rio Grande in Texas ; the central by the Rio Grande del Norte, which rises in the mountains of Colorado ; the south-western by the Rio de los Mimbres and the Gila ; and the north-western by the head-streams of the Little Colorado and the San Juan. There are several groups of hot springs having a temperature of from 80° to 140°. Forests. — Extensive forests of evergreens, such as the pine, fir, cedar, spruce and hemlock, cover the mountains ; the piuon or nut pine monopolizes large tracts of the foot- hills ; Cottonwood, sycamore, oak and walnut trees are abundant along the water-courses. There is an almost entire absence of timber upon the plains. Among the wild animals are the bear, wolf, coyote, lynx, beaver, hare, deer, antelope, elk, buffalo, etc. Wild turkeys, prairie chickens, ducks and other game-birds are plenty. Soil and Climate. — Very fertile soils are found in the valleys and upon some of the table-lands ; but with the exception of a few favored localities, irrigation is necessary for the production of good crops through- out the whole of New Mexico. Excellent grazing-lands are found in al- most every section, and cattle need no artificial shelter during the winter. The isothermal lines crossing the territory are : Spring, 45°-65° ; summer, 60°-80°; autumn, 45°-65° ; winter, 25°-50° ; annual mean, 45°-65°. Those lines indicate an unusual range of temperature [see Physical 416 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Geography]. The mean temperature for a series of years at Santa Fe, which has an elevation of 7047 feet, was 50.6°. During the year ending September 30, 1874, the mean was 48.8° ; maximum, 89°; minimum, 2°; mean for the warmest month (July), 71.1° ; for the coldest month (Decem- ber), 25.8°. The first frost of the season (32°) was October 18, 1873, and the last frost May 10, 1874, an interval of 205 days. Agricviltvire and Manufactures.— The valleys of the Rio Grande, Pecos and other rivers are occupied by Mexicans, who raise large crops even with their very rude methods of cultivation. All the common grains, vegetables and fruits thrive. The census of 1870 reported 4480 farms, averaging 186 acres each (4 had more than 1000 acres each), and containing in the aggregate 833,549 acres, of which 143,007 acres were improved; value of farms, $2,260,139; of farm implements, $121,114; of live-stock, $2,389,157; total, $4,770,410; value of pro- ductions, $1,905,060. The number of manufacturing establishments was 182 ; hands employed, 427 ; value of materials, $880,957 ; value of prod- ucts, $1,489,868, of which the most important items were flouring-mill products, $581,040, and quartz, milled, $399,712. Mineral Resources. — Spaniards and Mexicans discovered the mineral treasures of this region at a very early date. The sides of the mountains about Taos are covered with " diggings " where Mexicans washed out gold with melted snow. Gold has been found of such purity as to yield $19 per ounce. The value of a single boulder upon Lone Mountain was estimated at from $1000 to $2000. The mining interests have been greatly depressed from Indian hostilities and other causes, and the bullion product is only about half a million dollars a year. Copper, lead, platinum, zinc, iron, coal, marble, gypsum, etc., exist in considerable quantities. Education. — An act for the establishment of public schools was passed in 1855, but met with such opposition from the people that it was repealed the following year. In 1871 a new school law was passed, and the number of schools increased from 44 in 1870 to 164 (of which 26 were private) in 1874, The number of pupils at the latter date was 7102 and the number of teachers 196, Of the public schools 111 were taught in the Spanish language. The number of libraries in 1870 was 116 ; religious organizations, 158, having 152 edifices (of which 149 belonged to the Roman Catholics) ; periodicals, 5. In 1875 the number of periodi- cals was 12, of which 6 were published in both the Spanish and English languages, and 1 was issued daily. Population and Towns.— The number of inhabitants in 1850 was 61,547; in 1860, 93,516; in 1870, 91,874 (a decrease due to the set- ting off of portions of the Territory to Arizona and Colorado); 83,175 were born in the Ten-itory ; 3079 had come in from other parts of the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 417 Union, 3913 from Mexico and 1707 from other foreign countries. The density of population was 0.76 to a square mile. The tribal Indians (not included in the above enumeration) numbered 25,268 in 1874, belonging principally to the Apaches, Utes and Pueblos. The principal towns are Santa Fe, the capital ( population in 1870, 4765), Las Vegas (1730), Al- buquerque (1307), Mora (1083), Embudo (576), San Jose (492) and Sil- ver City (estimated at 1000 in 1875). No railroads have yet entered the Territory, although several have been projected. Governmeilt and Laws. — As in other Territories, the governor, secretary and judges of the supreme court are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate, for a term of four years. Other adminis- trative officers are chosen by the territorial legislature, which consists of a council of 12 members and a house of representatives of 26 members. The supreme court consists of three judges, who also preside singly over tiie district courts. Probate courts are established for each county. History. — As early as the year 1537 Spanish explorers had entered New Mexico, and before the close of the century formal possession was taken of the country in the name of Spain. Humboldt thought that New Mexico was the first abiding-place of the Aztecs, as they migrated south- ward. Remarkable ruins testify to the advancement in civilization of the early inhabitants. On the Rio Chaco are the remains of a structure 700 feet in circumference and with solid walls of gray sandstone, four stories high, yet standing. The country was ceded to the United States by Mexico in 1848, and the "Gadsden pui-chase" (which also included parts of Ari- zona, Colorado and Nevada) was added in 1854. A territorial govern- ment was organized September 9, 1850. UTAH. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Utah is bounded on the N. and N. E. by Idaho and Wyoming, E. by Colorado, S. by Arizona and W. by Nevada. It is situated between latitudes 37° and 42° N. and longitudes 32° and 37° W. from Washington, or 109° and 114° W. from Greenwich. The length from north to south is about 350 miles, the breadth 280 miles, and the area 84,476 square miles, or 53,264,640 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — Utah is in the Great Interior Basin, and its surface has a mean elevation of 5100 feet above the sea- level. Upon the north-eastern border are the Uintah Mountains, 7000 feet above the table-lands. The Wasatch Mountains extend through the centre of the Territory from north to south in a series of ridges and spurs with small valleys between. The principal mountain summits, with their ele- vations, are Mount Tohkwano (13,500 feet), Hayden Peak (13,500), Dawes Peak (13,300), Gilbert's Peak (13,250), the Twin Peaks (12,000), Belknap (11,894), Mount Baldy (11,730) and Lone Peak (10,713). The 27 418 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES Salt Lake Valley is a level basin, from 4200 to 4500 feet above tide-water and surrounded by mountains, of which the highest peaks are covered with perpetual snow. Lakes and Rivers. — Great Salt Lake, 100 miles long and 50 miles wide, is so salt that no fish can live in it. Flowing into it from the south is the River Joi'dan, which drains Lake Utah. Upon the north the Bear River from Idaho and other smaller streams discharge their waters into the lake, which has no visible outlet. The district east of the mountains is drained by the Green and Grand Rivers, which unite to form the Colorado. None of the streams of the Territory are navigable. There are several groups of hot springs, with a temperature ranging from 90° to 136°. Forests. — Upon the Uintah and Wasatch Mountains are heavy forests; the timber line is at the height of 11,000 feet. Among the trees most abundant are the fir, spruce, pine, cedar, maple, oak, mountain ma- hogany, quaking ash, etc. The Great Basin is almost destitute of wood, but trees planted upon the irrigated lands grow rapidly. The wild animals most common are the wolf, catamount, cougar, fox, mink, wolverine, beaver, hare, antelope. Rocky Mountain sheep, elk and deer. Soil and Climate. — Much of the soil of the plains is alkaline and barren, producing nothing but the wild sage bush. Hardly one acre in fifty in its natural state will pay for cultivation, but an extensive system of irrigation has made the desert about Salt Lake City a garden. For- merly little rain fell from April to November, but summer showers are now said to be more frequent. Snow accumulates on the mountains to a depth of from 6 to 20 feet, and remains in sheltered places all the year round. The isothermal lines crossing the Territory are : Spring, 45°-50° ; summer, 65°-80°; autumn, 45°-55°; winter, 25°-45°; annual mean, 45°-65°. At Salt Lake City the mean for July, 1874, was 78.2°; upon 31 days of the season the mercury reached 90°, and the maximum was 98°. The mean for December, at Corinne City, was 21.4 degrees. Agriculture and Manufactures. — According to the census of 1870, the number of acres in farms was 148,361, of which 118,755 acres were improved ; average size of farms, 30 acres ; value of farms, farm im- plements and live-stock, $4,739,126; value of productions, $1,973,142. There were 533 manufacturing establishments, which employed 1534 hands, used materials valued at $1,238,252 and produced articles to the value of $2,343,019. Lumber and flour were among the leading items. Manufactures have increased very rapidly in the period since the census, and the above figures very inadequately represent the agricultural and manufacturing industries at that date. Mines and Mining. -^Metalliferous deposits were discovered as early as 1863, but the Mormon authorities discouraged mining, as being likely to bring in a "Gentile" population. The bullion product in 1871 was $2,300,000; in 1872, $2,445,284; in 1873, $3,055,444; and in 1874 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 419 about the same amount. The value of the lead product for two years was $1,205,203. Chemical analysis of ores taken from the Emma mine showed the presence of lead, sulphur, antimony, copper, zinc, manganese, iron, silver, alumina and magnesia. Belts of bituminous coal and large deposits of iron ore have been discovered. Railroads. — In 1869 the first railroad was opened for travel. The Union Pacific railroad extends across the breadth of the Territory. In 1874 the mileage of railroads was 459; cost per mile, $31,947; total cap- ital account, $9,165,000; receipts, $1,543,859; receipts per mile, $6831; receipts per inhabitant, $13.42; net earnings, $733,893. Education. — The school statistics for 1873 were: School population (from 4 to 16 years of age), 27,725; scholars enrolled, 16,070; average attendance, 11,842; teachers, 355. A general school law was approved Feb. 20, 1874. The higher institutions of learning are the Deseret Uni- versity, having 300 pupils in its primary and intermediate departments ; St. Mark's School (Protestant Episcopal), with about the same number; the Rocky Mountain Conference Seminary ; and Morgan College. The Federal census returned 133 libraries, containing 39,177 volumes, and 164 churches. In 1875 there were 9 periodicals, of which 5 were issued daily. PoiJUlation and Towns. — In 1850 the number of inhabitants was 11,380; in 1860, 40,273; and in 1870, 86,786, of whom 41,426 were born in the Territory, 14,658 had come in from other parts of the Union and 30,702 from foreign countries. Great Britain and Ireland contributed 20,772, Denmark 4957, Sweden 1790, China 445 and all Germany 358. It is a Mormon boast that 50 nationalities are represented among them. It would be a difiicult problem in sociology to estimate the ratio of future increase, since " for a man to have twenty boys and girls in his house is a common fact." There were 1.03 persons to a square mile. About 130 towns and villages are contained in the Territory. Salt Lake City, the capital, is regularly laid out, with streets 100 feet wide and 4 miles long, crossing each other at right angles. Each square contains 10 acres, and is divided into 8 smaller squares. Streams of water, brought down from the moun- tains for irrigation, run through every street. The principal buildings are the Temple, Theatre and City Hall. Three daily and several weekly news- papers are published. Two railroads terminate at the city. The popula- tion in 1870 was 12,854. Among the other leading towns are Ogden (3127), Spanish Fork (1450), Brigham City (1315), Beaver City (1207) and Corinne City (783). Government and History. — A governor, secretary and supreme court judges are appointed by the President; and there is a legislative body, consisting of 13 councillors and 26 representatives. The actual government has been very much in the hands of the Mormon hierarchy, whose members exercise authority in things temporal as well as spiritual. 420 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES The chief prophet is assisted by three councillors, twelve apostles and a large number of bishops. In July, 1847, the advance guard of Mor- mons, who had been driven from Nauvoo, Illinois, reached the Salt Lake Basin and founded the "City of the Saints." The journey across the plains proved a hard one; "every day there was a funeral," and eighty died out of a single train. Mexico then owned the territory, which was ceded to the United States in 1848. The revelation of polygamy was not adopted until Aug. 29, 1852. A territorial government was estab- lished for Utah Sept. 9, 1850. Application was made for admission into the Union as the State of Deseret in 1862, and again in 1872, but Congress refused the request. WASHINGTON. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Washington is bounded on the N. by British Columbia, E. by Idaho, S. by Oregon and W. and N. W. by the Pacific Ocean, the Strait of Juan de Fuca and the Gulf of Georgia. It is situated between latitudes 45° 30' and 49° N. and longi- tudes 40° 10' and 47° 50' W. from Washington, or 117° 10' and 124° 50' W. from Greenwich. The length from east to west is 350 miles, the breadth 230 miles and the area 69,944 square miles, or 44,796,160 acres. Pliysical Features. — Surface. — The Cascade Mountains, extending north and south at the distance of 100 miles from the coast, separate the Territory into two unequal parts, known as Eastern and Western Wash- ington. Eastern Washington is an immense rolling table-land, elevated from 1000 to 2000 feet above the sea-level and intersected by the Colum- bia River. The Blue Mountains extend across the south-eastern district. Western Washington contains three great basins — viz., those of the Co- lumbia River, the Chehalis and Puget Sound. The latest measurements of the principal mountain peaks (which vary greatly from the former esti- mates) give the following results: Mount St. Helen's, 15,500 feet; Mount Rainier, 14,444; Chuchulum, 11,700; Mount Hood, 11,225; and Mount Baker, 10,760. Many of these peaks are extinct volcanoes. The mean elevation of the Territory is 1800 feet. Rivers. — The Columbia River enters near the north-east corner, takes a wide sweep to the west and con- stitutes the southern boundary of the Territory for 300 miles. Vessels ascend as far as Kettle Falls, but navigation is interrupted by frequent cascades. Lewis Fork, Clarke's Fork, the Okinagan and the Yakima are the principal affluents of the Columbia. Several small streams empty into the Gulf of Georgia and the Pacific. ForesU. — About 20,000,000 acres are reckoned as timber land. "The finest forest growth in the world" extends from the Cascade Range to the coast. Trees are found 400 feet high and 14 feet in diameter. The yellow fir furnishes the strongest timber. Among other very common trees are the hemlock, spruce, white CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 421 cedar, tamai-ack, maple, white oak and ash. Eastern Washington contains little timber, except in the river valleys. Soil and Climate. — An area of more than 40,000 square miles in Eastern Washington is sterile on account of the scanty rainfall. The Walla Walla district is favorable for grain and stock-raising. The Che- halis Valley has been called "the garden spot of Washington." There are large tracts of arable land in the valley of the Columbia and about Puget Sound. West of the Cascades there are but two seasons, the wet (lasting from November to May) and the dry; the average annual rainfall is 53 inches. East of the Cascade Range the climate resembles that of the interior of Pennsylvania. The isothermal lines crossing the Territory are : Spring, 45°-50° ; summer, 60°-70° ; autumn, 45°-52° ; winter, 25°-40° ; annual mean, 45°-52°. AgTiculture and Manufactures. — The number of acres of farm land in 1870 was 649,139, of which 192,016 acres were improved; average size of farms, 208 acres; value of farms, farm implements and live-stock, $6,371,235; value of productions, $2,111,902. There were 269 manufacturing establishments, which employed 1026 hands; value of ma- terials used, $1,435,128; value of products, $2,851,052. Lumber was planed and sawed to the value of $1,872,310. The value of the bullion product is about $200,000 per year. Commerce and Navigation. — During the year ending June 30, 1874, the value of imports through Puget Sound (the only customs district) was $24,566; value of domestic exports, $604,339; vessels en- tered, 336; cleared, 387; vessels belonging to the district, 101, of which 25 were steamers; vessels built during the year, 17. Several vessels were employed in the cod-, mackerel-, salmon- and oyster-fisheries. Up to 1875, 110 miles of railroad had been completed. Education. — A compulsory school law is in force. The number of schools in 1873-4 was 196; pupils, 5928; persons of school age, 9949. The University of Washington Territory was incorporated in January, 1862, and located at Seattle. The general government gave 46,080 acres of land for its endowment. The Federal census reported 102 libraries, con- taining 33,362 volumes, 47 religious organizations, with 36 edifices, and 14 newspapers. In 1875 there were 16 periodicals, of which 2 were dailies. Population and Towns. — The number of inhabitants in 1860 was 11,594; in 1870, 23,955, of whom 6932 were born in the Territory, 11,999 had come in from other parts of the Union and 5024 from foreign countries. In addition to those enumerated above, there were 234 Chinese and 14,796 Indians, making the aggregate population 37,432. The den- sity of population was 0.34 to a square mile. Olympia, the capital, is sit- uated at the head of Puget Sound, 645 miles north of San Francisco. It has 6 churches and 5 newspaper offices. Population 1203 in 1870, and 422 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES estimated at 1600 in 1875. Other leading towns are Walla Walla (1394), Seattle (1107), Fort Colville (587), Port Gamble (326), Steilacoom (314) and Vancouver. Government and History.— The President appoints a governor, secretary and supreme court judges, as in the other Territories. Legisla- tive authority is vested in a council of 9 members and a house of repre- sentatives of 30 members. Ten per cent, is the legal rate of interest Washington Territory was organized from a part of Oregon, March 2, 1853. WYOMING. Situation and Extent. — The Territory of Wyoming is bounded on the N. by Montana, E. by Dakota and Nebraska, S. by Colorado and Utah and W. by Utah, Idaho and Montana. It is situated between lati- tudes 41° and 45° N. and longitudes 27° and 34° W. from Washington, or 104° and 111° W. from Greenwich. In form it is a rectangular paral- lelogram, 350 miles long from east to west, 280 miles broad and contain- ing an area of 97,883 square miles, or 62,645,120 acres. Physical Features. — Surface. — The surface is in general an im- mense plateau, having a mean elevation of 6500 feet above the sea-level. From this plateau the Rocky Mountains rise in ridges and groups which are designated by various local names. In the south-east are the Black Hills (Rocky Mountain group), terminating in Laramie Peak, which has an elevation of 10,000 feet, and the Medicine Bow Mountains. In the north- east are the Black Hills (Dakota group), of which luyan Kara is 6600 feet high. The Big Horn Mountains occupy the northern district ; and in the west and north-west are the Wind River Range and the Snow Mountains, or Sierra Shoshone. Among the most elevated summits are Fremont's Peak (13,570 feet), Washakee Needles (12,253), Mount Slieridan (10,420), Mount Doane (10,118), Mount Washburne (10,105) and Sailor Mountain (10,046). Rivers. — In the snow-covered mountains of North-western Wyo- ming, within a radius of ten miles, the head-streams of three of the great rivers of America take their rise — viz., the Yellowstone, flowing into the Missouri, the Snake, into the Columbia, and the Green, into the Colorado. The Green River drains a basin in the south-west 223 miles long and 75 miles wide, which was formerly the bed of a lake. The Yellowstone Basin has an area of 5000 square miles. The Wind and Big Horn Rivers (which empty into the Yellowstone in Montana) drain a district 176 miles long and 126 miles wide in the north. The south-eastern section, 204 miles loug and 173 miles wide, belongs to the North Platte Basin. All of these rivers have numerous tributaries, affording abundant water power, but Wyoming contains no navigable streams. Forests. — A dense growth of coniferous trees clothes the mountains; the timber line is at an elevation of from 9400 to 9900 feet. From the mountain pines is obtained " the finest timber in CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 423 the world." Cottouvvood flourishes along the streams. The Big Horn Basin is scantily wooded. Game is plentiful, including the antelope, bear, bison, big horn or mountain sheep, beaver, deer, elk, grouse, etc. Yellow- stone National Park. — -A tract larger than the State of Delaware has been set apart by Congress for a National Park, which " surpasses Niagara and Yosemite," says Professor Langford., " It will in time become the most popu- lar summer resort in the country, perhaps in the world," says Captain Jones of the United States Exploring Expedition. High mountains wall in the great basin on every side. The Yellowstone Lake lies in a broad, rolling plateau, at an elevation of 7564 feet above the sea. Issuing from it is the Yellowstone River, which plunges down the great fall 328.7 feet (more than twice the height of Niagara). The grand geyser throws up a column of dark blue liquid to a height of 200 feet. There are many groups of hot springs, in one of which a temperature of 194° has been observed. Prof Hayden's party caught trout from the lake, and found the waters of a spring near by warm enough to cook them. Chimney Rock has an alti- tude of 11,853 feet, and is covered with trees to the height of 10,760 feet. From the summit of Red Mountain 407 distinct mountain peaks have been counted, together with 10 large lakes and many smaller ones. The view extends over 50,000 square miles, including parts of Montana, Idaho and Utah as well as Wyoming. An act was approved by Congress April 6, 1874, providing for the construction of a military road from Green River to the Yellowstone Park. Soil and Climate. — The soil of the great plateau, produced by the decomposition of volcanic rocks, is naturally fertile. The Laramie plain is covered with nutritious grasses, but irrigation is needed for the production of good crops. In the Big Horn Basin the land is generally rugged and barren. A rich black loam was found in the Yellowstone Basin; summer frosts may prevent its cultivation. On 13 days during the month of August, 1873, the temperature was below freezing; on the 28th the mercury fell to 13.5°; June 15th, 1874, it rose to 115°; and the temperature of the sand, two days previous, w^as 126°. At Cheyenne the mean for the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, was 45.6°; maximum, 98°; min- imum, — 24°. Upon 9 days the mercury fell below zero, and upon 28 days rose above 90°. The interval between frosts (32°) was from May 15 to Sept. 3, 110 days. The isothermal lines crossing the Territory are: Spring, 40°-50° ; summer, 60°-72° ; autumn, 45°-50°; winter, 20°-30°; annual mean, 40°-50°. Agriculture, Manufactures and Mining-.— In 1870 the number of acres in fiirras was 4341, of which 338 acres were improved; average size of farms, 25 acres ; value of farms, farm implements and live- stock, $465,705 ; value of productions, $42,760. There were 32 manufac- turing establishments, which employed 502 hands, used materials to the 424 BUELEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. value of $280,156 and produced articles valued at $7Go,424. Coal is mined at several points. Gold, silver, copper, lead, iron and petroleum have been found in considerable quantities. The value of mining products reported by the census was $850,000. Edlioation. — A compulsory school law is in force. In 1874 the number of school districts was 27; teachers, 28; pupils enrolled, 1200; value of school-houses, $40,000; receipts for school purposes, $50,000. The average salary of male teachers was $1500 and of female teachers $900. There were, in 1870, 31 libraries, containing 2603 volumes, 12 religious organizations, with as many edifices, and 6 periodicals, of which 2 were dailies; 4 daily and 4 weekly papers were published in 1875. Population and Towns. — The total number of inhabitants at the last census was 11,518 (least of all the States and Territories), of whom 8720 were white, 183 colored, 143 Chinese and 2466 Indians ; 293 (exclu- sive of Indians) were born in the Territory, 5312 had come in from other parts of the Union and 3513 from foreign countries. There were .009 persons to a square mile. Chei/enne City, the capital, is situated in the south-eastern corner of Wyoming, on the Union Pacific Railroad. It is connected with Denver City, Colorado, 106 miles to the south, by the Denver Pacific Railroad. Extensive machine- and railroad repair-shops are located at Cheyenne. The city is an important distributing-point for the United States forts and Indian agencies. There are five churches and two newspaper offices, from which both daily and weekly editions are issued. The population in 1870 was 1450, and in 1875 about 3000. Lar- amie City, 57 miles west of Cheyenne, also contains large machine-shops for railroad work. It has 5 churches and 2 daily papers. Population in 1870, 828, and in 1875 about 2500. Other growing towns are South Pass City, Rawlins' Springs, Atlantic City and Fort Bridger. The Union Pacific Railroad extends across the southern part of the Territory. The railroad mileage in 1874 was 459. Government and History. — The President, with the advice and consent of the Senate, appoints the leading executive and judicial officers. Legislative authority is vested in a council of 9 members and a house of representatives of 13 members. A bill was passed by the first territorial legislature giving to women the right to vote, hold office and serve upon juries. Attempts have been made to repeal this act; but the governor vetoed the bill to that effect which passed the legislature, and said in his message, "Our system of impartial suft'rage is an unqualified success." Wyoming was organized as a Territory, from parts of Dakota, by act of •Congress passed July 25, 1868, and is the youngest member of the Union. Engraved expressly for Burley's United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. LONDON INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, 1862. THIS exhibition was held in a vast brick building, lighted by a roof and two immense cupolas of glass, and erected on a large space of land acquired by the Royal Commissioners of the Great Exhibition of 1851, adjoining the beautiful garden of the Horticultural Society at South Kensington. It was designed by Captain Fowke, R. E., and it was evi- dently the intention of the projectors of this building that it should be retained and devoted to other purposes after the exhibition, but neither the project nor the edifice itself found favor with the public. The space covered about seventeen acres, including some portions of the buildings of the garden let by the Horticultural Society for refreshment room, etc. Of this space 391,146 square feet were occupied by objects exhibited, besides 284,670 square feet of wall and other vertical space made by inter- nal partition, etc., to which must be added 93,220 square feet of horizontal and vertical space occupied by works of art arranged in one of the most admirably-constructed galleries ever designed for such a purpose. The erection of this building occupied about one year. There were 7,000,000 bricks used, also 4000 tons of east iron and 12,000 tons of wrought iron. There were 820 columns of 25 feet, equal in their combined length to 4 miles, together with 6 miles of iron girders, 1266 in number. More than 1,000,000 square feet of floor were laid. To cover the roof 486,386 square feet of felt were used, equal to 11 acres, and the glazing required 353,000 square feet of glass, which weighed 247 tons and would cover more than 8 acres. Every precaution was employed to make sure of the strength of 425 426 BURLETS CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. the floors and staircases in view of the severe strain to which they would be subjected during the exhibition. A body of men, about 400 in number, closely packed upon a space 25 feet by 25 feet on one floor, moved in step, and afterward ran over the different galleries and down each staircase. At the same time the effect of this strain upon the girders, etc., was care- fully noted. The iron girders were bent only one-eighth of an inch at the centre, and the timber-trussed beams of the same bearing were deflected half an inch at the centre, and both the girders and the trusses immediately recovered their original position on the removal of the load. The exhibition was opened on the 1st of May, 1862, by the duke of Cambridge, the queen being prevented from performing the ceremony in person by the recent death of her husband, Prince Albert. The latter, we may note in passing, was the first to suggest the idea of an international exliibition when plans were being made for the London Exhibition of 1851, elsewhere described. He had taken a lively interest in all the prepara- tions for the present display, and his death, when those preparations were about half completed, was brought vividly to mind by the absence of the queen. In the ode which was sung (written for the occasion by the poet- laureate Tennyson) he is alluded to as the "Silent fatlier of our kings to be. Mourned in this golden hour of jubilee." This ode was sung by 2000 singers, accompanied by 400 instruments. The " key" of the Exhibition (a master-key which really opened every lock on the doors of the buildings) was presented to the duke ; and after various musical selections were rendered, including the national anthem, he form- ally declared the Exhibition open. This Exhibition was open 171 days. The aggregate number of visitors was 6,211,003 ; average number of visitors per day 36,328. The exhibit- ors numbered 28,653, there being 26,348 in the Industrial Division, whose articles were arranged in 36 classes, and 2305 artists in the Fine Arts Division, whose works were arranged in 4 classes. There were 8487 British manufacturers and 17,861 foreign manufacturers, 990 British artists and 1305 foreign artists. The extent of the Fine Art collection surpassed all expectations. It consisted of 3370 paintings in oil and water colors, 901 pieces of sculpture, 1275 engravings and etchings, and 983 architectural designs. The entire cost of this gigantic enterprise was £321,000. The money received for admission amounted to £328,858. A guarantee-fund, amounting in the aggregate to £450,000, had been pledged in various sums by 1152 subscribers, so that there was "no such word as fail." The whole number of awards was 13,423, of which 8141 were in the form of medals and 5282 were diplomas. Fifty-six of the former and twenty-nine of the latter were awarded to Americans. THE OENTEIvT^IAL CITY. "Pulchra duos inter sita stat Philadelphia rivos; Inter quos duo sunt millia longa vise. Delawar his major, Sculkil minor ille vocatur; Indis et Suevis notus uterque diu. Hie plateas mensor spntiis delineat aequis Et doraui recto est ordine juncta domus." T. Makin (1728), Master of Friends' Grammar School. Beautiful Philadelphia is situated between two rivers separated from each other by a distance of two miles. The greater of these is the Delaware; the lesser, the Schuylkill, both having been for a long time known to the Indians and the Swedes. Here the surveyor lays out the streets with equal spaces between, and house is joined to house in a straight row. Situation and Extent. — The city of Philadelphia is situated on the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, 96 miles from the Atlantic Ocean and 85 miles from New York. It is bounded on the N. E. by Bucks county, E. and S. E. by the Delaware River, S. by Delaware county and W. and N. W. by Montgomery county. The extreme length is 232 miles, the breadth from 5 to 10 miles and the area 129i square miles, or 82,640 acres. Independence Hall is iu latitude 39° 57' N. and longitude 1° 50' E. from Washington, or 75° 10' W. from Greenwich. Physical Features. — Surface. — The southern district, at the inter- section of the rivers, is low and marshy ; the central part is level, but suffi- ciently elevated to secure good drainage. Along the Delaware are gravel- banks from 10 to 50 feet iu height. In the west and north-west the land is rolling and picturesque, affording fine sites for suburban residences. Rivers and Islands. — The Delaware has a width of 4086 feet opposite the city, and its greatest depth is 56 feet. The Schuylkill (which signifies in the Low Dutch dialect "hidden river") is 1264 feet wide at Vine street and 2040 feet wide at South street. It is spanned by ten bridges within the city limits. The Report of the Board of Trade says: "One-third of the exports of Philadelphia pass out of this river." Poquessiuk Creek constitutes the north-eastern boundary of the city. Tacouy and Wingo- hocking Creeks unite to form Frankford Creek, which empties into the Delaware above Bridesburg. Cobb's, Darby and Bow Creeks constitute 427 428 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES the south-western boundary. Wissahickon Creek enters Philadelphia at the north-east corner, and discharges its waters into the Schuylkill at the Falls. At the junction of the Schuylkill and the Delaware is League Island, which contains 600 acres and is separated from the main land by Back Channel. A little below are Hog Island and Mud Island (upon which Fort Mifflin is built); above are Windmill Island and Smith's Island (opposite Spruce and Walnut streets) and Treaty Island (opposite Richmond). Soil and Climate. — The soil is a sandy loam of great natural fer- tility. Much attention is paid to the cultivation of flowers and fruits about the suburban residences, and market-gardening is extensively car- ried on in the rural wards. Concerning the climate, William Penn wrote to Lord North, on the 24th of May, 1683, "The weather often changeth without notice, and is constant almost in its inconstancy." An old record says that the first settlers found " a sky as clear in winter as in summer, not foul, thick or black," and " the air, though cold and piercing, yet did not require more clothes than in England." A prevalent saying in the early part of the eighteenth century was, "We have always grass at Easter." In the year 1704 snow fell "one yard deep," and in the winter of 1779-80 the Delaware remained frozen for three months. Loaded wagons have crossed the river on the ice during some seasons, and during others navigation was not at all obstructed. In August, 1789, "fires be- came agreeable." On the 8th of May, 1803, there was a snow "which broke down the poplars and other trees in leaf," and June 10, 1816, "a frost so severe as to kill beans." April 12, 1841, "snow fell to a depth of 15 inches." The recorded range of the thermometer is from 7° below zero to 103° above. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1874, the maximum was 97°; minimum, 10.5°; mean, 52°; mean of the coldest month (February), 33.2° ; mean of the warmest month (July), 74.4°. Upon 9 days the mer- cury rose above 90°. Rain or snow fell upon 136 days in 1874; the total rainfall was 46.31 inches, and the mean of the barometer 30.080 inches. A record of the annual rainfall has been kept at the Pennsylvania Hospital for 50 years ; the greatest fall was 61.187 inches, in 1867, and the least 29.57 inches, in 1872. The isothermal lines passing through Philadelphia are: Autumn, 55° ; winter, 32° ; spring, 55° ; summer, 72.5° ; annual mean, 52.5°. Streets and Parks.— Dean Prideaux says : " Penn had the cele- brated city of Babylon in view as a model for his American town." In the original plan of 1683 the city extended from the Delaware to the Schuylkill, a distance of two miles, and from Vine street on the north to Cedar (now South) street, a distance of one mile; its area was about 1300 acres. There were nine streets running east and west, of which High street (now Market) was 100 feet wide and designed to be the principal avenue. The streets to the north and south were named, from the native CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 429 shrubs and trees, Vine, Sassafras (later called Race, as leading to the race- ground), Mulberry (changed to Arch, from the arch over a creek). Chest- nut, Walnut, Spruce, Pine and Cedar. There were twenty streets extend- ing north and south, of which the fourteenth from the Delaware was laid out 100 feet wide (since increased to 113 feet) and called Broad street. This street now stretches from League Island northward to the city limits, a distance of twelve miles, without once deviating from a direct line. It is claimed to be the longest, straightest and widest street in the world. The north and south streets are designated as 1st (Front) street, 2d street and so on, beginning at the Delaware; 2od street reaches the Schuylkill; west of that river the first street is oOth, and the designation by numbers ex- tends to the city line. Each square is reckoned as having 100 numbers, whether it contains many or few buildings. These numbers extend from the Delaware west, and from Market street north and south. Strangers who have been perplexed by the " blocks " of New York and the " trian- gles" of Boston will find the "squares" of Philadelphia very easy of com- prehension. Most of the original squares are now subdivided by cross- streets. From the old city country roads extended diagonally toward the neighboring towns. These roads are now lined with buildings for many miles, and have taken the more pretentious names of "avenues;" but old Philadelphians still speak of the Ridge Road and Germantown Road (extending toward the north-west), Old York Road (to New York) and Frankford Road (extending north-east) and Darby Road (toward the south-west). The suburban towns now comprehended within the city limits have been conformed to the same general system of numbering from the Delaware and Market street, and the numbers run up as high as from 5000 to 9000. Philadelphia contains nearly 600 miles of paved streets. The extension has been mainly within the present century. In 1768 the improved parts of the city reached no farther west than 8th street. Spatterdock Pond (4th and Market streets) was "the best game- pond anywhere to be found." A public square of eight acres was provided in the original plan for each of the four districts into which the city was divided by Broad and Market streets. These squares were designed "for the like uses as the Moorfields in London." In the north-eastern district was Franklin Square, and in the north-western Logan Square, both ex- tending from Race to Vine street ; in the south-east was Washington Square, and in the south-west Rittenhouse Square, both having Walnut street as their northern boundary. At the intersection of Market and Broad sti-eets was Penu Square, containing ten acres, which is the site of the new City Building. About the State-House also there was a public square. Ex- tensive grounds are now connected with Girard College, the United States Arsenal, the Naval Hospital, the Hospital for the Insane and the Alms- house. Fairmount Park. — In 1819 a dam was built across the Schuylkill -loO ^rJLLTl''^ rSITED STATSS Mte extec: ._ . -- " . :::iaxwd F^irk Oeg.r.iisgi',^tyr^. c^aeafes katti Iwes e«aft- 1,,, - - ---■.. . -f r:~r - '"' ■■-■ ■. .- — 'b^ pv.,- ■. >-_-.v-»J5 panaei- , .-. .- V - ^- -- ._. .- ;. rf ufe? T^jftr rc - - " - ~«i lailes^ aad 3ilca^ ta? Wk- $;x - ^ Bailor: is§^ grrettfiess ko^:^ r^.^«x Faai'twiwH 1k> Cbes^SiiK H ? T^ fe Bftwe Aata tkr^ ::. ■ ' - af-.-r^"- smI Iwtr sad a sr^ e?:" - "' v ■— -^rr: I.-.-.'. _^.: :■:— :— -->?!rak5ec >c-j:£1- ^_ ^^^ ..... :■ .^- ., ._. -w...^ ^_ Tinriwniti iif.il Ft: ^ ^-^ ^ -2S» •£ 1?TO. P&Sb- i^r^rcii xcraij^i'r'i lliL?f>7 I-v-rllviirN -^iica wae^ afoee das Ae wnnlwF m iaa? 2iCK :2ii2^ TUJse ~c«7^ - aLf^ae. Hb? tSsfttmr s; erea ;i.TtaiCK r^ ' " ""s^ T^aLT? ?r --.--<- ' "~ »[?» baaSsSigs -fere F o£vUA4309 ^i.- ,-.----;. J- _ .-.^ .^^_- ri^?sp«<«>e yew. On life? ccttuTiry. ::i!ere "was^ & aC t tw? rfeTa^o^ "reaurs : m ?>«: aaree y>»£% " . - :vr >«: iwelliaa:* W&:>is^::uig w> ^fce dsy cr Kcaaiscnsi^ YirxawaL aiaeoe^Sag: » Ae F3^rv~ -^ ^ - " - ■ - ^, --■ .^ sifccj^r - ^ ^ - It CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 431 wooden shutters painted white. Brownstone fronts, Venetian blinds and Mansard roof's are innovations now meeting with great favor. The ante- revohitionary houses of tlie suburbs were construeted of concrete which still remains firm. The elegant numsious of Gcrmantown, Chestnut Hill and West Philadelphia are mostly of pointed stone. Costly structures of granite, nuirble, sandstone and iron adorn the principal thoroughfares. Independence JLt/f should be mentioned first among noteworthy buildings. This was the old State-House, begun in 1729 and completed in ITo-i; the wings were added in 1740. In the east room the Declaration of Independ- ence was adopted by the second Continental Congress. This hall is now embellished with tln^ portraits of many of the original sigiun's of the Dec- laration, and contains many historical relics, among which is the old bell with the insrription, "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land, unto all the inhabitants thereof." In the west buikling the first Congress assem- bled; and there George Washington and John Adams were inaugurated as Presidents of the United States. The new City Building was begun Aug. 10, 1871. The expenditures up to May 15, 1875, were $1,999,841.01. It was originally estimated that the structure could be completed in six years, at a cost of $10,000,000; but both of these estimates will probably need a considerable enlargement. Four and a half acres are covered by the edifice, which is 48(5 2 feet long from north to south, 470 feet wide from east to west; and contains 520 rooms. The ajjcx of the dome will be at the height of nearly 300 feet. The new Pod- Office, on the former site of the University of Pennsylvania, at 9th and Chestnut streets, is to be built of granite from Dix Island, Maine. Its dimensions are, length 428 feet, depth 152 feet, height of dome 184 feet. Congress limited the cost to 14,000,000. The United States Custom-Honse was built in 1819-24 for the second United States Bank, at an expenditure of $600,000. It is in tlu! Doric style, and has a front of 87 feet and a depth of ICl feet. The United States 3Iint was completed in 1833. The Academy of Music, which will seat 3000 persons, has a fiont of 140 feet on Broad street and a depth of 283 feet on Locust street ; the stage is 90 feet wide and 100 feet deep ; estimated valuation of the property, $800,000. Near by is the Union League Club House, finished in May, 1865, at a cost of $200,000. At the corner of Broad and Sansom streets is the building of the Academy of Nat- ural Sciences, containing ;)00,0()() specimens and a library of 25,000 vol- umes. A magnificent new structure, fronting on Logan Square, will soon be ready for occupancy. The Masonic Temple was five ycai's in building, and cost $1,300,000. The Academy of Fine Arts, founded in 1805, are erecting, at a "cost of $300,000, a new building having a frontage of 100 feet on Broad street and a depth of 258 feet on Cherry street. Their col- lection contains the finest paintings of Benjamin West, Allston, Stuart and others. The Ridgway Library Building, on South Broad street, to cost 432 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES $1,500,000, was erected by the munificence of Dr. James Rush. Among other noticeable buildings are Horticultural Hall, the Reform Club House, Continental Hotel, Girard House, Ledger Building, Carpenters' Hall, Com- mercial Exchange, Merchants' Exchange, the United States Navy Yard and the Arsenal, Christ Church and the Cathedral of Sts. Peter and Paul, completed in 1864, at a cost of more than a million dollars. Several fine market-houses have been erected in various parts of the city. Manufactures. — Philadelphia, at the last census, ranked first among the cities of the Union in the number of manufacturing establishments, capital invested, hands employed, wages paid and materials used. New York excelled in the value of manufactured articles, perhaps from a greater facility in " putting up prices." The number of manufacturing establish- ments in Philadelphia was 8184; hands employed, 137,496, of whom 95,421 were males above the age of 16 years, 32,687 females above the age of 15, and 9388 youth; capital invested, ^174,016,674; wages paid, $58,780,130; value of materials used, $180,325,713; value of products, $322,004,517. Among the principal industries in value were: Molasses and sugar, refined, $25,949,876; woollen goods, $17,943,826; clothing, $17,757,932; printing and publishing, $10,107,451; carpets, $9,798,019; boots and shoes, $9,231,348; cotton goods, $8,272,698; worsted goods, $7,762,369; paper, $7,487,911; patent medicines, $6,101,592; printing of cloths, $5,713,584; machinery, not specified, $5,841,886; locomotives, $3,490,279 (one establishment employs 3000 hands and turns out a loco- motive every eight hours); engines and boilers, $2,450,224; iron, forged and rolled, $2,970,492; stoves, heaters, etc., $1,678,532; hosiery, $5,164,- 405, etc. The coal-oil refineries have a capacity of 6400 barrels per day. Coiiimerce and Navigation. — The largest ocean steamers can come up to the docks, and by means of the three city ice-boats the channel is kept open during the winter. In 1804 the number of arri- vals was 1799 and of clearances 1764; in 1873 there were 10,734 arrivals, foi-eign and coastwise. The value of exports in 1790 was $7,953,418 ; in 1872, $21,016,750; 1873, $24,239,357; 1874, $33,121,337. There was an increase of 36.6 per cent, during the last year, and Philadelphia ranked next to New York and New Orleans in the value of exports. Among the principal articles in value were petroleum (refined), $9,366,517; wheat, $4,740,796, and cotton, $2,107,981. The value of imports in 1872 was $20,383,858; in 1873, $25,393,150; in 1874, $26,447,037. While the decrease for the United States was 11.3 per cent., the increase at Philadel- phia was 4.15 per cent. This port ranked next to New York, Boston and Baltimore in the value of imports. Packages to the number of 13,080 were received by the American and Red Star lines to be sent in bond to other cities ; of these 6802 were destined for New York ; 10,878 passen- gers arrived during the year (of whom 8869 were immigrants), against CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND OUIDE. 433 3681 in 1873 ; in the foreign trade 1008 vessels entered and 1105 cleared. Through the kindness of the deputy-collector of the port we are enabled to present the following statistics for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1875 : Value of imports, $24,236,387 ; value of exports, $28,588,019 ; duties received, $8,285,814.59 ; foreign entrances, 562 vessels, with a tonnage of 326,287; clearances (American 474, foreign 590), 1064 vessels, of 623,- 892 tons. The number of vessels in the district was 153 registered; 2732 enrolled and licensed (above 20 tons) and 170 licensed (under 20 tons); total, 3055 vessels, of 407,584 tons. The produce receipts at Philadelphia in 1874 were 1,401,636 barrels of flour, 5,471,700 bushels of wheat, 5,954,700 of corn and 4,705,000 of oats. Elevators have been built at the junction of the two rivers having a capacity for 1,000,000 bushels, which can be increased to 4,000,000. Vessels drawing 24 feet of water can lie at the dock without grounding at low tide. Twelve vessels can be loaded at one time. The increase of grain shipments in 1874 was 44.25 per cent., without the above improvements. The number of cattle received was 167,130 beeves, 18,010 cows, 339,590 hogs and 757,040 sheep. Coal was shipped from Port Richmond to the amount of 2,051,127 tons. Railroads. — In 1755 Benjamin Franklin, then Postmaster-General, gave notice that the mail from Philadelphia to New England "shall start once a week, whereby answers may be obtained to letters between Phila- delphia and Boston in three weeks, which used to require six weeks." Three days was the time required for reaching New York by the regular stage. The railroad to Germantowu was one of the first completed in the United States. Horses were used for a time; the first locomotive, "Old Ironsides," was put on in 1833. In 1875, 106 regular passenger trains passed over the Germantown and Norristown Railroad every day. The Reading Railroad was opened Jan. 1, 1842, and the Pennsylvania Rail- road, commenced in 1847, was completed Feb. 15, 1854. The railroads now centring at Philadelphia are the Pennsylvania, which has a perpetual lease of the united companies of New Jersey and the Philadelphia and Trenton Railroad, thus controlling a through line from New York as well as from the West; the Philadelphia and Reading, which, besides its main line and its coal-road to Richmond, also operates the Germantown and Norristown road; the North Pennsylvania, the Philadelphia, Wilmington and Baltimore, and the West Chester Railroads. Three railroads which terminate at Camden, on the New Jersey side, also belong to the Philadel- phia system. From the Report of the Auditor- General for 1874 we have compiled the following statistics concerning the street railways of the city: Number of separate companies reporting, 17; length of main tracks, 233.81 miles; cost of roads and equipments, $7,737,459.78; number of cars, 883; horses, 5196; passengers carried during the year, 75,498,652. These lines have been very largely extended during the year 1875, in order 28 434 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES to supply the present needs of local travel as well as to accommodate the visitors to the International Exhibition in 1876. Public Institutions and Education. — The City Prison (Moy- amensing) was opened in October, 1835. The greatest number of commit- ments in any one year during the last two decades was 20,801, in 1860. There were 18,706 commitments in 1875, and the expenses of the institu- tion were $117,694.55. The Eastern Penitentiary (a State institution) occupies a whole square on Fairmount avenue. A House of Correction was opened at Holmesburg, near the Delaware, Jan. 15, 1874, and up to Jan. 1, 1875, 3734 prisoners had been received. At a special meeting of the commissioners, held Oct. 25, 1875, a report was presented showing that the cost of the ground was $25,000; building, $999,300; architects, etc., $19,311; total, $1,043,611; expenses of managers, $478,352; estimated amount needed for 1876, $313,020 ; number of inmates, 1177. The House of Refuge, for boys and girls, opposite Girard College, has about 600 inmates. The Blockley Almshouse, in West Philadelphia, on the 23d of October, 1875, at noon, contained 3511 persons, of whom 1810 were males (105 colored) and 1701 females (148 colored); number of deaths during the year, 799; expenditures, $529,513.26. On the 28th of May, 1755, the corner-stone of the Pennsylvania Hosj^ital was laid, and upward of 100,- 000 patients have received the benefits of the institution. There is a separate department for the insane, located in West Philadelphia. The Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb was incorporated in 1821. A new building, with accommodations for 400 persons, was opened Oct. 21, 1875. The Institution for the Blind, founded in 1833, is located on Race street, at the corner of 20th. On Gray's Ferry road is the United States Naval Asylum, where superannuated sailors find a comfortable home. The hos- pitals, asylums and dispensaries of Philadelphia are upward of forty in number. Among the leading institutions, besides the Pennsylvania, are the Presbyterian, Episcopal, Roman Catholic, Jewish and German Hospitals, and the hospitals of the University of Pennsylvania, the Hahnemann Medical College and the Woman's Medical College. For educational pur- poses the city of Philadelphia constitutes the first school district of Penn- sylvania. A system of public-school instruction was established in 1818. During the year ending Dec. 31, 1874, the number of schools under the supervision of the Board of Public Education was 467, divided as follows : 212 primary, 121 secondary, 29 consolidated, 60 grammar, 41 night schools, and, at the head of the public-school system, the Central High School (for boys), with 611 pupils, and the Girls' Normal School, with 605 pupils. The number attending the day schools was 91,950 ; night schools, 16,681; total number of scholars, 108,631; teachers of day schools, 1776; of night schools, 215; total number of teachers, 1991; expenditures for school purposes, $1,607,736,81 ; net value of school-houses, lots and furni- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 435 ture, Jan. 1, 1875, 84,rofessional, 207 ; news- papers and periodicals belonging to, or dealing especially with the aflfairs of, benevolent or secret societies, 81 ; those devoted to nationality, 20. By another division there were — religious newspapers and periodicals, 407, with an aggregate circulation of 4,764,358 copies, and an average circula- tion of 11,698; and 5464 secular newsimpers and periodicals, with an ag- gregate circulation of 16,078,117 copies, and an average circulation of 2942. We shall conclude this array of figures with a few statistics of the daily and weekly press. In 1850 there w^ere 1902 weekly newspapers, with an average circulation of 1548 copies; in 1860 there were 3173 weekly newspapers, with an average circulation of 2389 copies ;, and in 1870 there were 4295, with an average circulation of 2466 copies. In 1850 there were 254 daily newspapers, with an average circulation of 2986 copies ; in 1860 there were 387, with an average circulation of 3820 copies; and in 1870 there were 574, with an average circulation of 4532 copies. We have given these figures, showing the numerical increase both in the number of newspapers published in the United States and in their circula- tion, to enable our readers to form some idea of the rapid advance made dui'ing the past century and a half by a power which has sprung into ex- istence during that period. We feel how inadequate mere numbers are to serve as a measure for the magnificent development of the art and science of journalism during the period which has intervened since the first feeble efforts of John Campbell, publisher of the Boston Neivs Letter. With equal propriety could a merely numerical com2:)arison be made between one Queen Anne's musket, or thirty-seven guns such as were used during the Revolutionary War, and five thousand rifles of the latest pattern. The products of thought can be neither weighed nor measured. Their length, breadth, height and depth cannot be taken and tried " upon an exact scale of Bossu's." Still, an approximation may be made, albeit the nearer it approaches the truth the more exaggerated it will seem to ,t.hose who have not given the matter serious consideration. In the introduction to CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 479 Hudsou's excellent History of Journalism can be found several estimates of the power of the press, made at different periods by very different peo- ple, yet showing a unanimity which gives evidence that there is a basis of truth upon which these various opinions rest. Napoleon I. says : " Four hostile newspapers are more to be dreaded than a hundred thousand bay- onets." Carlyle says : " Great is journalism ! Is not every able editor a ruler of the world, being a persuader of it ?" Thiers says : " The real judge of the judge is public opinion ;" and the special application of this remark to our subject is given by Jules Favre, who says : " The j^ress has no powder but that which results from public opinion." David Hume says: " Its liberties and the liberties of the people must stand or fall together." The bishop of Western New York says : " After all, the press is king. It is the press that creates public opinion. It is the grand fact of the hour that popular sentiment has been educated by the press up to the point of spurning party-trammels and voting on principle." All of these expressions of opinion apply with peculiar force to the press of the United States. No grander proof can be offered of the elevating and enlightening influence of freedom than the fact that no nation on the face of the globe possesses a press which can compare with that of this country, whether we consider the number of newspapers or their influence. With the same rate of increase in the next ten years as in the past, there will be more newspapers and periodicals published in the United States than in all the rest of the world combined. The number is now between 7000 and 8000. Who can estimate the influence upon our national life and growth of this ever-flowing and ever-increasing stream of information, sent forth in such a form and at such a price as places some portion of it at least within the reach of the poorest citizen in the land who is able to read ? The invention of the electric telegraph, the perfecting of phonog- raphy, the recent wonderful improvements of the printing-press, have in- creased facilities for obtaining and imparting news ; but the real secret of the marvellous influence of the press is to be found in the ability, the sa- gacity and the force (to use a word frequently employed to express this particular journalistic quality) of the modern editor. The editor is a creation of the present century. Occasionally among his predecessors was seen a spark of the genuine editorial fire, but the time had not yet come for the blazing forth of that galaxy of stars which now so brilliantly lights up the journalistic firmament. When the electric telegraph began to put in communication distant points, and made of our nation, in fact as well as in thought, one closely-connected household, each portion daily anxiously looking for information concerning the rest ; when phonogi'aphy made it possible to transcribe the spoken word, no matter how rapidly it is uttered ; when the more general diffusion of education had caused a thirst for know- ledge, and rapid progress in the arts and sciences had created a demand 480 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. for profouud thinkers yet ready teachers, — then it was that the editor first laid claim to his present high position. The Hebrew prophets were not only religious teachers, but also state moralists and guardians of the repub- lic, uniting the functions of the Roman censors and the tribunes of the people. What the Hebrew prophet was in the olden time in his civil ca- pacity, the editor is, or ought to be, at the present day ; for to him the people look for counsel in times of danger and jDerplexity — for cheering words which shall light up the gloom in the day of adversity, and shall give greater zest to seasons of prosperity. The teachings of the philosophers of antiquity were the almost peculiar property of the few favored disciples who frequented the garden or the porch where the instructor could be found, and the trdmonitions of states- men were generally given in harangues ; but the editor speaks at times to an assembly greater than any that ever filled the Roman Colosseum, com- posed not merely of men of leisure, but of all classes, rich and poor, learned and unlearned. A moral priesthood is therefore upon him — an obligation to teach what is positively right, as well as to rebuke Avhat is wrong; for his influence for good or for evil is quickly and powerfully felt, and to him, if to any one, it may be said : " By thy words thou shalt be justified, and by thy words thou shalt be condemned." Great, therefore, as is his power, his responsibility is equally great. There are wrongs to right, and rights to be maintained. There is ignorance to be enlightened, error to be corrected, wickedness to be reproved. To note the signs of the Times • to Chronicle the Progress of events ; to Express sentiments of truth and justice ; with Argus eye to be like a Sentinel or Watchman at his Post, the first to Herald the News to all the World ; to give in his Bulletin the latest intelligence by Telegraph from all parts of the Globe, taking care that not a single incorrect Item enters into the Graphic descriptions of his Reporter ; to Press ever on to higher ground, never behind the Age, but brilliant as " the Sun that shines for all ;" to keep the balance in Ledger, Journal and Day-Book on the right side ; to Appeal to the best impulses of the good, but to fall upon evil-doers with the force of an Avalanche ; Independent in thought, to strive to bring about a true Golden Age ; to keep an unsullied Record as Patriot and Statesman, caring for the welfare of the whole Nation ; to be a Tribune of the People, a Defender of the sanctities of Hearth and Home; a promoter of Christian Union; an In- quirer after truth ; a keen Observer and a correct Recorder, — these are the editor's duties ; and if he fulfil them properly, be he Republican or Demo- crat, Conservative or Radical, Methodist, Presbyterian, Episcopalian or Baptist, he will be a Standard-bearer in his Day and generation, a bril- liant Star in the Galaxy of authors ; and however meagre- may be the sup- ply of so-called "sensations," he will have no difficulty in supplying all reasonable demands of " the devil." AMEEIOAIS'" LITERATUEE. IT has been said that "half a ceutury ago it was usual to sneer in Eugland at the literary pretensions of America." The sneer had not yet gone out of fashion at the time (1852) when Mr. Tuckerman wrote these words; for more than ten years later than the date given, in a collection of essays written by several British aspirants for political honors, the literary pre- tensions of American statesmen were thoroughly sneered at. One of these writers (Leslie Stephens, M. A.) says : " Jefferson, Hamilton, Madison and Adams are surrounded by a halo of the most cherished national glory, and their character has been estimated accordingly. To any one who will study their works it will appear that the two first [meaning the first twol were the only men who can claim the praise of any original intellectual force. [Can intellectual force be acquired ?] Jefferson was little more than a clever retailer of epigrams of the French revolutionary school [the Declaration of Indejieudence is an example; when the English hate any- thing, their minds are relieved if they call it French^, whose political career consisted in feebly drifting with his party. Hamilton was an ener- getic man of business, with a curious incapacity for seeing beyond the British Constitution. To accept them as in any sense great statesmen seems to me a mere concession to national vanity. I think any one Avho will study the career of General Jackson, or of any of the great trio, Clay, Calhoun and Webster, will come to the same conclusion as regards them. ... It is useless, however, to complain of the inferiority of Amer- ican statesmen, unless it appears that better material is passed over. Now, with all its excellences, American society has a characteristic defect: it has not hitherto produced j^oets, or philosophers, or artists any more than great statesmen up) to the European level." The italics and the remarks in brackets in the above quotation are our own. The writer is sometimes sufficiently diffident to say "I think;" but of the assertion contained in the last sentence he is very positive, and the patronizing manner in which he makes that statement is highly edifying. He gives, of course, simply his individual opinion; but it requires no argument to prove that in essays written by office-seekers opinions known to be unpopular are seldom suf- fered to appear. An examination of British reviews of American works will furnish the reader with many similar assertions. Whatever is unde- •5^ 481 482 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES niably good the British reviewer frequently attributes to close study of English authors, or even comes out with a direct charge of plagiarism, or of an imitation so close as to virtually constitute that crime. Imitation enough there has certainly been, and how could it be otherwise? The first colonists could not forget the mother-country, though to many of them she had been a stepmother. Their language was English, their education had been obtained in England, their literature was English. Their ab- sence from their native land made them prize more highly than ever the rich heritage of literary wealth to which they possessed a claim based upon a community of language, of political sentiment and of historical association. They had, moreover, little time to spend in original literary production ; the stern realities of life were upon them. To erect permanent dwellings ; to bring under cultivation sufficient land to furnish necessary food; to repel the attacks of a wary and savage foe, — such were the tasks which demanded the time and attention, the physical and mental activity, of the majority of those who were pioneers in the settlement of the thirteen orig- inal colonies. It was also natural that this ascendency of the mother- country should continue for several generations ; and even at the present day it would be as reasonable to expect from British authors Avorks in which the influence of standard English writers cannot be perceived as to demand such works from their "American cousins." The first book written (some say that it was only finished) in America was a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, executed by George Sandys, the treasurer of the London Company [see Historical Sketch, page 93]. Bancroft speaks of Sandys as "an idle man, who had been a great trav- eller, and who did not remain in America — a poet whose verse was toler- ated by Dryden and praised by Izaak Walton," etc. When the reader remembers that Sandys was one of the most zealous and influential pro- moters of emigration to America, having sent to Virginia 1200 emigrants during the year 1620 (including 90 young women, who became the wives of planters) ; that while travelling "he studied the genius, the tempers, the religions and the governing principles of the people he visited," and that after visiting the "Turkish Empire, Egypt, the Holy Land," etc., he com- posed "the best account of those parts written by any Englishman, and not inferior to the best of foreigners;" that he wrote some of the finest paraphrases of the Psalms, the book of Job and other scriptural poems that ever appeared in any language ; and, finally, that the time in which to make the translation from Ovid above mentioned was (says Sandys) " snacht from the bowers (^sic) of night and repose, for the day was not mine"; — when the reader remembers these facts, he will agree with us in the opinion that Sandys could not, with justice, be termed "an idle man." Dryden showed his toleration by calling Sandys "the ingenious and learned Sandys, the best versifier of the former ag6;" and his verse was praised by CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 483 Pope, by Bliss, by Wood and by Godolpliiu, as well as by Izaak Walton. Though he "did not remain in America," as the friend of the Pilgrim Fathers, as the promoter of emigration to Virginia and as the author of the first book composed on American soil — a work which he himself said was "sprung from the stock of the ancient Romans, but bred in the New World " — his memory deserves to be cherished by every American citizen, and we might add that his name should be mentioned with respect when it ap23ears on the page of any American writer. The book was published in London in 1621. As during the strife and carnage and turmoil of the Middle Ages the clergy alone had the requisite learning and leisure to retain and to transmit to posterity the "book-knowledge" of previous centuries, so during the struggles of the first settlers to obtain a footing in the New World the clergy were almost the only class who possessed sufficient both of educa- tion and of leisure to enable them to perform literary work. The first book printed in America was the Bay Psalm Book, a new translation of the Psalms, made by the chief divines of New England, including Messrs. Welde and Eliot (the fiimous preacher to the Indians), of Roxbury, and Mr. Richard Mather (father of Cotton Mather), of Dorchester. The Psalms thus turned into metre were printed at Cambridge, Mass., in the year 1640. The preface states as a motive of the collection, " Because every good minister hath not a gift of spiritual poetry to compose extem- porary psalmes (.s/c) as he hath of prayer." The book was adopted and almost exclusively used by the New England churches, and by the year 1750 it had passed through at least twenty-seven editions. The transla- tion of the Bible into the Indian language (a Mohegan dialect), com- menced by John Eliot in 1658 and finished in 1663, deserves mention here, as it was so peculiarly an American work, and was the only edition of the Scriptures published in this country during the first century after its settle- ment. The first volume of poems published in America was written by Anne Bradstreet, and appeared in 1678. A portion of these effusions had been published in London in 1650, with a title beginning thus : The Tenth Muse lately sprung up in America. While some of Mrs. Bradstreet's verses possess real merit, others are very matter-of-fact, as, for instance, when we are told, in her account of winter — " Beef, brawn and pork are now in great' st request. And solid'st meats our stomachs can digest." It was a natural result of the condition of the colonies, containing as they did people of every shade of religious belief, that a large portion of the writings of the clergy should be controversial. One of the earliest of these polemical writei's was Roger Williams, the founder of " the first civil government on earth that gave equal liberty of conscience." That his 484 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES toleration was not the result of indifference was amply proved by the zeal which he showed in attacking with his pen those whose religious opinions differed from his own. All honor, then, to the man who was "the first person in modern Christendom to assert in its plenitude the doctrine of the liberty of conscience, the equality of opinions before the law !" No fitter place could have been found for the promulgation of this doctrine than this favored land in which "liberty of conscience" is assured by law to every citizen. The memory of Cotton Mather is not so fortunate. His main work, Magnalia Christi Americana, or Ecclesiastical History of New England (by reading which entirely through Mr. William Tudor immor- talized himself), is seldom consulted except by the historical student or the antiquarian ; and in most minds his name is more closely associated with The Wonders of the Invisible World; being an account of the Tryals of /Several Witches, lately executed in New England, etc., and with the part which he took in those "tryals." A merchant of Boston, Robert Calef by name, replied to this work of Mather's in a book entitled More Wonders of the Invisible World, wherein the whole matter of "Salem witchcraft" is exposed with well-merited severity. Mather's book was printed at Boston, and reprinted in London in 1693. Calef 's reply was printed in London in 1700, and on its arrival in this country the book was publicly burnt by the Mather party. Among the various controversial works written by American divines during the eighteenth century, there is on^ which de- serves special mention. We allude to Jonathan Edwards' Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will. Sir James Mackintosh speaks of the author as "this remarkable man, the metaphysician of America," and in another place as "that remarkable man who in a metaphysical age or country would certainly have been deemed as much the boast of America as his great countryman Franklin." The works of Edwards are among the earliest mental productions of native Americans which have obtained a permanent place in English literature. The Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will was published in 1754. Ten years before, Franklin had printed a translation of Cicero de Senectxde, made by James Logan, the founder of the Loganian Library at Philadelphia. This translation has been pro- nounced by competent authority the best which appeared before that of Melmoth. The preface was written by Franklin, who terms the book "The first Translation of a Classic in this Western world." He evidently had- not heard of the work of Sandys. Logan wrote in Latin several scientific monographs, which were published at Leyden, and one of which was re- published in London, with an English version by Dr. Fothergill ; yet the London Quarterly Revieu) (with the fairness alluded to near the beginning of this article) could refer to him as "a man of the name of Logan, as obscure as Godfrey himself." Godfrey was the father of the author of the first dramatic work written in America ; and as the inventor of the quad- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 485 rant known as "Hadley's quadrant" (the Koyal Society deciding that both Godfrey and Hadley were original inventors), he could not correctly be termed "obscure." The tragedy written by Thomas Godfrey, the son, was entitled The Prince of Parthia. It never appeared on the stage, but it was not without merit; and some of his poems show that he possessed the real poetic fire. A Dlthyrambic on Wine (a beverage of which he had never partaken) was considered as "a refutation of that noted adage that ' A water-drinker can never be a good dithyrambic poet.' " The drama was written while Godfrey, who was a native of Philadelphia, was residing in North Carolina. "While this sketch would not be complete without mention of Franklin, his history and his works are so well known to the generality of readers that they do not require an extended notice. The man who (as Turgot wrote) "snatched the lightning from heaven and the sceptre from tyrants" performed, though not an author by profession, more literary labor be- tween the years 1726 and 1790 than many who have worked directly for reputation and the booksellers. While he is remembered as a promoter of science, as a philosopher, as a patriot, as a statesman, and as " the greatest diplomatist of the eighteenth century," it should not be forgotten that the author of "Poor Richard's" wise sayings was a writer of whom even Jeflreys has said, " He never loses sight of common sense in any of his speculations ;" and in another place, " His style has all the vigor, and even conciseness, of Swift, without any of his harshness. It is in no degree more flowery, yet both elegant and lively." Franklin was the Nestor of the Revolution, having reached the allotted span of three score years and ten when independence was declared. When the necessity of a separa- tion from the mother-country began to be evident — nay, before that time, when there was still a hope of a reconciliation — there was no lack of"lit- erary ability among the friends of freedom. The stand taken by the newspapers is elsewhere mentioned [see article on The Press, page 395] ; and we have also noted the opinion of Lord Chatham with reference to the State papers issued by the First Continental Congress, and which were composed by John Jay and William Livingston. That the compliment referred to literary merit as well as to other qualities is evident from Chatham's prefatory remark, "I must declare and avow that in all my reading of history (and it has been my favorite study ; I have read Thucyd- ides, and have studied and admired the master-states of the world), but for solidity of reasoning," etc. [See Historical Sketch, pp. 99, 100.] During the stirring events preceding the Revolution, during the war itself, and indeed up to the period of the adoption of the Federal Consti- tution, there was little leisure to cultivate literature for itself. The stern realities of the hour, the dawning of a general desire for independence, the hand-to-hand struggle for seven years, the anxiety to settle upon a 486 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES permanent form of government, gave to the writings of the day an in- tensely practical tone. Even the humorous poems of this period are generally intended to impress some important truth upon the popular mind, or to hold up to well-merited ridicule the enemies of freedom. It is a noteworthy fact that the clergy and the lawyers, the two classes stand- ing highest in the matter of intellectual culture, were generally on the side of liberty. There was a demand for teachers who would bring their fellow- countrymen up to the ideal of Alcseus of Mitylene, who believed that to constitute a state there is need of " Men who their duties know, But know their rights, and knowing dare maintain." This demand was nobly met ; but a large portion of the instruction of these teachers was in the shape of what might be called (though not in the anti- quarian sense of the term, which confines it mainly to tradition) "oral literature." Phonography Avas not yet invented, and but few specimehs have been preserved of the eloquence which took so prominent a part in prejDaring the colonists for the approaching crisis, in cheering them during the struggle for independence, and in bringing about a peaceable solution of the important problem which was finally disposed of by the Convention of 1789. The "supposed speeches" which have been kindly manufactured in comparatively recent times, though very creditable to the generosity, and occasionally to the intellectual vigor, of their composers, are scarcely adequate to fill up the vacuum left in the sum total of the results of American literary effort by the lack of verbatim reports of orations many of which would doubtless compare favorably with the best productions of ancient or of modern times. Still, enough has come down to us to show that "there were giants in those days." The eloquence of Patrick Henry, of James Otis, and of other Revolutionary orators, was of no ordinary kind. Otis also excelled as a writer, and his Vindication of the Conduct of the Souse of Representatives (of Massachusetts) is a masterpiece of con- densed argument. Of the newspaper essays and pamphlets written by the patriots many fortunately have been preserved. Among the most valuable of these at the present day, and the most effective when they appeared, are the Common Sense and American Crisis essays of Thomas Payne, written before he published his attack upon religion, in disregard of the sage Franklin's w*arning that "Among us it is not necessary, as among the Hottentots, that a youth, to be raised into the company of men, should prove his manhood by beating his mother." The settlement of the form of government, and the gradual recovery of the country from the disastrous effects which are attendant upon even a successful war, when waged not in the enemy's country, but in our own, were doubtless beneficial to the prospects of literature in the youthful CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 487 republic; but it was not until the close of the eighteeuth century that the first professional "literarj^ man" of the country (who was at the same time the first American novelist) came prominently into view in the person of Charles Brockdeu Brown. For full information with reference to his works the reader is referred to the admirable essay of Prescott. The fate of his first novel, Sky- Walk, or the Man Unknown to Himself, was peculiar and anything but auspicious. The printer, who had made a contract to print the work and to look to the sale for his pay, died when his task was nearly completed. His executors would neither fulfil the contract nor sell the printed sheets at the price oflTered by the author's friends. The fate of the sheets cannot with certainty be stated, but it can be safely asserted that Sky- Walk, under that name, remained " unknown " to the general public. Portions of the unfortunate novel were afterward incorporated by the author in Edgar Huntley. Brown's Wieland was the first American novel published. It appeared in 1798, and was immediately successful; but the success of a literary venture in those days was not, as at the pres- ent day, a sure road to wealth. Brown writes in 1800, "Bookmaking is the dullest of trades, and the most that any American can look for in his native country is to be reimbursed for his unavoidable expenses." The novels of Brown were reprinted in England, where they met v/ith a favorable reception ; but the author never derived any pecuniary benefit, so far as is known, from his transatlantic reputation. "Bookmaking" was a dull enough trade in England when Brown wrote the above remark. Less than thirty years had then elapsed since Chatterton, wellnigh starved, had spent his last penny for a dose of arsenic w^herewith to commit suicide; and at the present day, if Robert Browning's subsistence depended upon the revenue deriyed from his works, his supply of food would be little larger than was that of poor Chatterton. It would, however, be unfair to leave the impression that the prospects of authors of merit are not im- proved in England as well as in America. If in 16G7 Milton w'as glad to sell Paradise Lost for five pounds down and fifteen more to be paid by the time that 4300 copies had been sold — while his widow disposed of her whole interest in it for eight pounds — in 1826 Mrs. Rundle received two thousand pounds for the unexpired term of the copyright of her Domestic Cookery. Even a poet, if popular, sometimes is well rewarded ; and making ample allowance for the difference in the value of a given sum of money in 1667 and in 1867, Tennyson has received for any ten lines in some of his later poems more than the whole amount paid to Milton and to his widow for one of the grandest poems ever written in any language. In America the progress in the appreciation of literary merit has been even more marked. In 1850 The \Vide, Wide World was published, a novel written by Susan Warner, but bearing on its title-page the nom de plume "Elizabeth Wetherell." In ten years the sales of this book amounted to 488 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES 500,000 copies in this country alone, and it was reprinted in England and ti'anslated into several foreign languages. "VVe have selected this work as an example because it is one which depended for its popularity simply upon its literary merit, and not upon general interest in any political or theological or metaphysical question. This is, of course, an exceptional case; but if a novel is at all "successful" in this country — i. e., successful when looked at from the publisher's point of view — it has a sale of at least five or ten thousand copies. In the Galaxy for April, 1872, Justin McCarthy makes the following statement, which we give for the purpose of comparison: "The whole system of publishing is so different in Eng- land from that which prevails in America, our fictitious prices and the con- trol bug monopoly of our great libraries so restrict and limit the sale, that a New York reader would perhaps hardly believe how small a number con- stitute a good circulation for an English novelist. I assume that, roughly speaking, Eeade, Wilkie Collins and Trollope may be said to have about the same kind of circulation — almost immeasurably below Dickens, and below some such abnormal sale as that of Lothair or of Lady Audley's Secret, but much above even the best of the younger novelists. I venture to think that not one of these three popular and successful authors may be counted on to reach a circulation of two thousand copies. Probably about eighteen hundred copies would be a decidedly good thing for one of Charles Reade's novels." If this be true— and Mr. McCarthy is certainly in a position to know — any one of these novelists has a larger circulation in this country than in England. A British writer who has no hesitation in criticising Americans freely, and who is anything but favorable in many of his criti- cisms, is forced to acknowledge that "The Americans are emphatically a reading people. All ranks and classes read; all read the daily paper; all are 'posted up' in current events; most read more or less of light litera- ture; not a few read the best standard works in the language. The best writers of England, it is well knoivn, have more readers in America than at home.'" This fact speaks well for the culture of the Americans, and for the catholicity of their taste. The figures given above show that they are equally appreciative of the merits of American authors. The first three-fourths of the nineteenth century have indeed been a period of progress for American literature. The .practical turn of the American mind is seen in the great number of educational works which have been issued; but no department of mental production has been en- tirely neglected. Before the century began, the first of Lindley Murray's Grammars had appeared, in which the author (if Goold Brown and George Washington Moon are to believed) furnished another proof of the principle set forth in Portia's remark, " I can easier teach twenty what were good to be done than be one of twenty to follow mine own teaching." If such criticisms are true, the condition of English grammatical science CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 489 must have been miserable; for several millions of copies of Murray's Grammar were sold in England during the first fifty years of the nine- teenth century, and the work has formed the basis of most of those upon the same subject since published. Since that time each decade has shown a marked advance in the number of authors and in the quantity and quality of the works published. The names of authors who have written works of value crowd upon us so thickly that the shortest mention of them would swell this article far beyond its proper limits. Near the beginning of the century began the literary life of Irving, who, in his later years, twined about the brow of his immortal namesake the most beauteous laurel wreath that History united with Biography ever wove; Fenimore Cooper and other novelists ; Bryant, Halleck, Longfellow, Lowell and other poets ; among historians, Bancroft and Hildreth and Motley and Prescott ( whose almost sightless eyes seem to have left his mental vision clearer and his imagination warmer and brighter), and Kirk, his former secretary, upon whom his mantle has fallen — in shoi-t, in every department of literature America is now represented by men who can be favorably compared with their transatlantic brethren. It was difficult to obtain reliable statistics of the number of books pub- lished annually before the enactment of the present copyright law, which obliges those who wish to copyright books to enter them " in the office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington." Before this provision was made the entries were made in the " clerks' offices " of the various District Courts of the United States, some States, therefore, having two places where books could be copyrighted. The reader will at once see the difficulty of obtaining information which lay scattered around in so many different j^laces, to procure which it was necessary to write to the clerk of each and every District Court, and to receive answers from all before the total number was secured. At present (1875) the whole matter can be transacted by mail, at an expense of one dollar and "two complete copies of the best edition issued, sent, pre-paid, by mail or express, to the librarian of Congress." Another very important provision of the law, which is a natural result of the above requirements, is that "all records and other things relating to copyrights, and required by law to be preserved, shall be under the control of the Librarian of Congress, and kept and preserved in the library of Congress ; and the Librarian of Congi'ess shall have the immediate care and supervision thereof." The statistics of copyrights issued must, therefore, form a portion of his report ; and they are annually given to the public, though not always, at least in the first reports, with the same fulness and distinctness. The whole number of books entered in the office of the Librarian of Congress in 1872 was 11,075, classified as follows: Books, 3175; pamphlets, 2728; musical productions, 2312; dramatic pieces, 18; maps and charts, 221; 490 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. photographs, engraviogs, chromos and prints, 2621. Of the report for 1873 the Annual Cyclopedia for that year says: "The number of pub- lications entered for copyright was 15,352, an increase of about ten per cent, on the entries of the preceding year. This includes not only books and pamphlets, but maps, prints, articles in periodicals, etc., and the aggregate gives no clew to the proportions of each." Now, if the number given for 1872 be correct, the increase, instead of being " about ten per cent.," is 38.53 per cent. As the report of the Librarian of Congress for 1874 gives the number of copyright entries during the year end- ing December 1, 1874, as 16,283, " being an increase over the entries of the preceding year of 931," the correctness of the total for 1873 (15,352) is proved, so that either the total given for 1872 or the per centage reck- oned by the writer in the Aiinual Cyclopedia is wrong. As the entry of all prints and labels intended for use in connection with any article of man- ufacture was transferred (Aug. 1, 1874) from the office of the Librarian of Congress to that of the Commissioner of Patents, the increase in the copyright business is really greater than is indicated by the figures given above. The previous reports included " several thousand entries annually of mere labels which never had any appropriate relation to copyright pro- tection," and which are now registered in the oflSce of the Commissioner of Patents, to whom "shall be paid for recording the title of any print or label, not a trade-mark, six dollars, which shall cover the expense of fur- nishing a copy of the record, under the seal of the Commissioner of Patents, to the party entering the same." The increase in the value of copyright works is not, however, merely numerical. There is a marked improvement observable in the quality as well as in the quantity of Amer- ican publications. Our British cousins would do well if they would recon- sider the unfavorable dicta with which their literary periodicals are replete — if they would acknowledge the debt owing from both countries to such a work, for instance, as Dr. Allibone's Critical Dictionary of English Lit- erature and British and American Authors — if they would realize tlie fact that this country has advanced intellectually as well as materially ; that the language which is the common heritage of Britannia and Columbia has been honored by the best productions of " American Literature." AMEEICAN EDUOATIOiN^. IN the year 1867, which, as a brief calculation will enable the reader to realize, is a date not very much earlier than 1876, there appeared in a book written and published in England, the following statement: "In America it is still possible to win some success with such fixcility that high training, like high farming, is there thrown away. As the American farmer, with abundance of fertile land, only scratches his ground, so the student is content with a superficial culture of his mind. The exceptions have not as yet been sufficiently numerous to form the nucleus of a really cultivated class or to raise the general standard. It is from this cause, I think, that, whether we study American society or books or history, we are struck with the same phenomenon — the immense number of minds which rise to great practical acuteness and facility compared with the very small number which rise to real originality and thorough cultivation. I do not doubt that this will alter as society comes to a state of equilibrium, but whilst it lasts there is one excellent reason for the paucity of highly-culti- vated statesmen in Congress — namely, that there are none in the country. The class from which they should be drawn does not exist." We have given this statement in full in order to show the spirit which pervades the writings of many British essayists when touching upon this important subject. We are thankful that we are able to state that all English authors have not been so biased in their opinions concerning Amer- ican culture; but there is little doubt in the mind of any one who has investigated the matter that the ideas contained in the above quotation have obtained in England almost universal acceptance. The reason for this is obvious. The people of England, or at least the writers of that country, do not realize the wonderful advances that have been made in the United States during the past half century in all that pertains to education. Haifa century ago, however, a candid Englishman could say: "The effects of the literary institutions of the United States are somewhat peculiar. Few men devote their lives to scholarship. The knowledge that is actually acquired is perhaps quite sufficient for the more practical and useful pur- suits. I am inclined to believe that a class of American graduates carries away with it quite as much general and diversified knowledge as a class from one of our own universities. The excellence in particular branches 491 492 JBURLEY'S UNITED STATES may be wanting, but the deficiency is more than supplied by variety of infor- mation.'" In another place he says : " Profound schohirs are not common. This country possesses neither the population nor the endowments to main- tain a large class of learned idlers in order that one man in a hundred may contribute a mite to the growing stock of general knowledge. There is a luxury in this expenditure of animal force to which the Americans have not yet attained. The good is far too problematical and remote to be sought, while the expense of man is certain." We could not have a better introduction than the foregoing quotation for a brief notice of the early attempts to provide for the educational wants of this country. The life of the first settlers was intensely practical. They had no superabundance of force, mental or physical, to expend upon any- thing which did not bring in a speedy return. Still, the interests of the rising generation, where education was concerned, were not entirely neg- lected; for it was less than sixteen years after the landing of the Pil- grim Fathers, and six years after the settlement of Massachusetts Bay, that (Oct. 28, 1636) the General Court of Massachusetts " agreed to give £400 toward a school or college, whereof £200 to be paid the next year and £200 wheii the work is finished." The bequest of the Rev. John Harvard put the enterprise upon a sure footing — probably its only footing at first (as there is doubt whether the £400 voted by the General Court was ever actually paid) — and the first president, Henry Dunster, was elected in 1640. From this beginning has grown the present Harvard University, with nine departments, its 110 instructors, its, 1174 students (in 1874) and its library of more than 200,000 volumes. The founding of Harvard College was not, however, the first indication of the interest felt by the early settlers in New England in the intellectual welfare of their youth. As early as 1635, according to the records of the town of Boston (then not yet five years old), "it was unanimously resolved that our brother Philemon Purmont should be appointed schoolmaster for the instruction and education of our children." Thirty acres of land were granted at the same time for the support of the schoolmaster. In the year 1642 the General Court {%. e., the House of Representatives of that day) resolved to enjoin the local authorities to " keep a watchful eye on their brothers and neighbors, and above all things to see that there be no fiimily in which so barbarous state of things exists as that the head thereof do not endeavor, either by his own exertions or by the help of others, to impart sufficient instruction to his children and to his servants to enable them to read fluently the English language, and to acquire a knoivledge of the penal laws, under a penalty of twenty shillings." In 1647, when education had thus been rendered compulsory, the foundation was laid of that system of instruction which exists to this day in Massachusetts in all its essential fea- tui-es, though it has necessarily undergone some modifications. This law CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 493 was repeated and re-enacted in the code of 1649, which prescribed that, " It being one chief project of thafe old deluder Sathan to keep men from the knowledge of the Scriptures, as in former times by keeping them in an unknown tongue, so in these latter times by persuading men from the use of tongues, and that learning may not be buried in the graves of our fathers" therefore every township was required to maintain a school for reading and writing, and every town of a hundred householders a grammar-school, with a teacher "qualified to fit youths for the university." The penalty for non-compliance was at first put at £5 per annum, but was I'aised, until in 1718 it stood at £40 for every town containing two hundred families. These fines were appropriated for the benefit of schools. In the mean time Virginia, the oldest of the colonies, had not been behindhand in providing means of instruction, private benevolence having supplied the place of a legal enactment. In a letter quoted by the author of A Perfect Description of Virginia, and written in that colony in March, 1648, we find the follow- ing statement : " I may not forget to tell you that we have a free school, with two hundred acres of land, a fine house upon it and other accommo- dations to it. The benefactor deserves perpetual memory. His name, Mr. Benjamin Symes, is worthy to be chronicled. Other petty schools also %ve have." In Connecticut a law was passed in 1650 relative to the public schools which in its essential features was similar to the one mentioned. The great importance which was attached to education in this State can be judged from the remarkable passage in their penal code, the famous "Blue Laws," which determines that " if any child or children above sixteen years old and of sufficient understanding shall curse or smite their natural father or mother, he or they shall be put to death, unless it shall be sufficiently testi- fied that the jxirents have been very unchristianly negligent in the education of such children, or so provoke them by extreme and cruel correction that they have been forced thereto to preserve themselves from death or maiming." In June, 1670, the General Court of the Colony of New Plymouth granted all the profits accruing to the colony " for fishing with nets or seines at Cape Cod for mackerel, bass or herrings, to be improved for and toward a free school in some town of this jurisdiction, /o?" the training xip of youth in literature for the good and benefit of posterity, provided a begin- ning were made within one year after the said grant." The reasons assigned for these various measures to establish schools and to encourage home instruction are highly suggestive. We have italicised them, but repeat them here for comparison and examination : "That learn- ing may not be buried in the graves of our fathers;" that the youth might be enabled "to acquire a knowledge of the penal laws;" that they might be trained up in literature for the "good and benefit of posterity;" these are reasons not unworthy of the most enlightened statesmen living in the 494 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES most enlightened age. The full value of the second above given will be realized only when the reader remembers that then was in vogue as now the legal maxim " Ignorance of the law excuses no man." Still more re- markable, then, is the exception — the only merciful exception found in those of the Blue Laws which inflicted capital punishment — which spared the cursing or striking child in whose education his parents had been "very unchristianly negligent." It is like a ray of light gleaming out from the thick darkness which hangs over that portion of this famous code, which, like the oft-mentioned laws of Draco, is written in blood. It is an indica- tion of the presence of that spirit which at the present day pervades the entire nation, and which called forth the strong commendation of a distin- guished foreigner, not an Englishman, about a quarter of a century since, expressed in terms so strong that we feel called upon to transcribe them. " When," he says, "the stranger finds that in reality the public schools are one of the most prominent subjects of national pride and satisfaction ; that the question of popular education is not of interest only to some few phi- lanthropists and thinkers, is not discussed only in legislative assemblies, but that it forms part of the national life and is considered an important, nay, the most important, concern of the nation, — then he feels that in the depths of American society there are forces at work which in Europe have as yet produced very mediocre results. This is, I think, the highest pr^aise that can be bestowed on the United States. This constitutes the true greatness of the nation and the best guarantee of its stability. The United States are the only communities in the world which from their very commencement ivere prepared to establish popular education as one of the fundamental pillars of the social fabric. They are the only communities in which the highest possible degree of enlightenment among the people has been practically and universally recognized, not only as a very desira- ble object from the philanthropic point of view, but also as constituting the principal cog-wheel in the machinery of the state. In effect, national enlight- enment will always, and in every branch of administration, prove the most effective ally of statesmanship." The progress made was, it must be acknowledged, not always steady or equal. In 1705, for instance, there was no public school at Plymouth ; but private enterprise, as is usual in America, came to the rescue. " Sundry inhabitants of Plymouth became bound to pay twenty pounds per annum for seven years to support a school, provided it be settled within forty rods of the old meeting-house; which was agreed to, and a school-house was built by subscription." As the inhabitants of Plymouth were at this period dispersed over an extensive territory, several towns, since taken from it, not then being incorpoi'ated, there was, at first, some difficulty in arranging matters, which was finally removed by the following regulations, in which, it will be noticed, the zeal for learning which brought children from a greater CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 495 distance than a mile was rewarded with a proportionately lower "school gate," as the money paid for tuition was called: "All children sent to the school (except those of the subscribers to the fund) that live within one mile of the school to pay four pence the week for being taught Latin, writ- ing and ciphering, and two pence the week for reading. All beyond a mile and within two to pay two pence for being taught Latin and one penny for reading, the poor excepted, ivJio are to co7ne free. In case a country school be settled by the court before said term of seven years be expired, then these obligations mutually to be void." By "a country school" is meant a public school established by law. The exception made in favor of the poor is an example of the kindly spirit which lies at the basis of all legis- lation upon this subject, but which is especially noteworthy when shown by the undertakers of what might be considered a private enterprise. The second college iu the United States was William and Mary College, founded at ^yilliamsburg, Va., in 1692. The king and queen after whom the institution was named gave £2000 and 20,000 acres of land, the duty of Id. per pound on all tobacco exported from Virginia and Maryland to the other colonies, and the Surveyor-General's place, which was then vacant. He also granted it the privilege of sending a member to the assembly. The author of The British Evipire in America says (in 1741): " It proceeded so far that there was a commencement there in the year 1700, at which there was a great concourse of people. Several planters came thither in their coaches and several in sloops from New York, Penn- sylvania and Maryland. It being a new thing in America to hear gradu- ates perform their academical exercises, the Indians themselves had the curiosity to come to Williamsburg on this occasion, and the whole country rejoiced as if they had some relish of learning. The professors were to read on all the liberal sciences — on agriculture, architecture, art military, navigation, gardening, trade and manufactures — once a week from Easter to Michaelmas, and twice a week from Michaelmas to Easter. They began upon experiments of plants and minerals, and were assisted by the French of Monachantown. Their own lead, copper and iron mines in the Apal- lean [Appalachian] Mountains were under their consideration, when the fire put an end to their college and their studies." This fire happened in 1705, but the building was re-erected in 1706, and liberal contributions were made toward its restoration by Queen Anne. A school system was devised in Maryland in 1694, which was carried into effect in 1723, and for the benefit of which certain export and import duties were imposed. Each county had a board of visitors, seven iu num- ber, with power to perpetuate themselves by filling vacancies, and with authority to purchase in each county one hundred acres of land as the site of a boarding-school, and to employ "good schoolmasters, members of the Church of England and of pious and exemplary lives and conversation, 496 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES and capable of teaching well the grammar, good writing and mathematics, if such can be conveniently got." Their salary was to be £20 per annum and the use of the tract of land bought. By a subsequent act, passed in 1728, these masters were required, under penalty of dismissal, to teach as many poor children gratis as the visitors should direct. This, though far inferior to the school system of New England, was a far more liberal provision than Avas elsewhere made at that time for public education. On the 9th of October, 1701, the General Court of the Colony of Con- necticut granted " full liberty and privilege unto certain undertakers for the founding, suitably endowing and ordering a collegiate school Avithin His Majesty's colony of Connecticut, wherein youth may be instructed in the arts and sciences, who, through the blessing of Almighty God, may be fitted for public employments both in Church and civil State. To the intent, therefore, that all due encouragement be given to such pious resolu- tions, and that so necessary and religious an undertaking may be set for- ward, supported and well managed, be it enacted," etc. We have given this preamble to show the combined piety and patriotism which actuated these men, and the ceremony which took place in the previous year, and which is deemed by many the true beginning of the college, is correctly described by Baldwin as " peculiarly characteristic of the simplicity of the age." At some time in 1700 ten of the principal ministers Avere nominated and agreed on by general consent to act as " trustees or undertakers to found, erect and govern a college." They met at Branford, and each trustee "brought a number of books and presented them to the body, and laying them on the table said these words : ' I give these books for the founding a college in this colony.' The number of volumes thus collected consisted of forty folios." Such was the humble beginning of what was destined to be one of the first institutions of learning in the country, not merely in the order of time, but also in the order of merit, of value and of efiiciency. The first commencement Avas held in 1702, at Saybrook. The first student who had taken his Avhole course at the institution, or at least had not been at any other college, was graduated in 1704. For five years (from 1702 to 1707) the students resided with the rector at Killing- worth, while the commencements Avere held at Saybrook. After that time various arrangements Avere made until 1718, Avheu a ncAV building Avas erected at Ncav Haven, and Avas occupied by the "school" on the 10th of September. In honor of Elihu Yale (a native of Ncav Haven who had gone to England and had become the governor of the East India Com- pany), by whose generosity the trustees had been enabled to complete the edifice, the institution noAV received the name of Yale College. During the scholastic year of 1874-5 there were 88 instructors and 1031 students in the various departments (103 theological, 53 laAv and 50 medical, and in the department of philosophy and the arts, 55 graduate and 7 special CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 497 students, 537 imdergraduate academical students, 248 in the Slieffield Scientific School and 21 in the School of the Fine Arts). The College of New Jersey, popularly known as "Princeton College," was first incorporated in 1746, and established at Elizabethtown under the presidency of the Rev. Jonathan Dickinson. At first this gentleman and an usher were the only teachers, and the students, about 20 in number, boarded with the president and with other fiimilies in the town. In 1747 President Dickinson died, and the institution was removed to Newark, where it remained for ten years under the presidency of the Rev. Aaron Burr; and in 1757, the number of students being 70, it took a new and final departure to Princeton, where during this year Nassau Hall, the first college edifice, was erected. The discipline was somewhat strict in those days, judging by the following extract from the collegiate code of this institution in 1765: "Every scholar shall keep his hat off* about ten rods to the president and about five to the tutors. Every scholar shall rise up and make his obeisance when the president goes in or out of the hall or enters the pulpit on days of religious worship. When walking with a supei'ior, they shall give him the highest place; and when first coming into his company they shall show their respect to him by pulling off' their hats ; shall give place to him at any door or entrance, or, meeting him going up and down stairs, shall stop, giving him the banister (sic) side; shall not enter into his room without knocking at the door, or in any way intrude themselves upon him; and shall never be first and foremost in anv under- taking in which a superior is engaging or about to engage ; shall never use any indecent or rude behavior or action in a superior's presence, such as making a noise, calling loud or speaking at a distance unless spoken to by him if within hearing ; shall give a direct, pertinent answer, concluding with Sir!" This college had, during the scholastic year of 1874-5, 19 instructors and (including 25 in the school of science) 408 students. Dartmouth College in Hanover, N. H.,was chartered in 1769. It grew out of a school for the education of Indian children which had previously been established at Lebanon, Conn., by the Rev. Eleazar Wheelock, D. D., who became the first president of the incorporated institution. The char- ter gave it " all the privileges and immunities of any university within the British realm." In the following year the institution with its 24 students (18 whites and 6 Indians) was removed to Hanover. The number of instructors during the scholastic year of 1874-5 Avas 35, and of students 457, divided as follows : academical, 265, medical, 78, scientific, 77, agri- cultural, 33, Thayer department, 4. The number of volumes in the li- brary of Dartmouth is 47,000, and including the collections of the literary societies, etc., the sum total is 53,100 volumes. Yale College, with the same inclusion, has an available magazine of 105,000 volumes, while the " library strength " of Harvard University is 200,000 volumes, as has 32 498 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES been already stated. There are iu the Uuited States (according to the American Educational Oyclopasdia for 1875) 322 colleges and universi- ties, 111 theological seminaries, 37 law schools, 121 normal schools, 39 schools of science (mining, engineering, agricultural, etc.) which are en- dowed by the national land-grant, and 28 schools and collegiate de- partments of science (mining, engineering, etc.) Avhich are not endowed with the national grant of lands. The number of educational and lead- ing college periodicals is 114. The "national land-grants" are a strik- ing proof of the interest felt by the whole country in this important matter. As early as 1785 and 1787 the ordinances passed in these years for the government of " the North-west Territory " set apart " section 16 of every townshij) " for the maintenance of public schools, the act of the second year named asserting that, "religion, morality and knowledge being necessary to good government and the happiness of mankind, schools and the means of education shall be for ever encouraged." The States receiv- ing the 16th section were Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Arkansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, Wisconsin. The 16th and 36th sections were given to California, Minne- sota, Oregon, Kansas and Nevada. The 36th section was added by the act of 1848. The 16th section was given to all the States admitted into the Union previous to 1848, and the States admitted and Territories organ- ized since that time have received the two sections instead of one. Be- sides these grants, sixteen States (Alabama, Arkansas, California, Florida, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Mis- souri, Nebraska, Nevada, Oregon and Wisconsin) have received 500.000 acres each by the act of 1841, which some of them have added to their school fund, and fourteen (the same, leaving out Kansas, Nebraska, Ne- vada and Oregon and adding Indiana and Ohio) have received under the designation of "swamp lands" (by the acts of 1849, 1850 and 1860) an aggregate of 62,428,413 acres, which has also to some extent been devoted to this purpose. Besides this assistance for common schools, the ordinance of 1787, already mentioned, set apart " not more than two complete town- ships of land to be given perpetually for the purposes of a university." Every State organized since the beginning of the century has accordingly received the two townships, and it is stated that " Ohio was fortunate enough to receive three, one while a territory and two on being admitted into the Union, while Florida and Wisconsin appear to have received four each," two apiece having been probably given upon their organization as Territories and two more each when they became States. The aggregate of the lands thus granted to schools amounts to about 140,000,000 acres, and the permanent school funds of the 18 States which have received lauds under one or all of these grants amounts to $43,866,787.55, an aver- , age of neai-ly $2,500,000, the greater part of which is supposed to be de- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 499 rived from this source. The university lauds granted by the " two town- ships" rule amounted to only 1,119,414 acres. Before 1862 no effective condition was attached to these grants. " No method was indicated by which the trust should be fulfilled, nor was any penalty provided against a violation of it." A general condition that the lands were granted "in trust for the schools of the State " appears to have been the only indica- tion usually given of the purpose or object of the donation. The 9,600,000 acres of land granted during and since 1862 have had conditions attached which were somewhat more specific than the vague generality which served as a condition to the previous grants. By the act of 1862, for instance, Congress granted to the several States 30,000 acres of the public lands for each senator and representative in Congress. The lands were to be sold, and the proceeds were to be invested as a perpetual fund for the mainte- nance of at least one college in each State where the principal object should be, " without excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are re- lated to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such manner as the legisla- tures of the States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes in the several pur- suits and professions of life." It is well stated in the Avieriean Educa- tional Cydopcedia, to which we are indebted for these particulars, that " The broad purpose is to provide for the ' liberal ' as well as the ' practi- cal education of the industrial classes,' and that not in any single direction, but ' in the several pursuits and professions in life.' The leading object is to be the promotion of ' agriculture and the mechanic arts,' not neces- sarily by training a body of apprentices in manual practice, which experi- ence in general shows is attended with too many drawbacks in an edu- cational institution, but by teaching ' siich branches of learning as are re- lated to ' these subjects — that is, in short, the whole range of the mathe- matical, physical and natural sciences, with special reference to their appli- cations in these great branches of human industry." On this basis 35 States had established institutions at the beginning of 1875 ; and as four of them had divided the fund, endowing therewith two institutions in each of these States instead of one, the whole number of colleges established under this endowment at the date referred to was 39. Thirty-six had been opened. The average value of the endowment, as far as ascertained, was 8179,645, the largest being $630,000 and the smallest $50,000. The effect of these endowments has been to awaken the enthusiasm and call forth the benevolence of individuals and communities in behalf of the colleges endowed, contrary to the assertion made by some writers upon this subject that governmental aid to education, and especially to higher education, tends to check individual effort. It has proved that " the aid of the government, wisely bestowed, stimulates and encourages private 500 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES benevolence by giving it a central rallying-point and an adequate guaranty of security." Of fifteen of these institutions, 8 liave received contribu- tions or grants from the States in which they are situated amounting to $1,292,550, and fourteen (including seven of the previous class) have re- ceived gifts from other sources than their States (such as county or town authorities, or private individuals) to the amount of $3,630,649.86, mak- ing a grand total of $4,923,199.86, of which sum all except $571,545 was given solely in consequence of the Congressional land-grant. At the beginning of 1875 eleven States had compulsory educational laws — viz., California, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecti- cut, Rhode Island, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Texas and Nevada. In New Jersey, New York and California these laws were enacted in 1874. While in the leading colleges opportunities are oifered for obtain- ing the highest degree of literary culture, and in several of them the stu- dent can, if he so desires, study Sanscrit, or even Chinese and Japanese, the importance of the common-school system thus supported cannot be over- rated. A comparison of the census report of 1850 with that of 1860 fur- nishes some gratifying results, too pleasing, perhaps, to be accurate, if the returns in 1870 (which took note of all above ten years of age who could not read and write) can be brought into the comparison, and be considered in this as in many other respects the most perfect return ever made. In 1850 there were in the United States 1,053,420 persons (twenty years of age and upward) who could not read and write ; native, 858,306 ; foreign born, 195,114; males, 389,664; females, 573,234; white, 962,898; free colored, 90,522. In 1860 the number of persons twenty years of age and upward who could not read and write was 1,218,311 ; native, 871,418; foreign-born, 346,893; white, 1,126,555; free colored, 90,736. It will be seen at a glance that the greater i^art of this increase was among the for- eign-born population, brought about, doubtless, in a great measure by im- migration from lands less favored than ours in the matter of education. It will be a difficult matter and will require much explanation to compare these figures with those of 1870. In the first place, as we have already in- dicated, the number of " illiterates " from ten years of age and upward was taken, which, as will be shown, added a considerable number to the sum total. Again, slaves had not been included in the preceding return. The slight increase in the number of free colored illiterates will be noticed upon an ex- amination of the above figures, though the total free colored population in- creased during the ten years preceding 1860 from 434,495 to 488,070. The addition of the freedmen brought up the number of colored illiterates to a very high figure, as will be seen by the following returns : Number of per- sons in 1870, ten years of age and upward, who could not read and wi'ite, 5,658,144 (1,130,060 could read, but could not write^; native, 4,880,271 ; foreign born, 777,873 ; white, 2,851,911 ; colored, 2,789,686. It appears, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 501 then, that nearly one-half of the illiterates were colored people, the greater part, of course, being freedmen, of whose illiteracy no notice had been taken in the previous census. The returns of the census are fuller and more accurate, as we have already mentioned, but it is to be regretted that among the figures given there are very few that can be fairly compared with those of the previous returns. A few statistics are given of illiterates aged 21 years and upward, but none of the native white population of this age. The very slight increase in the number of illiterates among the na- tive whites between 1850 and 1860 (so small, indeed, as to hQ ix, proportional decrease) showed the benefits of our common-school system, and it would be interesting to follow up the special statistics of the native white illiter- ates, twenty years of age and upward, which would doubtless give a more favorable showing than any of the returns given above, or, indeed, obtain- able anywhere. A Department of Education was created by an act of Congress ap- proved March 2, 1867, " for the purpose of collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the condition and progress of education in the several States and Territories, and of difiilising such information respectiug the organization and management of schools and school systems and methods of teaching as shall aid the people of the United States in the establish- ment and maintenance of eflScient school systems, and otherwise aid the cause of education throughout the country." Dr. Henry Barnard was the first " Commissioner of Education " (as the head of this department is styled ), a fitting appointment, as it was he who first secured the insertion of some inquiries respecting the intelligence of the people into the schedules of the census. The difiiculties attendant upon the proper performance of the duties of this department were very great. Though it was generally admitted that "commerce, industry, legislation and administration would go back toward barbarism if the care of the young were neglected for a single genera- tion," the lack of specific information with refei-euce to the condition of ed- ucational afl!airs in the whole country had " for a long period been a stand- ing complaint among students of American civilization. No officer could make satisfactory replies to foreign inquiries. No statesman could find facts for the formation of his opinions or the guidance of his conduct. There was much pompous boasting of American intelligence, but nobody could exactly describe it." The Commissioner of Education says in his Report for 1873 : " Almost every one who endeavored to understand the diverse facts in connection with education in this country complained of the lack of a general summary. Great and noble effl^'ts had been made to supply this desideratum ; particular features, methods or systems had been examined ; some very valuable special statements had been published, but there was no report for my guidance. There was not anywhere in ex- istence any complete list of colleges, academies and high schools ; there was 502 JSUBLEY'S UNITED STATES no summary of the work accomplished by the several States and city sys- tems. In 1870, when engaged on my first Report, I was told by persons of great intelligence that they considered the reports of Dr. Fraser and M. Hippeau the best to be found on the subject of American education. The jjreparation of the Report for 1870 was like cutting a path through an untrodden forest." Even in the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1873 there is not a complete series of statistics for the whole country, so arranged that the total number of schools, teachers, pupils, etc., could be given. The latest figures procurable are found, therefore, in the census returns for 1870, and by going back to 1850 some idea of the progress made during two decades can be obtained. In 1850 there were 87,257 schools of all classes, with 105,858 teachers, 3,642,694 pupils, and a total aggregate income of $16,162,000 (from endowment, $923,763; from taxa- tion and public funds, $7,590,117; from other sources, $7,648,120). In 1860 there weTe 115,224 schools, with 150,241 teachers, 5,477,037 pupils, and a total aggregate income of $34,718,112 (from endowment, $2,199,631 ; from taxation and public funds, $19,929,537 ; from other sources, $12,588,944). In 1870 there were 141,629 schools, with 221,042 teachers (males, 93,329; females, 127,713), 7,209,938 pupils (males, 3,621,996; females, 3,587,942), and a total aggregate income of $95,402,726 (from endowment, 13,663,785 ; from taxation and public funds, $61,746,039 ; from other sources, including tuition, $29,992,902). The number of pu- pils to each teacher was, in 1850, 34 ; in 1860, 36 ; and in 1870, 33. As an evidence of increased interest in educational matters, we call attention to the fact that while the total population of the country increased 35.58 per cent, between 1850 and 1860 and 22.63 per cent, between 1860 and 1870, the school population (number of pupils in the schools) increased 50.03 i^er cent, during the first decade mentioned and 31.84 per cent, during the second. Taking another method of comparison, it appears that the school population formed, in 1850, 15.70 per cent, of the total popula- tion of the country; in 1860, 17.42 per cent., and in 1870, 18.71 per cent. This is really a fairer way of comparing them than by comparing the school population with the number of persons of the " school ages " (from 5 to 18, including persons 5 and excluding persons 18 years of age), for many of the pupils are more than 18 years of age. In America the hope of obtaining an education is not given up by the young man who has ne- glected his opportunities or has been unable to attend school before the age of 18. A common-school education, at least, is still within his reach, which he can supplement without very much expense by a course at one of the numerous private academies, even if there is no free " high school " in his immediate vicinity. In the common schools instruction is given in the common branches (reading, writing, grammar, orthography, geogra- phy and arithmetic), while in many of them the elements of natural phil- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEEB AND GUIDE. 503 losopliy (physics), of chemistry and of other sciences are taught more or less thoroughly, and in many cases with illustrative experiments. In the high schools and academies Latin, frequently Greek, and in some cases French and German, are taught, while the leading colleges are, as we have already indicated, worthy (by the breadth, so to speak, of their course and the number of their departments) of the title of university. It is, how- ever, the common schools of this country which make the distinction be- tween the intellectual condition of the mass of the people of the United States and that of the inhabitants of the most favored countries in Europe. Their value is incalculable when they are looked at from the most utilita- rian point of view. " The body-politic has an interest in everything that tends to increase the productive power of the people. As education has this effect by sharpening the perceptive and strengthening the reasoning faculties, as it sets people to observing and thinking, and thereby enlists the quickening and energized mind as a co-operator and aid to muscular action, and enlarges men's capacity of creating value, so it is both the interest and the duty of the government to see that no one be allowed to enter the responsible period of life without the means of doing the best for himself and for the state." Dr. Jarvis, from whom we quote, substantiates the ital- icized statement by illustrations drawn from a variety of occupations, showing that the intelligent wood-s^Dlitter, grindstone-turner, coal-heaver, shoveller, scavenger, weaver, carpenter, farmer — in short, that the educated and observant workman in any branch of manual labor — will always have the advantage over the man who works with his hands alone, without call- ing into requisition the aid of his brains. Another very important point is the relation of pauperism to education, with reference to which subject Dr. Mansfield has ascertained some important facts. Among the most interesting of these are the following: That Scotland, the best-educated country in Europe, has in school 1 in 8 of her population, while the State of Ohio has 2 in 7 or 1 in 3.5 ; that in England and Wales the proportion is less ; that the percentage of paupers in England and Wales is 4.6, while in Ohio it is .7 ; therefore, that with double the proportion of education, the proportion of paupers in Ohio is only one-sixth of that in England and Wales, and that the totally ignorant among paupers in the Northern, Mid- dle and Western States amount to 60 per cent, of the paupers, while the totally ignorant among the whole population amount to 4.5 per cent. Dr. Mansfield has also turned his attention to the relation of crime to educa- tion. It is frequently asserted by those who have given little attention to the subject, and who judge by a few notable instances of learned criminals, that education has not a tendency to decrease the amount of crilne com- mitted, and that its only effect will be to render the criminal more powerful, and consequently more dangerous. If any of our readers hold these opin- ions, we recommend for their perusal the following remarks of Dr. Mans- 504 BUBLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEEB AND GUIDE. field : " If all the legislators, statesmen aud preachers in the world knew precisely the state of facts in society, they could legislate and preach with vastly more effect. Hence, in reference to the subject before us, if we had the exact statistics in regard to the whole prior condition of the criminals, we should know almost exactly how crime is caused, and what measures would, if possible, prevent it." In the reports examined by this writer, " the whole number of those who can read only is described as in fact very ignorant. To have learned to spell out words and read a little gives no real knowledge. The prison reports almost uniformly speak of the great number of those who ' read and write ' as very deficient in educa- tion." He finds that among the inmates of the State prisons and jails of New York and Pennsylvania (deducting the metropolitan police reports) the totally ignorant amounted to 19 per cent. ; the totally ignorant and very ignorant combined, 33 per cent. ; the very deficient, including the two for- mer classes, 60 per cent. In the central North-west (including the States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan and Wisconsin) the proportions are, totally ignorant, 40 per cent. ; totally and very ignorant, 46 per cent. ; very deficient (including, as before, the two former classes), 75 per cent. "If the proportion of ignorant criminals to the whole number should prove greatly above that of the illiterate to the whole population, it will be a fact conclusive that ignorance is one great cause of crime. In New York and Pennsylvania, in 1870, 4 per cent, of the population were illit- erate and 33 per cent, of the criminals were totally and very ignorant. In the central North-west 3^ per cent, of the population were illiterate and 46 per cent, of the criminals were totally or very ignorant. In the West- ern and Pacific States, 3 per cent, of the population were illiterate aud 31 per cent, of the criminals were totally or very ignorant. In the South, 22 per cent, of the population were illiterate and 60 per cent, of the criminals were totally ignorant." These figures require no comment; and the import- ance and close connection of the two subjects investigated by Dr. Mans- field are well set forth in the following extract from the Report of the State Commissioners of Public Charities in Illinois : " The tendency of ed- ucation to prevent pauperism is more apparent than its tendency to pre- vent crime. Estimating the pauper children at one-tenth of the whole number, and leaving them out of the calculation, 40 per cent, of the inmates of the almshouses could not write aud 25 per cent, could not even read. Pau- perism and crime are so closely allied that the same individuals belong to . both fraternities. Five per cent, of the county paupers acknowledge that they have been in jail. The same man is a criminal or a paujDer according to circumstances. He steals when he cannot beg, aud begs when he cannot steal." As education is, therefore, the deadly enemy of both poverty and crime, every friend of this centenarian republic will note with special pride aud satisfaction the progress made in "American education." goyeri^mei^t at^fd laws of the u:n"ited states. Introduction. — The government of the United States is, according to some authorities, " a federal, democratic republic," according to others, " a representative democracy,'' — definitions which are not necessarily conflict- ing, as both denote a government in which the people entrust the adminis- tration of affairs to executive and legislative ofiicers of their choice. The powers of these officers are strictly defined by a written act, the Constitu- tion, which was framed by the people through their delegates, adopted by them and can be altered only by them. This instrument we append in extenso, nor is it our intention to give a dilution of it in this place, but to furnish such information as cannot be gathered by a careful perusal of it. We strongly recommend to our readers such perusal, as the language used is sufficiently clear for ordinary comprehensions, although, as in many other matters, some very acute intellects discover great difficulties therein. The government is, in treating of it, naturally divided into three depart- ments, the executive, the legislative and the judiciary. The executive department consists of the President, Vice-President and the cabinet offi- cers. The duties of the President (salary $50,000) and of the Vice-Presi- dent (salary $10,000) are clearly defined by the Constitution. The cabinet officers, whose departments were created by special acts of Congress, re- quire a more extended notice. The salary of each is $10,000 per annum, and their titles are respectively Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treas- ury, Secretary of War, Secretary of the Navy, Secretary of the Interior, Postmastei'-general and Attorney-general. These constitute " the cabinet," a name transferred from the British cabinet, though the functions of the two cabinets as such, but especially their respective relations to the execu- tive, are essentially different. The British cabinet is, for the time being, the government — the head and directing body of the administration, al- though originally only " that portion of the privy council supposed to possess more particularly the confidence of the sovereign, and to be con- sulted by him privately on important matters. A vote of " want of con- fidence " by the House of Commons, or the defeat of any important bill which has received cabinet support, obliges the ministry, as it is called, to resign or dissolve Parliament, and appeal to the people in a new election. Xhey serve, therefore, as scapegoats upon whom to vent the popular indig- 505 506 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES nation at any measure whicli meets with public disapproval, for " the king can do no wrong," his advisers deserve all the blame, and political de- capitation is now the punishment for what, in former times, upon more than one occasion furnished victims for the headsman's axe. In the United States the relation of the cabinet to the executive is of a very different nature. By the Constitution, the President " may require the opinion in writing of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices." Following out the spirit of this provision, Washington began by consult- ing the heads of departments upon all important matters, and his succes- sors adopted the practice of holding cabinet meetings to decide upon the course of the administration with reference to all questions of importance. He is not, however, legally or constitutionally bound to follow their ad- vice, nor can he shift upon them the responsibility if an improper measure has been adopted. " The President is responsible for all the measures of government, and whatever has been done by one of the heads of the departments is considered as done by the President through the proper executive agent." The first cabinet contained but three members, the Secretaries of State, of the Treasury and of War, the interior and navy departments not yet having been created, and the Postmaster-general and Attorney -general not yet being considered cabinet officers. All of these heads of departments are appointed by the President, but the appointment must be confirmed by the Senate to make it valid. If the Senate is not in session at the time when the appointment is made, it holds good until that body has an opportunity to take action thereupon. The Secretary of State. — A "department of foreign affiiirs" was created by an act of Congress of July 27, 1789. The name was -afterward changed (Sept. 15, 1789) to "department of state," as it was made to embrace what in other governments are styled the " department of foreign affairs" and the "home department," a duality of powers which continued until the creation of the " department of the interior." The Secretary of State conducts the making of all treaties between the United States and foreign powers, and corresponds officially with the public min- isters of the United States at foreign courts, and with the ministers of foreign powers who are resident in the United States. He is entrusted with the publication and distribution of all the acts and resolutions of Congress, all amendments of the Constitution, and all treaties made and ratified between the United States and any foreign state, prince or power, or with any of the Indian tribes. He preserves the originals of all laws and treaties, and of the public correspondence growing out of the inter- course between the United States and foreign nations, is required to pro- cure and preserve copies of the statutes of the several States, grant pass- ports to American citizens visiting foreign countries, and has charge of the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 507 seal of the United States, but cannot affix it to any commission until signed by the President, nor to any act or instrument without the special authority of the President. Whei-s there is an extradition treaty between the United States and any foreign government, it is lawful for the Secre- tary of State, under his hand and seal of office, to issue an order for the rendition of any person who has committed within the jurisdiction of said foreign government any crime specified in the treaty, in order that such criminal may be taken out of the United States to the country where the crime has been committed. The Secretary of the Treasury. — The Treasury Department was created by an act of Congress of Sept. 2, 1789. The Secretary of the Treasury superintends all the fiscal concerns of the government, and rec- ommends to Congress measures for improving the condition of the reve- nue. All the accounts of the government are finally settled at this de- partment, a portion of the printing of the greenbacks and of the frac- tional and national currency is here performed, and to attend to these mul- tifarious duties several hundred clerks are required and the following leading officers or subdivisions : The Secretary of the Treasury (who has a general superintendence of the whole), two assistant secretaries and eleven subordinate " bureaus," besides the bureau of statistics (employing thirty- six clerks), by which ave issued the admirably arranged and ably edited Anmial Reports on Commerce, Immigration and Navigation, the bureau of engraving and printing, three comptrollers (the first, the second and the comptroller of the currency), six auditors, a commissioner of the internal revenue, a register of the treasury, and last, though not least, a treasurer (salary $6000), whose well-known signature (for ten years " F. E. Spinner") graces the United States treasury notes. The main sources of revenue are "customs," "internal revenue," "the sale of public lauds," and (a large amount, generally more than $20,000,000) " miscellaneous sources." On the 1st of August, 1875, the national debt, less cash in the treasury, was $2,127,393,838.96. A statement of the receipts, expenditures and na- tional debt of this country in various years will be found in the appendix. [See Table IV.] The Secretary of War. — The War Department was created by an act of Congress of Aug. 7, 1789. The Secretary of War (called in the original act the " Secretary for the Department of War," and fre- quently termed in former times "the Secretary at War "), according to the terras of this law " shall perform and execute such duties as shall from time to time be enjoined on or entrusted to him by the President of the United States, agreeably to the Constitution, relative to military commis- sions or to the land forces, ships [this part was of course repealed by the act creating the Navy Department] or warlike stores of the United States, or to such other matters as the President of the United States shall assign 508 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES to the said department ; and furthermore, the said principal officer shall conduct the business of the said department in such a manner as the Pres- ident of the United States shall direct." It has been said that "in times of peace the War Department attracts but little notice." When its para- mount importance in time of war is considered, and is compared with its position after peace is declared, this statement may be considered as, in a certain sense, true. There are, however, important duties which are per- formed by this department which are deemed by many not less valuable to the public welfare than its activity in time of war. It has the superin- tendence of the construction of fortifications, of the improvement of rivers and harbors, of the erection of lighthouses, of the making of topographi- cal surveys, and of the exploration of the great West. The duties just enumerated are under the charge of the chief of the engineers, and the extent of these operations, as well as their utility, can be easily gathered by a perusal of the exceedingly valuable Report of the Chief of Engineers, which annually forms part of the Report of the Secretary of War. From this department, and forming a portion of the same Report, is issued the Report of the Chief Signal Officer, whose forecasting of " Weather Proba- bilities " is within reach of all readers of the daily papers. The efficiency and value of his sub-department entitle it to a separate article. [iSee Sig- nal Service Bureau.] The regular army of the United States contained on the 9th of Octo- ber, 1874, according to the adjutant-general's Report, 2080 commissioned officers, 25,891 enlisted men, 8 professors and 258 cadets (total, 28,237). The commissioned officers were — 1 general, one lieutenant-general, 3 major- generals, 13 brigadier-generals, 69 colonels, 73 lieutenant-colonels, 241 majors, 29 aids-de-camp, 615 captains, 40 adjutants (extra lieutenants), 39 regimental quartermastei's (extra lieutenants), 1 battalion-adjutant, 1 battalion quartermaster, 524 first lieutenants and 406 second lieutenants. Small as this number may seem, it has been made smaller ; for when, in 1874 (June 16), $105,000 was allowed by Congress for recruiting pur- poses, it was provided that " no money appropriated by this act shall be paid for recruiting the army above the number of twenty-five thousand enlisted men, including Indian scouts." The general of the army in his Report (dated Oct. 24, 1874) says: "I have no doubt that by the 1st of January, 1875, the number of enlisted men will be reduced by the ordi- nary casualties, discharges and deaths to the number limited by law, viz., 25,000 men." He is not, however, pleased with the change, thinking that " this limit forces the companies to so small a standard that the efficiency of the service is greatly impaired thereby. It is. utterly impossible to maintain the companies on remote stations up to the very small legal standard, because months must necessarily elapse after discharges and deaths before recruits can be sent from the general rendezvous." The CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 509 army contains ten regiuients of cavalry (authorized strength, 845), five regiments of artillery (authorized strength, 520), twenty-five regiments of infantry (authorized strength, from 400 to 500, according to State) and an engineer battalion (authorized strength, 200, though it contained 317 men Oct. 15, 1874). The pay per month of the commissioned officers is as follows : General of the army, $886 ; lieutenant-general, $756 ; major- general, $481 ; brigadier-general, $326.50 ; colonels of engineers, ord- nance, cavalry and light artillery, $227 ; lieutenant-colonels, $203 ; majors, $179; captains, $137.50, lieutenants, $120.83; colonels of artillery and infantry (the preceding five salaries applying only to officers of ordnance, engineers, etc.), $212 ; lieutenant-colonels, $188 ; majors, $169 ; captains, $127.50; first lieutenants, $117.50; second lieutenants, $112.50; chaplains (with subsistence), $118. The pay of the privates is $13 per month (with clothing and subsistence). The paymaster-general reports disbursements for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, amounting to $13,262,830.44, di- vided as follows: To the army, $11,782,168.86; to the military academy, $195,928.47; disbursed on treasury certificates, $1,284,733.11. The actual expenditures of the War Department for the year ending June 30, 1873, including river and harbor improvements, were $46,325,308.21 ; the same for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, were $42,326,314.71. The estimates for the military establishment for the year ending June 30, 187* were $34,410,722.89, and for the year ending June 30, 1876, were $32,488,969. These last statements and estimates include the exj^enditures of the quar- termaster-general's department and other matters which were not in charge of the paymaster-general, who has the care of only the pay of the troops. The estimates of the chief of engineers for fortifications, river and harbor improvements, public buildings and grounds and the Washington aque- duct for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1875, were $20,459,396. His estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1876, were $16,471,610.50, divided as follows: Fortifications and other works of defence, $2,108,700; geographical and military surveys, $399,000 ; improvement of rivers and harbors, $13,285,500 ; public buildings and grounds and the Wash- ington aqueduct, $678,410.50. The appropriations for the quartermaster- general's department for the year ending June 30, 1874, were $5,498,820.61. This department has charge of transportation and quarters, there being no less than 5000 buildings under its care to be kept in repair, to be re- newed as they decay, or to be replaced by others in new positions when abandoned in the course of military movements. The army of the United States may seem very small in numbers when compared with the arma- ments of the great powers of Europe, but it is in accordance with the genius of the American nation to keep as small a standing army as possi- ble in time of peace, and to trust to the patriotism of the people for sup- plies of men in time of war. The strength of the United States army 510 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES during various years of the civil war and afterward was as follows : Dec. 1, 1861, 660,971 (regulars, 20,334) ; Aug. 1, 1862, regulars, 43,014, volun- teers, 900,000; Oct. 1, 1863, regulars, 40,000, volunteers, 580,000. In 1864 the number was about the same, but the absence of official state- ments makes it impossible for us to give the number with any approach to exactness. On the 1st of May, 1865, the total number of men in all arms of the service was 1,000,516. The aggregate quotas charged against the several States under all the calls made by the President from April 15, 1861, to April 15, 1865, amounted to 2,759,049, and the aggregate number of men credited ou the several calls and put into the service during the same period was 2,656,553. The whole number of colored troops enlisted into the service during the war was ] 78,975, and the losses within the same period from sickness, desertion or casualties incident to military life amounted to 68,178. By Jan. 9, 1866, the total force of the army, both regular and volunteer, was already reduced to 152,611. Sept. 30, 1867, the total strength of the army was 56,815, including officers and men. Of the great volunteer army which had been so quietly disbanded, but 203 officers and no enlisted men remained in the service. The United States Military Academy at West Point, N. Y., Avas established by law on the 16,th of March, 1802. Its course occupies four years ; and in addition to the instructors of artillery, cavalry and infantry tactics, and the pro- fessors and assistant professors of military and civil engineering and of mathematics, the " academic staff" contains professors and assistant pro- fessors of natural and experimental philosophy, of drawing, of chemistry, mineralogy and geology, of ethics and law, and of the French and Spanish languages. The number of military cadets is 342, as by provision of law each congressional (292) and territorial (10) district, including the District of Columbia, is entitled to have one cadet at the military academy, and no more. This gives 302 ; and in addition to these, the appointment annually of a number not exceeding ten (ten each year during the four years of the course make up the remaining 40) "at large" — i. e., not confined to a selec- tion by congressional districts — is authorized. The district and territorial appointments are made upon the nomination of the member of Congress or delegate representing the district or Territory at the date of appoint- ment, and the law requires that the person selected shall be an actual res- ident of the district. Territory or District of Columbia from which the appointment purports to be made. Every candidate must be over seven- teen and under twenty-two years of age, must be not less than five feet in height, and must be free from any deformity, disease or infirmity which would render him unfit for military service. He must also pass a careful and thorough preliminary examination as to his attainments, being re- quired to be able to read and write Avell and perform with facility and accuracy tjie various operations of the four ground rules of arithmetic, of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 511 redaction, of simple and compouud proportiou, and of vulgar and decimal fractions. The arithmetic is to be studied uuderstandingly, not merely committed to memory ; a knowledge of the elements of English grammar, of descriptive geography, particularly of our own country, and of the history of the United States is also required. During the months of July and August the cadets are engaged in military duties and exercises, living in camp. The academic exercises commence at the beginning of Septem- ber. The semi-annual examination takes place in January. At this time the cadets are rigidly examined in the subjects which they have studied, and the new cadets, if they are found proficient therein (their conduct having been correct in all respects), receive the warrant of cadet; but if any have been unable to master the course, they are pronounced de- ficient by the academic board, and their connection with the academy ceases. This examination, like all subsequent, ones is very thorough, does not permit any evasion or slighting of the courses, and exacts a very close and persevering attention to study. The examining officers have no op- tion ; ihej inust reject the deficient. The " annual examination" is held in June. Cadets who have failed to make the requisite proficiency, and who are not likely to succeed in the future, are discharged. The pay of a cadet is $41.66 per month ($500 per annum ), with one ration per day, and it is considered sufficient, with proper economy, for his support. The Secretary of the Navy. — The Naval Department was cre- ated by an act of Congress of April 30, 1798, when a war with France was threatened [see Historical Sketch, page 110]. The department was organized in the following month, and the secretaryship was offered to George Cabot of Massachusetts, who was very well qualified for the posi- tion, but declined the aj^pointment, whereupon it was offered to Benjamin Stoddard (Spencer and others spell this name "Stoddert"), who became (May 21) the first Secretary of the Navy. The first vessel launched under the present organization of the navy was a 44-guu frigate, the United States, (July 10, 1798). She was followed on the 7th of Sejitem- ber by the Constellation, of 38 guns. The whole force authorized by law on the 16th of July, 1798, consisted of twelve frigates, twelve ships of a force between twenty and twenty-four guns, inclusive, and six smaller sloops, besides galleys and revenue-cutters, making a total of thirty active cruisers. The Secretary of the Navy has the same duties to perform in relation to the navy as those of the Secretary of War in relation to the army. It is his duty to execute the President's orders relative to the pro- curement of naval stores and materials and the construction, armament, equipment and employment of vessels of war, and to superintend all other matters connected with the naval establishment. There are eight bureaus in this department, viz., the Bureau of Yards, the Bureau of Navigation, the Bureau of Ordnance, the Bureau of Provisions and Clothing, the Bu- 512 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES reau of Medicine and Surgery, the Bureau of Construction and Repair, the Bureau of Equipment and Recruiting, and the Bureau of Steam Engineering. There is also the Admiral's Office, the Naval Observatory (in charge of a superintendent, a commander, a secretary, two lieutenants and seven professors) and the Hydrographic Office. On the 4th of July, 1861, the total number of vessels of all classes belonging to the navy was 90, carrying or designed to carry 2415 guns. Excluding vessels on the stocks, those unfinished, those used as stationary store-ships and receiving- ships, and those which it was considered inexpedient to repair, the avail- able foi-ce was only 69 vessels, carrying 1346 guns. It was "a navy which ranked hardly with that of second-rate European powers." Donald McKay, the American shipbuilder, wrote from London under date of Dec. 3, 1861, a letter concerning the inferiority of the United States navy, and said : " It would be easy for us to build in one year a fleet of 500 to 600 men-of-war ships, from a gunboat to the largest class of iron-cased frigates. It is a well-known fact that we built in one year (1855) the astonishing number of 2034 [2047 according to Report on Coimnerce and Navigation'] vessels and steamers of all classes, measuring together 583,450 tons. We would be able in our merchant yards alone to turn out in one year 583 ships of 1000 tons each. In our navy-yards, where the choicest materials are stocked for building a fleet of 100 ships, sixty more migtit be built in one year, making a total of 643 men-of-war ships of all classes, varying in armament from 3 to 60 guns." Though Mr. McKay's suggestions were not fully carried out, on the 1st of November, 1862, the total number of vessels building and in the service was 284, with a combined armament of 2937 guns. Several ironclads had been built, among them the famous Monitor [see Historical Sketch, page 139], the specifications for the building of which we herewith give: "Price, $275,000; length of vessel, 174 feet; breadth of beam, 41 feet; depth of hold, 11 J feet; time [within which it was to be completed], 100 days; draught of water, 10 feet; displacement, 1245 tons ; speed per hour, 9 statute miles." The Board of Investigation, from whose report the above statement is taken, say : " It is to be appre- hended that her properties for sea are not such as a sea-going vessel should possess." This opinion was verified by the sinking of the original moni- tor, which occurred off the coast of North Carolina during a violent gale (Dec. 31, 1862). It was claimed, however, that the sea-going qualities of monitors subsequently built were much improved. A later report than the preceding one gives as the total number of vessels in the United States Navy " at the close of 1862, 427 ; number of guns, 3268 ; total tonnage, 340,036 ; navy at the close of 1863, 588 vessels, carrying 4443 guns, with a total tonnage of 467,967; increase, exclusive of vessels lost, 161 vessels, 1175 guns and 127,931 tons." They were classed as follows: ironclad steamers, coast service, 46; ironclad steamers, inland service, 29; side- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 513 wheel steamers, 203; screw steamers, 198; sailiug vessels, 112. At the close of 1864 the total number of vessels was 671; number of guus, 4610; tonnage, 510,396. The additions to the navy during 1864 had amounted to 109 vessels, carrying 312 guns, and with a tonnage of 55,513; but as the losses by shipwreck, battle, etc., during the same period had been 26 ves- sels, carrying 146 guns and with a tonnage of 13,084, the actual increase was 83 vessels, 167 guus and a tonnage of 42,429. The number in the naval service was stated at 6000 officers and 45,000 men. After the close of the war the navy was rapidly reduced from the war standard, and at the close of the year 1866 the number of vessels in commission was only 115, carrying 1029 guns. There Avere 163 other vessels, carrying 1322 guns and classed as follows : Ironclads laid up, 54 ; ironclads not com- pleted, 7 ; steam vessels not completed, 19 ; sailing vessels not completed, 2; wooden vessels on hand, 81. The number of seamen in the service was 13,800. During the same year the navy of the United Netherlands (area, 10,909 squai-e miles) consisted of 146 vessels, carrying 2166 guus. At the end of 1874 the navy of the United States consisted of 163 vessels with 1254 guns; sailing vessels, 26 ; steam vessels, 137. The Secretary of the Navy reported it to be " in a better condition of effective and perma- nent strength than it has been for years." He also reported the fighting force of our navy in good and effective condition. During the preceding two years the whole fleet of single-turreted monitors had been thoroughly overhauled and repaired ; their sides had been raised up, their rotten wooden beams and decks replaced by iron, and their turrets and machi- nery put in complete order, so that they were rendered efficient to their utmost capacity, and were ready to go to sea at any time as soon as crews could be put on board and organized. These, with the Dictator and Ro- anoke, also in good order, made a fleet of sixteen ironclads, powerful for any naval purpose not requiring long voyages or great speed. Two pow- erful iron torpedo-vessels had also been completed and were ready for ser- vice, fully equipped with this most terrible weapon of modern warfare. Four of the double-turreted monitors (the Terror, the Miantonomoh, the Monadnock and the Amphltriie) were also undergoing repaii's. Fifteen new and active ships had been added to the cruising navy to take the place of vessels which were worn out and which had to be relieved. Such is the substance of the statements made by the Secretary of the Navy, but Admiral Porter, in his report to the secretary under date of Nov. 6, 1874, "argues that the navy is in a poor condition for war, being greatly inferior to the navies of other countries."" He thinks it "imperatively necessary that we should at once provide for building annually so many tons of monitors — say 5000 tons for the present — until we have thirty first-class monster rams of great speed, armed with monster guns, in addition to our present force, and at least fifty iron torpedo-boats of not less than 100 33 514 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES tons, of good speed. The latter should be hauled up under cover, fitted with all the modern improvements and kept for an occasion, while hun- dreds of others could be improvised in a short time after the commence- raeut of a war. This is partly the system pursued by Great Britain. She builds 20,000 tons of naval vessels annually, and finds it the cheapest way of averting war and protecting and increasing her commerce." The opin- ion of Admiral Porter is of such Aveight, even when it is opposed to that of the Secretary of the Navy, that we thought it proper to transcribe this much, at least, of his remarks. The officers of the navy are 1 admiral (salary, $13,000), 1 vice-admiral ($9000), 13 rear-admirals ($6000, rank- ing with major-generals), 24 commodores ($5000, ranking with brigadier- generals), 50 cajitains ($4500, ranking with colonels), 90 commanders ($3500, ranking Avith lieutenant-colonels), 146 lieutenant-commanders ($3000, ranking with majors), 218 lieutenants ($2600, ranking with cap- tains), 100 masters ($2000, ranking with first lieutenants), 35 ensigns ($1400, ranking with second lieutenants), and 113 midshipmen ($1000). The salary of the cadet midshipmen at the Naval Academy is $500 per annum. This institution is situated at Annapolis, Md., and was estab- lished in 1845, during the presidency of James K. Polk, when the Hon. George Bancroft was Secretary of the Navy. The number of midship- men allowed at the academy is one for every member and delegate of the House of Representatives, one for the District of Columbia, ten appointed annually " at large," and ten selected each year from boys who have been at least one year in the service on board a naval vessel. This makes the total number of cadet midshipmen 382. The nomination of candidates for admission from the District of Columbia, from the enlisted boys and at large, is made by the President. The nomination of any other candi- date is made on the recommendation of the member or delegate from actual residents of his district or territory. Candidates for appointment as midshipmen must be between 14 and 18 years of age when examined for admission. All candidates for admission are required to certify on honor to their precise age previous to examination, and none are examined who are over or under the prescribed age. They must be of good moral character, satisfactory testimonials of Avhich from persons of good repute in the neighborhood of their respective residences must be presented, and such testimonials from clergymen and instructors in high schools and col- leges have special weight. They must also pass a satisfactory examination before the academic board in reading, writing, spelling, arithmetic, geog- raphy and English grammar — viz., in reading they must read clearly and intelligently from any English narrative work, as, for example, Bancroft's History of the United States ; in writing and spelling they must write from dictation in a legible hand, and spell with correctness both orally and in writing ; in arithmetic they are examined in numeration and the addition, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 515 subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers and vulgar and decimal fractions, and in proportion or the rule of three ; in geography they are examined as to the leading grand divisions, the continents, oceans and seas, the principal mountains and rivers, and the boundaries and pop- ulation of the chief nations, their governments, capitals and leading cities ; in English grammar they are examined as to the parts of speech and the elementary construction of sentences, and are required to write a short original paragraph. Attention is also paid to the stature of the candidate, who is required to pass a thorough medical examination. No one who is manifestly undersized for his age is received into the academy. In case of doubt about the physical condition of the candidate, any marked devia- tion from the usual standard of height adds materially to the considera- tion for rejection. The medical board of 1864 adopted the following stan- dard for the height of candidates : 14 years of age, 4 feet 10 inches ; 15 years, 5 feet; 16 years, 5 feet 2 inches; 17 years, 5 feet 3 inches; 18 years, (nearly) 5 feet 4 inches ; the candidates to be of proportionate size, espe- cially with regard to cerebral, osseous and muscular develoj)meut ; the youngest to weigh not less than 100 pounds and the oldest not less than 120 pounds. The board exercises, however, a proper discretion in the application of the above conditions to each case ; rejecting no candidate who is likely to be efficient in the service, who is " physically sound, well formed and of robust constitution, and qualified to endure the arduous labors of an officer in the navy." On the other hand, no one is admitted who is likely to prove physically inefficient. If both examinations are satisfactory, the candidate receives an appointment as midshipman, becomes an inmate of the academy, and is allowed his actual and necessary travel- ling expenses to that institution. He is required to sign articles by which he binds himself to serve in the United States navy for eight years (in- cluding his term of probation at the Naval Academy) unless sooner dis- charged. If, on the contrary, he fail to pass both of the examinations, he receives neither his appointment nor his travelling expenses, nor can he by law have the privilege of another examination for admission to the same class unless recommended by the board of examiners. A midshipman who voluntarily resigns his appointment within a year of the time of his admission to the academy is required to refund the amount paid to him for travelling expenses. In addition to the cadet midshipmen, fifty cadet engineers are authorized by law. Applications for appointment to this grade are received by the Navy Department, addressed to the Secretary of the Navy, and can be made by the candidate or by any person for him. His name is then put upon the register, but this gives no assurance of an appointment, nor is any preference given in the selection to priority of application. The candidate must be not less than eighteen or more than twenty-two years of age, and his application must be accompanied by 516 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES satisfactory evidence of moral character and health, with information re- garding the date of his birth and the educational advantages which he has hitherto enjoyed. Candidates who receive permission present them- selves to the superintendent of the Naval Academy between the 20th and 30th of September for examination as to their qualifications for admission. They are examined in arithmetic, algebra, geometry, rudimentary natural philosophy, the elements of inorganic chemistry, English grammar and English composition, the history of the United States, and a brief outline of ancient and modern history. They are required to exhibit a fair degree of proficiency in pencil-sketching and right-line drawing, and they must be able to describe all the different parts of ordinary condensing and non- condensing engines, explaining their uses and operation, also the ordinary tools used for construction purposes. Upon satisfactorily passing these examinations, the candidate receives an appointment as cadet engineer ujDon the same conditions as those required of cadet midshipmen, with the exception of binding himself to serve for six years in the navy instead of eight. The academic course of the cadet engineers comprises two years ; that of the midshipmen, four. The pay is the same. The cadet engineer upon graduation immediately receives a warrant as a third assistant engi- neer in the navy. The Secretary of the Interior. — The Department of the In- terior was established by an act of Congress of March 3, 1849. In this act it was provided that the Secretary of the Interior should perform all the duties heretofore devolving upon the Secretary of State in relation to the office of the Commissioner of Patents — i. e., the Patent-OflSce was re- moved to the Department of the Interior. This office is charged with the performance of " all acts and things touching and respecting the granting and issuing of patents for new and useful discoveries, inventions and im- provements." The General Land-Office was also transferred hither from the Treasury Department. This office is charged with the survey, manage- ment and sale of the public domain, the revision of Virginia military bounty-land claims and the issuing of scrip in lieu thereof. To the Inte- rior Department was also transferred the office of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs, formerly attached to the War Department. This office has charge of all matters connected with " the poor Indian," whom the news- paper reporters, having in mind the famous lines in Pope's Essay on Man — "io .' the poor Indian, whose untutored mind Sees God in clouds or hears liim in the wind " — have nicknamed " Mr. Lo." Besides the commissioner, there are superin- tendents of Indian aflTairs and agents over whom the superintendents ex- ercise a directing power. According to Willis, the government has exer- cised parental care ov'er the Indians by endeavors " to prevent them from CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 517 warriug upon each other and to induce them to adopt the habits of civil- ized life. Neither citizens nor foreigners are allowed to reside among them or to trade with them without a license, and frequently valuable presents are made to them of such articles as they need." Judge Willis is so enthusiastic in his praises of the management of Indian affairs that we add another of his statements in his own words : " In order to prevent them [the Indians, not the agents] from squandering their money for rum or useless trinkets, and to save them from being cheated by dishon- est traders, the United States government has invested the money paid for their lands in safe and sound stocks, and annually pays them the inter- est through its superintendents and agents. The disbursement of this interest, called ' Indian annuities,' among the difiereut tribes and individ- uals to whom it belongs is an important part of the duties of these gov- ernment agents." The Bureau of Pensions, the duties of which were for- merly divided between the War and Navy Departments, has also been transferred to this department. The commissioner of this bureau is charged with the examination and adjudication of all claims arising under the various and numerous laws passed by Congress granting bounty-land or pensions for military or naval service in the Revolutionary and subse- quent wars. The Department of the Interior has, besides, the supervision of the accounts of United States marshals and attorneys and of the clerks of the United States courts, the management of the lead and other mines of the United States, the duty of taking and returning the census of the United States (a duty formerly performed by the State Department), and the management of the affairs of public institutions in the District of Columbia. The Postmaster-Greiieral. — To this officer is assigned by the Constitution (art. 1, section 8), or rather by the laws passed by the first Congress in 1789, in accordance with the power thei-ein given to Congress, " the establishment of post-offices and post-roads," and other duties con- nected with the superintendence of the transmission of the mails. There are three assistant postmasters-general. The first assistant postmaster-gen- eral has charge of the Appointment Office, which attends to the establish- ment and discontinuance of post-offices, the appointment and removal of postmasters (having salaries under SIOOO), the furnishing to offices of marking and rating stamps and letter balances, the supplying of blanks and stationery for the use of the department, and also has the supervision of the ocean mail steamship lines and of foreign and international postal arrangements. The second assistant postmaster-general is over the Contract Office, which has charge of the mail service, putting it under contract and attending to all the details of the annual and occasional mail-lettings, of the adjustment and performance of contracts, of applications for the estab- lishment or alteration of mail arrangements, and of the appointment of mail 518 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES * messengers. The Inspection Division of this office receives and examines the registers of the arrival and departure of mails, the certificates of the service of route agents and the reports of mail failures, notes the delin- quencies of mail contractors, provides and sends out mail-bags and mail locks and keys, and looks after cases of mail depredation, of violation of the law by private express, and of forging or illegally using postage- stamps. The third assistant postmaster-general is over the Finance Office, which supervises all the financial business of the department Avhich is not devolved by law upon the auditor. It has charge of the dead-letter office, of the issuing of postal cards, postage stamps and stamped envelopes for the prepayment of postage, and of the accounts connected therewith. The first postage act, which was passed in 1792, introduced a highly compli- cated system. The lowest postage" was 6 cents to places within 30 miles ; 10 cents to places within 100 miles ; 12 J cents to places within 150 miles ; 15 cents to places within 200 miles; 17 cents to places within 250 miles; 20 cents to places within 850 miles ; 22 cents to places within 450 miles ; and 25 cents to places more than 450 miles distant. This was for " single letters " (those upon one sheet of paper, whether large or small, without reference to weight), a method of rating letters which was easy enough before the era of envelopes, when the sheet of paper upon which a letter was written was folded over and sealed, the address being written on the back. In 1810 the rates were to some extent simplified, there being six (in the place of the nine just given) as follows: Under 40 miles, 8 cents; under 90, 10 cents; under 150, 12^ cents; under 300, 17 cents ; under 500, 20 cents ; over 500, 25 cents. In 1816 the following five rates were adopted : A single letter carried under 30 miles, 61 cents ; under 80, 10 cents; under 150, 12} cents; under 400, 18| cents; over 400, 25 cents, Avith an additional rate for every additional piece of paper ; and if a letter weighed an ounce, 4 times these rates. With a single ex- ception where the postage was increased, these rates continued until 1845, when the half ounce weight was made the standard instead of the number of sheets, and the rate was reduced to 6 cents for letters carried less than 300 miles, and 10 cents for all greater distances, with an additional rate for every additional half ounce or fraction thereof In 1851 the rates were reduced upon prepaid letters to 3 cents for all distances in the United States under 3000 miles, and 6 cents for greater distances. In 1855 pre- payment was required, the rate still being 3 cents for distances under 3000 miles, but 10 cents for greater distances. The present rate of 3 cents pre- paid by stamp for all distances within the United States was established in 1863. The franking privilege was abolished by an act of Congress of Jan. 27, 1873. Special postage stamps are printed and furnished to each of the executive departments for official correspondence and the transmis- sion of public documents. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 519 The Attorney-General. — This officer has charge of the Depart- ment of Justice, in which there are three assistant attorneys-general, a solicitor-general and solicitors of the Treasury, Internal Revenue and the Navy. The duties of this department comprise — official opinions on the current business of the government as called for by the President or by any head of a departigent ; examination of the titles of all lands pur- chased as the sites of arsenals, custom-houses, light-houses and all other public works of the United States ; applications for pardons in all cases of convictions in the courts of the United States ; applications for appoint- ment in all the judicial and legal business of the government ; the con- duct and argument of all suits in the Supreme Court of the United States in which the government is concerned ; the supervision of all other suits arising in any of the departments, when referred by the head of such de- partment to the Attorney-General. Occasionally, when a matter of great importance is in question, a special assistant of known ability is commis- sioned to take charge of the question and give it the minute attention which it demands. In December, 1873, for instance, the Hon. Reverdy Johnson was commissioned by the Attorney-General as special assistant in matters in controversy between the United States and various telegraph companies. The grave questions which had arisen as to the rights of the United States government and the duties of the companies in reference to the telegraphic service of the United States government were submitted for his consideration, and he delivered an opinion thereon and took other official action to bring the matters at issue to a settlement. Congress. — The powers and duties of Congress are sufficiently set forth in the Constitution (Article I.). The Senate now (1875) consists of 74 members. The number of senators is comparatively easy to follow, there being always two from each State. Both the number of members of the House of Representatives and the number of citizens represented by a member have varied from time to time in a manner which requires a word of explanation. The first apportionment was made in the Constitu- tion itself (Art. I, Section 2). It is the duty of Congress to readjust and reapportion the representatives among the several States every tentli year, or at least after every census, according to the population as shown by the last preceding census. This duty has been performed nine times. In 1792 the apportionment was made upon the ratio of one representative to every 33,000 of representative population. The representative population then included all free persons, white or black, and to these were added in the slave States three-fifths of all the slaves. In 1803 the apportionment was made with the same ratio. In 1811 the ratio was fixed at one representa- tive for every 35,000 of the population ; in 1822 at one for every 40,000 of the population ; in 1832 at one for every 47,000 of the population ; and in 1842 at one for every 70,000 of the population. By the law of 520 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES May 23, 1850, the number of members was for the first time limited, it being enacted that the number of representatives in Congress sliould be 233, that the representative population determined by the census of that year should be divided by said number 233, and that the quotient so found should be the ratio of representation for the several States. This quotient ■was, according to Judge Willis, nearly 94,000, or double the number rep- resented by a congressman in 1833. Under the census of 1860 the ratio thus ascertained was 126,823, and the 233 representatives were thus appor- tioned, each State, however, being given at least one representative, although it might have less than the full number of representative in- habitants. As it was thought that a closer approximation to a fair pro- portionate representation of the several States could be obtained by making the number of members 241, the latter number was adopted by the act of March 4, 1862. The admission of Nevada in 1864 and of Nebraska in 1867, with one representative each, brought up the number to 243. In 1872 the number of members of the House of Representatives Avas fixed at 283, but subsequent amendments, caused by the difficulty in adjusting the respective claims of the several States, brought the number of repre- sentatives up to 292, with the following apportionment : Alabama, 8 ; Arkansas, 4 ; California, 4 ; Connecticut, 4 ; Delaware, 1 ; Florida, 2 ; Georgia, 9 ; Illinois, 19 ; Indiana, 13 ; Iowa, 9 ; Kansas, 3 ; Kentucky, 10; Louisiana, 6 ; Maine, 5 ; Maryland, 6 ; Massachusetts, 11 ; Michigan, 9; Minnesota, 3 ; Mississippi, 6 ; Missouri, 13; Nebraska, 1; Nevada, 1; New Hampshire, 3 ; New Jersey, 7 ; New York, 33 ; North Carolina, 8 ; Ohio, 20 ; Oregon, 1 ; Pennsylvania, 27 ; Rhode Island, 2 ; South Caro- lina, 5 ; Tennessee, 10 ; Texas, 6 ; Vermont, 3 ; Virginia, 9 ; West Vir- ginia, 3; Wisconsin, 8. The increasefrom 283 to 292 was made by giving an additi(mal member to each of the following 9 States : Alabama, Flor- ida, Indiana, Louisiana, New Hampshire, New York, Pennsylvania, Ten- nessee and Vermont. The admission of a new State will increase the total number of representatives. " The Tuesday next after the first Monday in November, 1876, is fixed and established as the day in each of the States and Territories for the election of representatives and delegates to the XLVth Congress, and the Tuesday next after the first Monday in Novem- ber in every second year thereafter is fixed and established as the day for the election in each of the said States and Territories of representatives and delegates to the Congress, commencing on the 4th day of March next* thereafter." It is also provided by this act that " no State shall- hereafter be admitted to the Union without having the population necessary to en- title it to at least one representative." The average number of " constitu- ents " represented by a member of Congress is 130,533, though the "con- gressional districts " necessarily vary in size, and in several of the States one or more of the congressmen are elected " at large " — that is, by a vote CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 521 of the -whole State. This plan obviated the necessity of breaking up dis- tricts where such a course was deemed inexpedient. In addition to the representatives from the States, the House admits a delegate from each organized Territory and from the District of Columbia, who has the right to debate on subjects in Avhich his Territory is interested, but not to vote. The salaries of senators and representatives (since the passage of the Sal- ary-Grab Act) are as follows : Speaker of the Senate, 7;?'o tern., $10,000 ; Speaker of the House, $10,000 ; senators and representatives, 67500 apiece. United States Courts. — The Supreme Court of the United States has original jurisdiction in all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and in those in which a State is a party, and appel- late jurisdiction in all other cases which can be tried before United States courts. These comprehend all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States and treaties made under their authority; all cases of admiralty and mai'itime jurisdiction; controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; controversies between two or more States, between a State and citizens of another State, between citizens of different States, between citizens of the same State, claiming laud un- der grants of different States, and between a State or the citizens thereof and foreign States or citizens or subjects of the same. Its decisions are final, for there is no superior tribunal upon earth to which an appeal from its dicta can be made ; and when it has in due form declared how the Con- stitution must be understood, or how the laws must be interpreted and ap- plied, this decision settles the matter and becomes the law of the land as to the questions involved in the case, continuing so to stand unless or until reversed by the same authority which pronounced it. It consists of a chief-justice (salary, $10,500) and eight associate justices (salary, $10,000 each), who hold office during good behavior, and at stated times receive a compensation which may be increased, but not diminished, during their term of office! The Circuit Courts are held twice a year for each State within the circuit. The circuits are nine in number, containing respect- ively the following States : 1st circuit, Maine, New Hampshire, Massa- chusetts and Rhode Island ; 2d circuit, New York, Vermont and Connect- icut ; 3d circuit, Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware; 4th circuit, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina and South Carolina ; 5th circuit, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas ; 6th circuit, Ohio, Michigan, Kentucky and Tennessee; 7th circuit, Indi- ana, Illinois and Wisconsin ; Sth circuit, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, Kan- sas, Arkansas and Nebraska ; 9th circuit, California, Oregon and Nevada. The circuit courts in each circuit are held by the justice of the supreme court allotted to the circuit, or by the justice of the supreme court and the circuit judge sitting together, in which case the former presides, or in 522 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES the abseuce of either of the two judges just named, by the other (who presides) and the district judge. These courts have both original and appellate jurisdiction. Cases may be ajjpealed to them from the district courts. They have concurrent jurisdiction with the State courts where the matter in dispute exceeds $500 and the United States are plaintiffs, or where an alien is a party, or where the suit is between citizens of different States. They have exclusive jurisdiction in all cases of crimes against the laws of the United States, except where the law especially confers this power on other courts. The District Courts have exclusive original juris- diction in all admiralty and maritime causes. Every State constitutes at least one district, several of the lai'ger States being divided into two dis- tricts, and some into three. The Court of Claims was established by act of Congress in 1855 " to hear and determine all claims founded upon any law of Congress, or upon any regulation of an executive department, or upon any contract, express or implied, with the government of the United States (which may be suggested to it by a petition filed therein) ; also all claims which may be referred to said court by either house of Congress." There are five justices of this court (salary, $4500 apiece). The Territo- rial Courts, though not courts upon which judicial power is conferred by the Constitution, are United States courts, created by special acts of Con- gress for each organized Territory. Each consists of a chief-justice and two associate justices, holding office for a term of four years — a fact which shows of itself that these courts are not constitutional courts (as Mr. Howard calls those deriving their powers from the Constitution), the judges of which, as the reader will remember, hold office during good behavior. In all the territorial courts there is an appeal to the supreme court of the United States where the value in dispute exceeds one thou- sand dollars. The Senate of the United States as a court to try impeach- ments is an extraordinary tribunal, the powers and duties of which are described in Article 1, Section 3, of the Constitution [see also Historical Sketch, page 147, note]. Laws of the Uliitetl States. — The jurisprudence of the several States, with the exception of Louisiana, is based upon the common law of England with reference to matters not provided for by statute — i. e., upon the common law of England as brought over by the first settlers and modified to suit the wants of the various communities. Wherever statutes have been made, the common law has been superseded with reference to the particular matters of which the statutes treat. In the same way, but to a less degree, this same common law underlies the jurisprudence of the United States as a collective nation. In the act of 1789, creating the dis- trict courts, for instance, occur these words : " Saving to suitors in all cases the right of a common law remedy where the common law is competent to give it;" also a little further on ^concurrent jurisdiction with the State CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 523 courts is given in "all suits at common law where the United States sue, and the matter in dispute amounts, exclusive of costs, to the sum or value of one hundred dollars," etc. Back of all, then, and filling up every gap in the legal barrier against wrong and the legal protection of right, is the common law. The Constitution of the United States is the fundamental law of the land with reference to all matters of which it treats and all inferences which can be fairly drawn from it. It binds not only every citizen, but Congress itself, the law-making power of the government, and, taken together with the various decisions of the supreme court expounding it, it furnishes a body of constitutional law. The laws enacted by Congress derive all their force and efficacy from the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution ; and if they are not in perfect agreement with the provis- ions of said Constitution, they can be set aside by the supreme court as soon as a test case involving the principles in question is presented. When they are constitutional they are equally binding in every State and Teri'i- tory of the United States ; and being uniformly applied and executed in all by the United States courts, they form a body of statute laws. Treaties made between the United States and foreign nations, and with the Indian tribes, are just as binding by the precepts of international law as any con- stitutional provision or act of Congress. "The Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land, and judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding " [see Constitution of the United States, Article VI.]. The Naturalization Laws. — Foreigners are welcomed in this country with a kindness which it would be difficult for them to find else- where. In England an alien, by taking out letters patent ex donatione regis (by the gift of the king, not ex donatione legis, by the gift of the law, as some Blackstones (but not Sharswood's), and even Bouvier's Law Dictionary under the word " denizen," have it), " a high and incommuni- cable branch of the royal prerogative," can attain a sort of half-and-half state, which leaves him neither an alien nor fully naturalized. He can take land by purchase or by devise — i. e., left by will — but not by inher- itance — i. e., as legal heir. An alien can be naturalized only by act of Parliament, and even then he cannot hold office. In the United States, on the contrary, aliens are better treated in many of the States than den- izens are in England. Their disabilities in respect to holding lands are wholly removed in Connecticut, Florida, Iowa, Maine, Massachusetts, INIichigan, New Jersey, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Wisconsin, without re- quiring even residence. If resident, they can hold lands in California, Kentucky, Mississippi, Missouri, New Hampshire and Texas ; and if they 524 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES have declared their intention of becoming citizens, they have the same privilege in Arkansas, Delaware, Georgia and South Carolina, In several other States their disabilities are partly removed. For the alien who de- sires to become a citizen of the United States, theoretically the road is easy enough, and practically it is said to be still easier. Theoretically, an alien, in order to become a citizen, must go before some United States court or some court of record of some State at least two years before his admis- sion to citizenship, and then and there declare on oath or affirmation that it is his intention to become a citizen of the United States, renouncing at the same time all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, State or sovereignty, and particularly by name the prince, potentate. State or sovereignty whereof such alien may at the time be a citizen or subject. This declaration is recorded by the clerk, and a certificate bearing the seal of the court and signed by the clerk is given him, which states that he has made such a declaration. This certificate is what is commonly known as " first papers " of a foreigner who desires to be naturalized. An appli- cant who has come to this country before the age of 18 is not required to take out his " first papers," and can be naturalized after a residence of five years, provided that he has reached the age of 21 at the time of making application. The " second papers," or certificate of citizenship, cannot (theoretically) be taken out until the applicant has resided in the United States at least five years. This residence must be proved by other testimony than the oath of the applicant, but one witness is sufficient. He must also prove that he has behaved, during the period of his residence, as a man of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution of the United States. He then swears or affirms the same things as before (with the additional declaration, if he has borne any title of nobility, that he renounces it), also that he will support the Constitution of the United States. The parties are then taken before the judge for the final exami- nation under oath. If the judge is satisfied that the applicant is a man of good moral character, who has resided in this country for the requisite period, he orders, in writing, the admission of the latter to the privileges of citizenship. He is forthwith admitted, and receives a final certificate, bearing the seal of the court and signed by the clerk, which is conclusive evidence thereafter of his citizenship, though it can be set aside if fraudu- lently obtained. The minor children (those under 21 years of age) of persons naturalized, if such children are then residing in the United States, become citizens by the naturalization of their parents. Such (legally and theoretically) are the length of residence and the legal pro- ceedings required of those who wish to become citizens of the United States. A naturalized citizen is put upon the same footing as a native, with the exception that he is not eligible for the presidency or vice-presidency of the United States. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 525 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu- tion for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the several States, and the elect- ors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their re- spective numbers, Avhich shall be determined by adding to the whole num- ber of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five. New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten. North Carolina five, South Carolina five and Georgia three. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the execu- tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers: and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. 526 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one- third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. The Vice-President of the United States shall be president of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments: when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. Judgments in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment and punishment according to law. Section 4. The times, places and manner of holding elections for sen- ators and representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legis- lature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meet- ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a diflferent day. Section 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 527 Each house shall keep a jourual of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secresy, and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the jourual. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Section 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertained by law and jjaid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony and breach of the j^eace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or debate, in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other place. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States, which shall have been created or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. Section 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments as on other bills. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to recon- sider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two- thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the Presi- dent within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. Every order, resolution or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; and 528 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES before the same shall take effect, shall be appi'oved by him, or, being dis- approved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States ; To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and cur- rent coin of the United States ; To establish post-ofiices and post-roads ; To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing for lim- ited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court ; To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; To declare w^ar, gi'ant letters of marque and reprisal and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; To provide and maintain a uavy ; To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections and repel invasions ; To provide for organizing, arming and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress : To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- chased by the consent of the legislature of the State in which the same CENTENNTAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 529 shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards and other needful buildings; and To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti- tution in the government of the United States or in any department or officer thereof. Section 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear or pay duties in another. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of ap- propriations made bylaw; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince or foreign state. Section 10. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance or confedera- tion; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in jjaymeut of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law or law impairing the obligation of contracts or grant any title of nobility. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any impost or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships-of-war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war unless actually invaded or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 34 530 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES ARTICLE II. Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the w^hole number of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. [The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person hav- ing the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such majority and have an equal number of votes, then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot one of them for President ; and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall in like manner choose the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the Vice-President.*] The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same throughout the United States. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years and been fourteen years resident within the United States. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, res- * See Twelfth Amendment; also Historical Sketch, p. 111. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 531 ignatiou or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the Congi'ess may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation or inability both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected. The President shall, at state-d times, receive for his services a compensa- tion, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath or affirmation : " I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices ; and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences agairjst the United States, except in cases of impeachment. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the United States whose ap- pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law ; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall ex- pire at the end of their next session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may on extraordi- nary occasions convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of dis- agreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. 532 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES Section 4. The President, Vice-President and all civil officers of the United States shall be removed from office on impeachment for and con- viction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation ^vhich shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Section 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; be- tween a State and citizens of another State ; between citizens of different States; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign States, citizens or subjects. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall make. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. Section 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records and judicial proceedings of every other State. And CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 533 the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in -which such acts, records and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Section 2. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. A person charged in any State with treason, felony or other crime, who shall flee from justice and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. No person held to service or labor in one State, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union : but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of anv other State, nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or 2Darts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States con- cerned as well as of the Congress. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any particular State. Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall j^i'otect each of them against invasion, and on application of tlie legislature, or of the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. AETICLE V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it neces- sary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a conven- tion for proposing amendments, which, in either case, sliall be valid to all intents and purposes, as parts of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article, and that no State, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 534 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ARTICLE VI. All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the confederation. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made or which shall be made under the authority of the United States, shall be. the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be bound thereby, anything in the constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound, by oath or affir- mation, to support this Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be re- quired as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the same. Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President, and Deputy from Virginia. NEW HAMPSHIRE. John Langdon, Nicholas Gilman. MASSACHUSETTS. Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. CONNECTICUT. William Sam'l Johnson, Roger Sherman. NEAV YORK. Alexander Hamilton. NEW JERSEY. William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. PENNSYLVANIA. Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, DELAWARE. George Reed, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom. VIRGINIA. John Blair, James Madison, Jr. NORTH CAROLINA. William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. SOUTH CAROLINA. John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler. GEORGIA. William Few, Abraham Baldwin. MARYLAND. .James McHenry, Daniel of St. Thos. Jenifer, , Daniel Carroll. Attest: William Jackson, Secretary. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 535 AMENDMENTS To THE Constitution op the United States, ratified according TO THE Provisions of the Fifth Article of the foregoing Constitution. Article I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for redress of grievances. Article II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. Article III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a man- ner to be prescribed by law. Article IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers and effects against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Article V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or other- wise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor to be deprived of life, liberty or property without due process of law; nor shall private propei-ty be taken for public use without just compensation. Article VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Article VII. In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States than according to the rules of conuuon law. 536 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Article VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Article IX. The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Article X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be con- strued to extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. Article XII. The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice- President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such a majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each State having one vote. A quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President, when- ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President. A quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President ; shall be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 537 Article XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery uor iu voluntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- priate legislation. . Article XIV. Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or en- force any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States, nor shall any State deprive any person of life, lil)erty or proiJerty without due process of law, nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of per- sons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed; but when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-Pres- ident of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State or the members of the Legislature thereof is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State (l)eing twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United States), or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion or any other crime, the basis of repre- sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty- one years of age iu said State. Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector, or President, or Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- fort to the enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each House, remove such disabilities. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States author- ized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and boun- ties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be ques- tioned ; but neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave, but all such debts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void. 538 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce by appropriate legislation the provisions of this article. Article XV. Section 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. THE DECLARATIO]^^ OF I^^DEPE:?nDE]>^CE. SO much has been said and written about this famous document — it has fur- nished the theme of so many Fourth-of-July orations, and has served as the subject of so many essays — that it seems difficult to say or write anything new upon what has been already so thoroughly discussed. Still, we ven- ture to assert that the topic has not been exhausted, and that, exaggerated as some of the eulogistic statements heretofore made may have seemed, they have more often been below the mark than above it. When the power of Great Britain and the weakness of the colonies are considered — when the reader remembers that the patriots were Avalking on untried ground, with no example in history, except that of the United Netherlands, sufficiently resembling theirs to be of much value as a means of instruction and en- couragement — the boldness of the step which they took, and the credit which their leaders deserved, are so forcibly impressed upon the mind as to excuse even the "spread-eagle" flights of oratory, the lavish expenditure of gunpowder and of fireworks, and all other innocent methods by which the American testifies upon the Fourth of July his approbation of the decisive action taken by the patriots upon " Independence Day." On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee, at the request of his colleagues, and with the special authority of Virginia, ofl^ered a series of resolutions, " That these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved ; that it is expedient forthwith to take the most effectual measures for forming foreign alliances, and that a plan of confederation be prepared and transmitted to the re- spective colonies for their consideration and approbation." John Adams seconded these resolutions; and the members were enjoined to attend punctually the next day at ten o'clock, in order to take them into con- sideration. It is a fact suggestive of the lack of sectional feeling in the Congress that these resolutions were moved by a representative man from the South, and seconded by a representative man from the North. The question was debated for several days, and on the 10th of June the decision was postponed for three weeks, to permit some of the delegates to consult their constituents. The resolutions had been opposed, not as bad or im- proper in themselves, but as premature ; and to prevent loss of time, it was 539 540 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES made a condition of the postponement that a committee should during the interval pi-epare a declaration in harmony with the proposed resolutions. This committee, which was appointed June 11, consisted of Thomas Jef- ferson, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman and Robert R. Livingston. It was elected by ballot; and as Jeiferson represented Virginia, from which colony the proposition had gone forth, and as he had been elected by the largest number of votes, to him was allotted the mo- mentous task of writing the Declaration. The three weeks of delay expired on the 1st of July. A large portion of that day was taken up with what would now be called " personal expla- nation ;" and on the 2d the resolution was adopted, and the completed work of Jefferson came before Congress for revision. Of Jefferson, Bancroft says, after giving him full credit for ability: "The quality which specially fitted him for the task was the sympathetic character of his nature, by which he was able, with instinctive perception, to read the soul of the nation, and having collected in himself its best thoughts and noblest feel- ings, to give them out in clear and bold words, mixed with so little of him- self that his country, as it went along with him, found nothing but what it recognized as its own." He had drafted the Declaration "from the fulness of his own mind," without consulting a single book, and it was reported to Congress on the 28th of June; but its consideration was neces- sarily postponed until after the adoption of the resolutions. During the remainder of July 2, and upon the two following days, the language, the statements and the principles of the paper were closely examined. Several omissions were made, the most notable of which was that of the following remarkable passage: "He has waged cruel war against human nature itself, violating the most sacred rights of life and liberty in the persons of a distant peopte who never offended him, captivating them and carrying them into slavery in another hemisphere, or to incur a miserable death in their transportation thither. This piratical warfare, the opprobrium of infidel powers, is the warfare of the Christian king of Great Britain. De- termined to keep open a market where men should be bought and sold, he has prostituted his negative for suppressing every legislative attempt to prohibit or restrain this execrable commerce. And that this assemblage of horrors might want no fact of distinguished dye, he is now exciting those very people to rise in arms among us, and to purchase that liberty of which he has deprived them, by murdering the people upon whom he also obtruded them, thus paying off former crimes committed against the liberties of one people by crimes which he urges them to commit against the lives of another." This was struck out because Congress had already manifested its sentiments by the absolute prohibition of the slave-trade, and that prohibition was then respected in every one of the thirteen States. All other changes in the language were either very slight or were improve- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 541 meuts, coDclensiug the language or moderating the tone, or correctiuo- slio-ht inaccuracies of statement. Upon the 4th of July thousands of anxious people, who knew that the final vote would be taken on that day, were gathered in the streets of Philadelphia, anxiously awaiting the announcement of the result. The old bellman took his post in the steeple as soon as Congress convened in the morning, and he had placed a boy at the door below to give him warn- ing when his services were required. The historic bell (now invalided in Independence Hall, but then recently of age, having reached its twenty- third year) hung ready to obey its prophetic motto, and in a manner and to a degree never dreamed of by its designer or its founder, to " Proclaim liberty throughout all the land, to all the inhabitants thereof" Hour after hour passed in anxious expectation. The bellman grew nervous and despondent. "They will never do it! They will never do it!" he said, shaking his head. Suddenly, at nearly two o'clock, a loud shout came up from below. He looked down, and saw the little boy clapping his hands, and heard him shouting, "Ring! Ring!" He did ring; and, to use the words of one who writes as if he had been an eye-witness, " the excited multitude in the streets responded with loud acclamations; and with cannon- peals, bonfires and illuminations the patriots held a glorious carnival that night in the quiet city of Penn." Within the hall, when the decision was announced, a deep silence per- vaded the assembly. It is said that Dr. Fi-anklin was the first to break it, by quaintly remarking, "Gentlemen, we must now all hang together, or we shall surely hang separately." In this observation there is a volume of commentary upon the work which had just been accomplished. The pledge of their lives and fortunes was no empty form of words. By their assenting votes upon the adoption of the Declaration they iuQ^rred (should the colonies fail to successfully sustain them) all the penalties of treason inflicted by the English law, confiscation of property, an ignominious death, and corruption of blood — I. e., their children would be rendered incapable of iidieriting their property, or, in other words, the confiscation was perpetual. The Declaration went out to the world with only the signature of John Hancock, the president of Congress. It was afterward engrossed on parch- ment, and on the 2d of August the fifty-four delegates then present signed it, Thomas McKean, of New Hampshire, and Dr. Thornton, of Maryland, adding their names afterward. An incident which occurred at the time of the signing shows what manner of men they were. Each man, as he afiixed his name to the document, knew that he risked putting his neck into the halter ; and when Charles Carroll of Carrollton was writing his name, one of the members, who knew that Mr. Carroll was a man of great wealth, said, "There go a few millions." "There are several of the name," 542 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES was the reply. Mr. Carroll overheard this remark, and he immediately took up the pen and wrote after his name, "of Carrollton," so that there could be no possible mistake. It is a remarkable fact that this man, who showed himself so ready to abide by the consequences of this act, was the last survivor of the signers. He died in 1832, at the age of ninety-five. Many interesting statistics are given in Conrad's introduction to Sander- son's Bio(jraj)]iy of the Signers, from which we shall now condense a few of the most important. They were all natives of America except eight, who had immigrated in youth or in early manhood, and among whom were Robert Morris, John Witherspoon and James Wilson. Of these, two were from England, three from Ireland, two from Scotland and one from Wales. Of those born in America, taking them by sections, sixteen were natives of the Eastern, fourteen of the Middle and eighteen of the Southern colo- nies. Taking them by States, one was born in Maine, nine in Massachu- setts, two in Rhode Island, four in Connecticut, three in New York, four in New Jersey, five in Pennsylvania, two in Delaware, five in Maryland, nine in Virginia and four in South Carolina. Nearly one-half of the number, or twenty-seven, had been regularly graduated in the colleges of Europe or America. The odd seven, or one-fourth of this number, may be credited to Harvard College. Twenty others had educations which, though not regularly collegiate, were at least academic, or by dint of unaided energy, as in the case of Franklin, they had supplied, or more than supplied, the lack of a university course. The condition of life of most of the signers was such as to relieve them from all imputation of selfish motives. Many of them, as Hancock, Carroll, Morris and others, were among the most wealthy in the countr3^ The majority w^ere possessed of an ample com- petence, and, with very few exceptions, all had, besides life, something to lose, and nothing but liberty to gain, in the conflict which they had invoked. The pui'suits in life of the signers are of interest, as indicating their character and social position and those of the classes and interests which they represented. Twenty-four, or nearly one-half, were lawyers, of whom it has been well said that "they have been the original asserters and most faithful champions of constitutional liberty in all countries." Thirteen were planters and farmers, the former being wealthy land-owners rather than practical agriculturists. Nine were merchants; five, physicians; two, •mechanics; one was a clergyman, one a mariner and one a surveyor. Many of these were engaged in mingled pursuits, and nearly all were more or less interested in agriculture. The age of the signers at the date of the Declaration exhibited a singu- larly just representation of the difi^erent stages of human life. The mass of them were in the most vigorous season of existence, forty-one out of the fifty-six being between the ages of thirty and fifty years, while the youngest (Rutledge) was twenty-seven, and the eldest (Franklin) seventy years of CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 543 age. The following statement will give a fair idea of the relative ages of all: From twenty-five to thirty years of age, three; from thirty to thirty-five, eleven ; from thirty -five to forty, ten ; from forty to forty-five, ten ; from forty-five to fifty, ten ; from fifty to fifty-five, three ; from fifty- five to sixty, two ; from sixty to sixty-five, four ; from sixty-five to seventy, two. The average age of the signers in July, 1776, was forty-three years and ten mouths, and their average age at the time of their death was sixty- eight years and four mouths. Their lougevity has been made the subject of frequent remark. They lingered into an age beyond their own, and it seemed a portion of their reward that they should witness the peaceful gathering of the rich harvest in sowing which they had risked all their earthly possessions, as well as the reproach and ignominy Avhich would have been heaped upon them had their country failed to successfully support them. Of the document itself little need ])e said. It sets forth the causes for separation in language so firm, yet so moderate — so dignified, yet so forcible — that no words of praise from critic or historian can add to the effect pro- duced upon any one who reads it carefully and with a candid mind. We therefore, without further comment, give the reader an opportunity to pe- ruse the — DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. A Declaration by the Representatives of the United States OF America, in Congress assembled, adopted July 4, 1776. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's Gred entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident — that all meu are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure these rights governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundations on such principles and organizing its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Pru- dence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are suf- ferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are 544 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a desire to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. The history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be ob- tained ; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large dis- tricts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- sentation in the Legislature — a right inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- able and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise, the State remain- ing, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from without and convulsions within. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither and raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his Avill alone for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us in times of peace standing armies, without the consent of our Legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 545 He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitutions and unacknowledged by our laws, giving his assent to their acts of jJretended legislation : For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences ; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies ; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws and altering fundamentally the forms of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns and destroyed the lives of our peojDle. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny already begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most bar- barous ages and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow- citizens taken captive on the high seas to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In every stage of these opj)ressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and settlement here; we have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured Ihem by the ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, 35 546 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. which would iuevitably interrupt our conuectious and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguin- ity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war — ^in peace, friends. "We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States ; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and inde- pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce and do all other acts and things which inde- pendent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred honor. Signed by JOHN HANCOCK, of Massachusetts. NEW HAMPSHIRE. Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Tliornton. MASSACHUSETTS BAY. Samuel Adams, John Adams, Kobert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. EHODE ISLAND, ETC. Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. CONNECTICUT. Roger Sherman, Samuel Pluntingdon, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. NEW YORK. William Floyd, Pliilip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. NEW JERSEY. Richard Stockton, John WitlierspoOTi, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. PENNSYLVANIA. Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Morton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. DELAWARE. Caesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas McKean. MARYLAND, Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, C. Carroll, of Carrollton. VIRGINIA. George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. NORTH CAROLINA. William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. SOUTH CAROLINA. Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. GEORGIA. Button Gwinnett, Lyman Hall, George Walton. Kngraved expressly for Burley's United States Centennial Gazetteer and Guide. PARIS EXPOSITION, 1867. THE Paris Exposition of 1867 was held on the Champ rle Mars, the great military parade-ground of Paris. It occupied thirty-three acres of space besides the Island of Billancourt, which was devoted to the dis- play of agricultural implements. It consisted of a large building, oval in shape, with a small open central garden, around which galleries placed one within another made the entire circuit of the building. Each gallery was devoted to a particular class of manufactures or of works of art, and tlie nationalities were divided off by avenues radiating from the centre. This enabled visitors to compare the articles exhibited in any one class by all the nations represented by simply following the gallery around until he reached his starting-point. If, on the other hand, he wished to examine all the articles exhibited by any particular nation, he could start from the centre or from the circumference, and attain his object by traversing from end to end one of the avenues bounding the space allotted to that nation- ality. The outer gallery was loftier and broader than any of the others, was roofed with corrugated iron and lighted with clere-story windows. It was devoted to machinery of all kinds, and to the processes of manufacture in various branches of industry. Outside this circle were placed practical illustrations of the food department in the form of restaurants of all 547 548 BUBLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. nations, the exhibition of specimens of food-substances being in small courts within the outer wall, or back to back with the restaurants. There was also a collection of antiquities showing the rise and progress of indus- trial art in every country. Another very important feature was the park, or out-of-door portion, in which were shown actual examples of the styles of domestic and palatial architecture of most countries, and even the tents of some of the nomadic tribes, such as the Kirghis Tartars and Samoyeds of the Russian Empire, the Bedouin Arabs, etc. The beasts of burden of different nations, such as horses, camels, etc., were also shown, and all kinds of civil and military erections of general importance. The number of exhibitors Avas 42,237, and in the quantity, quality and variety of the articles exhibited the Exposition outstripped all its prede- cessors. The American exhibitors carried oif five grand prizes and nearly four hundred medals and " honorable mentions." One of these grand prizes is worthy of special notice on account of the peculiar nature of the requirements to be met by the successful competitor. The emperor of the French proposed ten awards of 10,000 francs each (about S2000 in gold) to ten different " persons, establishments or communities who by means of special arrangements or institutions have improved the mutual good understanding between all the different parties who co-operate in the execution of work, and t^o all those who have succeeded in ameliorating the material, moral or intellectual condition of the working population." A special jury was appointed from the different countries represented in the Exposition. Five hundred applications were received from France and other countries on the continent of Europe, from Great Britain and from the United States. The recompense awarded consisted of a gold medal with appropriate emblems, a motto and the name of the successful competi- tor upon it, 9000 francs in money, and a diploma printed on a medallion- card suitable for framing. Nine of the awards were given to France, Germany and other countries in Europe, one to the United States, and none to Great Britain. The name of the American establishment receiving the prize was placed third on the list of successful candidates. This award was among the highest made at the Exposition, and was the highest received by a citizen of the United States. Reliable statistics of this Exposition are difficult to obtain. The figure of 10,000,000 for the num- ber of visitors sounds almost too decimal to be correct. Still, it was justly said at its close that it was the greatest of all international exhibitions which had been held up to that time, both with respect to its extent and to the scope of its plan. The information obtained by the special prize which we have described concerning the adjustment of the rights of capital and labor, was well worth all that was expended upon the whole Exposition. The amelioration of the condition of the workingman, with the full co- operation of his employer, is " a consummation devoutly to be wished." AMERIOAJST AGRIOULTUEE. Early History. — As agriculture in America began with the rude efforts of the aborigines, we could have no more fitting introduction than the following description of the native American system given by an Indian : " As our ancestors had no art of manufacturing any sort of metal, they had no implements of husbandry ; therefore they were able to culti- vate their lands but little, planting skommon, or Indian coi-n, beans and little squashes, which work was chiefly left under the management of women and old men who were incapable of hunting, and of little boys. They made use of a bone — either a moose's, bear's or deer's shoulder-blade — instead of a hoe, to hoe their corn with, tying it fast to a stick or helve made for tliat purpose. When they find that their fields will fail, they prepare another piece of land. In the first place, they make a fire around the foot of every tree on the ground they intend to clear, until the bark of the tree is burnt through. They plant while the trees are standing, after they are killed. As soon as a tree falls they burn it of such a length that they can roll the logs together and burn them up to ashes. This they do till they get the land quite clear. An industrious woman, when a great many dry logs are fallen, can burn off as many logs iji one day as a smart man can cho]) in two or three days' time with an axe. They make use of only an uthonnetmuhlieahiin, or stone axe, with a helve to it like the helve of the hoe already mentioned, with which they rub the coals of the burning logs." Another writer, however, mentions " a clumsy instrument, resembling the axe described, which was made not unfrequently of a large clamshell. With this they were accustomed to dig small holes four feet apart. Those living in the vicinity of the sea-shore put into each hole a horseshoe crab or two, or a fish, upon which they dropped four, and some- times six, kernels of corn, and covered it with the implement with which they had dug the hole. Beans were planted with the corn after it had come up, and grew up supported by it." The use of the crab for manure is thus described in A Description of Orleans (in Barnstable county, Mass.), published in 1802 : " The horse-foot, or king-crab, was formerly much used for manuring land set with Indian corn and potatoes, and it is still em- ployed in Orleans, in the south part of Dennis and in other parts of the county. It is chopped into small pieces, and not more than one, sometimes 549 550 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES not more than a quarter, is put into a hill. As it contains an abundance of oil, it affords a strong manure, and with it the light lands may be made to yield twenty bushels of corn to an acre (the yield of these lands with- out manure being only ten bushels to the acre). It is, however, too hot a manure, and it causes the land to exert itself so much that it cannot easily recover its strength." It is amusing to note that the use of such stimu- lating fertilizers was made a matter of reproach as early as March, 1648, when the author of A Perfect Description of Virginia, after acknowledging that "New England is in a good condition for livelihood," said : " But for matter of any great hopes but fishing, there is not much in that land ; for it's as Scotland is to England — so much difierence — and lies upon the same land northward as Scotland doth to England. There is much cold, frost and snow, and their land is so barren that except a herring he put into the hole that you set the corn or maize in, it will not come up. It was great pity all those people, being now about twenty thousand, did not seat themselves at first to the south of Virginia, in a warm and rich country, where their industry would have produced sugar, indigo, ginger, cotton and the like commodities. And it's now reported in Virginia that thousands of them are removing (with many from the Summer Islands also) unto the Bahama Islands, near the Cape of Florida ; and that's the right way for them to go and thrive." In both New England and Virginia the supply of food was at first rather precarious. In the latter province the thirst for gold caused the difficulties elsewhere described [see Historical Sketch, p. 93], while the condition of the Pilgrim Fathers during the first few years of their sojourn in the New World is thus depicted by Captain Edward John- son, upon the same page from which we have already quoted [see Histor- ical Sketch, pp. 94, 95] : " You have heard what extreme penury these people were in, at fifst planting (sic), for want of food. Gold, silver, rai- ment, or whatsoever was precious in their eyes, they parted with when ships came in. For this their beast that died some would stick before they were cold {sic), and sell their poor pined flesh for food at sixpence per pound, and Indian beans at 16s. per bushel. When ships came in, it grieved some masters to see the urging of them by people of good rank and quality to sell bread unto them." In New England as well as in Virginia the very ex- istence of the settlements depended for a time upon the purchase of supplies of food from the Indians, and the latter were the instructors who initiated the pioneers into the mysteries of the cultui'e of maize, telling them how "to select the finest ears of corn for seed, to plant it at a proper time, to weed it and to hill it." Indian corn was one of the first among the agri- cultural productions of the country with which the settlers became ac- quainted. On the 15th of November, more than a month before the dis- embarkation on Plymouth Rock, an exploring party of sixteen men, under the command of the famous Miles Standish, landed on the coast of Massa- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 551 chusetts aPxd penetrated some distance into the country. In the course of their investigations, their journal says, " We found an heap of sand, which we digged up, and in it we found a little old basket, full of fair Indian corn, and we digged further and found a fine great new basket, full of very fair Indian corn of this year, with some six-and-thirty goodly ears of corn, some yellow and some red, and others mixed with blue, which was a very goodly sight. We took all the ears, and put a good deal of the loose corn into the kettle, for two men to bring away on a staff. Besides, they that could put away into their pockets filled the same." The first attempts of the settlers to cultivate the soil of New England were attended with many hai'dships. Hubbard, in his 'General History of New England, has some judicious remarks upon the results attained, as compared with the expect- ations of the colonists, which we transcribe, preserving his quaint orthog- raphy : " The generality of the soyle, itt is of a lighter sort of earth, whose fruitefullnesse is more beholding to the influences of the heavens and ad- vantages of the seasonable skill and industry of the husbandmen, then the strength of its own temper. Such as came hither first on discovery, chanced to bee here in the first part of the summer, when the earth was only adorned with its best attire of herbs and flowers, flourishing with all such early fruits which weather-beaten travellers are wont to refresh themselves with the beholding of, as strawberies, goosberies, rasberies, cheries and whorts [whortleberries?] ; as they observed that first landed about Martha's Vine- yard ; whence they promised themselves and theire successors a very flourishing country, as they did that first landed on the coast of Florida. Many places do naturally abound with some of those berryes, as other places with grapes, which gave great hopes of fruitfull vineyards in after time, butt as yet either skill is wanting to cultivate and order the roots of those wild vines, and reduce them to a pleasant sweetnesse, or time is not yet to bee spared to looke after the culture of such fruits as rather tend to the henh or melius esse [i.e., the welfare or improvement] of a place than to the bare esse [i. e., the bare existence] and subsistence thereof Each season of the yeare so fast, as it were, treading upon the heels of that which went before, that but little time is to bee found to spare for that tillage which is not of absolute necessity, but for pleasure and delight. Yet are all sorts of grayne found to grow pretty naturally there, that are wont to be sowne in the spring season, the cold oft times proving so extreme as it kills all that is committed to the earth before winter, especially in the Mas- sachusetts colony." In spite, however, of the many difficulties arising from the barrenness of the soil and the severity of the climate, much progress was made during the first thirty years after Miles Standish's expedition above mentioned. Captain Edward Johnson, to whom we have several times had occasion to refer, says, in the twenty-first chapter of his Wonder- working Providence of Zion's Saviour in New England: "All the forraign 552 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES plantations that are of forty, fifty or one hundred years' standing cannot report the like — this remote, rocky, barren, bushy, wild-woody wilderness, a receptacle for lions, wolves, bears, rockoones, bags (sic), bevers, otters and all kind of wild creatures — a place that never afibrded the natives better than the flesh of a few wild creatures and parch't Indian corn, iuch't out (sic) with chestnuts and bitter acorns, now become a second England for fertilness, in so short a space that it is indeed the wonder of the world." Again (in book ii., chapter iv., of the same work) he says : " Whereas, at their first coming, it Avas a rare matter for a man to have four or five acres of corn, now many have four or five score. Then, it was with sore labour that a man could plant and tend four acres of Indian's graine, and now, with two oxen, he can plant and tend thirty. All kinde of graine growes much better than heretofore, inasmuch that marchandizing (sic) being stopped at present, they begin to question what to do with their come." There was, however, great variation in the yield per acre, arising from difierences in soil, thoroughness of culture, etc. In Compton, R. I., for instance, accord- ing to an account written during the first decade of the present century, an acre often produced more than forty bushels, while the Description of Eastham, Mass., after speaking of some "good land" yielding, with manure, thirty-five and sometimes forty-five bushels of Indian corn to an acre, says of another portion of the township : " Several farmers are accustomed to produce five hundred bushels of grain (meaning corn) annually ; and not long since, one of them raised eight hundred bushels on sixty acres (average yield per acre 13 J bushels). This, however, was extraordinary, and may never be done again." One great drawback to progress in agriculture was the scarcity of proper implements. In 1632 "the farmers around Boston had no ploughs, and were compelled to break up the bushes and prepare for cultivation with their hands, and with clumsy hoes and mattocks." Five years later there were only thirty-seven ploughs in the colony of Mas- sachusetts Bay. " It was the custom in that part of the country," says Flint, " even to a much later period, for any one owning a plough to go about and do the ploughing for the inhabitants over a considerable extent of territory. A town often paid a bounty to any one who would buy and keep a plough in repair for the purpose of going about to work in this way." The oflice of public ploughman was no sinecure, for the heavy wooden plough of that period " required a strong and well-fed team to move it through the soil, a heavy, muscular man to press it into the ground, another to hold and another to drive." There were ploughs in Virginia as early as 1617, but the governor wrote that the colony suffered for want of " skilful husbandmen and means to set their ploughs on work, having as good ground as any man can desire, and about forty bulls and oxen ; but they wanted men to bring them to labor, and iron for the ploughs, and harness for the cattle. Some thirty or forty acres had we sown with one CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 553 plough, but it stood so long on the ground before it was reaped that it was most [i. 6., very much] shaken, and the rest spoiled with the cattle and rats in the barn." In a letter written about thirty years later (March, 1648), and appended to the Perfect Descriptmi of Virginia, we find the fol- lowing statement, which shows the rapidity of the pi-ogress made during the period mentioned : " We have now many thousand acres of clear land (I mean where the wood is all off it), and we have now going near upon a hundred and fifty ploughs, with many brave yoke of oxen, and we sow excellent wheat, barley, rye, beans, peas, oats, and our increase is wonderful, and better grain not in the world." In the preceding para- graph of this same letter occurs the oft-quoted account of the introduction of the culture of rice into this country, which we herewith give as origin- ally written : " The governor, Sir William [Berkeley,] caused half a bushel of rice which he had procured to be sown, and it prospered gallantly ; and he had fifteen bushels of it, excellent good rice, so that all these fifteen bushels will be sown again this year, and we doubt not in a short time to have rice so plentiful as to afibrd it at 2d. a pound, if not cheaper, for we perceive the ground and climate is very proper for it, as our negroes affirm, which in their country is most of their food, and very healthful for our bodies." We add some statements found in the Perfect Description, from which we learn "that [the Virginians have] of kine, oxen, bulls, calves, twenty thousand, large and good, and they make jjlenty of butter and very good cheese ; that there are of an excellent race about two hun- dred horses and mares; that of asses for burthen and use there is fifty, but daily increase; that for sheep they have about three thousand, good wool {sic) ; that for goats their number is five thousand, [which] thrive well ; that for swine, both tame and wild (in the woods), [they are] innumerable, the flesh pure and good, and bacon none better; that for poultry, hens, turkeys, ducks, geese [they are] without number; that they yearly plough and sow many hundred acres of wheat as good and fair as any in the world, and great increase; that they have plenty of barley and make excellent malt; that their hops are fair and large and thrive well; that they sell their beef at two pence half- penny a pound, pork at three pence a pound plentifully ; that their cattle are about the prices of England, and most of the ships that come yearly hither are there victualled; that they have fifteen kinds of fruits, pleasant and good, and with Italy they will com- pare for delicate fruits ; that they have roots of several kinds — potatoes, asparagus, carrots, turnips, parsnips, onions and artichokes ; that of herbs they have of all kinds for garden, and fhysich flowers [flowering medicinal plants] ; that their maize or Virginia corn, it yields them five hundred for one increase (it's set as we do garden peas), it makes good bread and fur- mity [properly /rH»ie?i^?/, "an agreeable composition of boiled wheat, milk, spice and sugar"], it will keep seven years, and malts well for beer, and is 554 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES ripe in five months; that they have store of Indian peas, better than ours [in England], beans, lupines and the like. Indigo begins to be planted, and thrives wonderfully well. It grows up to a little tree, and rich indigo is made of the leaves of it. All men begin to get some of the seeds, and know that it will be oftentimes the gain to them, as tobacco is (and gain now carries the bell). Their hopes are great to gain the trade of it from the mogul's country, and to supply all Christendom, and this will be many thousands of pounds [sterling] in the year." This expectation was but partially realized. Within a century the production of indigo had in- creased to such an extent that the amount was reckoned by "thousands of pounds [avoirdupois], 100,000 pounds having been exported from Charleston alone in 1741, and in 1747, 134,118 pounds, worth 2s. 6c?. ster- ling per pound. In 1756 the amount shipped from the same port was 216,924 pounds, and in 1756 North and South Carolina produced 500,000 pounds, and for a few years before the Revolutionary war the annual exports of this article amounted to 1,000,000 pounds. In 1794 the whole Union exported 1,550,880 pounds, but its cultivation speedily declined when brought into competition with the present great staple commodity of the South. Indigo is dead, and cotton is king." It would be tedious to enter into petty detail with reference to the progress made during a period the results of which are thus summed up by Mr. AVatson : " It is, indeed, a lamentable truth that for the most part our knowledge and practice of agriculture at the close of the Revolution- ary war were in a state of demi-barbarism, with some solitary exceptions. The labors, I may say, of only three agricultural societies kept alive a spirit of useful inquiry often resulting in useful and practical operations ; and yet these measures did not reach the doors of j^ractical farmers to any visible extent." These statements are fully supported by the remarks of Mr. Flint, whose position as secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture gave him special and ample facilities for collecting infor- mation upon this subject. According to this author, if a man a century ago "ventured to make experiments, to strike out new paths of practice and adopt new methods of culture; if he did not plant just as many acres of corn as his fathers did, and that too ' in the old of the moon ;' if he did not sow just as much rye to the acre, raise the same number of oxen to plough and get in his crops on the same day; if he did not hoe as many times as his father did, ... he was shunned in company by old and young and looked upon as a visionary. The farmer knew nothing of a rotation of crops. The use and value of manures were little regarded. Even so late as within the memory of men still living, the barn was sometimes removed to get it out of the way of heaps of manui'e by which it was sur- rounded, because the owner would not go to the expense of removing these accumulations and put them upon his fields. The swine were generally CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 555 allowed to run at large. The cattle were seldom or uever housed at iiio-ht during the summer and fiill mouths. The potato-patch often came up to the very door, and the litter of the yard seldom left much to admire in the general appearance of things about the barn or the house. Farmers thought it necessary to let their cattle run at large very late in the fall and to stand exposed to the severest colds of a winter's day, 'to toughen.' It was the common opinion in the Virginia colony that housing and milk- ing cows in the winter would kill them. Orchards had been planted in many parts of the country, but the fruit Avas, as a general thing, of an inferior quality, and it was used chiefly for the purpose of making cider." Again he says : " No one branch of farming had made any marked and perceptible progress. It has been said that a good strong man could have carried all the implements in use on the farm, except the cart and the old clumsy harrow, upon his shoulders fifty years ago, and we know that many a year occurred when grain and even hay had to be imported from Eng- land to keep the people and the cattle from starvation." There were many causes for the slowness of improvement under the colonial system. The population of the country was thin and scattered, and the fisheries and navigation attracted the attention of the colonists who lived near the ocean or its tributary waters. The settler was satisfied if his land produced a crop large enough to supply the necessaries of life, and was thankful if he secured, in addition, a scanty surplus for exportation or for colonial traffic. The slowness and difficulty of intercommunication between the various colonies was another obstacle to general improvement, and the Revolution, in addition to many other benefits, did great service to the general welfare of the people by making them, so to speak, acquainted with each other, by breaking down the barriers of provincialism to this extent, at least, that mutual improvement was secured by an interchange of ideas. Soci- eties were formed for the promotion of "arts, agriculture and manufac- tures," in accordance with recommendations of Congress and of various provincial assemblies. The leaders of the patriots seemed fully alive to the importance of improved methods of cultivation, and many of them were practical agriculturists. General Washington, well named by Byron "the Cincinnatus of the AVest," is a notable example, and his fondness for agricultural pursuits was so great that Sir John Sinclair says, in his Remi- niscences of Distinguished Contemporaries : " The peculiar predilection which General Washington so strongly and so frequently expressed for agricultural improvement, which he preferred to every other pursuit, is a circumstance which I am desirous should be recorded for the benefit both of present and future times, from a desire that it might make a due impression on the minds of those who might otherwise be induced to dedi- cate themselves entirely either to the phantoms of military fume or the tortures of political ambition." In a letter to this gentleman, dated July 55G BUBLEF'S UNITED STATES 20, 1794, President Washington says: "Commons, tithes, tenantry (of which we feel nothing in this country), are in the list of impediments, I perceive, to perfection in English farming, and taxes are heavy deductions from the profit thereof Of these we have none, or so light as hardly to be felt. Your system of agriculture, it must be confessed, is in a style superior, and of course much more expensive, than ours, but when the balance at the end of the year is struck by deducting the taxes, poor rates and incidental charges of every kind, from the produce of the land in the two countries, no doubt can remain in which scale it is to be found. It will be some time, 1 fear, before an agricultural society, with congressional aids, will be established in this country. We must walk, as other coun- tries have done, before we can run. Smaller societies must prepare the way for greater ; but, with the lights before us, I hope we shall not be so slow in maturation as older nations have been. An attempt, as you will see by the enclosed outline of a plan, is making to establish a State society in Pennsylvania for agricultural improvement. If it succeeds, it will be a step in the ladder. At present it is too much in embryo to decide on the result. Our domestic animals as well as our agriculture are inferior to yours in point of size; but this does not proceed from any defect in the stamina of them, but from deficient care in providing for their support, experience having abundantly evinced that where our pastures are as well improved as the soil and climate will admit, where a competent store of wholesome provender is laid up and proper care used in serving it, that our liorses, black cattle, sheep, etc., are not inferior to the best of their respective kinds which have been imjDorted from England. Nor is the wool of our sheep inferior to that of the common sort with you. As a proof, after the peace of Paris, in 1783, and my return to the occupations of a farmer, I paid particular attention to my breed of sheep (of which I usually kept about seven or eight hundred). By this attention, at the shearing of 1789 the fleeces yielded me the average quantity of 5i pounds of wool; a fleece of which, promiscuously taken, I sent to Mr. Arthur Young, who put it, for examination, into the hands of manufac- turers. These pronounced it to be equal in quantity to the Kentish wool. In this same year {i. e., 1789) I was again called from home, and have not had it in my power since to pay any attention to my farm, the consequence of which is that my sheep, at the last shearing, yielded me not moi'e than 2h pounds. This" is not a single instance of the differences between care and neglect; nor is the difference between good and bad management confined to that species of stock ; for we find that good pastures and proper atten- tion can and do fill our markets with beef of seven, eight and more hun- dred weight the four quarters, whereas from 450 to 500 (especially in States south of this, where less attention has hitherto been paid to grass) may be found about the average weight. In this market, some bullocks were CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 557 killed in the mouths of March and April last, the weights of which, as taken from the accounts which were published at the time, you will find in a paper inclosed. These were pampered steers, but from 800 to 1000 the four quarters is no uncommon weight." It must be borne in mind that the Mr. Young to whom the fleece was sent was not an American. He was the great authority in England upon all agricultural questions, and the manufacturers to whom the fleece was shown were British manufacturers, who certainly had no prejudice in favor of this country. General Wash- ington corresponded for many years with Mr. Young upon these and kin- dred subjects, and even after the elevation of the former to the presidency he still continued to devote as much time as he could spare from the ar- duous duties of his office to the collection of information and statistics with reference to his favorite occupation. Mr. Young made an elaborate calcu- lation which proved to his satisfaction that the net profit from 300 acres of land in England, after the deduction of taxes and all other expenses, was £323 iOs., or 5.15 per cent, on the combined capital of the landlord and tenant (£6240), while in America the net profit after similar deduc- tions had been made was £206 14s., or 10.55 per cent, on the capital of £1951, the farmer being his own landlord. The price of labor in America was considered as double the rates in England, but land (which is ihcluded in both estimates of capital) was so much cheaper in this country that the increased cost of labor was more than balanced by smallness of the capital required.. Another calculation made by Mr. Young was not so favorable, and elicited a spicy reply, which is not signed in the copy of this corre- spondence which is before us, but which, from its style and from allusions to it in Washington's lettei-s, we judge to be the work of Mr. Richard Pe- ters (of "Belmont, 6 miles from Philadelphia," says the heading to another of his letters). President Washington had written to several gentlemen in various sections of the country for statements of the expenses, produc- tions and net profits of an ordinary farm in their respective neighborhoods, and had then sent these returns to Mr. Young. The reply of the latter is filled with expressions of astonishment and with criticisms of the various accounts. He says : " Is it possible that the inhabitants of a great conti- nent, who live only to hunt, to eat and to drink, can carry on farming and planting as a business, and yet never calculate the profit they make by percentage on their capital ? And yet this seems to be the case. The farm in Bucks county is such as an Englishman would not accept, for it carries on the face of the account which I have drawn out a dead loss, and not an inconsiderable one ; yet the whole labor of a family of five persons is thrown away in order to arrive at that loss." It is difficult for JNIr. Young to realize the extraordinary fertility of land in Virginia at this time (1793), and he is therefore unwilling to admit an account rendered by Mr. Jefferson. " How can Mr. Jefferson produce annually 5000 bushels of wheat, 558 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES worth £750, by means of a cattle product worth only £125? I do not want to come to America to know that this is simply impossible ; at the commencement of a term it will do, but how long will it last ?" He strongly recommends the breeding of sheep as much more profitable than the pro- duction of grain, saying : " Surely, the enormous rise in the price of wool in England and Holland for two years past must affect America and insti- gate an increase in the breed of sheep. The freight when pressed into a smaller compass is a trifle, and the price is now such that a fleece alone from American lands, without reckoning the carcase at anything, must be more valuable than the 2^^'ofit on a crop of wheat of eight or ten bushels an acre on all lands that will produce white clover spontaneously." To the criticisms of Mr. Young Jefferson replied with characteristic mildness. He says : " Mr. Young has never had an opportunity of seeing how slowly the fertility of the original soil is exhausted, Avith moderate management of it. I can afiirm that the James River low grounds, with the cultivation of small grain, will never be exhausted, because we know that under that cultivation we must now and then take them down with Indian corn, or they become, as they ivere originally, too rich to bring wheat. The highlands where I live have been cultivated about sixty years." Mr. Young had begun his criticism with the following sentences : " Your information has thrown me afloat on the high seas. To analyze your husbandry has the difiiculty of a problem." From the reply of Mr. Peters,* which we have mentioned (that he was the author is rendered certain by a detached note found in another part of the book), we condense the following statements: "I know not where to land Mr. Young from his sea voyage unless facts well known and felt here, serving as pilots to guide him into a safe and pleasant har- bor, will enable him to arrive on a shore pleasant in its prospects and abundant in its resources, not so much indebted to art as to nature for its beauties and conveniences. Much land is to be had for little money ; our political arrangements contribute to our happiness and to our moderate but competent wealth. We have no princes to indulge the grades more imme- diately beneath them in their pleasures and tlieir passions, that they may themselves be supported at the expense of the nation in their schemes of luxury and ambition; no overgrown nobles to wanton on the hard earnings of an oppressed yeomanry. Our laws are generally liberal in their policy. We have no narrow arrangements which, under false notions of national convenience or shadowy and miscalculated political restrictions, palsy agri- culture and commerce by preventing those who possess the products of the country from disposing of what their labor has created, tvhen, where and * This eminent jurist was equally eminent as an agriculturist. Tiirough his instru- mentality the use of gypsum in agriculture and the cultivation of clover were intro- duced into the United States. He was president of the Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Agriculture. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 559 how they please. Our farmers are the proprietors of the soil they culti- vate; they gather the honey, shear the sheep and guide the plough for themselves alone. They increase the value of their capital ivhile they labor for their sustenance. They do not, indeed, receive an annual interest or revenue on their capital, but they ^a^/ none; yet by their exertions for their own support and accommodation, and the growing population and improvement of the country (to which every one, stranger as well as native, contributes), more than a European percentage is added to their principal, insomuch that farms will increase, in very many parts of the country, tenfold in their value in less than twenty years. Immense tracts of new laud have been recently sold by the State of Pennsylvania at less than an English shilling per acre. I know valuable tracts of great extent, within a few days' ride of Philadelphia, which may be had at from 3 to 95. sterling per aci'e. They are for the most part level, and so luxuriant in pasturage that, maugre \i. e., in spite of] our winters, cattle now pass that season in prime order without cover or artificial forage. Mr. Y.'s farm, or even his sixty acres and the sheep he summered on it, will buy him a little territory, and his capital in ten years will be increased 500 per cent. This is not a bad per- centage, nor is it a visionary calculation. I wish not to throw out falla- cious temptations, but to relate facts, merely to show why our farmers need not make nice calculations about percentage. They have now, and always have had, a sure resource for the wear of their seaboffrd farms, etc., in the growth of their families. Children, in Europe, are often a burden and an expense. The wealth of a great part of the American farmers grows with the additions to their families. The children assist in the labor of the old farm or in the establishment of the new one. This supersedes the necessity of calculating on hired laborers, the work being chiefly done within them- selves. They are paid by the increased value of the common stock. The easy situation of an industrious, full-handed American farmer is the pleas- ing result of a combination produced by all the causes I have mentioned. Instead of calculating, he labors and enjoys. And though I do not pro- fess to have a good opinion of the style of American husbandry, yet even this shows the happy situation, in other respects, of our countxy. With such farming in Europe the farmers would starve, and leave their children common laborers or beggars. And yet here they live well and leave their descendants the means of obtaining the comforts and conveuiencies of life. This is the problem I have endeavored to solve, and I could not but by this circuitous route arrive at the answer to Mr. Y.'s question, 'Is it possible that the inhabitants of a great continent not new settlers, who, of course, live to hunt, to eat and to clrinh, can carry on farming as a business, and yet never calculate the profit they make by percentage on their capital ?' Our hunters are only a few borderers, and not to be counted on as farmers; nor are our farmers, though they have not the best systems, idle. I there- 560 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES fore think (without meauiug a critique) 'who eat and drink to live' would have been a more just arrangement of language." We offer no apology for taking up so much space with this spirited defence of American farm- ing, written nearly a hundred years ago, but just as forcible, in many points, at the present day as it was in 1793. Mr. Peters' remarks upon sheep-breeding are equally interesting. Mr. Young had said, in recom- mending this branch, "Mountains are no objection on account of wolves, for the Pyrenees are full of both sheep and wolves." Mr. Peters' reply, referring as it does to what is now one of the most thickly-populated dis- tricts in Pennsylvania, is suggestive of the changes which have taken place since 1793 in the Atlantic States. He says : "Wolves are a serious enemy to the sheep-plan in places where there are the largest ranges. AVhere a large ridge runs through a country in other respects ever so well peopled they find retreats and l)reed prodigiously. Unless we can have the Pi/re- nean millennium, in which wolves and sheep, it seems, live together in ivor- shipful society, I know not a speedy remedy. I lay not long ago at the foot of the South Mountain, in York county [Pennsylvania], in a country very thickly settled, at the house of a justice of the peace. Through the night I was kept awake by what I conceived to be a jubilee of dogs assem- bled to bay at the moon ; but I was told, in the morning, that what dis- turbed me was only the common howling of the wolves, which nobody there ever regarded*. When I entered the hall of justice, I found the squire giving judgment for the reward on two wolf-whelps a countryman had taken. The judgment-seat was shaken by the intelligence that the she- wolf was coming — not to give hail, but to devote herself or rescue her offspring. The animal was punished for this daring contempt committed m the face of the court, and was shot within a hundred yards of the tri- bunal." Further on, Mr. Peters suggests that it would be well to " send for some Pyreuean wolves to train our mountaineers \i. e., their American brethren] to a little more civility." Such was the condition of American agriculture at the close of the eight- eenth century. It was, as Mr. Peters frankly confessed, not so much " in- debted to art as to nature" for such success as was achieved. It was the strongest possible recommendation of free institutions that a method of culture, with the employment of which "European farmers would starve," enabled Americans to " live well and leave their descendants the comforts and conveniencies of life." Still this state of affairs could not last for ever. All the land in the Atlantic States was not equal to Mr. Jefferson's "Ja- maica River low grounds." Mr. Peters says : " Many who have large fam- ilies and want room, or are tired of their old farms, think it better to sell and remove to places where Natui'e is in her prime, leaving to their suc- cessors the toil, calculation and expense of renovating lands exhausted by bad tillage," This is still done at the present day in the West, but even CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE, 561 Mr, Peters could see that there was a limit to this method of "putting off the evil day." He says: "One day this will have an end, but that day is far distant. When it arrives the proprietors of old lands will adopt better systems of agricidture which are noiv fast advancing. These will add to the products of their lands and will procure them more wealth, but possibly not more happiness, in our more ancient settlements. Oar old lands are capable of renovation, having a good staple, as has been proved in number- less instances." He had correctly discerned the signs of the times when he noted the advance of "better systems" of culture. Nine years before he wrote the South Carolina Agricultural Society was founded (1784). Between the date just given and the end of the century were founded the "Philadelphia Society for the Improvement of Agriculture" (1785), the New York Society (incorporated 1793) and the " Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture" (incorporated 1792), which soon after began the publication of the Agricultural Repository. In 1796 Mr. Jefferson, in a letter to Jonathan Williams (July 3), mentions an improvement which he had made in the shape of the plough, saying : " It is in the form of a mould-board of least resistance. I had some years ago conceived the prin- ciples of it, and I explained them to Mr. Rittenhouse. I have since re- duced them to practice, and have reason to believe the theory fully con- firmed." Two years later he composed a treatise upon this subject, with drawings of his invention, and his continued interest in this matter is shown by the following extract from a letter written in 1808 to M. Syl- vestre, of the Agricultural Society of the Seine (called forth by the arrival of a plough from England, addressed to President Jefferson, but without letter or explanation) : " I presume it is the one sent by the Society of the Seine, that it has been carried into England under their orders of council and permitted to come on from thence. This I shall know within a short time. I shall with great pleasure attend to the construction and transmis- sion to the Society of a plough with my mould-board. This is the only part of that useful instrument to which I have paid any particular atten- tion." Presidents Madison and jNIonroe were equally interested in agricul- ture. Of the former Sir John Sinclair says : " Mr. Madison transmitted to me a very able communication on agriculture, fully proving both his knowledge of that art and the ability with which he could explain his sen- timents regarding it." "The Columbian Agricultural Society for the Promotion of Rural and Domestic Economy" was, according to Flint, "the first national society established with this specific object in view. It was organized at a convention held in Georgetown, D. C, Nov. 28, 1809, and in the following year (May 10, 1810), this society held the first agri- cultural exhibition in the United States, at Georgetown, offering large pre- miums for the encouragement of sheep-raising and for progress in other important branches. The first county society was the Kennebec Agricul- 36 562 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES tural Society, incorporated in 1801 within the present limits of Maine, which then, as "the District of Maine," formed a part of Massachusetts. Ainerieaii Agriculture iu the Nineteenth Century. — The rapid increase of population in the older States, and the necessity of going to a greater distance to find new land to replace that which had been worn out by bad tillage, made improved methods of culture necessary much earlier than had been auticijiated by Mr. Peters. In 1829 it was said that " men of talents, wealth and enterprise have distinguished themselves by their laborious and liberal efforts for the improvement of American hus- bandry. Merino sheep have been imported and are now common in the United States. The most celebrated breeds of British cattle have also been imported, and there prevails a general disposition among men of intelli- gence and high standing in the community to promote the prosperity of American agriculture." It was claimed that modern science had already introduced the following improvements : "1. A correct knowledge of the nature and value of manures, mineral, animal and vegetable, and the method of using the last two species while fresh, before the sun, air, and rain or other moisture has robbed them of their most valuable properties. It was formerly the practice to place barn-yard manure in layers and masses for the purpose of rotting, and to turn it over frequently with a plough or spade till the whole had become destitute of almost all its original fertil- izing substances and deteriorated in quality almost as much as it was re- duced in quantity. 2. The introduction of root husbandry, or the raising of potatoes, turnips, mangel-wurzel, etc., extensively by field-husbandry, for feeding cattle, by which a given quantity of land may be made to pro- duce much more nutritive matter than if it were occupied by grain or grass crops, and the health as well as the thriving of the animals in the winter season is greatly promoted. 3. Laying down lands to grass, either for pasture or mowing, with a greater variety of grasses and with kinds adapted to a greater variety of soils. 4. The substitution of fallow crops (or such crops as require cultivation and stirring of the ground while the plants are growing) in the place of naked fiillows, iu which the land is allowed to remain without yielding any profitable product, in order to renew its fertility." It is acknowledged, however, that, while " fields may be so foul with weeds as to require a fallow," this operation was not so well car- ried out on this side of the Atlantic as in Great Britain. "In England, when a farmer is compelled to fallow a field, he lets the weeds grow into blossom and then turns them down. In America, a fallow means a field where the produce is a crop of weeds running to seed instead of a crop of grain." It must be admitted that the doctrines upon which were based the enumerated improvements were by no means generally accepted. They were too "advanced" for the majority of farmers. The patronage of suc- cessive Presidents, the efforts of progressive citizens, the emulation excited CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 563 by agricultural fairs, were very gradual iu their workiugs upon the general run of American agriculturists. In some places manure was so little val- ued that it was often sold "at and under" twenty-five cents a ton. An observer could still say, with truth, "The question which the American settler always puts to himself is whether it will be more expedient for him, in point of expense, to remove to a new soil covered with vegetable mould or to remain on his cleared land and to support its fertility by regular ma- nuring and a systematic rotation of crops." There had, however, been a marked improvement in agricultural implements, which were made in this country as cheaply as iu England, " the lower price of wood making up for the higher price of labor, especially as the carpenters are very expert." The clumsy wooden plough had been superseded by "ploughs of the im- proved kind with cast-iron mould-boards," and the ploughmen had become so expert that at the various agricultural fairs a contest of skill in plough- ing: formed one of the most interesting features of the entertainment. The establishment of agricultural periodicals gave a decided impetus to the progress of improvement in this branch. The American Farmer, estab- lished in 1819, the New England Farmer (1822), the Genesee Farmer, the American Agriculturist and a host of other periodicals of a similar nature did yeoman service in the dissemination of information, and to their pow- erful assistance may be ascribed a great portion of the success achieved in the introduction of better methods of culture and in the invention and manufacture of improved implements. That influence has been, of course, more marked iu the older States, where it is most needed. In New Eng- land, for instance, where thirty-five bushels of corn to the acre was once an unusually large yield, that amount has become the general average, and "crops of 50 or 60 bushels per acre are not uncommon, while 80 and 100 are sometimes obtained by careful tillage." The importance of improved methods of culture to the wealth and welfare of the nation made it neces- sary for the government to take some action to meet the growing demand for information. On the 3d of March, 1839, the sum of $1000 was appro- priated from the patent fund for the collection of agricultural statistics. These statistics were to be included by the Commissioner of Patents in his annual report, and by 1843 they already occupied more than 200 pages of this document, of which 15,000 copies were printed and distributed. In 1847 they filled more than 400 pages of the report, and in 1849 they began to be published in a separate volume, though still a portion of the Patent Office Beport. A "Department of Agriculture" was established by act of Congress in 1862 (May 15th), to be under the charge of a "Commissioner of Agriculture," with power to employ, "as Congress may from time to time provide, for such time as their services may be needed, chemists, botanists, entomologists and other persons skilled in the natural sciences pertaining to agriculture," It is the duty of the commissioner ' 564 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES "to acquire and preserve in his department all information concerning agriculture which he can obtain by means of books and correspondence and by practical and scientific experiments (accurate records of which ex- periments shall be kept in his office), by the collection of statistics and by any other appropriate means within his power; to collect, as he may be able, new and valuable seeds and plants; to test, by cultivation, the value of such as may require such tests ; to propagate such as may be worthy of propagation, and to distribute them among agriculturists." Of the first Report issued by this department (the one for 1862), 120,000 copies were ordered to be printed. The first appropriation, made in 1839 ($1000), has been somewhat exceeded in more recent times. The appropriation for the expenses of the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1873, was $202,440; and for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, it was $257,730, exclusive of $20,000 for printing, making the whole amount $277,730. The second item mentioned was employed, of course, in print- ing the Report for 1873. The first was, doubtless, judiciously expended for the purposes mentioned in the act creating the department; but after a year of untiring efforts on the part of the zealous and faithful head of the department — efforts ably seconded by his assistants — to carry out the design of said act, he is forced to reply to the applicant for the printed Report of these labors as follows : "Department of Agriculture, Washington, July 22d, 1875. "Sir: Congress at its last session made no provision for the printing or general distribution of the Annual Report of this Department for the year 1874. The Senate ordered 1200 copies for its own use. The volume is therefore in print, but it will require the action of Congress to authorize its distribution by the Department." Such is the announcement which, printed upon a postal-card, brings to the notice of the thousands who anxiously look for this report an instance of legislative economy and retrenchment whereby a saving (?) w^as effected of $20,000, the amount of the aggregate increase of the pay of eight Con- gressmen by the " Salary Grab Act." A statement of the crops of wheat, rye, barley, oats and maize, or "corn" (a term which in Europe comprehends all the cereal grains, except in Scot- land, where it is restricted to oats, while in this country it is confined to Indian corn), in various years, will be found elsewhere [see Appendix, Table V.]. The great crop of the United States is maize. The Statis- tician of the Department of Agriculture gives some remarkable proofs of this assertion in his Report for 1873. He says: "The supplies for man and beast are principally found in corn, hay, wheat, oats, potatoes, barley, rye and buckwheat, named in the order of their aggregate money value. Should grass be included with hay, it would, of course, occupy the first CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 565 place. Of these, corn, hay and oats are mainly used in feeding domestic animals ; wheat, potatoes, rye, barley and buckwheat are mainly consumed by man. Yet taking only corn and hay, in comparison with these six other food-products, the values for the past five years [1869-1873, inclusive] may be thus expressed in the original estimates of value made by this De- partment: Corn, $2,620,979,940 [annual average, $524,195,988]; hay, $1,714,213,880 [annual average, $342,842,775]; six food-products [oats, wheat, potatoes, rye, barley and buckwheat], $2,553,007,440 [annual aver- age, $510,601,488]. The value of corn has therefore been $13,594,500 per annum more than the combined values of the six other crops named, and that of the cured grass more than two-thirds as much as the aggregate of the six crops. In response to the inquiry as to the comparative value per acre, it is easy to show the superiority of corn, notwithstanding the reduction in price, by the immense quantity produced. The assumed aggregate of the corn acre- age of five years is 184,565,343 acres [average annual acreage, 36,911,068], yielding in corn alone $14.21 per acre; the aggregate for the [hay and the] six crops, 345,166,063 acres [average annual acreage, 69,030,212], yielding $13.99 per acre.* In 1869 the value of the yield per acre was $17.74 for corn against $12.76 for wheat, when the latter crop was the largest ever known." Another and somewhat peculiar test of the value of this crop was recently applied by the Statistician. Eleven counties were taken in Illinois in which nearly three times as much wheat was produced as in eleven other counties, which in turn produced more than three times as much corn as was raised in the eleven counties first taken. The first eleven can therefore be designated as the "wheat counties," while with equal pro- priety the term "corn counties" can be applied to the second eleven. The assessed valuations of lands (including all improvements) in these respect- ive groups were then consulted, and it was discovered that the average value per acre in the wheat counties was $6.43, while that in the corn counties was $7.89, or 22 per cent, greater. The Statistician says : " It is * We have given these last figures just as they stand, though, as there is an obvious eiTor, they require a word of exphmation. The portions enclosed in brackets are, of course, our own. In the first place, the return for the "six crops" ($2,553,007,440) will certainly not give an average yield of $13.99 per acre. If the return for the hay crop be added, the condition will be improved (the combined value being $4,267,221,- 320), but the yield per acre is still only $12.71, and not $13.99. The proper aggre- gate acreage to afford this average yield, witii the value of the hay crop and the six crops combined, is 305,010,088. The proper aggregate acreage to yield an average of $13.99 with the value of the six food-products ($2,553,007,440) taken alone is 183,228,194. It is impossible to say, without tracing out each separate item tiirough the whole five years, where the difficulty lies. It is probably one of those typograph- ical errors or editorial oversights which are likely to occur in the best-regulated offices, or even in the work (usually remarkably accurate) of the Statistician of the Depart- ment of Agriculture.— Ed. U. S. Gazetteer and Guide. 566 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES true that these values are not the cash values, the assessment being lower for purposes of taxation, yet the true proportion between the two is not neces- sarily altered by this fact." Still, "to silence cavil as well as to accumu- late evidence," the census returns of the farm lands were appealed to, and it was ascertained that the average value of farm land in the wheat coun- ties was $35.63, while in the corn counties it was $41.70, a difference of 17 per cent, in favor of the corn district. The proportion is nearly the same and the results are much more conclusive, for the State valuation first used included all taxable lands, whether in farms or not, thus introducing into the calculation a distui-bing element, while the census return included only farm lands. The Statistician defends his position with great vigor. "An Illinoisan whose views are entitled to respect" suggested to him that per- haps the corn area had the larger proportion of timber, a circumstance which would render the valuation higher. The attorney for the plaintiff in the case of Corn vs. Wheat consulted the record, and triumphantly established the fact that the corn counties ''have only 391,037 acres in woodland of the 4,546,365 acres in farms, or 8.6 per cent., while the wood- land of the wheat counties amounts to 908,756 acres in a total of 3,185,769, or 28.8 per cent. So this advantage enures to the benefit of wheat, and requires additional profits of corn-growing to offset it in the valuation tables." The sj)ecial j^oint upon which his argument rests is worthy of consideration — viz., that corn, "being fed largely on the fixrm, is in a mea- sure restorative, while wheat, being carried away from the farm, without any return worth considering [in the shape of fertilizers], is an exhaustive crop. These two diametrically opposite practices must produce opposite results upon the soils, one making the rich richer, the other rendering the poor poorer. As might be expected, the complaint is constant that the wheat average grows less and less ; and the fiict is that it is only kept from heavy depreciation by a gradual removal of wheat culture westward and freshlandward, as the wheat farmers 'fold their tents' after the manner of the Arab and as 'silently steal away' to green prairies undisturbed by the plough." His final deduction is, "not that wheat culture is unprofitable, and should be everywhere abandoned, but that feeding crops upon the farms, which cannot be done in exclusive wheat culture, is the only safe and ultimately profitable system to pursue, and a golden rule of agricul- ture." Sir Morton Peto was much impressed with the quantity and the value of the maize crop of this country. In his Besources and Prospects of America he says : " I confess to some surj)rise that this product does not enter more largely into consumption in Great Britain and Ireland. Much of the comparatively small quantity imported is worked up by parties who sell it as farinaceous food for children, for pastry-making, etc. In this form Indian corn is a comparatively costly article. It is in the cheaper forms in which it is used throughout America that it seems to me it might be CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 567 much more generally introduced into consumption here." As he is writing in Great Britain, he gives some information which is more specific : " There are various ways of dressing Indian corn. Boiled, in its green state, it is a most delicious vegetable. There is no reason why it should not be intro- duced into this country. It is cheap enough in America, and it bears the voyage here. I have it frequently at ray own table, where it is much ap- proved." He elsewhere expresses great regret at the use of corn as fuel in Iowa, where, the corn crop of a certain year being very large, so that ears of corn sold for ten cents per bushel, "a cord of corn," containing seventy bushels, cost only seven dollars, yet furnished more heat than a cord of wood, which cost, after sawing, nine dollars and fifty cents. The leading States in the production of maize in 1873 (total crop, 932,274,000 bushels) were Illinois (15.40 per cent., or 143,634,000 bushels), Iowa ai.28 per cent., or 105,200,000 bushels) and Ohio (9.48 per cent., or 88,422,000 bushels), making for these three States 36.36 per cent., or more than one-third of the entire crop. We give some figures compiled from the Reports on Commerce and Navigation for various years, to show the increase in the exports of maize. In the year ending June 30,* 1866, the total exports of maize were 13,516,615 bushels; to Great Britain, 9,889,232 bushels (England, 7,292,411; Scotland, 708,813; Ireland, 1,888,008). In 1866-7, total exports of maize, 14,889,823 bushels; to Great Britain, 12,197,064 bushels (England, 8,161,346; Scotland, 1,014,- 064; Ireland, 3,021,654). In 1867-8, total exports of maize, 11,147,490 bushels; to Great Britain, 8,707,998 bushels (England, 5,391,053; Scot- land, 1,243,639; Ireland, 2,073,296). Passing over a few years, we come to 1872-3, for which the figures are as follows: Total exports of maize, 38,541,930 bushels; to Great Britain, 29,334,759 bushels (England, 11,666,867; Scotland, 1,457,501 ; Ireland, 16,210,391). In 1873-4, total exports of maize, 34,434,606 'bushels ; to Great Britain, 26,299,320 bush- els (England, 10,299,483; Scotland, 2,335,026; Ireland, 13,764,813). Though there is a decrease in this last year, it is not proportionately so great as the decrease in the crop of 1873, which was the one out of which the exports of the fiscal year 1873-4 came. The reader will see, by con- sulting the table [see Table V. in Appendix], that tlie year 1872 was an exceptionally good year for corn, the crop almost equalling the maximum crop (that of 1870). The next crop in value among the breadstuflfs is * As the fiscal year ends with June 30, in mentioning tlie exports or imports of any year since 1843 it is generally understood that the /sea? year ending on June 30 of that year is meant. The Report on Commerce and Navigation for 1874, for instance, gives statistics up to June 30, 1874, and the exports for 1874 are generally understood to mean those of the year which began July 1, 1873. To avoid all ambiguity, however^ we shall term such a year 1873-4, as it contains just one half of each year indicated by tliis form. 568 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES wheat. The rate of increase iu the crop may be gathered from the table to which we have just referred. The exports for several years of wheat and flour are as follows: In 1865-6, total exports of wheat, 5,579,103 bushels (value, $7,842,749); wheat flour, 2,183,050 barrels (value, $18,396,686); total value, $26,239,435; to Great Britain, wheat, 1,970,- 716 bushels (England, 1,700,902; Scotland, 157,758; Ireland, 112,056); wheat flour, 136,020 barrels (England, 120,347; Scotland, 10,495; Ire- land, 5178). In 1866-7, total exports of wheat, 6,146,411 bushels (value, $7,822,555); wheat flour, 1,300,306 barrels (value, $12,803,775); total value, $20,626,330; to Great Britain, wheat, 4,685,615 bushels (England, 4,652,389; Scotland, 33,226); wheat flour, 116,299 barrels (England, 109,037; Scotland, 6873; Ireland, 389). In 1867-8, total exports of wheat, 15,940,899 bushels (value, $30,247,632); wheat flour, 2,076,423 barrels (value, $20,887,798) ; total value, $51,135,130; to Great Britain, wheat, 12,368,446 bushels (England, 10,747,798; Scotland, 894,110; Ire- land, 726,538); wheat flour, 484,706 barrels (England, 416,483 ; Scotland, 55,711 ; Ireland, 12,512). Passing over a few years, we have for 1872-3 the following figures, which show a marked increase : Total exports of wheat, 39,204,285 bushels (value, $51,452,254); wheat flour, 2,562,086 barrels (value, $19,381,664) ; total value, $69,833,918; to Great Britain, wheat, 30,790,876 bushels (England, 25,872,665; Scotland, 2,133,341; Ireland, 3,784,870) ; wheat flour, 531,801 barrels (England, 390,227; Scot- land, 131,321; Ireland, 10,253). The figures for 1873-4 are still more encouraging, being as follows : Total exports of wheat, 71,039,928 bushels (value, $101,421,459) ; wheat flour, 4,094,094 barrels (value, $29,258,094) ; total value, $130,679,153; to Great Britain, wheat, 50,833,278 bushels (England, 30,319,711; Scotland, 3,903,630; Ireland, 17,609,937); wheat flour, 1,703,984 barrels (England, 1,307,286; Scotland, 353,495; Ireland, 43,203). An examination of these figures will show that Ireland, which at first took but a small proportion of the Indian corn, came to the front in 1872-3, taking nearly half of the whole amount exported, more than half of the portion which went to Great Britain, and a larger quantity than the whole amount exported in any fiscal year between June 30, 1865, and June 30, 1868, and we might add, more than double the whole quan- tity of maize exported from the United States during the year 1868-9, when the amount was unusually small (7,047,197 bushels). In wheat also Ireland makes a remarkable leap, taking in 1865-6 but little more than five per cent, of the quantity going to Great Britain ; in 1866-7 none at all, according to the official report, while in 1872-3 more than 11 per cent, of the exports of wheat to Great Britain went to Ireland; and in 1873-4 she took more than 34 per cent, of the large amount which went to Great Britain, more than three times the total export of wheat from the United States iu 1865-6, more than 2a times the same export in 1866-7, nearly CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 569 two million bushels more tliau the same total iu 1867-8, and more than the same total in 1868-9, when it had risen to 17,557,836 bushels. The remaining crops of breadstuffs are sufficiently set forth in the table; that of oats is large, but is almost entirely consumed at home, the amount ex- ported being insignificant (481,871 bushels in 1868-9, nearly balanced by an import of 326,359 bushels; 714,072 bushels in 1872-3, with an import of 225,555 bushels; 812,873 bushels in 1873-4, with an import of 191,802 bushels). The demand for barley for malting purposes has greatly in- creased the amount raised, as is seen by the table. The increase has not yet come up to the demand, judging by the fact that the imports are heavy while the exports are nominal, the following being some of the figures: 1868-9, imports of barley, 5,069,880 bushels; exports, 59,077 bushels; 1872-3, imports, 4,244,751 bushels; exports, 482,410 bushels; 1873-4, imports, 4,891,189 bushels; exports, 320,399 bushels. The crop of rye shows in later years a decided falling off from the figures of 1867, 1868 and 1869. The exports for 1868-9 were 49,501 bushels; imports, 199,543 bushels; in 1872-3, exports 562,021 bushels; imports, 214,102 bushels; in 1873-4, exports, 1,564,484 bushels ; imports, 164,153 bushels. It ap- pears, from this decided increase in the exportation of a crop which had fallen off about one-third in the course of four years, that the demand for "schwarzbrod" has not kept pace with the increase in population. There is another crop, not a breadstufi', which stands in the front rank among the agricultural productions of the United States ; we allude to cotton, statis- tics of which will be found elsewhere [see Table VI. in Appendix]. It is, as Professor McCay says, "of prime necessity, and in large demand abroad, because it furnishes the cheapest material for clothing and for other purposes of civilized life, and it is produced here under such favorable cir- cumstances that we can supply this demand at a fair profit to ourselves." Though the " favorable circumstances " specially intended by Professor McCay no longer exist (he wrote in 1850), there are advantages enough of soil and climate to make the southern portion of the United States the greatest cotton-producing country in the world, when quality is considered as well as quantity. The attempt by Great Britain to substitute India to some extent for America as her cotton-field served only to show the vast superiority of the product of this country. Although it is not a native of the United States, it thrives here better than in its fatherland. Cotton- seed brought here from India, where it is a native, will produce a better cotton than in that country, and the product will be continually tending to a longer and better staple. New Orleans cotton-seed planted in India will produce, the first year, cotton nearly equal to its original, but every year of reproduction from the same seed will show more and more deterioration, until the yield is no better than the native India cotton. The best quality of American cotton is the sea-island cotton, the small crop of which is 570 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES mentioned in a note appended to the table. This is so precious that it is reserved for the finest yarns, for the most delicate fabrics and for a mixture with silk which is exceedingly difficult to detect. The great bulk of the crop of the United States consists of "upland," or "short staple." The value of the cotton (exclusive of sea-island cotton) exported from the United States during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1874, was $209,109,- 106. This would make the whole crop worth more than $300,000,000. The average production per acre in 1872 was about half a bale, or 22H pounds, per acre, worth about $44.30. There is a constant tendency toward over-production, which is thus rebuked by the Statistician in the Report on Agriculture for 1873 : " Every intelligent publicist knows that a fixed quan- tity — say $300,000,000 — may be derived from cotton. If the average quantity is increased, the price diminishes, and vice versa. If fluctuations are frequent, the speculator or manufacturer, and not the producer, derives an advantage. If you choose to produce five million bales, you obtain 10 cents per pound, and lose money ; if you grow but three, you get 20 cents, and obtain a profit. Now, it is better for the world, and, in a series of years, better for the grower, to produce regularly enough to supply the current wants of the trade at a medium and remunerative price, or as near a reg- ular supply as possible, for the vicissitudes of the season will inevitably cause injurious fluctuations despite the highest efforts of human wisdom and foresight. As the uses of cotton increase and markets are extended throughout the world, its manufacture will be enlarged and its culture should obtain corresponding enlargement. To overstep the current demand and glut the market may be pleasing to the speculator and to the manu- facturer, so far as he combines speculation with weaving, but it is death to the grower." It is stated in the Annual Cyclopcedia for 1874 that the cost of manufacturing varies from 4j mills to 6 J mills per number per pound* in different mills, according to their organization, condition and manage- ment. Few factories reach the rate of 42" mills, which is extremely low, while 62 mills is an extravagantly high cost. The mean or average is esti- mated to be 5i or 5j mills per number. Including the cost of cotton and 2 per cent, for selling, the cost of printing-cloth is 5.02 cents per yard ; light sheeting, 7.41; standard sheeting, 8.94. The number of spindles in use in the United States on the 1st of July, 1874, was 9,415,383, against 7,132,- * Cotton yarn is numbered according to size, the number increasing as tlie yarn becomes finer. The finer tl>e yarn produced, the greater the quantity in a pound, and, it might be added, the greater the skill and care required in its production. The average size or number of yarn produced in the United States in 18G9 was 27} — 28 in the North and 12|^ in the South. Applying the rule, and taking number 14 for an example, the cost of manufacturing a pound of this number would be in mills from 14 X 4} to 14 X 62 — i.e., from 6.3 cents to 9.1 cents. The statistics which follow are here given because they reached us too late for incorporation with the article on American Manufactures. — Er>. U. S. Gazetteer and Guide. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 571 415 in 1870, though the number of the mills had decreased from 956 to 847 ; number of looms, 186,975 (in 1870, 157,310). This shows very rapid progress since 1870, being an increase in the number of spindles of 32.05 per cent, over the census figures of 1870. The kinds and quantities of cotton goods produced during the year ending July 1, 1874, were as follows: Threads, yarns and twines, 149,000,000 pounds; sheetings, shirtings and similar plain goods, 707,000,000 yards; twilled and fancy goods, osnaburgs, jeans, etc., 306,000,000 yards; printed ' cloths, 588,000,000 yards; ging- hams, 33,000,000 yards; ducks, 30,000 yards; and besides these there was a production of 6,000,000 bags, more than double the quantity (2,767,060) reported by the census of 1870. Statistics for previous periods will be found elsewhere [see American Manufactures]. Another very import- ant crop, one which, in one shape or another, is dear to almost every Amer- ican heart, is the tobacco crop. There is great variation in the size of this crop. In 1840 it was 219,163,319 pounds; in 1850, 199,752,655 pounds; in 1860, 434,209,461 pounds; in 1870, 262,735,341 pounds; in 1873 (ac- cording to the Report on Agriculture), 372,810,000 pounds; in 1874 (as reported by the Annual Cyclopcedia), 200,000,000 pounds. The exports of tobacco for various years have beeu as follows : 1865, 7,294,165 pounds (value, $3,439,979); 1866, leaf, 190,826,248 pounds (value, $29,456,145); manufoctured, 6,515,709 pounds (value, 81,794,689); 1867, leaf, 184,803,- 065 pounds (value, $19,620,159); manuflxctured, 9,601,142 pounds (value, $2,795,008); 1867, leaf, 206,020,504 pounds (value, $22,898,823); manu- factured, 10,470,024 pounds (value, $3,100,084) ; 1869, leaf, 181,527,630 pounds (value, $20,552,943); manufactured (value only being given), $2,759,005; 1873, leaf, 213,995,176 pounds (value, $22,689,135); manu- factured (value), $2,627,585; 1874, leaf, 318,097,804 pounds (value, $30,399,181); manufactured (value), $2,537,782. The leading States, according to the returns of 1873, were Kentucky (152,000,000 pounds), Virginia (50,000,000 pounds) and Ohio (32,500,000 pounds), making for these three States 234,500,000 pounds, being more than two-thirds of the crop of that year, and a larger quantity than the whole crop of 1874. The fluctuations in the size of this crop arise from the great care required in its culture, the cultivator being in danger of losing his crop for what would, with other products, be but a small negligence. The seed must be mixed with plaster or sifted ashes, in the proportion of a gill of the former to a quart of the latter. The greatest care is required to prevent the growth of weeds, and every week, after the plants are up, it is recommended to scatter over them a compost of ashes, plaster, soot, salt and pulverized sulphur, to invigorate them and to protect them from the ravages of the fly. They must be transplanted, gone over with the "tobacco cultivator," decapitated (the tops are cut down to the leaves that are six inches long) as soon as the blossoms are fairly formed (with the exce])tion of those that 572 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES are reserved for seed), aud it is necessary to go over the whole field every moruiag aud evening, examining each plant as far as is practicable, in order to kill such worms as are found, or to break their eggs, which have been judiciously deposited where the offspring will have a sufficiency of ■palatable food, if the benevolent design of the parent is not frustrated. The preparation of the crop for the market is also an operation, or rather a series of operations, requiring great care and skill, a lack of which dur- ing several of the stages may be productive of very injurious effects. There are two other crops, food crops, which we omitted to mention in their proper places, but which should not be passed entirely over; we allude to potatoes and rice. The potato crop amounted, in 1850, to 65,797,896 bushels; in 1860, to 111,148,867 bushels of "Irish," and 42,095,026 of sweet potatoes, and in 1870, to 143,337,473 bushels of Irish and 21,709,- 824 of sweet potatoes. For the years 1873 aud '74 the crop of Irish pota- toes was about 106,000,000 bushels, while that of sweet potatoes was 48,- 000,000 bushels in 1873 and 46,000,000 in 1874. The leading States in the production of potatoes in 1873 were New York (24,925,000 bushels), Pennsylvania (lt>,602,000), Michigan (6,910,000) and Ohio (6,045,000), making the total yield for these four States 48,482,000 bushels, or nearly half of the total crop. The crop of rice was, in 1840, 80,841,422 pounds (South Carolina, 60,590,861 pounds) ; in 1850, 215,313,497 pounds (South Carolina, 159,930,613 pounds); in 1860, 187,167,032 pounds (South Caro- lina, 119,100,528 pounds); and in 1870, 73,635,021 pounds (South Caro- lina, 32,304,825 pounds. It will be noticed that in the first two years cited South Carolina produced more than three-fourths, and in the third year mentioned more than two-thirds, of the total yield. The culture of the vine has made great progress, especially in California, where the grape crop is estimated to be worth more than $10,000,000 per annum, and the capabilities of three counties alone (Los Angeles, San Bernardino and San Diego) have been ascertained to be equal to the yearly production of 100,000,000 gallons of wine, if pressed to their fullest extent. The total product of wine in the whole country, in 1850, was 221,249 gallons (Cali- fornia, 58,055); in 1860, 1,627,192 gallons (California, 246,518); in 1870, 3,092,330 gallons (California, 1,814,656). Decided progress has been recently made in the breeding of live-stock, especially during the past twenty years. In 1840 the number of horses and mules w'as 4,335,669. In 1850 the horses numbered 4,336,719 — a thou- sand more than the combined total just given — and the "nmles and asses" 559,331. In 1860 the figures were: Horses, 6,249,174 (increase in ten years, 67.02 per cent.); mules and asses, 1,151,148 (increase, 105.81 per cent.); in 1870, horses, 7,145,370 (increase in ten years, 11.11 per cent.); mules and asses, 1,125,415 (decrease, 2.24 per cent.) ; in 1874, horses, 9,333,800 (increase in three years, 30.63 per cent.); mules, 1,339,350 (in- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 573 crease in three years, 19.01 per cent.). The value of the horses reported in 1873 was $666,927,406 (average price, S71.45), and of the mules, $119,- 501,859 (average price, $89.22). Previous to 1860 the horses in cities and towns were not included in the estimates. The present number of horses is about one to every five inhabitants. The horses of the United States have advanced not only in number, but in quality. The "Morgan" and " Black Hawk " families have preserved, and in many cases improved upon, the good qualities of their sires, that of the former (Justin Mor- gan) having been foaled in West Springfield, Mass., in 1793, and the progenitor of the latter in Vermont in 1833, to which State, indeed, the former had been brought in 1795. The extraordinary reproductive fac- ulty of " Justin Morgan " was transmitted to his sons, apd every succeed- ing foal, without regard to blood intermixture even of strong types, was distinctively a Morgan. "Nor," says Murray, in The Perfect Horse, "did this power die out in one or two generations, but continued on like a stream having a constant source, and might have been prolonged doubtless unto this day." He complains, however, that "the State which had been en- riched and made famous by this animal and his descenclants committed financial suicide by allowing the family to be scattered and the family type itself to be brought away from it. Not alone Vermont, but the entire country were losers when the Morgan family ceased to have ' a local hab- itation,' although it could never cease to have 'a name.'" Among the thoroughbreds are not a few of the descendants of the famous Eclipse, of whom honest John Lawrence said that " he puffed and blowed like an otter and galloped as wide as a barn-door." Professor Low, in his Domes- ticated Animals of Great Britain, says: "The inhabitants of the United States have a very mixed race of horses, some of which are excellent. It is the character of this people to carry ardor and boldness into every fiivored pursuit, and the improvement of their horses at this time [he wrote in 1858] occupies much of their attention. The nature of their country leads them to cultivate useful horses for the road and for their innumerable public and private carriages. They prefer the trot to the paces more admired in the Old Continent; and having directed attention to the conformation which consists with this character, the fastest trotting-horses in the world are to be found in the United States." The improvement in the speed of trot- ting-horses during the past thirty years has been remarkable. " Two-forty " was once the proverbial expression for a fast gait, but at the present day the attainment of this rate of speed would not entitle a horse to a very high rank among racers, and the performances of Flora Temple, of Dex- ter and, more recently, of Goldsmith Maid, have sent down the minimum time to a point scarcely dreamed of a quarter of a century ago. At a recent meeting of the Cleveland Club only two of the forty-four heats were slower than 2.20, and one heat was trotted in 2.18. American Girl has 574 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES trotted a mile in 2.17f , and Lulu in 2.15. Goldsmith Maid's record is 2.14, and a large number of horses have beaten 2.20. The Conestoga horse, as a beast of burden, is a very highly-prized animal, combining great strength with lightness and agility. It has been well remarked that "although 'Young America' is said now to require a swifter horse, it is believed that there is no surer, safer or more lasting one." Mules and asses are largely bred in the Southern and Pacific States as substitutes for horses. It is said that "the mule is hardier than the horse, subject to fewer dis- eases, more patient, better adapted for travelling over rugged and trackless surfaces, less fastidious as to food, requires less grooming and attention and usually lives and works to double the age of the horse." There are so few in New England, the number reported from that section in the census of 1870 being only'358 (only 1 in Rhode Island), that they do not enter into the report from those States for 1873. Milch cows were first returned sep- arately in the census of 1850, when the number was 6,385,094; working- oxen, 1,700,744; other cattle (beeves, etc.), 9,693,069; in 1860, milch cows, 8,585,735; working-oxen, 2,254,911; other cattle, 14,779,373; in 1870, milch cows, 8,935,332; working-oxen, 1,319,201; other cattle, 13,- 566,005; in 1874, milch cows, 10,705,300; average price, $27.99; total value, $299,609,309; oxen and other cattle, 16,218,100; average price, $19.15; total value, $310,643,803. The decrease in the number of work- ing-oxen is attributable to the fact that as districts become more densely peopled, and consequently. more civilized and more wealthy, horses largely supersede oxen in agricultural and other operations. The whole increase between 1850 and 1860 was only 32 per cent, in the whole country, and in the Eastern and Middle States there was a decrease. The use of im- proved agricultural implements diminishes the force required from work- ing-oxen, and consequently diminishes also their use as such implements come to be introduced. During the epizooty which prevailed in 1872, how- ever, oxen w^ere at a premium, and many a man who had long been absent from the paternal farm was glad to recall the once familiar "whoa, haw" and "whoa, gee" of his boyhood, and to drop, in some cases, the pen for the ox-goad when the lack of facilities for transportation threatened a stag- nation of business. The leading States, in 1873, in the number of horses were Illinois (1,059,800), Ohio (738,600), Texas (699,100), New York (659,300), Indiana (649,500), Iowa (647,000) and Pennsylvania (557,000), making for these seven States 5,007,700 (53.65 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total number. The leading States in the number of milch cows were New York (1,410,600), Pennsylvania (812,600), Ohio (778,500), Illinois (725,100), Iowa (569,500) and Texas (526,500), making for these six States 4,822,800 (45.50 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the total number. The increase in the numbers of sheep and of swine during the past thirty years has been very slight, compared with that of other live- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 575 stock, the last census showing a decrease in the number of swine from the figures of 1860. The number of sheep in the United States in 1840 was 19,311,374; leading States, New York (5,118,777), Ohio (2,028,401), Penn- sylvania (1,767,620), Vermont (1,681,819), Virginia (1,293,772), Kentucky (1,008,240), making for these six States 11,890,391 (61.57 per cent.), or more than three-fifths of the whole number. The number of swine in the same year was 26,301,293; leading States, Tennessee (2,920,607), Ken- tucky (2,310,533), Ohio (2,099,746), Vermont (1,992,155), New York (1,900,065) and Indiana (1,623,608), making for these seven States 12,852,- 514 (48.81 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the whole number. The num- ber of swine in the United States, in 1850, was 30,354,213 (increase in ten years, 15.41 per cent.); leading States, Tennessee (3,104,800), Kentucky (2,891,163), Indiana (2,263,776), Georgia (2,168,617), Ohio (1,964,770), Illinois (1,915,907) and Alabama (1,904,540), making for these seven States 16,213,573 (53.04 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total number. Number of sheep, 21,723,220 (increase in ten years, 13.00 per cent.); leading States, Ohio (3,942,929), New York (3,453,241), Pennsyl- vania (1,822,357), Virginia (1,310,004), Indiana (1,122^493) and Ken- tucky (1,102,091), making for these six States 12,753,115 (58.71 j^er cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the total number. Number of sheep in 1860, 22,471,275 (increase in ten years, 8.05 per cent.) ; leading States, Ohio (3,546,767), New York (2,617,855), Pennsylvania (1,631,540), Michigan (1,271,743), California (1,088,002) and Virginia (1,043,269), making for these six States 11,199,176 (49.80 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the total number. Number of swine in 1860, 33,512,867 (increase in ten years, 10.43 per cent.); leading States, Indiana (3,099,110), Illinois (2,502,308), Missouri (2,354,425), Tennessee (2,347,321), Kentucky (2,330,595), Ohio (2,251,653) and Georgia (2,036,116), making for these seven States 16,921,- 528 (50.49 per cent.), or more than one-half of the w'hole number. Num- ber of sheep in 1870, 28,477,951 (increase in ten years, 26.72 per cent.); leading States, Ohio (4,928,635), California (2,768,187), New York (2,181,- 578), Michigan (1,985,906 ), Pennsylvania (1,794,301), Indiana (1,612,680) and Illinois (1,568,286), making for these seven States 16,839,573 (59.10 per cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the whole number. Number of swine in 1870, 25,134,569 (decrease in ten years, 25 per cent.) ; leading States, Illinois (2,703,343), Missouri (2,306,430), Indiana (1,872,230), Kentucky (1,838,227), Tennessee (1,828,690) and Ohio (1,728,968), making for these six States 12,277,888 (48.85 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the whole number. Number of sheep in 1874, 33,938,200 (increase in four years 19.17 per cent.) ; leading States, California (4,683,200), Ohio (4,639,000), Michigan (3,486,300), New York (2,037,200), Iowa (1,732,600), Indiana (1,722,500) and Pennsylvania (1,674,000), making for these seven States 19,874,800 (58.89 per cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the whole number. 576 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Number of swiue iu 1874, 30,860,900 (increase iu four years 23.18 per cent); leading States, Iowa (3,693,700), Illinois (3,409,700), Missouri (2,603,300), Indiana (2,496,700), Ohio (2,017,400) and Kentucky (2,008,- 000), making for these six States 16,228,800 (52.65 per cent.), or more than one-half of the whole number. The value of all live-stock in the United States in 1850 was $544,180,516 ; in 1860, $1,089,329,915 (increase in ten years, 100.17 per cent.); in 1870, $1,525,276,457 (in- crease in ten years, 40.02 per cent.). The figures for 1875 for the leading domestic animals are as follows : Number of horses, 9,520,476 average price, $71.05; total value, $675,429,820; mules, 1,392,324; av erage price, $88.10; total value, $122,716,604; milch cows, 10,919,406 average price, $27.01; total value, $294,933,159; other cattle, 16,220, 000; average price, $19.00; total value, $308,180,000; sheep, 33,598,818 average price, $2.65; total value, $89,636,868; swine, 28,083,419; aver- age price, $4.30; total value, $120,758,702. The wool produced in 1850 amounted to 52,516,959 pounds; in 1860, 60,264,913 pounds; in 1870, 100,102,387 pounds (increase in ten yeai's, 66 per cent.) ; in 1873, 146,000,- 000 pounds (increase in three years, 45.89 per cent.). The wool manufac- ture requires a constantly increasing amount of raw material. The imports for eleven years, from 1861 to 1871, inclusive, amounted to 572,647,377 pounds of wool (exclusive of shoddy), an average of 52,058,843 pounds, costing (in gold at the port of shipment) $89,375,908, or $8,125,082 per annum. The imports of 1871-2 were 122,256,499 pounds, costing $26,- 214,195 ; of 1872-3, 85,496,049 pounds, valued at $20,433,938 ; of 1873-4, 42,939,541 pounds, worth $8,250,306. The census returns of agriculture for the years 1850, 1860 and 1870 show constant improvement in fullness and accuracy. A portion of them has already been given, and from the remainder we shall now select the most interesting, giving as many as our limited space will allow. The average size of farms in the United States, in 1850, was 203 acres, Cali- fornia giving the enormous average of 4466 acres, and Texas that of 942 acres, while the smallest average (51 acres) was found in Utah. The av-^ erage size of farms in 1860 was 203 acres, Nevada (617), Texas (591), Louisiana (536) and South Carolina (488) having then an average gi-eater than that of California, which had fallen to 466 acres. Average for 1870, 153 acres, California (482), Georgia (338), Oregon (315) and Texas (301) giving the highest figures. In nearly all of the States there was a steady decrease in the average size of farms, though in Alabama (289, 346, 222), Arkansas (146, 245, 154), Florida (371, 444, 232), Louisiana (372, 536, 247), Maine (97, 103, 98), Mississippi (309, 370, 193), Missouri (179, 215, 146), New Hampshire (116, 123, 122) and New Mexico (77, 278, 186) there was an increase in the average- between 1850 and 1860 and a decrease between 1860 and 1870, the figures in parentheses being their aver- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 577 ages in the successive ceusus years. California (4466, 466, 482) reversed this order, its average showing a decrease iu 1860 and a slight increase in 1870. The total acreage of farms iu 1850 was, improved, 113,032,614; unimproved, 180,528,000; total, 293,560,614. "By 'improved land' is meant cleared land used for grazing, grass or tillage, or lying fallow." Irreclaimable marshes and considerable bodies of water were excluded iu giving the area of a farm improved and unimproved. Total acreage in farms in 1860, 407,212,538; improved, 163,110,720; unimproved, 244,101,- 818. Total acreage in 1870, 407,785,041; improved, 188,921,099; unim- proved, 218,813,942. The percentage of improved land in farms as com- pared with total land iu farms was, iu 1850, 39.5 per cent.; in 1860, 40.1 per cent.; in 1870, 46.3 per cent. The highest percentage of improved land in 1850 was in Connecticut (74.2 per cent.) ; the lowest, iu California, only eight-tenths of 1 per cent. (32,354 acres) being improved, while 99.2 per cent. (3,861,531 acres) was unimproved. In 1860 the highest percent- age of improved land in any State was still in Connecticut, while the lowest (10.5) was in Texas, which was very nearly matched by New Mexico (10.6 per cent.). In 1870 several States had made great advances in improving land, and stood very nearly together, the leading ones being Illinois (74.7 per cent.). New York (70.4) and Connecticut (69.6 per cent.). The States possessing the largest improved acreage in farms in 1850 were New York (12,408,964), Virginia (10,360,135), Ohio (9,851,493), Penn- sylvania (^8,628,619) and Georgia (6,378,479), making for these five States 47,627,690 acres (42.14 per cent.), or more than two-fifths of the total im- proved acreage. The leading States iu this respect, in 1860, were New York (14,358,403), Illinois (13,096,374), Ohio (12,625,394), Virginia (11,437,821), Pennsylvauia (10,463,296) and Georgia (8,062,758), making for these six States 70,044,046 acres (42.96 per cent.), or more than two- fifths of the total improved acreage. The leading States in 1870 were Illinois (19,329,952), New York (15,627,206), Ohio (14,469,133), Penn- sylvania (11,515,965), Indiana (10,104,279), Iowa (9,396,467), Missouri (9,130,615), making for these seven States 89,573,617 acres (47.04 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the total improved acreage. The value of farms iu the whole country iu 1850 was $3,271,575,426 ; leading States, New York ($554,546,642), Pennsylvania ($407,876,099), Ohio ($358,758,603), Virginia ($216,401,543), Kentucky ($155,021,262), Indiana ($136,385,- 173) and New Jersey ($120,237,511), making for these seven States $1,949,226,833 (59.58 per cent.), or very nearly three-fifths of the total value. Value of farming implements and machinery in 1850, $151,587,- 638; leading States, New York ($22,084,926), Pennsylvania ($14,722,541), Ohio ($12,750,585), Louisiana ($11,576,938), Virginia ($7,021,772), In- diana ($6,704,444) and Illinois ($6,405,561), making for these seven States $81,266,767 (53.61 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total value. 37 578 HURLEY'S UNITED STATES Value of farms in 1860, $6,645,045,007 (increase in ten years, 103.11 per cent.); leading States, New York ($803,343,593)', Ohio ($678,132,991), Pennsylvania ($662,050,707), Illinois ($408,944,033 j, Virginia ($371,761,- 661), Indiana ($356,712,175) and Kentucky ($291,496,955, making for these seven States $3,572,442,115 (53.76 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total value. Value of farming implements and machinery in 1860, $246,118,141 (increase in ten years, 62.36 per cent.); leading States, New York ($29,166,695), Pennsylvania ($22,442,842), Louisiana ($18,648,225), Ohio ($17,538,832), Illinois ($17,235,472), Indiana ($10,457,897) and Vir- ginia ($9,392,296), making for these seven States $124,882,259 (50.74 per cent.), or more than one-half of the total value. Value of farms in 1870, $9,262,803,861 (increase in ten years, 39.39 per cent.); leading States, New York ($1,272,857,766), Ohio ($1,054,465,226), Pennsylvania ($1,043,481,- 582), Illinois ($920,506,346j, Indiana ($634,804,189), Michigan ($398,- 240,578) and Missouri ($392,908,047), making for these seven States $5,737,263,734 (61.93 per cent.), or more than three-fifths of the total value. Value of farming implements and machinery in 1870, $336,878,- 429 (increase in ten years, 36.87 per cent.); leading States, New York ($45,997,712), Pennsylvania ($35,658,196), Illinois ($34,576,587), Ohio ($25,692,787), Iowa ($20,509,582), Indiana ($17,676,591) and Missouri ($15,596,426), making for these seven States $195,707,881 (58.09 per cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the total value. It is noteworthy, as an instance of the progress of this country during twenty years, that the ag- gregate value of the farms of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio in 1870 ($3,370,804,574) was greater than that of all the farms in the country in 1850. In the latter year the value of orchard products was $7,723,186; market-garden products, $5,280,030; home manufactures, $27,493,644; animals slaughtered, $111,703,142. Value of orchard products in 1860, $19,991,885 (increase in ten years, 159 per cent.) ; market-garden products, $16,159,498 (increase in ten years, 203 per cent.); home manufactures, $24,546,876 (decrease, 11.12 per cent.); animals slaughtered or sold for slaughter, $213,618,692 (increase 92 per cent.). Wages paid in 1870, in- cluding the value of board, $310,286,285 ; value of orchard products, $47,- 335,189 (increase in ten years, 137 per cent.); market-garden products, $20,719,229 (increase, 28.22 per cent.); forest products, $36,808,277; home manufactures, $24,546,876 (decrease 4.79 per cent.); animals slaughtered or sold for slaughtei*, $398,956,376 (increase in ten years, 86.76 per cent.) ; leading States, Illinois ($56,718,944), Ohio ($40,498,375), Indiana ($30,- 246,962), Pennsylvania ($28,412,903), New York ($28,225,720), Iowa ($25,781,223), Kentucky ($24,121,861), making for these seven States $234,005,988 (58.68 per cent.), or nearly three-fifths of the total value. Value of all farm productions in 1870, including betterments and additions to stock, $2,447,538,658 ; leading States, New York ($253,526,153), Illi- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 579 nois ($210,860,585), Ohio ($198,256,907), Pennsylvania (6183,946,027), Indiana (6122,914,302), Iowa ($114,386,441) and Missouri ($103,035,759), making for these seven States $1,186,925,174 (48.49 per cent.), or nearly one-half of the total value. The number of persons engaged in agricul- ture in 1860 was 3,305,335; in 1870, 5,922,471 (males, 5,525,503; females, 396,968) ; increase in ten years, 79.18 per cent. Leading States in the number of persons engaged in agriculture, Ohio (397,024), Illinois (376,- 441), New York (374,323), Georgia (336,145), Alabama (291,628), North Carolina (269,238), Tennessee (267,020) and Missouri (263,918), making for these eight States 2,575,737 (43.49 per cent.), or more than two-fifths of the total number. The comparative healthiness of farming is shown by the fact that when the census of 1870 was taken the proportion of farmers who were sixty years of age and over was 7.82 per cent., or nearly one-twelfth of the total number, while of those who were engaged in "per- sonal and professional" occupations the proportion of this age was 4.99 per cent.; of those engaged in "manufacturing, mechanical and mining indus- tries" it was 3.23 per cent., and of those engaged in "trade and transpor- tation " it was only 2.33 per cent., or little more than one-fiftieth part of the total number. Statistics of the manufacture of agricultural implements have been elsewhere given. [See American Manufactures.] Labor- and time- saving machines are now regarded as indispensable by all who engage in agriculture on a large scale. The reaper and the mower are the types of the present, the sickle and the flail are types of the past. The horse rake, the improved horse hoes, the broadcast seed-sower, the improved subsoil and trenching ploughs, straw and root cutters, cultivators, threshing and winnowing machines, and many others of equal importance have revolu- tionized the operations of agriculture. It has been said that the improve- ment in the implements named, made within the last half century, " has enabled the farmers of the United States to accomjDlish double the amount of labor with the same number of teams and men." This estimate seems to be low, for according to the same authority, " they can plough deeper and more thoroughly with less power, hoe and spade with less expenditure of manual labor, thresh hundreds of bushels of grain with the machine where only tens could have been threshed with the flail, rake ten acres with the horse rake more easily than one by hand, and reap from twelve to fifteen acres of grain in less time and with greater ease with the reaper than one with the sickle or cradle, to say nothing of the infinite variety of other operations in Avhich both time and labor are saved by the use of machines instead of the slow drudgery of hand labor." The increase in the number and value of improved implements has another effect which does not appear at first sight, but which can be ascertained by a careful examination of results. The constant flood of emigration to the West 580 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES suggests to the dweller on the Atlantic coast the question, What is the ef- fect of this western movement of population on the value of property in the States first settled ? Have farming lands in the East depreciated in value on account of the immense tracts of country recently reclaimed from their native wildness ? At first examination this would appear to be the inevitable result of the overstocking, so to speak, of the land market. The figures of the census do not, however, bear out this suppo- sition. The value of the farms of the whole country increased between 1860 and 1870 only 39.89 per cent., while the value of the farms of Penn- sylvania increased 57 per cent. This superiority was not owing to a greater increase in the population of the State, for the population of the whole country increased 23 per cent., while the increase in that of Pennsylvania was only 21 per cent. ; nor was it due to the number of people engaged in agriculture, for the number of farmers in Pennsylvania increased only 26 per cent, during the twenty years ending with 1870, while the value of the farms in that State advanced during the same period 155 per cent.; nor yet could it be attributed to the increase in the number of acres of improved farming lands in Pennsylvania, for that increase was 33 per cent, between 1850 and 1860, and only 10 per cent, between 1860 and 1870. If the reader is acquainted with the manner of taking the census in this country, he will remember that the values given are simply the value of these lauds for agricultural purposes. To what, then, can this decided increase in the value of Pennsylvania farms be attributed ? We unhesitatingly ansAver, to improved farming implements and machinery, with corresponding improve- ments in methods of culture. The increase in the value of farms bears a remarkably close relation to the increase in the amoimt of capital invested in agricultural implements and machinery. In the whole country, for in- stance, between 1860 and 1870, the increase in the value of fiarming implements and machinery was 37 per cent. In Pennsylvania, during the same period, the increase was 58 per cent, and between 1850 and 1870 it was 142 per cent. If the reader will compare these last percentages of increase with those of the increase in the value of farms in Pennsylvania and in the United States at large, as given above, he cannot fail to see a coincidence. In New York, also, the increase in the value of farms be- tween 1860 and 1870 was a little more than 58 per cent., while the increase in the value of farming implements and machinery was 57.66 per cent. To prove that this idea is not wholly fanciful, we can give some figures on the other side. In Arkansas, between 1860 and 1870, the number of acres of improved land decreased less than one per cent., but the value of farms in the State decreased 55 per cent., and the amount of capital invested in farming implements and machinery decreased 45 per cent. In Alabama the value of implements and machinery decreased during the same period 55 per cent., and we find a corresponding decrease CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 581 in the value of farms of 61 per cent. It may be said that these hast two instances may be explained as effects of the late civil war. This is true yet it does not militate against our theory; it rather confirms it. The people of these States were so impoverished by the war that they were not able to replace implements and machinery which had been worn out or destroyed, and the natural result was a deterioration in methods of culture and a consequent fall in the value of farming lands. The Intel lio-ent reader will have already seen the object of this figuring. It is to show the great value of improved methods of culture. An increase in the amount of money invested in improved machinery is followed by an ad- vance in the value not only of agricultural produce, but of the land itself; and this advance is the well-merited reward of those who employ not only their hands, but their brains. Few who have not given attention to this subject can form any adequate conception of the trials and struggles which were undergone by those who first attempted to improve the old stereo- typed methods of semi-cultivation which generally prevailed less than a generation ago. Their anxiety about the success of their experiments was frequently increased by gloomy prophecies uttered by their less progressive neighbors, who were not backward, if an experiment failed, in exhibiting a feeling very much akin to satisfaction. Still, as we have shown, they have their reward. Those who formerly criticised them are now glad to imitate them ; and progressive agriculturists are genei'ally recognized as public benefactors. There is one crop which is so dependent for its value upon the amount of capital invested in implements and machinery that we have reserved its consideration for this place. We refer to the sugar crop. The compli- cated processes required in the production of sugar brought Louisiana in 1860 into the third place in the comparative value of farming imple- ments and machinery in the leading States, though she stood tenth in the value of farms. Her total yield of sugar in 1859 was 221,726 hogsheads, and of molasses 13,439,772 gallons.. In 1869 her yield of sugar was 80,706 hogsheads (decrease 63.03 per cent.) and 4,585,150 gallons of mo- lasses (decrease 65.94 per cent.) ; and when the census was taken in the following year, the value of her farming implements and machinery ($7,159,333) showed a decrease of 61.06 per cent., and that of her farms a decrease of 66.7 per cent, (from $204,789,662 to $68,215,421). The aver- age area annually cultivated in sugar-cane in Louisiana does not exceed (according to the Report on Agriculture for 1873) 150,000 acres, or about half of an ordinary county. If, as Mr. Bringier (one of the most intelli- gent planters in Louisiana) thinks, 10* pounds of sugar-cane will easily be made to yield a pound of sugar and two-thirds of a pound of molasses by the best methods of production, even this small acreage would annu- ally give 855,000,000 pounds of sugar and 570,000,000 pounds or 582 BUBLEY'S CENTENNIAL QAZETTEEB AND GUIDE. 52,500,000 gallons of molasses. Our imports of sugar and molasses for 1872-3 amounted to 1,454,124,259 pounds of brown sugar, 509,504 pounds of refined sugar, and 43,533,909 gallons of molasses. In 1873-4 the amount was 1,594,306,354 pounds of brown sugar, 39,279 pounds of refined sugar and 47,189,837 gallons of molasses. The possible annual yield above indicated is, therefore, more than half of the average amount imported, and if, as is stated in the Report on Agriculture, there is no rea- son why the very small acreage should not be increased fivefold, except a lack of capital and enterprise, there is also no good reason why the United States should not produce suflEicient sugar not only for home consumption, but for a large exportation to less favored climes. We could not more appropriately close this article than by quoting the eloquent words of Mr. J. R. Dodge, the Statistician of the Department of Agriculture, to whose labors we have been indebted for many of our state- ments. In an address delivered before the National Agricultural Con- gress at Atlanta, Georgia (May 14, 1874), which is published in the Re- port on Agriculture for 1873 (pp. 146-151), he expresses the hope that the day may be hastened " when 25 per cent, of our people shall furnish a better and more varied agricultural supply than is now obtained by the 47 per cent, employed in agriculture ; when the 21 per cent, now engaged in mining, manufacturing and the mechanic arts may become 42 ; when two blades of grass shall grow instead of one, twenty-five bushels of wheat instead of twelve, and an acre of cotton shall always bring a bale ; when clover shall appear in the place of broom-sedge, the sun shall cease to smite with barrenness the southern slope, and many fields shall be green with mangolds for the fattening of lazy bullocks grazing on a thou- sand hills ; when superior and more various implements shall, while divid- ing, multiply the labor of human muscle, and steam shall supplement and save the costly strength of beasts ; when a moiety of the farmer's income may suffice to pay his taxes, his bills for commercial fertilizers and all purchases of farm-produce that he fails to procure from his own fair acres ; when railroads shall cease to trouble with unscrupulous exac- tions, and unnecessary middlemen are evermore at rest; when the farm- er's home shall be beautiful with flowers, his farm a smiling landscape, and his barn shall groan with the burden of plenty ; and finally, when the farmer shall, in every section of a broad and prosperous land, be recognized as nature's nobleman, an honest man, the noblest work of God." ameeioa:^ manufactures. Early History. — The colonial policy, of which we have elsewhei-e given a description [see Commerce and Navigation], was not satisfied with imposing restrictions ou trade. It was not enough that the colonies should place at the disposal of the mother-country all of their exports : they must be kept as helpless and as dependent as possible upon the lib- erality of " the British merchant " by restriction upon their manufactures. It was the policy of Great Britain to secure to herself the carriage of the produce of her colonies — to monopolize their raw materials, and to furnish her colonists with all the manufactures or other imports consumed by them. When the first settlements were made, however, the struggle for existence — the strenuous efforts required to procure sufficient food and to provide for the defence of their little communities from the treacherous savages by whom they were surrounded — left little leisure for manufactures. Even after a firm footing had been secured, some time was required to awaken the desire for home-production of articles which could be obtained of "the British merchant." In the pamphlet by Captain Edward Johnson, from which we have elsewhere quoted [see Historical Sketch, page 94], enti- tled Wonder-worMng Providences of Zion's Saviour in New England, the enthusiastic author says : " For raiment our cloth hath not been cut short, as but of late years the traders that way have increased to such a number that their shops have continued full all the year long, all one England (sic) ; besides the Lord hath been pleased to increase sheep extraordinarily of late, hemp and flax here is great plenty. Hides here are more for the number of persons than in England; and for cloth, here is and would be material enough to make it, but the fiirmers deem it better for their profit to put away their cattle and corn for clothing than to set upon mukiug of cloth. If the merchant's trade be not kept on foot, they fear greatly their corn and cattle will lie on their hands." This account was written, or at least published, in 1650, according to some authorities, and in 1654, accord- ing to others. Hubbard's General History of Neiv England (chapter xxxii., not xxii. as given, probably by a typogra])hical error, in Everett's Speeches and Orations, vol. ii., p. 80, note) gives a different account. We have men- tioned elsewhere [see Commerce and Navigation] the impetus given to the business of ship-building by the cessation of immigration caused by the 5S3 584 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES civil wars in England. Speaking of the same period, Hubbard says: "For the future they [the colonists] were left more to stand upon their own legs and shift for themselves, for now there was a great change in the state of the country, the inhabitants being put to great straits by reason of the fall of the price of cattle, the breeding and increase of which had been the principal means of upholding the country ; for whereas before all sorts of cattle were usually sold for £25 the head, by reason of the continual com- ing over of new families to plant the wilderness, now that fountain began to be dried, and there happened a total cessation of any passengers coming over, insomuch that the country of New England was to seek of a way to provide themselves of clothing, which they could not attain by selling of their cattle as before, which were now fallen from that huge price fore- mentioned, first to £14 and £10 an head, and presently after (at least within a year) to £5 apiece; nor was there at that rate ready vent for them neither. Thus, the flood that brought in much wealth to many per- sons, the contrary ebb carried all away out of their reach. To help in this their exigent, the General Court made several orders for the manufac- ture of linen and woollen cloth, which, by God's blessing upon man's en- deavor, in a little time stopped this gap in part, and soon after another door was opened by special providence. For when one hand was shut by way of supply from England, another was opened by way of traffic, first to the West Indies and Wine Islands, whereby, among other goods, much cotton-wool was brought into the country from the Indies, which the inhab- itants learning to spin, and breeding of sheep and by sowing of hemp and flax, they soon found out a way to supply themselves with many necessaries of [cotton] woollen and linen cloth." The author of New England's First Fruits, writing in 1642, also speaks of the assistance rendered by Provi- dence " in prospering hemp and flax so well that it is frequently sown^ spun and woven into linen cloth, and in short time may serve as cordage; so of cotton-wool (which we may have at reasonable rates of the islands), and of our linen yarns we can make dimities and fustians for our summer clothing; and having a matter of 1000 sheep, which prosper well to begin withal, in a competent time we hope to have woollen cloth there made. And great and small cattle being now very frequently killed for food, their skins will afford us leather for boots and shoes and other uses ; so that God is leading us by the hand into a way of clothing." In 1645, as we learn from Hubbard, an iron foundery was established at Lynn, Mass., "upon a very commodious stream, which was very much promoted and strenuously carried on for some considerable time; but at length, instead of drawing out bars of iron for their country's use, there was hammered out nothing but contentions and law-suits, which was but a bad return for the undertakers. However, it gave the occasion to others to acquaint themselves with that skill to the great advantage of the colonies, CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 585 who have since that time found out many convenient phxces where very good iron, not much inferior to that of Biiboa, may be produced." The reasons which we have given above kept back the manufactures of the colonies to such a degree that there was no material interference with the importation from England for many years. The necessity for legisla- tion upon this subject was not so apparent as that for the restrictions upon navigation; but the spirit of that national selfishness which, when carried to an extreme, overreaches itself, was only dormant. In the mean time, the companies and proprietors to Avhom the colonies were first granted, in many instances, showed that commendable interest in the furtherance of the welfare of the colonists which the encouragement of manufactures was sure to bring about. Naturally desirous to receive the largest possible return for their outlay, they were zealous in endeavoring to ascertain what new materials the colonies produced and to make arrangements for their being worked up on the spot into conditions or articles in which the greatest value could be carried in the smallest possible space, and consequently at the least possible expense. As early as 1620 one hundred and fifty per- sons had been sent over to Virginia by the London Company [see Histor- ical Sketch, p. 93] to set up three iron-works; directions had been given for making cordage of hemp as well as of flax, and more especially of silk-grass, "which grew there naturally in great abundance, and was found upon experiment to make the best cordage and line in the world. Each fiiraily was ordered to set out one hundred plants of it, and the gov- ernor himself five thousand." None but the council and the heads of hundreds were to "wear gold in their clothes or to wear silk until they made it themselves." They were to " put apprentices to trades, and not let them forsake them for planting tobacco or any such useless, commodity." They were to make salt, pitch, tar, soap and ashes; to make oil of walnuts, and to employ apothecaries in distilling lees of beer; to make a small quantity of tobacco, and that very good. In accordance with these in- structions, "a salt-work was set up at Cape Charles, on the Eastern Shore, and an iron-work at Falling Creek in James River (sic), where they made proof of good iron ore, and brought the whole work so near a perfection that they writ word to the comj^any in London that they did not doubt but to finish the work and have plentiful provision of iron for tiiem by the next Easter." This promise was not performed. A massacre by the Indians under Opecancanough intervened, which, as Beverly (from whom we have just quoted) states, "was such a disheartening to several good projects, then just advancing, that to this day [1722] they have never been put in execution — namely, the glass-houses in Jamestown and the iron-work at Falling Creek." He says elsewhere, however, in the chapter "Of the Earth and Soils," "The iron proved reasonably good, but before they got into the body of the mine the people were cut off in that fatal 586 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES massacre, and tlie project has never been set on foot since till of late; but it has not had its full trial." The glass-house referred to by Beverly deserves special mention, as it was, according to Bishop, "doubtless the first manufactory ever erected in this country. It stood in the woods, about a mile from Jamestown." It was erected in 1608, during the gov-' erumeut of Capt. John Smith. When the Council in London, being anxious for an immediate return from their venture in gold and silver, wrote an angry letter to President Smith, and threatened that if the sum of £2000, which they had expended, was not repaid upon the ship's return, they would desert the infant colony, Smith " returned a plain and schol- arly answer " by the ship, and sent over " trials of pitch, tar, glass, frank- incense and soap-ashes, with what wainscoat and clapboard could be pro- vided." This was the first export made from the British colonies to any foreign country, for the load of sassafras gathered near Cape Cod, in 1608, could hardly be classed under this head, as it did not come from a settle- ment. The first exports from America to England consisted, therefore, almost entirely of manufactured articles, as Mr. Bishop very justly ob- serves. This same massacre caused the loss of the secret of a lead mine in the neighborhood which was known to the superintendent of the iron- work, who " made use of it to furnish all the neighbors with bullets and shot." The author of A Perfect Desei'iption of Virginia, writing in 1648, says : " Iron ore and rich mines are in abuadance in the land — fit streams and waters to erect iron-mills, woods never to be destroyed to buru coal [charcoal for smelting]. Trial hath been made of this iron ore, and [there is] not better and richer in the world ; his work erected would be worth as much as a silver mine." The same writer has great hopes with reference to the culture of the silk-worm in Virginia and the manufacture of silk. To aid these industries, acts had been passed by the colonial assembly, as early as November and December, 1621, for encouraging the planting of mulberry trees and the making of silk ; but legislative efibrt, proprietary encouragement — nay, the personal interest of royalty itself (for James I. twice sent over silk-worm seed of the best and most expensive kind, paid for out of his own royal pocket) — could not establish these industries upon a permanent footing. A law passed in 1656 imposed a fine upon every planter who did not possess sufficient patriotism to have at least one mul- berry tree to every ten acres of land. The author to whose sanguine expectations we have referred says : " For mulberry trees, the natural and proper food for silk-worms, they have abundance in the woods, and some so large that one tree contains as many leaves as will feed silk-worms that will make as much silk as may be worth five pounds sterling money. This some Frenchmen afiirm. And now they desire silk-worm's seed, which is sent them, and their hopes are good of the thriving of it — a commodity which may soon enrich them all with little labor, care or pains ; all mate- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 587 rials so plentiful at hand ; the food in abundance, the climate warm, and the work done in five weeks' time and within doors, by women and chil- dren as well as men, and at that time of the year (in May) that it hinders not any other work, as planting, sowing or the like employments. This is such an advantage that had the Dutch the like of it in any of their planta- tions they would improve it to their certain gain in the trade of silk from Persia and China, which we fetch with great charge and expense and hazard, and enrich heathen and Mahumetans (sic) greatly. But these things lack public and state encouragements to begin the work." With all the " public and state encouragements " that could be brought to bear, in the shape of premiums and assistance for the willing and fines for the refractory, this country has not yet done sufficiently well in the varied attempts at silk culture and manufacture to prevent large quantities of "gold or its equivalent" from being yearly transferred from Christian pockets into the coffers of " heathen and Mahumetans." As no favor could be obtained for the tobacco trade, the impositions upon which are elsewhere mentioned -[see Commerce and Navigation], and as the British merchant afforded the Virginians, according to Bever- ley, but a bare supply of clothing for their crops, strenuous eff()rts were made in 1666 to apply some legislative stimulant to the manufacture of cloth. The colonial assembly caused looms and workshops to be set up in each county at the county charge. Prizes had been offered in 1662 for the best linen and woollen cloth, and fifty pounds of tobacco for every pound of silk, which latter reward was now renewed. Every neglect of making flax or hemp was to be visited with severe penalties. Sir William Berkeley, however feeble his conduct during the Bacon Rebellion may be deemed, showed great energy at this time, himself engaging in the manu- facture of potash, flax, hemp and silk. Sir Edmund Andros (who is much better known in our colonial history in connection with his unsuccessful attempt to seize the charter of Connecticut) was also "a great encourager of manufactures." In his time fulling-mills were set up in Virginia by act of Assembly. He also showed great interest in the propagation of cotton. His successor. Col. Nicholson, when he was lieutenant-governor, had shown great zeal in fostering colonial manufactures, and had procured the passage of acts " for the encouragement of linen manufacture and to promote the leather trade by tanning, currying and shoemakiug." In 1698, however, when he became governor of Virginia, " he went not with that smoothness on his brow he had carried with him when he was ap- pointed lieutenant-governor. He talked then no more of improving of manufactures, towns and trade. Instead of encouraging the manufactures he sent over inhuman memorials against them, opposite to all reason. In one of these he remonstrates ' that the tobacco of that country often bears so low a price that it would not yield clothes to the people that make it ;' 588 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES aud yet presently after, in the same memorial, he recommends it to the Parliament 'to pass an act forbidding the plantations to make their own clothing,' which is, in other words, desiring a charitable law that planters shall go naked." Beverly, from whom we have just quoted, ascribes the change in Nicholson's views to the influence of "the British merchant." Campbell asserts that it was thought, at the time, " to be not a little owing to a disappointment in love." These causes may have co-operated, but the selfishness of the colonial policy which cared only for the interests of " the British merchant " will account for worse instances of inhumanity than the one which we have just given. All efforts to establish the culture of silk in Virginia upon a firm basis were unsuccessful. The reader will find a reason for these successive fail- ures in the following passage from Bancroft, which gives in condensed form the results derived from the experience of past ages : "Legislation, though it can favor industry, cannot create it. When soil, men and circumstances combine to render a manufacture desirable, legislation can protect the infancy of enterprise against the unequal competition with established skill. The culture of silk, long, earnestly and frequently recommended to the attention of Virginia, is successfully pursued only when a superflu- ity of labor exists in a redundant population. In America the first wants of life left no labor without a demand ; silk-worms could not be cared for where every comfort of household existence required to be created. It is a law of nature that in a new country, under the temj^erate zone, corn and cattle will be raised rather than silk or wine." It was natural in a coun- try where tobacco could be produced with comparative ease, and of a superior quality, of wdiich A Perfect Descripiion of Virginia said, as early as 1648, "A man can plant two thousand weight a year of it, and also sufficient corn and roots and other provisions for himself" — it was natural that that occupation should be preferred which afforded the greatest j)rofit. So far as improvement in manufactures is concerned, the comparatively barren soil of New England was an advantage, just as the fact that the soil of Great Britain cannot produce sufficient food for the support of her teem- ing population has been one cause of the marvellous progress and success of British manufactures. New England was also fixvored by another cir- cumstance, which will appear in this extract from the Accou7it of the Euro- pean Settlements in America : " They are almost the only one of our colonies which have much of the woollen and linen manufactures. Of the former they have nearly as much as suffices for their own clothing. It is a close and strong, but a coarse, stubborn sort of cloth. A number of Presbyte- rians from the North of Ireland, driven thence, as it is said, by the severity of their landlords, from an affinity in religious sentiments, chose New Eng- land as their place of refuge. Those people brought with them their skill in the linen manufacture; and meeting very large encouragement, they CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 589 exercised it to the great advantage of this colony. At present (1757) they make large quantities, and of a very good kind." This author had what must have been considered in his time "advanced" views. He says, else- where : " The general plan of our management with regard to the trade of our colonies, methinks, ought to be to encourage in every one of them some separate and distinct articles, such as not interfering might enable them to trade with each other and all to trade to advantage with their mother-country. This, and that they should not go largely into manufac- tures interfering with ours, are the only points at which our restrictions should aim. These purposes ought not to be accomplished by absolute prohi- bitions and penalties which would be unpolitical [i. e., impolitic] and unjust, but by the way of diversion, by encouraging them to fall into [the produc- tion of] such things as find a demand with ourselves at home. By this means Great Britain and all its dependencies will have a common interest. They will play into each other's hands, and the trade so dispersed will be of infinitely more advantage to us than if all its several articles were pro- duced and manufactured within (sic) ourselves." This policy was far too liberal and judicious for the narrow-minded men who controlled the affairs of the colonies during the first three-fourths of the eighteenth century. The Navigation Act was designed to prevent the settlers from seeking a foreign market for their productions ; the first direct legislative blow at manufactures was struck in 1699, by an act de- signed to confine the home market for woollen goods wit|iin the narrow limits of each separate colony. " Wool was the great staple of England, and its growers and manufacturers envied the colonies the possession of a flock of sheep, a spindle or a loom." The preamble to the act states that colonial industry would " inevitably sink the value of lands " in England ; therefore, says the law, "After the first day of December, 1699, no wool or manufacture made or mixed with wool, being the produce or manufac- ture of any of the English plantations in America, shall be loaden in any ship or vessel, upon any pretence whatsoever, nor loaden upon any horse, cart or other carriage to be carried out of the English plantations to any other of the said plantations, or to any other place whatsoever," under penalty of forfeiting ship and cargo, and £500 for each oflTence. The oppressive- ness of this law will be better appreciated when the reader is reminded that not only had the woollen manufacture made considerable progress in several of the colonies, but in one, at least (Pennsylvania), the founder had so successfully encouraged this branch of industiy that the fabrics made there were highly prized in the most distant provinces. Now the fiibrics of Pennsylvania or Connecticut could not seek a market in Massa- chusetts, nor could they be carried to Albany to traffic with the Indians. An English mariner was not permitted to purchase in Boston woollens of a greater value than forty shillings. The charter-colonies, were, two years 590 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES after the passage of this act, reproached by the lords of trade because they promoted aud propagated "woollen aud other manufactures proper for England." Canada was considered well worth conquering, because there " the cold is extreme, and snow lies so long on the ground that sheep Avill never thrive so as to make the woollen manufacture possible, which is the only thing that can make a plantation unprofitable to the Crown." Even William Pitt, the elder, who opposed the Stamp Act, could say, seventy years later, " Should our sovereign authority of legislative and commercial control be denied, / toould not sxiffer even a nail for a horseshoe to be man- ufactured in America !" During the intermediate seventy years the same policy was continued. In 1719 a resolution of the House of Commons declared "that the erection of manufactories in the colonies tended to lessen their dependency upon Great Britain." The members of that august legislative body were assisted in making this wonderful discovery by the complaints of "the British merchant" and the reports of the colo- nial governors. Lord Cornbury, for instance, in his report upon the state of the province of New York, says : " I myself have seen serge made upon Long Island that any man may wear. Now, if they begin to make serge, they will in time make coarse cloth, and then fine. How far this will be for the service of England, I submit to better judgments." He does not, however, wait for better judgments to decide, but anticipates the action of the House of Commons by giving his opinion that "the colonies can never be kept dependent upon and subservient to England if they are suffered to go on in the notions they have that, as they are Englishmen, so they may set up the same manufactures here as people do in England." Under pretence of encouraging the importation of American naval stores, the British iron-masters procured the insertion into the act for regulating the bounties upon that trade of a clause to prohibit the production of iron in the colonies, which provided that "none in the plantations should manu- facture iron wares of any kind whatsoever." The colonial agents remon- strated, and the clause was dropped. New England already possessed six furnaces and nineteen forges. Pennsylvania produced so large a quantity as to furnish a supply for the other colonies. In 1731 the House of Commons directed the Board of Trade and Planta- tions to make a report " with respect to laws made, manufactures set up or trade carried on in the colonies detrimental to the trade, navigation or manufacture of Great Britain." Some startling discoveries were made. Massachusetts had passed an act for the encouragement of the manufac- ture of 2>aper, which law interfered with " the profit made by the British merchant on foreign paper sent thither." In New England and New Jersey "great quantities of hats are made, of which the company of hat- ters in London have complained to us that great quantities {sic) of these hats are exported to Spain, Portugal aud our West India Islands." They CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 591 submitted it to the wisdom of the honorable House " whether it might not be expedient to give these colonies proper encouragements for turning their industiy to such manufactures and products as might be of service to Great Britain." The "honorable House" was not found wanting in this emer- gency, though the reader may question their wisdom in attempting to en- courage one manufacture in the colonies by prohibiting another. An act was forthwith passed " to prevent the exportation of hats out of any of His Majesty's colonies or plantations in America, and to restrain the num- ber of apprentices taken by the hat-makers in the said colonies, and for the better encouraging the making of hats in Great Britain." By this act hats could be neither exported to a foreign country nor transported from one colony into another. No person was permitted to make hats unless he had served an apprenticeship for seven years, or to employ more than two apprentices at any one time. In 1750 the manufacture of iron and steel in the colonies had made such progress that the Avisdom of the House of Commons was called into requi- sition to restrain it. Unwrought American iron was excluded by a duty from the English market. The people of the colonies were therefore tempted to acquire such skill as to make spikes, large nails and steel cheaper than they could be imported from England. A special committee, headed by the famous Charles Townshend [see Historical Sketch, page 99], was appointed to devise some method of keeping these misguided men out of temptation. As the production of British iron began to be limited by the decrease of their forests (for their smelting was done with charcoal, fossil coal not being used, as yet, for that purpose), the committee attempted to kill two birds with one stone — to provide unwrought iron for England, and to prevent its advancing beyond that stage of production in America. They therefore brought in a bill "To encourage the importation of pig and bar iron from His Majesty's colonies in America, and to prevent the erec- tion of any mill or other engine for the rolling and slitting of iron, or any plating forge to work with a tilt-hammer, or any furnace for making steel in any of said colonies." By this bill, which became a law, pig-iron was admitted into England duty free, and bar-iron was admitted duty free into the port of London. The erection or continimnee of any such establish- ments as are named in the title of the act was prohibited under penalty of £200. New ones were declared a common nuisance, which the governors of the provinces were bound, upon information, to abate under penalty of £500. There was even a vote upon the proposal that every slittiug-mill then standing in America should be demolished; but this was too strong for even a British House of Commons sitting in the year 1750, though it was rejected by the small majority of kventy-tiuo. However, an immediate return was required of every such mill already existing, and the number was never to be increased. These tyrannical prohibitions could have but /92 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES one effect — viz., that of forcing the colonists to consider the great advan- tages of independence of a control which was so openly exercised in utter disregard of the plainest principles of natural justice. Even before the formation of non-importation associations many j^rivate individuals had begun a careful retrenchment of their expenditures for foreign goods ; and when the Stamp Act brought about that unity of feeling which made a general revolt possible, the first peaceful blow was struck at the pocket of the British manufacturer, for whose benefit the various restraining acts had been designed. Societies were formed in several of the colonies " for the promotion of arts, agriculture and economy." To keep up the supply of wool, many people entered into an agreement not only to abstain from eating mutton, but to cease dealing with any butcher who should kill sheep or lambs or should expose the forbidden meat for sale. Families deter- mined to make their own linen, and homespun became fashionable as well as honorable. In 1765 fourteen new manufactures had been estab- lished in America, and the imports into the colonies from Great Britain had fallen ofi* nearly twenty per cent. Many ships were withdrawn from the colonial trade for want of emjjloyment, and many weavers and work- men were forced to emigrate to America. Upon the anniversary day of one of these societies more than three hundred young women met on Boston Common and devoted the day to spinning flax. The graduating class of Harvard College, in 1770, appeared in homespun, being evidently deter- mined not to be outdone in patriotism. These measures were taken while there was still some hope of reconciliation with the mother-country, and with the design of obtaining some degree of justice from the Parliament of Great Britain; so much the more were they necessary when independ- ence was the end in view. The first measures of the patriots aimed, there- fore, at establishing their independence upon the basis of the productive industry of the country, as is shown by the action of the first Continental Congress. They prepared a plan for commercial non-intercourse with Great Britain consisting of fourteen articles, and called The American As- sociation. By the seventh article they agree to use their utmost endeavors "to improve the breed of sheep and to increase their numbers to the greatest extent," and by the eighth that they "will promote agriculture, arts and the manufactures of the country, especially those of wool ;" also that they "will wear no other mourning than a piece of crape or ribbon," mourning goods being something which they were absolutely obliged to import or do without. The selfish policy of Great Britain now recoiled upon her own head. We had been restrained as far as possible from form- ing conmiercial connections with other countries ; we had been kept as far as possible, to use Lord Cornbury's words, "dependent upon and subser- vient to " Great Britain ; and while the frontiers of the colonies were drenched with blood shed in the quarrels of England's king, "their inte- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 593 rior parts," as Barre has it, "yielded all their little saviugs for her emolu- ment." Having now broken loose from her thrall, the new-fledged nation was thrown upon her own resources, and furnished another proof of the adage, "Necessity is the mother of invention." The few manufactures which existed before the Revolution received a fresh impulse, and new ones were undertaken. By a species of poetic justice one of the earliest of these was the manufacture of nails, upon which Lord Chatham had laid his memorable prohibition. The first attempt to manufacture cut nails in New England was made in the southern part of Massachusetts during the Revolutionary war, with old iron hoops for the material and a pair of shears for the machine. As early as March 27, 1775, according to Bishop, a committee of the Virginia Convention, previously appointed to report a plan for the encouragement of arts and manuftictures, reported a series of resolutions, which were unanimously adopted, urging the people to promote the manufacture of cloth, salt, gunpowder, nails, wire, etc., and largely to encourage the making of steel, as there would be a great demand for that article. In the following August another resolution was passed, that " in case the British ministry attempts to enforce the act of Parliament preventing the erection of plating- and slitting-mills in America, the Con- vention will recompense to the proprietors of the first two of such mills as shall be finished and set to work in this colony all losses they shall respect- ively sustain in consequence of such endeavors of administration." These measures, begun before the Declaration of Independence, give a fair idea of what the manufactures of this country were during the Revolutionary war. The patriots were satisfied if they could secure the bare necessities of life — food and clothing for themselves and munitions of war wherewith to achieve their independence. The scarcity of clothing suitable for the army, for which woollen fabrics were required, was early experienced, and continued throughout the war to embarrass the commissariat department, to impair the health and morale of the soldiery, and sometimes to cause an insubordination which was a source of anxiety to the patriots and of danger to their cause. Congress was therefore obliged to make frequent apjDcals to the people to increase their supplies of wool and of other materials, and to promote the manufacture of cloth for the supply of their destitute coun- trymen who were fighting the battles of freedom. What was the aggre- gate value of all or of any branch of the colonial manufactures it is difficult to estimate; and there is a like difficulty in fixing the amount of any given article which they could, upon an emergency, produce. Bishop says : " The household industry of the New England provinces and of some parts of the middle colonies was nearly or quite equal to the ordinary wants of the inhabitants for clothing. A writer of this date, in recom- mending an increased use of the spinning-wheel, estimated that out of two millions of inhabitants in the thirteen colonies, there were at least 450,000 38 594 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES females who could be employed in spinning. If only one-third of them were so employed, there would be 150,000, each of whom could spin thread for six yards of linen per week during the five months of the year in which it was customary to use the little wheel. This would give 23,400,000 yards of cloth annually, or twelve yards to each of the two millions of the pop- ulation — a quantity quite sufficient for that portion of their clothing. He supposed this number to be 30,000 more than were then so employed. As all the flax produced was already spun, he proposed to employ hemp, of which foreign lawns, dowlas, osnaburgs, etc., were made, and which was then used to advantage in some parts of this country. His own county (in New Jersey) had produced the previous year above 100 tons, and could produce 500 tons, of hemp, of which each pound would make nearly one yard of linen (sail-cloth excepted). The province (to which the culture was not confined) could readily produce sufficient hemp to make 4,500,000 yards of cloth — enough to supply the 30,000 extra spinners." This esti- mate, however, of the correctness of which we have no means at present of judging, only provides for the supply of Imeii goods, and leaves the problem of procuring woollen clothing for the army unsolved. The solu- tion of that problem formed one of the most arduous tasks which Congress had to perform. In November, 1775, it was resolved "that clothing be provided for the army by the continent, to be paid for by stopping If dol- lars per mouth out of the soldiers' pay ; that as much as possible of the cloth be dyed brown, the distinction of the regiments to be made in the facings, and that a man who brought into the camp a good new blanket should be allowed two dollars therefor, and be at liberty to take it away after the campaign. In the following March the several assemblies, con- ventions, etc., were recommended to use their utmost endeavors to promote the culture of hemp, flax and cotton, and the growth of wool, in the United States, to take the earliest means for erecting and establishing in each col- ony a society for the improvement of agriculture, arts, manufactures and commerce, and to maintain a correspondence between such societies, that the rich and numerous natural advantages of the country for supporting its inhabitants might not be neglected. They were further recommended to consider of ways and means of introducing the manufactures of duck, sail-cloth and steel where they were not already understood, and of encour- aging, increasing and improving them where they were. Each colony was called upon in June to furnish a suit of clothes (of which the waistcoat and breeches might be of deer-leather, if to be had on reasonable terms), a blanket, felt hat, two shirts, two pairs of hose and two pairs of shoes for each soldier in the army [from said colony], to be paid for by Congress. In July the commissary was granted a quantity of gunpowder, with which to purchase deer-skins for breeches, and the secret committee was directed to fall upon ways and means of procuring a further supply of deer-skins CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 595 from Georgia and South Carolina. At the same time, John Griffith, 'an experienced artificer in mal^:ing and dressing fullers' shears, was, on peti- tion of the inhabitants of Chester county, Pa., released from service and ordered to return home to follow his trade." A large portion of the cloth- ing of the soldiers tvas of linen, which was a poor defence against the rigors of a winter campaign. The somewhat arbitrary seizure of the requisite articles by the government, to be paid for at a stipulated price, and the depreciation of the Continental currency [see Coins and Currency], increased, of course, the difficulties of the manufacturers. One of these was obliged to write to the Board of War that, " in consequence of the unexpected rise in the prices of wool and labor, he would not be able to fulfil a contract which he had made to supply cloth for the army at a time when he thought that prices had reached the highest possible point. Wool was at 7s. 6d. a pound, w'ith a prospect of rising to 10s. Cloth which he had engaged to supply at 20^. a yard could not be furnished for less than 27s. Qd., as those who had engaged to sell him wool at 7s. Qd. thought it too cheap, and his spinners and weavers in each branch had doubled their wages." The privations of the American army while encamped at Valley Forge, in the winter of 1778, were greatly aggravated by the scar- city of clothing among officers as well as men. Upon one occasion the aids of Baron Steuben invited a number of young officers to dine at their quarters, for admission to which entertainment torn clothes (as festal gar- ments) were an indispensable requisite. " Such a set of ragged, and at the same time merry, fellows," writes the baron's secretary, " were never before brought together. The baron loved to speak of that dinner and his sans cidottes, as he called us. Thus this denomination was first invented in America and applied to the brave officers and soldiers of the Revolu- tionary army at a time when it could not have been foreseen that the name which honored the followers of Washington would afterward be assumed by the satellites of a Marat and a Robespierre." The etymology of the word suggests to us the idea that the prevailing trouble among the patriots was such a fracture of the nether garments as made an advance much more desirable than a retreat. In 1780 the manufacturers for the army refused to go on with their work or deliver what was completed without immediate payment. This was owing to the depreciation of the currency, and their case was certainly hard. When Congress could at any time obtain at the printing-office a cart-load of money, of which an adequate amount weighed nearly as much as the goods themselves, and yet even that amount might shrink to half the value within a week, how could the man- ufacturer maintain or retain his workmen, who could not support their families with paper pellets and patriotism ? He had, then, reason to rejoice when the Continental currency, "like an aged man expiring by the decays of nature, without a sigh or a groan, fell asleep in the hands of its last 596 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES possessor." Never were the energy, the courage and the perseverance of any people so severely tried by efforts to recover from the effects of even a disastrous war as were those of the American people by their endeavors to replace the losses which they had incurred during the struggle for inde- pendence, and by introducing home production to make that independence something more than a mere word. A worse than depreciated paper cur- rency, which before its death had inflicted countless wounds upon the resources of its holders — a heavy public debt, a commerce temporarily prostrated and a general government the definition of whose powers con- sisted mainly of such vague generalities that when any vigorous action was desired it was usually discovered that there was no right reserved to command, and that the most important measures could only be " recom- mended," — such were the attendant circumstances when the United States of America, with their independence acknowledged, attempted first to "start in business" for themselves. The British government was, of course, ready to throw every obstacle in the way of the progress of the infant nation. As early as 1774, the exportation to America of any tools used in the cotton or linen manufacture had been prohibited under the heavy penalties of fine and forfeiture. This law was re-enacted and ex- tended in 1781, and it was strictly executed. In 1786, as is stated in White's Memoir of Samuel Slater, " Tench Coxe entered into a bond with a person who engaged to send him from London complete brass models of Arkwright's patents. The machinery was completed and packed, but was detected by the examining officer and forfeited, according to the existing laws of Great Britain to prevent the exportation of machinery." The exportation of artificers in various branches of manufacture had also been prohibited ; and if this portion of the law had been as easy of exe- cution as that with reference to machinery, this country would probably have continued to be almost completely at the mercy of the British mer- chant for a long time. The intelligent artisan is not, however, so easily confined by a paper barrier as machinery. " The world is all before him where to choose," and he generally prefers to choose for himself. The very attempt to shackle his freedom is a dangerous reminder that his services are desired and would be highly valued elsewhere, for otherwise there would be no necessity for such enactments. His curiosity is excited ; he becomes eager to learn what advantages would accrue if he were to exer- cise a right which he feels and knows to be his — viz., the right to go wher- ever he can use to the greatest advantage the faculties with which he has been endowed not by the law, but by Providence, and the acquirements for which he is indebted not to the law, but to his own exertions. It is prob- able that the above or a similar course of reasoning passed through the mind of Samuel Slater and led him to pay special attention to a notice in the newspapers of a grant of £100 by the legislature of Pennsylvania, in CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 597 Oct., 1788, to Johu Hague, for introduciug a machine for carding cotton, and of the establishment of a society, with legislative encouragement, for the manufacture of cotton. He sailed from London September 13, 1789, and reached New York on the 18th of November. The manner in which Mr. Slater came to America is a striking proof of the inefficacy of laws to shackle (if we may be allowed the expression) the course of human indus- try. The emigration of artisans being restricted, the exportation of models and machinery being prohibited, he did not, when he left Derby, inform his family of his destination, and " he resolved not to take any pattern nor have any writing or memorandum about him, but trusted wholly to his acquirements in the business and to his excellent memory. He was aware that there was danger of his being stopped, as the government restrictions were very severe and very unjust — the officers were very scrupulous in searching every passenger to America. He told me himself that he had nothing about him but his indenture, which he kept concealed ; and this was his only introduction and recommendation in the New World." The designs and models of the machiner)'' which was to give a fresh impulse to American manufacturing iudustiy came over, therefore, carefully packed up in the head of an intelligent artisan — a place in which they were safe even from the Argus eyes of the British officials. Mr. Slater was first employed by the New York Manufacturing Company, but the state of their business was inferior to what he had been accustomed to in his own country, and he writes to Moses Brown, of Providence, R. I. : " We have but one card [and] two machines, two spinning-jennies, which I think are not worth using. My encouragement is pretty good, but should much rather have the care of the perpetual carding and spinning. My intention is to erect a perpetual carding and summing [meaning the Arkwright patents]." Moses Brown furnished the capital for his successors in busi- ness, Almy and Brown, the former being his son-in-law and the latter his kinsman. They had attempted water-frame spinning, and had failed, and the reply of Mr. Brown to Slater's letter is worthy of being put on record as an example of candor, of liberality and of undaunted perseverance Avhich prove that the writer was fully deserving of the success attained. He says : " We are destitute of a person acquainted with water-frame spinning. Thy being already engaged in a factory with many able pro- prietors, we hardly suppose we can give thee encouragement adequate to leaving thy present employ. As the frame we have is the first attempt of the kind that has been made in America, it is too imperfect to afford much encouragement. We hardly know what to say to thee ; but if thou thought thou couldst perfect and conduct them to profit, if thou wilt come and do it, thou shalt have all the profits made of them over and above the interest of the money they cost and the wear and tear of them. We will find stock and be repaid in yarn, as we may agree, for six months. And this 598 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES we do for the information thou canst give, if fully acquainted with the business." In the concluding portion of the letter, Mr. Brown holds out to Slater the promise of "the credit as well as the advantage of perfecting the first water-mill [for spinning purposes] in America." When Slater came to Pawtucket and saw the machinery of Almy & BroAvn, he said, "These will not do. They are good for nothing in their present condition, nor can they be made to answer." As different persons who had seen these machines, and Mr. Almy himself, had pronounced them to be " worth nothing more than so much old iron," this decision did not surprise the pro- prietors. Mr. Slater used his best efforts to accomplish something with these wretched materials, but in vain. "After various disappointments, it was proposed that Mr. Slater should erect the series of machines called 'the Arkwright patents,' which he would not listen to till he was promised a man to work on wood who should be put under bonds not to steal the patterns or disclose the nature of the works. 'Under my proposals,' says he, ' if I do not make as good yai'u as they do in England, I will have nothing for my services, but will throw the whole of what I have atteraj)ted over the bridge.' " Mr. Slater received by the contract a half interest in the business, and "on the 18th of January, 1790, Mr. Brown took him to Pawtucket, where he commenced the machinery chiefly with his own hands. On the 20th of December he started three cards, drawing and roving frames, and two frames of 72 spindles, which were worked by an old fulling-mill wheel in a clothier's building, where they were used for twenty months, at which time several thousand pounds of yarn had accumulated on their hands, notwithstanding all attempts to sell or weave it. Early in 1793, Almy, Brown & Slater built a small factory, where the machinery was set in motion and increased as occasion served. Thus, after unex- pected difficulties, delays and expenses, arising out of the want of patterns, suitable materials and workmen, was completed and put in operation the first successful water-mill for cotton in the United States." Spinning-jennies had been used for some time. Samuel Wetherill, of Philadelphia, had conducted throughout the war a private manufacture of cotton and woollen goods, and in the Pennsylvania Gazette for April 3, 1782, appears his advertisement of "Philadelphia Manufactures, suitable for every season of the year — viz., jeans, fustians, everlastings, coatings, etc. — to be sold by the subscriber at his dwelling-house and man- ufactory, in South Alley, between Market Street and Arch Street and between Fifth and Sixth Streets, on Hudson's Square." In 1786 the Hon. Hugh Orr, of East Bridgewater, Mass., employed two brothers, Robert and Alexander Barr, to construct the first spinning-jenny and stock-card made in the United States. In March, 1787, Thomas Somers, an English midshipman who had been "brought up to the cotton manufacture," also constructed a model, under the direction of Mr. Orr, which was afterward CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 599 known as the "State's model," as Mr. Orr received a compeusati(ni from the State for exhibiting it and explaining its capabilities. In the same year the " Pennsylvania Society for the Encouragement of Manufactures and the Useful Arts" was instituted, and on the 9th of August of the same year Tench Coxe delivered an address before this society in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania, which was afterward published. " The speaker made a vigorous assault upon the various prejudices at that time enter- tained against the introduction of machinery and the establishment of manufactories. A proper regard for the interests of agriculture was recommended as the most important in any measures which might be adopted for the advancement of manufactures. The cultivation of cotton in the Southern States was recommended as an article from which the best- informed manufacturers expected the greatest profits, and upon which some established factories depended. It thrived as well there, he said, as in any part of the world, and those States raised it formerly when the price was not half what it had been for several years past. It was then worth double the money which it sold for before the Revolution, European nations having prohibited its exj^ortation from their colonies to foreign countries. The great progress made in agriculture and manufactures, par- ticularly in Pennsylvania, since the year 1762, and still more since the late war, was adverted to, and a lengthy list of articles then made in the State was given. These included hosiery, hats and gloves, wearing apparel, coarse linens and woollens, some cotton goods, wool and cotton cards, etc. The advantage of America in having the raw materials and market at home, in exemption from duties, in the ability to sell for cash by the piece instead of large invoices on long credits, as imported goods were tlieu sold, in the superior strength of American linens, in the better atmosphere for bleaching linen and cotton, were severally urged as so many inducements to undertake manufactures. He recommended the exemption from duties of raw materials, dye-stuffs and certain implements, premiums for useful inventions and processes, the invitation of foreign artists to settle by grants of land, and that every emigrant ship should be visited to ascertain what persons were on board capable of constructing useful machines or of con- ducting manufactures. The wasteful use of foreign manufactures was illustrated by the fact that the importation into Philadelphia alone of the finer kinds of coat, vest and sleeve buttons, buckles and other trinkets was supposed to amount in a single year to ten thousand pounds, and to cost the wearers sixty thousand dollars. In urging the benefits to the agricul- tural interests of manufactures in their midst, he ventured the assertion that the value of American productions annually consumed by the manu- facturers of the State, exclusive of the makers of flour, lumber and bar- iron, was double the aggregate of all its exports in the most plentiful year." The advantage of the American atmosphere for bleaching pur- 600 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES poses was so marked that it is said that "A company of English merchants with a large capital was about being formed before the Revolution to import the broiuu linens of Europe, to be bleached in this country," where the superior sunshine and plenty of land were inducements. The opera- tions of this society were conducted with great zeal and energy. Though they met with serious obstacles, such as the difficulty of finding artists and of making machines without models or with imperfect ones, as well as the obstructions caused by foreign agents, who thought that theu' craft was endangered by these eflTorts to foster home industry — though, owing to these circumstances, they did not get their first loom started until April 12, 1788, by the 23d of August they had increased the number of looms to twenty- six, had turned out 11,367 yards of various fabrics, and had already real- ized from their sales a net profit which was at the rate of about 30 per cent, per annum upon their capital. In the mean time, flax had fallen from nine pence and ten pence a pound to seven pence, with the strong probability that it would go lower on account of the increased attention now paid to its cultivation, and cotton had come down from 36 cents per pound to 27 and 29 cents per pound. The price of cotton would be kept down should its cultivation succeed in the Southern States. If a good profit had been realized by the manufacture on a limited scale of materials purchased at the former high rates, one-half of which — the linen yarn — could not be spun by machinery, it was certain that more extensive ma- chines, moved by horses or water, must greatly increase the profit. Carding- machines for which they had paid £100 could now be obtained for £60, and a jenny for which they had paid £28, for £15, and smaller imple- ments were reduced in price in projooi'tion." Careful estimates showed that an American jean better than the British could be produced 25 per cent, cheaper. The American goods were above half an inch wider and much heavier than the imported. This exhibit of the operations of the society was considered (and with reason) as highly encouraging by the committee of the board of managers, which consisted of George Clymer and Tench Coxe. We have already alluded to Mr. Coxe's failure to obtain the Arkwright machinery. A still more serious difficulty obliged the Legis- lature of Pennsylvania to pass (March 29, 1787) an act styled "An Act to encourage and protect the Manufactures of this State," which prohibited under certain penalties the exportation of manufacturing machines, the scarcity of which was the great obstacle to such undertakings. This act owed its existence to the fact that in the year 1787 two carding- and spin- ning-machines in the possession of a citizen of Philadelphia which were calculated to save the labor of one hundred and twenty persons were pur- chased by the agency of a British artisan, packed up in cases as common merchandise and shipped to Liverpool. This act, the operation of which was limited to two years, should not be put upon the same level with the CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 601 acts of Parliament of 1774 aud of 1781, prohibiting the exportation of machinery to America. The British acts were dictated by the selfish desire to keep the colonies in a state of dependence ; the American act was an attempt to defend home industry against such underhand machinations as the one which we have just described. . " The British merchant" of that period saw that his profits would be seriously affected by the progress of American manufactures. To prevent his misguided American customers from pursuing a course which threatened to materially diminish his income, he was ready to use every means in his power, and the activity exhibited in every section of this country so shocked his nervous system that perhaps some excuse may be found for even such proceedings as the following, which occurred soon after the investment in machinery above mentioned, which was made by a British artisan : " A quantity of cotton seed is stated to have been purchased in Virginia and burned, in order to prevent, if possible, the extension of the cotton manufactures in America and their injurious effects upon the importation of Manchester goods." Such were the measures taken to stifle the spirit of enterprise which bid fair to make the American people one of the great powers of the earth. During this same year (1787), however, an event occurred which baffled the calculations of both the British merchant and the British statesman, and w^hich gave an impetus to the manufactures of this country which speedily placed them upon a firm basis. AVe refer to the meeting of the Federal Convention and the adoption of the Federal Constitution. Capital is said to be "timid." No man wishes to risk his money in new enterprises when he literally does not know "what a day may bring forth." The peaceful adoption aud ratification of the Federal Constitution proved that it was possible for the people of this country, however conflicting the interests of the various sections appeared, to make those mutual concessions which, if continued, would ensure the harmonious action requisite for a healthy de- velopment of the resources of the infiint nation. The convention met just at the proper time to be influenced in favor of manufactures, as the society which was formed at Philadelphia during the year 1787 was just beginning active operations. It is thought that the efforts of that society to introduce the cotton manufacture, combined with the earnest recommendation of Mr. Coxe, had great weight with the members of the convention, especially with those from the South. Certain it is that the Southern delegates, when they returned to their homes, generally recommended the culture of cotton, and with such success as to secure increased attention to that crop. The condition of this country immediately before the framing of the Constitution is thus portrayed by a writer who is well acquainted with the history of the first half century of our national existence : " The state of the industry of the country was depressed to a point of distress unknown in the midnight of revolution. The shipping had dwindled to nothing; 602 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES the manufacturiug establishments were kept up by bounties and by patri- otic associations and subscriptions, and even the common trades were threatened with ruin. It was plain, for instance, that in the comparative condition of the United States and Great Britain not a hatter, a boot- or shoemaker, a saddler or a brass-founder could carry on his business, except in the coarsest and most ordinary productions of his trade and under the pressure of foreign competition. When the Constitution had been sent to the people for their decision upon its merits, while its fate still hung in the balance, the influence of the tradesmen and manufacturers of the country was generally exerted in its favor, and in more than one locality obtained for it an acceptance which might otherwise have been withheld." The result proved that they had not overestimated the benefits to be de- rived from a settled form of general government. Not the least valuable of these benefits was the possibility of obtaining oflicial information with reference to important matters of state — information which before that time had been exceedingly difiicult to procure. On the 15th of January, 1790, during the second session of the first Congress, the House of Kepre- sentatives ordered, "That it be referred to the Secretary of the Treasury to prepare and report to this House a proper plan or plans, conformably to the recommendation of the President of the United States in his speech to both Houses of Congress, for the encouragement and promotion of such manufactories as will tend to render the United States independent of other countries for essential, particularly for military, supplies." Hamilton's Meport on Ifanufaetures.— Alexander Ham- ilton, who was then the Secretary of the Treasury, applied his attention at as early a period as his other duties would permit to the subject of manu- factures, and he prepared an elaborate report, which was communicated to the House (Dec. 5, 1791) nearly two years after the date of the above resolution. An exhaustive review of this paper would require far more space than we have to give to the whole subject, nor would it be advisable even if the requisite space were available, as several of Hamilton's leading positions have been assailed, and have even served as political issues. Its value for our purpose consists iu the facts which it contains, but we shall note in passing an error which is, at the present day, somewhat amusing. In arguing against a duty on foreign cotton he says : " Not being, like hemp, a universal production of the country, it affords less assurance of an adequate internal supply; but the chief objection arises from the doubts which are entertained concerning the quality of the national cotton. It is alleged that the fibre of it is considerable shorter and weaker than that of some other places, and that it has been observed, as a general rule, that the nearer the place of growth to the equator, the better the quality of the cotton." Tlie latest and best authority upon this subject says, "The United States exceed all other countries in the production of cotton, both as to CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 603 quautity and quality." The invention of the cotton-gin, within three years after the publication of this report, had so great an effect upon the culti- vation and manufacture of cotton that its production and consumption increased with marvellous rapidity. In the following extract from the report can be found a fair statement of the progress already made by this country up to the year 1791 r '•' To all the arguments which are brought ujd to evince the impracticability of success in manufacturing establishments in the United States, it might have been a sufficient answer to have referred to the experience of what has been already done. It is certain that several important branches have grown up and flourished with a rapidity which surprises, affording an en- couraging assurance of success in future attempts. Of these it may be proper to enumerate the most considerable : 1. Of skins. — Tanned and tawed leather, dressed skins, shoes, boots and slippers, harness and sad- dler}^ of all kinds, portmanteaus and trunks, leathern breeches, gloves, muffs and tippets, parchment and glue. 2. Of iron. — Bar and sheet-iron, steel, nail-rods and nails, implements of husbandry, stoves, pots and other household utensils, the steel and iron work of carriages and for ship-build- ing, anchors, scale-beams and weights, various tools of artificers and arms of various kinds, though the manufacture of these last has of late dimin- ished for want of demand. 3. Of wood. — Ships, cabinet-wares and turn- ery, wool and cotton cards, and other machinery for manufactures and husbandry, mathematical instruments, coopers' wares of every kind. 4. Of flax and hemp. — Cables, sail-cloth, cordage, twine and pack-thread. 5-17. Miscellaneoiis. — Bricks, coarse tiles and potters' wares ; ardent spirits and malt liquors ; writing- and printing-paper, sheathing and wrap- ping-paper, pasteboard, fullers' or press-papers and paj)er-hangings ; hats of fur and wool and mixtures of both ; women's stuff and silk shoes ; re- fined sugars ; oils of animals and seeds, soap, spermaceti and tallow-can- dles ; copper and brass wires, particularly utensils for distillers, sugar refiners and brewers; andirons and other articles for household use; phil- osophical apparatus; tin-wares for most purposes of ordinary use; car- riages of all kinds; snuff, chewing- and smoking-tobacco ; starch and hair-powder ; lampblack and other painters' colors ; gunpowder. Besides manufactories of these articles, which are carried on as regular trades and have attained to a considerable degree of maturity, there is a vast scene of household manufiicturing, which contributes more largely to the supply of the community than could be imagined Avithout having made it an object of particular inquiry. This observation is the pleasing result of the investigation to which the subject of this report has led, and is applicable as well to the Southern as to the Middle and Northern States. Great quantities of coarse cloths, coatings, serges and flannels, linsey-woolseys, hosiery (of wool, cotton and thread;, coarse fustians, jeans and muslins ; 604 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES checked and striped cotton and linen goods ; bed-ticks, coverlets and coun- terpanes ; tow-linens, coarse shirtings, sheetings, towelling and table-linen, and various mixtures of wool and cotton and of cotton and flax, are made in the household way, and, in many instances, to an extent not only suffi- cient for the supply of the families in which they are made, but for sale, and even, in some cases, for exportation. It is computed in a number of districts that two-thirds, three-fourths, and even four-fifths, of all the cloth- ing of the inhabitants are made by themselves." Other manufactures, equally well established, not being of equal importance, were omitted. It is said that the publication of this report in England, in the follow- ing year, created so much alarm that meetings were called in many of the towns. It is also stated that the sum of fifty thousand pounds was sub- scribed at one of these meetings at Manchester, to be expended in over- stocking the American market for the purpose of discouraging American manufactures. The report was certainly of such a nature as to give great hopes to the friends of home-production and to cause proportionate dismay to those abroad who wished American custom. "Leathern breeches" and "hair-powder" may not seem very important items, but the reader must remember that there was a greater demand for these articles in 1791 than at the present day. Even as late as the year 1810 the latter is mentioned in Tench Coxe's Statement of the Arts and Manufactures of the United States among the " manufactures of the United States most frequently exported in 1810." Tench Coxe's Statement, etc. — The census of 1810 was very deficient in the returns made upon the subject of manufactures. An amendment to the act providing for this important matter made it " the duty of the marshals, secretaries and their assistants to take also, under the directions and instructions of the Secretary of the Treasury, an account of the several manufacturing establishments and manufactures within their several districts, territories and divisions, and to return the same to the Secretary of the Treasury." As no formula or instruction was given to secure uniformity and completeness, and as many persons were reluctant or unable to give correct information, the reports were necessarily very imperfect. Some branches were omitted altogether, and others were only partially represented. " Bark-mills were given for only one State ; car- riage-makers for three; blacksmiths' shops for five; hatters for four; tin and coppersmiths' shops for two, and these the least considerable in that branch. The number of tallow-candle factories in Massachusetts was not given, although that State was credited with nearly one-half of the product in that branch ; and the same was the case with the morocco factories." Imperfect as was this "first systematic statement of American manufac- tures in detail," the results were interesting and encouraging. The " total value of the several branches, exclusive of doubtful articles," was given CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 605 as $127,694,602. This was no unfavorable exhibit for a country contain- ing a population of 7,239,881. The "goods manufactured by the loom" amounted to $39,497,057; manufactures of hides and skins, $17,935,477; grain, fruit and case-liquors distilled and fermented, $16,528,207 ; manufac- tures of iron, $14,364,526. When the returns were first sent into the trea- sury department, in November, 1811, and were examined, at the request of the Committee of Commerce and Manufactures, by Mr. S. L. Mitchell, he confessed, after several attempts, his inability to arrange the materials in a compendious or useful form, "on account of their heterogeneous cha- racter." Congress, therefore, by a joint resolution approved March 19, directed " That a person be employed to prepare and report at the next session a digest of the census returns of manufactures ;" and in accordance with this resolution the Secretary of the Treasury " committed the docu- ments for that purpose to the charge of Mr. Tench Coxe," of Philadelphia. The Statement of Mr. Coxe proves that this arduous task could not have been placed in better hands. He had been Hamilton's Assistant-Secretary of the Treasury, and had been largely instrumental in obtaining materials for the report described in the preceding section. He had been one of the most zealous and energetic friends of home industry, and had contributed greatly by his writings and his personal exertions, both when in and when out of office, to the success already attained. His Staieynent shows upon every page that it is the work of a scholar and a man of business. The interval of nearly twenty years which had elapsed since the publi- cation of Hamilton's report had been productive of great results. Of cotton, for instance, concerning the success of which in this country Hamilton had such grave doubts, Coxe could say: "This raw material, being the only redundant one adapted to the manufacture of cloths for apparel and furniture produced in the United States, and being the most sus- ceptible of labor-saving operations, the cotton branch will probably — nay, certainly — become very soon the most considerable of our manufactures. The cotton cloths for various uses manufactured in the United States, ex- ceeded in measurement, in the year 1810, all other cloths — i. e., all the cloths of flax, hemp, wool and silk — and the progress of the cotton branch is greater than that of any other ; indeed, greater than that of all the others. Capitalists can most easily extend themselves in the cotton manu- facture, because the raw material is abundant and capable of being conve- niently and promptly increased." Of manufactures of hides and skins he says: "An improvement in making shoes [Bedford's patent] Avhich saves four-fifths of the workmanship has been discovered. The shoes, boots and slippers manufactured in the United States in 1812 undoubtedly exceeded the value of all the foreign manufactures imported in the first year of the l)resent government, which, by the actual return of November 30, 1791, were worth here only $15,295,638. Upon an examination of the number 606 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES of shoes, boots, slippers, saddles, bridles and other leathern goods, there will appear no reason to doubt that a value of leathern goods is made in the United States fully equal to that of half our exports of our own produc- tion and manufacture. It is not doubted that the leathern branch is at present equal in value to the same branch in any other country, in propor- tion to the population, if the same qualities of goods be estimated at the same prices. These facts in relation to the leathern branch are of peculiar importance, as it is geuerally a manufticture by hand, and not by ma- chinery. They unanswerably prove our capacity in the handicraft branches, and render our capacity for machine operations free from doubt or question." Of iron he says: "The ore is very abundant and widely diffused. The extraction of the metal in its best condition, the conversion of it into steel and the manufacture of it into all the neces- saries and conveniences belonging to this extensive and useful branch, are facilitated by the omnipresence of wood, and consequently of charcoal, and by rich and numerous veins of fossil coal, appearing in many places above the surface of the earth. These are present magazines and uncom- monly strong symptoms of immense latent treasures of that fuel. The manufacturers of iron wares urgently call upon the owners of mines of that metal to open more of them, and to work the whole upon a far greater scale. Machinery to work up pig-iron and bars has been wonderfully invented, extended, diversified and multiplied in this country. Every year enlarges and diversifies the iron and steel manuftictures. They are much too numerous for a detailed statement. Castings have been made in very increased quantities. These, for the use of manufacturing machinery alone, have been computed at 1000 tons per annum. The common blacksmiths' work, though of necessity very imperfectly given in the tables, is a branch of manufacture of great amount and utility. The blacksmiths' shops are in effect primary schools of the arts. The cut-nail machinery has been very beneficially introduced into some of these shops near the iron furnaces, ensuring the profitable employment of all the time not otherwise occupied. It is like the two spinning-wheels and the loom among the women in pri- vate families. Pennsylvania, the greatest nail-making State, produces at the rate of nine pounds of nails for each person in the State, which is at the rate of 65,000,000 of pounds for the whole white population of the United States, were equal attention paid to this gainful economy of time and labor. There are many blacksmiths and nail-makers among the people of African birth and descent in the Southern States. The iron branch has been very fruitful in inventions and labor-saving devices, both at home and abroad. In the moments when we feared difficulty and injury for the want of certain things the manufacture has been suddenly attained and established. This is remarkably the case as to common steel, iron wire and edge-tools, the manufactures of all which have greatly advanced since 1810 CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 607 [Mr. Coxe writes in December, 1812]. Since we can make such contrasted goods as the wire and working-cards and cannon, small nails and anchors, screws and ploughshares, and as we have raised the price of bar-iron from 60 to 110 dollars since our Revolution, our capacity in the iron branch cannot be doubted." Mr. Coxe was not satisfied with the sum-total given in the census returns. His estimate of the value of the manufactures of this country in 1810 was $172,762,676. In a revised edition of his Statement he says, under date of May 1, 1813: "In the course of the numerous and diversified opera- tions occasioned by the deliberate execution of this digest and statement, constant and very close attention has been applied to those facts which have occurred throughout the Union since the autumn of the year 1810, from which the condition of the manufactures of the United States in the current year 1813 might be formed. A sincere and well-reflected final opinion is respectfully oflTered that the whole people of the United States will actually make, within this year, manufactured goods (exclusively of the doubtful) to the full value of $200,000,000." The Census of 1820. — The schedules furnished to the census offi- cers in 1820 were much more extensive than on former occasions, includ- ing nearly the same objects of inquiry as at present. The returns, how- ever, were very defective, partly on account of the inadequate compensation allowed to the marshals and their assistants, and partly because many manufacturers w-ere unable or unwilling to give the details of their busi- ness. A resolution of Congress, approved March 30, 1822, requested the Secretary of State "to transmit to the Congress the returns of manufac- turing establishments and manufactures taken by the [census] marshals of the several States." The digest of the accounts on this subject was found to be so meagre and imperfect that the Secretaiy of State would, if possible, have withheld it from publication. The House of Representatives were strongly inclined to suppress the whole document, and they did go so far as to lay upon the table a resolution which provided for the distribu- tion of the books. There had certainly been a decrease in the aggregate value. Business was embarrassed, and throughout the country machinery and fixed capital were lying idle, or were being employed at a slender profit, in the hope of a favorable change. The omission of all manufac- tures which were strictly domestic or household, a class which had formed a very important part of the former census and of Mr. Coxe's estimates, contributed to diminish still further the sum-total. The report based upon these returns was completed in September, 1824, and it contained a "State- ment of the amount and valye of dutiable articles manufactured annually in the United States and Territories ; the amount of capital invested and the amount authorized and incorporated by State laws." The total "amount and value of dutiable articles," etc., was $32,271,984; capital 608 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES invested, $46,837,266 ; capital authorized and incorporated, $55,289,500. Further comment is unnecessary. The number of those who were engaged in agriculture was 2,070,646 ; persons engaged in manufactures, 349,506. The cotton annually spun amounted to 9,945,609 pounds, and the spindles numbered 250,572. Manufactures in 1830. — Seven leading industries produced, in 1830, an aggregate value of $109,829,760. The value of woollen cloth manufactured was $40,000,000, employment being afforded to 50,000 per- sons. The work of 2140 persons produced $3,000,000 worth of glassware, porcelain, etc. The number of cotton-mills was 795, with 1,246,503 spindles and 33,506 looms, producing annually 230,461,990 yards of cloth, con- suming 77,757,316 pounds of cotton and employing 18,539 men, 38,927 women and 4691 children under 12 years of age; annual value of product, $26,000,000. The quantity of cotton goods printed was estimated at 40,000,000 yards ; about one-third of the goods manufactured were bleached, and the number of hand-weavers was not over 5000. The annual value of the paper manufactured was $7,000,000. Hats and caps were manufactured to the value of $10,500,000, employing 18,000 laborers. The annual value of cabinet-ware manufactured was $10,000,000, furnish- ing occupation for 15,000 workmen. The iron-furnaces numbered 239, and produced, in 1830, 19l;536 tons, converted afterward into 112,866 tons of bar-iron and 28,273 tons of castings, giving an aggregate value of $13,329,760, and employing 29,254 hands. The value of the leather manufacture was estimated at $35,000,000; and this, together with other branches not included in the above figures, swell the total annual value of the manufactures of this country to the comparatively respectable sum of $200,000,000. Manufactures in 1840. — The census of 1840 gives returns of manufactures which are so meagre and confused that it is difficult to de- termine therefrom the progress made during the decade immediately pre- ceding. Progress had certainly been made, for even by these figures the values of such manufactures as the marshals were pleased to notice foot up a sum-total of $316,442,106. The invested capital was $267,726,579. The value of the cotton goods manufactured was $46,350,453 ; number of factories, 1240; number of spindles, 2,284,631; number of persons em- ployed, 72,219. Value of leather manufactures, $33,134,403 ; number of tanneries, 8229, employing 26,018 persons ; number of all other man- ufactories of leather, saddleries, etc., 17,136. Number of woollen man- ufactories, 1420 ; value of manufactured goods, $20,696,999 ; number of persons employed, 21,342. The production qf iron amounted to 286,903 tons of cast-iron and 197,233 tons of bar-iron, from 804 furnaces and 795 bloomeries, forges and rolling-mills. The examination of these figures will show an improvement since the previous report, and the following CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 609 anecdote will give an idea of the enterprise and energy displayed even at that early day by American manufacturers. On the 1st of February, 1840, a new style of mousseline-de-laines arrived in New York from France, and was offered by the importer at 14 cents per yard by the case. The agent of a Rhode Island calico-printing establishment forwarded a piece of these goods to Providence (Feb. 2), and on the 18th of February he had the same style of print, and of equal fabric, in New York, selling at 10 cents per yard. The manufacturer had only twelve days to engrave the new pattern on a copper cylinder, from which the engraving was raised on a steel cylinder, then hardened and made ready for impression, to dis- cover by chemical experiments the ingredients of which the colors were composed and to have the cloth printed, dried and cased for the market. In several branches this country was already far advanced in the use of machinery. The stocking- or power-weaving loom was used here long before its introduction into England. Brass clocks were exported in the following year, and sold at first at an advance of 2000 per cent, on the cost, the invoice price being so low that the first consignments were seized in the British custom-house on the ground that they had been undervalued. Fortunately the owner was with them, and he satisfied the authorities that clocks could be made at a profit even when sold as low as $1.50 apiece, riie following announcement, published at about this time, speaks for itself: "A manufactory near Darby, Conn., has a contrivance for sticking pins on paper which is quite marvellous. It takes in England sixty females to stick in one day ninety packs, consisting of 302,460 pins ; the same ope- ration is performed here in the same time by one woman. Her sole occu- pation is to pour them, a gallon at a time, into a hopper, whence they come out all neatly arranged upon their several papers. The mechanism by which the labor of fifty-nine persons is daily saved yet remains a mystery to all but the inventor; and no person except the single woman who attends to it is, upon any ^^retext whatever, allowed to enter the room where it operates." Manufactures in 1850, — The seventh census, that for 1850, was the first in which any attempt was made to ascertain with accuracy the value of the productive industry of the country. No establishment was counted which did not produce at least $500 per year. The total number of such establishments was 123,025; total number of hands employed, 957,059 ; males, 731,137, females, 225,922 ; capital, $533,245,351 ; wages annually paid, $236,755,464 ; value of materials used, $555,123,822 ; value of products, $1,019,106,616. Of this amount seven of the States produced 68.87 per cent., divided as follows : New York, 23.31 per cent; Massachu- setts, 15.57 ; Pennsylvania, 15.21 ; Connecticut, 4.72 ; New Jersey, 3.91 ; Maryland, 3.24; Virginia, 2.91. This leaves only 31.13 per cent, to be produced by the remaining 29 States and Territories; and of these Maine, 39 610 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Missouri, New Hampshire, Rhode Island and Kentucky had produced amounts varying from 2.41 per cent, for Missouri to 2.13 per cent, for Rhode Island. The only manufacture which produced more than one hundred millions of dollars annually was that of flour and meal ; value of product, $136,056,736. From $50,000,000 to $100,000,000 there were three branches — viz., cotton, $65,501,687 ; lumber, $58,520,966 ; boots and shoes, $53,967,408. In the third class, that producing annually from $25,000,000 to $50,000,000, there were four branches— viz.. Woollens, carding and fulling, $39,828,557 ; leather, tanning and currying, $37,702,- 333; clothiers and tailors, $48,311,709; machinery, $27,998,344. "The manufactures," says Bishop, " were distributed generally among the various States ; none, we believe, confined exclusively to any one, though Massa- chusetts made 85 per cent, of the bonnets and straw goods, 46 per cent, of the boots and shoes and one-third of the cottons ; Connecticut made one-third of the hardware, including guns, and 40 per cent, of the india- rubber goods ; Pennsylvania produced 50 per cent, of the hosiery, more than one-third of the iron and two-thirds of the perfumery; Delaware produced one-fourth of the gunpowder ; Rhode Island, 40 per cent, of the calicoes ; Vermont, the same proportion of the scales ; North Carolina, 90 per cent, of the turpentine; Ohio, 60 per cent, of the lard oil; Missouri, three-fourths of the castor oil ; and Wisconsin, one half of the lead." The statistics of pig-, cast- and wrought-iron were as follows : 1st. Pig-iron. — Number of establishments, 377 ; hands employed, 20,448 ; tons of ore used, 1,579,309; tons of pig-iron made, 564,755; value of entire product, $12,748,777, of which Pennsylvania produced 47.70 per cent. ; Ohio, 9.85 per cent. ; and Maryland, 8.03 per cent. 2d. Cast-iron. — Number of estab- lishments, 1391 ; hands employed, 23,589; tons of castings made, 322,745 ; value of entire product, $25,108,155, of which New York, with 323 estab- lishments, produced 23.58 per cent.; Pennsylvania, with 320 establish- ments, 21.32 per cent.; Ohio, with 183 establishments, 12.22 per cent., and Massachusetts, with 68 establishments, 8.90 per cent., making for these four States a product of 66.02 per cent., or nearly two-thirds of the whole amount. 3d. Wroicght-iron. — Number of establishments, 422 ; hands em- ployed, 13,257 ; tons of wrought-iron made, 278,044 ; value of entire product, $16,747,074, of which Pennsylvania, with 131 establishments, produced 53.16 per cent.; New York, with 60 establishments, produced 8.50 per cent.; Virginia, with 39 establishments, 7.49 per cent.; and Ohio, with 11 establishments, 6.43 per cent., making for these four States 75.58 per cent., or more than three-fourths of the whole amount. • Manufactures in 1860. — In 1860 there was a marked increase in very important particulars, the statistics appearing to show that the dif- ference in the amount of invested capital, which had nearly doubled, was owing rather to the enlargement or rebuilding upon a larger scale of exist- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 611 ing establishments, rather than to the construction of entirely new ones. The number of establishments was 140,433 ; hands employed, males, 1,040,- 349, females, 270,897 ; total, 1,311,246; invested capital, $1,009,855,715; wages annually paid, $378,878,966 ; value of materials used, $1,031,605,- 092; value of products, $1,885,861,676, an increase of eighty-five per cent, over the amount produced in 1850. Of the gross amount, New York produced 20.14 per cent., or more than one-fifth; Pennsylvania, 15.38 per cent., or nearly one-sixth; Massachusetts, 13.55 per cent., or nearly one- seventh; and Ohio, 6.39 per cent., or more than one-sixteenth; making for these four States 54.46 per cent., or more than one-half of the whole amount. Cotton goods. — There were 1091 establishments engaged in the manufacture of cotton goods ; hands employed, males, 46,859, females, 75,169; total, 122,028; number of spindles, 5,235,727; value of raw ma- terial, $57,285,534 ; annual cost of labor, $23,940,108 ; annual value of products, $115,681,774, of which New England produced 68.60 per cent.; the Middle States, 22.93 per cent. ; the Southern States, 7.05 per cent. ; and the Western States, 1.42 per cent. The five leading States were Massa- chusetts, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and New York, which produced, respectively, 33.72 per cent., 11.84 per cent., 11.80 per cent., 10.51 per cent., and 5.77 per cent., making in all 73.74 per cent., or nearly three-fourths of the whole amount. Of these five States, Pennsyl- vania had made the most progress, her increase over the product of 1850 being 134 per cent., while the slightest advance had been made in New York, her increase during the same period having been 33 per cent. Woollen goods. — 1260 establishments, employing 24,841 males and 16,519 females (total, 41,360), at an annual cost for raw material of $36,586,887 and for labor of $9,808,254 (total, $46,395,141), produced 124,897,862 yards of cloth, 6,401,206 pounds of yarn, 616,400 shawls, 296,874 pairs of blankets, and other articles to the total value of $61,895,217. The four leading States were Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island and Con- necticut, which produced, respectively, 31.75 per cent., 13.23 per cent., 11.17 per cent, and 11.05 per cent., making for these States 67.20 per cent., or more than two-thirds of the whole product. Pig-iron. — The preliminary report of the superintendent of the census, published in 1862, gives the number of tons of pig-iron as 884,474 and the value as $19,487,790. The full return, published in 1865, makes the number of tons 987,559 and the value $20,870,120, or $21.13 per ton, an increase over 1850 of 422,804 tons of pig-iron, and of nearly 64 per cent, in value. There were 286 establishments in 18 States ; hands employed, 15,927 ; annual cost of labor, $4,545,430. The two leading States were Pennsylvania and Ohio, the former producing 58.74 per cent, of the quantity and 53.96 per cent, of the value, and the latter 10.92 per cent, of the quantity and 12.92 per cent, of the value, making for these two States 69.96 per cent, of the quantity and 66.88 612 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES per cent, of the total value. The increase of the product of Pennsylvania in 1860 over that of 1850 was 106.07 per cent., and the quantity produced by that State was 15,294 tons more than that of the whole country in 1850. Two hundred and fifty-six establishments, employing 19,262 hands, at an annual cost for labor of S6, 514,258, produced 509,084 tons of bar, sheet and railroad iron, worth $31,888,507. The four leading States were Penn- sylvania, Ohio, Massachusetts and New York. Pennsylvania produced 52.59 per cent, of the quantity and 47.43 per cent, of the value ; Ohio, 7.99 per cent, of the quantity and 8.79 per cent, of the value ; Massachu- setts, 8.03 per cent, of the quantity and 8.26 per cent, of the value ; and New York, 7.50 per cent of the quantity and 7.06 per cent, of the value, making for these four States, 75.81 per cent, of the quantity and 71.54 per cent, of the value. Cast-iron. — 1412 establishments, employing 26,029 hands, at an annual cost for labor of $9,968,346, produced manufactures of cast-iron worth $36,132,033. The five leading States were New York, 25.01 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 18.66 per cent.; Massachusetts, -8.75 per cent.; New Jersey, 8.18 per cent.; and Ohio, 7.70 per cent, of the whole amount, making for these five States 68.30 per cent., or more than two- thirds of the entire product. Boots and shoes. — 12,487 establishments, employing 94,515 males and 28,514 females (total, 123,029), at an annual cost for raw material of $42,729,649 and for labor of $30,938,920, pro- duced boots and shoes to the value of $91,891,498. The three leading States were Massachusetts, New York and Pennsylvania. Massachusetts, with only 1354 establishments, produced 53.09 per cent., or more than one-half of the total, while New York, with 2277 establishments, and Pennsylvania, with 2181 establishments, produced respectively 11.88 and 9.22 per cent, of the gross amount, making for these three States 74.19 per cent., or nearly three-fourths of the entire product. Flour and meal. — 13,868 flouring- and grist-mills, employing 27,682 hands, at an annual cost for raw material of $208,497,309 and for labor of $8,721,391 (total, $217,- 218,700), produced flour and meal to the value of $248,580,365. The six leading States were New York, producing 13.93 per cent, of the total value; Pennsylvania, 12.04 percent.; Ohio, 9.96 per cent. ; Illinois, 8.31 per cent. ; Indiana, 6.97 per cent. ; and Virginia producing 6.37 per cent., making for these six States a product of 57.58 per cent., or more than one-half of the total annual value of the product. Manufactures in 1870. — The census of 1870 was taken with a thoroughness, a fidelity and an ability which made it far superior to any of its predecessors. The products of the fisheries and of coal- and copper- mining, which added to the sum-total of manufactures for 1860 the hand- some sum of $37,889,264, were remanded to their proper place in a sepa- rate department in giving the returns of the ninth census, and still the increase in the annual value of the product of 1870 over that of the pre- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 613 ceding census year was 124.43 per cent., or, iu other words, during the decade between 1860 and 1870 the anmml value of the products oj American manufactures had more than doubled ! Two hundred and fifty-two thou- sand one hundred and forty-eight establishments, with an invested capital of $2,118,208,769, employing 1,615,598 "males above 16," 323,770 "fe- males above 15," and 114,628 "youth" (total, 2,053,996), at an annual cost for labor of $775,584,343 and for materials of $2,488,427,242 (total, $3,264,011,585), produced an annual value of $4,232,325,442. The four leading States were New York, producing 18.55 per cent, of this value ; Pennsylvania, 16.79 per cent. ; Massachusetts, 13.32 per cent. ; and Ohio, which produced 6.37 per cent, of the total value, making for these four States (which contained 31.19 per cent., or less than one-third of the pop- ulation of the country) a product of 55.03, or more than one-half of the total annual value of the manufactures. So full are the materials at hand, the number of industries returned being three hundred and ninety, that it is not possible to give more than the statistics of leading industries, in a very condensed form, but one which will be readily understood by the attentive reader of the foregoing pages. Flouring- and grist-mill products. — Establishments, 22,573 ; hands em- ployed, 58,448 ; annual cost of labor, $14,577,533 ; materials, 366,548,969 bushels of grain, worth $362,314,526, and $5,077,596 worth of mill sup- plies (total value, $367,392,122); value of products, $444,985,143; six leading States, New York, 13.31 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 11.11 per cent.; Illinois, 9.08 per cent.; Missouri, 7.15 per cent.; Ohio, 7.12 per cent.; In- diana, 5.70 per cent., making for these States 53.47 per cent., or more than one-half of the total product. Increase of total over 1860, 79.06 per cent. Iron. — 3828 establishments, employing 145,306 hands, at an annual cost for labor of $76,993,148, produced manufactures of iron to the value of $346,952,694. Pi>iVo?i.— Establishments, 386 ; hands employed, 27,554 ; annual cost of labor, $12,475,250, and of materials, $45,498,017 (total, $57,873,267); tons of pig-iron, 2,052,821 ; value of all products, $69,640,- 498 ; three leading States, Pennsylvania, 50.33 per cent, of the quantity and 46.86 per cent, of the value ; Ohio, 14.97 per cent, of the quantity and 15.73 j)er cent, of the value ; New York, 10.89 per cent, of the quan- tity and 11.37 per cent, of the value, making for these States 76.19 per cent, of the total quantity and 73.96 per cent, of the total value. Increase of totals over 1860, 107.86 per cent, in quantity and 234.33 per cent, in value. Cast-iron. — Establishments, 2654; hands employed, 51,305; annual cost of labor, $28,835,914, and of materials, including fuel, $48,222,550 (total, $77,058,464); products, 535,395 tons of miscellaneous castings, 107,791 tons of machine castings, 40,168 tons of agricultural castings, 27,845 tons of architectural castings, 1,285,177 stoves, 15,351 hot-air fur- naces, 5450 cooking-ranges, 1,530,581 feet of railing, 473,108 car-wheels 614 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES and other products, the total value being $99,843,218. The four leading States in value of product were New York, 24.03 per cent. ; Pennsylvania, 18.79 per cent.; Ohio, 10.55 per cent.; and Massachusetts, 7.05 per cent., making for these States 60.42 per cent., or more than three-fifths of the total product. Increase of total over 1860, 153.13 per cent. Rolled iron. — Establishments, 310; hands employed, 44,662; annual cost of labor, $25,- 192,635, and of materials, including fuel, $79,176,646 (total, $104,369,281) ; annual value of product, $120,311,158 ; leading States, Pennsylvania, 47.22 per cent.; New York, 11.74 per cent.; Ohio, 10.27 per cent.; Massachu- setts, 5.05 per cent., making for these four States 74.28 per cent., or nearly three-fourths of the total product. Increase of total value over the com- bined values of forged-, rolled- and wrought-iron in 1860, 229.29 per cent. AgriculMiralimplements. — Establishments, 2076; hands employed, 25,249; annual cost of labor, $12,151,504, and of materials, $21,473,925 (total, $33,625,429) ; annual value of products, $52,066,875 ; leading States, Ohio, 22.86 per cent.; New York, 22.75 per cent.; Indiana, 17.05 j)er cent.; Pennsylvania, 7.01 per cent. Total for these States, 69.67 per cent., or nearly seven-tenths of the whole product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 195.82 per cent. Boots and shoes. — Establishments, 3151; hands employed, 91,702; annual cost of labor, $42,504,444, and of materials, $80,502,718 (total, $121,007,162); products, 14,318,529 pairs of boots, worth $50,231,470, and 66,308,715 pairs of shoes, worth 193,846,206; total value of product, $146,704,055 ; leading States in value, Massachu- setts, 59 per cent. ; New York, 12.14 per cent. ; Pennsylvania, 7.50 per cent., making for these States 78.64 per cent., or more than three-fourths of the whole product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 59.76 per cent. Cotton (/oorfs. — Establishments, 956; looms, 157,310; frame-spindles, 3,694,477; mule-spindles, 3,437,938 (total number of spindles, 7,132,415); hands employed, "males above 16," 42,790; "females above 15," 69,637; "youth," 22,942 (total, 135,369); annual cost of labor, $39,044,132, and of materials, $111,736,936 (total, $150,781,068); products, sheetings, shirtings and twilled goods, 478,204,513 yards ; lawns and fine muslins, 34,533,462 yards ; cloth, print, 489,250,053 yards ; yarn, not woven, 30,- 801,087 pounds ; spool-thread, 11,560,241 dozens; warps, 73,018,045 yards; bats, wicking and wadding, 11,118,127 pounds; table-cloths, quilts and counterpanes, 493,892 ; seamless bags, 2,767,060 ; cordage, lines and twines, 5,057,454 pounds ; flannel, 8,390,050 yards ; ginghams and checks, 39,275,244 yards; cassimeres, cottonades and jeans, 13,940,895 yards, and other products, the total value being $177,489,739; leading States in value, Massachusetts, 33.68 per cent.; Rhode Island, 12.42 per cent. ; Pennsylvania, 9.85 per cent. ; New Hampshire, 9.57 per cent. ; Connecticut, 7.95 per cent.; Maine, 6.67 per cent.; New York, 6.29 per cent., making for these States 86.43 per cent., or more than four-fifths CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 615 of the whole product. Increase over the total of 1860, 50.96 per cent. Leather, tanned. — Establishments, 4237 ; hands employed, 20,784 ; annual cost of labor, $7,934,416, and of materials, $63,069,491 (total, $71,003,- 907); products, sides of- leather, 17,577,404; number of skins, 9,794,148; value of all products, $86,169,883; leading States in value, New York. 31.43 percent.; Pennsylvania, 23.01 per cent.; Massachusetts, 11.58 per cent., making for these States 66.02 per cent , or very nearly two-thirds of the whole product. Leather', curried. — Establishments, 3083 ; hands employed, 10,027; annual cost of labor, $4,154,114, and of materials, $43,565,593 (total, $47,719,707); value of product, $54,191,167 ; leading States in value, Massachusetts, 35.45 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 11.64 per cent. ; Ohio, 10.02 per cent., making for these States 56.45 per cent., or more than one-half of the total product. Increase of combined product of tanned and curried leather over that of 1860, 108.53 per cent. Sawed lumber. — Establishments, 25,832; saws in use, 63,197; hands employed, 149,997 ; annual cost of labor, $40,009,162, and of materials, $103,343,- 430 (total, $143,352,592); products, laths, 1,295,091 thousand; lumber, 12,755,543 thousand feet; shingles, 3,265,516 thousand; staves, shooks, headings, etc., worth $10,473,681 ; value of all products, $210,159,327 ; leading States, Michigan, 15.20 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 13.78 per cent.; New York, 10.10 per cent.; Wisconsin, 7.39 per cent.; Indiana, 5.86 per cent. ; Maine, 5.42 per cent., making for these States, 57.75 per cent., or more than one half of the product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 125.16 per cent. Woollen goods. — Establishments, 2891; cards, 8366 sets; daily capacity in carded wool, 857,392 pounds; broad looms, 14,039; nar- row looms, 20,144; spindles, 1,845,496 ; hands employed, "males above 16," 42,728; "females above 15," 27,682; "youth," 9643 (total, 80,053); annual cost of labor, $26,877,575, and of materials, $96,432,601 (total, $123,310,176); products, blankets, 2,000,439 pairs; horse-blankets, 58,552; beavers, 261,208 yards; cloths, cassimeres and doeskins, 63,340,612 yards; felted cloth, 1,941,865 yards; coverlids, 226,744 ; flannels, 58,965,286 yards ; jeans, 24,489,985 yards ; kerseys, 5,506,902 yards ; linseys, 14,130,274 yards ; repellants, 2,663,767 yards; satinets, 14,072,559 yards; shawls, 2,312,761; tweeds and twills, 2,853,458 yards; yarn, 14,156,237 pounds, and other products, the total value being $155,405,308. Leading States, INIassachu- setts, 25.42 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 17.74 per cent.; Connecticut, 11.17 per cent. ; New York, 9.26 per cent. ; Khode Island, 8.14 per cent., making for these States 71.74 per cent., or nearly thi-ee-fourths of the whole product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 156.08 per cent. Cigars. — Establish- ments, 4631; hands employed, 26,047; annual cost of labor, $9,098,709, and of materials, $12,500,530 (total, $21,599,239); products, 935,865,000 cigars and other products, the total value being $33,373,685. Leading States in value, New York, 27.76 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 15.84 per cent.; 616 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. Ohio, 8.29 per cent.; Missouri, 6.25 per cent., making for these States 58.1-4 per cent., or more than one-half of the whole product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 268.01 per cent. Cheiving- and smoking -tobacco and snuff. — Establishments, 573; hands employed, 21,799; annual cost of labor, $5,216,633, and of materials, $21,609,237 (total, $26,825,870); products, chewing-tobacco, 66,705,709 pounds; smoking-tobacco, 24,762,211 pounds; snuft; 2,867,191 pounds; value of all products, $38,388,359; leading States in value, New York, 25.26 per cent.; Mi.^ouri, 21.70 per cent.; Virginia, 18.06 per cent.; Illinois, 7.70 per cent.; Ohio, 6.62 per cent, making for these States 79.34 per cent., or nearly four-fifths of the whole product. Increase of total over that of 1860, 75.93 per cent. We give, in conclusion, a few percentages of increase in total value of manufactures during the decade between 1860 and 1870, calculated for separate States: New York, 107.24 per cent.; Pennsylvania, 145.37 per cent.; Massachusetts, 116.79 per cent.; Ohio, 122.45 per cent.; Rhode Island, 173.67 per cent.; Indiana, 153.75 per cent; Michigan, 265.90 per cent.; Illinois, 275.46 per cent.; Missouri, 394.10 per cent It will be seen that greater proportionate progress was made in the Western States than in those portions of the country which are near the Atlantic coast. Sir Morton Peto, whose remarks were based upon the returns given in the census of 1860, says : " Many branches of manufacturing industry in America are, at the present time, very little developed. The manufactures of which they chiefly speak are those of agricultural implements and sew- ing-machines [see American Inventions], of both of which they are justly proud; of cotton and woollen goods (in the production of which they have been making very rapid advances) ; of furniture, clocks, jew- elry and musical instruments, Avith which they now mainly supply them- selves; and clothing and boots and shoes, which a quarter of a century ago were almost all imported, and which are now almost entirely home- made." An examination of the figures which we have given will show a marked advance in many other branches, to which Sir Morton does not refer, as their statistics would bear heavily against his pet theory that America is "essentially agricultural, and by no means essentially commer- cial or manufacturing." To do him justice, however, he could not be expected to realize the advance made in many of the " very little devel- oped" branches during the decade in which he was writing (1860-1870) — an advance which surprised even the most sanguine of our own citizens. Even since the year 1870 progress has been made in some branches (in the production of cutlery, for instance), which has made itself felt in advance of published statistics, and the extent of which may be estimated by the anxiety exhibited by those in foreign countries who are engaged in these manufactures and by the marked decrease in the quantity and value of the products of these industries, which are imported into this country. THE SIG]:^AL SERYIGE BUREAU. ON the 9th of February, 1870, a resolution of Congress was approved by the President which provided " that the Secretary of War be, and he hereby is, authorized and required to provide for taking meteorological observations at the military stations in the interior of the continent and at other points in the States and Territories of the United States, and for giving notice on the Northern lakes and on the sea-coast, by magnetic tel- egraph and marine signals, of the approach and force of storms." The adoption of this resolution marks an era in the history of American science, being a striking proof of the advance made in this country in the appreciation of the efforts of those pioneers who once incurred ridicule by their persevering efforts to learn and to expound "the law of storms." For many years a number of men who loved science for its own sake took observations day after day, noting the state of thermometer and barome- ter, the direction and speed of the wind, the nature of the clouds, etc., and carefully kept the records for transmission to the Smithsonian Institution at Washington, to the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, or to some other similar organization or institution under the auspicies of which their labors had been undertaken. It must be candidly confessed that these volunteer meteorologists did not receive the credit which they deserved. Too frequently they were called in derision " clerks of the weather," and were considered harmless enthusiasts who might as well amuse themselves in that way as in any other. We can remember the time when the Smithsonian Institution was ridiculed by some would-be scientists as a place established to give the inhabitants of the city of Washington news con- cerning approaching changes of the weather. The "clerks of the weather" disregarded this ridicule and steadily worked out problem after problem, until the knowledge of the meteorology of this country was placed upon so firm a basis that Congress was not merely justified in passing the above reso- lution, but was obliged to do so in order to meet the demands of an enlight- ened public opinion. It must be admitted, however, that this appreciation of the importance of the measure in question was not universal, and that the new system, like all reforms, was obliged to work its way gradually into public favor. At one place the opposition even went so far as an expression of hostility, of which a more specific account will be hereafter given. The 6ir 618 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Chambers of Commerce and the Boards of Trade of the Atlantic and Western cities took great interest in the matter, and many of them ap- pointed " meteorological committees " to further by every means in their power the establishment and continuance of signal stations in their respec- tive localities. The carrying out of the objects of the above resolution was entrusted to Brevet Brigadier-General Albert J. INIyer, the chief signal officer of the army, whom the newspapers, with their usual facility in constructing nicknames, speedily honored with the sobriquet of " Old Probabilities." He asked for very small appropriations — $15,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1870, and $20,000 for the following fiscal year, ending June 30, 1871. Such economy would not have been possible if the observations (or nearly all of them) had not been conducted by army officers. The organization of the corps of observers was not an easy task. No similar body of men had ever been raised, organized and equipped. Those who were to perform the actual work were put on duty, according to Captain Howgate, " after a hurried course of study, and without, in many cases, any previous knowledge of even ordinary military duty." The energy of those in charge overcame every obstacle. Thermometers, barometers, hy- grometers (for measuring the moisture of the atmosphere), rain gauges and anemometers, or wind gauges, were speedily procured, army corre- spondents were selected and installed, and on Nov. 1, 1870, at 7.35 A. M., the first systematized synchronous meteoric reports ever taken in the United States were read from the instruments by the observer-sergeants of the Signal Service at twenty-four stations, and placed upon the telegraphic wires for transmission. With the delivery of these reports at Washington and at the other cities and ports to which it had been arranged that they should be sent commenced the practical working of the portion of the Signal Service then known as the " Division of Telegrams and Reports for the Benefit of Commerce," to which title the words " and Agriculture " have since been added. The bulletin published in Washington on this day is found in the Report of the Chief Signal Officer for 1871 (page 64), and it is interesting as one of the first results of a service " which has no holidays and can know no rest; the labors of which continue equally throughout every night as well as every day, and to the vigilance of which has been entrusted responsibility extending not only to property, but pos- sibly to the life of any citizen of the United States." As soon as the working of the organization thus tested had proved a success, and there was no longer any doubt that the reports would be correctly and promptly received, it became a duty to provide in some way for giving notice of the approach of storms which the reports often heralded. The need of this duty was especially urgent upon the lakes, along which the first storm- warning was telegraphed and bulletined on the 8th of November, 1870. CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 619 Upon the 2d of August, 1871, a pamphlet was issued from the chief sig- nal office at Washington which was designed " to put it in the power of the largest number to make use of and to profit by the laboi's of this office ; to enable them to test and to avail themselves of some of the laws and generalizations by which meteorologists are guided ; and to afford the means by which at once to supplement, judge of and aid the work of the department." This pamphlet contains, besides valuable scientific infor- mation, the following important note: " In the weather synopses and prob- abilities emanating from the signal office, different parts of the country are thus designated : Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut and Rhode Island are alluded to as the Neiv England States or the North-east, or simply as the Eastern States ; New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, the District of Columbia and Virginia as the Middle States, or sometimes as the 3Iiddle Atlantic States; North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia and Northern and Eastern Florida as the South Atlantic States; Western Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas as the Gidf States. Sometimes the Gulf States, the South Atlantic, Virginia, Tennessee, Kentucky and Arkansas are grouped together as the Soidhern States. The Lower Lakes, when used, means Lakes Erie and Ontario. The Upper Lakes are Lakes Superior, Huron and Michigan. The North-west means the country lying between the Mississippi and Mis- souri Rivers. The Soidh-west means Texas, Indian Territory and New Mexico. Pacific Coast or Pacific States includes California, Oregon and Washington Territory. The Ohio Valley includes the belt of country about two hundred miles broad extending from Pittsburg to Cairo. The Mississippi Valley includes a belt of about the same width extending from Vicksburg to Davenport. The extensions from Missouri to Ohio, etc., refer to areas reaching to and including the central portions of the States named. Thus a report, ' Westerly winds extending from Iowa to Penn- sylvania,' would convey that those winds would be felt in the interior of those States as well as over the territory lying between them of the respec- tive States. In the coasts, etc., is included the laud between the coasts and the parallel range of coast hills or mountains. In Texas, Louisiana and Northern Florida a belt of laud extending a hundred miles inward would be included. Winds are said to blow from the north-east when they are generally included in the quadrant from north to east, etc., and similarly for other directions." The issue of synopses and probabilities was commenced February 19, 1871, and has been made thrice daily since that date. The synopses con- sist of a synoptic view of the meteoric condition of the United States, as had from the data received at each regular report. The probabilities are the deductions made by the office from the data in its possession at the time of each report as to meteoric conditions probably to be for the eight 620 BUELEY'S UNITED STATES hours then next ensuing. Copies of these synopses and pi'obabilities are furnished at the moment of their issue to the different press associations of the United States. During the first six months after the publication of probabilities was commenced, daily experiments were made in the prepa- ration of detailed synopses, upon which were indicated the times and places at which signals of caution or of safety ought to be shown. The results indicated that the office would be justified in displaying cautionary signals at various ports on the Atlantic coast, the gulf coast and the northern lakes. The display of cautionary signals was therefore ordered to be made at the designated stations of the observer-sergeants on and after Wednesday, October 23, 1871, whenever such display should, in view of the meteoric information in possession of the central office, be deemed necessary. Each signal must be ordered by telegraph from the chief sig- nal office, and remains displayed until it is ordered down by the same authority, unless telegraphic communication with the central office is in- terrupted and continues so for some hours after the storm has passed, in which case the signal is lowered when the danger is over. Observers are required, however, to exercise extreme caution in this respect, in order not to mistake the customary lull in the centre of a storm for an indication that it has passed over, nor are they under any circumstances permitted to hoist or display cautionary signals without orders from headquarters. The signal of caution — a red flag with a black square in the centre by day and a red light by night — displayed on the office of the observer and at other promiilent places throughout any city, signifies — 1. That from the informa- tion had at the central office in Washington, a probability of stormy or dangerous weather has been deduced for the port or place at which the cautionary signal is displayed, or in that vicinity. 2. That the danger ap- pears to be so great as to demand precaution on the part of navigators and others interested, such as an examination of vessels or other structures likely to be endangered by a storm, the inspection of crews, rigging, etc., and general preparation for rough weather. 3. It calls for frequent exam- ination of local barometers and other instruments, and the study of local signs of the weather or clouds, etc. By this means those who are expert may often be confirmed as to the need of the precaution to which the cau- tionary signal calls attention, or may determine that the danger is over- estimated or past. During the year ending Sept. 30, 1871, applications were made by Boards of Trade of cities in the river valleys to have added to the telegraphed and bulletined reports of the Signal Service a tele- graphed report of the rise or fall of the greater rivers. An examina- tion of this subject showed that by the addition of two words per day to a single one of the cipher reports already had from the river stations the requisite reports might be given, and that the expense of the necessary ap- pax'atus would be trivial. It was therefore j)roposed to embody this infor- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 621 mation with the reports as having a direct connection with the meteoric information which they ah-eady contained. No definite form of water- gauge was adopted, as it is difficult to get one at a reasonable cost which would be adapted to the essentially different circumstances under which it must be used at the several river stations. The following simple form of gauge is recommended for localities where it is difficult to get one of more scientific construction, or to be used as a temporary substitute for the latter jn case of emergency : " Take a pine scantling U to 1* inches in thickne'ss and from 5 to 6 inches in breadth, the length varying with the depth of \\'ater where it is to be used. Having planed the scantling smooth, give it la heavy coat of white zinc pa\nt, and after the paint is dry divide the scant- ling into feet and tenths of feet with a rule and lead-pencil. With a small brush paint the tenths of feet black, except the centre and initial ones, which will be painted red and in heavier lines than the intermediate ones. Indicate each foot with its proper number in plain figures on the white surface just above its mark. Having thus marked the staff up to a suffi- cient height to ensure getting the maximum high water, select a pile or other stationary object in some portion of the levee or wharf where the staff will be secure from being damaged or defaced by coming into contact with vessels, and where it will not be left dry by the tide. Lower the staff into the water, taking care to keep it in a vertical position until it touches the bed of the river, and then secure it to the pile by spikes. It would be well in selecting a place for fixing the staff to take the angle of a pier, and having fastened a smooth piece of scantling about the size of the staff on the side of the pile secure the staff to this. When the gauge is in an exposed j)lace liable to be washed by the waves, advantage should be taken of the fii'st low water to secure it from being displaced by driving in addi- tional spikes or by lashing it with strong cords to the pile. Care must be taken in reading the staff when the water is rough to get the mean of the rise and fall of the waves. It would be well after securing the staff to determine some point of reference, so that in case it should be destroyed another one could be put up at the same height. This may be done hy taking and marking any given point in the vicinity, a pile or a rock, at any given height of the water. Thus by driving a spike or drilling a hole, and recording the height of the water as read from the staff at the time, you have a ' bench mark ' or point of reference by which to set up another staff. It would be necessary in doing this to make a sketch of the place, giving the location of the staff and of the point of reference, noting the local names of the surrounding points, so that any other person could find the place from the description." We have given so much space for the transcription of these directions with the design of benefiting those who wish to become amateur observers or to whom the measurement of the rise and fall of a stream may be a matter of curiosity or of interest. 622 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES Before proceeding to further details with reference to the observations taken, it would be well to state who the observers are and what course of preparation is required for their very important duties. They are all ser- geants of the United States army, not taken at random, but selected with great care; and in order to secure the very best of material, arrangements have been made whereby those who wish to become observer-sergeants can enlist with that design, with the certainty of promotion to the charge of a station if they pass the requisite examinations and give evidence of the requisite steadiness and ability. After an extended course of study and of special training at Fort Whipple, Va., in which they become thoroughly con- versant with Loomis' Treatise on Meteorology, Buchan's Handy Book, Pid- dington's Horn Book, Espy's Philosophy of Storvis, Fitzroy's Weather Book, Ley's Laws of the Winds and kindred works, they must pass two examina- tions, conducted by an army board consisting of leading officers, at the cen- tral office. The first examination is only preliminary, and can be passed by any one who is a good arithmetician, who is able to write good English, and who is well acquainted with geography, especially with the geography of the United States. Before passing the final examination the candidate, in many cases, has served as an assistant on duty at a station. He is required when examined to work out a variety of practical problems in instrumental meteorology, to display a full acquaintance with the instruments, and to prove that he is thoroughly conversant with the laws of storms and the gen- eral principles of his science. The observers are also trained at Fort Whip- ple in all the duties and drills of the signal corps of the army, so that in time of war they will be ready for field duty. Full and minute directions are given to observers who are sent to establish new stations, and all stations are liable to be inspected at any time by an officer from headquarters, who examines all arrangements made, the shelter for the instruments, the office- records of the observer, etc., and ascertains as far as possible how the observer-sergeant has conducted himself in the performance of his duties, and in his official, and even his personal, intercourse with the public, it being of great importance to the service that those who are in charge of stations should gain the respect and good-will of the communities in which they are located. If the conduct of the observer has not been satisfactory, he may be assigned to some less important station or reduced to the ranks, or even discharged "for the benefit of the service," as his case may require. It is not often, however, that such stringent measures are required. There is an esprit de corjys among those who have been selected for these honor- able and important positions which leads them by every means in their power to labor for the benefit of a service which has daily become better, more efficient, more worthy of being a pride and honor to our common country and more deserving of consideration by foreign nations, as an evi- dence of which we note with great pleasure that a " letter of distinction " CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 623 was awarded to the Signal Service Bureau of the United States by the geographical congress which was in session in Paris in August, 1875. Each station is, or ought to be, and eventually will be, supplied with the following instruments : two standard barometers (Green's), two standard thermometers (Green's), one standard hygrometer (Glaisher's model), one maximum thermometer, one minimum thermometer, one anemometer (Robinson's) for measuring the velocity of the wind, one anemoscope or wind-vane to indicate the direction of the wind, one rain gauge. Seven observations are taken daily, three for transmission by telegraph to the central office and four others for transmission weekly by mail. The instru- ments are read in the following order : 1. barometer, 2. thermometer, 3. hygrometer, 4. anemometer, 5. anemoscope, 6. rain gauge. The readings of the instruments are entered in a book in lead-pencil, and they indicate the atmospheric pressure, the temperature, the relative humidity of the atmosphere, the velocity and direction of the wind and the amount of rainfall. The observer is also required to note the "state of the weather," whether cloudy, foggy or fair, etc., the amount, kind and direction of the upper clouds and the amount and kind of the lower clouds. An admir- ably constructed verbal cipher, one word of which frequently conveys two separate pieces of information, permits great condensation in the tele- graphic reports. Each regular report consists of ten words, arranged when written off for transmission in two lines oi five words each. In the first line the first word gives the name of the station, the second the date and time of the report, the third the height of the mercury in the barom- eter, the fourth the temperature, and the fifth the relative humidity. In the second line the first word gives the state of the weather and the direc- tion of the wind, the second the velocity of the wind, the third the amount, kind and direction of the upper clouds (provided, of course, that they are in sight; if they are hidden, this word is used), the fourth the amount and kind of the lower clouds (no amount, of course, being given if the atmo- sphere is hazy, foggy or smoky), the fifth the rainfall since last report. The following is an example of a regular report : Mount ; Cake ; Florida ; Throng ; Beast ; Caspian ; Relic ; Hidden ; Three ; Abase. Translation : Mount (station). Mount Washington ; Cake (date and time), 2d, morning report ; Florida (barometer), 30.07 ; Throng (ther- mometer), 19° ; Beast (humidity), .35; Caspian (state of the weather and direction of wind), cloudy, north-west; Relic (velocity of wind), 47 miles; Hidden (upper clouds), hidden; Three (lower clouds), foggy; Abase (rainfall), .01. For a river report a sixth word is added to each line, the last word in the first line being " River " if the rise or flill has not ex- ceeded eight feet, and the last word in the second line indicating the change in the past twenty-four hours. If this change has exceeded eight 624 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES feet, a word iudicatiug the number of feet takes the place of "River," and the lower word gives the odd inches. Thus " River " ending the first line and " Hang " ending the second indicate a rise of 9 inches. " Obey " end- ing the first line and "Hamlot'' ending the second indicate a rise of 10 feet and 7 inches. The amount of condensation secured by this system can be judged by the fact that during the eleven mouths ending Septem- ber 30, 1871, the number of words of weather reports received at "Wash- iugton was 561,929, while during the year ending September 30, 1874, with the number of stations sending telegraphic reports largely increased and daily river reports added, the number of words of weather reports had risen to only 941,860, this system of cipher words having been elab- orated and introduced. The hours at which the reports are to be trans- mitted are given to the observers in the local time of their respective stations. They are required to be at the telegraph-office with the reports carefully and plainly written out in duplicate ten minutes before the hours named, in order that the operator may be notified in time to prepare for their transmission, and must obtain the signature of the operator to both copies of each report, with the exact time of receipt by him. Should the operator make a mistake in transmission, the observer is freed from blame by his duplicate fac simile copy vit having been taken on manifold paper at one writing"), which shows exactly what was handed to the operator. Great accuracy is thereby secured in telegraphing observations. At each station an observation is taken at 12 m., Washington mean time; and if a change equal to or greater than fifteen hundredths of an inch has taken place since the regular morning telegraphic observation, the fact is imme- diately reported by telegraph to the central office, with the direction of the wind, the state of the weather and the velocity of the wind in miles per hour, the whole being sent in the same order as that given for the regular report and in the regular cipher words. At all of the leading stations reports are received from the other principal stations, and at many of them weather-maps are printed during the night, ready for posting up or distribution during the morning. At some of the stations weather-maps are made out in manifold — i. e.,upon translucent paper, with carbon paper be- tween every two sheets — so that several can be made out at the same time. This map shows the direction of the wind, the state of the weather, the height of the barometer, the height of the thermometer and the velocity of the wind at each station. The direction of the wind is indicated by an arrow which always flies " tcith the wind, and not toicard it like a vane." The state of the weather is shown by a disk which can be readily changed, and the remaining information is given by figures printed or stamped near the arrow. Observers have strict orders never to allow imperfect or illeg- ible maps to leave the office. To ensure accuracy the printed maps before being issued are carefully compared with the reports received ; and if CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 625 errors are found they are corrected on the map if the corrections can be made without disfiguring it and without rendering it illegible. If they cannot be so corrected, there are standing orders to destroy the whole edi- tion, "as it is better not to issue any map than one which is imperfect." " Farmers' bulletins " are also issued at some of the principal stations and mailed to post-offices which can be reached within a reasonable time. An idea of the number of these publications may be gathered from the fol- lowing reports for the stations in several cities for the year ending Septem- ber 30, 1874 : Philadelphia — number of maps issued, 58,580 ; number of farmers' bulletins, 89,900 ; total number of publications, including reports given to the newspapers, 162,428. Boston — number of farmers' bulletins, 292,428; number of maps, 9572; total number of publications, 312,757. New York— farmers' bulletins, 378,900 ; maps, 87,294 ; total number of publications, 474,214. St. Louis — farmers' bulletins, 413,342; maps, 53,371 ; total number of publications, 483,461. Chicago— maps, 27,420 ; farmers' bulletins, 539,187 ; total number of publications, 576,576. The number of maps issued at all of the stations during the year named was 170,622; number of farmers' bulletins, 3,491,046; number of regular bul- letins, 281,066; total number of publications, including press reports, 4,494,320. The correspondence of the central office is very large. The aggregate for the year ending September 30, 1874, was 529,928 letters (52,396 sent and 477,562 received), exclusive of publications and telegrams. The number of stations was 102, exclusive of British American and Wesu Indian stations from which reports were received. The British American stations exchange reports with the Signal Service of the United States. West Indian stations have been established at Havana (Cuba), Kingston (Jamaica), Santiago de Cuba, Saint Thomas, Point-a-Pitre (Guadaloupe) and Bridgetown (Barbadoes). The plan kept steadily in view in the occu- pation of stations is " to so arrange that each might from its point of obser- vation give notice of meteoric changes, and warn against unusual disturb- ances for its particular section, while all should be so placed in a series of lines and in such relations each to the other that the reports of any one and the contiguous stations received at the other stations as they passed by tel- egraph to the central oflice at Washington should of themselves give notice of marked approaching meteoric changes. The reports of all, concentrated and charted at the central office, are intended to enable the extent, move- ment and course of the disturbance to be defined and observed from report to report, and warnings to be issued by publications or by signals at any time for the benefit of all. The stations established in the West Indies are extended far southward and eastward to Barbadoes and the Wind- ward Islands; thence the long line of guardian points runs with few breaks (and these each month decreasing) past the capes of Florida, and following the Atlantic coast stretches to the distant north-cast, at Farther 40 626 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. Point and Halifax. Near the southern extremity of this line the experi- ence of meteorists has located the frequent origin of cyclones which some- times sweep in a single course through the islands and over the whole eastern portion of the United States in the vicinity of the sea [see Physi- cal Geography, page 177]. Near the northern extremity the indica- tions of the greater number of such storms pass from the study charts of this office, and are lost over the Atlantic." To give an idea of the rapid- ity with which the " probabilities " are thought out, we need only state that the observations for the principal publication of probabilities, or at least the one most read, are taken at 11 p. m., Washington mean time, and that within two hours the reports are telegraphed and charted on a weather map, so that the officer in charge (one of the leading assistant signal officers) can prepare and furnish to the press by 1 A. M. the synopses and probabilities. The improvement in the correctness of these deductions is shown by the fact that up to November 1, 1871, an average of 69 per cent, was verified; that from Nov. 1, 1871, to October 1, 1872, 76.8 per cent, of these forecasts proved to be correct ; while a careful analysis of the statements of the chief signal office made during the year ending Sep- tember 30, 1874, and a comparison with the meteoric conditions occurring within the twenty-four hours and within the district to which each state- ment had reference, gave an average of eighty-four and four-tenths 2')er cent as verified. Every year the Signal Service deservedly rises in the public estimation, nor is it likely that any one of the inspecting officers will ever again find in the most remote district the lack of appreciation of the labors of an observer which was shown in 1871 in Lake City, Florida. The Report says : " Indignation meetings have been held and resolutions passed to drive the observer from the town because it is believed that his instruments caused the unexampled bad "weather and the large amount of rain which has fallen here lately." The station at Lake City still exists, and it is not probable that any observer will hereafter run the risk of martyrdom or of banishment in a service which has been the means of saving many lives, and property worth many millions of dollars, by its warning, which is of equal benefit to the agriculturist in his field and to the savan in his study; which takes note of the wind that still (as a daily inspection of the arrows on a weather map would speedily convince the most skeptical) " bloweth where it listeth," of heat and cold, of frost and dew ; and which to herald the approach of a storm makes use of the subtle fluid which is frequently the storm's most deadly weapon. EAILEOADS OF THE UJSTITED STATES. rpHE first railroad in the United States was that constructed in Quincy -L for the purpose of transporting granite from the quarry at that place. It extended from the quarry to the Nepouset River, a distance of three miles. The ties or sleepers were of granite, 7? feet long, and laid 8 feet apart. It was a single-track road, with the rails laid 5 feet apart. The rails were of pine a foot deep, covered with oak, the latter being overlaid with thin plates of wrought-iron. This road was partially built in 1826, and completed in 1827. When it was first in use, the passage from the quarry to the landing of a car carrying ten tons and drawn by a single horse was performed in an hour. The second was the Mauch Chunk road in Pennsylvania, better known by the name of the " Switchback," which now forms a part of it. This road was commenced and finished during the first five months of 1827. It extended from the coal-mines near Mauch Chunk, along the side of the mountain down an inclined j^lane with a varying grade, a distance of nine miles, with four and a half miles more of turn-offs or " sidings " and branches. A portion of the original route has been abandoned, a better course having been found ; but the descent is still in some places more than 200 feet to the mile. The cars were drawn up to the top at first by mules, with which one of the cars was filled, when the train descended " by gravity." Stationary engines are now used. During this same year the Carbondale and Honesdale Railroad was opened, extending from the Delaware and Hudson C'anal to the coal mines of that company. By the end of 1830 fourteen miles of the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad were completed, but the tables of Poor's Manual of the Railroads of the United States give 23 as the total number of miles in operation in that year. The first locomotive used in this country was one built by the famous George Stephenson, and imported into this country by the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company in 1829. The Hudson and Mohawk Railroad, from Albany to Schenectady, was begun in 1830. It was a double-track road, extending about sixteen miles, and was built at a cost of nearly ^700,000. In October, 1831, the average daily number of passengers was stated at 387, and a locomotive with a load of eight tons had travelled on it at the rate of thirty miles an hour. Tlie Camden and Amboy Railroad was begun in 1831. Fourteen miles of it were completed 627 628 BURLEY'S UNITED STATES in 1832, and the remainder was finished by the end of 1834. The follow- ing statement with reference to this road was published in 1835 : " It is sixty-one miles in length, passing through a very level country. Being designed for steam locomotives, it is to be constructed in the most improved and substantial manner, though at present wooden rails are laid over a great portion of the line in order that the embankments may be consoli- dated before laying the permanent track." The most improved and sub- stantial manner of that day is thus described : " Longitudinal rails were pinned down to wooden or stone cross-ties, which were imbedded in the ground, and upon these [wooden] rails were fastened by spikes flat bars of iron l or f of an inch thick, and from 2J to 4i inches wide. The heads of the spikes were countersunk in the iron. This method, which was generally adopted on early American railroads from considerations of economy, and with the view of extending the lines to the utmost limit of the capital provided, was soon found to involve great danger and conse- quent expense. The ends of the rails became loose, and starting up Avere occasionally caught by the wheels and thrust up through the bottom of the cars. It was found necessary to run the trains with great caution on the roads thus constructed, and the passenger traffic was seriously divei'ted from those lines that had acquired a notoriety for ' snake-heads,' " as the rails were called which, having become loosened, sprung up and penetrated a car. In spite of such drawbacks, the American people favored railroad construction from the first, and furnished every possible facility for it. There were no such highways in this country as those of England and Wales, upon which the Holyhead mail was able to traverse the whole road from London to one of the most distant parts of North Wales a*, the rate of twelve or thirteen miles an hour. The roads of America were mere sloughs or " corduroy roads," which were ill adapted for rapid travel. In such a country the most rudely constructed road on Avhich a locomotive could be worked was comparatively luxurious ; and an English gentleman who travelled over some of the earliest railways in America, soon after they were opened for passenger traffic, told Sir Morton Peto that he thought them, in those days, very nearly perfect. In England those who attempted to introduce railways " had to go through all the difficulties of land-owners' oppositions and parliamentary conflicts, which immensely burdened the cost of every line of railroad that was permitted to be con- structed for the accommodation of the public and the advantage of the locality it penetrated. It will be remembered that Oxford, Northampton and other large towns forced the railways to take routes at a distance from them, and now, seeing their former error (in some cases too late), have been trying in vain to remedy the very lamentable results of their former mistake. Here we have had to go through all the difficult and expensive ordeals of parliamentary notices, oppositions, contentions, claims for resi- CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. G29 dentiaiy damages, severances of lands and every variety of litigation tliat could add to the expense of constituting a railroad. In America, on the contrary, every one in the country has felt from the first, what every Eno-- lishraan has experienced at last, that the construction of a railroad through his property, or to the city, town or village which he inhabited, was a source of prosperity and wealth not only to the district in which he resided, but to himself personally. In England, in fact, we have treated railroads as things to be discouraged, whilst in America they have regarded them as sources of wealth and of convenience, and have given every encourage- ment and facility for their extension." Before commenting upon these remarks of Sir Morton Peto, we offer for the reader's hispection a Statement showing the Number of Miles of Railroad constructed each Yeru- in the United States, from 1830 to 1874, inclusive (from Poor's Manual). Miles Annual Increase Year. Miles Annual Increase Year. in Operation. of Mileage. in Operation. of Mileage. 1S30 23 1853 15,. 360 2452 1831 95 72 1854 16,720 1360 1832 229 134 1855 18,374 1654 1833 380 151 1856 22,016 3642 1834 633 253 1857 24,503 2487 1835 1,098 465 1858 26,968 2465 1836 1,273 175 1859 28,789 1821 1837 1,497 224 1860 30,635 1846 1838 1,913 416 1861 31,286 651 1839 2,302 389 1862 32,120 834 1840 2,818 616 1863 33,170 1050 1841 3,535 717 1864 33,908 738 1842 4,026 491 1865 35,085 1177 1843 4,185 159 1866 36,827 1742 1844 4,377 192 1867 39,276 2449 1845 4,633 256 1868 42,255 2979 1846 4,930 297 1869 47,208 4953 1847 5,598 668 1870 52,898 5690 1S48 5,996 398 1871 60,568 7670 1849 7,365 1369 1872 66,735 6167 1850 9,021 1656 1873 70,683 3948 1851 10,982 1961 1874 . 72,623 1940 1852 12,908 1926 Sir Morton Peto visited this country in the autumn of 1865. An ex- amination of the foregoing table shows that the railroad mileage of the United States was more than doubled during the nine years immediately following his return to England. His assertions as to the interest shown by the American people in the extension of the railway system are, in the main, correct, and are strongly corroborated by the tabular statement just given. Occasionally, however, a case of opposition to the progress of a railroad has occurred, but such instances have, by their very rarity, proved the rule to be the other way. Such opposition has sometimes recoiled upon 630 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES the opposer, as in the case of a man who was determined to prevent the pas- sage of a certain railroad near his house. The charter had been secured, the route had been surveyed and staked out and the proposed road was to pass over a jDortion of his ground, which was the only feasible thorough- fare between his house and a canal. By the advice of an attorney, who told him that "his house was his castle," he built an addition to his resi- dence which extended completely across the proposed line. He was some- what astonished when his "addition" was taken down; and he failed to recover damages, beyond a fair price /or the laticl occupied. Had the erec- tion of the addition preceded the granting of the charter, or even the selection of the route, the result might have been different. This is, as we have stated, an exceptional case. Occasionally land is given to the com- panies both for portions of the road and for stations and other buildings, such as " round-houses " (stables for the " iron horse "), car-shops (for building and repairing cars), etc. The object of such gifts is to induce the projectors of these routes to locate their line or erect their buildings in places which will be convenient for the one who conveys the land. In one instance a tract of thirteen acres was presented to a railroad company for a car-shop and other buildings, the amount being made up by the owners of contiguous properties, who looked for their remuneration to the increased value of the laud which they retained. There has been too great a lack of uniformity in the matter of gauge in the construction of American railroads. The most common is that of 4 feet 8 J inches. It is said that this happened to be the width of the tram- ways in the North of England, that it was retained on newer roads, and that it was adopted in this country in order to permit the use of locomo- tives purchased in England. Independent gauges were afterward intro- duced, as that of 4 feet 10 inches in New Jersey, Ohio and Pennsylvania (on a few short roads); 4 feet 9 J inches on several roads in Pennsylvania and Ohio ; 5 feet on many of the roads in Virginia, Tennessee, Mississippi and other Southern States; but the gauge of 4 feet 8? inches has been rapidly gaining ground during the past fifteen years. We have before us a report of the gauges of various roads in 1873. Almost all the railroads of New York except the Erie Railway and its connections have the gauge of the old English tramways. Fifteen years ago the gauge of 5 J feet was the gauge established by law in Missouri. By the report which we have mentioned, 20 out of 22 roads have a gauge of 4 feet 82 inches, and the remaining two are 5 feet in width. The broadest gauge yet used has been that of the Erie Railway (6 feet), but the tendency is toward the use of a narrower gauge. That of 4 feet 8 1 inches was formerly called "narrow gauge," but that term is now frequently used in the same manner to de- scribe a road as having a width of 3 feet. We now give (also from Poor's JIanual) a CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 631 Statement of the number of miles of railroad, square males to a mile of railroad and inhabitants to a mile of railroad in each State and Territory in the Union. state or Territory. S 2 Maine New Platiipshire. Vermont Ma.'^sac'husetts Khode Island Connecticut New Eng. States New Yorlc. New Jersey Pennsylvania Delaware Maryland and 1 Dist. Columbia.. J West Virarinia , Middle States.. Ohio Michigan.. Indiana — Illinois Wisconsin. Minnesota. Iowa Kansas Nebraska* Missouri... Wyoming . o P 11 111 Mol 957 669 36.6 918 354 10.1 778 432 12.1 178G 882 4.3 173 1416 7.5 897 641 5.3 5509 671 12.4 5250 876 8.9 1438 707 5.8 5687 664 8.0 280 480 8.0 1060 906 10.5 576 803 39.9 14,291 769 9.6 •4398 644 9.0 3361 408 16.9 3890 462 8.7 6759 429 8.2 2428 490 22.2 1990 307 42.0 3765 378 14.6 2150 280 37.8 1107 203 68.7 2880 677 22.7 459 120 214.9 State or Territory. Utah Dakota.... Coloitido. Western States. Virginia North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia Florida Alabama Mississippi Ijonisiana Texas Kentucky Tennessee , Arkansas Southern States. California f.. Oregon Nevada Washington. Pacific States... Grand Aggregate. CO O sl Inhabitants to mile of railroad. Sq. miles to mile of railroad. 459 250 184.0 275 130 54.9 6S2 147 153.2 34,882 1638 445 29.8 757 23.4 1315 851 38.5 1320 550 25.8 2260 550 25 7 484 470 126.5 1722 604 29.3 1018 854 46.2 5.39 1420 76.7 1650 500 167.5 1326 1060 28.5 1630 310 28.0 700 800 74.6 15,602 7.35 50.6 1.328 508 142.3 250 478 319.7 650 115 160.2 110 340 666.0 2339 388 196.0 72,623 581 34.4 A portion of the rapid progress made in the annual railroad mileage is doubtless due to the land-grants made to certain railroad companies, with the condition that their roads should be completed within a given time. The land-grant railroads have a mileage of nearly 12,000. The effect of these grants was mainly felt, of course, in the Western States, which had 31 2 miles in 1844, 4001 miles in 1854, 12,497 in 1864 and 34,882 in 1874. The New England States had 865 miles in 1844, 3250 in 1854, 3793 in 1864 and 5509 in 1874. The Middle States had 3094 miles in 1844, 5058 in 1854, 7941 in 1864 and 14,291 in 1874. The Southern States had 1106 in 1844, 4411 in 1854, 9511 in 1864 and 15,602 in 1874. The Pacific States first entered into the account in 1855 with 8 miles in Cali- fornia, and 23 miles in that State constituted the only record during the following six years. In 1862 four miles in Oregon brought the number up to 27. In 1864 it was 166 ; in 1868, 889 ; in 1872, 1959 ; and in 1874, 2339. The aggregate cost of the railroads of the United States at the * Including the Union Pacific Enilroad. t Including the Central Pacific Railroad. 632 BURLEY'S CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. close of 1872 was $3,159,423,057 ; at the close of 1873, $3,784,543,034 (increase, $625,119,977); at the close of 1874, $4,221,763,594 (increase, $437,220,560). The average cost per mile for all the roads in 1871 was $59,726; in 1872, $55,116; in 1873, $53,134; in 1874, $60,425. The gross earnings of all the roads for 1873 were $526,419,935, divided as fol- lows : Received for the transportation of freight, mails and merchandise, $389,035,508 ; for the transportation of passengers, $137,384,427, the pro- portion of the former to the latter being as 74 to 26. The current operat- ing expenses were $342,609,373, or 65.1 per cent, of the gross earnings. The net earnings were $183,810,562, or 34.9 per cent, of the gross earn- ings. The latter equalled 13.1 per cent, of the cost of the roads ; the net earnings 4.96 per cent. The amount paid in dividends was $67,120,709, or 3.45 per cent, upon the aggregate amount of the share capital. The gross earnings to an inhabitant were $9.81 in 1871 ; $11.63 in 1872; and $12.80 in 1873. The gross earnings in 1874 were $520,466,016 (from transportation of freight, mails, etc., $379,466,935 ; from passengers, $140,999,081, the proportion of the former to the latter being as 73 to 27). The current operating expenses for the year were $330,895,058, being 63.6 per cent, of the gross earnings. The 'net earnings were $189,570,958, being 36.4 per cent, of the gross earnings. The gz'oss earnings equalled 12.3 per cent, of the cost of the roads, and the net earnings were 4.50 per cent, of the cost. The amount paid in dividends was $67,042,942, or 3.39 per cent, on the capital stock. The gross earnings to an inhabitant were $12.32. The increase of the net earnings for a year when the gross earnings decreased nearly $6,000,000 was owing to the decrease of nearly $12,000,000 in the current operating expenses — a reduction arising from the decline in the j)rices of all kinds of material as well as of labor. The use of steel rails, which are being introduced upon many of the leading roads, is also calculated to reduce the operating expenses, as they outlast ordinary iron rails a much longer period than would be estimated from the increased cost. AMEEIGA]:^ AET. rpHE progress of the fine arts was necessarily slow in America during J- the first century after the beginning of the settlement of the colonies. Those arts which had practical reference to the essential comforts of life naturally took the precedence of pursuits which require leisure, long study and a wealthy and cultivated class to furnish patrons for the successful artist. The first painters in this country were foreigners who came over to find a patronage which their abilities (frequently not above the average) had failed to secure them at home. There is one species of painting which is prized even by those who lack general culture in art, and which natu- rally is the first to be sought for in a new country. We refer to portraits of friends and relatives. The first artist-visitors were, therefore, portrait painters, and the earliest (whose name has been preserved) was John Wat- son, a native of Scotland. He crossed the ocean in 1715, painted portraits for more than fifty years, had, it is said, " no lack of sitters," and acquired a fortune by his labors, of which, however, not a single specimen (so far as is known) is extant. The next in order of time was John Smybert (or Smibert, as Walpole spells it). It is said of him that "he painted no pic- tures to be treasured in our galleries, yet left footprints of good incentive and example which we may clearly trace beneath the subsequent march of greater gifts. Copley, though but thirteen years of age at the time of Smybert's death, confesses indebtedness to him and his works. So also does Trumbull, who at one time painted in the apartments which Smybert had occupied, and in which many of the pictures of the latter still remained ; while Allstou was thankful for the advantages which he enjoyed in the permission to copy a head which Smybert had executed after Vandyke. Smybert accompanied Bishop Berkeley to this country in 1728, and lived at Boston in high favor until 1751, leaving behind him many portraits of the distinguished characters of his time." Like Watson, he was a Scotch- man, and he also acquired a competence by the practice of his profession, and married in America a rich widow — a somewhat better lot than was an- ticipated for him by his friends, against whose persuasion " he was tempted to embark in the uncertain but amusing scheme of the famous Dean Berke- ley, afterward bishop of Cloyne, whose benevolent heart was then warmly set on the erection of a universal college of science and arts in Bermudas, 633 634 BUBLEY'S UNITED STATES for the instruction of heathen children in Christian duties and knowledge." Horace Walpole, from whose notice of Smybert in his Anecdotes of Paint- ing in England we have just quoted, appends the following note, which is the more remarkable, as the cynic of Strawberry Hill was not given to bursts of enthusiasm. Walpole says: "One may conceive how a man so devoted to his art must have been animated when the dean's enthusiasm and eloquence painted to his imagination a new theatre of prospects, rich, warm and glowing with scenery, which no pencil had yet made cheap and common by a sameness of thinking and imagination. As our disputes in politics have travelled to America, is it -not probable that poetry and paint- ing too will revive amidst those extensive tracts, as they increase in opidence and empire, and where the stores of nature are so various, so magnificent and so new?" The volume in which these words occur was published in 1780, and within twelve years (March 24, 1792), Benjamin West, a native of America (though it is true he received his art education in Europe), delivered his inaugural address as the second president of the Royal Acad- emy. How West drew a pen-and-ink picture of a sleeping child before the would-be artist was seven years of age; how before he reached the age of nine he drew on a sheet of pajier recognizable portraits of a neighbor- ing family with colors made of charcoal and chalk mixed with the juice of berries, and " with such colors laid on with the hair of a cat drawn through a goosequill ;" how he obtained from the Mohawk and Delaware Indians the red and yellow pigments which they used at their toilets (his mother's indigo-pot supplied blue), yet (having never seen an Indian in full war-costume) forgot the moccasins and painted the Indian warrior as bare- foot, in his picture of "The Death of Wolf;" how Allan Cunningham, substituting Benjamin for his elder brother, sends the Quaker artist off to the wars in company with a select body of Indians (a substitution copied by several of his biographers and in the sketch of West in the old edition of Appletons' American Cyclopcedia) ; how he succeeded in reaching Rome, and when he was first shown the famous statue of Apollo Belvedere ex- claimed, "How like a young Mohawk warrior!" much to the disgust of blind old Cardinal Albani, who considered it an insult to the representa- tion of the "god of the silver bow;" how the young lady to whom West was engaged to be married was unwilling to call him away from England, thereby interrupting his rapid progress, and went over with the father of the artist to London, where she was married to one whom to the last she declared to be "without a fault;" — all this and much more has been dwelt upon with great fulness in works professedly treating in detail what can here claim but a brief notice. Although the greater part of his art4ife was spent abroad, America still claims him as one who never forgot the land of his birth, and whose teachings were of great value to other native American artists who were his contemporaries. Many of his works are CENTENNIAL GAZETTEER AND GUIDE. 635 now in America, the most accessible beiug his "Death on the Pule Horse," which is in the collection of the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts iu Philadelphia, and "Christ Healing the Sick," which is iu the Pennsylvania Hospital, in the same city. One of his contemporaries — John Singleton Copley, the father of a future Lord Chancellor of England (Lord Lynd- hurst) — was another American Avho w'ent to Great Britain and proved that the atmosphere of the New World was not an uncongenial one ibr the growth of a love of art. Lord Lyndhurst (who became thoroughly "Brit- onized," having left this country when three years old), when written to by Professor S. F. B. Morse for information respecting his father, remarked in a civil but frigi ■ REFERENCES, Pkof. James McClintock, Rev. K. M. Hatfield, D. D., Dr. Wm. F. Guernsey, Rev. Wm. Cooper, D. D„ Rev. Wm. Suddards, D. D., Rev. Joseph Castle. AD VER TISEMENTS. 695 ESTA.I5HSHED 1843. AT CELEBRATED THE ONLY RELIABLE. A LIBERAL DLSCOU^T TO TEE JOBBIJS'G TRADE. ^k^ T 31 o n e: ' s iuDDINS. Equal to the imported, at vei) oreatly reduced prices; all of the verj' hest materials. 136 SOUTH FBOKT STREET, (396 A D VER TISEMENTS. OANIEL WEAVER, JAMES r. HORN. IHOS. WAMiWOKK, MILLIAM B. WALTON, ISAAC A. SHEPPARD. .tonathax s. nnun.!:, .IOII> NIIEELEi!. .-^^fli r/Ti^=Nil/-4ul ml 1 lllin'"llllltll|ldHi"ll — 'll'niimn Fourtli Street and Montgomery Avenue, JPHILADBLPHIA, AND JSJastern Ave?iue and Chester Street, BALTIMORE. A 1) VERTISEilK^ TS. 697 > ^ ^^^^lA SHAFn^^, ^, # O. "yV [ESTABLISHED 1859.] ^4V >^^ Geo.V. Cresson, EIGHTEENTH AND HAMILTON STREETS, PHILADELPHIA. MANUFACTURhR OF SHAFTING AND ALL ITS APPURTENANCES. PATENT INTERNAL CLAMP COUPLING FOR SHAFTING. THE MOST SIMPLE AND EFFECTIVE MODE YET DEVISED FOR COUPLINa SHAFTS. CAN BE APPLIED BY ANY ONE IN A FEW MINUTES. IT HAS AN EQUALLY POWERFUL HOLD ON BOTH SHAFTS. EQUAL TO A "FORCING ^ FIT." THERE ARE NO BOLTS TO BREAK OR WORK LOOSE. THERE IS NO ^ STRAIN ON TUB SCREWS. CANNOT THROW THE SHAFTS OUT OF LINE ON APPLYING IT. THIS COUPLING TS NOW BEING MANUFACTURED BY SOME OF THE MOST PROMINENT FIRMS IN ENGLAND. SCOTLAND AND GERMANY, AND HAS RECEIVED THE HIGHEST COMMENDATION FROM THE BEST MECHANICS AT HOME AND ABROAD. 698 A D VER TISEMENTS. D. L. BAOMGARDNER. B. J. WOODWARD. HENRY BAUMGARDNER. BAUMGARDNER, WOODWARD & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF Manila, Sisal and American Hemp CORDAGE AND DEALERS IN TAR, PITCH, OARS, ' AND ;IIP CIIIDLEIY. 38 South Delaware Avenue, PHILADELPHIA. Factory, BEVERLY, N. J. ^ • •» ► TiS^ N. B.— Lowest Rates of Freight secured to all points. AD VERTISE3fENTS. 699 E. M. BRUCE & CO., General Managers for the COTTAGE ORGANS AND THE Af?/ON PIANOS, FOR Pennsylvania. Delaware and New Jersey. Send for CIRCULAR and PRICE LISTS. ' E. M. BRUCE & CO., 1308 Chestnut Street, PHILADELPHIA. DAVID F. CONQVER & CO., Successors to WM. B. WARNE & CO., AND WHOLESALE DEALERS IN if ITP ■t3W< V%M o I South-East Cor. Chestnut and Seventh Sts., FIRST FLOOR, i=i3:inij^r)Ei-.:pH:z^. American Watch Wholesale Salesrooms. 700 A D VEETISEMENTS. HOBERT WOOD. THOS. S. MOOT. Philadelphia Ornamental Iron Works. Robert Wood & Co., I!36 RIDGE AVENUE, PHILADELPHIA, PA, MANUFACTURERS OF Railings for Offices, Banks. Connlor Failings, Balconies, Lawn and Farm Fences, etc. BRONZE WORK, STATUARY BRONZES FB03I ARTISTS' MO DELS, COLOSSAL, HEROIC or LIFE-SIZE, MADE AND FINISHED IN THE HIGHEST STYLE OF ART. RElJ'ERRINa- a^o H. K. BKOWN, J. A. BAILKY. J. (J. WARD, L. IV. VOLK. L, THOMPSON, HORATIO STONE, All Prominent Artists, for the Fidelity and Finish of our Work. AD VKRriSEMENTS. TOl td WHITE, BLACK AND COLORS, > H ,~ ^ '^Aisniouj OOJ ®f 'B ^ojj '&&M&MMM MI ^ Q CiUl c ^ H 702 AD VERTISEMENTS. MORO PHILLIPS, Manufacturing Chemist, manufactdrer of acids and other chemicals ; MORO PHIHIPS' SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF I.ISIE. P'MIMABELFMIA, JAMES laiLLKR, MANUFACTURER, IMPORTER AND DEALER. LOOM REEDS AND HARNESSES. Wire Heddles, Mail Eyed Dou- ble Knot, and Double Knot and Loop Harnesses, A large Stock of W e a V e r's English Mails constantly o n hand, □ dfes FACTORY AND MILL SUPPLIES, Etc. CORNER TWENTY-SECOND AND HAMILTON STS. PHIL A I) EL I' SI A. N.E. Cor. 10th and WALNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, DEALER IN HOT HOUSE, DOMESTIC AND FOREM FRUITS, and m • HaviiiK commenced the manufacturinp of Confectionery in 1843, and studied its various branches with succeLl have at various times introduced to the public many of the choicest Confectjons of the day some of which are my celebrated CREAM CARAMELS of all flavors, being ttie first to discove'^' the practicability of combininR pure Cream with tl„. juice of the various fruits without impoverishin Jthe richness or flavor of cither. Greer's Cream Walnuts and Chocolates are well known. SECURE A BOX OF GREER'S CONFECTIONS. AD VERTISEMENTS. 703 LIFE INSURANCE COMPANY OF PHILADELPHIA, S. E. cor. Fourth and Walnut Streets. Assets $5,000,000. GEO. W. HILL, President. GEO. NUGENT, Vice-Pres't, JOHN S. WILSON. Sec'y ALEXANDER WHILLDIN, Chairman Finance Committee. JOHN C. SIMS, Actuary, J. G. HAMMER, Ass't Secretary. Largest Lanip-black Works in the World. LAMP^ACK FROM THE LOWEST TO THE HIGHEST GRADES, %/il m W^ iir w Mil \\if^_ ir* fn ifififiTIN No. 118 Walnut Street, Second Floor Front, PHILADELPHIA. We particularly caution purchasers against parties who are fraud- ulently appropriating- our Tvell-known brands, originated by us, and fa- miliar to the Trade for nearly a quarter of a century. Silver Medals awarded by the Franklin Institute, 1852 ; Massachusetts Charitable Mechanic Association, Boston, 1860 ; American Institute, New York, 1867 ; and Franklin Institute, 1874. Foundries: GIRARD AVENUE, ASH STREET AND GUNNER'S RUN, PHILADA. Offices, 133 North Seoond St., Pliilada.; 143 West Pratt Kt.. Baltimore. W. L. McDowell, Pres. W. If. Stkax, Vicc-Prcs. F. Leibrandt, Jr., Treas. \V. 1). Bexnaoe, Sec. ^A/^. T. PALFREY, Sup't. THOS. VVEISS, Treas LEHIGH SHOVEL COMPANY, M \N'lM'ACrUKKKS OK SHOVELS, SPADES AND SCOOPS. 704 AD VER TISEMENTS. PENNSYLVANIA STEEL COMPANY, MANUFACTURERS OF STANDARD HAMMERED STEEL RAILS AND AXLES Heavy Shafting, Forgings, Frogs, Crossings and Switches. Principal Office, 216 SOUTH FOURTH ST., PHILADA. ■ <•» ■ SAMUEL M. FELTON", President. HENRY C. SPACKMAN, Treas. EBEN F. BARKER, Sec. ■ o » • WORKS AT BALDWIN, NEAR HARRISBURG, PENNA. LUTHER S. BENT, Sup't at Works. John Harrison, 1793. m»^RIlI.«:^OIV UnOTIiERS^ & CO., Proprietors of the Gray's Ferry White Lead, Color and Chemical Works. Factories, at 34th and 35th Streets, Cray's Ferry Road and Schuylkill River, 26th Ward, Philadelphia. Connected by Private Telegraph Wires, tlie sole property of this firm, Avith their Ofh^es, 105 SOUTH FROKX ST., PIIIIiA]>£l:s tabli.sUed IS aS. BREAD BAKER, 43 NORTH THIRTEENTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. ISTo. 334.3 IMAnitET STREET, L»IIIL A^DELPHT A, BREAD BAKER. ADAM NKWKUmiZT, Manufacturer of a Superior Quality of GLASS-HOUSE POTS Of all sizes for Common and Flint Glass Manufacturers, made from the best German Clay and of Superior Workmanship. bx^j^ck: i^sj^d CFiXJc;xBi«£:s Of a superior quality and all sizes constantly on hand and made to order for STEEL MELTERS, BRASS FOUNDERS, SMELTERS, JEWELERS, ETC. KEYSTONE CARBURET OF IRON STOVE POLISH. 1.537 & 1339 Worth Front St., heloic Oxford, l*Jnlada, ADVEETISEMENTS. 705 WEST END PLANING MILL, J. W. S^II-X^ll & CO., 2106, 2108 and 2110 Filbert Street, I^liMadelphia, MANUFACTURERS OF Window Frames, Doors, Sash, Blinds, Shutters, Mouldings, Brackets, Stair Balusters. Planing, Re-sawing, Turning and Scroll Work. CHAS . S. EVEL AND. H. B. CHAMB ERS. CHAS. S. EVELAND & COT Leather ELPHIA. PHILADELPHIA RAZOR STROP WORKS, 605 and 607 Arch Street, Philadelphia. Vour attention is requested to oiiiTniproved Patent Combination Strop and Hone, warranted unequalled. GEORG-B THOMPSON, 33EA.LER IN" 259 South Fourth Street, SATISFACTION ALWAYS GUARANTEED. Agent for the Springfield Gas Machine, AND DEALER IN GASOLINE FOR GAS MACHINES, BARKER'S PATENT OPEN BURNER FOR GASOLINE GAS. 12 North Seventh Street, Philadelp hia. DEALER IN STAPLE /FANCY TRIMMINGS White Goods, Hosiery. Gloves. Hdbfs., EnibroiderlM,l,aces. Ribbons, Skirts. Corsets, Travelling Bags. Portnionnaies. BrusUes, Combs. and a general variety or :^otions. \ N. W. corner Fourth and Spruce and 1637 Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia. 45 706 A D VER TISEMENTS. WROUGHT IRON BRIDGES. Continental Bridge Co., 110 SOUTH FOURTH ST., ISUITjOER© of HENSZEY'S PATENT ARCH, A.lSrr) OTHER, STYLES WROUGHT IRON BRIDGES; ALSO, WROUGHT IRON PIVOT BRIDGES. KEYSTONE SLATE MANTELand SLATE WORKS KSTAm^ISHKD 1BC3. 5^ GO SLATE MANTELS of the LATEST and MOST BEAUTIFUL DESIGNS, Amd other Slate Work on hand or Made to Order. TII>IN« AND FI.A«)«I9fO, etc. 1210 Ridge Avenue and 1211 and 1213 Spring Garden St., Philadelphia, ADVEU TISEMENTS. 707 E, D. & W. A. FRENCH, Manttfnctitrers and Importers of PAINTERS'and BUILDERS' SUPPLIES ■ <»» ■ WHITE LEADS, LINSEED OIL, LUBRICATING OIL, BRUSHES, COLORS, BOILED OIL, VARNISHES, WINDOW GLASS. Sole Manufacturers of Chinese Green. ■ *•* • Calcined Plaster, Rosendale Cement, Portland Cement, Garnkirk Chimney Tops, imported from Glasgow, Scotland. — - — ' «»» SLATE MANTELS. Stock and Quality of Work unsurpassed by any in this country. THIRD AND VINE STS., CAMDEN, N. J. GIVE US A CALL. SEND FOR CIRCULARS. PKILADBLPHIA PATENT FIRE AND WATER PROOF GRANULATED SLAG ROOFING Manufactory, N. Broad and Cumber/and Sts., Office, 404 WALNUT STREET. EOOFING MATEEIAL AND ALSO State and County Rights for Sale. ■ '<.»■ M. EHRET, JR. JOS AD VERTISEMENTS. // HARBACH'S ORIGINAL CENTENNIAL NOilGAimES ^ "' 3B Nt»8'''St.&807 & 803 Filbert St-Philada. Pa. ESTABLISHED 1843. JOSEPH CHAPMAN, PLAIN AND DECORATIVE HOUSE, SIGN AND FRESCO B30 and 532 North Tenth St., Estimates furnished and contracts made for every description of work in city or country. Churches, Banking-houses, Halls of Public Buildings and Dwellings Frescoed in any style desired. Special attention given to Oiling and Polishing Hard Wood. The best workmen employed, and all work executed under the per- sonal supervision of the proprietor. A D VER TISEMENTS. 700 J§stdbU.^hed Btdhlished BUILDERS OF FIRST-CLASS CARRIAGES, Manufactory and Warerooms, 3432 to 3438 Market St., Philadelphia. F. STEFFAN & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF woisfii mnm, Nos. 1344 and 1346 NORTH FRONT ST., and 1343, 1345, 1347 and 1349 HOPE ST., PHILADELPHIA. 710 ADVERTISEMENTS. KSTjSlBLISHKX) 1833. BEED MEYER. CONRAD MEYER, CHAS. E. MEYER. (Inventor of the Iron -Plate Frame for Pianos.) MBYBR i& SONS, Piano Manufacturers MM€ :fmiif, IPHZIL^IDEIIjIPHIIA.. SWTEYEI^ ittli)'ti<- tone and thorotujU u'orkiiimi.i/iip, tmil thf. tjri-iitfuf possiblf iltt nihil it i/ ; till'!/ iiri- ii-fioUy iinfivtillcd, and have stood tlie trial l/i/ the masters of tliis coiintri/ niid Jiaroj>e, The best proof of tlieir superior (/nnlities is their iiirreasiiif/ J^OfZrLAIilTY after more than fiftij //ears' trial. Thousands in nse. Hit//test I'rize Medals trnd Atvurds to I!Y THE World's Groat Exhiliition, London; Mecliauics' lustitnk. Boston; American Institnto, New York; Maryland Institnte, Baltimore; Franklin Institute. Pliilndelpliia, 5 Silver Medals. Sinee receivint/ the HIGHEST ATTAINABLE AirAIil) of the EONDON "I'RIZE MEDAL," the MEYER RIANO has not been exhibited. SPECIAL ATTENTION IS RESPECTFULLY DIRECTED TO OUR CRESCEITSCllLE mo IMPROVED BRACING mPFES, By the application of our CRESCENT SCALE, that SINGING QUALITY of tone so desirable in all Musical Instruments has been obtained for OUR PIANOS, which, together with their well- known Power, Elastic Touch and Durability, renders them "THE STANDARD OF PERFECTION." MEYER & SONS' IMPROVED BRACING places theirPIANOS above COMPETITION for STANDING IN TUNE. «~4«* — Prices as reasoiiaMe as is cousisteiit witli tlie liest materials and wortaausMi). A D VER TTSEMENTS. 711 712 ' AD VERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1838. WM. R. STEWART. EDWIN H. STEWART. WM. R. STEWART & BRO., MOROCCO MANUFACTURERS, 435 and 437 York Ave., corner Willow St., Philadelphia. C. VAN GUNDEN. E. YOUNG ORNAMENTAL MARBLE WORKS. « • » • * VAN GUNDEN & YOUNO (Successors to JOHN BAIRD), No. 1221 Spring Garden Street, Branch "Works, Darby Eoad, opposite Woodland Cemetery, PHILADELPHIA. MARBLE AND SCOTCH GRANITE MONUMENTS, TOMBS, ETC. Gj= Cemetery Liots Enclosed at IIII1.ADA. IT. J. «]VL1TH «fe CO., Manufacturers of STAINED, EMBOSSED, ENAMELLED and CUT GLASS. References: University of Penna., Masonic Te.mple, Christ Church. tt^°" Designs and Estimates Furnished. PURE MILK • ♦ EDWARD W. WOOLMAN, 44 North S8th St., Philadelphia. < ^.» » Best Uility from Selected Dairies! Unlimited Siiply! Promut Delivery! PARTICULAR ATTENTION GIVEN TO SUPPLYING FAMILIES. JOHN G. KOLB'S New York Celebrated Home-M.ade Bread .. AND BISCUIT BAKERY, 1403, 1407 and 1409 South Tenth Street, :fh:iiLj-A_x)eIjI=h:i.a.. HUFNALi^ W&iii Qre§n, qqt.^ gi Nmetmuth SU, FMlada. BREAD AND CAKE BAKER, 3924 Market St., West Philadelphia. M^ BREAD SERVED AT RESIDEXLES ElEUY MORXiyG.-^^ 714 AD VERTTSEMENTS. MINTON'S TILES, OF THE FINEST QUALITY, IN Geometric, Encaustic, Majolica, Painted, etc., For FLOORS, WALLS, HEARTHS, FIRE-PLACES, ■ <•► • ESTABLISHED 1S50. No. 1325 MARKET STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ED. S. DEEMER. MARSHALL DEEMER. S. A. DEEMER. PHILADELPHIA JOHN DEEMER'8 SONS, 147 and 148 Margaretta Street^ MANUrACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF Morocco I Fancy Leather, Bronze Cuirs, Blue and Red Root Skins, French Morocco, Brush, Itid, and Grains, Pebbled Grains, etc. SPECIALTY OF BRONZE. ♦ » WM. ROSE & BROS., MANUFACTURERS OF Brick, Plastering I Pointing Trowels MOULO[RS' TOOLS, SADDLERS' ROUND KNIVES, etc, Address, THIRTY-SIXTH and FILBERT STS., A T) VKRTISEMENTS. 715 The Bullock Printing Press. WILLIAM H. WILLIAMS, Manager. The BULLOCK SELF-FEEDING AM) I'KIJ- FECTING PRESS feeds itself from rolls of paper miles iu length, and prints hoth sides of the sheet at one operation, thus saving the whole cost of feeding bv hand. The BULLOCK is the first invention of lis kind that was brought into j)ractical and sue- cessfal use. It is entirely original in design, arrangement and operation, and is not borrowed from English or French inventions, as some new machines are. The BULLOCK is not only tlie BEST, but the CHEAPEST, Press in tiie world. For further information address THE BULLOCK PRINTING PRESS CO., iV'o. 73S SuHHom St., Jfhiladelphifi. WILLIAM STUUTHEBS, JOHN STHLTHEUS, WILLIAM STRUTHERS, JR. STRUTHERS & SONS, MARBLE, GRANITE & SANDSTONE WORKS ESTABLISHED 1818. Jfonuntaital Ijorli and j|arbljt J|antel^ CONSTANTLY ON HAND. ' DESIGNS FURNISHED EROM THE PLAINEST TO THE MOST ELABORATE. Building ^ork in Peneral Pontracted For. • 'ZissB nina— IMFQETEMB QF gaQTQM QE AMITE. OFFICE AND WAREROOMS, No. 1022 MARKET STREET. STEAM WORKS, WALNUT ST. WHARF, SCHUYLKILL. NEW AMERICAN Sewing Machine. fi@- SELF-THREADING SHUTTLE.nSffl For Ease of Opfrafioii, Shnflieili/ of Movftnfut iiinl Tiii- rnltiliti/ it is Uiiequallftt. Siiitril to jCvt-ri/ Kiml of H'or/;, from i/ie JAffhtest to the Jlenviest. Sold at a Moilerote I'rice, with Ijiberal Discount to Cash Customers. OFFICE AND SALESROOMS, 1318 Chestnut St., PMladelpliia. 716 AD VERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 18-i2. Fine Goofls. MANUFACTURERS OF THE fiNEST lONFECTIONERY, i^)> IN THE UNITED STATES. S. W. COB. OF TWELFTH AND 3lAItKET STS., AD VERTISEMENTS. 717 Kstablishied. IS^r. CONSHOHOCKEN DAIRIES, Oflice, IVo. 003 IV. I^lglitli Street, r»lilla,d.elplila. ESTABLISHED 1S37. H. G. I^IPP d^ BRO.^ EAEEEY AMB EEFEESHME^T ^ALQQN, 217 N. NINTH ST., ABOVE BACE, PHILADA. FIRST-CLASS FAMILY BREAD BAKERY, ICE O 11 E A M JL IV D F A IV C Y C A It E « . FRENCH BREAD A SPECIALTY. NINETEENTH ST. BELO^/V" SPRING GARDEN, PHILADELPHIA. JESTABLISHED 50 YEAHS. H L_| AND y WOVEN WIRE, SCREENS MANUFACTURED BY JOS, A, NEEDLES, NORTH FRONT ST. PHILADELPHIA. JAMES T. SHINN, DREGGIST, Manufacturer of LIQUID RENNET, OPAL DENTALLINA, Comp. CHARCOAL BISCUIT, and all Pharmaceutical Preparations. PRESCRIPTIONS and FAMILY SUPPLIES ARE SPECIALTIES. S. W. coil. BROAD AND SPJtUCE STS., rHII.ADET.PHIA. J. LACMANN & SONS, MANUFACTURERS OF DOLL BODIES, ARMS & SHOES, 809 RA^CTi; STREET, PHIL A^D ELFHI A. . ESTABIilSHED 1841. PHILADELPHIA SURGEONS' BANDAGE INSTITUTE, PATRONIZED BY THE MEDICAL FACULTY. aSTo. 14 Nortli Ninth Street, B. C. EVKK^IXT, I'riiicipal. B. C. Everett's Improved Plated Grnduiitiu? P; ,^ Rupture when all others fail; also German aiuahlc Elastic Belts for Abdominal Weakness and Corpu- positively Hard Rubber and a large variety of cheap Trusses. Everett's Invaluahlc '^'»«"= ^."{''^ "".t^TanrSusDensoA- Bacda« ■ lenev Elastic Stockings- Utefo- Abdominal Supporters: Shoulder Hraces ; Crutches; Anus and !>uspensor> Bandages . SuTue: Bow Lee and Knock-knee Instruments ; all of which are made in a scientific manner, and skilfully applied. Apart- Spine, Bow-Leg and Knock' ments for ladiea under the superintendance of a competent lady 718 AD VERTISEMENTS. A, M. Collins, Son & Co., C MANUFACTUREKS OF < FOR PHOTOGRAPHERS, PRINTERS, Lithographers and Stationers, ALSO, LOCAL RAILROAD TICKETS. WAREHOUSE: No. 18 S. SIXTH STREET AND No. 9 DECATUR ST., Having all the required appliances and facilities for the manufacture of Cards and Card Boards, we are enabled to offer to purchasers inducements in the import- ant requisites of price, uniform quality and promptness in execution of orders. A D VER TTSEMENTS. 720 AD VER TISEMENTS. ■WM. ECKFELDT, E. B. BICHIE. SGKFCLDT d^ RIGHIB^ Ko. 41S NORTH THIRD STREET, PHTLADELPHIA, TANNERS And Manufacturers of Superior Oak X^eatliei* Belting and fire Ho^e. EISTA.BLISHEEO 1811. J. M. HUMMEL Sc SONS, MANUFACTURERS OF COLOR[0 ROANS, LININGS, ALUM SHEEP & CALE 1, ALSO, Importers and Manufacturers of Skivers IN ALL THE FANCY COLORS AND DIFFERENT STYLES OF FINISH, Especially adapted for Hatters' and Bookbinders' Use. OFI^ICE ANr> FACTOKlir, 955 North Third St. mid 970 Canal St., LEONARD NAX, F. ALBERT KUHN. NAX & KtJHN, MANUFACTURERS OF SMOKING PIPES, WMIIiABEEtWMiA, Importer and Manufacturer of Every Variety of FANCY COLORED, &LAZEr) A.'Pf'D ElSTAMiELLKD ., .u^M.x, RAILROAD, '3 CHINA, BLANK, RAILROAD, ENAMELLED AND BRISTOL BOARD O -A_ _tri/ J—) ^3 y MANILLA SHIPPING TAGS. Office and Warehouse, 16 South Sixth Street, PHILADELPHIA. AD VER TISEMENTS. 721 BLATCHLEY'S CUCUMBER WOOD PUMPS. BLATCHLEY'S HORIZONTAL ICE CREAM FREEZERS. (TINGLEY'S PATENT.) CHARLES G. BLATCHLEY, Manufacturer, Ofiicc nntf Wmirooms, 506 COMMERCE ST., I'ltlLADET.VHTA. JAMES FLE Mi i^^ (Late of GARDNER >«: FLKMINlii, No. 1255 & 1257 N. Twelfth St., cor. of Thompson, PI1ILA»EI.1»HIA. OFFERS THE LARGEST AND BEST SELECTED STOCK OF VEGETABLE AND FLOWER SEEDS To be found in America, embracing all the Home grown, as well as New anil Rare Foreign Varieties. The Amatki'r Gardener and Florist will find all the Novelties as they appear, obtained from reliable sources, and otf'ered at fair and reasonable rates. The Market Gardener may also obtain every variety, suited to his wants, at a moderate price. THE GREEN HOUSE AND ORNAMENTAL DEPARTMENT contains the largest and best se- k'ction of Plants in this country, oicupying over sixty tliousand square feet of Glass, for Hot Houses, Green Houses and Pro|iagatiiig l-"ranies. BULBOUS FLOWER ROOTS.— We annually import a large collection of the finest Double and Single Hyacinths, Tulips, Narcissus, Crocus, Jonquils and other Bulbs for planting in the Autumn, a full descriptive catalogue of which is published on the first of August. Dreer's Garden Calendar is published annually on the 1st of Dec, and contains select lists of Vegetable and Flower Seeds, Plants, Roses, Verbenas, Dahlias, Carnations. Geraniums, etc., with brief and practical directions for their culture, mailed free. Address, HENRY A. DREER, Philada. manufacturers ok OAK TANNED LEATHER BELTING, 410 and 412 NORTH THIRD STREET, l^HILADELPHIA. MRS. ysr. H. HEL-WEG. P. KESSEL. HELTS^Ea & CO., FINE BOOTS AND SHOES, ivo. ei4 Alien !^tjki:et, imiij^vVOI^li'iiia- Gents' and Boys' Boots, Shoes and Gaiters always on hand and made to order. J^-ORDERS FROM ABROAD ALWAYS RECEIVE SPECIAL ATTENTI 0N.-5» 46 722 AD VEBTISEMENTS. i:STA.BLISHEI> 1866. SCHIMMELS Fruit Butter MANUFACTURED BY 1 0. SCIIHIEL ®^ 431 and 433 Master St., PHILADELPHIA. SCHIMMEL & CO., 31 and 33 North Canal Street, CHICAGO; 126 Macdougal St., NEW YORK. AD VER TISEMENTS. 723 A.. F.A-A-S' PATENTED SCREW CLAMP AGRAPP PIANOS. These PIANOS cannot get out of tune; the CLAMP is screwed down after the Piano is tuned, and all the strain is taken off the length of the strings and the tuning pin ; the tuning pin cannot turn and get loose in the socket like in all other Pianos, which the inventor of this has found out. GRAND SQUARE AND UPRIGHT PIANOS. 152 North Ninth St, PHILADELPHIA. 724 ADVERTISEMENTS. Established 18S1. S11DDL[, HARIIESS AND COLLAR MANUFACTURER, a. H. DAVIS dS; CO., MANUFACTURING PERFUMERS, 1050 Germantoiirii Ave., Pliiladelpliia. OOBOOieill llIOl 1401111 W0BIS. ■ <»» ■ F. L. & D. R. CARNELL, Machinists and Iron Founders, No. 1844 GERMANTOWN AVENUE, MANUFACTURERS OF Steam Engines, Steam Hammers, Brick Machines, Red and Fire Brick Presses, Clay Tempering Wheels, Pipe and Tile Machines and Brick Machinery of every description for Horse or Steam. Coal Kiln Castings, Heavy and Light Castings of every variety. Also, Builders of Brooks' Patent Steam Stone Hammer for Belgian Blocks, etc., and Machinery for Artificial Stone. OLDEST aM LARGEST ESTABLISHMENT of tie M ill tlie UNITED STATES. ELIJAH CUNDEY. FRANCIS CUNDEY. E. CUNDEY & BRO., STEAM WOOD TURNING MILL 848 Nortli Fourtli Street, Philadelpliia. ■ _ «»► ■ WOOD TURNING in all its various branches. Mechanical, Architectural, Cabinet and Gymnastic Turning of all kinds. Also, Manufacturers of BOBBINS, SPOOLS and every de- scription of Turning used by the Manufacturers of Textile Fabrics. Mallets^ Haadles, Bungs, Taps, Chair Stuff and Turned Wooden Ware constantly on hand. JOBBING rROMl'TLT ATTENDED TO. AD VER TISEMENTS. 725 Importers of Shoe Findings, And every variety of Shoe Manufacturers' Articles, Silk and Cotton Terry Elastics, Marshall's and "IXL" Machine Threads. Agents for The Hamilton Web Company's Celebrated Boot and Gaiter Webs. ADAMS &, KEEN, Special Manufacturers of Fine iHi??^..' CURACOA KID FOR SLIPPERS AND BOOTS. AI.SO Cufap&Iampico \\nd\ (iraiiis ami IVIililc Grains. Maroous, Oil IJuot, etc.. d ^ SUPERIOR QUALITY AND FINISH. Factory and Salesroom, 934 St. John St., Above Poplar St.. PHILADELPHIA. ADOLPH THIERY, MANUFACTURER OF ALL KINDS OF LOOKING GLASSES AND PICTURE FRAMES^ Imitation Gilt, Rosewood and Walnnt Mouldings, Window Cornices, etc., JV. E. COB. FOTJBTH AND BRANCH STS., T CONROW; ""wTRyKEIFF, G. H. BARBER. T. CONRO^V & CO, WHOLESALE iB.O::CEB.S, 5 Morth yiTater St.^ Philada. PROPRIETORS OF THE FRANKLIN PACKING COMPANY (Fresli Tomatoes, Peaelios, Fie Fruit. Ke«liuiK etc. , AND MANUFACTURERS OF REIFF & CO.'S EXTRA FAMILY MINCE MEAT. ^-Cranberries and Sweet Potiitoes in Season from our Farms in New Jersey-..^ 726 A D VER TISEMENTS. CAMDEN IRON WORKS, ESTABLISHED 1824, CAMDEM, J{.J. JESSE W. STARR & SON, AM MAHUFACTURERS OF GAS APPARATUS, AMU ALL THE Buildings, T;mks, Holders, etc.. Required for (he M;inntacturc, Purification and Storage of Gas, and Street ILiius Requisite for its Distribution. PLANS DRAWINGS AND SPECIFICATIONS PROMPTLY FURNISHED. CAST IRON STREET MAINS, Por "Water and Gas, from One and a Half to Forty-Eight Indies in Diameter. • <»> ■ STOP VALVES (all sizes), FIRE HYDRANTS, HEATING PIPES, BRANCHES, BENDS, TEES, CASTINGS OF ANY FORM OR SIZE REQUIRED. SOLE ASSIGNEES AND MANUFACTURERS OF CREGIER'S PATENT NON-FREEZING FIRE HYDRANT, WITH ONE, TWO, THREE OR EOLR NOZZLES. PHILADELPHIA OFFICE, 435 & 437 CHESTNUT ST. ADVERTISEMENTS. 727 CHARLES MAGARGE & CO.. WHOLESALE DEALERS IN Paper, Rags, Etc., 30, 32 & 34 S. Sixth St., PHILADELPHIA. Es tablished 1 827. Paten ted Jan. 12 th, 1869. RICHARD C. REMMEY, CHEMICAL STONE WARE MANUFACTORY, 2303 FranUfovd Ave. and Amber St., Philadn. ■ « •» ■ Manufacturer of all kinds of Chemical Stone Ware for Manufacturing Chemists and others, such as Receivers, Acid Coolers, Mixing Pots, Stone Boxes, Worms, Elbow Pipes, Connecting Pipes, Sleeves, Pans, Dishes, Tin Crystal Jars with Lids, Still Heads. Ointment Pots, Jugs and Pitchers— a general assortment always on hand. Manufacturers can rely on getting a superior article. Ware made to hold from six to forty gallons. jesg=- Second and Third Street Passenger Cars pass the factory going and coming. .Orders by Mail will receive prompt attention. AMERICAN FIRE BRICK WORKS, 1100 EAST CUMBEELAHD ST. and GUNNEES" ETO, (East or Frankford Road, Nineteenlli Ward.) IiE>".SIX«TON, riIIl,A»El.PIII.4. ■ *•* • RICHARD C. REMMEY Manufactures and keeps constantly on hand a Superior Quality of No. 1 Fire Bricks and Blocks for Iron, Steel and Blast Furnaces, Gas House and Bakers' Tile, Stove and Range Linings, Fire Cement, etc., etc. B^ TILES OF ALL SIZES AND SHAPES MADE TO ORDER.-^^ 728 ADVERTISEMENTS. EAGLE BOLT WORKS OF PHILADELPHIA. Hancock and Masclier Streets and Columbia Avenue. i:stj^i5il,iskce:i3 is^s. The Oldest and Largest Establishment of the kind in the United States. MANDFACTOEEES OF CARRIAGE BOLTS Of every description, made exclusively of the best brands of NORWAY IRON. Pointed Tire Bolts, Axle Clips, Forged Nuts, etc. Cousumers of and dealers in Bolts attending the Exposition are resj^ectfully invited to visit our establishment, THE M. J. COLEMAN BOLT AND NUT CO., Formerly 2030 ARCH STREET. ESTABLISHED 1837. Wholesale Druggists, Manufackefs and Importers, Nos. 201 and 303 North Fourth Street (N, E, cor, Fourth and Kace Sts,), PHILADELPHIA, Have constantly in stock, of their own Manufacture or Importation, a full assortmeut of Drugs, Chemicals, Pharmaceutical Preparations, Druggists' Requisites. And also in our stores, 331 and 333 RACE STREET (adjoining above), we have a full and complete stock of WHITE LEAD & ZINC WHITE, Colored Paints;, Varnishes fSc Putty Of our own Manufacture. Also Camels' Hair arid Sable Pencils and Brushes, Paint SrusJies, Fine Colors and Artists' 3Iaterials Generally. BOBEBT SH0E9IAKER, WILLIASI M. SHOEMAKER, BICHABD M. SHOEMAKER. AD YERTISEMBNTS. 729 i- ^. & C. H. i^£^^^^ dsterer.^. =%^, ^^ ^a^ a^^ i^r^ll Ei#^^ PH IL ADELPH I A. Stre ,et» FAIRMOUNT PRINTING INK WORKS ESTABLISHED 1842. CHARIaKS Iff. ROSSKIiil^; Successor to ROSSELL & BROTHER, MANUFACTURER OF 4ia'Iii'l 417 NORTH THIRD STREET, PHILADELPHIA, E. F. KUNKEL'S IHOjST Has never been known to fail in tlie cure of weakness attended with symptoms; indisposition to exertion- loss of memory; difficulty of breathing; weakness: horror of disease; weak, nervous ti'emblin^; dreadful h«rror of death ; niRht sweats; e.,ld fe,-t ; ,r.m.i,>s of vision ; languor; univer- sal lassitude of the muscular svstera; enormous appetite, with , yspeptic symptoms; hot hands; flushins of the bodv ; dryness of the skin ; pallid countenance aiid eruptions on tlie face; purifying the bloSd; pain in the back; heaviness of the eyelids; frequent black spots flying belore the eyes, with suffusion and loss of sight; want of attention, etc, SOLD ONLY IN $1.00 BOTTLES. GET THE GENUINE. r^^ A -PT-; "W015.M: entirely removed witli purely veKctablo medicine, passing from the svstemiiilve No fee unless the head" passes. Come and refer to patients treated. Advice free. Seat, Pin and Stomach Worms also removed. DR, E. F. KUNKEL, No. 258 N. NINTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. ■30 AD VER TISEMENTS. McCULLOUGH IRON COMPANY, GALVANIZED, REFINED AND CHARCOAL BLOOM SHEET IRON MANUFACTURERS, ESTABLISHED 184r. R. KLAUDER, QUAKER CITY DYE AND PRINT WORKS, S. E. Cor. Oxford aia«l Howard Sts., i=h:iIj^idei_.:ph:i^. ^ w Dyer of Silk, Wool, Worsted and Gennap Yarns and Slubbings, PRINTER OF WOOL AND WORSTED YARNS. BLACK DIAMOND FILE WORKS. G. & H, BARNETT, Nos. 39, 41 and 43 RICHMOND ST., PHILADELPHIA. KDITITARD ITir. TAXIS^ Aquarium Manufacturer and Dealer In Gold Fish, Etc., 60 North Sixth Street, One Door below Arch, PHILADELPHIA. ESTABLISHED S5 YEARS. SUPERIOR FAMILY BREAD JVo. 1131 GBEEM STREET, PHILADELPHIA. Bi:]^TO]!c «& bkotiis:r. MANUFACTURERS OP Fine Gold Pens, Desk and Pocket Holders, No. 409 Ckestmit St., Second Story, Philada. ADVERTISEMENTS. 731 MirK BISCUIT. NIC NA.CS. FANCY CAKES. W. E. & Iff. H. CAMP, CRACKERS AND STEAM BAKERY, 625 S 627 NORTH BBOAD ST., rillLADELFJlIA. JOS. S. LOVElillNTGr AVHA-RTON, MACHINIST, BLACKSMITH AND IRON FOUNDER, S. E. Corner 15th and WOOD STItEETS, I'lJILADELl'lI lA. Iron Fronts, Coltirans, Girders, and all kinds of Building Castinfis. Heavy or Light Machine Castings made in Green Sand, Dry Sand or Loam. .Switches, Curves, I'atent Crossings, and every description of Castings for Horse or (Steam Railroads. X Ii.\RCE STOCK OF PATTERNS OX IIAXP. J. H. COFRODE. J. H. SCHAEFFER. F. H. SAYLOR. J. H. COFRODE & CO. E Office, No. B30 ^Valnut St., PHILADKLiPHIA. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCT Wood, Iron and Composite Bridges and Roofs, H. A. BARTLETT & CO., 113, 115 and 117 N. Front St., Philadelphia. 143 CHAMBERS ST., NEW YORK. 43 BROAD STREET, BOSTON, MASS. MANUFACTURERS OF Bartlett's BlackiiiEr, Crumbs of C<»infor1, Laundr.v Rlno(Siftinp Box . >atioiiaI Blue, Liquid Bluiug, Soliihio Blno ( h. Hulk), Inks (A\ntin>,Ytn.l Copying, Black and Violet), Stove Polish ( Large and Small Kolls and Squares), Importers of German Black Lead, riiimbasjo, Lto. 732 ADVERTISEMENTS. THE OLDEST STEREOTYPE FOUNDUY IN AMERICA. ESTABLISHED 1815. J. FAGAN & SON, ELECTROTYPE and STEREOTYPE FOUNDERS, 621 and 623 Commerce Street, Philadelphia. Invite Estimates for all kinds of Stereotype and Electrotype work in every Langnage. S. H. MATTSON", G. DILKES. ^m^aricr^ mid ^mlar^, Wo. 1346 Chestnut Street, I'hiladelphia. No. 637 North Nineteenth St., below Fairmount Ave., PHILADELPHIA, MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN ALL KINDS OF CooMiiE Raiips, House Heaters, Fire-Place Stoves, Batli Boilers, Registers, etc., OIP THE T^EWICSX AISTD BEST F.A^TTER,NS. ALL MAKES OF HEATERS AND RANGES REPAIRED IN THE BEST MANNER. PLUMB- ING, GAS FITTING AND UNDERGROUND DRAIN PIPE. And Sewing-Machine Trimmings, ^^ 1234 and 1230 Poplar St., Philadolplna. ■ lASTING,*- MACHINE SILK, ,> THREAD .=,, JOHN" JONES, iOil-llIDIi km P4PlS-iUIlE, Wo. 712 Sansom Street, JPMladelphia, Book-Binding, Paper-Ruling, Pamphlet Work Promptly Executed, Orders by Mail Solicited. CHRISTIAN NONNENBERGER, Hat Block Manufacturer, No. 323 BACE STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ASGHKIUTBAGH & HAHIVT,, TAILORS, No. 170 North Fourth Street, Philadelphia. WISSAHICKON WADDING MILLS. M. GOIiGAS, Manufact-airer, STORE, 17 MOBTH FROJ^T ST., PHILADELPHIA. AD VER TISEMENTS. 733 JOHN BO"WEK. TEANK BO"W"ER. WM. ENTENMANN. JOHN BOWER & CO., CUBERS OF Superior Sugar Cured Hams, Beef, Bacon, Shoulders, Tongues, ALSO, Mess Pork, Pure Kettle Rendered Lard, Etc., AND DEALERS IN PROVISIONS GENERALLY. H.^W. Comer 24tli and Brown Streets, PHILADELPHIA. 734 A D VER TISEMENTS. HUNEKER & BRANT, HOUSE, SIGN AND FRESCO PAINTERS, AND 3IETALLIC SIGW BNGJRAVEBS, ]Slo. 219 ARCH ST., PHILADELPHIA. MANUFACTURERS OF HALL, HOTEL AND STREET LANTERNS, Brass, Silver-Plated and German Silver Eailrcad Car Trimmings, Brass and German Silver Lamps for Ships, Fire Go's, R.R. Cars, Railroad Conductors and Miners, Nos. 919 and 921 RACE ST., PHILADELPHIA. Ii4fi MANUFACTURERS OF Slate Manlels, Slate Work Generally, "Warerooms and Factory, 1215 RACE STREET, PHILADA. Ne^'est styles I Superior Workmansliip I liowest Prices ! ALSO, MINERS AND SHIPPERS OF F-'ABEMMB& BAME BLWE M&&FIMQ BEtATM, Guaranteed to retain its color in any climate. SLATE ROOFING ATTENDED TO WITH DESPATCH. J. B. KIMES & CO. Office Established 1833. MEZZOTINTO AND LINE PLATE PRINTER, 30a Sovitlx IVliitli street, JPlUladelphiia, Has ample facilities for the execution of every description of Fine Plate Printing, ranging from the largest sized Framing Print to that of the usual Book Illustrations. None but the best quality of materials used. Having twenty presses, is prepared to promptly fill all orders. N.B. — A variety of Plates on hand for use, suitable for the embellishment of Magazines of limited editions. " JOHN SARTAIN, En^C3-:E^j^"V^El I^ OlsT STEEL, 728 SANSOM STREET, PHILADELPHIA. John Sartain, who has been established in Philadelphia in the practice of Engraving since 1830, begs to assure his friends and patrons that his plates are entirely the work of his own hand, and not the productions of assistants. His style of work ranges from the largest size historical framing subject to small book prints, portraits or others. AD VER TISEMENTS. 735 '' TM§ PMlad§lpMai Qalyanizmg Qgrnpa^ny,/'^ WORKS ESTABLISHED i860. OPFIOE and WOKKS, 2130 KAOE ST., PHILADELPHIA. GALVANIZING, WROUGHT AND CAST IRON IN ALL VARIETIES, BAR, PIPE, HOOP, SHEET, COAL HODS, BATH BOILERS, Etc. CHAUNCEY HULBURT— Late U. S. Oil Inspector. MANUFACTCKERS OF FINE MACHINERY AND SIGNAL OILS, And Dealers iu Sperui, Whale and Lard Oils, Refmed Tallow I'or Cjlinders, No. 137 ARCH ST., PHILADELPHIA. lEOHS PATENTEE AND SOLE MANUFACTURER OF The front and end glasses being bent removes the silver bars back from the line of sight far enough to present a full view of all tlie contents without obstruction, from both ends and front, thereby accomplishing the double purpose of displaying the goods to a customer at a glance and ornamenting the store with the most beau- tiful and strongest show case that has ever been oflered to the public. WABEBOOMS AND FACTORY, Nos. 132 AND 134 NORTH FOURTH ST., 'A Ml assortment of Hew and Old Styles on hand. Cases carefully and securely pack«d for transporUtion.-=Sa J. HAMBLETON & SON, MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN No. 221 SPRUCE STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ESTABLISHED 1830. FRENCH AND AMERICAN No. 1717 CHESTNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA. 736 A D VERTISEMENTS. MANtlFACTUREE OF Parlor, True-Blue, Water-Proof, White-Head and Telegraph No, 919 ST. JOHJV STBBET, above JPoplar, PMlafVa. EMMEEEB&0EMM MIME ^BMBAMT, Office, Twenty-third St., below Spring Garden, Philada. ■ <«» ■ BEST QUAIilTY OF WOOI>-BURIVT LIME always on hand. DEALERS IN ALL KINDS OP CEMENT. WM. B. IRVINE, ANDREW CARTT, rroi>rietors. JOSEPH W. PHILLIPS, Jr., I'LAIN A\I) ORNAMENTAT^ Decorator on China, Glass and Earthenware, No. 132 NORTH SEVENTEENTH ST., PHILADA. ESTABLISHED SIXTY YEARS. BENJAMIN R. WALTER (Successor to Peter B. Walter), SAND WHARF, 611 Beach Street, first Wharf above Green Street, 1» M 1 3L. A. r> E 3L> I* iilJV . Constantly on hand, Silver and White Pewter Sand from Egg Island; also, Eough-casting, Polishing, Stone Cutters', Painters' and Scouring Sand, by the bushel, barrel or larger quantity, Also, Bhick VVriting Sand of a superior quality. Merchants, Stationers, Plasterers, Lager Beer Saloons, Steel Furnaces and others supplied at the shortest notice. All orders punctually attended to and delivered in any part of the city. EST ABLI SHEX) 1830. DR. THOMAS ARMITAGE'S §fubdcl^Jm J§lecfra^iilhir ^mMnk, COR. FIFTEENTH AND CHERRY STS., PHILADA. IP. SCHIOETTLE'S Sf 14ii i m:a.]vtjfactory, 312 to 314 BRANCH STREET and 317 RACE STREET, PHILADELPHIA. HAT A ND SHELF BOXES A SPECIALTY. " KEY'S ASTHMA PAPER Has been on trial for sixteen years, and the demand is steadily increasing. It relieves SPASMODIC ASTHMA, and is a useful adjunct to other remedies when there are organic diseases. Those fearing an attack in the night may burn a strip in the bedroom before retiring. The atmosphere will soon be pleasantly changed by the fumes, which in many cases afford a quiet night's sleep. Price US Cents and $1 per Package. Prepared bv R. KEYS, Apothecary, also manufacturer and proprietor of WHITE'S HAIR REGENERATOR or AMBKR GLOSS, N. W. cor. Ttvelfth and Pine Sts., P/iilada. Messrs. WELLS & ELLIOTT, Agents, 11 Gold Street, New York City. ADVERTISEMENTS. 737 ESTABXjISKED 1840. MaMmfa:Qtur§rsi gf /SHOVELS, SPADES, EtQ.f 211, 213 and 215 Quarry St., between Arch and Race and Second and Third Sts., I»MILA.I>ELI»IIIA. W. KEIN ATH, IMl'OKTEK OF Fur Skins and Fashionable Furrier, No. 812 ARCH ST., Second Story, PHILADELPHIA. OFFICES FOE PEOCUEINa 119 south: ifotji^th: st., philadelphia, AJ^D 3IAIIBLB BUILDINGS, 605 Seventh St. (opp. U.S. Patent Office), Washington, D.C. H. HOWSON, C. HOWSON, Solicitor of Patents. Attorney at Law. ■ « • V* Communications should be addressed to the Principal Offices, Philadelphia. C A. L E I> O TV I A. TV C O It Iv AV <> 11 IC S , SAMUEL WILKIE, Manufacturer and Dealer in ooi^KS ^isrr) acD-:^!^ -vstoot), JVo. S42 North Third St., below roplar, PniT.ADETA'HIA. 1!^^= Every variety of Machine-made Corks on liand and furni shed t o ordcn-xt ft PHILADELPHIA SOAP"STONE WORKS, No. 521 Cresson St., bet ween Fifth and Sixth, Philadelphia. MANCFACTUREE OF Soap Stone Fire Places, Sinks, Wash and Bath Tubs. Register Stones, ouay ^.tuiic Griddles, Hearths, Mantels, etc. HEATERS, RANGES AND STOVES LINED TO ORDER. AT SHORT NOTICE. 47 738 ADVERTISEMENTS. J. F. O'R^S^I'^ULi MANUFACTURER OF BOOT. SHOE AND GAITER TJ F 1=" IMPORTER AXD DEALER m French Calf Skins, Morocco and Patent Leather, No. 221 NORTH FOURTH STREET. hiUiihl^hiii. An VER TISEMENTS. 739 KSXABLISHED 1831. JOHN C. CLARK & SONS, PRINTERS, STATIONERS AND BLANK BOOK MANUFACTURERS, 230 Dock Street, Philadelphia. Publishers of Commercial and Law Blanks. CHARLES RTJMI^l^ PORTE-MONNAIE, POCKET-BOOK AND SATCHEL MANUFACTURER, No. 47 North 8ixtli Street, below Arch, Philadelphia. Porte- Monnaies, Port Polios, Drenshif/ Cases, liunUers' Coses, Cif/nr Cases, Cabas, Monet/ lielts. Parses, Pocket JiooJcs, Satvliels, Work Baskets, ICtah'-s, etc., WJIOLP- SALi: AND JtETAlZ. c3-Eioi^OE :f. sosiimiiidt. MANUFACTURER OF f 1414 North Seveutli St. and 1429 and 1431 Franklin St., Philadelphia. steamers, Sleeping-Cars aiul Hotels Supplied at Short Notice. vj^isrEisrTzicY & CO., M:AT»fXJK'A.CTXJKEriS OF OIL «fc AV^VU^i::!! COLOllS, IMPORTERS OF AND DEALERS IN ARTISTS^ MATERIALS, Engravings, IK'Calcomania and Wax Flower Materials, Clironios, DraHiiig Sfiidies, Mathematical Instruments. Drawing I'apers. No. 1125 CHEST N UT STREE T, PHIIjADELPHIA. BARLO^A^'S INDIG6 BLUE, FOR BLUING CLOTHES. D. S. WILTBERGER, Proprietor, No. 233 Noi'th Second Street , l*hiladelphia. PETER DEWEES, 113 and 115 Callowhill St.^ Philadelphia, Dealers in Tin Foil and Manufacturers of METALLIC CAPS for BOTTLES, JARS, Etc. Especially adapted for Wines, Liquors, Drugs, Chemicals, Pickles and all Hermetically Sealed Goods. Xos. 1009 and 1011 North Fifth Str^ eUj^hUatlt^phia. STAINED GLASS~WORKS, 123 and 125 South Kleventli St.. I'liila. Modern and Antique Church Glass, and for Dwellings, etc., in every style. J. & G. H. GIBSON. Churclies and Private Buildings Painted and Decorated. JODIX GIBSOX. 740 AD VERTISEMENTS. FREDERIC CHASE, 2425 and 24^7 Soutli St.y FMlada, FRANCIS J. CLAi¥IER & CO., MANUFACTURERS OF Builders' asid Oroamental Real Bronze Ware 909 NOBTS NINTH ST., T'HILAnELrHIA. ESTABLISHED 1888. V 4f HOUSE I SM PAINTERS 1249 North Second Street, F Mil ABEMFMIA, GRAINING, GILDING, CALSOMINING, etc. ESXABLISHED 1818. stba-m: cork ^v^orks. GORK MAMUFACTURKRS. EVERY VARIETY OF MACHIIVE-CIJT CORKS CONSTANTLY ON HAND AND MADE TO ORDER. Fifty'second St. and Lancaster Ave., I*hilada. WILLIAM HASLAM, Machine, Bridge, Ofnamenlal and Afchiteckal Pallern Maker, No, S12 MACE STBEET, PHILADELPHIA. ■ < »» ■ Particulanattention paLdto Engine Builders', Plumbers', Gas and Steam Fitters' Patterns. ADVERTISEMENTS. 741 J^ STJO-OESTIOn^. ■ <»► ■ M. Fourcade, of the International Jury, thus speaks of American soaps in his report of the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1867 : •• t'alt) bodits at tlif prcstiit day can produce no more nor less tlian in the past, and no one can pretend tliat the addition of forei(,'n matters, witli which the soaps from the United States arc loaded, is an improvement. "To try to keep salt water in the paste, to introduce into it resin, talc. siil|)Iiate of baryta ars-illaceous and oclircous earths, so as to increase the iveisiif or to olil^iin a lallacidiis cliiapness — Siviuif the consumer a half pound of pure soap, or, in many cases, even less, made up uith worthless and deleterious substances to appear a full pound— is a fraud, and not an industrial process; and it is (o l)e re:.'refted lliat.in any country, such operations should remain uiMiuuished: and «e must here express reyref that, in one country at least, the peculiar standard «liicli makes the reputation of all uood soaps beu'itis to be an exceplion. The most honest of manufacturers seem to have a tendency to abandon it by addiny to their working mixtures all sorts of ureases and oils— ivithout doubt under the stimulus of coniijctition and the pressure of necessity— wliile there seems to be no article too poor and worthless to be used by the less scrupulous of our American friends." The one exception to the rule, the one pure soap among the countless adulterated ones, is the well-known "DOBBINS' ELECTRIC made by I. L. CRAGIN & CO., of PHILADELPHIA, a beautiful white soap, FREE FROM ANY ADULTERATION, and possessing cleansing properties that make it superior to any other soap made. The recipe for the manufacture oF this very justly celebrated article was brought to this country by a poor Fcenchman who had discovered the secret. Having no means to prosecute its manufacture, he sold for a song the recipe and right to use it to Mr. Dobbins, who soon after sold it to Messrs, i. L. Cragin &. Co. for fifty thou- sand dollars, and by them alone is now made the world-renowned DOBBINS' ELECTRIC SOAP. its price is necessarily a littie higher than that asked for adulterated soaps, but its cost of production is still higher in proportion to them ; and that it is infinitely cheaper to the consumer the following figures show. There are well- known brands of yellow soaps made from the following formula by men who buy refuse pieces of Dobbins' Electric Soap from its manufacturers: too lbs. Dobbins' Kleetrie Soap, at 12 cents, $12 OO 200 lbs. resin, at 2 cents, ' 4 OO lOO lbs. clay, at 2 cents, 2 OO lOO lbs. silicate of soda, at 2 cents, 2 OO 500 lbs., $20 OO Or four cents per pound for the compound, each pound of which contains but three ounces of pure soap, the balance of thirteen ounces being valueless as far as its presence in soap is concerned. The three ounces of soap possess all the detergent properties in the pound, and accomplish all the work done with the pound; or, in other words, three ounces of Dobbins' Electric Soap will do as much washing without this adultera- tion as with it, and, therefore, the three ounces will do all the work done by the pound of so-called family soap, which is in reality but three ounces of soap. Were the price of the adulterated substance low enough, so that a pound of it would cost no more than three ounces of Dobbins' Electric Soap, it would make no difference to the consumer which she used. Let us see if the prices of the two do agree. Dobbins' Electric Soap sells for thirteen cents per pound in Philadelphia, the other for eight cents per pound; but as the low-priced compound only contains and will only do the worK of three ounces of Dobbins' Electric, we should have to buy five and one-third pounds to get as much soap in that form as from one pound of Dobbins' Electric. This at eight cents per pound, amounts to forty-two and two-thirds cents; that is, it'will cost more than three times as much to use the eight-cent soap as it will to use Dobbins' Electric Soap at thirteen cents per pound. Our suggestion is that while in Philadelphia each of our readers procure for test a sample of DOBBINS' ELECTRIC SOAP. 742 ADVERTISEMENTS. i^All^.9A^.^icK' D. CARRICK & CO., wm, c, carrick. BTEAM gmAgmmm amb mmG^iT baeeet, 1908 and 190S MARKET ST., PHILADELPHIA. Manufacturers of Superior CRACKERS. BISCUIT, CAKES, PILOT AND SHIP BREAD, CORN HILLS AND NIC NACS. "WALTER G. WILSON. JOSEPH L. AMER. Highest Prcmiiiffl Awarded by Franklin Institute Exliiliition, 1874. WALTER G. WILSON & CO., Pilot, Ship Bread, Cracker & Cake Bakers, Nos. 313 and 214 N. Front St., above Race, And 100-2-4-6-8-10-12 and 114 Craven St., MANUFACTURER OF GAS BUKNEES, fe® M§Mug 8imM §oQkmg Apparmim^f, FITTERS' PROVING APPARATUS, Etc., 248 N. Eighth St., Fourth Floor, P HILAnELPHIA. MANUFACTURER OF POCKET BOOKS, and all kinds of FAUCI LEATHER GOODS, 339 N. FOURTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. S. E, COR. TENTH AJSTD LOCUST STREETS, PROF. S. P. BURDICT, Surgeon Chiropodist, Office, 1338 PARRISH ST., NEAR BROAD, PHILADELPHIA. CORNS REMOVED IN TEN MINUTES WITHOUT PAIN OR DRAWING BLOOD. Satisfaction Guaranteed in all Cases. Corns, 50 cts. to $1.00 each. Charges Moderate in all Cases. — Office Hours: 7 to 9 i. M., 12 to 2 and 6 to 8 P. M. Sundays, 2 to 5 P. M. Also Manuf'r of the American Corn Plaster, and Burdict's Grecian Salve, for the Cure of Skin Diseases, Bums, Frostbites, Etc. ritlCE, TWENTY-FIVE CENTS EACM. AD VER TISEMENTS. 743 RELIANCE MACHINE WORKS, 15. 1". Q U J M 15 Y, Xos. 224, 226 and 228 SOUTH FIFTH ST., FHILADA. MANUFACTURE Light Machinery, Screws, Taps, Dies, Special Drills, Punches, Models, etc. FIXE ^VORK A SI»E€IA1,TV. MANUFACTURER OF Awnings and Verandahs Flags, Tents, Eag and Wagon Covers, 49 SOUTH THIRD ST., ABOVE CHESTNUT, FLAGS OF ALL SIZES ON HAND and MADE TO ORDER St'IIEIBI.E-S I»ATENT AWXIXO. STENCIL CUTTING and CANVAS PRINTING. 1776. JOHN MAX^^^ELL, 1876. §misc ami §hjn §iwitei[ and j§lHzici\ No. 421 North Second Street, corner of Willow, • < » • — Emmm FMomm fainted and penciled. CHINA GLOSSING, WALX^P AINTING, etc. PAPER HANGINGS 52 North Ninth^, Phila da. Im Shield, Floor and Door Clninp, and Eio-lit Sizes Pia(eliet<. Also, Haase's Patent Brakesmen's Safety Swinging Step JOHN A. IIAASE Kear, 116 Vanhorn St., Philada. [send for circulars. "44 AD VEB TISEMENTS. ESTABLISHKD 1804. ISAAC S. WILLIAMS & CO., Manufacturers, Importers and Dealers in HOUSE FXJRISriSHINa aOODS, No. 728 Market Street, Philadelphia. ORDERS FROM ABROAD ALWAYS RECEIVE SPECIAL ATTENTION. :ph:iii.j^x)ei_.:ph:i.a.. Gents' and Boys' Boots, Shoes and Gaiters always on hand and made to Order, PHILADELPHIA MACHINERY DEPOT. Machinists' Tools & Wood-Worl • «5=SEND FOR PRICE LIST.-=g» Persons visiting the E-xposition, and Dealers in Window Shades, are respectfully invited to call and examine my goods. aatim:. a-. nEisTis, MANUFACTUKEK OF WEATHER VASES, PLATINA POINTS, BALLS ADD EMBLEMATIC SIGNS, 641 and. 643 N. NINTH STREET, PH I LADEUPHI A. BALLS SPUN FROM THREE TO FIFTEEN INCHES. These Vanes are made of Copper, in the best workmanlike manu(^r, and gilt with 23^ carat gold- leaf. A large variety of Vanes and Ball s constantly on hand. Designs made to order. RODGERS, DEAN & MONTEITH, 1327 Filbert St., JPhiladelpJtia, CARRIAGE AND LIGHT WAGON BUILDERS. Special attention given to Light Wagons, S ulkies, etc.. etc.. to Order. ESTAB LISHED 1848. A. GAIiBRAITII. 309 N. Xinth St.. Pliilndolphia, GREAT CENTRAL STUFFED BIRD AND GLASS SHADE DEPOT. French Crystal Glass Shades, of aU Sizes and Shapes. THE CHEAPEST IN" THE CITY. BIRDS AND ANIMALS STUKFKD TO ORDER. 746 AD VER TISEMENTS. PATENTED APRIL, 1808. W/IJ-'-' HYDRAULIC PACKING, STEAM AND ENGIIMES AND PUMPS, Manufactured by JAMES GLANDING & CO., Nos. 113 and 115 Queen St., Philada. GEORGE MTERS, MANlTFAVTiriiEH OF BATH BOILERS AND TANKS, No. 20 4 Nort h Broad Street, PSiiladelpliia. ROCKHILL& WILSON, j)C 4> MEN'S AND BOYS' WEAR, 603 & 605 CHESTNUT STREET, PmiEABEIjPmiA' JACOB RKOH^ Carriage and U^agon Builder^ Corner G-IMUD AVENUE and EIQHTH ST., PHILADA. CHARLES SCHNEYER, RECTIFIER AND WHOLESALE LIQUOR DEALER, And manufacturer of the original AEOMATIO GEEMAN BITTEES, 154: and 156 FAIIIMOUNT AVBNUE, PHILADELPIIIA. ■ <»» • Jamaica Rum and Scotch Whisky Punch Essence and ail Fancy Liquors and Syrups. A D VER TISEMENTS. 747 WM. F. FOREPAUGH, Jr., & BROTHERS, Also Manufacturers of SUPERIOR OAK TANNED LEATHER BELTING, Best quality Lace and Strap Leather oa hand. Rivets, Belt Hooks, Dubbing, Etc. N. \V. CORNER RANDOLPH AND JEFFERSON STS., PHILADA. -6®= All Belts warranted. Orders by Post immediately attended to.-=St» MANUFACTURER OF BONE BUTTONS, COLLAR BUTTONS, DOMINOES AND COUNTEES, ?«IES» A^TVO OETVTS' BEST ItIO OLOVElS. Jr»JrtXTJSJSI.A.3Xr ^.AJS-£'\r-3Sl, For Corns, Bunions, Sprains, In-grown Nails and Warts.— CERTAIN CURE. J. H. RICHBLDEBFER, Sole Proprietor and Manufacturer, 1033 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. AD VER TISEMENTS. 753 754 ADVERTISEMENTS. DRUGS, CH EMICA LS, PAINTS, Etc. THE PHILADELPHIA EMPORIUM FOR RELIABLE A Full Line of the Best Goods at the Lowest possible prices. FELTOrff, RA.XJ <5c SIBLEY, yos. 136, 138 and 140 North Fourth Street, Phil adelphia. HC. J. TmA.T'^.'D, MANUFACTURER OF For Vestibules, Offices, Skylights, Steamboats and Railroad Cars, 205 QUARRY ST., PHILADA. TAYLOR & SMITH, WOOD ENGRAVERS LITHOGRAPHERS, PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHERS, AND STEAM-POWER COLOR PRINTERS, 113 South Fourth St., Philadelphia. ■ 4» > • We have extensive facilities for Printing in all its branches in a frrst-class style, at short notice and at reasonable rates. Sketches elaborated to any degree of art sent with estimates to any part of the United States on application. We invite special attention to our method of reproducing Maps, Designs, Drawings, Copies of Old Newspapers needed for preservation, or any Engraving for illustration of books or pamphlets, by PHOTO-LITHOGRAPHY, At an expense less than by any known process with the accuracy of Photography, and not being subjected to the tedious delay of engraving by hand is consequently almost as expeditious as Photography. CATALOGUES OF EVERV DESCPIPTIOJSf A SPECIALTY. AMERICAN PERFUMERY, EQUAL IN ODOR AND DURABILITY TO THE BEST IMPORTED. SKND FOR, P>FIICE LIST. H..A. VO&ELBACH, Perfumer, 1716 Frankford Ave., Philadelphia. CALIFORNIA GRAPE WINES, No. 52 NORTH FIFTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. m- OLD WHISKIES, Etc. for Medicinal Use.=^ ADVERTISEMENTS. 755 ES S. IVIURPHY, MANUFACTURER OP LLEN SHAWLS, 1024 & 1026 Lombard St., PHILADELPHIA. THE PENN MUTUAL LIFE INSURANCE CO. OF PHILADELPHIA. Incorporated May, 1847. Assets, over $5,250,000. The Penn is entirely Mutual, makes Annual Dividends to its members, and has as large a proportion of assets to liabilities as any mutual life company in the United States. It issues Policies upon any desirable forms, which are all non-forfeitable for their value after the third year. Endowment Policies issued at life rates. PRESIDENT, SAMUEL C. HUEY. riCE-PJiESIDENT, SECOND VTCE-PIiESlDENT, SAMUEL E. STOKES. H. S. STEPHENS. ACTUARY, SECRETARY. JAMES WEIR MASON. HENRY AUSTIE. J. KILE ^ CO,, MACHINE, BRIDGE AMD ARCHITECTDRAL j, r\ 450 North Twelfth St., Philadelphia, 756 aD VEBTISEMENTS. SAMUEL E. STOKES, Jr. ALFRED PARRISH. N. W. Cor, 30th and Chestnut Streets, PhiladelplUa. (WEST END CHESTNUT ST. BRIDGE.) Passenger and Freight Elevators. Portable and Stationary Hoistting macliines, Engines. Boilers, tjenera l Maeliinery and Kepairins'. ^____ MANUFACTURER OF Globe ValveSiSleam Cocks, Sleam Whistles, Oil Cups, Gauge Cocb KTC, KTC Also, ihe best Patent Lubricators for Cylinders of Steam Engines and Locomotives, Patent Gauge Cocks, Brass and Iron Body Straightway Valves, etc., etc. Brass Castings of every description for Rolling Mills, Furnaces, etc., made to order. SEND FOR DESCRIPTIVE CIRCULAUS AND PRICE LIST. ADDRESS, B. E. LEHMAN, BETHLEHEM, PA. G. W. HUMMEL. EDWIN S. WARTMAN. Fancy Leather MANUFACTURERS, 125 Margaretta St., Philada. — _-,«►—- — N.B.-BLACK STOCK OF ALL KINDS. ICI CIEIM SIL AND CONFECTIONERY, 133 Soutii Fifteentli St., Pfiiladelphia. Oj^K: COOIPElIE^aMO^TJa-ElK. And Dealer in New and Second-hand CASKS of all descriptions and sizes, 122 Pegg St. and 121 and 123 Willow St., Philadelphia. N.B.— Boxes Strapped. Hoops, Straps, Staves, etc., for Sale. All Jobbing promptly attended to. Residence, 134 Otter Street. AD VER TISEMENTS. 757 HOMER, COLLADAY & CO.. IPORTERS AND DEALERS IN lilS. B SDl^^C^^'C^ [A SHAWLS AND PARIS COSTUMES, ■vs7"h:oi-jES^^I-.e j^isriD i^et^^il. Chestnut St., above Broad, PHILADELPHIA. 758 AD VERTISEMENTS. OHAILES TH? HOME-MADE PIE BAKERY. 474 & 476 N. Fifth St., below Buttonwood, P®I£)i«E3QiH^PHI.l.). Hotels, Festivals, Restaurants, Private Families, Steamboats, Excursions, Pic-Nics, Balls and Parties supplied. "VsTOi^KIS, OFFICE: 911 Filbert St., Philadelphia. SPECIAL ATTENTION PAID TO THE LAYING OF SIDE-WALKS, GARDEN-WALKS, Floors for Malt Houses, Breweries, Dye and Carriage Houses, Cellars, Kitchens, etc., laid in the best manner. B@"THE ONLY ORIGINAL AND RELIABLE PAVEMENT. REFERS BY PERMISSION TO Zoological Garden, Mutual Life Ins. Co., lOtli and Chestnut Sts., Hestonville, Mantua & Fairniounl Passenger R. R. Co., Reform Club Garden, Lincoln Market, Press Room, Ledger Building. Drexel Building, N. Y. ; Messrs. Bergner . 1— ^ < ^ >^ 1— ^ ^ 3= xw 0^ O •s Si LU >-( ,?! >- ^ ^ OQ •K. Q 95 C5 UJ 5^ -S o ©- 't 5 ?5^ or ^3 760 AD VER TISEMENTS. THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD TEXT-BOOKS, This series of school-books, numbering between three and four hundred volumes, is known and popularly used in every section of the United States, and by every class of citizens, representing all shades of political opinion and religious belief. The series is complete, covering every variety and grade of science and literature, from the Primer which guides the lisping tongue of the infant to the abstruse and dif- ficult " West Point Course." The series is uniformly excellent. Each volume, among so many, maintains its own standard of merit, and assists, in its place, to round the perfect whole. It is the pride of the Publishers tliat their imprint appears in not a .single poor or even indifTerent text-book. Its appearance, therefore, upon a title-page is a sort of guarantee which the educational public have learned to respect. For these reasons, this series has been justly denominated the NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS— a title which is now universally conceded in its broadest sense, and which cannot, with equal propriety, be applied to any rival publi- cations whatsoever. The series includes the following well-known and universally popular works : National Readefs and Spellers, PARKER & WATSON. Oiagfam [nglisti kmm\^ S. W. CLARK, A. M. Barnes' Brief U. S. History. Smith and Martin's Bookkeeping. Jepson's Music Readers. Chapman's Drawing Book. Cleveland's Compendiums. Northend's Speakers. Graham's Reasonable Elocution. Peabody's Moral Philosophy. Boyd's Composition, Etc. Champlin's Political Economy, Etc., Etc. National Course io Geograptif, MONTEITH & McNALLY. National SfslemofMaltiematics CHARLES DAVIES, LL.D. Beers' Progressive Penmanship. Peck's Ganot's Natural Philosophy. Porter's Chemistry. Jarvis' Physiology and Laws of Health. Wood's American Botany. Chambers' Zoology. Steele's " 14 Weeks" in each Science. Pujol's French Course. Worman's German Series. Searing's Classics. Etc., Etc. The whole crowned by the unique collection of professional manuals known as TIEIE TEJ^O HEIRS' XJr^-^^JiJIRrT, In 30 Volumes. A DESCRIPTIVE CATALOGUE of all A. S. Barnes & Co.'s publications will be sent free to the address of any Teacher or School Officer applying for it. THE NATIONAL TEACHERS' MONTHLY commands in its editor and contributors the best professional talent the country affords. Subscription, $1 per annum. A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, EDUCATIONAL PUBLISHERS, -111 and 113 William Street, New York. 113 and 115 State Street, Chicago. 112 Camp Street, New Orleans. PHILADELPHIA AGENCY, 822 Chestnut Street. AD VERTISEMENTS. rei MBS. M. A. BINDEE, HOI, N. W. corner Eleventh and Chestnut Sts., PHILADELPHIA, FRENCH MILLINERY GOODS, wers, LADIES' DRESS TRIMMINGS, REAL AND IMITATION LACES, FANCY GOODS, FANS, PAPER PATTERNS, TIES, ETC. DRESS AND CLOAK iVIAKING, 762 ADVERTISEMENTS. JOEL REEVES, 705 North Eighth 81, Philadelphia. I. BEDIGHIMESR, Engraver and Manufacturer of MASONIC MARKS AND JEWELS AND ALL OTHER . ■<»► • ■ — Medal Awarded by the Franklin Institute for the Best Display and Originality of Workmanship, 1874. ■ <«>■ ■ No. ICO NOKTH SECOND ST., FHILADA. is="Tlie only lioiise in PMladelpMa Uial luaiiufactiires tlie entire worL STOVES, HEATERS AND RANGES, JVo. 1116 llarAet Street^ JPhiladelphia. ^ ♦ CCrSTOVES, HESTERS .A.NX) R.A.N"G}-ES K, E F A I R. E D. FINE HARNESS MAKER, 35/^ North. Nintb. Street, Philadelpliia. GOOD -WORK AT REASONABLE RATES. West Philadelphia China Decora ting Establishment ^^,.» Names, Initials and Monograms put on China in the best style. E. SOUTHWICK. K. McCAY. K.A.DENNIS. SOUTHWICK, McCAY & CO., PAMPHLET BINDERS 38 Hudson Street, PHILADELPHIA. AD VERTISEMENTS. 763 CARRIAGE BUILDER, 1168 North Fourth St. and 410 Qirard Avenue, Philadelphia. «Qf- REPAIRING PROMPTLY ATTENDED TO. '6 ESTABLISHED EN 1840. NINE PRIZE MEDALS TAKEN. M.^NUFACTURER OF STANDARD SCALES AND WEIGHTS, Store^ ^o. 7W McwAet Sh^eet^ (Philadeljjhia. C. EDW. HOFiVlANN, Superintendent. lu use at all the United States Mints, United States Treasury, Naval and Hospital Departments. N'o. 1. Analyti grammes ia each pa case ; beam divided S(--asible to 1-20 milU; iugs, with improved BAIiANCES OF I»RE€ISB'a>:!%f. AXAI.YTE€AIi BAl 1 Ealai cnpacity 20i fine poiiilied glas 1-10 milliyramiues umes; all ai;ate bear St for paus, : for specific gravity, etc., etc. 3 in. pans. Beam, 14 in. Price, $105 00 No. 2. Analytical Balance, in fine polishftd glass case, capacity 100 grammes in eacb pan ; beam divided into half parts of milligrammes ; sensible to 1-10 milligrammes ; with apparatus for specific gravity, all bearings agate. 1% in. pans. 12 iu. beam. Price, $86 00 No. 3. Analytical Balance, in fine polished glass case, capacity 2000 grains; sensible to 1-20 grain ; fine steel bearings ; movable 33^ in. pans ; io in, beam. Price $40 00 ASSAY BALANCES, In vtry fine polished glass case, counterpoised sliding door, bea silver. Set screws and levels i Sensible to 1-10 milligrammes Price * of G. atepl:ln..^ Established. 184S. WHOLESALE AND RETAIL WINDOW SHADE au^ RUSTIC BLIND Mauiifacliirer, J>5« North Second Sti-nt, hitirrt'it }'<>]tl S-1 1 3L. ^ 15 ^ 2- F* M S ja. . ADVERTISEMENTS. 765 N. M. Kerr & Co., The first to make and introduce Fine Paper Boxes in the United States, and now claiming to make the best in the world, MANUFACTURE PAPER BOXES AND JEWELERS' EI N DINGS. SPECIALTIES: FINE SHOULDERED BOXES FOR JEWELERS, DRUGGISTS, CONFECTIONERS, STATIONERS, IN EVERY GRADE. JEWELERS' FINDINGS. CARDS, TAGS, TWINES, COTTONS-a full and complete line. DRUGGISTS' BOXES, PILL, POWDER AND PRESCRIPTION. OFFICES: 29 and 31 North Fourth Street. NEW YORK, 712 Broadway. 146 State Street. Factory, 777. 779, 781, 783, 785 and 787 SOUTH SECOND ST. PHILADELPHIA. 766 A D VERTISEMENTS. CIS lo^ ^^ ^ (Formerly with ALLEN OUTHBERT), ^^\ >« ' ^ (Formerly with ALLEN OUTHBERT), W , inyni^^oiE^TEi^ OIF East India Goods No. 139 South Eighth Street, Of guaranteed quality, by the pound or original package, supplied to families at reduced prices when taking FIVE POUNDS OR MORE. Samples sent by Mail Free, and Orders by Postal Card particularly attended to with dispatch. Pure, Old and Unadulterated, Green or Roasted, in large or small quantity, at reasonable prices. MOCHA, JAVA, MARACAIBO, LAGUAYRA and RIO Always on hand and Freshly Roasted. Blue Canton China Dinner Ware, Fancy Painted Chinese and Japanese Porcelain Vases, Dinner, Tea and Toilet Sets, Lacquered Fruit Plates, Tea Poys, Trays, Cabinets, Tea Caddies, Glove Boxes, Checker-Boards, Bamboo Chains, Silk, Paper, Feather, Ivory and Sandal-wood Fans, and a great variety of other goods suitable for HOLIDAY AND OTHER GIFTS. ADVERTISEMENTS. 767 MARTIN LANDENBERGER'S SONS. MANUFACTURERS OF SHAWLS, FIICY HIT eoois IN EVERY VARIETY, AND 6-4 WORSTED COATfflGS OOI^nSTEI^ OIF Frankford Ave. and Wildey St., PHILADELPHIA. 7G8 AD VERTISEMENTS. A. PARDEE, Hazleton, Pa. J. GILLINGHAM FELL, Phila. A. PARDEK & CO., MINERS AND SHIPPERS OF LEHIGH COALS. The following superior liEMICJH COAI4S, of established reputation for House- hold use, Smelting and Steam i^urposes, are Mined and Shipped by ourselves and firms connected with us, viz. : A. PARDEE & CO. Q. B. DARKLE & CO. CALVIN PARDEE & CO. r HAZLETON, ] cranberry, (sugar loaf. f JEDDO, I HIGHLAND. LATTIMER. HOLLYWOOD. WM. MERSHON, Agent, 111 Broadway, New York. ALSO PROPRIETORS OF STANHOJPE, N, J. H. H. WILSON, Treas. Mr. Robert Taylor is a Practical Mechanic, and personally superintends our Manufacturing Department. "We keep on hand all sizes from No. 1 to No. ISO, and ^A^e challenge compe- tition either as to quality or price. ROBERT TAYLOR & CO., Corner Nineteenth and Callowhill Streets, Philadelphia. AD VER TISEMENTS. roo HENRY LOTH, Manufacturer of the -A. ■!■ E! 3>J' T? Folding Table, No. 645 North Broad Street, TABLE OPEN. Patented July 31, 1866. " 15, 1873. TABLE CLOSED. These Tables are so constructed that they can be adapted to all the various purposes for which Tables are used. They can be folded up and put away after using, occupying only a small space, and are not liable to get out of order. Please send for circular and price list. ALSO, MANUFACTURER OP Sewing-Machine Cases AND ALL KINDS OF aiiins-|pliine ([ abinet IJcirli, 645 North Broad St., PHILADELPHIA. Patented January 14, i873- 49 770 ADVERTISEMENTS. JESSE REYNOLDS, WM. T. REYNOLDS. WM. STEFFE. Corner 13th and Filbert Streets, p ]» 1 1. ,A. D e: I. P H I J%., MANUFACTURERS OF "vsri^OTJC>iiT-iK.oisr AIR-TIGHT FURNACES, With Permanent Wrought-iron Radiators, four sizes Portable and six sizes for Brickwork. THE BEST, MOST DURABLE AND ECONOMICAL House -JV arming apparatus, • <»> ■ THEY AHE ALL GUARANTEED TO BE ABSOLUTELY GAS, DUST AND SMOKE TIGHT, AND TO GIVE SATISFACTION. ^XjSO, the Centennial Wrought-Iron Furnace, FOR BURNING SOFT COAL OR COKE, AND KEYSTONE PORTABLE FURNACES, Cooking Ranges, Broilers, Ctiop-liouse Ranges, Low-down Grales, DESCEIPTIVE CIEOULAES SENT FREE TO ANY ADDEESS. A D VER TISEMENTS. 71 PAPER BOX COMPANY, GEORGE W. PLUWILY & SON, Proprietors, Nos. 213, 215 and 217 North Fourth Street, CORNER OF BRANCH ST„ ■ M > ■ OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS. BMWQQMTB' BQ^ES A SPECIALTY, Con,prising a perfect line of PILL, PRESCRIPTION. SODA and SE.DL.TZ BOXES of every Compns g ^,^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ Druggists and Phys.c.ans. ^ — ■ < »» ■ Estimates given for Paper Boxes usml hy Manufacturers of everv description of goods. 772 ADVERTISEMENTS. W. H. DOBLE. W. H. DOBLE, Jr. W. H. DOBLE & SON, LIVERY STABLE, 1424 South Penn Square, ZPSIXj-A-IDEXjIPm^. W. H. RIGHTMIRE'S Marble and Stone Works, 523 and B2B MARKET ST., CAJB/LTXEJH, JH. J. FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC MARBLES, miHfS, IMDefOIlS, M TABLE TOPS, ETC. ALL IINDS Of CElTfR! WORK DONE TO ORDER, ESTABLISHED 18SO. SYL. A. LEITH & CO., Successors to WM. H. KIRKPATEICK & CO., WHOLESALE SeALERS IN No. 210 SOUTH FRONT STREET, AD VER rrSEMENTS. 773 Marble and Stone Works 523 and B2B MARKET ST., c:j.A.3vi:i>:E;p>a", isr. o". FOREIGN AND DOMESTIC MARBLES, Monuments^Headstones All kinds of CEMETERY WORK done to order. » • ESTIWATES GIVEN FOR POLISHED GRANITE WORK. AD VERTISEMENTS. THOMAS J. ANDRESS & CO.. MACHINISTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF Confectioners Tools, MAGHINBS, MOULDS, ETC., 229 AND 331 VINE STREET, PHILADKLPHIA. AD VER TISEMENTS. PATENT IMPR0VE0"GRAP1>I.E-0REDGE." improved'^ipper DRrncF: SHAWSPATEMTGUNPOWOEHPIIE-DRIVER, BUILDERS OF STEAM DREDGING MACHINES, GUNPOWDER PILE-DRIVERS, &c. CONTRACTORS FOR IMPROVING RIVERS AND HARBORS, RECLAIMING AND FILLING LOW LANDS, PILING FOR FOUNDATIONS, PIERS, Etc. Offices, Wo. 10 South Delaware Ave., Philad'a. Kstablished 18S9. Z. LOGKEI 6c GO.^ MANUFACTUKKKS OF Druggists' 95 per cent., Absolute and Atwood's Pure Deodorized 1126 MARKET ST. (Formerly at 1010), PHILADA. ««> ' SOLE A-O-KNTS FOR. PRATT'S hif/h fire-test and every ivay reliable ASTRAL OIL; aiso, PORTLAND 3IACHIXERY OIL. ITI EI Quarries and Factories, LEHIGH COUNTY, PA. Office, 1136 MARKET STKEET, PHILADA. ' . » ■ Manufacturers of Superior Quality ROOFING MES, ME FUGGING AND SCHOOL SLATES, - . <«> ■ SLATE TILING, STEPS, RISERS and WINDOW- SILLS made a specialty. 776 A D VER TISEMENTS. Furniture Warerooivis, 18 NORTH NINTH ST., PHILADA yj Foot Rests, h H P Parlor Easels, Parlor Brackets, mi ^ Bouquet Tables, Book Shelves, Dressing Oases, Fancy Chairs, Booking Chairs, etc. n > C H H o Co I 2 ■n i> 5 S * o t*1 ^ 2 o o >^ -n c: 30 Co S -i O 3> ^ PI "--1 >--. 33 ^^ m Q^ A D VER TISEMENTS. HENRY SNYDER. DAVID F. HOUSTON. HEIl^RY SNYDBR 6L GO.^ 43 SOUTH FOURTH ST., PHILADELPHIA, MANUFACTURERS' AGENTS FOR THE TANITE EMER! WHEEL, ASHCROET'S STEAM GAUGES, 'S FLUE BRUSH, AMES MANUFACTURING CO.'S TOOLS AND .THE Shaplee Steam Engine^ oo CC3 0:3 top t=c5 go CD THE MOST DURABLE AND ECONOMICAL PORTABLE ENGINE IN USE. ALSO, DEALERS IN ImMmmW, MmmfuGimr§m% Engineers' r Steam- ^Mn audi Eailwa^ Bupplw^. B^SEND FOR PRICE LIST AND CIRCULARS, 778 ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1822. FRKDKRICK BROIT^H^ Importing, Manufacturing and Dispensing Chemist, N. E. CORNER FIFTH AND CHESTNUT STS., PHILADELPHIA. KSx^A-BLisMEr) isao. WM. J. YOUNG & SONS, IVIalliematical, Enpeeriog 6 Monomical Instrument Mm, INVENT0U8 AND INTRODUCERS OF ENGINEERS' TRANSITS, 43 NORTH SEVENTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. W. J. Y. & S. would remind the profession tliat they possess the most perfect Graduating Engine in the country, doing tlieir Graduation under their own immediate supervision. Improved Transits and LcTcls; Tapes. Chains. Drauarhting Instruments, etc. Photographs furnished on Application. MOROCCO MANUFACTURERS. SV3IAC LININGS IN ALL COLORS, Calf Kid, Sheep Kid, Alum Leather, etc., AND DEALERS IN HIDES, CALFSKINS AND TALLOW, N. E. corner Oxford and Mascher Sts., i='h:ii_.a.idei_.:ph:i^. Horticultural Establishment^ BROAD AND COLU3IBIA AVENUE, Thomas J. Mackenzie, Proprietor. PHILADELPHIA. COLTON DENTAL ROOMS, OBIGINATOBS OF NITROUS OXIDE GAS IN DENTISTRY. ONLY OFFICE IN THE CITY WHERE THE ENTIRE PRACTICE IS DEVOTED TO THE ADMIK ISTBATION OP NITROUS OXIDE GAS FOB THE PAINLESS EXTRACTION OF TEETH. Office, 912 Walnut Street, PHILADELPHIA. A D VER TISEMENTS. 79 MANUFACTURER OF Hearse, Coach, Carriage Bodies, AND CARRIAGE PARTS OF ALL STYLES, No. 213 SHIPLEY ST., WILMINGTON, DEL. ■ <«» ■ All orders promptly attended to. Your patronage respectfully solicited. IllSlIifOI Iff 4ID BQLf WOEKS L. SYKES & SON, 723, 725 and 727 Richmond St., Philadelphia. f HaRE'S SffIH€E MEAT, i5(> ^o?/f7< j^/'o^ji Street f rhilndelphia. lATILLIAM BOHRER^ S. E. corner Fourth and Chestnut Streets, Philadelphia. . — . <«>■ M \m\h of italics for Ittotlrii cut ta or^cr at the shortest notice. 780 AD VER TISEMENTS. No, 622 ARCH STREET, I*IIILA DELPHI A. TANK mo e[LL GLASS AQUm, FISH GLOBES, GOLD FISH. AND ALL KINDS OF .A.QU.A.FII.A. STOCK. VIVARIA AND FERN CASES, :bxxi.x>» -A.3xr3D o -a. o is sj . TAXIBMBHT IM AI^Ii. ITS BE^HUHMS- SPECIMENS IN NATURAL HISTORY. AD VER TISEMENTS. 781 OLDEST ESTA.13LTSFIII:t> CLOCK HOUSE. ^. jr. oooxtE:, WHOLESALE DEALER IN FOREIGN AND AMERICAN Clocks, Regulators, etc. No. 137 NORTH THIRD STREET, PHILADELPHIA. BEST MANUFACTURES. ESTtVBLISHED 1813. PHILADELPHIA LEAD WORKS. ^VHITE LEAD, DRY ^ND IN OIL, "W^RR^NTED PURE, MANUFACTURED BY JOHN T. LEWIS & BROS., No. 231 South Front Street, near Dock, PHIIiADEIiPHIA. SUGAR OF LEAD, RED LEAD, LITHARGE, LINSEED OIL, ORANGE MINERAL, ZINC WHITE, AND COLORS. Orders from any part of the [Tnited States attended to. 782 AD VEE TISEMENTS. I m. ^ ■r f ^^1 STEAM-POWER BOOK, CARD AND JOB PRINTER 116 North Third St., 1 PHILADELPHIA. f»f 1' EXECUTED IN THE BEST STYLE. PARTICULAR ATTENTION PAID TO BALL AND WEDDING PRINTING, ETC, E jFine ^gisottmcnt of German Cspe. AD VER TISEMENTS. 783 GHARLKS BOGKIUS^ MOROCCO LEATHER IVI ANUF'^CT'OK.Y, S. E. cor. St. Jolin and Willow Sts., Pliilada. BATGHBLOR BROS;, MANUFACTURERS OF PICKWICK, PECULIAR, AND DTIIKR BRANDS DF FINE CIGARS, No. 808 Market Street, Phi ladelphia. W. H. HARRISON & BRO., MANUFACTURERS OF LOW AND RAISED fill ililie, IUEI4CES 4HE EANGES, AND DEA^I^KKS IN Fire Screens, Fenders, Fire-dogs, Gas Logs FINE FIRE IRONS AND STANDS, etc., etc., No. 1435 Chestnut Street, PHILADELPHIA. N B.— Our Fire Grates are unsurpassed for beauty of design and tiiiish ; we are constantly adding to their ornamentation, so as to meet the wants and gratify the tastes of all who value the advantages of a cheerful and healthful open fire. PHILADELPHIA QUARTZ CO. MANUKACTUREKS OF SILiIGATK OF SODA IN ITS VARIOUS FORMS, OMce, 9 NORTH FRONT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. GYRUS HORWTE^ UNDERTAKER, if®. gS North Elevsatb St-.f FhilMelptia. COFFINS, HEARSEa CARRIAGES, And everything pertaining to Funerals, furnished at the shortest notice. CASKETS OF ALL DESCRIPTIONS. Also, PATENT METALLIC AM) LEAD COFFINS ON HAND ■84 A D VER TISEMENTS. The Palmer Leg and Arm. THE MODEL LIMBS THROUGHOUT THE WORLD FOR 25 YEARS, Walking in Safety Socket. IMPROVEMENTS PATENTED APRIL 8, 1873, BY B. FRANK PALMER, LL.D. OFFICE: No. 1609 CH EST NUT STR EET, PHILA. The object of these improvements is to render the leg lighter, stronger, more elastic and life-like in its motions ; to adapt it to support the weight of the wearer upon the end of the stump by the introduction of a properly constructed socket ; to give a double sup- port to the foot by the introduction of auxiliary tendons in addition to and in aid of the tendo-Achillis; to improve the movement generally; to give a fine external finish to the limb ; and to allow a lateral movement resembling that of the natural ankle, while un- accompanied by the defects which characterize previous attempts to import this move- ment into the artificial foot. A Safety Socket, adapted to the end, supports a part or all of the weight, as the stump will allow. This socket introduces anew method of walking. It applies above or below the knee equally well, and is the greatest comfort to the wearer. The advance step now taken is the result of patient inventive eflforts, continued since the year 1846, and is without a parallel in the progress of the art. P. S. The Tendons and Springs are in duplicate; anyone breaking does not prevent complete action of the leg. To obtain the New Palmer Leg and Arm, address fllLMER'S PATEMT B. FRANK PALMER, 1609 Chestnut St., PHILADELPHIA. ADVERTISEMENTS. 785 JOSEPH SCHAFPER. JACOB C. SCHAFPER. J. SCHAFFER & BRO., BILLIARD TABLE MANUFACTURERS, 471 and 473 N. Third St., PHILADELPHIA. WnMAMO T'ABItBB @F AMi BBSIQMB, From $100 and Upmrard. BEST OUilLin BILLIARD MATERIAL CONSTANTL! 01 HiD, All Orders should be Addressed to i. SCHAFFER & BRO., 471 and 473 N. THIRD ST., PHILADELPHIA. 50 [86 ADVERTISEMENTS. D. L. "WITMEB. H. F. "WITMEB. D. L. WITHER &. BRO., DRUGGISTS, AND DEALERS IN French and American Window Grlass, PAINTS, OILS, VARNISHES, Etc. JUNCTION FIFTH AND GERMANTOWN AV., PHIL A. DELPHI A.. IMS t ®#f 1 m., OlO, OQO ^xxca. OQQ ^Vixxo St., SOLE MANUFACTUREES OF WELLS' PATENT Metallic Advertising Signs. Our signs have been used during the past four years by the leading advertisers and manufacturers of this country, and are pronouitced by them a grand success. Their elegaoce of design and finish, their cheapness and great durability, recommend them as the best available medium for advertising your goods or business. Fine original designs a specialty, /or which no charge is made where an order is given. Jf.B.— These signs, being weather proof, are especially ap- plicable to outdoor advertising for the Centennial. CHARLES SCHUMANN, MANUFACTURER OF CALF KID LEATHER, No. 1724 N. Fifth Street, PHILADELPHIA. ADVERTISEMENTS. 7b 7 JESTABLISHED 1766. C. J. FELL & BROTHER, jlustod ||anu|Hctuitrfi, Mice Iniporterfi and ^Mm, TEA DEALERS AND IMPORTERS, 120 SOUTH FRONT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, 121 & 123 FRONT STREET, NEW YORK. Our Mustards are not excelled by those of any manufacturer in the world, either in quality of goods or style of packages. SOLE AMEBICAN" AGENTS FOR Nelson's Gelatines and Unsworth's Chocolate Preparations, /MUSTARDS AND SPICE STOCK FOR SPICE MILLS. bi-LUALiliib, I BERMUDA ARROW-ROOT, ISINGLASS, CREAM TARTAR, Experience having established the fact that the American trade will support the manufacture of a higlier grade of Spices than are generally found outside the European markets, we maintain arrangements for giving such to the public, and shall endeavor to keep constantly in stock selections from the choicest goods in our line to be found in any of the foreign marts. G. NELSON, DALE & CO., Original Patentees and Manufacturers of GELATINt, ISINGLASS AND GELATINE LOZENGES, 14z ZDO"W^a-^TE HULL, LONDON, E. C. GELATINE OF EVERY jyESCBIPTIOK FOB 3IANUFACTUBING FUBPOSES. Samples will be Forwarded on Application. C. J. FELL & BROTHER, 120 SOUTH FRONT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, 121 FRONT STREET, NEW YORK, ARE SOLE AMERICAN AGENTS. A D VERTISEMENTS. ,11 1. seiMiff, HAIR JEWELRY, No. 222 North Eighth St., Formerly 928 Chestnut St., P 3EI 1 1. jc|, D E: X. P K I .A. . Madame Schmitt was also the recipient of a Silver Medal for superiority of Hair Jewelry at the Exposition of the Franklin Institute in 1854. C. A. ADOLPH MEYER, BOOT I SHOP] MAKER, 228 South Fourth Street, Philadelphia. ■ * • >■ • To the public at large, and my customers and patrons in particular: I always keep the best BOOTS and SHOES of all kinds on hand, paying the utmost attention to all orders, working the best of French Calfskin and other leather, making the best and latest styles In the most substantial manner and most moderate price in the city. Manufacturer of RANGES, HEATERS AND STOVES 184,0 IMAltlvET ^T., FHIT^ATJELPHIA. Looking Glasses, Cornices and Picture Frames, JSo. 1S12 CHESTNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA. Importer of PAINTINGS, ENGRAVINGS and CHROMOS. Mouldings for the Trade. Glasses Packed for Shipping. Old "Work Re-gilded. AD VER TISEMENTS. 789 EDWI N D.ESHLE MAN. JO SEPH R. CRAIG. EISKr.SI^.A.M' ea.i^ii:rs iiv ENGLISH COMMERCIAL WHITING, ENGLISH GILDERS' WHITING, ENGLISH AMERICAN PARIS WHITE, ENGLISH CHALK, ENGLISH CLIFF STONE PARIS WHITE, ENGLISH CHINA CLAY, FRENCH COMMERCIAL WHITING, FRENCH GILDERS' WHITING, FRENCH AMERICAN PARIS WHITE, FRENCH CHALK. (FROM PARIS), Ilf OEfllS 01 011411 f BMC!4IS, AND INVENTORS AND MANUFACTURERS OF THE FRANCO-AMERICAN LEATHER DRESSING. MANUFACTURERS OF THE ONLY Patented WRITINU and C0PYIN6 INKS made for COMMERCE ani SCHOOLS. 14:0 South Third St. and 309 Harmony Street, I>IIIL^IDE3L.PIII^. AD VEBTISEMENTS. 793 AMEmmAM MMWEBFEME FOR THE DIFFUSION OF KNOWLEDGE THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. ^- Mr -r ■^'^' CHAS. HOLLAND KIDDER, - ^^ "U" "^J 3^ ( HARLES MISSER, ^°'^°''- GEN'L SUBSCRIPTION AGENT PROPRIETOR AND PUBLISHER, No. 152 South Fourth Street This book is a LIBRARY IN ITSELF of correct, reliable and useful and valuable information in a condensed form. It is therefore almost indispensable as a valuable book of reference, and should be in the hands of every citizen throughout the whole country. The price of the work will bring it within the reach of all (it being the cheapest book ever published). AGENTS WANTED in every State and county in the United States, and in every county and township throughout Canada. Price of Book in plain clotli, $2, M $2.50 lo $3.50 In exlra finisli and binding. Particular attention is called to the $2.50 book in fine cloth, embossed and printed in gold and black on cover. DO NOT FAIL TO ACT AS AGENT in your section of the country. Any one can sell it. Send for particulars by first mail. Advertisements received for the second and all suc- ceeding editions of this book. Send for price list. |@=-This is the ONLY work that will give the desired information concerning the country at the Centennial Exhibition. 794 AD VEBTISEMENTS. SPAR AND ELLIPTIC ^^^^^K TRACK AND ROAD ^ SPRING _^^^ li\^^^i^il8»to NO-TOPillGONS, COMBINING THE Latest Improvements SULKIES AND ^.,«,. 5 Wagons LIGHTEST WEIGHTS. ^^%S™ S^^^ WEIGHTS and SIZES. (^^2¥e^^ WITH THE j^ iLi^i^a-E sToaKi OIF- FOR THE TRACK, ROAD and PARK, IN WAREROOMS, AND BUILT TO ORDER. The attention of the drivii:ig pubhc is called to my recent improved Spring Head, secured to myself by letters patent, and used in connection with the Patent Double Cross Spring, making the most popular Side-bar or Spar Wagon novs/^ used, perfectly noiseless, and combining all of the easy riding qualities of the Elliptic Spring, together with the steady motion of the side bar, so much admired as a speed wagon. 0^°" Particular attention given to details of customers ordering work either in person or by mail. Correspond- ence invited. ■ t m • CHAS. S. CAFFREY, GAM DEN, N. J., opposite Philadelphia. #S- DRAWINGS SENT UPON APPLICATION."^. A D VER TISEMENTS. LIGHT CARRIAGES OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, f ROM pRIGINAL AND foPULAR pESI JIGNS. MANUFACTORY AND VITAREROOMS, CORnSTEE, OF" TENTH ^isri3 >I .V li li K; T STREETS, OPPOSITE PHIUAQELPHIA, 796 ADVERTISEMENTS. GODFREY KEEBLER, Manufacturer of Superior CRACKERS, CAKES AND BISCUITS, 258, 260, 262 and 264 N. Twenty-second St., Philadelphia. BUILDER OF PINE CARRIAGES ONLY, 214 South Fifth St.^ below Walnut, PHILiADKLiPHIA. ESTABLISHED 1848. A, B, BURTON, EIHGmEBR AND GOHTRAGTOR FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF WOOD and IRON RAIL ROAD and ROAD Viaduclsi Tfestle Work, Roofs, Turntables, etc, PHILADELPHIA. N. B. — Surveys, Estimates, Plans, Specifications, and all information furnished on application. Hance Brothers & White, MANUFACTURING CHEMISTS AND PHARMACEUTISTS, PHILADELPHIA. AD VER TJSEMENTS. 797 ESTABLISHED 1779. n^'IlL, MANUFACTURERS OF WHITE LEAD, Red Lead, Litharge and Orange Mineral, 31st Street below Chestnut, A. ^V. RAND, WARMING AND VENTILATING HOT-AIR FURNACES, STEAM HEATERS AND Plumbing, Gas and Stea m Fitting, S heet-Iron and Tin Work. 124 NORTH SIXTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. 798 ADVERTISEMENTS. 1825. love. THE PENNSYLVANIA FIRE INSURANCE CO. INCORPORATED J$25.— CHARTER PERPETUAL. 510 WALNUT ST., opposite Independence Square. ■ <«> ■ This Company, favorably known lo the community for half a century, continues to insure against loss or damage by fire on Public or Private Buildings, either permanently or for a limited time. Also, on Furniture, Stocks of Goods and Merchandise generally, on liberal terms. DIRECTORS. John Devereux, Thomas Robins, J. Gillingham Fell, Daniel Smith, Jr., Thomas Smith, Daniel Haddock, Jr., Isaac Hazlehurst, Henry Lewis, Franklin A. Comly. V/M. G. CROWELL, Secretary. JOHN DEVEREUX, President. RIEHLE BROTHERS, piiix..a.de:i.piiia. SCALE AND TESTING MACHINE WORKS, STANDARD SCALES. PATENT RAILROAD TRACK, WAGON, FURNACE-CHARGING, ROLL- ING MILL SCALES, etc. NEW STYLE TESTING MACHINES, OF ANY SIZE AND CAPACITY. HORIZONTAL or UPRIGHT MACHINES With Tensile, Torsional, Transverse or Crushing Sirains. WARRANTED ACCURATE. Established 1840. If. Wil l All m mm woiii WATSON "& KELSO, 46 and 48 JVorth Front St,, JPIiiladelphia, MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN Sieves, Screens and Wire Cloths, Wrought and Cast Iron Railings for Cottages, Cemetery Lots, etc., Wrought and Cast Iron Gratings and Wire Guards for Windows, Roof Crestings for Dwellings and Public Buildings. <®"WIRE WORK OF EVERY DESCRIPTION MADE TO ORDER.-®* A D VER TISEMENTS. 799 ESTA-BLISHED 1828. Are Popular iecanse RellaMc . Are always Warr anted to Proye Satisfactory. 1500 ACRES ARE ANNUALLY PLANTED TO PRODUCE OUR SUPPLY. • • «ff>BUIST'S GARDEN ALMANAC AND MANUAL FOR 1876, containing 132 pages of useful information about Seeds, with the Gardeners' and Planters' Price List, giving quotations by the ounce, pound or bushel, mailed on receipt of two three-cent stamps. 4f3=- WHOLESALE Price Current of Seeds for Merchants and Seed Dealers mailed on receipt of letter stamp. Seed Fanns, EOSEDALE, WATEREOED and MOREISVILLE ; Warehouse, 922 and 924 MABKET STREET, above Xinth. ADDRESS, ROBERT BUIST, JR., Lock Box 62 P. O. I»H;I3L.A.I>I:IL.1?IIIA. John Farrell. Harvey Gillam. Chas. Mathews. Geo. W. Myers. HERRINGS^PATENT ThAMPION eUNnHULTUllOLTDOOBSllND BUM PROOF m Awarded Prize Medal at World's Fair, London; World's Fair, New York; Exposition Uni- verselle, Paris, and Franklin Institute Exhibition, Philadelphia, JVb. 807 CHESTJSTJT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. «S=-ALSO AN ASSORTMENT OF SECOND-HAND SAFES." aft FOS. HINDERMYER & SON, 911 and 913 Vine St., above Ninth, Philadelphia, manufacturers of all kinds of SODA WATER APPAEATUS Of the most approved styles; also, all kinds of COUNTER FIXTURES AND DRAWING APPARATUS Constantly ou hand and made to order. ^-PAETICULAR ATTENTION PAID TO REPAIRING MINERAL WATER APPARATUS. 800 AD VER TISEMENTS. L BEDIGHMER. EJIsT C3- K. j^^ST" E K. MANUFACTURER OF Masonic^ OddFellows\ KNIGHTS or PYTHIAS Eed MEN'S, College, AJ, PHILADELPHIA. Manufacturers of Chambers' Patent BOOK FOLDING MACHINES, Newspaper Folding Machines, AND FOLDING PASTING AND COVERING MACHINES, ' FOR BINDING PERIODICALS. SEND FOR ILLUSrii-A^TED CIRCXTIvArt. Also, Chambers' Patent CLAY TEMPERING BRICK MACHINE, 804 ADVERTISEMENTS. J VAN 1 8USKIRK, M.D. A. A . APPLE, firaduate ill Pliarniacy. VAN BUSKIRK & APPLE. PHAliaTACETJTISTiS, A. E. Coi . 3d and Daiijihin St&.and S.E. Cor. 3d and. Cutnberland, PhlladelpJiia. PHILADELPHIA A. W. HOLT, 1009 aa;^^Xj:n"tjt sa?K.EET. The onlij Establish nient in the Ututed States niaking a Specialty of Cream Caramels. A Luscious Coiifecfiou coiivpris- iitf/ all the Choice Fruit Flavors, CHOCOLATE CREAM OF SIMILAR FLAVORS. ESTABLISHED 184.2. MEARS & DUSENBERY, Stereotypers and Electrotypers, 323 Harmony St.^ AND PHILADELPHIA. BROWN & CARVER'S IMPROVED PAPER CUTTING MACHINE. See Illustration on Page 805. These Machines have the highest reputation througliout the United States for durability, aeeuracy and speed. Tliey are tlie only Machines which have the improved traverse gauge, which enables the operator to cut up to the last half inch of paper. At the Franklin institute Exhibition, Oct., 187tI, each Machine was awarded a SILVER MEDAL for tlieir general superiority and special excellence. Since then we have added MORE IMPROVEMENTS to them. The Hand Machine is now arranged so that by a slight movement of a sliding pin the leverage or power is auginenied to suit the heaviest work ; and a reverse movement of the pin will cause an increased speed for light work. Tliis peculiar feature will commend itself to tlie trade. We also make a superior ROTARY CUTTER, with Patent Feed Motion, for card manufacturers and others. Also a new and improved Fringing Macliine, for fringing tissue paper. All of these Macliines will be in operation at tlie Centennial Exhibition. SEND FOM PRICB LIST AWJJ CIRCULAR. A D VERTISEMEyTS. 805 (3D W ^ pi ** H =: 806 AD VER TISEMENTS. JQJ3.N lATYETHC <5c BIIO., MANITACTUKERS OF Elegant Ptiarmaceutical Prepafations and Gompfessed PRICE LISTS AND CIRCULARS SENT ON APPLICATION. m {A o o 3- CD r^ CD SI) CD BUFFALO AND SLEIGH ROBES, SEAL .CAPS COATS " " FURS L&VEB, LARGEST STOCK, FINEST QUALITIES, LOWEST PRICES, NAV. C. REISKTS, A"-. 'S.—SJII'PTIJVG I'Uns :BOUGJIT, A D VER TISEMENTS. 807 CD 808 ADVERTISEMENTS. 231 ARCH ST. siiKl 114 JfORTH WIXTBI ST., PHIL.ADKL.PIIIA. The subscribers being Practical WIRE WORKERS, feel able to give entire satisfaction to all parties in want of SIEVES, RIDDLES, SCREENS, WOVEN WIRE, OF ALL MESHES AND WIDTHS. With all kinds of PLAIN and FANCY WIRE WORK, IRON RAILING, lEON BEDSTEADS, and all kinds of GARDEN FURNITURE, etc., etc. WIRE GUARDS FOR STORE, HOUSE AND FACTORY WINDOWS. Heavy Twilled Wire for Spark-Catchers, Coal, Sand and Gravel Screens, Cellar Window Wire, all patterns, Meat and Provision Safes, Rat Traps, all kinds, Bird Cages of all descriptions, Flower Pot Stands, Trainers, etc.. Trellis Work for Grape Vines, Steak and Oyster Broilers, Nursery and other Fenders, Wire and Wire Fencing, Iron Wire Furniture, etc., Dish Covers, etc., etc. A very superior article of Heavy Founders' Sieves, all kinds of Iron Ore Wire, Wire and Sieves for Seed and Grain. All kinds of Wire Work on hand or made to order. Orders thankfully received and promptly executed by BAYI.ISS & DARBY Mai^ufactwring Co. Introduced in 1850. THIS POWDER HAS YEARLY BECOME More and More POPULAR, m^fmi^i ITS SALES NOW REACH OVER 5 Tons PER MONTH IN PACKAGES OF 12 oz. Each. This Cattle Powder claims to be a great AGRICULTURAL DISCOVERY and IMPROVEMENT. It is compounded upon strict scientific chemical principles, acting upon the ANIMAL SYSTEM as manure would act on the soil, stimulating it naturally, thereby MAKING A LARGE INCREASE OF MILK, BUTTER, PAT, etc. It is also an invaluable prepai-ation for all DISEASES of HORSES, CATTLE, HOGS and POULTRY. For a Pamphlet, w^ith full particulars, call upon or address the Proprietor, FRED. A. MILLER, 1S9 iltoi^th: ih^z^oistt sti^eet, Kstablislied. 1854. JOHN WATERHOUSE, Monumental Marble Works, No. 1817 ARCH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ADVERTISEMENTS. 809 ESTABLISHED 1847. L. HERDER & SON, KTo. e06 Arch Street, Philadelphia, Manufacturers of the Celebrated American Shears,Scissors % Trimmers A X I) inVCIPOI^TEIE^S OIP Joseph Rodgers & Sons' Pocket and Table Cutlery, Razors, Scissors and Scissors in Cases, Geo. Wostenholm and Sons' IXL Pocket Knives and Razors, Wade & Butchers' Razors, AND DEALERS IN AMERICAN TABLE CUTLERY, R.A.ZOFi STFtOPS, DIFFKKKNr MANUFACTUKERS, Razor and Pen-Knife Hones, MDIES^ AND GEHTS' DRESSING CASES, Cliainpape Kiiiyes, Nippers, Siphons aiKl Corkscrews, OPERA AND SPY GLASSES,' SILVER-PLATED WARE, :5ockt-|oolif3, J|athcmaticat |nfifriiinentfi, f^all |etl;;, DRINKING FLASKS, AND A GREAT VARIETY OF USEFUL AND FANCY ARTICLES. 810 AD VERTISEMENTS. 'ft %^9) DEALERS IN HARDWARE, CXJTLEIH,^^. m» House-Furnishing Goods, RIDGE AND 6IRARD AVENUES, PHILADELPHIA. AD VERTISEMENTS. 811 DIENELT & EISENHARDT. MACHINISTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF Wm, Suspder § Tape Looms, ALSO, I'O'WEI?. LOOIMIS, WARP MILLS, FILLliG MACHINES OR QUILL-WINDERS, Of the most improved construction for plain or figured Broad Silk. — ■ ■^♦»- ■■ ^HATWr <5c JUSTICE PATENTDEAD-8TR0KEP0WER HAMMERS BELIANCE HYDRAWMC JACKS, JACQUARD MACHINES, Of the latest Improved I'titferus, with Self-oilinij licnrinifs and ItKlipimli nt Jtevern)^ Cijlinder Motioti. PIANO CARD STAMPING MACHINES and PLATES JACQUARD HARNESS TWINE, MAILLIONS, LINGOES and OTHER FIND- INGS FOR FIGURED WEAVING constantly on hand. 30 & 42 ill. Centrifugal Hydro Extractors WITH STEAM ENGINE ATTACHED. 16 inch Centrifugal Hydro Extractor FOR BELT OR HAND-POWER. PHOTOGRAPHS, PRICE LISTS aiiLl REMENCES FURNISHED on applicalioii. ea^ Particular attention paid to repairing of Lathes or Battons for Ribbon, Suspender and Tape Looms. Seventeenth St and Fairmount Avenue, PHILADELPHIA. 812 A D VERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1815. SHARPLiEISS iSi SOHS^ Nos. 801 J 803 find 805 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, IMPORTERS, JOBBERS AND RETAILERS OP DRY GOODS, Have constantly in stock a large and varied assortment of SILKS, SHAWLS And all the Novelties in Dp^^ss Fabf^cs. Our Suit Department is alwai/s replete with a full assorttnent of Costumes, Cloaks and Furs from medium qualities to the finest fjoods imported. We import largely of lfl \{ iV '^(i^ ^r ^r mnl India {);ami;tf)' jhair lltaiub and marf^, AND OFFER THE SAME AT VERY ATTRACTIVE PRICES. ;i. ::i lli lllil.'IIM'. Mr li'l!lll l|i|i n ■ ■'■■■"liiTlllir:'. iii'i' , .■"'T'"T."i~"l — ■■ , , TrZtl I ■. nr — m "*.. i :■', — , ..." — : * II liiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiniiii I I Ill iiiiiii Ill n Ill limn iiiiili iiiiiMi iininii N. J. WBMMBR & SON, 215 Pear Street, Philadelphia, PREPARERS OF FOB WOOD ENGRAVERS, MANUFACTURE CIGAR BOXES AD VER TISEMENTS. 818 ESTABLISIIET> 1840. GEO. J. BURKHARDT & CO.'S Cedar Vat & Tank Factory, BUTTONWOOD ST. BELOW BROAD, PHILA. VATS, TANKS AND RESERVOIRS From 100 to 100,000 Gallons Capacity, Suitable for Sre7Pers, Chemists, 2)j'ers, J>fa?mfactMrers, Siaib'oads, 'Pape?- MillSy 'Public a?id Private :Suildi?iffs. Our long experience and superior facilities enable us to furnish a superior article in the shortest possible time and at reasonable prices. SCOTCH MASH MACHINES AND GEAIN VALVES. Orders Received for Boiling Worms, Stop Cocks, etc., etc. 814 AD VER TISEMENTS. CHARLES ALBREOHT. FREDERICK RIEKES. EDMUND WOLSIEFFER, ALBRECHT & C O., Manufacturers of the Celebrated New "IDOTJBLE J^O-I^^IFIFE I^I^ISTOS," No. 610 A.RCK STREKX, PlilLADELPHI^. DEALER IN French and American Glass Shades, Black, Gilt and "Walnut Stands, Flower Frames, Wax Fruit and Flower Materials, Wax Wreaths and Bouquets Made to Order. Also, Lessons given in Wax Work. NATURAL FLOWERS PRESERVED. No. 226 NORTH NINTH STREET. PHILADELPHIA. ^^^^^^^^^ JOHNC. RULON, GEKEEAL FURNISHING w,xHco.r..,H. UNDERTAKER 1313 VINE ST., PHILADELPHIA. PARK PACKING, CURING AND SMOKING ESTABLISHMENT, S. E. Cor. JVorris and Hoivard Sts., J^hllttdclphia. F. SCHUMANN & SON, MANUFACTURERS OP c JL Xj :f :k: I id. No. 1810 North Eighth Street, ABOVE MONTGOMERY AVENUE, PHILADELPHIA. Nos, 78 and 80 LAUREL ST., PHILADELPHIA, BUILDER of FIRST-CLASS CHURCH ORGANS. Inventor of the Nonpareil Pneumatic Action, Patented May 19, 1874, and February 9, 1875. Also, Inventor of the Konpareil Pipe Organ for Sunday-Scliools, Cliapels and small Churches, costint; much less than any other Organs of the same Power. Estimates furnished for Organs of all Sizes. Organs on hand for Sale and to Kent, AD VER TiSEMENTS. 815 MANUFACTURERS OF Confectionery CHOCOLATES. ALSO, PATENT SWEET CHOCOLATE PASTE. ■ <«» • OUR claim: xo the j[ost flaricd Jssortmcnt and Jjjincst jlroduction^^ in this £ounlrg CAN BE TESTED BY CALLING OR ADDRESSING US AT 3>a"<3- 812 c:Jli.estii.-uit street, PHILADELPHIA. Established 18S3 .o^^^"" ^^"^t. Established 18S8. ^. BtJILDER OF Fine Carriages OF THE HIGHEST AMERICAN STANDARD, Uusiimasseil forLigMiiess, Neatness, Streiiitli, Elegance and DiiraMlity. — ■ *%* — FIJ^'EST ASSORTJIENT, NEWKJiT I»E.SI«^>«, Landaus, Landaulets, Coupes, Coupelets, Five-Glass Landaus. Barouches, Phaetons, Victorias, Cabriolets, Coupe Rockaways, Buggies. Drags. Germantown Coaches, Clarences, Close and Shifting Quar- ter Coaches, English Coaches; also, Hearses. Photographs of styles sent to anv ailJicss at reqiust, with prices aii'l descriptions, so thai pur chasers at a distance may select and order without callin^' in person. All km.h1» warranted to be as represented. MANUFACTOBY AND WAHEROOMS, 1204 Frankford Avenue, above Girard Ave., Philadelphia. 816 ADVERTISEMENTS. GHARLEIS NAYLOR, MANUFACTURER OF Knights Templar Uniform, SOCIETY, MILITARY :]ycj^so:tTic o-ooids. No. 54 North Fifth Street, PHILADELPHIA. -_-<»►—.- BAND OUTFITS A SPECIALTY. AMERICAN RAZOR STROP WORKS. W. D. EVANS & CO, PROPRIETORS, No. 117 South Second Street, Between Chestnut and Walnut Sts., PHILADELPHIA. Having had an experience of over eight years in the manufacture of RAZOR STROPS, and having all the improved facilities for manufacturing, we can offer to the Trade goods that cannot be excelled by any in the market. We have constantly on hand all the various styles and sizes. Particular attention is called to EVANS' Patent SELF-ADJQSTire FLEXIBLE STROP M OIL-STONE HOME. TALLMAN'S SHOW CARDS Ready Made, for City and Country Merchants, 708 MARKET ST., PHILADA AD VERTISEMENTS. 817 ATLEE P. PARMER. THOS. MILLS. GEO. M. MILLS. UETITESD STATES THOS. MILLS & BRO. MANUFACTURERS OF CONFECTIONERS' TOOLS, MACHINES, MOULDS, ICMIEIIFI ETC. BRASS CASTINGS made to order and MACHINE WORK promptly attended to. Nos. 1301 and 1303 NORTH EIGHTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. B^ CATALOGUES SENT UPON APPLICATION. j2 818 AD VERTISEMENTS. ^lithmmfmtl ^mirnmenk, Microscopes, Spectacles, Opera Glasses, Stereopticoiis, Barometers, Magic Lauteriis, Therinoineters, PMlosopMcal Apparatus, MADE AND FOK SALE BY T-i^lVCES "VT". G^TJEElsr Sc CO., V24 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 601 Broadivay, N. Y. THE FOLLOWINO CATALOGUES SENT ON RECEIPT OF TEN CENTS FOR EACH PART: Part 1st. Mathematical. 106 pages. Part 2d. Optical, 120 pages. Part 3d. Magic Lanterns, 107 pages. Part 4th. Philosophical, 159. DAVID P. WEAVER. PETEB LYLE. WEAVER & LYLE, Fini: ClilllGE BilLBll Xos. SIO, S18 and S30 :N^. Broad Ht.^ Above Race St., West Side, Repairing Promptly and Faithfully Attended to. FACILITIES FOR STORING TWO HUNDRED CARRIAGES, AT LOW RATES. BRITTAIN ELY, Foreman, For many years with J. GEORGE LEFLER, as Foreman. J. M. MIGEOD & SON, Manufacturers and Dealers in Military, Firemen, Cliurch and Societf Goods, Epaiiletts, Swords, SasJies, Tints, Caps, Belts, Drums, Gold and Silver lances, Fringes and Etnhroideries, Unll Badges, Fire Hats, Caps, Belts, Horns, Shirts, Lan- terns, Torches, Plumes, Qloves, Buttons and Neck Ties, REGALIA, BAKNERS AND FLAGS OF ALL NATIONS. *e®=Army and Navy Officers, Regiments, Fire Companies, Societies and Dealers furnished with every article requir^d.'^Sl 510 RACE ST., PHILADELPHIA. AD VERTISEMENTS. 819 V Importers and Dealers in 'ndert;iherr/ 0cncnil S////////(\o. DRY GOODS, TRIMMINGS, HARDWARE, SILVER, BRONZE, COLD MOUNTINGS. Agents for Steia Patent Burial Casket and Fairmount Coffin and Casket Works. Agents fer the Patent Corinthian Monuments, Cast from Zinc, Beautiful and Enduring. Manufacturers of Shrouds, Linings and Pillows. Cloths, Satin de Oliiue, Draping Goods, Gimp.s, Girdles, Handles, Cobiirsjs, riaiii Satins, Lawns, Frin;,'es, Loops, ICscuteheons, Thihcts, Corded Satins, Brilliants, Cords, Unsohes, Mouldings, Casli meres. (iaiilre Satin.s, Soft Net, Riblions, Quilling, Ornaments, Merinofs, Plain Velvet, Malines, Buttons (ildves, Plates, Plain Mohairs, Embossed Velvet, Head Linings, Silk Lace, ICxeelsior, Studs, Brocade Mohairs, Crapes, Shrouds, Bullion, Cotton, Tacks, etc., etc We keep a full stock constantly on hand in Shrouds, Linings and Pillows of our own manu- facture. Plain Coffins, Stein Covered, and Rosewood Caskets in stock. Ajdjewts for the best Cimibination Corpse Preserver. Dealers in these supplies and the trade generally are invited to call. '^31 MARKET ST., PIII LADELrniA. HALSTEAD & SPENCER, BRASS FOUNDERS AND FINISHERS, Steam and City R.R. Supplies, Cemetery Enclosure Supplies, 1129 CHERRY ST., PHII.A»A. JOHN ALLGAIER", S.E. COR. FIFTH & BUTTON WOOD STS., BUII-DEK OF .\I.I. THE LATEST STYLES OF Landaus, Landauletts, Five and Six Glass Landaus, Clarences, Three-Quarter Clarences, Caleches, Coaches, Coupeletts, Coupes, Hearses, Rocka\A^ays, Barouches or Bretts, Victorias or Cabrioletts, Wagonnetts, Dog Carts, Phaetons, Etc. I WILL REMOVE AND PREVENT SCALE IN ANY STEAM BOILER, AND MAKE NO CHARGE UNTIL THE V ORK 1$ FOUND SATISFACTORY. Address, GeO. W. LoRD, Philadelphia Pa. 820 ADVERTISEMENTS. M. RIEHL & SONS, MANUFACTURERS OF BOOKBINDERS' PRINTERS' ^ND Paper Box Makers MACHINERY, 1246, 1248 and 1250 NORTH SIXTEENTH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. A D VER TISEMENTS. 821 NORTH PEmSYLVAM rtJviijiiOja.i>. Til SlOlf 41D IMQEITE: ROUTE from: PHILADELPHIA TO THPr; LEHIGH and WYOMING VALLEYS, NORTHERN PENNSYLVANIA, NEW YORK STATE, CANADA and the NORTH-WEST. SEVEN THROUGH TRAINS (Daily, Sundays excepted) FROM PHILADELPHIA TO THE POINTS NAMED ABOVE. TO Doylestown, Norristown i Hartsville Quick Time, Sure Connections, Parlor and Sleep- ing Cars, Smooth Track, No Dust. PASSENGER DEPOT IN PHILADELPHIA, MEMKM AMB AMERICAN STREETS, FIFTH AND CHESTNUT AND 732 CHESTNUT ST. General Agent Baggage Collected and Checked to Destination by MANN'S NORTH PENN- SYLVANIA BAGGAGE EXPRESS. Office, 101 South Fifth St. 822 A D VEB TISEMENTS. GEN. ROBT. E. PATTERSON, Pres't. W. A. ATWOOD, Sec'ty. STOCKTON BATES, Treas. BRIDESBURG MAUU PICTURING CO. ■*-^. *^ tii^fe^k. MANUFACTURERS OF ALL KINDS OF ^\A\^T?\^=r\A\ [( Tl.' MACHINERY. eST'V OFFM'Ef 6'S M&MTM FMQNT BWBSBV. Works, BRIDESBURG, PHILADELPHIA. AD VER TISEMENTS. 823 JOHN G. COPPER, MANUFACTURER AND IMPORTFR OF BOOKBINDERS' AND CASE-MAKERS' MATERIALS, E— < p=i 113 p=; Co Co S, JE. cor. Sixth and 3Iuior Street.Sf PhUadelpJiia. The Mercantile Agency ■ <»> . R. G. DUN & CO., 618 Chestnut St, and 613 Sansonn St,, Philadelphia, WITH BRANCHES IN ALL THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE UNITED STATES, CANADAS & EUROPE, DUN, BARLOW & CO., NEW YORK. E. RUSSEL & CO., BOSTON. Publish Four Reference Books annually, in .rnnuar;/, March,, Tiili/ ani\ September, piv- ins the names of Business firms and Corporations, with Classtflcattons oi Capital and Credit, throughout the United States, Canadas and the Provinces ; have Recorded Reports lu the various otfices of husiness men and tirms running back thirty-four years, ^evisi^d «r»M-fy_.m4- alU/, and oftener in a multitude of cases; have an cxteiisiyi id svslematic COLI.ECriOy United States alone, besides an army' of Travelhrs constantly revising, ^•""«;'*"« .";!f.;"^J''e»'; ing The design of the Reference Book Is to show the name, business and responsibility of every business man i";; the rr«»4 States, however prominent or 'n«ig"'fi«=\"V,,T't5;rrdeVr\TiV oe7 of this great svstem has been building up for thirl ,,- four p^r^, ^'''^Mn„,,f^c,?^P^^^,^ Ranked* fection which ensures the patronage of all the Pronvnont Merchants, Manufacturer., and Bankers of this countrv, and its rapid progress in Europe. I or testimony [^„^P/f''"P ?',"„f 'J^"'h' rmerica. ability it refer"s to substantial business men and msiilutions throughout the cities of >ortb America. 824 ADVERTISEMENTS. Manufacturer of Brass Work for Water, Gas and Steam. BRASS CASTIKCiS ASTD JOBBIInb promptly attended to. JAS. L. DELAPLAINE, KEYSTONE STABLES. BOARDING HORSES EXCLUSIVELY. N. W. corner Seventeenth and Cherry Streets, Philadelphia. "V"! SIT SHEARMAN'S PHILADELPHIA Machinery Depot 309 and 311 Arch Street. LATHES, «d^_^-^^^ DRILL PRESSES, PT.ANFRS ¥i^ffiS|l) JT -^^^L '^'"'"S Machines, X l^^lN J_.XVO, ^pJ^^#^^^|J^y SCREW MACHINES, SLOTTERS, ^^^^ ff^iwmm^ k-S3Si- ^^^S WHEEL BORERS, BOLT COTTERS, ^^^ """^ WHEEL PRESSES. ENGINES, BOILERS, STEAM PUMPS, S£[A.FTI]VG, H A^ IV OE K S, r»UlL>I^EYS, ETC. SHEARMAN & HILLES, 309 and 311 ARCH STREET, PHILADELPHIA. Branch House: 45 €OBTIiA9fDT ST., XEW YORK. WM. MUSTARD, Jr. FERD INAND HU NTER. "mustard & HUNTER, U.S. BUILDERS' MILL, 24, 26 and 28 8. Fifteenth 81, Phi I ad a. 1 <»> ■ SASHi BEtlMBSj SOORSj BHU^TT^BS, MTU. SCROLL SAWING, TURNING AND PLANING. AL VKIl TISEMESTS. S2.> 22 STH. FIFTH 5T.. 8 2 G AD VER TISEMENTS. _ THE PEERLESS Fire Extinguisher I Chemical Engine THE BEST IN USE. RECEIVED HIGHEST AWARD, FRANKLIN INSTI- TUTE, 1874. NEVER GETS OUT OF ORDER. ALWAYS RELIA- BLE. SEND FOR CIRCULAR BEFORE PURCHASING. «®=-j^GrE:]NrTS AV^^NTEID. RIGrXITS FOR Sj^LE.=®» W. K. PLATT «fc CO., PATENTEES AND PROPRIETORS, No. 212 MARKET STREET, PHILADELPHIA. WM. TARDIP, Jr., SHIRT AND COLLAR LAUNDRY, 220 lyf- Second St., above Race^ Particular attention given to First-class Work for the Trade. COllflliSandCUFFSforPlilMCUSTOMlRySPECmLTl Stationer and Printer, dealer in Blank Boob, Pictnre Frames and Fancy Goods, 31 t J^OUTIT TKIVTIl ST., PHI IL,A.r> A. Pens, Inks, Pencils, Mucilage Ex. White Gum, Papers of every kind, Envelopes, all shades ; Albums, Scrap, Autograph and Photograph; Ink Stands, Twine, Pocket Books, Cabas, Per- fumes, Soaps, Hair Brushes. Tooth Brushes, Games of all kinds. Paints, Water Color, and a full assortment of fine STATIONERY. ADVERTISEMENTS. 827 JAMES MACKEO_WN. ROBERT S. BOWER. ROWLAND ^^[^^^'^ MACKEOWN, BOWER, ELLIS Sl CO. (Successors to CHARLES ELIJS' SON X: Co , Wholesale Druggists and Manufacturing Chemists, 1000 iMa rhet S t. (S. W. corner T enth), rhiladefphia. Dealers in HARDWAREJOOLS, BELL-HANGERS' SUPPLIES AND HOUSE-FUENISHING GOODS, TVo. OOo Market «ti-cot, l»lHlurt« Ipliiu. Sole Agents for F. J. CLAMER & CO.'YgOLDEN BRONZE GOODS. P. B. CUNNINGHAM & CO., SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF P- B. CXJlVriMING-HAIVr'S Patent Carriages i Wagons BETHLKHBM, PA. Ctiramo-Liopptiers i Manufacturefsof Gas i Lamp Shades, 832 and S31 AllCH STREET, rillLADELrillA. ARTISTS' EMPORIUM AND FANCY STORE, Xo. 146 KOITII EKillTII KTRF.KT, l>il I I.AI>KM>IIIA. Where every article can be procured for DRAWING and PAINTING in Oil, Crayon or Water Colors. Prepared Canvas, Bristle, Sable and Camel's Hair Brushes, Oils, Varnishes, Colored Crayons and Drawing Paper and Books, Mathematical Instruments and, in short, every article used by Artists and Amateurs, AGENTS WANTED FOR PUBLICATIONS OF BJ^KIE!!^, r)J^"V^IS & CO. (Successors to T. ELLWOOD ZELE), 17 and 19 South Sixth St., Philadelphia; 5 Beekman St., New York. ZELL'S POPULAR ENCYCI.OPKDIA, DICTIOXAKY unci <;.\ ZKTTKKR.— The most perfect work of the kiud ever isMinge Maps, beautifully engraved and colored, and about 300 pages of descriptive geographi- cal matter and indexes. THE CYCLOPEDIA OF AMERICAN LITERATURE, by E. A. and Geo. L. Puvckinck and M. Laird Simons. Containing graphic sketches of the lives and wnlliigsol over 800 of the luost illustrious American authors. Illustrated by 5l> steel engravings and 50O wood- ^"^ .^^n^-^^r. \^M ^ &, >\^* c,K%- "■® Brick Works and Oftice. ^^ PHILIP NEUKUMET, joi?rS"^J.V Proprietor. MANUFACTURER OF Fire Bricks, Blocks, Tiles, etc, for Furnaces, Rolling Mills, Gas Works, Foundries, Lime Kilns, Glass Works, etc., etc., of Most Superior Quality. HT^ooiv!^ oit TiT^K)^ ]>rA.i>r: to oiii:>E;r5, At the Sltorte.st Noticf a.ntf of Suprrior Qnnlif//, in anff Shape and of ant/ Size. Fire Clay, Ground Jiriek, Fire Mortar, Fire Sand and Kaolin constantly on Hand, GIRARD TUBE WORKS & IRON CO., P HILADBL rHTA, MANUFACTURE PLAIN AND GALVANIZED WROUGHT-IROU PIPE AND Sundries for Gas and Sleam Fillers, Plumbers, MACHINISTS, HAILING MAKERS, OIL REFINERS, etc. WORKS, TWENTY-THIRD & FILBERT STS., OFFICE AND WAREHOUSE, ISrO. 4.2 itrOJE^THI IFIIPTJEI STI^EET. A D VER TISEMENTS. 829 L. B. FLANDERS, Uleventli and Hamilton Streets, Philadelphia, MANUFACTURER OF iRllNDEliS' PAniT SPRING PACiG FOR PISTOi HWDS, ALSO, iPortable Cylinder Boring Machines. • * steam and Blast CyliiKiei's, Pumps and CoriiNs Valves of sill mIzov and Uindii bored out iu tlieir present positions, witli mafliiner.v, as Siere repreMviiled. L. B. FLANDER'S f ^ IN OPERATION. ^ % true way to bore out time and labor nder. besides a great amonnt or s saved. S'LANDERS' PATENT SPRING PACKING POU CYLINDERS. This celebrated Flanders' Patent Piston Packing consists of steel springs and blocks of cast iron in the shape of a letter V (as repre- sented in this cut), so that the springs between the blocks press the piston rings out equally against the inside surface of the cylinder, and also force the piston to the centre of the cylinder at the same time. It is set out by means of small wedges. It has no bolts, screws or nuts to rust or corrode. It seldom requires any looking after, and will last for years. It is simple and easily adjusted, and can be set out by any one possessing ordinary mechanical acquirements. It is the best Packing ever introduced, giving universal satisfaction, and mended by hundreds of leading manufacturers. m\i FOR DESCRIPTIVE CIRCllAmEM A COMPLETE LIST OF REFERENCES. is recom- 830 AD VERTTSEMENTS. ADVERTISEMENTS. 831 JAMES T. ALLEN, 25 North Seventeenth St., rhihtdelph'ni. PLASTERING, ROUGH-CASTING, CEMENTING, etc. Workmanship and materials the best. Refers to all the city architects. cr^:M:Es t. ^llei^ & oo., SCAGLIOLA MARBLE MANUFACTURERS, 25 NORTH SEVENTEENTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. COLUMNS, PILASTERS, PKDESTALS, PANELLINO. >VAI>S(OTI>(i. MANTELS, TABLE TOPS AND WALL WORK FOR I.NTERIOR DECORATIONS. ESTABLISHED 1836. Glendinning & Truitt, Successor to CHARLES P. CALDWELL, Whip and Cane MANUFACTURERS, No. 9 North Fourth Street, PHILADELPHIA. Hats, Caps, Straws and Gents' Furnishing Goods OHcoiCE ^isrr) i-^-^ styles, EXCELLENT IN QUALITY ANU KEASONAIil.K IN PIUCK, Manufacturer of ROANS and LININGS, ALSO, BOOKBINDERS' LEATHER, No. 1A9 WILLOW ^TLIlIOLr, IMl I LA I>ELPIII A. A CHOICE ASSORTMENT AT THE LOWEST CASH PRICES. 832 ADVERTISEMENTS. JOSEPH L FERRELL. WM. H.JONES. ENTERPRISE Hydraulic Works 2218 and 2220 Race Street, :ph:ii_.^^x):bi_.:ph:ij^. STEAM PUMPING MACHINERY, HYDRAULIC PUMPS, ELEVATORS and PRESSES, FAN and PISTON BLOWERS, CENTRIFU- GAL, MINING, HAND and POWER PUMPS. PARTICULAR ATTENTION PAID TO REPAIRINfi AND STEAM FITTINS. PHILADELPHIA BADGE DEPOT THE OLD-ESTABLISHED STAND. Engraver and Jeweller, MANUFACTURER OF Military Medals, College and School Rewards, IN NEW AND ORIGINAL DESIGNS. PRESENTATION MARKS A SPECIALTY. Jewelry, Silverware and Fancy Articb naatly Engraved, 722 CHESTNUT STREET, PXIIX..A.DE:X.Pm.A.. MONOGRAMS AND DEVICES, LODGE JEWELS AND SEALS. AD VER TISEMENTS. 833 I JOSE DE BESSA GUIMARAES, ^hififimg mid §ommisswn M^rctmnt, IMPOBTER OF CORKS AND CORKWOOD, iVb. 130 Walnut Street and 25 Granite Street, FISHER 6L HALLOS VAT AND TANK FACTORY, 1143, 1145 and 1147 JV^orth Front Street, Belo-w Grirarcl A.veiiu.e, PHILADELPHIA, Manufacturers of 1^//^, §;mhs, ck^,, Breivers, Dyers, Chemists, Sugar Mefiners, Paper Mills, Distil- lers, Jtailroads, Hotels, Public JBuildings and Private Dtvellings. WHITE CEDAR WILL LAST LONGER '^ THAN ANY OTHER WOOD IN PROPOR- TION OF THREE TO ONE. I]V]VX^4.rV LI]>E. TH[ LIVERPOOL, NEW fORI & PHILADll, STEAMSHIP CO, FULL-POWERED CLYDE-BUILT IRON SCREW STEAMSHIPS. Cargo for the respective Steamers will be received at the Com- pany's WTiarf, Pier 45 North River. O'DONNEL & FAULK, Agents, 403 Chestnut St., Philadelphia. 53 834 AD VER TISEMENTS. Pure Family Medicines -^^^gfHI^^^^^-" S. i Cor. Vine 1 16th Sts., Prescript's Compounded. ^^p^ PHILADELPHIA. ROBERT COULTON DAVIS (Graduate Phila. College of Pharmacy), ESTA-BLISHED 1889. HENRY DUNLAP, 475 and 477 NORTH FIFTH ST. MANUFACTURER OF S^ LIGHT WORK A SPECIALTY.^'m. WILLIAM P. B£CK, MANUFACTUEEE OF STONE CDTTERS', STONE MASONS' AND BRICKLAYERS' TOOLS, OF EVERY DESCRIPTION, S3(l aud BARKER ^iTREET^, PIIIEADEEPHIA. MILL-PICKS made to Order. Goods sent to any part of the United States, by Express, C. O. D. EST^(VBI-.I SHED 1838. :f'.a.sh:io:n-^^.bXjE hi^ttei^, 143 ^RCH STREET, I»H:IIL.^I3EI-.PHIA., FINEST CLASS OF I3^a.t;Sv Caps and Stx*a"\v Goods. I^o-west Casli Prices. SCHEETZ'S CELEBRATED BITTER CORDIAL, North- West Cor. Fifth and Race Sts., Philadelphia. JTA-COH SCIIE:ETZ, SOIL.E PROPRIETOR. NATURE'S GREAT RESTORER. ALBE RT C. GB EINER. HENR Y G. GRE INEB. A. C. & H. G. GREINER (Successors to LUDWIG GREINER), MANUFACTURERS OF GREINER'S PATENT DOLLS' HEADS, ^1.^ 'North. Foiirtl:! Street, Fhiladelphia. DEWITT, MORRISON & KELLEY, MANUFACTURERS OF Cast Steel Carpenters^ Augers^ Mill- Wriffhts' and Gas-Fitters' Augers, Auger liitts, Car Builders' and Machine liitts, also I'ump Atiffers and Left Hand Jiitts. T.W.ENTY-SECOND STREET, ABOVE MARKET, PHILADELPHIA B^^ALI. WORK AV ARRAXTED.-^jft ADVERTISEMENTS. 835 im. BRYLAWSKI, MANUfAt'TUltEll OF No. 16 N. THIRD ST., PHILADELPHIA. Proprietor of the Patent Water-Proof Cap. Patented June 9, 1874. C3-. "VST. siv^/cith:, DEALER IN FINE BOOTS, SHOES, TRUNKS, Etc., ]Vo. 35 08 ]M^TtIt]3T STR-EJI^T, WEST PHILADELPHIA. JOHN A.. :is/cA^aEE, MANOFACTURKR OF CUT, EMBOSSED, GROUNO, STAINEO AID BENT GLASS, French, and American Windoiv Glass, 1235 VINE STREET, PHILADELPHIA. ESTABLISHED X850. Keystone Cork "Works. The Oldest Establishment in Pennsylvania for Cutting Corks by Machinery. CORKS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION MANUFACTURED. ALFEEB L, BWTZ, Proprietor, Office and Factory, Nos. 829 and 831 N. THIRD ST., PHILADELPHIA. COSTUMER for Fancy and Masque BALLS, TABLEAU and PARLOR THEATEICAL ENTERTAINMENTS, 917 RACE STREET, PHIL ADELFHIA . MRS. CrWIMPFHEIMER, MANUFACTUKER OK REAL AND IMITATION HAIR WORK, HAND-MADE ZEPHYR GOODS, Etc., l]/o. 320 MARKET JTREELPmLADELPHIA. QUAKERCITY STENCIL WORKS, 234 ARCH ST., PHILADELPHIA, MANUFACTURERS AND DEALERS IN Stencil-MarMnq Plates, Seal Presses, Ribbon Stamps, Steel Stamps, Pattern Letters for Iron Monhlhif,, Barnnif/.Brands, Key and Bagqaqe Checks, Steueil Inks and f ';«*/";^. «"'^ all Stencil 3Iaterials, U holesale and Retail. 836 AD VEBTISEMENTS. ERNEST KRETZMAR, WHOL.ESAL.E AND RETAIL,, No. 1311 CHESTNUT ST., PHILADELPHIA. FRAUKIIN INSTITUTE, 1874. HIGHEST PRIZE, SILVER MEDiL. AUB, HACKENBURG & CO., MANUFACTURERS OP MACHINE SILKS, eiNG SILKS and fiUTTON-HOLE TWIST, Factory. 2M, M and 24S N. Front St., Salesroom, 20 N. Third St.. Pliiladelpliia. MANUFACTURER OF PATENT STRETCHED OAK TANNED LEATHER BELTING 148 NORTH THIRD STREET, PHILADELPHIA. A Full Supply of Lace Leather, Copper Rivets and Burrs. 4®=- TGXCELSIOR BELT DRESSING-, ETC., ON H^NID,-®* INCORPORATED in 1868. E. PAULUS, President, A. C. RAEPLE, Treasurer. l^ and Item fflinders, LADIES AND SENTLEMEN, 6i8 CHESTNUT ST. C IN^ "^ E 15^ S, Steam Carpenter and Packing Box Maker^ Xo. 514 NORTH ST., Betiveen Fifth and Sixth, and 3Iarket and Arch, Philada. Cia^R BOX JM^T^XJF^CTXJREIl, Hillsdale Street, between Third and Fourth, and Race and Cherry, PHII.ADEI.PHIA. DEALER IN CEDAR AND POPLAR WOOD FOR CIGAR BOX MAKERS. ]MTJRTAXJGH»S OEXjEBl^^TEnD nDXJnyi:B-"W.A.ITEE.S, ALSO HOISTING MACHINES and INVALID SAFETY ELEVATORS, OF THE MOST APPEOVED PATTERNS. JSAAC j^ICHARDS, J^O 221 7 pHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. AD VER TISE3IENTS. 837 FOR MIELTIIVG AIL.1^ IvIIVI>!-« Ol^ >E1 Or^V J.!-!, AND MANUFACTURERS OF SUNNY side: stove POLilSH, JET, SMALL AND LARGE CAKES. Sunny Side Lumber Pencils, Foundry Facings, Lubricatini? Plumbago. SUNNY SIDE STOVE POLISH, IN BULK, PUT UP IN 25-POUND BOXES FOR STOVE DEALERS. 1324 to 1334 CaJJotrhfJI Sfvect. STROW, WILE & CO. McCOY & ROBERTS, Heaters, Ranges i Stoves, 1208 and 1210 3IABKET ST., PHILADA., Patentees and Manufacturers of the Celebrated Wliicli was awarded tlie lligliest Premium (Silver Medal) by the Frankliu Institiilo. hJi. These Furnaces are constructed so as to burn either anthra- cite or bituminous coal with equal advantage. By a very simple and durable arrangement of radiators, they utilize every particle of heat thrown off by the fire pot and combustion chamber, so that, with a temperature of 275° of air at register, the outer case of furnace is perfectly cold. ^ x- i, 4.- ^^^^ We claim to gain more than twenty per cent, of heatmg power by this system over the old method of constructing radiators and introducing air to furnaces. Send for ILLUSTRATED CIRCULAR and PRICE LIST, 838 AD VER TISEMEXTS. KSX^VBLISXiED 1&3S. JAMES TAYLOR, rNTo. 191G C-A.LLOAVIIILL STREET, PHIL^D^^. Preserver and MoTiater of Beasts, Birds, Fishes and Eeptiles. Also Dealer in Foreign Bird SMns. ALL WORK WARRANTED. SXGBLSIOR SAW 1770RKS. olo CHERRY J?iT., I»MII^.4.r>ELI»H:i.A.. CUERIEES' BLADES, MOWING MACHKE KNIVES AND JIG SAWS Gonatajitiy on Hand, SAWS OF EVERY DESCRIPTION MADE AND REPAIRED. ESTABLISHED 1852. GiRARD Bolt Works, TWENTY-THIRD ST. ABOVE RACE, PEILABELPHIA, MANUFACTURER FINEST QUALITY Carriage Bolts, Axle Clips and Forged Nuts. D. BBVAN, HQUSl & SIGN PAINTIE & GM21EE, 1725 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA. iLlSXABLISHED 18^7. :p o "VT- E i_i L ' s House Furnishing Store and Tin Ware Manufactory, 412 SOUTH SECOND STREET, PHILADEIiPHIA. POWELL'S ALL-HEALING SALVE, for Burns, Scalds, Bunions, Pains in the Back or Breast, Felons, Itch, Piles and Scald Heads. Universal Salve warranted to cure Frosted Feet and Ears, Sore. Nose, Bun-Bounds, Sore Throat and Breast, Thislelow, Tetter, Sore Eyes, etc. A D VER TISEMENTS. 839 SAMUEL F. PRINCE, WHOLESALE DEALER IX MARBLE AND SOAPSTONE, OMce, 2214 CHESTNUT ST., PHILAJDA. Established 1855. RESTEIN BROTHERS, Established ISSS. Maniifiictiirors of overy viiricty nf Fancy. IVlorod, (ilazod. EnamolliHl. Eiiiliossoil Papers and Tard Board. CHINAS, BLANKS, RAILROAD, ENAMELLED, AND BRISTOL BOARDS ON HAND OR MADE TO ORDER. Printers who use a large quantity of Cards, and desire to purchase in sheets (22x28, or other large sizes), will find it to their advantage to give us a call before ordering elsewhere. 1318 (Soiitli E:iglitli St., and. 714 Federal St., riillada. APOTHECARY, DEALER IN FOREIGN PERFUMERY, SPONGES, etc. etc., 3043 CHESTXIJT STREET, PHII.ADEI.PHIA. ~~ MURPHY & MONAGHAN, CORK MANUFACTURERS, 522 South Fifth St., below Lombard, rinUtda. jg@-ALL KINDS OF CORKS CONSTANTLY ON HAND OR CUT TO ORDER. °@a mIchael fisher, BREM Aii CIKF ^ No. 639 North Fifteenth Street, Philadelphia. ^ biiv* W. D. HUTCHISON, FANCY PIE and CAKE BAKER Nos. 806, 808, and 810 South Twelfth Street, Philadelphia. N. B.— OYSTER PARTIES made a specialty. All orders pr omptly atten ded to. H. iMIOSEBJLOia:, O0II1O1IOI11 # lAIGY CMl B4KEE, S, E. corner Eleventh and Poplar Sts., rhilada. J^. VT". -^ATOOnD, kedddudgithe §dher imd^onfciiioncr 609 NORTH FIFTH ST., PHILADELPHIA. 840 AD VER TISEMENTS. ESTA.BLISHE33 1861. W. T. RICHARDSON, UNITED STATES CENTENNIAL Furniture Manufactory OFFICE: 835 OXFORD ST., :f h: 1 1_. j^ X) E i_i 1= 13: 1 .A. , MANUFACTURER OF Solid Walnut Chamber Suites, MARBLE-TOP TABLES, HAT-RACKS, Piano Stools, Cribs, Wardrobes, Whatnots, etc. The Trade are respectfully requested to examine my goods before purchasing elsewhere. Every piece warranted. N. B— SPECIAL ATTENTION GIVEN THE MANUFACTURE OF ALL KINDS OF FURNITURE TO ORDER. AD VER TISEMENTS. 841 AGRICULTURE IN PENNSYLVANIA. TT would hardly be consistent with the purposes of the Gazetteer and Guide were we to omit reference to the advanced stasre of aA.. CORKS OF ALL SIZES ALWAYS ON HAND. LIFE PRESERVERS A SPECIALTY. liAROEST mANIJFACTOBY IN THE CITY. 848 ADVERTISEMENTS. J. E. SHARP, 707 AND 709 FILBEET STEEET, PHILADELPHIA. Window Glass. ROUGH AND POLISHED PLATE, Enamelled^ Embossed^ Al^D RIBBKD GLASS ROBT. C. SCHMERTZ & CO.'S mm OF SINGLE, DOUBLE AND CRmAL SHEET GLASS AND Artists' 13ranti for ^|Ji)Otosrapf)crs. A. MIANtJJEr'A.CTtTRE: OF GS-REAT EXCELLENCE. m- COLOR AND SUHrACE GUARANTEED NEVER TO CHANGE. 849 O .^ ,s. %A \' ^p. Alii •(^ \^l!/<^: ^^\s^ Manufacturers of ^^ Soda Water Apparatus, 914, 916 and 925 Filbert St., Phiydphia. BRANCH HOUSE, 34 LIBERTY ST., NEW YORK. We challenge Comparison in Excellence of Work- manship, Qiialily of Material and Beauty of Design. We have always in Stock MANY NOVEL and BEAUTIFUL DESIGNS, combining all our recent improvements. Double-Stream Draft Tubes, Silver-Lined Syrup Faucets, Heavy Block-Tin Cans, Combined Coil and Cylinder Coolers, Tumbler Holders and Tumblers, Tumbler Washers and Drainers, Pure Fruit Juices and Syrups, Englisb Extracts. Kvcrytliins rorjuisitu for tlic iiiaiiiifafturc ami clispens ing ofSiiiia Water fiirnishi-i.l at tlm lowest rates, and all t^uaraiiteed of tlie finest (xuality. Generators and Fountains, Kvery Size aiifl Price, siiitoil to tlio wants of all, from tlie largest niantifactnrer to the smallest dealer. SAI.TS A1¥D SOIillTIOlVS For Kissingen, Vichy and other Mineral Waters. ^ ILLUSTRATED CATALOGUE AND Price List SENT TO ANY ADDRESS ON APPLICATION. "Wfl . 850 ADVERTISEMENTS. ESTABLISHED 1S32. ALEX. WHILLDIN & SONS, PllI,4Bll,fll4, Commission- Merchants IN mrOOLBN YARNS, COTTON, COTTON YARNS Cash Advances inade on Shipments. ADVERTISEMENTS. 851 THOMAS W. H. MOSELEY, INVENTOR AND BUILDER. MOSELEY'S WROUGHT-IRON RECTANGULAR TUBULAR BRIDGE, For Railroads aud. Long Spans where great strength is required. MOSELEY'S WROUGHT-IRON ARCH LATTICE BRIDGE, Medium and Short Spans, for use on highways. MOSELEY'S WROUGHT IRON TRUSS BRIDGE, For Railways and Highways of ordinary spans. Easily adjusted by steel wedges only. MOSELEY'S IRON SCREW PILES, Used for Piers and Viaducts in marshy ground and deep permanent foundations. MOSELEY'S IRON HOUSE AND ROOF, Fireproof, used for Engine-houses, Depots, Warehouses, etc. MOSELEY'S IRON CORRUGATOR. Corrugates all sizes and qualities of Sheet Iron for Roofs, Sidings of Buildings, etc. MOSELEY'S IRON COAL-BREAKER BUILDINGS. Used in the coal regions for housing and the breaking of coal and its distribution, in lieu of the wooden structures now in use. MOSELEY'S TURN-TABLE, For Bridges, Railroads and all other uses where Turn-tables are- now required. [see following page.) 852 ADVERTISEMENTS. THOMAS W. H. MOSELEY, INVENTOR AND BUILDER. MOSELEY'S STEAM BOILERS. Sectional Steam Boiler, perfectly safe against explosion, of liglit weight, great economy in use of fuel, of marked utility. Cheap. MOSELEY'S RADIATORS. Large Heating Surface, heats very quickly, not heavy, and requires but little room. MOSELEY'S PUMPS. Drawing and Forcing. Easily repaired, very cheap. Good for all purposes where Pumps are needed. MOSELEY'S AIR EJECTOR. Automatic, expels cold air from Radiators and Steam Boilers, very effective and economical. MOSELEY'S COMPOSITE HOUSE. Fireproof, resembles marble and stone, as cheap as wood, simple, easy to build, and good in any climate. MOSELEY'S ENUNCIATOR, For Hotels and Private Houses. Not liable to get out of order, gives perfect enunciation, simple of construction and cheap. MOSELEY'S COTTON-BALE TIE. Attached and detached very expeditiously, simple, holds the hoop tightly. Office, 147 South Fourth Street, THOMAS W. H. MOSBLBY, [see preceding page.] CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION OF THE UNITED STATES, 1876. SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION INTO DEPART- MENTS, GROUPS AND CLASSES. DEPARTMENT I.— MINING AND METALLURGY. Minerals, Ores, Building Stones and Mining Prod- ucts. — Class 100. Minerals, ores, etc. Metallic and non-metallic min- erals, exclusive of coal and oil. Collections of minerals systematically arranged ; collections of ores and associated minerals ; geological collec- tions. — Class 101. Mineral combustibles. Coal, anthracite, semi-bitu- minous and bituminous, coal-waste and pressed coal ; albertite, asphalte and asphaltic limestone; bitumen, mineral tar, crude petroleum. — Class 102. Building stones, marbles, slates, etc. Rough, hewn, sawed or pol- ished, for buildings, bridges, walls or other constructions, or for interior decoration, or for furniture. — Marble — white, black or colored — used in building, decoration, statuary, monuments or furniture, in blocks or slabs not manufactured. — Class 103. Lime, cement and hydraulic cement, raw and burned, accompanied by specimens of the crude rock or material used, also artificial stone, concrete, beton. Specimens of lime mortar and mixtures, with illustrations of the processes of mixing, etc. Hydraulic and other cement. Beton mixtures and results, with illustrations of the processes. Artificial stone for building purposes, building blocks, cornices, etc. Artificial stone mixtures, for pavements, walls or ceilings. Plasters, mastics, etc. — Class 104. Clays, kaolin, silex and other materials for the manufacture of porcelain faience, and of glass, bricks, terra-cotta and tiles, and fire-brick. Refractory stones for lining furnaces, sandstone, stea- tite, etc., and refractory furnace materials. — Class 105. Graphite, crude and refined ; for polishing purposes ; for lubricating, electrotyping, pho- tography, pencils, etc. — Class 106. Lithographic stones, hones, whetstones, grindstones, grinding and polishing materials, sand quartz, garnet, crude topaz, diamond, corundum, emery in the rock and pulverized, and in as- sorted sizes and grades. — Class 107. Mineral waters, artesian well water, natural brines, saline and alkaline efflorescences and solutions. Mineral 853 854 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. fertilizing substances, gypsum, phosphate of lime, marls, shells, coprolites, etc., not manufactured. Metallurgical Products. — Class 110. Precious metals. Class 111. Iron and steel in the pig, ingot and bar, plates and sheets, with specimens of slags, fluxes, residues and products of working. — Class 112. Copper in ingots, bars and rolled, with specimens illustrating its various stages of production. — Class 113. Lead, zinc, antimony and other metals, the result of extractive processes. — Class 114. Alloys used as materials, brass, nickel, silver, solder, etc. Mine Engineering — Models, Maps and Sections. — Class 120. Surface and underground surveying and plotting. Projection of underground work, location of shafts, tunnels, etc. Surveys for aque- ducts and for drainage. Boring and drilling rocks, shafts and tunnels, etc. ; surveys for aqueducts and for ascertaining the nature and extent of mineral deposits. Construction. Sinking and lining shafts by various methods, driving and timbering tunnels, and the general operations of opening, stoping and breaking down ore, timbering, lagging and masonry. Hoisting and delivering at the surface, rock, ore or miners. Pumping and draining by engines, buckets or by adits. Ventilation and lighting. Subaqueous mining, blasting, etc. Hydraulic mining, and the various processes and methods of sluicing and washing auriferous gravel and other superficial deposits. Quarrying. — Class 121. Models of mines, of veins, etc DEPARTMENT II.— MANUFACTURES. Clieniical. — Class 200. Chemicals, pharmaceutical preparations. Mineral acids and the methods of manufacture ; sulphuric, nitric and hy- drochloric acids. The common commercial alkalies, potash, soda and am- monia, with their carbonates. Salt and its production ; salt from deposits — native salt ; salt by solar evaporation from sea-water ; salt by evaporation from water of saline springs or wells ; rock-salt ; ground and table salt. Bleaching powders and chloride of lime. Yeast powders, baking powders. — Class 201. Oils, soaps, candles, illuminating and other gases; oils from min- eral, animal and vegetable sources; refined petroleum, benzine, naphtha and other products of the manufacture ; oils from various seeds, refined, and of various degrees of purity; olive oil, cotton-seed oil, palm oil; animal oils of various kinds in their refined state ; oils prepared for special purposes besides lighting and for food ; lubricating oils. Soaps and detergent •preparations. Candles, stearine, glycerine, paraffine, etc., spermaceti. Il- luminating gas and its manufacture. Oxygen gas and its application for heating, lighting, metallurgy, and as a remedial agent. Chlorine and carbonic acid. — Class 202. Paints, pigments, dyes, colors, turpentine, var- nishes, printing inks, writing inks, blacking. — Class 203. Flavoring ex- trActs, essence^, perfumery, pomades, cosmetics. — Class 204. Explosive SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 855 and falmiuating corapoimds, in small quantities only, and under special regulations, shown in the building only by empty cases and cartridges ; black powder of various grades and sizes ; nitro-glyceriue and the methods of using and exploding ; giant powder, dynamite, dualin, tri-nitro-glyc- erine. — Class 205. Pyrotechnics for display, signaling, missiles. Ceramics — Pottery, Porcelain, etc. — Class 206. Bricks, drain-tiles, terra cotta and architectural pottery. — Glass 207. Fire-clay goods, crucibles, pots, furnaces ; chemical stoneware. — Class 208. Tiles, plain, enamelled, encaustic; geometric tiles and mosaics; tiles for pave- ments and for roofing, etc. — Class 209. Porcelain for purposes of con- struction; hardware trimmings, etc. — Class 210. Stone china, for chem- ists, druggists, etc.; earthenware, stoneware, faience, etc. — Class 211. Majolica and Palissy ware. — Class 212. Biscuit-ware, parian, etc. — Class 213. Porcelain for table and toilet use, and for decoration. Glass and Grlass^vare. — Class 214. Glass used in construction and for mirrors. Window-glass of various grades of quality and size ; plate-glass, rough and ground or polished; toughened glass. — Class 215. Chemical and pharmaceutical glassware, vials, bottles. — Class 216. Dec- orative glassware. Furniture and Objects of general Use in Construc- tion and in Dwelling's. — Class 217. Heavy furniture — chairs, tables^ parlor and chamber suits, office and library furniture ; vestibule furniture, church furniture and decoration. — Class 218. Table furniture — glass, china, silver, silver-plate, tea and coffee sets, urns, samovars, epergnes. — Class 219. Mirrors, stained and enamelled glass, cut and engraved window-glass and other decorative objects. — Class 220. Gilt cornices, brackets, picture-frames, etc. — Class 221. The nursery and its accessoi'ies ; children's chairs, walk- ing-chairs. — Class 222. Apparatus and fixtures for heating and cooking — stoves, ranges, heaters, etc. — Class 223. Apparatus for lighting — gas-fix- tures, lamps, etc. — Class 224. Kitchen and pantry — utensils, tinware and apparatus used in cooking (exclusive of cutlery). — Class 225. Laundry appliances, washing-machines, mangles, clothes- wringei's, clothes-bars, iron- ing-tables. — Class 226. Bath-room and water-closet, shoAver-bath, earth- closet. — Class 227. Manufactured parts of buildings — sash, blinds, man- tels, metal work, etc. Yarns and Woven Goods of Vegetable or Mineral Materials. — Class 228. Woven fabrics of mineral origin — Wire cloths, sieve-cloth, wire screens, bolting cloth. Asbestos fibre, spun and woven, with the clothing manufactured from it. Glass thread, floss and fabrics. — Class 229. Coarse fabrics of grass, rattan, cocoa-nut and bark. Mattings, Chinese, Japanese, palm-leaf, grass and rushes. Floor-cloths of rattan and cocoa-nut fibre, aloe fibre, etc. — Class 230. Cotton yarns and fabrics, bleached and unbleached. Cotton sheeting and shirting, plain and twilled. 856 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. Cotton canvas and duck ; awnings, tents. Class 231. Dyed cotton fabrics, exclusive of prints and calicoes. — Class 232. Cotton prints and calicoes, including handkerchiefs, scarfs, etc. — Class 233, Linen and other vege- table fabrics, uncolored or dyed. — Class 234. Floor oil-cloths and other painted and enamelled tissues, and imitation of leather, with a woven base. Woven and Felted Goods of Wool and Mixtures of Wool. — Class 235. Card- wool fabrics — yarns, broadcloth, doeskins, fancy cassimeres ; felted goods. — Class 236. Flannels; plain flannels, do- mets, opera and fancy. — Class 237. Blankets, robes and shawls. — Class 238. Combined wool fabrics — worsteds, yarns, dress goods for women's wear, delaines, serges, poplins, menuoes.— Class 239. Carpets, rugs, etc. — Brussels, melton, tapestry, tapestry brussels, axminster, Venetian, ingrain, felted carpetiugs, druggets, rugs, etc. — Class 240. Hair, alpaca, goat's hair, camel's hair and other fabrics, mixed or unmixed with wool. — Class 241. Printed and embossed woollen cloths, table-covers, patent velvets. Silk and Silk Fabrics, and Mixtures in which Silk is the predominating Material. — Class 242. Cocoons and raw silk as reeled from the cocoon, thrown or twisted silks in the gum. — Class 243. Thrown or twisted silks, boiled ofi" or dyed, in hanks, skeins or on spools. — Class 244. Spun silk yarns and fabrics, and the materials from which they are made. — Class 245. Plain woven silks, lutestrings, sarsnets, satins, serges, foulards, tissues for hat and millinery purposes, etc. — Class 246. Figured silk piece-goods, woven or printed; upholstery silks, etc. — Class 247. Crapes, velvets, gauzes, cravats, handkerchiefs, hosiery, knit goods, laces, scarfs, ties, veils, all descriptions of cut and made up silks. — Class 248. Ribbons, plain, fancy and velvet. — Class 249. Bindings, braids, cords, galloons, ladies' dress- trimmings, upholsterers', tailors' military and miscel- laneous trimmings. Clothing, Jewelry and Ornaments, Travelling Equip- ments. — Class 250. Ready-made clothing, knit goods and hosiery, mili- tary clothing, church vestments, costumes, waterproof clothing and cloth- ing for special objects. — Class 251. Hats, caps, boots and shoes, gloves, mittens, etc., straw and palm-leaf hats, bonnets and millinery. — Class 252. Laces, embroideries and trimmings, for clothing, furniture and carriages. — Class 253. Jewelry and ornaments worn upon the person. — Class 254. Ar- tificial flowers, coiflTures, buttons, trimmings, pins, hooks and eyes, fans, umbrellas, sun-shades, walking-canes, pipes and small objects of dress or adornment, exclusive of jewelry; toys and fancy articles. — Class 255. Fancy leather work, pocket-books, toilet-cases, travelling equipments, va- lises and trunks. — Class 256, Furs. — Class 257. Historical collections of costumes, national costumes. Paper, Blank Books and Stationery. — Class 258. Station- ery for the desk, stationers' articles, pens, pencils, inkstands and other ap- SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 857 paratus of writing and drawing. — Class 259. Writing-paper and envelopes, blank-book paper, bond-paper, tracing-paper, tracing-linen, tissue-paper, etc., etc. — Class 260. Printing-paper for books, newspapers, etc. Wrap- ping-paper of all grades, cartridge and manilla paper, paper bags. — Glass 261, Blank-books; sets of account-books, specimens of ruling and binding, including blanks, billheads, etc., book-binding. — Class 262. Cards, playing- cards, card-board, binders' board, pasteboard, paper or card-board boxes. — Class 263. Building-paper, pasteboard for walls, cane-fibre felt for car- wheels, ornaments, etc. — Class 264, Wall-papers, enamelled and colored papers, imitations of leather, wood, etc. Military and Naval Armaments, Ordnance, Fire- arms and Hunting Apparatus. — Class 265, Military small- arms, muskets, pistols and magazine-guns, with their ammunition, — Class 266. Light artillery, compound guns, machine-guns, mitrailleuses, etc. — Class 267. Heavy ordnance and its accessories. — Class 268. Knives, swords, spears and dirks. — Class 269. Firearms used for sporting and hunting; also other implements for the same purpose. Class 270, Traps for game, birds, vermin, etc. Medicine, Surgery, Pro thesis. — Class 272. Medicines; offi- cinal (in any authoritative pharmacopoeia), articles of the materia medica, preparations, unofficinal. — Class 273. Dietetic preparations, as beef extract and other articles intended especially for the sick. — Class 274. Pharma- ceutical apparatus. — Class 275. Instruments for physical diagnosis, clinical thermometers, stethoscopes, ophthalmoscopes, etc. (except clinical micro- scopes, etc, for which see Class 324). — Class 276. Surgical instruments and appliances, with dressings, apparatus for deformities, prothesis, obstet- rical instruments. — Class 277. Dental instruments and appliances. — Class 278. Vehicles and appliances for the transportation of the sick and wounded, during peace and war, on shore or at sea. Hardware, Edge Tools, Cutlery and Metallic Prod- ucts. — Class 280. Hand tools and instruments used by carpenters, join- ers, and for wood and stone in general ; miscellaneous hand tools used in industries, such as jewellers', engravers'. — Class 281. Cutlery, knives, pen- knives, scissors, razors, razor-straps, skates and implements sold by cutlers. — Class 282, Emery and sand paper, polishing powders, polishing and burnishing stones. — Class 283. Metal hollow-ware, ornamental castings. — Class 284, Hardware used in construction, exclusive of tools and imple- ments ; spikes, nails, screws, tacks, bolts, locks, latches, hinges, pulleys ; plumbers' and gas fitters' hardware, furniture fittings, ships' hardware, saddlers' hardware, and harness fittings and trimmings. Fabrics of Vegetable, Animal or Mineral Materials. — Class 285, India rubber goods and manufactures. — Class 286. Brushes. -r— Class 287. Ropes, cordage. — Class 288. Flags, insignia, emblems. — 858 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. Class 289. Wooden and basket ware, papier mache. — Class 290. Under- takers' furnishing goods, caskets, coffins, etc. — Class 291. Galvanized iron work. Carriages, Vehicles and Accessories. — (For farm vehicles and railway carriages see Departments of Agriculture and Machinery.) — Class 292. Pleasure carriages. — Class 293. Travelling carriages, coaches, stages, omnibuses, hearses ; bath-chairs, velocipedes, baby carriages. — Class 294. Vehicles for movement of goods and heavy objects, carts, wagons, trucks. — Class 295. Sleighs, sledges, sleds, etc. — Class 296. Carriage and horse furniture, harness and saddlery, whips, spurs, horse blankets, car- riage robes, rugs, etc. DEPARTMENT III.— EDUCATION AND SCIENCE. Educational Systems, Methods and Libraries. — Class 300. Elementary instruction ; infant schools and kindergartens, arrange- ments, furniture, appliances and modes of training. Public schools, graded schools, buildings and grounds, equipments, courses of study, methods of instruction, text books, apparatus, including maps, charts, globes, etc. ; pu- pils' work, including drawing and penmanship ; provisions for physical training. — Class 301. Higher education; academies and high schools; colleges and universities ; buildings and grounds, libraries, museums of zoology, botany, mineralogy, art and archaeology, apparatus for illustration and research, mathematical, physical, chemical and astronomical courses of study, text books, catalogues, libraries and gymnasiums. — Class 302. Professional schools, theology, law, medicine and surgery, dentistry, phar- macy, mining, engineering, agriculture and mechanical arts, art and design, military schools, naval schools, normal schools, commercial schools, music. Buildings, text books, libraries, apparatus, methods and other accessories for professional schools. — Class 303. Institutions for instruction of the blind, deaf and dumb, and the feeble-minded. — Class 304. Education re- ports and statistics. National bureau of education. State, city and town systems. College, university and professional systems. — Class 305. Libra- ries, history, reports, statistics and catalogues. — Class 306. School and text books, dictionaries, encyclopsedias, gazetteers, directories, index volumes, bibliographies, catalogues, almanacs, special treatises, general and miscella- neous literature, newspapers, technical and special newspapers and journals, illustrated papers, periodical literature. Institutions and Organizations. — Class 310. Institutions founded for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, such as the Smithso- nian Institution, the Royal Institution, the Institute of France, British Association for the Advancement of Science, and the American Associa- tion, etc., their organization, history and results. — Class 311. Learned and scientific associations ; geological and mineralogical societies, etc. ; engi- SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 859 neering, technical and professional associations ; Artistic, biological, zoolog- ical, medical schools, astronomical observatories. — Class 312. Museums, collections, art galleries, exhibitions of works of art and industry. Agri- cultural fairs, State and county exhibitions, national exhibitions, interna- tional exhibitions. Scientific museums and art museums. Ethnological and archaeological collections. — Class 313. Music and the drama. Scientific and Philosophical Instrninents and Meth- ods. — Class 320. Instruments of precision, and apparatus of physical research, experiment and illustration. Astronomical instruments and ac- cessories used in observatories. Transits, mural circles, equatorials, colli- mators. Geodetic and surveying instruments, transits, theodolites, needle compasses ; instruments for surveying underground in mines, tunnels and excavations. Nautical astronomical instruments ; sextants, quadi'ants, repeating circles, dip-sectors. Levelling instruments and apparatus ; car- penters' and builders' levels, hand levels, water levels, engineers' levels. Instruments for deep-sea sounding and hydrographic surveying. Meteor- ological instruments and apparatus. Thermometers, pyrometers, barom- eters, hygrometers and rain gauges, maps, bulletins, blanks for reports, methods of recording, reducing and reporting observations. — Class 321. Indicating and registering apparatus other than meteorological, mechani- cal calculation. Viameters, pedometers, jierambulators. Gas meters. Water meters, current meters, ships' logs, electrical logs. Tide registei's. Apparatus for printing consecutive numbers. Counting machines, calcu- lating engines, arithmometers. — Class 322. Weights, measures, weighing and metrological apparatus. Measures of length ; graduated scales on wood, metal, ivory, tape or ribbon, steel tapes, chains, rods, verniers, rods and graduated scales for measuring lumber, goods in packages, casks, etc., gangers' tools and methods. Measures of capacity for solids and liquids. Weights ; scales and graduated beams for weighing, assay balances, chem- ical balances. Ordinary scales for heavy weights ; weighing locomotives and trains of cars ; postal balances ; hydrometers, alcodmeters, lacto- meters, etc.; gravimeters. — C7«ss 323. Chronoraetric apparatus; chro- nometers, astronomical clocks, church and metrojiolitan clocks, ordinary commercial clocks, pendulum and spring clocks, marine clocks, watches, clepsydras, hour-glasses, sun-dials ; chronographs, electrical clocks ; metro- nomes. — Class 324. Optical and thermotic instruments and apparatus. Mirrors, plane and spherical. Lenses and prisms. Spectacles and eye- glasses, field- and opera-glasses, graphoscopes and stereoscopes. Cameras and photographic apparatus. Microscopes ; telescopes. Apparatus for artificial illumination, including electric, oxyhydrogen and magnesium light. Stereopticons. Photometric apparatus. Spectroscopes and acces- sories for spectrum analysis. Polariscopes, etc. Thermotic apparatus. — Class 325. Electrical apparatus. Friction machines. Condensers and 860 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. misoellaneous apparatus to illustrate the discharge. Galvanic batteries and accessories to illustrate dynamical electricity. Electro-magnetic ap- paratus. Induction machines, Rumkorff coils, etc. Magnets and mag- neto-electrical apparatus. — Class 326. Telegraphic instruments and methods. Batteries and forms of apparatus used in generating the elec- trical currents for telegraphic purposes. Conductors and insulators, and methods of support, marine telegraph cables. Apparatus of transmission ; keys, office accessories and apparatus. Receiving instruments, relay mag- nets, local circuits. Semaphoric and recording instruments. Codes, signs or signals. Printing telegraphs for special uses. Electrographs. Dial or cadran systems. Apparatus for automatic transmission. — Class 327. Musical instruments and acoustic apparatus. Percussion instruments, drums, tamborines, cymbals, triangles. Pianos. Stringed instruments other than pianos. Automatic musical instruments, music-boxes. Wind instruments of metal and of wood. Harmoniums. Church organs and similar instruments. Speaking machines. Vocal music. Engineering, Architecture, Charts, Maps and Graphic Representations. — (For Agricultural Engineering, see Class 680 ; for Mining Engineering, see Class 120.) Class 380. Civil engineering; land surveying, public lands, etc. ; river, harbor and coast surveying ; construc- tion and maintenance of roads, streets, pavements, etc. ; surveys and loca- tion of towns and cities, with systems of water supply and drainage ; arched bridges of metal, stone, brick or beton ; trussed girder bridges ; suspension bridges ; canals, aqueducts, reservoirs, construction of dams ; hydraulic engineering and means of arresting and controlling the JBiow of water. Submarine constructions, foundations, piers, docks, etc. — Class 331. Dynamic and industrial engineering; construction and working of ma- chines ; examples of planning and construction of manufacturing and metallurgical establishments. — Class 332. Railway engineering; location of railways, and the construction and management of railways. — Class 333. Military engineering. — Class 334. Naval engineering. — Class 335. Topograpical maps ; marine and coast charts. Geological maps and sec- tions. Botanical, agronomical and other maps, showing the extent and distribution of men, animals and terrestrial products ; physical maps. Meteorological maps and bulletins ; telegraphic routes and stations ; rail- way and route maps ; terrestrial and celestial globes ; relief maps and models of portions of the earth's surface; profiles of ocean beds and routes of submarine cables. Physical, Social and Moral Condition of Man,— Class 340. Physical development and condition. The nursery and its accessories. Gymnasiums, games and manly sports ; skating, walking, climbing, ball- playing, acrobatic exercises, rowing, hunting, etc. — Class 341. Alimenta- tion; markets, preparation and distribution of food. — Class 342. The SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 861 dwelling ; sanitary conditions and regulations ; domestic architecture. Dwellings characterized by cheapness, combined with the conditions essen- tial to health and comfort. Fireproof structures. Hotels, club-houses, etc. Public baths. — Class 343. Commercial systems and appliances. Mer- cantile forms and methods, counting-houses and offices. Banks and bank- ing. Saving and trust institutions. Insurance, fire, marine, life, etc. Commercial organizations, boards of trade, merchants, produce and stock exchanges. Corporations for commercial and manufacturing purposes. Railway and other transportation companies. Building and loan associa- tions. — Class 344. Money. — Mints and coining. Collections of current coins. Historical collections. Tokens, etc. Bank notes and other paper circulating mediums. Commercial paper, bills of exchange, etc. Securi- ties for payment of money, stocks, bonds, mortgages, ground rents, quit rents. Precautions against counterfeiting and misappropriation of money. — Class 345. Government and law. — Various systems of government. De- partments of government ; revenue and taxation, military organization, executive powers, legislative forms and authority, judicial functions and systems, police regulations, government charities. International relations; international law ; diplomatic and consular service, etc., allegiance and citizenship ; naturalization. Codes. Municipal government. Protection of property in inventions. Postal system and appliances. Punishment of crime. Prisons and prison management and discipline, police staticyns, houses of correction, reform schools, naval or marine discipline, punish- ment at sea. — Class 346. Benevolence. — General hospitals. Special hos- pitals for the eye and ear, for women, etc. Hospitals for contagious and infectious diseases. Hospitals for the insane, under State control, and pri- vate asylums. Quarantine systems and organizations. Sanitary regula- tions of cities. Dispensaries. Inebriate asylums. Lying-in asylums. Magdalen asylums. Asylums for infants and children. Foundling and orphan asylums, children's aid societies. Homes for the aged and infirm, homes for aged men and women, soldiers' homes, homes for the maimed and deformed, sailors' homes. Treatment of paupers. Almshouses, feed- ing the poor, lodging houses. Emigrant aid societies. Treatment of abo- rigines. Prevention of cruelty to animals. — Class 347. Co-operative asso- ciations. Political societies and organizations. Military organizations and orders. Trade unions and associations. Industrial organizations. Secret orders and fraternities. — Class 348. Religious organizations and systems ; origin, nature, growth and extent of various religious systems and faiths ; statistical, historical and other facts. Religious orders and societies and their objects. Societies and organizations for the propagation of systems of religion by missionary effort. Spreading the knowledge of religious systems by publications. Bible societies, tract societies, col port- age. Systems and methods of religious instruction and training for the 862 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. young. Sunday-schools, furniture and apparatus. Associations for relig- ious or moral improvement. Dispensing charities, church guilds. — Class 349. Art and industrial exhibitions; agricultural fairs, State and county exhibitions, national exhibitions, international exhibitions, international congresses, etc. DEPARTMENT IV.— ART. Sculpture. — Class 400. Figures and groups in stone, metal, clay or plaster. — Class 401. Bas-reliefs in stone or metal; electrotype copies. — Class 402. Medals, pressed and engraved; electrotypes of medals. — Class 403. Hammered and wrought work, repousse and rehausse work, embossed and engraved relief work. — Class 404. Cameos, intaglios, engraved stones, dies, seals, etc. — Class 405. Carvings in wood, ivory and metal. Painting. — Class 410. Paintings in oil on canvas, panels, etc. — Class 411. Water-color pictures, aquarelles, miniatures, etc. — Class 412. Fres- coes, cartoons for frescoes, etc. — Class 413. Painting with vitrifiable colors. Pictures on porcelain, enamel and metal. Engraving and Lithograpliy.— Cfess 420. Drawings with pen, pencil or crayons. — Class 421. Line engravings from steel, copper or stone. — Class 422. Wood engravings. — Class 423. Lithographs, zinco- graphs, etc. — Class 424. Chromo-lithographs. Pliotograpliy. — Class 430. — Photographs on paper, metal, glass, wood, fabrics or enamel surfaces. — Class 431. Prints from photo-relief plates, carbon-prints, etc. — Class 432. Photo-lithographs, etc. Industrial and Architectural Designs, Models and Decorations. — Class 440. Industrial designs. — Class 441. Architec- tural designs ; studies and fragments, representations and projects of edi- fices, restorations from ruins and from documents. — Class A4t2. Decoration of interiors of buildings. — Class 443. Artistic hardware and trimmings, artistic castings, forged metal work for decoration, etc. Decoration with Ceramic and Vitreous Materials; Mosaic and Inlaid Work. — Class 450. Mosaic and inlaid work in stone. — Class 451. Mosaic and inlaid work in tiles, tessarse, glass, etc. — Class 452. Inlaid work in wood and metal, parquetry, inlaid floors, tables, etc. — Class 453. Stained glass. — Class 454. Miscellaneous objects of art. DEPARTMENT V.— MACHINERY. Machines, Tools and Apxjaratus of Mining, Metal- lurgy, Chemistry and the Extractive Arts. — Class 500. Rock drilling. — Class 501. Well and shaft boring. — Class 502. Machines, apparatus and implements for coal cutting. — Class 503. Hoisting machi- nery and accessories. — Class 504. Pumping, draining and ventilating. — Class 605. Crushing, grinding, sorting and dressing ; breakers, stamps, mills, pans, screens, sieves, jigs, concentrators. — Class 506. Furnaces, smelt- SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION. 863 iug apparatus and accessories. — Class 507. Machinery used in Bessemer process. — Glass 508. Chemical raanufiicturiug machinery. Electroplating. — Class 509. Gas machinery and apparatus. Machines and Tools for Working Metal, Wood and Stone. — Class 510. Planing, sa^aug, veneering, grooving, mortising, touguing, cutting, moulding, stamping, carving and cask-making machines, etc., cork-cutting machines. — Class 511. Direct acting steam sawing ma- chines with gang saws. — Class 512. Rolling mills, bloom squeezers, blowing fans. — Class 513. Furnaces and apparatus for casting metals, with speci- mens of work. — Class 514. Steam-, trip- and other hammers, with specimens of work, anvils, forges. — Glass 515. Planing, drilling, slotting, turning, shaping, punching, stamping and cutting machines. Wheel cutting and dividing machines, emery wheels, drills, taps, gauges, dies, etc. — Class 516. Stone-sawing and planing machines, dressing, shaping and polishing, sand blasts, Tilghman's machines, glass-grinding machines, etc. — Glass 517. Brick, pottery and tile machines. Machines for making artificial stone. — Class 518. Furnaces, moulds, blow-pipes, etc., for making glass and glass-ware. Machines and Implements of Spinning, Weaving-, Felting and Ptiper-^Iaking. — Class 520. Machines for the man- ufacture of silk goods. — Glass 521. Machines for the manufacture of cot- ton goods. — Class 522. Machines for the manufacture of woollen gopds. — Class 523. Machines for the manufiicture of linen goods. — Class 524. Ma- chines for the manufacture of rope and twine, and miscellaneous fibrous materials. — Glass 525. Machines for the manufacture of paper, and felting. — Class 526. Machines for the manufacture of India-rubber goods. — Glass 527. Machines for the manufacture of mixed fabrics. Machines, Apparatns and Implements used in Sew- ing and Making Clothing and Ornamental Objects. — — Class 530. Machines used in the manufacture of tapestry, including car- pets, lace, floor-cloth, fancy embroidery, etc. — Class 531. Sewing and knit- ting machines, clothes-making machines. — Class 532. Machines for pre- paring and working leather. — Glass 533. Machines for making boots and shoes. — Class 534. Machines for ironing, drying and scouring. — Glass 535. Machines for making clocks and watches. — Glass 536. Machines for mak- ing jewelry. — Glass 537. Machines for making buttons, pins, needles, etc. Machines and Apparatns for Type-setting, Printing, Stamping, Embossing, and for Making Books and Paper- working. — Class 540. Printing presses. — Glass 541. Type- casting machines, apparatus of stereotyping. — Glass 542. Types and type- setting machines, type-writing machines. — Class 543, Printers' furniture. — Class 544. Book-binding machines. — Class 545. Paper-folding machines. — Glass 546. Paper- and card-cutting machines, — Class 547, Envelope machines. 864 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. Motors and Ai>paratus for the Generation and Transmission of Power. — Class 550. Boilers and all steam- or gas-geuerating apparatus for motive purposes. — Class 551. Water-wheels, water-engines, hydraulic rams, wind-mills. — Class 552. Steam-, air- or gas- engines, electro-magnetic engines. — Class 553. Apparatus for the trans- mission of power, shafting, belting, cables, transmission of power by com- pressed air, etc., gearing, cables. — Class 554. Screw-propellers, wheels for the propulsion of vessels, and other motors. — Class 555. Implements and apparatus used in connection with motors, steam gauges, manometers, etc. Hydraulic and Pnenniatic Ai>paratus, Pumping, Hoisting and Lifting. — Class 560. Pumps and apparatus for lifting and moving liquids. — Class 561. Pumps and apparatus for moving and compressing air or gas. — Class 562. Pumps and blowing engines, blowers and ventilating apparatus. — Class 563. Hydraulic jacks, presses, elevators, lifts, meters, cranes. — Class 564. Fire engines, hand, steam or chemical, and fire-extinguishing apparatus, hose, ladders, fire-escapes, etc. — Class 565. Beer engines, soda-water machines, bottling apparatus, corking ma- chines. — Class 566. Stop-valves, cocks, pipes, etc. — Class 567. Diving apparatus and machinery. — Class 568. Ice machines. Railway Plant, Rolling Stock and Apparatus. — Class 570. Locomotives, models, drawings, plans, etc. — Class 571. Carriages, wagons, trucks, cars, etc. — Class 572. Brakes, buffers, couplings and snow- ploughs. — Class 573. Wheels, tires, axles, bearings, springs, etc. — Class 574. Permanent ways, ties, chairs, switches, etc. — Class 575. Station ar- rangements, signals, water-cranes, turn-tables. — Class 576. Miscellaneous locomotive attachments. — Class 577. Street railways and cars. Machines used in Preparing Agricultural Products. — Class 580. Flour mills. — Class 581. Sugar-refining machines. — Class 582. Confectioners' machinery. — Class 583. Oil-making machinery. — Class 584. Tobacco-manufacturing machines. — Class 585. Mills for spices, coffee, etc. Aerial, Pneumatic and Water Transportation. — Class 590. Suspended-cable railways. — Class 591. Transporting cables. — Class 592. Balloons, flying-machines, etc. — Class 593. Pneumatic railways, pneu- matic despatch. — Class 594. Boats and sailing vessels ; sailing vessels used in commerce, sailing vessels used in war ; yacht^ and pleasure-boats ; row- ing boats of all kinds ; life-boats and salvage apparatus, with life-rafts, belts, etc. ; submarine armor, diving-bells, etc. ; ice boats. — Class 595. Steamships, steamboats and all vessels propelled by steam. — Class 596. Vessels for carrying telegraph cables and railway trains, also coal barges, water boats and dredging machines, screw- and floating-docks, and for other special purposes. — Class 597. Steam capstans, windlass, deck-winches and steering apparatus, fans. SYSTE3f OF CLASSIFICATION. 865 Machinery and Api^aratus Especially Adapted to the Requirements of the Exhibition. — Boilers, engines, craues, pumps, etc. DEPARTMENT VI.— AGRICULTURE. Arboriculture and Forest Products. — Class 600. Timber and trunks of trees, entire or in transverse or truncated sections, with specimens of barks, leaves, flowers, seed vessels and seed. Masts, spars, knees, longitudinal sections of trees, railway ties, ship timber, lumber roughly sawn, as planks, shingles, laths and staves. Timber and lumber prepared in various ways to resist decay and combustion ; as by injection of salts of copper and zinc. — Class 601. Ornamental woods used in decor- ating and for furniture, as veneers of mahogany, rosewood, ebony, walnut, maple and Madroua. — Class 602. Dye-woods, barks and galls for coloring and tanning. — Cla^ss 603. Gums, resins, caoutchouc, gutta percha, vegeta- ble wax. — Class 604. Lichens, mosses, fungi, pulu, ferns. — -Class 605. Seeds, nuts, etc., for food and ornamental purposes. — Class 606. — Forestry. — Illustrations of the art of planting, managing and protecting forests ; statistics. Pomology. — Class 610. Fruits of temperate and semi-tropical re- gions, as apples, pears, quinces, peaches, nectarines, apricots, plums, grapes, cherries, strawberries and melons. — Class 611. Tropical fruits and nuts, oranges, bananas, plantains, lemons, pine-apples, pomegranates, figs, cocoa- nuts. Agricultural Products. — Class 620. Cereals, grasses and forage plants. — Class 621. Leguminous plants and esculent vegetables. — Class 622. Roots and tubers. — Class 623. Tobacco, hops, tea, coffee and spices. — Class 624. Seeds and seed vessels. Land Animals. — Class 630. Horses, asses, mules. — Class 631. Horned cattle. — Class 632. Sheep. — Class 633. Goats, alpaca, llama, camel. — Class 634. Swine. — Class 635. Poultry and birds. — Class 636. Dogs and cats. — Clctss 637. Wild animals. — Class 638. Insects, useful and injurious ; honey bees, cochineal, silkworms. Marine Animals, Fish Culture and Api)aratus. — Class 640. — Marine animals. — Seals, cetaceans, etc., specimens living in aquaria, or stuffed, salted, preserved in alcohol or otherwise. — Class 641. Fishes, living or preserved. — Class 642. Pickled fish and parts of fish used for food. — Class 643. Crustaceans, echiuoderras, beche de mer. — Class 644. Mollusks, oysters, clams, etc., used for food. — Class 645. Shells, oorals and pearls. — Class 646. Whalebone, shagreen, fish glue, isinglass, sounds, fish- oil. — Class 647. Instruments and apparatus of fishing, nets, baskets, hooks and other apparatus used in catching fish. — Class 648. — Fish culture. — Aquaria, hatching pools, vessels for transporting roe and spawn, and other apparatus used in breeding, culture or preservation. 55 S66 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. Animal and Vegetable Products. — (Used as food or as mate- rials.) — Class 650. Sponges, sea-weed and other growths used for food or in the arts, — Class 651. The dairy. — Milk, cream, butter, cheese. — Class 652. Hides, furs and leather, tallow, oil and lard, ivory, bone, horn, glue. — Class 653. Eggs, feathers, down. — Class 654. Honey and wax. — Class 655. Animal perfumes, as musk, civet, ambergris. — Class 656. Preserved meats, vegetables and fruits, dried or in cans or jars ; meat and vegetable ex- tracts. — Class 657. Flour, crushed and ground cereals, decorticated grains. — Class 658. Starch and similar products. — Class 659. Sugar and syrups. — Class 660. Wines, alochol and malt liquors. — Class 661. Bread, biscuits, crackers and cakes. — Class 662. Vegetable oils. Textile Substances of Vegetable or Animal Origin. — Class 665. Cotton on the stem, in the boll, ginned and baled. — Class 666. Hemp, flax, jute, ramie, etc., in primitive forms and in all stages of prep- aration for spinning. — Class 667. Wool in the fleece, carded and in bales. — Class 668. Silk in the cocoon and reeled. — Class 669. Hair, bristles. Machines, Implements and Processes of Manufac- ture. — Class 670. Tillage. — Manual implements, spades, hoes, rakes. Animal-power machinery, ploughs, cultivators, horse-hoes, clod-crushers, rollers, harrows. Steam-power machinery, ploughs, breakers, harrows, cultivators. — Class 671. Planting. — Manual implements, corn-planters and hand-drills. Animal-power machinery, grain- and manure-drills, corn- and cotton-planters ; steam-power machinery, grain- and manure- drills. — Class 672. Harvesting. — Manual implements, grain-cradles, sickles, reaping-hooks ; animal-power machinery, reapers and headers ; mowers, tedders, rakes, hay-elevators and hay-loaders. Potato diggers. — Class 673. Preparatory to marketing. — Thrashers, clover-hullers, corn-shell ers, winnowers, hay, cotton, wine, oil- and sugar-making apparatus. — Class 674. Applicable to farm economy. — Portable and sta- tionary engines, chaflTers, hay- and feed-cutters, slicers, pulpers, corn-mills, farm boilers and steamers, incubators. — Class 675. Dairy fittings and ap- pliances. — Churns for hand and jiower, butter-workers, cans and pails, cheese -presses, vats and apparatus. Agricultural Engineering and Administration. — Class 680. Laying out and improving farms. — Clearing (stump-extractors), construction of roads, draining, irrigating, models of fences, gates, drains, out-falls, dams, embankments, irrigating machinery, stack building and thatching. — Class 681. Commercial fertilizers, phosphatic, ammoniacal, calcareous, etc. — Class 682. Transportation. — Wagons, carts, sleds, har- ness, yokes, traction engines, and apparatus for road-making and excavat- ing. — Class 683, Farm buildings. — Models and drawings of farm-houses and tenements, barns, stables, hop-houses, fruit-driers, ice-houses, windmills, granaries, barracks, apiaries, cocooneries, aviaries, abattoirs and dairies. SYSTE]\[ OF CLASSIFICATION. 867 Tillage and General Management. — Class 690. Systems of planting and cultivation. — Class 691. Systems of draining and application of manures. — Class 692. Systems of breeding and stock feeding. DEPARTMENT VII. —HORTICULTURE. Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers. — Class 700. Or- namental trees and shrubs, evergreens. — Class 701. Herbaceous perennial plants. — Class 702. Bulbous and tuberous-rooted plants. — Class 703. Dec- orative and ornamental foliage plants. — Class 704. Annuals and other soft-wooded plants, to be exhibited in successive periods during the season. — Class 705. Roses. — Class 706. Cactacea. — Class 707. Ferns, their man- agement in the open air, and in ferneries, wardian cases, etc. — Class 708. New plants, with statement of their origin. — Class 709. Floral designs, etc.; cut flowers, bouquets, preserved flowers, leaves, sea-weeds ; illustra- tions of plants and flowers ; materials for floi*al designs ; bouquet ma- terials, bouquet holders, bouquet papers, models of fruits, vegetables and flowers. Hothouses, Conservatories, Graperies and their Management. — Class 710. Hothouse and conservatory plants. — Class 711. Fruit trees under glass. — Class 712. Orchids and parasitic plants. — Class 713. Forcing and propagatiou of plants. — Class 714. Aquatic plants under glass or in aquaria, etc. — Class 715. Horticultural buildings, propa- gating houses, hot-beds, etc., and modes of heating them ; structures for propagating and forcing small fruits. — Class 716. Portable or movable orchard houses and graperies, without artificial heat ; frames, beds. Garden Tools, Accessories of Gardening. — Class 720. Tools and implements ; machines for the transplanting of trees, shrubs, etc. ; portable forcing-pumps for watering plants in greenhouses, and methods of watering the garden and lawn. — Class 721. Receptacles for plants, flowerpots, plant-boxes, tubs, fern cases, jardinieres, etc. ; window gardening ; plant and flower stands, ornate designs in iron, wood and wire. — Class 722. Ornamental wire-work — viz., fences, gates, trellis bordering of flower-beds, porches ; park seats, chairs, garden statuary, vases, foun- tains, etc. ; designations, labels, numbei"s. Garden Designing, Construction and Management. — Class 730. — Laying out gardens. — Designs for the laying out of gardens and the improvement of private residences ; designs for commercial gar- dens, nurseries, graperies; designs for the parterre. — Class 731. Treat- ment of water for ornamental jiurposes, cascades, fountains, reservoirs, lakes. — Class 732. Formation and after treatmeiit of lawns. — Class 733. — Gardep construction, buildings, etc. — Rock-work, grottoes; rustic con- structions and adornments for private gardens and public grounds. — Class 734. Planting, fertilizing and cultivating. 868 U. S. CENTENNIAL INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION. LOCATION. DEPARTMENTS. I. — Mining and Metallurgy. Main Building. II. — Manufactures. III. — Education and Science. Art Gallery. IV.— Art. Machinery Building. V. — Machinery. Agricultural Building. VI. — Agriculture, Horticultural Building. # VII. — Horticulture. If SYNOPSIS OF THE CLASSIFICATION. 869 CLASSES. 100-109 110-119 120-129 200-205 206-216 217-227 228-234 235-241 242-249 250-257 258-264 265-271 272-279 280-284 285-291 292-296 300-309 310-319 320-329 330-339 340-349 400-409 410-419 420-429 430-439 440-449 450-459 500-509 510-519 520-529 530-539 540-549 550-559 560-569 570-579 580-589 590-599 600-609 610-619 620-629 630-639 640-649 650-662 665-669 670-679 680-689 690-699 700-709 710-719 720-729 730-739 GROUPS. Minerals, Ores, Stone, Mining Products. Metallurgical Products. Mining Engineering. Chemical Manufactures. Ceramics, Pottery, Porcelain, Glass, etc. Furniture, etc. Yarns and Woven Goods of Vegetable or Mineral Materials. Woven and Felted Goods of Wool, etc. Silk and Silk Fabrics. Clothing, Jewelry, etc. Paper, Blank Books, Stationery. W^eapons, etc. Medicine, Surgery, Prothesis. Hardware, Edge Tools, Cutlery and Metallic Produxits. Fabrics of Vegetable, Animal or Mineral Materials. Carriages, Veliicles and Accessories. Educational Systems, Methods and Libraries. Institutions and Organizations. Scientific and Pliilosophical Instruments and Methods. Engineering, Architecture, Maps, etc. Pliysical, Social and Moral Condition of Man. Sculpture. Painting. Engraving and Lithography. Photography. Industrial and Agricultural Designs, etc. Ceramic Decorations, Mosaics, etc. Machines, Tools, etc., of Mining, Chemistry, etc. Machines and Tools for Working Metal, Wood and Stone. Machines and Implements of Spinning, Weaving, etc. Machines, etc., used in Sewing, Making Clothing, etc. Machines for Printing, Making Books, Paper W^orking, etc. Motors, Power Generators, etc. Hydraulic and Pneumatic Apparatus. Railway Plant, Rolling Stock, etc. Machinery used in Preparing Agricultural Products. Aerial, Pneumatic and Water Transportation. [Exhibition. Machinery and Apparatus especially adapted to the requirements of the Arboriculture and Forest Products. Pomology. Agricultural Products Land Animals, Marine Animals, Fish Culture and Apparatus. Animal and Vegetable Products. Textile Substances of Vegetable or Animal Origin. Macliines, Implements and Processes of Manufacture. Agricultural Engineering and Administration. Tillage and General Management. Ornamental Trees, Shrubs and Flowers. Hothouses, Conservatories, Graperies. Garden Tools, Accessories of Gardening. Garden Designing, Construction and Management. 870 ADVERTISEMENTS. THE DAILY GRAPHIC THE GREAT ILLUSTRATED DAILY, C'OMBIMNi; ILLUSTRATIONS OF DAILY EVENTS witll ALL THE NEWS OF THE MY, BEING THE OXI.Y II.l,VjiXRATEI> I>.Hl,Y PAPER IX THE ^VORS^3>. •C®= Every man of family who is able to spare the money for a New York daily paper owes it to his family to suhscribe for the DAILY GRAPHIC, for the annexed reasons : It is the Only Illustrated Daily in the World. It is the Most Interesting Daily Issued. It has All the News. It Illustrates Truthfully all Great Events. It is Independent, High Toned and Respect- able. It Pleases the Family Better than All Others. It is the Best. It is only $3 for three months, $12 per year, by mail. The Daily Graphic is an eight-page paper, published every afternoon (three editions) in time for the early mails to all parts of the country. It has a larger circulation — more copies printed and sold each day — than any other evening paper in New York. It is a great newspaper, as well as the only illustrated daily paper. It has special correspondents everywhere, and it lias a larger stalf of writers and news- gatherers than any other evening paper in New Yorli. It is preserved for binding by hundreds of its readers in city and country. The annual subscriber gets a Pictorial History of the Year, a voliune of twenty-four liundred pages, cor)- stitutiug a valuable record of events and a graphic panorama of our time and progress. SPECIAL FEA TURES : EVERY THURSDAY— All about the progress of the Great Centennial. EVERY SATURDAY— An Art and Literary Supplement of unrivalled merit. The Chicago Tribune says: Their process serves the same purpose as a striking picture which illustrates some notable occurrence, and they are to be congratulated on their enterprise. The New York Herald.— The D.\ily Graphic has worked its way to permanency and success. The Troy Times.— Over 130,000 copies of The Daily Graphic were sold on Friday afternoon. As an illustrated daily newspaper it is achieving results that astonish all. WiUiamsport (Pa.) Register. — The merits of this journal we have repeatedly pointed out. Its ad- vantages over other metropolitan journals are so numerous that it should supersede them in a mea- sure. It has a large circulation wherever it has been placed within the reach of the people. The reason of it is plain. Its news and editorial departments are equal if not superior to most of its contemporaries, and its illustrations defy competition. The Graphic Company have both the talent and the means — not to speak of the general encouragement — to make their paper the greatest in America, if not in tlie world. Philadelphia Evening Herald. — The Graphic, in all that goes to make an exceptional family newspaper, is without an equal in the country. TEJRMS, $12 a year ; $3 for three months. TR'S' IT J^ YEj^R. REPRODUCTIONS, by tlic Graphic Process, of tlie most OELi:iiRATEI) STEEL ENGRAVINGS. ** One of the most astonishing results achinved by the Graphic processes ** Is the fine facsimile reproductions of celebrated original Steel Engravings. Many of these subjects, some of them executed more than one liundred years ago, are exceed- ingly rare, and command the highest prices. They are printed witli great care from hand-presses, and on paper of weight ami tioisli equal to the originals. A sale of these sulyects amounting to over 1,000,000 copies in the affgri'gatc suthcieotly attests their merit. Among the artists represented in this list are the names of Raphael, Carlo Dolcl, Guldo Reiti, Wllle, Anker, J>Iarclial, Wappers, Aiisclell, Be la Roclie, Portaels, Greiize, Boiigereau_, Corregglo, Claude, Gilbert Stuart, Murillo, Holuiau Hunt, Ary SclieflTer, Benjamin West, Horace Vernet, Rubens, liaulbacli, etc. The prices of each vary from 20 cents to $1. SEND FOR PRICE LIST. *** An Illustrated Catalogue, giving the subjects in outline, will be sent post-paid on receipt of 15c. THE LITHOGRAPHING DEPARTMENT, The most extensive Lithographic Establishnieitt in America, offers unsurpassed facilities for the prompt and satisfactory production of Lithographic work in any branch of the art, and especially in Photo-Lithography. By processes secured to the Graphic Company, it is able to produce results heretofore unattempted, and afford finished work at prices that would barely pay the cost of engraving by ordinary methods. Esxi]vrA.T'ii;s promptly tpurnished. Nos. 35, 37, 39 and 41 Park Place, Keiv TorJi City. PHILADELPHIA OFFICE, Tenth and Chestnut Streets. APPENDIX. 872 APPENDIX. TABLE I. Statement shoiving the Number and Class of Vessels Built, and the Tonnage thereof, in the several States and Territories of the United States, from 1815 to 1873, inchmve. Year. Ships, etc.* Sloops, etc.t Steamers. Total Number. Total Tonnage. 1815 1041 274 1315 154,624 1816 979 424 1403 131,668 1817 679 394 1073 86,393 1818 566 332 898 82,421 1 1819 608 243 851 79,817 1820 382 152 534 47,784 1821 379 127 506 55,856 1822 455 168 623 75,346 1823 442 165 15 622 75,007 1824 589 166 26 781 90,939 1825 791 168 35 994 114,997 1826 740 227 45 1012 126,438 1827 672 241 38 951 104,342 1828 655 196 33 884 . 93,375 1829 597 145 43 785 77,098 1830 484 116 37 637 58,094 1831 583 94 34 711 85,762 1832 863 122 100 1085 144,539 1833 936 185 65 1186 161.626 1834 689 180 68 937 118,330 1835 376 100 30 506 46,238 1836 602 164 125 891 113,627 1837 646 168 135 949 122,987 1838 646 153 90 889 113,135 1839 611 122 125 858 120,989 1840 584 224 64 872 118,309 1841 525 157 78 760 118,893 1842 479 404 137 1020 129,083 1843 230 173 79 482 43,617 1844 324 279 163 766 103,537 1845 533 342 163 1038 146,018 1846 840 355 225 1420 188,203 1847 1008 392 198 1598 243,732 1848 1129 547 175 1851 318,075 1849 969 370 208 1547 256,577 1850 911 290 259 1460 272,218 1851 808 326 233 1367 298,203 1852 918 267 259 1444 351,493 1853 1045 394 271 1710 425,671 1854 1107 386 281 1774 535,616 1855 1112 669 253 2034 583,450 1856 1003 479 221 1703 469,393 1857 813 258 263 1334 378,804 1858 699 400 226 1325 242,286 1859 414 284 172 870 156,601 1860 518 289 264 1071 212,892 1861 508 371 264 1143 233,194 1862 286 397 183 866 175,075 1863 343 1113 367 1823 310,884 * This includes brigs, barks and schooners. t This includes canal-boats and barges. APPENDIX. 873 TABLE I.— Continued. Statement shoiving the Number and Class of Vessels Built, and the Tonnage thereof, in the several States and Territories of the United States, from 1815 to 1874, inclusive. Year. Sliips, etc.* Sloops, etc.f Steamers. Total Number. Total Tonnage. 1864 579 1389 498 2466 415,740 1865 524 853 411 1788 38.3,805 1866 614 926 348 1888 336,146t 1867 682 657 180 1519 303,528 1868 718 848 236 1802 285,304 1869 633 816 277 1726 275,2.30 1870 619 709 290 1618 276,953 1871 552 901 302 1755 27.3,226 1872 451 900 292 1643 209,052 1873 648 1221 402 2271 • 359,245 1874 748 995 404 2147 432,725 * This includes brigs, barks and schooners. f This includes canal-boats and barges. f The tonnage is given in accordance with the new measurement from 1866, that mode having been adopted in 18G5. In some of the other returns several years elapsed before uniformity in this respect was secured. TABLE IL Statement exhibiting the Amount of Tonnage of the United States Merchant Marine annually from 1789 to 1873, inclusive. Year. Registered Vessels.* Enrolled and Li- censed Vessels.! Total.J Annual Increase or Decrease ( — ) per ct. 1789 123,893 77,669 201,562 1790 346,254 132,123 478,377 137.33 1791 363,110 139,036 502,146 4.96 1792 411,438 153,019 564,457 12.35 1793 367,734 15.3,030 520,764 —7.74 1794 438,863 189,755 628,618 20.71 1795 529,471 218,494 747,965 19.00 1796 576,733 255,167 831,900 11.22 1797 597,777 279,135 876,912 5.41 1798 603,376 294,952 898,328 2.49 1799 662,197 277,211 939,408 4.57 1800 669,921 302,571 972,492 3.52 1801 632,907 314,669 947,576 —2.56 1802 560,381 331,725 892,106 —5.85 * Vessels are registered for foreign traffic and the whale-fishery, and enrolled and liceyised for coast and inland (river and lake) trade and for the cod- and mackerel-fisheries. t This includes licensed vessels under 20 tons burden, which are kept separate in the government account, but included in the totals. The tonnage of these amounted to 9203 in 1793 and 22,.')27 in 1794. The highest point reached by it was 66,602 tons, in 1828, and of late years its average lias\)een in the neighborhood of 50,000 tons. X Steam tonnage of both classes is included in this total as well as in each class. Special statistics wiU be given in Table III. 874 APPENDIX. TABLE II.— Continued. Statement exhibiting the Amount of Tonnage of the United States Merchant Marine annually from, 1789 to 1873, inclusive. Year. Registered Vessels.* Enrolled and Li- censed Vessels.! Total.t Annual Increase or Decrease ( — ) per ct. 1803 597,157 352,015 949,172 6.39 1804 672,530 369,874 1,042,404 1.00 1805 749,341 391,026 1,140,367 9.40 1806 808,285 400,452 1.208,737 5.99 1807 848,307 420,241 1,268,548 4.95 1808 769,054 473,541 1,242,595 —2.04 1809 910,059 440,223 1,350,282 8.66 1810 984,269 440,514 1,424,783 5.51 1811 768,852 403,650 1,232,502 —13.49 1812 . 760,624 509,373 1,269,997 2.95 1813 674,853 491,775 1,166,628 —8.14 1814 674,633 484,576 1,159,209 —0.63 1815 854,295 513,833 1,368,128 18.02 1816 800,760 571,459 1,372,219 0.29 1817 809,725 590,187 1,399,912 0.20 1818 606,089 619,096 1,225,185 —10.34 1819 612,930 647,822 1,260,752 0.04 1820 619,048 661,119 1,280,167 1.54 1821 619,896 679,062 1,298,958 1.47 1822 628,150 696,549 1,324,699 1.98 1823 639,921 696,645 1,336,566 0.89 1824 669,973 719,190 1,389,163 3.94 1825 700,787 722,323 1,423,110 2.44 1826 737,978 796,213 1,534,191 7.80 1827 747,170 873,437 1,620,607 5.63 . 1828 812,619 928,773 1,741,392 7.45 1829 650,143 610,665 1,260,798 —27.60 1830 576,475 615,301 1,191,776 —5.47 1831 620,452 647,394 1,267,846 6.38 1832 686,990 752,460 1,439,450 13.53 1833 750.027 856,124 1,606,151 11.59 1834 857,438 901,469 1,758,907 9.51 1835 885,822 939,119 1,824,941 3.13 1836 897,775 984,327 1,882,102 3.13 1837 810,447 1,086.239 1,896,686 0.24 1838 822,592 1,173,048 1,995,640 5.22 1839 834,245 1,262,234 2,096,479 5.05 1840 899,765 1,280,999 2,180,764 4.02 1841 945,803 1,184,941 2.130,744 —2.30 1842 975,359 1,117,032 2,092,391 —1.80 1843 1,009,305 1,149,298 2,158,603 3.16 1844 1,068,765 1,211,331 2,280,096 5.63 * Vessels are registered for foreign traffic and the whale-fishery, and enrolled and licensed for coast and inland (river and lake) trade and for the cod- and mackerel-fisheries. •f This includes licensed vessels under 20 tons burden, which are kept separate in the government account, but included in the totals. The tonnage of these amounted to 9203 In 1793 and 22,527 in 1794. The highest point reached by it was 66,602 tons, in 1S28, and of late years its average lias been in the neighborhood of 50,000 tons. % Steam tonnage of both classes is included in this total as well as in each class. Special statistics will be given in Table III, APPENDIX. TABLE II.— Continued. 875 Statement exhibiting the Amount of Tonnage of the United States Merchant Marine annually from 1789 to 1874, inclusive. Year. Registered Vessels.* Enrolled and Li- censed Vessels.! Total.* .-Annual Increase or Decrease ( — ) per ct. 1845 1,095,172 1,221,829 2,417,001 6.00 1846 1,130,287 1,431,798 2,562,085 6.00 1847 1,241,313 1,597,733 2,839,046 10.81 1848 1,360,887 1,793,156 3,154,043 11.09 1849 1,438,942 1,895,074 3,334,016 5.71 1850 1,585,711 1,949,743 3,535,454 6.04 1851 1,726,307 2,046,132 3,772,439 6.70 1852 1,899,448 2,238,992 4,1.38,440 9.70 1853 2,103,674 2,303,336 4,407,010 6.49 1854 2.333,819 2,469,083 4,802.902 8.96 1855 2,535,136 2,676,865 5,212,001 8.52 1856 2,491,403 2,380,250 4,871,653 —2.60 1857 2,463,968 2,476,875 4,940,843 1.41 1858 2,499,742 2,550,066 5,049,808 2.21 1859 2,507,402 2,637,636 5,145,038 1.90 1860 2,546,237 2,807,631 5,353,868 4.06 1861 2,642,628 2,897,185 5,539,813 3.47 1862 2,291,251 2,820,913 5,112,164 —4.51 1863 2,026,114 3,128,942 5,155,056 0.84 1864 1,581,894 3,404,506 4,986,400 —3.85 1S65§ 510,579 1,069,415 1,570,994 1 2.21 186511 1,092,004 2,424,784 3,516,788 1866g 1,108,531 2,259,548 3,368,479 1 —15.42 186611 384,395 557,904 942,299 1S67§ 1,353,236 2,604.579 3,957,515 1 —0.12 186711 214,796 132,176 346,972 1868? 1,532.283 2,786,027 4,318,310 1 1.10 1868IJ 18691 33,449 33,449 1,566,422 2,"578,2i9 4,144,641 —4.76 18701[ 1,516,800 2,857,465 4,246,507 2.46 1871 1,425,142 3,027,099 4,282,607 0.85 1872 1,410,648 3,027,099 4,437,747 3.62 1873 1.423,288 3,272,739 4,696,027 5.82 1874 1,428,923 3,371,729 4,800,652 2.23 * Vessels are registered for foreign traffic and the whale-fishery, and enrolled and licensed for coast and inland (river and lake) trade and for the cod- and mackerel-fisheries. + This includes licensed vessels under 20 tons burden, which are kejit separate in the government account, but included in the totals. The tonnage of these amounted to 9203 in 1793 and 22,527 in 1794. The highest point reached by it was GG,602 tons, in 1S28, and of late years its average has been In the neighborhood of 50,000 tons. X Steam tonnage of both classes is Included in this total as well as in each class. Special statistics will be given in Table III. ? New measurement. || Old measurement. % New measurement from 1869. It was introduced in 1S65, but a portion of the returns were made In the old measurement for several years, as is indicated in the table. 876 APPENDIX. TABLE III. Statement exhibiting the Amount of Steam Tonnage of the United States Merchant Marine annually from 1823 to 1874, inclusive. Year. Registered. Enrolled and Licensed. Total. Annual Increase or Decrease ( — } per ct. 1823 24,879 24,879 1824 21,610 21,610 —13.12 1825 23,061 23,061 6.71 1826 34,059 34,059 47.61 1827 40,198 40,198 18.00 1828 • 39,418 39,418 —1.94 1829 54,037 54,037 37.15 1830 iVii'g 63,053 64,472 19.32 1831 871 33,574 34,445 —46.55 1832 181 90,633 90,814 165.31 1833 545 101,305 101,850 12.15 1834 340 122,474 122,814 20.59 1835 340 122,474 122,814 0.00 1836 454 145,102 145,556 18.52 1837 1,104 153,661 154,765 6.32 1838 2,791 119,683 193,423 24.90 1839 5,149 199,789 204,938 5.95 1840 4,155 198,154 202,309 —1.32 1841 746 174,342 175,088 —13.40 1842 4,701 224,960 229,661 31.10 1843 5,373 231,494 236,867 3.14 1844 6,900 265,270 272,170 14.91 1845 6,492 319,527 326,019 19.78 1846 6,287 341,606 347,893 6.70 1847 5,631 399,210 404,841 16.36 1848 16,068 411,823 427,891 5.69 1849 20,870 441,525 462,395 8.06 1850 44,429 481,005 525,434 13.67 1851 62,390 521,217 583,607 11.07 1852 79,704 554,536 634,240 8.68 1853 90,520 514,098 604,618 —4.67 1854 95,036 581,571 676,607 11.90 1855 115,045 655.240 770,285 13.85 1856 89,715 583,362 673,077 —12.63 1857 86,873 618,911 705,784 4.87 1858 78,027 650,363 728,390 3.20 1859 92,.748 676,005 768,753 5.66 1860 97,296 770,641 867,937 12.90 1861 102,608 774,596 877,204 1.06 1862 113,998 596,465 710,463 —7.72 1863 133,215 442,304 575,519 —18.99 1864 106,519 853,816 960,335 66.86 1865* 28,469 338,720 367,189 1 11.12 1865t 69,539 630,411 699,950 1866* 155,513 771,754 926,267 1 1.60 1866t 42,776 114,269 157,045 1867* 165,522 957,458 1,122,980 1 10.02 1867t 32,593 36,307 68.900 1868* 221,939 977,476 1,199,415 0.03 * New measurement, adopted in 1865, t Old measurement. APPENDIX. 877 TABLE III.— Continued. Statement exhibiting the Amount of Steam Tonnage of the United States Merchant Marine annually from 1823 to 1874, inclusive. i'ear. Eegistered. Enrolled and Licensed. Total. Annual Increase or Decrease ( — ) per ct. 1869* 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 213,252 192,544 180,914 177,666 193,423 195,245 890,316 882,551 906,723 933,887 963,020 930,782 1,103,568 1,075,095 1.087,637 1,111,553 1,156,443 1,126,027 —7.99 —2.57 1.16 2.19 4.03 —2.63 * New measurement from 1808, up to which date, as indicated by the table, a portion of the returns were made in the old measurement. TABLE IV. Annual Receipts, Expenditures and National Debt of the United States from March 4, 1789, to June 30, 1875. Year. Receipts. Expenditures. National Debt. 1789 \* 1791] $10,210,025 $7,207,539 $75,463,476 1792 8,740,766 9,141,569 77,227,924 1793 5,720,624 7,529,575 80,352,634 ' 1794 10,041,101 9,302,124 78,427,404 1795 9,419,802 10,435,069 80,747,587 1796 8,740,329 8,367,776 83,762,172 1797 8,758,916 8,626,012 82,064,479 1798 8,209,070 8,613,517 79,228,529 1799 12,621,409 11,077,043 78,408,669 1800 12,451,184 11,989,739 82,976,294 1801 12,945,455 12,273,376 83,038,050 1802 15,001,391 13,276,084 80,712,632 1803 11,064,097 11,258,983 77,054,686 1804 11,835,840 12,624,646 86,427,120 1805 13,689,508 1.3,727,124 82,312,150 1806 15,608,828 15,070,093 75,723,270 1807 16,398,019 11,292,292 69,218,398 1808 17,062,544 16,764,584 65,196,317 1809 7,773,473 13,867,226 57,023,392 1810 12,144,206 13,319,986 53,173,217 1811 14,431,838 13,601,808 48,005,587 1812 22,639,032 22,279,121 45,209,737 1813 40,524,844 39,190,520 55,962,827 1814 34,559,536 38,028,230 81,487,846 1815 50,961,237 39,582,493 99,833,660 1816 57,171,421 48,244,495 127,334,933 1817 33,833,592 40,877,646 123,491,965 * From March 4, 1789, to December 31, 1791. Fractions of a dollar are ouiitted throughout this table. 878 APPENDIX. TABLE IV.— Continued. Annual Receipts, Expenditures and National Debt of the United States from March 4, 1789, to Jane 30, 1875. Year. Receipts Expenditures. National Debt. 1818 $21,593,936 $35,104,875 $103,466,633 1819 24,605,665 24,044,199 95,.529,648 1820 20,881,493 21,763,024 91,015,566 1821 19,573,703 19,090,572 89,987,427 1822 20,232,427 17,676,592 93,546,676 1823 20,540,666 15,314,171 90,875,877 1824 24,381,212 31,898,538 90,269,777 1825 26,840,858 23,585,804 83,788,432 1826 25,260,434 24,103,398 81,0-54,0-59 1827 22,966,363 22,656,764 73,987,357 1828 24,763,629 25,4.59,479 67,475,043 1829 24,827,627 25,044,358 58,421,413 1830 24,844,116 24,585,281 48,56-5,406 1831 28,526,820 30,038,446 39,123,191 1832 31,865,561 34,356,698 24,322,235 1833 33,948,426 24,257,298 7,001,032 1834 21,791,935 24.601,982 4,760,082 1835 35,430,087 17,573,141 351,289 1836 50,826,796 .30,868,164 291,089 1837 27,883,853 37,265,037 1,878,223 1838 39,019,382 39,455,438 4,857,660 1839 33,881,242 37,614,936 11,983,737 1840 25,032,193 28,226,-533 5,125,077 1841 30,519,477 31,797,530 6,737,398 1842 34,773,744 32,936,876 15,028,486 1843* 20,782,410 12,118,105 27,203,450 1844 31,198,555 33,642,010 24,748,188 1845 29,941,853 30,490,408 17,093,794 1846 29,699,967 27,632,282 16,750,926 1847 55,338,168 60,520,851 38,956,623 1848 56,992,479 60,665,143 48,526,379 1849 59,796,892 56,386,422 64,704,693 1850 47,649,388 44,604,718 64,228,238 1851 52,762,704 48,476,104 62,560,395 1852 49,893,115 46,712,608 65,131,692 1853 61,500,102 54,577,061 67,340,628 1854 73,802,291 7.5,473,119 47,242,206 1855 65,351,374 66,164,775 39,969,731 1856 74,056,899 72,726,341 30,963,909 1857 68,969,212 71,274,-587 29,060,386 1858 70,372,665 82,062,186 44,910,777 1859 81,773,965 83,678,642 58,754,699 1860 76,841,407 77,0-5.5,125 64,769,703 1861 86,83-5,900 84,578,8.34 90,867,828 1862 581,628,181 570,841,700 514,211,-371 1863 776,682,361 89-5,796,630 1,098,703,181 1864 884,076,646 865,234,087 1,740,('>90,4S9 1865 1,418,210,629 1,290,312,982 2,682,593,026 1866 1,273,960,215 1,141,072,666 2,783,425,879 * To June 30, on whicli day the fiscal year of the government has since closed. APPENDIX 879 I TABLE IV.— Continued. Annual Receipts, Expenditures and National Debt of the United States from March 4, 17S9, to June 30, 1875. Year. Receipts. Expenditures. National Debt. 1867 $1,131,060,920 §51,093,079,655 $2,692,199,215 1868 1,117,991,542 1,069,889,970 2,636,320,964 1869* 609,621,828 584,777,966 2,489,500,484 1870 696,729,873 309,653,560 2.386,-358,599 1871 534,234,240 292,177,188 2,292,();!0.,S34 1872 374,100,867 377,478,216 2,146, (;s.',,;).-,7 1873 333,738,204 340,843,571 2,135,()20,«t74 1874 322,186,231 302,633,873 2,139,897,861 1875 288,000,051 274,623,392 2,128,688,726 * In this and the succeeding years the cash baUince in the Treasury is deducted from the out- Btanding principal of the debt. TABLE V. Statement [in bushels) of the a-ops of Wheat, Maize [Indian Corn), Oats, Barley ayid Rye in 1840, 1850, 1860 and 1862-1874. Compiled mainly from the returns of the Netv York Produce Exchange. Year. Wheat. Maize. Oats. Barley. Rye. 1840 84,821,065 377,492,388 123,054,990 4,161,210 18,640,486 1850 100,164,256 591,630,564 146,565,140 5,165.136 14,183,094 1860 170,176,027 827,094,527 172,089.095 15,813,604 20,965,046 1862 186,763,483 564,629,348 170,738,705 17,679,089 20,593,476 1863 190,888,239 451,153,378 174,650,228 17,754,351 20,796,287 1864 160,695,823 530,451,403 175,990,194 10,632,178 19,872,975 1865 148,522,829 704,427,853 225,252,295 11,301,286 19,543,905 1866 151,999,906 867,946,295 268,141,078 11,283,807 20,864,944 1867 212,441,400 768,320,000 278,698,000 25,727,000 23,184,000 1868 224.036,600 ■ 906,527,000 254,960,800 22,896,100 22,504,800 1869 260,146,900 874,320,000 288,334,000 28,652,200 22,527,900 1870 235,884,700 1,094,255,000 247,277,400 26,295,400 15,473,600 1871 230,722,400 991,898,000 255,743,000 26,718,500 15,365,500 1872 249,997,100 1,092,719,000 271,747,000 26,S4(;.4(iO 14,888,600 1873 281,254,700 932,247,000 270,340,000 32,044,491 15,142 000 1874 305,000,000 854,000,000 240,000,000 32,704,000 14,891,000 1 Note. — There are scarcely any returns from the Southern States (excepting Maryland and Ken- tucky) included in any of the figures for 1862-1865, inclusive. This will account for the smallncss of the reported maize crop in those years. The returns for 1873 are taken from the Report of the De- partment of Agriculture for that year, and those for 1874 are from the Annual Cydopiedia. 880 APPENDIX. TABLE VI. Cotton Production and Trade for 49 years. Mainly from Appletons' American Cyclopaedia. Average Average Average Years ending Production. Consumption. Exports. weight price in price in August 31. Bales. Bales. Bales. per bale. Lbs. New York. Cents. Liverpool. Pence. 1825-26 720,027 957,281 12.19 5.85 1826-27 149,516 ■ 854,000 331 9.29 5.79 1827-28 720,593 120,593 600,000 335 10.32 5.84 1828-29 870,415 118,853 740,000 341 9.88 5.32 1829-30 976,845 126,512 839,000 339 10.04 6.44 1830-31 1,038,847 182,142 773,000 341 9.71 5.72 1831-32 987,477 173,800 892,000 360 9.38 6.22 1832-33 1,070,438 194,412 867,000 350 12.32 7.87 1833-34 1,205,394 196,413 1,028,000 363 12.90 8.10 1834-35 1,254,328 216,888 1,023,500 367 17.45 9.13 1835-36 1,360,725 236,733 1,116,000 373 16.50 8.79 1836-37 1,423,930 222,540 1,169,000 379 13.25 6.09 1837-38 1,801,497 246,063 1,575,000 379 10.14 0.28 1838-39 1,360,532 276,018 1,074,000 384 13.36 7.19 1839-40 2,177,835 295,193 1,876,000 383 8.92 5.42 1840-41 1,634,954 267,850 1,313,500 394 9.50 5.73 1841-42 1,683,574 267,850 1,465,500 397 7.85 4.86 1842-43 2,378,875 325,129 2,010,000 409 7.25 4.37 1843-44 2,030,409 346,750 1,629,500 412 7.73 4.71 1844-45 2,394,503 389,000 2,083,700 415 5.63 3.92 1845-46 2,100,537 422,000 1,666,700 411 7.87 4.80 1846-47 1,778,651 428,000 1,241,200 431 11.21 6.03 1847-48 2,439,786 616,044 1,858,000 417 8.03 3.93 1848-49 2,866,938 642,485 2,228,000 436 7.55 4.09 1849-50 2,223,718 613,498 1,590,200 429 12.34 7.10 1850-51 2,454,442 485,614 1,988,710 416 12.14 5.51 1851-52 3,126,310 689,603 2,443,646 428 9.50 5.05 1852-53 3,416,214 803,725 2,528,400 428 11.02 5.54 1853-54 3,074,979 737,236 2,319,148 430 10.97 5.31 1854-55 2,982,634 716,417 2,244,209 434 10.39 5.60 1855-56 3,665,557 770,739 2,954,606 420 10.30 6.22 1856-57 3,093,737 819,936 2,252,657 444 13.51 7.73 1857-58 3,257,339 595,562 2,590,455 442 12.23 6.91 1858-59 4,018,914 927,651 3,021,403 447 12.08 6.68 1859-60 4,861,292 978,043 3,774,173 461 11.00 5.97 1860-61 3,849,469 843,740 3,127,568 477 13.01 8.50 1861-62- 1862-63 1863-64 31.29 67.21 101.50 18.37 22.46 27.17 * For obvious reasons, statistics are wanting, with the exception of prices, for the four years of the civil war. The prices are for middling upland. The production of sea-island cotton is in- cluded, which has varied in recent years from 47,592 bales in 1858-59 to 19,912 in 1873-74. The reader should remember that the price given is the average price for the whole year. The highest price, between January 1 and August 31, 1804, was %\.Cio, and tlie lowest 78 cents. A higher point ($1.80) was readied during September, 1864, but the low prices during the last five months of the year 1864-65 (from 35 to 48 cents) brought down the average, as is shown by the table. We have depended for these latter statements upon the maximum and minimum prices at the beginning of each month, for the years 1864-1873, given in the Report on Commerce and Navigation for 187.3.— Ed. U. S. Gazetteer and Guide. APPENDIX. 881 TABLE VI.— Continued. Chiton Production and Trade for 49 years. Mainly from Appletons' American Cyclopaedia. Average Average Average Years ending Production. Consumption. Exports. weight price in price in August 31. Bales. Bales. Bales. per bale. Lbs. New York. Cents. Liverpool. Pence. 1864-65 1865-66 441" 83.38 43.20 19.11 15.30 2,269,316 666,100 1,554,664 1866-<37 2,097,254 770,030 1,557,054 444 31.59 10.98 1867-68 2,519,554 906,636 1,655,816 445 24.85 10.52 1868-69 2,366,467 926,374 1,465,880 444 29.01 12.12 1869-70 3,122,551 930,736 2,206,480 440 23.98 9.89 1870-71 4,362,317 1,019,446 3,166,742 442 16.95 8.55 1871-72 3,014,351 1,137,540 1,957,314 443 20.48 10.78 1872-73 3,930,508 1,251,127 2,679,986 464 18.15 9.65 1873-74 4,170,388 1,220,943 2,840,981 469 16.60 TABLE VIL Exports and ImpoHs rftlw United States for each Fiscal Year from 1790 to the year ending June 30, 1875, inclusive. Year. Exports, Imports, Year. Exports. Imports. 1790 $20,205,156 $23,000,000 1816 $81,920,452 $147,103,000 1791 19,012,041 29,200,000 1817 87,671,560 99,250,000 1792 20,753.098 31,500,000 1818 93,281,133 121,750,000 1793 26,109,572 31,000,000 1819 70,141,501 87,125,000 1794 33,026,233 34,600,000 1820 69,661,669 74,450,000 1795 47,989,472 69,756,268 1821 64,974,382 62,585,724 1796 67,064,097 81,436,164 1822 72,160,281 83,241,541 1797 56,850,206 75,379,406 1823 74,699,030 77,579,267 1798 61,527,097 68,,>.51,700 1824 75,986,657 89,549,007 1799 78,665,522 79,089,148 1825 99,535,388 96,340,075 1800 70,970,780 91,252,768 18i^6 77,595,322 84,974477 1801 94,115,925 111,363,511 1827 82,324,727 78,484,068 1802 72.483,160 76,333,333 1828 72,264,686 88,509,824 1803 55,800,038 64,666,666 1829 72,358,671 74,492,527 1804 77,699,074 185,000,000 1830 73,849,508 70,876,920 1805 95,566,021 120,600,000 1831 81,310,583 103,191,124 1806 101,5.36,963 129,410,000 1832 87,176,943 101,029,266 1807 108,343,151 138,500,000 1833 90,140,443 108,118,311 1808 22,4.30,960 56,990,000 1834 104,336,973 126,521,332 1809 52,203,333 59,400,000 1835 121,69.3,577 149,895,742 1810 66,657,970 88,406,000 1836 128,663,040 189,980,085 1811 61,316,883 53,400,000 1837 117,419,376 140,989,217 1812 38,527,236 77,030,000 1838 108.486,016 113,717,404 1813 27,855,927 22,005,000 1839 121,088,416 162,092,132 1814 6,937,441 12,965,000 1840 132,085,936 107,641,519 1815 52,557,753 113,041,274 1841 121,851,803 127,946,177 66 882 APPENDIX. TABLE VII.— Continued. Exports and Imports of the United States for each Fiscal Year from 1790 to the year ending June 30, 1875, inclusive. Year. Exports. Imports. Year. Exporta Imports. 1842 1104,691,531 $100,152,087 1859 $356,789,461 $338,768,130 184'3* 84,346,480 64,753,799 1860 400,122,296 342,162,541 1844 111,200,046 108,435,035 1861 243,971,277 286,598,135 1845 114,646,606 117,254,564 1862 229,938,985 275,357,051 1'346 113,418,516 121,691,797 1863 322,359,254 252,919,920 1847 158,648,622 146,545,638 1864 301,984,561 329,562,895 1848 154,032,131 154,998,928 1 1865 336,697,123 234,339,810 1849 145,755,820 147,857,439 1866 550,684,228 445,512,158 1850 151,898,790 178,138,318 1867 438,577,312 411,733,309 1851 218,388,011 216,224,932 1868 454,301,713 378,409,448 1852 209,658,366 212,945,442 1869 413,960,890 437,314,255 1853 230,576,157 267,978,647 1870 499,092,143 462,377,587 1854 278,241,064 304,562,381 1871 562,518,651 541,493,708 1855 275,156,846 261,468,520 1872 501,164,971 640,337,540 1856 326,964,908 314,639,943 1873 578,938,985 663,617,147 1857 362,960,608 360,890,141 I 1874 652,913,4451 595,861,248t 1858 324,644,421 282,013,150 1875 665,528,391t 553,906,153t * For the half year ending June 30, 1843, since which time the fiscal year of the United States government has ended on this day. + Specie value. TABLE VIII. Areas and Density of Popidation of the United States and of the several States and Territories thereof in 1850, 1860 and 1870, according to the Census Reports foi these years. states and Territories. 1850. I860. 1870. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. The United States 2,980,959 7.78 3,026,494* 10.39 3,603,884* 10.70 The States 1,544,224 14.94 1,723,029 18.10 1,984,467 19.21 Alabama , 50,722 52,198 188,981 4,750 2,120 59,268 58,000 55,410 15.21 4.02 0.49 78.06 43.18 1.48 15.62 15.37 Unchanged. 11 19.01 jUnch 8 34 1 anged. 19.66 9.30 2.29 113.15 58.97 3.17 20.42 45.84 2 01 ! ( Connecticu t 96.87 52.93 2.65 18.23 30.90 Delaware Florida Illinois 1 * The increase of the total area of the United States in I860 over 1850 represents the territory acquired from Mexico known as the Gadsden purchase. The increase of the area shown by the returns of 1870 expresses the acquisition of Alaska. APPENDIX. 883 TABLE VIII.— Continued. Areas and Density of Population of the United States and of the several States and Territories thereof in 1850, 1860 and 1870, according to the Census Reports for those years. Slates and Territories. 1850. I860. 1870. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. Square miles. Persons to a square mile. 33,809 55,045 29.24 3.49 Unchanged. 39.94 12.26 30.94 17.12 17.95 61.76 157.83 13.27 2.10 16.78 18.09 35.'i'4 80.77 82.57 19.58 58.54 0.55 63.18 133.71 20.70 24.34 2.20 30.86 26.02 il's'g Unchanged. 81,318 Unchanged. « a .i a 75,995 104,125 Unchanged. u u u <( l( 11 38,348 23,000 Unchanged. 49.71 21.69 4.48 35.33 17.58 17.91 70.20 186.84 20.97 5.26 17.56 26.34 1.62 0.41 34.30 108.91 93.25 21.13 66.69 0.95 76.56 166.43 20.75 27.60 2.98 32.37 31.95 19.22 19.56 Kentnc'kv 37,680 41,346 35,000 11,124 7,800 56,451 47"i56 65,350 26.07 12.52 16.66 52.41 127.50 7.04 i'i'sti 10.44 Unchanged. 83,531 Unchanged. Louisiana Maine Michio'an Missi.'^sippi Missouri Nebraska Nevatla "d'^iso 8,320 47,000 50,704 39,964 46ioo6 1,306 34,000 45,600 274,356 10,212 61,348 53,'924 New Hampshire 34.26 58.84 65.90 17.14 49.55 56.2(3 112.97 19.66 21.99 0.77 30.76 23.17 Unchanged. 95,274 Unchanged. (• (I K (( (( North Carolina Ohio Oregon Rhode Island South Carolina Texas West Virginia Wisconsin 5.66 Unchanged. The Territories 1,436,735 0.09 1,303,465 0.20 1,619,417 0.27 Alaska (unorganized) Arizona 1173.13 '6".85 577,390 113,916 104,500 150,932 Unchanged. 86,294 Unchanged. "o'.os 0.38 0.09 2057.81 0.17 "o.ii "6.76 1.03 0.34 0.09 Co 1 orado Dakota. District of Columbia. Idaho 64 807.61 Unchanged. Indian (Country) Kansas 195,274 0.04 68,991 126,283 81,960 Minnesota 165,491 Montana Nebraska New Mexico 6.08 0.36 143,776 351.358 215,807 288,345 220,196 "6.29 0.05 0.05 ! Unchanged. 261,342 121,201 Oregon Utah LTnchanged. 193,071 0.18 0.06 84,476 69,994 97,883 Wasliinnton *. Wyoming 1 884 APPENDIX. TABLE IX. Number of Families and of Persons to a Family in the United States and in the several States and Ten-itories thereof in 1850, 1860 and 1870, according to the Census Reports for those years. states and Territories. 1850. 18(50. 1870. Number of families. Persons to a family. Number of families. Persons to a family. Number of families. Persons to a family. The United States 3,598,240 5.56 5,210,934 5.28 7,579,363 5.09 5.09 The States 3,570,683 5.56 5,147,650 5.28 7,481,607 Alabama 73,786 28,461 24,567 73,448 15,439 9,107 91,666 149,153 171,564 33,517 5.81 5.72 3.77 5.05 5.78 5.29 5.72 5.71 5.76 5.73 5.80 5.04 5.64 5.64 5.16 5.48 5!69 5.89 siis 5..50 5.46 5.50 5.68 5!66 5.23 5.36 5.87 5.44 5.36 5.67 5!36 96,603 57,244 98,767 94,831 18,966 15.090 109,919 315,539 248,664 124,098 21,912 166,321 74,725 120,863 110,278 251,287 144,761 37,319 63,015 192,073 5.48 5.67 3.85 4.85 5.82 5.21 5.41 5.43 5.43 5.44 4.89 5.59 5.04 5.20 5.44 4.90 5.17 4.61 5.63 5.56 4!72 5.16 5.12 5.29 5.39 4.74 5.54 4.96 5.14 5.59 5.49 4.94 ,5.49 5/26 202,704 96,135 128,752 114,981 22.900 39,394 237,850 474,533 320,160 222,430 72,493 232,797 158,099 131,017 140,078 305,534 241,006 82,471 166,828 316,917 25,075 9,880 72,144 183,043 ..892,772 205,970 521,981 18,504 675,408 46,133 151,105 231,365 154,483 70,462 231,574 78,474 200,155 4.92 5.04 4.35 4.67 5.46 4.77 4.98 5.35 5.25 5.37 5.03 5.67 4.60 4.78 5.57 4.77 4.91 5.33 4.96 5.43 4.91 4.30 4.41 4.95 4.88 5.20 5.11 4.91 5.21 4.71 4.67 5.44 5.30 4.69 5.29 5.63 5.27 Arkansa.s California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgi a Indiana Iowa Kentucky 132,920 54,112 103,3.33 87,384 192,675 72,611 Louisiana Maine Maryland Massachusetts 52,107 100,890 Missouri New Hampshire New Jersey 62,287 89,080 566,869 105,451 348,514 69,018 130,348 758,420 125,090 434,134 11,063 524,558 35,209 58,642 149,335 76,781 63,781 201,523 New York North Carolina Ohio Pennsylvania 408,497 28,216 52,937 130,004 28,377 58,573 167,530 Rhode Island South Carolina Tennes.see Texas Vermont Virginia Wisconsin 57,608 147,473 The Territories 27,557 4.39 63,284 4.30 97,756 4.48 3!41 3.90 2,290 ' 9,358 3,090 4.22 4.26 4.59 10,045 1,241 APPENDIX. 885 TABLE IX.— Continued. Number of Families and of Persons to a, Family in the United States and in the several States and Territories thereqf in 1850, 1860 and 1870, according to the Census Reports for those years. Territories. 1850. I860. 1870. Number of families. Persons to a family. Number of families. Persons to a family. 5.58 4!86 4.48 I96 4.14 Number of families. Persons to a family. 5.21 3.65 2.92 I28 5I04 4.22 4!oo 1 District of Columbia. Idalio 8,343 1,016 13,'502 2,734 2,322 5.75 5^98 4.56 5.60 4.90 12,888 "5,931 20,881 "9,500 2,798 25,276 4,104 7,058 Minnesota Nebraska New Mexico 21,449 r7,'210 5,673 2,248 Oregon Utah Wyoming TABLE X. Number of Dwellings and of Persons to a Dwelling in the United States and in the several States and Territories thereof in 1850, 18G0 and 1870, according to the Census Reports for those years. States and Territories. 1850. 18G0. 1870. Number of dwellings. Persons to a dwelling. Number of dwellings. Persons to a dwelling. Number of dwellings. Persons to a dwelling. The United States 3,362,337 5.94 4,969,692 5.53 7,042,833 5.47 The States 3,335,269 5.95 4,912,437 5.54 6,941,603 5.49 Alabama 73,070 28,252 23,742 64,013 15,290 9,022 91,206 146,544 170,178 32,962 5.87 5.76 3.90 5.79 5.84 5.34 5.75 5.81 5.81 5.83 5.90 5.56 6.09 6.03 96,682 56,717 100,328 83.622 19,288 14,132 109,069 304,742 256,936 131,663 33,278 164,161 63,992 115,933 106,137 5.47 5.72 3.79 5.50 5.72 5.57 5.46 5.62 5.26 5.13 2.96 5.67 5.88 5.42 5.65 198,327 93,195 126,307 96,880 22,577 41,047 236,436 464,155 318,469 219,846 71.071 224,969 150,427 121,953 129,620 5.03 5.20 4.44 5.55 5.54 4.57 5.01 5.47 5.28 5.44 5.13 5.87 4.83 5.14 6.02 Arkansas California Connecticut Delaware Florida Georgia Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas Kentucky Louisiana 130,769 49,101 95,802 81,708 Maine Maryland 886 APPENDIX. TABLE X.— Continued. Number of Dwellings and of Persons to a Dwelling in the United States and in the several tStates and Territories thereof in 1850, 1860 and 1870, according to the Census Reports for those years. states and Territories. Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Nebraska Nevada New Hampshire New Jersey New York North Carolina Ohio Oregon Pennsylvania Riiode Island South Carolina Tennessee Texas Vermont Virginia West Virginia Wisconsin The Territories Arizona Colorado Dakota District of Columbia Idaho Minnesota Montana Nebraska New Mexico Oregon... Utah Washington Wyoming Number of dwellings. 152,835 71,616 "5i',68i 96,849 57,339 81,064 473,936 104,996 336,098 386,'2i6 22,379 52,642 129,419 27,988 56,421 165,815 "5t)',3i'6 27,068 7,917 ' 1,002 13,453 2,374 2,322 Persons to a dwelling. 6.51 5.55 5.74 6.14 5.55 6.04 6.54 5.53 5.89 5.99 6.59 5.39 5.90 5.52 5.57 5.72 5!42 4.46 6.06 e.oe 4.57 5.60 4.90 18G0. 1 1 Number of dwellings. Persons to a dwelling. 205,319 150,952 40,926 6.00 4.96 4.20 61,460 5.77 181,069 5.89 4.94 65,968 116,353 5.78 615,888 6.30 129,585 425,672 5.11 5.50 12,277 4.27 515,319 5.64 27,056 6.45 58,220 5.18 147,947 5.64 77,428 5.45 62,977 207,305 5.00 5.33 5.04 154,036 57,255 5.10 ""i',361 12,338 3.55 5.83 '"7,811 3.69 21,945 4.26 3.'75 10,763 3,037 3.82 1870. Number of Persons dwellings. dwelling. 236,473 6.16 237,036 5.00 81,140 5.42 164,150 5.04 292,769 5.87 25,144 4.89 12,990 3.27 67,046 4.75 155,936 5.81 688,559 6.37 202,504 5.29 495,667 5.38 19,372 4.69 635,680 5.54 34,828 6.24 143.485 4.92 224,816 5.60 141.685 5.78 66,145 5.00 224,947 5.45 78,854 5.61 197,098 5.35 101,230 4.37 3.42 2,822 10,009 3.98 3,231 4.39 23,308 5.65 2.18 4.36 4!75 9,450 21,053 18,290 6,066 3.95 2,379 3.83 A D VER TISEMEN TS. 887 WILUilS. YllIlS I 1 WHOLESALE DEALERS IN 611 Market St., Philadelphia. ■ 4»> ■ Orders solicited from Country Merchants generally, which will always be filled with CARE and PROMPTNESS under the super- vision of one of the firm. JNO. H. McFKTRIGH^ PLUMBER f GAS FITTER, S. W. cor. Ninth and Walnut Sts.^Philada. LEAD, IRON, COPPER, TEREA COTTA '""■"" PIPE. COPPER, LEAD, IRON AND ||)4[S| ZINC 3^1 BATH-TUBS " LEAD, IRON, COPPER, BRASS AND EARTHEN WORK Of every description. SOAPSTONE AND SLATE AND SINKB, GAS PIPE AND FIXTURES FOR ALL ORDERS PROMPTLY ATTENDED TO. ■ <»» J. FUTHEY SMITH, Manager. 888 AD VER TISEMENTS. JOSEPH WALKER, H. B. LYONS, Proprietor. Manager. inrAREROOMS, 915 Market Street, PHILADELPHIA. STEAM ENGINES, Machinists Tools^ etc. SHIVE GOVERNORS, JONES' SCALES, ^'' TMM TEMTV^^ A D VER TISEMENTS. 889 128 SOUTH NINTH STREET, AVHOLiaS^VLE ^ND RETAIL DEALER IN" Wines iLipors. BTf€^ iHfW ^f tt-fi^tf^#^ ON HAND in the ORIGINAL PACKAGE ONLY. CHAMPAGNES I CIGARS A SPECIALTY. Wine and Sample Rooms at the rear. 890 AD VEB TISEMENTS. H. M. DALY, WHISKIES 222 South Front Street AND PHILADELPHIA, HAS CONSTANTLY ON HAND A LARGE STOCK OF "W^J^ K. I^^ IIN" T E ID PURE PIIfE WHISKIES, Of various ages and guaranteed to give universal satisfaction. " SOLD IN ORIGINAL PACKAGE ONLY." SAMPLES SENT WHEN REQUESTED. tiS-AN INSPECTION SOLICITED. H03L.E A-OEJVT FOR THOMAS MOORE and J. S. FINCH & CO. 892 AD VER TISEMENTS. ESTA-BLISUEO 1831. JOSEPH F.TOBIAS & COMPANY. No. 241 CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, IMPORTERS, Wine # Spirit Merchants FINE OLD IVIONONGAHELA, Rye, Wheat and Bourbon ALSO, SOLE AGENTS IN THE UNITED STATES FOR G-IESLEK & COMPY'S HD -136. BliUl SMli 111 fllllMI 0141f Aill Willi. ADVERTISEMENTS. 891 PilE 111 WllSllES ^ FMIIiABEIiFmM mM BAMtTlMQEE, ' SOLE PROPRIETORS OF THE CELEBRATED acme PURE RYE, WHEAT and BOURBON ha:n'misville, Berkeley coumty, w. va., mt. vermoj^, baltimore, mb. OFFICESr Nos. 218 and 220 South Front Street, Philadelphia. No. 9 Whitehall Street, New York. Ostend and Russell Streets, Baltimore. Agents at New Orleans, RARESHIDE & MAES, No. 17 Tchoupitoulas Street. ' <«> ■ I^iberal terms for Coiitrac($$ in quantities of not less titan 100 barrels in bond or tax paid. Storage capacity of Distillery Bonded Warehouses, 20,000 barrels. Stock of really Fine Old Whiskies, the best and largest in the country. '^^ ^^-^^^ '.^ ^"-*^ ^i ^,^,' "h. " •*>. f/>^, ^ •^. A^ .0- .V^ ^°-'<:. v^' °'^ .0 ,^^ ^^'% " o , •^ V.^^ ^^^-fK ^^ \^ ^^yj^ ^°-;^. ,0' "he. V •J- .^- ti\\ ^)K /A o •V ^V. C, vT' /"-^, ".'f ^ U . k • 4.' •^-^ A<^' ^^-^^^ 4 c> -^^0^ 4, c> ^o y -^^0^ ^°--^, 4 o>. o V .^' -;^ V-^. D0BB5 BROS. ° \^ . . -^ ^ ^ - ' -^ '^ LIBRARY BINDING \/ ^ ^ . r ,^ C* .O a^'Oy .> ST. AUGUSTINE te|v FLA. > ^^(5^:5^. 4^ ^ if. 32084 a ^ "^Q A" J, " o ,