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 ^4th Aii^., --4th Sept, 
 
 
 
 
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 I^rance^ca ^a Kinimi. 
 
 liojiorary Cosninitjee; anr: A 
 Mcrolier r;'the Military S' 
 
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 I 
 

 OQ 
 
aiST OF r'>UBLICATIONS. 
 
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 LiL.. r>. 
 
 Master of Art*, Columbia College, of Xew York, 1872— Hon. Mom. Clarendon Hl«t. Soo., KSinhurKh, Scotland ; of the New Broiuwick 
 
 Hl»t. Soc.. St. John, Canada: of the Hint. Soo. of Minnesota, Montana, New ,Ioney. ic: Life Mem. Royal HIsU Soc. of 
 
 Oreat Britain, lx)ndon. Eng.; Mom. Moat'ohappij Nederlanduche, I^ttorkunde, l>eydcn. Holland, to., Ac— Colonel 
 
 N. Y. S. I., 1946, aiulgned for "meritorious noitduct" to command or tlii Regimental Di«trict, M. F S, N. Y., 
 
 1*»9, Brigadier Oeniiral for'i»»/)or(ait<»eniice"|nr»t appointment— in NY. State— to that rank, hliher. 
 
 to elective], 18i>l, M. F. 8. N. Y.— Adjutant General, S N. Y., IfvV).— Brevet Major-Gencral. 
 
 3. K. Y., for "merilorioru tcrvices." by "Special .\ci" or "Concurrent Resolution," 
 
 X. Y. State Legislature, .\pril, lafiG [first and only General ofBcer receiving 
 
 moh an honor (the highest) from S. N. Y., and the only offlcer 
 
 " !»«« brevetted (Major-General) in the United Slates.] 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 Reports— ist. On the Organizations of the National Guards and Municipal Military Institutions of 
 Europe, and the Artillery and Arms best adapted to the State Service, 1852. (Reprinted by order 
 irf the N. Y. State Legislature, Senate Documents, No. 74, March 26, 1853.) 2d. Organizations of 
 the English and Swiss Militia, the French, Swiss, and Prussian Fire Departments. Suggestions 
 Tor the Organization of the N. Y. Militia, &c. 1853. 
 Life of (the Swedish Field Marshal ) Leonard Torstenson ( rewarded with three splendid Silver Medals, 
 &C., by H. "R. M. Oscar L, King of SwedenV 1855.— Thirty Years War, and Military Services of 
 Field-Marshal Generalissimo Leonard Torstenson (Series), N. Y. Weekly Mail, 1873; A Hereof the 
 XVI L Century (Torstenson).— The Volunteer, Weekly Mag., Vol. L,No. L, 1869.— The Career of the 
 celebrated Condottiere Fra Moreale, Weekly Mail, 1873.— Frederic the Great. (Series.) Weekly Mail , 
 1873. — Eulogy of Torstenson, 4to., 1872. 
 The Dutch at the North Pole, and the Dutch in Maine. 1857. 
 Appendix to the Dutch at the North Pole, &c. 1858. 
 
 Ho, for the North Pole! i860.— " Littell's Living Age."— The Dutch Battle of the Baltic. 1858. 
 The Invincible Armada. (Series.) i8fo.— Examples of Intrepidity, as illustrated by the Exploits and 
 
 Deaths of the Dutch Admirals. (Series.') 1860-1. Military Gazette. 
 Gems from Dutch History. (Series.) 1855.— A Tale of Leipsic, Peabody's Parlor Mag., 1832. 
 Carausius, the Dutch Augustus, and Emperor of Britain and the Menapii. 1858. 
 The Ancient, Mediaeval and Modern Netherlanders. 1859. 
 Address to the Officers of the New York State Troops. 1858. 
 Life of Lieut. -Gen. (famous "Dutch Vauban" — styled the "Prince of Engineers'") Menno, Baron 
 
 Cohorn. (Series.) i56o.— Military Lessons. (Series.) 1861-3.— Winter Campaigns. 1862. 
 Practical Strategy, as illustrated by the Life and Achievements of a Master of the Art, the Austrian 
 Field-Marshal, Traun. 1863.— Personal and Military History of Major-General Philip Kearny, 
 512 pp., 8vo. 1869. — Secession in Switzerland and the United States compared ; being the .Annual 
 Address, delivered 20th October, 1863, before the Vermont State Historical Society, in the Hall of 
 Representatives, Capitol, Montpelier. 1864. 
 Incidents connected with the War in Ttaly. (Series.) 1859. 
 Mortality among Generals. (Series.) i8fii. — The Rattle of King's Mountain. (Series.) i86r-2, 1880. 
 
 Oriskany, 1878— Monmouth, 1878— Rhode Ishnd, 1878. 
 Facts or Ideas Indispensable to the Comprehension of War; Notions on Strategy and Tactics. (Series.) 1861- 
 2. Eclaireur, Military Journal. (Edited.) 1854-8.— In Memoriam. (Edited.) tst, 1857 ; 2d. 1862. 
 The Bible in Prison. 1853.— A Discourse on the Tendency of High Church Doctrines. 1855. 
 A Night with Charles XII. of Sweden. A Nice -Young Man. Parlor Dramas. i8fo-T. 
 Aciilco, Oriskany, and Miscellaneous Poems, i860. 
 Genealogical References of Old Colonial Families, &c. 1851. 
 
 Biographical Notices of the de Peyster Family, in connection with the Colonial History of New ^■ork. 
 1861. — Biographies of the Watts, dc Peyster, Readc, and Leake Families, in connection with 
 Trinity Churchyard. 1862.- Military (177^-1779) Transactions of Major, afterwards Colonel 8th or 
 King's Foot, B. A., Arent Schuyler de Peyster and Narrative of the Maritime Discoveries of his 
 namesake and nephew, Capt. Arent Schuyler de Peyster, N. Y., 1870.— Local Memorials relating to 
 the de Peyster and Watts and aflTiliated families. 1881.— In Memoriam, Frederic de Peyster, Esq.. 
 LL.D., Prcst N. V. Historir.il Sncirty. St. Nicholas Society. St. Nichol.is Cliih, &c., Ac. 1882. 
 
Articlks published in United Service Magazine (equal in matter to i2mo. volumes) : Torstenson and 
 the Battle of Janikau, July, 1879 ; Joshua and the Battle of Beth-horon — Did the Sun and Moon 
 stand still? February, 1880; Hannibal, July, 1880; Gustavus Adolphus, Sept., 1880; Cavalry, 
 I., Sept., 1880 ; Cavalry, II., Nov., 1880 ; Cavalry, III., Dec, 1880; Army Catastrophes — Destruc- 
 tion of Pharaoh and his host ; how accomplished, &c., &c. February, i88i. — Hannibal's Army of 
 Italy, Mar., 1881 ; Hannibal's Last Campaign, May, 1881 ; Infantry, I., June, i88i ; Infantry, II., 
 Aug., 1881 ; Battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781, Sept., 1881 ; Siege of Yorktown, 1781, Nov. 1881 ; 
 Infantry, III, April, 1882; Waterloo, July, 1882; Vindication of James Hepburn, Earl of Both- 
 well, Sept., 1882, Oct., 1882 ; From the Rapidah to Appomattox Court House, July, 1883. — Burgoyne's 
 Campaign, July-Oct., 1777, and Appendix, Oct., 1883. — Life and Achievements of Field-Marshal Gene- 
 ralissimo Suworrow, November-December, 1883. — Biographical Sketch of Maj.-Gen. Andrew Atkinson 
 Humphreys, U. S. A., March 1884. — Address, Maj.-Gen. A. A. Humphreys, before the I'hird Army 
 Corps Union, 5th May, 1884. Character and Services of Maj.-Gen. A. A. Humphreys, U. S. A., 
 Manhattan, N. Y., Monthly Magazine, August, 1884. 
 
 Suggestions which laid the basis for the present admirable Paid Fire Department in the City of New 
 York, in which, as well as iij the Organization of the present Municipal Police of New York 
 City, Gen. de Peyster was a co-laborer with the Hon. Jas. W. Gerard, and G. W. Matsell, for 
 which latter Department he caused to be prepared and presented a Fire Escape, a model of sim- 
 plicity and inestimable utility. Republished in the New York Historical Magazine. Supple- 
 ment, Vol. IX , 1865. John G. Shea, Editor ancf Proprietor. 
 
 The Pearl of Pearls, or the "Wild Brunswicker" and his "Queen of Hearts :" a novel, founded on 
 facts. 1865.— Mary Stuart : a Study. 1882 ; James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell : a Vindication, 
 1882 ; Bothwell and Mary Stuart : an Enquiry and a Justification. 1883. — Bothwell, an Historical 
 Drama, 1884. — The Life and Military Services of Sir John Johnson, Bart. 1882. — Notices and Corre- 
 spondence of Col. A. S. de Peyster and Brig.-Gen. Sir John Johnson, Bart., during and after the 
 American Revolution, 1776, &c. 1884. 
 
 State Sovereignty. 1861. — Life and Services of the great Russian Field-Marshal Suworrow. 1882. — 
 La Royale, the Grand Hunt [or Last Campaign of the Army of the Potomac], Nos. I., II.. III., 
 IV., v., VI., 1872 ; VII., 1873; VIII., 1871.— Battles of Fredericksburg, ChancellorsviUe and Get- 
 tysburg in Onwardy a monthly. i869-7o.^And Gettysburg and Williamsport, in the Soldiers' 
 Friend^ a weekly, 1870. — Col. J. Watts de Peyster, Jr., U. S. V., A Threnody. 1874.— Sir John 
 Johnson, Bart.: An Address delivered before the N. Y. Historical Society, 6th Jan., 1880, with 
 two voluminous Appendices of Authorities. 
 
 Centennial Sketches of the American Revolution, which appeared in the N. Y. Times, and especially in 
 the N. Y. Evening Mail, and Mail and Express. 1776-82. — Decisive Conflicts of the late Civil War 
 or " Slaveholders' Rebellion:" I. Shiloh, Antietam, &c , 1867 ; II. Murfreesboro to Chattanooga, &c., 
 1866; III. Gettysburg, 1867; IV. Nashville, 1876.— Biographical notices of Major-Generals Philip 
 Schuyler — Address delivered before the N. Y. Historical Society, 2d Jan., 1877; Geo. H. Thomas, 
 (likewise two Addresses delivered on the same subject before the N. Y. Historical Society, 5th Jan. 
 1875, and Jan. 1876) ; also, of Bancroft, Burnside, Crawford, Heintzleman, 'looker, Humphreys, 
 McAllister, Mahone, Meade, Edwards Pierrepont, Pleasanton, Sickles, Tremaine, &c., Ac. 
 
 The Battles of Monmouth and Capture of Stony Point : a series of voluminous and exhaustive articles 
 published in the Monmouth Enquirer, N. J., 1879.— Eclaireur (The), A Military Journal, Vols. 
 II. and III., edited 1854-5. 
 
 History of the Third Corps, Army of the Potomac. 1861-65. This title,- although nut technically, is vir- 
 tually correct, for in a series of elaborate articles in dailies, weeklies, monthlies, monographs, ad- 
 dresses, &c., everything relating to this Corps, even to smallest details, from 1861 to 1865, was pre- 
 pared with care, and put in print. These articles appeared in the Citizen, and the Citizen and 
 Round Table: in Foley^s Volunteer, and Soldiers' and Sailors' Half-Dime Tales of the late 
 Rebellion; in Mayne Reid's magazine Omvard; in Chaplain Bourne's Soldiers' Friend; in "£« Royale 
 or Grand Hunt ifl^ihe: Last Campaign] of the Army of the Potoinae, from Petersburg to Appomat- 
 tox Court House, April 2-9, 1865," illustrated with engraved likenesses of several of the prominent 
 Generals belonging to the corps, and careful maps and plans ; in the life of Major-General Philip 
 Kearny ; in the "Third Corps at Gettysburg ; General Sickles Vindicated'' * * Vol. I., Nos. xi., 
 xii., xiii. The Volunteer; in a Speech delivered before the Third Army Corps Union, 5th May, 
 1875, profusely illustrated with portraits of Generals who commanded, or belonged to that organiza- 
 tion, &c. These arranged and condensed would constitute a work of five or six volumes 8vo., 
 such as those prepared by Prof. John W. Draper, entitled the "Civil War in America," but were 
 never given as bound volumes to the public, because the expense was so great that the author, 
 who merely writes for credit and amusement, was unwilling to assume the larger outlay, in addition 
 to what he had already expended on the purchase of authorities, clerk-hire, printing, &c.. &c. 
 
and publicly professed the reformed (Protestant, or Huguenot) 
 doctrines, and gathered around him a number of distinguished 
 theologians who shared his views. Among these were Jacques 
 Lefevre and William Farel, subsequently distinguished as Protes- 
 tant divines, 
 
 Briconnet, however, was less of a zealous propagandist than 
 an ambitious courtier. Accordingly, by an astounding change of 
 front, he deserted his party, and, to win his pardon from the court 
 for what he styled his errors, he became the most pitiless perse- 
 cutor of the religion for which he had previously shown the most 
 lively devotion. His abandonment of his friends was the cause 
 and the prelude of bloodv collisions. As soon as the plan of 
 extermination had been definitely resolved ujxm by the Secret 
 Council, and the hour of execution determined, a messenger was 
 despatched to Meaux. He was accompanied bv Lefroid, a fero- 
 cious member of the Romanist League, and was accredited to 
 I-ouis Cosset, the Royal Procurator, or attbrney. This Cosset at 
 once assembled all the robbers and murderers who had rendered 
 themselves conspicuous by their fanaticism and their ferocity 
 since the commencement of the French civil wars. He fixed a 
 place for their assembling the very same day, at 7 p. m. All were 
 to be armed and ready to fall upon the Protestants. At the same 
 hour the gates of the city were shut. Cosset chose for associates 
 to engineer the execution, Denis Roland, an usher or tipstaff, 
 " a man worthy of a thousand i:;allows for his robberies and his exac- 
 tions; " Pigeon, a bargeman ; and some priests. They divided 
 their followers into bands, who commenced by seizing and im- 
 prisoning the Protestants and then pillaging their dwellings. The 
 massacres did not occur until the morrow, but continued for three 
 days. The women and girls were violated and then murdered. 
 The Protestants who were in the country about, and those who 
 sought a refuge there, escaped neither pillage nor death. 
 
 Troves, capital of Champagne, 90 miles E. S. E. of 
 
 Paris. 
 The news of the massacres in the royal city arrived in Troyes 
 on the 26th of August. The Romanists at once fell upon the 
 Protestants and the pillaging, the murders, continued for nine 
 days (4th September.) The victims who sought asylums in the 
 houses were followed thither without pity, tracked hke wild beasts 
 and massacred. 
 
 Orleans, 58 miles S. S. W. of Paris. 
 The announcement of the murderous decree reached this city 
 on the 26th of August and at once the imprisonments and the 
 robberies began. The number of Protestants murdered is set- 
 down at 1,200. This does not comprise fifty women and many 
 little children. The massacres and the havoc lasted three days. 
 Some Protestants escaped from the city. Certain of the magis- 
 trates, accomplices of the assassins and robbers, devised an ex- 
 pedient, which, in a measure, enticed the fugitives back into Or- 
 leans. They caused an amnesty, entire and without restriction, 
 
to be made public, in favor of all those who would return to the 
 (Roman) church. Some unfortunates, in the hope of saving their 
 lives anil their properties, resolved to abjure their faith to a Cor- 
 delier (Frunsciscan friar) designated by the proclamations to re- 
 ceive tiiem. I'hese unhappy men were none the less robbed and 
 murdered. " These ' Little Massacres^ " says a contemporary his- 
 torian, " lasted fifteen days." 
 
 BOURCIES, 123 MILES S. OF PaRIS. 
 
 In this city, as in almost every locality where the Leaguers 
 were masters, massacres were executed with the same circum- 
 stances ; closure of the gates of the city; imprisonment of the 
 Protestants; pillage of their property. The blood continued to 
 flow for many days. The bands of assassins were led by Boirat, 
 captain of the Burgher militia, his brother, an Kchevin (somewhat 
 like an a.ssistant alderman), n member of the municipal govern- 
 ment and other fanatics belonging to the same family: Montjan 
 — sword cutler, Ambroise — shoemaker, Yves Camaille — butcher. 
 .\11 the Protestants imprisoned in the course of the 26th and 27th 
 of August were pitilessly massacred. 
 
 La Charite, N. E. of Bourges on the Loire. 
 
 The company of the Duke of Nevers, composed of Italians, 
 marched into this city the very day of Saint Bartholomew, 24th 
 of August, and halted there under pretext of being reviewed. 
 The officers had received secret orders from the Duke of Nevers. 
 Soon afterwards these foreign soldiers united with the Leaguers, 
 attacked and pillaged the houses of the Protestants. The rich of 
 this party were subjected to heavy ransom. On the 3d of Se])- 
 tember massacres began and continued for many days. 
 
 Sancerre, N. E. of Bourges, in the direction of La Chak- 
 
 ITK. 
 
 The Prote.stants who had escaped from the massacre in Or- 
 leans, in Bourges, anil in La Ciiarite — a sad misnomer for a place 
 destitute of brotherly love — took refuge at Sancerre, whose 
 j)opuIation was almost entirely Protestant, and combined with 
 them for their commen defense. Their calm and determined at- 
 titude surprised and frightened the Romanists, so that the latter 
 did not dare to attack them. The Protestants, although most 
 numerous, did not take advantage of their sujjeriority. They 
 would not permit any reprisals, thus to deprive their ])ersecutors 
 of every pretext for summoning to their a.ssistance the troo])s of 
 the Duke de la Chatres, who had received orders to re])air to 
 Sancerre. Thev alwavs showed themselves in public in large 
 numbers and ])erfectly organized, but without ostensible wea])ons : 
 so as not to violate the last Roval edict, which prohibited carry- 
 ing arms; which edict was intended to deprive the Protestants of 
 the means of defending ihemselvt-.s. 
 
 .Almost all the towns of Hrittnn\ , west-north-west province of 
 France; of the .Anjoumois, lajiital .Angers, to the south-east of 
 this; and of Saintoiige. more southerly again, were theatres of the 
 most frightful disasters. 
 
Lyons, the second city of France, was, after Paris, the most 
 unfortunate of municipalities. Mandelot, the governor, who was 
 a partisan of the Guises, had orders to accomplish the extermin- 
 ation of all the Protestants, without distinction of age or sex. 
 At first he hesitated to execute this infernal order with all its in- 
 tended rigor. 
 
 He confined himself to ordering the gates of the city to be 
 closed, and imprisoning the Protestants under pretext, thus, of 
 placing them under the protection of the magistrates and of the 
 public force (police) and thereby saving them from the popular 
 fury. This, however, amounted to nothing, since he charged the 
 Burgher militia with the arrest of the intended victims. This 
 citizen organization summoned to its aid all the Romanist Lea- 
 guers of the country, and these escorts, assigned under the pre- 
 tence of safeguards, led their prisoners into by-streets, murdered 
 them there and then cast their corpses into the Rhone. The 
 bands of cut-throats were under the direction of one Boidon, an 
 assassin and robber by profession — a wretch who subsequently 
 terminated his horrible career on the scaffold, at Clermont, in 
 Auvergne. These pillages and massacres had already lasted 
 three days, when, on the 29th of September, arrived from Paris 
 de Perat, decorated with the Royal Order of Saint Michael and 
 bearer of letters from Queen Catharine. With him was associ- 
 ated one de Rubis, and several Echevins (assistant aldermen?) 
 of Lyon, who had been sojourning some time at Paris, attending 
 to the interests of the Lyonese merchants. The letters confided 
 to de Perat announced in effect, that the King desired that Lyon 
 should imitate the capital ; that all the Protestants should be exter 
 minated. The governor, Mandelot, alleged that he was every hour 
 expecting direct orders from the king. At the same time, however, 
 he published a notice that all those who professed the Reformed 
 religion must repair without delay to the government hall. 
 These unhappy people thereupon hastened to place themselves 
 under the safeguard of the military authority. La Pierre d' 
 Auxerre, Advocate Royal, declared that the King and the Queen 
 Mother ordered the extermination of all the Protestants, not 
 only those already in prison, but all those who could be arrested. 
 For this he produced no written authority. Nevertheless Man- 
 delot yielded to his arguments and soon after Bordon, Mornieu 
 and Le Clou, companions in the debaucheries, and comrades in 
 the crimes of La Pierre, proposed to the public executioner to 
 associate himself in their enterprise. This grim functionary, how- 
 ever, had more humanity than his superiors. He boldly told 
 them " that he performed his functions simply in executing the 
 sentences of the magistrates and that he would not sully his 
 office by the massacre of innocent people." The soldiers in the 
 citadel made a like reply to a similar proposition from La Pierre 
 and his fellow-villains : '' What you demand is against honor. 
 We are not assassins. What evil have these unfortunates done, 
 that you wish us to slaughter them ? " The murderers were thus 
 compelled to purchase the services of some bandits and the 
 
Guards of the City Hall (composed of 800 Burgher militia). 
 These they divided into bands and by them, all the Protestants, 
 confined in the convents of the Franciscan and Celestine monks, 
 were murdered. 
 
 The principal merchants who professed the Reformed relig- 
 ion, had been shut up in the palace of the Archbishop. The 
 Leaguers first imposed lieavy ransoms upon them, and, notwith- 
 standing, killed them afterwards. Mandelot and Saluces hurried 
 to the palace of the Archbishop to stoj) the slaughter, but they 
 were too late. Mandelot, in order to evade the terrible respon- 
 sibility of this massacre, hastened to prepare an accusation set- 
 ting forth the facts, directed against the actual authors of. this 
 crime. He promised a hundred crowns of gold to whoever 
 would produce proofs of their guilt. This ostentatious demon- 
 stration of indictment and of reward made no imjjression on the 
 criminals. They were sure of impunity. Their fury redoubled, 
 and on the evening of the very same day that these official docu- 
 ments appeared, they repaired to the prison of Roanne, crowded 
 with Protestants, fastened cords to the necks of these, dragged 
 them to the Rhone and threw them into the river. The courts 
 of the arch-episcopal ])alace were filled with corpses. Mandelot 
 had them conveyed to the opposite side of the river, in order that 
 they might beinterred in the Cemetery of the Abbey d'Aulnay,but 
 the monks set their faces against it, under the pretext that these here- 
 tics were unworthy of burial. Then the members of the League, 
 at a concerted signal, themselves removed the heaps of dead and 
 cast them into the Rhone. " The bodies of the fattest were given 
 over to the apothecaries." The number of victims exceeded 800. 
 The lives of two ministers and some Protestant laymen were 
 saved by Saluces, commandant ot the citadel. 
 
 The Rhone cast ashore the corpses thrown into it. These 
 encumbered the environs of Tournon, Valence, Bourg, Vienne, 
 Le Pont de St. fc^sprit, Avignon, Aries, &c., townsalong its course 
 to the sea. The authorities were obliged to compel the boatmen 
 with their boat-iiooks to shove back the dead bodies into thd 
 Rhone, and for a longtime the riparian populations would neither 
 cat of the fish of the river, nor make any use of its waters. 
 
 Valence, on the left bank of the Rhone, and Romans, 10 
 miles to the north-east, on the right bank of the Isere. In both 
 these towns some Protestants were murdered ; but their fellow- 
 worshipi^ers were saved by the courageous firmness of Simiancde 
 Cordes. 
 
 Claude of Savoy, of Tende, who commanded in Dauphinv, 
 refused to execute the orders of the Secret Council which were 
 brought to him by IJoniface de la Motte. To this court emis- 
 sary, he made this noble rejjly: "It is impossible that such 
 orders could have originated with his Majesty. They must hive 
 been conceived by enemies to the throne and i)ublic tranquility ; 
 by people who prostitute the name of the King in order to gratify 
 their passions." This generous refusal cost him his life. He 
 
6 
 
 died of poison administered to him at Avignon, a city belonging 
 to the Pope. 
 
 Bayonne, extreme S. W. of France. 
 The Viscount d'Orte, governor of this city, took the wisest 
 and most energetic measures to restrain the Romanist Leaguers. 
 No Protestant was attacked. To the orders of the King hehke- 
 wise made a memorable answer : " Sire, I have communicated 
 the commands of your Majesty to your faithful citizens and men- 
 at-arms constituting the garrison. Among them I have found 
 none others but good citizens and brave soldiers, and not a single 
 executioner. For this reason both they and myself very humbly 
 supplicate Your Majesty to be pleased to employ our arms and 
 our lives in things which are possible, however dangerous they 
 may be. For such we place ourselves at your disposal, even to 
 the last drop of our blood." This refusal to obey unjust and san- 
 guinary orders likewise cost his life to this brave citizen. He 
 died poisoned a short time afterwards; and the government of 
 Bayonne was given to the Count de Retz, a creature of the 
 Secret Council. 
 
 AUVERGNE. 
 
 The Protestants of this province escaped extermination sole- 
 ly through the devotion of Saint-Heran, its governor, who had 
 the courage to imitate the generous refusals which the Count of 
 Tende and the Viscount d'Orte opposed to the royal command. 
 Dijon had only reason to deplore a single victim, Clermont de 
 Traves, brother-in-law of the Count of Grammont. Advantage 
 was taken of the absence of Charny. who commanded in this 
 city, to kill this Protestant gentleman. 
 
 Macon. — The Protestants were almost all put in prison. The 
 governor, Philibert de la Guiche, adopted this measure to save them 
 and it was successful. The prison served as a veritable and secure 
 refuge for the unfortunates destined to the knife ; and this brave 
 governor was able to make their enemies respect his determin- 
 ation. 
 
 NiSMES, in Languedoc, afterwards, in 1815, like Avignon and 
 other towns in the south of France, the scene of bloodthirsty 
 bigotry, won, on the other hand, in 1572, an honorable record. 
 Its Romanist inhabitants did not share the atrocious frenzy of the 
 Leaguers, and themselves rallied to the defence of the Protes- 
 tants. They united with the latter for the common maintenance 
 of order in the city and, therein, the orders of the Secret Coun- 
 cil were not executed. 
 
 Rouen, Normandy, 68 miles N. W. of Paris, on the Seine. 
 Tannequi-le-Veneur, the governor of this city, at first re- 
 sisted, not only the instigations, but the menaces of the Leaguers. 
 Very soon, however, his authority ceased to be recognized. The 
 numerous Protestants who inhabited this vast and populous city 
 were shut up in prisons on the 17th of September, 1572. The 
 cut- throats assembled in arms before the prison, forced their vie- 
 
tims to come fortli, one after another, and murdered them. The 
 number of victims ranged between 800 and 900 All their liouses 
 were pillaged. As for the corpses, they were first stripjjed of 
 their clothing; this, by an affectation of piety, was bestowed 
 upon the poor. Then the bodies were thrown into large holes 
 dug for the purpose, outside the gate de Caux. The provincial 
 parliament promulgated a sentence against the robbers and assas- 
 sins. But this decree was nothing but a cruel and scandalous 
 piece of deceit. These murders of the Protestants at Rouen, in 
 1572, were a perfect type of the massacres of Paris by the Jaco- 
 bins in 1 79 1. In both cases the victims belonged to the best 
 classes of society and the cut-throats to the worst. 
 
 Toulouse, Languedoc. — Infamous in 1762 for the judicial 
 murder of the Protestant Calas, which roused the indignation of 
 Europe, this city was the stage of the last act of the long tragedy 
 of desolation and of crime. The massacre of the Protestants of 
 this city closed the .lists of the crimes of Saint Bartholomew. 
 Duranti, Advocate General, was accused of ha\ ing given a fright- 
 ful signal for the murder of his fellow-citizens. He was after- 
 wards ])ronioted to be First President of the same provincial par- 
 liament to which he had been attorney -general. Subsequently, 
 when desirous of ()p])Osing new aggressions of the very Leaguers 
 of whom he had been the accom|)lice, he jjerished, together with 
 Dassis, his brother-in-law, assassinated by them in 1589. His 
 corpse was wrai)ped uj) in the canvas of a grand picture repre- 
 senting Henry III., who had incurred the hatred of members of 
 the League in consequence of his alliance with the Protestant 
 Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. 
 
 Michelet mentions selling the bodies of fat Protestants to 
 apothecaries. 
 
 History has consecrated the names of the magistrates, of the 
 governors, of the military commandants, of the citizens, who 
 glorified themselves by their heroic resistance to the orders of the 
 Secret Council — good men, who here and there in difterent cities 
 and some of the provinces, saved a portion of the ])opulation, 
 their innocent fellow-citizens, so unjustly proscribed. 
 
 Truth and justice requires the mention of the tollowing 
 noble men. in addition to those already cited as exceptions to 
 the general list of ferocious instruments of royal and priestlv in- 
 famy : M. M. Sonagues at I)iep])e (North) ; the Count of Gar- 
 ces in Provence (S, K.) ; the First President of the Parliament of 
 Grenoble (K.) ; Presi<lent Jeannin, at Dijon; Villars, at Nismes ; 
 the Marshal de Matignon. at Alencon ; de Rieux, at Narbonne; 
 Curzas, at Angers; Bouille, in Brittany; Henuyer, Bishop ot 
 Liseux; all the Montmorencies throughout their vast domains, 
 and in the towns and cities wherever they held commands. 
 
 Salignac-Fenelon. then French ambassador at London, re- 
 ceived orders to justify these massacres to Queen Klizabeth, His 
 bold and honorable answer to his king, Charles IX., came near 
 costing him dear. He was threatened with a severe punishment 
 
8 
 
 tor making it. " Sire," were his words, " I should render myself 
 an accomplice of this terrible deed, if I attempted to excuse it. 
 Your Majesty must address yourself to those who counseled the 
 execution." 
 
 Even the massacre of St. Bartholomew has found apologists ; 
 moreover, refutations have not been wanting. Such discussions 
 or excuses simply imply a total ignorance of the epoch. Opinion 
 is now definitely fixed in regard to this capital crime, its origin, 
 instigators, motives, method and iniquity. 
 
 A French ofticer justly characterized it as worse than a crime. 
 It was a blunder ; followed up by worse blunders, if less meanly 
 sanguinary crimes. The Revocation of the Edict of Nantes and its 
 consequences completed the list. These deviltries of bigotry con- 
 tinued for over 200 years and were most disastrous to France. In 
 driving out the Huguenots, they drove out industry, economy, 
 knowledge, honesty and thought — the origin and stimulant of pro- 
 gress. The revulsion of the Revolution was the necessary conse- 
 quence of the centuries of such crimes. The rulers set the example 
 and demorahzed the people. In hke manner the utter depravity of 
 the imperial rule of Louis Napoleon generated the excesses of 
 the Commune. The pendulum never ceases to vibrate, nor the 
 application of the law of of compensation, even in this world. 
 The cruelty towards the Huguenots and their expulsion was the 
 source of the calamities of France in 1870. 
 
 The Huguenots furnished nerve and brain to Prussia. Fred- 
 eric the Great was their pupil in all that made him truly glorious. 
 When Prussia succumbed, in 1806, it was Huguenot blood which 
 mitigated the fall. The first Prussian general who fell on French 
 soil in 1870, bore a Huguenot name. It is claimed that when the 
 victorious Germans rode into Paris in 1871, eighty descendants 
 of Huguenots rode in the staff of the triumphant Emperor who had 
 so much to avenge and avenged it. The same race inspirited the 
 United States of Holland ; gave snap to the early manhood of 
 this city ; helped William the Third to the crown of Great Bri- 
 tain and performed leader's and yeoman's work in his military 
 successes. What is more, the greatest French admiral who ever 
 shed glory on the Bourbon flag, Duquesne, was a Huguenot. 
 No title, no honor, no reward would have been considered sufii- 
 cient to buy his perversion. He resisted every temptation, and 
 although France could not dispense with his services, it was 
 mean enough to refuse him a grave in consecrated ground. And 
 his indignant sons bore forth with them into exile the heart 
 which only beat for the service of his ungrateful country. 
 
 Viennet, a member of the French Academy, terminates his 
 biography with these words : " He who alone had raised the 
 French marine to the first rank among the navies of the world, 
 could not obtain even a mausoleum in his native country." 
 
 Woe to those empires in which priests direct public affairs ! 
 
 J. Watts de Peyster. 
 
Information Translated and Gathered 
 from Various Sonrces. 
 
 BY 
 
 ^ J. WATTS de PEYSTER. ^ 
 
 JUNE, 1885. 
 
 NEW YORK : 
 
 Chas. it. liUOWKJ, PuiNTEU, 10 & 12 Keade Street. 
 
 1885. 
 
syesies. 
 
 SOME CURIOUS INVESTIGATIONS, COLLECTED 
 
 FROM VARIOUS SOURCES, RESPECTING THIS 
 
 RACE OF MYSTERIOUS ORIGIN. 
 
 " His captain's heart * * * reneges all temper ; 
 And is become the bellows and the fan 
 To cool a ijipxy's lust." 
 
 " O this false soul of Egypt ! this grave charm, 
 Like a right f/ipsi/, /lat/t, at fust and loose. 
 Beguiled me to the very heart of loss." 
 
 Shakspeare. 1608. 
 
 "Tiie companion of his [the Tinker's] travels is some foul, sunburnt 
 quean, tliat since the teuiubi.k sr.xTUTE [against Gipsies and the like], 
 recanted //.v/AW-fwe. and turned pedlaress." 
 
 Sir TnoM.\s Ovkubi-ky's " Chanictevs." Sig. I. Ciuc.i, 1014. 
 
 "Outlandisli persons calling themselves Egyittidus, or (h/psies, are 
 another object of the severity of some of our unrepealed statutes." 
 
 Blackstone, " Vomineiitavies." B. IV., c. 13. Circa, 1765. 
 
 Gipsies. — Translated from " Zedler's Grosses Universal Lexi- 
 con aller Wissetischaften uud Kihiste xvelche, etc." Leipzig and 
 Halle, 1749. 
 
 Gipsies — Ger. Ziegeuiier, Zigeuner, Zigeiner, Zigainer, Ziigeu- 
 ner ; Lat. Cingari or Ziiigari. A wandering and trooped-tDgether 
 mob, which has stolen in over ahiiost all Christendom, and are 
 variously designated, for, besides the names given above, they are 
 called .\ttingani, Cigani, Cingai, Cyani, Cigari, Cyngai, Zigeu- 
 ni, Zigeneri, all, however, words of the same stem. Even tiie 
 word Attingani, which is the name given them by the Greeks, 
 appears to be one with the others, if the syllable " At " be 
 thrown off and the " t " changed into C or Z. They are called 
 
also Taten or Tattarn, or Heyden, also Saracenen, Saraceni and 
 Agareni, or (corrupted), Zagareni, especially, too, Egyptians 
 (^^gyptiani), from which it is supposable that the name Cyani or 
 Zingani comes. Since our forefathers, the Germans, were 
 accustomed to shorten names, they may have thrown away the 
 two first syllables of ^gyptiani and left only Ciani remaining. 
 See Jacob Thomasius' '• Dissertation on the Cingari," Leipsic, 
 1652, § 4, and so on. In France they are called " Bohemians." 
 They are also called by some learned men Nubians. 
 
 Some derive the name Zigeuner (Gipsy) from the German as 
 meaning " Zieht-einher " (Come-in), because these people had no 
 fixed dwelling-place but wandered about hither and thither 
 iyZeiler's Seiidschreib. Epist. 71) a derivation which is further con- 
 firmed by the circumstance that the common people gave the 
 name Zihegan to land-tramps before Gipsies were heard of 
 ( Zeiler's Sendschreib : Letter 276.) 
 
 As regards the origin of the Gipsies, no agreement has, as yet, 
 been arrived at. It is, however, certain and proved, that they 
 were first seen in Germany in the fifteenth century, under the 
 Emperor Sigismund. 
 
 Zeiler writes, they first appeared in Hesse, in the year 14 14, 
 but almost all historians put their first appearance in Germany 
 in 1418. Jacob Thomasius, in his " Dissert, de Cingaris" § § 16, 
 17, prefers this latter date. Counting from this date they passed 
 through all Germany in two years and afterwards turned into 
 Italy, France and Spain. The first bands that came into Ger- 
 many consisted of 14,000, including men, women and children, 
 and were split up into various small tribes, of which some wan- 
 dered hither, some thither. 
 
 They had with them horses, mules and asses and were under the 
 command of a king or colonel (obrist) named Michael. Aventinus, 
 however, says the colonel whom they had in 1639, when they 
 were in Bavaria, was called Zindelo, or Zandadel. Stumpfius 
 tells us, in his " KajserChronic," that at their first appearance 
 they paid for the necessaries of life they wanted with hard money 
 and that they possessed much gold and silver, although they wore 
 poor and ragged clothes. The Emperor Sigismund, it is said, gave 
 them, on account of their good behavior, a free pass and safe 
 conduct (Thomasius, /(?f^. cit.,). Otherwise the gipsies were of a 
 dark complexion and not over cleanly in their clothing and gen- 
 eral way of life. They ^aid they were Christians and that they 
 were from Lower Egypt (Klein-Egypten). On this account they 
 were called, in the emperor's free pass, Egyptians. This is also 
 corroborated by three gravestone inscriptions over their colonels, 
 which Mart Crusius cites in his " Swabian Annals." The Jirst 
 
5' 
 
 runs thus, " Counting from tlic birth of Christ our Saviour, in the 
 year 1445, °" ^'- Sebastian's Eve, ched the noble-born Lord 
 Panuel, Duke of Lower Egypt and Lord of Hirschhorn in the 
 same country." 'Vht snofn/, " Anne Domini 1453 Obiit nobilis 
 comes Petrus de Minore /f^gypto in (He Phihppi et Jacobi Apos- 
 tolorum." The //t/'/v/, " In the year 1498, on Monday after the 
 Festival of St. Urban, died the well-born Lord John, Frey Graf 
 of Lower Egypt. May God be gracious and pitiful to his soul." 
 As to the cause of their wandering, the people gave out that they 
 had denied Christianity and for seven years became heathen, and 
 this sin they desired to atone for by seven years of pilgrimage. 
 They mixed the Pope in with it as having laid on them the pen- 
 ance of seven years wandering for having forsaken Christianity 
 (" Zeiler's Seiuisclireibcn^ Epist. 71). Others say that their pretext 
 was that by their wanderings they were doing i)enance for the 
 sins of their forefathers, who had refused hospitality to the Vir- 
 gin Mary and tiie Jesus-child at the time of the flight into Egypt. 
 Others pretended that the gipsies had previousiy lived in Singara, 
 a city of Mesopotamia, and since they were driven thence by 
 Julian the Apostate had never been able to regain their country, 
 and for this reason they wandered about the world. Others 
 seek their origin in Assyria, others in Cilicia, others in the Cau- 
 casus, many in Tartary, others in the province of Zeugitana in 
 Africa, others in Nubia and Abyssinia. So some derive the 
 name from the Zechis, Zichis, Zinchis, who had their dwellings by 
 the Don on the Palus Moeotis and came from Asiatic Sarmatia 
 (Abel's "German and Saxon Antiquities," P. ILp. 329, (Sec.) In- 
 deed, some would make the gipsies the descendants of Cain, who, 
 like their ancestor, are fugitives and vagabonds, and must wander 
 over the face of the earth (Thomasius, loc. cit., § 54). But these 
 do not know what they are talking about since the whole race of 
 Cain perished [?J in the Hood. If some wish to make them out the 
 descendants of Ham this might be, but there is no apparent 
 cause why they should, on this account, be tramps and vagrants, 
 since others of Ham's race have settled habitations. 
 
 The gipsies' own account of the cause of their wandering 
 was only a fiction by means of which they wished to make people 
 willing tr) tolerate them. This at first succeedeil. People 
 pitied them and felt scrupulous about injuring them. It was also 
 supposed that on the ending of their seven years of pilgrimage 
 they would return home. This did not take place, and when 
 called to account for it they replied that the way home was barred 
 to them, that they were not able to return to their country, or 
 that they were obliged to begin another seven years of pilgrimage, 
 and if they did not do so they would be visited with failure of 
 
6 
 
 crops and other national visitations. Stumpfius, indeed, says that 
 the <?r/^>/«/ gipsies returned to their country on the ending of the 
 seven years. This cannot be so, since as vagrants they had no 
 home and no proper country. They may have wandered into 
 other Christian countries, but there were always many of them 
 remaining in Germany and we have records that since that time 
 there have always been more or less there. Some aie disposed to 
 consider the gipsies who were still to be found in Germany as 
 only a crowd of thieves, murderers, knaves and other riff-raff, 
 who, after the departure of the gipsies proper, collected together 
 and wished to pass for those people. And it cannot be denied 
 that all sorts of loose characters may have joined them, whom 
 they also willingly received and whom they knew how to stain ot 
 a dark color by various inventions so that they could not be re- 
 cognized. It is even related of a Spanish nobleman that he fell 
 in love with a gipsy girl and was thus induced to join their com- 
 pany (Thomasius, §62). In any case it is beyond doubt that 
 many original gipsies remained in the country, to whom all sorts 
 of reckless people joined themselves. 
 
 That the original gipsies were more honest than their succes- 
 sors cannot be certainly asserted although Thomasius maintains that 
 it was so. They were, in any case, deceivers who attempted to 
 profit by all kinds of falsehoods as to their own history and cir- 
 cumstances. Yet their successors may have become worse and 
 worse, as is usually the case with such vagabonds. They were 
 shameless beggars who possessed themselves of what they could 
 not obtain fairly by trickery and violence, as also they were ex- 
 cellently trained by all manner of arts and deception for getting 
 people's money away from them. For this purpose they addicted 
 themselves to all sorts of fortune-telling and conjuring, also they 
 pretended to many medicinal secrets, which were, however, 
 nothing but simple nonsense and deception. When cunning did 
 not answer, they resorted to violence, with robbery, murder and 
 plundering. They are even accused of being spies for the Turks, 
 and betrayed to the latter the plans and projects of the Chris- 
 tians. For this reason, |^^ since the year 1500, severe orders 
 and ordinances were issued against them in almost every 
 Christian country in which they were found. ^^;| 
 
 They intleed gave themselves out to be Christians and had 
 their children baptized, but this was only with the expectation of 
 receiving the usual godparents' presents. Otherwise they were 
 but poor Christians, since they availed themselves neither of hear- 
 ing the Divine words nor of partaking of the Holy Communion. 
 
 If it be asked to what nation did the gii)sies belong and 
 whence they came, such a question it is difficult to answer. They 
 
gave themselves out, as lias been said, for Egyptians ; but this is 
 not in accordance with truth, for lielonius declares that he had 
 seen the gipsies in Egypt in great numbers under the palm trees 
 on tlie river Nile and that they were there as much strangers as 
 they were everywhere else [Zei/er, Epist. 532). D. Wagenseil, of 
 Altdorf, has here and again maintained in his writings that the 
 gipsies sprang originally from the Jews, who, in the 13th and 14th 
 centuries, suffered dreadful persecutions in Germany and other 
 countries, so that those who escaped fire and the sword betook 
 themselves to the forests and there lived for a time, as much as 
 possible, concealed. Finally they came out with a changed lan- 
 guage and disguised as to clothing, and gave themselves out as 
 Egyptians. Afterwards all kinds of loose vagabonds associated 
 themselves to them for the purpose of enjoying a free, disorderly 
 life. (See S. Huebner's Staats-Zeitiing, and Conversations Lexi- 
 con, Article "Zigeuner.") 
 
 This idea is contradicted by the circumstance that it is difficult 
 to conceive how such a multitude of men — 14,000 — could remain 
 so long concealed in the forests. The black color of the gipsies, 
 too, opposes itself as not being that which we find in the Jews. 
 Those seem to hit the mark more nearly who say that they first 
 came into (Germany from Turkey and the Turkish-Hungarian 
 frontier, for here they are, to the present day, frequently met with. 
 About Gross-Waradein in Hungary there are many gipsies, some 
 having houses, who maintain themselves partly as horse dealers, 
 partly as sniiths and partly by stealing. They also sometimes act 
 as hangmen or executioners in Hungary and Transylvania. 
 Some of them pick up exhausted cattle and tan their skins. In 
 Transylvania some of them wash out gold from the sand of rivers 
 and brooks and are obliged to deliver such sand-gold to the 
 imperial treasury at a certain price. They generally go naked 
 and eat the carrion of dead horses, cattle and sheep thrown 
 into the flayer's-field. They get from the inhabitants the diseased 
 and dead cattle, whose flesh they smoke in their huts or dry in 
 the sun and eat as a great delicacy, but generally raw and un- 
 cooked. Of fortune-telling they understand nothing nor do they 
 attempt it as an occupation. In the year 1676 the gipsies jjlun- 
 dered the Hungarian miner town of Kotack and set fire to it, as 
 well as to the church. Among these gii)sies was found a French 
 engineer, Pierre Durois, who had been with them some eight 
 years, and meantime drawn large bills of exchange on France. 
 He was captured by tlie Imperialists and on liim were found 
 j)lans of almost all the Imperial cities, and the cities of U])per 
 Hungary. It is said that the gi|)sies of Wallachia furnish musi- 
 cians, although their music sounds miserably enough. [Of late 
 
" 8 
 
 years gypsy bands and gypsy peculiar music have been in 
 great repute in Eastern Europe.] [i794-] (Mark Zeiler's 
 description of the Kingdom of Hungary, pp. 29, 748, 1017.) 
 The gipsies came first into Germany and thence wandered 
 into other European countries, therefore it is quite suppos- 
 able that they came from Hungary and the Slavonic countries 
 about it. Thomas Brown says, in Pseudodox. Epidem., L. VI. C, 
 13, that the gipsy language is Slavonic, which is a further argument 
 for the above-given view, since that language is very common in 
 Hungary and Turkey and even at the Turkish court. 
 
 Nevertheless, although they may have come thence into Ger- 
 many, Hungary cannot be their original country and the question 
 remains, where is this to be sought ? But where can such be 
 found, since the gipsies are a vagrant people, and at home 
 nowhere? The opinion which we find in Salmon's "Present 
 History of Persia," Chap, ix., p. 247, may, perhaps, be the best. 
 He says, "The Fackirs in Mahommedan, the Kalenters in Hea- 
 then, and the Gipsies in Christian lands, are as like as one egg is 
 to another, and they are without doubt one race. The Kalaii- 
 ders or Kalenters are essentially heathen begging-monks and the 
 Fackirs Mahommedan ones. These latter so often go into India, 
 because there are, in that country, as many Mohammedans as 
 heathen, and both orders of devotees (the Kalenters and Fakirs) 
 think as much of one religion as of another, that is, they hold 
 to none. So they form light companies and are now in Persia, 
 now in India, now in Egypt, now in Europe, in which last we 
 call them [Gipsies) Zigeuner, Heathen or Tartars. I consider all 
 three sorts, altogether one and the same people, whether they be 
 in Asia or in Europe, only that, according to the people with 
 whom they are, they assume a somewhat altered appearance and 
 name. With the heathens and Mahommedans they pass for a 
 sort of monks who deny themselves in everything, therefore it 
 would not answer for them to take females, generally and openly, 
 with them. Nevertheless, it occurs. When it is necessary, they 
 take them secretly with them on their journeys in Christian 
 lands. When they find in Catholic ones bands of pilgrims, in Pro- 
 testant ones, again, beggar' bands, consisting of one or more 
 whole famiUes, the gipsies put themselves on a like footing, often 
 join with them, as in Asia with the Fakirs and Kalenters, in one 
 troop, according as they are at one place or another. That they 
 are one people, however, sometimes in Europe, sometimes in 
 Asia, can be seen in Duke Henry of Saxony's " Travels in the 
 Promised Land," which in i4<^8, according to the custom of his 
 time, he made there. The author of the biography of this 
 prince relates the following, " He (the Duke) spoke but seldom 
 
of this journey, as it was now almost forgotten, unless indeed 
 some particular inducement or occasion for it presented itself, 
 such as the mention of the Gigeunter or Zigeuner (Gipsies, as they 
 are called). Against them he was fierce, calling them traitors or 
 spies in the land, because they had recognized him and told who 
 he was, in Syria, in consequence of which he encountered much 
 anxiety and danger. On this account he would not sutter them 
 in his territory, so that during the whole time that I was at the 
 court of Freiberg and otherwise in his Grace's cities and employ- 
 ment, I never saw a gipsy, although they were in the country 
 nevertheless." (See "An Introduction to the History of the Elec- 
 torate of Saxony.") 
 
 But now-a-days it is only too well known tiiat these gipsies are 
 nothing else than a congregated troop of bad characters, who 
 have no willingness to work, but choose to make a profession ot 
 idleness, stealing, fornication, gluttony, drunkenness, gambling and 
 the like. One finds among them discharged and deserting sol- 
 diers, dissolute servants and apprentices who do not wish to profit 
 their masters, degenerate sons who have run away from home, 
 female beggars who have received a public whipping and who, 
 besides, can no longer earn anything as procuresses or prostitutes. 
 They stain their faces with green nutshells, in order to increase 
 their ugliness and thafthey may more easily induce the inexper- 
 ienced to believe that they come from the hot oriental countries. 
 They form for themselves a peculiar language and separate dialect 
 [Argot], in order thus to appear more foreign and that they may 
 communicate with each other concerning their plans without being 
 understood by other peoj)le. The real gipsy-troops elect a chief 
 from among themselves, who commands them all and to whom, 
 in general, they yield obedience. The females wear lon^ mantles 
 under which they may the better conceal the stolen clothes and 
 other goods, 'i'hey have with them horses, pistols and all sorts 
 of arms for use when occasion offers. They especially wish to 
 appear very well versed in calculating nativities, in cheiromancy 
 and in fortune-telling and thoy prophesy to people, mostly to the 
 vulgar and for a fee, those things that their dupes wish to hear. 
 They take pains to inform themselves of events in the lives' ot 
 certain i)ersons, so that they may be ready to relate to them past 
 circumstances and thus create in them and others the impression 
 that they can, with equal skill, foretell the future. They pretend 
 to be able to promise fires and to set them agoing in the most 
 dangerous place, where, nevertheless, they do no damage. Ot 
 this we have e.xamples in that they sometimes make fires in 
 barns and the building does not catch. They prefer encamping 
 on the frontier, so that in case they are sought for and pursued 
 
10 
 
 they may easily pass into a foreign territory. They also com- 
 monly live in the forests. They are accustomed at particular 
 times to have their children baptized, and on such occasions to 
 choose rich and prominent persons for Godparents, in order that 
 they may have the better time in revelling and rioting on the 
 christening gifts received from the sponsors. 
 
 It is, besides, certain that the gipsies of every period have been 
 Godless, bad people, who were persecuted most justly. Mr. Hom 
 [Horn ?J has given in his unpresuming "Thoughts on City and 
 Country Beggars " the following description of the gipsies as they 
 were to be found in the Coburg territories, according to their most 
 recent condition and mode of living. He says : " They confess 
 and avow that they are divided into several bands or troops, 
 which are made up of some six hundred, which are under one 
 captain, of the name of Reichert, and that they assembled every 
 year at a rendezvous. The bands are twenty, thirty, forty, or, 
 at difiierent times, more or less strong. Generally they have no 
 arms, but they have some horses, by means of which they can 
 more easily transport and save their baggage and booty. In the 
 day they send their women and children into the neighboring 
 villages to steal, which they know how to accomplish in a most 
 masterly and handy manner, under the pretext of begging and tell- 
 ing fortunes, while they abstract clothing, goods and small utensils 
 from the houses of the peasants, catch up chickens and geese 
 or whatever they can find to pilfer. To the inhabitants of 
 the places where they find their lodgment and night-(iuarters 
 they do no injury, but buy their own food or feed on what 
 they stole elsewhere, so that such liosts shall not betray them 
 and when they return may be ready to harbor them again. 
 They put* out sentinels to guard against an unforseen attack 
 and are so swift and nimble that, especially in the woods, 
 they can hardly be overtaken. Their women commonly 
 carry very long and straight knives concealed on their per- 
 sons, with which they, in case of necessity, defend them- 
 selves, and are able the more promptly to kill and 
 more easily carry off the stolen poultry. When asked how they 
 make a living they answer, partly by horse-dealing, partly by 
 begging, partly also from their pay which they get in bills of 
 exchange sent out of Little Egypt by the emperor of Turkey 
 over the Red Sea to the Roman emperor, and by the latter 
 commonly transmitted by the Messrs. Fugger, of Augsburg. 
 1^^ Since now these gipsy people, as has been said, do 
 much mischief, it is a just and equitable punishment for 
 them, that it is, almost everywhere in Germany, the law 
 that they be sought out by armed pursuit wherever they may be. 
 
11 
 
 in towns, villages, hamlets, underbrush or woods, and forcibly ex- 
 pelled from the country. On any marked resistance they may 
 be shot dead. When they are captured they are to be executed 
 without any grace or indulgence and without any furtlier legal 
 proceedings, simply and alone on account of their forbidden way 
 of life and manifest disobedience. The women and children, for 
 their part, are to be condemned for life to the houses of correc- 
 tion and work. The best way for discovering the gipsies is that 
 the mounted road jiolice should fully do their duty and patrol 
 zealously, likewise that the gamekeepers and foresters should al- 
 ways immediately rei)ort what they may meet in the way of such 
 bands of thieves and loose characters and not allow themselves 
 to be diverted from this duty by either gifts or threats." 
 
 In the same way, even now-a-days. the gipsies are looked u])on 
 as mischievous bad characters, indeefl,as spies, foreign scouts and 
 traitors in Christendom. In this view they have been frequently 
 banished from Germany as well as from other countries. Indeerl, 
 by a decree of the Kammer Gericht at S])e)er they were 
 ^p"deprived of all legal protection and declared outlaws 
 (Jablonski Lex. Becmann). 
 
 In this connection the first, not unreasonable, question is, are 
 these so-called gipsies to be tolerated in any well-constituted 
 commonwealth, or may it be .said of them w'ith justice that they 
 form of themselves a kind of sej)arate commonwealth ? [as the 
 Romanists, who are only really true to the Pojjc, do in every 
 country]. The first question is fairly answered in the nega- 
 tive, in view of the manifold crimes committed by theln, 
 this particularly by Besold de Trib. Domest. Societ. Spec, 
 c. 4, n. 4. and by Klock de Aerario, Lib. II., c. 102, 
 n. 28, &c. The second question, however, in view ot 
 their continual vagabondism and other evils occasioned 
 in the commonwealths and states, in which they at any time 
 have attempted to settle down. Of the first, Besold gives 
 instances in his Tractat. de Princ. et Fin. Polit., c. 8, n. 8, and 
 many others agree with these ideas. Thus one finds, not alone 
 in these im])erial decrees, various ordinances against the gipsies, 
 but whole " circles" in Germany, as well as single departments, 
 have, from time to time, and when this otherwise useless mob has 
 somewhat increased, were themselves compelled not only to re- 
 peat such im])erial decrees in their countries, but in some measure 
 to sharjjen them. As regards the imperial statutes, we rin<l in the 
 final decrees of the Diet at Augsburg, of the year 1500, Title Zi- 
 geunern; at S])eyer, 1544, "Aber der jenigen Zigeuner halber, \c;" 
 at .'Vugsburg. or in the re-lormation of a good police, of 1548, 
 Title, von Zigeunern ; at Augsburg, 1551, § " Nachdem uns auch 
 
12 
 
 angezeigt, &c.," and in the next following § " Damit nun in dem, 
 &c." As also in the police regulations at Frankfort, of 1577, 
 Title 28, " Of gipsies, in relation to those who call themselves 
 gipsies and wander about the country, it is strictly forbidden to 
 all Electoral princes, Princes and governments, on the allegiance 
 which they bear to the Holy Empire, that, as regards these gipsies, 
 when credible proof exists that they are scouts, traitors, spies, 
 and explore Christian countries for the benefit of the Turks and 
 
 of other enemies of Christendom (strictly forbidden) to 
 
 allow them to travel in or through their states, to traffick, to 
 give them safe conducts, escorts, or passports and, since the gip- 
 sies have obtained some passports, or may obtain them hereafter, 
 such passports are, by virtue of this decree broken, nullified and 
 abolished. The gipsies must immediately get themselves out oi 
 all German countries, keep out of them, and not let themselves 
 be found in them, for when they, nevertheless, hereafter enter 
 them, and l^any one does them violence or injures, them, that 
 person shall not be considered as having committed a crime, or 
 having done anything wrong." 
 
 Subsequendy, it being found that the above-mentioned laws, 
 contained in imperial statutes, did not sufiice to drive off" this 
 vagrant mob from German lands, not only whole circles, but also 
 separate imperial states have been forced, not only to repeat 
 these laws in their lands, but also, according to the circumstances 
 and exigencies, to make them more severe in one or another 
 point. 
 
 Here belongs, first of all, the imperial decree for the rooting 
 out of the gipsies wandering hither and thither about the coun- 
 try, and of other collections of thieves, robbers and murderers, 
 as also regarding those who harbor them : " We, Charles VI., 
 &c., to all and each of our subordinate spiritual and secular land 
 or town rulers, and to all our lieges, subjects and vassals, ot 
 whatever rank or dignity, who inhabit our archduchy of Austria 
 (Lower and Upper Ems), our gracious good wishes; and we 
 graciously give you to understand, that although very appropriate 
 mandates have been issued on repeated occasions by our fore- 
 fathers formerly reigning as lords and as the secular princes ot 
 our archduchy of Austria, having for object the complete banish- 
 ment of the gipsies wandering about the country along with their 
 wives and children and the other rabble of thieves, robbers and 
 murderers who have joined themselves to them ; and despite ot 
 our own gracious orders and especially of the general public de- 
 cree issued on the ist of July, 1720, for the general quiet and 
 security of the country, in which we announced to all, the bann 
 and the death punishment issued against these people ; for all 
 
13 
 
 this, it appears, to our great displeasure, that these wholesome ordi- 
 nances and the efforts for carrying them out have not accom- 
 plished their desired object and full effect, and that meantime 
 certain of our subjects have had the audacity to give the for- 
 bidden lodgments and shelter to this gipsy rabble, pests of the 
 country, both within and after the most carefully arranged time 
 allotted for their dejjarture. 
 
 When now our own most highly honored lord and father 
 Roman emperor and prince of this country, of most Christian 
 memory, most righteously ordained, as early as the 2 2d of No- 
 vember, 1689, in a general decree of that date, against har- 
 bourlrs and all those who, in what manner soever, give illegal aid 
 and shelter to this wicked rabble, the incommutable punishment 
 of death, and, inasmuch as by long lapse of time, this decree 
 seems to have become almost forgotten, we now renew, confirm 
 and publish it in the form following, that although we retain the 
 punishment of death, as in the former, against the gipsies wan- 
 dering hither and thither in the country, as well as against the 
 mob of thieves, robbers and murderers who have joined them, 
 we also ordain, that their harbourers and all those who, by day 
 or by night, secretly or openly, within or beyond the time allowed 
 for their quitting the country, give forbidden shelter, &c., to the so 
 often denounced mischievous gipsies and robber-mobs be impris- 
 oned and beheaded, whether such have been sharers of the 
 property robbed and stolen or not, whether they have done so 
 with the hope of gain or not, if they have given them illegal 
 occupation of their houses, barns, grounds, or other i)lace fitted 
 for concealment ; consequently in whatever way the forbidden 
 harbouring may have been accomplished, that such harbourer 
 shall be arrested, imprisoned and there [at once, without trial] 
 beheaded, literally with a stroke of the sword sent from life into 
 death. 
 
 We command, therefore, to you, who are the first-named, but 
 especially to the local magistrates, most graciously, but at the 
 same time in the greatest earnest, that for contributing to the 
 greater abhorrence and destruction of the gipsies and land-wasting 
 robber mobs, they renew the placards which, by our order of the 
 ist July, 1720, were to be posted at the principal road-crossings 
 of every district : to the effect that any individual of the before- 
 named gipsy and robber bands, who resists arrest with the use of 
 arms, may be killed ; and also we command that these magis- 
 trates add in these placards, with great distinctness of expres- 
 sion, that any person who voluntarily provides these people with 
 a resting place, shelter, by whatever name it may be called, shall 
 be visited with the like death punishment. And finally, in order 
 
14 
 
 that this wholesome law and regulation may remain fresh in the 
 memories of our subjects, and that none of them may shield him- 
 self under plea of ignorance or any other subterfuge, we also re- 
 quest and order you, state officials and village magistrates in 
 general, as also you, village magistrates, separately, that you read 
 in public to our subjects in the common assembly (Panchadung) 
 every year this renewed definite statute, and that you at the same 
 time earnestly admonish them to heed it, so that every one may 
 know how to conduct himself and keep out of trouble. 
 
 Given at our capital and residence, the city of Vienna, 
 August i8th, 1722." 
 
 The above statute is to be found, word for word, as w^ have 
 given it, in Faber's " Europaisch. Staats-Caiitzley^' Part XLL, p. 
 724 and so on ; also in Anton Balthasar Walther's " Silesia; Diplo- 
 maticce" T. II., part ist. Part Generalia, pp. 236, 237, 239, and 
 many following. In the same way, in the Duchy of Silesia, when 
 it was still under the dominion of Austria, there were issued 
 many imperial superior-official decrees against the gipsies, aiming 
 at their extirpation, particularly among these one dated Bernstadt, 
 |^^5th Sept., 1618, in which former orders are confirmed; with the 
 addition that, if they are not out of the country within fourteen 
 days, and they attempt violence or other dangerous proceedings, 
 they are to be arrested and punished with death; further, under 
 date of Brieg, 21st March, 1619, it is ordered that the gipsies be 
 driven out, arrested, and, according to circumstances, put to death 
 or banished. This by the country police itself, or, if necessary, with 
 the conjoined force of the country and cities. In the same tenor 
 of the i2th of February, 1683; of the 4th December, 1685; of 
 the 28th of April, 1688; of the 3d of June, 1689 ; of the 13th 
 of August, 1695; and of the 8th of August, 1703, audits renewal 
 of the 27th of September, 1703, and of the 3d of February, 1706, 
 that the gipsies must be driven back, that the militia must be 
 used for this purpose and if l^^the gipsies resist they are to be put 
 to death. And not less the same of the 19th April, 1708, that 
 for keeping back the gipsy rabble there are to be set up in all 
 places near the frontiers placards on posts on which their punish- 
 ment is to be described {al?oe/iia/ilel.) In the same way, an order 
 of the 26th July, 1715, regarding the extirpation of the gipsy 
 mob declared oudaws ; again, of the 23d June, 1721, and of the 
 25th March, 1726, regarding extirpation and punishment ot gip- 
 sies. 
 
 As regards the Electorate Saxon countries, there likewise 
 has been no failure in this respect. From time to time the 
 sharpest and most emphatic decrees against such licentious and 
 land-destroying rabble have been made public. Especially the 
 
u 
 
 gipsies, who, besides, are outlawed completely throughout the 
 Holy Roman Empire, are not to be suffered in any corporation 
 under penalty of loo Rhincgold Horins, to be paid by such cor- 
 poration, or the forfeiture of its charter (" Entziehung der 
 Gerichtc" ). Police ordinances of 1617, n. 19, and of 1661, 
 Title II.; also as a conseciuence of the mandate of 1709, § 12, 
 their children must not be bai)tized at any other place than tliat 
 in which they were born and when this has been ascertained with 
 certainty. — rolice ortlinances of 1661, Tit. 11., § 4. Compare 
 also the general law. Art. 6. And in general they are not to be 
 tolerated on the main roads, housed, sheltered or entertained, as 
 may be seen in many supjjlementary mandates to the same effect, 
 of the years 1579, 1590, 1621, 1652, 1670, i684-'6, 1689, 1703, 
 1713, 1720, and 1722 ; as also in the official circulars concerning 
 them of the years 1590, 1652, 1665, 1689 and 1696, and else- 
 where. To further illustrate the subject we will, here, add the 
 already mentioned most gracious mandate of his royal majesty ot 
 Poland and Serene Elector of Saxony, 4th Aj)ril, 1722, as the 
 last and newest ot the kind, against the strong bands of gipsies 
 recently forcibly driven out of Hesse anil the bordering states, 
 who then moved into the Thuringian forest and have been seen 
 on the frontiers of Saxony. They are to be banished, the land 
 being found necessary : 
 
 " We, Frederick Augustus, by the grace of God, King, Elec- 
 tor, &c., command to all and each, &c., our Greetings, Grace 
 and Kind Will, that they should bear in mind what we and our 
 forefathers, resting in God, have issued through this country in 
 the way of sharp and earnest mandates, both in the year 1689 
 and subseijuently at different ])eriods up to the i)resent time, 
 against the robber gipsy rabble, for the purpose of hunting out 
 and exterminating them, and that they should attend to their 
 contents under the head of gipsies, as respects the pestiferous 
 thief-robber banils, who have reapi)ered in our lands. 
 
 Since then, however, up to the present time, the fatherly ob- 
 jects intended for the best good of our subjects cannot be attained 
 and we now receive the most trustworthy information that the 
 gipsy bands, not long ago forcibly driven out of Hesse and other 
 neighboring countries and which are said to consist of some 1500 
 persons, have moved into the Thuringian forest and that already 
 some of this miserable mob have been seen in one and another 
 village on the frontiers. If so, being that necessity unavoidably 
 rerpiires us to control this people, in good time, and with all pos- 
 sible energy, lest they should in our country, as it has already hap- 
 pened in neighboring parts, collect tiiemselves together and here 
 
16 
 
 likewise be able to commit murders, robberies and plunderings, we 
 have found it necessary for turning off this evil, not only to repeat 
 and renew the mandates and orders first mentioned, past and 
 present ; but also, by virtue of this, our now given mandate, to 
 sharpen the others in respect to their object and again to order, as 
 we have already done by our general field marshal and directing 
 cabinet minister, Count von Fleming, to our militia, also now to 
 all our vassals, officials, corporations and all subordinate magis- 
 trates of the country, that as respects themselves and those under 
 their control, they shall, without delay, make sufficient disposi- 
 tions for the purpose, and that, when eight days have elapsed 
 from the publication of this our mandate, which shall be posted 
 up everywhere in the corporations, on the pillars along the roads 
 and frontiers, and in other public places, if any gipsies are found 
 and caught in the towns, market-places, villages, woods and fields 
 of our electorate and its appertaining lands, even if they present 
 open passports or other certificates, that such gipsies are not only 
 given up for confiscation and execution as outlaws, as it was di- 
 rected in the above-quoted mandate of 1689, but it is permitted 
 and worthy of reward that they be at once shot down or other- 
 wise killed, on the spot, and their property taken from them, and 
 that no one who in this way does anything against them shall be 
 held as having committed any wrong or crime, or be made 
 answerable for what he has done.,^^ The women and children, 
 however, so taken and caught, are to be delivered over to the 
 next office or court, and either confined and kept at work in the 
 place where they were taken, or if there be there no provision 
 for so doing, be taken thence to the poor and correction house 
 near Waldheimb, or to other poor and correction houses, accord- 
 ing to opportunity and circumstances. In addition, for the 
 quicker expulsion of this hurtful race, and the more thorough 
 searching for them, according to the precepts of our man- 
 date, issued in the year 17 10 against the thief and robber hordes; 
 on occasion of the gipsies being sighted or pursued, the alarm 
 bells are to be rung, or some other signal given, in order that in 
 conjunction with the inhabitants and subjects, at the same time 
 the militia also and gamekeepers, which last are included in 
 the same orders, shall assemble in as strong force as quickly as 
 possible, when called out, so that the whole may act against the 
 oft-mentioned gipsies in the way prescribed, or as the necessity 
 of the circumstances may require, and thus our intentions for 
 the safety of the country and of our loyal subjects may be the 
 more appropriately and certainly carried out. To the same end 
 our upper circle chiefs and officials and other judicial magistrates, 
 upon and near the frontiers, are not the less to communicate dili- 
 
n 
 
 gently and properly with the neighboring proprietors and officials, 
 and arrange for a mutual understanding iiow the hunting up and 
 expulsion and following up of this fretiuently-mentioned gipsy 
 rabble is to be accomplished in the most effectual, easiest and 
 quickest way. 
 
 Accordingly now, the, at the commencement mentioned, our 
 vassals, officials, and all and each our judicial authorities and subor- 
 dinate magistrates, as well as all subjects, will and must know 
 how to i^roperly and exactly observe this decree and to arrange 
 what will be sufficient for carrying out and enforcing it. 
 
 In more emphatic witness whereof we have with our own 
 hands signed this mandate and ordered our privy seal to be im- 
 pressed on it. Done and given at Dresden, on the 4th of April, 
 in the year 1722. 
 
 AuGusius Rex. [l. s. | 
 Henry von Bunua. 
 Jno. Christopher (iunther. Sjec'yJ." 
 
 See the "Annals of Christoi)her Ernst Siculs," Leipzig, Sect, 
 xvii., p. 166, ike, and by virtue o( an official circular dated from 
 the Electoral Saxon castle at Jiudissin, i8th October, 1652, there 
 also exists a "most gracious order," in the margraviate of Ui)per 
 Lausitz, along with tliatof his Electoral Serenity ot Saxo y, in his 
 police order issued at Dresden, on the 23d of April, 1617, rcler- 
 ring to his alreaily issued statute concerning gii)sies, thus, t()-»vit: 
 " In virtue of the there drawn-up imperial decree and ele( toral 
 transcript, and in virtue of the superior magisterial instructions in 
 the margraviate of Ober- Lausitz, drawn up in cc^nformily there- 
 with, the already-named !,v/>7>5, who are accustomed to move up 
 and down the country and to plague and overpower its 
 inhabitants with robberies, thefts and all sorts of chicanc-ry, are 
 not to be suffered in the country, mucii less to be alloweil to live 
 and trade therein, or to have security and protection given to 
 them, but they are to be hunted out of the land. In case, how- 
 ever, that they show themselves contumacious, the authorities of 
 the place where they attempt to encamp themselves are allowed 
 to seize all their pro|)erty and to throw them into prison and 
 without delay to refer to their superior officials for further orders. 
 .\lso no one will be held to account in any way who does any vio- 
 lence to them, who, as is said in the letter of tlie high imperial de- 
 cree and its electoral transcrijjt, are outlaws in pro])erty, estates 
 and body. In order that this transcrijjt and circular, intended 
 and adapted for preserving the safety of the country, avoidance 
 of threatened danger and furthering of the common good, may 
 come to the knowledge of everyone, it is not only to be posted 
 
18 
 
 at the usual places, but to be read from the pulpit. In other 
 respects the superintendence of the gipsy bands in Electoral 
 Saxony belongs to the most praiseworthy (hoch-lobliche) country 
 government, as is shown by Wabst in his historical account of the 
 present land-judiciary of Electoral Saxony and its appertaining 
 lands. Sect. II., c. i., §12, n. i." 
 
 In the Royal Prussian and Electoral Brandenburg lands, they 
 were likewise set, most earnestly, and by all serviceable means 
 and ways, upon driving out and extirpating the gipsy land-tramps 
 who, by means of fortune-telling, plirophecies, root-medicines, 
 lying and deceit, robbery and stealing and the like other offences 
 and wickedness, exceedingly mislead simple and incpiisitive people 
 and get their property, yes, often in one day and night make 
 more evil and mischief where they are quartered than the 
 preachers can root out, so as to put things right, by 
 many sermons. To this end it is not only as already 
 ordered in the church-visitation of the Insterburg, and other 
 Lutheran offices of Prussia, in the year 1638, to the effect that 
 gipsies are not to be received and sheltered in the towns, sub- 
 urbs, and villages, but to be turned into the fields and not suf- 
 fered in the country ; and that those who contravene this order and 
 for some supposed sliglit gain receive and house such bad and 
 harmful people, are liable to a fine to their landlord of 20 Polish 
 florins ; but it is also by various recent royal orders, as that dated 
 Marienwerder, 29th October, 1709; Konigsberg, 21st May, 
 1710; Koln on the Spree, 24th Nov. p. 73, 1710; it has been 
 most strictly commanded that no gipsy shall be tolerated in the 
 royal Prussian dominions. (See William Henry Beckher's short 
 extracts from the principal royal Prussian edicts and decrees, 
 under the word " Zigeuner " — gipsy). And likewise Gruben's 
 Corp. Constit. Prutea, p. i, N. 5., p. 73 and P. III. N. 373, 374 
 and 375, p. 507, &c. See another edict, dated Berlin, 26th July, 
 17 15. His royal Prussian Majesty Frederick William, of most 
 glorious memory, thus complains : 
 
 " His majesty understands to his great displeasure that 
 despite the previously so frequently issued edicts against gipsies, 
 land-tramps, impudent beggars and the like thievish rabble, 
 nevertheless once again large bands of such vagabonds, worth- 
 less fellows a'.id village thieves are to be found in his royal-elec- 
 toral and other possessions, and that, already, many have been 
 arrested and imprisoned. From a fatherly care for his land, for 
 the safety of travellers and general intercourse and commerce, 
 and that everyone may enjoy the royal protection, these peoj^le 
 should, on the one hand, be kept away from the frontiers of his 
 
19 
 
 provinces, and, on the other hand, that quick judgment should 
 be passed on them when taken, and thus the land be cleared of 
 such dregs of people : he decides on tliis account hereby to order 
 and decree : 
 
 1. That henceforth no traveller, male or female, whose rank 
 and condition is made doubtful from his outward appearance or 
 any other reason, shall be allowed to enter his majesty's frontiers 
 or passes, fortresses or towns, unless he present, in addition to his 
 travelling pass, a passport from the government or magistrates of 
 the place whence he comes, describing the place where he 
 belongs, his profession and purpose, and thus legitimizing his 
 person. For this |)urpose, and that it may be the more exactly 
 executed and all evasion of it prevented, for such towns, market 
 places, and the like, where the gates aie not guarded, and for 
 their sul)urbs, there, the innkeepers, ])ul)licans and tapsters are 
 made responsible for demaniHng the aforesaid pass and attesta- 
 tion from every stranger and traveller who enters their house, to 
 look it through, and in case they observe anytliing susi)icious in 
 the pa|)ers or in the behaviour of the stranger — for immediately 
 informing the authorities of the place. This they shall not omit 
 under a heavy money jienalty, and in case they may be detected in 
 any collusion with such stranger or traveller, or with the worth- 
 less fellows before mentioned, they shall, without fail, be visited 
 with bodily punishment. 
 
 2. Since, also, experience has taught that such rabble are 
 wont to disguise themselves under the names ot lottery dealers, 
 thimble-riggers, jugglers and " fast-and-loose " players, antl with 
 the occasion to ply their thieveries, such people are henceforth not 
 to be surtered in his majest\ 's towns, market places or villages, 
 either at yearly or weekly fairs or | lairs held atj church-ales, un- 
 less they have a sijecial royal permit ; this under penalty of the 
 confiscation ol their booths or under that of personal arrest, but 
 against all such persons the frontiers of his majesty's dominions 
 shall be entirely clo.sed and barred oft' from the exercise of their 
 in any case suspicious trades. 
 
 3. vShould it be that, in sp te of the earnest royal ordinance, 
 a worthle.ss fellow, pickpocket or cutpur.se cros.ses the frontier and 
 practices his wickedness and he be taken in the act, then, in 
 order to spare the treasury the expense of his maintenance and of 
 other judicial costs, but at the same time to deprive these thieves 
 of the hope that under prolongetl arrest they may by force or 
 cunning get away and escape puishment, the following short judi- 
 cial proc:eedings will l)e ajjplied to the case : 
 
 ' When such thieves are caught in the act of real stealing and 
 one may be sure of it, they shouKl at once be brought before the 
 
20 
 
 magistrates of the place, who must, particularly at the times of 
 public yearly markets and churcli-ales, be present and assembled 
 in their office or other headquarters, and the crime with its chief 
 circumstances shall be presented to them in a short written state- 
 ment. Should it happen that the delinquent, notwithstanding, 
 shamelessly denies the fact, the witnesses present are to be sworn 
 in presence of the delinquent, and then on the sum of their test 
 timony, there always being at least two witnesses, the delinquen- 
 shall at once, without reference to the value of the stolen pro- 
 perty, or whether the theft was fully accomplished or not, and 
 without further appeal to the King's majesty or tohis government, 
 be flogged and, for all time, banished the country.' 
 
 4. Should it, however, happen that any of this thievish mob 
 commit such an act of theft as is by common law a capital crime, 
 then the regular process of inquiry, " servato jf^nris ordiiie" is to 
 be instituted against these misdoers. The magistracy of the 
 place, however, shall see to it that the trial be, as far as possible, 
 hastened and finished. 
 
 In regard to this it is commanded to the supreme court at 
 Berlin ; to all the royal departments, high or low ; to the spiritual 
 and secular oflficers ; to magistrates in the towns and country; 
 and to the royal treasury officials, respectfully to obey and in their 
 respective places give effect to this gracious expression of the 
 royal wishes. In order that this royal edict may be universally 
 known, it is to be aflfixed to and posted upon the gates and 
 in the inns and tapsters' houses." See Fassman's " Life and z^cts 
 of Frederick William, King of Prussia," part II., p. 40, &c. 
 
 Soon after, there was issued, because the discharged and in- 
 valided soldiers, as well as others, partly poor, partly loose and 
 bad people, did not choose to be constrained from begging or 
 from exercising forbidden traffic and unallowed business, another 
 royal edict, under date of ist March, 17 17, in which it was 
 ordered that all such hucksters and beggars, whether they were 
 invalids and other natives, or strangers, or gipsies, should, with all 
 their baggage, their wives and children, immediately on being 
 taken up, be carried to the nearest military post, and thence to 
 the nearest fortress, there to be confined, to be kept at work and 
 on bread and water, and further directions concerning them to 
 be then asked for. //'/</./., 47. 
 
 A renewed and exceedinglv sharpened edict against robberies 
 and thefts appeared, dated Berlin, 24th Novembei, 1724, according 
 to which ten dollars was to be paid every time to the detecter of 
 a gipsy or thief company, ^^ the gipsies or thieves caught at 
 
21 
 
 tlieir work to he hanged witliout further inquiry, and those 
 wlio resisted to be shot on the spot.,^^J IhU, p. 693. 
 
 Further a new and very much sharper edict against the gip- 
 sies, tramps and foreign beggars wandering about the country, 
 under date, Berhn, 30th November, 1739, was as follows: 
 
 " We, Frederick William, by the Grace of God, King of 
 Prussia, (S:c., &c., declare and i)ublish : Inasmuch as, to our 
 great displeasure, it has been abundantly proved that our, at 
 various times issued wholesome ordinances against the gipsies, 
 wandering beggars, and vagabonds, who so often show them- 
 selves, have been but loosely observed, indeed almost entirely 
 put out of sight, and we desire to have everywhere complete 
 compliance with these circulars tending to the good of the com- 
 monwealth. 
 
 Thus we renew and confirm all edicts published to this effect, 
 especially the one of the 20th December, 1727, as earnestly as 
 im|)ressively issued, that all foreign beggars and land-hurtful loose 
 rabble shall entirely leave the country, and as regards the natives 
 of that sort, that they shall retire to the places of their birth or 
 to those where they have hitherto for some years lived and main- 
 tained themselves. This done, all those who may be anywhere 
 found and taken up shall be immediately carried to the fortresses, 
 where they must be at once received according to the directions 
 of our circular-orders of the 25th April, 1728, to all com- 
 manders of such. In the same way we renew the ])rinted instruc- 
 tions of the 20th November, i730,^as to what is to be done in 
 regard to getting rid of gipsies and other vagrants, and what for 
 the purpose of keeping the country clear of such dissolute people. 
 Such are to be seized on the frontiers at the first village they 
 enter and at once carried off. 
 
 We, however, sharpen and extend the working of the above, 
 so that from now on, any district magistrate who knowingly 
 accords to such ^^/.j/W, vagrants and wandering beggars a resi 
 dence or even shelter and a night's lodging on his property, and 
 such peo|)le are not immediately, or as soon as may be, in con- 
 formity with our orders, at once arrested and carried off, shall be 
 visited with the lo.ss of his magistracy and with a thousand dol- 
 lars fine in money. The bailiffs and communities, on the other 
 hand, who are neglectful, or do not give to the above-mentioned 
 magistrates proper assistance, are to be ])unished with severe and 
 certain bodily punishment and according to the circumstances 
 even confinement in a fortress. 
 
 So soon as such a one, gil)sy or vagrant beggar or land tramp, 
 may be caught and it appears from his examination that he, by 
 
22 
 
 clear daylight, has gone through this or that village and at all 
 begged therein, or otherwise acted suspiciously and was seen by 
 people, but not arrested, an official account must at once be sent 
 in to the government (office ?) and this must at once have the 
 case investigated by a treasury employe (ex-officio) and cause 
 the guilty persons to be punished in conformity with this edict. 
 In virtue of which it is enjoined upon all our governments, 
 war and domain-departments, colleges of justice, general treas- 
 ury officers and treasury employes, officials, district magistrates 
 and commanders, to act energetically in res[)ect of this, as well as 
 of all other orders issued regarding gipsies, country-beggars and 
 vagrants, and that no one may excuse himself under plea of 
 ignorance they are to have this edict read every year from the 
 pulpit. 
 
 Officially issued with our genuine autographical signature and 
 stamped with our royal signet [apparently more emphatic than 
 the privy seal J Berlin, November 30th, 1739. 
 
 Fr. Wilhelm. 
 
 S. V. COCCEJI. 
 
 [Contrast this rude justice of a rough old temporal king with 
 the merciless judicial edicts, following, of a spiritual Romanist 
 Prince and Priest Ruler.] 
 
 See Ludwig's " Literary Analecta," Part II., p. 1075, A. 
 
 Beside this there is no, deficiency in pretty sharp ordinances 
 of other German imperial princes and states against the gii)sies. 
 Thus, as an example of the like shar[)encd ordinance, his electoral 
 yjrincely grace at Mayence, in concert with the four associated 
 Circles issued such in 1714 against the i,7)^i'/V\r, foreign beggars 
 and other dissolute rabble owning no allegiance, by virtue 
 of which he extends the inmishment l^'of DEATH without any 
 formalities to gipsies antl notorious pickpockets, simply and alone 
 on account of their forbidden manner of life and on account of 
 their proved disobedience, their wives and children are to be 
 beaten with rods and branded. Land-tramps, vagrants, beggars, 
 wounded soldiers, foreign Jews and other rabble having no dom- 
 icile, whether provided with passes and discharges or not, are to 
 be hunted up and forcibly ejected across the frontiers, and in 
 case of any showed resistance, tjiey are to be knocked down and 
 even shot dead. This is the amount of the ordinance as found 
 in the Electis Juris Piiblici of Mayence, Vol., VI., Part VII L, p. 
 656, &c. In its full composition it runs as follows : 
 
23 
 
 " First. It has hecMi again most humbly represented to the 
 most high worthy ])rince and lord, the Lord Lothaire Francis, 
 Arcii- Bishop ot Alayence of the Holy See, Arch-Chancellor and 
 Elector of the Holy Roman Fmpire throughout Germany, Bishop 
 of Bamberg, &c., and he has learned with great dissatisfaction 
 that as regards the stringent orders, both Imjjerial and of the 
 Circle, often pul)lished and made known, against the still hither and 
 thither vagabonds, reckless to the common weal, more hurtful 
 i^ipsies, pickpockets, Jew-beggars and other masterless thief-rabble 
 who often also bring with them commonly all sorts of contagious 
 diseases; these orders seem no longer to be sufficient. In addi- 
 tion it also appears that there is often a want of proper execution 
 and carrying out of the so wholesomely conceived arrangements 
 of the empire, circle, and other governments, and their proposed 
 object has, up to this time, not been attained. 
 
 Second. It has been obvious that in our Circles themselves, 
 and in one and another of the high and respectable departments, 
 they have given free domicile to such reckless and thievish rabble, 
 and thus with knowledge of it, whether from fear or other ])re- 
 text ; beside not applying the rigour of jnmishment directed in 
 the before-mentioned ordinances and not going hand in hand for 
 properly supporting each other. Therefore, at the last assembly 
 of the associated worthy Upper Inii)erial Circles, it has again 
 been held necessary on this occasion, not only to repeat and con- 
 firm the already-taken resolutions and the circulars containing 
 them in their full contents ; but also to, at the same time, freshly and 
 most stringently ordain that, when discovered, all ,i:^i/>S!>s, notor- 
 ious pickpockets, ^^'without any grace or indulgence, si//r 
 stiepitu jiuficii, (without any judicial fuss), and without any 
 further i)roceeding, simply and only by reason of their 
 torbiilden manner of life and jjroved disobedience, shall 
 be executed with, or, if necessary, by some more severe manner 
 of capital i)unishment.^,^3 Their wives and grown children, how- 
 ever, when they are not at the same time convicted of a theft, 
 shall be flogged, branded and for ever banished from the land, or 
 condemned to peri)etual confinement in the correctional work- 
 houses; and l)ecause this loose, wicked and irresponsible rabble 
 begin to move about in places where, on account of the forest, 
 they think to find more concealment and security, and their num- 
 ber visibly increases, even so that, in s|)ite of the guards posted 
 here and there, indeed even in villages so guarded, one slill 
 hears, almost daily, of breaking into houses, of robberies, and 
 also despoiling of travellers, this protection notwithstanding. 
 Their daring impertinence is growing to such a degree that thev 
 do not hesitate at threatening the countrynuin who refuses them 
 
24 
 
 a night's lodging, with murder and the torch ; that already var- 
 ious sheds, together with the grain in them, have been consumed, 
 having, it is supposable, been fired by these wretches. Thus the 
 country people are withheld by fear from carrying out with the 
 necessary energy and vigour the wholesome regulations decreed 
 by the Circle. It has been further unanimously resolved and 
 ordered to be published everywhere, to-wit : That from the pub- 
 lication of this order all land-tramps, vagrant-beggars, wounded 
 soldiers, foreign Jews, gipsies and other irresponsible rabble who 
 are not born in the country or in some other way its subjects- 
 whether having passes and discharges or not, are, without excep, 
 tion, at once to cjuit the whole territory and to bestow themselves 
 elsewhere, or should they remain the most severe and effective 
 punishment will be inflicted on them. I^^That they be hunted up 
 by armed force everywhere, whether in towns, market-places, 
 villages, copses or woods, and forcibly driven out, also that in 
 case of their offering resistance they are at once to be 
 knocked down or shot dead on the spot.^^J In order to prevent 
 those in such cases often occurring collisions as to jurisdiction, 
 through wliich, according to daily experience, many wholesome 
 laws and regulations are rendered unfruitful and remain in the 
 lurch, it has been most definitely determined and approved among 
 the electoral princes and the various governments, that when one 
 or another of the like foreign land-tramps, beggars, soldiers, for- 
 eign Jews, vagrants, irresponsible rabble — or, also, others, in a 
 certain measure subjects of the most worthy Circle governments 
 or persons belonging to them — are captured or brought in by 
 scouting parties, patrols, or other arrangements such as it may 
 have been thought well to make, then anyone has the power and 
 authority, and indeed is under obligation, as concerns the one or 
 the others of these classes, to give safe convoy for delivering the 
 strangers and foreigners from out their governments and disincts, 
 by the most advisable way (and so as to prevent their escape or 
 the like) to the nearest garrison next some fortified j^lace without 
 regard to local intermediate jurisdiction of any species being op- 
 posed or unopposed to it. The fortress is also at once to pass 
 them on to another, and so on, until the frontiers of the circle are 
 reached. For so acting there is to be no possibility of anything 
 being quoted as, or of itself, tending to the legal prejudice or to 
 the legal privilege or advantage, or by whatever name any conse- 
 quence may be called, for the present or in the future, against any 
 one so acting. And since it has further been discovered that 
 some shameless and audacious persons conceal themselves in the 
 garb of clergymen or other religious professionals, it is in the 
 same way decreed that such strangers, and especially religious 
 
25 
 
 persons who say that they are returning from Italy or any other place 
 ol pilgrimage, be closely watched, and that, when they are not 
 fully ]>rovided with sufficient passes and testimonials, they be de- 
 tained on their entering the territories of the associated Circles, 
 carried from place to place up to the proper Ordinary, by him 
 examined, and, according to circumstances, handed further on or 
 discharged. Since also, finally, it has been found that the mis- 
 chievous poachers or venison-thieves creep into the forbidden 
 pro])rietary forests and that tliey therein, with the, by the higiiest 
 authority forbidden, rifle, not only cause great damage, but are 
 audacious enough to murderously attack and fell keepers on 
 guard against them, lest they be recognized, brought in and jjut 
 in arrest by them, and since consecjuently they take up and carry 
 on the same cai)itally punished sort of life as the herein so often 
 mentioned mischievous ijickjjockets and ,i,7/^<^ rabble with whom 
 they now and then associate themselves. On this account it is 
 therefore decreed, that, first of all, each one of the high and most 
 worthy Diets provide in their forests for the necessary arrange- 
 ments and watch that these may be cleared of the deer-stealers 
 and these last arrested and subjected to the punishment due them, 
 and also that they give to each other on proper |)ointing out and 
 description of the delincjuents, all help necessary for taking and 
 delivering them up and that they do not knowingly give to any 
 reputed i)oacher forbidden concealment or shelter under penalty 
 of like punishment. It is still, as aforesaid, more than ever to be 
 observed, so far as circumstances will permi:, that even when the 
 crime is committed in the forest ot others, nevertheless, the crim- 
 inals are to be arrested and they are to be treated with the same 
 penal rigour. In order now that no one may e.xcuse himself by 
 pleading ignorance of the decree now issued, this circular, lik^ 
 the preceding ones, is, by the gracious special order of the Prince 
 Elector to be repeatedly read out and announced in the districts 
 and to be affixed at the open gii)sy resorts, signboard i)osts, as 
 well as to the church doors, and like the jjrevious ones, especially 
 the last of the 2d May, 171 1, publicly printed and published, to 
 be most literally com])Iied with. According to which every one 
 will know how to judge and how to prevent injury to himself. 
 
 Sii^/ifi/ under the most venerated prince-electoral grace and 
 hereto impressed the office seal, Mayence, 22d March, 1714. 
 
 [... S.J 
 
 In like manner, cpiite lately, at the consultations of the Circle 
 of Suabia, held for a time at I'lm, the security of the main roads 
 within its territory was a prominent subject, as is evident from the 
 following circular: 
 
26 
 
 " Since repeated proof is made to the now, here present, gen- 
 eral assembly of this Circle, that, despite the manifold and also 
 recently published circulars, and the capital punishment therein 
 declared, the gipsy, pickpockets and other irresponsible rabble so 
 excessively hurtful to the public are once more wandering about 
 hither and thither in this worthy Suabian Circle and have become 
 so bold as, on the 22d of last month, to again attack the Imperial 
 and German post-messenger, and so to misuse him that had he 
 not saved himself by flight, the letter bag with all its contents 
 would have been taken from him. And now it is an unavoidable 
 necessity, in order to oppose such wickedness and at once to 
 preserve from danger the correspondence so important tor the 
 public, and the safety of the letter post, from all such commence- 
 ments of outrage. Thus we wish properly to admonish through 
 this circular all the high and respectable communities to keep a 
 watchful eye in this regard in their lands, territories and govern- 
 ments. For this purpose they are at once, not only to renew and 
 repeat the often recited district punishments, but also, on 
 any request or intimation, to afford speedy assistance to the post- 
 masters, and this with regular soldiers or in the absence of such, 
 with a trustworthy [armedj and sufficient force and day or night 
 to give this assistance, so that the conveyance of letters, on which 
 so much depends, shall not be hindered and shall be put in safety 
 against the like wicked and highway robber crew. |^"And when 
 such malefactor in this way shall be detected in the act and caught, 
 then, without formalities, his trial shall be had, according to the 
 present Circle orders, and it is allowable without mercy to inflict 
 upon him the extremest capital punishment, if necessary to 
 break him on the wheel, as a warning and example to others.^^^ 
 -To the various documents to the same purpose the present cir- 
 cular is aftixed and published, under the common official seal 
 of the five princely benches. 
 
 Signed at Ulm, 19th May, 1749. The Councillors, the Envoys 
 and the Ambassadors of the Princes and States of the 7i.wrthy Sua- 
 bian Circle present at the mnv assembled General Convention. 
 
 According to the High-princely Saxe-Gotha territorial order,' 
 P. II., c. 4., tit. 23, in regard to the gipsies, their possessions and 
 belongings shall, according to the complete prohibition of their 
 travelling in German countries contained in the imperial statutes, 
 be taken from all such gipsies as venture to enter the lands of 
 the princedom of Saxe-Gotha, and they, with their wives and 
 children, shall be driven out of it. x\nd in virtue of the circular 
 issued in the same country, of the 29th January, 1664, in respect 
 to the watch association, the gipsies are summarily to be driven 
 
27 
 
 off from the frontiers. For tliis purpose the officers appointed 
 for the defence of the country are to aid the courts of justice in 
 all localities. And to this end the troops of every district, with 
 their arms and the necessary powder and shot, are to be kept 
 ready, exercised and provided, as also to the end of pursuit from 
 one district or government to another, as is allowed and to be 
 done by virtue of the imi)erial ordinances. 
 
 In the duchy ot Wiirtemberg the gipsies were not tolerated, 
 more specially for the reason that they have several times ven- 
 tured to betray the Duke of Wiirtemberg, Eberhard, to the Sultan 
 of Egypt, as is shown in Crusii. Annul. Sucv., Litidenspi'ir ad. 
 Ordinat. Wurtemb., p. 120, n. 2. 
 
 Now it cannot be denied that the just now enumerated ordi- 
 nances and the punishment contained in them may, at first sight, 
 api)ear to many to be altogether too severe. But just as it is the 
 common good which recpiires any punishment, so these whole- 
 some laws were required by imperious necessity to make this 
 jiunishment severe. On this ground the severity of military dis- 
 cipline which often punishes a soldier who, in spite of orders, has 
 stolen a single fowl, with death, is justified, although as an abstract 
 proposition there is no proportion between a fowl and the life of 
 a man. If, however, one fully considers the circumstances 
 which give rise to such severity, the doubt concerning it will soon 
 disai)pear. Thus writes a certain Politicus (statesman?) : "The 
 |)unishment of the least fault is made very severe that the greater 
 crimes may be avoided the more easily, on account of the mo- 
 mentous results which come from the least point of neglected 
 military discipline. It would be right if, in the proper manner, 
 this severe law were published, ' Any soldier who steals even a 
 fowl shall be punishetl by the '' froice," since he has j)referred the 
 pleasures ot stealing l)eiore the sanctity of the laws and the j)ub- 
 iic security, and thus he would seem to consent to what he knew 
 would be thefiunishment of his act.'" 
 
 If now there be a justification of the severe punishments of 
 soldiers, then the severity ot the punishments in regard to gipsies 
 and the like rabble are much more justifiable, for they are, accord- 
 ing to the extent above shown, — which has been above shown 
 under imperial outlawry — and thus their havings and belongings, 
 their bodies and lives, notwithstanding one or more public pass- 
 ports may be exhibited, since these were by the imperial ordi- 
 nances completely revoked, broken and annihilated. 
 
 1'kkiss, as also especially in the Klectis Juris Public!, T. VI., 
 in the Eighth Part, p. 654, »S:c., has expressed himself decidedly. 
 Still more concerning this gipsy rabble is to be found in the trea- 
 
28 
 
 tise on the subject, by Ahasuerus Fritschen, '■'■ de Origitie, Fatna 
 and Moribiis Zingarorum; " as also in Johannes Lunnaeu's "de 
 Jur. Publ. Lib." IX., c. I., n. i6i, &c.; in Camerarius' " Hor. 
 Subcif." Cent. I., c. 17.; Cent. II., c. 38 and 75, and Cent. III., 
 c. 75; in Schonborner's " Poht." III., c. 26; in Flemming's 
 " Deiitschen yager" Theil II., p. 44, &c.; in Ludolph's " Schau- 
 i?//////*?," Theil I., p. 400; in Zubner's " Natur- Kiuist- Berg- 
 Gewoxk- II nd Handlii/igs- Lex.;'' Arnctiel's '■'■ Mitiernachtische 
 Volkcr" (Northern Peoples), Th. III., p. 45, &c.; in Falcken- 
 stein's '■'• Nordgauisches Altcrthum" (Antiquity of Northern 
 Countries), Th. I. p. 125, lit. n ; in Jacob Thomasius' " Disp. de 
 Ciiigaris ; in the " A //gemein. Chronik" (Universal Chronicle), 
 VI. Band, p. 66; in Micaelius' " ///V/^^r. Ecc/es." (Ecclesiastical 
 History), T. L., p. 887 ; in Wegener's " Einleit. zu den IVeit iind 
 Staais-Gesch. (Introduction to the History of the World, States, 
 &c.), p 422; in Bresslauis; Sainml. XXXIII., Versuch (Essay), 
 p. 69; in Tharsander's "6V//<?//-/yrt;/2," Th. III., p. 331, &:c.; in 
 Nerret's '■'■ Heiden Tenipel" p. 1097; in Aventi's "■Annal." p. 
 835 ; in AHgem's '' Histor. Lex" T. IV,, p. 973; in Bodin "-de 
 Kepubl" Tit. V.; in Paulus' " Zf// und Lust" T. I., N. 198, p. 
 690; in Voetius' " Sips." T. II., p. 654 ; in Camer's "■Dor Snbsis." 
 Cent I., p. 195, &c. See also', in addition, the Article, " Zetigi- 
 tane" a country in "iVfrica proper," on the Mediteranean See, in 
 the same (Zedler's) Universal Lexicon : &c., &c., therein. 
 
 GIPSIES, a word corrupted from Egyptians, is the name given 
 in* England to a wandering race of people who are [now] found 
 scattered over many countries of Europe, whither they migratetl 
 from the East about the beginning of the fifteenth century. 
 Pascjuier, in his " Recherches Historiques," says that they first 
 appeared at Paris in the character of Penitents or Pilgrims, in 
 August, 1427, in a troop of more than 100, under some chiefs 
 who styled themselves Counts, and that they represented them- 
 selves as Christians driven out of Egypt by the Mussulmans. 
 They obtained permission to remain in the kingdom ; other 
 troops [bands] followed, and they wandered about m all direc- 
 tions, unmolested for many years, committing petty depredations, 
 and their women assuming the calling of fortune-tellers. In 1560 
 an Ordonnance of the States of Orleans enjoined all imposters 
 and vagabonds styled " Bohemians," or " Egyptians," to quit the 
 kingdom under pain of the galleys. The name of Bohemians, 
 given to them by the French, may be owing to the circumstance of 
 some of them having come to Fra?ice from Bohemia, for tliey are 
 mentioned as having appeared in various parts of Germany pre- 
 vious to their entering France; others derive the word from 
 
29 
 
 " Boc/n" an old French word signifying a Sorcerer. (Moreri, 
 Art. Boheinifiis ; and Ducange'.s "Glossary," An. .Ei^vpiiaci.) 
 The Geniiaiis gave them the name of " Zi^^funer^'' or Wanderers ; 
 the Dutch called them " Heiden," or Heathens; the Danes and 
 Swedes ''Tartars:' In Italy they are called '' Zini^ari ;" in 
 Turkey and the Levant " 7c/iltii:;e)ies ; " in Spain they are called 
 " Gitanos : " in Hungary and Transylvania, where they are very 
 numerous, they are called '^ Pharaoh Nepeti" or '■'■Pharaoh's 
 peopled' The notion of their being Egyptians is probably de- 
 rived from the circumstance that many of them came imme- 
 diately from Egypt into Europe, but it seems proved that they 
 are not originally from that country, their appearance, manners, 
 and language being totally diliterent from those of either the 
 Copts or Fellahs. There are many gipsies now in Egyi)t, but 
 they are looked upon as s/ra/ii^ers, as indeed they are everywhere 
 else. 
 
 It is now generally believed that the gipsies migrated origin- 
 ally from India at the time of the great Mohammedan invasion of 
 TimurBec;; that in their own country they belonged to one of 
 the lowest castes, which resemble them in their aj)pearance, 
 habits, and es])ecially in their fondness for carrion and other un- 
 clean food. Pottinger, in his ' Travels,' saw some tribes resem- 
 bling them in Beloochistan. There is a tribe near the mouths of 
 the Indus called Tchin^anes [somewhat similar to their Italian 
 and Spanish, and almost identical with their Turkish and Levan- 
 tine appellation]. 
 
 The gipsies, in their language, call themselves Sind : and 
 their language has been found to resemble some of the dialects 
 of India {Bombay Transactions, 1820). They have no traditions 
 or records concerning their origin ; no religion of their own, but 
 they ado])t the outward forms of the people among whom they 
 live, whether Christians or Mussulmans. Everywhere they e.\- 
 hibit the same roving habits, a dislike to a fixed settlement and 
 to the arts of husbandry, uncleanness in their food, licentious- 
 ness, ignorance and intellectual apathy, a disposition to jjilfer 
 and to imi)ose on the credulity of others. They seldom com- 
 mit violent robbery or other heinous crimes, being fearful of pun- 
 ishment. Maria Theresa ordered those in her states to be in- 
 structed in agriculture, with a view to their i^ermanent settlement ; 
 but her endeavors were not very successful. In Hungary and 
 Transylvania, however, many of them follow some regular trade 
 and have fixed habitations; they wash gold from the sand of the 
 rivers, and they work iron or cojjper ; some are carpenters and 
 turners, others are horse-dealers, and even keep wine shops or 
 public houses. They abound in W'allachia, Moldavia, and Bess- 
 
30 
 
 arabia, and they are found in Russia as far as Tobolsk. Grell- 
 man, in his ' Versuch i'lber die Ziegenner^ Gottingen, 1787, con- 
 jectures that there are between 700,000 and 800,000 in Europe, 
 of whom 40,000 are in Spain, chiefly in the southern provinces. 
 In England they have much diminished of late years, in conse- 
 quence of the inclosure of land and the laws against vagrants. 
 J. Hoyland has collected the most accurate information that 
 could be procured concerning this strange race, in his '■'■Historical 
 Survey of the Customs, Habits, and Present State of the Gipsies ; 
 designed to develop the Origin of this Singular People, and to pro- 
 mote the Amelioration of their Couditionr 8vo., York, 1816. He 
 has largely made use of the work of Grellman, " The Penny 
 Cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowl- 
 edge." London, 1838, vol. xi., Gipsies, p. 225. 
 
 Die II Zigeuner || in || Europa und Asien || (The Gipsies in 
 Europe and Asia): Ethnogra]:)hisch-linguistische Untersuchung || 
 vornehmlich || ihrer Herkunft und Sprache,|| nach gedruckten und 
 ungedruckten Quellen, || von || Dr. A. F. Pott,|| ord. Prof, der 
 allgem. Sprachwissenschaft an der konigl. Preuss. Umversitat || 
 Halle-Wittenberg.|| Erster Theil.|| Einleitung und Grammatik.|| 
 Halle, 1844.11 Druck und Verlag von Ed. Heynemann || London, 
 bei Williams &: Nordgate. 
 
 This is said to be the best and most exliaustive authority on 
 the origin and language of the Gipsies and was imported for ex- 
 amination and citation in the pamphlet on that subject now pass- 
 ing through the press. Too late for the original juirpose its facts 
 will be used in a larger work, for which all these studies in rela- 
 tion to the Gijisies were prosecuted with diligence and care. 
 
 A Guy d'Agde, in the " Dictionnaire de la Conversation,'' 
 article " Bohemiens " (Gipsies), has not a single good word for 
 these people, charging upon them that they are not capable of 
 any crime which indicates the possession of energy and courage, 
 in a word, of manhood; but only those which awaken sentiments 
 of contempt and disgust. 
 
 In the Supplement to this great work, this utterly degrading 
 character is somewhat relieved of such blasting stigma by the 
 statement that in the XVth and XVIth centuries they were noted 
 as military artificers among the Poles and Turks, and that subse- 
 quently they became distinguished as musicians. In Russia the 
 gipsies were not considered either as Outlaws or utter Outcasts, or 
 even vagabonds. In Germany, two centuries since, they were 
 looked upon as Spies in the interests of the Turks and penalties 
 fearfully severe were from time to time promulgated against them. 
 In case they did not obey the laws for their expulsion they were 
 
31 
 
 to be flogged until they bled, then to have their nostrils slit, their 
 heads and beards shaved close, and, finally, to be transported out ot 
 the country. Any violence committed against them was not cul-: 
 pable. 
 
 In Hungary the judicial oath administered to them is curious 
 " As Go<l druwned King Pharaoh in the Red Sea, even so may 
 the Tsigane be buried in the bowels ot the earth, and may he be 
 accursed if he does not speak the truth. May nothing honor- 
 able or dishonorable succeed with him. At the first trot may his 
 horse be miraculously changed into a donkey and himselt hung 
 on the gallows by the executi(;ner if he testify falsely." 
 
 The gipsies have little or no, if any, religion. According to 
 M. Poissonier, Moldavia and Wallachia were inundated by the 
 gipsies. In the latter principality the jjroverb runs: "Prayer 
 never passes the lips of the '1 siganes and and their church was 
 constructed of curds or lard and the dogs ate it." This same is 
 also said of them by \'elas(iue/., in Spain. In Harper's exhaust- 
 ive " Cyclopa;dia of Biblical, Theological and Kcclesiastical 
 Literature," Gipsies are carefully treated: 
 
 '•They bear difierent names in difterent countries. In France 
 they are Bolumiens (because they first came thither from Bohe- 
 mia, or from Boem. an old French word meaning "sorcerer," be- 
 cause of their |)racticing on the credulity of the vulgar ; in Spain, 
 Gitanos or /Jncali ; in (iermany, Zi^euner ; in Italy, lAiiit^ari ; in 
 Holland, Heydenen (Heathens); in Sweden and Denmark, 
 Tartars; in Sclavic countries, Tsii^ani ; in Hungary, Czi- 
 ganjok ; in Turkey, I's/ieni^en/cr ; in Persia, Sisec/i ; in 
 Arabia, Harami. Various nicknames are also applied to them, 
 a.s Cao^onx and Gtieiix in France; 7Je/i-Gauritr (Wandering 
 Rogues) in Germany ; and Tinklers in Scotland. They call 
 themselves Rom (men, or husbands; comp. Co])tic AVw), Cai.o 
 (black), or Sintk (from Ind : hence Zincali, or black men from 
 Ind.) 
 
 Some writers have connected them with the liyvvvaL, men- 
 tioned by Herodotus (V., 9), as a people of Median extraction 
 dwelling beyond the Lower Danube, and the '^ljivvoi, described 
 by Strabo (§ 520), as living near Mount Caucasus, and jiractising 
 Persian customs. Others have referred them variously to Tar- 
 tary. Nubia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Kthiojiia, Morocco, &:c. ; but 
 the account which the Gipsies, at their appearance in Western 
 Europe gave of themselves, claimed " Little Egyi)t " as the 
 original home of the race, whence they were driven in conse- 
 quence of the Moslem conquests. • * 'I'he results of 
 the investigations made within the last hundred years in the fields 
 of comparative philology and ethnology jirove beyond reasonable 
 
32 
 
 grounds of doubt that the theories above named are erroneous 
 and that we must look to India, " the nursing home of nations," 
 (telius gentium nutrix), as also the fatherland of tlie gipsies. It 
 is now the almost, if not entirely, universally received opinion, 
 that they came to Europe from Hindustan, either impelled by 
 the ravages of Tamerlane, or, more probably, at an earlier date, 
 in quest of fresh fields for the enjoyment of their vagabond life, 
 and the exercise of their propensity for theft and deception. 
 This view of their origin rests upon their physiological affinities 
 with Asiatic types of men, as well as on the striking resemblances 
 between the Gipsy language and Hindustanee, and the similarity 
 of their habits and modes of life to those of many roving tribes of 
 India, especially of the Nuts or ^^zsif^^/rj-, who are styled the 
 Gipsies of India, and are counterparts of those in Europe, both in 
 other respects and also in having no peculiar religion, since they 
 have never adopted the worship of Brahma. The Nuts are 
 thought by some to be an aboriginal race, prior even to the Hindus. 
 Another theory, which seeks to reconcile the^ Gipsy statement of 
 ;in Egyptian origin with the clear evidences of a Hindu one, 
 would find their ancestors in the mixed multitude that went out 
 frtMii Egypt with Moses (see Exod. xii., 38; Num. xi., 4; Neh. 
 \iii., 3), and who, according to this view, passed onward to India 
 and settled there, and from their descendants subsequently bands 
 of Gipsies migrated to Europe, probably at different times and 
 by different routes (see Simson). . . . The Gipsies call their 
 language " Rommany," and modern philological researches prove 
 that it belongs to the Sanscrit family. It has doubtless received 
 additions and modifications from the languages of the countries 
 in which the race has sojourned, yet it is still so nearly the same 
 with modern Hindustanee that a Gipsy can readily understand a 
 person speaking in that dialect — a fact which tends to verify the 
 statements made as to the zealous care with which the Gipsies 
 have cherished their ancestral tongue. 
 
THE 
 
 ARMY AND NAVY 
 
 QUARTERLY. 
 
 AN ECLECTIC MAGAZINE. 
 
 VOL. I.— OCTOBER, 1885.— NO. 4. 
 
 CONTKNTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 I. Electricity as applied to Naval Purposes. By Lieutenant W. A. Chishoi.m- 
 
 Batten, R.N. (From the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution.). 385 
 II. The Functions of Cavalry in Modern War (concluded). By Major Graves, 
 Twentieth Hussars. (From the Journal of the Royal United Service Insti- 
 tution.) 405 
 
 III. The Literature of the Thirty Years' "War. V.y J. AVATT.q de Peyster, Brevet 
 
 Mjijor-General S.N.Y 422 
 
 IV. Tlie Actual and Ostensible Condition of llic Kuaaitiu Cavalry. By H. von 
 
 Dewall. (Translated from the Jahrbiicher filr die Deutsche Armee und 
 Marine by Stanislaus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth U. S. Artillery.). 400 
 » . A Russian Criticism upon "The Actual and Ostensible Condition of the Russian 
 Cavalry." (Translated from the Jahrbiicher fur die Deutsche Armee and 
 Marine by Stanislaus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth U. S. Artillery.). 484 
 VI. The Moral Element in Military Discipline. By Lieutenant Field-Marshal the 
 Archduke John. (From the Journal of the Royal United Service Insti- 
 tution.) . . ■ 493 
 
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 Liquid Beef Tonic. 
 
 ORIGINAL LABEL : 
 
 ' Coldeii'ii liiebig's liiqiiid Kxtract of Boef and Tonic Invigorator." 
 
 (Originated and first Prepared by the I-iebig Meat Extract Co. London, Eng.) 
 
 ^♦■♦'♦■♦■♦♦♦♦♦♦♦♦f ♦♦♦♦♦♦■♦■■»■< 
 
 h-*-^-*- ♦»♦♦♦♦«♦ ■♦-ft 
 
 An invaluable Aid in Medical Practice. 
 
 Differs Essentially from all other Beef Tonics. 
 
 COIiDEN'S Liquid Beef Tonic is endorsed by scores of physicians, who are growing to realize 
 more and more its importance in repairing, in accordance with the principles of dietetics, the 
 waste wllicll disease entails. It consists of the extract of Beef (by Baron Liebig's process) 
 spirit rendered non-injurious to the most delicate stomach by extraction of the Fusel Oil, soluble Citrate of 
 Iron, Cinchona, Gentian and other bitter tonics. An official analysis of this preparation by the eminent 
 Chemist, ARTHUR HILL HASSALL, M. D., F. R. S., and an endorsement by the late SIR ERASMUS 
 WILSON, F. R. S., is printed on the label of each bottle 
 
 As a nutrient, and a reliable tonic in all cases of debility and weakness. Malarial Fever, 
 Anaemia, Chlorosis, Incipient Consumption, etc., it is the best preparation ever used. It acts directly on the 
 sentient Gastric Nerves, stimulating the follicles to secretion, and gives to weakened individuals that first 
 prerequisite to improvement — an appetite. It strengthens the nervous system when unstrung by disease, 
 and has been employed with remarkable success as a remedy for Drunkenness and the Opium Habit. 
 
 Its Range of Action Embraces all Cases of Debility. 
 
 In order that physicians may form some idea of the nature of its ingredients, I will upon application in 
 person, or by letter (enclosing a card), send a sample bottle of Colden's Liquid Beef Tonic to any 
 physician in regular standing, in the United States. Please ask your Dispensing Druggist (if he has not 
 already a supply) to order it. In prescribing this preparation, physicians should be particular to mention 
 "Colden's" — viz.: ** Ext. carnis, fl. coinp. (Colden's.)^* It is put up in pint bottles, and 
 can be had of Wholesale and Retail Druggists generally throughout the United States. 
 
 C. N. CRITTENTON, Sole Agent, 115 Pulton St. New- York. 
 
 EJt=it=n>=|l=it==il=il=iLrTbnl=i»=il=ii==it=ii=ii=nt==it==ii=ii=nt==it=iL=nt=nt=ni=i 
 
 GLENN'S 
 
 gulpbur goap. 
 
 ALL pnysicians know that skin diseases are more or 
 less constitutional, or dependent upon some specific 
 poison in the blond, which if eradicated by internal treatment 
 needs something to remove its appearance from the surface. 
 Experience has proved that the best possible aid in the accom- 
 plishment of this end is obtained by the use of Sulphur in 
 soap. GLF.NN'S SULPHUR SOAP is the best combina- 
 tion of its kind, and the one now generally used. It is for 
 sale by all Druggists, at 25 cents a cake, or 3 cakes for 60 
 cents. 
 
 (50^ISTAjMTI^IE'S 
 PINE 
 
 TAR 
 
 SOAP 
 
 Has been on trial among physicians for very many 
 years as a toilet Soap and Healing Agent, and its 
 superior virtues have been unanimously conceded in 
 all cases vT-here the use of tax is indicated. 
 
 Unsolicited expressions of its excellence have been 
 received from the Medical Faculty generally. IT 
 IS THE BEST TAR SOAP MADE. None 
 genuine unless stamped "A. Constantine's Persian 
 riealir.g Pine-Tar Soap." For sale by all Druggists. 
 
 Either of the above-named Soaps will be mailed to any address on receipt of price and three cents extra per cake for postagre. 
 Depot: C. N. CRITTENTON, 115 Fulton Street, New York. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 SCOTT S EMULSION 
 
 OF PURE COD LIVER OIL 
 AND HYPOPHOSPHITES OF LIME AND SODA. 
 
 The Standard [mulsion of Cod Liver Oil. 
 
 ALMOST AS PALATABLE AS MILK. 
 
 The only preparation of its class that will not 
 separate nor grow rancid in any climate. 
 
 It contains more strengthening and fat pro- 
 ducing qualities than any other preparation in 
 the world. 
 
 It is indorsed by the medical profession uni- 
 versally. 
 
 And in consumption, wasting disorders of 
 children, scrofulous conditions, and general de- 
 bility, it is most marvellous in its healing and 
 strengthening powers. 
 
 SCOTT & BOWNE, 
 
 Sold by DriiggiNts Generally. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 VANITY FAIR 
 
 Flake Cut Smoking Tobacco, 
 
 IN TINS, FOR. ARMY AND NAVY USE. 
 
 This popvilar brand is prepared in a condition to keep in any climate, and, by 
 an ino-enious arrangement of a sponge in the cover of every box, consumers can 
 dampen to suit their convenience. 
 
 Requisitions for this Smoking Tobacco can be filled on application to proper 
 department. If your commissarj'- does not keep this brand in stock, and is un- 
 willing to order it, we will supply direct, at factory prices, by registered mail or 
 express. 
 
 FRAGRANT VANITY FAIR AND CLOTH OF GOLD CIGARETTES, 
 
 13 First Prize IMedals A.-vea,rded.. 
 
 WM. S, KIMBALL iSi CO. - - - - Rochester, N. Y. 
 
 EAST FLORIDA SEMINARY, 
 
 GAINESVILLE, FLORIDA. 
 
 Located at the most healthful point iu the State. Admirably adapted to the requirements of delicate lads 
 who cannot endure the cold weatlier or heated school-rooms of the North. Complete English, Classical, 
 Scientific, and Business Courses. Military Department under charge of an officer of the Regular Army. 
 For descriptive catalogue of the Seminary, apply to Col. E. P. CATEK, Gainesville, Fla. 
 
 The New York Tribune. 
 
 FA3L.1L< OF" 1885. 
 
 ANIMATED, KEADABLE, THOE-OUGHLY AMERICAN, WHOLESOME. 
 
 THE SUNDAY ISSUE A BRILLIANT PAPER. 
 
 Two Thousand Dollars' Worth of News, Sketches, and Stories for a Pew Cents. 
 
 THE TRIBUNE contains more items of news— telegraphic, local, social, 
 athletic, sporting, etc.— than any other New York paper. 
 
 Its Sunday collection of notable articles by distinguished writers a-t home 
 and abroad, who write over their own signatures, is without a parallel in New 
 York. Read the lively review of all manly sports in the Sunday paper. 
 
 Geo. "W. Smalley's letters from London give a clearer idea of English 
 affairs and politics than the London papers themselves. This is admitted. 
 
 THE TRIBUNE represents the great business interests of the country, 
 and the prosperity of our own people, in the controversies now going on relative 
 to the tariff. In the discussions relative to Army and Navy, The Tribune 
 favors putting the country into a state of good defence. 
 
 THE TRIBTJNE, Daily and Sunday, $8.50 per year; Daily only,»7.00; Semi- Weekly, S2.50 
 per year; Weekly, Si. 25. 
 
 Address XHE TRIBUNE, New York. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 Ill 
 
 VICTORY! 
 
 (Trade-Mark.) (Trade-Mark.) 
 
 We have solved the problem at last — producing a Smoking Tobacco equal in delicacy 
 of flavor to the choicest of the fancy brands, and at the same time have been able to put it at 
 the popular price of 
 
 5^^ ^^^ ^^ ^—^ ^ It is mannfacfured from the 
 
 CENTS a pack- 1| ||| ■ A|| || | '^ZL^.l^Z.^tLTo^^^Xl 
 age, neatly put If ¥n mil 11 V ?;;-•;- -^^^^^^^^^^ 
 up in Tin Foil W llj 1 IJIl I \ ^r^:^'^::^^^;^ 
 Wrapper. W Iw I Wll I | '" «'«^y"'»'-^»° «"'*!'"'" »'"> 
 
 United States. 
 
 Read what "Old Rosy,' 
 
 The Hero of Corinth and Stone's River, says: " // /5 delightful fOY 
 
 smokers." Yours respecl fully." 
 
 Gen. Paul Van Der Voort, late Commander-in-Chief of 
 the Grand Army, sends the following: "^qUY VlClory Smoking TobOCCO 
 
 is delightful ammunition for the Meerschaum, t like it very much." 
 
 /^A^u^y 
 
 S/Lrln^^^ 
 
 Gen. Geo. S. Merrill, ex-Commander-in-Chief of the Grand 
 
 Army, says : ^quy Victory is Well named. For delicacy of flavor it 
 can't -well be surpassed, and it is laden with contentment when 
 put into a pipe. Yours very truly." 
 
 Greatest in Quantity! 
 Finest in Quality ! 
 Cheapest in Price! 
 
 BfriyTlie Victory Sinokiiig Tobacco should be found at all tobacconists. 
 If you cannot (ind it send to us direct, inclosing fSKVE\ CENTS in 
 stamps, and \vc will mail you a sample package. In such a case you 
 will do us a favor also to send us the name of the leading Tobacco 
 Dealer or (iroei-r in y«»ur town, in order that we may take steps to 
 place it where you can procure it conveniently in future. 
 
 Have y.Mi tried the t elebrated GOLD COIN CHEWING TOBACCO? 
 The best and purest. Popular price, I'lVE cents. Ily mail, same as 
 ** Victory." Address 
 
 D. BUCHNER & CO., New York City. 
 
 Mention "Army and Navy Quarterly." 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 COMPARATIVE WORTH of BAKING POWDERS. 
 
 ROYAL (Absolutely Pure). 
 GRANT'S (Alum Powder)* 
 RUMFORD'S, when fre8li..B 
 HANFORD'S, when fresh. . . 
 
 REDHEAD'S 
 
 CHARM (Alum Powder) * . . . 
 AMAZON (Alum Powder) * . 
 
 CLEVELAND'S(short^.■t.ioz.)| 
 
 PIONEER (San Francisco)... 
 
 CZAR 
 
 DR. PRICE'S 
 
 SNOW FLAKE (Groff's)... 
 LEWIS' 
 
 PEARL (Andrews & Co.) 
 
 HECKER'S 
 
 GILLET'S 
 
 ANDREWS&CO."Regar 
 
 Milwaukee, (Contains Alum.) 
 
 BULK (Powder sold loose). . . . 
 RUMFORD'S, when not fresh 
 
 REPORTS OF GOVERNMENT CHEMISTS 
 As to Purity and Wliolesomeness of the Royal Baking Powder. 
 
 " I have tested a packajEje of Royal Baking Powder, which I purchased in the 
 open market, and find it composed of pure and wholesome ingredients. It is a cream 
 of tartar powder of a high degree of merit, and does not contain either alum or 
 phosphates, or other injurious substances. E. G. Love, Ph.D." 
 
 " It is a scientific fact that the Royal Baking Powder is absolutely pure. 
 
 "11. A. MOTT, Ph.D." 
 
 " I have examined a package of Royal Baking Powder, purchased by myself in 
 the market. I find it entirely free from alum, terra alba, or any other injurious sub- 
 stance. Henky Mokton, Ph.D., President of Stevens Institute of Technology." 
 
 " I have analyzed a package of Royal Baking Powder. The materials of which 
 it is composed are pure and wholesome. S. Dana Hates, State Assayer, Mass." 
 
 The Royal Baking Powder received the highest award over all competitors at 
 the Vienna World's Exposition, 1873 ; at the Centennial, Philadelphia, 1876 ; at the 
 American Institute, New York, and at State Fairs throughout the country. 
 
 No other article of human food has ever received such high, emphatic, and uni- 
 versal endorsement from eminent chemists, physicians, scientists, and Boards of 
 Health all over the world. 
 
 Note — The above Diagram illustrates the comparative worth of various Baking 
 Powders, as shown by Chemical Analysis and experiments made by Prof. Schedler. 
 A pound can of each powder was taken, the total leavening power or volume in 
 each can calculated, the result being as indicated. This practical test for worth by 
 Prof. Schedler only proves what eveiy observant consumer of the Royal Baking 
 Powder knows by practical experience, that, while it costs a few cents per pound 
 more than ordinary kinds, it is far more economical, and, besides, affords the advan- 
 tage of better work. A single trial of the Royal Baking Powder will convince any 
 fair-minded person of these facts. 
 
 * While the diagram shows some of the alum powders to be of a higher degree 
 of strength than other powders ranked below them, it is not to be taken as indicat- 
 ing that they have any value. All alum powders, no matter how high their strength, 
 ve to be avoided as dangerous. 
 
TH K 
 
 Army and Navy Quarterly, 
 
 Vol. I. OCTOBER, 1885. No. 4. 
 
 ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES/ 
 
 BY LIEUTENANT W. A. CIIISHOLM-BATTEX, R.N. 
 
 I. Application for General Purposes. 
 II. Application for War Purposes. 
 
 These are in some cases mixed, and there is no sharply-defined 
 line between them, — take electric lighting as an instance. The ordinary 
 internal lighting of a ship is quite distinct in itself from search-light- 
 ing, though produced by much the same means. They have both 
 grown independently; but in a ship of war, the great object should be 
 to combine the two. 
 
 Electricity is a great power in skilled hands, and can be used with 
 safety and certainty even by slightly trained men, if only enough care 
 and thought be taken in designing electrical appliances to make their 
 use easy and abuse difficult. 
 
 The applications of electricity on board ship are various, and differ 
 greatly. Sometimes it is necessary to use the electric force in such a 
 way that it has j)ower to melt any metal, to produce an intense light 
 rivaling that of the sun, to propel a vessel, or to give severe and even 
 fatal shocks to those handling its mechanism. At other times it is 
 so gently applied that although it acts through the human body, it 
 cannot be felt by the most tender child ; and at others, it is so 
 exquisitely sensitive that it will carry faithfully the distinct tone of a 
 
 ' Bead before the Royal United Service Institution. 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 25 
 
386 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 certain voice, and indicate a change in its neighborhood so slight as the 
 movement by inclies of an ounce of lead. 
 
 The two properties of the electric current which are generally made 
 use of are, first, that of causing heat when a comparatively great 
 resistance is placed in the circuit; and, secondly, that of giving 
 magnetic properties to any conductor through which it passes. 
 
 An apology is due for going into matters so simple, but in case 
 there may be some who may not be familiar with these points, tliey 
 will be briefly explained. 
 
 Electricity for naval purposes is produced by what may be termed 
 a generator, which is generally either a machine deriving its power 
 from the burning of coal, or a battery deriving its power from the slow 
 burning of zinc. 
 
 The next part of any electric appliance to be considered is the 
 circuit, that is to say, a conductor, generally metal, which allows the 
 current to circulate from the generator to the place of application, and 
 back again. This is generally formed of copper or iron wire. 
 
 The part of the conductor or lead which goes from the generator to 
 the place of application may be called the main, and the part which 
 comes back may be called the return. 
 
 When the result desired is the developing of heat or light, a high 
 resistance, that is a small conductor, or one of a comparatively badly 
 conducting substance, is introduced in the circuit at the desired place. 
 
 For instance, if the electricity originally obtained by the burning 
 of coal, and then carried in an accumulator, be allowed to pass by a 
 main wire %vhich must touch the accumulator, to an incandescent or 
 glow-lamp and back by a return wire, heat and light are produced in 
 the thread of carbon in the lamp, which has a high resistance. 
 
 Or again, if the electricity produced by the burning of zinc in a 
 battery be allowed to pass through the main to a small wire and back 
 again, sufficient heat is produced to fire a charge of gunpowder. 
 
 When the result required is an exertion of magnetic force, the 
 simplest, or at any rate the most familiar, form is the electric bell. In 
 a circuit from a battery which slowly burns zinc, a current passes round 
 a coil of wire, causing it to act as a magnet and to attract a piece of 
 iron which makes the clapper strike the bell. 
 
 Or again, if the current, originally obtained from the burning of 
 coal, be allowed to pass by the main to a magnetic arrangement and 
 back by the return, the result is magnetic action which causes motion, 
 and is sufficient to drive a boat or any useful machine. 
 
 Thus much of the simple principles of electricity. 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 387 
 
 Electric Lifjhting. 
 
 Tlie most important ajjplication of electricity for naval purposes is, 
 perhaps, the lighting of ships. 
 
 Electric lighting is almost entirely carried out by an extension of 
 the simple aj)pliances which have been described. The current passes 
 from the electric machine or generator along the main to the lamps 
 and back by the return; that is to say, the illumination in a ship of 
 war is carried out by a large number of glow-lamps — usually about 
 three hundred — of about twenty candle-power, that is, twenty wax 
 candles, eight to the pound. The electric machine is usually driven by 
 a steam-engine. 
 
 The advantages claimed for the use of electric lighting on board 
 ship are many of them applicable, as you will notice, to its use on 
 shore. 
 
 1. It is cheaper than oil, — at any rate than the oils allowed to be 
 used on board men-of-war, and still more so than candles, which have 
 hitherto been the general illuminants. 
 
 2. There is far greater safety from fire, as there is no occasion for 
 carrying matches about or lighted candles, which in spite of rigid 
 rules are often used naked. This is hardly surprising when one hears 
 of the trouble which has to be taken to avoid naked lights being used 
 in mines; the use of electric lighting also does away with that incu- 
 bator of fires, — the lamp-room. 
 
 3. It hardly heats the air, and does not foul it at all. 
 
 Many merchant steamers and some ships in the navy are thus 
 lighted, the principal reason against its extended use in the latter being 
 the fact that men-of-war pass much of their time without getting up 
 steam, but in troop-ships it has been almost universally introduced. 
 
 Andrews & Co., of Glasgow, have just completed on board the 
 " Etruria" a large installation which, in its proportions, surpasses any- 
 thing that has hitherto been attempted in the application of electric 
 light to steam-ships. The " Etruria" carries about eight hundred and 
 fifty lights, and a brief description will no doubt be interesting. Swan 
 glow-lamps are used, and of these ninety are distributed in the engine- 
 room, stoke-holes, etc. One hundred and three lights altogether are 
 used for lighting the main dining-saloon, eighty-four of which are sus- 
 pended over the tables in three-light electroliers hanging from the 
 ceiling. The remainder of the lamps are in small brackets and pend- 
 ants so as to give light over the side seats. Above the saloon is the 
 music-room, having seventeen lights round the walls and over the 
 
388 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 piano and organ. The smoking-room has also seventeen lamps. The 
 remainder of the lamps are distributed about the ship, one hundred 
 and seventy-two being in the state-rooms. 
 
 Besides the actual internal lighting of ships, electricity is used for 
 the bow and mast-head lights. I understand that the Board of Trade 
 does not object to the use of the electric light for ships' side lights, but 
 it requires oil-lamps to be kept in reserve in case of failure. With 
 regard to mast-head lights, however, the Board discourages the use of 
 electricity, partly on the ground of its liability to get out of order in 
 consequence of vibration, and partly in consequence of the brilliancy 
 of the light tending to interfere with shore lights, and cause confusion. 
 It is in fact not used for mast-head lights, and only in a few cases for 
 side lights, and it has not been thought necessary to issue any general 
 instructions, though the Board of Trade is now in communication with 
 the Admiralty on the subject. 
 
 On this point there has been some discussion. The first lights used 
 were very much brighter than the oil-lamps which they replaced, and 
 caused mistakes from their being taken for light-houses, or from the 
 distance of the ship using them being misjudged. There is, however, 
 great advantage in their use, from such use securing certain knowledge 
 that the lights are all right. This is effected by the current passing to 
 the lamp through an indicator on the bridge, in view of the officer of 
 the watch. 
 
 The ordinary lights carried by ships-of-war when cruising in com- 
 pany are now in some cases electric, and the electric light has been 
 ingeniously adapted to signaling purposes. 
 
 One of the most complete arrangements got out by the well-known 
 firm of Sautter Lemonier is as follows : 
 
 Two groups, of five glow-lamps each, are suspended at a certain 
 distance above each other, and the current is allowed to pass to one or 
 more of them by a key-board in the deck-house. In order to prevent 
 mistakes, the signal is set before the current is allowed to pass to the 
 required lamps, and this setting lights up a corresponding signal in 
 front of the operator, thus : He wishes to show four lights, and puts 
 four lamps in connection with a main switch. In doing so, he un- 
 covers four little illuminated windows in front of him. Satisfied by 
 the appearance of this signal, he switches on the current from the gen- 
 erator, confident that his signal will be correct. A switch is merely a 
 means of connecting or disconnecting one conductor from another, as 
 is also a firing key, which will be mentioned later on. Or the signaling 
 may be done by hoisting the light and signaling with the key; or again 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 389 
 
 by dipping the light in a bucket. There is also an application of the 
 glow or incandescent lamp for the purpose of coaling or doing other 
 work at night. In this case a group of about a dozen lamps are placed 
 under a reflector which is triced up to the yard-arm, so as to light up 
 the deck of the ship and tiie coal wharf or vessel alongside. 
 
 The glow-lamp is also useful for the diver, either in thick water or 
 at night ; but special precautions have to be taken to prevent the globe 
 being broken by pressure, and for this purpose it is inclosed in a second 
 thick glass globe. 
 
 The electricity for the lamp is cither derived from above water 
 through wires kept carefully dry, and not touching any metal, or it is 
 in some cases provided by a battery carried by the diver with the lamp. 
 
 Messrs. Siebe & Gorman's lamp is of the latter kind. The lamp 
 is mounted in a parabolic reflector fixed to the- side of the battery-box. 
 The battery will keep a constant light going for four to five hours. 
 
 We now come to a different form of illumination, called the arc light. 
 In this arrangement, a suitable current of electricity is allowed to ])ass 
 through two carbon rods in contact, and then they are slightly separated. 
 The effect of this resistance or space introduced into the circuit by sepa- 
 rating, is to produce a very brilliant light, proceeding partly from the 
 heated carbon rods, and partly from a luminous arc between them. 
 
 This light is very intense, too much so for many purposes. The 
 carbons burn away, so that some arrangement is necessary for bringing 
 them within the proper distance for the arc, and for replacing them 
 when entirely consumed. 
 
 This arc light has been used for internal lighting, mast-head lights, 
 and coaling lights, but the necessity of having some apparatus for feed- 
 ing the carbons and other causes have forced it to give way generally, 
 for these purposes, to the simpler glow light. 
 
 For the search light, however, used for discovering torpedo-boats 
 approaching a ship, bombarding forts, and so on, the arc light is a 
 necessity, as great intensity is required. The search light is a warlike 
 appliance, but had better be considered in connection with other uses 
 of electric lighting. It is very useful for other purposes, such as clear- 
 ing the anchor at night, and such peaceful, or at any rate unwarlike 
 operations. When the arc is used for a search light, its rays are all 
 collected by means of lenses or mirrors, and projected in one beam, so 
 as to get the strongest possible light. 
 
 The difference in power is immense between the glow and arc lights 
 in ordinary use at sea; the glow-lamp representing only a few candles, 
 seldom more than twenty, but the arc as now used about twenty-five 
 
390 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 thousand, and a far more intense arc light has been produced on shore. 
 A boat can be discovered by it at a great distance. 
 
 In the West Indies, in a fine clear atmosphere, a building has been 
 picked out clearly enough to be aimed at with a gun, at a distance of 
 two and a half miles, the light used being about eight thousand ca,ndles ; 
 but great difficulty was experienced in keeping the beam on the object, 
 as one could not see any distance unless standing away from the light. 
 
 To obviate this, means have been devised for directing the beam by 
 an observer at some distance from the lamp. 
 
 The search lights in general use are worked by a man who screws 
 the carbons together as they burn away ; this method, undoubtedly 
 crude, has been adopted chiefly for simplicity's sake, but it is high 
 time that a suitable automatic lamp — that is, one which is self-feeding 
 — should be introduced, and that the direction of the beam should be 
 in the hands of the observer, although he is necessarily at some distance 
 from the light. 
 
 The electric lights belonging to the ships have been considerably 
 used during the operations in Egypt ; one was landed, generator and 
 all, at Alexandria, and another at Suakim. The ligiit was also much 
 used at the latter place from on board, for discovering the approach of 
 the enemy at night. 
 
 For signaling, the arc light has been used for many years, the 
 process being to flash the beam up in the sky in longs and shorts, using 
 the Morse or some similar code. 
 
 To show what may be done in this way, it may be mentioned that 
 during some of the electric light night exercises carried out at Ports- 
 mouth from the Torpedo School, the flashes of a light of about twenty 
 thousand candles were distinctly seen thirty-one miles from the ship, a 
 low range of hills intervening ; and a similar light was reported to be 
 seen still farther when shown from a tower of the Philadelphia Exhibi- 
 tion last year. 
 
 Again, some ships being anchored in Ragusa and others in Gravesa, 
 signaled to each other in spite of the hills between, by flashing an arc 
 light up in the sky. 
 
 There is no difficulty in lighting up a building at two miles' distance 
 with a twenty thousand candle light. 
 
 Electric Communications. 
 
 From signaling by the light at a distance, one passes naturally to 
 other means of communication for which purpose electricity is more 
 universally used than for any other. 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 391 
 
 Telegraphy, in the nature of things, is not in use much outside the 
 ship, from the difticultics of bringing in the wires with a ship swinging 
 round her anchor ; but means have been devised for this useful object 
 which are especially api)licable to light-ships: telephones, and soon, 
 can of course be used from a ship moored head and stern, — in fact, 
 light is sometimes supplied in this way. 
 
 As regards electricity within the ship herself, the uses are manifold. 
 
 The ordinary electric bell I need hardly dwell upon, but the two 
 appliances most esj)ecially required in men-of-war are first, a means of 
 knowing the speed of the vessel at any time, and secondly, of telegraph- 
 ing distances of the enemy ascertained in the tops, to the captain and 
 gun-batteries. 
 
 I am not aware of any method, which is in very general use, for 
 obtaining the first result. But there are numerous approaches to it. 
 
 There are many instruments which give the speed of the ship or 
 engines for a greater or less period of time, but what is required in a 
 man-of-war is to know the speed at any instant. 
 
 Various electric logs do the first ; that is to say, the space passed 
 over can be noted during any period, but the speed at a given instant 
 is not shown. Even an instrument which showed at any instant the 
 speed of the engines would be a useful improvement. 
 
 The principle of most electric logs is that the revolutions of the 
 fan periodically close a circuit. When this is done, a dial hand moves 
 on one division, usually a tenth of a mile. If, then, the electric log 
 be joined up to a recorder in the captain's cabin, and another in the 
 chart-house, and set at noon, both the captain and the officer of the 
 watch can see at any time how far the ship has run since then, or since 
 the last time the instrument was looked at. 
 
 The difficulties of a joint which shall connect two conductors, and 
 yet be able to stand continually being revolved, appear to have been 
 dealt with in an original manner in the " Dollond" log; the principle 
 is protected by patent, and is applicable to the attachment of M'ires for 
 signaling to light-ships or other vessels swinging round their anchors. 
 
 This log will be sufficient to give an idea of these instruments. 
 
 The log used in the navy for recording the distance jiassed over by 
 a ship consists in a fan which is towed on the quarter of the ship, and 
 which, as it revolves, shows the number of miles passed over on a dial 
 plate attached. The disadvantage is that it has to be got on board in 
 order to see how much distance has been run. 
 
 Other logs which are much used in mail steamers have a fan towing, 
 but the recorder is on the taffrail, and is turned by the towing line. 
 
392 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 The disadvantage is that the recorder can be in one place only, and 
 only one recorder can be used. 
 
 It is claimed for the electric log that it is more trustworthy than 
 the taffrail log, and more useful than either, in so far as one or more 
 recorders can be placed in any required position. The advantage is 
 obvious in any ship in cruising time; but in a ship of war in action 
 its value is enormously increased, for it is easy to place telephones in 
 connection at any required point in the pilot towers, at the Whitehead 
 directors, gun directors, and gun-deck, for in firing a gun it is necessary 
 to know speed, and still more necessary when firing a torpedo. 
 
 It indicates at once any mishap to the log, by fouling or carrying 
 away. 
 
 It saves the labor, loss of time, and error of registration involved 
 in hauling in the log, which can remain in the water, unless fouled, 
 until entering port. 
 
 The instantaneous registration of the distance run between two 
 bearings enables navigators to calculate with accuracy their position in 
 reference to a light, headland, or other fixed object. 
 
 The indicator can be reset on board at any moment. 
 
 The addition of a small self-contained apparatus and a bell, which 
 can be placed with the indicator or in any other part of the vessel, 
 communicates by sound the regular working of the log, and enables 
 the officer on watch to detect any irregularity and to take instantaneous 
 bearings at given distances, without referring to the indicator or the 
 log. 
 
 A distance indicator devised by Lieutenants Jackson and Anson, 
 of the " Vernon," has undergone already a trial in the " Excellent" 
 and "Vernon," and has been favorably reported on. The indicating 
 hand is rotated in either direction, one step at a time. A spring brake 
 prevents it from being thrown out of adjustment by the concussion of 
 firing heavy guns. A bell is fitted in the receiver which rings each 
 time a signal is completed. In the transmitter, a red disc shows when 
 the circuit is completed, and the battery running on circuit. The in- 
 struments are carefully protected from wet; they will work in any 
 position, and are entirely unaffected by damp and gun-fire; two wires 
 are used with each circuit for connecting transmitter with receiver. 
 The commutator, however, is of delicate construction, and the springs 
 on the armatures require careful adjustment for efficient working with 
 low battery power. 
 
 The great defect seems that there is no method of telling whether 
 the two instruments, transmitter and receiver, are indicating the same 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 393 
 
 signal, and if the battery be left on circuit for long it may fail to work 
 the instrument. 
 
 The telephone is used from ship to shore, when ships are moored. 
 In the " Vernon" one was used to the captain's house and found most 
 useful. Through this telephone, some eight years ago, an officer 
 recognized Professor Bell's voice, which he only knew from having 
 heard him lecture iu London, and he did not know the professor was 
 in Portsmouth. 
 
 The application of the telephone to diving is most valuable, and in 
 my experience was perhaps the means of saving a man's life. He was 
 just able to say, " Pull me up," and was found quite insensible. It is 
 strange to be capable of hearing a man below water, a mile away, as 
 well as if he was at your side. Some difficulties were experienced at 
 first, but have now been completely overcome. The same apparatus can 
 be adapted for use on shore. 
 
 Telegraphy for parties landed, though not a usual equipment, is 
 very useful, and I have seen shipmates with a small field telegraph 
 consisting of a couple of sounders and reels of wire carried by men. 
 
 For automatic indicators, electricity may be used to indicate too 
 great a rise of temperature in any compartment, to indicate if the ship 
 is off her course — this is similar to an arrangement which will be de- 
 scribed for steering a torpedo — or to indicate if the barometer falls 
 beyond a certain point. 
 
 The application of electricity to testing the lightning conductors of 
 ships is so simple that any trained seaman can obtain the resistance, 
 without delic^ate instruments, with fair accuracy. 
 
 The propulsion and steering of boats by electricity is a subject 
 which almost requires a separate paper to itself, and although some- 
 times used for war and sometimes for peace, the api)liance is naturally 
 similar whether a boat be carrying a torpedo or a policeman. Some 
 particulars of two boats which could carry either may be interesting. 
 
 The " Electricity," which was fitted by the Electrical Power Storage 
 Company two years ago, and which has run successfully many hundreds 
 of miles, is twenty-five feet long. 
 
 The "Australia," built by the order of Messrs. Stephens, Smith & 
 Company, is of the same length ; batteries or boxes of stored electricity 
 in the boat, work a screw propeller. The cost of the "Australia" is 
 about one hundred and eighty pounds complete. 
 
 Each boat carries eight besides the coxswain. Speed about seven 
 or eight knots. 
 
 The advantages of electric propulsion are, — 
 
394 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 (1) Entire absence of noise in the boat; in fact, the only noise is 
 that caused by the plash of the water against the boat's bows. 
 
 (2) Xo smoke to interfere with the man steering. 
 
 (3) No "flare up," which is practically impossible to prevent in 
 very fast boats from the great draught up the funnel. 
 
 (4) No heat, which tells so much on the stokers in a torpedo-boat. 
 
 (5) Not so large a number of men required as in a steamboat. 
 The disadvantage of this form of motive power is of course the 
 
 necessity of having means to recharge the cells again after use; but 
 should this prove a successful experiment, regular charging stations 
 could easily be provided for a boat to go alongside and have her cells 
 charged, as, for instance, night patrol-boats could be charged alongside 
 a jetty during the day for use at night. From the absence of heat 
 this form of motive power would be most valuable in very hot climates. 
 
 The various appliances in a submarine cable-ship are special in 
 their character, and are hardly to be considered generally naval. 
 
 One of these is a cable creeper which has a push in angle of the 
 creep, so that if it ciitches a cable it rings a bell. 
 
 Now in the descriptions about to be given, reference will be often 
 made to " testing." This testing is for the purpose of seeing whether 
 the circuit, including the actual place of a})plication, is in good order. 
 The principal test is to see that the conductor and appliance have a 
 complete circuit. To do this, a small current is allowed to pass round 
 the circuit, too small to cause any appreciable heat, or to work the 
 magnet, but large enough to affect an indicator or ring a bell, which 
 only require a small current, thus showing all is correct. Should there 
 be any break in the circuit, the little current cannot pass, and so cannot 
 ring the bell or affect the indicator. 
 
 The current is supplied by a battery. A simple test-battery and 
 indicator will easily show whether there is any break or not in a coil 
 of wire, or any electric circuit. 
 
 ELECTRICITY APPLIED TO WAR PURPOSES. 
 
 Firing Guns. 
 
 We will now consider the applications of electricity to war purposes 
 afloat, the first, the one considered most important, being firing guns. 
 
 The method of firing guns by electricity is simple. 
 
 The method of heating a wire by passing electricity through it has 
 already been explained. 
 
 To fire a gun, the electric current is allowed to pass through a piece 
 of fine wire surrounded by powder, and placed in the vent of the gun. 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 395 
 
 A firing key is used to allow the current to pass from the battery through 
 the main wire to the little tube of powder in the gun, and then back 
 by the return. If a very small current be sent through the circuit, it 
 will not heat the resistance; and if it be made to ring a bell in the 
 pilot-tower, the officer in charge knows that the circuit is all right. 
 
 Some of the advantages of firing guns by electricity are as follows: 
 
 When firing a broadside of guns together, if electricity i)e used, it 
 is fired much more simultaneously than when using hand firing; and 
 when firing single guns, the action is more instantaneous. This may 
 be illustrated by a well-known machine. Any man trying to fire a 
 gun at a certain time, or when certain objects are in a line, is only more 
 or less successful in doing so, — generally less. 
 
 Another very important advantage of firing guns by electricity is 
 that they can all be fired by an observer clear of the smoke of the gun- 
 deck. 
 
 Again, the guns can be fired from a bullet-proof pilot-tower as the 
 ship passes close by the enemy by any one person or the captain him- 
 self, the crew lying down or being placed out of the way. This is es- 
 pecially advantageous in ships which have their guns on the upper deck 
 exposed to machine-gun fire. 
 
 Again, there are cases where the object cannot be seen from the gun, 
 and electric firing provides an easy means of firing from aloft on the 
 mast. Thus a ship in the Suez Canal fired at a train in motion, which 
 was only visible from aloft, and hit it. 
 
 Again, the gun can be aimed at a fixed floating plank, and be 
 arranged so as to fire when the plank is touched. In fact, it acts as a 
 spring gun against torpedo-boats. 
 
 Electric firing for a single gun was recommended by the Chilian 
 officers after the action in which the " Iluascar" was taken, as the most 
 likely to be effective. 
 
 It must be allowed that there is the disadvantage with electricity of 
 the chance of damage being done to the circuit, but this would be 
 shown by the bell in the pilot-tower. On the other hand, the advan- 
 tage is that its use simply alters a heavy pull-off to a light one, — in 
 fact, it may be called a hair-trigger. 
 
 Automatic Firing. — This is an arrangement for firing when the ship 
 is rolling; for instance, the gun is required to be fired when the ship is 
 upright, the circuit passes through a balance so arranged as only to con- 
 nect the two parts of the circuit, that from the generator and that to tiie 
 gun, when the ship is upright; so that directly the ship is in tliat posi- 
 tion the guns are fired. 
 
396 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 The method is claimed to nave been brought to great perfection, but 
 is not so simple as it looks. 
 
 Electricity may be used to light up the foresight at night. An ap- 
 pliance for this purpose has been invented by Captain McEvoy, the 
 well-known torpedoist. It consists of a little battery and glow-lamp, 
 which is screened except in the direction of the foresight. The elec- 
 tricity has to pass through a similar arrangement to that mentioned 
 above for automatic firing, so that the lamp is only lit when required. 
 
 It is capable of a much more practical application than automatic 
 firing, as a wide margin can be allowed to cover any error from the 
 rolling of the ship. 
 
 It seems specially useful for resisting night torpedo attacks. 
 
 And now for torpedoes, which come next, at least, in importance. 
 
 Electricity is used for firing, propelling, and discharging torpedoes. 
 
 Just a word as to what torpedoes are. They are movable subma- 
 rine charges of explosives, used offensively. 
 
 The name " torpedo" is, oddly enough, derived from the electric 
 fish, but I do not suppose he who first applied the word ever thought 
 that electricity would be so much used for firing these charges. 
 
 Firing Spar Torpedoes. 
 
 The spar torpedo is the simplest form, consisting of a charge at the 
 end of a pole, which is put under an enemy's ship, and exploded. 
 
 For this form of torpedo electricity is now exclusively used, and 
 the arrangement is usually as follows: To the battery a firing-key is 
 attached by a wire. This key is joined to the main, so that on pressing 
 the key the circuit is complete through a fuse which is similar in prin- 
 ciple to the glow-lamp and which is in the torpedo, then back by the 
 return to the battery, — an exactly similar plan to switching on lamps or 
 firing guns. 
 
 There is also an arrangement by which the battery is joined to the 
 main direct, and the main goes to an automatic firing-key in the head 
 of the torpedo, which acts on striking, then by the fuse and return wire 
 back to the battery. 
 
 A combination of these methods is generally used, though probably 
 a separation of them would be better. The spar torpedo, though so 
 simple, has at present the greatest score — at least half a dozen ships — 
 against traveling torpedoes, one ; and towing torpedoes none. The 
 cases occurred in the American civil war, Russo-Turkish, and Franco- 
 Chinese wars. 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 397 
 
 As in the case of the gun, a small current can be sent through the 
 fuse, and can ring a bell or work an indicator so as to show the circuit 
 is correct. 
 
 Finng Towing Torpedoes. 
 
 The next torpedo, which to a great extent owed its want of favor 
 in our service to being introduced without electrical means of ignition, 
 is the towing torpedo. This is, I believe, always fired by contact with 
 the enemy's ship. When electricity is used, the circuit is from the 
 battery to a contact piece in the torpedo, then to the fuse, and back by 
 the return to the battery. 
 
 Though we are only concerned with electric firing, it should be 
 explained that if any other method of exploding a torpedo is used, it 
 is, after once being made dangerous, equally so to friend or foe. 
 
 "With all electrical appliances the removal of the wires from con- 
 nection with the battery renders the torpedo as harmless as a box of 
 explosives can be. 
 
 Batteries are the usual generators for firing torpedoes. Sometimes, 
 however, an exploder is used in which the power is derived from a 
 man's muscular action. 
 
 Firing, Propelling, and Steeinng Fish Torpedoes. 
 
 Fish torpedoes claim our attention next, and there are many kinds 
 of them ; but those with which electricity is used are few ; in them 
 the force developed in some part of the circuit is made use of to 
 produce motion or put the rudder one way or the other, or simply to 
 fire. 
 
 When electricity is used for igniting the charge, all torpedoes are 
 fired in a similar way to one of those described for the spar and towing 
 torpedoes, namely, at will or by contact. 
 
 1. There are torpedoes which are propelled from, and controlled 
 from their base, as the Sims, named "controlled torpedoes." 
 
 2. There are torpedoes which contain their own ])r(>pclling power 
 and are uncontrolled and unconnected with the position from which 
 they are started; for instance, Paulson's. They have been called 
 "auto-mobile" torpedoes. 
 
 3. There are others which contain their own propelling power but 
 are connected with and controlled from their " base" ; for instance, the 
 Lay. They have been called locomotive. 
 
 First, those drivai by electricity. 
 
 This is done either by electricity stored in accumulators and put 
 
398 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 in the torpedo, or through wires bringing the electricity from the base 
 of operations. 
 
 In addition to fixed submarine mines, it has been considered neces- 
 sary, in some cases, for coast defense to make use of a controlled 
 motive torpedo, principally for attacking ships which attempt to clear 
 a passage through the submarine defenses. 
 
 For this purpose a torpedo is required having the following 
 properties : 
 
 1. Long range. 
 
 2. Handiness with the helm. 
 
 3. A heavy charge, so as to be dangerous even if stopped by a 
 ship's net defense. 
 
 4. Security from enemy's fire. 
 
 5. Power of passing floating obstructions. 
 
 6. Not easily seen or stopped by enemy. 
 
 7. A motive power always ready, and not dangerous. 
 
 8. Constant speed to end of run. 
 
 9. Charge exploded at proper depth, for a charge on the surface is 
 comparatively harmless. 
 
 The torpedoes of Ericsson, Lay, Howell, Whitehead, etc., are not 
 considered by some good judges to fulfill these requirements as com- 
 pletely as that of Sims. 
 
 Common defects are, great complication, difficulty of preparing and 
 keeping the torpedo ready, danger of explosion from the substance 
 which drives it, great exposure to fire of enemy, want of speed, charge 
 at the surface, etc. 
 
 The Whitehead is considered unsuitable on account of its compara- 
 tively short range, because it cannot be steered, and for other reasons. 
 
 The Sims torpedo is of the ordinary cigar or fish shape, and is 
 driven by a current of electricity from a generator on shore, which 
 passes through a wire laid out by the torpedo as it goes, and works a 
 screw propeller. The torpedo can be steered and fired by electricity 
 from the shore through the same cable. The torpedo is suspended a 
 few feet below the surface from a float which is just awash. There 
 are two different sizes, — the larger carrying two miles of wire and a 
 charge of four hundred pounds of dynamite. 
 
 The two-mile torpedo is of copper so as not to rust, and is about 
 twenty -eight feet long. The cable, which will just sink, is carried in 
 a chamber to which the water is freely admitted, so that the buoyancy 
 of the torpedo is but little increased as the cable is paid out. The 
 charge is in the head. The wire chamber, M'hich has a short tube under- 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 399 
 
 neath leading aft, through which the wire is paid out, is in tlie centre, 
 and the driving and steering gear are in the after part of the torpedo. 
 The steering is done by a separate current from a battery; tlie helm 
 can only be put hard over either way, and when released is brought 
 amidships by the action of the water. 
 
 Tlie torpedo is suspended by strong steel frames about four feet 
 under a boat-shaped copper float of about the same length as the tor- 
 pedo, but whose bow is a few feet farther aft. A steel cutwater 
 connects the bows, and, as it slopes downward and forward from the 
 float, tends to force the torpedo under any boom or floating obstruction 
 it may meet with. 
 
 The float is built in water-tight compartments, and filled with some 
 buoyant substance, so that it is difficult to sink it. It carries the 
 usual two upright rods, — one with a white, the other a red ball in the 
 daytime and lamps at night. The rods are pivoted with counterweights 
 so as to give and lie flat when passing under an obstruction, and to 
 rise again when clear. The speed is said to be twelve knots. 
 
 The cable is of copper wire, and a small insulated wire in the heart 
 of the main cable is used for steering. 
 
 The torpedo may of course easily be arranged to fire on contact if 
 required. When it was tried by running at a spar, a spectator who 
 was in a boat near did not see it, although watching for it, until it was 
 within five hundred yards. The torpedo hit the spar in two successive 
 trials within four feet of the point aimed at, and the marks on the spar 
 were one and a half feet from each other. 
 
 The float has been riddled by bullets, and yet remained serviceable. 
 
 The great disadvantage of the torpedo is its want of speed. Some 
 less clumsy method of maintaining it at its proper depth would, doubt- 
 less, very much increase the speed. 
 
 There is no doubt an advantage in controlled torpedoes which have 
 their motive power on shore, and therefore have to carry less weight, 
 but they can be only used from a special base. 
 
 Then those steered by electricity, though with some other driving 
 power. 
 
 The Paulson Torpedo. — In this fish torpedo the steering is electrical. 
 The motive power is supplied by liquefied carbonic acid. This torpedo 
 is automatically steered in a direct or straight course by means of a 
 mariner's compass, the needle of which, on any deviation of the torpedo 
 from its course, makes contact witli one or other of two insulated studs 
 situated on either side of one end of the needle, and completes an electric 
 circuit ; a lever then causes one propeller to revolve at a (piicker speed 
 
400 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 than the other, and thus steer the torpedo and bring it back to its set 
 course. Supposing the torpedo to be approaching an ironclad, the 
 mass of iron would cause the needle to make contact with one of the 
 studs and the torpedo to be steered directly away from the ironclad, 
 unless its path were due north and south (magnetic), and, to prevent 
 this, a needle of a second compass in the head of the torpedo is ar- 
 ranged to short circuit the battery when attracted to one side or the 
 other by the mass of iron. 
 
 The shell of the torpedo is made of compressed waterproof paper 
 pulp, which is light and strong, has no effect on the compass-needles, 
 and is not easily affected itself. 
 
 In order to render the weapon more effective, it may be controlled 
 over part of its course by means of an electric cable paid out from the 
 torpedo as it progresses, and by which the current from a battery on 
 any shore or on a ship is conveyed to the two magnets so as to steer it on 
 a desired course. When the whole of the cable is paid out, it is auto- 
 matically detached, and the self-steering apparatus comes into operation. 
 
 The Lay Torpedo. — This well-known weapon is another example 
 of the application of electricity to steering a torpedo. It is driven by 
 other means, but lays out an insulated cable as it runs, and through 
 this it is steered. It carries a very heavy charge, and it is usually run 
 just on the surface. It has not made such rapid improvements as 
 the "Whitehead in point of speed. The usual rods or lights are used 
 for directing the torpedo, and very good practice is said to have been 
 made by it. 
 
 It has not been fortunate in war, for although there was a rumor 
 that during the late war in South America a Chilian vessel was blown 
 up by the Lay, I do not think that was the fact. There was an at- 
 tempt to use it from a ship in the same war, but that method could 
 hardly be expected to be successful. 
 
 Discharging Fish Torpedoes. 
 
 The simplest form is to ring an electric gong as a signal for the man 
 standing by the torpedo to start it, for it must be understood that it is 
 usually started from somewhere down below in a ship, and therefore it 
 is necessary to have somebody up above to decide when it is to be sent 
 on its journey. An improvement is, at the order " Ready," to full cock 
 the discharging arrangement, the same movement connecting up an 
 electric circuit which has only a break on deck, and which, when tra- 
 versed by a current, puts in motion the machinery for discharging the 
 torpedo. 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 401 
 
 Another and greater improvement is the torpedo tube, being fitted on 
 the inside with a cartridge, whicii, when ignited, projects the torpedo. 
 
 The clutcli, wljich keeps the torpedo in the tube, is arranged in such 
 a way that when withdrawn it makes electric contact witii an otherwise 
 insulated binding screw on the rigiit of the gun. 
 
 The torpedoes are arranged to be discharged by an officer who is in 
 the pilot-tower. In this case the firing key is in the pilot-tower, be- 
 tween the battery and the place of application, and there is a break at 
 the tube, so that there are two breaks in the circuit ; when very nearly 
 at the moment for firing, the word is passed down, when the lever is 
 pulled by hand, freeing the torpedo and making contact at the o-un. 
 The torpedo is then fired by pressing the key in the chart-house. 
 
 The torpedo battery, which maybe considered as a part of a defense 
 system, has been devised to defend any channel left in mines for the 
 passage of friendly ships. 
 
 It consists of a submarine framework, in which are fixed torpedo 
 tubes, each holding a fish torpedo. 
 
 The observing station, which may be distant and quite invisible to 
 an enemy, is connected to the battery by a wire which goes to an elec- 
 tric fuse. 
 
 A weight released by the explosion opens the valve of the engines 
 and frees the torpedo from the tube. 
 
 Firing Submarine 3Iine8. 
 
 Submarine mines are used by ships for the purpose of defendino- 
 themselves, or any harbor in which they may be lying, or for the security 
 of which they may be responsible, or for dropping behind them when 
 retreating. They are charges of explosive, defensive and fixed, fired 
 under water. 
 
 The difference between torpedoes and mines is this: If you want 
 to be blown up, you must go to the mine; but if you don't want to be 
 blown up, you must stop the torpedo coming to you. 
 
 The electrical methods of firing them are two: (1) firin<i- at will • 
 (2) firing by contact. 
 
 The observation method of firing at will may be briefly described 
 as firing a submarine mine when the enemy is within ran^e of the 
 effect of its explosion. 
 
 There are two difficulties in carrying out this otherwise certain and 
 simple plan. The enemy may not come within the range of the mine 
 and when he does you may not know he is there. 
 
 With the first difficulty we have nothing now to do. 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 2tt 
 
402 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTEELY. October 
 
 The second must be considered, as on it depends the difference 
 between the two electrical methods of firing mines. 
 
 The simplest, and in its usual foriti, perhaps the worst plan, is by 
 the method of cross bearings. 
 
 To go back to our circuit. 
 
 There is a generator in this case, a battery that is on shore. The 
 main wire goes from the battery to No. 1 observer, from whom the 
 mine bears, say south, that is, the mine is directly south of him, then 
 jiasses through his key ; then goes to No. 2 observer, who has the mine, 
 say, due east of him, and who also has a key. The main then goes on 
 to a fuse in the mine, and the return takes the current back to the 
 battery. 
 
 A word about return wires : the resistance of a conductor depends, 
 other things being equal, on its size; the earth being large does not 
 offer much resistance, and is often used as a return M'ire. 
 
 Now the circuit is not complete unless No. 1 and No. 2 both press 
 their keys. A ship comes in. If ever she is south of No. 1 he presses 
 his key. If ever she is east of No. 2 he presses his key; but the keys 
 are never pressed together unless the ship is south of No. 1 and east of 
 No. 2, that is, over the mine. 
 
 This system has lately been well described by an eye-witness, and 
 I dare say you will understand his description better than mine. 
 
 "And now we are going to fire ' by observation.' There is a mine 
 of eighteen pounds of gun-cotton down yonder, two feet under water, 
 and that barrel there is an enemy's ironclad stean)ing up the harbor. 
 But she may also run close by without actually touching it. This con- 
 tingency has been provided for by putting the mine in electrical con- 
 nection with two observing stations. Yonder is one perched up there 
 some feet above the water. It is a wooden shed, constructed so as to 
 be readily taken to pieces and put up again wherever it may be desired. 
 In actual service, it would proljably be half buried in the ground, and 
 the front of it protected or rather concealed by a bank of turf. There 
 are two of these observing stations at different points of the compass, 
 but both on the same electric circuit. The observers within them are 
 keeping the object-glasses of a couple of small telescopes following the 
 ship there as it approaches the mine. 
 
 " These telescopes are so mounted, that until they both point ex- 
 actly to the destructive area around the mine, the electric circuit by 
 which it is to be automatically fired is incomplete. The enemy might 
 pass too far from the explosive underneath the water to be much affected 
 by it. In that case there would be no use in firing. The two tele- 
 
1885. ELECTRICITY AS APPLIED TO NAVAL PURPOSES. 403 
 
 scopes looking from different points of view, would not at any instant 
 converge their lines of sight at the mine, and there would always be a 
 break in the circuit. The ship would go on her Avay. She is working 
 straight for the mine, however. The gear of one telescope clicks into 
 a sort of notch, and one break in the circuit is repaired. Ch'ck goes 
 the other telescope. The circuit is complete; a tiny piece of platinum 
 wire is instantly raised to a white heat inside the mine, and up goes 
 the ship, a volume of water leaping into the air, some of it to the 
 height of a church steeple, bearing with it fragments of the unlucky 
 tub that has done duty for the foreign ironclad, which, under similar 
 conditions, would not have gone up in the air probably, but would 
 have had a hole knocked in her bottom which would speedily have 
 sunk her." 
 
 Other methods are the camera obscura ; the plane table by a tele- 
 graph from the second station; firing all the mines in the neighbor- 
 hood of the ship, so that one of them must hit her, and so on. 
 
 The plane table is electrical. The telescope at one station works a 
 ruler at the other, and when the observer finds this line and his cut 
 over a mine, he fires. 
 
 " Observation" firino; cannot be used at nijrht or in a foo;. 
 
 The other system, that of contact mines, is different. To start 
 from the battery, the circuit goes to a contact- key in the torpedo, and 
 on to the fuse; when the torpedo is struck, then back by the return. 
 
 A s\up must actually hit this mine to set it off. The ship in fact 
 blows herself up. She may pass close to any number of mines, but 
 only a small charge is required. 
 
 The electrical disadvantage of this system is, that you cannot send 
 a small current through for testing, unless a boat or a friendly ship 
 bumps the mine for you. This has led to complicated additions. The 
 simplest of these is a very high resistance which bridges over the break 
 in the circuit, so you can always send a small testing current round 
 the circuit ; but when the mine is struck, enough current will go through 
 the fuse to fire it. 
 
 The next addition was by means of a further appliance, so that the 
 action of a ship striking the mine could be imitated. 
 
 This has been arranged by causing the magnetic effect of the cur- 
 rent passing through the high resistance to attract the other side of the 
 break in the circuit, so as to cut the high resistance out. 
 
 This is useful in two ways, — it gives a far more trustworthy test 
 than a simple resistance, as it stands to reason that a delicate instru- 
 ment which works all right in the mine shows no serious damage is 
 
404 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. OctolDer 
 
 done to it; and again, it is possible by this means to fire a mine as well 
 as by the contact of an enemy's ship. 
 
 There is another means of testing an electric contact mine, viz., 
 to have a telephone in the mine with a ball on the diaphragm, so that 
 the motion of the mine in the water makes a noise in the telephone. 
 
 Electro- mechanical mines are those which carry their own battery 
 inside. This saves wire, but if the mines are picked up, is extrava- 
 gant in boats and men's lives. 
 
 In these mines means must be used to keep the mine safe while 
 being laid down. This is effected in the simplest form by keeping 
 the wires apart, and joining them at a safe distance when the mine is 
 laid. 
 
 The dynamiters imitated a very common form which works by 
 means of some chemical action. They put acid on blotting-paper, 
 and got away while the acid was eating through it. This mine was 
 without a circuit-closer. 
 
 These electro-mechanical mines were used for the defense of Suakim, 
 and were very successful, or seemed so, for after the explosion of one 
 mine, the night attacks, to guard against which they were laid, ceased 
 for two months. 
 
 The Torpedo Detector. 
 
 This consists of a sinker, which is a heavy case, and a box, 
 designed to be carried in a boat, from which the cable hangs. It can 
 be so adjusted that no sound is heard in the receiver. If, now, the 
 boat is pulled slowly through the water and the sinker is thus dragged 
 along the bottom, no noise will be heard in the receiver unless the 
 sinker comes into proximity with some mass of magnetic metal, such 
 as a torpedo case. In this event, however, a humming noise will be 
 heard in the receiver. 
 
 A slight and imperfect sketch has now been given of the appliances 
 which come under the heading of this paper, and I think you will 
 agree with me that no trouble, no care, no money is wasted, which is 
 spent in teaching our men to make a proper use of electricity, which 
 as a servant has been aptly compared, for ability and docility, to the 
 slave of the lamp, but which as a master is always mysterious and 
 sometimes terrible. 
 
1886. 405 
 
 THE FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR/ 
 
 BY MAJOR GRAVES, TWENTIETH HUSSARS. 
 
 Part II. 
 
 (Concluded from page 344.) 
 
 The points remaining for our consideration and discussion to-day are 
 (1) Cavalry dismounted service; (2) Cavalry with an army in retreat; 
 (3) Cavalry with an array in pursuit; and (4) some concluding re- 
 marks on formation, armament, and education. 
 
 First, then, with regard to cavalry dismounted service. A consider- 
 able amount of controversy has been raised on this subject, owing in 
 part to the ])rominence lately given to the question as to whether or 
 not a force of mounted marksmen should be raised and maintained in 
 this country. It has been suggested that owing to the shortcomings 
 of the cavalry dismounted service, a certain portion of the cavalry 
 should be organized as corps of mounted marksmen, who would 
 combine the best qualities of good infantry and of good cavalry. 
 The predominant feature in this force would naturally be that of 
 infantry, owing to their being marksmen. 
 
 Were this carried into effect it would reduce our cavalry proper by 
 some two thousand men, all trained, and efficient with sword or lance 
 and carbine. Further, it would take away from some twenty regiments 
 something like twenty-five per cent, of their best men, and thus for a 
 time render them inefficient in many respects; and to gain what? To 
 gain what Jomini describes dragoons to be, " amphibious animals." 
 
 I consider our cavalry force to be too few by some thousands now, 
 and this would only add to a confessedly existing evil were we to still 
 further reduce it. 
 
 I consider that, owing to this numerical weakness from which we 
 suffer, this is no time to attempt any such new experiment, which 
 must be bought and paid for out of a very small and valuable capital, 
 namely, our small force of cavalry. The interest on that capital is 
 efficiency, and I think that this is no time to reduce that interest by 
 
 > Read before the 'Royal United Service lastitution. 
 
406 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 adopting any such speculative scheme. We most likely, judging from 
 the experience of the dragoons of by-gone days, should find our 
 capital squandered, with the initial certainty of reducing the interest, 
 as above, on some twenty regiments. 
 
 Some cavalry officers have said to me, " Oh ! if you are going in 
 for making our men fight on foot, they will lose their characteristics 
 as cavalry," etc. But let us consider this. We have our cavalry 
 trooper. He is a trained soldier; he is efficient as a horseman, at drill, 
 M-ith the sword or lance, and has a fair idea as to what is required of 
 him on outpost duty or reconnoissance. So far, good. We put into 
 his hands a carbine, very effective up to fiive hundred and six hundred 
 yards, and possibly up to one thousand. Will it mar his riding to 
 encourage him to become a good shot? Will his becoming a good shot 
 induce him to go to the left when he should go to the right? Will his 
 liking for shooting, increased by efficiency, cause him to dismount with 
 carbine when the " charge" is sounded ? Certainly not. Well then, 
 having trained him as above, and having developed his shooting 
 powers, we find him in a position where his horse and lance or sword 
 are useless to him, but where a carbine is the one thing needful. 
 Having his carbine, and being able to shoot, is there anything contrary 
 to cavalry economy in placing him in the best available position to use 
 it with effect, namely, on foot? I know nothing, provided always that 
 his instruction is based on the principle that the functional expression 
 of cavalry is in the main founded on the united action of man and 
 horse, and that the function of dismounted service is demanded of him 
 for the fulfillment of a special purpose which could not be carried out 
 on horseback. I decline therefore to admit that shooting on foot 
 converts a cavalry man into an infantry man, as strongly as I deny 
 that an infantry man mounted is a cavalry man. The trooper dis- 
 mounted is a cavalry man still, and finds himself in that position under 
 exceptional circumstances, — to shoot. The infantry man mounted is 
 still an infantry man, and finds himself in that position for a S|>ecial 
 purpose, — to get to a certain place in much less time and with much 
 less fatigue than if he went on foot. If we can train our mounted 
 infantry up to a certain point of efficiency in outpost and reconnoissance 
 work, I am sure that this efficiency would only add to their already 
 proved usefulness. At the same time, I do not think it would be ad- 
 visable to raise regiments or corps of mounted infantry; I think the 
 necessities of the case would be met by having a certain number of 
 men in each regiment taught to ride, and to do this I do not see why 
 the depot at Canterbury could not be utilized by the addition of a few 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 407 
 
 horses and rough-riders; or wliy a riding depot could not be formed at 
 Aldershot with a certain number of liorses and an instructing staff. 
 The system of borrowing horses from cuvahy regiments is certainly 
 most annoying to commanding officers; but this point will be urged 
 later on. 
 
 Part II., Section 23, of the cavalry regulations, is very clear and 
 concise as to the object and rules to be kept in mind with reference to 
 dismounted service, and alongside this section I would quote Von 
 Schmidt; he says, "... The experience of the late campaign has 
 proved irrefutably that it is indispensably necessary that cavalry 
 should to a certain extent be able to fight on foot. ..." Again, "... 
 Through its ability in this respect it will under all circumstances gain 
 enormously in independence and self-confidence as well as usefulness." 
 Again, " When owing to circumstances, ground, or to enemy's occupa- 
 tion of localities and defiles, it is not possible for cavalry to attain its 
 object on horseback; when it is very difficult to turn such places; ichen 
 notldng can be hoped for from mounted action, and there is no infantry 
 on the spot, nothing remains to cavalry but to dismount." " In acting 
 thus we shall not become mere mounted infantry, which is the last thing 
 we could wish to be ; we have no desire to fulfill the role of infantry. . . . 
 In this way there will be an enormous development of that desire to 
 take the initiative, that love of enterprise and longing for personal 
 distinction which should animate us as cavalry soldiers, which alone 
 we wish to be. 
 
 " It is not our place to stand fast under fire in positions under 
 cover; our object must be to apjjroach the enemy and dislodge him. To 
 this end every cavalry soldier must be trained in the use of his carbine, 
 and in fighting on foot in dispersed order ; taking the fullest advantage 
 of the ground and the cover it affords. . . . The following then are 
 the things most required of us: More thorough training in the use of 
 the carbine than hitherto; for this duty has been very much put in 
 the background, instead of being developed like every other one for 
 the highest instruction of the men. . . ." " An increased expenditure 
 of time over this duty is not necessary, provided that the musketry is 
 thoroughly carried out with real interest and intelligence. . . ." " More 
 extended instruction ... in taking full advantage of the accidents 
 of ground." " We must make better use of peace time, and prepare 
 oui-selves more thoroughly and systematiciilly." 
 
 Speaking of the regulations of Frederick the Great, and his con- 
 stant use of dismounteil cavalry, he says, " In this glurious period, 
 however, cavalry lost nothing of its true spirit. They did not forget 
 
408 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 to cliarge with les armes blanches, although they bad much more 
 fighting on foot than nowadays." 
 
 May we not apply the greater part of this to ourselves? If all 
 this is so necessary, and of such emphatic importance to the German 
 cavalry, which outnumbers our own to an enormous extent, how much 
 more important for us, the importance increasing iu proportion to the 
 sraallness of our numbers? 
 
 It would be needless to -quote the use made of dismounted service 
 in the Franco-German war in detail, and I would simply refer to the 
 valuable services of the mounted infantry in Africa and iu Egypt from 
 tiie very first. The American war furnishes us with many instances 
 of the value of dismounted service, whatever the value of those per- 
 forming it in other directions. The battle of Five Forks is a notable 
 example of what may be effected by efficient dismounted service, when 
 Sheridan's dismounted men dealt with the Confederate right, while 
 the Fifth Infantry Corps turned their left, and acting thus together 
 caused a total loss to the enemy of some thirteen thousand men, and 
 won a battle which decided the war. 
 
 The action of Tamai affords an example in which cavalry is shown 
 as coming up in the nick of time, dismounting, firing, and thus check- 
 ing the enemy's advance, gave our infantry time to re-form. An eye- 
 witness writes. in speaking of the temporary retreat of the left brigade : 
 "We came back about eight hundred yards. . . . By this time the 
 fire of the First Brigade, on our right as well as front, and the cavalry 
 on our left, held the Arabs. ... It was some moments before the 
 retreat could be checked, and then the check was in a great measure 
 due to the action of the cavalry. When first the infantry were 
 engaged, the cavalry withdrew to the rear, where they were hidden 
 from the enemy by a fall in the ground. In the panic, the cavalry 
 advanced at a trot, meaning to afford aid to the infantry by a charge. 
 This happily was unnecessary. The enemy seeing a large body of 
 cavalry bearing down upon them, hesitated ; this gave time to the 
 soldiers to listen to their officers, and to re-form. . . . the rebels soon 
 began to come on again. . . . Here again the cavalry did good service, 
 some of the squadrons dismounting and firing volleys at the rebels 
 who were collecting in the rear and on the flanks." These examples, 
 and a multitude of others that might be brought forward, prove con- 
 clusively the value of dismounted service. I am very glad that the 
 question of the establishment of corps of mounted marksmen and the 
 organization of mounted infantry has been raised, for I am confident 
 that it will have the effect of indirectly increasing the efficiency of our 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 409 
 
 cavalry disraounted service, wliicli is the great desideratum, and also 
 will give a stimulus to the training of at any rate a certain number of 
 infantry in the use and care of the horse. 
 
 The second point for consideration is the functions of cavalry in 
 relation to an army in retreat. 
 
 Jomini states, "Retreats arc certainly the most diflicult operations 
 in war." He also says, " If the theory of war leaves any points un- 
 provided for, that of retreats is certainly one of them." I will not 
 therefore presume to enter into any theories as to the best methods of, 
 times for, and order of retreats. It is sufficient to assume the fact of 
 retreat of an army beaten in battle, but retreating in a fairly orderly 
 manner, and that such retreat by an army of any magnitude should 
 be conducted deliberately, "by short marches, with a well-arranged 
 rear-guard of sufficient strength to hold the heads of the enemy's 
 columns in check for several hours." The importance of keeping the 
 touch between the various parts of the army retreating, and of the 
 value of flankers, is shown by the mishaps that befell Xapoleon during 
 his retreat from Smolinsk, when the corps of his army retreated on 
 the same road, but divided by a day's march, and having no means of 
 information in the shape of flankers, the enemy cut in between the 
 parts of his army, to his great loss, during three days at Krasnoi. 
 Inasmuch as the chief function of cavalry in 'pursuit is to turn defeat 
 into rout, so the chief function of the cavalry of the rear-guard of a 
 beaten army is in combination with the other arms to prevent the 
 defeat they have suffered being turned into a rout, and to cover the 
 retreat of the army, so that order may be restored and confidence 
 regained, with a view to a fresh struggle on arrival at a position 
 suitable for the purpose. 
 
 A retreat under such circumstances is a very different matter from 
 a movement to the rear of an army that has not been engaged, but is 
 forced to move owing to the exigencies of supply, position, or political 
 complications, etc. This is comparatively an easy matter; but, as Sir 
 Edward Hamley says, " A beaten army is no longer in the hands of 
 its general. It no longer responds to his appeal. The troops that 
 have been driven from the field will be slow to form front for battle. 
 Confusion, too, will be added to despondency, for regiments will be 
 broken and mixed; artillery will be sej)arated from its ammunition; 
 supply-trains will be thrown into disorder, and the whole machine will 
 be for the time disjointed." ..." It is partly to provide for tiiis that 
 generals usually keep part of their reserves out of action." And Lord 
 Wolseley writes that the rear-guards " should be formed at least from 
 
410 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 the freshest troops ; their strength should be one-fourth to one-fifth of 
 the whole force," so, I would add, as to put a screen of unbroken and 
 fresh troops between the retreating and confused and their confident 
 and pursuing enemy. With regard to the duties of such a rear-guard 
 the same writer states, " The great art of rear-guards is that of being 
 able constantly, without risk and with very little trouble, to force the 
 enemy to deploy for attack, and then to get safely away yourself with- 
 out any serious fighting; in other words, the rear-guard should, by 
 frequent occupation of strong positions, be continuously threatening to 
 fight, as it is by so doing that it best fulfills its purpose." Jomini lays 
 down that " it is generally sufficient if the rear-guard keep the enemy 
 at a distance of half a day's march from the main body." 
 
 Now, owing to the important issues depending on the right perform- 
 ance of the duties of thus screening a retreating army ; to the intimate 
 interdependence of the three arms upon one another in this work ; to 
 the constant necessity for showing a front, and in so doing the constant 
 necessity for screening, covering, and supporting each other by the 
 three arms, how absolutely necessary it is for the leader of the cavalry 
 to know something of the functions and capabilities of the otiier arms, 
 and to have a well-formed idea of what should be done, and how to 
 doit! 
 
 He and his troops maintaining a position nearest the enemy (except 
 at the actual moment of passing through a defile, when the infantry 
 would remain in most instances in rear to cover their retreat by fire, 
 the artillery having passed over first), should be animated with such 
 a sense of responsibility for the safety of the army as to be willing to 
 sacrifice themselves for the safety of that army and the honor of their 
 country ; he should be ever watchful to seize and hold with dismounted 
 men such points and positions as will force the pursuers to deploy, 
 and advance to the attack, at the same time showing necessary vigilance 
 towards the flanks and any parallel roads thereon, so as by a good 
 system of flanking patrols he may prevent the enemy outmarching 
 him and cutting him and the remainder of rear-guard off from the 
 main body. A knowledge of demolitions would here be useful in the 
 destruction of bridges, in the obstruction of deep cuttings by cutting 
 or blowing down trees, etc. 
 
 I will here mention as very useful for examinations in tactics, the 
 lectures by Major Dyke, the garrison instructor, Eastern District. In 
 that on rear-guards he states, " Military history abounds with instances 
 of victories more or less thrown away owing to feeble pursuit, . . . 
 in fact, vigorous immediate pursuit is rather the exception than other- 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 411 
 
 wise." He instances that after the battle of Weissenburg, "on the 
 evening of 4th August all contact with the foe was lost." Again, after 
 Worth, "the pursuit instituted by the cavalry was discontinued at the 
 entrance to the difficult mountain psLSses, and thus all contact with the 
 enemy had ceased to exist." In like manner, after Spicheren, night set 
 in and the ground was unfavorable, and so pursuit ceased. Therefore 
 the cavalry leader with the rear-guard of a retreating beaten army 
 should be self-reliant and resourceful; should be bold yet cautious; 
 and should do his utmost to wear out the patience of his pursuers, 
 while carefully nursing his own force. 
 
 We now come to the functions of cavalry with an army in pur- 
 suit. We must remember that a most important element in the 
 value of a victory is that the results should be brought to hand and 
 made the most of. To this end a vigorous but not reckless pursuit is 
 essential. 
 
 Where the victory has been decisive, the cavalry should be, if 
 possible, pushed forward at once to prevent a rear-guard being formed, 
 and to harass and rout the mixed crowds now in full retreat, to over- 
 take them and hang on to them until they have thrown down their 
 arms, and have practically dispersed. Should a rear-guard have been 
 formed, the pursuing cavalry should keep the touch of it continually; 
 when it presents a front, it should be thus held as long as possible, 
 while a turning movement is attempted with a view to cutting it off. 
 Its flanks should be continually threatened with this object in view. 
 One of the best examples of such a pursuit is that afforded by Sheri- 
 dan's pursuit of General Lee after the battle of Five Forks. Denison 
 gives an excellent account of it. The pursuit lasted from the morning 
 of April 3 until the whole of Lee's army surrendered at Appomattox 
 Court-House on the 9th. The chief point of interest is to be found 
 in the turning movement made between Dratonsville and Sailor's Creek. 
 Lee's rear-guard turned there and stooil firm, some ten thousand strong. 
 Sheridan iield them in front while he sent forward the leading division 
 of his cavalry, who dismounting on their flank harassed and checked 
 their supply-train and escort. Whilst this was going on, three other 
 divisions passed along the rear of the dismountetl men, crossed Siiilor's 
 Creek before Lee's rear-guard, took up a position on the high ground 
 on the far side, and dismounting placed themselves across the path of 
 the rear-guard, whom they received with such a murderous fire from 
 their long-range repeating rifles that the result was that they captured 
 six thousand prisoners, sixteen guns, and four hundred wagons. The 
 
412 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 same system of tactics brought about the surrender of the whole army 
 as above. 
 
 History affords us but few such examples on this point. The 
 Prussian pursuit after Waterloo was first-rate ; and earlier the French 
 pursuit of the Prussians after Jena was another noteworthy instance 
 of the results of victory made good by a really vigorous pursuit. 
 
 I would close this part of the subject by referring to two other cases 
 of such pursuits which stand out in bold relief. First: After the 
 great battle of Arbela, Alexander with his cavalry pursued Darius. 
 After leaving the battle-field he crossed the river Lycus, halted there 
 to refresh men and horses until midnight, again started in pursuit, and 
 reached Arbela the next day, distance seventy miles. Darius had gone 
 on. Alexander followed him, until after three days and nights his 
 infantry could no longer keep up ; but knowing that Darius was bound 
 to fight, he dismounted five hundred cavalry, and put on their horses 
 five hundred of his best infantry, pushed on all night, and came up 
 with the Persians in the morning, and routed them at once, whilst 
 Bessus, having murdered Darius, escaped with only six hundred horse. 
 The fruits of victory were not only gathered in by this splendid exploit, 
 but the fate of one empire was sealed, and the position of the other 
 made sure. 
 
 The second and last instance I would refer to is, of course, the 
 pursuit after Tel-el-Kebir, and the marches on Zagazig and Cairo. 
 The whole of the cavalry and mounted infantry was on the right, 
 under Sir Drury Lowe; and while the infantry were assaulting the 
 position, they made a turning movement against the enemy's left, and, 
 working round, cut into the stream of Egyptian fugitives, causing 
 them great loss. I understand that the Fourth Dragoon Guards and 
 the Bengal Lancers reached the railway and canal in rear of the 
 Egyptian position at 7.30 A.M. ; they proceeded along the canal to the 
 lock, and one Indian regiment struck off at once to Zagazig, where it 
 arrived at about 4 p.m. the same day ; and another Bengal regiment 
 went on at once to Belbeis, followed sliortly afterwards by mounted 
 infantry, and later still by the Fourth Dragoon Guards. They 
 bivouacked there that night, and starting again next morning about 
 4.30, reached Cairo about sunset, to find that the tidings of the victory 
 had preceded them, and that their arrival so soon after had produced 
 such an effect that the governor with a garrison of some ten thousand 
 men surrendered to a handful of jaded and weary heroes, who would 
 have found it almost impossible to have urged their horses into a gallop. 
 Such is the force of moral effect when applied at the fitting opportunity. 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 413 
 
 The result of tliis victory, the fiirtlier result of this close-followiug 
 pursuit and march, so well conceived, so ably carried out, was that the 
 enemy collapsed and the war was finished. 
 
 We have now concluded the consideration of what I must admit is 
 a very imperfect consideration, as far as I am concerned in its setting 
 forth, of the "Functions of Cavalry in Modern War." 
 
 Before, however, entering on the discussion, we might do well, I 
 think, to look around and see what we can learn from our neighbors. 
 
 And first, as to the question of armament. As we are armed at 
 present, our dragoons and hussars carry sword and carbine, and our 
 lancers carry the lance in addition. Some of our Indian regiments 
 have lance and sword in the front rank, and sword and carbine in the 
 rear rank ; officers, some non-commissioned officers, and trumpeters, 
 carry sword and revolver. 
 
 In 1878 I was permitted to give a lecture in this theatre, which 
 M'as published in pamphlet form, on " Military Equipment," and in it 
 I advocated the plan of arming front ranks with lance and revolver, 
 and the rear ranks with sword and carbine. I still believe that 
 principle to be correct, but I fear that it would not be workable in our 
 service, and I know that the general feeling is against it. 
 
 Nolan says, "All seem to forget that a lance is useless in a melee" 
 as was demonstrated at Aliwal. Marshal Marmont says, " It would 
 be better for cavalry to have both the lance and sabre, . . . the lance 
 should be the principal weapon, the sabre an auxiliary arm." Jomini 
 says, " In charges in line the lance is very useful ; in melees the sabre 
 is much better." De Brack also affirms this. I think therefore that 
 the principle would find effectual practical expression if it were recog- 
 nized as the general rule to support lancers with dragoons or hussars. 
 We should then avoid such disasters as Aliwal, and should be in a fair 
 way to realize the benefits obtained by this method at Meangunge. 
 Touching the revolver. In November, 1864, a fight took place in 
 Virginia between a squadron of Federal cavalry armed with the sabre, 
 and a squadron of Mosby's armed with the revolver. The loss to the 
 latter was one man killed and several wounded, and the loss to the 
 Federals was twenty-four men killed, twelve wounded, and sixty-two 
 prisoners; thirty-six killed and wounded out of one hundred. On 
 another occasion, under similar circumstances, the sabres lost twenty- 
 six killed and wounded, fifty-four prisoners, and eighty horses; the 
 Confederates, who were armed with the revolver, lod not a single man. 
 As before said, we only put revolvers into the hands of our officers, 
 
414 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 some non-commissioued officers, and the trumpeters; what is the state 
 of things in Continental armies on this point? 
 
 I am indebted to the courtesy of an Italian staff officer, and to the 
 military attaches of Austria, France, Germany, and Russia, at our 
 court, for full information on this head. 
 
 The Italian officer informs me that up to two years ago their lancers 
 had lance, sword, and revolver all through ; now they have copied us, 
 and have armed them with lance, sword, and carbine, — the revolver 
 being distributed throughout their cavalry as with us exactly. 
 
 In the Austrian army, the lancers have front rank lances and re- 
 volvers, the rear rank carbines, all other cavalry twenty-eight revolvers 
 per squadron. 
 
 In the French army, the whole of the cuirassiers have the revolver. 
 The letter I received dated the 4th of June last states, "d'une maniere 
 g^nerale'^ every man in the army who has not a gun has a revolver. 
 Infantry, ordnance, and also in horse artillery, gunners and drivers, 
 who have no carbine, have revolvers. 
 
 Lord Wolseley, who was in the chair on the occasion of my lecture, 
 said on this point, "The next point is about revolvers; a good deal 
 has been said upon that subject, and I fully concur in the remarks 
 which have been made. I certainly agree with reference to the advisa- 
 bility of giving the revolver to artillerymen. At the present moment 
 an artilleryman is really in a most defenseless condition: for if his 
 battery is charged, unless he uses his handspike, he has actually 
 nothing to defend himself with. Every gunner should be furnished tvith 
 a good 7'evolver." I say the same ; but I am not sure that I should 
 give one to the driver, who would in most cases have enough to do in 
 looking after his horses. 
 
 In the German army, the whole of the Prussian cuirassiers are 
 armed with the revolver, and the corresponding heavy regiments of 
 the other German states. In the other regiments, all officers and non- 
 commissioned officers are thus armed. 
 
 The Russian military attache in London writes me : " Cuirassiers 
 and lancers have, in their front ranks lances, swords, and revolvers 
 (six chambers); the rear rank of the cuirassiers carries sword and 
 revolver; the rear rank of the lancers sabre and rifle." Now are 
 America, Austria, France, Germany, and Russia all wrong in this 
 matter? I do not invite discussion on my theory in this question; I 
 respectfully invite discussion on the actual practice of these nations. 
 Will wisdom die with us in this matter? No; but it looks as if our 
 men without revolvers will die for want of wisdom. Let us look this 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 415 
 
 matter fairly in tlie face. The weakest moment of cavalry, however 
 armed, is immediately or shortly after the shock. But suppose one of 
 our lancer regiments has charged a lancer regiment carrying six- 
 barreled revolvers ; in face of and compared with the revolver not 
 only ill posse but in esse, does not our weakness become weaker, and 
 compared with our weakness, does not their weakness become strength ? 
 I would simply refer again to the two instances quoted from the 
 Amei'ican war, adding that they might be indefinitely multij)lied. 
 
 I have been asked to touch upon the question of the use of machine- 
 guns in relation to cavalry. I see Lord Charles Beresford has quoted 
 the opinions of several officers of the different branches of the ser- 
 vice. 
 
 The opinion of a colonel commanding an infantry regiment is, 
 "To me it apj)ears as if cavalry is the arm which will profit most by 
 the introduction of machine-guns." He states, " It has practically 
 always with it one hundred and fifty infantry, . . . and not a single 
 man has to dismoiait." If this be so, then we should return our car- 
 bines into store and abolish musketry instruction. A colonel of 
 artillery states, "A machine-gun to be of any use for this purpose 
 must be able to manoeuvre at the same pace as the battery which it 
 sui)ports." If this be so, it is a necessary sequence that it should also 
 manoeuvre at the same j)ace as the cavalry regiment to which it is 
 proposed to attach two machine-guns permanently. Is this generally 
 possible? Who is to command the battery of two guns? an artillery 
 officer or a cavalry officer? In what relation is the officer commanding 
 the cavalry regiment to stand towards the guns? I humbly think he 
 will find plenty to do in giving practical expression to the functions of 
 Ids cavalry proper. The same officer says further, "For horse and 
 field-batteries the problem is more difficult. No carriage with small 
 wheels can be relied on for transport purposes. . . . How can you 
 transport them (machine-guns) so as to be suitable for rapid movements 
 under service conditions?" H this proI)lem is difficult of solution in 
 relation to field artillery, it is more so in relation to cavalry. 
 
 A colonel of engineers says, "I cannot conceive their being per- 
 manently attached to cavalry or artillery without constantly hampering 
 them, as it would only be on rare occasions they would be required." 
 I quite coincide with this view so far as luy present limited knowledge 
 of the subject permits me to form a judgment. 
 
 As our pace is regulated by the capabilities of the slowest, I fear 
 the machine-guns would be found a very slow horse. In any case, I 
 think, as at present advised, their best place is with the horse artillery 
 
416 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 attached to the cavalry brigade, in which position they would, as oc- 
 casions arise, render most valuable moral and actual help. 
 
 I trust a few remarks upon our tactical and administrative units 
 and formation will not be considered out of place here. I am not a 
 worshiper of everything foreign that differs from our own usage ; but 
 I confess I think we can learn something from the Germans here. 
 We have four squadrons per regiment, and only three majors, the 
 infantry having four. (I cannot see the justice of this, taking into 
 account the interests of the senior captain of cavalry.) Owing to 
 our squadrons being divided into two troops only, as compared with 
 the four Zugs of the German, we lose the services of some officers from 
 leading, they being relegated to the serre-file rank. I should like to 
 see the tactical and administrative units reduced to the same denomina- 
 tion, the squadron, commanded by a major, with one captain and two 
 subalterns under him. I should like to see the guide done away with, 
 and the squadron divided into three divisions, the centre one under 
 command of the captain, and the others led and commanded by the 
 subalterns. The difference in handiness and mobility between three 
 such divisions and two troops up to war strength should be obvious. 
 
 I have had to do with the instruction of a regiment composed of 
 five squadrons of close on one hundred of all ranks in each, and can 
 quite enter into the advantage it would be to have squadrons of three 
 Zugs in each of some, sixteen front rank. We should gain in mobility 
 and in the development of the powers of the younger officers. 
 
 It is in no spirit of carping criticism that I venture to suggest 
 that the method adopted in the instruction of junior officers on joining 
 is in very many cases very unsatisfactory, and does not attain the object 
 which should be kept in mind by those who carry out their instruction. 
 An officer is posted to a regiment, and finds himself on the ^barrack 
 square among the recruits ; he goes through the course of drill from 
 the goose step up, together with the sword or lance and carbine drill, 
 etc. ; and as soon as he can perform these fairly well he is " dismissed." 
 The same obtains with reference to his riding and musketry. Seldom 
 indeed is any aceount taken of his ability to impart to others that which 
 he has learned. As for meat, bread, hay, straw, and oats, he is supposed 
 to know all about their quality, etc., by inspiration. 
 
 Surely this is not as it should be. No wonder then that many of 
 these duties are irksome, and therefore improperly performed in many 
 cases. No man can take a real pleasure or intelligent interest in doing, 
 or attempting to do, that which, from ignorance and want of instruc- 
 tion, he can do only in a consciously imperfect manner. 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 417 
 
 We have at Aldershot a school for auxiliary cavalry, which, if 
 developed, would prove of much more general use than at present. 
 This school has to borrow from the cavalry regiments some twenty to 
 twenty-five horses during certain periods of the instruction carried on 
 there. 
 
 This is obviously a great tax upon the patience of the officers 
 commanding the regiments thus depleted j)7"o tem. They have also to 
 lend a certain number of men who are required for foot-drill instruc- 
 tion, and who draw working pay for this duty. Now if this school 
 were enlarged and had a riding-master (who would act as adjutant as 
 well) attached, a couple of rough riders, forty horses (sound, but cast 
 from regiments on account of age), and a deputy commandant, I think 
 we could solve the difficulty of instructing the officers and staff ser- 
 geants of auxiliary cavalry, and teaching a certain number of infantry 
 how to ride and groom their horses, besides affiirding young cavalry 
 officers facilities for going through a course which, from personal ex- 
 perience, I can vouch would be very helpful to them in the matter of 
 imparting instruction, — a point becoming of greatly increased import- 
 ance under the new regulations for squadron instruction by officers. 
 It might be replied that such an institution could not cover so much 
 ground at one time. It would not be at all necessary, because there 
 are certain months in the year during which it would be most unwise 
 to press the attendance of auxiliary cavalry officers. This also holds 
 good with reference to the sergeants of the permanent staff. Some of 
 these very months fall at a time when it would be most convenient for 
 infantry men to be attached for a course of riding, etc., namely, the 
 furlough season, months when there is little done in the way of field 
 days. 
 
 If the infantry are attached by twos and threes to cavalry regi- 
 ments, they must necessarily fall to a greater or less extent into 
 cavalry ways and ideas; but drilled together and working and living 
 together as usual at such an establishment, the infantry spirit would 
 be kept up. 
 
 Again, the troopers permanently posted from the cavalry with the 
 liorses would no doubt be men who have re-engaged for twenty-one 
 years, and they would be available both for mounted and dismounted 
 instruction drills. This method adopted, we should gain the advantage 
 of one system of instruction for mounted infantry and the junior 
 officers, as well as the auxiliary cavalry, and at a very small cost. 
 
 I cannot help thinking that our methods of instructing young 
 officers are too cramped and too much confined to the subjective. It 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 27 
 
418 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 is very necessary under existing methods of war to obtain clear views 
 as to the best way of acting and manceiivring in combination witli the 
 other arras. I need not say how little opportunity is afforded junior 
 officers for this, except what they can pick up out of books or from the 
 war game. This does not sufficiently train the eye to grasp the general 
 idea of movements being executed by other arms of the service than 
 our own. Would it not be a good way of spending a forenoon upon 
 which there is no parade or other duty such as courts-martial, boards, 
 etc., for a major to ride out with his squadron officers and watch the 
 drill of an infantry regiment, or when possible a brigade, not to see 
 how they worked so much as to discuss together the best means of sup- 
 porting their advances or retirements, their various manoeuvres and 
 attack ? As the movements are being executed, to guess their purport, 
 and to suggest the best means of screening their movements from a 
 supposed enemy, taking the character and features of the ground into 
 consideration. To watch the movements of artillery in the same way, 
 and to prospect the best methods and places for escorting and support- 
 ing them; then to get a distance from them and discuss the most 
 favorable opportunities, means and direction for attacking them, taking 
 into account the features of ground and the position of supposed 
 support. 
 
 Colonel Chapman, military secretary to the commander-in-chief in 
 India, delivered a lecture at the United Service Institution of India 
 last May, his subject being "The Last Autumn Manoeuvres of the 
 German Array." He drew attention to the complete separation of the 
 several arms of the service, and how they manoeuvred in utter inde- 
 pendence of each other. He says, " The cavalry acting under its own 
 leader sought more to extend itself in isolated attacks on the enemy's 
 cavalry, and instances of its dismounting and holding positions until 
 the infantry came up were never noticed." Touching artillery he says, 
 " Apparently there were no artillery tactics at all, and officers brought 
 their batteries into action and opened fire without any study of the 
 ground, and any particular object save that of firing upon the enemy.'' 
 Cavalry did not care for the artillery, and the artillery and infantry 
 did not work for each other. 
 
 I cannot understand the principle underlying the spirit of parsi- 
 mony in a certain direction which limits the opportunities for the 
 instruction of all ranks, from generals down, by means of autumn 
 manoeuvres. It is a principle of penny wise in times of peace, but 
 must be pound and many pounds foolish in war. But then those who 
 exercise this principle do not go to war; they stay at home and fight 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 419 
 
 with the screw instead of the sword, drive their non-combatant teams 
 with the quill, and harness them with red tape ; and then when any- 
 thing breaks down, throw themselves heartily into the, to tiicm, con- 
 genial recreation of hunting the scapegoat. 
 
 A few words as to the rank and file of our cavalry service. I think 
 it is a matter of sincere and unmixed congratulation that the reports 
 from the various recruiting districts as to the class of men joining the 
 cavalry were such, that the inspector-general of recruiting was able 
 to state in his last annual return that they were without exception 
 satisfactory. On reading this I immediately began to look up the 
 question of education in this connection, and I am deeply indebted to 
 the kindness and courtesy of General Sir Beauchamp Walker, to whom 
 this Institution and the army at large owes so much in this matter, for 
 information on this head, as also to Colonel Orr of the same depart- 
 ment for the following tables, which show that the rate of progress in 
 general education among the rank and file of our cavalry is an 
 encouraging feature in our condition. 
 
 Percentage of Men [Non- Commissioned Officers and Men) in possession of Certificatea 
 
 of Education. 
 
 1873. I 1881. 
 
 1st class 0.75 1st class 1.0 
 
 2d " 8 3 2d " 15.31 
 
 3d " 11.35 3d " 12.94 
 
 4th " 9.3 I 4th " 30.89 
 
 Not certificated 70.30 Not certificated 40.37 
 
 The summary of appendix to General Order 121, 1st September, 
 1883, shows that in branches of the service of a strength of over one 
 thousand the percentage of passes is as follows : 
 
 1. Foot Guards 97.72 I 4. Royal Engineers 00.60 
 
 2. Cavalry 91.48 | 5. Infantry (line) 89.33 
 
 3. Commissariat and Transport . 90.99 | 6. Koyal Artillery 87.65 
 
 The latter table places cavalry very high on the list in the matter 
 of pa&ses gained ; the former proves that there is an eminently satis- 
 factory rate of progress in mental capacity and intellectual culture; 
 and in face of this growth of capacity and culture obtaining among 
 the rank and file of our cavalry service, one hears with apprehension 
 of the great difficulty met with in obtaining recruit officei-s for the 
 cavalry; of special facilities being ottered to candidates willing to 
 accept commissions in the cavalry; of the necessity of modifying the 
 
420 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 terms of admission from being absolutely competitive to competitive 
 combined with qualification. I welcome the modification, while I am 
 bound to regret the necessity for it ; but the necessity having arisen, 
 I think the authorities are bound to grant us larger opportunities for 
 instruction in those duties which lead us into combination with the 
 other arms. As the hearing of the ear may bring the foot into 
 readiness to move; as the seeing of the eye reveals the direction for 
 the blow of the hand ; as the foot may not say to the ear, " I have no 
 need of thee;" and the hand without the guiding eye would strike 
 wide of the mark, so cavalry, artillery, and infantry should have 
 ample opportunities granted them of cultivating those inter-relations, 
 for exercising those characteristic and individual functions which, 
 carried out in union, weld eye, ear, hand, foot, and body into one 
 corporate entity, form one harmonious whole, complete and perfect in 
 all its parts. 
 
 To conclude, what does this marked intellectual and educational 
 advance exhibited among the rank and file of our cavalry service 
 demand of us regimental officers? It demands that which I humbly 
 believe we, as a body, are seeking and striving after as never before, 
 namely, a proportionate increase of capacity and knowledge for ourselves. 
 We, who most of all exercise a direct personal influence on our men, 
 should see to it that that influence is exercised for good ; that we set 
 them an example of diligent application, of scrupulous conscientious- 
 ness in the performance of our duty; that no detail of that duty is too 
 petty or insignificant to be done carefully and well. Duty thus done 
 becomes a pleasure; but duty done in a half-hearted and grudging 
 spirit, as if it were a bore, makes that duty in time a bondage, and 
 begets a spirit that soon infects those under our immediate influence to 
 their grievous harm. On the other hand, as I trust will be admitted, 
 the " Functions of Cavalry in Modern War" demand of officer and 
 man increasing intelligence, self-reliance, and resource, increasing 
 knowledge and efficiency for their effectual expression in action ; thus 
 that increasing knowledge, that resulting efficiency will necessarily add 
 an unconscious dignity to the character and bearing of the individual, 
 and will make him a valuable entity in that branch of our queen's 
 service to which I deem it a high honor to belong. 
 
 List of Works likely to be Useful in the Study of Tactics. 
 
 General. 
 Hamley, Art of War. 
 Tactique des Trois Armes, Mazel. 
 
1885. FUNCTIONS OF CAVALRY IN MODERN WAR. 421 
 
 Jomini. 
 
 Denison's History. 
 
 Clery, Minor Tactics. 
 
 Tactique de Combat, Brialraont. 
 
 Home. 
 
 Trait6 d'Art Militaire, Perizonius. 
 
 Modern Tactics (Wilkinson and Shaw). 
 
 Lectures, Dyke. 
 
 Cavah'y. 
 
 Cavalry Regulations. 
 
 Von Schmidt, Instructions (for detailed instructions). 
 
 Conduct of a Contact Squadron, Bell. 
 
 Verdy du Vernois, Troop Leading. 
 
 Catechisms (Cavalry Regulations), Colonel B. Bell. 
 
 Artillery. 
 
 Field Artillery, Pratt, 1883. 
 Tactique de I'Artillerie, Von Schell. 
 Defense and Attack of Positions, Scliaw. 
 
 Infantry. 
 Field Exercise Book. 
 
422 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 
 
 BY J. WATTS DE PEYSTER, BREVET MAJOR-GENERAL S.N.Y. 
 
 " The History of Gustavus Adolphus," by Walter Harte, Stockdale's (the 
 Third) Edition, London, 1807; "The History of Gustavus Adolphus," by B. 
 Chapman, Vicar of Letherhead, London, 1856; " Gustaf Adolph, Kdnig von 
 Schweden, und Seine Zeit," by A. F. Gfrorer, Dr. Onn Klopp's (the Fourth 
 Edition), Stuttgart, 1863; "The History of Gustavus Adolphus," by John L. 
 Stevens, recently United States Minister at Stockholm, New York and London, 
 1884 ; Geijer's " History of the Swedes" (comprising the first three volumes of the 
 original down to the end of Christina's administration), translated by J. H. Turner, 
 London, 1832 to 1836 ; " The Civil and Military History of Germany from the 
 Landing of Gustavus to the Conclusion of the Treaty of Westphalia" (in reality 
 of the whole Thirty Years' War), in three volumes or parts, by Frances Hare 
 Naylor, London, 1816; "Geschichte des deutschen Reiches unter der Regierung 
 Ferdinand III.," by M. Kock, Wien ; " Eulogy of Leonard Torstenson, by H. E. M. 
 Gustavus III.," Stockholm, 1787; "The Lives of the Warriors," by General the 
 Hon. Sir Edward Cust, B. A., London, 1865-67 ; and at least two hundred other works 
 or volumes in Latin, French, German, and English in the possession of the author. 
 
 The following article is intended as a Review, but to partake at 
 the same time of the nature of an Essay. The number of works of 
 more or less value in regard to Gustavus Adolphus and the Thirty- 
 Years' War is very great; but in spite of the prominent names which 
 appear as authors or inspirers, both the biography of Gustavus and 
 the history of the Thirty Years' War has even yet to be written. 
 From all the lives of the great king Ave do not learn the whole truth 
 in regard to him. In some respects he is more a myth than the Wash- 
 ington of Weems. He was not a saint in the ideal sense of the word, 
 but he was a man, and his motives, while they were subordinated to 
 religious principle, were tinctured with selfishness and founded on 
 policy. A successful leading politician in this country is said to have 
 remarked that in a very large city he had found that virtue had a 
 number of representatives, and vice had none ; that he would unite 
 the suffrages of vice on himself. He did so, was elected again and 
 again, until all the virtues marshaled their champions under one leader, 
 and then, and not until then, was he defeated. Again, it was said in an 
 army that a number of especial classes rejoiced in more or less dis- 
 tinctive representatives, but that religion had none, and that whoever 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 423 
 
 trained under that flag would succeed, A standard-bearer offered him- 
 self and did so. Thus it is: policy and interest walk hand in hand, 
 and, as Lear said, the godlike and the devilish divide the empire of 
 the mici'ocosm, man. 
 
 Although Harte devoted heart and soul to his work on Gustavus, 
 and accumulated an immense amount of information in regard to the 
 king and the war under consideration, it is by no means satisfying any 
 more than the most recent biography of Stevens, who from his position 
 enjoyed advantages such as very few men in writing up a subject have 
 possessed. The fact is that until the manuscri])t treasures at Sko- 
 kloster are carefully arranged and indexed and published somewhat 
 like our " Official Records," — " War of the Rebellion," — and are trans- 
 lated into a language familiar to the majority of iiistorians, there is no 
 use of expecting a true picture of the exterior actions and interior 
 motives of this momentous period, or a clear revelation of the charac- 
 ters of the chief actors. As yet most writers have followed each other 
 in the same rut. It is said that the two sides of the face of Gustavus 
 III. were so dissimilar that a profile portrait from the left would 
 never have been recognized as a likeness of the same person when 
 painted from the right. Just so in regard to the prominent characters 
 in the greatest religious war that was ever fought out between modern 
 titular Christians. Nor are students anxious to arrive at the truth, 
 more capable of doing so from pen-portraits than they are of judging 
 of the real characters of the Joabs, Ahithophels, and Davids of the 
 period from their actual portraits. Lying before me is Salmzon's ex- 
 quisite series of likenesses of the leading men of the Thirty Years' 
 War, published at Stockholm, within about thirty or forty years. 
 Some of the finest faces belong to the weakest men, and to any but 
 adepts in physiognomy the strongest men are by no means character- 
 ized by general features indicative of their strength. One man who 
 looked what lie was, " with a mind steeped in beer," was John George, 
 Elector of Saxony. To a woman's fancy Gallas would certainly prove 
 attractive. Bauer has traits which recidl those of Richelieu and 
 Mazarin. Piccolomini shows himself completely: a bad, bold, Italian 
 of the worst tyj)e. Horn, who liad the character of being so hunuuie 
 that he disarmed war of its worst horrors, has a very harsh face; and 
 Konigsmark, whom the French represent as positively ugly, because 
 lie saw through their tricks, and would not submit to their imperious- 
 ness, has a portrait handsome enough to justify what they said of him, 
 that he was a "woman's man," as well, as he really was a most enter- 
 prising soldier and sjigjicious leader. The finest head, however. 
 
424 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 grander even than that of Gustavus and Ban^r, who is said to have re- 
 sembled his master closely, is that of Leonard Torstenson, — whose name, 
 translated, signifies the Lion, strong, son of the (memorial) stone (or 
 j3illar) of the Thunder God (Thor), — in its blended grandeur of un- 
 mistakable goodness and greatness. 
 
 If called upon to recommend the best work in every respect for the 
 period from the beginning of the war to the death of Gustavus, I 
 should select, for whomsoever can read German, Gfrorer ; as a general 
 history, Nay lor ; as a military essay, Gust's " Lives of the Warriors ;" 
 and for the political or civil aspects, Gindely. For military details the 
 last is almost worthless, and, as before remarked, there has not, as yet, 
 been a real military history published. In his " Geschichte des Kriegs- 
 wesens," von Brandt has furnished some exquisite episodes replete with 
 the most valuable information ; and Feil, in his " Die Schweden in 
 Oesterreich," has presented facts, in detail, in regard to military 
 operations within the Imperial Hereditary States in 1645 and 1646 
 which are astonishing in their revelations. Although I say it myself, 
 and it may sound like egotism, I have never seen a book which contains 
 such a mass of information (however undigested and shapelessly thrown 
 together) as my life of Torstenson, which cost many years of the 
 hardest labor and a large amount of money, willingly expended to 
 obtain every authority accessible in any language open to me. 
 
 " Few modern nations can vie with the Swedes as historians ; . . . 
 in Sweden history don't stand on her dignity, pared down to barren 
 facts, but is alike simple and amusing" [witness the series of historical 
 novels of Topelius. Lagerbring in this respect resembles Topelius.] 
 " Geyer [or Geijer], a greater genius far, ... is the driest of the series. 
 "When selected by [his] government to write the History of Sweden," 
 he recommended Afzelius as the best calculated to weave in interesting 
 anecdotes and legends necessary to the full understanding of the matter. 
 Fryxell is "quaint and legendary till the death of Erik XIV., when his 
 style changes." Lastly we have Stjernholm, — " most painstaking writer 
 of the century," of " unwearied industry." He can scarcely live, with 
 his details, to bring his work down further than the rise of the Vasa 
 dynasty, — all that is of interest to any but his own countrymen. 
 
 By the way as a parenthesis, there is a curious fact connected with 
 Ten Broek's translation of Gindely 's history, published by Putnam's 
 Sons, which I once reviewed in The United Service. In his note 
 to page 288, vol. ii., he alludes to the following passage in Gindely: 
 " Fiir die unterhaltung der Reichs-armee wurden 120 Il5mer-monate 
 bewilligt." Ten Broek observes, "This is the only passage of the 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 425 
 
 work thus far the application of which I have not supposed that I 
 understood." He translates it, "For the maintenance of the imperial 
 army, 120 Roman months were granted." The real signification is that 
 the Diet voted a contribution from the States of the Roman Emj)ire 
 (for which they were bound in carrying on a coramon war), equivalent 
 to the aggregate of 120 monthly allowances, or six-tenths of the 
 extreme amount for which they could be held liable, or the utmost ever 
 granted, — i.e., 200. " Momei'-monate," is a technical term. 
 
 With these j)reliminary remarks what follows is a crystallized or 
 perhaps, more properly speaking, a digested presentation or review of 
 what occurred after Gustavus Adolphus, for astutely political and 
 strictly military as well as actual religious motives, determined to take 
 part in the great German war. " The pear had been maturing for 
 years; it was now ripe and ready to fall ;" the slightest breeze awakened 
 by the jien or the sword was alone necessary to break it oif. The 
 Siege of Stralsund by Wallenstein j)recipitated events. The " pear" 
 fell ! Gustavus landed in Pomerania. It was the real beginning of 
 the great end. 
 
 H. R. M. Oscar II. delivered an Address on the one hundred and 
 fiftieth anniversary of the death of Charles XII., which proves that, in 
 these times, kings are better educated and as intellectually able as any 
 other class. He shows that however brilliant was the career of Charles, 
 it was fatal to his country, but not fatal because Charles was " a mad- 
 man," as he is generally styled, but because such a hero, king, soldier, 
 and general, needed a kingdom more commensurate with his own great- 
 ness than Sweden. 
 
 Gustavus III., another king of Sweden, in a note to his Eulogy of 
 Leonard Torstenson, written in 1787, makes a remark which shows 
 that the Swedes were not always unanimous as to the })ermanent ad- 
 vant;ige of the military triumphs of Gustavus Adolphus, although the 
 injm'ious effects were remote not immediate, as in the case of Charles 
 XII.: " There wils a time when, owing to particular reasons and pur- 
 poses, it was attempted to dispute the great services Gustavus Adolphus 
 rendered to the realm. It was insisted upon that his glorious reign was 
 more brilliant than advantageous to the kingdom ; that it contribtUed 
 more to the nation s honor than to its happiness." 
 
 Horace Marryatt, in his " One Year in Sweden," reads to the point 
 in this connection: "That contest lasted thirty years, though it de- 
 stroyed the power of Romanism in the German Empire, — half i-uined 
 Sweden ;" after Charles XII., " the curse and glory of Sweden," " A 
 RUINED COUNTRY." 
 
426 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 In both cases it was like an individual of great vitality and strength 
 of constitution but of feeble physique, enabled by strong and quickly- 
 repeated stimulants to perform great feats of strength, — terrible ex- 
 haustion necessarily followed. In the case of Sweden the stimulants 
 were foreign triumphs, administered in heroic doses by boldest practi- 
 tioners. The reign of Louis XIV. is nearly a parallel, and that of 
 Napoleon. Both achieved marvelous military successes; both reigns 
 ended in a prostration, which, as old Bliicher feared for the cause of 
 the Allies, would be the case, — i.e., that 
 
 " Pens would lose by writing 
 "What swords had won by fighting," 
 
 or otherwise the righteous dismemberment of France in 1871 would 
 have been more thoroughly executed, in one case one hundred and fifty, 
 and in the other case fifty-six years before it did occur. 
 
 The deeper a student examines into the undeniable facts of history, 
 the more it will become evident that there is absolutely nothing new in 
 the world, and that what is accepted as new is nothing more than another 
 form, or presentation, or application of the old — the Vieux-Netif of Ed- 
 ouard Fournier — in some shape or another, justifying the declaration of 
 Solomon, or of whoever was the author of Ecclesiastes, that wonderful 
 production of the human intellect, that " there is nothing new under the 
 sun." It almost would appear as if the adage is true, " The more folks 
 learn, the less they know," or as Byron sung it, perhaps, better, — 
 
 " Knowledge is not happiness, and science 
 
 But an exchange of ignorance for that 
 Which is another kind of ignorance ;" 
 
 all culminating in the remark of the famous Prime Minister, Oxen- 
 stiern, to his son when starting out as representative at Osnabruck, "Go, 
 see with what little sense the world is governed." One thing is un- 
 questionable, the practical development of modern war dates further 
 back than the seventeenth century, and is due not to one man nor two, 
 but to many, and it would not be saying too much if it were asserted 
 and maintained that war as well as religion owes its first real modern 
 impulse to printing. Polybius hit the centre when he wrote that 
 " Truth is to history what eyes are to animals. Tear out their eyes and 
 they are useless. Even so take Truth from History and it is no longer 
 of any use [or value]." ^ Before printing, except as copyists, writers 
 
 ^ Any one who honestly desires to appreciate " what history can teach us," let 
 him read the article by W. S. Lilly in the Contemjyorary Review, republished 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 427 
 
 drew upon their imaginations or their prejudices for their facts. Print- 
 ing came to the rescue and just in time. All that the moderns knew, 
 in 1500-1 025, of real war wa.s due to the Romans; tiiat is to say, to 
 their adaptativeness and adoption and conversion of the systems they 
 encountered, so far improved and amalgamated, as they appear in the 
 perfect praxis of the Legion. The Phalanx of the intellectual Greeks 
 was a simple application to armed organizations of men of the laws of 
 mass and momentum ; the Legion of the less refined but more practi- 
 cal Romans was the perfect recognition of the power of momentum 
 without the necessity of mass. It was the substitution of the manoeu- 
 vring cannon for the ponderous and fixed artillery, — the ballista or bat- 
 tering-ram of the ancients, — the flexibility of intelligence and the educa- 
 tion of individuals for the stiifness and unaccommodativeness of over- 
 armed aggregated numbers. Printing diffused knowledge and repro- 
 duced the wisdom and works of antiquity, and Gustavus studied the 
 classics, and in them found and from them derived his inspiration. His 
 tactics were the reappearance of those of the Legion, destined to shatter 
 the massed formations of his opponents as did the legions under T. 
 Quinctius Flaniiuius, the piialanx of Philip V. of Macedon at Cynos- 
 ciphaloe. Hal lam, however he may be in less or greater degree correct 
 in his "Europe during the Middle Ages," claims for the English Con- 
 dottiere. Sir John Hawkwood, died a.d. 1394, the honor of being — 
 
 " The first distinguished commander who had appeared in Europe since the de- 
 struction of the Roman Empire. It would be absurd to suppose that any of the 
 constituent elements of military genius, which nature furnishes to energetic char- 
 acters, were wanting to the leaders of a barbarian or feudal army ; untroubled 
 perspicacity in confusion, firm decision, rapid execution, providence against attack, 
 fertility of resource, and stratagem. These are in quality as much required from 
 the chief of an Indian tribe, as from the accomplished commander. But we do not 
 find them in any instance so consummated by habitual skill as to challenge the 
 name of generalship. No one at least occurs to me previously to the middle of the 
 fourteenth century to whom history has unequivocally assigned that character. 
 It is very rarely that we find even the order of battles specially noticed. The 
 monks, indeed, our only chroniclers, were poor judges of martial excellence; yet, 
 as war is the main topic of all annals, we could hardly remain ignorant of any dis- 
 tinguished skill in its operations. This neglect of military science certainly did 
 not proceed from any predilection for the arts of peace. It arose out of the general 
 manners of society, and out of the nature and composition of armies in the Middle 
 Ages. The insubordinate spirit of feudal tenants, and the emulous equality of chiv- 
 alry, were alike hostile to that gradation of rank, that punctual observance of irk- 
 in lAtielVs Living Age, No. 2152, 19th September, 1885, and reflect upon the in- 
 fluence of a great man upon the world's progress, — an influence which is due to 
 the direct action of the Infinite upon the Finite, through the inspiration of genius, 
 the individual, the Man of and for the Time upon Men. 
 
428 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 some duties, that prompt obedience to a supreme command, through which a single 
 soul is infused into the active mass, and the rays of individual merit converge to 
 the head of the general. In the fourteenth century, we begin to perceive some- 
 thing of a more scientific character in military proceedings, and historians for the 
 first time discover that success does not entirely depend upon intrepidity and phys- 
 ical prowess. The victory of Muhldorf over the Austrian princes in 1322, that de- 
 cided a civil war in the empire, is ascribed to the ability of the Bavarian com- 
 mander Schwepperman, [who] is called by a contemporary writer Struvius, 
 
 ' CLARtJS MILITARA SCIENTIA VIR.' " 
 
 Many distinguished officers were joined in the school of Edward III. Yet 
 their excellencies were perhaps rather those of active partisans than of experienced 
 generals. Their successes are still due rather to daring enthusiasm than to wary 
 and calculating combination. Like inexpert chess-players, they surprise us by 
 happy sallies against rule, or display their talents in rescuing themselves from the 
 consequences of their own mistakes. Thus the admirable arrangements of the 
 Black Prince at Poitiers hardly redeem the temerity which placed him in a situa- 
 tion where the egregious folly of his adversary alone could have permitted him to 
 triumph [Lee and " Stonewall" Jackson are most apposite examples of these remarks 
 in the Pope campaign]. Hawkwood, therefore, appears to me the first real general 
 of modern thnes, — the earliest master, however imperfect, in the science of [Mau- 
 rice of Nassau, Gustavus Adolphus, Baner, Torstenson, Mercy] Turenne and 
 Wellington. Every contemporary Italian historian speaks with admiration of his 
 skillful tactics in battles, his stratagems, his well-conducted retreats. Praise of this 
 description, as I have observed, is hardly bestowed — certainly not so continually — 
 on any former captain. Hawkwood was not only the greatest but the last of the 
 foreign condottiere, or captains of mercenary bands." 
 
 It is useless to enter into an argument as to who did truly give 
 the first impulse to systematized modern war ; but it is worth showing, 
 and susceptible of proof, that on the field of battle in the application 
 of the "Three arms combined," Gustavus Adolphus was the man and 
 HIS Leipsic, in 1631, the model. Torstenson's Leipsic, in 1642, was 
 finer as an exemplar of simple direction and fighting ; but the Leip- 
 sic of Gustavus was equivalent to the quiet daring of Franklin 
 when he elicited the electric spark from the kite-string and demon- 
 strated the feasibility of the application to buildings, of conductors. 
 Gustavus in one sense as Franklin in another eripuit fulmen. 
 
 This flexibility, this individualization of force, is more and more 
 manifested ever since in the less and less rigid tactics of each succeed- 
 ing war, due as much to the dissemination of intelligence hy pi'inting 
 as to the invention of more and more destructive firearms and their 
 accumulation on the battle-field ; of which the enormous susceptibili- 
 ties were discerned by Gustavus Adolphus or by Torstenson, his famous 
 chief of artillery ; which of the two was the man who now can see or 
 determine. 
 
 The Thirty Years' War constituted one of the decisive periods in 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 429 
 
 the great process of human development and tlie liberation of Thought 
 from the trammels of priestcraft and superstition. Without it, 
 Thought would not now be Free. What is more, this contest was 
 only a critical crisis in a conflict which may be said to have had a 
 prelude in the struggle of the Seven United States of Holland for 
 their emancipation from the yoke of Spain, and it was the latent con- 
 tinuing virus of the disease which required so much firing and blood- 
 letting, — a virus manifested even as late as in the Franco-Cierman 
 struggle of 1870-71, which developed a new Empire and Emperor in 
 Germany, — both firm in the belief and relief which the principal 
 factors adverse to freedom of soul and body strove to crush through- 
 out the Thirty Years' War. The most dangerous enemies to Human 
 Progress in Europe were the Papacy and the House of Hapsburg, and 
 their power was not thoroughly broken until Sadowa, in 1866. Claim- 
 ing to be German the Austrians were the direst foes to Germany and to 
 human freedom. They were the sworn tormentors and executioners of 
 a church, which, if triumphant, would have plunged humanity back 
 into a condition analogous to that of the '' Dark Ages," and victorious, 
 they would have crippled Mind for centuries. Ferdinand II., who 
 made the Thirty Years' War, expressed as to will and wish exactly 
 the idea of Tacitus : " They make a desert and they call it peace." 
 Such may not have been his intention, as regarded a desert, for a waste 
 cannot pay taxes or tithes, but such would have been the inevitable 
 result had success crowned his resolve. Little did he think that when 
 his organized or "disciplined savages," wasted the Mark of Branden- 
 burg, that he was only preparing the way for the Rise of a new au- 
 thority in Germany, which should place its heel, within about two 
 centuries, upon the very head of his successors. Max Nordau, in his 
 awful work, "The Conventional Lies of Civilization," proliibited iu 
 Europe, which has passed through seven editions in seven months in 
 this country — in the fearful aggressive of his chapter entitled ** The 
 Lie of a Monarchy and an Aristocracy," is nevertheless compelled to 
 admit that the Prussian Dynasty, "The Ilohenzollerns of Germany, 
 have at least a clean record of which they need not be ashamed." 
 Frederick the Great, one of the greatest kings who ever simultaneously 
 grasped the sceptre of a despotic monarch and the sword of a great 
 soldier and general — one of these Hohenzollerns — within one century 
 after the close of the Thirty Years' War, inflicted a deadly wound 
 upon the Hapsburg power which has never closed and is still bleeding. 
 Thence its life-blooil has been ebbing slowly away, until now the third 
 successor of Frederick is Eniperor of Germany, and the Austrian 
 
430 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 Imperialty, once the German Empire, is so little German that it is 
 compelled to move in accordance with the influence and direction of 
 other races upon which it formerly looked down as the master upon 
 the serf. 
 
 Whatever skeptics, or worse, may say, philosophical and critical 
 history proves indisputably that as the Moslem says, " There is no God 
 but God," and God^ "the Most High, ruleth in the kingdoms of men, 
 and giveth it to whomsoever He will, and setteth over it the basest of 
 men, — doeth according to His will in the army of Heaven, and among 
 the inhabitants of the earth ; and none can stay His hand, or say unto 
 Him, ' What doest Thou ?' " 
 
 Whether this Rule is applied through direct interventions or by 
 
 inevitable laws; by immediate miraculous operations or fixed decree, 
 
 has ever been a disputed point, and cannot be settled even through 
 
 comparative citations from the Holy Scriptures. The weight of the 
 
 argument lies in the scale of predetermined regulation, which leaves 
 
 no fissure or hiatus for the voluntary action of mortals. To this is 
 
 conjoined an intimate relation not only between the microcosm (man) 
 
 and the macrocosm (universe), in cause and effect subordinate to law, 
 
 and close affinity, step by step, grade by grade, from the lowest order 
 
 of creation, — through the animal culminating in the highest order of 
 
 men, — to the lights which burn by myriads in the measureless expanse 
 
 of ether, as Pope rhymed, 
 
 " So, from the first, eternal order ran, 
 And creature linked to creature, man to man." 
 
 According to Fran nee : 
 
 " Man is all symmetry, 
 "Full of proportions, one limb to another, 
 
 A7id all the world besides. 
 Each part may call the farthest brother. 
 For head with foot hath private amity, 
 And both with both moon and tides. 
 
 ^ The Buddhists seem to demonstrate this in their universal prayer, " Om mane 
 padmi Oum, Oh God, the jewel [only Supreme] in the Lotus, Amenl" and the 
 Zoroastrians in theirs, "the purest and noblest religion of antiquity," recognized 
 a One Almighty Supreme over Ormuzd, the principle of good, and Ahriman, the 
 representative of evil — One whole. 
 
 " Joy above the name of pleasure, 
 
 Deep self-possession, an intense repose. . . . 
 
 No other than as Eastern sages paint, 
 
 The God [Oji] who floats upon a Lotos leaf; 
 
 Dreams for a thousand ages, then awaking, 
 
 Creates a world, and, smiling at the bubble, 
 
 Belapses into bliss." — Coleridge. 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 431 
 
 " Nothing hath got so far, 
 But man hath caught and kept it as his prey. 
 His eyes dismount tlic highest star, 
 He is, in little, all the sphere. 
 Herbs cure our flesh because that they 
 Find their acquaintance there.' ^ 
 
 This was exactly tlie idea of the great Paracelsus, so abused by 
 empirics, pedants, and people unable to reach the height of his genius 
 understand him. 
 
 Wallenstein, whose horoscope (talisman [or astrological amulet]) 
 is still preserved in the "Treasury" "Imperial Burg," at Vienna, 
 stands by no means alone in his firm faith in the influence upon, and 
 revelation of, the stars as regards the fortunes of men. The horoscopes 
 of Gustavus, and of Pappenheim, and of Christian IV., made in 
 accordance with the stellar conjunctions at their birth, were strangely 
 fulfilled ; that of the first exactly. The appearance of comets, " im- 
 porting change," has always been regarded as ominous, and no one who 
 beheld it can forget the huge meteor which piissed over our country 
 before the Slaveholders' Rebellion, in 1860, first separated into two 
 with a mighty explosion, sailed on portentously, and, thus divided, 
 across the arch of heaven and, then, became reunited into one orb before 
 it disappeared ; nor that which in the Northwestern heavens shone like 
 a vast sword dripping blood, in 18G3. Examples might be multiplied, 
 but to whoever disbelieves in these appearances there is no need to say 
 more or enter into further proofs or even more extraordinary examples 
 of cause and effect or influence. 
 
 It is very doubtful if any of the leading men of the time were not 
 more or less superstitious. Among the Positivists it has been asserted 
 by his friends and admirers and by historians that " Bauer was elevated 
 far above fear and credulity." Above fear unquestionably, yes ; but 
 whether he was superior to the superstitions of his time is not so certain, 
 especially if Parival, who published in 1056, is correct in his "History 
 of this Iron Age," which comprises one of the most reliable accounts 
 of the Thirty Years' War. This author appears to have been actpiainted 
 with all the secrets of the time, and, for some reason or other, was able 
 to obtain information in regard to the peculiarities of every one of note. 
 In Part II., Chapter vii., page 179, he says, speaking of Ban6r and 
 Torstenson's campaign of 1639: 
 
 ^^ Bannier went into Bohemia, Torstenzon into Lusatia, and Stalhans into 
 Silesia; and God knows into what condition tliey put that country, where they 
 found more friends than the Imperialists did in Pumerania. He defeated General 
 Marizini neer Chemniz, and incaniped before Prague, where he also defeated General 
 
432 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 Sofkirck. All the world was amazed at this progress, which against all aj^parence 
 and all expectation, and which cost so much blood, so much desolation, and so many 
 inflagrations throughout all Saxonie, and even to the very gates of Prague. Fortune 
 had again turned her back upon the Imperialis^ts, who changed their commander. 
 For, the Arch-Duke Leopold was declared Generalissimo or Chief-General, and 
 Piccolomini his Lieutenant. Many encounters hapened, in which the Swedes had 
 almost still the better and Fortune accoinpanied them even to the last, according to 
 the assurance lohich was given Bannier, bg a certain peasant, who was become 
 HIS prophet." 
 
 During the Thirty Years' War there were manifest examples of 
 the stultification of those whom the Almighty had predestined to fall, 
 to stumble, or to go astray, as the propiiet coarsely but forcibly ex- 
 pressed it, — in language which seems unpolished to the nicety of the 
 hypercritical ears of this generation, — when he speaks of the oppressor 
 becoming brutish in his arrogance and erring in every work as a drunken 
 man staggereth in his vomit, slipping and finally falling in it. For 
 example, Gustavus could not have acquired all he did and have estab- 
 lished his base securely, in 1631, if Austria had not, in consistence with 
 her fatal greed, attempted to grasp all and in the futile attempt periled 
 everything. Had the "disciplined savages," sent into Italy to sack 
 Mantua, been present in Saxony, Gustavus could not have won at 
 Leipsic; and if Ferdinand had not had Wallenstein assassinated in the 
 nick of time for the Swedes, Nordlingen would have arrived two years 
 before it did and the sagacious diplomacy of the murdered Great Cap- 
 tain, Friedland, would have rendered the League of Heilbronn and the 
 recuperation of Oxenstiern and Baner an utter impossibility. 
 
 Colonel Malleson, B.A., in his paper or address, read before the 
 Royal British Historical Society, 7th February, 1884, entitled "The 
 Lost Opportunities of Austria," shows that the Peace of Westphalia, 
 24th October, 1648, left Germany divided into two camps. "Inter- 
 nally — that is, within the limits of Germany — the Peace of Westphalia 
 settled the religious question. Whilst it confirmed the dogma, held by 
 every prince, great and small, as an unquestioned prerogative, that the 
 religion of the prince was to be the religion of the people [Cajus I'egio 
 ejus religio), it left, with rare exceptions, the people practically free to 
 worship God as they chose. (The expulsion of the Protestants of 
 Styria, by the Emperor Charles VI., is an exception to this general 
 rule.) But as, generally, the people of Southern Germany adhered to 
 the old, and those of Northern Germany embraced, in some form or 
 other, the [Evangelical, so styled] reformed religion, the practical 
 result was to divide Germany into two camps, — the Southerners, allied 
 by sympathy with Austria; the Northerners, more or less divided, but 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 433 
 
 prepared, as the sequel has proved, to follow the lead of a strong Man 
 whenever that strong man sliould appear." . . . 
 
 "That strong Man" did appear in Frederick the Great, and it was 
 against him, wheu he had weakened with age and trials, that Au.stria, 
 in 1778, again manifested her incapability to profit by opportunity. 
 
 " Again, after a term of years, did the question arise [the question of Austria's 
 possession of Bavaria]. Again was the opportunity oflered. In the interval liad oc- 
 curred the two Silesian "Wars, and the Seven Years' War. The daughter of Charles 
 VI., the illustrious Maria Theresa, ruled over all her father's dominions, lost Silesia 
 excepted. By her side, invested nominally with equal powers, but obliged to con- 
 form in matters of high policy to the strong will of the Empress, stodd her gifted 
 son, Joseph II. Once again offered the opportunity of incorporating Bavaria, al- 
 though, this time, not without a battle. The opportunity arose in this wise Charles 
 Albert, of Bavaria, had lived to enjoy a fleeting gleam of prosperity by his election to 
 the imperial dignity ; and had then died, all his ambitious hopes shattered, in 1745. 
 His son, Maximilian Joseph III., had, by the Peace of Fussen, April 22 of the same 
 year (1745), become reconciled to Austria. He died childless December 30, 1777. 
 He was the last of the Bavarian line of the House of Wittelsbach. His nearest of kin 
 was the Elector Palatine, Charles Theodore. But, in virtue of the title of investiture 
 drawn up more than a century before by the Emperor Sigisnuind, the House of Habs- 
 burg had claims, on the failure of heirs to the Bavarian Wittelsbachs, to the whole 
 of Lower Bavaria. Joseph II. then represented, in co-regency with his renowned 
 mother, the House of Habsburg. He did not allow the opportunity to slip. Charles 
 Theodor was childless, and had no hope of children. A lover of pleasure, given to 
 profuse expenditure on his own gratifications, he readily acceded to the claims of 
 Austria to transfer to her the territory indicated in Sigismund's old parchment. 
 
 " But his nearest relative and heir, Charles II., Duke of Zweibriicken, stepped 
 in to prevent the transaction, appealed to the old jealousj' of the aggrandisement of 
 the House of Austria, of Frederic II , of Prussia, and incited that Prince to invade 
 Bohemia, in order to maintain the right of the ruler of Bavaria and his successors 
 to the possessions of the territories intact, just as they had been at the death of the 
 last of the Bavarian Wittelsbachs. This action on the part of Frederic brought on 
 the War of the Bavarian Succession. Joseph, meanwhile, had taken up on the Bo- 
 hemian frontier, behind the Elbe, a position so strong by nature and so ft)rliflcd by 
 art, that Frederic found it unassailable. He did all he knew, tried all the tricks 
 and stratagems which had served him so well during the Seven Years' War, to 
 entice Joseph from his strong position, to divide the army, or to leave an opening 
 for an attack. Joseph was not to be tempted, and his quiet persistence completely 
 baffled the great warrior-king. But Frederic did not renounce hope. He had 
 ordered his brother. Prince Henry, to march through Saxony and endeavor to 
 break into Bohemia through Lausitz. With the aid of the army under his orders 
 ho would have at his disposal a sufficient superiority of numbers to force the Aus- 
 trian position. But Joseph had placed in the field, to observe and baffle Prince 
 Henry, an army fifty thousand strong, under the command of his best general, 
 Field Marshal Loudon, a man who had shown his capacity to look even Frederic 
 himself in the face. Able, then, as were the dispositions made bj- Prince Henry, 
 Loudon battled them. He did more; he forced the Prince to retreat. He followed 
 him and was on tlie point of forcing him to deliver, under very disadvantageous 
 circumstances, a battle which [according to Austrian critics and others friendly 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 28 
 
434 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 to them], if success had crowned his efforts, would have been fatal to Frederic, 
 which would not only have secured the whole of Lower Bavaria, but have recov- 
 ered Silesia [I?], when his [Loudon's] hand was stayed in the most marvelous 
 manner. The story is thus graphically told by the Freiherr von Janko, in liis 
 ' Life of Loudon :' ' On September 3, 1778, information reached Loudon that Prince 
 Henry had crossed the Elbe near Leitmeritz, and had taken a firm position. Ex- 
 claiming, "Now, at last, I have the Prince in the position in which, since the be- 
 ginning of the war, I have wished to see him," Loudon sent an express to the 
 Emperor to promise him, if he would send him only twelve battalions, he would 
 finish the war. The Emperor dispatched the battalions. Loudon, meanwhile, had 
 concentrated his troops ; and, hearing that the battalions were proceeding by forced 
 marches to join him, hastened from Munchengratz [where the emperors of Austria 
 and Russia and the king of Prussia met in 1833], to Benatek, crossed the Elbe at 
 Brandeis, the Moldau at Weltrus, and on September 20 took up a position opposite 
 Prince Henry at Budin. His position was in every respect most advantageous for 
 an attack, one of his corps occupying a commanding post on the enemy's left, whilst 
 his front and right were so placed that Prince Henry could not retreat without 
 fighting, whilst in case of defeat his army had no means of escape.' 
 
 " I now relate, in the words of the author, the incident which prevented the 
 destruction of the Prussian army: 'With an overstrained anxietj'^ every one in 
 both camps,' writes von Janko, ' beheld the arrival of the moment which was to 
 decide the question of superiority between the two generals, who, according to the 
 judgment of the best-approved strategists, had, during the Seven Years' War, 
 made no mistakes — [for had not Frederic himself declared, to his generals, one day, 
 speaking of the events of the Seven Years' War, " We all committed faults, except 
 my brother Henry and Loudon.'^ ' And yet this Loudon, the capturer, in 1761, by 
 a brilliant stroke, of Schweidnitz, was rewarded for the astounding success by a 
 partial eclipse, until events made his employment in the highest command a matter 
 of absolute necessity.] 
 
 " But just as Loudon was preparing, on the 23d, for an attack which should be 
 decisive, Loudon was surprised by the arrival in his camp of the Emperor. 
 Joseph had come himself, in order to soften, by his presence, the unpleasantness 
 of the orders of which he was the bearer. The Empress, absolutely determined to 
 bring to an end by peaceful means the dispute between Frederic and herself, had 
 commanded her son to forbid at all costs t^le risking of a battle, even were a brilliant 
 victory the certain consequence. Maria Theresa, in fact, saw opposed to her only 
 the warrior who, having robbed her of Silesia, had kept that province against all 
 continental Europe. She did not realize the fact that Frederic was no longer the 
 Frederic of Leuthen and Torgau [?], but an overcautious warrior, fearing to risk 
 much lest he should lose all ; she dreaded lest, as in former days, a defeat should 
 only make him the more terrible in his revenge. On the eve, then, of a battle 
 which [according to the story of the Austrians and their partial friends] could not 
 have been lost, and which would, in its results, have amply avenged her earlier 
 wrongs, she ordered Loudon to abstain. Loudon did abstain. Peace was con- 
 cluded. Austria renounced her pretensions to the whole of Lower Bavaria and 
 was forced to be content with the acquisition of the Inn Circle and Braunau, a 
 territory of about a hundred and ninety square miles. The fears of Maria Theresa 
 had lost the opportunity of incorporating the whole of Lower Bavaria and of 
 recovering Silesia!" — (Pages 246-249.) Transactions of the Royal Historical 
 Society [of Great Britain'], New Series, Vol. II., Part HI., London, 1884. 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 435 
 
 Space precludes the opportunity of following out to completeness 
 this line of proof, but it is simply necessary to close the presentation 
 here with the remark of one of the ablest statesmen who has ever 
 lived, William Pitt, that " Austria has always been one year behind 
 the rest of the world with an idea and with an army," or as a military 
 critic worded it, "one idea, one year, and one battle behind time." 
 The Austrians never dared to fight a doubtful or prolonged battle out, 
 as Grant said unjustly of the Army of the Potomac, and then, to prove 
 that he was right, proceeded recklessly to fight it to pieces. 
 
 Before leaving this subject for good it nu'ght be sensible to dwell 
 upon the stupid bigoted arrogance of the Emperor Ferdinand II. and 
 his ghostly advisers, who had several glorious opportunities to pacify 
 the discord, by the a])plication of simple justice: 1, after the battle of 
 the White Mountain in 1G20; 2, after the temporarily decisive battles 
 of Wimpfen in 1622, of Lutter in 1626, of Nordlingen in 1634. 
 After those dates neither he nor they had any other such an opportunity, 
 and they had shown their hands too clearly and had aroused passions 
 which nothing but defeat or victory could exhaust or annul, or gratify 
 or avenge. " Extraordinary times," says Becker, "developed equally 
 extraordinary forces, and even more extraordinary men." This was 
 peculiarly the case with the Thirty Years' War. The " Wars which 
 grew out of the French Revolution," which comprise the Napoleonic 
 conflicts of seventeen years, developed no such succession of marvelous 
 leaders. Of all who influenced the end of those more recent twenty- 
 three years, not more than three will live in the far future as "directors 
 of the storm." Wellington ! Bliicher ! and Xapoleon ! The Archduke 
 Charles^ might have been added, to convert the trio into a quartette, if 
 he had had more than six hours a day working power in him. 
 
 During the Thirty Years' War there was a succession of heroes. 
 They are named here, not in order of time, but in order of greatness 
 and authority. Gustavus Adolphus, " the foremost man — according 
 to accepted general history — of all this modern world," and his great 
 
 ' Croker (1, 314) asked Wellington " whether the Archduke Charles was really 
 a great officer ?■' Wellington — "A great officer? Why, he knows more about it 
 than ail of us put together." Croker — " What, than Bonaparte, Moreau, or your- 
 self?" Wellington — "Aye! than Bonaparte or anj'^ of us. We are none of us 
 worthy to fasten the latchets of his shoes, if I am to judge from his book and his 
 plans of campaign. But his mind or his health has, they tell me, a very peculiar 
 defect. He is admirable for five or six hours, and whatever can be done in tiiat 
 time will be done perfectly ; but after that he falls into a kind of epileptic stupor, 
 does not know what he is about, has no opinions of his own, and does whatever the 
 man at his elbow telU him." 
 
436 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 antagonist, Wallenstein. Schmidt, v. 1, quoting, remarks, " In fact, 
 it is probable that the Protestant party and perhaps the Lutheran 
 (form of) reh'gion in Germany would have been blotted out if Fortune, 
 tired of serving the vast designs of Ferdinand ; or, rather, if Provi- 
 dence by a secret judgment, the depth of which every one must adore, had 
 not then (at the crisis) raised up the most formidable enemy which the 
 empire ever had, in the person of Gustavus Adolphus, King of 
 Sweden." Bougeant, i. 150; Naylor, ii. 382, justly adds, "A curious 
 confession for a Jesuit !" It is questionable if Wallenstein ranks very 
 far below the former in intellect, /oresight. In farsight he was fully 
 equal to Gustavus. In tnsight he seemed to have failed terribly, 
 especially in his selections of confidants, executives, and what the 
 world generally styles friends.* 
 
 * The rise of Wallenstein — like that of Wellington — was much more honorable 
 than that of Napoleon Bonaparte, and his fall infinitely more dignified and manly. 
 He was the son of his own great actions, and not one of his promotions but was 
 earned. It is stated by Gfrorer that he commanded, under Dampierre, a squadron 
 of the cuirassiers who delivered Ferdinand II. at the crisis of his fate in 1620, at a 
 moment on which the future of the emperor and his family and the empire turned. 
 He at once became a necessity, and he simply, but grandly, improved his opportu- 
 nities. Again and again he preserved the Emperor, and he was assassinated by that 
 cruel bigot because he had become too powerful as a subject, when, in addition to 
 his influence, he exhibited a perfect insight into the fanaticism and administration 
 which was ruining his country, and when he gave indications that, with time and 
 opportunity he would traverse the plans of the Jesuits and their pupils, and estab- 
 lish a toleration and justice far ahead of the time and their power of conception. 
 He was an extraordinary compound of crime and virtue. His crimes were those of 
 his period and position ; his virtues were all his own. He was mean, but seldom ; 
 he was magnanimous, but often. He performed noble and glorious actions, which 
 few men are able, under similar circumstances, to bring themselves to do. He was 
 never little in punishments nor rewards. 
 
 The former were annihilating as the other munificent. His great mistake was 
 his conduct at the siege of Stralsund, and even there he would or might not have 
 failed if the Danes and the Swedes had not interfered. The first he disarmed ; 
 the second he could neither terrify nor cajole, because their king felt that if he per- 
 mitted Stralsund to fall, Sweden must inevitably suffer and succumb. 
 
 Wallenstein would now appear a very great general if he only had a Jomini, 
 who, after all, was a courtier — often making good appear bad, and evil show as 
 meritorious — and in spite of the injustice manifested by Napoleon towards Jomini, 
 his very selfishness made him a very mild critic of that heartless tyrant and greatly 
 overestimated man. 
 
 " The invasion of Gustavus Adolphus, the defeat of the Imperial armies at 
 Leipzig, the conquest of Bavaria by the Swedes, and the death of Tilly" were 
 accomplished facts. The empire was on the brink of ruin, and there was only one 
 man who could save it. This man was Waldstein. When the emperor requested 
 and, at last, implored him to resume the command, he showed that he felt all his 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 437 
 
 Tilly enjoys an exaggerated estimate. He was a lucky evolution of 
 circumstances which he certainly did not improve anything near to the 
 uttermost, and he was very weak in so far that he allowed himself to 
 be swayed by rash counsels, — for instance, as at Leipzig, 1631, against 
 liis own better judgment. In this weakening he sinks exactly to the 
 level of the old Mohawk Valley militia general, Herkimer, who plunged 
 into the slaughter-pit of Oriskany simply because his militia colonels 
 charged him with cowardice and treason if he did not push on blindly, 
 a course which his common sense told him would be suicidal, as it 
 proved to be. Pappenheim's rashness dragged Tilly into the battle he 
 sought to shun and then down to disgrace and death. Ward styles 
 Tilly "an honest old savage, whom a recent refreshingly audacious 
 attempt [of Klopp, Keyiu and Company] has failed to whitewash into 
 
 importance. After having declined the position several times, he at last agreed to 
 it on the following conditions : 
 
 " That Wald»tein should have the sole control of the army, which he promised 
 to raise ; and there should be no imperial authority within his camp; no peace 
 should be concluded without his consent, he, as Duke of Mecklenburg, being one 
 of the belligerent parties ; he should have full power to manoeicvre and to take iip his 
 quarters however and tvherever he should find it convenient ; that he should have the 
 sovereignty of the provinces that he might conquer ; and that the emperor should 
 give him as reward one of his Hereditary States (Bohemia?), of which he was to 
 be the sovereign, though as a vassal of the emperor." 
 
 "The campaign of Waldstein against Gustavus Adolphus has been told in the 
 article on the Thirty Years' War. [/< would require the knowledge of a consummate 
 general to decide whether Waldatein or Gustavus was the greater captain. Jg^^But 
 from the moment that Waldstein resumed the command, he directed all operations, 
 and Gustavus Adolphus acted under the impressions which he received from the 
 plans of Waldstein. In his life of Turenne (i. 23) the Chevalier de Ramsay asserts 
 ' Waldstein's fortune balanced that of the Swedish hero.'] Waldstein's defense 
 of the lines near Nurnberg can onh' bo compared with the defense of the lines of 
 Torres Vedras by the Duke of Wellington. The inarch of the King of Sweden 
 towards Bavaria, after his fruitless attempt on the lines near Nurnberg, was a great 
 fault; and although the king soon perceived his error and changed his plan by 
 rapidly following Waldstein, this circumstance is another proof of what we have 
 just said. It is true that Waldstein lost the battle of Lutzen (6th of November, 
 1G32), but able judges have given it as their opinion that on this occasion Wald- 
 stein showed his superiority to the king in the choice of the battle-field, while the 
 king is said to have shown greater ability in the direction of his attacks. But the 
 successful part of these attacks was the merit of Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar, 
 the king having fallen in the beginning of the battle, while engaged in rallying 
 his troups, which were disorganized in consequence of those fruitless attacks which 
 he directed""^8 
 
 " As to the military conduct of Waldstein after the battle of Lutzen, we shall 
 only add that he punished with death many generals, colonels, and inferior officers 
 who had not behaved well in that battle. He soon repaired his losses, and his 
 arms were victorious in Saxony and Silesia." 
 
438 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 a Christian hero!" How different the decision of Schuyler, the real 
 conqueror of Burgoyne, in regard to the relief of Fort Stanwix ! 
 
 Mansfeld, " the German Attila," was a far more remarkable man 
 than Tilly, more bright, resolute and endowed with greater individual 
 resources, although far less moral than the old lay-Jesuit. Although 
 not handsome or well-formed he loved the other sex, and he always 
 had a bevy of beauties about him, but with his amorousness and ac- 
 quisitiveness he was destitute of fear, and could rule the ruthless hordes 
 around him with a hand of iron which made the fiercest quail. Witness 
 his putting down a mutiny : Gfrorer tells us that in a small most unat- 
 tractive body dwelt an ever-restless soul. Nature had formed him to 
 be a military leader, and with a power almost unexampled he knew, 
 when he chose (which, however, seldom happened), how to curb his 
 lawless troops. Once, during the Bohemian War (1520), a crowd of 
 soldiers thronged his doors and demanded their pay, long since due. 
 All alone he came out, cut two down, and wounded a lot more. Then 
 some six hundred pikemen rushed upon him whom he drove off. 
 Fearlessly, Mansfeld, followed by three captains, mounted, rode right 
 into the mass of mutineers, shot eleven, wounded twenty-six, and made 
 the Mdiole submit. As a rule, Mansfeld let his soldiers have free 
 course in a country. He wag Wallenstein's instructor in demonstrating 
 how to make the people maintain his army through sheer robbery. In 
 this he was mightier than a king. The British general, Sir Edward 
 Oust, author of the " Annals of the Wars," and a number of military 
 biographies of the highest order, states that Mansfeld " is regarded as 
 one of the greatest generals of the seventeenth century; but he was 
 too reckless of gain to have been a good disciplinarian, and his strategy 
 Avas rather the effect of experience than of study." If trustworthy 
 reports of his improvements have been handed down, he developed "a 
 well-organized system of vedettes and patrols, which constitute the eyes 
 and ears of an army." The claim for him that he was " the first to 
 employ dragoons in warfare," or horse-musketeers, must simply mean 
 that he assigned them to duties most proper for their peculiar arms, 
 etc., and discipline, for they were an arm apart long before, as shown 
 in J. W. de P.'s Articles on " Cavalry," in The United Se^'viee : I., 
 September; II., November; III., December, 1880. 
 
 Mansfeld was a diminutive, sickly-looking, deformed man, but he 
 possessed the soul of a true hero. Constantly persecuted by fortune, 
 he was to the last [bore himself] superior to his fate, and he merits 
 immortality, for he had always proved himself [personally] superior 
 to adversity. He was a very eloquent, persuasive, and successful ne- 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 43D 
 
 gotiator, raised armies with incredible rapidity, was bold in council, 
 fearless in danger, fertile in resources, resolute, and never shrinking 
 even under the most adverse circumstances. The French, who felt the 
 weight of his blows, gave him a nickname equivalent to " Bloody 
 Bones;" the Imperialists styled him the " Attila of Christianity ;" and 
 disinterested military critics, " the Ulysses of Germany." llomanists 
 and politicians may abuse Mansfeld as they will, but they cannot de- 
 stroy the proof of his frequent exhibitions of magnanimity and con- 
 sistent heroism. Nor did Christian of Brunswick fall behind him in 
 the latter exalted quality. 
 
 Christian of Brunswick, the Achilles to this Ulysses, was his pupil. 
 Schiller speaks of them as " two men worthy of immortality, had they 
 been but as superior to their times as they were to their adversities." 
 They, private individuals, by their force of character, kept alive the 
 war against an empire and a league for six years, and had these troops 
 enjoyed the advantages of those of Tilly and Wallenstein, they would 
 have checkmated both Emperor and Princes. The world rolling on, 
 subject to inevitable law, as Seneca wrote eighteen hundred years ago, 
 expressing the ideas of philosophers long antecedent, and indorsed by 
 the deepest reflection ever since, must attribute the failures of the good, 
 the honest, the truly brave, and the rarely unselfish to the fiat (Fate) 
 which the good and wise Arnold adduces as the only valid excuse for 
 Plannibal's not marching on Rome after Caunse, *' God did riot will it 
 to be so." 
 
 " All accounts of the times are full of numberless stories of Chris- 
 tian's contempt of death, of his fury in combat." Like Mansfeld, 
 his preceptor, he was fond of beauty and liked to see it around him. 
 He is the only leader of the period who appears without beanl or 
 moustache. He died before he was twent^--six, of poison, it is sup- 
 posed, administered by the emissary of his enemies. 
 
 As a levier or creator of armies out of apparent nothing, the almost 
 Boy-Bishop Christian of Brunswick, or the Halberstadter, dubbed 
 Knight of the exalted British Order of the Garter by James I., in 
 1624, rises up almost like a giant. Greater than Murat as the leader 
 of a charge of cavalry, he was already a ca[)tain of dragoons in the 
 Dutch service before he had any sign of down upon his lip. This 
 is the best proof of his fitness to lead men, because the Dutch were too 
 economical to trust a squadron of those horsemen which cost them so 
 much money, to any one who did not know how to command and 
 handle them to commercial as well as to military advantage (Dalgelty). 
 His cavalry charge at Fleurus is admitted to have been one of the most 
 
440 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 gallant of the kind during the whole Thirty Years' War, — superior to 
 any made by Pappenheim. Gfrorer corroborates this, in that he reads, 
 " The day of Fleurus was the most brilliant of the whole of Christian's 
 Marlike career." 
 
 It is claimed that Gustavus Adolphus styled Pappenheim "the 
 Soldier." Mark the title; not General, but Soldier; and, drawing the 
 attention to the true distinction between the definitions, the intrinsic 
 difference between these two titles "Let him (Pappenheim) fleet on," — 
 ** Be air !" and disappear among the shades. 
 
 Of the Germans, Bernard of Saxe- Weimar was the hero, and wher- 
 ever undaunted courage without pure generalship could win, he won. 
 The triumph at Lutzen was solely his, — always remembering the ex- 
 treme ability of the Swedish lieutenant-generals, and the gallantry of 
 their troops, pretty much all expended on that field. The same rash- 
 ness or desperation lost Nordlingen, which almost neutralized Lutzen. 
 At Rheinfelden, his career of success would have ended had it not been 
 for the generalship of the " Perfect Captain," the mortally-wounded 
 Huguenot, Duke de Rohan. It is questionable if the partisan, the 
 sly Konigsmark, was not equal to Bernard in military capacity and 
 enterprise, yea, even to Turenne ; during this war, as a lieutenant or sub- 
 ordinate he was far his superior. But oh, what a succession of heroes 
 did Sweden bring forth. As one fell, another took his place, great, 
 greater, the greatest, Torstenson, " under Sweden's crown Sweden's 
 greatest commander;" greater as a general than even his sovereign, 
 Gustavus, greater as a fighter than Ban6r, greater as a disciplinarian 
 and humanitarian than Horn, greater than all the rest in his combina- 
 tion of genius and talent, as a commander of infantry, as a leader of 
 cavalry, and as a handler of artillery ; a Feld-hcrr, a diplomatist, a man 
 of culture, learned in classic lore, a lettered man with a developed taste 
 for the fine arts. " Uy Lennart," as Gustavus affectionately was 
 wont to style him, who thought that next to Torstenson came Nils 
 Brahe, killed at Lutzen. Then came Ban6r, hyperbolical ly styled 
 "the second Gustavus," who owed his greatest triumph and much of 
 his other successes to Torstenson ; then Lilijehoek, killed at Leipzig 
 second, who was esteemed much higher than Wrangel, Jr., who had 
 the luck to finish the war, a good fortune due in a great measure to his 
 having been dry-nursed by Torstenson when the latter could no longer 
 keep the field in person and command. Last in this list, which cannot 
 be extended for want of time, comes the nephew of the great Gustavus, 
 afterwards known as Charles X., Gustavus, king of Sweden, who would 
 have superseded Wrangel had the war lasted a few months longer, and 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 441 
 
 have enjoyed the credit of finishing it. He rather belongs to the Ger- 
 mans than to the Swedes, and it is as hard to rank him as a general as it 
 is to ])lace him as to race. lie did great deeds. Pie was tiie conqueror 
 of Poland and of Denmark, and if the Dutch and English had not 
 interfered with their fleets and diplomacy, he might have accomplished 
 the union of the "Three Northern Crowns," and constituted a king- 
 dom strong enough to act as counterpoise to Russia. Neither IJernaid 
 of Saxe- Weimar nor Ban6r surpassed him in audacity and enterprise, 
 but he lacked all the discreet characteristics of Torstenson, whom he 
 recognized as his preceptor in the Art of War. 
 
 Without forgetting or depreciating the solid, the cube-like greatness 
 of Gustavus Adolphus, or the brilliant soldiership of Charles X. Gus- 
 tavus, more than one historian wiio has considered their careers with 
 philosophic clearness and calmness, has come to the conclusion that it is 
 questionable if the enterprises of both were not as exhaustive to Swe- 
 den as what has been styled " the madness" of Charles XII. (Horace 
 Marryatt's " One Year in Sweden," II. 229, de P. alcove N. Y. S. L.) 
 Gustavus Adolphus and his immediate pupils in war were to Sweden 
 ■what Epaminondas was to Thebes, but just as Tiiebes was too weak to 
 keep u]) the exertion requisite to maintain her supremacy in Greece, 
 which Epaminondas, "the greatest of the Greeks," bestowed upon her 
 through, and solely through his supreme individual force, just so Swe- 
 den was too poor a country to stand the drain made upon her resources 
 by Gustavus Adolphus and Charles X. Gustavus. Slie was bled so 
 profusely by them that, had not the cool-bloodedly astute or cruelly 
 sagacious Charles XI,, intervened and stopped the hemorrhages and 
 allowed her veins to fill again, and administered cordials to reinvigorate 
 her, through his " Edict of Restitution," or seizure or reappropriation 
 of the prodigal gifts of the crown-lands and appanages, etc., to favorites 
 deserving as well as undeserving, Charles XII. would have found no 
 strength left to expend on his wild career of conquest and military 
 crusades, for they were little less, however boldly and ably carried out, 
 until arrested at Pultowa by sujierior multitudes of barbarism piled 
 upon him, suffocatingly, by a semi-barbarian despot, Peter the Great. 
 (See the V icompte de Vogue's " True Story of Mazeppa.") As it was, 
 the Rise, Increment, Apogee, Decline, Fall, and Syncope of Swedish 
 influence began with the coronation of Gustavus Adolphus in 1618 and 
 ended with the death of Charles XII. in 1718. This unnatural 
 strength almost reminds the observer of the effort of the empiric ciUled 
 in during the last illness of Louis XIV., who by his "heroic treat- 
 ment" and stimulants, seemed to restore the moribund. When the 
 
442 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 effects, however astonishing for the moment, passed off, the gangrene 
 resumed its progress or sway and hope was at an end. 
 
 A thorough study of all accessible authorities, and they have been 
 very numerous, — Swedish, German, French, and English, — leads to 
 the conviction that in some respects the character of Gustavus Adol- 
 phus has never been correctly presented. He was not the faultless maa 
 that his eulogists would have people to believe. His violent temper, 
 which often carried him to extremes, his love episode with Ebba Brahe, 
 — "the memory of this early love cast a gloom over his whole exist- 
 ence," — and his amour with the Dutch maiden of Gottenborg, who 
 gave birth to his only son — afterwards a Swedish general. Count 
 Wasaborg,^ who was wounded at Wittstock by the side of Ban6r and 
 Torstenson — and a hundred other incidents of his life, show that he 
 was simply a mortal after all; an exceptional one, however, and there- 
 fore greater in. that he was not a miracle or a demigod, but one, as St. 
 Paul exclaimed, when the citizens of Lystra would have worshiped 
 him as a god, " We also are men of like passions with you." In fact, 
 Gustavus was not so faultless or perfect a man as generally held up to 
 be by moralists and optimists, because he often displayed human weak- 
 nesses and human policy ; but when his nobler qualities of heart and 
 mind are weighed against all the blemishes which can even be alleged, 
 he was indeed geeat, because represented as he is, or can be, he was 
 after all a man, and what the world — humanity — needs in its crisis is 
 a MAN, and " men and deeds," as Duncan Macgregor sings so grandly 
 in his " Clouds and Sunshine:'^ 
 
 "Wanted: Men! "Wanted: Deeds! 
 
 Not systems fit and wise, Not words of winning note, 
 
 Not faith with rigid eyes, Not thoughts from life remote. 
 
 Not wealth in mountain piles, Not fond religious airs. 
 
 Not power with gracious smiles, Not sweetly languid prayers, 
 
 Not even the potent pen ; Not love of cant and creeds ; 
 
 Wanted: Men! Wanted: Deeds! 
 
 " Men and Deeds ! 
 Men that can dare and do ; 
 Not longings for the new. 
 Not pratings of the old ; 
 Good life and action bold — 
 These the occasion needs. 
 Men and Deeds !" 
 
 5 After the death of his daughter Christina, unmarried and without issue, the 
 direct line of Gustavus was extinct, but has still representatives in Sweden through 
 this Count Wasaborg, whose eclipse and disappearance is another proof that great 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 443 
 
 There are always two sides to every story, although one may be 
 strongly authenticated and the other comjiaratively weak and even 
 only problematical, nevertheless in a number of cases the latter may 
 eventually prove to be the most trustworthy in its realization of the 
 spirit, — that spirit which maketh alive when the letter killeth or 
 seemeth to kill. Gustavus Adolphus was not the disinterested man he 
 is held to have been by simple panegyrists. He was not the saviour, 
 pure and simple, that he appears in his biogra})hies. He did not enter 
 upon the German War directly from the impulse of religious duty or 
 sympathy. He was impelled by state policy, by military strategy, by 
 ambition, — yes, as he regarded the matter, by necessity; by all these 
 motives, as well as by religious duty and feeling, and by devotion to 
 the truth. 
 
 Gustavus was learned in classic lore and took Ciesar and Scipio for 
 his models (Becker ix. 56). The former taught him to seek out the 
 enemy abroad, as Csesar did in the country east of the Adriatic to 
 keep war out of Italy, and away from Home, the aim of that war as 
 Washington was the grand objective of the " Slaveholders' Rebellion ;" 
 and Scipio was an example that it was wiser to carry war into the 
 Africa of Gustavus (Germany) than to let an imperial Hannibal (Wal- 
 lenstein) bring its miseries into Sweden. Memnon gave the same 
 military advice to Darius, and had it been followed, the career of 
 Alexander the Great in Asia would be read very differently, if indeed 
 it would be read at all. 
 
 The chief element of Sweden's intrinsic strength lay in its penin- 
 sular position, which justified Gustavus Adolphus in electing an 
 aggressive which was eminently a defensive-aggressive, instead of 
 submitting to a purely defensive, the latter a course which, in the long 
 run, is inevitably suicidal. Sweden — under the circumstances of the 
 period, with naval strength untrustworthy as to time and combination 
 — occupied the same position as to Wallenstein and as to the Empire 
 as England did to Napoleon ; or, more properly, that England under 
 Elizabeth did to Spain and its imperialty of wealth and force — Scotland 
 paralyzed by intestine greeds, rivalries, and religious antagonisms, just 
 as Denmark had been too much crippled by Tilly and Wallenstein to 
 interfere again in a quarrel in which, had it been true to its own hates 
 and perhaps interests, it might have been wise to interfere or else keep 
 quiet ever after, which the Danes had not the sense to do. Denmark 
 
 men must have groat mothers as well as great fathers. This justifies the rule of the 
 Seinilic and other races, who only trace descent through the mothers. 
 
444 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 at this time acted just as Prussia operated in 1805, when in cordial, 
 active union with Austria and Russia, Napoleon, the Wallenstein of 
 another period, must have been beaten. Again, in 1806, Austria was 
 equally derelict, when Prussia and Russia were combined, justifying 
 the fear of Jomini, who expected that the Hapsburg — if the leopard 
 could under any circumstances change its spots — would take advantage 
 of Napoleon's defeat at Preuss-Eylau — for defeat it was if Benningsen 
 had only had one or two more roast potatoes to give him physical 
 strength to hold on — should issue forth from the sally-ports or 
 passes of its bastion of Bohemia, take the French in the rear, sever 
 their communications, and annihilate the common enemy. Alas! hu- 
 man beings, even those esteemed the wisest, in accordance with "the 
 Conventional Lies of Civilization," seldom, if ever, act in obedience 
 to horse common sense, but are almost always submissive to what is 
 oftenest most foolish policy and sheer dijjlomacy. 
 
 It was through this endeavoring to combine the spirit of worldly 
 policy and gain and the spirit of religious conviction and dedication 
 that he fell at Lutzen, or failed. Remember that the bitterest denun- 
 ciation was launched against Laodicea, not because it was the most 
 derelict of the Seven Churches, but because it was "neither cold nor 
 hot." "You cannot serve God and Mammon." So far as ability and 
 learning are concerned, Zwingli was a far greater man than Luther, 
 but he strove to overcome through a coalition, through the sword of 
 spirit and the sword of flesh ; to unite religion, military force, policy, 
 and politics; and he fell, comparatively young, at all events in his 
 prime of intellect and strength, on the field of Cappel, just as Gus- 
 tavus was slain in his prime at Lutzen. Luther held fast solely to the 
 sword of the spirit and abided firmly thereby, and, as he triumphed 
 through that at the Diet of Worms, he stands triumphant to-day and 
 realizes the inspired language of the prophet and chronicler in regard 
 to David : 
 
 " And I [the Lord] was with thee whithersoever thou wentest, and have cut 
 off all thine enemies out of thy sight, and have made thee a great name, like unto 
 the name of the great men that are in the earth." 
 
 Gustavus Adolphus, to repeat for emphasis, strove to combine re- 
 ligion and ambition, piety and policy, and diplomacy and the sword, 
 and when he stood highest, he fell. He seemed to realize this at the 
 last and to comprehend the terrible truth, as if the light of eternity 
 shone upon his spirit through the veil of mortality. When the popu- 
 lation of Naumburg prostrated themselves adoringly before and about 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 445 
 
 liim, tliis idea flashed upon his mind and he became proplietic in the 
 presentiment which was realized witliin a few days. 
 
 To demonstrate that Gustavus is not altogether regarded as a model 
 of disinterestedness, consider the words of one of his greatest admirers, 
 au English clergyman, B. Chapman, London, 1856, in his " History," 
 vii. 191: 
 
 " It is common fashion with German writers to attribute the inter- 
 ference of Gustavus Adoli)hus in the Thirty Years' War to a grasping 
 ambition; and one of the latest 'historians of that nation [Gfrorer] 
 has not scrupled to say that he came to Germany as a robber.' ^ This 
 
 * The word ^^ robber" has eluded careful search in the revised edition of Gfrorer 
 of Dr. Klopp, but Gfrorer certainly emphasizes his idea that Gustavus came into 
 Germany on his own account and for his own purposes, against, especially not with, 
 the will of Duke Bogislaus, of Pomerania, and almost all the other princes who had 
 reason to be most interested in his advent. 
 
 Even Menzel, so lavish in his praise of Gustavus, saj's a great many hard things 
 of the Swedes. He says (384) : " Peace, nevertheless, could not be concluded 
 (1G41) ; France and Sweden still sought to tear the prey from each other's grasp ;" 
 and (385) " Sweden solely aimed at the conversion of the German coasts of the 
 Baltic into a Swedish province." He calls (302) Turenne's army a " robber band ;" 
 styles (381) Konigsmark one of the boldest robbers of the day (388), who "pillaged 
 the country on his own account," and Gindely (124) charges Baner with having 
 amassed through plunder and left one million dollars ; an enormous fortune for the 
 period; Schiller (321) states that, in 1638, "booty was his [Baner's] sole object." 
 Burgus (71) (Naylor II. 406) an enemy, in opposition to all, thus eulogizes the Swedes 
 as soldiers : " Constant and patient in adversity, bold and determined in battle, and 
 modest and affable to the peasantry and those upon whom they were quartered." 
 The strength of the Swedes was in their hardy recruits and disciplined veterans, 
 led by generals trained and instructed by theory, practice, and example. The im- 
 perialists, Bavarians, and Germans, generally, had nothing to compare with the 
 latter. Their leaders were kinglings, princelings, and court favorites, like our own 
 political humbugs and members of rings — military and administrative. Therefore 
 to Germany could be applied the terrible invective of Ezekiel, " Thou land de- 
 vourest up men," and the graphic first chapter of Joel, describing the successive 
 desolations of Tilly's, Mansfelds, and Christian of Brunswick's bands, of the Fried- 
 lander's hordes, of the merciless army of the Empire, and finally of tlie contending 
 forces, Swedish, French, Bavarians, Empire, and Circles. 
 
 The clear, accomplished, celebrated military critic, Von Clauskwitz, in his 
 " Mllitarische Brief e eines Verstorbenen an seine noch lebejiden t'reiinde . . . fiir 
 EingexoeHite unci Laien im Kriegsivesen, Dritte Sammlitng, Adorf, 1844, goes into a 
 close comparison between the careers and their results, of Gustavus Adoljihus, Fred- 
 erick the Great and Napoleon. This comparison covers many pages but can be 
 summed up, briefly, as follows: von Clausewitz begins with the just remark that 
 kings endowed with military capacity cannot be compared with other generals, be- 
 cause they are in possession of greater power in every way and are likely to be more 
 implicitly obeyed and better sustained by their subordinates. AVallensiein under- 
 stood this, and with reason attributed his coming short of success on many occasions 
 
446 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 grave charge has no real solidity. Not without repeated solicitations 
 from the depressed and deprived among the Germans themselves, not 
 until the war (through the element of Catholic aggression involved in 
 it) had become, as Geijer truly observes, ' the common concern of 
 Europe and mankind,' did Gustavus invade the empire. And though, 
 no doubt, he expected great rewards for himself and nation, if his 
 efforts in the common cause should prove successful, the nobler motives 
 which prompted him to engage in it were tainted by no base cupidity. 
 His expectations were founded in reason and justice. He had a right 
 to look for requital — in the event of victory — for the risk he ran, for 
 the great service he rendered, either from the honesty or gratitude of 
 the restored, or from the spoils of those who had provoked the contest. 
 Nay, more; without exposing himself justly to the charge of a greedy 
 ambition, well might he have meditated the dissolution of that con- 
 federacy which was no longer the result of a harmony of feelings and 
 interests, and sought by a new combination of a part of the Germanic 
 body under his own protectorate substantial guarantees for Protestant 
 independence and peace. Various indications of such a policy, not 
 absolutely determined, but roughly shaped out, to be developed and 
 modified according to the course of events, and the counsel and inclina- 
 tion of the Protestant states in alliance with him, will be seen in the 
 following pages [of the history quoted], and especially in the account 
 
 to his not being adequately supported. And here let it be remarked that, strange to 
 say, there are only two generals in history who never had a mutiny in their armies, 
 although composed of the most heterogeneous elements, and were never disobeyed 
 either hy present or distant subordinates, — Hannibal and Torstenson, " the modern 
 Hannibal." Few are aware that Gustavus had open mutiny in his camp at Nurem- 
 berg on the 22d July, 1G32. His troops rebelled against the strict discipline which 
 he attempted to enforce (Gfrorer, 767), and when he desired to lead them out against 
 the enemy they refused to fight before their arrears of pay were given to them ; 
 and the citizens of Nuremberg had to lend two tons of gold (two hundred thousand 
 rix-dollars, equal, at least, to $1,000,000, if not $2,000,000 of to-day). Wellington 
 was of opinion that Napoleon " was in more awe of his marshals than was generally 
 supposed. He acted as if he was not sure of their obedience; for instance, he would 
 order one of them to take another under his command, but he never ventured to tell 
 the other to obey him'' (Croker Papers, i. 312) ; and he was several times positively 
 disobeyed. Wellington was often disobeyed in the most startling manner. Sir Wil- 
 liam Stuart imperiled the army by direct disobedience after, or during, the retreat 
 from Burgos. Crawford, at times would do just as he pleased in the teeth of his 
 orders, and Picton was " consistently disobedient." It was astonishing how Wel- 
 lington could put up with it, unless he had to do so. Torstenson would not stand 
 the slightest nonsense. He was emphatically what the Romans styled '^Vir Auctori- 
 tatis" and the Greeks " A7iax Andron.'^ 
 
1885, THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 447 
 
 of the king's conferences with the Council of Patricians at Nuremberg 
 in the summer of 1632." 
 
 Chapman, in citing one of the latest German historians, means 
 Gfrorer (p. 1016), whose words are : " Niemand hnt Gu.slnv micli Dcufsch- 
 land gerufeii. Wie ein Rdubcr isi er in unser Reich eingebrochen" — 
 i.e., " No one invited Gustavus into Germany. Like a robber did he 
 break into our Empire." Gfrorer has written the best Life of Gusta- 
 vus Adolphus and History of the Thirty Years' War, down to the 
 death of that king, which the writer has ever read or examined with 
 care; not, it is true, in the original edition, but in tiie fourth, revised 
 and improved by Dr. Klopp, after the death of the original author. 
 In this, the direct assimilation of Gustavus to a robber is not to be 
 found in the exact words quoted by Cliapman, but it is implied again 
 and again. Gfrorer said (522) that Gustavus had determined on the 
 invasion of Germany long before he carried his plans into execution. 
 That " war he would have, and war at any price" (536), and compares 
 his impulse to the ambition wliich spurred Alexander to attack Persia, 
 concealing his real motives with the blinding words of religion and the 
 Gospel. Gfrorer undertakes to prove it, and ag*ain and again returns 
 to the subject, quoting still existing testimony. For instance, among 
 manv other arguments, the Swedish party claim that Gustavus crossed 
 the Baltic to deliver Duke Bogislav, of Pomerania, from the oppression 
 of the Emperor, whereas Gfrorer declares, even when the king was 
 about to embark, Bogislav, so far from welcoming the fact, conjured 
 him in the name of Heaven to stay at home. Gustavus could not heed 
 this beseeching appeal of the Pomeranian Duke — afraid of being 
 ground to pieces between the upper millstone of the Imperialists and 
 the nether millstone of the Swedes — to stay at home, because it was 
 impossible and contrary to the only plan of operations which could 
 promise eventual success. Pomerania was the inevitable Swedish mili- 
 tary base. They already held Stralsund, and they needed the other 
 fortresses and strong positions in the Duchy to insure their " lines of 
 communication and supply," and cover their retreat in case of ultimate 
 remediless reverse. Pomerania was indeed subsequently jnore than 
 once their refuge, without which they might have been driven into the 
 sea. So Bogislav had to receive with open arms, as friends and de- 
 fenders, the self-constituted allies who, he fondly hoped, would not 
 force themselves, sword in hand, upon him as such. Many of the 
 most touching ejjisodes of history resolve themselves into grim jokes 
 when the naked truth is revealed, when denuded of its clothing of 
 arguments, its mask of hypocrisy, and its veils of deliberate lies. 
 
448 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 Yet when Gfrorer, an absolute German and no more, presumes to say 
 Gustavus broke in as a robber, and the eulogists of the Swede that he 
 entered as a deliverer pure and simple, they both falsify facts. He came 
 as neither. He came as a great king, captain, and statesman, because 
 it was his true policy to do so and the end justified his calculations. 
 (Naylor, II., 382.) He was to the Germans what Isaiah prophesied 
 Cyrus would be for the Jews, — " called and chosen," — but nevertheless 
 he was exactly what the Prophet styles such deliverers in another chap- 
 ter, " a punishing-rod and an instrument of vengeance," to be broken — 
 as was Gustavus — when his work was complete, although incomplete to 
 his own mind. 
 
 There is not the slightest doubt that after admitting, which is in- 
 controvertible, that the origin of this most horrible of all awful wars 
 was the result of Jesuit planning and teaching and inciting, it would 
 not have assumed its terrific extent and form, if greed, state policy, 
 individual selfishness and ambition had not grasped the opportunity to 
 add fuel to the flames. Priestcraft and its pupils converted Germany 
 into a Gehenna. Without them it would have been a war like our 
 civil war, the "Slaveholders' Rebellion," vast and costly enough, but 
 still free from the unparalleled atrocities which characterized it ; 
 whereas the " Slaveholders' Rebellion" only presents hideous blotches, 
 all on one side, such as Belle Isle, Libby, Anderson ville, and other prison- 
 pens. What is more, cruel as were the Romanists towards the Protest- 
 ants, they were equally oppressive to their own people, and set an ex- 
 ample which, a Protestant regrets to say, was imitated on all sides and 
 in every direction, until even the most humane found it necessary to 
 "fiffht with fire." Admit that the Gothic Csesar was selfish and am- 
 bitious, and even yet enough virtues must be conceded to him to justify 
 his elevation to the highest rank among the great and good men in all 
 ages. His great fault was that he did not at the opportune moment 
 shut his eyes to the lure of ambition and solely remember that the 
 Protestants of Germany, as Gfrorer himself admits, yearned for his ap- 
 pearance among them as a saviour, as the Jews looked forward to the 
 coming of their Messiah. Had he been that Deliverer, pure and 
 simple, he would have gone to Vienna after Leipzig and have indeed 
 delivered his co-religionists of the Austrian Hereditary States from the 
 horrible oppression to which they had been subjected through the 
 Jesuits and their plans and pupils. 
 
 Butler, in " Hudibras," has four witty, and, at the same time, truth- 
 ful lines in this connection : 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 449 
 
 " For none but Jesuits have commission 
 To preach the Faith with ammunition, 
 And propagate the cliurch with powder; 
 Their founder was a blown-up soldier," — 
 
 their founder Ignatius Loyola, — who, originally a courtier and soldier, 
 aspiring to the love of the highest lady in the land (his queen it is 
 said), having been crippled by a wound in the leg at the Siege of 
 Pampeluna, in 1521, became transformed from a man of the world 
 into the astutest priest and religious organizer in the world. 
 
 In an imaginary conversation between Mars and Minerva — whom 
 Homer, by the way, makes superior in military gifts and powers to the 
 god — the goddess asks if the war-god had not severely blamed Gusta- 
 vus for not having marched directly upon Vienna after his victory at 
 Leipzig (I. p. 10), and Mars does not give a positive answer. After- 
 wards he goes on to excuse the king, even against such high authority, 
 that it is impossible not to cite, again and again, the opinion of Oxen- 
 stiern, who held to it firmly throughout his life, and yet it is well 
 known that the chancellor wjis by no means an enthusiastic man. 
 
 In the action of Dirschau, Gustavus, reconnoitering, was wounded 
 in the arm. Oxenstiern remonstrating respecting his reckless exposure 
 on this and other occasions, the king replied, " You are of too cold a 
 temper;" or, "You are so cold, upsetting my plans when most pre- 
 pared for a bold expedition." " Possibly," replied the great chancel- 
 lor, " but if my ice did not sometimes cool your fire, your Majesty 
 might have been consumed before this;" or, "I am so, if I did not 
 throw cold water on your Majesty's fire, you would long since have 
 been reduced to ashes." As to the feasibility of the march upon 
 Vienna after Leipsic L, the admission of the king himself is all-suf- 
 ficient. The battle was fought 7th September, 1631. On the 14th 
 Gustavus wrote to his sister, " The enemy has been so much destroyed 
 that WE COULD GO UNHINDERED WHERE WE WISHED." This language 
 is too clear and decided to admit of question. 
 
 Of the three great modern captains. Von Clausewitz considers 
 Frederic the Great entitled to the palm, because he attained the object, 
 at which he aimed from the beginning. Crowned with the laurels of 
 victory Gustavus certainly receivetl a very serious check when he came 
 in contact with Wallenstein, and who would have eventually remained 
 master of the field is one of the unsolved questions of history, — insol- 
 uble because Gustavus^ fell a victim to his own rashness or to assas- 
 
 ^ If the careful singling out of a redoubtable adversary with the intention of 
 putting him out of the way surreptitiously is assassination then was Gustavus 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 29 
 
450 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 sination at Lntzen, and Wallenstein was soon after assassinated in turn 
 by an ungrateful master whom he had served too well. As for Napo- 
 leon, he actually overstepped the limits of the possible, and he was an 
 utter failure. Frederic never once transgressed or passed beyond the 
 limits of his abilities. He fully compreliended and steadily kept in 
 view the objective of his original plans, and as "old Fritz" is the only 
 one who brought his work to a perfect conclusion, to him must be 
 conceded the honor of being the greatest commander of modern times, 
 and he deserves the credit the more because he contended triumphantly 
 and longer against greater odds and difficulties than the others. 
 
 As an evidence of the effect of the glamour of a great name upon 
 all but a very few, the majority accepting its subscriptum as an incon- 
 trovertible authority upon the minds of the vast majority of even 
 thinking people, take the utterances of Napoleon Bonaparte, as re- 
 corded by Count Montholon, in regard to Turenne. Napoleon cites 
 Turenne as one of the seven great military exemplars of all times. 
 There was nothing like genius ever evinced by Turenne. He was the 
 soul of cold-blooded calculation. Napoleon admits this (M. iii. 57). 
 Comparing the conduct of Marshal Ney in 1815 with that of Turenne 
 in 1650, he says, " Turenne acted from calculation and moved by the 
 ambition of ruling the councils of the regency, when, forgetting his 
 oath to Anne of Austria, and declaring himself in favor of the opposite 
 party, he marched upon Paris. Ney did nothing similar to this." 
 
 Again (M. iii. 241-42), he enunciates another dictum in which it 
 can be proved he makes as many mistakes as there are sentences. 
 
 Turenne made j?tie campaigns before the treaty of Westphalia. ... "In 1646 
 he set out for Mayence, descended the left bank of the Rhine as far as Wesel, where 
 he crossed that river and ascended the right bank till he reached the Lahn ; formed 
 a junction with the Swedish army [as if it belonged to him !] passed the Danube 
 and the Lech, and thus performed a march of two hundred leagues across an 
 enemy's country. When arrived on the Lech, he had all his troops united under 
 his own command, having, like Csesar and Hannibal, abandoned his communica- 
 tions to his allies, or rather, having consented to separate himself for a time from 
 his reserves and his communications, reserving only one place of depot. There 
 was nothing extraordinary in this. Armies were very small and had to live from 
 hand to mouth, and Menzel considers the Turenne's army a ' band of robbers.' " 
 
 In 1648 he passed the Rhine at Oppenheim, formed a junction with the Swe- 
 
 Adolphus most assuredly the victim of such a crime. Maurice de la Chatre, in 
 his " Histoire des Papes," Paris, 1843, writing evidently without bias, for he con- 
 demns Wallenstein while painting the character of Ferdinand II. in repulsive 
 colors, says, Yol. IX, page 13, " Gustave Adolphe et Wallenstein se recontrerent 
 dans les plaines de Lutze7i, et VivreTent une bataille ta-rible d&us\eiue\\e\eroi de 
 Suede succomber victmie de la trahison.'^ 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 451 
 
 dish army at Ilanau, advanced along the Rcdnitz and retrograded on the Danube, 
 which he crossed at Dillingen ; defeated Montecuculi at Cusniarshausen, passed the 
 Lech at liain, and the Isar at Freising; the court of Bavaria became alarmed for 
 its safety, and quitted Munich. He next fixed his headquarters at Muhldorf, which 
 he laid under contribution, and ravaged the whole of the electorate to punish the 
 elector for his insincerity." 
 
 Now to criticise the great Corsican ! 
 
 After the annihilating overthrow of the French and Weimarians at Tuttlin- 
 gen, 24th November, 4th Deceml)er, 1G43, Tureiine was sent to take command of 
 the French army of Germany. This was in December, 1643. If he accomplished 
 anything worthy of note his successes seem to have made little impres--ii>n on the 
 French ministry since, in July, 1G44, he was superseded by the Duke d'Enghien 
 (the great Conde) and served under him until the troops went into winter quarters, 
 October-December, 1644. In March, 1645, Turenne, left to himself, again ad- 
 vanced into the Palatinate, and on the 2d-3d May he was surprised by the Bavarian 
 Field-Marshal Mercy, and, according to existing circumstances, was whipped as 
 disgracefully as Kantzau at Tuttlintren, in 1643. Mercy took almost the whole of 
 the French infantry, ten guns, and all the baggage. Shortly after he was joined 
 by four thousand Hessians under Koiiigsmark— la man of royal mark, a king 
 among generals of ordinary calibre. With this assistance Turenne forced Mercy 
 to raise the siege of Kircham (Kirchheim). His defeat at Mariendahl or Mergent- 
 heim, and whatever he did or did not do, subsequently resulted, much to his morti- 
 fication, in his second supersedure, 1st July, 1645, by the Duke d'Enghien. On the 
 3d August, 1645, occurred the battle of Allerlieim, or Nordlingen second. At the 
 crisis of this battle, Mercy, who considered the victory secure, was killed and the 
 French enjoyed the glory of a drawn battle like Antietam. (Koch thinks Mercy was 
 killed by the accidental shot of one of his own men, as is claimed, incorrectly how- 
 ever, to have been the case with Stonewall Jackson, and undoubtedly was true of 
 the desperate wounding of Longstreet. The Third Corps A. of the P. pretty clearly 
 prove Jackson was killed by a volley of one of its Regiments, the First Massachu- 
 setts Volunteers.) To prove that this could not have been any decided success for 
 the French, the opposing forces continued facing each other not more than five or 
 six leagues apart, for over two and a half months, until 17th October, 1646. All 
 this time, Turenne was responsible for the paralysis, since he was in full command, 
 the Duke d'Enghien having left the army after winning the field of Allerhcim. 
 
 This brings the story down to 1646, when Napoleon commences his dictum. 
 Turenne did nothing of note in this campaign by himself, for he was united with 
 the Swedish Field-Marshal AVrangel, who was always acting under the inspiration 
 of Torstenson, if Wrangel was not all the time coached or dry-nursed by that 
 great captain. In regard to Torstenson, Turenne exhausts eulogy in exalting his 
 superior abilities ; not that Torstenson needs his approval. For Turenne to en- 
 dorse Torstenson recalls the words of St. Paul to the Corinthians (II. Cor., iii. 1), 
 " Need we, as some others, epistles of commendation to you, or letters of commen- 
 dation from you ?" Turenne and Wrangel were likewise assisted by Konigsmark, 
 who ranks with the ablest commanders developed by the Thirty Years' War, and 
 with less means accomj)lished a great deal more than Turenne ever did. 
 
 What is more, Wrangel waived the chief command in favor of Turenne as a 
 mere matter of policy, to propitiate the vanity of the French court, for Turenne 
 had brought up only nine thousand men; Konigsmark five thousand; and the 
 Hessians four thousand six hundred ; and Wrangel had twenty-three thousand. 
 The fact is the allies had pretty much everything their own way, since the Imperial 
 
452 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY, October 
 
 commander-in-chief, the Archduke Leopold, did not dare to venture a battle and 
 "buried himself under accumulated earthworks," — as Birney said of the heavy 
 artillery regiments in the Wilderness — which the allies did not deem it advisable 
 to attack. This conduct of the emperor's brother so disgusted the Elector of Ba- 
 varia that he entered into an armistice with the allies. This campaign of 1646 is 
 the first mentioned by Napoleon as indicative of Turenne's greatness. If Turenne 
 did win any laurels he must assuredly share them with Torstenson who planned, 
 and Wrangel and Konigsmark, who had so much to do with the execution. 
 
 In 1647 Turenne was recalled to the command in Flanders, and in the course 
 of the summer lost, through his own or his (the French) government's injustice to 
 them, the greater part of the Weimarian troops, who went back to the Swedes, to 
 whom they originally and rightfully belonged. 
 
 In December, 1647, as the Elector of Bavaria had broken his pledges in taking 
 up arms again in favor of the emperor, Turenne was ordered back into Germany, 
 where he once more united with the Swedes and their confederates under Wrangel 
 and Konigsmark, and advanced again in May into Bavaria. 
 
 Napoleon says that Turenne defeated Montecuculi at Cusmarshausen. This is 
 an error. The Allies defeated Melander at Z(S)usharshausen. Montecuculi was a 
 mere subordinate, a general of cavalry, and Gronsfeld, who commanded the Bava- 
 rian contingent, and Montecuculi stopped the victorious career of the Allies and 
 saved the remnants of an army which Melander had nearly sacrificed by his mis- 
 management. There was now no Imperial army fit to resist the Allies until Pic- 
 colomini got back from the Low Countries and gathered together a new army and 
 forced the Allies in turn to retreat. In the midst of a " Campaign of Manoeuvres" 
 (ironical), peace ended hostilities, — a peace due in a great measure to an independent, 
 bold, and happy stroke of Konigsmark. 
 
 Now it would bother even Napoleon to demonstrate conclusively to a competent 
 critic what great genius Turenne showed between 1644, when he first held command 
 in Germany, and during the four years which intervened before the war closed. He 
 was subordinate in two indecisive victories, and he was surprised and utterly cut up 
 in the only conflict in which he was exercising an independent chief command. It 
 has been observed again and again that "even a great general may be defeated; 
 but there is no general of any capacity whatever who can find an excuse for allow- 
 ing himself to be surprised." Koch shows up Turenne and justly disposes of the 
 French claims to doubtful victories, at best drawn battles. Without the great Swedish 
 Leaders, in Camp and Court, the French would have been nowhere in this war. 
 
 What is more, Turenne and the Swedes had no great general opposed to them 
 in the campaigns, or three years cited, by Napoleon. 
 
 It suited Napoleon's policy to compare himself to Charlemagne (Charles I., 
 Karl der Grosse, Charles the Great) and to Louis XIV., the magnificent, claiming 
 the one as a French emperor, and both as French sovereigns. He chose to forget 
 that Charlemagne was one of the great Germans and not a Frenchman at all, and 
 that the career of Louis XIV. terminated anything but gloriously in spite of Tu- 
 renne, — almost as bad as his own did for him. Turenne was one of the ablest of 
 the generals of Louis XIV., but to justify his appearing in the same class with 
 Alexander, Hannibal, CiBsar, Gustavus, and Frederic, requires more proof than 
 truth can furnish, or even the dictum of Napoleon can establish. 
 
 And now let us examine the claims to greatness on the part of the other six 
 of the Great Seven. Alexander the First, like Sesostris, inherited an incomparable 
 army and very able generals from great fathers, Philip of Macedon and Ameno- 
 phis III. In a large measure the same was the case with Frederic. Napoleon 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 453 
 
 Bonaparte received into liis control " tlic magic sword of the Revolution, which 
 would cut in the hands of any one, would cut of itsflf," veteran troops and officers 
 inspired witli the loftiest enthusiasm, highest amhition, perfect confidence in them- 
 selves and their cause. Caesar, who almost touches Hannihal in the exceeding alti- 
 tude of his powerful individuality, was certainly the architect of his own fortunes ; 
 but then he had Rome's constant, courageous commonwealth behind him, its re- 
 sources, administration, armament, as a basis, as a reinforcement and as a reserve. 
 Hannibal had to make and remake his armies ; to supply them from the word 
 "Go"; to exchange their imperfect arms for better; to find, extract, and supply 
 food, in fact, everything needed to the moment and occasion. No greater com- 
 mander or citizen, soldier, or Soffcte (civil-executive) ever lived. Gustavus, like 
 Frederic, was a wise, despotic king, and a great general. Neither Iliinnibal nor 
 the "modern Hannibal," Torstcnson, were kings, but simply servants of states, the 
 one niggardly from policy or politics, the other from poverty ; both had to crush 
 mutinies once and for all, to organize their forces, and reorganize forces as fast as 
 they were expended. How Hannibal ruled with such perfectness is an enigma, 
 unsolved and unsolvable. His secret died with him. How Torstenson administered 
 and carried on war is a problem which has puzzled experts, and none as yet have 
 found the demonstration of it, or to the investigation of his system and campaigns 
 have been able to append the triumphant Q. E. D. 
 
 Restricted, as it seems I am always to be, as to the space accorded, and 
 at times for preparation, — for it takes more time to condense than to 
 conceive, it is necessary to confine the attention to certain considerations 
 which are undoubtedly the least known. First, the slaughter upon 
 the battle-field, enormous as it was, sinks into insignificance before the 
 de})opulation occasioned by absolute murder, through famine, and 
 through consequent endemic and epidemic diseases. The second matter 
 of astonishment is the enormous sums of money, almo.st inconceivable 
 Avhen added up, squeezed out of the country, day by day, month by 
 month, year by year, and, sometimes, more than once a day, by suc- 
 cessive visitations of armed extortion and civil requisition. Writers 
 stand appalled at the vast contributions levied l)y Wallenstein, and 
 argue against fact, that the figures are incorrect. Conceding, however, 
 that mistakes may have been made, he was only one of many who 
 robbed systeiuatically. He ac<juired millions for himself when a 
 silver dollar had a j)iircliasing value equal to a double-eagle to-day and 
 required millions to maintain his tens of thousands of wolves, who 
 were always hungering and never satisfied. 15an6r, who is not generally 
 charged with cupidity, left a fortune of R-\. 1,000.000, equivalent to 
 at least SlO,000,000 of to-day, and after twenty-eight years of this 
 plundering, Wrangcl looted a single town to the extent of Rx. 4,000,000, 
 which is said to have represented an equivalent within the present 
 century of .^40,000,000. All this goes to j)rove what immense hoards 
 derived from industry, economy, and even parsimony must have bem 
 
454 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 piling up in the countries thus raided for thirty years, which had not 
 only to pay for raising, paying, maintaining, supplying, and rewarding 
 vast nativ^e armies but the successive invasions of Danes, Spaniards, 
 Swedes, French, Transylvanians, Cossacks, and other barbarians who 
 either temporarily or continuously occupied one or another portion of 
 Germany, and shot through it to and fro like a shuttle through the 
 \varp. 
 
 Third, the armies of this war, however small in comparison with 
 the armies of the present century, were like the small body of the 
 Octopus in comparison to the mass and extent of its tentacles and their 
 powers of injury to a peaceable population. They resembled Eastern 
 armaments in which the fighting force is to the servants and camp-fol- 
 lowers as the meat of the peach-pit to the fruit itself. Even under the 
 administration of Gustavus, while Swedish discipline was at its best, and 
 loose women were prohibited, soldiers were permitted to have their 
 wives and children in the camp, so that the number of mouths to be 
 fed almost exceeds belief. Afterwards when morality ceased to be a 
 consideration, loose women were tolerated to an almost inconceivable 
 extent. Brigaded under a regular hierarchy of control, and according 
 to regulated grades of respectability, there was no such thing as shame 
 about it. It was recognized and regulated, and those who are curious 
 on the subject will find ample information in Freytag's " Vergangen- 
 heit," and in technical treatises on army life and administration of the 
 period. The Germans were bad enough, and the French worse, but 
 the Spaniards almost inconceivably bad, with this difference that some- 
 times in a playful mood they ripped up the unfortunates supplied to 
 them. In the latter years of the war, the armies resembled migratory 
 Tartar hordes.* 
 
 8 Between the armies of the Thirty Years' War — in fact, all the armies of that 
 and previous wars subsequent to the decay of Koman discipline, with the exception 
 of the Swedish and English, proper, and those of the present era — one great differ- 
 ence presents itself. The former were accompanied into the field by not only wives 
 and mistresses, but children, and worse characters of both sexes. Sometimes the 
 number of effectives in a regiment scarcely exceeded that of the women attached 
 to or dependent upon them. In 1620, when a regiment, newly raised, started out 
 from the place where it was "mustered in," it numbered three thousand men and 
 two thousand females. 
 
 In the last decade of the war, the camp-followers rose to threefold and four- 
 fold the numbers of those who bore arms regularly. Freytag in his " Vergangen- 
 heit" presents a startling picture of this condition of affairs, 
 
 As an instance of this constitution of an army, worthy of the days of Xerxes, 
 at Susmarshausen, the strength of the Imperial army, proper, was thirty-three 
 thousand eight hundred soldiers, whereas that of the women, children, and camp- 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 455 
 
 To sura up the whole matter, the literature of the Thirty Years' 
 War is as worthy of study as the incidents of which it treats are full 
 
 followers reached the startling number of one hundred and twenty-seven thousand. 
 General Grons'feld writes, 31st March, 1648, that in the two armies (Imperialist and 
 Bavarian) there were certainly more than one hundred and eighty thousand men, 
 women, and children ; . . . provisions were issued for forty thousand every twenty- 
 four hours; how the remaining one hundred and forty thousand persons were to 
 live [except by robbery] passed his comprehension." Even as early as IC.^2, when 
 Wallenstein advanced against Nuremberg, his march was closed by upwards of 
 four thousand wagons, — fifteen thousand women, — according to the estimate of 
 Burgos ; and that chronicler supposes the number of sutlers and servants to have 
 been nearly equal (King, 180). Such an aggregation made the march of an army 
 nothing better than a visitation of locusts, with the difl'erence in favor of the insects, 
 since the latter confined their consumption to the vegetation, which was bad enough, 
 whereas these human hordes consumed or carried off everything else. In a few days 
 a comparatively comfortable district with its private or farm dwellings, steadings, 
 outbuildings, etc., etc., would be converted into a jierfect waste, just as it is stated 
 that an invading column in 1780 entered the Schoharie and Mohawk valleys — then 
 for the period well settled and cultivated — and, after it marched off, left nothing 
 but the soil and ashes and stone walls to mark where buildings had stood. 
 
 Such a state of things has always been common in Eastern countries, even 
 down to the present day. 
 
 "It is related by the monks that so sure were they [the Spanish-Saracens] of 
 success and of subduing the whole country [France] that it appeared as if the Mos- 
 lem army of occupation [which was defeated at Tours by Charles Martel, 3d-4th Oc- 
 tober, A.D. 732] had come to stay permanently, for they brought with them their 
 wives and childen, flocks and herds, and all their belongings. It was an invasioa 
 with a purpose." 
 
 For instance, in April, 1799, the English General Harris, in addition to his 
 thirtj-five thousand fighting force, was accompanied by one hundred and twenty 
 thousand non-combatants. The proportion of the latter in Asiatic armies, as a 
 rule, has always been at least four ineffectives to each real effective fighting unit. 
 ("Famous and Decisive Battles," by Capt. Charles King, U.S.A., page 180.) 
 
 " At the present" (Brockelhurst " Mexico To- Day" 1883, p. 256) " the Mexican 
 army, twenty-five thousand strong, has no commissariat; crowds of women follow 
 the troops wherever they move, and provide the soldiers with food." 
 
 It was such an Imperial and Bavarian horde of mingled iron and clay of over 
 one hundred and sixty thousand human beings of both sexes and of all conditions 
 that the Allies, Swi'des, French, and Associate Germans — doubtless themselves very 
 much encumbered with useless adjuncts — caught m Jfuffrmite delicto astraddle of the 
 small but not fordable river Zusam. In this affair Z(S)u.smabshau3en, the Imperial 
 general, Melander, or Holzapfel, very much resembled a man who goes out to shear 
 and comes back shorn, or starts out to hunt a bear and is hunted instead and hugged 
 to death. The river Zusam, in this di.«trict, continually winds like an « or 5 orS. 
 
 To cover Augsburg, Melander had sufficient strategy to perceive the best 
 position to be assumed to protect the passage of tlie Danube, was at Zusmarshausen. 
 Suddenly he heard the Allies were about to cross the river at Lauingen further up, 
 and instead of remaining quiet at a central point to observe and strike, he marched 
 off to Olottwang. Finding at that place that he had been misinformed, and that 
 
456 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 of interest and instruction. "There were giants in those days." As 
 statesmen, Oxenstiern and Richelieu have never been surpassed. The 
 
 instead of catching the Allies napping — as Grant expected to surprise theKebels on 
 the morning of the 26th April, 1862, at yhiloh (as Browne says, page 137, in hia 
 "Four Years in Secessia") — he was himself surprised.* 
 
 Discovering his mistake too late, Melander hurried back to Z(S)usmarshausen 
 and got half his army across the Zusam when Wrangel and Turenne were upon 
 him, catching him "astraddle of the fence," just as Lee might have occasioned 
 fearful losses to Burnside, while falling back across the Eappahannock, after Fred- 
 ricksburg 1st, in December, 1862, and Meade should, at least, have caught Lee at 
 Williamsport and Falling Waters, in July, 1863, and again at the Eappahannock, in 
 the autumn of the same year. Gronsfeld with his Bavarians were just about across 
 when Melander galloped back to the rear-guard to make some dispositions to arrest 
 disorder and strive to avert defeat. As he reached the scene of confusion, Monte- 
 cuculi's cavalry were just routed, and the other troops became "clubbed" and 
 driven en masse without his being able to effect anything to restore order among 
 
 * Quite a number of battles in the course of the world's history, resemble this last collision 
 of importance at Z(S)usmarshausen during the Thirty Years' War, in more than one of its 
 phases. 
 
 The first and most remarkable is Timoleon's victory at the Crimessus, in Sicily, B.C. 343; 
 when the good and great Greek, with about 10,000 men, defeated some 70,000 Carthaginian 
 mercenaries. This overthrow, due to a variety of circumstances, all traceable to natural 
 causes, seems scarcely less miraculous than the discomfiture of the host of Midian by Gideon, 
 or that of the army of Mesha, King of Moab, by King Jehoshaphat of Judab, and Jehoram of 
 Israel ; if the facts of these cases could be laid open to critical investigation. They were due 
 to panics to which all ancient and Eastern armies are subject. 
 
 Are they more remarkable than Marathon, B.C. 490, achieved in the face of day ; or 
 Hemmingsted, a.d. 1500, in the Ditmarsh district of Denmark, by a mere handful of brave 
 peasants, over a Royal army of 30,000,- or Narva, 30th November, 1700, when 8000 Swedes 
 under Charles XII., advancing in the face of a snowstorm and a numerous artillery, defeated 
 80,000 Russians in an entrenched camp, garnished with 150 guns? What is to be said of the 
 " Castlcbar Races," 1796, or as to Plattsburgh, 11th October, 1814? On the latter occasion 
 between 12 and 14,000 British veterans, fresh from their glories under Wellington in Spain, 
 after defeating superior numbers of veteran French under Napoleon's ablest lieutenants, aban- 
 doned field and fame and wounded, in the face of a few American regulars and not over three 
 thousand militia, almost without cover. In the Class of Battles to which Z(s)usmarshausen 
 belongs, may be included in some respects more or less resemblant, the Persians at the Zaab, 
 after Arbela, b.c. 331 ; Hannibal's victory at the Trebbia, B.C. 218; (Evesham, 1265, "Art of 
 War in the Middle Ages," 52?) AVallace at Sterling on the Tweed, 1298; Bloreheath, Stafi"ord 
 Co., England, 1459, (See "Art of War in the Middle Ages," p. 120), exactly as to principle; 
 ("Drowning of the Hungarians after the Battle of the AVhite Mountain," 1620) Prince Eugene's 
 utter defeat of the Turks at Zenta, on the Theiss, Hungary, 1696, after Pultowa, 8th July, 1708. 
 
 Sobieski's victories on the Plain of Nimiron, in Gallicia, whence he drove the Turks 
 across the Dniester, Stryi, and Schewitz, 1672; Suworrow's Rymnik; Blenheim on the French 
 right, 1704 (Gudmarde might have been made a partial or complete disaster, to the Allies while 
 crossing the Schelde, 11th July, 1708, if the French had had a general of any real ability at 
 their head), Campo Santo, 8th February, 1743; Ratisbon, 1809; Aspern, 1809; Beresina, 
 1812; Katsbach, 1813; Leipsic, after the conclusion of the last of the Three days' "Battle of 
 the Nations," 1813; Ostrolenka, Poland, 26th May, 1832. A number of other instances might 
 be added did time permit their consideration. 
 
1885. THE LITERATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 457 
 
 former, Pope Urban VIII. — an able man himself — regarded as a being 
 superior in degree to humanity. Under some aspects, he was one of 
 the most extraordinary men that ever lived. After tiie death of Gus- 
 tavus, he had to pilot the siiip of state amid reefs and shoals and swift 
 tides and eddies almost equal to whirlpools. He conned the craft 
 safely through. After Nordlingen, he was in command of the same 
 vessel, dismasted amid a cyclone, and he brought it triumphantly into 
 port. No prime minister ever had a harder task. QSdipus himself 
 was not called upon to solve, to ordinary experience, a more unsolvable 
 riddle. Salvius, another Swedish representative, was pitted against the 
 greatest diplomatists of Europe and carried his points. As to the gen- 
 erals they have been sufficiently dwelt upon. They were wortliy chil- 
 dren of Thor, the ideal leader of the Northern races ; perhaps one of the 
 few mortals justly deified by superstition, if ajwtheosis could be justified 
 in any case. The " Theatrum Europseum," equivalent to one of our finest 
 illustrated periodicals, is a marvel of painstaking collaboration. It is 
 the copious source of every sort of information in regard to the period. 
 Our " Rebellion Record" was conceived with the same idea, but is as 
 inferior in comparison in value as copper to gold. The battle and siege 
 plans in the " Theatrum" are unique. Without them nothing would be 
 known trustworthily of any of the important collisions and sieges. 
 The maps for the period are excellent. Chemnitz and a few other 
 writers constitute the authorities to which every historian must resort. 
 Without them, any one attempting to write on this war would be a 
 
 the Imperial regiments, proper, or hold them up to their work. The Elector of 
 Bavaria subsequently charged certain of their Colonels with cowardice. At this 
 juncture, a bullet struck Melander in the body, and with a last exhortation to iiis 
 broken troops, he fell mortally wounded from his saddle. 
 
 It was here almost as it was to be at Aughrim, 1G89, after St. Ruth was killed. 
 All was inevitably lost there, before Sarsfield (Lord Lucan) could gather up the 
 reins of command. Gronsfeld, who had gotten across with almost all tho Bava- 
 rians, posted them to defend the river, but soon discovered that unless he destroyed 
 the bridge his own force would be annihilated as well as the other half of the army, 
 the Imperialists, who were still on the west shore. It was a type in 1648 of what 
 occurred at Leipsic in 1813. The premature destruction of the bridge and the 
 subsequent heroic resistance of Ulric Wurtemberg, saved a portion of the Imperial 
 army, but delivered up the rest to the swords of the Allies. The result of this 
 German (1648) Little Sailor's Creek of (6th April, 1865), delivered over Bavaria 
 to the invader, and they made the most of their victory. Just as the sovereign and 
 Elector Maximilian abandoned his dominions and subjects to the Swedes under 
 Gustavus Adolphus, in 1632, just so, again, he repeated his flight to Salzburg, the 
 capital of the Archbishopric of that name, leaving everything a prey to the irrup- 
 tion which his own duplicity, bigotry, and cruelty had brought thus again and 
 again upon his unhappy people. 
 
458 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUAETERLY. October 
 
 mariner at sea without compass and charts. As a study for everything 
 but strategy — which was, perhaps, precluded by circumstances — for 
 grand tactics, for tactics, for logistics, in the most comprehensive sense, 
 for demand and supply, for marches, for everything pertaining to the 
 carrying on of war, the raising of armies, the feeding, the furnishing, 
 and the figliting them, there are no such lessons to be learned from any 
 similar terra of years as from 1620 to 1648, After the peace of West- 
 phalia (1648), war continued, here or there, almost without cessation, 
 but there was very little scientific improvement until the time of Fred- 
 eric the Great; and although enormous armies were brought into the 
 field, until the great Hohenzollern arose, science was under an eclipse. 
 In his strategical acuteness of vision Napoleon ranked very high, but in 
 no other way. To him cannot be traced a single step in advance, such 
 as characterize the daybreak of Gustavus and of Frederic. It may 
 seem almost a paradox to conclude with an assertion so startling as this 
 which follows: the four years of the great American contest for the 
 suppression of "the Slaveholders' Rebellion," developed more novel- 
 ties in the combination and applications of the sciences and arts of 
 peace as coadjutors to the arts and sciences of war, demonstrating that 
 the useful may be made the handmaid of destruction and invention, 
 the best servants of force, than any like period of hostilities in the his- 
 tory of the world. With the impetus then and there given, war en- 
 tered as to ta(;tics, arms, and everything inseparably connected with 
 it, into, as it were, a new plane of existence. 
 
 That the views expressed in this article have been strongly corrob- 
 orated, can be proved from recent works which have appeared of late 
 years since different national archives were thrown open to investiga- 
 tion ; Professor Ward in his Lectures on the " House of Austria in 
 the Thirty Years' War," and Koch's " History of the German Empire 
 during the Reign of Ferdinand III.," etc. It is only very lately that 
 historians have appeared, who were not absolute champions of the re- 
 ligious doctrines they professed. With the abating of intolerance, due 
 rather to skepticism or indifference than to charity, truth has come to 
 the front. 
 
 Professor Ward is very clear and very just, although he does deal 
 slashing blows to those who deserve it. Towards Wallenstein he is in 
 so far just, in that he shows that in getting rid of him, his only great 
 general, the emperor committed the great error which gave to the 
 enemies of his realm and religion, victory in the end ; that Wallenstein 
 understood Gustavus Adolphus, and that the Swedish hero was by him, 
 " the Friedlander," drawn away from his own plans to act as Wallen- 
 
1885. THE LITEEATURE OF THE THIRTY YEARS' WAR. 459 
 
 stein intendetl. As to Gnstaviis, Ward makes it clear that, from the 
 first, he intended to have a hand in the German war; whatever may 
 have been the original impulse or extent of his aims, "Gustavus Adol- 
 phus — of this there remains no doubt — aspired to no less a prize than 
 the Imperial crown." " The sack of Magdeburg — which, even were its 
 captors freed from every stain of criminality, would remain a monstrous 
 political blunder — threw Saxony into his arms; the victory of Breiten- 
 feld placed the fate of the empire in his power. Then, had he marched 
 upon Vienna, it must have fallen. And so must the same city have 
 fallen into the hands of tlie victors of Sadowa, and so must Rome into 
 those of Hannibal after Caniiic. But, whatever we may think of the 
 Prussians of our own day, neither Hannibal nor Gustavus were politi- 
 cians of the event." The first complaint of Gustavus against Ferdi- 
 nand III., the exclusion of his ambassador from the conferences at 
 Lubec, was a manufactured grievance. " The object of Gustavus 
 Adolphus was obviously to be insulted." The cases of his represen- 
 tative and that of Benjamin Franklin were identical. Both were treated 
 most disrespectfully, Salvius by the Imperial Commissioners, Franklin 
 by the English Ministers, and both lived to play a principal part in 
 the humiliation of the powers to whom they were previously objects of 
 discourtesy almost amounting to contempt. 
 
 Koch is the first historian who gives a fair account of this conflict 
 at Susmarshausen, which is generally styled no better than a bloody 
 skirmish, and is more worthy the title of a battle than most engagements 
 which are classed as such. In a measure he excuses Melander, and 
 shows that the fighting lasted over nine hours and was lively and 
 bloody, adding that Melander's career had an unfortunate but glorious 
 termination. Considering the fact that this general was a rigid Calvin- 
 ist, and that a bigoted Romanist emperor made him commander-in- 
 chief of his army, is excellent proof that he must have possessed and 
 displayed unusual military ability, which by one historian at least has 
 been claimed for him, 
 
460 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 THE ACTUAL AND OSTENSIBLE CONDITION OF THE RUS- 
 SIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 By H. VON Dewall, Rittmeisler a la suite oi the Old Mark Ulan Regiment 
 No. 16, instructor at the Military School, Potsdam. 
 
 (Translated from the Jahrbucher fur die Deutsche Armee und Marine by 
 Stanislaus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth U. S. Artillery.) 
 
 It will be remembered how animated a discussion was maintained 
 not long ago in daily and technical periodicals with regard to the 
 question whether, in the event of a war with Russia, the menacing of 
 our Eastern frontiers or even an interference with our arrangements for 
 mobilization might be efficiently warded off* inasmuch as the Russian 
 cavalry could pour itself forth upon East and West Prussia, as well as 
 over Silesia, before we could make suitable dispositions to prevent it. 
 
 The Russian cavalry possesses an organization similar to our own 
 in so far, in that in a condition of peace it closely approximates its war 
 strength ; so that independently of the period requisite for the instruc- 
 tion of recruits, it is enabled to leave its garrisons in a few days, — in 
 part, perhaps even in a few hours. In a certain sense, it has, indeed, 
 an advantage, as compared with ours, as the dispositions with regard 
 to its assignment and incorporation, necessary in war and especially for 
 the purposes of the great operations, are already met in a state of peace. 
 When we moreover bear in mind that the great majority of its di- 
 visions are distributed in the Western provinces, in part in the very 
 frontier territories, while the remainder are suitably located along the 
 railway lines, the significance of the question above propounded will 
 appear in no degree lessened and a ready explanation will be found of 
 the fact that a keen eye is kept on the part of the Germans upon the 
 Russian cavalry, which, quite regardless of its tactically cavaleristic^ 
 value or the want of it, is calculated, in view of its great masses alone, 
 to play an important part in future wars. That this part was not a 
 conspicuously prominent one in the last Turkish war, is due to circum- 
 
 * The word is adopted from the original. Repeatedly employed in the further 
 progress of the article, it carries within itself its meaning, which could not other- 
 wise be rendered without a somewhat labored circumlocution ; nor then always, 
 without detriment to the adequate forcibility of expression of the precise thought 
 intended to be conveyed. — Translator. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 461 
 
 stances, the more detailed explanation of which wonld lead us beyond 
 the puqwrt of this paper ; but the plains of the Vistula and the 
 Nienien arc conducive, in other fashion than the mountainous regions 
 of the ]?alkan peninsula, to the active participation of the mounted 
 troops in the great battles, in which it may be demonstrated that the 
 cavalry can yet cooperate in the achievement of decisive results there, 
 as well as in the service of the strategical operations before and after. 
 If anywhere, the Russian cavalry can there demonstrate what it can 
 achieve; if the aims, which it has heretofore affected and still affects, 
 be the correct ones, and if the expectations at the present time formed 
 of it by the people and by the leaders of the Russian armies, be 
 justified. There will the greatest masses of horsemen in the world 
 contend with one another; there Avill be found the opportunity to bring 
 our ancient knightly arm anew in good stead, to show that without it 
 the great armies of the present era are inadequate colossi and not only 
 that, but also to prove to the dismayed infantry, that the breech-loader 
 can yet be conquered, if only the cavalry shall have remained as of 
 yore and shall ground its attacks upon those principles, which afore- 
 time have been taught us under the aegis of the great Frederick, by a 
 Sevdlitz and a Zieten. The time of peace and inactivity, which ensued 
 after that period of highest fame, cannot be to us a sign of incipient 
 relaxation, but only a time of collected deliberate readiness and expec- 
 tation. The ban is now broken, that resteil upon us. This is the 
 avowed tactical creed of the German cavalryman ! 
 
 And the Russian? He boasts of his numbers and relies — he, the 
 trooper, — upon his musket ! The numbers, yes, these are considerable ; 
 doubly as great as ours ! But are these masses, over whom he holds 
 sway, filled with the same spirit, which is solicitously nourished and 
 cherished in our horsemen? Were this the case, the solution of a 
 knotty problem would undoubtedly stand in our way. But it is not 
 so and cannot be so, if horse and sabre and lance arc to be made sub- 
 servient to, nay, are to give way to, the fiie-arm. 
 
 Already a.s long ago as at the time of the Franco-German war, a 
 revolution became manifest in Russia in the views upon the employ- 
 ment of the cavalry; the experience, which it was thought had been 
 gained in the confiict with the Turks, gave this new impulse; the 
 ])ossibility of the practical success of cavalry attacks against the fire- 
 arms of the day appeared to be beset with perplexing doubts ; and 
 continually greater and greater force was acquired by the tendency to 
 gravitate towards the belief, that the fire-arm alone could restore to the 
 cavalry what it had lost — i.e., that it could only yet hope to operate 
 
462 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 with unqualified success if the rapidity of the horse were united with 
 the readiness of fire of the infantry and that, therefore, these two 
 desirable elements must be incorporated with one another. Thus all 
 these years are filled up with a succession of important changes in 
 organization, which constantly tended to deprive the cavalry regiments 
 of their character as regiments of horsemen and sought to remodel 
 them into a body of troops, which should be in the position of rivaling 
 the infantry, but which, in the natural order of things, in proportion 
 to the growth of confidence in their rifles, were bound to suffer in 
 cavaleristic peculiarities. With the transformation of the regiments 
 of ulans and hussars, attached to the fourteen European cavalry divi- 
 sions, into dragoons,^ which ensued after the close of the autumn 
 manoeuvres of 1882, this labor of re-organization came to a close for 
 the time being, and it was hoped that now, at last, a body of cavalry 
 adapted to present demands had been secured. 
 
 From this alone we would be already enabled to determine the 
 spirit with which it is proposed in the future to cause the cavalry to 
 be indoctrinated. For the Russian dragoons had for years aimed to 
 achieve preeminent efficiency in fighting on foot ; they even seek with 
 a sort of pride, to all appearance, to render the cavaleristic element 
 itself, of ulterior account. But the best evidence of the ideas enter- 
 tained by the Russian authorities as to the future sphere of action of 
 the cavalry, appears from the fact that a similar armament and employ- 
 ment is also contemplated for the Cossack regiments ; so that, when 
 this transformation shall have been completed, the existence in Russia 
 of a body of actual cavalry, fighting with sabre and lance, will scarcely 
 be any longer in question. 
 
 The Russian cavalry, it will be remembered, is divided into : 
 I. The regiments of the regular cavalry (cavalry of the guard and 
 army); 
 
 " We are indebted for a portion of our observations to a work which has recently- 
 appeared and which seems to us worthy of the widest dissemination: "The stra- 
 tegical cavalry manoeuvres under General Gurko in Southern Eussia, in the fall of 
 1882, and the reform tendencies in the Kussian cavalry, By A. von Drygalski" 
 (R. Eisenschmidt, Berlin). Owing to the difficulties, consequent upon the lack of 
 knowledge of the Eussian language, the few literary productions upon the army 
 institutions of Eussia which come into the world, must be doubly welcomed, espe- 
 cially when written, as in the case of the work above mentioned, from the critical 
 point of view of the professional soldier. While the first part of the book gives a 
 clear description of those strategical manoeuvres, which is interesting in itself, he 
 who seeks instruction upon the spirit now animating our comrades-at-arms over 
 there, will be amply rewarded by studying the second part of it, designated "reform 
 tendencies." 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 463 
 
 II. The Cossack regiments, 1 whicli In time of peace are 
 
 III. Tiie so-called irregular troops, /only in part organized. 
 
 I. Of regular cavalry, since the before-mentioned re-organization, 
 there are: 
 
 4 regiments of cnirassicrs of the guard, 
 
 2 " " dragoons " " " 
 
 2 " " ulans " " " 
 
 2 " " hussars " " " 
 
 46 " " dragoons " " army. 
 
 Total, 56 regimentsof cavalry, consisting 
 
 of 2 divisions, of 2 squadrons, eacii, = 224 squadrons.' 
 
 To which is to be added : the Crim Tar- 
 
 tary division, consisting of 2 (in time of 
 
 war 4) squadrons, =4 " 
 
 which in certain respects belongs to this 
 
 enumeration. 
 
 Total, in time of war, 57 regiments = 228 squadrons. 
 
 Independently of insignificant differences, the strength of each of 
 these organizations on a war footing, is : 31 officers, 48 non-commis- 
 sioned officers, 17 trumpeters, 512 men^ = 608 combatants. These 57 
 regiments have, therefore, a war strength of 34,656 combatants. 
 
 II. Of Cossacks there are, i.e. are newly organized in war: 
 
 (a) The Dox Cossack Woisko. 
 
 In peace are present : 
 
 The combined Don Cossack regiment (body 
 
 guard), consisting of 4 squadrons == 4 squadrons. 
 
 15 Don Cossack regiments (army), first cate- 
 gory = 15 regiments, consisting each of 
 
 6 sotnias = 90 sotnias. 
 
 Carried forward 94 squadrons and 
 
 sotnias. 
 
 ' The fifth squadrons serve as reserve squadrons and are so named even in time 
 of peace ; they are disregarded in the above calcuhition. 
 
 * Presumably intended to inchidc corporals, wlio in the Russian army do not 
 attain to the rank of non-commissioned officers. — Translator. 
 
464 
 
 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. 
 
 October 
 
 Brought forward 
 
 Newly organized in war : 
 The Don Cos-- 
 
 94 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
 formed out of the 
 combined Don 
 Cossack regi- 
 y raent (body 
 
 guard), of the 
 peace footing. 
 
 sack regiment 
 (body guard), 
 consisting of 
 
 The Ataman 
 Cossack regi- 
 ment ( body 
 guard ) con- 
 sisting of 
 
 15 Don Cossack regiments, (army), second 
 category, consisting each of 6 sotnias 
 
 30 independent sotnias, second category, 
 
 15 Don Cossack regiments, (army), third cate- 
 gory, consisting each of 6 sotnias 
 
 Total, 52 regiments, consisting of 
 
 The war footing of these organizations is : 
 The Don Cossack regiment, (body guard), 
 53 officers, 96 non-commissioned officers, 
 25 trumpeters, 960 men = 1134 combatants 
 
 The Ataman Cossack regiment, (body guard), 
 has apparently the same war footing = 1 134 
 combatants 
 
 The Don Cossack regiments, (array), 21 offi- 
 cers, 86 non-commissioned officers, 19 trum- 
 peters, 686 men, each = 812 combatants; 
 in all : 
 
 6 squadrons = 6 squadrons. 
 
 = 6 « 
 
 = 90 sotnias. 
 = 30 " 
 
 = 90 " 
 
 316 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
 1134 combatants. 
 
 1134 
 
 40,600 
 
 War strength of the Don Cossack Woisko : 42,868 combatants. 
 (6) The Kuban Cossack Woisko. 
 
 In peace are present : 
 
 2 squadrons, His Majesty's convoy 
 
 10 regiments of horse, of 6 sotnias each 
 
 1 division of horse, of 2 squadrons 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 = 2 squadrons. 
 = 60 sotnias. 
 = 2 squadrons. 
 
 64 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 
 
 Broufrlit forward 
 
 465 
 
 64 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
 Newly organized in war: 
 
 20 regiments of liorse, second and third cate- 
 gories, of 6 sotnias each 
 
 Total 30 1 regiments 
 
 Their war footing: is : 
 
 The squadrons of the convoy, 6 officers, 18 
 non-commissioned officers, 2 trumpeters, 
 160 men, each = 186 combatants ; in all 
 
 The Kuban Cossack regiments of horse, 23 
 officers, 86 non-commissioned officers, 13 
 trumpeters, 768 men, each = 890 combat- 
 ants; in all 
 
 The Kuban Cossack division of horse, 11 offi- 
 cers, 18 non-commissioned officers, 7 trum- 
 peters, 266 men = 302 combatants. 
 
 = 120 sotnias. 
 
 = 184 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
 372 combatants. 
 
 26,700 
 
 = 302 
 
 "War strength of the Kuban Cossack Woisko: 27,374 combatants. 
 (The squadrons of the convoy are detached from the Woisko in 
 time of war, but are counted in the above enumeration to arrive at the 
 total strength.) 
 
 (c) The Terek Cossack Woisko. 
 In peace are present : 
 
 2 squadrons. His Majesty's convoy = 2 squadrons. 
 
 4 regiments of horse, of 4 sotnias each =16 sotnias. 
 
 Newly organized in war: 
 
 8 regiments of horse, second and third cate- 
 gories, of 4 sotnias each = 32 " 
 
 Total 12^ regiments 
 
 Their war footing is : 
 
 The squadrons of the convoy, 6 officers, 18 
 non-commissioned officers, 2 trumpeters, 
 160 men, each = 186 combatants; in all 
 
 = 50 squadrons and 
 sotnias. 
 
 Carried forward 
 
 Vol. I.— No. 4. 
 
 372 combatants. 
 372 combatants. 
 
 80 
 
466 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 Brought forward 372 combatants. 
 
 The regiments of horse, 17 officers, 58 non- 
 commissioned officers, 9 trumpeters, 512 
 men, each = 596 combatants ; in all 7152 " 
 
 "War strength of the Terek Cossack Woisko : 7524 combatants. 
 
 (The squadrons of the convoy are detached 
 from the Woisko in time of war.) 
 
 {d) The Astrachan Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total, 3 regiments = 12 sotnias. 
 
 War strength of the Astrachan Cossack Woisko: 1782 combatants. 
 
 (e) The Orenburg Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total, 18 regiments of horse =108 sotnias. 
 
 War strength ofthe Orenburg Cossack Woisko: 16,488 combatants. 
 
 (/) The Ural Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total, 7f regiments = 46 squadrons and 
 
 sotnias. 
 War strength of the Ural Cossack Woisko : 7059 combatants. 
 
 (g) The Siberian Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total, 9 regiments = 54 sotnias. 
 
 War strength of the Siberian Cossack Woisko : 8190 combatants. 
 
 (A) The Semirjetschensk Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total, 3 regiments =12 sotnias. 
 
 War strength of the Semirjetschensk Cossack 
 
 Woisko: 1842 combatants. 
 
 {i) The Trans-Baikat^ Cossack Woisko.® 
 
 Total, 3 regiments, :^ 18 sotnias. 
 
 War strength of the Trans-Baikal Cossack 
 
 Woisko: 2676 combatants. 
 
 (Jc) The Amur Cossack Woisko.® 
 Total = 1 regiment of 6 sot- 
 
 nias. 
 War strength of the Amur Cossack Woisko : 910 combatants. 
 
 5 The detailed enumeration of the original in the case of these Woiskos has 
 been omitted for want of space. — Translator. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 467 
 
 III. Of irregular troops, which though so called, have also a fixed 
 status, and are to be newly organized in war, there are: 
 
 OflBcers. N.-C. Tnim- Men. Combat- 
 
 Offlcei-8. peters. ants. 
 
 1. 1 Sotnia in Irkutsk. 
 
 "War strength .... 6 12 1 120 = 139 
 
 2. 1 Sotnia in Kravsnojarsk. 
 
 War strength .... 6 12 1 120 = 139 
 
 3. 2 Ussuri sotnias. 
 
 "War strength .... 5 9 3 133 = 300 
 
 4. The Kutais irregular regiment of horse 
 
 of 4 sotnias. 
 
 War strength . . . .23 30 ... 600 = 653 
 
 5. Standing militia. 
 
 I Kuban sotnia. 
 
 War strength 
 
 II Terek sotnias muster 
 11 Daghestan sotnias muster 
 Ssuchum guard (1 sotnia). 
 
 War strength (?) 10(?) ...(?) 160 = 170 
 
 War strength of the irregular troops : 32 sotnias with 3817 com- 
 batants. 
 
 To these are to be further added those unenumerated thousands, 
 available for organization in case of need out of the multitude of men 
 and horses, of whose sum however, it is impossible to make a calcula- 
 tion, or even an estimate. 
 
 If, therefore, all these organizations come into existence in time of 
 war, Russia would be able to bring into the field of cavalry : 
 
 1. The cavalry of the guard and 
 army, including the Crim 
 Tartary division . . .57 Regts. = 228 Squads, with 34,565 Combts. 
 
 1 
 
 7(?) 
 
 ...(?) 
 
 80 = 
 
 88 
 
 22 
 
 6G(?) 
 
 ...(?) 
 
 1177 — 
 
 1265 
 
 22 
 
 66(?) 
 
 ...(?) 
 
 975 = 
 
 1063 
 
 2. 
 
 The 
 
 i Don Cossack Woisko . 
 
 52 
 
 (i 
 
 = 312 Sotnias, 
 
 II 
 
 42,868 
 
 3. 
 
 i( 
 
 Kuban " " . . 
 
 m 
 
 II 
 
 = 184 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 27,374 
 
 4. 
 
 ti 
 
 Terek " '« . . 
 
 m 
 
 II 
 
 = 50 
 
 K 
 
 II 
 
 7,524 
 
 5. 
 
 It 
 
 Astrachan Cossack "Woisko 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 = 12 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 1,782 
 
 6. 
 
 It 
 
 Orenburg " " 
 
 18 
 
 <i 
 
 = 108 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 16,488 
 
 7. 
 
 i( 
 
 Ural '« " . 
 
 7§ 
 
 II 
 
 = 46 
 
 l< 
 
 II 
 
 7,059 
 
 8. 
 
 11 
 
 Siberian " " 
 
 9 
 
 II 
 
 = 54 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 8,190 
 
 9. 
 
 t( 
 
 Semirjetschen-sk Cossack 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 "Woisko . . . • 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 = 12 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 1,842 
 
 10. 
 
 <( 
 
 Trans- Baikal Cossack 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Woisko . . . . 
 
 3 
 
 II 
 
 = 18 
 
 II 
 
 li 
 
 2,676 
 
 11. 
 
 K 
 
 Amur Cossack Woisko 
 
 1 
 
 II 
 
 = 6 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 910 
 
 12. 
 
 l( 
 
 Irregular troops 
 
 ? 
 
 II 
 
 7^ 32 
 
 It 
 
 II 
 
 3,817 
 
 
 
 Aggregate strength . 
 
 19G| regU. 
 
 ,^^.2 squadron: 
 sotnias. 
 
 s& 
 
 155,186 
 
4G8 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 Tliese are, it must be confessed, significant numbers, as compared 
 with which our 93 regiments with their 57,939 combatants (counting 
 23 officers and 600 men to the regiment), would have a hard struggle, 
 if numbers were anything else than — numbers. By themselves they 
 as yet j)rove nothing. Of what use to the Russians are these 155,000 
 horses, if they cannot be made available in good time? Even if the 
 Russian regiments could be recruited up to the full standard as rapidly 
 as the German, it woidd be impossible, in view of the colossal dimen- 
 sions of the Russian realm, and in spite of the railways, to forward 
 them to their destinations before the lapse of months. No proof is 
 needed of this. Without going back further than to recent times, we 
 know that in the Crimean war, as also in that against Turkey, Russia 
 has had to suflPer from the imjiossibility of accomplishing a timely 
 union of her combatant forces. The former came to an unsuccessful 
 issue, principally in consequence of these causes. Russia, though im- 
 measurably superior to the allies in combatant strength, was powerless 
 to effect the transportation of her forces before the decisive moment. 
 It was the same in 1877 and 1878, and so it will be for a long time 
 to come, in future wars. To accomplish with adequate dispatch the 
 junction on the frontier of military organizations like the Russian, will 
 remain a difficult, and pcrhaj)s, indeed, an insoluble problem, even if 
 Russia shall be, some day, traversed by a widely disseminated railway 
 system, answering the demands of niilitary necessity. 
 
 There can, however, be no question as to a recruitment of the Rus- 
 sian cavalry to its war strength, as rapid as that of our own, when we 
 recollect that large parts of the regiments of Cossacks and of horse, 
 and notably all those which aic not regularly organized except for war, 
 belong to the second and third categories. It is true that the troops of 
 the second category are not only armed and equipped in time of peace, 
 but have also their horses ; but the troops of the third category are 
 prepared with their armament and equipment alone and have no horses. 
 Thus, the regiments of the latter category may be primarily left en- 
 tirely out of consideration, and even those of the second category will 
 in all cases require a certain time, — perhaps several weeks, — before the 
 completion of their formation and before they shall be ready to march. 
 In so far as can be predicated, therefore, there would, under any circum- 
 stances, be no question as to a transportation of these latter organiza- 
 tions, until the march to the field of the regular army of operations 
 should have been accomplished. We, for the time being, would con- 
 sequently not have to concern ourselves even as to the regiments of the 
 second category. Those who know what it means to push forward an 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 469 
 
 army of so ami so many luindred tliousand men into the field, on four 
 railway linos, and to make all the dispositions for their current and 
 eventual wants and subsistence, will })erceive, witliout the necessity for 
 the exhibition of detailed calculatious, that there can be neither time 
 nor room for following them up at a very early day, by the dispatching 
 of further masses of troops. Russia docs not, at the time, possess more 
 through railway lines than these, in which is already included that 
 leading out of her Southern provinces, from Charkow, by way of Balta, 
 to Lemberg, on the Austrian frontier. From its terminus, Dubno, the 
 troops would have before them to the Prussian frontier, a distance of 
 460 verets = 305 English miles in an air-line, that is to say, a march 
 of about four weeks. 
 
 For immediate employment Russia has only those regiments which 
 are already formed in time of peace. The remainder will furnish, it 
 must be admitted, a highly respectable reserve, increasing in impor- 
 tance the longer the war may continue, and the more impaired in 
 strength our own cavalry, which cannot command equally powerful 
 second and third lines, may l>ecome. At tlie outstart, however, these 
 regiments may be disregarded as having any bearing on the strategical 
 development of the campaign, upon the issue of which they could exert 
 no appreciable influence, perhaj)S for months. 
 
 Bearing in mind the foregoing remarks, we will perceive that 
 Russia has organized in time of j)eace 504 squadrons and sotnias, with 
 a war strength of 77,001 combatants. And even from this number 
 deductions must be made. As the combined Don Cossack regiment 
 of the body-guard is to serve as a nucleus for the two Cossack regi- 
 ments of the body-guard of the Don Cossack Woisko to be formed in 
 case of war, it can scarcely be assumed, if a systematic mobilizaticm be 
 had, that it will move into the field with the regiments of the first 
 category ; but on the contrary that, in all probability, it will not do so 
 until the completion of the organization of these two regiments, that is 
 to say, with the second line. In the same way the irregular troops, 
 taking into consideration their constitution and organization, appear 
 little adapted to be brought into immediate service. Altogether, then, 
 there would be 4,575 combatants, which may well be deducted from 
 those 77,001 ; so that the actual strength of Russian cavalry moving 
 into the field at the outbreak of a war would amount to 72,426 as 
 against our 57,1)39 men. It is true, it cannot be presumed that these 
 figures are infallibly correct, as they are not directly tiiken Irom official 
 sources, but depend essentially upon the statements made in the latest 
 yearly issues of the " Yearly reports upon tlie ciiauges and progress in 
 
470 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 military matters." But in reality, a few hundred or thousand men 
 more or less need not be regarded as of consequence in affecting the 
 questions with which we have to do. 
 
 All the regiments of the cavalry of the guard and army, as also 
 those of the Don Cossack Woisko and a few of those of the other 
 Woiskos, are attached to permanent cavalry divisions, which are more- 
 over provided with artillery for their support. In time of peace, there 
 are of these divisions : 
 
 2 cavalry divisions of the guard, 
 14 " " " " army, 
 
 1 Caucasian cavalry division, 
 
 2 " Cossack divisions, 
 1 Don " division. 
 
 Total, 20 cavalry divisions. 
 
 Out of the extraordinarily strong second cavalry division of the 
 guard (seven regiments and one independent squadron), two divisions 
 are formed under an order of mobilization,® there being consequently 
 in time of war a total of twenty-one cavalry divisions, consisting each 
 of two brigades (the second cavalry division of the guard, of three 
 brigades), of two regiments, with two horse batteries, each ; excepting, 
 however, the cuirassier division of the guard, which then includes the 
 Ural Cossack squadron of the body-guard, and the first Caucasian 
 Cossack division, which numbers five regiments. It should, at the 
 same time, be mentioned that the two Caucasian Cossack divisions 
 have only one battery each. 
 
 As, from the point of view of their strength, since Russia, except- 
 ing the few regiments of the guard, possesses only dragoons and Cos- 
 sacks (or, what is, to all purpose, to the same effect, regiments of horse), 
 so also in respect of other constituent elements, do we find a similarity 
 between the various divisions. There are : 
 
 The cuirassier division of the guard, composed, as indicated by its 
 designation, of the four cuirassier regiments of the guard and the 
 before-mentioned Ural Cossack squadron of the body-guard. 
 
 The first and second cavalry divisions of the guard, composed of 
 
 * To this division belongs the combined Don Cossack regiment of the body- 
 guard, out of which the before-mentioned two regiments are organized in time of 
 war. Thus, unless the division were divided, it would include eight regiments, 
 which would undoubtedly be too many. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 471 
 
 the ulan, dragoon, hussar, and Cossack regiments of the guard, equally 
 divided between them. 
 
 The fourteen cavalry divisions of the army, composed, on the other 
 hand, of three dragoon regiments and one of Cossacks, each. 
 
 The Caucasian cavalry division, composed of four dragoon regiments. 
 
 The three Cossack divisions, composed each of four (the first Cau- 
 casian division, of five), Cossack regiments, i.e. regiments of horse. 
 
 As to the rdle, which would be assigned to these divisions, it can be 
 determined with tolerable certainty. It is true, that in time of peace 
 they are attached and united to the array corps in such a manner, that 
 the two divisions of the guard belong to the guard corps ; the fourteen 
 cavalry divisions of the army to the army corps Nos. 1-14; the two 
 Caucasian Cossack divisions to the first Caucasian army corps; the 
 Caucasian cavalry division to the second Caucasian army corps; while 
 the Don Cossack division is apparently not assigned to any corj)s. But 
 from this distribution among tiie army corps, it by no means follows 
 that this relation is also intended to be kept up in time of war. Rather 
 has the recognition of the necessity for an indej^endent employment of 
 the cavalry, rendered all other considerations of this sort of minor im- 
 portance, and it exercises such a dominant sway over the entire instruc- 
 tion, organization, and being of the Russian cavalry, that it is to be 
 expected with absolute certainty that, in time of war, the divisions will 
 be assigned to the positions under the potent influence of that doctrine 
 regarded as appropriate to them, which conclusion is also strengthened 
 in view of the permanent assignment of artillery to them. 
 
 Now, though we have, to practical intent and primarily, to do only 
 with the before designated available Russian cavalry of the first line, we 
 must not be oblivious of the fact, that those regiments of the second and 
 third categories, with their 82,760 men, are in the rear of the first line, 
 preparing for the fray, and — though it maybe a longtime — will yet 
 finally reach the front. It will scarcely be maintaine<l, however, that 
 the strategical importance of the cavalry would be of appreciable sig- 
 nificance and influence during the first j)eriod of the war; let the rdk 
 of the German combatant forces become developed in the course of it, 
 how it may, whether as an offensive or defensive one, always will 
 the side that shall be provided with a numerically superior cavalry 
 (equal excellence being pre-supposed) be the better served, and in con- 
 sequence posse&s a certain advantage. But that, in such later periods, 
 the Russian cavalry will be numerically stronger is unquestionable and 
 a matter of fact which those may bear in mind for whom our 93 
 regiments are already too many. It may be urged that the CV)s>ack 
 
472 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 regiments have no reserve squadrons (such being only formed for the 
 regiments of cavahy of the guard and array); and that, therefore, 
 presumably, portions of the regiments of the third category would have 
 to undertake these functions not only for those of the first, but also for 
 those of the second, category. But with all that, whatever could be 
 pushed forward with us in the way of reserves, would be of inappre- 
 ciable account in comparison with the masses which would appear from 
 the interior of Russia. In 1870 it was repeatedly demonstrated that 
 our reserve squadrons could scarcely, nor in adequate time, cover the 
 more serious losses, — and over there, there are 80,000 fighting men 
 moving forward into the first line ! 
 
 Herewith we have to a certain extent a definite notion as to the 
 numbers with which we are concerned in regard to the Russian cavalry. 
 But with no arm do numbers alone amount to so little, and in order 
 to arrive at an approximately correct judgment as to the value of the 
 Russian cavalry, it is first of all necessary to examine more closely the 
 fundamental principles, which underlie its equipment and armament, 
 its instruction and employment. 
 
 While formerly the cavalry of the guard and army was exclusively 
 mounted upon the quite fairly useful but rather heavy-footed horses 
 of Great Russia, these regiments in later times have also taken the 
 majority of their remounts from the races of the steppes of the 
 Southern provinces. In himself better adapted than any other to 
 military service, by his endurance and tractability, the Cossack horse 
 nevertheless furnishes in his build the type of the lightest imaginable 
 cavalry horse (though in certain aspects the Hungarian may perhaps 
 stand side by side with him) ; so that in point of fact the Russian 
 cavalry of the present can scarcely be regarded as consisting of other 
 than light regiments. One does not need to be a defender of the heavy 
 cavalry, especially of the cuirassiers, to appreciate that as the mass 
 must ever lend to a choe a certain preponderance of weight, the Rus- 
 sian cavalry must in this manner, in view of its system of remounts, 
 fall short in its necessities and that it has little prospect in a closed 
 attack, to withstand an adversary riding towards it upon more powerful 
 horses, well held in hand in consequence of a rational training that 
 ensures obedience and equanimity, And the more especially so, as 
 there is to all appearance scarcely any more question as to artistic 
 equitation in the Russian cavalry. The deer-necked, weak-backed, 
 Cossack horse renders every systematic training well-nigh futile: — 
 short gallop, side-steps, and such ; indeed every species of well-executed 
 evolution, upon which, with justice, a high value is placed among us, 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 473 
 
 are with him demands totally impossible of fulfilment. A cavalry in 
 which the spirit for equitation and the art of riding vanishes in the 
 degree, to whi(!h it seems to have vanished in the case of the Russian, 
 — such a cavalry must inevitably and simultaneously retrograde in its 
 ])eculiarly cavaleristic elements. It has known better times, at least 
 the cavalry of the guard and army; its riding-school horsemanship 
 was even quite fair; but, in this respect, its materiel in horses is the 
 ruin of it. Let us not deceive ourselves. Over there they have it, 
 that the Russian cavalry with its system of to-day is giving proper 
 importance to field-exercise and true horsemanship, as contradistin- 
 guished from the many years wherein that accorded to school-training, 
 on its part dealing a death-blow to the cavaleristic spirit, had been 
 inordinately exaggerated. As to the latter we might be conservative 
 enough to offer to be convinced ; but one goes from one extreme to the 
 other. One forgets, that school-training forms the fundamental basis 
 of field-exercise and that where it is jjroposed to progress by strides 
 to the latter, without leaving to the former the place due it of right, 
 this can only be at the cost of the horses, but above all of horseman- 
 ship. Of what use to the Russian cavalry are the races, for which 
 prizes are offered on behalf of the state ; of what use the prolonged 
 rides for the testing of endurance, which latterly have come in vogue 
 also in the garrisons; of what use, above all, to the Cossacks, are the 
 various tricks practised, reminding one of the circus, — when, in spite 
 of all, there is total powerlessness, by proper influence upon the horse, 
 to control him in obedience during the attack? These are all things, 
 which might quite gladly be accepted into the scale, after naught should 
 have been found wanting; but they must never be dignified as of 
 primary importance, or as the chief aim to be attained. 
 
 Even the equipment of the Russian cavalry horse cannot be con- 
 ducive to horsemanship, i.e., the art of riding. The peculiar form of 
 the horse's neck apj)ears to necessitate a rein rather lower than common. 
 On the contrary, however, in consequence of tlie remarkable manner of 
 saddling and packing, the bridle-hand inevitably assumes an abnor- 
 mally high position. Upon a felt saddle-blanket surmounted with 
 leather, rests the tree and upon this the quadrupli-foUled horse-cover, or 
 the schabraque, as the case may be. To the front of the tree there are 
 arranged, as with us, the pouches; at the rear, an overcoat-sack. But 
 as in the latter, there is, with the other respective articles of equipment, 
 no room for the overcoat itself, it has been contrived to find a ])lace for 
 it at the front fork, where, after the fodder-sack has been wrapped 
 around it, it has been fastened over the pouches. When, therefore, in 
 
474 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 view of the high seat of the rider on the felt saddle-blanket, tree and 
 horse-cover, or tree and schabraque, a satisfactory seat upon the bade 
 and in consequence an easy bringing forward of the offhand is scarcely 
 possible, which in certain respects, for that matter, on account of the 
 soft back, may all be very well ; so, on the other hand, through this seat 
 and especially through the position of the overcoat, the bridle-hand 
 is proportionately heightened. The result of this is that, as with such 
 a rein the animal cannot be well held in hand, everything contributes 
 in the more rapid gaits to a disorderly, uncontrollable dashing and 
 tearing, while the unnaturally raised attitude and the inadequacy of the 
 off hand impose the whole burden upon the weak back. A peculiar 
 impression is also giv^en by the further loading down of the horse. In 
 a pocket fastened to the felt saddle-blanket, there are, in a similar 
 position as with us, two horseshoes and sixteen nails; on one side of 
 the overcoat-sack hang the cooking utensils. To the rear of the saddle, 
 where with us lies the fodder-sack, hangs on one side a net with hay, 
 for two days and on the other side a sack'^ with two days' provender of 
 oats ; so that the whole load, inclusive of forage, weighs over one 
 hundred and fifty pounds and the horse has altogether to carry, if we 
 assume the rider, with arms and equipments, to weigh two hundred and 
 ten pounds,^ some three hundred and sixty pounds.® Now let one 
 fancy the cavalryman in the act of mounting his horse, peradveiiture 
 pursued by the adversary after an unsuccessful attack on foot. True 
 it is, the animal is not large, but how far must the man lift the right 
 leg out of the ball-and-socket joint, to get over the hay net, the over- 
 coat-sack with the cooking utensils and the two days' provender of 
 oats! — With the Cossack regiments, the method of saddling is the 
 same, with slight differences, which are of no especial interest. That 
 the Cossacks ride upon the snaffle and, instead of spurs, carry a whip, 
 is well known. 
 
 The armament, also, since the regiments of hussars and ulans have 
 been transformed into dragoons, is, taken all in all, the same in the 
 entire Russian cavalry. While, formerly, the dragoons and Cossacks 
 exclusively were armed witii muskets available for fighting on foot, to- 
 day the whole body of regiments, with insignificant exceptions (the cui- 
 rassiers of the guard, etc.) could dismount to the same weapon. Yet 
 this revolution, as has been seen, has been no violent, sudden one. Es- 
 
 T Not to be confounded witb the above-named "fodder-sack," the object of 
 which, in addition to this haversack, we further do not quite clearly comprehend. 
 8 V. A. V. Drygalski. 
 8 About three hundred and seventy-one English pounds. — Translator. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 475 
 
 pecially with the dragoons had fighting on foot been regarded with 
 j)e(H>liar predilection, as will be notably j)ereeived, if we rec^olleet the 
 corps of dragoons of the tsar Nicholas. Indeed from the very begin- 
 ning has the Russian cavalry had a certain tendency to attach pre- 
 dominant importance to fighting with the fire-arm in hand ; and often 
 it has lu'cn said that the cavalry of Peter (he Great (dragoons) felt 
 far more in its element on foot than on horse-back. The experience 
 derived from the war of 1870-71, which clearly demonstrated the in- 
 dubitable necessity of the fins-arm for the cavalry, could only give new 
 impetus to this tendency ; as a result the carbine was soon placed in 
 the hands of the second rank of the hussars and ulans. But then even 
 this did not seem to satisfy the in(;reased demands of the case; it was 
 believed that a successful contest by cavalry before the front of armies 
 pre-supposed the jwssibility that in case of need it should individually 
 possess characteristics enabling it to carry on a brisk combat with fire- 
 arms, and then was brought about that transformation of the twenty- 
 eight regiments of ulans and hussars of the army into dragoons, since 
 which time the entire body of Russian cavalry (excepting the guard) 
 virtually consists only of dragoons and Cossacks. In consetiuencc, as 
 a matter of course, the organization and armament are in keeping with 
 this change; or, these latter have, rather, it shoidd be said (in view of 
 the fact that, as known, tlu; Cossacks had already time out of mind 
 carried the fire-arm in addition to the lance), been throughout adapted 
 to an (MDjilovment of the cavalry on foot. 
 
 Of blank hand-arms all the regiments (the regiments of the guanl, 
 army, and of Cossacks) carry the sabre;'" in addition thereto, the Cos- 
 sacks and the cuirassiers, ulans, and hussars of the guard, carry the 
 lance. Of fire-arms, the cuirassiers of the guard have exi^lusively re- 
 volvers on the Smith and Wesson system ; the ulans and hussars of the 
 guard have, for the first rank and for the non-commissioned officers, the 
 revolver; for the second rank, the carbine on the Berdau system (con- 
 struction similar to the Berdan infantry musket but of lesser lengtii, 
 
 "> Tho sabre, similarly as at ono timo with us the side-musket of the infantry 
 {e.g., the Prussian paluce-guurd company), is suspended from a bandolier worn over 
 the breast. It thus ac(juire8 a quiescent jxjsition, which is rec<»f;niz«'d as a great 
 advantiige, while on the other hand, the bandolier interferes with the breathing of 
 the man. It is peculiar, but in certain respects quite ingenious and useful, that tho 
 blade is sheathed in a wooden sealiliard. Hy this arrangement tlie annoying rattling, 
 througii which a cavalry regiment betrays itself from afar, even on the softest soil, 
 is intended to bo avoided. J]ye- witnesses, who are very enthusiastic over this de- 
 vice, picture to us ns highly singular the impression conveyed by tho regiments thus 
 moving ahead in phantom silence. 
 
476 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 the cartridge being the same as for the dragoon musket) ; the dragoons 
 have for both ranks the dragoon musket provided with a bayonet (!) 
 (Berdan system, but likewise of lesser length ; the cartridge the same 
 as that for the infantry musket, but with a weaker charge); and the 
 Cossacks have the same musket but without a bayonet. Of ammuni- 
 tion pursuant to this armament, — taking no account here of the reserve 
 quantum at hand in the trains, etc., — there are carried : by the cuiras- 
 sier of the guard, 20 revolver-cartridges ; by the hussar and ulan of the 
 guard, 20 revolver- or 20 carbine-cartridges, according to the rank ; by 
 the dragoon and Cossack, 40 dragoon musket-cartridges. 
 
 If one has, in Russia, a. penchant for cavalry of a peculiar species 
 and aims to attain, in so far as may be possible, the extreme theoreti- 
 cal standard, which has been apparently fixed upon, that is an affair 
 with regard to which we would not in so far l)e lacking in conserva- 
 tism as to deny that there may be justification, in a degree; though we 
 are by no means enthusiastic for an exaggerated uniformity and are 
 quite clearly of opinion that, without detriment to their appropriate 
 spheres in action, the hussars and ulans may continue to exist along 
 with dragoons, in fact, that the ulans, on account of the lance, must 
 continue to exist. If, further, the entire cavalry receive the same fire- 
 arm, in order that the independence of this arm of service shall not be 
 impaired, that is also a matter, as to which no one can justly find fault. 
 That every troop of cavalry must be in a condition to fight on foot, on 
 occasion, requires no especial demonstration at the present day. But 
 when the dragoons are also to carry a bayonet (!), with the avowed in- 
 tention of attacking with it on foot, closed in mass, it is not too much 
 to say that an arrangement of this kind must alienate, in no slight 
 measure, even the judgment of the most conciliatory. As a matter of 
 fact, forty-six regiments of horse, the dragoons, are thus armed ; with 
 the sabre they are provided with the means for making the bayonet 
 available, and on each and every occasion, when they dismount to fight 
 on foot, they are to fix the latter, to vivify by its moral influence, so we 
 are told to believe, the spirit of the offensive. 
 
 That the offensive spirit should not desert the cavalry on foot, is 
 clear, and that the bayonet strengthens the offensive, is also subject to 
 no doubt. But must the dismounted cavalry, in fighting on foot, on 
 the defensive, as also on the offensive, equal, nay even excel, the 
 infantry ? Such would certainly seem to be the drift of the reports, 
 which come to us upon the matter, as they dignify such a capacity 
 into especial praiseworthiness. And if, through the employment of 
 the bayonet, such a preponderant value be given to fighting on foot, 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 477 
 
 must not tlie cavalry necessarily become degradetl into a sort of 
 go-between, half cavalry, lialf infantry, neither one thing nor the 
 other? We have every esteem for the infantry, as the principal arm 
 of all modern bodies of troops, achieving the final decision of battles; 
 but we have no esteem for an infantry, which is at the same time 
 cavalry, or, what is to the same purj)ose, for a cavalry, which is at the 
 same time infantry, and l)y which, therefore, it is proposed to represent 
 a composite arm, possessing the peculiar attributes and adaptability of 
 each. To be both with equally preeminent excellence, as much a 
 cavalryman as foot soldier, is simply imj)Ossible, even with a viustly 
 lengthier period of service than is everywhere in vogue at the i)resent 
 day in European armies, and though the Russian cavalryman were to 
 remain his full six years with tiie colors; — the one is inevitably antag- 
 onistic to the other. The dismounted cavalryman is only the half 
 of an entirety; what may be required of him on foot, can only be a 
 service incident to occasion, but must not be made the chief end of his 
 being. The future, perhaps, may have in store for us " mounted 
 infantry." But then let it be what it is intended to be, " infantry" 
 which, fully and absolutely organized, instructed, armed, and equipped 
 as such, has learned the further lesson, to make proper use of its horses 
 to the intent of reaching the s])ot where it shall act as infantry and 
 which shall, at the same time, inspire that respect, which is commen- 
 surate with the inherent importance of this arm. To require simul- 
 taneously from it the service of cavalry, the closed attack, the making 
 of reconnaissances, etc., would be j)reposterous. For our part, we are 
 scarcely prepared to have much faith, even in such a mounted infantry. 
 Heretofore it has nowhere sufficed for its intended purpose. The few 
 companies of mounted infantry, which the French had created in 
 Southern Algiers (the men rode on mules), were soon done away with ; 
 the formations contemplated by the English in the Egyptian expe- 
 dition of 1882, were abandoned, because, apparently, the requisite 
 materiel in horses was not forthcoming. In Southern Africa, where, 
 alone, mounted infantry to an extent achieved results and played a 
 rdle of some importance, considerations had weight which have no 
 bearing whatever in the case of our European armies. Fioin child- 
 hood, the Boer is as much at home with tiie rifle, as with the horse. 
 The same remarks have force, to a certain extent, witli regaid to the 
 cavalry in the American war of secession, especially that of the Southern 
 states, at least with regard to a great portion of its reserves. It was 
 incorrectly denominate<l as such ; the name of " mounted infantry" 
 would have been more appropriate, for of distinctively cuvaleristic 
 
478 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 peculiarities, which would have admitted of its employment in battle, 
 closed in mass, it possessed little. The great raids, which gave it fame, 
 require from the troop itself, as shown by the manner in which these 
 occurred or became developed, nothing more in the way of such caval- 
 eristic peculiarities, than a certain endurance, as well as familiarity 
 with and aptitude for riding, which qualities fall lamentably short of 
 making a cavalryman of the individual in question. If Russia, as it 
 would appear, have taken those swarms for her prototype, she cannot 
 expect in the future other achievements for her bodies of horse than 
 were there attained ;" nor can there then be question of a stand to be 
 taken by cavalry in dressed files, sabre in hand ; and the practica- 
 bility and utility of successes peculiar to the undertakings of cavalry, 
 properly so called, must be acknowledged by her to be excluded from 
 the limits of the possible. 
 
 And, — we report it with reluctance, — it is almost so. True, it is 
 not quite ])roposed as yet to abandon a contest with cavalry in the open ; 
 but an attack upon infantry is regarded as purposeless, for the cavalry 
 would be destroyed, so it is said, ere it could get at the infantry. And 
 for this reason, the bodies of horse are to abandon this thankless field 
 of activity, and are only to devote themselves exclusively to the solu- 
 tion of their other two problems, the strategical service of reconnais- 
 sances and fighting on foot, in the latter of which, utilizing the rapidity 
 of their horses to approach unobserved, as well as on occasion to 
 disappear with alacrity, they might still have chances. The Russians 
 think of the cuirassiers of Woerth and of Sedan. But bravery alone 
 can certainly not accomplish everything ; to success are essential besides 
 courage, prudence ; besides gallantry and dash, also reflection and the 
 military eye. In fine, so say the Russians, the few cases in which, in 
 the last wars, cavalry had still found the opportunity to act with 
 energy, had proved beyond the possibility of contradiction that the 
 time of its successful achievements existed no longer. But they lose 
 sight of the fact, so far as 1870 is concerned, that both sides, Germans 
 as well as Frenchmen, only commenced to learn through this war. 
 
 Since that time all our efforts have been directed towards the 
 ascertainment of the forms and conditions necessary to be arrived at, 
 under a due appreciation of the altered relations appertaining to the 
 efficiency and tactical requirements of the various arms of service; 
 this one thought is almost exclusively the basis of all our exercises; 
 
 " V. the note to the translation of the " Kussian criticism" upon this paper, in 
 the Army and Navy Quarterly, October, 1885, page 488. — Translator. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 479 
 
 the successful availability upon the field of battle is the conditio sine 
 qua non, the one consideration, without which the cavalry is not worth 
 the money expended upon it, and without which, — as, certainly, beyond 
 all question, it cannot be relied upon to bring about the achievement 
 of decisive issues on foot, — it must deteriorate to the position of a 
 merely auxiliary arm. And as we, so labor also the others : in France, 
 where even now it is proposed to introduce again the lancers and where 
 the cuirass itself has been again included in the cqui])ment of a portion 
 (six) of the regiments, in which it had been discarded ; in Austria, in 
 Italy, everywhere the same principles are being acted upon and a new 
 spirit animates the cavalry ; in dispositions and regulations suitable to 
 present demands, it is thought the goal in the fulfilment of the most 
 ardent iiopes, is being reached — and this with especial regard to 
 the vastly increased efficiency in results attendant upon the infantry 
 combat of the day ; and the opportunity is yearningly looked for, in 
 which it may be vouchsafed to put to the test uj^on the adversary, 
 whether perfection shall have been attained. And in the mean time 
 the Russian cavalry, which, being the most numerous of all, should be 
 the first to strive to equal these ideals, throws the lance to one side 
 and, taking the point, fixes it in the shape of a bayonet upon the 
 muskets of its troopers, so that they may fight on foot, neither cavalry- 
 men, nor foot soldiers, because they no longer have confidence in them- 
 selves, to horse. The Cossacks, it is true, are still to be mounted in 
 action, as the lance has been left in their hands; but Cossacks in 
 themselves cannot be imbued with tactically cavaleristic ideas, and 
 time out of mind their emj)loyment for the closed attack was not to be 
 thought of. Besides, how long will it be till they also shall have lost 
 their old historical weapon? The idea has already been advanced, to 
 rob them of it, for of course it is useless in fighting ou foot. 
 
 Fighting on foot is to-day to constitute the most notable method of 
 fighting for the cavalry. What it has lost in utility when mounted, it 
 is to regain through so much the greater achievements with the fire- 
 arm. On foot, it is to shun no adversary, whether in attack, or defense ; 
 it is even to attack positions held by the hostile infiintry and to drive 
 out the latter at the point of the bayonet. Now it may be granted 
 that a thoroughly excellent cavalry, ui)on occasion, tchen it is imperative, 
 must not, as a matter of course, recoil dismayed before the duty of 
 capturing and occupying points and defiles, etc., which are defended by 
 infantry. But can it be thence construed that this is intended to 
 apply to the more important conflicts, with the masses of the inimical 
 infantry ranged in line of battle? Having advanced before the front 
 
480 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 of armies, shall the cavalry, after it has driven back the enemy's horse 
 and comes upon the latter's infantry, attack this also ; or shall they go 
 so far as to dismount in battle and, forming battalions, proceed to ad- 
 vance in steady and cont'muous fusillade, shoulder to shoulder with the 
 infantry, against the enemy's lines? The Russians require this. Dis- 
 mounted cavalry cannot count upon success against infantry, except 
 through its artillery, or through surprise, or through great numerical 
 superiority, and in those cases only where relatively weak bodies of 
 infantry are concerned. With the instant, where the hostile cavalry 
 has disappeared from the scene and ours has encountered the main 
 forces of the adversary, its duties as an oifensive arm cease, and these 
 duties, in order to maintain until the approach of our own main body, 
 that which has been accomplished and won, become distinctively de- 
 fensive. Of a further pushing forward, there can momentarily be no 
 longer any question ; one keeps up with the enemy and touches, and 
 feels, and observes, and reports, but nothing more; with force nothing 
 further is to be done, and least of all on foot. To oppose dismounted 
 masses of cavalry to infantry, is already in itself an error for one reason 
 alone, — quite independently of all considerations having to do with 
 their inferiority in a{)propriate qualities, — in that the cavalry, in view 
 of its diminished numbers, as well as its peculiar situation, must suffer 
 inordinate loss in face of the tremendous advantage possessed by the 
 infautry. For the losses sustained are aggravated by the enormous 
 number of horses and horse-holders, which must inevitably trammel 
 and impress an unwieldy character upon the squadrons to such a degree 
 that their combatant power may well be reduced to a minimum. 
 
 The Russians should certainly know this. Or are they of opinion 
 that their 155,000 men make them independent of considerations of 
 this sort? They will acknowledge the reverse, if their cavalry shall 
 really carry out what is required of it. It does not suffice that it shall 
 not avoid a conflict with the infantry, but it must even court the 
 opportunity to bring one on, by seeking out the flank and rear of the 
 latter, dismounting, and then proceeding to the opening of the attack 
 in inverted front, — an order which can never become ominous or pre- 
 judicial to it, on account of its horses ! And while it would, to be sure, 
 be possible, on occasion, to ride down an infantry disturbed through 
 the threatening of its line of retreat, the fundamental idea is that the 
 contest with fire-arms and the final attack with the bayonet, if less 
 expeditious, lead more surely and readily to the object to be attained, 
 and that the mounted attack should be the exception, not the rule. 
 That the last will actually be the case, we are quite prepared to believe. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 481 
 
 A body of troops educated to fight as infantry, will only brace itself to 
 a mounted charge with reluctance. The fight on foot appears to it the 
 least dangerous. But let us now imagine one, two, or three cavalry 
 divisions advancing against infantry in position. Can they in any case 
 look for success? AVe are of the opinion, that a body of infantry, 
 which can be brought to yield through the appearance of dismounted 
 cavalry, should be forthwith transformed into garrison troops, and, to 
 speak with Frederick the Great, should be shorn of hat-trimmings in 
 disgrace, unless, indeed, the cavalry be tenfold superior to it in skirm- 
 ishers. To give way before the cutting and thrusting of the squad- 
 rons, which attack it in flank or rear before it has time for reflection 
 or to assume formations requisite for defense, may be honorable for the 
 infantry ; but to be vanquished in the fight by these squadrons, when 
 they dismount is simply disgi-aceful. It is one of those great lies which 
 Napoleon I., not only as man and politician, but also occasionally as a 
 soldier, did not hesitate to hurl into the world, that 3000 dragoons 
 on foot, grow into 2000 infantrymen. The 3000 dragoons are reduced 
 to 2000, as it is, as a third must act as horse-holders ; and then these 
 remaining 2000 are still only dragoons, and in the true signification of 
 the word, i.e. cavalrymen, — not infantrymen, by far. 
 
 In many ways, the Russian takes after and affects the Frenchman. 
 What is new exercises upon him an irresistible charm ; animated be- 
 cause of apparent progress, he does away with and demolishes old time- 
 honored institutions and labors upon the erection of new ones, until the 
 consciousness is brought home to him that he has built upon sand and 
 that his hopes and fantasies have led him astray. So it is with his social 
 and political relations, and so it is in the army. Once already had he 
 wandered into the same crooked by-paths. But the experience which 
 should have been gained with those dragoon corps of Nicholas I., was 
 fruitless. To-day the cavalry divisions are to be a sort of universal 
 arm. Infantry with the musket and bayonet, cavalry with the horse, 
 they are strongly supplied with artillery, that they may be the better 
 adapted, and in heightened degree, to energetic combat, whether in the 
 conflicts aiming at distinctively decisive results, or otherwise. Indeeil, 
 latterly it has been thought that they should not even be deprived of 
 the valuable support of pioneei's, that eventually they may be enabled 
 to make available the various means of aid of field fortification. To 
 one of the cavalry divisions (the fourth), a squadron of mounted sap- 
 pers was assigned over a year ago, and it may well be premised that this 
 example will shortly be followed in the case of the others. 
 
 The crucial test as to the eflBciency of an arm must ever be inde- 
 VoL. I.— No. 4. • 31 
 
482 THE AEMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 pendence in every respect. Bnt as this is unquestionably correct, it 
 must liave its limits, like every other general rule. Mounted sappers, 
 a handful to a division, for peculiarly technical work on railways, tele- 
 graphs, bridges, etc., can render excellent service; — in undue propor- 
 tions, they become a species of ballast and lead to ideas, which should 
 have and can have nothing in common with the efficient activity of the 
 cavalry divisions. Artillery is essential to secure a proper standard for 
 the combatant power of cavalry ; without artillery, the latter must fare 
 detrimentally in all those enterprises devolving upon it, which require 
 thoroughness and that independence which may enable it to sustain 
 prolonged contests ; two batteries to a division of four regiments are, 
 however, too much of a good thing. That when at hand in such pro- 
 portions they would in many cases afford the cavalry the opportunity 
 to dismount to fight on foot, would be no misfortune; but they will as 
 frequently operate to embarrass and interfere with distinctively caval- 
 eristic action and bring about a weakening of the offensive power of 
 cavalry, in consequence of "the necessity of detaching from the latter, 
 suitable supports : — if we mistake not, the Russian r^glement designates 
 two squadrons, as the force to be invariably employed for this purpose. 
 Where the artillery is too strong, it inevitably becomes, in the nature 
 of things, the chief arm, and the 7'6le of the others assumes a subordi- 
 nate character, being confined to rendering support and affording cover. 
 Detachments of one battalion with one battery, where the infantry is 
 charged with the performance of an independent duty peculiar to this 
 arm, are tactically not to be thought of; detachments of four cavalry 
 regiments with two batteries, only where certain conditions are satisfied. 
 But these latter detachments can least of all be of advantage, where it 
 is proposed to fight on foot, for these four regiments have no skirm- 
 ishers ; and this would be true, even though no mounted reserve or 
 especial assignment of a supporting body for the artillery, were neces- 
 sary. It is true, it appears to be intended to raise the standard of the 
 cavalry regiments of the guard, and army to six squadrons,^^ but until 
 this change shall have been accomplished, we cannot regard the pre- 
 vailing relation between the two arms as a favorable one. 
 
 The reports of General Gurko,'^ upon the latest strategical cavalry 
 manoeuvres, si)eak of the peculiar and, from a cavaleristic stand-point, 
 the deplorable fact, that on the last day of manoeuvre both the contend- 
 
 ^2 Most of the regiments of Cossacks now number six sotnias. 
 '^ v., for example, the before- mentioned paper of A. von Drygalski, as also 
 No. 34 and succeeding numbers of the first year of the German Heeres Zeitung. 
 
1885. CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 483 
 
 jjig parties, upon encountering one another at Ananjew, dismounted to 
 fight on foot, without aj)parently having made even the faintest en- 
 deavor to attain a decision through a mounted attack. Tin's is one of 
 those sickly misconceptions, of a false system of greater and lesser 
 tactics, consequent upon unsound views, which have often heretofore 
 been brought to the light of day, when, having in mind a ])erfectly 
 correct idea, one has allowed one's self to be carried away to illogical 
 conclusions, which lie beyond the domain of the possible. 
 
 But if, with all their predisposition towards fighting on foot, the 
 Russians shall some day attack us, in obedience to an irresistible im- 
 pulse, or because they shall be led by officers, who have yet remained 
 cavalrymen ; — when their united forces of all arms, reenforced by their 
 second and third categories, shall come surging towards us!? Then 
 there will come to pass cavalry battles, such as the world has not here- 
 tofore seen ; then it must be demonstrated, that not the masses alone 
 can achieve decisive results, but, on the contrary, the spirit which 
 animates them ! Victory is not secured by superiority in numbers, but 
 by horsemanlike thoroughness, by the insight, the keenness, the aptitude, 
 the military eye, of the leader. In Russia, our system of instruction 
 is derided, our riding-school training is declared to be exaggerated, our 
 three-file tactics calculated for the place of exercise alone, and the 
 opinion is seriously entertained that their Cossacks and dragoons would 
 soon settle with men like ourselves, i.e. with manage riders drilled 
 like machines. For our part we cannot relinquish the belief that with 
 our organization, our r^ylement, our instruction, but, above all, with 
 the inherent spirit of our arm, we have taken better counsel than the 
 Russians. 
 
 Herewith we have in contemplation the Russian cavalry as it is at 
 the present day; not as it may become in the future, in the event the 
 crooked road, whereupon it has suffered itself to be betrayed, shall be 
 further followed. It is not enough that the traditions handed down 
 from the time of the greatest fame of the cavalry have been broken 
 with; tendencies are exerting their powerful influence in Russia, that 
 would go far beyond the present aspect as we have depicted it, and 
 which, if they prevail, would impose upon the Russian ciivalry an ex- 
 terior that would vividlv call to mind the hordes of a Dshingis Khan. 
 
484 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 A RUSSIAN CRITICISM UPON "THE ACTUAL AND OSTENSI- 
 BLE CONDITION OF THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY." 
 
 (Translated from the Jahrhucher fur die Deutsche Armee and Marine by 
 Stanislaus Kemak, late First Lieutenant Fifth XJ. S. Artillery.) 
 
 The paper by Rittmeister von Dewall, contained in the "Jahr- 
 hucher,^^ entitled, "The Actual and Ostensible Condition of 
 THE Russian Cavalry," has, as was to have been expected, called 
 forth a number of adverse comments in the Russian military periodi- 
 cals. Considering the rather unfavorable verdict which Rittmeister 
 von Dewall has rendered upon the Russian cavalry, it is not matter of 
 surprise that over there in the great Eastern empire his critical opinions 
 are not relished, and that at times there can be observed a disposition 
 to deal with them in a spirit of no great leniency. The severity, as 
 we should rather say, which his observations have encountered, is the 
 more noticeable, in view of the fact that simultaneously with and em- 
 bodied in the criticism of the work of von Dewall, appears also that of a 
 more flattering verdict pronounced by another writer. This is a paper 
 published at about the same time as that of Rittmeister von Dewall, 
 by the Austrian Colonel von Walter- WalthofFen, in the " Organ der 
 militdr-wissenschaftllchen Vereine/' 1884, vol. xxvii.. No. 1, entitled 
 " The Russian cavalry in its latest phase of development, compared 
 with the Austrian," in which, basing his views upon personal observation 
 and detailed studies from original sources, the author reaches a conclu- 
 sion differing materially from the verdict of Rittmeister von Dewall 
 and calculated to place the Russian cavalry in a far better light. To 
 this fact, of the expression at almost one and the same time of two such 
 opposite opinions from the pens of professional men, is no doubt espe- 
 cially to be attributed the determination manifested on the part of the 
 Russians, thoroughly to controvert the views of von Dewall. 
 
 In the following pages we give the Russian utterances with the 
 greatest fidelity and correctness, consistent with the occasional incorpo- 
 ration in our text of the views of Colonel von Walter- Walthoffen, re- 
 fraining at the same time from any expression whatever of our own 
 opinions. With the presentation of the observations made by the one 
 or the other of the contending parties, it is, therefore, under no circum- 
 stances to be understood that we share them. We may say^ ratker, that 
 
1885. CRITICISM UPON THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 485 
 
 we are far from coinciding in all particulars either with the views of 
 Rittmeister von Dewall, or with the Russian strictures thereon, but 
 have preferred, without comment, to afford a neutral ground whereon 
 the opposing critical contentions may appear and be heard. 
 
 The "Wajennyl Sbornik^' (May, 1884), introduces its remarks upon 
 the work of Rittmeister von Dewall, with the words : " Mr. von 
 Dewall is not acquainted with the Russian cavalry from personal in- 
 spection and judges it upon hearsay and the sources which he may 
 have conveniently found at hand ; none the less his criticism is very 
 severe and the conclusions to wliich he gives expression are not favora- 
 ble to our mounted troops. Fundamentally cognizant only of its 
 organization and numerical strength, Mr. von Dewall derives from the 
 one circumstance — the transformation of our hussars and ulans into dra- 
 goons — an opinion upon our cavalry and compares the type of our 
 cavalryman, thus fashioned in his contemplation, with that of the 
 German, naturally according to the latter all preference." In contra- 
 distinction to this course, reference is then made to that of Colonel 
 von Walter-Walthotfen, who had, year in, year out, closely followed 
 the activity of the Russian cavalry, not only from personal observation, 
 but also by a careful study of all the printed comments which had 
 appeared, from which, as a matter of course, it becomes evident "that 
 no absolutely groundless accusations or assertions are to be found in 
 his article. And if, here and there, he be in error, he aims in every 
 instance to be impartial and shows a disposition in many respects, to 
 do us full justice." Thus much we premise as to the manner of 
 characterizing the two authors, of whom the last-named discerns in 
 the Russian cavalry a "dangerous adversary" of the Austrian. 
 
 As a starting-point for the supervening observations, the Russian 
 criticism selects the article of Rittmeister von Dewall, adding the 
 views of Colonel von Walter- Walthoffen and those entertained at 
 home, "as in the severe style employed in the former, everything 
 happening with us appears to be subordinated to the desire to dwell 
 with esj)ecial prominence upon certain individual characteristics." We 
 cannot here continually repeat the text of Rittmeister von Dewall's 
 article, but must confine ourselves to giving the numbers of the pages 
 in referring to especial portions of it. With regard to the introductory 
 remarks up to page 462,' the Russian author says that Colonel von 
 Walter- Walthoffen sees no sign of a decay of the cavaleristic element 
 
 ' The pages here cited are those of the translation of the original article, in 
 the Army and ^'ary Quarterly, (October, 1885). — Tkanslatob. 
 
486 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 in the distribution of the Cossacks to the regular cavalry divisions, 
 but that, on the contrary, the Russian cavalry had in consequence 
 become better adapted to field service and that the Cossacks had more- 
 over thereby lost something of their irregular character, whether to 
 their advantage or detriment could only be learned through the experi- 
 ence of war. But the dragoons have, — so says von "Walter- Walthoffen 
 as opposed to von Dewall — "always rendered better mounted service 
 than the remaining cavalry, and to this circumstance is also in part to 
 be attributed the remodeling of the entire Russian horse into dragoons." 
 His own opinion is expressed by the Russian, Baron E. Rausch von 
 Traubenberg, in these words : " As a matter of fact, the dragoons 
 have never been surpassed by the hussars and ulans in a cavaleristic 
 sense. But the recently accomplished transformation is to be explained 
 by the duties devolving upon the mounted organizations of the present 
 day ; not by the assumption that it is proposed to assail the essential 
 spirit of cavalry or practically to give it up as a distinct arm." 
 
 To the polemics of von Dewall, on pages 472-473, with regard to 
 manage and field exercise, as also upon the utility of the Russian cav- 
 alry horse of to-day, von Traubenberg prefixes the view of von 
 Walter- Walthoffen upon these points, tending to show that while ma- 
 nage riding had somewhat deteriorated in Russia, in consequence of the 
 diminished term of service, tliere had undoubtedly been brought about 
 an improvement in field exercise, to which the distribution of the Cos- 
 sacks to the regular cavalry divisions and the great percentage of horses 
 of the steppes, unsuited to the purposes of manage riding, had notably 
 contributed. The rapidity of the gaits is stated to be not so great in 
 Russia, as in Germany and in Austria; but the method, adopted in 
 Russia, of habituating the horse to labor, had been shown to be fully 
 expedient, practicable and satisfactory in results and in every way 
 worthy of imitation. Von Traubenberg states as his own opinion, 
 that the type of the horse of the steppes, principally available for the 
 mounts of the Russian cavalry, is by no means as von Dewall has 
 fancied it. The race had become conspicuously nobler, the growth of 
 the horse greater, and the whole build had undergone so material a 
 change that an eye not well-practised would experience difficulty in at 
 once detecting the horse of Cossack blood in the remounts; indeed, 
 these horses are not infrequently assigned even to the regiments of 
 cuirassiers, which, for a prototype of this race, would be impossible. 
 The care taken in this matter is evident from the appropriate regula- 
 tions, in accordance with which "the manage gallop and side-steps are 
 required and also exercised in practice, as proof of which the various 
 
1885. CRITICISM UPON THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 487 
 
 provisions as to tlic instruction of tlie officers, non-commissioned officers 
 and men, tlierein contained, may be referred to. Star-gazers and run- 
 aways undermine tlie reputation of a chief of squadron, and every 
 possible effi)rt is made to diminish their number." "The view of von 
 Dewall, tliat manage riding forms the basis for field exercise, is 
 thoroughly correct, and this fact has by no means been lost sight of by 
 us. The horse is only sent to the front and into the field, when he has 
 gone through a complete course of training on the snaffle and curb. 
 He takes the gallop, makes side-steps, — is therefore under the control 
 of the rider. Beyond doubt this training formerly went much further, 
 but this was only possible, because the cavalryman served longer and 
 because, at the same time, the ideas then entertained as to the service of 
 this arm differed from those which now prevail." The closed attack 
 upon tiie field of battle is to-day no longer the only duty devolving 
 upon the cavalry, and for that reason "as soon as the horse shall be iu 
 the power of his rider, the exercises of the riding-hall must give way 
 to field exercise, for the manage is intended to be one of tlie means, but 
 not the sole olyect of instruction." Accordingly these things, in addi- 
 tion to other branches of instruction, are jiractised during the winter, 
 " with the advent of spring, however, the occupations assume a different 
 character — and terrain exercise ensues, whereby we employ the term in 
 its most comprehensive sense." Disi)osing of the strictures of von Dewall 
 as to the method of saddling with the answer that the imperfections 
 of the present cavalry saddle had also been fully aj)preciated in Russia, 
 and that a new model is in contemj)lation, von Traubenberg ])roceeds 
 to the examination of the remarks of von Dewall on pages 476-480, 
 with regard to " mounted infantry," and tlie decadence of the cavaleristic 
 spirit in Russia on account of the ])redilection towards an " infanteriza- 
 tion" of their bodies of horse. Although von Traubenberg is of opin- 
 ion that von Dewall goes too far in his complaints against the Russians, 
 and that these are certainly unfounded if they rest solely upon allega- 
 tions of the favor in which fighting on foot is held; he yet believes 
 that such complaints nm^^t inevitably lead every thinking cavalryman 
 to ask himself the question, whether such a tendency may not actually 
 exist, and further whether an outside observer may not judge more 
 correctly than one who is himself directly on the spot, a necessarily 
 passive participant, powerless to withstand the stress of revolutionizing 
 change, and perhaps by his very surroundings precluded from dispas- 
 sionate investigation. Von Traubenberg regards this self-testing as 
 the more necessary, inasmuch as von Walter-^ValthofTen also advances 
 the views of the Prussian Rittmeister, if in fin* milder form. The 
 
488 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 latter is stated to have reached the identical conclusion, that the regula- 
 tions for the fighting of cavalry on foot go too far and partake too 
 much of the regulations for infantry, and " in consequence a tendency 
 to the too general development of fighting on foot is brought about to 
 the prejudice of distinctively cavaleristic instruction. In many cases (as 
 also in the last Turkish war), fighting on foot is resorted to, where this 
 is not imperatively necessary. By a comparison of the Austrian regu- 
 lations with the Russian, it will be perceived that the Austrians have 
 fallen into the opposite error, while the Prussians hold the golden 
 mean." Further elucidating his thought, von Walter- WalthoflTen says : 
 "Thus the Austrian cavalry has remained far behind the Russian in 
 the matter of fighting on foot, while the German may readily enter 
 upon such a contest with the latter ; the Austrians should here tread in 
 the footsteps of the Germans." The question as to whether Russia is 
 moving within appropriate bounds in this respect, or not, von Trau- 
 benberg refrains from deciding; but he strenuously combats the view 
 that the Russian cavalry can be regarded as " mounted infantry," and 
 for himself individually denies both the applicability of the parallel, 
 by which it is likened unto the " American cavalry," as well as the 
 intimation that the latter is held forth as a pattern, the more as in 
 Europe one has to do with regular cavalry.^ 
 
 2 In contradistinction to the rather severe judgment of Eittmeister von Dewall 
 upon the activity of the American cavalry, it may interest the American profes- 
 sional reader to learn that in a recent paper in the " Jahrbiicher fiir die deidsche Armee 
 und Marine," (July, 1885), entitled " Recent developments in the Eussian cavalry," 
 by A. VON Drygalski, (an acknowledged authority upon the subject, with regard 
 to which he has published a number of communications), reference is made to a 
 scientific gathering of Eussian military men, at one of whose meetings the impor- 
 tance of greater enterprise in partisan warfare, as carried out in the American war, 
 ■was urged and at which the fact, then alleged, that the Americans had copied their 
 raids from the Eussians, was apparently dwelt upon with especial satisfaction. 
 These scientific military gatherings have been instituted at St. Petersburg by the 
 officers of the general staff, there stationed, and are participated in by the Grand 
 Dukes. On the evening in question, after a discourse by Lieutenant Colonel Baron 
 " E. v. T." (Eausch von Traubenberg) upon "The views of recent German 
 military writers upon the role and activity of modern cavalry," Colonel Ssuchotin, 
 Professor in the Academy of the general staff, a recognized authority on cavalry, 
 at the solicitation of the Grand Duke Nicholas (the senior), made some remarks, in 
 which occurred the reference above mentioned and in which he "emphatically de- 
 clared his opinion, that the Eussian cavalry, as regarded the peculiarity of its or- 
 ganization, education, instruction, armament, equipment and readiness to fight, 
 mounted as well as on foot, had vastly outstripped the other European armies ; and 
 though, at first, the Eussian reforms in this respect had engendered doubt, they had 
 now called forth the desire to imitate them." After referring to the especial avail- 
 ability of partisan enterprises and raids in hindering the mobilization and ooncen- 
 
1885. CRITICISM UPON THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 489 
 
 Tlie opinion intimated by von Dewall, that the Russians in depriv- 
 ing the Cossacks of their lances, had rohbed themselves of the last 
 remains of their cavalry, von Traubenberg is not disposed to share. 
 "The lance is emphatically not an absolute condition demanding to be 
 satisfied, in the armament and equipment of the cavalryman; in the 
 fatherland of Seydlitz it is carried oidy by the ulans, but does that 
 signify that the remaining bodies of horse are contaminated by a spirit 
 tending to give them the predominant attributes of infantry? In any 
 case, the use of the lance is confined within narrow limits. Its defend- 
 ers principally advance in their favor, always the one argument only: 
 the moral effect upon the infantry. And while this undoubtedly 
 becomes desirable in the closed attack, it must be remembered that the 
 Cossacks would be employed for such duty on comparatively rare 
 occasions, so tiiat the lance is not really necessary to them ; on the 
 contrary, it is frequently quite detrimental in this method of fighting; 
 and, finally, it should be remarked that many of the Cossack AVoiskos, 
 as those of the Terek, the Kuban and others, never have had the lance, 
 nor have it now." 
 
 With regard to the second part of the work of von Dewall, — as to 
 the conjectures upon the manner in which the Russian cavalry may 
 ])ropose to carry out its strategical activity, — the Russian author com- 
 plains that here von Dewall again starts with the erroneous assumption 
 that instruction with a view to fighting on foot is dignified as of 
 primary importance and that for this reason the cavalry divisions had 
 been so plentifully suj)plied witii artillery. The concluding [)aragraj)h 
 on page 483 of the work of Dewall containing the reference to the 
 hordes of Dshingis Khan, draws forth the remark: "this severe tirade 
 shows on the one hand little knowledge as to the Russian arrangements ; 
 then, on the other, it sounds unduly inspirited by a patriotic sentiment, 
 which is little calculated to further the behests of a calm weighing and 
 inquiry as to the subject-matter; the views expressed, demand, more- 
 over, logical demonstration." Premising that the cavalry of to-day 
 lias a double duty to fulfil, namely a strategical and a tactical one, 
 von Traubenberg says as to the first of these services devolving upon 
 it, that this necessitates a lengtiiy separation of the cavalry, dispatched 
 
 tration of the enenij', latterly so notably accelerated, Colonel Ssuchotin insists that 
 "the cavalry must, however, be able to light equally well, whether mounted or on 
 foot, nor regard a ride of 400 versts as anything extraordinary." The comprehen- 
 BJve discussion of tlie subject of partisan warfare, as treated, among other writers, 
 by F. Gkkschklmank, in the " Wajennyl iibonn/<," 1884 and 1885, is stated to be 
 in the sanie vein. — Translator. 
 
490 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 to great distances, from the other troops, and makes it dependent upon 
 itself and its own resources. To be enabled to carry out this role, the 
 cavalry must possess a relative degree of independence and, for this 
 reason, instructed by the experiences of the later wars, all the great Euro- 
 pean |)owers had armed their bodies of horsemen either with carbines 
 or with muskets, to enable them in individual cases to act without the 
 support of infantry and, here and there, even to take the place of the 
 latter. The assignment of horse artillery to the Russian cavalry 
 divisions is based upon the presumption as to the requirements of the 
 latter in mounted conflicts and is perfectly consistent with the organi- 
 zation of the regiments into four squadrons and still more so in the 
 case of those having six ; to base the strength of the artillery upon the 
 number of men dismounted to fight on foot, had least of all been 
 sought after. It must also be superadded that the Russian horse 
 artillery is preeminent for remarkable mobility, decision, and intre- 
 pidity and can, therefore, never become a burden to the cavalry. 
 
 Remonstrating against the disposition of von Dewall, to allow neither 
 traditions nor the true spirit of the arm to the Russian cavalry, von 
 Traubenberg — remarking that its past achievements had probably not 
 been less glorious than those of the cavalry of the descendants of Seyd- 
 litz and of Zieten — states that " the rare instances advanced by the 
 author in support of his adverse comments upon the arrangements 
 for dismounting, have reference to manoeuvres, and do not, therefore, 
 really require serious contradiction at the present time. The sabre has 
 not been consigned to oblivion by the dragoons; they are ever prepared 
 for attack with this weapon." 
 
 Colonel von Walter-Walthoffen diverges in his views from those of 
 Rittmeister von Dewall. The cavalry divisions have, as stated, the 
 same duties assigned to them in Austria as in Russia. Yet there, there 
 is no fixed distribution of cavalry to the infantry division, which rather 
 has cavalry assigned to it as necessity may arise, and thus it happens, 
 according to the opinion of von Walter- Walthoflfen, that the employ- 
 ment of the cavalry in Russia is not always a correct one. The reserve 
 cavalry (the stronger masses of troops), which comprehends all the 
 available cavalry divisions with their artillery, has the definitive^^roblem 
 before it, to hinder the breaking through the line of battle by the enemy, 
 as also to afford time to the troops to occupy new positions; but, be- 
 sides, it is to execute the last decisive stroke against the unsuccessful 
 antagonist, or, in the event of disorder among the home troops, to 
 rescue and hew them out of such ominous predicament. Here and 
 there the reserve cavalry can also be employed in operations against the 
 
1885. CRITICISM UPON THE RUSSIAN CAVALRY. 491 
 
 flank and rear of the adversary, even on foot ; and it indeed seems as if 
 great weight were accorded to active enterprises of this sort, and as if 
 it were contemplated frequently to resort to them. As to the above 
 expression of von AValter-Walthoffen's views with regard to the duties 
 devolving upon the various Russian bodies of cavalry, von Tranben- 
 berg remarks: "Although Mr. von "Walter- Walthoffen has studied the 
 official instructions, relating to the active employment of our horsemen, 
 he falls into the same error as Mr. von Dewall in reference to the opera- 
 tions of great masses of cavalry against the flank and rear of the enemy. 
 Without investigating the sources in which the two German writers 
 liave searched, we merely observe that such a proceeding is nowhere 
 officially recommended with us, and that therefore, where it may be 
 resorted to, the reason must be sought for in the individual judgment 
 of the commander as to the necessities of the situation." Theoretically 
 developing this question, von Traubenberg reaches the conclusion that 
 "the valuable peculiarity of cavalry — its rapidity — must be taken ad- 
 vantage of, but nevertheless, a methodical attack on foot must not be 
 thought of where the division lias shrunken to dimensions approxi- 
 mating two battalions, for then, as a matter of course, even relatively 
 equal excellence being pre-supposed, it can prove no match for the in- 
 fantry, and we also act accordingly." 
 
 In so far as the Russian article has reference to that of Ritt- 
 meister von Dewall, we should here have come to an end. But owing 
 to the fact (because, as we believe, our communication thus gains in 
 interest) that we have also drawn the views of Colonel von Walter- 
 Walthoffen within the sphere of our observation, let it be permitteil 
 to repeat here the concluding verdict which the latter renders upon the 
 Russian cavalry. He says: " In general we find in the Russian cavalry 
 and especially in the Cossacks, a very earnest, enduring, mobile, un- 
 tiring, and shrewd adversary. The standard of the mental training 
 and culture of the officers becomes heightened with each year, and the 
 number of those officers who have enjoyed the opportunities for suit- 
 able preparation and study grows apace." " Thanks to the recent trans- 
 formations," we read further, "the Russian cavalry has become pecu- 
 liar to itself and there is shown in it a greater tendency towards ac- 
 tivity on foot than in the cavalry of the other great powers. It cannot 
 be denied that the distribution of Cossacks to the regular cavalry has 
 called forth, or at least developed, a greater mobility and greater ai)ti- 
 tude for outpost service and the service of reconnaissance, while, in 
 consequence, on the other hand, an exceedingly favorable influence is 
 also exercised upon the Cossacks. 
 
492 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 " In the changes introduced into the regulations, the idea of a greater 
 capacity for manoeuvre of the cavalry, adapted to recent demands as 
 to its tactical employment, has been carried out. The organization of 
 the Cossacks after the manner of the dragoons and their incorporation 
 into the regular cavalry divisions, materially increase the strength of 
 the cavalry. 
 
 " With regard to the theoretical and practical occupations of the 
 officers, the strenuous efforts made to prepare them thoroughly for the 
 severe duties of service before them, are noteworthy. The view enter- 
 tained by many that the re-organization of the Russian cavalry has 
 transformed it into 'mounted infantry,' is absolutely groundless. The 
 cavaleristic element has emphatically not been lost there. On the con- 
 trary the last campaign has shown, that not only in the regular, but 
 also in the irregular, Russian horse, there existed a spirit of enterprise, 
 which became manifest and led to the best results, whenever the leaders 
 understood how to awaken it and make it available. 
 
 " Though it be true that the Russian cavalry had then to do only 
 with an inimical cavalry of no great excellence; yet if in the future, it 
 shall be called upon to take the field against active and enduring bodies 
 of horse, well organized, armed, equipped and instructed, it will be 
 demonstrated whether the practical application of the tendency to 
 assign greater importance to fighting on foot than heretofore, has been 
 prejudicial to cavaleristic peculiarities, or not." 
 
 Connecting the close of our communications with the beginning, 
 i.e., with the Russian criticism upon the work of Rittmeister von 
 Dewall, it should be added that von Traubenberg designates the author 
 as an officer of esteem in his domain, who has a right to speak with 
 authority, and who, though not free from prejudice against the Russian 
 cavalry, has yet developed such an abundance of interesting observa- 
 tions upon the importance and activity of the cavalry, as to entitle 
 him to recognition as conspicuously conversant with and a lover of his 
 arm. 
 
1885. THE MORAL ELEMENT IN MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 493 
 
 THE MORAL ELEMENT IN MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 
 
 [We make the following extract from a lecture entitled " Drill or Education ?" 
 delivered before the Military Science Society of Vienna by Lieutenant Field-Mar- 
 shal the Archduke John. It was translated from the German for the .Journal of the 
 Eoyal United Service Institution by Captain W. A. H. Hare, R.E., D.A.Q.M.G.] 
 
 A DiSTiNQuisiiKD general once said to me that when he was commanding a 
 Hungarian regiment in the Italian campaign he was asked whether he could rely 
 on his men, and he felt he could answer that they would certainly do their duty 
 for the sake of their colonel. And this proved to be true. The affection of men 
 for their commanding oflBcer can do great things, but it must be more than mere 
 sympathy, it must be an affection amounting to a devotion of the most completely 
 confiding and self-sacrificing nature. To be able to gain an afloction 0/ this kind, 
 however, is not the gift of all, for a good disposition and study are not suflicient ; 
 popularity-hunting will never do it. AVe must have a fellow-feeling for our subor- 
 dinates, and then only can we gain their hearts. But to display this fellow-feeling 
 only will do no good. You will never win the hearts of men unless your heart is 
 really with them. Unfeeling men are to be avoided just as those hypocrites who 
 are cunning enough to feign a fellow-feeling. They are left in the lurch the mo- 
 ment the game they are playing is laid bare, and they are then the more hateful as 
 ■we feel they have deceived us. Ordinary individuals have far greater instinctive 
 powers of discernment in these matters than most people give them credit for. 
 
 It might be urged by those who object to these principles that it would never 
 do if a regiment would only follow Colonel A and not Colonel B. And it would 
 certainly never do ; but the other kinds of moral motive-power which I have 
 alluded to, insure troops doing their duty under any leader. If, however, our 
 aims are higher than this, nothing but personal influence can attain them. Rustow 
 is perfectly right in saying " the influence of a commanding oflBcer does not arise 
 from chance or accident. He who can get more from his men than can his opponent 
 from his, is always at an advantage." 
 
 An Austrian author, describing the habit of discipline in the observation of 
 certain forms as the only means at our disposal, says literally, " It is a myth that 
 in the rapid conversion of our human material so-called beloved leaders arise, 
 round whom men rally with devotion in the hour of battle." Now, to those who 
 know troops by personal contact, and have a fellow-feeling for them, there is, thank 
 goodness, no myth about it whatever. Afliection is a thing quickly acquired, but 
 habit is a matter of time. If the rapid conversion of our human material is dan- 
 gerous to one of these, then I should say that habit is most likely to suffer in this 
 respect. The filling up of the ranks with the reserves, the marches for concentra- 
 tion, and the first, though perhaps ever so small, engagement, are enough to make 
 a commander liked or disliked by his men. Ay, it only requires a moment or 
 so in the hour of danger for a really first-rate man to gain the afl'cction of his 
 inferiors. 
 
 One of the most important conditions, and at the same time a useful lever 
 for morally improving the soldier, is the relation that exists between officer and man. 
 
494 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTERLY. October 
 
 This relation is in certain armies based on tradition. Based on conditions that 
 have still something patriarchal about them, and the social standing of the subaltern 
 officers, it is in Russia far more direct and intimate than in other countries, and is, 
 perhaps, too familiar. The Prussian officer, as we all know, having a social stand- 
 ing of the first rank in the country, moves in the best society in consequence, and 
 being represented with his men by excellent non-commissioned officers, is brought 
 far less in contact with them, in fact, his relations with them are almost of a purely 
 duty nature. "With us the relation varies very much in the different branches of 
 the service according as the officer lives more or less in close contact with the men. 
 
 But on the whole we might observe that, having due regard to the peculiarities 
 of the majority of nationalities in our army, the relation might with advantage 
 be a closer one in the infantry. 
 
 The soldier should, in fact, be looked on as a man, and what is more, be made 
 to feel as a man. The officer need not be always on duty from his point of view. 
 "Without causing any undue familiarity he can, by daily intercourse with his men, 
 get opportunities, while fully maintaining his position, of showing- himself in the 
 light of a sympathizing fellow-creature instead of the mere superior, in caring for 
 their interests and doing all in his power for their material welfare. 
 
 If the bonds between officer and man be closely drawn, the former ought 
 never to find it difficult to arouse, without the use of empty phrases, in a way that 
 suits the individual character of the man, such qualities as love for king and 
 country, pride in himself as a soldier, ambition, amour propre, a soldier-like feeling 
 of obedience from self-conviction, and a feeling of camaraderie and attachment to 
 his regiment. No stone should be left unturned to raise the tone and feeling of 
 the soldier. "We can well aifurd in this to be a little indulgent in insignificant 
 matters; we must not think it serious if regimental feeling goes so far as to make 
 the soldier look down upon other regiments ; give the soldier if possible recreation 
 at the right time ; put up with his light-heartedness, and even turn it to account, — 
 and above all things take care not to get into the habit of continually finding fault, 
 rather bestow praise, even if it is only half due. Approbation is better than blame ; 
 it is the indispensable forerunner of amour propre, attachment, and cheerful labor. 
 Constant finding fault produces, by the blunting effect it has on the feeling, the 
 most difficult evil to get rid of — apathy. 
 
 The officer should have all those moral qualities we look for in the soldier in a 
 higher degree. "We have to produce military characters, independent, cheerfully 
 energetic, and thoroughly conscientious men. Though many may look on con- 
 verting soldiers into machines as a preparation for our next war, the intelligent 
 man will look for it more by fostering their individuality and initiative. For the 
 shorter the time the fight lasts, the greater is the necessity for seizing opportunities 
 without waiting for orders. The more murderous the fire, the more questionable 
 is the possibility of giving orders, and the more frequent the loss in commanding 
 officers, whose regiments, however, cannot stop in critical moments to have the 
 command taken over. The greater the friction, the more is it desirable to have, 
 instead of a machine-like army, a living organism, the parts of which can act 
 independently in the spirit of the general desire. 
 
 It would appear, therefore, all the more desirable that the higher leader should, 
 instead of making his subordinate officers go in leading-strings, direct them intel- 
 lectually, and so fashion their ideas that he may confine himself to ordering what 
 is only absolutely necessary, and leave the remainder to the initiative of his subordi- 
 nates, feeling sure that though they may not act strictly in accordance with his 
 orders, they are certain to act in accordance with his intentions. This, again, re- 
 
1885. THE MORAL ELEMENT IN MILITARY DISCIPLINE. 495 
 
 quires the relations between senior and junior officers to be of the closest kind ; to 
 communicate our own ideas and convey our own ways of thinking to others is only 
 possible with close personal contact. There are some colonels and generals who 
 keep almost quite aloof from their officers; very often this arises from an un- 
 founded fear on their part that close contact with juniors is likel}' to affect their 
 dignit}'. But the man who is firm in the saddle as a member of the military hie- 
 rachy feels no necessity for surrounding his person with obstacles to approach, 
 which after all afford a very poor protection to the authority belonging to the 
 rank only and not to the person, against the skepticism of juniors. A colonel or a 
 general should have the courage to be a friend and comrade off duty. 
 
 But when the increased demand for independent and self-relying officers has 
 been alluded to, it has been sometimes met with the question whether independence 
 did not already exist, and only required to be tolerated? No! unfortunately it 
 must be cultivated, for there arc too many of our juniors whose minds are dull and 
 without desire, who are only too glad to be relieved of all responsibility by the 
 guardian of inactivity ; and the lethargy which is the consequence lasts long after 
 the original cause has been removed. Let every one be given the full free scope 
 allowed by the spirit of the regulations, and let us trust to the responsible spon- 
 taneous action of our juniors. We must satisfy ourselves beforehand, however, by 
 the stricte-t tests, that what is required is likely to be forthcoming, and distinguish 
 between the criminal presumption of the impostor and the proved and consequently 
 esteemed conscientiousness of the reliable man. 
 
 Everything that the junior does cannot always be improved on. Many an error 
 in execution or even in resolution may be overlooked in order that power of resolve 
 and self-reliance may not be interfered with. We should never let ourselves be 
 influenced by temper or passion, and never color the meaning of others. The eye- 
 servant who tries to curry favor should never be encouraged, nor should the hon- 
 e!^t man, who, rather than try to ingratiate himself, makes himself perhaps dis- 
 agreeable, be snubbed. This is the way to produce military characters, otherwise 
 we shall only produce slaves, who in the choice of " to be" or " not to be" pur- 
 chase the " to be" with the surrender of their individuality, at first, perhaps, against 
 the grain, but gradually with their moral emasculation appeased. 
 
 The officer must be naturally inspired by an ideal conception of his profession. 
 He will thus be proof against the attacks of materialism, and encouraged to face 
 the trying duties of his calling. 
 
 Let the officer remember that if he can oppose a living dam to the flood of the 
 
 CROSBY'S VITALIZED PHOSPHITES, 
 
 Composed of the Nerve-Diving Principles of tlie O-v-Uruin and the 
 Embryo of the Wheat and Oat, 
 
 For fifteen years hn? been a standard preparation with all physicians who treat nervous or 
 mental disorders. Phyrician.s alone have used more than n iiiillion packages, curing nervous 
 disorders, loss of mental or bodily power, restoring lost functions, refreshing the memory, 
 renewing vitality. 
 
 It aids wonderfully in the mental nnd bodily development of children. 
 
 In nervous debility it gives sweet sleep and invigorates and recruits the exhausted mental 
 and bodily |)owers. 
 
 It is used by Bismark, Gladstone, nnd other brain workers. 
 
 For Snlo l>y I>rugrslst8, or ninll, 91. (M>. 
 
 F. CEOSBY CO., 56 West 25th St., New York. 
 
496 THE ARMY AND NAVY QUARTEKLY. 
 
 disorganizing tendencies of our days, these will break helplessly on the soundness 
 of his strength of character. Let him acquire a pride in himself from the thought 
 of the meritorious work he has done in yearly instilling into the minds of the one 
 hundred thousand men or so that annually join in the colors, a higher moral tone, a 
 love of justice and order, and feeling and character, — in fact, the blessings of civil- 
 ization which they take with them to their distant homes, to there produce further 
 benefits. The oflBcer thus fulfills in peace a mission just as noble in itself as is his 
 bloody work in war. Let our oflELcers be firmly convinced that in days when op- 
 posite disuniting efforts are tending to undermine the monarchy, it is the officers' 
 duty to strengthen to their utmost the bonds that unite it, by instilling into the 
 minds of the thousands that come from all parts of our wide empire a feeling of 
 unity in the whole Fatherland, and the desire to raise the national colors high 
 above the petty strife of faction and party, remembering the noble words of the 
 poet, " Austria is in the camp." 
 
 Let the ofl5cer fully understand his position ; let him raise himself above the 
 ordinary level of moral courage, so as to be, in the closest sense of the term, the 
 soul of his men, and lead them to victory. But the soldier, if the call or even the 
 example of the officer is to have any effect, must be susceptible and attached to 
 him. 
 
 "Rubbish," I hear again the opponents of these ideas exclaim with a cold 
 scornful sneer. Well, may they never be taught by disaster that troops that are 
 drilled only and not educated will fail them in the hour of trial; may they never 
 have to feel in the bitter hour of defeat what a difference there is between possessing 
 and not possessing the affection — this supposed myth — of their men. 
 
 And now enough ! 
 
 In view of the possibility of the monarchy having, at some not very distant 
 date, to engage in a serious conflict, the traditional patriotism of the Austrian 
 army must and can imperatively call upon every man belonging to it, no mat- 
 ter what his station be, to take the most complete loyal faith as his sole guide, and 
 follow the line which most surely leads to success. 
 
 There can be only one right way, for there is only one kind of truth. But it is 
 difficult sometimes to find and recognize it ; hence different views, different faiths. 
 
 Supported as I am in my belief when I think of the many high-minded and 
 great men whose wise and reforming doctrines have led me to my present convic- 
 tion, and when I call to mind how olten many excellent troops of our army, 
 though undrilled, have shown the highest discipline in the dark days of misfortune, 
 and by their spirit and moral strength have given the most unmistakable proofs of 
 the greatest devotion, I will preserve unimpaired a belief in men, a belief hi my 
 ideal, and a belief in the way in which it is attained. 
 
 The meaning of this belief is contained in the — 
 
 Answer to the title of this lecture. 
 Lei us not merely drill, lei ics educate. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 PAQB 
 
 Actual and Ostensible Condition of the Russian Cavalry (The). By 
 H. von Dewall. Translated from the Jahrbilcher fiir die Deutsche 
 Armee und Marine by Stanislaus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth 
 
 U. S. Artillery 460 
 
 American Humorist (A Forgotten). By Mrs. Launt Thompson . . 36 
 Balloons. By M. J. Jamin, of the Academy of Sciences. Translated from 
 
 the Revue des Deux Mondes by Jas. Duval Rodney ..... 168 
 
 Books Received 128 
 
 British Navy (The). By Sir E. J. Reed, M.P 17 
 
 Does Germany NEED A Navy? By Karl Jacob 381 
 
 Electric Light on board the French Armored Ship " Richelieu" 
 (The). From Mittheilungen aus dem Oebiete des Seewesens, by Lieuten- 
 ant W. H. Beehler, U.S.N 316 
 
 Electricity as applied to Naval Purposes. By Lieutenant W. A. Chis- 
 
 holm-Batten, R.N 385 
 
 End or a Great Navy (The). By Vice-Admiral Jurien de la Graviere. 
 
 Translated from the Revue des Deux Mondes by Jas. Duval Rodney . 74 
 
 European Cavalry. By Colonel Keith Eraser 1 
 
 France and China 222 
 
 French Railway Corps (The). Translated from the Avenir Militaire and 
 Journal Officiel for the Journal of the Royal United Service Institution by 
 
 Captain W. A. H. Hare, R.E., D.A.Q.M.G 373 
 
 Functions of Cavalry in Modern War (The). By Major Graves, Twen- 
 tieth Hussars 328, 405 
 
 General Gordon's Life and Letters 345 
 
 General Lebrun and the Twelfth French Corps at Sedan. Trans- 
 lated from the Jahrbilcher fiir die Deutsche Armee und Marine by Stanis- 
 laus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth U. S. Artillery .... 301 
 German Military Punishment. By C. J. L'Estrange . . . 193, 274 
 Humanity and War. Translated from the Jahrhiicher fiir die Deutsche 
 Armee und Marine by Stanislaus Remak, late First Lieutenant Fifth 
 
 TJ. S. Artillery 129 
 
 Literature (The) of the Thirty Years' War. By J. Watts de Peyster, 
 
 Brevet Major-General S.N.Y 422 
 
 London Letter (Our). By C. Sleeman 118 
 
 Machine Guns in the Field. By Captain the Right Hon. Lord Charles 
 
 W. Beresford, R.N 257 
 
 497 
 
498 INDEX. 
 
 FAOE 
 
 Modern Cruisers. By Naval Constructor Theodore Albrecht, Austrian 
 Imperial Navy. Translated from the German by Lieutenant W. H. 
 Beehler, U.S.N. . 209 
 
 Moral Element (The) in Military Discipline. Translated from the 
 
 German by Captain W. A. H. Hare, E.E., D.A.Q.M.G 493 
 
 Present Position of Tactics in England (The). By Colonel W. W. 
 
 Knollys 55 
 
 EussiAN Criticism (A) upon "The Actual and Ostensible Condition 
 OF the Eussian Cavalry." Translated from the Jahrbiicher fiir die 
 Deutsche Armee und Mm-ine by Stanislaus Eemak, late First Lieutenant 
 Fifth U. S. Artillery 484 
 
 Sham Sieges. Translated from the Jahrbiicher fiir die Deutsche Armee und 
 
 iVfaHne by Professor A. A. Benton, M. A. 202 
 
 Some Changes in Tactics caused by the increasing povter of Modern 
 
 Fire (On). By Captain W. H. James, P.S.C, late E.E. . . .155 
 
 ToRPEDO-BoAT Warfare. By C. Sleeman 237, 284 
 
 Torpedoes on Shipboard and in Boats. By C. Chabaud-Arnault, Capi- 
 taine de Fregate, M.F. Translated from the Revue Maritime et Coloniale 
 by Wm. Bainbridge-Hoff, Commander U.S.N. 91 
 
 Wolseley's (Lord) Plan of Operations 263 
 
The Army and Xavij Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 FROM FOUR TO SIXTY-FOUR. 
 
 A visitor to a scliuol cxumiiiiitioii in AllieriH or 
 Koiiio on 11 ilii.v ill till' year A. II. 1 iiiiglit have lieani 
 tlie question ii»U»'d lij' tlie ti'iiclicr, "• llow niaiij' eie- 
 uieiitti lire llicre in nature?" ami the scliolai'H an- 
 swer, ns found in the books, would have h<-fn,"Kour 
 — earth, air, tire, and water." Thai answer wai as 
 fur lis Hcirnie had icnclied at that lime, lint diligent 
 research, prosecuted in llio interveiiiiiK ii>;es, has 
 given to the scliidaruf to-day a (lilleient iin.swer. A 
 visitor to a Bchool in Loiid<'U or I'aris or 1'liilndel- 
 |iliia would hiar the same (iiiestion replied to hy a 
 inudern scholar with " JSixly -four !" 'ihoiigh there 
 are nonioreelenieiits to-day than ever, we are get ling 
 aciiuaiuted with them. One of the must interesting 
 discoveries made in mrdern tiMies hy delvers into 
 the mysteries of nature is that of " Compound O.ty- 
 gen." Drs. Slarkey & Palen, of Phihidelpliia, the 
 physicians who liave been lor years treaiing their 
 patients with this remedy, are in constant receipt of 
 letters full of grateful ackliuw ledgment of benefits 
 received from its use. A few recent testimunies are 
 the following: 
 
 "Mount Pi.eas.\nt, Pa., August 4, 188.5 
 
 "Drs. SxAKKtY <fe I'ali.n: iiciir i>iin, — I lake great 
 (ileasiire in stating that uiy wife derived great bene- 
 fit from the use of your 'Compound Oxygen.' She 
 had not known a well moment lor several years until 
 my Htleiiiioii was called to your Trealui' nt through 
 your advertisement in The bcotlsdnle 'Jribune about 
 two iiionllis ago. In that time it has brouj^ht new lile 
 to her system. 
 
 " Very truly yours, Rkv. L. R. Beacom, 
 " Parlor 31t I'UuiuiU Al. E. Church, PtIlshuryU Confer- 
 ence." 
 
 The following is an extriict from an English 
 patient's letter in answer to an inquiry from a lady: 
 
 " Madam, — Instead of being a trouble, it would at 
 any time t;ive nie pleasure could I in any way asjji.'<t 
 a fellow ->nfrerer from asthnia in getting the least 
 relief, as I well know what the feelings are. 
 
 "On the Ifitli of January, I8S3, about three o'clock 
 in the morning, 1 was fii st iittaiked w itii the disease. 
 Next morning, at the same liour, I hud a second 
 attack, and 1 thought I was going to die. On the 
 third morning I learned from my physician the name 
 of my ailment. In spite of all the attention and care 
 of w liich he and his assistants were capable, 1 con- 
 tinued to get worse until I was not able to lie down 
 <ir have one minute's sleeji for four days or nights. 1 
 then tried patent medicines, various kinds, too numer- 
 ous to nieniion; in fact, I tried ever.Mliing that I 
 thought would benefit me, but the benefit was only 
 of short duration. What I suffered I cannot describe, 
 neither do 1 want to think about it. In July last I 
 heard of the Compound Oxygen. I wrote to Mr. 
 Garner lor a supply. I began inhaling at once, and 
 continued according to directions. In <i fortnujUl I 
 wa» able to lie doicn in bed ami oleep Wtll — ir/«i< I hml 
 Hot been able lo do since my first attack — (im</ / am flill 
 grttiiig stronger note, I cannot say I am free from 
 asthma, lor I find a little of it at times. lint it does 
 not prevent my sleeiiing well, and I am able to eat 
 without feeling the least pain trom indigestion ; but 
 am still continuing the use ot the Oxygen, but not so 
 often ; and intend continuing for some time, as I can- 
 not expect alter so much siitl'ering to be well all at 
 once, but am better now than I ever expected to be 
 again in this life, and am thankful beynnd meamre. 
 "Jajiks SlooRK, isup'-rmleiKleiit o/ I'lilice, 
 
 " Ulandford, Duiselshire, England." 
 
 For more than half a century the author of llie fol- 
 lowing letter ha.s been a niiniMter in the Methodist 
 £pisco|ial (.'hnri h, and, though eiglity-four years old, 
 his f.ice and voice are know n to more peopU- ihaii any 
 other man living in Phihnlelpliia, for he maintains 
 till- vigor and energy of those younger by a score of 
 yettiit, constantly using his preserved strength in 
 going aliout doing good: 
 
 "To Dits. Stakkky a Pai.en: Dear Sim, — I had 
 thought of publishing something in rebition to your 
 lil'e-giviiig remedies. Com|Hiuiid Oxygen sloiw my 
 cough instantly. A swallow of the Ox\ gonaqna will 
 stop the irritation (if the water hax been mote than 
 a month in my lionx). So much it has done for an 
 
 Ho. 4.-32 
 
 oM niiin in his eighty-fourth year A young man 
 might be cured permanently of all such irritation. 
 
 I recommend Compound Oxygen to all who suffer 
 from throat diseases. Yours truly, 
 
 "A Atwood, 8(ia North Seventeenth Street. 
 " Philadelphia, June 2, 1886." 
 
 A patient at Olmsted, III., writes: 
 
 " I find that the inhaling of the Oxygen is a great 
 remedy for ca<<irr/j. It li.is cured my little boy and 
 hcl|ied me. 
 
 " Last Slimmer I sent to you for your Home Treat- 
 ment. I snlleied with catai'ilial sore tliio:it .Mter 
 using the Oxygen for three months I entinlij re- 
 coverrd." 
 
 The following is from an editor in Towa : 
 
 "Office of thk 'Stah-Clippfr,' 
 "TuAER, Iowa, May 1, lt<85. 
 
 " Mf-ssrs. Starket & Palkn: bear Hirg, — It affords 
 me pleasure to freely offer testimony an to the merits 
 ol your Coni]iound Oxygen Treatment, jl/y mother, 
 
 II lady over sixty years old, was induced by a friend 
 to try it, and a marked improvi'ment in nuticd in her 
 health. The Trealmeitl ntvuiK to build up the syHlem, 
 which helpn a patient afflicted with almoi'l any di»rate. 
 My mother liail bad head iclie /or mauy yeurg ; this 
 has been ultnont cured. .S/.e hnn hud a cough /or twenty 
 j/oiirn ; tlii»ha» been ijreatly helped. And in other ways 
 the Treatment Add bi-en a benefit to her. The principle 
 of the Compound Oryyen it tenmble ; it in natural, and 
 / believe the Treatment is something that would renew 
 the health of thousam/s of the suffering and debilitated 
 overworked people of America. 
 
 "Klmkr E. Taylor, Editor itor-Ciij'per." 
 
 Padabhoy Byranijee is a gentleman of Bombay, 
 India, who has lor some years been living in London. 
 For several months he was on a visit to America, and 
 one of the principal objects of ihe visit was a search 
 for health. Learning of Compound Oxygen, he used, 
 in New York, the Home Treatment with good ellect, 
 and then in Philadelphia took the Office Treatment. 
 Hefore leaving for l^ondou he did us the kindness of 
 tlie following letter: 
 
 "Continental Hotel. 
 
 "New York, May 11, 1.98.5. 
 
 "Drs. Starkey & Palen: Dear Sirs, — Bi-f'ore 
 leaving New York for London, I desire to express 
 my sense of gratitude to you for the benefit I have 
 derived from the use of your Compound 0.vygen Gas. 
 I have been suffering for the last five years fiom 
 chronic bronchitis, contracted in Bombay. During 
 this long space of time I tried a great number of 
 remedies, but fulled to get rid of it altogether. In 
 September last I came to New York, when my atten- 
 tion was drawn to your Compouml Oxygen Gas. I 
 torlhwith commenced the Treatment under the 
 guidance of Dr. Turner, in charge of your de|iot 
 here, and, I am glad to say, witli very gratiiyiiig 
 results. I feel I am fully fifty per cent, better now 
 than I was before I liegan the Treatment Con- 
 sidering the obstinate character of tliecom|daint and 
 the long number of years it has had its hold upon me, 
 I have every reas'in to be satisfied with the pri'gress 
 I have made toward recovery lliioiigli the beneficent 
 aci ion of your gas. and am fully persuadeil that by 
 persevering with the use of this valuable remedy I 
 shall be able to shake it off before long. 
 "I remain, dear sire, faithlully yours, 
 
 "D. Bvuamjee." 
 
 " However difficult it may be to declare just what 
 this new 'Coni]Miund Oxygen' is, it is not difficult 
 to be Convinced that Ihe good it is doing mankind 
 can scarcely be estimated. We do not proisise here 
 to go into a detailed account of indiv.duiil cases, but 
 the fact remains nndispiiled that it has cured tliou- 
 SHiids of cases I'f many of the ills that llesh is heir 
 lo when all other reiiiedie.s have failed. .\ny one 
 who wishes to look into this matter further can do 
 so by simpiv addressing a ]H>stal to Slarkey it Palen, 
 1.5J<J Ai.h Stieel, Philadelpha, Pa., asking for The 
 C'lnipiiund O-rygen Tnalmrul, and a iHmk of about 
 tuo hnndre<l juigeg will be mailed free of expense. 
 In addition to this it also gives many hygienic hints 
 worth the time and trouble of reading." — ChriUian 
 at Work, Sew I'ork. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 NOW READY. 
 
 THE HAZEN COURT-MARTIAL. 
 
 The Responsibility for the Disaster to the Franklin Bay Polar Expedition 
 
 Definitely Established, 
 
 With Proposed Reforms in the Law and Practice of Courts-Martial. 
 
 By T. J. 1MA.CKEY, Counsel for Brig.-Gen. W. B. Hazen, Chief Signal Officer, Washington. 
 
 Octavo. Cloth Extra. 364 pages. Price, $2.SO. 
 
 RECENTLY PUBLISHED.^ 
 
 OPERATIONS OF THE ARMY UNDER BUELL 
 
 From June 10 to October 30, 1862, and the Buell Commission. By James B. Fry (retired). 
 Brevet Major-General, U.S.A.; Chief of Staflf to General Buell from November 15, 1S61, 
 to October 30, 1862. AVith Portrait of General Buell, and Map of the Campaign. 12mo. 
 Cloth. $1.25. 
 
 Also, BY THE SAME ATJTHOR. 
 
 McDowell and tyler in the campaign of bull run. wei 
 
 Illust^.^ted with Maps. 12mo. Cloth. 75 cents. 
 
 THE ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF COAST FORTIFICATIONS. 
 
 By Captain Edward Maguire, Corps of Engineers, U.S.A. With Map and numerous Illas- 
 trations. Svo. Red cloth. $2.50. 
 
 THE THEORY OF DEFLECTIONS, 
 
 And of Latitudes and Departures, with Special Application to Curvilinear Surveys for Align- 
 ments of Railway Tracks. By Isaac W. Smith, C.E., Member of American Society of 
 Civil Engineers. Illustrated. 16mo. Morocco tucks. $3.00. 
 
 A TREATISE ON THE ADJUSTMENT OF OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 With Applications to Geodetic Work, and other Measures of Precision. By T. W. Wright, 
 B.A., late Assistant Engineer U.S. Lake Survey. Illustrated. 8vo. $4.00. 
 
 MAGNETO-ELECTRIC AND DYNAMO-ELECTRIC MACHINES. 
 
 Their Construction and Practical Application to Electric Lighting, and the Transmission of 
 Power. By Dr. H. Schellen. Translated by N. S. Keith and Percy Neymann. AVith 
 large Additions and Notes Relating to American Machines by N. S. Keith. Vol. I. 
 With 353 Illustrations. Svo. $5.00. Volume II. /h preparation. 
 
 TEXT-BOOK OF SEAMANSHIP. 
 
 The Equipping and Handling of Vessels under Sail or Steam. For the Use of the U. S. Naval 
 Academy. By Commodore S. B. Luce, U. S. Navy. Revised and Enlarged by Lieutenant 
 Aaron Ward, U. S. Navy. Royal Svo. 670 pages. With 131 Full-page Plates. $10.00. 
 
 ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES OF THE PRESENT DAY. 
 
 Being a Report of the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881. By Major D. P. Heap, Corps of 
 Engineers, U.S.A.; Honorary Commissioner to the Exhibition, and Military Delegate to 
 the Congress of Electricians. Svo. With 250 Illustrations. Cloth. $2.00. 
 
 IN PRESS. 
 
 HYDRAULIC MINING IN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 By Augustus J. Bowie, Jr. Illustrated. 
 
 D. VAN NOSTRAND, Publisher, 
 
 23 Murray and 27 Warren Streets, New York. 
 
 *is* Copies of above books-sent free bj- mail on receipt of price. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 .ANGLO-QWISS 
 
 '» Milkmaid BrandV CONDENSED ^ 
 
 Economical and convenient for all kitchen purposes. Better for 
 babies than uncondensed milk. Sold everywhere. 
 ANGLO-SWISS CONDENSED MILK CO. 86 Hudson St. N. Y. P.O. Box3773. 
 
 MILK. 
 
 No more striking evidence of the growth of the business 
 in condensed milk can be given than in the statement of the 
 Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Company, that "The annual 
 production of condensed milk is estimated at 60,000,000 
 cans, manufactured by eleven diflferent firms in EurojjC and 
 America, of which the above-named company manufacture 
 40,000,000; that is to say, the Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk 
 Company supply two-thirds of the world's entire demand, 
 and the other ten firms the remaining third." This great 
 house has its parent establishment in Cham, Switzerland, 
 with branches in England and America, and it is claimed' 
 that this immense growth is due entirely to the superior and 
 uniform purity of their productions, coupled with the low 
 prices at which they are sold. 
 
 A 
 
 NGLO-SWISS MILK FOOD 
 
 For Children PAST Teething. 
 
 Write us for testimonials of the medical profession regarding it. 
 ANGLO-SWISS CONDENSED MILK CO. 
 
 p. O. Box 3773. 86 HUDSON STKLET, NEW-YOKK. 
 
 Decided superiority is claimed for the Anglo-Swiss Milk 
 Food in comparison with any other farinaceous Food for 
 infants. No so-called Milk Food consists entirely of milk; 
 all are partly composed of cereal products, involving, when 
 not properly prepared, the presence of an injurious amount 
 of starch, which the highest authorities agree in condemning 
 for young children. The Anglo-Swiss Condensed Milk Com- 
 pany overcomes this objectionable feature of Milk Food as 
 usually supplied, by meeting an essential requirement in the 
 method of preparing it, so that when gradually heated with 
 water, according to the directions for use, the starch contained 
 in the materials used is converted, in a satisfactory degree, 
 into soluble and easily-digestible dextrine and sugar. 
 
 Tlie Anglo-Swiss Milk Food has been found to meet these 
 essential conditions to the satisfaction of physicians and others 
 who have taken the pains to examine it, and we invite criti- 
 cal examimition of it in comparison with any other Food. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 ARMY AND NAVY CLOTHING MADE 
 TO ORDER. 
 
 
 The finest Boys' Clothing of our own make and fine Merchant Tailoring. 
 Ladies' Habits and Over Garments Made to Order. 
 
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 If so, send for DOG BUYERS- 
 GUIDE, containing colored plates, 
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 «ii'^Tiit'»Bi*i!#T«T'«'i-t*"''' -r-fimi 
 
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 BOOR OF CAGE BIRDS^ 
 
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 colored plate. Treatmentandbreed- 
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 and their cure. How to build and 
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 Mailed for 15 cents. 
 
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 Address ROBERT S. DAVIS, 
 
 Proprietor of THE CALL, PUILADELPIIIA, PENx\. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 Electric Appliances are sent on 30 Days' Trial. 
 
 TO MEN GS^LY, YOUNQ OR OLD, 
 
 ■\TrEO are suffering from Nbrvocs Debility, 
 VV Lost Vitality, Lack of Neuve Force and 
 Vigor, Wasting Weaknesses, and all those diseases 
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 VOLTAIC t5£LTG0.,KlARSHAlL.RllCH. 
 
 DR. DYE'S ELECTRO-VOLTAIC BELT 
 
 AND OTHER 
 
 ELECTRIC APPLIANCES 
 
 ARE ALSO A SURE CURE FOR 
 
 RHEUMATISM. NEURALGIA, PARALYSIS, 
 
 AND MANY OTHER DISEASES. 
 
 Thousands of Testimonials verify their Great Curative 
 
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 Do not delay in writing at once for Illustrated Pamphlet and full 
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 VOLTAIC BELT CO., 
 
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The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 TO THE 
 
 Officers of the Army. 
 
 Last summer, at the request of 
 Captain Eogers, U.S.A., represent- 
 ing the Quartermaster-General, we 
 designed and made a model over- 
 coat, which, having been submitted 
 to a board of officers, and approved 
 by Lieutenant- General Sheridan, 
 has been adopted for the use of 
 officers in the army of the United 
 States. We are prepared to fur- 
 nish this coat complete for $75, and 
 without the hood, which is not es- 
 sential except in very cold climates, 
 for %(j^, and being the original de- 
 signers of the garment, are able to 
 guarantee perfect conformity with 
 the model. Rules for self-measure- 
 ment will be furnished on applica- 
 tion. Correspondence invited. 
 
 GLEASOiNT & CO., 
 
 S"U"cc£:ssoI^s to h:o"^t & C3- Xi e jl s o isr, 
 1517 CHESTNUT STREET, 
 
 PHILADHLPHIA, PA. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 JIew and Interesting JIovels 
 
 PUBI^ISHED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY, 
 
 715 and 717 Market Street, Philadelphia. 
 
 FOR LILIAS. 
 
 J^TTTHORIZED E DITIOIT. 
 
 A Novel. By Rosa N. Carey, author of "Barbara Heathcote's Trial," "Not Like Other 
 Girls," " Nellie's Memories," etc. 16mo. Paper cover. 25 cents. Attractively bound 
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 Miss Carey is the author of sevpral desprvedly popular novels, among which " Not Like Other Girls'' 
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 high reputation of the talented authoress. 
 
 A IVIODEL WIFE. 
 
 A Novel. By G. I. Cervus, author of "White Feathers." ]2mo. Extra cloth. $1.00. 
 
 A very entertaining story of life in and about New York City. The narrative throughout displays an 
 extraordinary knowledge of human nature, and abounds with such descriplions and incidents as will in- 
 terest the reader, and doubtless secure for the volume a hearty welcome. 
 
 THE LADY WITH THE RUBIES. 
 
 A Novel. From the German of E. Marlitt. Translated by Mrs. A. L. AVister. 12mo. 
 Extra cloth. $1.25. 
 
 "An exceptionally interesting story, abounding in action and incident, the plot well constructed and 
 skilfully wrought out. Marlitt has produced a story of great beauty and power, and Sirs. Winter has given 
 to the English reader not only a grammatically accurate translation, but has caught and infused into it the 
 spirit of the refined genius of the author." — Ballimore Evening News. 
 
 BARBARA HEATHCOTE'S TRIAL. 
 
 A Novel. By Rosa Nouchette Carey, author of " Robert Ord's Atonement," " Nellie's 
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 "Well worth reading. The pure, fresh, natural atmosphere in which the reader finds himself is in 
 
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 deserves to be read and appreciated." — Charleston News and Courier. 
 
 **0 TENDER DOLORES. '' 
 
 .A-TTTHOR-IZEID EIDITIOIT. 
 
 A Novel. By the "DrcHES.s," author of " Doris," " Phyllis," etc. 12mo. Paper cover. 25 
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 " Tjike all from her pen it is a love-story, with every charm of freshness and naturalness. Sentimental 
 
 without exaggeration, vivid, absorbing, and romantic, all within the bounds of probability." — Philadelphia 
 
 Saturday Evening Post. 
 
 A MAIDEN ALL FORLORN , 
 
 And Other Stories. By the "Duchess," author of "0 Tender Dolores," "Phyllis," "Mrs. 
 Geoffrey," etc. 12mo. Paper cover. 25 cents. Attractively bound in cloth, ink and 
 gold ornaments. 75 cents. 
 " Unusually good. There is not, in short, one dull page." — London Morning Post. 
 
 ONE OF THE DUANES. 
 
 By Alice King Hamilton. 12mo. Extra cloth. $1.25. 
 
 "Adds another to the few really good army novels that have been published during the last few years. 
 It is good for its spirited 8t\ le ; for its bright and life-like ]>ictures of social life at the distant military post, 
 where the officers' wives and daughters form the aristocracy and society leaders; for its artistic character 
 sketching ; and for the deeply absorbing interest of the story that runs easily and consistently through the 
 whole." — Boston Home Journal. 
 
 TROUBLED WATERS. 
 
 A Problem of To-Day. A Novel. By Beverley Ellison Warner. 12mo. Extra cloth. 
 
 $1.25. 
 
 " An essay in much the same field as 'The Bread- Winners ;' it is a far more agreeable book than that." 
 — Boston Literary World. 
 
 " Is an original and deeply interesting story, written with the grace of style that betrays the cultivated 
 author, and touching upon great problems in a way to suggest neither the absurd idealist, nor the un- 
 necessary alarmist, nor the man with a special theory. It is long since we have had a better story of its 
 kind." — New York Critic. 
 
 For Sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by Mail, Postage Prepaid, on 
 Keceipt of Price by the Publishers. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 CARPETING. 
 
 WILTONS, AXMINSTERS, MOQUETTES, 
 
 VELVETS, BODY BRUSSELS, 
 
 TAPESTRY BRUSSELS, AND INGRAINS, 
 
 AND MATTINGS. 
 
 Being manufacturers, retail buyers can save intermediate profits by dealing 
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 cent, below market value. We guarantee every Carpet of our own make. 
 
 J. & J. DOBSON, 
 
 MANUFACTURERS, 
 
 809, 811, and 813 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia. 
 
lU The Army and JSavy (Quarter iy A.avertiser. 
 
 SEED© 
 FOST Q^^HDENS 
 
 Profitable Gardening depends first of all upon procuring SEEDS of VITALITY 
 and PURITY. Such can be had from OUR ESTABLISHMENT. We ever have 
 been the oldest and most extensive 
 
 SEED GROWERS aw SEED MERCHANTS 
 
 IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 We cordially invite all interested to visit and critically inspect our Seed Farms, 
 feeling confident that the areas, varied soils and climates, systems of cultivation, 
 drying houses, steam machinery, implements and appurtenances generally, will 
 demonstrate our abilitj'^ to produce larger, more varied, and better stock than any 
 other party in the Seed Trade. We have always been by far 
 
 The Largest Producers of Garden Seeds in America. 
 
 Our farms do not exist upon paper, but can be found by any inquirer ; and in the 
 selection of stocks and systems of culture we have as a firm the advantages of very 
 NEARLY A CENTURY OF EXPERIENCE. Our farms are situated at 
 
 BRISTOL , Bucks Co. . Pa. MANITO WOC, Manitowoc Co. , Wis. 
 
 BURLINGTON, Burlington Co.. N. J. MONASKON. Lancaster Co.. Va. 
 
 The whole comprising a total of 1^7^ JLcres^ owned, occupied, and cultivated 
 by ourselves. Upon these lands we have applied in a single season $20,000 worth 
 of purchased fertilizers, a fact which exhibits the magnitude of our operations. 
 
 THE STOCK SEEDS 
 
 from which all our crops are grown on all the farms are produced on Bloomsdale, 
 the Pennsylvania farm, and under the daily scrutiny of the proprietors, are thor- 
 oughly culled of all departures from the true types, and produce crops of such purity 
 of strain as to warrant us in declaring that none are Superior and few Equal! 
 
 Commanders of Government Posts who favor us with their orders can rely upon 
 being supplied upon most liberal terms. 
 
 HOR TICULTURAL REQ UISITES. 
 
 Post Farmers, Gardeners, or Elorists desiring Tools or Appliances for the Field, 
 Garden, or Hot House, will, upon application to us, be promptly furnished with 
 Prices which, upon examination, will be found as low as those of other dealers. 
 
 BOOKS-250 DISTINCT PUBLICATIONS 
 
 upon the subjects of the Breeding and Management of Horses, Cattle, Sheep, Swine, 
 Poultry, Bees, and upon the Culture of Cotton, Tobacco, Flax, Roses, and Bedding 
 Plants; upon Irrigation, Drainage, Horticultural Architecture, Forestry — every- 
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 Send for our Catalogues of Books, Bulbous Roots, Seeds, Tools, Garden Ornaments. 
 
 We publish Catalogues of Seeds in English, German, Swedish, and Spanish. 
 
 These Catalogues will be furnished gratuitously 
 upon application. 
 
 DAVID LANDRETH & SONS, 
 Seed Growers, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 11 
 
 ©TA.ISDA.TM3 MOUSE II01L.T» HEMIEDIES. 
 
 DR. D. JAYNE'S FAMILY MEDICINES 
 
 Are prepared >vitli event care, expressly for Family Use, and are so adiiiirnbly 
 
 calculated to preserve health and remove disease, that no family 
 
 should be >vithout tiiem. They consist of 
 
 Jayne's Expectorant, for Colds, Coughs, Asthmu, Consumption, and all Pulmo- 
 nary and Bronchial AttVctions. It promotes expectoration and allays inflammation. 
 
 Jayne's Tonic Vermifuge, for Worms, Dyspepsia, Piles, General Debility, etc. 
 An excellent Tonic for Children, and a beneficial remedy in many of the ailments 
 of the j-oung. 
 
 Jayne's Carminative Balsam, for Bowel and Summer Complaints, Colics, Cramp, 
 Cholera, etc. A certain cure for Diarrhcea, Cholera Morbus, and Inflammation of 
 the Bowels. 
 
 Jayne's Alterative, of established efficacy in Purifying the Blood, and for curing 
 Scrofula, Goitre, Dropsy, Salt Khoum, Epilepsy, Cancers, and Diseases of the Skin 
 and Bones. 
 
 Jayne's Ague Mixture, for the cure of Fever and Ague, Intermittent and Remit- 
 tent Fevers, etc. These distressing complaints are very generally eradicated by 
 this remedy when taken strictly as directed. 
 
 Jayne's Liniment or Counter Irritant, for Sprains, Bruises, Soreness in the 
 Bones or Muscles, libeumatism, and useful in all cases where an external application 
 is required. 
 
 Jayne's Sanative Pills, a valuable Purgative, and a certain cure for all Bilious 
 Affections, Liver Complaints, Costiveness, Dyspepsia, and Sick Headache. 
 
 Jayne's Hair Tonic, for the Preservation, Beauty, Growth, and Restoration of 
 the lliiir. A ploiisaiit dressing for the hair, and a useful toilet article. 
 
 Jayne's Specific for Tape Worm, a certain, safe, and prompt remedy. 
 
 In settlements und localities whero the ullendance of a physician cannot bo readily 
 obtained, families will find these remedies of great service. The directions which 
 accompany them are in plain, unprofessional language, easily understood by all; 
 and in addition, Jayne's Medical Almanac and Guide to Health, to be had gratis of 
 all agents, contains besides a reliable Calendar, a Catalogue of Diseases, the si/mp' 
 ioms by which theii viny he known, togethor with advice as to the proper remedies 
 to be u>od. All of Dr. D. Jayne & Son's Family Medicines are sold by Drug- 
 gists everywhere. 
 
12 The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 ]VE1V TV^ORK BY AD]MIRAL. PORTER. 
 
 The Adventures of Harry Marline; 
 
 OR, NOTES FROM AN AMERICAN MIDSHIPMAN'S LUCKY BAG. 
 
 By ADMIRAL POUTER, Author of "Allan Dare and Robert le Diable," etc. 
 With Illustrations. 8vo. 378 Pages. Paper. Price, $1.00. 
 
 A book of rollicking and stirring adventures. The picture of the midshipmen in 
 the olden times will delight our middies of the present day. 
 
 For sale by all Booksellers, or will be sent by mail, postpaid, on receipt of price. 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., Publishers, 
 
 1, 3, and 5 Bond Street, New Torle. 
 
 THE GRANT CAMPAIGNS, 
 
 As told in three volumes selected from the series " Campaigns of the 
 Civil War," which the Cincinnati ComnierciaL calls 
 
 " The ablest and most strildng account of the late war that has yet been written. Choosing 
 the flower of military/ authors, the publishers have assigned to each the task of writing the his- 
 tory of the events he knew most about. Thus, both accuracy and a life-like freshness have been 
 secured." 
 
 Three Volumes. 12mo, $1.00 each. 
 
 THE VIRGINIA CAMPAIGN OF '64 AND '65. THE ARMY 
 OF THE POTOMAC AND THE ARMY OF THE JAMES. 
 
 By Andrew A. Humphreys, Brigadier-General and Bvt. Major-General, U. S. 
 Army. 
 
 FROM FORT HENRY TO CORINTH. 
 
 By the Hon. M. F. Force, Justice of the Superior Court, Cincinnati ; late Briga- 
 dier-General and Bvt. Major-General, U.S.V. 
 
 THE MISSISSIPPI. 
 
 By Francis Vinton Greene, Lieutenant of Engineers, U. S. Army. 
 
 For sale by all Booksellers, or sent, postpaid, on receipt of price by 
 
 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, Publishers. 
 
The Ai-viy and Na\}y Qriarterly Advertiser. 13 
 
 GIVEN 
 
 iA WAY ! 
 
 EVEKY YEAKLY SUBSCRIBER TO THE 
 
 "HEARTHSTONE," 
 
 AT THREE DOLLARS PER YEAR, 
 
 IS PRESENTED WITH EITHER 
 
 WEBSTER'S PRACTICAL DICTIONARY, 
 DR. FOOTE'S PLAIN HOME TALKS, 
 OUR WESTERN BORDER, by mcKmoht, 
 
 OR NAVAL BATTLES, by Dr. Shippen, U. S. Navy. 
 
 The last two volumes retail at $3 each. 
 Send your name on a postal card, and full particulars 
 v/ill be sent you. Address 
 
 HEARTHSTONE PUBLISHING CO., 
 
 268 and 270 Souih Mnth Street, 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. 
 
14 The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 THOMAS B. HAGSTOZ. JAMES BUBDICK. 
 
 T. B. HAGSTOZ & CO., 
 
 SUCCESSOBS TO 
 
 The only house in Philadelphia making a 
 
 specialty of 
 
 Diamonds and Precious Stones. 
 
 ALSO •WHOLESALE DEALEBS IN 
 
 Jewelry^ Watches , and Optical Goods. 
 
 Mutual Life Insurance Company Building, 
 
 TEISTTS j^lSTID OHZESTHSTXJT STS., 
 PHILADELPHIA. 
 
2 Tie Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 15 
 
 CIRGULATIOH^ lOO^OOO. 
 
 THE 
 
 PHILADELPHIA RECORD 
 
 THE GREAT DAILY OF THE KEYSTONE STATE, 
 
 Issued every day, including Sunday, it forms an uninterrupted and 
 unrivaled channel of communication, with a constituency of readers 
 which is not excelled in any quarter in number, intelligence, or am- 
 plitude of means. 
 
 In addition to exceptionally full reports of occurrences, — local, 
 domestic, and foreign, — the "Eecord" gives especial pi'ominence to 
 agricultural, scientific, sporting, and dramatic notes and events, house- 
 hold knowledge, fashions, etc. 
 
 Fearless editorials on all important topics are features of the 
 paper. 
 
 A VALUABLE PAPER FOR ANY LOCALITY. 
 
 ADDRESS 
 
 THE PHILADELPHIA EECORD, 
 
 917 and 919 Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
16 The Army and Navy Quarterly Advertiser. 
 
 How Consumption Comes. 
 
 You feel under par. You are heavy 
 and draggy. Your appetite fails. You 
 are off in color. You are weak and short 
 of breath after exertion. Your skin is 
 clammy at times ; at other times feverish. 
 You cough drj'ly. Your rest is broken. 
 You are annoyed with night sweats. You 
 lose flesh, worry, get nervous, fail more 
 and more. 
 
 A CRITICAL PERIOD. 
 
 This is the period when tubercles are 
 forming in the lungs. Your lungs are a 
 magazine. A spark, like a cold, may in 
 flame them and ripen the dreaded tuber- 
 cles. Then you have consumption. 
 
 BREAK IT UP. 
 
 Can you do it? Beyond a doubt. Go 
 right to the root of the trouble, which is 
 not in the lungs, but in the stomach, the 
 liver. The active principle of Mandrake, 
 as found in Dr. Schenck's Mandrake 
 Pills, is nature's remedy for that condi- 
 tion of stomach and liver which precedes 
 Consumption and invites it. Cleanse the 
 system thoroughly. Change the entire 
 secretions. Set the organs in healthy 
 action. To help nutrition and bring 
 about good, rich blood, use the Seaweed 
 Tonic, which promotes appetite, favors 
 assimilation of food, and enriches the 
 blood. 
 
 IN CASE OF NEGLECT. 
 
 But if you have allowed the tubercles to 
 get into the lungs, then the previous treat- 
 ment must be assisted by Dr. Schenck's 
 Pulmonic Syrup, which ripens the tuber- 
 cles and helps the lungs to throw the 
 ripened matter off. It cleanses and heals 
 the sore spots by its action on the blood, 
 and works a perfect cure. Dr. Schenck's 
 remedies for Consumption are made to 
 co-operate to one end, and thus save 
 precious time and the vital forces as well. 
 No other tr<^atment has such a world- 
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 of over half a centurj', and its cures are 
 numbered by the tens of thousands. 
 
 I>r, Scliencli's 
 
 WORLD-RENOWNED REMEDIES. 
 
 standards for over Half a Century. 
 Proved on every Continent. Ac- 
 cepted in every family. Praised on 
 every Trial. 
 
 Cure indigestion, sour 
 stomach, heartburn, 
 flatulency, colic, and all 
 diseases of the stomachj 
 costiveness, inflamma- 
 tion, diarrhoea, piles, 
 and diseases of the 
 bowels; congestion, bili- 
 ousness, jaundice, nau- 
 sea, headache, giddi- 
 ness, nervousness, wan- 
 dering pains, chills and 
 fevers, malaria, liver 
 complaint, blood pois- 
 oning, and all diseases 
 arising from a gorged 
 and sluggish liver. 
 They clean the mucous 
 coats, reduce gorged or congested conditions, 
 break up stubborn comiilications, restore free, 
 healthy action to the organs, and give the sys- 
 tem a chance to recover tone and strength. 
 
 Is recognized every- 
 where as the best known 
 remedy for colds, con- 
 gestions, and inflamma- 
 tions in the throat, 
 pipes, and lungs, and 
 all diseases of the chest 
 or other parts where 
 matter has to be ripened 
 and thrown off. It is 
 an invaluable part of 
 l)r. Schenck's celebra- 
 ted treatment of Con- 
 sumption of the Lungs, 
 which has been used in 
 the largest special prac- 
 tice in the United 
 States, if not in the 
 world, for over fifty years, and which has 
 resulted in so many permanent cures. 
 
 DR. 
 SCHENCK'S 
 
 N 
 D 
 R 
 A 
 K 
 £ 
 PILLS 
 
 DR. 
 SCHENCK'S 
 
 P 
 
 u 
 
 M 
 
 O 
 
 N 
 
 I 
 
 SYRUP 
 
 A NEW AND EXCELLENT BOOK. 
 
 Dr. Schenck has just published a useful and 
 interesting work on the Lungs, the Liver, and 
 the Stomach. It treats of the function of these 
 great organs, and of their diseases and their 
 cures. It ought to be in the hands of every 
 one, but especially in the hands of sufierers 
 from Dyspepsia, Liver Complaint, and Lung 
 affections. Sent free. 
 
 DR. SCHENCK'S MEDICINES, 
 
 TS/LsLim.cXrsilsL.G) Pills, 
 
 are sold by all Druggists, and full directions for their use are printed 
 on the wrappers of every package. Address all coinmunicatious to 
 DR. J. H. SCHENCK & SON, Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
Penn Mutual JLife 
 
 PUREI^Y MLUTUAl,.-.-! i-t-Iiicorporated 1847. 
 
 ONE OF THE OLDEST, STRONGEST, AND BEST. 
 
 3a8h Assets, January I, 1885 
 Surplus over all Liabilities 
 
 $9,663,884.26. 
 - 1,812,360.34. 
 
 THE PENN MUTUAL issues all approved forms of Life and Endowment 
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 ALL POLICIES NOW ISSUED CONTAIN WE FOLLOWING: 
 
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 ' the times and place and in the ynanner herein stipulated, and that the provisions of 
 ' this Policy as to the age, residence, travel, and employments of the insured shall 
 ' be observed, and that in all other respects, if this policy matures after the expiration 
 ' of said three years, it shall be indisputable.'^ 
 
 Investment, or Accumulated Surplus, Policies present the ad' 
 vantages of Endowment and other forms at a less rate of 
 premium. 
 
 Officers i)i' the Armj- and Navy may pay premiums in monthly installments if 
 lesired, and are not required to pay any extra premium for "climate risk" while 
 n the service. 
 
 S. 0. HUEY, President. 
 i. M. NEEDLES, Vice-President. H. 0. BROWN, Secretary. 
 
 H. S. STEPHENS, 2d Vice-President. J, J. BARKER, Actuary. 
 
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 Prepared according to the directions of Prof. E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, l\1ass. 
 
 A preparation of the Phosphates of Lime, Magnesia, Potash, and 
 Iron, with Phosphoric Acid, in such form as to be readily assimilated 
 by the system. 
 
 As FOOD for an EXHAUSTED BRAIN, in LIVER and KIDNEY 
 TROUBLE, in SEASICKNESS and SICK HEADACHE, in WAKE- 
 FULNESS, INDIGESTION, and CONSTIPATION, in INE- 
 BRIETY, DESPONDENCY, and CASES of IMPAIRED 
 NERVE FUNCTION, it has become a necessity in a 
 large number of households throughout the world. 
 
 IJufversally recommended and prescribed by pbysi- 
 clans of all schools. 
 
 Its action irill harmonize with, such stimulants as are 
 necessary to talie. 
 
 It is the best tonic l&nown, furnishing sustenance to 
 both brain and body. 
 
 It makes a delicious drink with water and sugar only, 
 
 AND IS 
 
 INVIGORATING, STRENGTHENING, 
 
 HEALTHFUL, REFRESHING. 
 
 Prices reasonable. Pamphlet giving further particulars mailed free. 
 
 MANUFACTURED BY THE 
 
 RUMFORD CHEMICAL WORKS, PROVIDENCE, R. I. 
 
 BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. 
 

 M 
 
 TORSTENSON: 
 
 "A HERO OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.' 
 
 Tor^gten^on betoe Vieqna; 
 
 THE SWEDES I]^ AUSTRIA, 
 
 In 1645—1646. 
 
 WITH A 
 
 BIOGRAfHICAL SKETCJH 
 
 FIELD-MARSHAL GENERALISSIMUS LEONARD TORSTENSON. 
 
 " Om denna hfehens ara 
 Europa hapen an hat evigt vittiie bara." 
 
 SVENSKA FrIHBKRN. 
 
 BY 
 
 J. WATTS DE PEYSTER, LL.D., A.M. 
 
 BREV. MAJ.-GEN., S. N. Y. 
 
 CHARLES H. LUDWIG, PRINTER, 10 & 12 READE STREET. 
 1885. 
 
 ij:i:i:i;ii;;;i:4;s;i:ii[epiii;:ii;"i;;3;;;ii 
 
J^IST OF :P>UBLICATI0NS. 
 
 §. Watfe At ^npttx : 
 
 Master of Arts, Columbia College, of New York, 1872.— Hon. Mem. Clarendon Hist. Soc, Edinburgh, Scotland ; of the New Brunswick 
 Hist. Soc, St. John, Canada; of the Hist. Soc. of Minnesota, Montana, New Jersey, ic; Life Mem. Roj-al Hist. Soc. of 
 Great Britain, London, Eng.; Mem. Maatschappij Xederlandschc, I,ctterl£unde, Leyden, Holland. Ac, &c. — Colonel 
 N. Y. .S. I , 1846, assigned for "meritorious conducV to command of 22d Regimental District, M. V. S. X. Y., 
 1849, Brigadier General ior'*important service" [first appointment — in X.Y. State — to that rank, hither- 
 to elective], 1851, M. F. S. N. Y.— Adjutant General, S. X. Y., 1855.— Brevet Major-General, 
 S. X. Y., for ^^meritoriojia services" by "Special Act" or "Concurrent Resolution," 
 N. Y. State Legislature, April, 1866 [Drst and only General officer receiving 
 such an honor (the highest) from S. N Y., and the only officer 
 thvf brovetted (Major. General) in the United States.] 
 
 AUTHOR OF 
 
 Reports — ist. On the Organizations of the National Guards and Municipal Military Institutions of 
 Europe, and the Artillery and Arms best adapted to the St.ite Service, 1852. (Reprinted by order 
 of the N. Y. State Legislature, Senate Documents, No. 74, March 26, 1853.) 2d. Organizations of 
 the English and Swiss Militia, the French, Swiss, and Prussian Fire Departments. Suggestions 
 for the Organization of the N. Y. Militia, &c. 1853. 
 
 Life of (the Swedish Field Marshal) Leonard Torstenson ( rewarded with three splendid Silver Medals, 
 &c., by H. R. M. Oscar L, King of Sweden). 1855. — Thirty Years War, and Military Services of 
 Field-Marshal Generalissimo Leonard Torstenson (Series), N. Y. Weekly Mail, 1873 ; -^ Hero of the 
 XVn. Century (Torstenson). — The Volunteer, Weekly Mag., Vol. L,No. L, 1869. — The Career of the 
 celebrated Condottiere Fra Moreale, Weekly Mail, 1873. — Frederic the Great. (Series.) Weekly Mail, 
 1873. — Eulogy of Torstenson, 410., 1872. 
 
 The Dutch at the North Pole, and the Dutch in Maine. 1857. 
 
 Appendix to the Dutch at the North Pole, &c. 1858. 
 
 Ho, for the North Pole ! i860.—" Littell's Living Age."— The Dutch Battle of the Baltic. 1858. 
 
 The Invincible Armada. (Series.) i86o.^Examples of Intrepidity, as illustrated by the Exploits and 
 Deaths of the Dutch Admirals. (Series.) 1860-1. Military Gazette. 
 
 Gems from Dutch History. (Series.) 1855. — A Tale of Leipsic, Peabody's Parlor Mag., 1832. 
 
 Carausius, the Dutch Augustus, and Emperor of Britain and the Menapii. 1858. 
 
 The Ancient, Mediseval and Modern Netherlanders. 1859. 
 
 Address to the Officers of the New York State Troops. 1858. 
 
 Life of Lieut.-Gen. ( famous "Dutch Vauban" — styled the "Prince of Engineers") Menno, Baron 
 Cohorn. (Series.) i860. — Military Lessons. (Series.) 1861-3. — Winter Campaigns. 1862. 
 
 Practical Strategy, as illustrated by the Life and Achievements of a Master of the Art, the Austrian 
 Field-Marshal, Traun. 1863. — Personal and Military History of Major-General Philip Kearny, 
 512 pp., 8vo. 1869. — Secession in Switzerland and the United States compared ; being the Annual 
 Address, delivered 20th October, 1863, before the Vermont State Historical Society, in the Hall of 
 Representatives, Capitol, Montpelier. 1864. 
 
 Incidents connected with the War in Italy. (Series.) 1859. 
 
 Mortality among Generals. (Series.) 1861. — The Battle of King's Mountain. (Series.) 1861-2, 1880. 
 Oriskany, 1878 — Monmouth, 1878 — Rhode Island, 1878. 
 
 Facts or Ideas Indispensable to the Comprehension of War; Notions on Strategy and Tactics. (Series.) 1861- 
 2. Eclaireur, Military Journal. (Edited.) 1854-S. — In IMemoriam. (Edited.) ist, 1857 ; 2d, 1862. 
 The Bible in Prison. 1853. — A. Discourse on the Tendency of High Church Doctrines. 1855. 
 
 A Night with Charles XII. of Sweden. A Nice Young Man. Parlor Dramas. 1860-1. 
 
 Aculco, Oriskany, and Miscellaneous Poenis. 18C0. 
 
 Genealogical References of Old Colonial Families, &c. 1851. 
 
 Biographical Notices of the de Peyster Family, in connection with the Colonial History of New York. 
 1861. — Biographies of the Watts, de Peyster, Reade, and Leake Families, in connection with 
 Trinity Churchyard. 1862. — Military (1776-1779) Transactions of Major, afterwards Colonel 8th or 
 King's Foot, B. A., Arent Schuyler de Peyster and Narrative of the Maritime Discoveries of his 
 namesake and nephew, Capt. Arent Schuyler de Peyster, N. Y., 1870. — Local Memorials relating to 
 the de Peyster and Watts and affiliated families. 1S81. — In Memoriam, Frederic de Peyster, Esq., 
 LL.D., Prest. N. Y. Historical Society, St. Nicholas Society, St. Nicholas Club, &c., &c. 1882. 
 
 ( Continued on third jiage of cover.) 
 
From the Original, presented to Gen. J. Watts de Peyster, by Col. Count Kric de Lewenhaupt, Privy Secretary 
 to H. K. M. Oscar I., King of Sweden, in 1850. 
 
 LEONARD TORSTENSON. 
 
 (The Lion-strong Son of the Stone of the Thunder God.) 
 
 Field Marshal-Generalissimo of the Swedish Armies in Germany, 
 
 Governor-General of Pomerania, 
 
 Hereditary Lord of Reisa, Flirstenau and Reisigkh, Baron of Wiersta (Worestadh) 
 
 and Count of Ortala, 
 
 &c., &c. 
 
 Born 17TH August, 1603. Died 7TH April, 1651. 
 
TORSTENSON BEFORE VIENNA. 
 
 DIE 
 
 SCHVVEDEN IN OESTERREICH 
 
 MDCXLV.- MDCXLVI. 
 
 E I N B E 1 T R A G 
 
 7.VR 
 
 GESCHICHTE DES DREISSIGJAHRIGEN KRIEGES 
 
 VON 
 
 JOSEPH FEIL. 
 
 A TRANSLATION, .WITH NOTES, 
 
 BY 
 
 ^ J. WATTS (le PKYSTHK. ^ 
 
 I LINK, 1885. 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 
 Chaui.ks H. Li'pwk;, Pkinikk, 10 & 13 Heaok Stkket. 
 
 I !S .S a . 
 
s--x^^?^- 
 
 .■v-s-<xv%^"V^'*.-<V^''5''^-N^ N" 
 
 J, WATTS DE PEYSTER, 
 
 A. M , tt. D. 
 
 Life Member of the Royal Historical Society of Great Britain. 
 
 Member of the Netherlands Literary Association, Leyden, Holland 
 
 Honorary Member of New Jersey, Minnesota, Montana and 
 
 New Brunswick (Canada) Historical Societies, 
 
 Third Army Corps Union. 
 
 &c., &c., <fec. 
 
 Author of the " Life of Field-Marshal Leonard Torstenson, Swedish 
 
 Generalissimo," " History of the Thirty Years' War," 
 
 &c. &c., &c. 
 
sor^sseasoR. 
 
 Feii/s " Die Schweden in Oesterreich." 
 
 Page 379. No'i'K. — It was not until the time of the Kniperor 
 Ai,Hf:RT II. [|)reviously Duke of Austria, long before] [March, 
 1438 — October, 1439 J that Vienna was connected with tlie further 
 side of the river by bridges. Shortly before his death, 4th July, 
 1439, '^*^ '"'''^^^ deterniineil to build such, at his own and the city's 
 expense, over all the islands between the two banks, supported by 
 a fixed toll, yet crossing by them was not made compulsory, since 
 it was still allowed to cross by water from the old landing places 
 (Hormayer's " Wien," iii. c. 57-58, from the Town Records). 
 Then the Emperor Frederick 111. allowed, 13th May, 1440, that 
 the Viennese, who had already been at consiilerable expense for 
 furnishing timber, ^:c., might api)ly the income from the tolls, 
 first of all to a. i)reliminary covering of the cost of building the 
 bridge. He himself, 29th August, 1440, and King Ladislaus, jGth 
 May, 1453, confirmed the above pledge of the Emperor Albert 
 II. (The documents in reference to this in the Town Archives, 
 l)rinted in Weschel's " Leopoldstadt," Vienna, 1824, Urk. Books 
 No. Vlll., IX. and X., pp.. 11, 12 and 14.) Thus were these 
 bridges built — the first in Austria [proper] ; for that at Krems 
 was not built until 1463-1464, that at Linz, 1497 (Hormayer's 
 " Wien," viii. p. 48). 
 
 Care was taken at once, to protect the newly erected bridges 
 by entrenchments [bridge-heads]; one such for the middle bridge, 
 a second thrown up on the so-called Neubruche (fresh land) and the 
 third the Wolfs-schanze (Fortalicium in lupe proper pontem), are 
 found already mentioned in the year 1484, when Matthias Cor- 
 vinus appeared before Vienna for the second time (Dr. Tkhtels' 
 " Contemporaneous Diary," in Rauch, Script. Rer. Aust., II. 
 544, 545). On the 1 8th Dec. 1540, the city of Vienna under- 
 took all receipts and expenditures for the Long Danube Bridge 
 on its own account {/for/nayer's " Wien," IV. a. 2 17-21 8), Wolf- 
 gang Schmahrs " I'anegyric on the City of Vienna," 1547. 
 1548 and 1849, published at Vienna in 8vo., also copied in Hor- 
 
mayer's " Wien," VII., Urk. Buch No. ccxxiii.) gives exactly the 
 length of these dififerent bridges. The Wolfsbridge 260 paces, 
 Schritte, 520 feet, has 13 Joche (supports) ; the next in length 160 
 paces, Schritte, 320 feet and 8 Joche (supports); the Longbndge, 500 
 paces, Schritte, looo feet and 30 Joche (supports) ; finally the 
 Schlachtbrucke, 96 paces, Schritte, 192 feet and 5 Joche (supports). 
 The direction which the bridge then took, more westerly than at 
 present, can be exactly made out from old plans and drawings, 
 such as that on the copperplate of Lazen's "Topography," 
 which contains Vienna, first and original edition 1561 ; also on a 
 woodcut in the description ot the public entrance of the Em- 
 peror Maximilian II., after being crowned at Frankfort, which 
 appeared in 1563. (The title of this already very scarce publi- 
 cation (piece ot printing) is cited in '■'■Vogel and Griiber's Spec. 
 Bibliotheca Aust.," II., 636 ; also in Schirmer^s " Wien seit 6 
 Jahrhunderten," Vienna 1847, II., 289, in which last the book is 
 more particularly described. Further in Vise her' s " Topography 
 of Lower Austria," 1672 (in the to this appended general view 
 of Vienna from the south, there is clearly depicted, with the 
 drawing of the Kahlenberg, the star fort (Stern-schanze) beyond 
 the Wolfs-au). Also in the well-known large picture which repre- 
 sents the Turkish siege of the year 1683. Ot this (picture) the 
 chief part with the view of Vienna on a smaller scale is appended 
 to Dr. JV. Hocke's description of this siege, published in Vienna, 
 1685, and in a copy of the picture (last-named) appended to 
 Geiisaii's " History of Vienna," IV., 160. The above-mentioned 
 woodcut of the year 1563 shows the road through the Schotten-au 
 (at present Brigitten-au) as being probably on account of the clay 
 soil a corduroy road (Holztreppel Weg) raised on piles. To the 
 right of the drawbridge lay a shooting-box, Schishutt, and further 
 in the same direction lEGER-haus (Jagerhaus) at about the end of 
 the now-a-day J^ciger Zeile. At the beginning ot the bridge 
 which leads over into the Wolfs-au (on this cut designated simply 
 as Wolf) was a Theber and to the left of this a Svdelkvche, 
 either a cooking place where lard was tried out (wo Fettesausge- 
 kocht wird) or more probably a guard kitchen (compare Frisch's 
 " Worterbuch," Berlin, 1741, p. 355c and 357c). To the right of 
 the "Thebers " on the bank, a little more remote, on the right 
 corner of the Schoten-av, several houses are designated and 
 close by them Eis Grub ; about halfway between this and the 
 above-named " lEOERhaus " several buildings are again seen, 
 among them one exceptionally large, with a tower-like addition 
 and a sign Glas Hvt, without doubt a glass factory, which gave 
 to the present yager-zej/e its former name of " Venediger-Au " 
 (Venetian meadow), erected in i486 by Nicholaus Walch, the first 
 
5 
 
 Venetian-glass blower (.Wrt-.i^rA'i- Wk. Sk., V. ii). The learned 
 English doctor of medicine, Edward Browne, whose travels 
 through the Netherlands, Germany, &ic., were printed at Nurem- 
 berg, in 1686, and who (as may be seen on p. 196) was in 
 Vienna, iG-ji-'y^, says, on leaving the city, 1673, p. 271 : 
 
 " / was ohlii:^ed topass (yfcr the '^reat Vienna brid^^e which crosses 
 the broad Danube, and to pass the chapel oj St. Bridget which is 
 built with eii^ht corners. This bridi^e is a great, solid and strong 
 2iiork, and stands on four supports ( J^oche), ivJiich are overlaid with 
 from two to three thousand cross-beams, upon which lie the flooring 
 ( Ober-zimmer holzerj, over which one rides and walks, as briiiges 
 are generally built in Germany. — (Author has omitted the stretch- 
 ers. — Tr.) At Ratisbon there is a beautiful stone bridge over the 
 Danube and thetice down to Vie?ina there are several others — 
 wooden ones — but from VieJina down to Greek- Weissenburg, or 
 Belgrade (Alba Grceca ), I could see none other than bridges of 
 boats'' 
 
 It was not until 1688- 1698 that the road with the connecting 
 bridges, from Vienna across the Danube, obtained the direction 
 which it now follous [Bergenstamni's " Gesch. des unteren Werds " 
 — Islands), [Leopoldstadt] Vienna, i8i2,p. ^o,di\?,om Mormayer's 
 " Wien," IV., b. 221-222, and Weschel, I., c. 315). An atlas 
 prepared under the supervision of the Oberst-Jagermeister, 
 Count Julius Hardegg, for the use of the Emperor Charles VI., 
 in 1726, ".\tlas der kaiserlichen Wild-bahnen — game tracks," 
 in Austria and on the Enns (ist part, the Ebersdorfer district, 
 with the Prater and city grounds.) This may now be found in the 
 Imp. Roy. Library (73, D, 12 Atlas o, Tab. LVII.) It shows on 
 the other side of the Brigitten-au as still existing the 
 " Wolf-Schiitt " and upon (iiber) the " alten Stuben," is the so- 
 called " Louis- Sc ha nze,'' jierhaps a remainder, or, at least, nearly 
 on the location of the old ]Volfs-schanze. 
 
 (353) i '''•^ ^^'^^' sustained essentially by German blood, now 
 [1645] had turned with the full force of its afflictions into Austrian 
 lands. As formerly Thurn, with Bohemian warriors, first alone 
 and then allied with Bethlen Gabor (June and November, 
 1619), so now the Swede 'J'orsten.son, with an army chiefly 
 composed of Germans, stood before the gates of Vienna, and 
 it seemed as if Austria, after the sacrifices of seven and twenty 
 years of misfortune, must finally lose her pre-eminence in 
 Germany and her preponderance in Europe. 
 
 (355) Field-Marshal Gustavus Horn and General Johannes 
 Baner were, after the death of the king, Gustavus Adolphus [1632], 
 entrusted with the chief command of the Swedish-German armies, 
 the last soon alone, when Horn (taken prisoner at Nordlingen, 
 
27th August, 1633) suftered seven years' captivity. When Baner 
 closed his heroic career in death (loth May, 1641), Leonhard 
 ToRSTENSON, his companion in arms, and next to the fallen king, 
 the greatest Stveiiish general of the time, succeeded him as com- 
 mander-in-chief. His titles were Leonhard Torstenson, General- 
 Field-Marshal of the Crown of Sweden in Germany, Hereditary 
 Lord of Reisa, Furstenau and Resigkh, &c. In 1647 he was 
 raised to the dignity of Count of Ortala, 
 
 Long imprisonment and multiplied exposures in the field had 
 indeed crippled his body, but not his mind, which surmounted 
 all obstacles from corporeal suffering, and which was animated by 
 undiminished power and acuteness, as he most abundantly proved. 
 He had but just, with great difficulty, obtained a furlough from 
 military service in the spring of 1641, when the government 
 appointed him, rtii' ///^ /^(fj/ //Y7zw/ of their generals, \.o the chiet 
 command in Germany. This he, not without givingwell grounded 
 reasons for declining it, finally undertook, but could only actually 
 assume in the following autumn. But even then that hereditary 
 malady of the generals of the Thirty Years' War, the gout, 
 afflicted him to such a degree that the report of his death had 
 already spread in the army. Yet he was finally able, at last, by 
 being carried about in a litter, to conduct the war in person. In 
 one course of victory, he, in 1642, pushed across the Elbe into 
 Lusatia, took Gross-Glogau by storm (24th April), conquered 
 Olmutz (5th July) and closed the completely successful cam- 
 paign of that year by [his victory near by and] occupying 
 Leipsic. 
 
 The depreciating idea which the Austrians then entertained of 
 the Swedish army may be gathered from the book of a fugitive 
 Jesuit^(Pater Antoni Zeylern). He says the Swedes consist of 
 from 5,000 to 6,000 miserable ragamuffins, to whom 12,000 to 
 15,000 German rebels have joined themselves. To crown all 
 they are commanded by a sick nobleman (Torstenson) (356) 
 and the Master-General of the Ordnance limps about on 
 crutches. 
 
 As early as the beginning of 1643 the Reichs-Chancellor 
 urgently advised Torstenson to profit by his victories for 
 ^^^^advaueing throut^h Bohemia and Moravia to Austria and for 
 transferring the theatre of war to the Danube, as Richelieu and 
 Oxenstiern had always wished Gustavtis Adolphus to do.,^^1 
 
 This course Torstenson appeared to follow and it was half a 
 victory for the Swedes that Gallas, the noted ruiner of armies, 
 stood opposed to them. Yet Torstenson avoided any battles and 
 moved through Bohemia and Moravia directly upon Austria. 
 Already Gen. Wittenberg raided with his cavalry almost up to 
 
7. 
 
 Vienna and caught 800 lately recruited Imperial soldiers and 
 [Helmold, " The Mad or Wild "] Wrangel in the beginning of July, 
 with 3,000 cavalry, stood for a long time threateningly posted be- 
 fore the Vienna bridge. On this occasion 100 Wallacliians went 
 over to the Swedes with tiie words : " I'/v verba Dei et pro Patria 
 suscipimus hccc omnia " inscribed on their colors, and although the 
 imperial pardon was oftered them declined to return. 
 
 (357) ]^^^ ihen the Danish war suddenly called Torstenson 
 from that theatre of action, to which he ilid not return until the 
 beginning of 1645, after overthrowing (iallas in Jutland, but 
 now he was firmly determined to attack the emperor in the heart 
 of his own lands. 
 
 This year marks the culmination of Torstenson's glory as a 
 commander, but for Austria herself it was the most deplorable in 
 the course of the whole war, the miseries of which she had now 
 to feel in full measure. 
 
 When Torstenson returned from Denmark, the emperor him- 
 self had hastened to Prague for the purpose of raising a new 
 army. Of the 5,000 men thus obtained, he gave the command to 
 Hatzfeld. Field- Marshal (loetz joined him ; and finally the Elector 
 of Bavaria had sent to their aid 3,000 men under the bold 
 swordsman, Jean de Werth. These forces met Torstenson at 
 Jankau, three [German, about 15 English] miles from Tabor in 
 Bohemia. " Help. Lord Jesus Christ," was the battle-cry of the 
 Swedes; " Sancta Maria " that of the Imperialists. Misunder- 
 standings among the three Imperial generals and unfavorable 
 ground between hills and ponds of water soon [clubbedj brought 
 them into a bad condition. Still, victory wavered. Torstenson's 
 wife had already been captured by the Imperialists when these 
 latter forgot the pursuit of the enemy in a premature pursuit of 
 booty and were soon annihilated by Torstenson's [charge of 
 cavalry led by himself, and by hisj superior artillery. 
 
 (358) The victory of the Swedes was perfect and decisive. 
 Torstenson had by it opened the way to Vienna ; his talent as a 
 commander had filled his own men with new confidence and had 
 imbued the enemy with fear. After the dead had been buried Tor- 
 stenson caused a thanksgiving festival to be held on the bloody 
 field, under the thunder of iiis victorious artillery, and at once 
 marched with the Swedish army toward Austria. 
 
 (360) The " Quartier Direktorium " at Vienna, &c., were just 
 doing someting to alleviate what sufferings that part of (iermany 
 was experiencing from the war, when the terrifying news of the 
 battle of Janikau and the advance of the Swedes toward Austria 
 reached Vienna and demanded sacrifices far greater and those 
 most urgently. 
 
8 
 
 The Emperor Ferdinand III. was just then in Prague, while 
 the Empress Maria Anna, born Infanta ot Spain, was at Linz. 
 How uncertain the communication between Prague and Vienna 
 had become, ^ven in the beginning of March, is shown by the 
 circumstance that two gold chains, sent from Vienna to the em- 
 peror at Prague by the ordinary post, ist March, 1645, fell into 
 the hands of the enemy. * * * 
 
 Escorted by a number of cavalry under tlie Imperial C(^onel 
 Truckmiiller * * the emperor left Prague on the 8th 
 
 of March, about two p. m., leaving all valuables there behind him. 
 He took with him only his crown and 100.000 ducats for defray- 
 ing the expenses of the army. Travelling throughout the night 
 he arrived about nine o'clock on the morning of the 9th at 
 Pilsen, and the same day took up the court-quarters at Haid, at 
 the toot of the Bohmer-wald. * * * 
 
 (361) After completing these arrangements the emperor pro- 
 ceeded on his journey and took his next night quarters at Wit- 
 schau in Bdvaria. On the 13th of March, before three P. M., he 
 arrived, riding a little black horse, exhausted and dispirited, at 
 Ratisbon. * * * It was supposed he would rest at Ratisbon 
 for some days, but one courier followed another with discouraging 
 news that the Swedes were directing their march on Austria and 
 the French advancing on Nuremberg and Neuhausel. On this the 
 emperor left Ratisbon the next day (14th) about two p. m., after 
 dinner, to continue his journey by water and in the greatest 
 haste. * * 
 
 (362) The emperor had left Linz immediately on receiving 
 news of the mishap at Jankau, on the 1 3th, and had already reached 
 Vienna on the 14th March. 
 
 (363) On arriving at Vienna the emperor at once took 
 measures for defence, (Sec, and for ihis it was already high 
 time, for the next day Swedish raiders were across the Aus- 
 trian frontier. Torstenson, then encamped at Iglau, had given 
 permission to the 23-year-old Cornet Rutger von Aschebcrg, 
 afterward made a count and raised to the dignity of governor- 
 general and field marshal, to pursue the flying Imperialists with 
 130 troopers. In the night of the i^fh of March he had crossed 
 the Austrian borders, tJie first of the Swedes to do so. This is in the 
 vicinity of Retz. In a village close by was quartered the dwin- 
 dled remainder of the Imperial regiments Piccolomini, Pompejo 
 and Bassompierre, reduced in the last battle to 450 men. These 
 worn out and sunk in deep sleep [Paoli's Tavern, 1778. Hacken- 
 sack, 1779, Am. Revotlution] were surprised by Aschebergafterhe 
 had already set fire to the village in several places. Terribly 
 shocked, each of them thought only of his personal safety. 
 
Still, only a small number succeeded in concealing them- 
 selves in the neighboring vineyards. All the others were 
 killed or taken prisoners, among them a lieutenant-colonel, 
 a major. 5 captains. 5 lieutenants, 9 cornets, 113 rank 
 and file — altogether 134 men. actually four more than 
 the Swedes numbered. Besides 4 standards, 285 horses, 
 all the led horses of (ieneral I'ompejo, and much other 
 booty, fell into the hands of the young risk-his-neck, who at once 
 returned to the main body. * * 
 
 (264) On the iglh of March, the day after Torstenson had 
 broken camp at Iglau, which he took by stratagem and put under 
 contri bution, the emperor with his court and high nobles, escorted 
 by two hundred musketeers, arrived, by way of Linz * * * 
 in Vienna, to the great comfort of the anxious Viennese. It 
 was not to reach safety, but to give it, that the emj^eror had 
 come. * * Only the ignorance or the party malice of 
 
 later historians would torture this pure action on Ferdinand's 
 part into a flight to Vienna, or, still more falsely, into a flight 
 from that city. * * 
 
 (365) That Torstenson, witli the forces then at his command, 
 even when fortified by the intoxication of a surprising victory, was 
 not in a condition to carry through his coup de main on Austria, the 
 wise Swede, even now, saw clearly [and what was best to be 
 done ?] The bare effect of a surprise, however powerful at the 
 moment of the first terror, ensures no lasting success. It was 
 above all important for him to secure the assistance of Ragoczy. 
 This person. Prince of Transylvania by election of the represen- 
 tatives, was bound to acknowledge both the Emperor and the 
 Porte as his superior lords, claimant of Hungary, self-seeking and 
 vacillating, had, after antecedent preliminaries in direct communi- 
 cation with Torstenson, dated Weissenburg, 6th May, and Tobit- 
 schau, 20th July, 1643, finally, with the approval of the Porte and 
 of the crown of Sweden. i6th September, 1643, concluded an 
 alliance with Torstenson against the emperor, by the medi- 
 ation of France, and had liberty from the Sultan to make open 
 war. Trusting for a favorable result to his negotiations with the 
 Porte for the possession of Upper Hungary under a yearly tribute, 
 he had soon made hostile advances against the emperor. But be- 
 ing beaten by the Imperial Lieutenant-Field-Marshal, John 
 Christopher, Count von Puchhaim, at Tirnau, in September, 1644, 
 Ragoczy vacillated as to his further ])roceedings and repeatedly 
 entered into peace negotiations with the Imperialists. But 
 scarcely had the latter left Tirnau than Ragoczy again showed 
 himself hostile, and Swedish and French envoys with promises ol 
 French gold soon brought him again in sympathy with Torsten- 
 
10 
 
 son's successful and victorious course. When, therefore, the 
 emperor, after the defeat at Jankau, arrived at Vienna, his first 
 endeavors were directed to, if possible, resuming the peace nego- 
 tiations with Ragoczy and on the other hand to treat with the 
 Porte, through Lupul, Prince of Moldavia, that Ragoczy might 
 be held back from proceeding further in the alliance with Svveden 
 and France against the emperor. That Ragoczy was at least 
 again brought to a state of indecision and Count Czaky, on the 
 28th March, 1645, could bring from Tirnau to Vienna the pre- 
 liminaries of a fresh Peace- NecociatioH. The successful result of 
 these precautions was the sole cause which stopped Torstenson's 
 victorious career in Austria and that rescued Vienna from the 
 Swedes. 
 
 (267) Torstenson on his return from Jutland found only Olmutz 
 and Gross Glogau still in possession of the Swedes, and had, after 
 his victory at Janikau, marched the main body of his army towards 
 Olmutz, which had been for nine months beleaguered by the 
 Imperial General, Count von Waldstein. When, however, Lieut. 
 Colonel John Walter, whom Torstenson sent forward, -reached 
 the town, he discovered that Waldstein had already withdrawn and 
 Torstenson found it only necessary to strengthen the Swedish 
 garrison. After the retreat of Waldstein the Swedes had thrown 
 themselves with hurrahs onto the works of the Imperialists to de- 
 stroy them. ^^ They then raided the whole surroundiui^ region 
 for supplies and published throughout Moravia that all places 
 which would send their quota to Olmutz should be free from any 
 plundering and have safe-guards furnished them.^^^^J Since, 
 however, only few places answered this summons, the Swedes 
 robbed what came to hand, plundered the cloister Wellehrad, 
 and the towns Neutitschein, Kremsier, &c., and demolished the 
 Maria-chapel on the Holy-mount (called also Marienberg), near 
 Olmutz. I^^Olmutz was occupied by the Swedes from June 
 i6th, 1642, to July 12th, 1650 — eight years. ^^^J 
 
 (367) Meanwhile General Wittenberg was despatched to /i^lau 
 with 200 cavalry and 2,000 infantry, and arrived before its walls 
 nth March, p. M. * * The attempt of the citizens at de- 
 fence amounted to little*. * * The Swedes put a garri- 
 son into the town under Colonel Osterling, fortified it with 
 walls and ditches, and leveled the suburbs. The booty was more 
 than 2,000 horses, cloth to the amount of several thousand Reichs- 
 thalers. Torstenson now removed his headquarters to Iglaji and 
 was, much against his will, forced to remain there several days 
 by reason of his sickness being aggravated. He demanded from 
 Iglau a contribution of 60,000 Reichsthalers All cap- 
 tured Imperial generals and colonels were forwarded to Iglau. 
 
It was not until the iglh of Marcli that Torstenson could 
 break ujj from Iglau, in order to advance to V.naim, leaving four 
 regiments and 40 field pieces at the former place. Znaim was 
 bravely defended by the Imperial Colonel \\'elisch with 200 men, 
 but unsuccessfully, against the su]>crior force of the enemy. The 
 Swedes took the town by storm at the second attempt. . . . 
 From here he marched straight for the Danube. The 23d ot 
 March his headquarters were at Schratten-thal, not far from Retz, 
 around which town the main body of the army encamped. . . 
 Both Horn and Drosendorf surrendered on being summoned, and 
 Retz after a brief resistance. 
 
 1. On the 24th March Torstenson had pressed forward to 
 ,the Danube near Krems — that river the insuperable limit to his 
 
 course of victory. 
 
 2. As before mentioned the Swedes had already occupied the 
 heights comnKuuling Krems and Stein. The ne.xt day (25th 
 March, the festival of the Annunciation) they descended to the 
 Danube and occupied part of the Capucine cloister Und, situated 
 between the two towns, where they acted in hostile style. When 
 they, however, at once made use of the chapel of " Maria- 
 BriJndel," which had an image honored as miracle-working since 
 1643, for their horses' stable, Torstenson, it is said, was so en- 
 raged that he had the soldiers at once driven out by Colonel 
 Copy and an ensign's (Fahndrick's) guard posted there as safe- 
 guard. [This seems .somewhat doubtful, since Torstenson had 
 no superstitious scruples.] 
 
 The garrison proper of Stein consisted of only 100 men, com- 
 manded by a captain. The citizens able to bear arms joined 
 them, full of spirit, but the most determined courage could not 
 long withstanil the superior numbers of the Swedes, intoxicated 
 with victory. Even on the second day, March 26th, Stein was 
 taken by storm. The whole garrison, with their captain, and all 
 arms-bearing citizens, fell victims to the first rage of the enemy 
 as they entered. The town was gutted. It is said that only five 
 citizens were left alive. The captain commanding was killed with 
 his own weapons, the clergyman was mortally wounded and the 
 burgomaster stripped to his shirt. Revolting cruelties were en- 
 acted — happily, in such measure, without a second example in all 
 the remaining course of the Swedish inroad. The neighboring 
 village of Loibcn was plundered and ravagetl, 1000 eimers ot 
 wine |)Oured out, three householders shot, several cudgelled to 
 death, and a total loss of 6,460 florins occasioned. The town of 
 Stein and the Berg-Schloss (hill citadel) within were at once gar- 
 risoned by the Swedes. 
 
 (369-70) The bombardment of Krems now went on more 
 
12 
 
 earnestly. It was commanded by Colonel Ranfft^ a man in bad 
 repute with the Swedes, because it was said that, being 
 taken at the battle of Leipzig and paroled on his word 
 of honor, he did not again present himself. Although he 
 had only 300 infantry at his disposal Ranfft was deter- 
 mined to make a stubborn (courageous) defense.. The 
 terraces and the loose-vineyard-ground of the hills above 
 Krems made it impossible to bring heavy artillery up them and 
 the enemy attempted to command and bombard the town with 
 light pieces. For three days and four nights it shook under the 
 hostile artillery. Things seemed to have come to the last extrem- 
 ity. Men, women and children fell at the feet of Colonel Ranftt, 
 beseeching him to surrender, but he refused. Finally Krems was 
 surrendered andtaking possession of it had commenced, when a 
 drunken peasant fired a shot (cannon ? ) which killed the Swedish 
 Lieut.-Col. Essen and several privates, and mortally wounried 
 Troop-Sergeant-]Major of cavalry Suanto Bielck, the last much 
 regretted by Torstenson. Upon this supposed breach of faith 
 the enraged Swedes recommenced firing, but Col. Ranfft at last 
 exculpated himself and appeased the enemy. 
 
 (371) During the siege of Krems Torstenson had his head- 
 quarters in Weilderhof, near Nieder-Rohrendorf, scarcely an 
 hour's (eine Stunde) [2:^^ English miles] travel from Krems. 
 
 (572) After the Swedes had actuallv taken possession of Krems 
 they showed, to the joyful surprise of the anxious citizens, many 
 honorable traits. The clergy, it is true, were obliged to bind them- 
 selves in writing that they would have no interchange of let- 
 ters with the Imperialists, and that they would point out all 
 (church ? ) property which had been brought to Krems from other 
 T^o'int?, {a/le da/ii/i gejliic/iteie/i Giiter). In exchange a sufficient 
 safeguard was at once furnished, at their urgent request, to the 
 Jesuit college (then the Piarist Cloister on the hill). Several Swedish 
 soldiers who were guilty of plundering and ill-treatment suffered 
 the punishment of running the gauntlet. I^^Such traits in a vic- 
 torious enemy an impartial historian should not pass un- 
 mentioned.^^^j 
 
 That the Swedes often, and, as it were, designedly, were 
 forced into severer measures, is shown, among other proofs, by 
 the following instance. Not far from where the Damp empties in- 
 to the Danube, about five miles from Krems, already in V.U.M.B., 
 is the castle of Grafen-egg. It then belonged to the Imperial 
 privy councillor and grand court steward, John Baptist, Count 
 Werda von W'erdenberg. One of his daughters, Anna Camilla, 
 was married to the noted soldier, subsequently Imperial Field- 
 Marshal, Freiherr von Enkevoirt. Already during the negotia- 
 
13 
 
 tions for the surrender of Krems Torstenson had despatched a 
 Quartermaster-General, Conrad, to the castle. Enkevoirt, who was 
 a prisoner of vvar, but, as were all other prisoners of rank, was 
 treated with all consideration by Torstenson, had begged the lat- 
 ter to spare this castle of his father-in-law and to jjlace there a 
 safeguard. This Torstenson assured him of, and also promised 
 that place should not be occupied by the Swedes. When Quar- 
 termaster (General) Conrad with the safety-guard arrived at the 
 castle, the second-captain (Kapitain-I,ieutenant) in charge, com- 
 manding 27 infantry and a number of armed peasants, refused to 
 admit them. When seriously asked if he would surrender, he 
 jeered the enemy from the castle walls, asking if the Swedes took 
 him for a coward or a sneak that they thought he would so easily 
 • surrender. Thereupon the Swedes came up close to the castle 
 ditch and renewed their demand for surrender, sending a drum- 
 mer into the castle to negotiate. He was received with boastful 
 scorn. " The Swedes must indeed be very hungry," cried the 
 captain to him, " if they think so easily to win such a castle. 
 One may easily take partridges, but not such a castle." At the 
 same time he sent two partridges with their wings chopped off, a 
 jug of wine and a glass with the bottom out into the Swedish 
 encampment. So scornfully treated the Swedes resorted to 
 harsher measures, and after the cai)ture of Krems they appeared 
 with two i2-pdrs. (halbe Karthaunen) before the castle. Once 
 more they gave an amicable summons ; then again the comman- 
 dant, with impudent mockery, called out to the Swedes, " You 
 must be extraordinarily hungry if you have already devoured the 
 partridges. Wait a little till the young hares come. I will send 
 you some of them." Then the patience of the besiegers gave 
 way and they commenced battering (cannonading) the castle 
 door. However, when the commandant was hit by a musket 
 (Rohr) ball in the shoulder and there was no surgeon to bind the 
 wound, miserable cowardice took the place of impudent bragging, 
 and he humbly offered to come to terms. This was not, however, 
 agreed to. He was, on the contrary, advised to take to prayer 
 and ])repare for death. .After a short respite two sergeants per- 
 formed the duty, and two shots made the loose mouth forever 
 dumb. The next day the liody was hung up. for a warning, at 
 the castle gate. The Swedes stormed fiercely into the castle, and 
 in the first rush hewed down the cook and his assistants. 'I'he 
 remainder of the garrison and inhabitants of the castle were 
 made |)risoners. After this Torstenson took up his (juarters in 
 Grafenworlh, close by, as did also the Landgrave of Hesse at SpUz. 
 (373) ^^''^ ^^y Torstenson's plan the princijtal line of his oper- 
 ations did not lie in that ilirection, but as soon as he had secured 
 
14 
 
 his rear he at once marched straight upon Vienna. He aimed 
 especially at the decisive advantage of securing the bank of the 
 Danube. From Weissen-Kirchen, Spitz and Wosendorf, which 
 places the Swedes occupied on the 25th of March, he conquered 
 the whole Wachau at one blow. 
 
 The castle of Durnstein, on the other hand, was taken by 
 storm on the 26th of March and the little town set on fire. 
 
 Thus in possession of the left bank of the Danube, from Krems 
 to Persenbe(u)rg, the Swedes attempted the crossing ofthe river at 
 various points, but they were in every case driven back by the 
 Imperial troops on the south side — particularly by the Puch- 
 heimer troops at Mautern, and further up towards Linz by those 
 of Gallas. For the purpose of crossing, the Swedes had, in con- 
 nection with a block-house on a neighboring flat, worked hard on 
 restoring the injured bridge between Stein and Mautern, indeed 
 a report was already spread in Vienna, by a young Count von 
 Zell, that the Swedes had forced the surrender of the, from its 
 mountain position, fortress-like, cloister of Gobbweiz, and had 
 appeared before Melk (Molk). But this turned out mere report. 
 The S^vedish army Jias never trod this hank of the Danube as con- 
 queror. [The author, of course, means only near Vienna.^ 
 
 The Imperialists had, happily, withdrawn all large vessels in 
 the vicinity of Krems to the south bank, and the smaller craft at 
 the disposal of the Swedes were not adapted to the transporta- 
 tion of troops. Guarding the river seems to have been per- 
 formed by the Imperialists, at times, with reckless stringency ; for 
 when Count Kutz, with some of the Imperial troops collected 
 after the battle of Jankau, wished to cross to the south bank at 
 Aggstein^ the passage was denied him by the officer there com- 
 manding, doubtless through a ;///j'//;/rt'<fn<-/'^//(^////^'' such as even /;/ 
 those times took place. Consequently the count with his men 
 and much baggage fell into the hands of the Swedes, who made 
 consiaerable booty and took prisoner those who were not 
 slain. 
 
 (377) However, the abandoned [undefended] Abbey (Stift) of 
 Zwettl, plundered by the Swedes only once, was robbed by the 
 Imperial partisans (people) of Konigswiesen, Bohmisch-Gratzen, 
 Waidhofen and Rappottenstern six times, and each time a con- 
 tribution exacted. 
 
 While these things were occurring in the upper part of the 
 so-called Waldviertels, Torstenson, with the main body of the 
 army, was continually advancing nearer the heart of Austria. On 
 the morning of the 5th of April he broke camp at Grafenzvorth, 
 where we last left him, and on the same day fixed his headquarters 
 at Stockerau. After that, the Swedes, previous to leaving, had 
 
16 
 
 plundered the positions they held during the siege of Krcms, on 
 the march the market town o^ Hadersdorf ox\ the Damp, and had 
 set fire to Langenlois. From this latter town almost everyone 
 had fled. 
 
 (378) After that Ober-Sduserdorf, near the Russbach, had also 
 been laid in ashes. The town of Konifubun^ and the castle Dientz- 
 enstein, near to it, were attacked. Korneubtirgh, Kreuizeti stein 
 and Laa had been already before this provided with Imperial 
 garrisons, which in the two last places were commanded bv Col. 
 Lucas. A i)rolonged resistance, or at least the extorting of fav- 
 orable conditions, was expected, but on the appearance of the 
 Swedes before Korneuburg, Lucas without the slightest resis- 
 tance surrendered the castle of Kreutzenstein and also Korneu- 
 burg, 8th April. 
 
 When the Swedes took possession of Korneuburg they 
 found a large store of provisions, among which were 20,000 eimer 
 of wine, 5,000 niuth of breadstuff's, (juantities of oats and a store 
 of salt worth 60,000 florins, and 22 field-pieces. In addition a 
 contribution of 12,000 rix-thalers was demanded. 
 
 And now Torsteuson moved directly on l^ienna itself. Tliis, 
 the emperor's residence, was connected with the further (north) 
 bank of the Danube, over the various intervening islands, in a dif- 
 ferent direction than now-a-days. I^The road from Vienna then 
 took the direction of the jjresent Augarten-street in the Schotkn-mi 
 (now Brigitten-au). It led past the site of the later built Krigitten- 
 Kapelle and the then-existing Custom House, to a bridge, at the 
 further end of which was the Tabor-au. From this, then, the so- 
 called Z(;//i.- y)//V4><? led into the JVcdfs-aii. Through this a small 
 channel or arm cut its way, over which a shorter bridge was 
 thrown. Finally, on the further bank from the Wolfs-au across 
 (beyond) the fourth bridge, a star fort, the so-called Wolfs-schanze, 
 formed a strong britlge head. ,^3 
 
 Into this fort a garrison of the Imperial Regiment Fehrenberg 
 had been already thrown on the first news ot the advance of the 
 Swedes to the Danube (about the 26th of March). They were 
 not obliged to remain long inactive, for they soon had to drive 
 back straggling Swedish raiders (bummers — Streif-zijgler), then 
 also larger bodies of the enemy and again lawless bands of Im- 
 perial cavalry routed at Jankau. These were every time driven 
 off with the loss of a few men, yet these skirmishes indicated the 
 necessity of enlarging the fort and throwing in a stronger garri- 
 son. At last, on the 9th of April, the Swedish main body appeared 
 before the fort an<l apparently proposed, by taking it, to open a 
 direct way into the imperial city. Soon the enemy began a 
 heavy cannonading and began to open their approaches. On the 
 
16 
 
 other hand the fire was answered with equal fury by the Imperial- 
 ists until the coming down of night silenced both sides. 
 
 (380) Despairing of the success of a furtherresi-tance the Im- 
 periaHsts during the night entirely evacuated the fort, burned the 
 smaller buildings within and near it and also burned the bridge 
 behind them. The flames crackled (gushed) brightly upwards 
 and shone with glowing red through the darkness of the night; 
 the burning beams fell crackling and hissing into the stream be- 
 low. With break of day the Swedes marched into the abandoned 
 fort and immediately threw up strong breastworks facing the 
 bridge. The Imperialists threw up counter fortifications on their 
 bank. fOn the island opposite,] 
 
 I^^So then Torstensoii had pressed forward victorious into 
 the heart of the Austrian state and stood threatening before the 
 walls of the palace city of the German emperors. "=^^ The 
 hour of decision had come on. If Ragoczy united with Torsien- 
 son for one grand stroke, and by a quick junction reinforces the 
 Swedish line of battle in this decisive moment, the Northern leader 
 marches a conqueror thi-ough the streets of Vieii?ia, and what human 
 penetration could • foresee the whole line of consequences of this 
 event. But Ragoczy's selfish policy once more, at the most im- 
 portant instant, hesitated, uncertain from which side the surest 
 advantage would be for himself, and this contemptible condition 
 was the instrument by which Providence stemmed the sweeping 
 course of events and this, and as so often for the rescue of Austria, 
 brought in causes on which a miserable, halting faint-heartedness 
 least of all reckoned. That the emperor with a sure glance 
 recognized the point on which the decisive event turned, that he 
 at once comprehended which was the Achilles heel of his oppo- 
 nent ; this alone, as already said, saved Vienna — Austria. ^^^, 
 
 (381) If the alarm in the capital increased every hour during the 
 conquering approach of Torstenson, consternation reached its 
 highest pitch now that the enemy stood close in front of the 
 walls of Vienna and the worst might be feared at any instant. 
 
 (382-83) As regarded the measures of detail to betaken, it was 
 first of all necessary to bring under control the confused flying from, 
 and pressing into the city. As on the one hand all males from 16 to 
 60 years of age were forbidden to leave, so, on the other hand, 
 those were sent out who were not able to carry arms. The court 
 in this set the example. While Torstenson was besieging Krems, 
 on the 28th of March the widowed empress Eleonore, Ferdinand 
 II. 's relict, along with the young archdukes (the subsequent King 
 of the Romans, Ferdinand IV., then 11 years old, and ],eopold, 
 afterwards as German emperor Leopold I., then 4 years old ; 
 also the princess Maria Anna Josephine, afterwards married to 
 
17 
 
 Philip IV. of Spain, then 9 years old, left Vienna as evening came 
 on, in order to travel to Gratz. More than a thousand wagons 
 with fugitives carrying their valuables joined the train. // is said 
 that several of the coiirt wa^^ons ivere on this Journey pliiiuierai by 
 the Imperial soldiery [as were those of Napoleon 111. in 1870 by 
 his own soldiers, and as the rebel cavalry robbed their own 
 people in i863-'5]. Many persons of high standing, and priests, 
 fled, part of them to Venice, part of them to Saltzburg. Since 
 many entirely abandoned the Austrian states the emperor saw 
 himself finally compelled to forbid going beyond the boundaries 
 under severe punishment. What confusion prevailed in the 
 midst of planless rushing about, and in what an uncomfortable 
 situation the fugitives put themselves and others, may be gath- 
 ered from the circumstance that some towns, e. g. Wr-Neustadt 
 and Gratz, were soon over-peopled and therefore, on account of 
 the exorbitant price of provisions thus occasioned, shut their gates 
 closely against any further arrivals. 
 
 (383) The strong-believing emperor, as a stimulating examj)le, 
 ordered, with preliminary concurrence of the Archbishop of 
 Vienna, Frederick Philip, Count of Breuner, a general supplica- 
 tory procession. The emperor himself, confessedly an almost 
 fanatical promoter of the honoring (Verehrung) of the most 
 holy Virgin and of the belief in her immaculate conception, had 
 at once, on the advance of the Swedes, made a vow to erect in a 
 public place in Vienna a statue in honor of the holy mother of 
 God. He fulfilled this vow three^years after by the erection of 
 one, in what is called "the Hof," which LeopoUl I., in 1667, re- 
 placed by that now existing. At the sounds of the great bell of 
 the Schottenkirche, on the 2gth of March, the day of the sur- 
 render of Krems, at 7 a. m., the emperor and empress were in 
 this building, which could not hold the assembled multitude. 
 After prayers the image of the Virgin, re|)Uted as miracle-working, 
 was brought out of the ihapel by the Peneilictmes ami carried 
 on their shoulders with pomp to the cathedral of St. Stejjhen. 
 
 . . . In zealous prayer the anxious hearts jwured them- 
 selves out. . . . In the evening the litany was repeated. 
 The holy image remained set out for the like honor (homage) for 
 eight days. On the morning of the ninth day it was carried 
 back to the Schotten cloister with the same homage. 
 
 (385) The citizen militia was mustered and the students, called 
 out by an im])erial decree, aligned themselves spiritedly with the 
 defenders of the Fatherland. Each faculty (of the university) was 
 put under its separate cajjtain. In short about 5,000 armed men 
 exiiibited their skill in handling their weapons before the em- 
 peror. The artillery was at once transported to the walls avmX the 
 
18 
 
 citizens, students and artizans at once occupied the posts of duty 
 assigned to them in the city. With great haste impromptu forti- 
 fications were thrown up on the Danube side of the city, the dam- 
 aged part of the regular fortifications were repaired, especially in 
 the neighborhood of the Kaiserburg and the Burggarten; next a new 
 work was erected at the Neuthor and at the Rothenthurm, which 
 was considered so important that it passed for an advanced woik 
 of the whole country. For the purpose of carrying through 
 these works many houses belonging to the civil hospital had to 
 be demolished, for which the institution received compensation 
 on the upper and lower meadow. For digging the ditches not 
 only was the robust portion of the female population called on, 
 but, according to the standing orders for defense, those subject to 
 socage duty within a circle of six miles from Vienna were sum- 
 moned for a month's service. 
 
 As the Swedes held in occupation the whole of the further 
 side of the Danube, had erected several blockhouses, and closely 
 watched the whole length of the stream, the commerce by the 
 river and the supply of provisions by this means were entirely 
 cut off. Especially by reason of the great multitude which came 
 into the city there was soon a sensible rise in the price of all the 
 necessities of life. An order, issued through the public crier 
 (the, at that time, most speedy way of announcing meas- 
 ures of police), had indeed been previously issued, which directed 
 that every one, of high or low rank, should lay up food for one 
 year and that all fugitives from outside, all regular beggars (Bett- 
 gewand) and old loafers should be put out of the city. Never- 
 theless a needy crowd remained who had nothing beyond their 
 daily bread. 
 
 (386) Decree that every house, without exception, should 
 furnish within fourteen days one able-bodied man fully armed 
 with musket and pike, under penalty of confiscation of the house. 
 
 The environs were ordered to furnish one able-bodied man, 
 with musket, &c., and side-arms, for every 18 to 20 houses. This 
 within 14 days, and especially for the security of the river 
 bank. 
 
 As a further provision for strengthening the garrison, all the 
 district and Imperial foresters, with their sharpshooters, jagers and 
 boys, were distributed in the Prater-au, partly for making strong 
 abattis, partly to oppose by their skill in shooting the attempts to 
 cross in small detachments, which were at various times made by 
 the Swedes. These were very useful. After the Swedes had 
 already occupied an island, called the " Kothlocke," with four 
 pieces of artillery, they were so sharply picked oft" that they were 
 forced to a hasty flight, leaving their cannon behind them. 
 
19 
 
 [This is another valuable proof of the necessity of providing 
 practised marksmen, as was especially shown at the Siege of 
 Sebastopol, the Revolution in Geneva, and during the Slave- 
 holders' Rebellion, in fact in all modern wars.] 
 
 (387) Things looked much worse with the regular Imperial 
 regiments, particularly after the disaster of Jankau had torn great 
 gaps in them and scattered the fugitive troops far and wide. 
 Very few regiments had their ordinary complement. No cavalry 
 regiment had more than 60 men. From Prague 400 men 
 marched off who called themselves 20 regiments, and carried one 
 hundred and twenty (company ?) colors. 
 
 Difficulties in reassembling the scattered troops after the 
 battle of Jankau. Gallas was stationed at Prague and afterwards 
 at Budweis for this purpose. One corps organized, gained great 
 fame in the defence of Brunn under de Souches orders ; 600 
 men from Budweis had reached the Danube and crossed it 
 at Mauthausen, in order to occupy (das Viertel ober-Wienerwald). 
 Suddenly tliey received unex|)ecte(l counter-orders sending tiiem 
 back into liohemia. 
 
 (388) By this concentration of the fugitive troops and by the 
 enlistments (Werbungen) in progress it was hoped that in a short 
 time the Imperial army in the Hereditary Lands would, exclusive 
 of those Gallas was raising, be brought to a strength of 35,000 
 men. foot and horse. These and the troops expected from Itjly 
 were then to be assembled on the plains about Tuln, in order to 
 resist the Swedes with a respectable force. About the 12th of 
 April Puchheim reached Vienna with three regiments of foot and 
 five of horse ; then came 2,000 Hungarians, 13 field-pieces and 
 several of the banners captured from Ragoczy. The troops were 
 sent to Mautern for an effectual defence against the Swedes, who 
 were attemptiag to throw a bridge across, near Diirnstein, to etTect 
 the passage in mass. 'I'hese troops of Puchheim, as well as 
 some 1,000 which had been brought by Gallas and had crossed 
 at Enns, were now put in quarters along the southern bank, for 
 protecting the river. In addition, a detachment from the troo])s 
 of Gallas were sent over the river near Melk, tor the purpose of 
 reconnoitering, after Torstcnson had commenced, beginning with 
 Spitz, to assign contributions on all lordships and market-towns. 
 The Imperial forces received a further reinforcement by 2,000 
 infantry and 18 pieces of artillery, sent by the Elector of Sax- 
 ony. 
 
 (394) The general-feld-marshall (field-marshal-general) occu- 
 pied in the field the position of the general-lieutenant (lieutenant- 
 general, /. e., substitute for the P^mperor). commander-in-chict". 
 and this either independently or as a subordinate to such 
 
20 
 
 lieutenant-general ; but things were in their worst con- 
 dition when several field-marshals, without a common 
 superior, commanded together. It is universally ac- 
 knowledged that the confusion which was followed by the 
 loss of the battle of Janikau, is principally to be ascribed to the 
 circumstance that three-field-marshals. Hatzfeld, Gotz and John 
 de Werth, were commanding at the same time, and by their sep- 
 arate individual orders crossed, hindered and confused each 
 other. 
 
 Under the Field-Marshal General stood the " Feldzeug- 
 meister," Grand Master of Ordnance as General of Iii/a?Ury,z.\-id 
 the Wachtmeister-Geiieral [Quartermaster-General ?] [Major-Gen- 
 eralj as General of Cavalry. Of such, we have at the time of which 
 we speak, the Count of Pompejo and Ernst von Traun, John 
 Francis Barwiz, Freiherr von Fernemont, also court councillor 
 and Colonel of an infantry regiment, the Spaniard Don Felix, 
 Trauditsch, Zaradetzkv, and so on. Immediately subordinate 
 to the two general officers (general of infantry and general of 
 cavalry) were the general-field-marshal-lieutenant. As such we 
 find in the Imperial army opposed to the Swedes, Count Bruay 
 Hannibal, Marquis of Gonzaga, Hans William Freiherr Vogt 
 VON HuNOLDSTEiN, at the same time commandant-general of 
 "Austria below Enns," Mercy, Adrian Freiherr (at a later period) 
 Count von Enckevoirt, Count Raymond von Monlecuculi, and 
 John Christopher Count von Piichhetm, at the same time vice- 
 president of the court council. 
 
 (395) ^° ^he general staff belonged also the field-sergeant- 
 colonel (Obrist-Feld-Wachmeister and the Obrist-Kriegs-Com- 
 missar) the military commissary colonel, which last was the head 
 of all business for furnishing the troops with provisions, the horses 
 with forage and for moving the trains. The auditor-general was the 
 head of the military law officers and also charged with the ran- 
 soming or exchange of prisoners. Every general officer had an 
 adjutant-general, i. e. an officer, who, as the mouth-piece of the 
 general, had to communicate or carry out his orders and at the 
 same time to keep an exact daily record of them. 
 
 The common soldiers (of the cavalry) were called gemeine 
 Knechte (gregarii). Arquebusiers and dragoons, i. e. light mounted 
 soldiers who, when called on, had to dismount and serve on foot, 
 and were armed with a musket (arquebus). The two terms, arque- 
 busiers and dragoons, are identical in meaning we find in 1645, 
 <f.^. the dragoons [or arquebusiers] of Counts Gallas and Serav. 
 
 (396) It should also be noticed that the Imperial regiments of 
 that time were not yet uniformed, a custom first introduced in 
 France under Louis XIII. (t 1648) and which Prussia followed 
 
♦21 
 
 in 1703, Austria not until 1737. Before that time it wasthe busi- 
 ness of each colonel to give the soldiers of his regiment some 
 badge of distinction by which they might be recognized. 
 
 (398) The next endeavors of the emjjeror were directed to se- 
 cureing the release of the Imperial generals, colonels and other offi- 
 cers, held jjrisoners by the Swedes. As has been mentioned, 
 Torstenson had caused these officers, including Generals Hatzfeld, 
 Kara-detzky, ike, together with 3,000 common soldiers, to be 
 brought to Iglau. But beside those taken at Jankau there 
 were two other generals, who had been previouslv ca|)tured 
 and were not yet liberated. These were (General-Wacht- 
 meister) General of Cavalry Adrian, Freiherr von Encke- 
 voiRT, and (Master of Ordnance General) General of 
 Infantry, John Francis, Freiherr von Fernemont. En- 
 CKEVOIRT had once been released at the end of March, 
 1 64 1, on the application of Piccolomini, in exchange for 
 the Marquis de Gesures and Mr. d'Aiquebelle, from a prior cap- 
 tivity, he having been taken with John de Werth on the 3d of 
 March, 1638, at Rheinfelden ; but he had experienced the same 
 fate on the 3d December, 1644, being taken by Torstenson and 
 Geiss between Wittenberg and Jiiterbok. . . . Fernemont, (398) 
 on the otlier hand, had remained in the hands of the Swedes since 
 the battle at Leipsic (2d Nov., 1642), and notwithstanding his 
 repeated applications to the Lower Austria house of delegates 
 that they should at least advance the ransom money, had not yet 
 been redeemed. . . . The demands of the enemy were not 
 inconsiderable — for each colonel, 50,000 Reichsthalers. Mistrust 
 on the part of the Swedes, which arose from a like transaction in 
 1 64 1, was the reason that the affair was not at once concluded. 
 In regard to some of the higher officers, however, the ransom was 
 soon given and accepted, especially for Hatzfeld and Zaradetzky. 
 It was forwarded to Iglau, and Colonel Ranft't joined his com- 
 mand at Vienna on the 3d of May. Finally, by the mediation of 
 Imperial Cieneral-Auditor Gross with ToRsrENsoN.it was agreed 
 that all ca])tured colonels and other officers should be freed for 
 120,000 Reichsthalers. After the money was collected Lieut. 
 Field-Marshal Count Puchheim was charged with delivering it 
 and with the receiving of the prisoners. Clearly that compara- 
 tively small ransom was arranged by the reciprocal discharge of 
 Swedi.sh officers in the hands of the Imperialists. Still this 
 arrangement seems to have met with obstacles in its details, for 
 Enkevoirt was released on parole from Leipzig, to go to his estates 
 in Bohemia and Moravia. He received, however, all military 
 honors from the enemy, for he had a " fine " escort and two can- 
 non were fired (losgebrannt) in his honor. |^^ There was, how- 
 
22 
 
 ever, only one opinion as to the honorable way in which 
 Torstenson's chivalrous sentiments had always been shown in the 
 treatment of the higher prisoners..,^^ 
 
 Now that the enemy had penetrated into Austria the em- 
 peror's great object must be to give .his army a really competent 
 head and one commanding general-confidence ; in short, to ap- 
 point as chief a man, who, in commanding respect and in posses- 
 sion of wisdom and force of character was fully equal [if such 
 were possible] to his great adversary Torstenson. The loss of 
 Jankau had taught what were the consequences when unity of 
 command was wanting. Gotz had fallen in that battle. Hatz- 
 feld on account of the loss of the battle, as well as by reason ot 
 the igiK)ble pains he had taken to put the whole blame of this 
 [loss] on the dead (iotz, was not exactly in the bloom of the trust 
 reposed in him. Gallas had lost one battle after another, was de- 
 cried as the " destroyer of armies," and was now, in his misfor- 
 tunes, in the highest degree given to drunkenness. 
 
 On the contrary (to these) stood the Archduke Leopold Wil- 
 Uam, now the only brother of the emperor, equally respected as 
 a prince of the church and as a general, in the 31st year of his 
 age, in the bloom of his strength and fame ; on account of his 
 uncommon virtues called an " angel " by his father, the emperor 
 Ferdinand II. ; a realized ideal of high refinement in the devout- 
 ness and purity of his life, he was, it must be confessed, after the 
 manner of his time, particularly favorable to the Jesuits, and, of 
 course, highly esteemed by them. The things, however, which 
 that order may have u.sed only as a means to earthly ends, were 
 in the clear fountains of his devotion entirely separated from 
 such objects, &c., &c. [I do not see that he (Feil) shows him 
 (Leopold) to have been " Ein Mann, dessen Ansehen, Klugheit 
 und Kraft einem grossen Gegner wie Torstetison gegeniiber 
 vollkommen gewachsen war."] 
 
 (402) About the 24th April the Archduke Leopold, having been 
 made commander-in-chief and having made the journey from 
 Linz by land, with six post horses, arrived in Vienna. It is re- 
 volting to notice that the prince on his journey was besieged 
 [actually attacked] in the vicinity of St. Polten by the assembled 
 Imperial soldiery with impudent demands for money [pay and 
 arrears of pay], and had to suffer many unpleasant things. In 
 such a desperate condition of affairs, such bad conduct had 
 to be most severely punished for the sake of the example. Ot 
 the five ringleaders arrested, one lieutenant was beheaded, one 
 captain of cavalry hung and two privates were simply shot. 
 
 (403) That the powers plenipotentiary confided to him (Leo- 
 pold) actually gave him the position of generalissimo is 
 
23 
 
 convincingly shown by the following details. All his arrange- 
 ments and orders were to be regarded as if the emperor were 
 personally in the field, and unconditional obedience was to be 
 paid him. The atlministration of military justice, even to life 
 and limb, as concerned the whole Imperial army, from the high- 
 est general officer to the lowest soldier, was intrusted to him. 
 He had the power, without consulting the emperor, to do what- 
 ever he considered necessary and appropriate for the bringing 
 in of good order and military discipline, Xrc. 
 
 (404) Among the many evidences of the necessity of 
 puttin,g at the head of the Imperial forces a universally 
 honored and a tried man, stood, most prominent of 
 all, the comjjlete ruin of all military discipUne. (405) A 
 memorial from the Lower Austria delegates to the Diet 
 of May, 1645, gives a lamentable picture ot the times. 
 It is related how the Imperial soldiery, as soon as they 
 had crossed to the country south of the Danube, acted 
 worse than the enemy ; that, laying aside all discipline and pay- 
 ing no attention to the appropriate Imperial orders as to subsis- 
 tence, they had i)lundered whole villages and market-places, 
 entered castles, robbed churches and driven off catUe. In their 
 quarters, although ])rovisions in kind were furnished them in 
 abundance, tiiey, under all sorts of pretexts, extorted coin, and 
 when it was refused, threatened to fire the places, so that in a 
 range of twelve miles along the Danube, from Tulbing to Am- 
 stetten, all the inhabitants had abandoned their houses aud fields 
 and hid themselves in the woods. These in spite of all admoni- 
 tions and threats from their clerical and secular supervisors, could 
 not be induced to return, and even threatened the lives of the 
 officials sent out to them. Immediately upon a place being 
 abandoned by its inhabitants, not only did the wretches (soldiers) 
 look upon themselves as mastersof everything left behind — wine, 
 grain, hay, oats and straw — to do with it as they pleased, but were 
 abandoned enough maliciously to destroy what they could not 
 consume or take away with them. It was just as bad for those 
 peasants who did not abandon their dwellings; they were not 
 only obliged to give up their own property, but compelled by 
 threats of burning their houses and by all kinds of bodilv tortures 
 to betray the possessions of others. Every troop that followed 
 another surpassed the preceding one in impudent lawlessness, 
 without the most threatening imperial orders having 
 the slightest effect upon them. Out of simple indifference (un- 
 vorsichtigkeit) the market town of Blindenniarkt, not far from 
 Amstetten, was fired. C^The impudence of these lawless fel- 
 lows went so far as, on one occasion 00 the empress dowager's 
 
24 
 
 journey from Vienna to Gratz, to actually plunder wagons of the 
 Imperial court, and to attack the person of the Archduke Leo- 
 pold William, as has already been mentioned.,^]) 
 
 (414) Torstenson took his headquarters at Stammersdor.f. For 
 four days the concentrated Swedish army remained in this threaten- 
 ing position. The terror in Vienna grew with every hour, as they 
 beheld three handsome villages, fired by the enemy, send their 
 bright flames upward and the Swedish artillery began to pour a 
 heavy cannonade upon the city, Vienna. But just as anxiety had 
 reached its highest pitch and every moment the worst seemed im- 
 pending — it was the 14th April — the enemy suddenly, contrary to 
 all expectations — the believing disposition (glaubige Sinn) of the 
 time saw in it a visible token of the Virgin's intercession — broke up 
 from his strong position and marched (took up his line of march) 
 northward. Only Lieut. -Col. Sebastian Kallow, of the Copy 
 regiment, who was still suffering from wounds received at Jan- 
 kow, remained with 300 men in the fortifications, while Torsten- 
 son moved northward with the main body and the same day took 
 his headquarters at Mistelbach for the purpose of, in some meas- 
 ure, resting out himself and his army, which needed quiet after 
 such severe exertions. The fact was (namlich) that Ragoczy had 
 delayed bringing the promised reinforcement and Torstenson did 
 not feel himself sufiiciently strong with his own army alone to risk 
 a decisive battle. In addition to this lyhis rear was not secured 
 since the strong places on the Moravian boundaries and several 
 fortified castles in the Lower Manhartsberg circle were still in 
 the hands of the Imperialists. His next purpose was, by taking 
 them, to secure his rear and then to await the reinforcements of 
 Ragoczy. ^^^1 In this way, however, he lost the irrecoverable 
 advantage of a surprise, and although he victoriously took one 
 strong place after the other, yet the Imperial forces gradually 
 recovered self-confidence, while he, by the fruitless siege of Brunn, 
 weakened the marrow of his army and by splitting up his forces, 
 in the result, more and more dried up the stream of his hereto- 
 fore victorious course. 
 
 (415) While the Swedes were in position at the bridge over the 
 Danube at Vienna, the Hungarian General-Field-Marshal Ladis- 
 laus Barakozi, summoned by an order of the emperor and of the 
 viceroy (Reichs Palatin) of Hungary, had posted himself with 
 2,000 Hungarian and Polish cavalry on the banks of the March. 
 Here, by means of detached raiding parties, he captured a num- 
 ber of Swedes who were out seeking forage, whom he, in good 
 Magyar fashion, at once decapitated, and then carried away the 
 heads in sacks. I^^Enraged at this piece of cruelty Torstenson 
 sent out Colonel Jordan with some companies against the bar- 
 
OK 
 
 barians. These were soon overtaken at Angern, driven across 
 the March, the bridges over the river at their j)Osition taken and 
 a number of the monsters killed, among them the Polish Colonel 
 Sebinsky. E^* Thoroughly frightened the barbarous hordes with- 
 drew and did not again appear. Torstcnsun immediately caused 
 the pass al Angern to be (jccupied, to sec ure himself, on his own 
 side, from such incursions. While he remained with the main 
 body at' Mistelbach he sent out separate jjarties to master the 
 strong places in the Lower Manhartsberger Viertel and in Mora- 
 via. Major General Mortaigne » » * took the 
 frontier town of Laa and the market town of Falken.stein by a 
 coup lie main and ca|)tured many cannon. 
 
 (416) At last, on the 27th April, Torstenson broke up from Mis- 
 telbach and took his headcjuarters at Hohenau. Here he had 
 the army drawn up in battle array and celebrated a thanks- 
 giving for the victory won at Jankau and for his so far successful 
 course, upon which the troops were put into regular quarters. 
 
 'i'orstenson had also, in the circle above Manhartsberge (im 
 Viertel ober dem Manhartsberge), with some slight exceptions, (f.^^ 
 Feldsberg. captured the most important places and had made 
 himself master of Lower Austria beyond the Danube. He now 
 undertook the siege of the town of Briinn with the castle (am 
 Spielberg). On the 3d of May the advance guard appeared be- 
 fore the walls of the town. The heroic defence of this town and 
 of its castle, under the courageous and inflexible de Souches, by 
 which the Swede lost irrecoverable time and his best forces fruit- 
 lessly, and against which his army was wasted in vain attempts to 
 storm the place and then melted away, infected by the pest 
 caught from Ragoczy's rabble, and sinking under dysentery, was 
 the crisis of Torstenson's up to that time unchecked career of 
 successful war. 
 
 Although Torstenson had already subdued all Lower Austria 
 north of the Danube, and, in rear of this, the greater part of 
 Moravia, he thoroughly realized how difficult it would be to 
 maintain possession of this without having given a decisive blow 
 in regard to the capital. As this was only possible in conjunction 
 with Ragoczy, whose ambiguous behavior allowed of no certain 
 reliance, the clearsighted Swede was careful at least to secure 
 himself as tar as possible in regard to the declared enemy of his 
 untrustworthy ally, Ragoczy, and at once, by diplomatic means, 
 to bring the Hungarian party, which was under the lead of the 
 viceroy (Reichs-Palatine) Count Nicholas Esterhazy, and still de- 
 voted to the emperor, to at least a one-sided neutrality. (417) In 
 his letter to the Palatine, of the 25th April, 1645, from his head- 
 quarters at Mistelbach, he, before all else, defends himself from the 
 
26 
 
 supposition that he wished to destroy the Christian name and faith. 
 At the same time he endeavors to put what had already happened 
 in a softened Hght, that is to say, if he had hostilely occupied any 
 part of the kingdom of Hungary as being join"ed with the Im- 
 perial lands, as, according to the laws of war, had been the case 
 with other renowned kingdoms and mighty principalities, it was 
 only the course of the war which had compelled him to do so, and 
 the necessity for following up the Imperial hostile forces who 
 had fallen back across the frontiers of that kingdom. There was 
 no one who more heartily than himself and his Queen wished 
 that Christendom might soon obtain a permanent peace, but if 
 not, he must wish that the opposite should be maintained in a 
 Christian fashion, at least with so much of it as was practised to- 
 ward the Jews and the like, wJiom they tolerated. He would 
 not inquire whether Ragoczy could have entered into alliance 
 with Sweden and France, and, in addition, even with the Turks, 
 without the previous knowledge of the Hungarian and Transyl- 
 vanian; nor would he inquire whether the adherence of the diets 
 to the Palatine was loosening. But he had been assured that 
 Ragoczy had taken up arms for the maintenance of the freedom 
 of the Hungarian diet and could not be prevented from con- 
 cluding the conventions made, for important reason, with other 
 Christian powers ; there was rather every reason, existing to give 
 increasing praise to his conduct, es])ecial]y since he also was in 
 arms only for mediating the peace finally desired. He left un- 
 touched the Palatine's remark regarding the composition of the 
 Hungarian diet, and that the Swedes ought not to form any con- 
 nections with them, and passed over the threatening resolution of 
 opposing himself to the Swedish arms with the last drop of his 
 (the Palatine's) blood. No one, however, could find fault with 
 himself (Torstenson) if, after the tyrant-like acts of which Bara- 
 kozi had lately been guilty towards the Swedes, he should aim at 
 making himself safe in the direction of the Hungarian frontier. 
 And this without reference to the not yet forgotten impression 
 made by the effective aid which, since the times of Gustavus 
 Adolphus, the Hungarians, with every demonstration of hostility, 
 had given to the Imperial arms; not only on the frontiers of Hun- 
 gary, but also in the German empire, in Bohemia, Moravia, 
 Silesia. Saxony, indeed up to the very sea-coast. He, on the con- 
 trary, felt confidence that the numberof peace-loving patriots was 
 large who would not associate themselves with the Palatine, but 
 rather, when they once understood his (Torstenson's) sentiments, 
 would seek shelter and protection from him ; in which case 
 they and all belonging to them should remain in perfect security 
 on their estates, in their dwellings, and in whatever were their oc- 
 
%7 
 
 cui)ations. If, however, the contrary proved to be tlie fact, the 
 threats made by the Palatine should not deter him, and no one 
 ought to wonder if he then acted according to the usages of war. 
 In conclusion he repeated the wish that sighing ('hristendom, after 
 long sutt'cring the direst extremity, should at last obtain a worthy 
 peace. That these advances from liie Swede remained without 
 effect on the loyalty of spirit ot the Palatine, Count Nicholas P",s- 
 terhazy, towards his king is easily to l)e sujjposeil and was proved 
 by the result. 
 
 (418) However vigorously and energetically these measures for 
 collecting an army, &c., on the part of the Austrians, were pressed 
 forward, the mo;e the scattered forces for rescuing the fatherland 
 from an arrogant foreign sway were concentrated, it is the more 
 melancholy to see that even then a detestable party in Austria 
 itself were secretly brooding over disgraceful treason. One ex- 
 ample will suffice for understanding this. In the middle of April 
 at Weitenegg on the Danube, where, as before mentioned, there 
 was still an Imperial garrison, although the Swedes had already 
 subjugated the whole Wach-au district, a man, who was in great 
 haste to cross the Danube, was arrested as a suspicious character. 
 On being searched a letter was found concealed in his walking- 
 stick, in wiiich it was betrayed in detail to the Swedes, when, 
 where and how they coui<l best gain posse.ssion of Vienna. 
 
 On further examination the confused man at last confessed 
 that he had received the letter from the Lutheran [?J Stiinde. [Is 
 not this a Papist shift of responsibility on to innocent shoulders ?J 
 
 The Empress suddenly left Vienna for (iratz. [The author 
 thinks from a supposed plot to a.ssassinate the eleven-) ear-old 
 Archduke Ferdinand Francis by a Frenchman.] 
 
 (419) It was a singular coincidence of circumstances that, at the 
 very moment when the Swedish forces la)- before \'ienna and held 
 tile city almost in blockade (loth A])ril), the there resident Pa- 
 pal Nuncio, by commission of the Pope, prepared a brief for 
 setting free a sovereign prince ot the Oerman empire, who had 
 been for eight years a jjrisoner in Vienna. This was Philip Chris- 
 topher von Sotern, Elector of Treves, who, driven to extremities 
 between Spain and the Netherlands, between France^ and the 
 Swedish Protestant party, and abandoned by the Emperor and 
 the League, could find no other recourse than, on the advance of 
 the Swedes (Dec, 1631), to throw himself into the arms of 
 France. Papal brief arrived in Vienna 20th March. 1640, under 
 the thunder of the Swedish artillery. 
 
 The nth of May the released prince left Vienna with a 
 stately esOort and was forwarded on Imperial vessels with abun- 
 dant supply of provisions to Passau, whence he continued his 
 
28 
 
 journey. The circumstance that a festival should again take 
 place in the just-before terror-stricken Vienna allows us to con- 
 clude that here it was supposed that the most threatening danger 
 was, at least for the moment, passed, after the withdrawal of the 
 main body of the Swedes, although the Wolf-schanze was still 
 occupied by a detachment of the enemy. (420) The emperor too 
 allayed the fit of terror which had seized his officials, in the 
 already-mentioned bulletin of the 26th April, with the com- 
 forting words that the course of war-events was now in such a 
 way altered that the dangers of war were no longer so great for 
 the city of Vienna and all necessity for removing the govern- 
 ment archi/esaway from that city was now at an end. |^In fact, 
 the conquering Torstenson behaved, in respect to Vienna, as 
 an honorable enemy, and as at the end of the Thirty Years' 
 War, which, in the long duration of its cruelties had already 
 drawn in and made savage a whole generation, could scarcely 
 have been expected. |y He not only opened again the free- 
 dom of commerce upon the Danube, under a certain toll, but 
 returned to the subjects (Unterthanen — peasants, countrymen), 
 under moderate conditions, the cattle he had seized. This con- 
 duct was answered by responding courtesy on the part of the 
 Viennese, in that, from time to time, Swedes were admitted 
 into the city to purchase what they needed. Indeed, it is re- 
 lated that a valet [chamberlain ?] of Torstenson came to Vienna 
 from the Swedish headquarters at Stammersdorf with an Im- 
 perial pass, in order to purchase for his master some thousand 
 reichsthaler's worth of saddles and horse furniture, a circumstance 
 which at first startled the Viennese not a little. They, how- 
 ever, willingly, by this litde politeness, requited the considerate 
 treatment which Torstenson accorded to the Imperial generals 
 and superior officers captured by him. 
 
 KyEven if it be supposed, from this, that just then Tor- 
 stenson was not fully in earnest with the siege of Vienna, this 
 occurrence is yet an honorable trait for both sides. ^^^^ 
 
 (421) Even before the return of the Archduke Leopold William 
 (he had gone to Pressburg to provide against a reported 
 advance of Ragoczy) preparations had been commenced for 
 reconquering the Wolfs-schanze fort, near Vienna, which was 
 still occupied by the Swedes. As the most effective promoter 
 of this understanding and its successful result we find the name 
 of Colonel Frederic Reich, a name here (in these pages?) for 
 the first time brought into remembrance after two hundred years. 
 
 (422) ly Colonel Reich was not at the battle of Jankau. 
 He intimates plainly that he was not wanted there. He, without 
 
29 
 
 hesitation, ascribes the loss of the battle by the Imperialists to 
 Torstenson's surpassing talents as a military commander.^^^J 
 
 (423) Then Imperial troops were crossed over ni three 
 vessels, who attempted to storm the breaches made by 
 the artillery in the fort. Kallow [the Swedish commandant] 
 and his men were obliged to retire into the iimermost work. 
 Here too the Swedes defended themselves manfully, 
 but the Imperial soldiers (424) [impressed men, deserters, 
 perhaps] who were among them, so soon as they were 
 under view of their countrymen outside, refused to fire or resist 
 any longer and made from the breastworks the signal of volun- 
 tary surrender with their hats. Finally, at four o'clock in the 
 afternoon, the fort was taken by storm without the loss of a single 
 man on the Imperialist side. . . . 
 
 (424) It was, however, high time that the fort should be taken, 
 for at 8 A. M. on the very next day (31st May, 1645), (ieneral Wit- 
 tenberg, marching from the Hungarian frontier to the relief oj 
 the fort, had arrived within a mile of it. He, however, turned 
 about at once on receiving intelligence of what had happened. 
 The fort was at once occupied by a sufficient Imperialist garrison 
 and under the direction of Colonel Reich four redoubts were 
 thrown up for securing an unrestricted commerce on the Danube. 
 The Swedes ascribed the loss of the fort simply to the circum- 
 stance that the forty Imperialist soldiers captured by them re- 
 fused to make any further resistance, as the party who had 
 penetrated the outer works pressed forward and began what they 
 called a " treacherous union " with the I mi)erialist troops. 
 
 (429) The plan for taking Krems by stratagem was foiled by the 
 treachery of a citizen of the town and the lmj)erialist forces 
 were obliged to withdraw with considerable loss, for Torstenson, 
 on learning of the advance of the Imperialists, immediately 
 detached 1.500 men to its relief. In Krems itself things seemed 
 in an evil condition at this time, in consequence of the hostile 
 occupation. The vineyards in a great measure torn up in making 
 fortifications and trenches, lay, for a great distance around, de- 
 stroyed, and gave, in this year, not the slightest yield. Many of 
 the best buildings were burned down and ruined, as, for example, 
 the golden Kammer Hof (Exchequer-Court — P^xchange), first 
 ])lundered and then demolished ; the rest had been obliged to 
 furnish Swedish fpiarters and to jjay heavy contributions. Luth- 
 eran preachers preached in the parish church (St. N'itus') and ad- 
 ministered the sacrament in both kinds to many thousand coun- 
 try people from LTpper Austria and Bohemia. Meantime not a 
 single citizen of Krems deserted tl.e faith of his fathers. It 
 should, however, be pro|)erly notice*! the enemy exercised not 
 
30 
 
 the slightest compulsion in matters of faith ; on the contrary? 
 they allowed the Catholic service to be held in the Jesuit church 
 without interference. At the same time they prohibited any 
 communication of the captured Imperialist soldiers with the 
 Jesuit college, because the latter had brought themselves under 
 a suspicion of secret correspondence with the former. 
 
 (431) The Dominican cloister Imbach (formerly Minnbach), in 
 the neighborhood of Krems, was spared by the enemy, from a most 
 honorable feeling of gratitude. The nuns, indeed, had taken to 
 flight on the approach of the Swedes, and gone to Salzburg, 
 where they were hospitably received, at the Cloister of St. Peter, 
 by Abbot Albert. I'hree lay-sisters, however, had remained be- 
 hind, who exchanged their cloister costume for common dress 
 and it so happening that the wife of the Swedish commander 
 (Torstenson's .-') was delivered of a child in the cloister, these 
 women tended the lady (Wochnerin) and her offspring with the 
 kindest and most devoted care. As a handsome acknowledge- 
 ment of this service, so it is said, the cloister remained un- 
 touched; ... In a note (3) there is some account of Tor- 
 stenson's wife, but it seems probable that the lady here mentioned 
 was the wife Lt.Col. Hans Lundidh. 
 
 (439) At the market town of Gaunersdorf, the inhabitants, 
 alarmed by the approach of the Swedes, attempted to 
 hide themselves in excavations in the ground, of which 
 some may still be seen in the town market-place (im 
 market) and in the parochial court-yard (im Pfarrhofe). In 
 these, it is said, the enemy suffocated many of them with 
 smoke and that others died of hunger. At a place outside 
 the town where an already much weather.-beaten built-up 
 pillar stands, at apoint where the road turns off to Hogersbrunn 
 in the direction of Mistelbach. it is said that fifty inhabitants of 
 Gaunersdorf fell into the hands of the Swedes and were butch- 
 ered by them in the most horrible manner. The pillar is said to 
 at once mark the place of this occurrence and that where the 
 unfortunates were buried. Thus much is certain — the market- 
 town of Gaunersdorf was in this year fired by the Swedes and 
 burnt to the ground. 
 
 (441) In the beginning of June the Generalissimo Archduke 
 Leopold had gone to the shrine [of the black Virgin[ at Mariazell in 
 Steyermark, to obtain fresh strength of soul for the approaching 
 decisive crisis of the war, and to beg of the Disposer of our lots, 
 victory for the forces entrusted to his leadership. While Torsten- 
 son, with half of the forces at his disposal, continued in front of 
 Briinn and pushed the siege with energy, but fruitlessly, Gallas 
 marched on the roth of June from Vienna to join the troops -as- 
 
31 
 
 sembled in Bohemia, with the purpose of making an unexpected 
 diversion whicli might draw him off from the blockade of Briinn. 
 There were already 14.000 men assembled at Schuttenhofen and 
 thither Gallas (iroceeded by way of Budweis. The archduke was 
 to join him with an additional 8,000 men who had already 
 crossed the Danube. On the other hand the two Ragoc/.ys, 
 father and son, were advancing with some thousands ot Hun- 
 garian horsemen to strengthen 'I'orstenson's forces, but [Imperial 
 Marshal] Puchheim followed from Hungary, close upon the two 
 Ragoczys, to watch their proceedings. Notwithstanding this the 
 young Ragoczy, after he had joined Torstenson at Brunn, sent 
 out raiding parties in various directions ; i,ooo Hungarians made 
 a dash as far as the bridges of Vienna, here fell uj)on some sub- 
 jects of Count Hoyos who were about to cross over to Vienna, 
 detached from their wagons 136 horses and knocked out the 
 bottoms of many casks of w^ne. 
 
 (442) Yet it was not allotted to the Emperor to remain longer in 
 his capital for. as it were, to fill full the measure of tril)ulation for 
 that year (1645) the destructive epidemic-pest (Pest-Seuche) 
 brought by the hordes of Ragoczy from Hungary into Austria, 
 l)roke out in the month of July with great severity. In Vienna 
 itself from 30 to 40 fell a sacrifice to it daily. On account of 
 it, the Vienna High-school was, after the autumn vacation, not 
 reopened for that year. Throughout the city all measures were 
 taken to prevent the sjjread of the disease, especially by the Im- 
 perial orders of the 28th July, 19th August, and 20th November, 
 1645; the Infection-Regulationsof the year 1644 were strictly en- 
 forced. The police regulations taken in Vienna and issued 
 through the public crier, strove to restrain the eating of unripe 
 fruit and to j)revent any contamination of the air. Since, at that 
 time, in the absence of our modern sewers, the refuse from the 
 houses was carried by so-called gutters (Rinnsiile) into the main 
 channels which ran in the middle of the streets and lanes, it was 
 onlained that every house-holder should cause these gutters to be 
 washed out three or four times a day. The fruit and poultry 
 market was removed outside the city, the leather cutters and 
 saddlers were no longer allowed, as before, to keep the skins re- 
 fjuired by their business in the city. The butchers and wine 
 shops were obliged to cleanse the air of their stalls and cellars 
 with Kronawet-rauch from the hurtful exhalations. The physi- 
 cian, Dr. Strasser, was charged with issuing passes for those who 
 wished to be removed from the infet:ted houses to the Spittal-au 
 (hospital mead or meadow), whence, however, they were not al- 
 lowed to return to the city for forty days. He it was, too, who, 
 at aJater period, issue<1 bills of health to those who wished to 
 
M2 
 
 visit llic I inpcn.il rcsidcni c ;il St. I'(')llcii. In .k Mil n m, it 
 was ()I(Umt(I that pcoplr should not tun .ij^autst ('a< li oIIhi In tin- 
 sticrls, (?) and thai no one should show liorror (! ?) w hrii |) issiiiij 
 the la/.arcllns (|)r;.i hospitals). I'',vrry sick prrson who <lid nol 
 wish to jj;o In ihc hospitals was al librrly lo remain al his house. 
 but secluilcd ,iihI id his own way (nacii ihtrr ( tfli'm'nlu'il — ron- 
 vonicncc) pass liuough his siikncss and ini'dical Ircalmcnl. I'V-ar- 
 ful were tlu* ravages ol this devaslatinf.', <Iisease. In in;in\ houses 
 of both W'ienerwalder-Kreise all were dead. rh(\ icni.nned de 
 seited, and willingly would the owners have nnlcd them lor 
 nothiii).;, it thev < ()\tld only iiave procured tenants (Still l.euti-). 
 The Minperor reniaine*! (until past the inid<lle ol August) as lonj; 
 in Vienna as it was possible to do so, wilhont cNlrenic dai)i;er lo 
 the safety ol hiinsell and ol his lainily. 
 
 (,|.|-^) The I'.inperor wrote to Mriinn that the Art hdiike was do 
 ing liis best to niairh to their reliel. I'or the lMn|)eror did not yet 
 know that on the day before, altei a sixteen weeks' siege, during 
 whi( h It had held out through the heroic bravery of its citizens, its 
 students, and of the garrison under the skilllul conuuand ol Col- 
 onel dr Sotiches, Mrunn \\m\ been freed from the enemy and won the 
 crown of undying military lonowti and unchangeable loyalty. 
 l'"or Torslenson, whose troops were infecteil with the pest from the 
 wild hordi's ot Kagoc/.y to such an extent that two regimentshad 
 almost entirely died ol il, while the rest were sulli-ring from 
 tliarrluoa brought on by the immoderate eating ol fruit, could the 
 less cherish any hope ol a successful result ; that, a I the very 
 linu", the peace negotiations commenced by the hanperor with 
 Ragoc/y h.id come to a favorable conclusion. It was a happy 
 ( oiiu idence ol ciicumstances. alter a long period of dark troul)l<', 
 that on the \c\\ d.i\ when the siege of Hrunn was lully ab.in 
 doned, /. (-. the .!.|thol .\iigust, the, it list successtul, closing olVa 
 treaty with Kagoe/.y (on the iM\ ol Augiisl) was proclaimed 
 amid the cheers of thousands, and that a I'e Deiim «-ou!d be 
 performed at N'ienna for this important eviMil. 
 
 (.(.(.|) The I'anperor with the Archduke I .("opold )ourne\cd to 
 1, in/., whence the l'',mi)eror, as Kingol Hungary, under dale of ihc 
 ir>th of St'ptembei. issued the important etiict whicli. under the 
 n.ime ol the I, in/ Pacification, ai\d at the demand ot Kagoc/y, 
 secured lo the rrolest.'ints ol llungaiv the lri>e c\cit ise ol iheir 
 religion. 
 
 Torslenson, lor his part, alter raising the siege of Ihimn and 
 alter pn>liminarily lorwarding his wife, with the t>lher li'inales and 
 a considei.ible amount of treasure, to Olmiit/, under escort ot 
 ( "oloiiel raikul, had marched with his main boih lo Mislelbath. 
 Ileie he .illowcd his troops some da\s ol repose and st'Ul olV. 
 
tilitk'r (l.ilr til the ^(>lh III .\iij;ii'<t, a (U'l.iilnl ic|i(iil iii ulinli lu' 
 gave the reasons Ini ii-iiiiii^ 111)11) Ititiini and :iii .it counl til Ka 
 g(H/.y's rallii))^ (ill hum llu- Swctlisli t;uisc. Ilcic also lu* lii'ld 
 coiiiuils ol w.ii .1'. Id lilt" plans lor linlluT oix'ialions. 'Ihc dr 
 ('isioi\ was It) III. Ill li tliic't ily npon llu> AusUians and t)llcr llit-ni 
 li.illlf. Ill t .isr lllt•^ wonltl not at t i-pl il, then It) cross I h<" I). in 
 uIk' and so make llu- sonlli liank also a pari ol the (lu-alic til 
 operations. . . . iMom Mistelbaeh Toislensoii sent Miijor 
 (Jencral W'illcnherg with 3,000 eiw.dry to llu* Vienn;i hritlj^es, 
 hut lliis ciiil li:iil no success anti t tisl llie Swedes .pi men, who 
 well" brought piisoners into Vii-nna. 
 
 On the other haml ihe .Swi-tle n.ive loose in llie iinillicui di. 
 ti'iets to his disconleni, al llie liinlless sie^e ol lUiinn antI al 
 Kagoc/y's want <)( lailh, Wv pliiiitleiing evi'iythin^ in tlu- region 
 of Nikolshur^ ami by bmnin^lhiily m.irkel-plai es, atlvant in^ his 
 troops to .\usleilil/..intl I'eltlsberj;, ami st tirehinn ami binninj; up 
 to within two |St)r 10 l',nglish| miles ol Krems. Then he liictl 
 his cam|i at Mislelbai h ami man hetl, lowaitis llie mitltlle ol .Sep 
 tembor, with tlu" print ipal p.iit ol his Ibii fs lo Sloekei an, alter 
 he had, with a wide swath, wasletl the couniry toward llun^.n-y. 
 While here he most ener^fctically pushed Ibrward im reasin^ ihe 
 lorlirieations of Korncuburg, which city he raisi'd to the riink ol 
 an actual lortress, so that the town previi)usly tielended by walls, 
 alter Ttirstenst)!! hati given the labor ol 6no men for lomleen 
 days in construi ling ravi-lins, was lully cap.ible ol w illra.indiii)' a 
 long siege .iml for keeping tlu- ct)unlry, lor a wiile t iit le aromitl 
 il, unth-r t tinlribution. To this end the Swedish Colonel Copy 
 was maile conunamlant, (joo nien thrown in as garrist)n ami llie 
 place prtivisionetl lor a year antI supplieil with artiller)' .iml am 
 munition. 
 
 ( p|fi) The .Archthike h.iil, wilh sixleen ImptiialisI ri'gimenis 
 (only, however, 5,378 men) suc< esslully hasteneil lo ihe assistance 
 of the Mavarians against tlu* atlvanting P'rem h. The remaining 
 Imperial troops, umk-r I'mhheim ami ( i.dlas, although severely 
 troubled by the pest ami by diarrhtea, w.'Uched with great strict 
 ness the right bank of the J )anube, and had thrown up not less 
 ih.Hi lilty one Torts in the dire<lH)n ol I, in/. Since all the t ross- 
 lug points ol the Danube were ihus shut against ctinnnunii alioii, 
 'I'orsli-nson tliil ntil receive intelligence of the march t)l the .Art h 
 duke until eight tiays alter his dejiarture, when il was loo lali" It) 
 lolltiw him. Vet il Torstenson h.iil actually broken ;u ross the 
 D.mube, the high nu)untains aiul narrow tieliles of Upper Auh- 
 Iria woultl have nu)st materially interleretl with the movenu'nls 
 ol" a large army — since, while so strictly gu.niletl by ihe Imper 
 iaiists, the crossing ol the Danube, unless it were Iro/.en, was ab 
 
34 
 
 solutely impossible for the Swedes, and since tliey, after such 
 long-continued severe exertions, stood in need of a long rest,Tor- 
 stenson was obliged to hasten in evacuating the already exhausted 
 district in which he was, before the wet autumn weather had 
 softened the ground and rendered it impassable, for the purpose 
 of securing safe winter quarters at some other point, especially as 
 it was always to be supposed that the Archduke Leopold Wil- 
 liam might, in conjunction with the Bavarians, at some unex- 
 pected moment break out from the mountain passes. After Tor- 
 stenson, in the beginning of October, had undermined the castle 
 of Kreutzenstein, near Korneuburg, in four places and blown it 
 into the air, he was obliged to content himself, for that year, to 
 strengthen and provision several places already occupied by the 
 Swedes, such as Korneuburg and Krems ; but he could only put 
 garrisons into Falkenstein, Staaz, Nikolsburg and Rabensburg, 
 for the purpose of keeping open the free communication between 
 Olmutz and Iglau. This done, he first proceeded to Iglau, to 
 which place he had sent, in advance, 300 wagons loaded with 
 cloth and other military necessities ; then he moved into Bohemia 
 in order to here fix in winter quarters his wearied and thinned- 
 out troops. Puchheim and Fernemont here too followed close 
 after him. On crossing the Bohemian frontier, however, the 
 wasting sicknesses afflicting Torstenson's army ceased. 
 
 (447) At this time, /. e. in the month of October, the Imperialists 
 made a fresh attempt upon Krems, in that they cannonaded it 
 and really gained possession of the two outworks, St. John and 
 Weinzierl ; these, however, were unexpectedly retaken in the be- 
 ginning of November by the Swedish commandant and a fresh 
 closing of the Danube followed. No further advantage was 
 gained by the Imperialists at this time. Krems remained, up to the 
 6th of May, 1646, in the occupation of the Swedes under Lieut - 
 Colonel Hans Lundidh of the Axel-Lilje regiment. Here the 
 contribution moneys had to be paid and from here the Swedish 
 Commissary-General, Frederic Thilesius, so exercised his work of 
 provisioning the garrison that on occasion it became regular rob- 
 bery. 
 
 (454) In concluding what we have to record in relation to the 
 year 1645 one circumstance, very lamentable in its results, cannot be 
 passed over and which, although it did not happen in Austria 
 proper had, alas, a very near bearing on it. It has been already 
 mentioned that the Swedish Colonel Paikul was commissioned, 
 after the abandoning of the siege of Brunn, to escort the wife of 
 Torstenson, with the other Swedish females, to Olmutz. The 
 thoughtless talk of a Jesuit of that place, named George Pelinza, 
 who, with very ill-timed wit, spoke of a treasure amounting to 
 
35 
 
 many thousands, nK-anini^ thereby the costly hbrary of the Jesuit 
 college at (Jlmutz. awakened Paikul's atte'ntion, and he shortly 
 afterward, in company witii some officers, visited the library and 
 in fact took nmch interest in it. And lo ! after a few weeks a 
 Swedish librarian appeared, who selected, not only from the 
 library of the Jesuit college, but from the other cloister libraries 
 of Moravia, the choicest printed and manuscript works. From 
 the archives, too, and especially from those of the town-hall at 
 Olmutz, he took the most valuable documents, and sent loo wa- 
 gons, loaded with books and manuscripts from all Moravia, to 
 Sweden. (Murray, Guide Book Southern Germany, p. 409, says 
 these books remained till near the close of the i8th Century at 
 Stralsund, packed up in readiness to be conveyed to Sweden. 
 Since then all traces of them are lost. — W. P. W.) The endeavor 
 has been made in later times to clear Torstenson from any con- 
 nection with this plundering of the libraries and archives of Mor- 
 avia and Bohemia, and to ascribe the fatherland's loss in this re- 
 spect to a disagreeable general ])assion for accjuisition on the part 
 of Konigsmark, Wrangel and Paikul, but could Paikul without 
 the knowledge of the commander-in-chief have levied such a 
 war-contribution of literary and archival valuables ? 
 
 1646. 
 
 (455) According to the plan ofoperationsfor this year, as formed 
 by Torstenson, the first care of the Swedes was to maintain the 
 army and to effect a junction with the French, and until this was 
 done to attempt nothing of capital importance. Thiij, once car- 
 ried out, however, then with their united forces they were to ilrive 
 the enemy over the Danube. But the result was different from 
 the calculations. 
 
 Insomuch as our narration of military events confines itself, 
 by our intention, entirely to the events occurring in Lower Aus- 
 tria, this year offers the precise counterpart of the one preceding 
 it. If then the concjuering enemy, with crushing footsteps, threat- 
 ened the very residence of the Fmperor, we now, in 1646, see 
 the Swedes (dejjrived of any hope as to a lasting and effective 
 alliance with Ragoczy and turning their regards towards France 
 as their last anchor of hope) more and more cripi)led in their en- 
 terprise against Austria. On the contrary we see the Imperialist 
 forces growing stronger in returning self-confidence and under a 
 proved leader finally able to eject the enemy from all the strong 
 places occupied by him, so that by the end of August not a single 
 one remained in Lower Austria. At the very commencement of 
 1646 troops of Puchheim had been assembled on the north side 
 of the Danube near Vienna, with the intention of marching on 
 
36 
 
 Budweis (in conjunction with the regiments Pompejo, Pallavicini, 
 Gonzaga, Ferrara, Rebenstock and Wachenheim, from the south 
 side). As, however, a deep snow covered the country, far and 
 wide, the citizens of Vienna were obhged to provide several hun- 
 dred wagons with their teams for the purpose of forwarding these 
 Imperiahst troops with all speed to Bohemia. There yet re- 
 mained a proper reserve of troops stationed on the Danube. The 
 Emperor at the time remained constantly at Linz. 
 
 (457) ^V'ith the end of February, 1646, as already stated, the 
 hard-pressed inhabitants of Horn were released from all contri- 
 butions after the Swedes had entirely evacuated that region. 
 
 On their departure there were in the town of Horn only 75 
 left of 86 houses ; in the whole lordship of Horn only a total of 125 
 still standing. Meantime Ragoczy, in spite of the peace he had 
 concluded with the Emperor in August of the preceding year, had 
 (unterm) 22d February, 1646, attempted treacherously to renew 
 his former alliance with the Swedes and France on the condition 
 that the consent of the Divan should be first obtained by these 
 powers, and the subsidies agreed upon punctually paid. But 
 Ragoczy's faithlessness could no longer win any trust from these 
 powers and the whole proposal came to nothing, especially as, in 
 case of its acceptance, France and Sweden must sacrifice large 
 sums of money. Thus Ragoczy was forced, much against his 
 will, to preserve at least the appearance of being honorable, and 
 to remain in peaceful relations with the Emperor. 
 
 In the meantime the new military commandant for Austria 
 (Obrist-Feld-Zeugmeister — Lt. -Colonel of Ordnance ? [perhaps 
 equivalent to a General of Division or Corps-Commanderj ) Count 
 John Christopher von Puchheim, had pushed everything forward 
 with the purpose of entirely driving the enemy out of Lower 
 Austria witli the greatest energy ; that, what with the continued 
 barricading of the Danube, constantly made raids of the enemy, 
 the severe oppression ot large contributions, and the merciless 
 proceedings in collecting the latter, Uie condition of aftairs had 
 become absolutely unbearable for any longer time. 
 
 Scarcely had the api)roaching sj^ring melted the deep snow 
 when the Swedes recommenced their burdensome hostilities in 
 every direction. Count Puchheim had, in the beginning of 
 March, scarcely left his last headquarters at Gross-Enzersdorf on 
 the Danube, when the Swedish raiders at once fired the place, and in 
 consequence the church and large supplies of grain became the prey 
 of the flames. Shortly after,, about the loth of March, 1500 
 troopers sacked the lordship of Orth and the Swedes in Korneu- 
 burg had done the same to Mistelbach and Poysdorf on account 
 of refused contributions. 
 
^7 
 
 (459) It happened that nearly at tlie same time the city ot Vienna 
 had to suffer from both water and fire. By reason of the sud- 
 denly melted snow from the mountains the river was, in the 
 beginning of March, swollen to an extraordinary height and car- 
 ried away three [wooden-[)iers] (Joche) of the Vienna drawbridge 
 and six i)iers of the Danube Long-bridge, so the work of repair- 
 ing hail to be made with all speed in order to restore the imperi- 
 ously necessary communication between the two banks of the 
 l^anube. On the other hand, on (lood Friday, 30th of Marcli, 
 (1646), at eleven o'clock at night, througii carelessness of the 
 housekeeper (Haus-meister) fire broke out in the royal castle at 
 Vienna and caused great damage. Fortunately the court was 
 not then at the castle, for the emperor lived continually at Linz, 
 for which place the Imperial War-Counsellor and Forester 
 Schmidt had left with splendid Turkish carpets and other presents 
 of the Bassa of Ofen and carrying the assurance, in the name of 
 the latter, that the military preparations of the Turks in Ofen were 
 entirely against the Venetians. At the same time it was reported 
 from (jrat/, that the Turks were already making forays into Hun- 
 gary and plundering and burning one village after another, and, 
 among others, had led off as prisoners many people from the 
 estates of Count Budiani. 
 
 (462) SiEGK OF Krems by THE Imperialisis. — .Already in 
 the beginning of May it was hoped speedily to obtain jjossession 
 of Krems, when the chancellor of Hungary, Count Veselenyi, 
 on his journey to the Imperial court encampment at Linz, jjassed 
 through the neighborhood. Count Puchheim did not neglect to 
 show him all the preparations for a vigorous siege, in order that 
 the latter might communicate to the ]<^mperor the secure hope ot 
 a happy result. Count Puchheim and Lieutenant Field-Marshal 
 Hunoldstein, personally sui)erintended all the siege operations 
 and passed a great i)art of their time in the approaches and at 
 the (advanced) posts, so that the rapid ])rogre.ss of the operations 
 might be strenuously maintained. While work was continued 
 without interruj)tion on the mines, the flanks of the bastions in 
 the directions of Stein and Galgenberg, and then in that of the 
 Wachterthorl, were in the most ]iart ruined for the use of the 
 Swedes by mere quarter-charges (Quartier-schlagen ?) On the 
 side of the besiegers, from the commander-in-chief down to the 
 common soldier, all were cheerful. .Some thought that Lundidh 
 (the Swedish commander) would not let things proceed to ex- 
 tremities, especially as he had his wife and children with him and 
 could not well calculate on the siege being raised. Others, on 
 the contrary, thought it might be considered conclusive, from his 
 activity in counter-works, that Luntlidh sec;;rely counted on re- 
 
38 
 
 lief. He spared his soldiers in every possible way, but, on the 
 other hand, forced the peasantry to the most exhausting labor 
 and used them, too, for sentry duty and as musketeers. Indeed, 
 he even pushed them, instead of the soldiers, into the most ad- 
 vanced works. What must have been the feelings of these (462), 
 as they were forced to risk their lives in repulsing the forces which 
 were to relieve them from their calamities, may be easily conceived. 
 Lundidh caused also many houses, although no churches, to 
 be completely levelled ; as to the others he took off their 
 roofs and heaped sand about (on) them, to keep them from 
 injury by the enemy's artillery. [Did he cover the upper 
 floors with sand ? ] By a lucky find the besieged had also obtained 
 160 cwt. [Zentner) of powder that had been buried. The Impe- 
 rialists were meanwhile ready to batter a breach in the walls, the 
 mines only were waiting for completion. Since, however, the 
 Emperor, for the purpose of sparing the common soldiers,. ex- 
 pressly commanded that the place should not be stormed until 
 the mines had done their work, the final assault had yet to be de- 
 layed for a while. Puchheim therefore pushed forward the work 
 unceasingly, in order to finish the mines as soon as possible, and 
 in order that the besieged might at least be kept continually at 
 their posts and so the sooner become exhausted. At last the 
 work was advanced so far that Puchheim might hope to batter a 
 breach by evening and then the next morning the more conve- 
 niently to press upon the Swedes, as they were engaged in repair- 
 ing it. On all sides courage and determination were predomi- 
 nant. All hoped to reconquer the town for the Emperor within 
 twenty-four hours. General Puchheim was present wherever 
 he was needed and shunned no danger (463) so that the common 
 soldiers could not conceal their anxiety that he should take greater 
 care of his person, lest, by some unlucky chance, the whole un- 
 dertaking should be endangered and brought into confusion, as 
 indeed only a short time before, Captain Lorenzo, abandoned by 
 his soldiers, had been thrust through by the Swedes and carried 
 into the town. 
 
 The siege was continued with activity, and soon one work 
 near the Vienna gate was taken and the Swedish soldiers occupy- 
 ing it were mostly slaughtered. At the same time several towers 
 on the fortifications of the town were battered down. But still 
 no general storming-attack had been undertaken. 
 
 Then, just arrived from the Imperial court camp at Linz, and 
 after the recapture of Nikolsburg in Moravia (12th April), Colo- 
 nel de Souches, the glory-crowned defender of Briinn, joined Puch- 
 heim. 
 
-39 
 
 The troops destined for conducting the siege were now as- 
 signed to three head([uartcrs. 
 
 I. In tlie hamlet of Weinzierl Colonel de Mers had his 
 headcjuarters with his regiment, in the angle formed below the 
 Vienna gate by the junction of the Krems and the Danube. Here 
 approaches and redoubts were ready, a battery was built and 
 downstream towartl the Danube two mortars (/y/Z/^v) were posted. 
 There was also a second grand battery on the hill alongside the 
 road to Langenlois. 
 
 II. In the first mill lying in the Krems valley was Colonel 
 Count John Colloredo and in the second mill Hunoldstein, each 
 with their regimental cjuarters. Their batteries, connected by aj)- 
 proaches and redoubts, commanded the town on the north on the 
 Reben-hiigel hills, from the " Laimgrube " onward. In advance 
 of these batteries at one point two, at another three mortars were 
 planted. 
 
 III. The regiments Ranfift and Traun had, on the other hand, 
 established themselves in Stein. Their approaches and redoubts 
 were between the Capucin cloister Und and the Steiner-gate of 
 Krems. 
 
 [" Between Krems and Steui is a solitary building, once a 
 monastery, now a military hospital, called Und, which gave rise 
 to a riddle : ' Krems and ( Utui) Stein are three jjlaces.' " Mur- 
 ray's '•\SoutIiern Germany," Route 197, Danube (D).] 
 
 The principal battery of Colonel Ranfft, consisting of ten field 
 Karthaunen [48 pdrs.J, stood on the Calgenberg. Two mortars 
 were in front of the Capucin cloister. 
 
 In addition to the above, two small batteries were erected on 
 the island which had been retaken by General Field-Marshal- 
 Lieutenant von Hunoldstein, in order to command the town on 
 the fourth side, /. e. that of the Watergate on the Danube. This 
 island, wliich has since been swept away, lay directly opposite to 
 the Danube side of Krems. 
 
 Altogether there were then some fifty battery [siege] pieces 
 and Karthaunen and ten mortars in active work against the town. 
 A heavy fire was maintained on both sides. The besiegers, it is 
 true, had soon battered down the battlements of the town-walls 
 and several of the little sijuare fortress-towers, yet they also re- 
 ceived much damage from the unceasing fire from the town. It 
 was, therefore, the ne.xt object to command the town from the 
 near hill-slopes. Great difiiculties had to be contended against in 
 getting up the cannon over the dreadfully cut up clay-ground, and 
 since horses could not be used for the purpose, 800 (4^)4) musketeers 
 were harnessed in order to pull up one piece afier the other. 
 [Calculating 800 men at a tractile power of 175 pounds each, 
 
40 
 
 they could draw 120,000 pounds, and taking one horse at a trac- 
 tile power of 1200 pounds, these 800 men exercised the draught 
 force of TOO horses. W. P. W.] After that, wearying as it was, 
 they had thus occupied the heights, the siege guns commanded 
 the whole town, which now, fully overtopped, was exposed to 
 their fire. At the north-east side of the town, at its highest forti- 
 fied point, there arose a massive [miichtiger) round-tower with an 
 outstanding machicoulis gallery \vorgeschobener Zituien-Gallene), 
 called the '■'■Lueg ins Land." Its walls were said to have been of 
 extraordinary strength, according to accounts, probably exagge- 
 rated, five to six Klafter (fathoms, 30-40 feet) in thickness. Lundidh 
 had surrounded this tower with double entrenchments, and stored 
 it with great suppUes of food and ammunition, intending here to 
 hold out to the uttermost, even if he had to give up the town. 
 This tower was, or course, the principal objective of the besiegers, 
 and Colonel de Souches had, immediately on his arrival, advised the 
 opening of a mine under it. Meantime, a messenger had been 
 captured with dispatches, from which it appeared that the Swedish 
 garrison of Korneuburg proposed, at an early date, to make a di- 
 version in favor of that in Krems. In fact, the garrison of Krems 
 sent some messengers with letters to the commandant of Korneu- 
 burg and to the Swedish head-quarters, urgently asking for relief. 
 These letters, hidden in a loaf of bread, reached Korneuburg, but 
 the answer of the commandant of Korneuburg was given to the 
 messenger concealed in a hollow stick. The messenger on the 
 road fell in with some imperial troopers who required that he 
 should show them their way. On his refusing to do so and deport- 
 ing himself obstinately, the troopers seized the stick and cudgelled 
 him thoroughly with it. The stick broke in two and the letters 
 fell out. When the besiegers ascertained the contents of these 
 letters, the town was bombarded with such renewed energy that 
 directly twelve houses burst into flames. Notwithstanding this, 
 the besieged made a daring sally and dragged back many prisoners 
 into the town. On this, de Souches, who, as has been said, counted 
 very much on the good effects from laying mines, caused such to 
 be laid against the fortifications at three places. 
 
 The siege guns, distributed in twelve batteries, had now kept 
 up an almost unceasing fire the whole day and night of the 4th 
 of May, and on the 5th of May, up to 2 p. m. Already two breaches 
 had been established, one near the Vienna-gate, the other, and 
 greater, between the Wiichter-gate and the "Lueg ins La?id." Yet 
 the besieged endeavored, with fiery energy, to remedy the 
 breaches by forming extemporized retrenchments (Abschnitte). 
 
 NoTR, — Abschnitte [Reduif, Retirade, Coupnre) are those pa- 
 rapets and ditches, or with fascines, gabions, sandbags, &c., 
 
41 
 
 hastily constructed barricades which the besieged erect at any 
 part of the bastions, outworks, (S:c., which have been thrown down 
 by mines or battering. They thus obtain a fresli breastwork, and 
 hinder the progress (pressing in) of the besieger. For tliis ol)je(t, 
 such phices are also, according to circumstances, strengthened by 
 palisades, and so-called pallrai)s, or crows-foots (W'urfeisen, Fuss- 
 angein, Chaussetrapes, Murex vel 'I'ribulus ferreus) are thrown about 
 outside. These are irons [caltrops] with, generally, four points, 
 so arranged that, however it falls, one point projects upwards. 
 [An Abschnitt may be original, not extemporized. — \V. 1'. W.j 
 
 (465) When, however, at last, the great scjuare tower at the 
 Vienna-gate gradually fell, the advanced works at that jilace, 
 as also the ravelin at the Steiner-gate had been set on fire anil 
 destroyed, the mighty '•'■Luegins Land" battered down, and then 
 a great breach made above the Steiner-gate, such as could not be 
 " retrenched ;" when, on the part of the besieged, no relief could 
 be well reckoned on — then, at last, they had to abandon all hojje 
 of further defense, and negotiations were begun. Puchheim de- 
 manded by a drummer a surrender at discretion. The Swedes 
 declared they had rather die than surrender unconditionally, 
 ^p^ The heroic demeanor of the Swedes throughout the siege, 
 and their now unmistakable strength of resolution, could not but 
 fill the conqueror with respect — and, at once, hostages were ex- 
 changed, and honorable terms were treated of ^^^^ Finally, it was 
 agreed that the Swedish commandant, with that part of his troops 
 who had never been in the Imperial service, should march out 
 with flying colors, bag and baggage, arms and armor [0/>er- und 
 Utitergewchr) and with muskets, pikes and sidearms, and should 
 be escorted to the Swedish headquarters at Gross Glogau in Sile- 
 sia. Conseijuently, the heroic Lieutenant-Colonel Lundidh, with 
 150 Swedes, marched, on the 6th of May, out of the town, their 
 brave defense of which during a full month deserves, from a mili- 
 tary point of view, the highest, all possible credit. That part of 
 the garrison (250 men) who had formerly been in the Imperial 
 service, remained behind. 
 
 (465, 466) NoTE.~i. In X\\<tT]te(.jtrum Europcciim (v. ic68) is a 
 neat bird's-eye view. 2. Ground plan [Situations-pla/i) of Kremsat 
 its capture, by Franz Pironi. 3. An entirely independent but co- 
 inciding ground ])lan, by Eusebius Mayr. 
 
 (466) The Imperial troops at once moved into the town, where 
 they found notable suj)plies of food and ammunition. Yet, Krems, 
 which had been occupied by the Swedes since the 31st of March, 
 1645, and through this time had sufi'ered all the evils of a hf)stile 
 occupation, presented a pitiable appearance. 'I'he fortifications 
 were ruined, the houses unroofed, and many of them terribly torn 
 
42 
 
 by shot; 12 of them completely burned down. Including these 
 last, of the 308 houses of the town, iii must have been torn 
 down, 18 remained uninhabited, and only 179 were in good con- 
 dition and used as dwellings. 500 florins were paid out as a 
 reward to Puchheim's artillery officers, who had more especially 
 contributed to the recapture of the town. As regarded the war 
 expenses, however, there arose a great contest between the towns 
 of Krems and Stein, since Stein obstinately refused any contribu- 
 tion toward them. 
 
 The recapture of Krems was an event of marked moral effect 
 in the scale of Imperial success. After a year filled with lament- 
 able losses, at last once more a token of ])0wer on the soil ot 
 Lower Austria could not but revive, with fresh vigor, throughout 
 a wide circle, Hope, long absent or frightened away, into re- 
 newed energy. 
 
 (476) Torstenson closed, in the autumn of 1646, with the 
 taking of Leitmeritz, his career as military commander in the 
 field; after that he had already, at the commencement of the 
 year, on account of the increase of his sickness, most urgently 
 prayed the Queen [of Sweden] for liberty to lay down his com- 
 mand. Finally, on the 28th April, 1646, the Queen [Christina] 
 filled out the plenary commission for Torstenson's successor, al- 
 ready long before prepared or educated up to the position, 
 Charles Gustavus Wrangel, now Field Marshal [to enjoy the 
 weight of sufficient rank.] l^Sii//, the latter, according to his 
 INSTRUCTIONS, Undertook 7iothif!g of importance, so lotis^ as Torsten- 
 son remained in Germany, without Torstenson'' s advice. Those 
 hostile to the Swedes 7vere in exstacies over the departure of the 
 dreaded Commander-in- Chief Torstenson, and reckoned his removal 
 equivalent to the loss of ten thousand men by the Swedes [the 
 estimate of David by his people (II. Kings xviii. 3), equivalent, 
 when men of might had grown so scarce, to the elimination 
 of an army. When Tilly, in April, 1631, threw 8,000 to 10,000 
 chosen veteran troops, horse and foot, into Frankfort-on-the-Oder, 
 General Mitchell, an able military critic (W. 198), remarks that 
 such a force was "an army rather than a garrison." In fact, 
 8,000 to 10,000 highly disciplined, seasoned soldiers constituted 
 an army throughout the greater part of the Thirty Years' War. 
 Another military writer styled this garrison of Frankfort, " an 
 army corps," a term and organization which does not date back 
 further than 1805, and represents a force usually equal to a re- 
 spectable army. Gustavus A.dolphus landed in Germany with 
 only 13,000 men, and his whole force on German soil scarcely 
 numbered 20,000. With these he had to meet immediately 
 quadruple his strength, old soldiers, in fortresses and fortified 
 
48 
 
 towns and positions. [Gfrolrcr (529) estimates that Gustavus 
 had 20,000 to meet 160,000. | But, then, the Swedes, ofticers 
 and men, were without ecjuals and, after Gustavus, the greatest 
 man undoubtedly was Torstenson. 
 
 S^^ Reader, remember, all the praise of Torstenson and the 
 Swedes emanates from the pen of an Austrian, whose country was 
 more thoroughly subjected by Torstenson than by any i)revious 
 commander. Notwithstanding the influence of natural bias, this 
 author, Feil, is compelled to concede to this enemy the highest 
 possible cai)acity and superlative courage as a Soldier, and chival- 
 ric magnanimity and compassionate generosity as a Man. ,^j 
 
 A HERO OF THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY., 
 
 " Om denna hfeltens ar.a 
 Europa liapcii an hat evigt vittne bara." 
 
 SvENSKA FkIHERRN. 
 
 ["To (Marshal Leonard Tostenson's) this liero's glorj' 
 Europe aghast, e'erlasting witness liears in story."] 
 
 From Tlie Volunteer, Vol. I., No. 1, 1866. By J. Watts de Pktster. 
 
 Tliis is an attempt to portray the cliaracter and acliievcments of one 
 of llic most ]H'rfe('t men who have ever illustrated the possihililies of 
 our kind ; great as a soldier, general, specialist, organizer, administrator, 
 (lil)lonialist, patron of the arts — in faet as an exemi)lar in every direction 
 whitlier patriotism and duty or intellect led; actripjiled invalid endowed 
 liy will-power willi all the attribiiles of strength ; a servant of the stale 
 whose aliililics made him iniiispensahle to Ids government and country, 
 ever seeking the repose neces.sary to his infirmities, yet from youth to 
 prime, when he perished a victim to liis maladies, to tlie absolute necessity 
 of crises and to existing circumstances ; pure as a man ; as remarkable for 
 bis virtues, which render the fandly circle perfectly happy, as for that 
 other higher grade of virtues which elevate the pui)lic servant into tJie 
 restricted class which ordinary humanity recognize as superhvnnan in 
 their general s\i]H'riority to the weaknesses and faidts of their species. 
 lie has been styled "tlie modern Hannil)al," on account of bis snperla 
 live sirategems or strategy, without having a tinge of that bitterness and 
 littleness which degrades those gifts into mere savage cuniung. lie pos 
 se.ssed every characteristic of a great captain, but, while he exhibited all 
 the (pndities which made the noble and extraordinary CaJthaginian the 
 grandest exem|)lar of a i)atriolic leadei', the jiilol of a stale and consnm 
 male conunaniler of men. he was not blendshcd by a single one of the de- 
 fects attributed by the jealousy, malice and haired, engendered by fear of 
 eneuiies, to that victorious Punic: general, recognized in all aget; and by 
 tlie best judges as tlie most wonderful of military chieftains and civil ad- 
 
44 
 
 ministrators. Moreover, Torsteiisoii enjoyed tlie exceptional honor of be- 
 ing able, at a period when time and tolcniiion liad divested even extraordi- 
 nary outrages and crimes of surprise and horror — even after two decades of 
 unrestrained military license and fast and faster developing devihuent — 
 (witness Wrangel, Piccolomini, even in KJ-Jy) — of exerting an inlliience 
 sufUcient to humanize hitherto inhuman war. As Psalm Ixxvi. 10, 
 declares, Torstenson — to whose thoughts tlie language and admonitions of 
 Scripture was ever present—under God, ma<le it so that " Surely the wrath 
 of man shall praise Thee, tM rem<ii)ider of wrath shalt Thou restrain." 
 
 The people of the present era, more particularly the people 
 of the United States, are too prone to believe that recent events 
 are in reality greater and grander than those more remote. Thus 
 the fame of Napoleon eclipsed that of Frederic the Great, just 
 as the latter in his day overshadowed the exemphiry men through 
 whom modern war had a new birth, and by whom the tactics of 
 the Romans, almost superhuman in their simple efficacy, were 
 adapted to fire-arms ; and wings, indeed, were lent to the thun- 
 der-bolts of war — artillery. Nor are the seamen of the present 
 day as enterprising as those who lived contemporaneous with the 
 new birth of naval warfare. Had the men who almost attained 
 the North Pole (at all events approached as near, if not nearer 
 to it, than subsequent Arctic navigators) known of the power ot 
 steam in the marine engine, the tri-color of Holland would have 
 floated, two centuries ago, from the northern extremityof the axis ot 
 this globe. While the sailors of to-day go down to the sea in great 
 ships, the sailors of two centuries since ventured amid the Arctic 
 ice, fought fleet to fleet within the Arctic circle, circumnavigated 
 the globe, had their " River Fights " and their " Bay Fights," 
 founded and subverted empires, in single vessels and in squadrons 
 of " fly-boats " scarcely larger than the tenders of our navy. 
 
 We Americans have just witnessed and lived through a great 
 civil war which lasted four years, a " war of emancipation," for 
 the liberation of an inferior colored race from physical slavery, 
 which, in some respects, was the grandest conflict for progress 
 ever brought to a successful termination in so short a period and 
 at so little cost of suffering. Still there was a greater conflict for 
 the emancipation of the white race inaugurated two hundred and 
 sixty-seven years ago(i6i8-48); which, instead of fouryears, lasted 
 thirty years. This conflict almost depopulated some of the most 
 thickly peopled districts of Middle Europe, and converted all the 
 lands between the Oder and the Rhine, the Baltic and the Danube, 
 into one blood-soaked battlefield and left it strewed with corpses, 
 ruins and ashes. During these thirty years massacres occurred, per- 
 petrated by veteran soldiers, under the eyes of generals deemed 
 humane for the era, wliich rivaled the horrors of Fort Pillow and 
 Leavenworth, and wholesale atrocities were permitted which 
 
4^ 
 
 ci|ii:illcd the calculalcd l)ail»arity of Belle Isle and Andersonville. 
 In one respect, liowever, the hordes of disci])lined savaj^es f)f the 
 'I'hirly Years' War exceeded in horrors the partisans of the South 
 during the Slaveholders' Rebellion. As far as regarded the feebler 
 sex and non-combatants, the worst fiends of hell seenieil let loose 
 upon the earth, andwiiolesale rape, refined torture and protracted 
 misery, which, t(; escape, made death a boon, were of daily occur- 
 rence, in multitudinous cases connived at by the most elevated, 
 applied by the most liberal, and employed as measures of war 
 by men who, in their private lives, were as exemplary as can be, 
 consistent with bigotry, politics and statecraft. 
 
 Of the three of the four great ])owers who, in fact, fought out 
 and decided this protracted conflict, the only one which displayed 
 any moderation was Sweden, the champion of free thought, 
 which acted the same part in the bloody drama, K: 18-1648, as 
 the Union armies, 1861-1865. The Swede, a foreigner in the 
 land, was an angel of light as compared with the (ierman, de- 
 mons of darkness towards Germans, or the barbarous tribes 
 enlisted against Germans by the House of Austria, or even to the 
 French, under the rule of a sagacious churchman. Nor did these 
 atrocities terminate with the monster — the Thirty Year's War — 
 which gave them birth. They continued to be tolentted as long 
 as the commanders, who first permitted and their pupils survived. 
 Reversing the order of consideration, to any student of history 
 it will be sufficient to name a few atrocities, which character- 
 ize their authors, or those who are resi)onsible for them. The 
 ravage of the Palatinate, in 1674 (repeated in 1693 by his ajjt 
 scholar, Melac), was the work of Turenne. He converted 
 the most fertile district of Germany into a desert. This was 
 foreign land to France, on the eastern bank of the Rhine, and he 
 coolly justified it on the plea of military expediency. The author 
 of "The Army of the Potomac" dared to couple, in the .same 
 sentence, Turenne's fiendish desolation of the Palatinate with 
 Sheridan's justifiable destruction in the Shenandoah Valley. Ig- 
 norance can be the only excuse. The action of the LTnion gene- 
 ral, as compared to that of the French marshal, was as the burning 
 of a storehouse to the conflagration of a building filled with help- 
 less innocents. Nor was the cold-blooded Turenne contented 
 with the woe wrought to a foreign enemy. Had he not been 
 overruled by superior authority, his plan was to lay waste the ter- 
 ritory on the French side of the Rhine, that, in case of invasion, 
 it would afford neither shelter nor subsistence to a military force. 
 'I'o justify the parallel, Sheridan must have destroyed every town 
 and village in the blooming valley south of the Potomac, have 
 driven the inhabitants into the fields to die of cold and starva- 
 
46 
 
 tion, and have left utter desolation behind him, and then have 
 retired into Maryland, with the desire and the will to convert its 
 flourishing uplands and teeming lowlands into the same lament- 
 able condition to which he had consigned the opposite shore. 
 Notwithstanding, Turenne has been held up as a model of virtue. 
 
 The Sack of Magdeburg, 1631, which transmuted a flourishing 
 and happy city into a heap ftf ruins and cinders, soaked with blood 
 and piled with corpses, rests upon the soul of Tilly, who made it 
 his boast that no such desolation had occurred since the fall of 
 Troy. 
 
 The '■' Pasewalk and Penkum Slaughter," a pandemonium 
 of pillage, violation, murder and indecency, was the vaunted ex- 
 ploit of (ioetz, another Imperial commander, and to go on and 
 cite the various woes accumulated upon Germans by Germans, 
 would fill a volume with horrors and would prove acceptable les- 
 sons of cruelty to the Indians of the West. No Comanche or 
 Arrapahoe, no Sioux, ever imagined greater refinement or malig- 
 nity in the infliction of suffering. In the Sack of Piseck, in 1620, 
 by the Austrian Cossacks, the town was swept as clean as that of 
 Beziers, in 1208. Friend and foe fared alike and a populous 
 town became a reeking shambles; the last act after the perpetra- 
 tion of crimes against property and virtue. In many instances 
 human beings were slaughtered for food, comrades fed on 
 comrades, neighbors on neighbors, and even the graves were 
 robbed of their dead to prolong existence in the living. Nor 
 did the judges, with their scaffolds and their instruments of torture, 
 display less energy than the Imperial commanders and their 
 soldiers. Amid this scene of universal and diabolical oppression, 
 as regarded Middle Europe, a succession of heroes commanded 
 the Swedish armies, who, as scientific generals, have never been 
 surpassed, if ever they have been equalled. Taken together, 
 the god-like Gustavus, the truly virtuous Horn, the chivalric 
 Bernard of Saxe-Weimar, Baner, " the second Gustavus," until 
 the Saxon Elector's treachery overthrew his equanimity, and the 
 "inimitable Torstenson," the last, "under Sweden's crown, Sweden's 
 greatest commander," in their joint career of victory, they have never 
 been approached, when results, as contrasted with means, are 
 taken into the calculation and considered in the parallel between 
 them and other commanders. They made genius compensate for 
 inferiority of numbers and the resources of their minds discov- 
 ered means of supply for their own troops in the midst of an ut- 
 terly impoverished country, in which more than one army opposed 
 to them i)erished utterly from the face of the earth, and every 
 antagonist saw his forces depleted by nakedness and famine, con- 
 sequent indiscipline and multiform disease, inseparable from such 
 
47 
 
 conditions.* Compared to Turenne, to Tilly and his coadjutors, 
 to Wallenstein's lieutenants, often to VVallenstein himself, to Buc- * 
 quoy, r)ami)ierre, Goetz, Hoik, Melander in Hesse, and a score 
 of others, these tive Swedish leatlers were angels. As a model 
 of a Christian commander-in-chief, (lustavus is an example for 
 all time. In the sanctity of his character it is scarcely possible to 
 find his parallel in the records of war. Nor did his favorite pu- 
 pil, 'roKSTENsoN, fall far short of him in god-like virtues. Cen. 
 von Hardegg justly remarks: " Torstenson possessed, in addi- 
 tion to his great talents as a soldier and a statesman [general, 
 executive and administrator, civil and military, diplomatist, scien- 
 tist, connoisseur, &c.] a highly cultivated mind, an exquisite 
 heart and a lofty sense of honor. In courage, in spirit of enter- 
 prise and perseverance, he towered, in spite of his body shattered 
 by diseases, above all his associates of ecjual rank. He not only 
 understood how to establish and maintain discipline, but to put 
 an end to the barbarities ot the soldiery and absolutely make them 
 humane." To this, Hormayer, the Austrian historiograi)her, 
 atlds, and Feil, as seen page 28 supra, corroborates, that even 
 when thundering at the gates of Vienna, after Janikau, Torsten- 
 son's " chivalric greatness of soul" (ritterliche Kdelmuth), so won 
 for him the esteem of the En)peror, Ferdinand III., that it was 
 acknowledged by elegant courtesies (5n the part of the sovereign 
 whose armies had just been routed, and whose capital was being 
 insulted with cannon shot. Ferdinand even permitted Torsten- 
 son to send officers into Vienna to purchase whatsoever might be 
 agreeable to his wife, Beata de la Gardie, who accompanied her 
 
 *Tlie more a critic, competent to judge, investigates the career of 
 McClellan and his immediate following or favorites and successors, and 
 compares tlieir chances and conduct witli tliose of such men as Torsten- 
 son, the more convinced he will l)ecome tliat, in resjiect to tlie dischari^e 
 of liigli offices Willi wliirli tlie leader and liis friends were invested, ail 
 were, in degree, more or less utter failures. Without imputing motives or 
 considering (;auscs, tliey accomplished so little wUli tlic means at tlicii- dis- 
 posal that it would be dillicuU to find a parallel to sueh shortcomings, in- 
 volving the inthiencf.' of nu-n of military education and e.xpcrience upon 
 national elforts, in trustworthy records of the operations of war. Thi.s 
 opinion may be allribuled to prejudice and to political bias, but does not 
 come from these. It is the result of solemn »;onvicti()n,after a long course 
 of stiidy tinoughout more than an orilinary lifetime, deep relied ion and a 
 careful comparison with the acts of living and dead generals in high com 
 mands, at home and abroad, for a i)erio(l of aiiont three hundred years ; 
 liiat is, since the military renai.ssance, or the (leveloi)ment of modern 
 war. Even wlien tiied i)y the touchstone of the deeds done by the ruth- 
 less chiefs of Xai>olcon, the narrative of lh(^ caicers under consideiation 
 re.seml)les rather the rambling designs developed by the smoke of lamps 
 or torches, in the hands of explorers, upon the roof of a cavern, than 
 the effects of the suidight awakening and developing beauty and life. 
 
48 
 
 husband in all his later campaigns, was present in the battles he 
 delivered, and at Janikau was captured by the Bavarians under 
 the renowned trooper Werth, and actually recaptured through a 
 charge led by her heroic crippled husband. 
 
 Perhaps, considering the interval of seven years, between their 
 supreme commands, which offered more than ample time for utter 
 deterioration, Torstenson rose to an equal, if not an even more re- 
 markable grandeur of soul, than his master. Gustavus led into the 
 empire an army composed almost entirely of his native Swedes, and 
 of Scotch and English formed under his own eye— religiously edu- 
 cated, thoroughly disciplined, God-fearing men. Torstenson re- 
 ceived control of an army, demoralized by eight years of dia- 
 bolical warfare — mutinous men, commanded, too often, by mu- 
 tinous, if not traitorous, officers, and yet his dignity, his influence, 
 his " lion-hearted " royalty of demeanor and of mind, his fearless 
 assumption of every possible responsibility, his energy, enabled 
 him to convert that disorganized mass into a perfect machine, 
 and deprived war of the greater part of its terrors as regarded 
 non-combatants. 
 
 Only one act inconsistent with his character blemishes the 
 record of his otherwise stainless career, and even this one rests upon 
 only a single authority, equivalent to a paragraph in an illustrated 
 newspaper, which originated, perhaps, in the spite of an army corres- 
 pondent who had not been treated with the deference he expected 
 or demanded. 
 
 The wonderful improvements and executive application of 
 modern artillery, attributed to Gustavus, is more than probably 
 due, in its organized efficiency, to Torstenson. At all events, he 
 so well knew how to dispose of it along his front of battle, that, 
 when the crudest diseases which flesh is heir to compelled him 
 to lay down his command, the enemy rejoiced, hoping that the 
 Swedish cannon, which had so often " compelled victory," were 
 now silenced, and calculated his withdrawal as equivalent to the 
 diminution of his army by the loss of at least ten thousand men, 
 equal to a modern army corps, or, as estimated at the period in 
 which he shone, to an army, In his combination of tactics and 
 gunnery he contributed as much as his master to the winning of 
 the decisive victory of Leipzig, in 1631, and in his union of 
 engineering and artillery he is credited with a feat, the bridging 
 of the Lech, in 1632, the success of which was entirely owing to 
 his consummate handling of his guns, when field artillery was in 
 its infancy. In this he has left a model which may be imitated, 
 but cannot be surpassed. 
 
 As a commander of cavalry, Torstenson — a victim to gravel 
 and to gout, so excruciating that he had to be carried, as a rule, 
 
r»LA^]srs 
 
 HlNE OP THE GQOST IMPOI^IITANIP AND DECISIVE 
 
 BATTLES, 
 
 fnJiirCfainfu 
 Kmfrrbrhf \ MUjstal l& 000 
 
 M0R0im(&EN,6.S^pt.l634. I 
 
 |C ~~iSrfn'eden 
 
 
 
 
 WBTTSTOCK, 24.Sept.1636 
 
 KaisrrHche 
 umrrTbrsrm varti 
 M..\ 1«5 
 
 BlilfJTENJFEi-,D'-'>'"v:i642. [ 
 
 
 hrf^rn/'rvf^ 'V Ma*<L.!tabI.lB5000 „„„. 
 
 >I^ *( r — ) Siliwrtien iwiterBemeri 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 AaHI gfOW I'll 6 Marz 1645 \ 
 
 
 AND OF 
 
 TI^IE OI<rE 3S<(IOST F-A-IvTOXJS SIEG-E 
 
 OF THE 
 
 THIRTY YEARS WAR, 
 
 HRHQ— i«4« 
 
4!» 
 
 with his troops in a Utter — performed one exploit, which, if he had 
 never achieved another, would place him in the same rank with 
 Frederick's Seydlitz and Ziethen, and as far ahead of Murat as 
 our Sheridan towers above ordinary pretenders to the power of 
 handhng large bodies of horse. On the occasion alluded to, he 
 had out-manoeuvred General Gallas, intrusted with superior forces 
 for his destruction, forced him, simply by the judicious selection 
 of commanding positions, as 'I'urenne admitted with admiration 
 and astonisliment, to evacuate one strong post after another, and 
 finally shut him uj) in the fortress of Magdeburg. It soon be- 
 came a (juestion of escape or starvation, and one midnight, 21st 
 November, 1644, the Saxo-Imperial cavalry broke out, got a good 
 start and were ofif. Advised of the movement by his scouts, Tor- 
 stenson gathered up his own horse, launched forth in pursuit, and 
 by a circuitous route, through Wittenberg, intercepted them at 
 the village of Niemeck, near (N. W. of) Juterbock, where, on the 
 23d, he fell upon them, crushed them, and captured the greater 
 part (over four thousand men), together with General Enkefort 
 and several colonels, nor would even the smallest remnant have 
 escaped, had not the Swedish cavalry horses been completely ex- 
 hausted, having made fifteen (German (over sixty, [)erhaps seventy- 
 five English) miles on " one fodder " — a single feed. 
 
 As a general on tiie field ot action, his victories were annihi- 
 lating. That at Hreitenfeld, in 1642, and that of Janikau. in 
 1645, were more like the Nashville of Thomas, in 1864, than 
 any other battle of our civil war. In both cases an army was 
 eliminated from the war problem by simple practical-strategy. 
 Without a single engagement he rubbed out another army in 
 1644. In his whole career as generalissimo he made but one 
 failure, the siege of Brunn, and that was not due to any short- 
 coming on his part, but to the treason of his ally, Racogzy, 
 Prince of Transylvania, and to pestilence imjjorted with the lat- 
 tcr's barbarous hordes * Had this place fallen, the fate of Austria 
 
 *Mii.iTAUV DiSKASiis. — The most loniblo enemy to troops in cluinging 
 (|uarters lor tlie field, is disease in dillerent forms, conse([iient upon a 
 nuilalion of mode of Mfe, rain or snow, cold, different forms of nourisii- 
 meiil, unaccuslomed fatigue, deprivation of sleep, &c. The lliinl of the 
 eileclive troops i)erisli in eousetpience. 
 
 "The King of I'nissia lost in the campaign of 1778 more men by 
 sickness and desertion tiian in liiree years of campaigns of tiie i)reco(Ung 
 Seven Years' War. Dysentery carried of the pick of ids soldiers (10,000 
 il is said). Thi' cause of tins malady must he attiil)nt<'d to the bad footl 
 and severe weather to wlneii the Prussian armies were sid)jeeted in 
 Hohenda. Il is curious tiiat the Freneli on board tlie srjuadron of 
 D'Ovillers experienced the saine tUsastrous results. "Torsten.son before 
 Brunn, Ibid., p. iv. 15, 20, note 42, 44, x.xxvii., soldiers' perception, 74, 
 
50 
 
 would have been settled. Austrian authors concede this. The 
 failure was due to the base desertion of an allied contingent ; to 
 the over-indulgence of his own troops in unripe fruit, and con- 
 tinued wet weather in a malarious country at the worst season 
 of the year. So fatal had been the malaria that he lost thou- 
 sands of veterans, the kernel or kidney of the wheat, of the vic- 
 torious survivors of Janikau, and it is stated that two regiments 
 disappeared from the muster-rolls of his army, " cut oft', not 
 almost, but to a single man." As an administrator, as a commis- 
 sary, as a quartermaster, and in every branch of Logistics, which 
 is the comprehensive art of moving and supplying armies, his 
 success was an enigma to the writers of his own day and is 
 one of the incomprehensible marvels which still puzzle the acu- 
 test military critics. The Prince de Ligne, in his " Commenta- 
 ries, "admits the fact. His were the principles of Gustavus Adolphus, 
 as well as of Frederic the Great, that war must be made to sustain 
 war, as they had been those of Hannibal, of Philip of Macedon, 
 of Augustus the first. Emperor of Rome, and of Napoleon 
 Bonaparte. 
 
 He fed his men and his horses in the midst of districts swept far 
 and wide by the besom of destruction, and he moved his armies over 
 roads declared impracticable, and his trains and artillery over 
 routes never before traversed by any kind of vehicle. Unequalled 
 in his plan of operations, he could do what neither Frederic nor 
 Napoleon ever did accomplish successfully. In his sick cham- 
 ber he planned out campaigns which his successors had only to 
 follow to succeed. What Halleck dreamed he was equal to, and 
 utterly failed in doing, with the aid of steamboats, railroads and 
 electric telegraphs, Torstenson accomplished through his single and 
 simple genius. What von Moltke, with all the appliances of every 
 modern science, executed in 1866 and 1 870-1, for the humilia- 
 tion of Austria and France, Torstenson carried out, 164 5-1648, 
 through couriers and post-horses. " Inimitable" as a general, and 
 especially in the handling of troops, this invalid, who scarcely knew 
 a respite from pain, who besought his government, as the greatest 
 boon they could accord him, to relieve him from his command 
 and send him a successor, this martyr to disease, surpassed every 
 general, before or since, in the rapidity of his marches. His sol- 
 diers styled him " the Lightning," and history has united the epi- 
 thet inseparably with his name. Like an eagle, crowned with 
 victory, bearing thunderbolts in his talons and destruction in his 
 beak, he flew from one extremity of Middle Europe to the other. 
 
 note 9, An anonymous Prussijin Work, styled "Grand Tactics, particu- 
 larly a Narrative of the Campaign of 1778 in Bohemia." Potsdam, 1780. 
 
51 
 
 now int-nacing Vienna, then threatening Copenliagen, and, then 
 again, shaking the Imperial capital with the explosions of his ar- 
 tillery. He realizeil Pope's ijromises — in reality Stanton's ex- 
 pression — to '' make his heachiuarters in the saddle." His head- 
 (juarters were either there or in his litter. He ignored bases of 
 supply antl lines of communication ; he moved free over the 
 country, as a bird of i)rey through the air, stooping to the " ban- 
 (piet ot swords," as the " serpent destroyer," of South Africa, 
 upon the most venomous rei)tiles, to slay, to rend, and to enjoy. 
 He lived off the country, he inaugurated the system, according 
 to an organized system (attributed erroneously to Napoleon), of 
 making war supply war. He took by force what he needed, and 
 yet he never lost the love of the peojile from whom he was forced 
 to take, for he tempered judgment with mercy, and severity with 
 the benignity of a power that chastises to preserve. He rolled 
 his war-cloud ui^n the ioe ; his thunder terrified, his lightning 
 scathed, and his winds scattered, and then he assembled his army 
 " in battaglia " and rendered to the God of battles the thank.s- 
 giving which he felt were due to Him for triumphs accorded and 
 for blessings vouchsafed. 
 
 His march of five hundred miles across Germany, at the 
 worst season of the year, in the autumn of 1643, was an under- 
 taking, in comparison to which Sherman's march from Atlanta to 
 the sea might be ;;et down as a peaceful pedestrian tour or a 
 grand picnic. In this he developed, if he did not originate the 
 idea, of" mounted infantry," for he swept the country of its horses, 
 to transport his foot with thecelerity of cavalry. His present of con- 
 cpiered continental Denmark to his crown, as a New Year's offer- 
 ing, was as superior to the Christmas gift of Savannah to our 
 nation, as Sherman's preceding movements in Georgia and suc- 
 ceeding operations in the Carolinas were as inferior to'l'orstenson's 
 wingetl expeditions from Moravia to the Ore Sound, and thence 
 back, through regular aimies of outnumbering forces, from the 
 Kider across the Ore Mountains to the Danube. Neither Gus- 
 tavus, nor Frederic, nor Bonaparte, accom])lished anything like 
 e(|ual results with the legs of their sol.diers. and as to the use of 
 their arms, lireitenfeld can compare with the Leipsic of Gustavus; 
 Janikau with any victory of Frederic, even Rossbach or Leuthen 
 (Lissa), marvels considered by experts as without parallels; Witt- 
 stock with Austerlitz or Jena. Finally, Bbnaparte's passage of 
 the Alps, at the finest season of the year, with every ailvantage 
 derivable from means and their scientific application, unresisted, 
 is not worthy to be named in the same sentence with Torsten- 
 son's transit over the Ore Mountains, under difficulties incalcu- 
 lably greater, at the rudest season of the year, w hen the valleys 
 
52 
 
 were filled, and the mountains covered with the snows of winter, 
 when the impetuous torrents and rivers, too swift for the cold to 
 curb or to chain their impetuous currents, rolled, freighted witli 
 fields and blocks of ice. Thus the Swedes, cut off from base, allies 
 and succor, had to conquer nature in her wildest form, and enemies 
 on every side, as they flew to a victory as important as Marengo, 
 in order to relieve their Genoa (Olmutz) which they succeeded in 
 doing, and Napoleon did not. 
 
 Torstenson, in addition to his military superiority, was a 
 friend and patron of the arts and sciences, and his ability as a 
 diplomatist, statesman and civil executive, was in no measure be- 
 hind that generalship which made all Germany as open to him, 
 as if it had been his ample field for manoeuvre. He made every 
 Elector, working in with the Imperial interest, the Empire, Aus- 
 tria, and its capital, Vienna, tremble. Had his ally, Racogzy, 
 been trustworthy Vienna must have fallen, and witnessed in. the 
 XVHth century the triumphal possession of a Swede, as in the 
 the XlXth the victorious entry of the Corsican. He .humbled 
 the king of Denmark, before his day the rival of Sweden; he 
 made Poland crouch, he avenged Gustavus, he disarmed two 
 Electors, of Saxony and of Brandenburg, and converted them 
 from more or less bitter enemies into paralyzed neutrals if not 
 absolute friends, and, i?i suiiiina, he filled the measure of Swedish 
 glory (i). 
 
 A few anecdotes, selected at large from his biography, will 
 illustrate the character of Torstenson better than the panegyrics 
 which seek to glorify the everyday incidents in the lives of some 
 prominent individuals deemed exceedingly great by the more or 
 less ignorant and prejudiced world at large. 
 
 Voltaire remarked that, " in all Europe, he (Conde or d'En- 
 ghien) and the Swede Torstenson alone, possessed at the age of 
 twenty years that genius which could well ])ass for matured expe- 
 rience." This corroborates the opinion of the celebrated Swedish 
 historian, Puffendorf, " He (Gustavus Adolphus), Conde and his 
 own disciple, Torstenson, were the only three generals who, at 
 twenty years of age, showed to the (European) public all the 
 effects of long experience." Octavius Csesar was another. 
 
 Macaulay, in two of his brilliant essays, alludes to " great 
 captains whose precocious and self-taught military skill resembled 
 intuition." He then citfes Conde, Clive and Napoleon as exam- 
 ples. With all his ability and marvellous memory Macaulay was 
 evidently ignorant of military history, in that he omitted several 
 more striking examples — Plannibal, Gustavus Adolphus and Tor- 
 stenson, and the list might be greatly extended. In his essay 
 on Clive, he shows much more knowledge of the subject. 
 
63 
 
 • 
 
 " Nor must we forget that he (Clive) was only twenty-five 
 years ohl when he approved himself rii)e for military command. 
 This is a rare, if not a singular distinction. [Not so.J It is true 
 that Alexander, Conde and Charles XII. won great battles at a 
 still earlier age ; l^but these princes were surrounded by vete- 
 ran generals of distinguished skill, to whose suggestions^j 
 must be attributed the victories of the Granicus, of Rocroi and of 
 Narva. Clive, an inexperienced youth, had yet more experience 
 than any of those who served under him. He had to form him- 
 self, to form his officers and to form his army. The only man, 
 as far as we recollect [modestj, who, at an ecjually early age, ever 
 gave e(iual proof of talents for war, was Napoleon Bonaparte." 
 In the sentence in which he justly ascribes the victories of 
 Alexander. Conde and Ciiarles XII. to the experienced officers 
 by whom they were surrounded, he exactly hits the mark, and it 
 is still more pertinent to the case of Napoleon, who, through a 
 great error— showing how little he knew of the subject under 
 consideration — Macaulay makes an exception, whereas he was 
 an example of the rule cited. If ever a man owed his suc- 
 cess to an army which he did not make, and to lieutenants who 
 rose as quickly as he did, it was Napoleon. In the case ot 
 Conde, Rocroi was due to Gassion and to Sirot, who had been 
 formed in the school of Gustavus. To institute a comparison 
 between Clive and Torstenson is just. Both were necessities of 
 the moment and the occasion. Both were indispensabilities. 
 Before he was eighteen Torstenson had given ample proof that 
 he had the most comprehensive idea of generalship ; at twenty- 
 two or three he had saved a decisive battle— just about the age 
 at which Clive had approved himself ripe for military command; " 
 at twenty-seven he was at the head of the Swedish artillery and 
 already famous; and at twenty-nine, while a prisoner, Gustavus 
 had urged uponOxenstiern his ransom at any])rice, "as the man 
 fit to command the whole, or any army." Again, when Baner 
 died, he bequeathed his army, the sole hope and stay of Sweden, 
 to the bed-ridden cripple, Torstenson, as the only man comi)e- 
 tent to command it; and that cripple rose from his couch of 
 agony as the sole individual capable of making the end of the 
 Thirty Years' War a certain success for his country. All the i)re- 
 cocious generals, so credited, from Lucullus down to the Crown 
 Prince of Prussia, in 1870, were drv-nursed; Torstenson drv- 
 nursed his nurses. 
 
 Torstenson's exhibition of instinctive military perception must 
 have occurred during or prior to the Riga campaign, in August- 
 September, 1 62 1, and niiiv have happe'ned [although it is* not 
 likely] in one of the Russian wars ended by the Peace of ^tol- 
 
54 
 
 bova (Stolba), 27th February, 1617. Torstenson was born 17th 
 August, 1603 ; in 1 6 18 he became the king's page, or " Squire of 
 the Chamber; in 1621 he was the king's armor-bearer, a position 
 of the highest trust; in 162 1, when he came of age, he was 
 girded with a sword, according to the old Swedish custom, on 
 attaining majority worthily; and in 1625 he was cornet and the 
 standard or battle-flag of the royal mounted body-guard was 
 entrusted to him, to which reference will be made in quoting the 
 enthusiastic praise of Gustavus III. before the Royal Swedish 
 Academy. In 1630, when his king invaded Germany, such was 
 his celebrity and capacity, he was already, at 27, according to 
 Puffendorf, Grand-Master of the Artillery, and at once, in the 
 Swedish army, made it the arm which it has since become in all 
 the military organizations of the world. 
 
 A more recent Swedish historian, Fryxell, in his " Gustavus; 
 Prepared for the Instruction of Youth," presents the anecdote re- 
 ferred to, thus : During an engagement in this Riga campaign 
 1621, the king dispatched him [Torstenson, his page, acting as 
 aidej with verbal orders to one of his colonels, an ofticer, even 
 now, in Europe, enjoying a higher command than one of our 
 brigadiers, and 250 years ago holding a still more important rela- 
 tive position, for colonels were sometimes selected to command, 
 not only generals, but armies. As Torstenson rode along he 
 discovered that the enemy had made a change in his dispositions, 
 and that the movement prescribed by the orders he bore would be 
 dangerous to the Swedish troops affected by it. Accordingly, in- 
 stead of delivering the king's order, he substituted directions of 
 his own in the king's name. When, on his return, he reported to 
 the king, Gustavus bade him ride swiftly back again with new 
 orders based on the enemy's change of position, and charged him 
 with directions exactly equivalent to those which Torstenson him- 
 self had given on his own responsibility. Torstenson thereui)on 
 begged pardon, and confessed what he had done. Gustavus 
 looked on him and said, smiling, " Torstenson, you are better 
 fitted for a commander than for a page." According to Schiller, 
 Gustavus menaced him with his hand, with these words, " Tor- 
 stenson, that might have cost you your life; but I see in you a 
 good general." That night he was commanded to sit at the 
 king's side at the supper table and from that hour he enjoyed the 
 king's friendship and particular attention. 
 
 In spite of all the enthusiasm of Swedish writers in favor of 
 the performances of their troops on the field of Wallhofif, made 
 famous by the fact that there modern infantry first really asserted 
 itself and its inherent strength against excellent cavalry, it would 
 appear that, after all, it was not the easy victory claimed; and 
 
.)0 
 
 the Swedish horsemen were disordered and liad to be ralHed by 
 the young hero, Torstenson. If such had not been the case, is it 
 probal)le (lustavus III., in his" Royal Utterance," his " Eulogy of 
 Torstenson," would have exclaimed. '■'■Fields of Wallhoffl you 
 can bear testimony to Torstenson's valor! The enemy driven 
 off, the soldiery once more ^^^athered around the Lije-Banner, victory 
 given to Ciustavus Adolphus. All indications of what Torstenson 
 some day will be. His perspicacity, his valor, lead him soon to 
 the chief command. * * Torstenson returns to his na- 
 tive land, where he has scarcely arrived, when Gustavus Adol- 
 phus entrusts him with the chief command of the artillery. A 
 larger field opens up to the hero ; a field on which the eyes of 
 contemporaries- and of posterity will be fixed." 
 
 Scrutinize the conception, inception and connection of all his 
 battles. They are masterpieces. How superlative his grand tac- 
 tics at Leipsic, 1642 (2), his manceuvres to give himself full room 
 and entice his adversaries into an arena from which there was no 
 escape, except-as ruined fugitives. Is it strange that the medal 
 struck in honor of this victory bore the inscription, " // is believed, 
 Leipsic, that now thou knowcst the courai^e of Torstenson." With 
 what acuteness he beguiled the crafty Gallas, who was too cun- 
 ning even for the astute Wallenstein, and with what strategem 
 and strategy he gradually rubbed out the Imjierial forces sent 
 under that general to trap or crush him in Holstein, in 1644; 
 with what energy and celerity he pursued the Saxon cavalry and 
 captured or utterly destroyed it at Niemeck (3). The cold-blooded 
 Turenne flames up, for the nonce, into admiration and applause. 
 Then at Janikau (4), wliat consummate i)erception of the character 
 of his adversaries and of the ground. That was a battle ! He 
 saw the key-point as a sempstress the eye of her needle, and 
 drew through the thread, doubled and knotted it and sewed u]) 
 the allies, in s|)ite of the supernatural aid promised the Kaiser in 
 a dream. This battle was a perfect example of the proper appli- 
 cation of the Three Arms combined. 
 
 Moreover, he never broke his word, and better, he never 
 parleyed when he intended destruction ; with him there was no 
 cruel keeping the promise to the ear and breaking it to the hope. 
 It was Ein Mann — ein Wort (" One man, one word "). Sir James 
 Turner, Knight, in his " Pallas Armata," Chap. XXVI., observes, 
 " if accidentally a Garrison have provoked the Besieger to revenge, 
 it will be more gallantly done to refuse all Parley, discharge all 
 Quarter; anil in the fury [of assault] put all to the Sword, than to 
 kill them in cold blood ; yet it is frecjuently done. But Tor- 
 siENS(W, tlie Swedish Felt- Marshal, did crxeroi'slv, u<hen [in 
 1 644 J he resolved to put a Danish garrison of Goo men to the Sword, 
 
56 
 
 who were in a sconce of the Duchy of Holstein, ]ie refused all 
 Parley or Treaty, and in the Storm killed them, every man." 
 
 Torstenson has often been styled " the modern Hannibal," 
 and, as the unequalled Carthaginian fought and labored and 
 diplomatised to detach from Rome the Socii or Allies, which had 
 been conquered by the Romans, and attach them to himself, 
 Torstenson campaigned and strove to separate from the Imperial 
 cause the princes and the states which had been won over or ca- 
 joled by the emperor — who in 1618-48 represented Rome — and 
 convert them into allies of the Swedes. Hannibal, in spite of six- 
 teen glorious campaigns and three transcendent victories, failed at 
 last; Torstenson, in less than four campaigns, through three aston- 
 ishing triumphs on the battlefield, accomplished what he under- 
 took to do and first laid the sure basis of the peace he lived to 
 see concluded with such glory to his country. 
 
 His simple, unexpected advent more than once struck terror 
 into his adversaries. Witness, for example : In 1642, the Impe- 
 rialists had regained the control in Silesia — a province always a 
 bone of contention until Prussia gulped it down for good — and 
 satisfied their gratuitous cruelty. Piccolomini, that wretch, al- 
 though a sufficiently good soldier to become a necessity to the 
 Imperial and Roman Catholic party, was besieging Glogau and 
 the place was reduced to the greatest extremity. Torstenson had 
 been so weak that he had to bide his time. " No sooner, how- 
 ever, had [Charles GustavusJ Wrangel arrived with reinforcements 
 from Sweden" ["the junction with the vanguard of Wrangel's 
 corps took place 26th August " ], than Torstemou sudde>ily [7th 
 September] appearing in sight of the Austrian camp, created such 
 an alarm, that, forsaking their standards, the soldiers fled to the 
 neighboring hills with disgraceful precipitation^ 
 
 In the summer of 1643 an incident occurred that makes an 
 American regret that we had not had a Torstenson in command 
 of our armies during our great Civil War ; a generalissimo such 
 as he, to deal with generals, who, allowed to interpret orders for 
 themselves, or act, through bias, for a particular chief or ring, or 
 to disobey, or permitted themselves to be gobbled, or their quar- 
 ters beaten up by surprise, or their commands scattered or cap- 
 tured through their negligence. 
 
 The circumstances now to be related afford a better idea of 
 Torstenson's line of judgment than even more important opera- 
 tions. Three Swedish regiments of horse, under Colonels Dobitz 
 and Werner, and Lieut.-Colonel Dobitz, or Dubald, had been 
 sent out to collect contributions. They halted for the night (28th 
 July, 1643) at Tribau, in Northern Moravia. Betrayed by a 
 peasant named Schulmann, they were surprised, under favor of 
 
57 
 
 # 
 
 extreme darkness, by two troops of Imperial horse, and com- 
 pletely disorganized. All three colonels and a number of officers 
 and privates were made prisoners. When Torstensou learned of 
 this disgrace to his arms, he was supremely indignant and availed 
 himself of the earliest opportunity to gel the captured individuals 
 back into his hands. He would not consent to exchange Impe- 
 rialist officers, his own captives, for them, deeming it too honor- 
 able a method of treating their case. He bought titem hack with 
 )iione\\ not considering iliciii worthy of being placed on the footing of 
 an €(/ual exchange — since he tleemed them worthless, and no 
 equivalent for good and brave officers. As soon as the three 
 colonels were in his power he hung up Colonel Werner " incon- 
 tmenter" and had Lieut. -Col. Dubald drummed out of his lines 
 with the utmost ignominy. The third, Colonel Dobitz, appears 
 to have been mortally wounded, and so escaped degradation. 
 He spared Lieut.-Col. Dubald's life solely on condition that he 
 never would let a single human being know that he had at any 
 time held a commison under or in any way served the Swedish 
 crown. Then, to show the enemy that this mishap was not due to 
 him, nor to the rank and file, Torstenson himself led a Hying 
 column into Silesia, in jjursuit of Count P>(P)uchheim, who had 
 been sent thither with 1,500 troo[)ers. So ably was the movement 
 planned that the Imi)eriaiists were in turn surprised and com- 
 j)letely routed at Prerau, near Mostenitz. Of Buckheim's per- 
 sonal suite or staff, two were captured ; likewise two of his horses 
 and the Count got off with difliculty on a third charger. It did 
 not do to trifle with Torstenson ! 
 
 On the i8th April, 1651, Torstenson died, "and left a most 
 excellent odour of his vertues everywhere, yea, even among his 
 very Enemies themselves." His last words were spoken to his 
 queen and sovereign. I41 the Royal Place of Tombs, in the 
 Church of the Knights, near his leader, tutor, friend and king, 
 witli the obsecpiies of a monarch, he was laid to rest, amid the 
 thunder of the artillery he had made. There his body — racked 
 by the severest pains — which had never known repose when duty 
 summoned, at length found that rest denied in life, and he sleeps 
 his long, last slee]), canopied by the trophies he had won. There, 
 halved with his glory, he lies, surrounded by the great comman- 
 ders and the statesmen he had surpa.ssed. A century and a quar- 
 ter after his decease, when Custavus the Third, great king, brave 
 soldier, able seaman, eloquent orator, astute statesman and grace- 
 ful writer, founded the Swedish Academy, he proj)osed the Eulo- 
 gy of Torstenson as the subject for one of the first jirizes for 
 eloc|uence. Anonymously, the royal servant of the muses con- 
 tended tor the prize, which was awarded to the unknown but 
 
58 
 
 able competitor. This eulogy, published long afterwards among 
 the works of Gustavus III., was found, after thirteen years' 
 search, and forwarded to the writer of this biographical sketch. 
 In the career of the hero, the accomplished speaker had a theme 
 worthy his acknowledged ornate, but manly, style. If the Ameri- 
 can reader thinks that the writer has drawn upon his imagination in 
 picturing Leonard (or Lennart) Torstenson, he would find that 
 Gustavus III., one hundred and twenty-five years after the hero 
 disappeared from mortal eyes, proclaimed that he had fulfilled 
 everything predicted of him by Gustavus Adolphus, recorded by 
 Swedish historians a,nd testified by friend and foe, winning in life 
 the love and reverence of the Swedish people, enshrining his 
 memory in their hearts. 
 
 Finally read the " Summing up of Torstenson," by Baron Philip 
 von Chemnitz, in his history of these campaigns, said to have been 
 supervised or even, in part, dictated, by the famous Chancellor 
 Oxenstiern : " When it was manifest that for weeks together he 
 was compelled to keep his bed and that his limbs were so racked 
 with inexpressible pains that he could neither move hands nor 
 feet and was unable either to mount his horse or maintain himself 
 in his saddle, except with difiiculty ; and that he could not sign a 
 letter, but had to leave even that duty to his trusted secretary ; 
 nevertheless he had with such fortune and renown led the army 
 and had won so many bloody pitched battles and glorious vic- 
 tories over the enemy, had conquered so many cities, strong 
 places and fortresses, and, in short, to sum up briefly, had so well 
 sustained and held erect the most difficult, yea, the more than diffi- 
 cult, the most extensive work on which tlie whole of Evangelical 
 Christianity was dependent, then unwilling consent was given him 
 to lay all this aside which he had performed to the greatest satisfac- 
 tion of his Sovereign Queen, and to retwrn to his Fatherland. There 
 he was received by Queen Christina with extraordinary testimo- 
 nials of royal graciousness and soon after raised, in acknowledge- 
 ment of his great and faithful service, to the rank of count and 
 rewarded and enfeoffed with the countship of Ortala, the barony 
 of Worestadh, besides other considerable domains. 
 
 If the opinion of the philosopher Solon, that no one can be 
 adjudged to be happy before his end is considered, be accepted 
 as correct, it must be acknowledged that our hero has to be re- 
 garded as unusually fortunate, since, to the last, he was held in 
 the highest respect and aft'ection, for a reputation won by deeds 
 and unflecked by a single or by the slightest spot, not only by the 
 highest authorities, but by his sovereign and by his peers, or col- 
 leagues, and by the councils and representatives of the Swedish 
 realm, but by every one, noble or simple, of high or low condi- 
 
69 
 
 • 
 
 tion, until the end of his Hfe, in 1650, when he died, overcome by 
 infirmities resulting from the tortures wliich gradually, with greater 
 and greater violence, got the mastery of his forces. Alas, he was 
 not indeed old in days, since he had not fulfilled his 48th year, 
 yet in wisdom distinguished in the highest degree among 
 men, the real grey hair among men, and a spoUess life full of vir- 
 tues and renown, is, after the real old age, old in the great virtues 
 or characteristics which constitute a real hero, and old in mighty 
 illustrious deeds worthy of such a hero! 
 
 Nor was the appearance of Torstenson unworthy of his deeds. 
 He was one of the handsomest men of his time. Divest him of 
 his military insignia and liis (ace might be drawn as the ty])e of 
 manly amiability and resolution. Such, at first sight, it certainly 
 would appear. Close study, however, would reveal the dignity 
 and determination which characterized the man and invested him 
 with that influence which rendered him as mighty as a king in his 
 own innate regal power. His waving hair fell over a forehead 
 beneath which shone eyes blazing with sagacity. At a time when 
 all affected extravagance of dress, his own was simple, rich but 
 serviceable. Gracious in countenance, graceful in mien and royal 
 in manners, no wonder that he retained the respect and love of 
 soldiers and citizens, native and foreign, of superiors, inferiors and 
 even of the haughty, distant Turk, the bigot Austrian, the crafty 
 Frank, the supple Saxon and the eccentric Queen Regent of 
 Sweden. Such was the "inimitable Torstenson;" as a man, 
 almost stainless ; as a subject, without reproach ; as a husband, 
 a model; as a general, unsurpassed; competent in every arm 
 and branch of the service; equal to any occasion; a consistent 
 Christian, and, to sum up all, " an ornament to the human race." 
 
 Notes. — ( i.) " But if the designs of Torstenson (according to 
 Schiller [ever unable to forget he is a German and rise to impartial 
 judgmentj 336) were not crowned with all the success which they 
 l)romised at the connnencement, they were, nevertheless. j)roduc- 
 live of the most important consequences to the Swedish party. 
 Denmark had been compelled to a peace [Brandenburg to a con- 
 vention]. Saxony to a truce, the emperor in the deliberations for 
 a iieace offered greater concessions, France became more man- 
 ageal)le and Sweden itself bolder and more confident in its bear- 
 ing towards these two crowns. Having thus nobly i)erf()rme(l his 
 duty the author of these advantages retired adorned (crowned) 
 with laurels." 
 
 (2.) Comparisons have been instituted between the Leipsic of 
 
60 
 
 Gustavus and the Breitenfeld (or second Leipsic) of Torstenson, 
 but the latter, as the Prussian critic justly observes, |^^" Fate 
 denied to their [Baner and Torstenson's] illustrious monarch and 
 preceptor such victories as Wittstock |in which lorstenson was 
 second in command to BanerJ, Breitenfeld and Janikau. I^^Yea 
 there were even single moments of their lives which surpassed all 
 the successes achieved by Gustavus Adolphus;" and, again, 
 Ic^at Janikau, " sometimes on horseback, sometimes in his lit- 
 ter, the generahssimo was in every spot where the occasion ren- 
 dered his presence requisite ; and thus |55^the last battle which 
 he won was at the same time the finest of his life ; perhaps it is 
 the finest of the whole Thirty Years' War.",^^| " We," adds the 
 Prussian critic, "regret to say that it is one ot tliose battles [for 
 the advancement of the science of war] which, up to the present 
 date, have been least studied. "^^^| 
 
 At the second Leipsic the Swedes occu[)ied almost the very 
 position that the Imperialists did, eleven years i)revious, and if 
 Tilly had displayed the superior capacity of Torstenson, especially 
 in taking advantage of the ground, Gustavus, according to all 
 mortal calculations, must have been defeated. What is more, the 
 Swedes and Saxons, in 1631, united, were superior to their oppo- 
 nents, whereas; in 1642, the Swedes were inferior in numbers. It 
 may be argued in favor of Gustavus that the Saxons, as a body, 
 were quickly run out, but unmilitary critics forget it takes iiine 
 and exhausts strength even to slay and pursue, and, as distinguished 
 generals declare, " time at crises cannot be purchased at hardly 
 any too high a price." Moreover Tilly's troops pursued too far 
 and lost inestimable time in plundering, as the Austrians and 
 their allies, there, as often elsewhere, and as Prince Rupert did, 
 more than once, to the ruin of tlie cause for which they were 
 supposed to be giving their whole honest support. 
 
 The imperial account concedes that in " quantity and quality " 
 both armies were equal, but allows that the vSwedes were inferior 
 in cavalry. The numbers given by Gindely, 20,000 Swedes and 
 22,000 Imperialists, cannot be correct. Each general had about 
 10,000 infantry, but the Imperialists must have had nearly double 
 that number of cavalry. Accurate examinations arrive at the fol- 
 lowing, as the circumstantial results : That, including artillery, 
 Torstenson marshalled about 22,000 men, vvhich is 2,000 above 
 Gindeley's estimate, and, calculating on die same basis, the Allies 
 must have brought into the field between 37,000 and 38,000 
 men. 
 
 It is next to impossible to arrive at any trustworthy results in 
 attempting to calculate the numerical force of the regiments, either 
 of foot or of horse, they varied so gready. If, however, eleven 
 
imperial regiments of infantry comprised, according to their own 
 admission, 10,000 men, this would give about 900 men to the 
 regiment, which would be considerably under their full strength. 
 Swedish infantry regiments, under Cnistavus, were not more than 
 half as strong as the imperial ; but after his death the Swedes seem 
 to have adopted, why, it is im})ossibIe to divine, the organization of 
 the enemy, unless the latter required less tactical instruction than 
 the former, and the Swedes could no longer command practiced 
 soldiers adapted to the tactics of Gustavus. Consecpiently, ap- 
 plying the same ratio to the cavalry as seems etjuitable from the 
 known proportions of the infantry, the former were a little below 
 half their full strength. The allies had 35 regiments of horse, 
 besides 8 squadrons of Hungari:in, and 6 s(|uadrons of Croat, 
 light cavajry. Some of the regiments were a great deal stronger 
 than others, and one or two even more so. Averaging, however, 
 if each regiment was a little below half its full or efieclive num- 
 ^^•"j^S would give, besides allowing at least 100 to each squadron 
 of light cavalry, 17,500 men. 
 
 Conceding the correctness of the imperial estimate, that the 
 infiintry on both sides was about ecjual, the 1 1 Swedish would fur- 
 nish, Hke the 11 imperial, 10,000 men. There were 22 regiments 
 of Swedish horse, besides 3 small detachments about equal to 
 another. Calculating again on the imperial basis that each regi- 
 ment was less than half its full strength, 23 would give 11,500. 
 This would make the Swedish army, assigning 500 for the service 
 of the artillery, amount to 22,000 men, which is 2,000 over Gin- 
 dely's estimate; but on the same basis the Allies must have had 
 between 37,000 and 38,000 men, allowing them, as in the Swedisli 
 case, 500 for the artillery ; all of which is very near the conclusion 
 arrived at years ago, before the possession of data sufficient to 
 enable anything like a correct calculation. There is a great deal 
 of justification for the belief that the Allies were more than one- 
 third stronger than the Swedes; but, although the former claimed 
 an equality in " quality " as well as in " quantity," that is, numbers, 
 it is more than j^robable that the quality was as far inferior to that 
 of the Swedes, especially in the horse, as it was superior in quantity, 
 particularly in mounted troops, as is conceded. 
 
 The result of the battle decided the " Quality ;" for the Allies 
 abandoned the field as runaways, leaving upon it, as confessed, 
 about 5,000 dead and wounded, and 5,000 prisoners, beside the 
 whole of their artillery train and baggage (including gold and sil- 
 ver services), of every kind whatsoever, 'i'lie Swedish list of casual- 
 ties nowhere ai)pears, but it is mentioned as " some hundreds." 
 This is very likely, because during this terrible war, when 
 cold steel decided the mailer, the pursuit of the defeated 
 
62 
 
 amounted to a massacre to such an extent that escape depended 
 entirely upon the speed of the horse. If the infantry did not 
 throw down their arms there were no limits to the slaughter, ex- 
 cepting the fatigue of the butchers, or the hopes of doing better 
 than killing, by ransom or exchange. 
 
 It is conceded by German writers that not one-third of the 
 Allies ever came together again and others admit that this defeat 
 cost the emperor 20,000 men, consequently the attributing of a 
 superiority of one-third to the Allies will afford no basis for a 
 charge of exaggeration. The imperial archduke and general looked 
 upon his deteat as an almost indelible disgrace, since his vastly 
 superior forces seem to have made him perfectly confident of vic- 
 tory. 
 
 (3.) It is a very remarkable thing that no history, however 
 critical or detailed, of the Thirty Years' War, furnishes 'accurate 
 returns of the force of the army by which the greatest actions 
 were performed. Torstenson won all his successes against very 
 great odds. A careful examination has been made and its results 
 set forth as to the numbers opposed to each other at Breitenfeld, or 
 Leipsic II., in 1642. In 1643, when Torstenson invaded Denmark, 
 it is impossible that he could have had over 20,000 men, if near 
 as many,since when he returned, in 1645,10 again invade Aifstria, 
 proper, with all his enlistments and reinforcements, he could only 
 muster 16,000 men for his decisive battle. To Torstenson were 
 opposed, in 1644, not only all the available forces of continental 
 Denmark, proper, but Gindely, writing at Prague, with all the 
 facts before him, states that Gallas was sent to the assistance of 
 the Danes with 22,000 men, by the orders of the Emj:)eror, to 
 dispose of Torstenson forever. On his march northward he was 
 reinforced by the divisions of Bruay and Colloredo, which to- 
 gether must have exceeded 5,000 men, and he was finally rein- 
 forced by r,ooo Danish horse and 3,500 foot. This makes 31,500 
 men. Loccenius says that Gallas was reinforced by a contingent 
 of 10,000 Danes, which would give the imperial commander 37,- 
 000 men. With whatever force he did control, " all that Gallas 
 accomplished was to do in eight days " — on the authority of 
 Chemnitz — " more damage to those whom he came to assist than 
 the Swedes, their enemies, had done to them in eight months." 
 The Danes, reduced to 2,000, when Gallas, justly styled " the 
 Destroyer of Armies," was forced by Torstenson again to quit 
 Danish soil, abandoned him on their frontier and of his own army 
 not more than from 1,000 to . 2,000, according to different 
 accounts, ever got back to Bohemia, whence they started. Thus 
 Torstenson, in 1642, destroyed two imperial armies at Schweidnitz 
 and at Leipsic. In 1643 he raided Austria to the Danube, in spite 
 
03 
 
 of all its armies. In 1644 he eliminated a third army; in 1645 a 
 fourth ; and he would have captured Vienna but for the defection 
 of an ally whom he had subsidized — an ally who sold his birth- 
 right for a mess of pottage and infected the Swedish camp with 
 the ])Iague that swept away thousands of the best veteran trooi)s. 
 Nevertheless the imperialists never recovered the most important 
 conquests whicli Torstcnson hail made and it is due to the victo- 
 ries ot Torstenson that the negotiations which resulted in the 
 Peace of Westphalia first, and only after them, concreted from 
 Semblance into Substance. 
 
 (4.) Torstenson's batde of Janikau, 1645; Kaufmann's battle 
 at Makram, 1875; Sir Hugh Gough's Ferozesha, 1865; Fred- 
 eric the Great's position at Hochkirch, 1759; ^""^ ^^^ analo- 
 gous cases and remarks appropriate to them are api)licable to 
 the Austrian position at Leuthen, 1758; Lee's position at Antie- 
 tam, 1862 ; Meade's position at Gettysburg, and Lee's position at 
 Williamsport, 1863; and in a lesser degree, but still similar, to 
 David's victory in the Valley of Rephaim, B.C. 1048; Joab's 
 triumph at Medeba, before Rabbah-Ammon B.C. 1037; at Tel- 
 amone, B.C. 224; at Chalons, A.D. 451; on the Plains of Aiz- 
 Nadin, A.D. 635 ; of Loudon, at Leignitz, 1760; of Ziethen, at 
 Torgau, 1760; of Stonewall Jack.son, at Chancellorsville, 1863. 
 
 "After this he (Skol)eleff) entered into some very frank criti- 
 ci.sms of his own operations. Speaking of Maiuniiid, he said, ' I 
 have never been able to understand that battle. Poor Burrows 
 evidently had no concei)tion of fighting. He made the great 
 mistake of charging Asiatic cavalry. I would never have done 
 so. My maxim in uuirfare is this — always fight the ciieviy with a 
 weapon in which he is deficient. If he has good cavalry, do not 
 charge him with cavalry ; if his discipline is perfect, do not try 
 to beat him in discipline. You have read my instructions to the 
 officers before Geok Tepe. « * * Those instructions 
 were framed with great care and contain my views on the sub- 
 ject. The Asiatic has no idea of manoeuvring. Do you know 
 the battle of I^Lakram ? That was a splendid batUe and redounds 
 to the glory of Kaufmann. * * * Dq yo^ know 
 that our operations at ^Likram were suggested by Sir Hugh 
 Gough's battle at Ferozesha ? . * * * liriefly, the battle 
 of Makram was as follows: The fort occupied a position on the 
 banks of the Syr Daria, sufficiently close to a chain of mountains 
 for the Khokandese to attempt to bar the Ru.ssian advance up 
 the valley, by running out an earthwork towards it, armed with 
 sixty-eight cannon, all pointed towards the invaders; and by 
 continuing the line of defence to the foot of the hills themselves, 
 by stationing in the intervening ground a huge mass of cavalry. 
 
64 
 
 At the back of the fort, the settlement of Makram, with its nu- 
 merous gardens, was held by infantry; the fort itself was armed 
 with guns and the hills flanking the position were crowded with 
 skirmishers. On the opposite side of the river, the position was 
 rendered unapproachable by swamps. On coming in sighf of 
 this barricade, held by 60,000 Khokandese, General Kaufmann 
 reconnoitred the position with his staff. Although he had only a 
 mere handful of troops, he decided to make an attack the next 
 day, to prevent the enemy from overrunning the country.' Sko- 
 beleff may as well relate, in his own words, what followed. 
 ' Having surveyed the position, he turned to his staff and said, 
 "Who knows anything about the battle of Ferozesha ? " I had 
 read all about it, but waited for the other officers to reply. No 
 one knowing anything about it, I described the battle.' Here 
 he drew a rough sketch of the Punjaub, and said, "As you know, 
 Mr. Marvin, Sir Hugh Gough, the father of the General Gough 
 in Afghanistan during the late war, pitched his camp alongside the 
 enemy's at Ferozesha, without reconnoitering the ground ; and 
 when they fired into it, he fought at once and lost several thou- 
 sand men. I^^The next day he reconnoitred the position, and 
 found a hill on the flank^ that enfiladed it. Marching thither, he 
 inflicted a crushing defeat on the enemy with a loss of only 
 eighteen men.' |^"Turning again to the plan of Makram, he 
 said : ' Thei-e was a hill on the left flank, at the rear of the KJio- 
 kandese position, which corresjionded with that at Ferozesha. It 
 is now called the Peak of Kaufmann. The next day we marched 
 straight in that direction, keeping all the way on elevated ground 
 alongside the mountains, until the enemy's position was out- 
 flanked. Then we changed front ; turning our back upon the 
 hills and our faces to Makram, and, marching straight towards it, 
 swept the enemy right into the river. The river was quite black 
 with heads. Twenty thousand Khokandese perished. I com- 
 manded the cavalry that day. The account of Ferozesha I read 
 originally in French, but more recently in English. Makram was 
 a splendid laurel for Kaufmann.' Schuyler in his ' Turkistan,' 
 gives an account of this battle, in which he erroneously ascribes 
 the turning movement to the suggestion of General Golovatchefif, 
 who carried out the Yomood massacre in Khiva, in 1873, two 
 years earlier. * * * Makram was one of the most 
 
 decisive battles fought by the Russians in Central Asia. It com- 
 ])letely crushed the Khokandese and put an end to all ideas of a 
 Mussulman rising against Russia." — The Russian Advances To- 
 wards India, pp. 106-110, by Charles Marvin. London, 1882. 
 
65 
 
 (5). Page 62, Battle of Breitenfeld or Leipsic II. The list 
 of prisoners captured by Torstenson at Leipsic, in 1642, shows 
 how many unniilitary dependants were attached to the stafifs of 
 generals, especially the Archduke Leo])old. Among these use- 
 less mouths were two servants, charged with the care of the 
 silver ])late (which silver utensils became the prey of the Swedes), 
 one beadle attached to his chapel, one head-falconer, one ap- 
 paritor or door-keeper, one flower-gardener, one usher, besides 
 others of the same kind. In addition to the gold and silver table ser- 
 vices, captured by the Swedes, the Archduke carried with him into 
 the field many precious objects of art and ln,\ury ; among these a 
 Madoiitia of great value, by Alhrecht Dukkr, which Torsten- 
 son presented to his own wife, who, like the spouses of Baner, 
 Mercy and other leaders of the time, followed her husband's for- 
 tunes in the campaign and battle. This lady was captured, in 
 1645, among the baggage trains in the fight of Janikau, by the 
 celebrated Bavarian trooper, John von Werth, and released by a 
 charge led by her gallant husband. 
 
 In a review of the " Literature of the Thirty Years' War," 
 endeavor was made to indicate the most trustworthy authorities. 
 Since then a number have been received from Europe, of which 
 by far the most valuable, because it carries within itself the testi- 
 mony of its efforts at impartiality and access to documentary 
 evidence, hitherto inaccessible, inestimable in arriving at con- 
 clusions and determining judgments of men and matters under 
 treatment. This work is the '■'■ Geschichte \ des \ deutschen Reiches 
 I unter der Regierung Ferdinands ///., | ?iac/i handschrifilichen 
 Qitellen, \ vofi M. Koc/i, \ viit Unterstutznngder Kaiserl. Akadetme 
 der Wissenschaften." In 2 vols., 8vo., Wien, 1866. 
 
 In Vol. I., pp. 364-368, Koch presents a very fair and clear 
 narrative of the Battle of Breitenfeld, 2d November, 1642, and 
 admits that the Austrians and Saxons had 16,000 cavalry and 
 10,000 infantry to 10,000 Swedish horse and the same number of 
 foot. He shows that the Archduke Leopold behaved with ex- 
 ceeding courage. When everything seemed lost, like the veteran 
 Roman consul, .4^hnilius Paullus, worthy a better fate, he dis- 
 mounted from his horse and cast in his lot with the still resisting 
 infantry. Two of his lieutenants, Puchheim and Borneval, had 
 trouble to find him, seized him by the arms and dragged him out of 
 the churm of battle by force. The Archduke was most grieved that 
 he had not fallen among the glorious dead and sacrificed his life 
 with them, especially the infantry, " the old, veteran, picked foot- 
 soldiery, which millions in money could not rejjlace." Again, Vol. 
 I., 475, he more than justifies the calculation of page 62 of this 
 pamphlet, as to the force which Torstenson led into Holstein ; 
 
66 
 
 5,000 infantry. 6,000 cavalry and three regiments of dragoons — a 
 total of between 12,000 and 13,500 men, if as many. The con- 
 clusion drawn, that Torstenson did not have over 20,000 was in- 
 tended to include the flying corps of Konigsmark and all other 
 partisans, who, while under the command of the great Swedish 
 marshal-in-chief, were acting independently as to the immediate 
 supervision of the generalissimo. Koch says (I., 480) that Gallas, 
 including the divisions of Brouay and Colloredo, had 10,000 
 infantry and 12,000 cavalry; but this estimate does not include 
 the troops under Hatzfeld, who was opposing Konigsmark, nor 
 the " vSr////(?////^?//;/d'"^( Danish Free-Corps or Sharpshooters) nor 
 the Danish regulars which subsequently joined the Imperial com- 
 mander ; neither the Saxon cavalry, with which, at a later date, 
 Gallas was reinforced. 
 
 It is curious in this connection to discover, amid many other 
 instances, how history repeats itself The story goes that it was 
 reported to Lincoln, after the fall of Forts Henry and Donelson, 
 that Grant was in the habit of getting drunk. The President, instead 
 of taking umbrage, or being influenced against Grant on that ac- 
 count, declared that, if he knew what particular kind of whiskey 
 Grant used, even to the excess alleged, he would, if possible, pro- 
 cure a big lot of the same stuff" and send a demijohn of it to every 
 general in the service. In the same way as charged against 
 Grant, the most able Baner is said to have been accustomed to 
 get intoxicated and stay drunk for three or four days together. 
 While in this condition, he maintained that he conceived his very 
 best plans of operation. Koch (I., 270, 15) says that Gallas had 
 just the same inordinate addiction to liquor, in common with the 
 Swedish hero, but, instead of deriving inspiration from his indulg- 
 ence, the little military ability which he possessed at other times en- 
 tirely evaporated when he was in his cups. Thus the same bright 
 ideas which, it was said (whether truly or falsely), were engendered 
 in Baner and in Grant by wine or by whiskey, were never present 
 with Gallas when in his potations ; to which he resorted if per- 
 plexed, to such an extent, indeed, that when shut up in Magde- 
 burg by Torstenson, he was accustomed to get drunk three times 
 a day, to drown his worry in the oblivion of debauch. 
 
 Koch is the only author examined who dares to bring any charge 
 of want of humanity, in opposition to Feil, another Austrian (see 
 pp. 27-28, supra), against Torstenson (II. 75-76). He says, that 
 " when Torstenson could no longer continue the glorious career of 
 his activity, it would appear that his failure before Brunn had a 
 powerful influence upon him. He no longer exhibited the equa- 
 nimity which until then had characterized him, and, according to a 
 Swedish correspondent (Who ?) previously cited, he says ' he goes 
 
67 
 
 about like a shadow on the wall,' and suffers on account of this 
 failure [before Brunn], in his head, rather than in his feet, the 
 severest torments of the gout. His previous customary urbanity 
 and self-possession is changed into an indescribable impatience 
 and fury. It is impossible to decide whether he is changed (un- 
 just ascription) on account of the loss of his reputation before 
 Brunn, or through having drawn upon himself for the same rea- 
 son the disfavor of our Crown of Sweden." Koch does not give 
 the name of this calumniator, who doubtless was someone smart- 
 ing under some application of Torstenson's discipline, which, it is 
 well known, struck high and low, whoever deserved it, alike. 
 Old Hermann Wrangel might have written just such a letter. The 
 answer to the whole i)aragraph is the fact that Torstenson was so 
 crippled by the gout in his head and chest he had to seek perfect 
 repo.se, but, as soon as better, he was supreme in the war-councils 
 of his country and commander, if not in the field, through direc- 
 tion. Moreover, honors flowed in upon him from queen and 
 country and to an extent unsurpassed he held the affection and 
 respect of sovereign, peers and the people. 
 
 Conclusion. — Bildad, the Shuite (Job, viii. 8, lo, revised vers- 
 ion), observes, " For encjuire, I pray thee, of the former age, and ap- 
 ply thyself to that which their fiithers have searched out. Shall not 
 they teach thee, and tell thee, and utter words out of their heart?" 
 Martin, the noted Walloon critic, furnishes the following para- 
 phrase of these verses, which is very clear: "The events of the 
 past shall they not serve for instruction." Bearing this in mind, 
 although few lessons can be learned from the records of the 
 Thirty Years' War applicable to this age of enormous armies — of 
 nations under arms and in the field — of weight aud rapidity of 
 fire, when each regiment is an enormous self-transportmg mit- 
 trailleuse or Catling gun ; when the main question of supplying 
 such vast aggregations of men and animals, tax the gigantic 
 powers of steam machinery simply for their transportation ; 
 nevertheless, the great, nay the greatest, lesson presents itself in 
 every form and force — the effect of single minds upon men and 
 events. Leaving aside campaigns, the battles of that war were won 
 by superlative strategy or rather stratagem — throwing out acci- 
 dents, which belong to another consideration — than by veteran 
 valor. Macchiavelli was right when he declared, " Men, iron, 
 money and food are the sinews of war;" but, however astute, he 
 was wrong when he added that, " Men and iron are the most 
 necessary, for men and iron find money, while money and food 
 can find neither men nor iron." This assertion might seem 
 true on the face, but reflection will show that it is not so. Gus- 
 tavus had the best of troops and a more than sufficiency of iron. 
 
68 
 
 Nevertheless the subsidies of France were indispensable to him 
 before he could move to advantage. To acquire the knowledge 
 of the secret governing springs of this, and, in fact, every war, 
 makes the revelations of the literature of the Thirty Years' War 
 so exceedingly valuable. As it was in the case of Gustavus so it 
 was in that of Frederic the Great. To the latter the subsidies of 
 England were as young blood in Prussia's depleted and impover- 
 ished veins and the money-aid of the same opulent power acted 
 as stimulating and sustaining food to coalition after coalition 
 against the most recent Attila, Napoleon. Montecuculi, one of 
 the most sagacious of experienced soldiers, when asked what was 
 most necessary to the carrying on of war, answered " Money ! " 
 and to a second question, " What next ? " replied, " More 
 money ! " When pressed with a third inquiry, " What then ? " he 
 responded, " Still more money ! " Satirical old Butler was right : 
 
 " Money, th' only power. 
 That all mankind bows down before." 
 
 What makes the literature of the Thirty Years' War so inte- 
 resting and valuable to those who hunger and thirst for the fruits 
 of experience and the fountains of wisdom in the Past, for suste- 
 nance, body and mind, in the Future, is the fullness of the feast 
 to healthy digestion. Men were not more ignorant in any prac- 
 tical line two hundred years ago than now and they were much 
 better read in the Humanities, which contain perfect bonanzas 
 now lost, it would appear, like some of the mines of Peru, only 
 a short period since of apparently inexhaustible richness. If this 
 literature teaches nothing else it confirms Polybius, " What in war 
 is without an objective or fore-plan does not deserve the title of an 
 [military] operation." However, as the same very great writer 
 and philosopher admits, " Fortune is more powerful than the 
 genius of great men," how necessary is it to learn that there have 
 been men who seem to have been able even to control Fortune ; 
 and how very superior must have been such a man as Torstenson, 
 who, as Sporchil admits, " may be said to have subjected Fortune 
 to his genius and experience ; " justifying the boast of Tamer- 
 lane, "We have compelled Fortune herself to watch over the 
 prosperity of our empire." Or, as Dryden reads, in his " Don 
 Sebastian : " 
 
 "/« all my wars, good Fortune flew before me; 
 Sublime I sat in triumph on her wheel ! " 
 
(List 0/ Publications, continued front second page of ewer.) 
 
 Articles publislied in United Service Magnzine (eiiiial in matter to 12010. volumes) : Torstenson and 
 the Battle of Janikaii, July, 1879 ; Joshua and the I'attle of Beth-horon — Did the Sun and Moon 
 stand still? February, i83o; Hannibal, July, 1880; Gustavu"? Adolphus, Sept., /880 ; Cavalry, 
 I., Sept., 1880; Cavalry, II., Nov., 1880; Cavalry, III., Dec, 1880; Army Catastrophes — Dcstiuc- 
 lion of Pharaoh and his host ; how accomplished, Ac, &c. February, 1881. — Hannibal's Army of 
 Italy, Mar., 1881 ; Hannibal's Last Campaign, May, 1881 ; Infantry, I., June, i88i ; Infantry, H., 
 Au),'., 1881 ; Battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781, Sept., 1881 ; Siege of Yorktown, 17O1, Nov. i88i ; 
 Infantry, III, April, 1882; Waterloo, July, 1882; Vindication of James Hepburn, Earl of Both- 
 well, Sept., 1882, Oct., 1882 ; From the Rapidan to Appomattox Court House, July, 1883.— Burgoyne's 
 Campaign, J uly-Oct., 1777, and Appendix, Oct., 1883. — Life and Achievements of Field-Marshal Gene- 
 ralissimo Suworrow, November-December, 1883. — Biographical Sketch of Maj.-Gen. Andrew Atkinson 
 Humphreys, U. S. A., March 1884. — Address, Maj.-Gen. A. A. Humphreys, before the Third Army 
 Corps Union, 5th May, 1884. Character and Services of Maj.-Gen. A. A. Humphreys, U. S. A., 
 Manhattan, N. Y., Monthly Magazine, August, 1884. 
 
 Suggestions which laid the basis for the present admirable Paid Fire Department in the City of New 
 York, in which, as well as in the Organization of the present Municipal Police of New York 
 City, Gen. de Peyster was a co-laborer with the Hon. Jas. W. Gerard, and G. W. Matsell, for 
 which latter Department he caused to be prepared and presented a Fire Escape, a model of sim- 
 plicity and inestimable utility. Republished in the New York Historical Magazine. Supple- 
 ment, Vol. IX., 1865. John G. Shea, Editor and Proprietor. 
 
 The Pearl of Pearls, or the "Wild Brunswicker" and his "Queen of Hearts :" a novel, founded on 
 facts. 1865. — Mary Stuart : a Study. 1882 ; James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell : a Vindication, 
 1882 ; Bothwell and Mary Stuart : an Enquiry and a Justification. 1883. — Bothwell, an Historical 
 Drama, 1884. — The Life and Military Servces of Sir John Johnson, Bart. 1882. — Notices and Corre- 
 spondence of Col. A. S. de Peyster and Brig.-Gen. Sir John Johnson, Bart., during and after the 
 American Revolution, 1776, &c. 1884. 
 
 State Sovereignty. 1861. — Life and Services of the great Russian Field-Marshal Suworrow. 1882. — 
 T-^ Royale, the Grand Hunt [or Last Campaign o> the Army of the Potomac], Nos. I., II.. III., 
 IV., v., VI., 1872 ; VII., 1873; VIII., 1S71.— Battles of Fredericksburg, Chancellorsville and Get- 
 tysburg, in Onward, a monthly. 1869-70. — And Gettysburg and Williamsport, in the So/Jiers' 
 Friend, a weekly, 1870. — Col. J. Watts de Peyster, Jr., U. S. V., A Threnody. 1874. — Sir John 
 Johnson, Bart. : An Address delivered before the N. Y. Historical Society, 6th Jan., 1880, with 
 two voluminous Appendices of Authorities. 
 
 Centennial Sketches of the American Revolution, which appeared in the N. Y. Times, and especially in 
 the N. Y. Evening Mail, and Mail tind Express. 1776-82. — Decisive Conflicts of the late Civil War 
 or " Slaveholders' Rebellion :" I. Shiloh, Antietam, &c., 1867 ; II. Murfreesboro to Chattanooga, &.C., 
 1866; III. Gettysburg, 1867; IV. Nashville, 1876. — Biographical notices of Major-Generals Philip 
 Schuyler— Address delivered before the N. Y. Historical Society, ad Jan., 1877 ; Geo. H. Thomas, 
 (likewise two Addresses delivered on the same subject before the N. Y. Historical Society, 5th Jan. 
 1875, and Jan. 1876) ; also, of Bancroft, Burnside, Crawford, Heintzleman, Hooker, Humphreys, 
 McAllister, Mahone, Meade, Edwards I'ierrepont, Pleasanton, Sickles, Tremaine, &c., &c. 
 
 The B.Tttles of Monmouth and Capture of Stony Point : a series of voluminous and exhaustive articles 
 published in the Monmouth Enquirer, N. J., 1879. — Eclaireur (The1, A Military Journal, Vols. 
 II. and III., edited 1854-5. 
 
 History of the Third Corps, Army of the Potomac, 1861-65. This title, although not technically, is vir- 
 tually correct, for in a series of elaborate articles in dailies, weeklies, monthlies, monographs, ad- 
 dresses, &c., everything relating to this Corps, even to smallest details, from 1861 to 1865, was pre- 
 pared with care, and put in print. These articles appeared in the Citizen, and the Citizen and 
 Round Table; in Foley's I'olunteer, and Soldiers' and Sailors' Half-Dime Tales 0/ the late 
 Rebellion: in Mayne Reid's magazine Omiinrd; in Chaplain Bourne's Soldiers' Friend: in "La Royale 
 or Grand Hunt [or the L.ist Campaign] 0/ the Army of the Potomae, from Petersburg to Appomat- 
 tox Court House, April 2-9. 1865," illustrated with engraved likenesses of several of the prominent 
 Generals belonging to the corps, and careful maps and plans ; in the life of Major-General Philip 
 Kearny; in the "Third Corps at Gettysburg ; General Sickles Vindicated" • ♦ Vol. I., Nos. xi., 
 xii., xiii. The I'olunteer: in a Speech delivered before the Third Army Corps Union, 5th May, 
 1871 profusely illustrated with portraits of Generals who commanded, or belonged to that organiza- 
 tion, Ac. These arranged and condensed would constitute a work of five or six volumes 8vo., 
 such as those prepared by Prof. John W. Draper, entitled the "Civil War in America," but were 
 never given as bound volumes to the public, because the expense was so great that the author, 
 who merely writes for credit and amusement, was unwilling to assume the l.irger outlay, in addition 
 to what he had already expended on the purchase of authorities, clerk-hire, printing, &c., &c. 
 
-ii. 
 
 -«..>- 
 
 ^.* ^-^^ 
 
 Rrancesca da Rimini, I 
 
 r:^-^ 
 
 
Fr^ANGESGA DA I^IMINi; 
 
 Dante's Inferno, Canto V., Verses 73-123.^ 
 
 AN ATTEMPT AT A LITEKAL TRANSLATION IN BLANK VERSE. 
 
 " Jerusalem renieiiibercd, in the days of her affliction and of lier miseries, all lier 
 pleasant things that she had in the days of old." 
 
 La.MENI AllONS OF JerEMIAH. 
 
 "Comfort? Comfort scorn'd of devils ! this is Truth the poet sings, 
 That a sorrow s crotvn of sorrow is re iiioitbering- happier things." 
 
 Tennyson's " Locksley Hail." 
 
 Dante to Viruil. — ''Poet, gladly 
 
 Would I accost those two w^ho float together. 
 And seem to sweep so buoyant on the wind ! " 
 
 Virgil. To me replymg, '*Thoa shalt see," he said, 
 ''When they draw near; then coniidence invite 
 By that great love thatguides them, and they'll come. ' ' 
 
 Dante. Soon as the eddy wafts them near to us, 
 I raise my voice, "Oh, spirits worn with grief. 
 Approach and speak if answer naught forbid. '- 
 As doves incited by desire, with wings 
 Firm and distended, tiy to welcome nest. 
 Cleave through the air and onward borne by will, 
 
3 
 
 So these, from throng which crowded Dido round, 
 Approach us through the evil atmosphere. 
 
 Francesca. "Oh, mortal creature, gracious and benign. 
 Who visits us through black, empurpled air, 
 We, who, witli blood [our own] distain'd the earth, 
 If friendly He, who rules the universe. 
 Our prayers we'll offer to Him for thy peace, 
 Seeing thou pitiest our misfortune dire ; 
 ( )f what it pleases thee to hear and speak. 
 We will both listen and [in turn] relate, 
 While yet the wind ceases to interrupt. 
 The city^ where [Francesca], I, was born. 
 Is seated on the coast where Po descends. 
 To rest in peace with tributary streams. ' 
 Love, that instinctive springs in gentle heart, ^ 
 Made him a captive with the gracious form. 
 Of which I was bereft in way still grieves ; * 
 
 Love, which to no one lov'd admits excuse 
 From loving [in return] fill'd me with such delight. 
 That e'en now, as thou see'st, it leaves me not. 
 Love led us to one death. The loAvest hell^ 
 Awaits tlu' murd'i-ous hand' that (luencli'd «^>urliv('s" — 
 
 Dante. These were the very words address'd to us. 
 
 ( jTo YiiujU. ) "'Ah, what sweet thoughts, what mutual desire 
 
 Brought these two lovers to such woful pass? " 
 * * * * 
 
 {To Francesca.) 
 
 Thy torments, oh, Francesca, make me weep 
 
 And call forth tears of pity and of grief; 
 
 But tell me how, in time of the sweet sighs 
 
And in what manner Love reveal' d to yon 
 Desires, uncertain yet, that fill'd yonr hearts." 
 Francesca. Then she replied, " There is no greater pang 
 Than to recall the happy times by-gone 
 In present wretchedness; thy guide knows this ; 
 But if* thou dost desire, eagerly, to learn 
 The earliest germination of our love, 
 I will't impart, as one who weeps -and tells. 
 One day for pastime, we, together, read 
 Of Lancelot,^ and how Jove enthrall'd him. 
 We sat alone all innocent of guile : 
 Oft what M^e read coinpell'd our eyes to meet 
 And made the blood sviiFuse or quit our cheeks ;'* 
 One thought it w^as did both us overcome, 
 When read we how the smile desiring fondly 
 For kiss of such a lover [Lancelot] 
 He [Paolo] who from me shall parted never be, 
 Kiss'd me upon the mouth^° all tremblingly: — 
 The book — the author it was Galeotto — 
 After tliat kiss we read that day no more." 
 
 J. W. DE P. 
 
q-._^3r-^ — p 
 -| NOTES j- 
 
 ' The same idea is to be found in Boothius — Dante — Chaucer. For 
 an ilhistnition see Bolin's "J. C. Wriglit's Translation of Dante, Flax- 
 man's Illustrations." Sketch, "The Lovers Punished," p. 23. 
 
 This episode of Franccsca da Rimini has been translated by a number 
 of English poets ; among these, last and greatest, Hyron. Even Carlyle 
 lias tried his hand at it ; but none have succeeded in giving the force of 
 the original — the concise, yet excpiisitely fender, comprehensiveness of 
 the Dinna Commediit. This endeavor aims at condensing this transla- 
 tion into as few words as the Italian and yet afford a full development 
 of the sense. Dante was perhaps the most original of all poets, and yet he 
 l)orrowed from the Bible many ideas wliich give his verses strength, 
 while others have borrowed from him and lost the force of tlie original. 
 
 * Canto V. of D.\nte'8 "Jnferno" treats of "The Second Circle, or 
 proper commencement of Hell, and Minos, the Infernal Judge, at its 
 entrance. It contains the .souls of carnal sinners and their punisimient 
 consists in being driven about incessantly, in total darkness, by fierce 
 winds. First among theiu comes Semiramis the Babylonian queen, Dido, 
 Cleopatra, Helena, Achilles, Paris, and a great multitude of others pass 
 in succession." 
 
 "Dante is overcome and bewildered with pity at the sight of thcni, 
 when his attention is suddenly attracted to Two Spirits that keep to- 
 gether and seem strangely light u|)om the wind. He is unable to speak 
 for some time, after finding that it is France.'^ca of Rimini, with her 
 lover Paolo, and falls to the ground, as if dead, when he has heard the 
 painful story. Francesca was tlie daughter of (iuido Vecchio da Polenta. 
 Lord of Ravenna, and was given in marriage to Gianciotto, or Giovanni 
 Sciancato (John the lame, or hipshot), eldest son of Malatesta Vecchio, 
 Lord or Tyrant of Rimini. Paolo, her lover, was a younger son of 
 Malatesta. They were surprised and slain together by the husband, 
 about the year 1288 ; and buried in the same grave. Guido Novello. 
 the true and generous friend with whom Dante resided at Ravenna. wa.>* 
 the son of Francesca"s brother, Ostagio da Polenta." 
 
 " The facts^of Francesca's story are given by Hieronymus Rubens, in 
 
6 
 
 his Hist. Raveunat. Venetiis, 1572, fol.: lib.:vi., p. 808-9. The genea- 
 logy of the Guidos is given at tlie end, and completely agrees with and 
 explains all that is said respecting them by Boccaccio, Benvenuto da 
 Imola, and the other early commentators. A later edition (1603) of the 
 same work places the death of Francescaand her lover at the commence- 
 ment of the year 1289. In the first edition it is placed between 1287 and 
 1289."— Cari.ylr. 
 
 ^ Ravenna. 
 
 * " With sequent streams seeking rest in the sea " [Adriatic]. — Carey. 
 
 ^ Love through the eye ; the love of inexperienced youth is some- 
 thing like Mary Stuart's sudden, insane, soon-repented passion for Darn- 
 ley. There is another instantaneous love, like that Shakspeare depicts 
 in Romeo and Juliet : 
 
 "The tire of love in gentle heart is caught. 
 As virtue in the precious stone." 
 Or, better ; 
 
 "The light of love in gentle heart's reflected, 
 As is the sunlight in a drop of dew." 
 
 ' Caina.— Cain's place in the lowest circle of Hell, occupied by fratri- 
 cides, etc. Canto XXVH. 
 
 ' By the murderous stroke of Lanciotto, malformed husband of 
 Francesca and brother of Paolo. 
 
 * " Lancelot of the Lake, in the old Romances of the Round Table, 
 is described as "the greatest knight of all the world," and his love for 
 Queen Guenever, or Ginevra, is infinite. Galeotto, Galishant, or Sir 
 Galahad, is he who gives such a detailed declaration of Lancelot's love 
 to the Queen, and is to them, in the romance, what the book and its 
 author are here to Francesca and Paolo." — Carlyle. 
 
 ' Any man who has been in love, and as yet uncertain of his fate, if 
 his observation was vivid and his memory tenacious, he must recall the 
 alternating flushes of hope and the pallid ashen of despair, while await- 
 ing the spoken or silent reply of word or act that crowned his hopes or 
 precipitated them into the abyss of despair. 
 
 ''II Rim d'Iddio," "The smile of the deity,' the dawn of love; 
 the smile never seen but at the very moment of the inception of love, 
 or perhaps the perception of love's living existence, when the lips part 
 with the intensest earnestness of desire to express all that the heart 
 feels and yet cannot, from the very inadequacy of words, while the 
 wliole face is irradiated with a glory and a sentiment it has never shown 
 
Lelore uiui i« never to know again. This is ihc smile to whieli Dunte 
 refers, and avI.icIi no one can recognize l)iit one wlio has loved in the M- 
 lesl signilication of love. 
 
 '" Tile "Iviss upon ihe nioutli • lias inspired some ol tlie finest poetry 
 m every language, heathen, Mahoniedan and modern. A few illustra 
 tions must sufHce, viz.: 
 
 Queen. "Fain would I tell ihee what I feel within. 
 
 But Shame and Modesty have ty'd my Tongue ! 
 \et, I will tell, that thou may'st weep with me. 
 J low dear, how sweet his first Embraces were ! 
 With what a Zeol hejoMd hin IJpx to mine! 
 And sucked lui/ Breath <it erery Word I npolce. 
 As if he drew his luspiratio/i thence : 
 While both our Souls eaine upwitrd to our Month.'', 
 As neighboring Monarchs at their Borders meet : 
 1 thought : Oh, no ; 'Tis false : I could not think, 
 Twas neither Life nor Death, but both in one." 
 
 Duvdkn's -'Spanish Fri/ar." 
 
 " My heart can kiss no heart but thine. 
 And if tliese lips but larely pine 
 
 In tlie pale abstinence of .sorrow, 
 It is that nightly I divine. 
 As I this world-sick soul recline, 
 
 I shall be with thee ere the morrow." 
 
 " \N e had talked long ; and then a silence came. 
 And in the topmo.st firs 
 To her ne.st the white dove floated like a flame ; 
 
 And my lips closed on hers 
 Who was the only she, 
 . And in one girl all womanhood to me." 
 
 •M.VKIAN. " You are a wanton." 
 
 Homx lloou. '-One I do confess 
 
 I irant-ei] till you came ; but now I have vou 
 I'll grow to your embnices till two souls. 
 Distilled into kis.ses through our lips 
 Do make one spirit of love." 
 
 •' 'Sweet Helen, make me imniorlal with a kiss ;" " 
 Her lips suck forth my .soul : see, where it flies. 
 ■ Oh, let me live forever on those lips ! 
 The nectar of the gods to these is tasteless." " 
 
In an old Latin religious commentary in my poissession, published in 
 1565, i. e. over three hundred years ago, and just about seventy-five years 
 before my people came to this countiy, the following note occurs on the 
 first words of Solomon's '"Song of Songs," I., 3. (Read in this connec- 
 tion verses 2, 3, 10, 11, Chap. IV.; verses 13 and 16, Chap. V.; verse 9, 
 Chap. VII.) : " Vere amat, qui vere dat oscvlum." I translate the Latin 
 of the original, "He truly loves who [knows how to give a kiss truly, 
 or] truly kisses. For tlie spirit poured forth our heart finds the ambas 
 sador of real love in a kiss. Thus [through such a kiss] we learn the 
 truth and that the love thus expressed is not a feigned passion." 
 
 Curious truth to be found in an old monkish Latin commentary 
 upon Solomon's Hebrew idyl, which is said to be the loveliest of the 
 kind ever written. It is lovely if properly read. The description of 
 Spring, in Chapter II., verses 11 — 13, is not susceptible of improvement. 
 Those who seek for evil everywhere may find much that is suggestive in 
 Solomon, but, rightly taken, there is more that isunmistakeablypure and 
 sweet. 
 
 " Last night, when some one spoke his name. 
 
 From my swift blood that went and came 
 
 A thousand little shafts of flame. 
 
 Were shiver'd in my narrow frame. 
 
 Love, Of re! once lie drew 
 
 With one lonr/ kiss, mil 'whole soul thro' 
 My lips, as suulir/ht drinketh dew. 
 
 " My whole soul waiting silently. 
 All naked, in a sultry sky, 
 Droops blinded with his shining eye ; 
 
 1 will possess him or will die. 
 
 I will grow round him in his place, 
 C4row, love, die, looking on his face, 
 Die, dying clasp'd in his embrace." 
 
 Tennyson's " Fatimay