LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Ohap...:..... Copyriglit No. Slielf„_ID.l.G UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ~%^?, ^. SCIENCE ^^^ ART OF 9}> csi C-''.^^^ > m ;\>' CuS^ ? FARMING. I TH^' ^ r\\Ji tf'j THE SOIL, Its Okkwx. CoMi'osrnox, Ex;h Al:^^'^Iox .AXl) ImI 'KM )\'EMKX'r, Prof. J. W. D.-imon, Ph. D. 5-^ TN'^J .fjj HDVHNCE PRINT, Wi CHETOPH. fm^^c^z^k^^^m^i^^^. '^^'■ ^"W^?*^ % c^f^ ■':^^:r:^^■:-:^i^s»'i Entercfl accord huj to Act of Coitf/rcxs. in the year 1895^ hy Prof. J. W. Damon , Ph. D., in the office of the Lihrarian of Congrca.^. Wn.shinf/fon, D. C >^l\^^ ( NOV SCIENCE AND ART OF FARMING, BY PROF. J. W. DAMON. Introductory. We have a few reasons for publishing the "Science and Art of Farm- ing." The greatest reason the author has for publishing the following work is the fact that his new discoveries and observations have been thor- oughly tested by the practical farmers of several western states and proved beyond all doubt that they are of such a nature that all classes of farmers can practice the scientific rules which will revolutionize farming in all parts of our country. My discoveries are of such simple character that all classes of farmers can practice some of the ideas if not all, on account of the fact that they do not involve the expenditure of very much money. Nearly all scientific re- commendations for the farm are so expensive that the poor farmer cannot aftord to put them into practice. I confess we have excellent treatises on x\griculture and Horticulture as far as theory alone is concerned, and a Horace Greeley, v/hen backed by thousands of dollars a year, can fuss and sink the same in theoretical experiments; but for all the Greeleys, and for all of our present instructions, we are compelled to confess that our coun- try is rapidly becoming worn out, and that as yet there has been no pro- vision made that will attract capital, restore the virgin soil, make it a pleasure and a pi-ofit, as well as practical, which will meet all the require- ments of the case. The followinji: pa^^os will lay out definite plans, reveal a definite art which will invite capital, keep the boys at home and show how to mak poor farms rich and rich farms richer. So perfectly itinerant are farmers of the laws of nature tliat they allov nearly all the best of elements to evaporate or float down stream. The author has given the science of farraincr careful study and practical re- search for over twenty years, therefore the reader will find here a record of observations and experiments which are the result of long years of pains- taking study and experiment. By careful observation the author has class- ified all vegetable growths into four comprehensive classes. The first class will be named Soil Creatoi^s. The second class will be named Soil Destroyers. The third class will be named Semi-Soil Creators. The fourth class will be named Semi-Soil Destroyers. All vegetable growth is continually adding to the alluvium soil or ex- tracting the elements f I'om the soil, therefore the Science and Art of Farm- ing is a definite and original work as far as the above four classified divis- ions of the vegetable kindom are concerned. In conclusion, if the farmers of this nation will buy .the following work and practice the instructions herein contained we will guarantee that farm- ing can be made profitable and farms often produce twice as much by fol- lowing the instruction herein given. There seems to be a rapidly growing disposition among the better class of progressive farmers to know more of the whys and wherefores of their calling. They want to know more about the nature of the soil which they cultivate and its adaptability to raise certain crops than ever before in the history of modern agriculture. It is this desire on the part of many an ambitious farmer which has stimulated the author to complete his ob- servations and experiments and publish the following work. The author's work has extended over a period of twenty years. During this time he has requested many a farmer to put to the severest test the principles of the "Science and \rt of Farming." The fact that the tests or experi- ments having iii every case proven that my new observations are of the greatest utility and can be practiced in all countries on the globe, has done much to hasten the preparation of this work. I insert one certificate or testimony from Dr. Cutler of Warreusburg, Mo., who has taken more pains to experiment for the author than any other person: Wakkensburg, Mo., Sept. 1, 1891. To Every Farmer of this Nation, Greeting: — I am personally acquainted with Prof. J. W. Damon, who has succeeded in reducing farming to a definite science. At my request several years ago he 3 called at my place and gave me a prescription for my farm which was then worn out by continual cropping. His single prescription has doubled the yince of my farm, has increased the corn crop 40 bushels per acre and doubled the yield of wheat . What he has done for me he can do for every fanner in this nation, for he has the education which divides all tree growth, all vegetable growth and all crop growth into two comprehensive classes. These classes are named Soil Destroyers, Soil Creators. He has the manuscript ready for a text book for the farm home. I give him and his forth coming book the highest praise and personal recommendation, S. P. Cutler. The hiy;hest ambition of my life is to be useful to my fellow man; tlu-re- fore the publieatioii of this book. Yours Earnestly, J. W. Damon. An Explanation SECTION I. 1st, What this work does not contain — The present work will not contain much mor6 than fifty pages and for that reason all will understand that only a very few facts can be stated. The only reason why an exhaus- tive work on farming cannot be produced at j^resent is the question of money. Therefore this work does not contain many questions arising from the science of Botany which has to do with how plants grow. &c. Although the science of chemistiy will be used the work is not a special effort on agricultural chemistry. Although something will be said about winds and weather, rainfall, &c., the work is not a treatise on meteorology. The following pages will not contain a special effort to instruct the farmer on how to raise and care for the horse, the cow, the sheep, &c., for such works are numerous and many of them need but 'ittle improvement. Farm fencing, farm buildings, the employment of fiinii hands, &c., to- gether with thousands of ideas which the author has in mind and part in manuscript will not be published in this little work. The work will con- tain, for the most part, the origin of soil, the chemical composition of soil, how soil is exhausted and how it can be rapidly improved. Origin and Fornaation of Soils. SECTION II. 2nd, All soils come originally from rocks. There was a time when the first mountain range lifted its mammoth head above the first primeval ocean. 4 There was a time when the j'ocks, the flowing lava of the same commenced to be decomposed by the chemical action of the elements of the atmosphere and water. This process continued to work rock into soil unto the present time; and will continue the process, until the end of time. All clay soils, all sandy soils and all gravelly soils came from rock stratums of the earth's crust. Changes of Temperature. 3rd, All kinds of rocks are made up of crystals which differ from each other as much as the chemical elements in the same differ from each other. The heat from the internal fire and the tendency to ever cool from without furnishes the idea of temperature. Crystals not only contract and expand differently under the same tempei-ature but also under different tempera- tures. On this subject Prof. Kedzie says: "These crystals would not on- ly expand and contract unequally under the change of the temperature, but each crystal would expand or contract unequally in different directions, so that, in these changes they would tend to split off from each other, and into small fragments." "Water in the rocks frequently becomes a most powerful force. In fi'eezing water expands fully one fifteenth its bulk, and these forces of ex- pansion are so great that nothing known is strong enough to resist it. Hence along the base of cliffs and mountains, there are always found great piles of rock fragments, split off from the rocks above by the force of frost. In the same manner, this force acts upon the surface of the rock itself crumbling it into dust. If a piece of limestone, for example, be wet with water, and exposed to a hard frost over night, its surface will be found the next morning, upon examination, to be covered with a minute coating of miid^ from the particles split off by the frost. The heaving action of the frost in the winter and spinng still further crumbles the rock fragments of the soil." Moving Water. 4th, "Water in motion is one of the most powerful forces known in converting rocks into soils. By the heat of the sun's rays, water from the ocean, from the smaller bodies of water, and from the earth itself, is con- verted into an invisible vapor, which rises into the upper regions of the air, where it floats and becomes visible as clouds. These upper regions are much cooler than the lower air, and, hence, these clouds are constantly de- positing their moisture in the form of rain and snow. Mountains by their effect on the currents of the air, act as condencers of vapor, and the water gathers rapidly upon them into rills and rivulets, these uniting form 5 mountain torrents, until finally wo have the great rivers flowing back to the seas. Through its whole course, this moving water exerts an immense wear- ing power upon the rock bed boncuth. At every point small particles of solid rock are worn away, the littl(> rills cutting their way almost imper- ceptibly, while the mountain torrents rush down with great power, tear- ing away great rocks in their coui\se. Every particle thus removed and those which fall into the current from the rocks above add to the wearing power of the water. The delta of the Mississippi covers over 12,000 square miles, and the amount of silt yearly carried down by this river would make a bed of soil one mile square and 2U8 feet deep. By the continual wearing away of the rocky uplands, and their conversion into fine earth, the continent is be- comuig slowly lowered in height, and its spreadout material is extending into the sea. . But the wearing action of water does not cease when it has reached the ocean. The ocean's waves, currents and tides are ever wearing away the rocks along the coast. This, of course, tends to straighten coast lines, by wearing away the headlands, and filling up the bays and inlets. Great oceanic currents, like the Gulf stream, doubtless accomplish much of this wearing action, although thoir effects can not be easily seen or un- derstood." We might speak at length of moving ice. and the many glacial periods: but space forbids. Weathering Aotion of Water and Air. 5th, ""Air in Motion.'' — The air itself, by its mere force of motion and its cari-ying power, is a gi'eat agent in the reduction of rocks to soil. 6th, Solution. — We have already studied the conversion of rocks in- to soil by the mechanical effects of water; that is the action of water in main. But water produces other eft'tvts of equal importance by its power of soinfion. Even pure water will dissolve many of the elements in small quantities; and its solvent power is greatly increased when I'ocks are re- duced to powder, as the amount of exposed surface is then much larger. But j>»re water is something unknown in nature. Water always contains other matters in solution by which its action upon the rocks is greatly in- creased. The most important of these matters contained in all natural waters is Carhonic Acid; it is obtained either fi'om the air or from the de- caying organic matter in the soil. Water will ordinarily absorb an amount of Carbonic acid equal to its own bulk; but under low temperatures and under great pressure, it will take up much more. Water when charged with Carbonic acid, is called Carbonated Wafer, and has a very marked solvent power upon many Min- erals, especially, on other carbonates, such as linestones, &c. Hence, the waters of all limestone regions are called hard, from the quantity of lime they contain. Carbonated water also acts upon other minerals much more powerfully than pure water. Its action is well shown in waters of miner- al wells which frequently come from great depth and contain a great va- riety of mineral matter in solution. We know that these matters are largely held dissolved by the Carbonic acid contained in the water, because, when it is allowed to stand for some time exposed to air, the free Carbonic acid escapes, and much of the mineral water settles to the bottom, as a thick sediment. Next in importance of the materials found in much natural water, and which greatly increases its destructive effects upon the rocks, are the alkalies — animonia, from the air, and potash and soda from certain minerals of the soil. Water which contains the slightest trace of these alkalies has even a stronger power of dissolving minerals than Carbonated water. Thus all natural waters are constantly exerting their destructive power upon all exposed rocks, rapidly hastening their conversion into soil. Though this solvent effect may, in any one case, seem to be very slight, yet when we remember the immense extent to which it has operated through numberless ages, we can easily understand the great results it has accom- plished. Water also operates upon some minerals in another manner, by uniting dii-ectly with them, and foi^mmg what are called hydrates. In their con- dition they are softer and more bulky, and hence, more easily reduced to soil. Many minerals are so composed that they are directly acted on, both by water and by the oxygen of the air, and are thus rapidly reduced to powder. Action of Plant Life. 7th, Plant Life, Ever since its appearance up the earth, has exert ed a very important influence in the change of barren rocks into fertile soil. We may study this action of plants under two heads: 1st. The effects produced by living plants themselves. 2d. The action of decaying vege- table matter. 8th, Effects of Living Plants. — "We may suppose that ever since their appearance upon the earth, plants have produced the same effects upon the earth's rocks, as we find them producing to day. This effect is nicely shown in the first growth of vegetation upon volcanic rocks. When lava flows in a melted condition down the side of a volcano, it cools into a 7 hard, barren, rock surface. For a long time, no plants can live upon it, except little microscopic plants, invisible to the naked eye, which receive Carbonic acid and ammonia directly from the air. After many years, the weathering action of the air will gather a very thin film of true soil on the hard surface of the lava, and slightly higher order of plants will begin to appear, mosses, &c., which, as they die, will increase by their remains the layer of soil. And so with such generation of plants, this change will pro- ceed, until finally, the sterile rock will become a bed of fruitful soil capa- l)le of supporting large tress and of growing farm crops. But in this process of soil forming, the plants have not acted simply by contributing their remains to the gathered soil, but with their tiny rootlets, they have attacked the solid rock itself, and assisted powerfully in its destruction. This action of living plants upon the rocks may be owing, first to the moisture which all growing vegetation gathers and holds beneath it, and which is a great aid in the formation of soil; and, .tccmid to the action of the roots themselves. These are well known to have the power of attacking the rock fragments, dissolving and removing minute portions. Slabs of limestone are frequently found under the soil, with their surfaces covered with a netwoi'k of minute grooves or channels, each being a bed of a root- let, which has eaten its way into the rock. Experiments have been made, by taking pieces of polished stone, such as marble, dolomite, &c., and placing them in vessels under sand, and sowing seeds of grain above. The rootlets of the growing plants were seen to descend and spread over the stone below; and the latter when ex- amined at the close of the season, were found with their surfaces softened and roughened, plainly reduced by the action of the rootlets. * * * * * * This ettectof living plants is, in many cases, probably owing to cer- tain organic acids which the roots contain, by means of which they are able to dissolve and remove a minute portion of the minerals- with which they come in contact. When these minerals are partly powdered, as in the soil the effects of the plants roots are, of course, greatly increased with the increased amount of surrace exposed. Though the matter, thus removed, may seem very small in the case of any one plant, yet if we consider the effect of the whole mass of plant growth which covers the earth, we see that living plants are a force of great importance in the conversion of rock into soil. 9th, Action op Decaying Vecetable Matter. — ''The action of plants on the rocks does not cease with their life. When a plant dies, the process of decay begins, and, if exposed to the air for a sufficient time, nothing will be left but the ash or the mineral matter which it contains. But it is very rarely that plant decay takes place in this manner. The dead remains generally gather under the gi'owing plants in a slowly in- creasing layer, and thus shut off from the free supply of air, the decay goes on very slowly, until this mass of vegetable matter becomes a black or brown compound, called humus. The mold under forest trees, and sicamp muck, or prat, are good ex- amples of hnmus; but it exists in nearly every soil. This humus assists in the destruction of rocks, and the production of soil for the following rea- sons. 1st, Because, in its decaying state, it is constantly absorbing mois- ture, and keeping all bodies around it damp. 2d, Its slow decay is constantly pi'oducing Carbonic acid, which is absorbed by the water of the soil, and thus acts powerfully upon the rock fragments below. 3d, Certain organic acids are also produced in decay, which act upon the rocks even more rapidly than does Carbonic acid. 4th, Finally, with the complete de- eay of this humus, the mineral matter, which existed in the plants which formed it, is itself added to the earth from which it was taken." 10th, "All these forces which we have now studied, have together con- verted the sterile rocks of the earth's crust into fruitful soil; and when we consider that they have been at work for almost countless ages through the various periods of the earth's history we see they are abundantly sufficient to account for the layer of soil, which everywhere covers the earth's rock strata. Nor is this process of soil forming yet completed. All of these forces are now in operation in diffei'ent states of activity, and fertile soil is con- tinually forming all around us. thus maintaining the earth's producing power.'' 11th, Now we are ready to learn something definite from the above considerations of surface soil. A perfect soil adapted to grow ail kinds of crops contains the following mineral elements: Lime, phosphorus, sulphur in small quantities, salt in small quantities, sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron and silicon. Now if the reader can train his mind to think of soil as he thinks of the above compound then this definite conception will assist you to grasp other great truths which will soon be considered. Soil also contains two fertilizing elements, derived from the atmos- phere, namely. Carbonic acid and ammonia. Surface soil is always charged, at least several inches in depth, with the oxygen and nitrogen gasses of the atmosphere. Soil is charged with the gasses of water namely, oxygen and hydrogen. Surface soil is composed of at least nine minerals and six gasses. According to the above facts in reference to soil, the Nile valley of Egypt has a perfect surface soil. In north Africa rain falls abundantly on the several mountain ranges, thence it gathers into the several branches of the Nile, thence again, into the Nile proper; and in the great annual overflow, it fertilizes the whole valley, because it has brought down all of the nine minerals, in solution, and also in fine attenuated atoms, so that these several minerals are ready now to be taken up by the roots and root- lets of the farm crops. The elements from the air, from the water, and the nine minerals make, b}^ nature's own pi'ocess, a perfect soil in Egypt. We should be greatly interested in this lesson for wherever man can assist nature and 9 bring together the same number of elements he has a perfect surface soil. Undoubtedly the Nile valley has produced more of the great farm crops than any other valley on the surface of the earth. Organic chemis- try is the only science which can explain why this valley is so fertile. It must be on account of the fact that all the mineral elements necessary to grow a perfect crop are contained in its soil. Commit to memory the above facts then we are ready to classify surface soil and learn how to improve the same. Classification of Soils. SECTION IIT. 12th. The Soils. — The action of the rain fall, and the action of the atmosphere, and also the action of water and moving ice, as already des- cribed, have placed many a compound of minerals on or near the surface of the earth which we call soil. When you examine soils of many sections you will find an infinite va- riety. Soils may be classified as clayey gravel, or gravelly clay, also as sandy clay or clayey sand; also as clayey loam or loamy clay, the soils ai'e also call- ed heavy, light, rich, poor, &c. This variety seems rather lenghty; but soils can for all of the above variety be classified. Soils may be known by their ioVmation, by their composition, by their physical properties and by theHMDQsition. First by their Formation. 13th, Sedent.vrv Soils, — When rocks do not get moved away from where the laws of nature made them but do get decomposed into soils such soils are called sedentary. Nearly all the high hills of Kansas are com- posed of sedentai'y or stationary soils. 14th, Transported Soils. — Says William K. Kedzie, "Transported soils are those which have been carried into a considerable distance from the rock layers from which they were formed. They are of three kinds, ffects of drought." 81st. Second Bottom: — "The soil of this class include the large areas of farming lands extending along the next terrace above the low bottoms. They were formed in the same manner as the latter, but at an earlier 12 pei'iod, when the rivers covered a much broader and deeper bed than at present. The second bottom soils malce up the greater part of the best farm lands of our state." 32d, High Prairie: — This class of soils includes the high rolling up- lands of our state covering much of its central and western portions. These soils are the result of the decomposition of the rocks whei'e each va- riety of soil is found. Nearly all high prairie soil is of local origin. These soils have their origin in the reduction of the rocks of carbonifer- ous and cretaceous formation of the state. Generally it will be found, in any locality, that the upland soil has, as the basis of its composition, the same materials as the rock strata of the neighborhood. The comparison of these local soils with the rock strata from which they have been derived, will always be found a very interesting study. 33d, Special Characteristics of Kansas Soils: — The soils of Kan- sas, in general, are well known as among the most fertile and productive in the United States, and are specially remarkable for two reasons: 1st. Their power to resist drought. 2d. Their great fertility under continued and exhausti^ve cropping. Relations of Soils to Crops. SECTION. V. 34th, The common farmer knows but little about the relation of the soil and subsoil to the growing crops. All crops get their mineral matters from the surface soil and from the subsoil. If the farmer knew how many minerals were contained in his growing crops he would know that they were in the soil if his crop grew well from year to year. To illustrate this fact. If a farmer has grown wheat on the same piece of land, say, for ten years and has had a good average crop he can conclude that this soil is rich in whatever mineral matter is required to grow a crop. The following are the definite agricultural minerals in all farm crops the world over. 1. Calcium, the metallic base of Lime. 7. Phospate of Magnesia. ■2. Carbonate of Lime. 8. Chloride of Sodium. 3. Phosphate of Lime. 9. Sulphate of Soda. 4. Fluoride of Calcium. 10. Carbonate of Soda, o. Phosphate of Soda. 11. Peroxide of Iron. (?. Phosphate of Potash. l2. Silica, or Sand. All of the above twelve minerul compounds may be comprehended in the following condensed statement. 1st. The Carbonates, or Lime ele- ments. 2d. The Phosphates. 3d. The Sulphates. 4th. The Alkalies, potash, soda. 5th. Magnesia Uth. Iron. 7th. Silica. 8th. Traces of Sulphur. 13 The most condensed statement of the agricultural minerals includes the above eight minerals. The most extended statement includes the above twelve minerals. The above minerals are soil in fact,, for they pass from the soil to the comiDosition of plants. A growing crop of wheat feasts upon all of the above minerals. There are two more valuable elements in the surface soil which are placed there by the decomposition of vegetable matter, namely Carbonic acid gas, and ammonia. The latter gas, ammonia, is liansformed into the nitrates of potash and soda. The most comprehensive conception of surface soils takes in also, the gases of the atmosphere, oxygen and nitrogen, also the gases of water, oxygen and hj'drogen. Soil when charged with six gases and twelve minerals gives as a re- sult eighteen essential elements or a perfect surface soil. Soil then is composed of the following elements: 1. Oxygon from air. 9. Phosphate of Ijime. 2. Nitrogen. 10. Fluoride of Calcium. 3. Carbouic acid, unites with Liuic 11. Phospate of Soda. in the Soil. 12. Phosphate of Potash. •4. Ammonia, unites with Potash 13. Phosphate of Magnesia, and Soda in the S<.il. 14. Chloride of Sodium. 5. Hydrogen. 15. Sulphate of Soda. 6. Oxygen from water. 16. Carbonate of Soda. 7. Calcium ot Lime. 17. Peroxide of Iron. 8. Carbonate of Lime. 18. Silica or Sand. The most perfect expresssion of the above elements are to be found in Egypt, or in the silt of the Nile vaUey. The rain falls upon the mountains and water brmgs down all the above combinations of minerals. Therefore the Nile valley is and always will be perfect. Now if all valley soils wei-e ix-rfect all a farmer would have to learn would be all other branches of agricultural science and let the soil take cai-e of itself. But all valleys and all lands are not so rich in all the above matters, therefore the soil will form a very interesting study in its rela- tion to gi'owing crops. The relation of soil to crops, is ihe relation of supply to the demand. The crops when growing demand all the above elements and the soil when perfect yields them up to the powers of organic growth. 35th. Soils may be considered fertile when in any climate they will ])i'oduce a full crop. Soils ai-e not fertile in Kansa- when th^y will not grow fi-om year to year a full or average crop. Soils are fertile in Kansas if a full crop of cereals can be grown upon them, for all of the cereals require a perfect soil or nearly p(M'fect for their growth. 14 Ci'ops can be lai'gely increased by increasing the gases which all crops least upon which are Carbonic acid gas, and ammonia. In fact there are classes of trees and plants which live dii'ect upon Carbonic acid, and am- monia from the atmosphere and add these gases ^to the soil where such crops are plowed under. We are now ready to study the subject of soil ex- haustion. S!iX"'l'[0.\ VI. 8()th, Worn-out Soils. — Says Prof. Kedzie on this subject; •R is well known that when a heavy cro]) is grown for years in succession upon a piece of land, without the use of fertilizers, the yield will each year become less and less, until finally it will li(> so small as hardly to return to the farmer the seed itself. Such experience is not unconiiuon where corn and wheat are grown Jor u period of years without fertilizers. Other crops which are more exhaust- ing in their effect upon the soil, produce these results more completely even than the grain crops.'" Tobacco and cotton are great soil destroyi^rs. There are thousands of acres in the sovith which have been worn out and thrown out on account of continued cropping and the con-esponding lack of fertility. "If we would seek an explanation of these effects, it is plain that we must look for them in the plant food taken from the soil. This we know to be of two kinds, first the mineral food, or what we call the plants r«7/, second, its nitrogenous and carboniferous plant food, furnished largely by the decaying organic matter of the soil. Of these two classes of plant food, the latter is more rapidly exhavistc^d by the continuous growth of the same crop, but the plant's mineral food is. also exhausted by it. These facts are well shown in an estimate made by Prof. John.son. up- on the hay crop, as follows: "'A hay crop probably carries off more miner- al matter than any other known, thus one crop of hay, of two and one half tons, will vemove 400 pounds of mineral matter from each acre of the soil. When we compare this with the whole weight of the soil, about 4,000.- 000 pounds to the acre, to the depth of twelve inches, the quantity seems very small. But when .vc 1 1 m'lM't'r, that out of one hundred parts of the soil, not more than one pari gi\ cs food directly to the jilant we see that the number of hay crops which a soil can produce is by no means unlimited. The same might be shown of the other staple crops of the farm. We (•a!i, therefore, readily understand, how. I)y continued cropping for long [)eriod of years, without thci return ot>any equivalent in the form of ferti- lizers, we may easily reduce^ the pi'oducing ])ovv(^i- of our farms to a vei'y low point. " :)7th, Theoretical Exh.-vustiox., — "Taking these well known facts as a basis, many writers have attempted to ]jrove, that a system of farming which does not return to the soil, in tlieform of fertilizers, whatever is taken 15 from it in the. form of crops, would tinally produce such an exhaustion of the soil that it would sustain no [)lant growth whatever. But such abso- lute exhaustion is impossible, and exists onl}^ in the imagination. A soil, once fertile, could never be reduced to utter barrenness simply by cropping. o8th. Practical Exhaustion. —While complete exhaustion of the soil, so that it will sustain no plant life, is impossible, yet it is very easy to bring about a practical exhaustion, by careless culture. This is the ease when the cost of cropping is greater than the value of the crop grown. Hence no soil can be called productive which does not produce a crop whose value is more than suliicient to cover the time, labor, and money consumed in raising it. When3ver the value of the crop is too small to cover this ex- pense, the soil is practically exhausted, and further cultivation of it is un- profitable." From this it will be seen that soils can be exhausted. I have .spent much money and time in the study of soil exhaustion, and I find that all soils in all climates as a rule can easily be restored to its first fertility by the proper rotation of crops. Soils become exhausted when the farm crops (;annot get available plant food. Plant food is consumed rapidly by all crops which depend upon the gaseous elements in the soil instead of taking them from the atmosphere. A farm might be exliausted for the growth of cereals, and at the same time lie tli ■ f'M-ti''> home of the clover, and all le- guminous plants. I have observed that there are i wo ciusses or crops on all fai'ms in all parts of the world. The first class I shall call Soil Dcstroi/a-.s. The second class I shall call Soil Creators. Now all soil destroyers ha\c and always will be destruc- tive of all available mineral matter and especially of the carbonates and nitrates of the surface soil. 3SHh, First Class Farming. In the next chapter the author will treat of the nature of those plants which d.'stroy surface soil and will also treat of the nature of those plants or crops which produce surface soil. Therefore we desire all students of the "Science and Art of Farming" to learn the nature of the above two great divisions of plant growth, and plant his farm with soil creators, and jjlow them under, then follow the next year by planting a soil destroyer, such as any of the cereals, and destroy from the soils what the previous crop has made available. It is not only true that every crop on all farms and in all countries are either soil creators or soil destroyers, but it is also true that all weeds are actually gathering elements which benefit the soil, or they are engaged in extracting the vegetable gases already accumulated. . Therfore all weeds as well as all farm crops are soil producers or soil destroyers. We need only to know these-general facts, then we can improve our famns as fast as we can plow soil creators under. It is also true that every tree which grows in all this broad world is (uther a surface soil producer or a surface soil d(\stroyer. , As we have passed over the on'yin. the comiiosition and the exhaustion of surface soil, we now invite out readers to the next and the most intei'esting observa- tions in reference to the imi)rovemcnt of our farms. 16 The author guarantees that if farmers will follow the instructions in the following sections, farms can be kept in first class conditions. How to Improve the Surface Soil. Surface Soil Producers or Creators. Leguminous or Pod-Bearing Plants. SECTION Yll. 4()th, Alfalfa — is the greatest soil producer which has come under my observation. I have never found out how long it will live in its native home. It has been known to grow down into the subsoil to the depth of 30 feet. Alfalfa has the power to not only go down among the various subsoils and clays to a great depth but it has the jiower to throw out the acids and transform inorganic soil to organic soil. It has the power also to gather the Carbonic acid, and ammonia from the atmosphere. Therefore Alfalfa is a perfect surface soil producer. Alfalfa should always be planted in a warm and a friable soil, above a sandy or gravelly subsoil. The farmer can safely plant Alfalfa on all bot- tom lands which resist the long Kansas drought. It flourishes on subsoil moisture, even better than when irrigated . There are thousands of acres in Kansas and other states where there is not only a gravtjUy subsoil but a plenty of water within K! to 20 feet from the sui'face. I advise the farmers to examine the soil and subsoil thoroughly before planting this ei^op, then if all the conditions of success are present, make the trial effort of a few acres. Be sure and leave this crop on the ground several years. Then break the ground up deeply and plant potatoes and all root growing crops, then follow with corn or small grain. The result will be that you can gathei" more than twice as much of all crops by the means of this clover soil. For full and particular instruction on this valuable plant I refer you to "Report of the Kansas State Board of Agriculture, for the nionth of November, 1894.' Address F. D. Coburn. Sec, Topeka, Kansas. CHKMrOAL ANAf.VSIS OV ALF,VLK,A IN 100 PARTS. 1. Water, ------ 74.(11) G. Lime, ------- .85 •2. Nitrogen, ------ .72 7. Magnesia, .0') :3. Ashes, ------ l.<»2 8. Phosphoric Acid, - - - .IG 4. Potash, ------- .45 9. Sulphur, - - - - - - .11 5. Soda, .--:--- .();} -lO Silica, -.--.- .18 U. Chh.riue, ----- .OG. 17 If the farmer purchased the above minerals in as great a quantity as the Alfalfa leaves them in every acre it will cost at least one hundred and fifty dollars per acre, at present prices. Alfalfa benefits the soil at that rate every five years. 41st, Red Clover:— This plant has fertilized more acres of land, probably, than any other. , The leading farmers of all nations have utilized this plant more or less for the purpose of improving the soil. It is here classified as a perfect sui-faee soil producer, for it, like the Alfalfa, gathers carbonic acid and ammonia from the atmosphere, and it gathers eight minerals from the sub-soils. I liave observed the fact that it will grow from eight to sixteen feet deep in the sub-soil. Red Clover has the power to throw out acids from its i-oots and decompose rocks. Therefore when red clover is grown and the crop plowed under there is a gain of both mineral and gaseous matter, amounting to enough to supply the soil with enough fertility for four or five cereals crops. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF RED CLOVER PLANTS IN 100 PARTS. 1. Water, - - - - 80.00 6. Lime, - - - - .48 2. Nitrogen, - - - AS 7. Magnesia, - - - .15 3. Ashes, - - - - 1.37 8. Phosphoric Acid, - - .13 4. Potash, - - - - .44 9. Sulphur, - - - .04 7i. Soda, - - - - ,03 10. Silica, - - - - .04 11. Chlorine, ... - .05. Red clover will grow two years, it is therefore a biennial plant. When you plant it for a fertilizer it should be plowed undel" the second season at the end of the growth of the second crop. Red clocer will not grow in a rich barn vard, but finds its home in all worn out land where the agricul- tural minerals are abundant. About nine years ago Dr. Cutler requested me to call at his home at Warrensburg, Mo., and prescribe a i-emedy for a part of his farm which was badly worn out. I saw at a glance when I arrived on the poor land that it was the home of the red clover. I advised the planting and the utilizing this plant for the purpose of producing perfect soil. The doctor has ac- complished wonders with red clover for his farm, and all other farms in that section of Missouri can be impi-oved by this plant. There are several theories about how the pod-growing plants get the gases from the atmosphere, which will not be discussed here, for all the faimier wants to know is the fact that red clover will produce when pro perly handled, a perfect surface soil. Do not let your clover beds remain more than two years, for all plants die at the second year, and if the ground is not charged with seed your clover meadow fails. But remember that you should as a rule plant clove r for its fertilizing value, and get this value out of the soil as quickly as possible, for in this way only would you be reducing farming to a definite science. To enable the farmer to build up soil, then to destroy it again, and get the value in grain or animals, where at any time he can change either foi- money is the object to be accomplish- 18 ed. Nitrogen at once, being the most costly element, among all elements, which go to make up soil and at the same time the element to disappear first from the soil, therefore if clover will gather it from the atmosphere it should be planted and utilized wherever it can be grown. 4r2d, The Castor Bean: — This plant, like the clovers, is a soil pro- ducer. In its native home near the equator it will grow sevei'al years and ■ become quite a tree before it dies. Castor beans are grown in Kansas as a regular farm crop, therefore the soil can be imjoroved by them and not miss a crop. The best plan is to plant only one fourth of your plowed ground into castor beans, then an- other fourth until your farm has been covered. If you have a farm where clover will not flourish, then fertilize with castors. I have no space here to tell how to plant and cultivate, for this work is not for that purpose. It is an easy matter to learn how to plant and raise a crop. It is hard to learn how to make your farms grow rich and richer every year, and not pay out any extra money and not miss a crop. To teach the farmer how to double the productive power of his fai-m is the mission of this work. Therefore if any Kansas farmer has several children large enough to gather castor beans, and are not old enough to follow the plow, he should put out just enough castors to keep the children busy dur- ing the harvest season. It is not only a fact that the castor bean gathers up the eight sub-soil minerals and also gathers carbon and ammonia from the atmosphere, and is a help to the soil because it does this perfect work, but if it is plowed under befoi'e the frost kills the leaves it will be valuable as a fertilizer during the whole time it is decomposing in the soil, for it continues to employ the same gases, carbonic acid and ammonia from the atmosphere, by the process of decomposition, until the last cell is trans- formed into soil. I desire all to plow soil producing plants under while in a green state, for by so doing you take advantage of one more element, that element is iron. The green color of all plants is owing to this element. Iron has the strongest affinity for oxygen, carbonic acid and ammonia of all the agricultural minerals. When a green crop is frost bitten the iron immediately rusts or turns to peroxide of iron. When the iron is plowed under in an organic and liquid condition, the elements of the air have to pass down through the earth where the iron unites with oxygen and forms new compounds, and is made ready to go again into the living crop. The ground by this process is finely pulverised. All the farmers who have plowed under green crops can remember how mellow the soil gets. Now it is the iron in a green state which helps to pulverise the soil. In fact this agent is of more worth than the farmer can imagine, for no amount of har- rowing can do the work of the silent elements of natui^e. In fact farming is the greatest science on earth and no one but the learned chemist can take all of the advantages of the definite elements of the natural economy and use them to the greatest advantage. But all fai-mers when they read the instructions in this woi'k can practice, and, in fact, secure to themselves the benefits, as much as the wisest chemist. I have assisted several farm- 19 ers in doubling their cereal crops by planting them according to my advice after castor beans Several mortgages have disappeared by means of this practice. Farm- ers who do not want to gather the beans can sow them broadcast and plow under when the plant has its growth. This would give a chance to plow early in the fall. Twenty acres plowed under this way, the first year, can be cultivated the next year in corn and will bring more than enough corn to pay for the experiment. I mean by this that the corn crop will be more than two crops otherwise would amount to. When a farm is all improved this way a second "experiment brings astonishing results. ■43d, All Kinds op Peas are soil producers. To improve soil rapid- ly where clover will not grow, perhaps stock pcaa are the best. Farmers can plant an acre each year for seed and thresh them when they thresh other grain and after one year always have on hand an abundance of seed. Then a part of the ground can be devoted to the improvement process by means of the pea crop. This crop should be planted soon after you plant corn, planting about two and one half bushels per acre, then plow under just before the seed ripens. This crop gets carbonic acid gas and ammon- ia from the atmosphere, and also has the power, not only to go down from G to 10 feet in the sub-soil, but has the power to throw out the acids and decompose rock material. The whole southern country can be improved by this one plan. There are hundi-eds of thousands of acres in the south which can be made first class fertile soil by the use of the stock pea. Cotton and tobacco are soil des- troyers and rapidly destroy the available plant food of the soil. The stock pea by being plowed under at the proper time aot only restores soil, but under the best of circumstances brings together all the essential elements for a perfect alluvial soil. This single prescription if carried into practic would double the productive power of all upland farms of the south which are in a state of practical exhaustion of plant food. 44th, Buck Whe.\t: — This plant, while not endowed with all the powers of the clover plant, nevertheless has some very excellent qualities which enable it to improve the soil, when properly managed. A great many farmers will plant a crop of buck icheat and reap the crop and then complain that the crop is hard on the land. But to get the best results buck wheat should be plowed under when the seeds are in a soft state. Farmers who keep bees in this western country would do well to improve their land by plowing this crop under for this reason while it is maturing a ci'op, it would furnish a supply of nectar for the bees. Buck wheat has more carbon, in the form of starch in it than any other cereal and it gets this element as well as its nitrogenous element from the atmosphere, therefore when plowed under it is a great benefit to the soil, not only, because of its accumulated carbon and nitrogen but be- cause, while in the process of decomposing, the carbonic acid and ammon- ia from the atmosphere are continually being added to the soil. The above facts taken into consideration prepare one to use buck wheat free- 20 ly as a soil producer. I know several farmers in the state of Missouri who have improved their farm Avith buci\' wheat and fed their bees at the same time. 45th, The Sunflower: — From the fact that this plant, as well as clover, the peas and castor beans, gathers carbonic acid and ammonia from the atmosphere and on account of this fact it can be utilized for a soil producer. But the sunflower would have to be plowed under when it is but half grown, because when grown it is too tall and the stalks too stub- born to be handled by the plow. There is one reason why the suntiower is not so useflil as the other va- rieties mentioned for the purpose of improving the soil, and that is the fact that it extracts so much soda from the soil that if the cx'op is removed instead of being plowed under there is a great loss of this element to the soil. But the plant can be grown and plowed under when it gets about four feet high with the best of results. 4Gth, Plowing Under Green Crops: — All green ci'ops improve the ground when plowed under. Many farmers burn up all the vegetable mat- ter from their fields, and in this way lose the very gases needed for the growing crops. Many times farmers neglect to plow under crops of weeds while they are in a green state. The benefit of plowing under a crop of weeds in the fall instead of burning off the same the next spring can hardly be estimated unless we know what crop is to follow. If a good crop of I'ag- weeds are plowed under in September, and plowed under deeply, and the ground planted to corn in the spring probably the yield of corn will be in- creased at least one fourth. In all the western slates where wheat grows well it would pay the farmers to raise rye and have plenty of seed on hand at all times, the seed could be scattered broadcast over all the corn fields of the west, whith will not be plowed until spring, then plow under just be- fore the planting of spring crops, it would quickly decompose, durmg the earl}' summer, and furnish an abundant supply of organic matter to the growing crop. All clayey farms can be kept up in this way, for rye seems to be adapted to extract the mineral matter from clayey soils. This rye pasture which this plant would alTord would be good all win- ter for all kinds of stock, and especially for the milch cows, and at the same time can be plowed under in a green state and makes a good substi- tute for clover. Remember that when one crop dies and returns to soil it prepares food for the life of another, for the same elements which assist in decomposing one crop are also the same elements which assist and enter into the life of another crop. 47th, The Walnut Tree as a Soil Producer. — I was told when a boy to observe that a walnut tree always grows on good ground, and that it would not grow on bad land. I was advised never to buy a farm unless walnuts were growing upon it. The walnut was considered a test whether a farm was good or bad. Its presence was considered as evidence that the farm was rich in soil qualities. Its absence was considered as evidence that the soil was not so good. The above advice could not be farther from 21 the truth and facts in the case, for thewahiut tree is a perfect soil creator, it gathers its gases, carbonic acid and ammonia from the atmosphere, and also gathers its eight minerals from the sub-soil. It does not run its roots where the farmer runs his plow, but runs them down deeply into the earth. It spreads its roots from the central root only enough to brace the tree well against storms. The mission of the I'oot seems to be one continual search after mineral matter. The roots ask for no alluvial soil whatever, for they arc endowed with power to throw out a combination of acids which transforms geologi- cal rock into the organic ash for vegetable growth. The walnut tree gathers all the elements from the atmosphere and all the minei'als from the sub-soil which compells me to name it as a first class soil creator. It brings together fourteen different combinations of soil. It is, as a soil producer, what it does. No wonder the farmer frequently thinks that the walnut grows on good ground, for a walnut could not remain long on any land without making it very rich in all the elements of a perfect soil. Several years ago, in northwest Missouri, I was walking along a high bluff! I observed a hugt^ walnut tree which in growing had displaced two large limestone rocks. One rock wus lying yet against the roots of this particular tree, the other one had been tilted down the bluff by the growth of the same tree. I commenced from that hour to study the relation of the walnut tree to the creation of surface soil. I went back and read the history of this one tree. I estimated how old it was. also tried to form some estimate of its yearly value as a soil producer. This particular tree instead of growing, as some farmers think only in good ground, had grown up and flourished between two limestone rocks. I observed also how quickly the stems and leaves of this tree return to the soil. This tree should be planted as a border tree all around your farms. This tree if it was growing all around the farms of the United States, would pi'oduce enough leaves and fruit to fertilize the surface of our whole country. Every farmer in the west should immediately prepare one acre of ground and plant a walnut grove on the same. The best way to do this is as follows: "Prepare ground just as you would if you were going to plant wheat. Mark out as for corn in rows both ways. Then take a large pointed iron and make holes about four inches deep and place one walnut with hull on in each hole. It will take about 4,800 nuts for one acre. When that acre is in a walnut grove one year old, it is worth one hundred dollars at the least calculation. The grove can be thinned out three times and then leave a huge forest of walnut trees sixteen f(>et apart both ways. The value in lumber finally can be only estimated when placed on the mai'ket. But it is not only true that the farmer's boy who plants a walnut tree is doing something to grow good lumber, but this tree while growing helps to purify the atmosphere. Bv gathering in carbonic acid and ammonia, it enriches the soil wherever 22 its foliage is decomposed. In conclusion as most men plant trees why not plant a walnut tree and do something for the future generations, if not for yourself. Therefore plant the walnut at least all around your farm and trim it high, for when trimmed high it will let in under it light, air and moistm'e, or all the conditions and elements of plant growth and the farm- er can raise a good crop even under the tree. Therefore I repeat plant the walnut, for a surface soil producer, for lumber and for an atmospheric purifier. 48th, The Butternut — behaves above ground as a soil producer of the first class, but its roots diflfer fi'om the walnut, for they draw much of the vegetable gases from the surface of the soil. Therefore it belongs to the thii'd class of trees and plants in this work and will be classified as a semi-soil creator. By taking the walnut tree as a criterion all the readei's of this pam- phlet can study all trees which behave as this tree does. Whenever you find a tree which does in all cases what this walnut does class it as a soil creator. Whenever you find a tree which grows and behaves as the but- ternut classify it as a semi-soil creator. When we come to treat of trees which destroy soil we will call at- tention to many which will be classed as soil destroyers. We desire to dis- cuss thoroughly the question of how to improve the soil, for mo.st any one can destroy it when it has been well improved. 49th, Fallowing for Soil Improvement. — The practice of fallowing ground all through Roman and English history can now be explained on scientific principles. The explanation is this, that plowing land loosens it up and makes it capable of letting in the air, accounts for the reason why fallowing is good for the land. If any farmer will set one acre aside and plow it say four times duinng the season, and plow a little deeper every time, he can then plant a corn crop and estimate how much value this plan is worth as a process of soil production. 50th, An Experievce op an Ohio Farmer. — A farmer in Ohio once left out a field and did not work it for a term of years because its fertility was practically exhausted. During the time it was in this condition, a windstorm came and blew off from his barn the double door, and carried it out into the above described field. The door happened to alight on a very poor part of this field, and laid there several years, but finally the Ohio farmer concluded the field ought again to be cultivated. So he plow- ed it one fall and planted it to corn the next spring. This faimier observed that the ground where the barn door lay was very rich, so he planted just as many hills as this square of land would contain and in the fall this barn door plat had yielded corn at the rate of 80 bushels per acre while the balance had hardly yielded 25 bushels per acre. Now the farmer was puzzled to know how so much fertility could come from a barn door. He reasoned that it did not come from the door itself for he burned a part of it in another place in the field. He finally concluded that it was shad- ing the ground th^t made it so rich. He did not reason that shade is a 23 condition and not an element. He did howevei' become so elated over shade as an element of fertility that he published a book of 50 pages illus- trating his argument. This sold rapidly for a while and finally was the cause of the farmers holding, in that section a county convention for the purpose of discussing the merits of the book. To my surprise one of the learned professors of the State University endorsed the idea that shade was an element of fertility and made a lengthy speech on the subject. He explained that this idea of shade was why clover was so beneficial to the soil. He explained that it was shade that made old fence rows so rich in soil elements. The farmer was not only mistaken as well as the professor, but it furnished an illustration that no fai'mer or no professor has yet reduced farming to a definite science. While neither the farmer nor the professor could tell how the soil was made rich by a barn door, neverthe- less the fact remained to be explained b_v some one who knew that shade was a condition and not an element. Now for an explanation which will be final and also an addition to the natural sciences. This particular soil had all the mineral matter necessary for a corn crop, but it did not have the elements of carbon and nitrogen. The barn door retained moisture under it at all times, therefore the car- bonic acid from the atmosphere, at all times in spring and summer and early fall, at all times, except when the ground was frozen, was continual- ly uniting with the elements of water and the mineral matter of the soil and in this way the soil was built up as far as carbonic acid, water, the carbonate of lime and phosphate of lime could build up soil. Now there is another explanation of how the nitrate of potassa and the nitrate of soda was formed in the soil, under this barn door The only scientific explan- ation is this, that under all similar conditions a chemical microbe is pro- duced which eats ammonia and transforms the same into the forms of ni- trate of potash and soda. Remember then the fact that whenever ground is shaded by a board, a side walk, a log, a fence row or mulched with straw, hay or leaves the same chemical process is gomg on. Under all these conditions nature's first effort is exerted in producing surface soil. If the clay or worn out soil put in any of the above conditions has in its composition all of the agricultural minerals, then a perfovt alluvial deposit of all the combinations are made. This barn door then simply assisted nature or furnished nature with conditions which enabled her to do for the soil what i.s done by the clover plant or any of the soil creators. The soil under the door chemically speaking would be identical with clover soil. This is the place to speak more fully of this chemical microbe or nitrogen microbe. It has been ol)served that this little animal is always present where clover is growing. It has been thought that the nitrates found in the clover plant as well as in the soil is owing to his presence. I do believe that much of the nitrates of the soil in clover fields is owing to his presence, but I do not believe the clover plant has to depend upon him for its supply of that element. This chemical microbe is always present 24 where bai'ii yard manure is spread; in fact it is necessary for him to be there, for all the ammonia would escape into the air if he was not there to transform it into a solid. Now the reason why he is always present in a clover field is because the clover stools die the second year and furnish this little microbe with nitro^J^enous food which he eats and precipitates salt- peter. The plant is rapidly decomposed by this chemical microbe and by his work the nitrates of potash and soda, the two most costly elements, are furnished. While clover is decomposing he gets his nitrogen easily, while he works under manure piles he gets his food easily, yes, rapidly, but under our Ohio farmer's barn door, during the five or six years in which time it lay on the field, he got ammonia from evei'y drop of soft water that fell, and as 25 or 30 feet fell, he had enough to add his wonderful deposit of niter to the soil. In this way we account for the corn growing on this par- ticular piece of land. 51sii, Mulching Land to Increase its Fertility. — The practice of mulching plants and shrubs and also troe.s is as old as the history of nations. In this paragraph we will not discuss mulching as a protection to growing crops, trees or shrubs, for this well is known. Let us see if mulching does more than hoarding moisture in the soil. If the facts laid down in para- graph 50 are true, and we cannoL doubt them, then it follows that where- ever mulch lies on the ground cur!)onic acid and ammonia, from the atmos- phere, are continually collecting under all forms of mulch. Tlie NITER MICROBE is at work under every square yard of mulching. Science knows of no way in which the albuminoids and nitrogenous elements of all vegetable matter can return to the dust of the ground except by agency of this chemical animal. The practical benefit of mulching is now apparent. Now it is a fact that thousands of old straw stacks are lying out on Kansas farms, which are of no pi^actical benefit whatever. I recommend then, earl}' fall plowing for all ground which will be devoted to oats or corn, or garden crops, in the spring. Harrow all fall plowing just as you would for wheat crop, then apply to harrowed land one foot of straw mulching or even four inches deep in mulch will do. In the spring, burn off your straw if you have to use the land that soon, otherwise leave during the whole of the next season and then raise a crop and notice the results. Wherever this is practiced I venture to say that all will be convinced that the atmospheric gases help much to enrich the soil. Now I want about one thousand farmers to experiment on one acre of ground and cur- ry out the following prescription : Prepare and plant one acre of corn in ordinary way, mulch the acre about six inches deep with straw and pull up weeds, but do not cultivate and notice the results. If you cannot experiment on one acre take less. After melons and all similiar crops are planted and the surface well tilled straw mulch might be laid on and this would help the growing crop and also put the niter animal to work, then in the fall or spring biu-n off. 25 plow under the ashes and plant corn. There are many ways to employ this niter animal and secure his valuable services. 52d, It is taken for granted that all farmers know the value of farm manures. When the author of this work was a practical farmer's boy — reading what Horace Greeely knew about farming, he was accustomed to haul out all barn yard manure as fast as it accumulated, which was about one ton per day in the winter season. I had three sleds at three different stables which would be loaded once in three days. I would hitch a team to each twice per week and scatter broadcast on timothy sod. Timothy would double its yield by this treatment. I have found out since that timothy is a soil destroyer. Now as timothy is being sown on Kansas farms, hasten to do likewise, fertilize it with animal manure. Sow timothy near farm buildings for the above reasons. Surface Soil Destroyers. SECTION VIll. 53d. Indian Corn. — This cereal holds the leading place among the grains produced in the United States. It is supposed to be a native of America. It thrives over a wide range of climate and in a great variety of soils. A high temperature is required for its full development, but small varieties are grown as high as 47 north latitude. Corn loves moisture, light, heat and a deep rich loam. The stalks of corn are cylindrical in form, covered with a silicious substance, and filled with a fibrous pith. The leaves are long and flat, the largest ones being near the center of the plant. The Howeris in two portions, the staminate at the top of the stalk in the form of a tassel, which bears large quantities of pollen, and the pistilate on the side of the stalk between the tassel and the ground, which is called the silk. While there is but one species of corn, there is an immense number of varieties. The different varieties of corn vary greatly in size, yield and time of ripening. These qualities are mod- ified by climate and soil, and are due largely to the environment of the plant. There are northern varieties which ripen in ninety days. There are south- ern varieties which ripen in one hundi-ed and fifty days. The plant has, in a remarkable degree, the power of adapting itself to its surroundings. The plant will adajit itself to all kinds of soil and climate. Succeeding best in a rich warm loam, it will yet grow in any land, from gravel to peat, which is not barren of minerals or extremely wet. The yield is always determin- ed, bj' soil, by climate, by variety and by cultivation. Now from the above facts we class corn as a surface soil destroyer. We do this because it thrives best on soil well charged with carbonic acid and nitrate of soda and nitrate of potash. Corn does not extract as much niter from the soil as a wheat crop, but extracts more phosphoric acid and phosphate of potash. Corn as a soil destroyer should always follow a soil 26 creator. Corn should follow clover, beans, peas, the castor beans, buck- wheat, timber ground and all kinds of sod ground. While the ears are being formed it gathers carbonic acid from the atmosphere, and carbonate of lime and carbonate of soda from the soil. Corn will always be the king of the cereals. In this western country if the stalks were plowed under deeply in October the stalks and leaves would return during the process of de- composition enough fertility to keep the ground in first class condition. It destroys the ground faster where stalks and ears are both removed. By planting corn after one of the surface soil creators, the crop is placed un- der the best of circumstances to grow a full crop. 54th, Wheat. — This cereal is a surface soil destroyer when we take the straw and grain off of the ground. Wheat gets a part of its carbonic acid from the soil and part from the atmosphere, therefore, it thrives best in a strong alluvial soil, as far as it is dependant on the soil for this element. It is dependant also upon the soil for its supply of nitrate of potash and soda Every bushel of wheat draws from the soil nearly one and three quar- ters of a pound of nitrogen or nitrate of potash and soda, therefore, the necessity of plowing under a soil creator such as mentioned in the preced- ing chapter, for all the above named soil producers leave a plenty of ni- trate of potash and soda iu the soil. Wheat develops its roots in two directions, the tap root grows down- ward generally three to four feet. Its mission seems to be after mineral mat- ter only, while the lateral roots spread out into the first six inches of the s urface soil and gather up the nitrate of potash and soda. Wheat seems to do best when the ground has been made rich with alluvial soil. It does not require a deep soil, for experiments demonstrate that shallow plowing soon after old crop is taken off, then harrow after several rains, drill moderately deep, brings a good crop. The tap root loves a permanent soil to grow in. The surface roots grow well in a loam, therefore comply with the above suggestions and the best results will follow, as far as conditions can be controlled. By plant- ing this crop as above described twice as much wheat can be obtained. Health in the growing plant can be obtained only by complying with the above directions, then the crop will thi'iv^, and out live the chinch bug, rust and all other diseases. In all central and southei-n states farmers should buy the modern sub-soil plow, and sub-soil as deep as three horses can do the work and move with ease. Where a good crop of soil producers is plowed under, the sub-soiled ventilated, there wheat will grow because not only is every chemical element there but sub-soil moisture will continue to rise during the last stages of crop growth. Soil with the above conditions present will also stand more wet weathe as well as more drouth than the land in old conditions. Every farmer should study his soil in reference to the above elements and conditions and conform his farm management to the same, as soon as he can. 27 55th, Oats. — This cereal can be grown on a great variety of soils. This grain does not seem to demand so much organic matter to be present in the surface soil as other grains, as wheat, barley and rye; but it thrives best when corn and wheat have taken part of the gases out of the surface soil. There are a great many varieties, some adapted to the northern coun- tries and others to the southern countries which will not be discussed here. The oat is considered a soil destroyer, because when land is sown with oats and the crop removed the land is not so fertile or will not produce so much year after year as it does when sown on fresh new land. The oat develops a tap root down into the earth in length equal to the stem growth above ground. This tap root with its branches are after its mineral elements. It has a numerous amount of fine lateral roots which canvas the surface soil and gather in not only mineral matter but the gases, carbonic acid and ammonia. Therefore the oat is a soil destroyer. It should fol- low the soil producer. In the southern states oats ought to follow a crop which has been planted as soil producer and has been plowed under in a green state. But the southern farmer frequently plants his oats on the poorest land on the farm. In Iowa or any northeim state oats can follow the corn crop. In nearly all states fall plowed ground is best for an early crop. Oats thrive the best in the northern climates; they grow early in spring under a low temperature, therefore in all southern states this crop should be planted early. In the south the stock pea should be planted and the same plowed under for the purpose of producing a perfect soil for oats. 56th, Rye. — This cereal is like wheat, corn and oats a soil dusfroycr^ for it does not get all of its carbonic acid and ammonia fi'om the atmosphere, but from the surface soil. Rye does .lot take from the soil so much of the nitrates of potash and soda, not so much of the phosphoric acid, as the corn or wheat crop, therefore it will frequently gi'ow one or two years longer on ground where wheat will not grow a paying crop. This cereal should be sown on hundreds of thousands of acres of corn land in the north- ern states for fall and spring pasture, and also as a crop to be plowed un- der in the spring season after it has grown six inches high, for a soil pro- ducer. "When the rye can be sown just before the laying by of the corn it will get a fine start for fall pasture, then with the stalks it furnishes a good winter pasture, and both stalks and rye increase the vegetable base of soil. The roots of rye like wheat and oats and corn act under ground as a soil destroyer. Rye therefore grows best in a rich mineral loam, although it will do well on poorer soils. It is practically a soil destroyer, and should when planted for the yield in seed be planted on good rich sandy loam. 57th, Barley. — This cereal is a soil destroyer as much so as the above cereals, but ditfers from them all in s