CopightN ( COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. y. w « h- 1 « w 5 en 0) P 9-1 o ^ z rC o u a s o s-l fc O a> fc W ^3 w pq O H < •4-1 S u o -t-l i-> c w H Pn 5 Pm 3 O "o CO n £ w o a i— i H H < PQ o u w 3 W w O Q q < PQ hJ t-^ < « >% w rO fe M w c O "■*-> G <•*< rt %^ SEP 28 i92i Cfte gtftenaeum jgreg g GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. §)C!.A624541 — PREFACE In preparing this outline of the whole history of man from the earliest beginnings of civilization down to the present those topics have been chosen which have the greatest interest for us today — those which help us most in understanding our own time. Occa- sionally it has been necessary to include certain historical facts of no great importance in themselves merely to establish the sequence or because they are deemed matters of "common knowl- edge" which the student should know because they are often alluded to. Happily these latter cases are few. The presentation of a brief review of general history which is satisfactory becomes increasingly difficult. The older manuals gave scanty attention to anything preceding the Greeks and were well-nigh through their task when they reached the year 1870. But the long narrative of the past has been lengthened out at both ends. Recent discoveries of archaeologists have altered funda- mentally our conception of man's progress and made vivid and real the long, long ages during which civilization was slowly ac- cumulating before it reached that high degree of refinement which we find among the ancient Egyptians. The so-called "pre- historic" period and the story of the ancient Orient are now full of absorbing interest and can no longer be dismissed in a few introductory pages. On the other hand our own times have assumed a significance which they did not possess for us prior to the year 19 14. The shock of finding the world at war and the multitude of perplexing problems which the war has revealed have led us to realize how ill-understood are the conditions in modern Europe and in the Orient. The story of the World War must therefore be told with some account of its causes and of the questions still awaiting adjustment. Furthermore, it is obviously no longer possible to leave out some account of the Far East in an outline of European Gl 111 iv General History of Europe history, for the war clearly showed how close has become the relationship between all peoples of the earth and how delicate and pressing is the problem of international adjustment. It is obvious that in order to make room for all this new and essential material it has been impossible to include all the events which have usually been found in a general history. The task of selection is a difficult one. It is fair to ask the reader who is disturbed by the omission of some familiar name or topic to con- sider what portion of the present narrative he would discard in favor of the incident he has in mind. In the matter of perspective it will be noted that less than half of the history is devoted to the story of the Western world down to the sixteenth century. Nearly a quarter of the space is assigned to the last fifty years. This corresponds to a growing demand that we should study the past in the interest of the present. The illustrations have been chosen with especial care, and the legends furnish much information which could not have been added to the text without complicating the narrative. The questions at the ends of the chapters will serve as a review and assist the student in summarizing his knowledge. Questions which cannot be answered from the text have sometimes been added in the hope of stimulating the student to carry on a little investigation of his own and to make some application of what he has learned. Gl CONTENTS BOOK I. THE ANCIENT WORLD PAGE CHAPTER I. Prehistoric Man I. How Man has built up Civilization i II. The Early Stone Age 3 III. The Late Stone Age 5 II. Egyptian Civilization I. Beginnings of a Higher Civilization 10 II. Age of the Pyramids T 4 III. Civilization of the Empire 20 III. Western Asia: Babylonia and Assyria, the Persians, and the Hebrews I. Babylonia and Assyria 24 II. The Indo-European Peoples : the Persian Empire 35 III. The Hebrews \° BOOK II THE GREEKS IV. The Coming of the Greeks — their Early Achievements I. The ^Egean Civilization 48 II. The Coming of the Greeks 54 III. Beginnings of Higher Culture among the Greeks 57 IV. Greek Colonies and Business 62 V. Reforms of Solon and Clisthenes 68 V. The Repulse of Persia and the Rise of the Athenian Empire I. The Repulse of the Persians 7° II. The Rise of the Athenian Empire 75 VI. Athens in the Age of Pericles I. Houses, Education, and Science *'. 78 II. Art and Literature 81 III. Fall of the Athenian Empire 86 Gl vi General History of Europe CHAPTER PAGE VII. Continued Conflicts among the Greek States; Art and Literature after Pericles I. Political Revolutions 91 II. Greek Art, Literature, and Philosophy 93 VIII. Alexander the Great and the Hellenistic Age I. Macedonia and Alexander the Great 101 II. The Civilization of the Hellenistic Age 107 BOO A' III. THE ROMANS IX. The Western Mediterranean World and the Roman Conquest of Italy I. Italy and the Origin of Rome 116 II. The Early Roman Republic: its Government 120 III. The Expansion of the Roman Republic and the Conquest of Italy 123 X. Rome and Carthage I. Commercial Power of Carthage ; the First Punic War . . 128 II. The War with Hannibal, or Second Punic War 131 XI. Extension of Roman Dominion and its Results I. Conquest of the Eastern Mediterranean : New Problems . . 137 II. Signs of Degeneration in Town and Country 141 XII. A Century of Revolution and the End of the Roman Republic (133-30 b.c.) I. The Struggle between Senate and People 145 II. Overthrow of the Republic; Pompey and Caesar 147 III. Triumph of Augustus and End of the Civil Wars .... 151 XIII. The Roman' Empire from Augustus to Marcus Aurelius I. The Age of Augustus (30 B.C.- a. d. 14) 153 II. Successors of Augustus: Policies of Trajan and Hadrian . 157 III. Civilization of the Roman Empire 161 XIV. A Century of Disorder and the Division of the Roman Empire I. Decline of the Roman Empire 171 II. A Ceiftury of Revolution 174 III. The Roman Empire becomes an Oriental Despotism . . . 175 IV. The Triumph of Christianity and Division of the Empire . 177 Gi Contents vii BOOK IV THE MIDDLE AGES CHAPTER PAGE XV. The Period of Invasions and the Work of the Christian Church I. Invasion of the Empire by Barbarians 181 II. Results of the Barbarian Invasions 188 III. The Mohammedan Invasion of Europe ......... 191 IV. The Work of the Christian Church 194 V. The Monks and their Missions 198 XVI. Age of Disorder: Feudalism I. Conquests of Charlemagne 204 II. Causes of Disorder after Charlemagne 207 III. Feudal System and Neighborhood Warfare 211 XVII. Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages I. Origin of the Holy Roman Empire 216 II. The Long Struggle between Popes and Emperors . . . 220 III. Organization and Powers of the Church 222 XVIII. England and France in the Middle Ages I. The Norman Conquest 227 II. Henry II and the Plantagenets 232 XIX. The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders I. The First Crusade 237 II. The Second and Later Crusades ; Results 241 III. The Heretics and the Friars 243 BOOK V CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES XX. Medieval Life in Country and Town I. The Serfs and the Manor 248 II. The Towns and Guilds 251 III. Business in the Later Middle Ages 254 IV. Gothic Architecture . 258 XXI. Books and Science in the Middle Ages I. How the Modern Languages Originated 264 II. The Troubadours and Chivalry 267 III. Medieval Learning 268 IV. Medieval Universities and Studies 270 V. Beginnings of Modern Inventions 273 Gl viii General History of Europe CHAPTER PAGE XXII. England and' France during the Hundred Years' War I. Wales and Scotland 279 II. Beginnings of the English Parliament 281 III. The Hundred Years' War 283 IV. England and France after the Hundred Years' War . . 286 XXIII. Italy and the Renaissance L The Italian Cities during the Renaissance 2S9 II. The Art of the Renaissance 294 III. Early Geographical Discoveries 296 BOOK VI THE PROTESTANT REVOLT AND THE WARS OE RELIGION XXIV. Emperor Charles V and his Vast Realms I. How Italy became the Battle Ground of the European Powers 300 II. How Spain became a Great European Tower 302 III. The Empire of the Hapsburgs under Charles V . . . . 304 XXV. Martin Luther and the Revolt of Germany against the Papacy I. The Question of Reforming the Church ; Erasmus . . 30S II. Martin Luther and his Teachings 310 III. The Revolt against the Papacy begins in Germany . . 314 IV. Division of Germany into Catholic and Protestant Countries 316 XXVI. The Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England I. Zwingli and Calvin 319 II. How England fell away from the Papacy 322 III. England becomes Protestant 325 XXVII. The Wars of Religion I. The Council of Trent ; the Jesuits 328 II. Philip II and the Revolt of the Netherlands 331 III. The Huguenot Wars in France 334 IV. England under Queen Elizabeth 338 V. The Thirty Years' War 343 VI. The Beginnings of our Scientific Age 347 Gl Contents IX BOOK VII THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES CHAPTER PAGE XXVIII. Struggle in England between King and Parliament I. The Stuarts and the Divine Right of Kings 351 II. Oliver Cromwell ; England a Commonwealth 357 III. The Restoration 360 IV. The Revolution of 1688 361 V. England after the Revolution of 1688 363 BIBLIOGRAPHY i INDEX xi Gl LIST OF COLORED PLATES Plate I page AN AMERICAN GENERAL ADDRESSING HIS MEN JUST BEFORE GOING UNDER FIRE IN THE BATTLE OF THE MARNE Frontispiece Plate II THE PARTHENON 78 Plate III PERISTYLE OF THE HOUSE OF THE VETTII IN POMPEII, RESTORED 1 68 Plate IV PAGE FROM THE BOOK OF HOURS, FIFTEENTH CENTURY. . 276 Plate V GREAT TANGLEY MANOR IN SURREY, BUILT IN ELIZABETH'S TIME 340 XI LIST OF COLORED MAPS PAGE The Ancient Oriental World and Neighboring Europe before the Rise of the Greeks 24 Map of Two Oriental Empires: A, The Assyrian Empire at its Height; B, The Persian Empire at its Greatest Extent 30 Palestine, the Land of the Hebrews 44 Greece in the Fifth Century B.c 50 Empire of Alexander the Great 104 Italy and Adjacent Lands before the Supremacy of Rome 122 Sequence Map showing the Expansion of the Roman Power to the Death of Caesar (I-IV) 138 The Roman Empire at its Greatest Extent 158 The Migrations of the Germans in the Fifth Century 184 Europe and the Orient in 1096 220 Commercial Towns and Trade Routes in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries 254 The British Isles • 280 Behaim's Globe . 296 Europe about the Middle of the Sixteenth Century 306 Gl A GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE Part I GENERAL HISTORY OF EUROPE BOOK I. THE ANCIENT WORLD CHAPTER I PREHISTORIC MAN I. How Man has built up Civilization 1. Ignorance and Poverty of Earliest Man. How long man has existed on the earth no one knows. Those who have studied the matter most carefully in recent times make various guesses — some five hundred thousand years, some a million. In the be- ginning he must have lived without houses or clothes or any means of making a fire. He had to invent even language. There. were no books or teachers to help him, and so he had to find out everything for himself. He wandered naked and houseless through the woods and over the plains, picking up a living by looking for wild fruit, seeds, berries, roots, and such animals as he might find dead or could succeed in striking down with a stone or stick. As a great English philosopher long ago remarked, the original life of man must have been "poor, nasty, brutish, and short." We may imagine one of these naked, brutish forefathers of ours sitting in the shade and amusing himself by picking up a sharp stone and scraping the bark off a stick he had at hand with a view to killing a squirrel that was playing around. He might happen to sharpen the stick and so make a rude spear, which he discovered could be used to pierce an animal as well as hit him. In some such way the first weapon better than clubs and stones might have been invented. Now to invent means to "happen .on" 2 General History of Europe or " discover." Man has happened on and found out accidentally very many things that he has slowly learned through the ages. 2. Man Learns by Imitation. One of the great differences be- tween man and other animals is that what one man invents may be imitated by others and become a tradition of the tribe. An old animal — let us say an elephant or horse — has learned some- thing by experience and is wiser than a young one, but he cannot teach what he knows to the baby elephant or colt. Men and women, however, can teach boys and girls what they have learned. In this way discoveries which have been made from time to time have been passed down from generation to generation and have become more and more numerous, until the descendants of men who could not make a fire or speak a sentence or build a canoe have finally, in modern times, been able to construct an electric furnace hotter than the sun itself, dispatch messages around the world, and send great steamships back and forth across the sea. Each new invention usually depends on earlier inventions and these on still earlier ones, until, if we could follow the history of civilization back to the very beginning, we might find the man under the tree making the first spear hundreds of thousands of years ago. 3. Civilization the Story of Invention. The history of civili- zation is the story of how man invented and discovered all those things which we now have and of which at the start he was igno- rant. We nowadays think of invention as going on rapidly, so that even a boy or girl can observe that new things are being discovered as he looks around or reads the newspapers and magazines. But in the beginning invention went on very, very slowly, and mankind has spent almost its whole existence in a state of savagery far below that of the most ignorant peoples to be found today in central Africa or the arctic regions. 4. Man's Long History and Slow Progress. If we imagine that man began to make the simplest inventions five hundred thousand years ago, and we let this five hundred thousand years be represented by a line fifty feet long, each foot would correspond to ten thousand years. Forty-nine feet would represent the period Prehistoric Man before man learned to raise crops, tame and breed animals, make pottery, and weave cloth ; the last six or seven inches, the time that he has been able to write ; the last three inches, the period during which he has been studying science ; the last half- inch, the time since the printing press became common ; and the last fifth of an inch, the period since he discovered he could make the steam engine work for him and carry him about. A great part of the problems of the present day are due to the rapidity with which in- vention now goes on and changes the conditions in which we live. But our remote ancestors probably lived for thousands and thousands of years with- out experiencing any great changes due to inventions, for it is only during the past five or six thousand years that civilization finally reached a point where ever more rapid progress could be made. A Flint Fist-Hatchet belonging to the early Stone Age II. The Early Stone Age Rough flint flakes older than the fist-hatchet show us man's earliest efforts at shaping stone. But the fist-hatchet is the earliest well-finished type of tool produced by man. The original is about nine inches long. Handles of wood or horn do not ap- pear until much later 5. Great Age of Man shown by Stone Tools and Weapons. Of the earliest period of man's existence we have no traces except perhaps a few human bones. It was only when he began to make stone implements by chipping fragments of flint into rude knives and hatchets that he created anything that could last down to our day. How old the most ancient of these stone weapons are we do not know. They may have been made a hundred thousand years ago, perhaps earlier. They are found in England, France, and Belgium and General History of Europe Simplest Method of making Fire A hard stick is rubbed rapidly back and forth on a strip of soft wood. A groove is formed, and the particles of wood rubbed off take fire from the heat pro- duced by the friction all around the Mediterranean Sea, especially along river banks, where they were dropped and, as the ages went on, deeply buried under sand and soil. Along with them are the bones of tropical animals, for the climate of Europe was warm in those remote times and the hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and elephant lived where Paris and London now stand. For thousands of years the European sav- ages led the lives of hunters and protected themselves as best they could with their stone and wooden weapons against the wild beasts and their fellow savages. They built no huts or shelter so far as we know and slept on the ground wherever darkness overtook them. 6. Fire and Language. Man must have early made use of the fire resulting from volcanoes or from lightning which often set the forests aflame. He was able then to cook his food and keep himself warm. But a long time probably elapsed before he discovered for himself how to make fire, as savages still do by rubbing two sticks together. <^ We know nothing of the invention of language, but man could not have gone far without some means of communication with his fellows. . 7. Earliest Examples of Art. For reasons that can- not fully be explained the climate grew cold, and the ice and snow which always cover the high mountains and the region around the north pole began to creep downward until it covered all -England and much of northern Europe. The tropical animals disappeared, and man had to take to living in caves and wearing the skins of animals in order to survive. From the remains now found in the Ivory Needle of the Stone Age Such needles are found in the rubbish in the French caverns, where the wives of the prehistoric hunters lost them and failed to find them again twenty thousand years ago. They show that these women were already sewing together the skins of wild animals as clothing . Prehistoric Man 5 French and Spanish caverns it is clear that man had learned by this time to make (flint knives, drills, scrapers, and hammers and with these could work bone and reindeer horn into needles, spoons, and ladles. He also learned to carve pictures on his Drawings carved by Stone Age Man on Ivory implements and adorn the walls of caves with paintings of fish, bison, deer, and wild horses. These are sometimes beautifully executed and very lifelike. They represent the earliest examples of human art and may go back fifteen or twenty thousand years. 1 III. The Late Stone Age 8. The Late Stone Age. At length the climate grew warmer, much as it is today. The traces left by the ice would lead us to think that it withdrew northward for the last time probably some ten thousand years ago. The progress which man had made by this time in a number of important ways marks this period following the final retreat of the ice as the Late Stone Age. During the long, long years known as the Early Stone Age man knew only how to chip or flake his stone weapons. Now, how- ever, he had learned that it was possible to grind the edge of a stone ax or chisel, as we grind tools of metal today. He was also able to drill a hole in a stone ax head and insert a handle. With the new tools that he had learned to make he could con- siderably improve his conditions of living. First, with his ground 1 According to geologists the ice has advanced and retreated four times. It is now believed that stone implements were first made in the third warm interval, and that it was the cold of the fourth glacial period which drove men to their cave life. This period may be called the Middle Stone Age. For a fuller account of early man and the glacial periods see Breasted, Ancient Times, chap. i. 6 General History of Europe stone axes, hatchets, and chisels he could now build wooden huts. These wooden dwellings of the Late Stone Age are the earliest such shelters in Europe. Sunken fragments of these houses are found along the shores of the Swiss lakes, lying at the bottom among the wooden piles which supported them. Second, pieces of Restoration of a Swiss Lake-Dwellers' Settlement The lake-dwellers felled trees with their stone axes and cut them into piles some twenty feet long, sharpened at the lower end. These they drove several feet into the bottom of the lake, in water eight or ten feet deep. On a platform supported by these piles they then built their houses. The plat- form was connected with the shore by a bridge, which may be seen here on the right. A section of it could be removed at night for protection. The fish nets seen drying on the rail, the "dug-out" boat of the hunters who bring in the deer, and many other things have been found on the lake bottom in recent times stools, chests, carved dippers, spoons, and the like, of wood, show that these houses were equipped with all ordinary wooden furni- ture. Third, the householder had learned that clay will harden in the fire, and he was making handy jars, bowls, and dishes. Fourth, before his door the women sat spinning flax thread, for the rough skin clothing of his ancestors had been replaced by garments of woven stuff. Fifth, the lake-dwellers already enjoyed one of Prehistoric Man 7 the greatest things gained by man in his slow advance toward civilization. This was the food grains which we call cereals, especially wheat and barley. The seeds of the wild grasses, which their ancestors had been accustomed to eat, these Late Stone Age men had now learned to cultivate. Thus wild grain was ilfe!l» 'iUXtffl tfZLr?** » Great Stone Circle inclosing a Tomb, or Group of Tombs, of the Late Stone Age Chieftains at Stonehenge, England The circle is about one hundred feet across, and a long avenue connecting it with the neighboring Late Stone Age town is still traceable. No one knows how the men of the Late Stone Age were able to handle these great stones. Western Europe produced nothing more than this rude architecture in stone until the coming of the Romans domesticated and agriculture was introduced. Sixth, these Late Stone Age men possessed domestic cattle. For the mountain sheep and goats and the wild cattle had now been taught to dwell near man and submit to his control. The wild ox bowed his neck to the yoke and drew the plow across the forest-girt field where he had once wandered in unhampered freedom. Fragments of wooden wheels in the lake-villages show that oxen were also drawing wheeled carts, the earliest in Europe. 9. Rise of Civilization in Egypt (4000-3000 B.C.). Thus far we have followed man's advance only in Europe. Similar progress had also been made by Stone Age men all around the 8 General History of Europe Mediterranean ; that is, about 4000 B.C., not only in Europe but in Asia, and especially in northern Africa, mankind had reached about the same stage of advancement. But civilization cannot arise or advance without the following three things : writing, the use of metals, 1 and the control of men by an organized government. Part of the Equipment of a Late Stone Age Lake-Dweller This group contains the evidence for three important inventions made or received by the men of the Late Stone Age : first, pottery jars, like 2 and j, with rude decorations, the oldest baked clay in Europe, and 1, a large kettle ; second, ground-edged tools like 4, a stone chisel with ground edge, mounted in a deerhorn handle like a hatchet, or 5, stone ax with a ground edge, and pierced with a hole for the ax handle (the houses shown in the cut on page 6 were built with such tools) ; and third, weaving, as shown by 6, a spin- ning "whorl" of baked clay. When suspended by a rough thread of flax, it was given a whirl which made it spin in the air like a top, thus rapidly twisting the thread by which it was hanging Nowhere around the entire Mediterranean did the world of the Late Stone Age as yet possess these things, nor did Europe ever gain them for itself unaided. Europe borrowed them. Hence we must now turn elsewhere to see where these, and many other things that help to make up our civilization, first appeared. The 1 Metal was introduced in southeastern Europe about 3000 B. c. and passed like a slow wave, moving gradually westward and northward across Europe. It probably did not reach Britain until about 2000 B.C. Hence we have included the great stone monuments of western Europe (like Stonehenge) in our survey of Stone Age Europe. They were erected long after southeastern Europe had received metal, but before metal came into common use in western Europe (§ 20). Prehistoric Man g Egyptians, emerging from the Late Stone Age, invented a system of writing, discovered metal, and learned to use it. In the thou- sand years between 4000 and 3000 b.c. the Egyptians of the Late Stone Age advanced to a great and wonderful civilization, while the Europeans whom we have been describing still remained in barbarism. Hence, in order to understand the further history of Europe we must turn to Egypt. We shall then see how the Egyptians emerged from the Late Stone Age and became the first great civilized nation. 10. Prehistoric Period (before 4000 B.C.) and the Historic Period. It was not until man invented writing and began to pro- duce written documents, and monuments bearing inscriptions, that the Historic Period began. All that we know about men of the Stone Age we have to learn from the weapons, tools, implements, buildings, and other works of his hands which happen to have been preserved. The age before the appearance of written records we call the Prehistoric Period. The transition from the Prehis- toric to the Historic Period did not take place suddenly, but was a slow process. The Historic Period began in the Orient during the thousand years between 4000 and 3000 B.C., as civilization advanced and writing became more common. QUESTIONS I. Describe man's condition before civilization began. How would you define civilization? Give some examples of its progress. Give an example of how all inventions depend on previous ones. Mention as many things as you can which had to be invented before an automobile could be made. Mention some things you have learned by imitation. 11. What remains of the Stone Age have been discovered in Europe ? Have, you seen any stone utensils made by American Indians ? What forced man to live in caves and to invent clothing? How would you be able to live without fire ? III. What were the inventions of the Late Stone Age ? What seeds, roots, fruits, and berries do we use for food ? What is the importance of the civilization of Egypt in the history of Europe ? CHAPTER II EGYPTIAN CIVILIZATION I. Beginnings of a Higher Civilization 11. Peculiarities of Egypt. Egypt is a very strange country. It comprises the northern end of the valley which the river Nile has slowly cut for itself across the eastern part of the great desert of Sahara. Egypt includes the triangular Delta, a very fertile region to the north of Cairo, and then the long, narrow valley winding some seven hundred and fifty miles to the First Cataract, where the river flows rapidly among great rocks. The valley is usually twenty-five or thirty miles wide, lying between bare cliffs, over which the sands of the desert blow. On each side of the river is a narrow strip of cultivated land between the cliffs and the stream. 12. The Rise and Fall of the Nile. It almost never rains in Egypt, and the sun shines every day, summer and winter, so that the farmers have had to rely for water entirely on the river. But far up the Nile and its tributaries there is plenty of rain in the vspring, which yearly floods the valley in which Egypt lies and raises the level of the river from twenty-five to thirty feet between Cairo and Aswan. This overflow of the Nile covers the fields each year and deposits a thin layer of fresh, fertile soil as the muddy waters subside. For thousands of years the Egyptians have been accustomed to store up the waters at their flood and to raise water from the Nile itself to irrigate their fields during the period when the river was low. (See Ancient Times, §§ 46-47.) 13. Long History of Ancient Egypt. The first Egyptian king who governed all Egypt — indeed one of the very first human beings whose name has come down to us — was Menes, who lived about 3400 b.c. The earliest capital of Egypt was Memphis, a vast 10 1 fr-A Egyptian Civilization n town very near the spot where the modern city of Cairo lies. Menes founded the first dynasty, or family of kings, and after- wards the Egyptian dynasties rose and fell for over three thousand years, until finally a Greek conqueror, Alexander the Great, brought Egypt under his sway and founded the city of Alexandria (332 B.C.), which is now the chief port of Egypt (§§ 165, 168 ff). We cannot retrace here the history of Egypt's rulers through three thousand years and more or the conquests they made in Western Asia. We shall have to confine our _ _ _ Pictorial Message scratched account to the wonderful contnbu- 0N WooD BY Alaskan Indians tions made to civilization by the t, ,. mi -j- • j A figure with empty hands hang- Egyptians. Their discoveries and ing down helpless i y , pa i ms down, inventions were finally introduced as an Indian gesture for uncer- into Europe and now form a part taint y> ignorance, emptiness, or r j i-r nothing, means "no." A figure of our everyday life. with one hand on itg m * uth 14. The Invention of Writing, means "eating" or "food." It The Egyptians were the first people P oints toward the tent, and this r 1 means "in the tent." The whole so far as we know to possess an ig a message gtating> W[There b] alphabet and learn how to write. no food in the tent" No people could possibly advance very far in civilization without written records of any kind, or means of sending messages, or any books from which they could learn what others had found out. Reading and writing have be- come so common now that we find it hard to realize what the world would be like if the art of writing should suddenly disappear and there were no books, newspapers, magazines, or letters and no way of communicating with anyone except by word of mouth. The first step in the development of writing was the use of rude pictures such as the North American Indians employed ; for an event and even a kind of story can be told by drawings without any writing (see accompanying cut). All writing, whether it developed as it did first in Egypt or later in Babylonia and China, is derived from such pictures of things previously used to convey ideas. 12 • General History of Europe 15. Phonetic Signs. As time went on these pictures, or hiero- glyphics as they were called in Egypt, came to represent sounds that were made in speaking as well as the objects they had origi- nal!}/ stood for. For example (assuming for the sake of illustra- tion that the Egyptian words were the same as the English), the sign for "man" might become the sign for the syllable "man" An Example of Egyptian Hieroglyphic Writing The upper line shows the way in which the hieroglyphics were carved and painted on the tomb walls and monuments. But when the Egyptians wrote rapidly with a pen and ink on papyrus they simplified the figures, which then were made as they are represented in the lower line wherever it occurred, as in "manner," "manifest," "manifold," " manui acture." In the same way, a bee \^ might become the sign for the syllable "be" and a leaf k for the sound of the syllable "leaf." When used together these syllables formed a new word, "belief." Such signs were then no longer regarded as pictures of things, but as syllables which could be used in any com- bination one wished. Writing which represents in this way the sounds we make when we speak is called phonetic, and this is the kind of writing we use today. All the letters on this page represent sounds, not things. The advantage of phonetic signs is readily appreciated when we come to express ideas — such as beauty, love, truth, or virtue — which cannot be represented by pictures of objects. 16. Alphabetic Signs. The Egyptians went still further, for there finally arose a series of signs, each representing only one letter ; that is, alphabetic signs, or real letters. There were twenty-four letters in their alphabet, which was used in Egypt long before 3000 b.c. It was the earliest alphabet known and the one from which our own has descended (see Ancient Times, §§5i-56). Egyptian Civilization 13 17. Invention of Writing Materials. The Egyptians early found out that they could make an excellent ink by thickening water with a little vegetable gum and then mixing in a little soot from the blackened pots over the fire. By dipping a pointed reed into this mixture one could write very well. They also learned that they could split and flatten out a kind of river reed, called papyrus, into thin strips and make large sheets by pasting the strips together with overlapping edges. They thus produced a smooth, almost white paper. In this way pen, ink, and paper came into use for the first time. Our word "paper" is the ancient name papyr(os), but slightly changed. With the invention of phonetic writing, records could now be made, and with the ap- pearance of such written records the Historic Period begins. 18. Egyptian Origin of our Calendar. The Egyptians early found it necessary to measure time. The time from new moon to new moon seemed to them, as to all other early peoples, a very convenient rough measure. But the moon-month varies in length from twenty-nine to thirty days, and it does not evenly divide the year. Thoughtful Egyptians early discovered this in- convenience and decided to use the moon no longer for dividing the year. They divided the year into twelve months, all of the same length ; that is, thirty days each. Then at the end of the year they established a holiday period five days long. This gave them a year of three hundred and sixty-five days. The Egyptian was not yet enough of an astronomer to know that every four years he ought to have a leap year, of three hundred and sixty- six days, although he discovered this fact later. This calendar is the very one which has descended to us after more than six thousand years. Unfortunately it has meantime suffered awk- ward alterations in the lengths of the months, for which the Egyptians were not responsible. 19. Discovery of Metal (at least 4000 B.C.). Meantime the Egyptians were also making great progress in other matters. It was probably in the peninsula of Sinai (see map, p. 24) that some Egyptian, wandering about, once happened to bank his camp fire with pieces of copper ore lying on the ground near the 14 General History of Europe camp. The charcoal of his wood fire mingled with the hot frag- ments of ore, and thus the ore was " reduced," as the miners say ; that is, the copper in metallic form was released from the lumps of ore. Next morning the Egyptian discovered a few glittering metal globules. Before long he learned whence these strange shining beads came. He produced more of them, at first only to be worn as ornaments by the women. Then he learned to cast the metal into a blade to replace the flint knife which he carried. 20. Dawning of the Age of Metal. Without knowing it this man stood at the dawning of a new era, the Age of Metal. The bit of shining copper which he drew from the ashes,, if this Egyptian wanderer could have seen it, might have reflected to him a vision of steel buildings, huge factories roaring with the noise of thou- sands of machines of metal, and vast stretches of railroads. Since the discovery of fire, thousands of years earlier, man had made no advance which could compare in importance to the first use of metal (note, § 9). II. Age of the Pyramids 21. Egypt like a Museum. Egypt is like a vast historical mu- seum, through which the traveler can wander and study the way in which the ancient Egyptians lived and many of the things they made and did. We owe this museum to the Egyptians' firm belief in a life to come after death. In order to enjoy existence in the next world they thought that the body must be preserved by em- balming it and then be safely placed in a tomb where no one could disturb its rest. Such well-preserved bodies are called mummies. They are generally the remains of Egyptian kings and nobles, who could afford a well-built tomb and the expenses of careful embalming. It was believed that if the dead man was to be happy in the next world he should be surrounded by the things he had used in his lifetime and by pictures of his former servants, workmen, cattle, and even his dinner table. So the tombs are themselves like museums, for they contain the actual furniture and utensils and jewelry that the rich Egyptian used, as well as reliefs, statuettes, and wall-paintings representing his daily life. Egyptian Civilization i5 Had the tombs continued to be constructed of sun-dried mud bricks and roofed with wood, as they were originally built, they would have disappeared long ago, but shortly after the time of Menes, the kings and princes began to construct tombs of hewn Relief Scene from the Chapel of a Noble's Tomb in the Pyramid Age The tall figure of the noble stands at the right. He is inspecting three lines of cattle and a line of fowl brought before him. Note the two scribes who head the two middle rows. Each is writing with pen on a sheet of papyrus, and one carries two pens behind his ear. Such reliefs after being carved were colored in bright hues by the painter stone. These have proved to be very massive and enduring. Later, the burial chambers of the tombs were hewn in the rock many feet below the surface in the desert beyond the cultivated fields. Many of the tombs have been explored in modern times, and so dry is the climate that the articles found in them, as well as the painting and statuary, are as fresh and wonderful as they were thousands of years ago when their owner went to his long rest (§§ 25-29). i6 General History of Europe 22. The Great Pyramids. About the year 3000 b.c. tombs began to be built in the form of a pyramid, and about 2900 B.C. the king's architect was able to construct the amazing Great Pyramid of Gizeh, near the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The royal city, with its villas and gardens and the offices of gov- ernment, has quite vanished, for the structures made of sun- baked brick and wood have long ago crumbled to dust, but ^^j^mmmmm^^^mm^mmmmmmmmmm/i Earliest Representation of a Seagoing Ship (Twenty-eighth Century b.c) the Great Pyramid and a long line of lesser ones built by later kings still bear witness to the surprising skill of the Nile-dwellers five thousand years ago. Already they had advanced in their civilization far. beyond that of the lake-dwellers of the Late Stone Age whom we left behind in Europe. 23. Vast Size of the Great Pyramid. The Great Pyramid covers thirteen acres. It is a solid mass of masonry containing two million three hundred thousand blocks of limestone, each weighing on an average two and a half tons ; that is, each block is as heavy as a large wagonload of coal. ^The sides of the pyra- mid at the base are seven hundred and fifty-five feet long, and the building was originally nearly five hundred feet high. An ancient story tells us that a hundred thousand men were working on this royal tomb for twenty years. We perceive at once that it must have required a very skillful ruler and a great body of officials to manage and to feed a hundred thousand workmen around the Great Pyramid. The king who Restoration of the Great Pyramids and Other Tomb-Monuments in the Ancient Cemetery of Gizeh, Egypt. (After Hoelscher) These royal tombs (pyramids) belonged to the leading kings of the Fourth Dynasty, which came in the early part (2900-2750 B.C.) of the Pyramid Age. The Great Pyramid, the tomb of King Khufu (Greek, Cheops), is on the right. Next in size is that of King Khafre (Greek, Chephren) on the left. On the east side (front) of each pyramid is a temple, where the food, drink, and clothing were placed for the use of the dead king. These temples, like the pyramids, were built on the desert plateau above, while the royal town was in the valley below (on the right). For convenience, there- fore, the temple was connected with the town below by a covered gallery, or corridor, of stone, seen here descending in a straight line from the temple of King Khafre and terminating below, just beside the Sphinx, in a large oblong building of stone, called a valley-temple. It was a splendid structure of granite serving not only as a temple but also as the entrance to the great corridor from the royal city. The pyramids are surrounded by the tombs of the queens and the great lords of the age. At the lower left-hand corner is an unfinished pyramid, showing the inclined ascents up which the stone blocks were dragged. These ascents were built of sun-baked brick and were removed after the pyramid was finished Egyptian Civilization i7 controlled such vast undertakings was no longer a local chieftain, like the earliest rulers of Egypt, but he now ruled a united Egypt, the earliest great unified nation, having several millions of people. 24. Earliest Seagoing Ships. In the Pyramid Age the Egyp- tians began to extend their trade beyond the boundaries of Egypt. A few surviving blocks from a fallen pyramid-temple south of Gizeh bear carved and painted reliefs showing us the ships which they ventured to send be- yond the shelter of the Nile mouths far across the end of the Mediterranean to the coast of Phoenicia (see map, p. 24). This was in the middle of the twenty-eighth century B.C., and this relief contains the oldest known picture of a seagoing ship. 25. Agriculture. A stroll among the tombs clustering so thickly around the pyramids of Gizeh is almost like a walk among the busy communities of this populous valley in the days of the pyramid-builders, for the stone walls are often covered from floor to ceiling with carved scenes, beautifully painted, picturing the daily life on the great estate of which the buried noble had been lord. The tallest form in all these scenes is that of the dead noble. He stands looking out over his fields and inspect- ing the work going on there. These fields, where the oxen draw the plow and the sowers scatter the seed, are the oldest farming scenes known to us. Here, too, are the herds, long lines of sleek fat cattle. But we find no pictures of horses in these tombs of the Pyramid Age, for the horse was then unknown to the Egyptian. 26. Craftsmen. On the next wall we find again the tall figure of the noble overseeing the sheds and yards where the crafts- men of his estate are working. The coppersmith could make Egyptian Peasant milking in the Pyramid Age The cow is restive, and the ancient cow- herd has tied her hind legs. Behind her another man is holding her calf, which rears and plunges in the effort to reach the milk. Scene from the chapel of a noble's tomb i8 General History of Europe excellent tools of all sorts. 1 The tool which demanded the greatest skill was the long, flat ripsaw, which the smith knew how to hammer into shape out of a broad strip of copper some- times five or six feet long. Such a saw may be seen in use in the accompanying cut. On the same wall we find the lapidary holding up for the noble's admiration splendid stone bowls cut from diorite. Al- though this kind of stone is as hard as steel, the bowl is ground Cabinetmakers in the Pyramid Age At the left a man is cutting with a chisel, which he taps with a mallet ; next, a man "rips" a board with a copper saw; next, two men are finishing off a couch, and at the right a man is drilling a hole with a bow-drill. Scene from the chapel of a noble's tomb. Compare a finished chair belonging to a wealthy noble of the Empire (see cut on page 21) to such thinness that the sunlight glows through its dark-gray sides. The booth of the goldsmith is filled with workmen and apprentices weighing gold and costly stones, hammering and casting, soldering and fitting together richly wrought jewelry which can hardly be surpassed by the best goldsmiths and jewelers of today. 27. The Potter's Wheel and Furnace; Earliest Glass. In the next space on this wall we find the potter no longer building up his jars and bowls with his fingers alone, as in the Stone Age. 1 Before the end of the Pyramid Age the coppersmiths had learned how to harden their tools by melting a small amount of tin with the copper. This produced a mixture of tin and copper, called bronze, which is much harder than copper. It is not yet cer- tain where the first tin was obtained or who made the first bronze, but it may have come from the north side of the Mediterranean {Ancient Times, § 336). Egyptian Civilization 19 He now sits before a small horizontal wheel, upon which he deftly shapes the vessel as it whirls round and round under his fingers. When the soft clay vessels are ready they are no longer unevenly burned in an open fire, as among the Late Stone Age potters in the Swiss lake-villages, but in closed furnaces. Here we also find craftsmen making glass. This art the Egyptians had discovered centuries earlier. They spread the glass on tiles in gorgeous glazes for adorning house and palace walls (see Ancient Times, plate, p. 164). Later they learned to make charming many-colored glass bottles and vases, which were widely exported. 28. Weavers, Tapestry-makers, and Paper-makers. Yonder the weaving women draw forth from the loom a gossamer fabric of linen. The picture on this wall could not show us its fineness, but fortunately pieces of it have been found, wrapped around the mummy of a king of this age. These specimens of royal linen are so fine that it requires a magnifying glass to distin- guish them from silk, and the best work of the modern machine loom is coarse in comparison with this fabric of the ancient Egyptian hand loom. 29. Life and Art in the Pyramid Age. Here on this chapel wall again we see its owner seated at ease in his palanquin, borne upon the shoulders of slaves. He is returning from the inspection of his estate, where we have been following him. His bearers carry him into the shady garden before his house, where they set down the palanquin and cease their song. This garden is the noble's favorite retreat. Here he may recline for an hour of leisure with his family and friends, playing at a game like checkers, listening to the music of harp, pipe, and lute, or watch- ing his women in the slow and stately dances of the time, while his children are sporting about among the arbors, splashing in the pool as they chase the fish, or playing with ball, doll, and jumping jack. The portrait sculptor was the greatest artist of this age. His statues were carved in stone or wood and painted in lifelike colors ; the eyes were inlaid with rock crystal. More lifelike 20 General History of Europe portraits have never been produced by any age, although they are the earliest in the history of art. The statues of the kings are often superb. In size the most remarkable statue of the Pyramid Age is the Great Sphinx, which stands here in this cemetery of Gizeh. The head is a portrait of Khafre, the king who built the second pyramid of Gizeh. It was carved from a promontory of rock which overlooked the royal city, and is the largest portrait bust ever wrought. III. Civilization of the Empire 30. The Period of the Empire (isso-iiso b. a). We have now seen the many things that the Egyptians had learned to make in the Pyramid Age. Another great age came long after, when about 1500 B.C. the Egyptian Pharaohs built up a huge empire including a large part of Western Asia and extending up to the Fourth Cataract of the Nile (see map, p. 24). The Napoleon of this period was Thutmose III, whose reign began about 1500 b.c. His armies subdued the cities and kingdoms of Western Asia and united them into an empire. He built the first great navy in history. He had many monuments erected in his honor, and one of them, an obelisk, stands in Central Park, New York, today. 31. Thebes and its Ruins. Under the Empire the chief city was no longer Memphis but Thebes, lying over four hundred miles up the Nile. The temple of Karnak there contains the greatest colonnaded hall ever erected by man. The columns of the central aisle are sixty-nine feet high. The vast capital sur- mounting each of the columns is so large that a group of a hun- dred men could stand on it. Mirrored in the surface of the temple lake this building made a picture of splendor such as the world had never beheld before. The vast battle scenes carved on the temple walls were painted in bright colors. The gigantic statues of the Pharaohs, set up before the temples, were often so large that they rose above the towers of the temple front itself and could be seen for miles around. The sculptors often carved these colossal figures from The Obelisks- of Queen Hatshepsut and her Father Thutmose I at Karnak The farther obelisk is that of the queen. It was one of a pair transported from the First Cataract ( § 1 1 ) , but its mate has fallen and broken into pieces. The shaft is eight and a half feet thick at the base, and the human figure by contrast conveys some idea of the vast size of the monument. (From an etching by George T. Plowman) The Colossal Columns of the Nave in the Great Hall of Karnak These are the columns of the middle two rows in the nave (see Ancient Times, Fig. 68). The human figures below show by contrast the vast dimensions of the columns towering above them Egyptian Civilization 21 single blocks of stone eighty or ninety feet high, weighing as much as a thousand tons. Nevertheless the engineers of the Empire moved many such gigantic figures for hundreds of miles. It is in works of this massive. monumental character that the art of Egypt excelled. 32. The Treasures of the Tombs. Across the Nile from Thebes, cut into the rocky cliffs which border the river valley, are hundreds of tombs in which the Pharaohs and the nobles of their time were buried. They are adorned with frescoes and sculpture, with pictures of the gods and scenes from the life led by the great of the time, interspersed with magnificent hieroglyphic inscriptions. They some- times contain the very furniture which their occupants had used, — chairs covered with gold and silver and fitted with soft cushions, beds of sumptuous work- manship, — jewel boxes and perfume caskets of the ladies, and even a gilded chariot in which a Theban noble took his afternoon airing thirty-three or thirty-four hundred years ago. Many of the articles have been removed to the museum at Cairo, and there is also a fine collection in the Metropolitan Museum of New York. The dead man's friends put into his mummy case rolls of papyrus containing prayers and magic charms to help him in Armchair from the House of an Egyptian Noble of the Empire This elaborately decorated chair, with other furniture from his house, was placed in his tomb at Thebes in the early part of the fourteenth century B.C. There it remained for nearly thirty-three hundred years, till it was discovered in 1905 and removed to the National Museum at Cairo 22 General History of Europe finding his way through the troubles that would meet him in the next world. These guidebooks have been collected and form what is called the Egyptian "Book of the Dead." From this and the inscriptions in the chambers hidden away deep in the pyramids scholars have learned much of the Egyptian religion and of the many gods in which the people believed. Some of the leading Egyptians of the Empire finally came to believe in a single god, and one of the emperors, Ikhnaton, started a great religious reform in which he wished to substitute the idea of one god for the old belief in many. But the priests and people were too much attached to their ancient notions to accept the new gospel, and Ikhnaton perished in the attempt. He is the first distinguished religious reformer of history. 33. Later Fate of Egypt. After the Egyptian Empire had lasted nearly four hundred years, invaders from the North — in- cluding many Europeans whom we left in the Stone Age — came in such numbers that they put an end to the ancient power of the Pharaohs, about 1150 b.c. But we know little of how it all hap- pened. Temples and tombs continued to be built for hundreds of years after the fall of the Empire, but they are, in general, mere imitations of the earlier ones. Egyptian culture spread into other countries and greatly affected Western Asia and, later, eastern Europe. The Egyptians were the first to make great progress in' industry, sculpture, painting, architecture, and govern- ment. The period of chief interest for us is that which we have sketched between the times of Menes (3400 b.c.) and that of Seti I and Ramses II, whose reigns closed in 1225 b.c. So the greatness of Egypt lasted for over two thousand years. Later, Egypt was successively conquered by the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Turks, and finally came in recent times under the control of Great Britain. We must now turn to the civilizations which grew up in Western Asia during the period of Egypt's greatness and after her decline. Colossal Portrait Figure of Ramses II at Abu Simbel in Egyptian Nubia Four such statues, seventy-five feet high, adorn the front of this temple. The face of Ramses II here really resembles that of his mummy. There is from this point a grand view of the Nubian Nile, on which the statues have looked down for thirty-two hundred years. The picture was taken -from the top of the crown of one of the statues. (Photograph by The University of Chicago Expedition) X D< « 2 Pm ««3 o o &oo bO s w <+H « cd o < 13 T* C/3 u o H o cj O l-c .2 o. > H % £ .2h -° T3 aj *^H o O ^3 ^H £ a i— r H '" H HH >>"+5 H O OJ U3 >* C/3 O Cfi < £ o Q *» ta < & O (1) a c js OH 9 H M H w M H H O Ph to W H in w S M H w .2 m en S3 *> 2 *-i o ex >> in ij oj o > C K .S3 « P5 Egyptian Civilization 23 QUESTIONS I. Describe the chief geographical features of Egypt. Contrast pic- ture writing with phonetic writing. Give some examples of words which could be represented by pictures and some which could not. What are some of the* results of the invention of writing ? How was metal prob- ably discovered ? How did the use of metal contribute to the develop- ment of civilization? Describe some of the important uses of metal today. II. What is a mummy? What conditions in Egypt have served to make it a historical museum ? Give some examples of the objects which have been found in tombs. Describe the Great Pyramid. If the Great Pyramid could be set down near your schoolhouse, about how much space would it occupy ? Describe some of the chief industries in the Pyramid Age. Give some examples of the art in that period. III. Describe the temple of Karnak at Thebes. What treasures have been found in the tombs of the kings of the Empire? What countries came into control of Egypt after the fall of the Empire? Do you know how Great Britain came to control Egypt today? Note. The scene below shows us the life of the nomads referred to in the next chap- ter. The dark camel's-hair tents of these wandering shepherds are easily carried from place to place as they seek new pasturage. They live on the milk and flesh of the flocks CHAPTER III WESTERN ASIA : BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA, THE PERSIANS, AND THE HEBREWS I. Babylonia and Assyria 34. The Sumerians. During the period when the Egyptians were building the pyramids, about 3000 B.C., early civilization was also developing in the valley of the two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates. A people called the Sumerians had long before wandered down from the eastern mountains into the plain just above the Persian Gulf, the region later called Babylonia. Here they learned to dig irrigation trenches and raise large harvests of barley and wheat. They already possessed cattle, sheep, and goats. The ox drew the plow ; the donkey pulled wheeled carts and chariots, for the wheel as a burden-bearing device appeared here for the first time. 1 But the horse was still unknown. The smith had learned to fashion utensils of copper, but he did not at first know how to harden the copper into bronze by an admixture of tin (see § 26 and n.). The Sumerians built towns of sun-dried mud bricks. Each town with the land about it formed a little kingdom, which seems to have been generally fighting with its neighbors. 35. Cuneiform Writing ; Numerals. The people began to keep their business accounts by making pictures on soft clay with the tip of a reed. Later, the outlines of these rude pictures were simplified into groups of wedge-shaped marks. Hence these signs are called cuneiform (Latin, cuneus, meaning "wedge"), or wedge-form, writing. The Sumerian system of numerals was not based on tens but sixties. A large number was given as so many sixties, just as 1 Probably earlier than the wheel in the Swiss lake-villages of the Late Stone Age. 24 Western Asia 25 ,3 we say a score, fourscore, fivescore. From this unit of sixty has descended our division of the circle (six sixties), and of the hour and minute. 36. The Semites. The great desert of Arabia extends northward as far as a crescent-shaped fertile belt stretching from Babylonia clear around to the Mediter- ranean coast. (This is called the " Fertile Cres- cent" on the map, p. 24, and colored green.) The desert had a sparse pop- ulation of nomads ( which means wandering shep- herds and herdsmen) who wandered about and pitched their tents wherever they could find water and grass at cer- tain seasons to feed their flocks. These no- mads belonged to the Semitic race, of which the Arabs and the Hebrews are the best- known members. When towns grew up here and Foot; turned around in 2 C-, ^ B3 Donkey fa f^^ Bird ; turned over with feet to the right -f **r >-TtrJ£ Fish ft ** * Star * *- ►»¥- Ox ; turned over in 2 V !£> tf* Sun or Day & Grain ; top of stalk turned over m »» y Early Babylonian Signs and the Original Pictures from which they Developed This list of eight signs shows clearly the pic- tures from which the signs came. The oldest form is in column i ; column 2 shows the departure from the picture and the appear- ance of the signs as the lines began to become wedges. In column 3 are the later forms, consisting only of wedges and showing no resemblance to the original picture there in the Fertile Crescent they were often attacked by the desert wanderers, who would now and then adopt town life themselves. 37. The Semites on the West End of the Fertile Crescent. As early as 3000 b.c. these nomads were drifting in from the desert and settling in Palestine, on the western end of the Fertile Cres- cent, where we find them in possession of walled towns five 26 General History of Europe hundred years later. Here they were the predecessors of the Hebrews and were called Canaanites. Along the Mediterranean shores of north Syria some of these former desert wanderers — the f * * *1 ,; t At 1 >''\w — ;~-\WIaj Sfc:. ! Jla*lc™«fe*' Early Sumerian Clay Tablet with Cuneiform, or Wedge-Form Writing (Twenty-eighth Century b.c.) This tablet was written toward the close of the early period of the city- kings, a generation before the accession of Sargon I (§38). It contains business accounts. The scribe's writing-reed, or stylus, was usually square- tipped. He pressed a corner of this square tip into the soft clay for each line of the picture sign. Lines so produced tended to be broad at one end and pointed at the other; that is, wedge-shaped. Each picture sign thus became a group of wedges, as shown in the preceding illustration. When the clay dried it was hard enough to make the tablet a fairly permanent record. Such tablets were sometimes baked and thus became as hard as pottery. (By permission of Dr. Hussey) Phoenicians — took to the sea and became great traders (§83). By 2000 b.c. all the settled communities had a civilization' largely adopted from the cities of Babylonia and Egypt. A King of Akkad storming a Fortress — the Earliest Great Semitic Work of Art (about 2700 b.c.) King Naram-Sin of Akkad, one of the successors of Sargon I (§38), has pursued the enemy into a mountain stronghold. His heroic figure towers above his pygmy enemies, each one of whom has fixed his eyes on the con- queror, awaiting his signal of mercy. The sculptor, with fine insight, has depicted the dramatic instant when the king lowers his weapon as the sign that he grants the conquered their lives 28 General History of Europe 38. Sargon I conquers the Sumerians about 2750 B.C. Semitic tribes from the desert invaded the region north of the Sumerian towns, and about 2750 B.C. the leader of these Semites, Sargon, a bold and able ruler, conquered the Sumerians and established the first important Semitic kingdom. The invaders took over the cuneiform characters to write their own language and forsook their tents and built brick houses instead. They learned all that the Sumerians had discovered, and in the matter of art, especially in sculpture, they far outstripped their teachers. 39. Hammurapi. About 2100 b.c. another Semitic king, Ham- murapi, conquered all Babylonia (see map, p. 24). He is remem- bered chiefly for the code of laws that he had drawn up and engraved on a stone shaft, which has survived to our own day (Ancient Times, Fig. 93). Its provisions show much considera- tion of the poor and defenseless classes, but are not always just. Babylonia prospered greatly under the wise Hammurapi, and her merchants traveled far and wide. Through their bills, made out on clay tablets, the wedge-writing of Babylonia gradually spread through Western Asia. There was as yet no coined money, but lumps of silver of a given weight circulated so commonly that values were given in weight of silver. Loans were common, and the rate of interest was 20 per cent. Business was the chief occupation and was carried on even in the temples. 40. Higher Life of Babylonia. A journey through Babylonia today could not tell us such a story as do the temples and tombs which still exist on the Nile, for the Babylon of Hammurapi has perished utterly. There seems to have been no painting, but we have at least one example of fine sculpture (see cut on page 27). Of architecture little remains. There were no colonnades and no columns, but the arch was used over front doorways. All build- ings were of brick, as Babylonia had no stone. There were schools where boys could learn to write cuneiform, and a school- house of Hammurapi's time still survives, though in ruins (Ancient Times, Fig. 95). 41. Stagnation of Babylonian Civilization. After Hammu- rapi's death his kingdom swiftly declined. Barbarians from the Western Asia 29 mountains poured into the Baby- lonian plain. The most impor- tant thing about them was that they brought with them the horse, which then appeared in Babylonia for the first time (twenty-first century B.C.). The barbarians divided and soon de- stroyed the kingdom of Hammu- rapi. After him there followed more than a thousand years of total stagnation in Babylonia. 42. The Assyrian Empire. There is nothing we need record here between the times of Ham- murapi and the rise of the great Assyrian Empire a thousand years after his death. Semites from the desert had founded the town of Assur (see map, p. 30) and adopted the civilization of the Sumerians to the south (in- cluding cuneiform, to write their Semitic dialect). These people of Assur, whom we call Assyr- ians, had by noo B.C. marched westward and looked out on the Mediterranean. It took three hundred years thoroughly to con- quer this region, but by 750 B.C. Assyria had firmly established herself along the Mediterranean. In the meantime she subdued Babylonia, thus gaining possession of the entire Fertile Crescent. She even gained control of Egypt in 670 and held it for a short time. Thus the once feeble little city of Assur gained the lordship Silver Vase of a Sumerian City-King This is the finest piece of metal work from early Babylonia. The eagle and lions which appear on it formed the symbol, or arms, of the Sumerian city-kingdom of Lagash. Such animal symbols passed over into Europe and were used in mod- ern times by Russia, Austria, Prus- sia, and other European nations. The eagle one sees on the United States coins is in a sense a de- scendant of the eagle of Lagash five thousand years ago 30 General History of Europe over Western Asia as the head of an empire — a group of conquered and subject states. It was the most extensive empire that that world had yet seen (see map). 43. Organization of the Assyrian Empire. To maintain the army was the chief work of the Assyrian government. The State was therefore a vast military machine, ruthless and terrible. From the Hittites (see map and § 76) iron had been introduced, and the Assyrian forces were the first large armies equipped with weapons of iron. The famous horsemen and chariots of Nineveh became the scourge of the East. For the first time, too, the Assyrians employed powerful siege machinery, especially the battering-ram. This device was the earliest "tank," for it ran on wheels and carried armed men (see Ancient Times, p. 140). The sun-dried-brick walls of the Asiatic cities could thus be battered down. Wherever the terrible Assyr- ian armies swept through the land, they left a trail of ruin and desolation behind, and there were few towns of the Empire which escaped being plundered. 44. Sennacherib (705-681 B.C.) and his Capital, Nineveh. The Assyrian king Sennacherib was one of the great statesmen of the early Orient. He devoted himself to the city of Nine- veh, north of Assur, which now became the far-famed capital of Assyria. Here in his gorgeous palace he and his successors ruled the Western Asiatic world with an iron hand and collected tribute from all the subject peoples. 45. Assyrian Palaces ; the Library of Assurbanipal. The Assyrian palaces were imposing buildings adorned with arches of brilliantly colored glazed tiles (see Ancient Times, Plate II, p. 164). Vast statues of human-headed bulls guarded the entrance. Within the palace there were long rows of reliefs cut in alabaster (see cuts on pages 32-34) depicting the king's exploits. Nowhere does the artist succeed in expressing any feeling in the human faces, but his animals are often represented full of life. In the excavations made in modern times at Nineveh a great library was found containing twenty-two thousand clay tablets. This was collected by Assurbanipal, the grandson of Sennacherib. Western Asia 3i Portion of Old Babylonian Story of the Flood from Assurbanipal's Library at Nineveh This large flat tablet was part of an Assyrian cuneiform book 'consisting of a series of such tablets. This flood story tells how the hero, Ut-napishtim, built a great ship and thus survived a terrible flood, in which all his coun- trymen perished. Each of these clay tablet books collected by Assurbanipal for his library bore his "bookmark," just like a book in a modern library. To prevent anyone else from taking the book, or writing his name on it, the Assyrian king's bookmark contained the following warning: "Whosoever shall carry off this tablet, or shall inscribe his name upon it side by side with mine own, may Assur and Belit overthrow him in wrath and anger, and may they destroy his name and posterity in the land" It shows us all that the Assyrians and their predecessors had been able to learn. There are a great many works dealing with magic and methods of forecasting future events ; for instance, by watch- ing the actions of sick people and examining the entrails of animals. There are also religious works and some dealing with grammar and other subjects. Excavation of the Ruins of Ancient Nippur in Babylonia These ruins were excavated by the University of Pennsylvania Expedition in three campaigns between 1889 and 1900. This view shows the work of excavation going on. The earth (once sun-dried brick) is taken out in baskets and carried away by a long line of native laborers, who empty their baskets at the far end of an ever-growing bank of excavated earth. The ruinous buildings, once entirely covered, are slowly exposed, and among them often clay tablets or objects of pottery, stone, or metal. Thus are recov- ered the records and antiquities of ancient Babylonia. They lie at different levels, the oldest things nearer the bottom and the later ones higher up. The view to the horizon gives a good idea of the flat Babylonian plain. Only two generations ago the monuments and records of Babylonia and Assyria preserved in Europe could all be contained in a show case only a few feet square. Since 1840, however, archaeological excavation, as we call such digging, has recovered great quantities of antiquities and records. Such work is now slowly recovering for us the story of the ancient world. (Drawn from a photograph furnished by courtesy of the University Museum, Philadelphia) :; q 8-1 txi ^ 2i * < < < o < H W H O W PS p H Ch 1-1 P o in < a -ja ii -2 ° d O .h ci! | * "I S £ a s c ^ i „, «a o < 3 £ -a cj o-5 < S S 3 £ bo c; w > 03 _ O . rd Ci ~ o •d CD + J •J3 ^ U h S d O 03 c O c3 • CI en «3 tn pq 03 +-> i-d c3 d c> •-"* Oh ^ X OS _Q CD jj •55 D &-d c3 ^5rS a 3 ^■ao s d b£) m 03 >> »" 2 -s a) ,d CD tfl ,T3 en ^ 3 pj .5 ^4 O cu 3 O S <+H d d o ,d s ^1 to T3 2 ^ 0) pd tn o °3 Assyrian Soldiers of the Empire. (From Reliefs discovered in the Palace of Assurbanipal) It was the valor of these stalwart archers and spearmen which made Assyria mistress of the East for about a century and a half Western Asia 33 46. Decline of Assyrian Power. But the Assyrian Empire was so vast that it proved impossible to hold it together. The army had to be recruited from the farming and manufacturing classes. So the fields were left uncultivated and manufacture declined. Moreover, the foreign troops, which it was necessary to employ, formed a very dangerous element. Finally, Assyria was so An Assyrian King hunting Lions weakened that she could not resist the invasion of the Chaldeans, another Semitic tribe which had for many years been drifting along the shores of the Persian Gulf. 47. Destruction of Nineveh by the Medes and Chaldeans (606 B.C.). The Chaldeans first conquered Babylonia and then, after combining with the Medes (§ 52), they attacked the Assyrian capital of Nineveh, and this mighty city fell into their hands in 606 b.c. The Assyrian Empire was at an end, and we can hear in the voice of the Hebrew prophet Nahum (ii, 8, 13, and iii entire) an echo of the exulting shout which resounded from the Caspian to the Nile when the nations realized that the terrible scourge of the East was no longer to be feared. Nineveh speedily became the vast heap of rubbish it remains today. 48. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar (604-561 B.C.); Magnificence of Babylon. At Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar, the greatest of the Chaldean emperors, began a reign of over forty years — a reign of such power and magnificence, especially as narrated in the Bible, that he has become one of the great figures of oriental 34 General History of Europe history. It was he who carried away many Hebrews from Pales- tine to Babylonia as captives and destroyed Jerusalem, their capital (586 B.C.). Copying much from Assyria, Nebuchadnezzar was able to sur- pass even his Assyrian predecessors in the splendor of the great buildings which he now erected at Babylon (see plan, Ancient Times, p. 165). Masses of rich tropical verdure, rising in terrace uuuniniuiiiiuiiiiiiii ii,iiiiiii» a « w W H O CO H Ph H < W a, w H M w w « a, o as c „ S 'S3 o ^ 'c u o a; i> (V i« h o a (-1 V 4) CD C o a S o -4-> 03 43 H H Ah O CHAPTER VI ATHENS IN THE AGE OF PERICLES I. Houses, Education, and Science 116. The New Athens: Athenian Houses. The hasty re- building of Athens after the Persians had burned it did not pro- duce any noticeable changes in the houses, nor were there any of great size or beauty. The one-story front of even a wealthy man's house was simply a blank wall, usually of sun-dried brick. The door, commonly the only opening in the windowless front, led into a court open to the sky and surrounded by a porch with columns adopted from Egypt. Here in the mild climate of Greece the family could spend much of their time as in a sitting room. From the court a number of doors opened into a living room, sleeping rooms, dining rooms, storerooms, and a tiny kitchen. The house lacked all conveniences. There was no chimney, and the smoke from the kitchen fire, though intended to drift up through a hole in the roof, often choked the room or floated out of the door. In winter gusty drafts filled the house, for many entrances were without doors. Glass windowpanes were still un- known. The only stove was a pan of burning charcoal. Lacking windows, the ground-floor rooms depended for light entirely on the doors opening on the court. At night the dim light of an olive-oil lamp was all that was available. There was no plumbing or piping of any kind in the house, no drainage, and consequently no sanitary arrangements. The water supply was brought in jars by slaves from the nearest well or spring. The simplicity and bareness of the house itself were in noticeable contrast with the beautiful furniture and pottery which the Greek craftsmen were now producing. 78 Athens in the Age of Pericles 79 The city was about a mile wide and somewhat more in length. The streets were merely lanes or alleys, narrow and crooked, winding between the bare mud-brick walls of the low houses. There was neither pavement nor sidewalk, and a stroll through the town after a rain meant wading through the mud. All the household rubbish and garbage were thrown directly into the street, and there was no system of street-cleaning or of sewerage. 117. Costume. The gorgeous oriental raiment of earlier days had now largely disappeared in Greece, as bright colors for men did among us in the days of our great-great-grandfathers. The women were less inclined to give up the old finery ; unhappily they had little to think about but clothes and housekeeping. For Greek citizens still kept their wives in the background ; they were mere housekeepers, and it was not deemed necessary to provide schools for the girls. 118. Schools. When a boy was old enough he was sent to school in charge of an old slave called a pedagogue (a Greek word meaning "leader of a child"). There were no schools maintained by the State. School was conducted in his own house by some poor citizen, who was much looked down upon. He received his pay from the parents. Besides studying music and learning to read and write, the pupil memorized many passages from the old poets, and here and there a boy with a good memory could repeat the entire Iliad and Odyssey. On the other hand, there was no instruction in mathematics, geography, or natural science. 119. Athletics. If the wealth and station of his family per- mitted, the Athenian youth spent much of his time on the new athletic fields. On the north of Athens was the field known as the Academy. There was a similar athletic ground, called the Lyceum, on the east of the city. The later custom of holding courses of lectures in these places resulted in giving the words "academy" and "lyceum" the associations they now possess for us. The chief events in the famous athletic contests at Olympia (§97) were boxing, wrestling, running, jumping, casting the javelin, and throwing the disk. To these, other contests were afterward added, especially chariot and horseback races. 8o General History of Europe 120. Higher Education offered by the Sophists. On the other hand, there were serious-minded young men who spent their time on other things. Many a bright youth who had finished his music, reading, and writing at the old-fashioned private school annoyed his father by insisting that such schooling was not enough and by demanding money to pay for a course of lectures Greek Boy pulling out a Thorn (A) and a Later Caricature of the Thorn Puller (B) The graceful figure of the slender boy so seriously striving to remove the thorn was probably wrought not long after the Persian wars. It was very popular in antiquity, as it has also been in modern times. The comical caricature (B) in clay (terra cotta), though it has lost one foot, is a de- lightful example of Greek humor expressed in parody delivered by more modern private teachers called Sophists, a class of new and clever lecturers who wandered from city to city. In the lectures of the. Sophists a higher education was for the first time open to young men. In the first place, the Sophists taught rhetoric and oratory with great success ; fathers who had no gift of speech had the pleasure of seeing their sons practiced public speakers. It was through the teaching of the Sophists also that the first successful writing of Greek prose began. In addition Athens in the Age of Pericles 81 they taught mathematics and astronomy, and the young men of Athens for the first time began to learn a little natural science. When a father of that day found in the hands of his son a book by one of the great Sophists which began with a statement ques- tioning the existence of the gods, the new teachings seemed im- pious. The old-fashioned citizen could at least vote for the banishment of such impious teachers and burning of their books. 121. Progress in Science and Medicine. Science had begun to be cultivated in the Ionian cities before the Persian wars (§96). In southern Italy a celebrated philosopher, Pythagoras, founded a school of philosophy and carried on the study of geometry. Among the sciences medicine, perhaps, made the most progress. In the first place, the Greek physicians rejected the older belief that disease was caused by evil demons and endeavored to find the natural causes of the ailment. To do this they sought to understand the organs of the body. They discovered that the brain was the organ of thought, but the arterial system, the circu- lation of the blood, and the nervous system were still entirely unknown. The greatest physician of the time was Hippocrates, who became the founder of scientific medicine. 122. Progress in History- Writing ; Herodotus. Just at the close of Pericles' life the historian Herodotus, — a great traveler, — who had long been engaged on a history of the world, finally published his famous work. The story was so told that the glorious leadership of Athens would be clear to all Greeks and they would see that to her they owed their deliverance from Persia. Throughout Greece it created a deep impression, and so tremendous was its effect on the Athenians that they voted Herod- otus a reward of ten talents — some twelve thousand dollars. II. Art and Literature 123. Phidias and the Parthenon. The Greeks now began to produce wonderful painters and architects, and sculptors such as the world had never seen. It is they who, with the writers, have made Athens famous through the centuries since Pericles began 82 General History of Europe the reconstruction of the Parthenon, the most celebrated building in the world. The Parthenon was the temple of the patron god- dess Athena (§87) and stood on the Acropolis. It had been destroyed by the Persians and was now rebuilt on a scale of beauty and magnificence hitherto unknown in the Greek world. Phidias, the greatest of the Athenian sculptors, designed the famous frieze, a band of carved marble reliefs extending clear around the building. This portrayed the people of Athens moving in a stately religious procession. The figures of the men and horses are of unrivaled beauty and grace. Inside the new temple rose the gigantic figure of the goddess Athena, wrought by the masterly hand of Phidias in gold and ivory. 124. The Drama ; jEschylus. In spite of the teachings of the Sophists, most of the Athenians still reverently believed in their gods, who they thought had raised Athens to the powerful posi- tion that she occupied. They listened with admiration and awe to the dramas of their first great playwright, ^schylus. He had fought against the Persians, and in his tragedy The Persians he told his fellow citizens of the mighty purpose of the gods in saving Hellas from the Asiatic invaders. We can picture a citizen in Pericles' time skirting the base of the Acropolis and reaching the theater to find the people already crowding the entrance. The play would seem strange enough to us, for there is little or no scenery ; and the actors, who are always men, wear grotesque masks, a survival of old days. The narrative is largely carried on in song by the chorus, but this is varied by the dialogue of the actors, and the whole is not unlike an opera. 125. Sophocles. A play of Sophocles is on, and the citizen's neighbor in the next seat leans over to tell him how as a lad many years ago he stood on the shore of Salamis, whither his family had fled, and as they looked down upon the destruction of the Persian fleet this same Sophocles, then a boy of sixteen, was in the crowd looking on with the rest. How deeply must the events of that tragic day have sunk into the boy's soul ! Because, like iEschylus, — the first great writer of tragedies, — he too sees 84 General History of Europe the will of the gods in all that happens to men. He exhorts his audience to worship Zeus, however dark the destiny which the great god lays upon men. For Sophocles is no friend of the Sophists, who scoff at the gods. 126. Euripides. Our citizen is inclined to distrust the new sensational plays of Euripides, who lives on the island of Salamis. He is a friend and companion of the Sophists, and in matters of religion his mind is troubled with doubts. All his plays are filled with these doubts regarding the gods. He has raised a great many questions which the citizen has never been able to banish from his own mind. Sophocles, therefore, suits all the old-fashioned folk, and it is very rarely that Euripides, in spite of his great ability, has been able to carry off the prize. The citizen feels some anxiety as he realizes that his own son and most of the other young men of his set are enthusiastic admirers of Euripides. They constantly read his plays and talk them over with the Sophists. 127. Comedy. The great tragedies were given in the morning, and in the afternoon the people were ready for less serious enter- tainment, such as comedy offered. From the old-time country festivals the comedy developed into a stage performance. The comedy-writers did not hesitate to introduce into their plays the greatest dignitaries of the State. Even Pericles was not spared, and great philosophers or serious-minded writers like Socrates and Euripides were represented on the stage and made irresistibly ridiculous, while the multitudes of Athens vented their delight in roars of laughter mingled with shouts and cheers. 128. Books and Reading. Now at last books had come to take an important place in the life of Athens. In our Athenian citizen's library were Homer and the works of the old classic poets. They were written on long rolls of papyrus as much as a hundred and fifty or sixty feet in length. Besides literary works, all sorts of books of instruction began to appear. The sculptors wrote of their art, and there was a large group of books on medi- cine bearing the name of Hippocrates. Textbooks on mathematics and rhetoric circulated, and the Athenian housekeeper could even find a cookbook at the bookshop. The Theater of Athens This theater was the center of the growth and development of Greek drama, which began as a part of the celebration of the spring feast of Dionysus, god of the vine and the fruitfulness of the earth. The temple of the god stood here, just at the left. Long before anyone knew of such a thing as a theater, the people gathered at this place to watch the celebration of the god's spring feast, where they formed a circle about the chorus, which narrated in song the stories of the gods. This circle (called the orchestra) was finally marked out permanently, seats of wood for the spectators were erected in a semi- circle on one side, but the singing and action all took place in the circle on the level of the ground. On the side opposite the public was a booth, or tent (Greek, skene, "scene"), for the actors, and out of this finally developed the stage. Here we see the circle, or orchestra, with the stage cutting off the back part of the circle. The seats are of stone and accommodated possibly seventeen thousand people. The fine marble seats in the front row v/ere reserved for the leading men of Athens. The old wooden seats were still in use in the days when ./Eschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides presented their dramas here. From the seats the citizens had a grand view of the sea and the island of ^Egina, for orchestra and seats continued roofless, and a Greek theater was always open to the sky 86 General History of Europe 129. Summary. Under such influences there had grown up at Athens a large group of intelligent men. They constantly shared in the tasks and problems of city government, and they also had the daily opportunity of coming in contact with the greatest works of art in literature, drama, painting, architecture, and sculpture. Very different from the old Athens of the days before the repulse of the Persians, the new Athens had become a wonderful community such as the ancient world had never known before. It now re- mained to be seen whether the people, in complete control of the State, could guide her wisely and maintain her power. III. Fall of the Athenian Empire 130. Unpopularity of Athens. In spite of all her greatness Athens was unpopular. Sparta hated her and despised her refine- ment. The merchants of Corinth were jealous of her successful business. The island cities which had joined her in the Delian League (§ 113) wanted to withdraw when peace was arranged with Persia, but Athens would not let them and forced them to continue to pay tribute to the treasury, which had been trans- ferred from Delos to Athens. Her dependencies in the northern ^Egean revolted and received support from Sparta and Corinth. 131. Second Peloponnesian War. One war had been waged (§ 115), now another began in 431 B.C. Pericles had to crowd all the people around Athens into the city and the walls leading down to the Piraeus. For season after season the Spartans and other enemies of Athens beleaguered the city. The plague, brought in from the Orient, broke out several times and carried off perhaps a third of the population. Pericles lost control' of the people, was accused of misappropriating the public funds, and fined. Later he was reelected when matters went from bad to worse, but he died of the plague. After ten years of war and devastation a peace was arranged, and the belligerents gave back the conquests they had made and retained only what they had held before the war. Cyma Frieze (alter- nate metopes and tri glyphs) Channeled shaft (with section cut out to save space) Architrave Capital Channeled shaft (with section cut out to save space) Base Stylobate D The Two Leading Styles of Greek Architecture, the Doric (a and b) and the ionic (c and d) . (after luckenbach) The little Doric building (B) is. the treasury of the Athenians at Delphi, containing their offerings of gratitude to Apollo. On the low base at the left side of the building were placed the trophies from the battle of Mara- thon. Over them on the walls are carved hymns to Apollo with musical notes attached, the oldest musical notation surviving. The beautiful Ionic building (D) is a restoration of the temple of Victory on the Athenian Acropolis. Contrast its slender columns with the sturdier shafts of the Doric style, and it will be seen that the Ionic order is a more delicate and graceful style. A and C show details of both styles. See page 88 for ex- ample of the third style of architecture — the Corinthian 88 General History of Europe 132. Alcibiades and the Expedition to Sicily. Soon the war spirit in Athens was again aroused by Alcibiades, a brilliant young man and a relative of Pericles. He made the fatal suggestion that the Athenians send their fleet to attack Syracuse in Sicily, a colony of Corinth. Alcibiades was one of the gen- erals in command of the expedition. The people of Athens, however, decided to recall him, for he was accused, with other young men, of having impiously mutilated certain sacred images before he sailed. Thereupon Alcibiades de- serted to Sparta and gave the enemy the benefit of his skill and insight. The Spartans sent a force to aid Syracuse. The Athenian general managed things so badly that Athens had to impoverish herself by sending a second fleet. No Greek state had ever mustered such forces and sent them so far away to fight. In 413 B.C. the Syracusans man- aged to trap the Athenian fleet in the harbor. The troops which landed were captured and sold as slaves. This dis- aster, together with the ravages of the plague, brought Athens to the end of her resources. 133. Distress of Athens. On the ad- vice of Alcibiades Sparta now laid per- The Greek cities of Asia Minor and of the islands turned against her, and, along with Sparta, even received the support of the Persian satrap in western Asia Minor. So the members of the former Delian League, established to resist Persia, were now allied with Persia to fight the founder of the league. niiiiiml lD MlH)))))! A Corinthian Capital The shaft of this column has been cut out in the drawing between the base and the capital to save space. Like the capitals of Egypt, this one represents a plant, the leaves of the acanthus, alternating in two rows around the cap- ital and crowned by vo- lutes rising to the four corners of a flat block upon which the supported stone above rests. The effect of this capital is peculiarly rich and ornate manent siege to Athens Athens in the Age of Pericles 89 134. Return of Alcibiades. In spite of his notorious treason the Athenians now asked Alcibiades to return and help them. Under his guidance they once more got command of the sea. But a slight reverse of the fleet when he was not even present led the fickle Athenians to desert him, and he fled to a castle on the Hellespont which he had in readiness. Here he died in exile murdered by a Persian. Soon after the flight of Alcibiades the Athenian fleet was captured by the Spartan general Lysander as it lay drawn up on the beach in the neighborhood of the Hellespont (at iEgospotami). 135. Fall of the Athenian Empire (404 B.C.). At last, twenty-seven years after Pericles had provoked the war with Sparta, Athens was exhausted. Not a man slept on the night when the terrible news of final ruin reached Athens. It was soon confirmed by the appearance of Lysander's fleet blockading the Piraeus. The grain ships from the Black Sea could no longer reach the port of Athens. Starvation finally forced the stubborn democratic leaders to submit, and the city surrendered. The Long Walls and the fortifications of the Piraeus were torn down, the remnant of the fleet was handed over to Sparta, all foreign possessions were given up, and Athens was forced to enter the Spartan League. These hard conditions saved the city from the complete destruction demanded by Corinth. Thus the century which had so gloriously begun for Athens with the repulse of Persia, the century which under the leadership of such men as Themistocles and Pericles had seen her rise to supremacy in all that was best and noblest in Greek life, closed with the annihila- tion of the Athenian Empire (404 B.C.). QUESTIONS I. Describe the houses in Athens in the time of Pericles. What was the appearance of the city? Were there any schools at this time? What instruction did a Greek boy receive? Describe the importance of athletics. What were the chief athletic events? What were the Academy and Lyceum? What opportunities were offered for higher education? What was the nature of the teachings of the 90 General History of Europe Sophists ? Why were these teachers opposed ? What progress was made in science ? in medicine ? Who was the first historian of whom we have any account ? With what events does his history deal ? II. Describe the most celebrated building of Athens — the Parthenon. What importance did the drama have at this time ? Tell something of the plays of ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides. Can you give the names of any of their plays? Contrast as far as you can the Greek play with our own. What two kinds of plays were given? Define a tragedy ; a comedy. Can you recall any examples in English, for in- stance, among the plays of Shakespeare ? What books were available at this time? . III. Why was Athens looked upon with jealousy by the other cities of Greece ? Review the Second Peloponnesian War. Who was Alcibiades ? Describe the fall of Athens. Note. This illustration shows us the lovely porch of the Maidens built to adorn the temple on the Acropolis known as the Erechtheum. It was a very ancient sanctuary of Athena, supposed to have gained its name because it was originally a shrine in the castle of the prehistoric king Erechtheus on the Acropolis. The temple was believed to stand on the spot where Athena overcame Poseidon in her battle with him for the possession of Attica, and here was the mark of the sea god's trident which he struck into the earth. Here also grew the original olive tree which Athena summoned from the earth as a gift to the Athenians. The building was erected during the last Peloponnesian war, in spite of the financial distress of Athens at that time, It is one of the most beautiful archi- tectural works left us by the Greeks. CHAPTER VII CONTINUED CONFLICTS AMONG THE GREEK STATES ; ART AND LITERATURE AFTER PERICLES I. Political Revolutions 136. Spartan Rule ; Struggle of Oligarchy and Democracy. The long struggle of Athens for the leadership of the Greek world had failed. It now remained to be seen whether her victorious rival, Sparta, was any better suited to undertake such leadership. Military garrisons commanded by Spartan officers were placed in many of the Greek cities, and Spartan control was maintained in a much more offensive form than was the old tyranny of Athens. In each city the Spartans established and supported by military force a government carried on by a small group of men from the noble or upper class. The rule of a small group was called oligarchy, a Greek term meaning "rule of a few." In this violent way Sparta was able to repress the democracies which had been hostile to her. In some cities the oligarchies were guilty of the worst excesses, murdering or banishing their political oppo- nents and seizing their fortunes. When the atrocities of the oli- garchs, backed by Sparta, became quite unbearable in any city, the people would be roused to revolution and would drive their rulers out. So there was constant disorder within the Greek states as well as continued wars between them. It is a dreary story which need not be told here. 137. Rise of Professional Soldiers. The Peloponnesian Wars had kept large numbers of Greeks so long in the army that many of them remained in military life and became professional sol- diers. Soldiers serving a foreign state for pay are called "mer- cenaries." The Greek youths who could find no opportunities at home were therefore enlisting as soldiers in Egypt, in Asia Minor, 9 1 92 General History of Europe and in Persia, and the best young blood of Greece was being spent to strengthen foreign states instead of building up the power of the Greeks. During the Peloponnesian Wars military leadership had also become a profession. Athens produced a whole group of pro- fessional military leaders ; the most talented among these was Xenophon. About 400 b.c. he took service in Asia Minor with a young Persian prince who was planning to overthrow his brother, the Persian king. The attempt was unsuccessful and in the re- treat from Babylon Xenophon led ten thousand Greek merce- naries up the Tigris past the ruins of Nineveh and through the mountains until they reached the Black Sea and finally returned home in safety. Of this extraordinary raid into the Persian Em- pire Xenophon has left a history called the Anabasis ("up- going"), one of the great books which have descended to us from ancient times. Just as in our own day there has been a great development of warlike devices, such as submarines, tanks, and poisonous gases, so the Greeks now began to introduce new war machinery from the East, such as movable towers and battering-rams for attacking cities. At the same time the size of the war- ships was increased. The newer ones had five banks of oars instead of three, and the older triremes could no longer face these improved and powerful vessels. Fighting continued, in spite of all the disasters it caused, to be one of the chief preoccupations of the Greeks. 138. Final Humiliation of Sparta. Sparta managed to main- tain her leadership for over thirty years. But she had to face frequent revolts on the part of the cities which resented her overlordship. The city of Thebes finally combined with Athens to crush Sparta. After a long war the distinguished Theban gen- eral and statesman Epaminondas decisively defeated the Spartans in the battle of Leuctra (371 B.C.). Over half of the Spartans engaged were slain and with them their king. It became clear that Sparta was not invincible, and she lost the repute which she had so long enjoyed on account of her military prowess. Art and Literature after Pericles 93 139. Fall of Thebes and Political Prostration of the Whole Greek World. It then remained to be seen whether Thebes, the new victor, could accomplish what Athens and Sparta had failed in doing and could create a Greek nation. But the supremacy of the Thebans was based upon the genius of a single man, and when Epaminondas fell in battle (362 B.C.), the power of Thebes collapsed. Thus the only powerful Greek states which might have welded the Hellenic world into a nation had crushed each other. Hellas was therefore doomed to fall helplessly before a conqueror from the outside. Yet in spite of their political decline during the two generations since Pericles, the Greeks, and especially the Athe- nians, had made such marvelous progress in art, architecture, literature, philosophy, and science that this period is regarded as one of the greatest in the history of man. II. Greek Art, Literature, and Philosophy 140. Importance of Athens. In spite of the violence and dis- order which we have been describing, there was a great deal of what we should call prosperity. Athens was the leading business center of the Mediterranean. While farming declined, manu- facture and trade nourished, notwithstanding the constant losses due to war. Rich men combined to form the first great banks at Athens, which became the financial center of the ancient world, as New York and London are in our day. Her bankers became the proverbially rich men of the time. So there was wealth and leisure for the more fortunate classes at least. Instead of becom- ing mere money getters, however, the Athenians showed an extraordinary interest in art and philosophy. 141. The Sculpture of Praxiteles. Sculpture had changed much since the days of Pericles. The statues of men and women were no longer modeled in the rigid and severe form which had previously prevailed. Praxiteles, by far the most famous sculp- tor of this period, set the example of a more human and natural way of carving his marble figures. Unlike the cold and majestic 94 General History of Europe A Wall-Painting at Pompeii showing the Sacrifice of Iphigenia The works of the great fourth-century artists have all perished, but it is supposed that the later house decorators and wall-painters of Italy copied the old masterpieces. Hence the scene here shown probably conveys some impression of old Greek painting. The scene shows us the maid Iphigenia as she is carried away to be slain as a sacrifice. The figure at the left, standing with veiled face, suggests, as often in modern art, the dreadfulness of a coming catastrophe, which human eyes are unwilling to behold. Note the skill with which human limbs are made to show thickness and roundness representations of the gods which we have from the hand of Phidias, the gods and goddesses of Praxiteles appear as very lovely and ideal human beings, who stand at ease in graceful attitudes with care-free faces. 142. Painting and Discovery of Perspective. The introduc- tion of painting on wooden tablets made it possible for people of Hermes playing with the Child Dionysus The uplifted right hand (now broken off) of the god probably held a bunch of grapes, with which he was amusing the child. This wonderful work was wrought by the sculptor Praxiteles and is one of the few original works of the greatest Greek sculptors found in Greece. Nearly all such Greek originals have perished, and we know them only in ancient Roman copies found in Italy. This great work was dug out at Olympia fcsEJ w X S 2 H ~ a, n tf }-< (U ^ W5 «■§ H «+h a3 13 O en O 5z! ,£3 C P* o W) g l-l c ^ < W U) £_| o CD -a CJ O QJ eu C3 cfi c3 M H en W W ■g y ctJ C/3 O «J -G H a jD ^ < X -a t/5 i— i £ -M C c W t|-l ^ cd p H H < O c3 j-i o Ph 55 bc.£ o < p* 2* T3 c3 w c w Nl aJ ^ H -C 13 73 C w en rt W !■" H CJ -t-> Ph > O H s "* « T3 < f the Wars with Carthage (264 . J. I'..C.) Extension of Roman Dominion and its Results 139 217. Rise of a Wealthy Class at Rome. As these people returned to Italy there grew up a wealthy class such as had been unknown there before. Their ability to buy resulted in a vast import trade to supply their demands. From the Bay of Naples to the mouth of the Tiber the sea was white with the sails of Roman ships converging on the docks of Rome. The men who controlled this traffic be- came wealthy merchants. To handle all the money in circulation banks were required. During the war with Hannibal the first banks appeared at Rome, occupying a line of booths on each side of the Forum. Under these influences Rome greatly changed. When a returned gov- ernor of Africa put up a showy new house, the citizen across the way who still lived in his father's old house began to be dissatisfied with it. For the old houses were An Old Roman Atrium-House There was no attempt at beautiful archi- tecture, and the bare front showed no adornment whatever. The opening in the roof, which lighted the atrium, received the rainfall of a section of the roof sloping toward it, and this water collected in a pool built to receive it in the floor of the atrium below (see B in cut on page 140) . The tiny- area, or garden, shown in the rear was not common. It was here that the later Ro- mans added the Hellenistic peristyle (see D in cut on page 140) built of sun-dried brick, and, like the settlers' cabins of early America, they had but one room, called the atrium (see cut on page 140). The Roman citizen of the new age had long before become familiar with the comfort, luxury, and beauty with which the Greek houses of southern Italy were filled. He therefore soon added a colon- naded Hellenistic court, with adjoining dining room, bedrooms, library, rest rooms, and kitchen, 140 General History of Europe 218. The New Luxury at Rome. The original atrium was in the finer houses converted into a large and stately reception hall, where the master of the house could display statues, paintings, and other works of art seized in eastern cities. One of the Roman conquerors of Mace- donia entered Rome on D his return with two hun- ■— 1 AI^ dred and fifty wagon- loads of Greek statues and paintings. The finest Roman resi- dences were sometimes supplied with running water and sanitary con- veniences. Some of them had a system of heating by means of tile pipes conducting into the dif- ferent rooms the heat from a furnace, very different from the old charcoal brazier on which the Romans had formerly depended. 219. Influence of the Art and Literature of Greece on Rome. The cultivated Romans nat- urally admired the beau- tiful Greek works of art, which some of their artists sought to imitate and copy. The Greek theater became popular, too, and Roman playwrights, like Plautus and Terence, adapted Greek comedies to the taste of Roman audiences, who laughed heartily at the old Greek jokes. The Romans had formerly done little to educate their children in any systematic way. Now schools began to appear, frequently Plan of a Roman House with Peristyle The earliest Roman house had consisted of a single room, the atrium (A), with the pool for the rain water {B) . Then a small alcove, or lean-to, was erected at the rear (C), as a room for the master of the house. Later the bedrooms on each side of the atrium were added. Finally, under the influence of Greek life, the garden court (£>), with its surround- ing colonnaded porch (peristyle) and a foun- tain in the middle (£), was built at the rear. Then a dining room, sitting room, and bedrooms were added, which opened on this court, and, being without windows, they were lighted from the court through the doors. In town houses it was quite easy to partition off a shop, or even a whole row of shops, along the front or side of the house, as in the Hellenistic house. The houses of Pompeii (see § 262 and Plate III, facing page 168) were almost all built in this way Extension of Roman Dominion and its Results 141 conducted by Greeks. A Latin translation of Homer was often used as a textbook, and in this way Roman children learned something of the legends of Troy and of the wily Odysseus. Roman writers also set down the picturesque legends of early Rome and of its founding by Romulus and Remus. A Roman general brought back the books collected by the Macedonian king and founded the first private library in Rome. Wealthy and cultivated Romans now began to provide special rooms in their houses for books, and they often read and spoke Greek almost as well as Latin. II. Signs of Degeneration in Town and Country 220. Gladiators and Races. Some of the old-fashioned Romans were greatly worried by the new luxury. Laws were passed to check it, but they amounted to little. During the Carthaginian wars there had been introduced an old Etruscan custom of single combats between condemned criminals or slaves, who fought to honor the funeral of some great Roman. These fighters came to be called "swordsmen" (gladiators, from a Latin word gladius, meaning "sword"). Officials in charge of the various public feasts, without waiting for a funeral, used to arrange a long program of such combats, sure of pleasing the people, gaining their votes, and thus securing election to higher offices. These barbarous and bloody spectacles took place in a great stone structure called an amphitheater. Combats between gladiators and wild beasts were finally introduced. The Romans also began to build enormous race tracks for chariot races (called circuses), surrounded by seats for vast numbers of spectators. 221. Political Corruption. The Roman politician now sought office chiefly with the hope of finally gaining the governorship of a province. There he might hope to retrieve his campaign expenses and make himself rich for life. The aspirant to office naturally took advantage of the habit that had grown up of distributing grain and bread among the poorer people, and sought, as the expression was, to make himself solid with the voters by means of "bread and circuses." There appears also to have been a great 142 General History of Europe deal of political bribery, and the laws directed against it seem to have had little effect in checking it. 222. Growth of Great Estates; Decline of Small Farms. The evils of the new wealth were not less evident outside of Rome. It was not thought proper for a Roman senator or noble to engage in any business. The most respectable form of wealth was land. Hence the successful Roman noble or capitalist bought farm after farm, which he combined into a great estate or planta- tion. Only here and there were still to be found groups of little homestead farms of the old Roman days. The small farm seemed in a fair way to disappear. 223. Slave Revolts and Disorders. It was impossible for a wealthy landowner to work these great estates with free, hired labor. Nor was he obliged to do so. From the close of Hanni- bal's war onward the Roman conquests had brought to Italy great numbers of captives of war. These unhappy prisoners were sold as slaves. The estates of Italy were now filled with them. The life of slaves on the great plantations was little better than that of beasts. When the supply of captives from the wars failed, slave pirates for many years carried on wholesale kidnaping in the iEgean and eastern Mediterranean. Thus Italy and Sicily were fairly flooded with slaves. The brutal treatment which they received was so unbearable that at various places in Italy they finally rose against their masters. In central and southern Sicily the revolting slaves gathered some sixty thousand in number, slew their masters, captured towns, and set up a kingdom. It required a Roman consul at the head of an army and a war lasting several years to subdue them. ' 224. Evil Influences of the Long Wars of Conquest. Slave labor and the great wars were meantime further ruining the small farmers of Italy. Never has there been an age in which the terri- ble and desolating results of war have more tragically revealed the awful cost of military glory. Fathers and elder sons had been absent from home for years, holding their posts in the legions, fighting the battles which had brought Rome her great position as mistress of the world. The mothers, left to bring up the Extension of Roman Dominion and its Results 143 younger children alone, saw the family scattered and drifting away from the little farm, till it was left forsaken. 225. Influx to the Cities. Too often as the returning soldier approached the spot where he was born he no longer found the house that had sheltered him in childhood. His family was gone, and his little farm, sold for debt, had been bought up by some wealthy Roman of the city. He cursed the rich men who had got possession of his land, and wandered up to the great city to look for free grain from the government, to enjoy the games and circuses, and to increase the poor class already there. 226. The Difficulties confronting Rome after she had gained World Power. The failure of the Roman Senate to organize a successful government for the empire they had conquered had brought the whole world of Mediterranean civilization danger- ously near destruction. In the European background beyond the Alpine frontiers there were rumblings of vast movements among the Northern barbarians, threatening to descend as of old and completely overwhelm the civilization which for over three thousand years had been slowly built up by Orientals and Greeks and Romans in the Mediterranean world. We stand at the point where the civilization of the Hellenistic world began to decline, after the destruction of Carthage and Corinth (146 B.C.). We are now to watch the Roman people struggling with three difficult and dangerous problems at the same time: first, the deadly internal hostility which we have seen growing up between rich and poor ; second, the question of organ- izing a successful Roman government of the Mediterranean world while the dangerous internal struggle was going on ; and third, in the midst of these grave responsibilities, the invasions of the bar- barian hordes of the North. In spite of all these threatening dan- gers we shall see Rome gaining the needed organization which enabled it to hurl back the barbarians, to hold the northern frontiers for five hundred years, and thus to shield the civilization which had cost mankind so many centuries of slow progress — the civilization which, because it was so preserved by the Roman Empire, has become our own inheritance today. 144 General History of Europe QUESTIONS I. Recall the partition of Alexander's empire after his death. What portions of Alexander's empire were conquered by the Romans ? What difficulties did the Romans meet in governing their provinces ? De- scribe the origin and habits of the wealthy class which now developed. II. What were the new forms of public amusement which appeared at Rome? Compare political corruption among the Romans with that of today. What were the evil influences of the long wars of conquest ? Why did the people leave the country for the cities ? What problems confronted the Roman government as a result of their conquests ? CORMELH/i IVC1V5 KIPIOBARBATVS CNAIVODPATRE. PROC/VATVS FOR-mi/|R SAPIE NS QV£- QVO/W FORAVYVIRTVTPPARISVAV FVJT- CON^OL CENSoRAlDiUSQVFirviTAPVDVOS-T/WRASIACISAVNA JAAWO CEPIT SV6IGIT-OMNF LOVCANA-OPSIDE5QVEA8DOVCIT Note. This illustration shows the beautiful stone sarcophagus of one of the early Scipios, found in the family tomb on the Appian Way. It is adorned with details of Greek architecture, which clearly indicate that it was done by a Greek artist. Verses in early Latin, on the side of the sarcophagus, contain praises of the departed Scipio. CHAPTER XII A CENTURY OF REVOLUTION AND THE END OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (133-30 B.C.) I. The Struggle between Senate and People 227. The Gracchi and their Attempted Reforms (133-121 B.C.). The crying needs of the farmer class in Italy failed to produce any effect on the blinded and selfish aristocrats who made up the Roman Senate. But the people found a leader in Tiberius Gracchus, the grandson of Scipio the hero of Zama. Elected tribune in 133 b.c., he was wont with passionate eloquence to remind the people of their wrongs. "You fight and die to give wealth and luxury to others. You are called the masters of the world, yet there is no clod of earth that you can really call your own." Tiberius Gracchus brought a law before the Assem- bly providing for a redistribution of the public lands and the protection of the farming class. But the Senate regarded him as a dangerous agitator, and he was slain by a mob of senators who rushed from their meeting place and attacked him and his supporters. This murderous deed was the prelude to a century of struggle between the leaders of the Senate and those of the people, which finally destroyed the Republic and led to the establishment of the Empire. Ten years later Gaius, the brother of Tiberius Gracchus, under- took to force through similar reforms in behalf of the farmers and to reduce the power of the Senate. He too was killed in a riot. In spite of their failure these two brothers won enduring fame in their efforts to improve the lot of the people at large. 228. Marius, the People's Commander. The Gracchi had taught the people to look up to a leader, and this tendency was the beginning of the one-man power which was to develop in the MS 146 General History of Europe Roman Empire. The people now selected a military commander, for they saw that they must have an army to enforce their claims. Marius, whom they chose, was himself a man of the people and had once been a plowboy. It was fortunate that he had military ability, for two powerful German tribes, the Cimbrians and the Teutons, had crossed the northern frontiers of the Roman Em- pire and had defeated several Roman armies sent against them. Marius was able, however, to overwhelm and nearly destroy the German hosts in two battles in southern Gaul (102 B.C.). So a man of the people saved Rome from this new danger. In order to increase his army Marius gave up the old habit of allowing only men of property to serve, and he took in the poor and penniless. These men became professional soldiers, and it was clear that the old days when Rome had relied on her citizens to defend her had passed. 229. The Senate chooses Sulla as its Defender. The Senate now set up a rival to Marius, Sulla, and gave him com- mand of an army to be sent to fight in Asia Minor. But the people refused to agree to this and elected Marius as head of the expedition. Sulla then summoned his troops, marched on Rome, and took the city by force. 230. Revenge of Marius and his Death (86 B.C.). The Senate had triumphed, but after the departure of Sulla and his legions the people refused longer to submit. Marius, having entered Rome with troops, began a frightful massacre of the leading men of the senatorial party. The Senate, the first to sow seeds of violence in the murder of Tiberius Gracchus, now reaped a fearful harvest. Meantime Marius died (86 B.C.), but the leaders of the people ruled in Rome until the day of reckoning, which was sure to come on the return of Sulla. 231. Sulla gives the Senate Supreme Leadership (82-79 B.C.). Having spent several years carrying on a victorious campaign in Asia Minor, Sulla returned. On the way his army defeated the armies of the people, one after another, and Sulla entered Rome as master of the State, without any legal power to justify such mastery. By means of his troops he forced his own appointment A Century of Revolution 147 as Dictator (82 B.C.). His first action was to begin the system- atic slaughter of the leaders of the people's party and the confis- cation of their property. Then he forced the passage of a whole series of new laws which deprived the Assembly and the tribunes of their power and gave the supreme leadership of the State to the Senate. II. Overthrow of the Republic ; Pompey and Cesar 232. The People elect Pompey as their Leader. Some years later Sulla, who was a cruel and heartless defender of the aristo- cratic Senate, died, and the people began an agitation for the repeal of the laws which deprived them and their tribunes of all control over the government. They elected Pompey, a former officer of Sulla's, as their leader, and he became consul in 70 B.C. He managed to get the obnoxious laws repealed and gained a great reputation for himself by attacking and destroying the pirates who preyed on Roman commerce. He also gained victories in Asia Minor and Syria, where he crushed the remnants of the old kingdom of the Seleucids. Syria, including Palestine, became a Roman province. 233. Rise of Julius Caesar. Meanwhile a new popular hero and opponent of the senatorial party had arisen in Rome, a nephew of Marius, Julius Caesar, born in the year 100 b.c. On Pompey's return Caesar sided with him, and with his support managed to be elected consul for the year 59 b.c. Caesar aspired to become the head of the State and introduce many necessary reforms. But he had to have an army and so secured the appointment as governor of Gaul, much of which was still unconquered by the Romans. 234. Caesar's Conquest of Gaul. Caesar took charge of his new province in 58 b.c, and in the following eight years proved himself to be a commander of distinguished ability. He subdued the Gauls and conquered their territory from the Rhine westward to the ocean and the English Channel. He even crossed the Channel and invaded Britain as far as the Thames. He added 148 General History of Europe a vast dominion to the Roman Empire, comprising in general the territory of modern France and Belgium. We should not forget that his conquest brought Latin into France, and it is from Latin that modern French has developed. Caesar believed that Rome needed an able commander with an army behind him, who should make himself the permanent master of the Roman government and subdue all other competitors. He therefore steadily pursued this aim. One of his cleverest moves was the publication of a history of his cam- paigns in Gaul, which he had found time to write in the midst of dan- gerous marches and critical battles. Although it is one of the greatest works of Latin prose, the book was really a political pamphlet, in- tended to tell the Roman people the story of the vast conquests which they owed to their governor in Gaul. At present it is the best- known Latin reading book for beginners in that language. 235. Pompey decides to support the Senate. The senators dreaded Caesar's return and probable reelec- tion as consul. So they induced Pompey to desert the people's party and support the cause of the Senate. This led to a struggle between the two commanding gen- erals, Caesar and Pompey. The Senate ordered Caesar to disband his army, but instead of obeying he led it across the little river Rubicon, which formed the southern boundary of his province, and marched on Rome. Pompey and the Senate were unprepared for this, and many of the senatorial party with their general decided to retire to Greece. Caesar was elected consul and so could become the legal defender of Rome against the Senate and Pompey's army. Bust said to be a Portrait of Julius Cesar The ancient portraits commonly accepted as those of Julius Caesar are really of uncertain identity A Century of Revolution 149 236. Caesar defeats Pompey (49-48 B.C.). Pompey had the advantage in the struggle,, for he controlled the resources of his conquests in the East and still had the fleet with which he had suppressed the pirates. Nevertheless Csesar managed to get his army across to Epirus (see map, p. 138) and accepted battle with Pompey on the famous field of Pharsalus in Thessaly. Here Pompey was crushingly defeated (48 B.C.), and his army sur- rendered itself to Csesar. 237. Caesar completes the Conquest of the Mediterranean World (48-45 B.C.). Pompey then escaped into Egypt, where he was basely murdered. Caesar, following Pompey to Egypt, found ruling there the beautiful Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies. The charms of this remarkable queen appear to have captivated the great Roman. We know little of the campaign by which Caesar next over- threw his opponents in Asia Minor. It was from there that he sent his famous report to the Senate : " I came, I saw, I con- quered" (Veni, vidi, vici). The only other obstacles to Caesar's complete control of the empire of the Roman world were all disposed of by March, 45 B.C., a little over four years after he had first taken possession of Italy with his army. 238. Caesar's Reforms and Plans for the Future. Caesar was a great statesman. He used his power with moderation and humanity. From the first he had taken great pains to show that his methods were not those of the bloody Sulla. It is clear that he intended his own position to be that of a Hellenistic sovereign like Alexander the Great. Nevertheless he was too wise a states- man to abolish at once the outward forms of the Republic. He made his power seem legal by having himself made Dictator for life, and he assumed also the powers of the other leading offices of the state. Caesar undertook the task of reshaping the Roman Empire. He reformed the Senate, which had long been an evil influence in public affairs, and began far-reaching reforms in the corrupt administration of the government. He sketched vast plans for rebuilding Rome itself ; he laid out new roads to facilitate travel i5o General History of Europe throughout the great empire. He put an end to centuries of inconvenience which had resulted from^the use of the old-fashioned calendar based on the moon-month, and introduced the Egyptian calendar. Our month of July (Latin, Julius) is named after him. In short, it is not too much to say that he really established the Roman Empire and was its first emperor in fact if not in name. 239. Murder of Caesar (44 B.C.). But there were still men in Rome who were not ready to submit to the rule of one man. On Coin of Brutus The above cut shows us the two sides of a coin issued by Brutus, one of the leading assassins of Julius Caesar. On one side the coin bears the head of Brutus, accompanied by his name and the title Imperator, that is, general (abbreviated to IMP). On the other side are two daggers, intended to recall the assassination of Caesar, and between them appears the cap of liberty, to suggest the liberty which the Romans supposedly gained by his murder. In order that the meaning of all this might be perfectly clear, there appears, below, the inscription EID MAR, which means the Ides of March (the Roman term for the fifteenth of March), the date of Caesar's murder the fifteenth of March, 44 B.C., three days before the date arranged for his departure on a great campaign beyond the Euphrates, these men struck down the greatest of the Romans. If some of his murderers, like Brutus and Cassius, fancied them- selves patriots overthrowing a tyrant, they little understood how vain were all such efforts to restore the ancient Republic. World dominion and its military power had destroyed forever the Roman Republic and its old democratic government. The murder of Caesar had the most unhappy effects and again plunged Italy and the Empire into civil war. A Century of Revolution 151 III. Triumph of Augustus and End of the Civil Wars 240. How Octavian (Caesar Augustus) made himself Head of Rome. Julius had adopted his grandnephew Octavian and had made him his sole heir. At the time of Caesar's assassination he was only eighteen years old and was quietly pursuing his studies in Illyria. His mother sent him word of his uncle's death and urged him to flee eastward as fast as possible. Instead of this he started for Rome and began skill- fully to gather up the threads of the tangled situation in his clever fingers. In spite of his youth and inexperience, he managed to find supporters and secure a military command, so that two years after Caesar's murder he was able to de- feat his enemies, including Caesar's assassins, in the battle of Philippi (42 B.C.). During the following ten years he was able to make his position stronger and stronger, and at the age of twenty-eight he had gained almost complete control over both the eastern and western portions of the Empire. 241. Octavian, Mark Antony, and Cleopatra. Octavian's last struggle was with his former friend and supporter Mark Antony, who, having fought in the east, had become infatuated with the charming Egyptian queen, Cleopatra. Antony was now living in Alexandria and Antioch, where he ruled like an oriental monarch. It was reported to Octavian that Antony and Cleopatra were planning to make themselves rulers of Rome. Accordingly Oc- tavian induced the Senate to declare war on Cleopatra, and thus he was able to advance against Antony. As Caesar and Pompey, Portrait of Augustus, now in the Boston Museum of Fine Arts 152 General History of Europe representing the West and the East, had once faced each other on a battlefield in Greece (§ 236), so now Octavian and Antony, the leaders of the West and the East, met at Actium on the west coast of Greece. The outcome was a sweeping victory for the heir of Caesar (31 B.C.). The next year Octavian landed in Egypt. Antony, probably forsaken by Cleopatra, took his own life. The proud queen, un- willing to be displayed at Octavian 's triumph at Rome, died by her own hand. She was the last of the Ptolemies (§ 165), the rulers of Egypt for nearly three hundred years. Octavian therefore made Egypt Roman territory (30 b.c). To the West, which he already controlled, Octavian had now added also the East. Thus he had restored the unity of Roman dominions. The entire Mediterranean world was under the power of a single ruler. 242. Summary. The struggle between the rich and the poor, which resulted in violence under the Gracchus brothers after 133 B.C., was accompanied by the rise of military leaders, who gained great power and wealth in the newly conquered posses- sions. They strove to control the State in defiance of the laws. Years of civil war between the leaders of the people and the Senate resulted in the overthrow of the Republic (about 30 b.c). Octa- vian's success marked the final triumph of one-man power in the entire ancient world, as it had long ago triumphed in the Orient. The century of strife which Octavian's victory ended was now followed by two centuries of peace. These were the first two centuries of the Roman Empire, beginning in 30 B.C. QUESTIONS I. Describe the aims and fate of the Gracchi. Describe the con- test between Marius and Sulla. What was Sulla's policy after the death of Marius ? II. Describe the career of Pompey. How did Julius Caesar prepare the way for his dictatorship ? Trace the struggle between Caesar and Pompey. How did Caesar complete the conquest of the Mediterranean world ? What were his reforms and plans ? III. How did Caesar Augustus make himself head of Rome ? CHAPTER XIII THE ROMAN EMPIRE: TWO CENTURIES OF PEACE FROM AUGUSTUS TO MARCUS AURELIUS I. The Age of Augustus (30 b.c.-a.d. 14) 243. Origin of the Roman Empire. When Octavian returned to Italy there was a general impression that peace had at last come after a hundred years of revolution, civil war, and devasta- tion. The great majority of Romans now felt that an individual ruler was necessary for the control of the vast Roman dominions. There was, therefore, no further opposition to Octavian, and he devoted the remaining forty-four years of his life to giving the Roman Empire the efficient organization and good government which it had so long lacked. The Senate conferred upon him the title of Augustus, that is, " the august " ; but his chief official title was Princeps, that is, "the first," meaning the first of the citizens. Another title given the head of the Roman Empire was an old word for com- mander or general ; namely, Imperator, from which our word "emperor" is derived. Augustus, as we may now call Octavian, regarded his position as that of an official of the Roman Republic, elected by the Senate and the people. The Roman Empire, which here emerges, was thus under a double government of the Senate and of the Princeps, whom we commonly call the emperor. The emperor was, however, the real ruler, because as general he had the legions at his command. So the Roman Republic tended to become a military monarchy, as we shall see. 244. The Army and the Frontiers. Augustus seems to have thought that the Roman Empire was quite large enough, and he r 53 154 General History of Europe did not advocate any further conquests. It was bounded on the south by the Sahara Desert and on the west by the Atlantic. The Euphrates River was established as the frontier on the east, and the Danube and Rhine on the north. For the defense of these frontiers it was necessary to maintain a large standing army — on the average probably two hundred and twenty-five thousand men. The troops were recruited chiefly from the Roman provinces. Henceforth the legions were posted far out on the boundaries, and the citizens in Italy saw few troops except the emperor's bodyguard. 245. Great Task of organizing the Empire. Augustus faced the task of providing a newer and better government for all the various peoples and nations that made up the Empire. The selec- tion of the governors of the provinces was almost wholly in his hands, and the governors knew that they were responsible to him for the wise and honest performance of their duties. Each gov- ernor also knew that if he proved successful he would be permitted to retain his post for years or be promoted to a better one. The whole Mediterranean world now entered upon a period of peace and prosperity. Formerly the various peoples had been accustomed to fight one another, but now the Roman peace en- veloped them all. The threads of our historical narrative have hitherto been numerous as we followed the stories of Egypt, Babylonia, Assyria, Persia, Athens, Macedonia, Rome, and Car- thage. With the exception of the regions east of the Euphrates these separate strands now become twisted together into the single thread of history, that of the Roman Empire. 246. The Rebuilding of Rome. Augustus also undertook to rebuild Rome and make it the most magnificent city of the world. He remodeled several private houses into a mansion for his own use. From this royal residence, which was on the Palatine Hill, our English word "palace" is derived. The palace looked down upon an imposing array of new marble buildings surrounding the ancient Forum. The finest of these was the magnificent business hall (basilica) erected by Julius Caesar and restored and completed by Augustus. On the north of the The Roman Forum and its Public Buildings in the Early Empire (After Luckenbach) We look across the ancient market place (F) to the Tiber with its ships. On each side of the market place, where we see the buildings (E, J, and D, G, I), were once rows of little wooden booths for selling meat, fish, and other merchandise. During the period which followed the beginning of the Carthaginian wars these were gradually displaced by fine buildings, like the basilica hall (D), built not long after 200 B.C. ^ rG cu t« >H G cu o CU n CU ^ 01 ^ o « .y fe m o cu 71 £ > iT 6 g en "d c« .G .g ^ -t-> 3 5 ■^3 Pi en 0) cu "S S G S o pG „ CU *ot m ^ < *" p£ S3 cu G £ <+h ft Td pG pG — ' <3J -M °» 1 1? cu G o H C? cu CT3 t« rd G^ * O S, c bO bO -d -m G G cd * G i 5 ES ^ 1J m g G . "" O S O M o ■a Hi pH CU ^_) G pG ri ° o w w H ci cu M * « § 03 > ^ ra cu < en 'cu T3 'G cu cu pG (-I -»-> >w '' ^ *■, y u s -a o bo G •*> O G - • O W c3 (j rs b£ 'G 1-1 ^ £ -a pi pG cu 2 w d >-< G bfi > o . Pi G M SJ o C ^ be u 5 ^ cu > o o w U G +-> ■*-> cu en C G ° S G b£ p5 cu G O -G « i — i +J cu Ji bf) -p-> M Q i-l i— i U Bl ^ -G en G ° G 0) ,G p *J fl PQ se g -m --I G S w en cu 03 ft W "- 1 G pG cj 3 « ^r H .ph cu ^ G 13 D 3-5 en en u en nj O pi cu >-i '^ S o •^ -t-> "O G >-> d) Mfl ° E 53 pG .C rtfl !? ^ C -> ™ bo 5 • PH P3 N --1 WO^ The Roman Empire at its Height 155 old Forum Caesar had constructed another business center, called the Forum of Caesar; but the growing business of the city led Augustus to build a third forum, known as the Forum of Augus- tus, which he placed next to that of Caesar (see Ancient Times, Map of Rome under the Emperors Fig. 247). The first stone theater in Rome had been built by Pompey. Augustus erected a larger and more magnificent one. 247. Books and Writers of Augustus's Time. It was during the life of Augustus that the writing of Latin reached its highest perfection. The Romans did little in science, and their art was an imitation of Greek models. As writers they were also dominated by the Greeks, and literary men often studied in Athens and spoke Greek among themselves when they returned to Italy. In the age before Augustus, Cicero, a lawyer, statesman, and remarkable 156 General History of Europe orator, had done much to perfect the Latin tongue in his speeches and orations. Late in life he was forced to retire from active life and spent several years writing out, in Latin, treatises on duty, friendship, old age, and the gods, which have been read with pleasure ever since. While they owed much to Greek works, they "Altar of Augustan Peace" The above cut shows a restoration of a magnificent marble inclosure con- taining the "Altar of Augustan Peace," erected by order of the Senate in honor of Augustus. The inclosure was open to the sky, and its surrounding walls, of which portions still exist, are covered below by a broad band of ornamental plant spirals, very sumptuous in effect. Above it is a series of reliefs, of which the one on the right of the door pictures the legendary hero JEne&s bringing an offering to the temple of the Roman household gods (Penates) which he carried from Troy to Latium are so beautifully and elegantly expressed that they came to be regarded as models of Latin prose and are still used in our schools and colleges where Latin is studied. Latin poetry appeared a generation later than Cicero, after Augustus had established peace and begun to encourage men of letters to make his reign famous by their works. Horace was particularly proud of having been able to introduce the various Greek rhythms into Latin. He wrote gay and sometimes sad little poems about human joys and loves and ambitions, which are still quoted by those fond of Latin. Virgil, the most beloved of Latin writers through the ages, described country life in his earlier The Roman Empire at its Height 157 poems and then wrote his immortal iEneid, — a sort of continua- tion of the Iliad, — in which he describes the fall of Troy, the coming to Italy of .Eneas, whom he represented as the ancestor of the Csesars. Livy wrote his great history of Rome, from which we get a large part of our information in regard to the develop- ment of the Roman State down to his time. II. Successors of Augustus: Policy of Trajan and Hadrian 248. Death of Augustus; his Successors. Augustus died a.d. 14. There was no law providing for the line of succession in the Empire. As Augustus had no male heir, he had asked the Senate to associate with him in the government his stepson Tiberius, an able soldier who succeeded him. The chief thing to be noted in his reign is that he no longer allowed the Roman populace to go through the farce of approving what the emperor had already decided upon ; so even the appearance of government by the Roman people disappeared forever. We can mention only a very few of the Roman emperors who succeeded Tiberius. Some of them were good and efficient; some of them followed careers of vice and wickedness. Of the latter class Nero (a.d. 54-68) is the worst example. He is accused of having his wife and mother and his old teacher, Seneca, killed and of setting fire to Rome in order to witness the spectacle and have the pleasure of rebuilding the town. There is no evidence that he really com- mitted this crime. He pUt the blame for it on the Christians, who were now beginning to appear in Rome, and had many of them executed with horrible tortures. So Nero's name has come down to us as one of the blackest in history. A revolt' in the army finally caused him to commit suicide. After Nero's death there was a struggle between rival candi- dates for the throne, and Vespasian, an able general, finally won in the year 69 of the Christian Era. With him began a century of general peace under good and efficient rulers who brought the Empire to its highest point of prosperity and general content. 158 General History of Europe 249. Protection of the Empire. We have seen that on the north and east the Roman Empire was open to attack. Owing to the pressure of the German barbarians, civilization was constantly in danger. Vespasian and his sons did much to make the northern boundary safe by building walls and fortifications along the The Emperor Trajan sacrificing at his New Bridge across the danube In the background we see the heavy stone piers of the bridge, supp the wooden upper structure, built with strong railings. In the foregrou. d is the altar, toward which the emperor advances from the right, with a flat dish in his right hand, from which he is pouring a libation. At the left of the altar stands a priest, naked to the waist and leading an ox to be slain for the sacrifice. A group of the emperor's officers approach from the left, bearing army standards. The scene is sculptured with many others on the column of Trajan at Rome, and is one of the best examples of Roman relief sculpture of the second century frontier. But on the lower Danube they were unable to crush the growing power of the Dacians (see map, p. 160). 250. Trajan (a.d. 98-117) and his Wars. This left the whole threatening situation on the lower Danube to be met by the bril- liant soldier Trajan. He captured one stronghold of the Dacians after another, and finally destroyed their capital. Having built a massive bridge across the Danube, Trajan made Dacia a Roman 50 15 10 j &*fc tk 10 15 kQoi onia Ai 15 10 S ^de Q surd 'gifih JI a'r clomah i Mi — r^ / NORICUM _I*Glanj v£. Voio; «?\ 4r, e W e ^ arboy '2V rr acc #, z? coRsrc. # il^I^j "AquUe ^ ROM£/Pide nae . Ostl Aapte 35 Q$s ?ir 30 25 4 D- Re N I a - / ^£tt YA <^ *£ M> / r> THE ROMAN EMPIRE AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT (Under Trajan, A. D. 98-117) ipo 200 300 400 Eqo 600 ^qo Scale of Miles. 10 ■15 The Roman Empire at its Height 159 province and sprinkled plentiful Roman colonies on the north side of the great river. The descendants of these colonists in this region still call themselves Rumanians and their land Rumania, a form of the word "Roman." Trajan then turned his attention to the eastern frontier, where a large portion of the boundary was formed by the upper Eu- phrates River. Rome thus held the western half of the Fertile Crescent, but it had never conquered the eastern half, including Assyria and Babylonia, which was held by the powerful kingdom of the Parthians. Trajan, emulating Alexander the Great, at- tempted to add this region to the Empire, but he failed and died a bitterly disappointed man. 251. Hadrian (a.d. 117-138) completes the Frontier Defenses. Trajan's successor, Hadrian, was also an able soldier. He had, moreover, the judgment of a statesman. He made no effort to con- tinue Trajan's conquests in the East, but, on the contrary, wisely brought the frontier back to the Euphrates. He retained Dacia, however, and strengthened the whole northern frontier, especially the long barrier reaching from the Rhine to the Danube, where the completion of a continuous wall was largely due to him. He built a similar wall along the northern boundary across Britain. The lines of both these walls are still visible. As a result of the wise measures of Hadrian and the impressive victories of Trajan, the frontiers were safe and quiet for a long time. 252. The Army under Trajan and Hadrian. Drawn from all parts of the Empire, the army now consisted of many different nationalities, like the British army in the recent World War. A legion of Spaniards might be stationed on the Euphrates, or a group of youths from the Nile might spend years in sentry duty on the wall that barred out the Germans. The army posts were equipped with fine barracks and living quarters for officers and men. The discipline was never relaxed, for the troops had always to be ready to meet any attack from the barbarian Germans who lived beyond the walls. 253. Improvements in Government. Meantime the Empire had been undergoing important changes within. The emperors i6o General History oj Europe developed a system of government departments, headed by experi- enced ministers, such as we have in modern states. It was the wise and efficient Hadrian who accomplished the most in perfect- ing this organization of the government business. Among many changes, one of the most important was the abolition of the system of "farming" taxes, — that is, allowing them to be collected by private individuals for profit, — a system Restoration of the Roman Fortified Wall on the German Frontier This masonry wall, some three hundred miles long, protected the northern boundary of the Roman Empire between the upper Rhine and the upper Danube, where it was most exposed to German attack. At short intervals there were blockhouses along the wall, and at points of great danger strong- holds and barracks for the shelter of garrisons which had caused both the Greeks and the Romans much trouble. Government collectors now everywhere gathered in the taxes of the great Mediterranean world. 254. Rise of a System of Law for the Whole Empire. Not only did the subjects of this vast State pay their taxes into the same treasury but they were controlled by the same laws. The lawyers of Rome under the emperors we are now discussing were the most gifted legal minds the world had ever seen. They altered the narrow city -law of Rome so that it might meet the needs of the whole empire. In spirit these laws were fair, just, The Roman Empire at its Height 161 and humane and did much to unify the peoples of the Mediter- ranean world into a single nation ; for they were now regarded by the law not as different nations but as subjects of the same great State, which extended to them all the same protection of justice, law, and order. III. Civilization of the Roman Empire 255. The Peoples of the Roman Empire. The number of inhabitants of the vast Roman Empire is supposed to have been somewhere between sixty-five and a hundred million. We have no exact statistics. It included the most varied peoples, — Italians, Greeks, Gauls, Iberians (Spaniards), some Britons and Germans, Moors, North Africans, Egyptians, Arabs, Jews, Phoenicians, Syr- ians, Armenians, and Hittites, to mention only the more impor- tant. All these peoples differed from one another in their native manners, customs, and dress, but they could all rejoice in the far-reaching Roman peace and protection. For the most part they lived in cities ; like our own day, it was an age of city life. 256. Excellent Roman Roads. Everywhere the magnificent Roman roads, smoothly paved with massive stone like a town street, led straight over the hills and across the rivers by impos- ing bridges. Some of these bridges still stand and are in use today. The speed of travel and communication was fully as high as that maintained in Europe and America a century ago, before the introduction of the steam railway, and the roads were much better. By sea a Roman merchant could send a letter to his agent in Alexandria in ten days. The huge government grain ships that plied regularly between the Roman harbors and Alexandria were stately vessels carrying several thousand tons. 257. Wide Extent of Commerce. With these improved condi- tions business flourished as never before. There was a fleet of a hundred and twenty ships plying regularly across the Indian Ocean between the Red Sea and the harbors of India. The wares that they brought were shipped west from the docks of Alexan- dria, which still remained the greatest commercial city on the 1 62 General History of Europe Mediterranean. There was a proverb that you could get anything in Alexandria except snow. A vast system of trade routes by sea and land covered the world of the time, from the frontiers of China and India on the east, to the harbors of the Atlantic and Britain on the west. 258. What a Tourist might see. The Roman citizens of this period often made tours of the Mediterranean much as the mod- ern sight-seer does. As the traveler passed through the towns of the provinces, he found everywhere evidences of the public spirit of the citizens. There were fountains, theaters, music halls, baths, and gymnasiums, erected by wealthy men and given to the com- munity. There were schools for boys and girls with teachers paid by the government. To a traveler wandering in Greece and looking back some six hundred years to the Age of Pericles or the Persian Wars of Athens, Greece seemed to belong to a distant and ancient world, of which he had read in the histories of Thucydides and Herod- otus (§§ 122, 147). The Roman visitor who strolled through Athens or Delphi noticed many an empty pedestal, and he recalled how the villas of his friends at home were now adorned with the statues which had once occupied them. As the traveler passed eastward through the flourishing cities of Asia Minor and Syria, he might feel justifiable pride in what Roman rule was accomplishing. In the western half of the Fertile Crescent, especially just east of the Jordan, where there had formerly been only a nomad wilderness, there were now pros- perous towns, with long aqueducts, baths, theaters, of which the ruins fill even us of today with astonishment. Beyond the desert behind these towns lay the former empires of Babylonia, iVssyria, and Persia, with their great cities already reduced to mounds of rubbish. On visiting Alexandria our traveler might have found himself joining a group of other tourists, who, after viewing the great commercial town founded by Alexander the Great, could make their way up the Nile into the midst of a much earlier world — the earliest civilization of which they knew. At Memphis and The Roman Empire at its Height 163 Thebes they would see buildings constructed thousands of years before Rome was founded. On these mountains we can see today the names and comments these tourists scribbled on the stone. 259. Civilization in the West. In the western Mediterranean civilization was a new thing. In that age western Europe had for Interior View of the Dome of the Pantheon built at Rome by Agrippa and Hadrian The first building on this spot was erected by Agrippa, Augustus's great minister. But it was completely rebuilt, as we see it here, by Hadrian. The circular hole in the ceiling is thirty feet across ; it is one hundred and forty- two feet above the pavement, and the diameter of the huge dome is also one hundred and forty-two feet. This is the only ancient building in Rome which is still standing with walls and roof in a perfectly preserved state. It is thus a remarkable example of Roman skill in the use of concrete (§ 260). At the same time it is one of the most beautiful and impressive domed interiors ever designed the first time been building cities, under the guidance of Roman architects, and their buildings looked like those at Rome. We can still visit and study massive bridges, spacious theaters, imposing public monuments, sumptuous villas, and luxurious public baths —a line of Roman ruins stretching from Britain through southern 1 64 General History of Europe France and Germany to the Balkan Peninsula. Similarly, in North Africa west of Carthage the ruins of whole cities with magnificent public buildings still survive to show us how Roman civilization developed there. These Roman buildings, still encircling the Mediterranean, reveal to us the fact that as a result of ages of human progress ttib The Vast Amphitheater at Rome now called the Colosseum (Restored after Luckenbach) This enormous building, one of the greatest in the world, was an oval arena surrounded by rising tiers of seats, accommodating nearly fifty thou- sand people. We see here only the outside wall, as restored. It was built by the emperors Vespasian and Titus, and was completed in 80 a.d. At the left is the colossal bronze statue of Nero, about one hundred feet high, which originally stood in this vicinity, near the entrance of his famous "Golden House," just east of the Forum which we have studied, the whole Mediterranean world, West as well as East, had now gained a high civilization. 260. New Public Buildings of Rome. As for Rome itself, a visitor at the close of the reign of Hadrian found it the most magnificent monumental city in the world of that day. It had by that time quite surpassed Alexandria in size and in the number and splendor of its public buildings. It was especially in and alongside the old Forum that the grandest structures of the The Roman Empire at its Height 165 Empire had grown up. There Vespasian had erected a vast amphi- theater for gladiatorial combats, now known as the Colosseum. Along the north side of the old Forum the emperors built three new forums which surpassed in magnificence anything which the Mediterranean world had ever seen before. These buildings of Trajan and Hadrian represent the high- est level of splendor and beauty reached by Roman architects. In the Hellenistic Age architects had begun to employ increasing quantities of concrete. The domed roof of Hadrian's Pan- theon is an enormous solid mass of concrete over a hundred and forty feet across. The Romans, therefore, eighteen hundred years ago were employing concrete on a scale which we have only re- cently learned to imitate, and after all this lapse of time the roof of the Pantheon seems to be as safe and stanch as it was when Hadrian's architects first knocked away the posts which supported the wooden form for the great cast. 261. Roman Sculpture and Painting. The reliefs which adorn all these monuments show Roman art at its best. . Those on Trajan's column form a sort of picture book of his campaigns. The Roman statuary is mainly copies of the masterpieces of the great Greek sculptors. The portrait busts of leading Romans are, however, among the finest things of the kind ever done and give us a lively notion of how the men of the time looked. As for painting, the decorations on the walls of houses, copied from Portrait of an Unknown Roman This terra-cotta head is one of the finest portraits ever made. It rep- resents one of the masterful Roman lords of the world, and shows clearly in the features those qualities of power and leadership which so long maintained the su- premacy of the Roman Empire i66 General History of Europe Hellenistic Greek works, are the most striking examples of the art that are to be found in the Roman period. 262. Pompeii. Fortunately one of the provincial cities has been preserved to us with much that we might have seen there if we could have visited it nearly two thousand years ago. In the sraT ^ W H O W o w w W H fH O W i-l >H H i— i W The Roman Empire at its Height 169 Athens, and finally in Rome itself, and Christian churches began to spring up. Some of Paul's letters to the churches he founded were widely circulated. There were also four accounts in Greek of the life and teachings of Jesus that came to be regarded as authoritative. These were the four Gospels, which, with Paul's letters and some other early Christian writings, were brought 1-CV--, ■-' ,» ~ "' Roman Bridge and Aqueduct at Nimes, France This structure was built by the Romans about a.d. 20 to supply the Roman colony of Nemausus (now called Nimes) in southern France with water from two excellent springs twenty-five miles distant. It is nearly nine hundred feet long and one hundred and sixty feet high, and carried the water over the valley of the river Gard. The channel for the water is at the very top, and one can still walk through it. The miles of aqueduct on either side of this bridge and leading to it have almost disappeared together to form the New Testament. As time passed, increasing numbers learned of the teachings of Jesus and found joy in the hopes they awakened. 268. Roman Persecution of the Early Christians. These early Christians, like the Jews, not only refused to sacrifice to the emperor as a god, as all good Roman citizens were expected to do, but openly prophesied the downfall of the Roman State. While the Roman government was usually very tolerant in matters of religion, the Christians were therefore frequently called upon to 170 General History of Europe endure cruel persecution. Their religion seemed to interfere with good citizenship, since it forbade them to show the usual respect for the emperor and the government. Nevertheless their numbers steadily grew. 269. Summary of the Two Centuries of Peace. The remark- able forty-four years of the peaceful reign of Augustus had ushered in a century of general peace, ending (a.d. 68) with the death of the infamous Nero. The second century of peace, which began after a brief period of disorder, was covered by the reigns of a group of very able emperors, especially Trajan and Hadrian. These rulers expanded the once local government and laws of the former city-state of Rome until they fitted the needs of a vast state including the whole Mediterranean world. At this time Christianity was spreading very rapidly. Internal decay was going on, however, and under Marcus Aurelius, about a.d. 167, the two centuries of peace ended. We now pass on to a fearful century of revolution, civil war, and anarchy, from which a very different Roman world emerged. QUESTIONS I. What was the meaning of the various titles of Augustus ? What is meant by the substitution of the Roman Empire for the Republic? What were the bounds of the Empire in the time of Augustus ? Men- tion the chief writers of the time of Augustus. II. Mention some of the successors of Augustus. What do you know of Nero? What means were taken for protecting the Empire from invasion? What improvements were made in the Roman government? III. Mention some of the chief peoples included in the Roman Empire. How was it possible to get about the Empire ? Describe some of the things that a tourist might have seen in his travels. Describe the chief public buildings at Rome. Tell something of the science of the Romans. Mention the chief oriental religions which prevailed in the Roman Empire. Describe the rise of Christianity. CHAPTER XIV A CENTURY OF DISORDER AND THE DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE I. Decline of the Roman Empire 270. Signs of Decay. We have now studied the Roman Empire in its most flourishing period during the two centuries of relative peace that began with the reign of Augustus. We must now see how it declined in strength and was finally overrun by the North- ern barbarians. We know little of the period, as our sources of information are scanty and unreliable. The great historian Mommsen wrote four volumes on the rise of Rome to the time of Augustus and then was so discouraged when he considered the poor historical sources for the remainder of Rome's story that he confined the rest of his history to a single volume on the Roman provinces. Some things, however, are pretty clear. 271. The Villas and the Coloni. The decline in farming, so noticeable earlier, had gone on, and the land continued to pass over into the hands of the rich, whose vast estates were called villas. The growth of the villa had destroyed the small independent farmers not only in Italy but in Africa, Gaul, Britain, Spain, and other leading provinces. Moreover, the soil had gradually lost its fertility and become exhausted owing to careless cultivation. Unable to compete with the great villas, and finding the burden of taxes unbearable, most of the small farmers gave up the struggle. A discouraged farmer would often become the colonus of some wealthy villa owner. By this arrangement the farmer and his descendants were assured possession of the land that they worked, but were bound by law to it and passed with it from owner to owner when it changed hands. While not actually slaves, they 171 i^2 General History of Europe were not free to leave or go where they pleased. The great villas once worked by slaves were now cultivated chiefly by these coloni (plural of colonus), the forerunners of the medieval serfs (§§ 405, 406), while the older type of slavery gradually disappeared. Hosts of the country people, unwilling to become coloni, for- sook their fields and turned to the city for relief. Great stretches of unworked and weed-grown fields were no uncommon sight. As the amount of land under cultivation decreased, the ancient world was no longer raising enough food to sustain itself properly. The scarcity was felt most severely in the great centers of popu- lation like Rome, where prices had rapidly gone up. Our own generation is not the first to complain of the "high cost of living." The destruction of the small farmers was perhaps the chief cause among a whole group of causes which brought about the decline and fall of this great Empire. 272. Decline of Business. At the same time the business in the cities was also falling off. The country communities no longer possessed a numerous purchasing population. Hence the city manufacturers could not dispose of their products in the coun- try. Their business rapidly declined, and they discharged their workmen, who began to increase the masses of the unemployed. The cities became filled with shiftless people scrambling for a place in the waiting lines of the poor to whom the government distributed free grain, wine, and meat. In order to pay for this the taxes had constantly to be raised, and the methods of collect- ing them became harsher and harsher. Marriages decreased, and the population of the Empire shrank. 273. Lack of a Law of Succession : Barrack Emperors. The discipline in the Roman armies relaxed. There was no law deter- mining the succession of the emperors, and the various divisions of the army learned that they could set up emperors to suit them- selves. Rude and barbarous soldiers, few of whom were citizens, thus became the chief controlling power. There were often sev- eral of these barrack candidates for the throne fighting among themselves. At last (a.d. 212) citizenship was granted to all free men within the Empire, and the various provinces felt A Century oj Disorder 173 that they had as much right as Italy to determine who should be ruler. All this caused infinite confusion and disorder. 274. Marcus Aurelius (a.d. 161-180). There was also the grow- ing danger of foreign invaders who threatened the Empire. The Restoration of Roman Triumphal Arch at Orange, France The Romans built many such handsome arches to commemorate important victories. There were a number at Rome, naturally; of those built in the chief cities of the Empire several still remain. The one pictured above was built at the Roman colony of Arausio (now called Orange), on the river Rhone, to celebrate a victory over the Gauls, a.d. 21. Modern cities have erected similar arches; for example, Paris, Berlin, London, and New York » noble emperor Marcus Aurelius had to face a serious situation dur- ing his reign. He had to repel the troublesome Parthians, who had long infested the eastern boundary. Then barbarian hordes from the German North broke through the frontier defenses and for 174 General History of Europe the first time in two centuries poured down into Italy. He was unable to expel them entirely from the Empire and finally per- mitted some of them to settle within its limits on condition that they should help defend it from their fellow Germans. Marcus Aurelius was a Stoic and found time during his cam- paigns to write a little book in Greek called his Meditations, which we may still read with great pleasure and profit. II. A Century of Revolution 275. Beginning of a Century of Revolution (a.d. iso). The forces of decline were swiftly bringing on a century of revolution which was to shipwreck the civilization of the early world. This fatal period began with the death of Marcus Aurelius (a.d. 180). The assassination of his unworthy son Commodus, who reminds us of Nero, was the opportunity for a struggle among a group of military usurpers. From this struggle a rough but successful soldier named Septimius Severus emerged triumphant. He sys- tematically filled the highest posts in the government with military leaders of low origin. Thus, both in the army and in the govern- ment, the ignorant and often foreign masses were gaining control. When the line of Severus ended (a.d. 235), the storm broke. The barbaric troops in one province after another set up their puppet emperors to fight among themselves for the throne of the Mediterranean world. The proclamation of a new emperor would be followed again and again by news of his assassination. From the leaders of the barbaric soldier class, after the death of Commodus, the Roman Empire had eighty rulers in ninety years. Most of these so-called emperors were not unlike the revolutionary bandits who have proclaimed themselves presidents of Mexico. 276. Fifty Years of Anarchy ; Collapse of Higher Civiliza- tion. For fifty years there was no public order, as the plunder- ing troops tossed the scepter of Rome from one soldier emperor to another. Life and property were nowhere safe ; robbery and murder were everywhere. The disorder and fighting between rival emperors hastened the ruin of all business, till national bankruptcy A Century of Disorder 175 ensued. In this tempest of anarchy during the third century of our era the civilization of the ancient world fell into final ruin. The leadership of intelligence and of scientific knowledge won by the Greeks in the third century b.c. yielded to the reign of igno- rance and superstition in these disasters of the third century of the Christian Era. Such turmoil sadly weakened the Roman army. The Northern barbarians were quick to perceive the helplessness of the Empire. They crossed the frontiers almost at will and penetrated far into Greece and Italy ; in the West they overran Gaul and Spain, and some of them even crossed to Africa. Moreover, on Rome's eastern boundary the Parthians were overthrown (a.d. 226) by a new and enlightened Persian dynasty, the Sassanids, who took possession of the Fertile Crescent and made Persia a dangerous rival of Rome. Their capital was Ctesi- phon on the Tigris. III. The Roman Empire becomes an Oriental Despotism 277. Reign of Diocletian (a.d. 284-305); Oriental Pomp. A little more than a century after the death of Marcus Aurelius, the emperor Diocletian managed to restore what promised to be a lasting peace (a.d. 284). The Roman world under Diocletian was a totally different one from that which Augustus and the Roman Senate had ruled three centuries before. Diocletian de- prived the shadowy Senate of all power except that of governing the city of Rome. Reduced to a mere City Council, it then dis- appeared from the stage of history. With the unlimited power of an oriental despot the emperor now assumed also its outward symbols,— the diadem, the gorgeous robe embroidered with pearls and precious stones, the throne and footstool, before which all who came into his presence must bow down to the dust. This pomp offered a great contrast to the earlier simplicity of Roman rulers. Long regarded as a divinity, the emperor had now become an oriental sun-god, and he was officially called the "Invincible Sun." 176 General History of Europe His birthday was on the twenty-fifth of December. All were obliged as good citizens to join in the official sacrifices to the head of the State as a god. With the incoming of this oriental attitude toward the emperor, the long struggle for democracy, which we have followed through so many centuries of the history of early man, ended for a time in the triumph of absolute monarchy in the form of an oriental despotism. 278. Crushing Weight of Taxation. The wars that Diocletian had to wage with the new Persia under the Sassanids kept him busy in the East, and he resided most of his time not in Rome but in Nicomedia in Asia Minor. Following some earlier exam- ples, Diocletian appointed another emperor to rule jointly with him and give especial attention to the West. It was not his intention to divide the Empire, but there was a tendency from this time on for the eastern and western portions of the Roman Empire to drift apart. There were over a hundred provinces, and the financial burden necessary to support all the innumerable officials high and low, to keep up the luxurious court of the emperor with its multitude of courtiers, and to satisfy the clamors of the army demanded a con- stant increase of taxes. It was now customary to oblige a group of wealthy men in each city to become personally responsible for the payment of the entire taxes of their district. If there was a deficit they had to make it up. As one goes over the laws of the time it seems as if a great part of them had to do directly or indirectly with wringing more and more money out of the taxpayers. 279. Disappearance of Liberty and Free Citizenship. The penalty for wealth seemed to be ruin, and there was little encour- agement to keep on in business. As Rome had formerly lost her prosperous farming class, so now she seemed to be losing her en- terprising and successful business men. Diocletian met this by forbidding men to give up their business or trade, and laws were passed requiring sons to follow the profession or trade of their fathers. Even wages and the prices of goods were as far as pos- sible fixed by the State. A Century of Disorder 177 So the once free Roman citizen had almost no independent life of his own. He was watched by government officials and spies who saw to it that the grain dealers, butchers, and bakers supplied the public and never deserted their occupation. In a word, the Roman government attempted to regulate almost every interest of life, and wherever the citizen turned he felt the irksome inter- ference and oppression of the State. IV. The Triumph of Christianity and Division of the Empire 280. Constantine (a. d. 324-337). Constantine was the first important Christian emperor, and all his successors were Chris- tians in name (except one, Julian, called by Christians "the Apostate"). A series of struggles had followed Diocletian's death, and from these Constantine the Great emerged victoriously as emperor. The Balkan Peninsula had now become even more important than Italy. It had flourishing towns and furnished many of the troops, and more than one emperor, including Dio- cletian, came from that region. Constantine determined to estab- lish a new Rome on its eastern borders and selected for his site the old Greek town of Byzantium on the Bosporus. Constan- tinople, named after its founder, stood just between Europe and Asia and was well situated to command them both. The emperor stripped many an ancient town of its works of art to adorn his new capital, and before his death it had become a magnificent city, worthy to be the successor of Rome as the seat of the Empire. 281. Division of the Empire. The founding of a second capi- tal in the East tended to bring about a separation of the eastern and western portions of the Empire. When after Constantine's time there were two emperors, as there often were, one was likely to make his quarters in Italy, the other at Constantinople. But the Empire was always regarded as one, and no decree was ever issued dividing it into two parts. The ancient res publica, or Roman commonwealth, was never given up in theory. i 7 8 General History of Europe 282. Christianity placed on a Legal Basis. The Roman gov- ernment had often persecuted the Christians, and it was against the law to hold Christian services. Finally, in the time of Dio- cletian, his associate Galerius had issued a decree which permitted Ancient Monuments in Constantinople The obelisk in the foreground (nearly one hundred feet high) was first set up in Thebes, Egypt, by the conqueror Thutmose III (§ 30) ; it was erected here by the Roman emperor Theodosius. The small spiral column at the right is the base of a bronze tripod set up by the Greeks at Delphi in commemoration of their victory over the Persians at Plataea (§ 11 1). The names of thirty-one Greek cities which took part in the battle are still to be read, engraved on this base. These monuments of ancient oriental and Greek supremacy stand in what was the Roman horse-race course when the earlier Greek city of Byzantium became the Eastern capital of Rome. Finally, the great mosque behind the obelisk, with its slender minarets, rep- resents the triumph of Islam under the Turks, who took the city a.d. 1453 the Christians openly to confess their faith and establish their places of worship. The followers of Christ were put on the same footing as the worshipers of the old gods. There were a great many Christians now, and in spite of the persecutions their churches had become powerful organizations. Constantine and A Century of Disorder 179 his Christian successors favored the Christians and began to abolish all other religions. Before long the Christians began to persecute those who refused to accept their doctrines. The Christian Church became more and more powerful and in time rivaled the State in its influence. The officers of the Church came to be looked upon as occupying a distinguished position and were called clergy, while the members of the Church were called the laity. Those in charge of the smaller country congregations were called presbyters, sl Greek word (meaning "elder") from which our word "priest" is derived. Over all the churches in each city a leading priest was appointed as bishop. In the larger cities arch- bishops, or head bishops, were appointed. They had a certain measure of authority over the bishops in the surrounding cities of the province. Thus Christianity, once the faith of the weak and the despised, became a powerful organization, and the Church began to play a great part in public affairs. 283. Summary of Ancient History. The stone fist-hatchets lie deep in the river gravels of France; the furniture of the pile- villages is submerged in the Swiss lakes ; the majestic pyramids and temples announcing the dawn of civilization rise along the Nile ; the silent and deserted city-mounds by the Tigris and Euphrates shelter their myriads of clay tablets ; the palaces of Crete look out toward the sea they once ruled ; the noble temples and sculptures of Greece still bear witness to the world of beauty and freedom first revealed by the Greeks ; the splendid Roman roads and aqueducts assert the supremacy and organized control of Rome ; and the early Christian churches proclaim the new ideal of human brotherhood. We shall now see in the succeeding chapters how the ancient civilization transmitted from the Orient through Greece to Rome was never wholly lost, in spite of the dark times of disorder through which Europe passed, and how it is this ancient civili- zation on which we are still building today. 180 General History of Europe QUESTIONS I. What were the chief signs of decline in the Roman Empire? What was the position of the farming population? What caused the decline in business ? Why did disorders occur in the election of em- perors ? What is chiefly remarkable about Marcus Aurelius ? II. Compare the third century b.c. with the third century of the Christian Era. III. Sketch the policy of Diocletian. Why were the taxes so heavy in the later Roman Empire ? Why did liberty and free citizenship tend to disappear ? IV. What were the chief measures of Constantine? How was Christianity legalized? Describe the Church at that time. Give a summary of ancient history. BOOK IV. THE MIDDLE AGES CHAPTER XV THE PERIOD OF INVASIONS AND THE WORK OF THE CHRISTIAN CHURCH I. Invasion of the Empire by Barbarians 284. The Menace of the Barbarians. We must now describe the way in which the western portions of the Roman Empire were invaded by barbarous peoples from the North, who broke up the old Roman government and established in its stead kingdoms under their own rulers. These Germans, or "barbarians" as the Romans called them, belonged to the same great group of peoples to which the Persians, Greeks, and Romans belonged — the Indo- European race (§§ 50, 51). They had not advanced much in civil- ization since the Late Stone Age and were a constant menace to the highly civilized countries on the Mediterranean to the south of them. It will be recalled that the barbarians had raided the Empire from time to time. In the reign of Diocletian they were beginning to form permanent settlements within its borders (§ 276). 285. The German Peoples. The Germans were a fair-haired, blue-eyed race of men of towering stature and terrible strength, as it seemed to the Romans. Hardened to wind and weather in their raw Northern climate, their native fearlessness and love of war and plunder often led them to wander about, followed by their wives and families in heavy wagons. Each village group was protected by its body of about a hundred warriors, the heads of the village families. In spite of lack of training, these fighting groups of a hundred men, bound by ties of blood and daily 181 1 82 General History of Europe association, formed battle units as terrible as any ever seen in the ancient world, and the Romans had good reason to dread them. 286. Whole German Peoples settle in the Empire. The care- fully disciplined Roman legions, which had gained for Rome the leadership of the world, were now no more. Indeed, the lack of men for the army had long since led the emperors to hire the Germans as soldiers. A more serious step was the admission of entire German peoples to live in the Empire, with all their old customs. The men were then received into the Roman army, but they remained under their own German leaders and fought in their old village units. 287. The Huns force the Goths into the Empire. About the year 375 the Huns, a Mongolian folk from central Asia, swept down upon the Goths, who were a German tribe settled upon the Danube, and forced a part of them to seek shelter across the river, within the limits of the Empire. Here they soon fell out with the Roman officials, and a great battle was fought at Adrian- ople in 378, in which the Goths defeated and slew the Roman emperor Valens. The battle of Adrianople may be said to mark the beginning of the conquest of the Empire by the Germans. For some years after the battle of Adrianople, however, the vari- ous bands of West Goths — or Visigoths, as they are often called — were induced to accept the terms of peace offered by the emperor's officials, and some of the Goths agreed to serve as soldiers in the Roman armies. 288. Alaric takes Rome (410). Among the Germans who suc- ceeded in getting an important position in the Roman army was Alaric, but he appears to have become dissatisfied with the treat- ment he received from the emperor. He therefore collected an army, of which his countrymen the West Goths formed a con- siderable part, set out for Italy, and finally decided to march on Rome itself. The Eternal City fell into his hands in 410 and was plundered by his followers. Although Alaric did not de- stroy the city, or even seriously damage it, the fact that Rome had fallen into the hands of an invading army was a notable disaster. The Period of Invasions 183 289. West Goths settle in Southern Gaul and Spain; the Vandals. After the death of Alaric the West Goths wandered into Gaul and then into Spain, where they came upon the Vandals, another German tribe, whom they seem to have finally driven across the Strait of Gibraltar into northern Africa. Here the Vandals established a kingdom and conquered the neighboring islands in the Mediterranean. Having rid themselves of the Vandals, the West Goths took possession of a great part of the Spanish peninsula, and this they added to their conquests across the Pyrenees in Gaul, so that their kingdom extended from the river Loire to the Strait of Gibraltar. It is unnecessary to follow the confused history of the move- ments of the innumerable bands of restless barbarians who wan- dered about Europe during the fifth century. Scarcely any part of western Europe was left unmolested ; even Britain was con- quered by German tribes, the Angles and Saxons. 290. Attila and the Huns. To add to the universal confusion, the Huns (the Mongolian people who had first pushed the West Goths into the Empire) now began to fill Europe with terror. Under their chief, Attila, this savage people invaded Gaul, but were repulsed in the battle of Chalons, in 451. Attila then turned to Italy ; but the danger there was averted by an embassy headed by Pope Leo the Great, who induced Attila to give up his plan of marching upon Rome. Within a year he died, and his warriors were scattered. 291. The Fall of the Empire in the West (476). The year 476 has commonly been taken as the date of the "fall" of the Western Empire and of the beginning of the Middle Ages. What happened in that year was this. Most of the Roman emperors in the West had proved weak and indolent rulers ; so the bar- barians wandered hither and thither pretty much at their pleasure, and the German troops in the service of the Empire became accus- tomed to set up and depose emperors to suit their own special interest. Finally, in 476, Odoacer, the most powerful among the rival German generals in Italy, declared himself king and ban- ished the last of the emperors of the West. 1 84 General History of Europe 292. Theodoric establishes the Kingdom of the East Goths in Italy. It was not, however, given to Odoacer to establish an enduring German kingdom on Italian soil, for he was conquered ^a>^c#^ < Roman Gate at Treves Colonia Augusta Trevirorum (now called Trier or Treves) was one of the chief Roman colonies on the German boundaries of the Empire. The Roman emperors often resided there, and the remains of their palace are still to be seen. The great gate here represented was designed to protect the entrance of the town, which was surrounded with a wall, for the Romans were in constant danger of attack from the neighboring German tribes. One can also see at Treves the remains of a vast amphitheater in which on two occasions Constantine had several thousand German prisoners cast to be killed by- wild animals for the amusement of the spectators by the great Theodoric, the king of the East Goths (or Ostro- goths). Theodoric had spent ten years of his early youth in Constantinople and had thus become familiar with Roman life and was on friendly terms with the emperor of the East. He greatly admired the Roman laws and institutions, and when he SCALE OF MILES 5 ' 100 200 300 400 v Longitude Map of Europe in the Time of Theodoric It will be noticed that Theodoric's kingdom of the East Goths included a considerable part of what we call Austria today, and that the West Gothic kingdom extended into southern France. The Vandals held northern Africa and the adjacent islands. The Burgundians lay in between the East Goths and the Franks. The Lombards, who were later to move down into Italy, were in Theodoric's time east of the Bavarians, after whom modern Bavaria is named. Some of the Saxons invaded England, but many remained in Germany, as indicated on the map. The Eastern Empire, which was all that remained of the Roman Empire, included the Balkan Peninsula, Asia Minor, and the eastern portion of the Mediterranean. The Britons in Wales, the Picts in Scotland, and the Scots in Ireland were Celts ; consequently modern Welsh, Gaelic, and Irish are closely related and all of them belong to the Celtic group of languages 1 86 General History of Europe became king he did his best to preserve them. The old offices and titles were retained, and Goth and Roman lived under the same Roman law. Order was maintained and learning encouraged. In Ravenna, which Theodoric chose for his capital, beautiful build- ings still exist that date from his reign. 293. Code of Justinian. The year after Theodoric's death one of the greatest emperors of the East, Justinian (527-565), came to the throne at Constantinople. He employed a very able lawyer to gather together all the numerous laws which had grown up since the age of the Twelve Tables (§188) a thousand years before. This collection of decisions of famous Roman judges became the foundation of law for later ages, and still greatly influences the laws of civilized peoples of today. Justinian undertook to regain for his empire the provinces in Africa and Italy that had been occupied by the Vandals and East Goths. He overthrew the Vandal kingdom in northern Africa in 534, and so completely defeated the Goths in 553 that they agreed to leave Italy with all their movable possessions. 294. The Lombards occupy Italy. Immediately after the death of Justinian the country was overrun by the Lombards, the last of the great German peoples to establish themselves within the bounds of the former Empire. The newcomers first occupied the region north of the Po, which has ever since been called "Lombardy" after them, and then extended their conquests southward. They were unable, however, to gain possession of all of- Italy. Rome, Ravenna, and southern Italy continued to be held by the emperors at Constantinople. Their kingdom lasted over two hundred years, until it was conquered by Charlemagne. 295. The Franks and their Conquests. While Theodoric had been establishing his kingdom in Italy, Gaul, which we now call France, was coming under the control of the most powerful of all the barbarian peoples, the Franks. (The map on the previous page will give an idea of the new German kingdoms in Theodoric's time.) The various kingdoms established by the German chieftains were not very permanent, as we have seen. The Franks, however, succeeded in conquering more territory than any other people The Period of Invasions 187 Km. of the ^ e * The Dominions of the Franks under the Merovingians This map shows how the Frankish kingdom grew up. Clovis, while still a young man, defeated the Roman general Syagrius in 486, near Soissons, and so added the region around Paris to his possessions. He added Alemannia on the east in 496. In 507 he made Paris his capital and conquered Aqui- tania, previously held by the West Goths. He also made a beginning in adding the kingdom of the Burgundians to his realms. He died in 511. His successors in the next half century completed the conquest of Burgundy and added Provincia, Bavaria, and Gascony. There were many divisions of the Frankish realms after the time of Clovis, and the eastern and western portions, called Austrasia and Neustria, were often ruled by different branches of the Merovingians, as Clovis's family was called from his ancestor Meroveus, the supposed founder of his line and in founding an empire far more important than the kingdoms of the West and East Goths, the Vandals, or the Lombards. When the Franks are first heard of in history they were settled along the lower Rhine, from Cologne to the North Sea. In the early part of the fifth century they had occupied the district which forms today the kingdom of Belgium, as well as the regions 1 88 General History of Europe east of it. In 486 they went forth under their great king Clovis (a name that later grew into Louis) and defeated the Roman general who opposed them. They extended their control over Gaul as far south as the Loire, which at that time formed the northern boundary of the kingdom of the West Goths. Clovis next enlarged his empire on the east by the conquest of the Ale- manni, a German people living in the region of the Black Forest and north of the Lake of Constance. 296. Conversion of Clovis (496). The battle in which the Alemanni were defeated (496) is in one respect important above all the other battles of Clovis. Although still a pagan himself, his wife had been converted to Christianity. In the midst of the battle, seeing his troops giving way, he called upon Jesus Christ and pledged himself to be baptized in his name if he would help the Franks to victory over their enemies. When he won the battle he kept his word and was baptized, together with three thousand of his warriors. Clovis died in 511 at Paris, which he had made his residence. He and his successors, in spite of constant wars between rival sons, succeeded in extending the power of the Frankish rulers over pretty much all the territory that is included today in France, Belgium, Holland, and western Germany (see map on preceding page). II. Results of the Barbarian Invasions 297. Fusion of the Barbarians and the Romans. As one looks back over the German invasions it is natural to ask upon what terms the newcomers lived among the old inhabitants of the Empire. The civilization in which the barbarians now found themselves gradually softened their Northern wildness. Their leaders, who held offices under the Roman government, came to have friends among highborn Romans and often married Roman women of rank. We must be on our guard against exaggerating the numbers in the various bodies of invaders. The readiness with which the Germans appear to have adopted the language and The Period of Invasions 189 customs of the Romans would tend to prove that the invaders formed but a small minority of the population. Since hundreds of thousands of barbarians had been absorbed -during the previous five centuries, the invasions of the fifth century can hardly have made an abrupt change in the character of the population. Indeed, the Germans and older inhabitants of the Empire ap- pear to have had no dislike for one another except in matters of religion. The Frankish kings often appointed Romans to impor- tant positions, just as the Romans had previously selected the Germans. The two races were distinguished in one respect, how- ever ; each had its own particular law. 298. Laws of the Barbarians. The West Goths were probably the first to write down their ancient laws, using the Latin lan- guage for the purpose. Their example was followed by the Franks, the Burgundians, and later by the Lombards. These codes make up the "Laws of the Barbarians," which form our most important source of knowledge of the habits and ideas of the Germans at the time of the invasions. 299. Medieval Trials. The German laws did not provide for trials in the modern sense of the word. Instead of a decision based on evidence, one of the parties to the case had to prove that his side was right by one of the following methods : 1. He might solemnly swear that he was telling the truth, and get as many other persons of his own class as the court required to swear that they believed that he was telling the truth. This was called compurgation. It was believed that God would punish those who swore falsely. 2 . On the other hand, the parties to the case, or persons repre- senting them, might meet in combat, on the supposition that Heaven would grant victory to the right. This was the so-called wager of battle. 3. Lastly, one or other of the parties might be required to sub- mit to the ordeal in one of its various forms : He might plunge his arm into hot water or carry a bit of hot iron for some distance, and if at the end of three days he showed no ill effects the case was decided in his favor. Or he might be ordered to walk over 190 General History of Europe hot plowshares, arid if he was not burned it was assumed that God had intervened by a miracle to establish the right. This method of trial is but one example of the rude civilization which displaced the refined and elaborate organization of the Romans. 300. Ignorance of the Early Middle Ages. While the bar- barian tribes differed in their habits and character, they all agreed in knowing nothing of the art, literature, and science which had been developed by the Greeks and adopted by the Romans. For a period of three hundred years scarcely a person was to be found who could write out, even in the worst Latin, an account of the events of his day. Everything conspired to discourage education. The great centers of learning — Carthage, Rome, Alexandria, Milan — had all been partially destroyed by the invaders. The libraries which had been kept in the temples of the pagan gods were often burned, along with the temples themselves, by Chris- tian enthusiasts, who were not sorry to see the heathen books disappear with the heathen religion. 301. Most Medieval Notions to be found in the Late Roman Empire. It would be a great mistake to suppose, however, that Roman civilization suddenly disappeared at this time as a result of the incoming barbarians. Many of the ideas and conditions which prevailed after the invasions were common enough before. Even the ignorance and strange ideas which we associate particu- larly with the Middle Ages are to be found in the later Roman Empire. Long before the German conquest art and literature had begun to decline toward the level that they reached in the early Middle Ages. The term "Middle Ages" is generally applied to the period of about a thousand years which elapsed between the break-up of the Roman Empire and the opening of the sixteenth century. But it should be remembered that there was a great difference between the dark period of the early Middle Ages and the re- markable achievements of the late Middle Ages which will be described in due time. The Period of Invasions 191 III. The Mohammedan Invasion of Europe 302. Mohammed. While the German barbarians were over- whelming the Empire from the north, a young camel driver in far-away Mecca was devising a religion in the name of which his followers invaded the eastern and southern portions of Europe. Before the time of Mohammed, the Arabs (a branch of the great Semitic people) had played no great part in the world's history. The scattered tribes were constantly at war with one another, and each tribe worshiped its own gods, when it wor- shiped at all. Mecca was considered a sacred spot, however, and the fighting was stopped four months each year so that all could peacefully visit the holy city. As Mohammed traveled back and forth across the desert with his trains of camels heavily laden with merchandise he became convinced that God was sending him messages which it was his duty to reveal to mankind. He met many Jews and Christians, of whom there were great numbers in Arabia, and from them he got some ideas of the Old and New Testaments. But when he tried to convince people that he was God's prophet, he was treated with scorn. Finally, he discovered that his enemies in Mecca were plan- ning to kill him, and he fled to the neighboring town of Medina, where he had friends. His flight, which took place in the year 622, is called the Hejira by the Arabs. It was taken by his fol- lowers as the beginning of a new era — the year One, as the Mohammedans reckon time. 303. Islam and the Koran. It was eight years before his fol- lowers became numerous enough to enable him to march upon .Mecca and take it with a victorious army. Before his death in 632 he had gained the support of all the Arab chiefs, and his new religion, which he called Islam (meaning "reconciliation," by which he meant reconciliation to Allah, the sole God), was ac- cepted throughout the whole Arabian peninsula. The new be- lievers he called Muslims (Moslems), meaning "the reconciled." By us they are often called Mohammedans, after their prophet. 192 General History of Europe Mohammed could probably neither write nor read well, but when he fell into trances from time to time he would repeat to his eager listeners the words which he heard from heaven, and they in turn wrote them down. These sayings, which were collected into a volume shortly after his death, form the Koran, the Mohamme- dan Bible. The Koran announces a day of judgment when the heavens shall be opened and the mountains be powdered and become like flying dust. Then all men shall receive their reward. Those who have refused to accept Islam shall be banished to hell to be burned and tor- mented forever. Those, on the other hand, who have obeyed the Koran, especially those who die fighting for Islam, shall find themselves in a garden of delight. They shall recline in rich brocades upon soft cushions and rugs and be served by surpassingly beau- tiful maidens, with eyes like hidden pearls. Wine may be drunk there, but "their heads shall not ache with it, neither shall they be confused." They shall be content with their past life and shall hear no foolish words ; and there shall be no sin, but only the greeting " Peace, peace." 304. Mosques. The mosques, or temples, are often very beauti- ful buildings, especially in important Mohammedan cities such as Arabic Writing This is a page from the Koran, with an elaborate decorated border. It gives an idea of the appearance of Arabic writing. The Arabic letters are, next to the Roman alphabet, which we use, the most widely employed in the world Q w H <; u M Q o W w W H H O en W ..J CO i*-* w w W P S3 « en H CQ W p o V < a A Crusader and his Followers See Chapter XIX, pp. 237-247 The Period of Invasions 193 Jerusalem, Damascus, and Cairo. They have great courts sur- rounded by covered colonnades and are adorned with beautiful marbles and mosaics and delightful windows with bright stained glass. The walls are decorated with passages from the Koran, and the floors are covered with rich rugs. They have one or more minarets, from which the call to prayer is heard five times a day. 305. Rise of the Oriental Empire of the Moslems. The Moslem leaders who succeeded to Mohammed's power were called caliphs. As rulers they proved to be men of the greatest ability. They organized the untamed desert nomads, who now added a burning religious zeal to the wild courage of barbarian Arabs. This combination made the Arab armies of the caliphs irresistible. Within a few years after Mohammed's death they took Egypt and Syria from the feeble successors of Justinian at Constan- tinople. They thus reduced the Eastern Empire to little more than the Balkan Peninsula and Asia Minor. At the same time the Arabs crushed the empire of the New Persians (§ 276), but took over their city civilization. With the ruins of Babylon looking down upon them the Mos- lems built their splendid capital at Bagdad beside the New Per- sian royal residence at Ctesiphon. Here> as Sargon's people and as the Persians had so long before done, the Arabs learned to read and write and could thus put the Koran into writing. Here, too, they learned the business of government and became experienced rulers. Thus beside the shapeless mounds of the older capitals — Akkad, Babylon, and Ctesiphon — the power and civilization of the Orient rose into new life for the last time. Bagdad became the finest city of the East and one of the most splendid in the world. The caliphs extended their power eastward to the frontiers of India. 306. The Moslem Advance to the West ; the Battle of Tours. Westward the Moslems pushed along the African coast of the Mediterranean, as their Phoenician kindred had done before them (§83). Only two generations after the death of Moham- med the Arabs crossed over from Africa into Spain (a.d. 711) ; then they moved on into France and threatened to girdle the entire 194 General History of Europe Mediterranean. At the battle of Tours (a.d. 732), however, the Moslems were unable to crush the Frankish army under their leader, Charles the Hammer. They withdrew permanently from France into Spain, where they established a western Moslem kingdom, which we call Moorish. 307. Leadership of Moslem Civilization. The Moorish king- dom developed a civilization far higher than that of the Franks, and, indeed, the highest in the Europe of that age. Thus while Europe was sinking into the ignorance of the early Middle Ages the Moslems were the leading students of science, astronomy, mathe- matics, and grammar. There was soon much greater knowledge of these matters among the Mohammedans than in Christian Europe. Such Arabic words as algebra and our numerals, which we received from the Arabs, suggest how much we owe to them. Some of the buildings which they erected soon after their arrival still stand. Among these is the mosque at Cordova with its forest of columns and arches. They also erected a great tower at Seville, famous for its beauty. This has been copied by the architects of Madison Square Garden in New York. The Moham- medans built beautiful palaces and laid out charming gardens. One of these palaces, the Alhambra, built at Granada some cen- turies after their arrival in Spain, is a marvel of lovely detail (see cut facing this page). They also founded a great university at Cordova, to which Christians from the North sometimes went in search of knowledge. Had the Mohammedans been permitted to settle in southern France, they might have developed science and art far more rapidly than did the Franks. IV. The Work of the Christian Church 308. The Church begins to perform the Functions of Gov- ernment. The chief importance of the medieval Church for the student of history does not lie in its religious functions, vital as they were, but rather in its remarkable relations to the govern- ment. From the days of Constantine on, the Catholic Church had usually enjoyed the hearty support of the government. As The Period of Invasions 195 long as the emperors remained strong and active there was no reason for the clergy to assume any responsibility in the manage- ment of the State. But as the great Empire fell apart the Church was often called upon to assist in matters which properly belonged to the government. The authority of the various barbarian kings was seldom suffi- cient to keep their realms in order. There were always many powerful landholders scattered throughout the kingdom who did pretty much what they pleased and settled their grudges against their fellows by neighborhood wars. Fighting was the main busi- ness as well as the chief amusement of this class. The king was unable to maintain peace and protect the oppressed, however anxious he may have been to do so. Under these circumstances it naturally fell to the Church to keep order, when it could, by either threats or persuasion; to see that contracts were kept, the wills of the dead carried out, and marriage obligations observed. It took the defenseless widow and orphan under its protection and dispensed charity ; it pro- moted education at a time when few laymen, however rich and noble, could even read. These conditions serve to explain why the Church was finally able so greatly to extend the powers which it had enjoyed under the Roman Empire, and why it under- took duties which seem to us to belong to the State rather than to a religious .organization. 309. Origin of Papal Power. We must now turn to a con- sideration of the origin and growth of the supremacy of the popes, who, by raising themselves to the head -of the Western Church, became in many respects more powerful than any of the kings and princes with whom they frequently found themselves in bitter conflict. There had always been a tradition that Peter was the first bishop of Rome. The belief appears to have been gen- erally accepted at least as early as the middle of the second cen- tury. Peter enjoyed a preeminence among the other apostles and was singled out by Christ upon several occasions. In a pas- sage of the New Testament (Matt, xvi, 18-19), which has affected history more profoundly than the edicts of the most powerful 196 General History of Europe monarch, Christ says: "And I say also unto thee, That thou art Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church ; and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven : and whatsoever thou shalt bind on earth shall be bound in heaven ; and whatsoever The Ancient Basilica of St. Peter Of the churches built by Constantine in Rome that in honor of St. Peter was, next to the Lateran, the most important. It was constructed on the site of Nero's circus, where St. Peter was believed to have been crucified. It retained its original appearance, as here represented, for twelve hundred years, and then the popes (who had given up the Lateran as their residence and come to live in the Vatican Palace close to St. Peter's) determined to build the new and grander church one sees today. Constantine and the popes made constant use in their buildings of columns and stones taken from the older Roman buildings, which were in this way demolished thou shalt loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven." This the popes have always claimed as the divine sanction of their office and of the authority which they believed to be theirs. 310. The Roman Church the Mother Church. The Roman Church was therefore early looked upon as the "Mother Church" in the West. Its doctrines were considered the purest, since they had been handed down from its exalted founders. When there The Period of Invasions 197 was a difference of opinion in regard to the truth of a particular teaching, it was natural that all should turn to the bishop of Rome for his view. Moreover, the majesty of Rome, the capital of the world, helped to exalt its bishop above his fellows. 311. Title of Pope. The name " pope " (Latin, papa, "father") was originally given to all bishops, and even to priests. It began to be especially applied to the bishops of Rome, perhaps, as early as the sixth century, but was not apparently confined to them until two or three hundred years later. Not long after the death of Leo the Great (§ 290), Odoacer put an end to the Western line of emperors. Then, as we know, Theodoric and his East Goths settled in Italy, only to be fol- lowed by still less desirable intruders, the Lombards. Dur- ing this tumultuous period the people of Rome, and even of all Italy, came to regard the Pope as their natural leader. The Eastern emperor was far away, and his officers, who managed to hold a portion of central Italy around Rome and Ravenna, were glad to accept the aid and counsel of the Pope. 312. Gregory the Great (590-604). The pontificate of Gregory the Great, one of the half dozen most distinguished heads that the Church has ever had, shows how great a part the papacy could play. Gregory was a statesman whose influence extended far and wide. It devolved upon him to govern the city of Rome, — as it did upon his successors down to the year 1870, — for the Eastern emperor's control had become merely nominal. He also valiantly defended central Italy from the Lombards. These duties were functions of the State, and in assuming them Gregory may be said to have founded the "temporal" power of the popes. 313. Gregory's Missionary Undertakings. Gregory's chief importance in the history of the papacy is due to the missionary enterprises he undertook, through which the great countries that were one day to be called England, France, and Germany were brought under the sway of the Roman Church and its head, the Pope. As Gregory had himself been a devoted monk, it was natural that he should rely chiefly upon the monks in his great work of 198 General History of Europe converting the heathen. Consequently, before considering his missionary achievements, we must glance at the origin and char- acter of the monks, who are so conspicuous throughout the Middle Ages. V. The Monks and their Missions 314. Importance of the Monks. It would be difficult to over- estimate the influence that the monks and other religious orders exercised for centuries in Europe. The proud annals of the Benedictines, Franciscans, Dominicans, and Jesuits contain many a distinguished name. Eminent philosophers, historians, artists, and poets may be found in their ranks. Among those who have made themselves famous are "The Venerable Bede," Boniface, Thomas Aquinas, Roger Bacon, Fra Angelico, Luther, Erasmus, Loyola ; all these, and many other leaders in various branches of human activity, were monks, or members of religious orders. 315. Monasticism appealed to Many Classes. The life in a monastery appealed to many different kinds of people. The mon- astery was the natural refuge not only of the religiously minded but of those of a studious or thoughtful disposition who disliked the career of a soldier and were disinclined to face the dangers and uncertainties of the times. It furnished, too, a refuge for the friendless, an asylum for the unfortunate, and sometimes food and shelter for the indolent, who would otherwise have had to earn their living. There were, therefore, many different motives which led people to enter monasteries. Kings and nobles, for the good of their souls, readily gave land upon which to found colonies of monks, and there were plenty of remote spots in the mountains and forests to invite those who wished to escape from the world and its temptations, its dangers, or its cares. 1 316. Rule of St. Benedict. Monastic communities first de- veloped on a large scale in Egypt in the fourth century. In the sixth century monasteries multiplied so rapidly in western Europe that it became necessary to establish definite rules for them. 1 Later, monasteries were sometimes built in towns or just outside the walls. The Period of Invasions 199 Accordingly St. Benedict drew up, about the year 526, a sort of constitution for the monastery of Monte Cassino, in southern Italy, of which he was the head. This "Rule of St. Benedict," as it is called, so well met the needs of the monastic life that it gradually became the "plan" according to which all the Western monks lived. Cloisters of Heiligenkreuz This picture of the cloister in the German monastery of Heiligenkreuz is chosen to show how the more ordinary monastery courts looked, with their pleasant, sunny gardens The Rule of St. Benedict is as important as any constitution that was ever drawn up for a state. It provided that the brethren should elect the head of the monastery — the abbot, as he was called. Along with frequent prayer and meditation the monks were to do the necessary cooking and washing for the monastery and raise the necessary vegetables and grain. They were also to read and teach. Those who were incapacitated for outdoor work were assigned lighter tasks, such as copying books. 317. The Monastic Vows. The monk had to take the three vows of obedience, poverty, and purity. He was to obey the abbot without question in all matters that did not involve his committing a sin. He pledged himself to perpetual and absolute 2 00 General History of Europe poverty ; he was not permitted to own anything whatsoever — not even a book or a pen. He was also required to pledge himself that he would never marry ; for not only was the single life con- sidered more holy than the married, but the monastic organiza- tion would have been impossible unless the monks remained single. Monastery of Val di Cristo This monastery in southern Spain has two cloisters, the main one lying to the left. The buildings were surrounded by vegetable gardens and an orchard which supplied the monks with food. We know that we are viewing the monastery from the west, for the church faces us 318. How the Monks contributed to Civilization. With the great loss of manuscripts due to the destruction of libraries and the general lack of interest in books, it was most essential that new copies should be made. Almost all the books written by tne Romans disappeared altogether during the Middle Ages, but from time to time a monk would copy out the poems of Virgil, Horace, or Ovid, or the speeches of Cicero. In this way some of the chief works of the Latin writers have continued to exist down to the present day. The Period of Invasions 201 The monks regarded good hard work as a great aid to salva- tion. They set the example of careful cultivation of the lands about their monasteries and in this way introduced better farming methods into the regions where they settled. They entertained travelers at a time when there were few or no inns and so in- creased the intercourse between the various parts of Europe. 319. Arrangement of a Monastery. The home which the monks constructed for themselves was called a monastery or abbey. The buildings were arranged around a court, called the cloister. On all four sides of this was a covered walk, which made it possible to reach all the buildings without exposing one's self to either the rain or the hot sun. On the north side of the cloister was the church, which always faced west. As time went on and certain groups of monks were given a great deal of property, they constructed very beautiful churches for their monasteries. Westminster Abbey, for instance, was originally the church of a monastery lying outside the city of London. On the west side of the cloister were storerooms for provisions ; on the south side was the "refectory," or dining room, and a sitting room ; and to the east of the cloister was the "dormitory," where the monks slept. The Benedictine Rule provided that the monks should so far as possible have everything for their support on their own land. So outside the group of buildings around the cloister would be found the garden, the orchard, the mill, a fishpond, and fields for raising grain. There were also a hospital for the sick and a guest house for pilgrims or poor people who happened to come along. 320. The Monks as Missionaries. The first great undertaking of the monks was the conversion of those German peoples who had not yet been won over to Christianity. In this they were successful and the strength of the Roman Catholic Church was greatly in- creased. The first people to engage the attention of the monks were the heathen German tribes who had conquered the once Christian Britain. 202 General History of Europe 321. Saxons and Angles conquer Britain. The islands which are now known as the kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland were at the opening of the Christian Era occupied by several Celtic peoples of whose customs and religion we know almost nothing. Julius Caesar commenced the conquest of the islands (55 b.c.) (§234). But the Romans never succeeded in establishing their power beyond the wall which they built from the Clyde to the Firth of Forth to keep out the wild tribes of the North. Even south of the wall the country was not completely Romanized, and the Celtic tongue has- actually survived down to the present day in Wales. At the opening of the fifth century the barbarian invasions forced Rome to withdraw its legions from Britain in order to protect its frontiers on the Continent. The island was thus left to be conquered gradually by the Germanic peoples, mainly Saxons and Angles, who came across the North Sea from the region south of Denmark. Almost all record of what went on dur- ing the two centuries following the departure of the Romans has disappeared. No one knows the fate of the original Celtic in- habitants of England. It was formerly supposed that they were all killed or driven to the mountain districts of Wales, but this seems unlikely. More probably they were gradually lost among the dominating Germans, with whom they merged into one people. The Saxon and Angle chieftains established small kingdoms, of which there were seven or eight in the time of Gregory the Great (§§ 312,313). 322. Conversion of Britain. Gregory, while still a simple monk, had been struck with the beauty of some Angles whom he saw one day in the slave market at Rome, and wished to go as a missionary to their people, but permission was refused him. When he became Pope he sent forty monks to England under the leader- ship of a prior named Augustine. The monks were kindly received by the king of Kent, who had a Christian wife, and were given an ancient church at Canterbury. Here they established a mon- astery, and from this center the conversion of the whole island was gradually accomplished. The archbishop of Canterbury has s&m&s&s^Sam 111 )-H s 43 cu £ 43 fcs 43 en £ > O o S3 43 5 "3 Sh o .2; S3 - 1 44 t/3 3 43 a CD 43 -4-J en 43 ^ 43 £ <+h -*- 1 3 °43 CD PQ C/3 £ < o u a) W O « 41 43 +-> C • r-t X3 ^ J3 ^ o T3 S3 3 •5 c "en O O CD 4-1 M S £ 3 en o -S T3 4= 43 S3 rt en -4-> o u en S5 S3 <-• -' en cu h O S cu 43 -»-> QJ 43 eu H en Monastery of St.-Germain-des-Pres, Paris This famous monastery, now in the midst of Paris, was formerly outside of the walls when the town was much smaller, and was fortified as shown in the picture, with a moat (C) and drawbridge (D) . One can see the abbey church (A), which still stands; the cloister (B) ; the refectory, or dining room (£) ; and the long dormitory (G) . It was common in the age of disorder to fortify monasteries and sometimes even churches, as nothing was so sacred as to protect it from the danger of attack The Period of Invasions 203 always maintained his early preeminence and down to this day is considered the chief prelate of the English church. 323. St. Boniface, the Apostle to the Germans. In 718 St. Boniface, an English monk, was sent by the Pope as a mis- sionary to the Germans. He succeeded in converting many of the more remote German tribes, who had still retained their old pagan beliefs. His energetic methods are illustrated by the story of how he cut down the sacred oak of the old German god Odin, at Fritzlar, in Hesse, and used the wood to build a chapel, around which a monastery soon grew up. QUESTIONS I. How did the Roman army come to include numbers of Germans ? Trace the migrations of the West Goths. Where did they finally estab- lish their kingdom? Describe the policy of Theodoric. What is the Justinian Code ? Who were the Franks ? How much of modern Europe was included in their kingdom? II. What are the "Laws of the Barbarians"? How did their trials differ from those we are familiar with today? What is meant by the Middle Ages ? Contrast the civilization of the Middle Ages with that of the Roman period. What were the chief reasons why the Empire could no , longer maintain itself? III. Give an account of Mohammed's life. What were the princi- pal features of the religion he founded? Compare the mosques with Christian churches. Compare the spread of Mohammedanism with that of Christianity. What countries were conquered by the Moham- medans ? Can you mention any contributions to civilization made by the Mohammedans ? IV. In what ways did the government aid the early Christian Church? How did the Church assist the government? In what ways do you think the churches assist the government today? How did the Bishop of Rome become the recognized head of the Church in the West ? V. What were the advantages of life in a monastery in the early Middle Ages ? What reasons existed then for this life which do not exist today? Describe a monastery and the life of the monks. What did the monks contribute to civilization? Describe some of their early missionary undertakings. CHAPTER XVI AGE OF DISORDER: FEUDALISM I. Conquests of Charlemagne 324. How Pippin became King of the Franks (752). We have seen how the kings of the Franks conquered a large territory, including western Germany and what is called France toda}'. As time went on, the king's chief minister, who was called the Mayor of the Palace, got almost all the power into his hands and really ruled in the place of the king. Charles the Hammer, who de- feated the Mohammedans at Tours in 732 (§306), was the Mayor of the Palace of the western Frankish king. His son, Pippin the Short, finally determined to do away altogether with the old line of kings and put himself in their place. Before tak- ing the -decisive step, however, he consulted the Pope, who gave his approval. Pippin was then anointed king by St. Boniface, the apostle to the Germans, of whom we have spoken, and received the blessing of the Pope. 1 325. Beginnings of Kingship by Divine Right. The kings of the German tribes had hitherto usually been successful warriors who held their office with the consent of the people, or at least of 1 The old line of kings which was displaced by Pippin is known as the Merovingian line. Pippin and his successors are called the Carolingian line. 204 Age of Disorder : Feudalism • 205 the nobles. Their election was not a matter that concerned the Church at all. But when, after asking the Pope's opinion, Pippin had the holy oil poured on his head, — in accordance with an ancient religious custom of the Jews, — he received the blessing and the approval of the Church. The Pope threatened with God's anger anyone who should attempt to supplant the consecrated family of Pippin. It thus became a religious duty to obey the king, for he was regarded by the Church as God's representative on earth. Here we have the beginning of the later theory of kings "by the grace of God," against whom it was a sin to revolt, however bad they might be. 326. Charlemagne (ca. 742-814). Charlemagne, 1 the famous son of Pippin, became king of all the Frankish realms in 771. He is the first historical personage among the German peoples of whom we have any satisfactory knowledge. Charlemagne was an educated man for his time and one who knew how to appreciate and encourage scholarship. While at dinner he had someone read to him ; he delighted especially in history. He tried to learn writing, which was an unusual accom- plishment at that time for any except churchmen, but began too late in life and got no farther than signing his name. He called learned men to his court and did much toward reestablishing a regular system of schools. The impression which his reign made upon men's minds con- tinued to grow even after his death. He became the hero of a whole series of romantic adventures which were as firmly believed for centuries as his real deeds. A study of Charlemagne's reign will make clear that he was truly a remarkable person, one of the greatest figures in the world's records and deservedly the hero of the Middle Ages. 327. Charlemagne's Idea of a Great Christian Empire. It was Charlemagne's ideal to bring all the German peoples together 1 " Charlemagne " is the French form for the Latin Carolus Magnus (Charles the Great). We must never forget, however, that Charlemagne was not French ; he spoke a German language, namely Frankish, and his favorite palaces at Aix-la-Chapelle, Ingel- heim, and Nimwegen were in German regions. 206 . General History of Europe into one great Christian empire. He turned his attention there- fore to the Saxons, who lay to the northeast of his realm and were a constant source of alarm. The Saxons were as yet pagans and lived under much the same institutions as Tacitus had described seven centuries earlier. They had no towns or roads and were consequently difficult to conquer, for they could easily retreat into the forests or swamps when they found them- selves in danger. Charlemagne never undertook during his long military career any other task half so serious as subjugating the Saxons, which occupied many years. He believed the Christian- izing of these people so important a part of his duty that heavy penalties were imposed on anyone who made vows in the pagan fashion at trees or springs, who partook of their religious feasts, or who failed to present infants for baptism before they were a year old. 328. Charlemagne's Foreign Conquests. In 773 Charlemagne invaded Lombardy to protect the Pope from his enemies, took Pavia, the capital, and had himself recognized as king of the Lombards. In extending his empire Charlemagne had other peoples to deal with besides the Germans, namely the Slavs on the east (who were one day to build up the kingdoms of Poland and Bohemia and the vast Russian Empire) and the Mohammedan Moors in Spain. A single campaign in 789 seems to have been sufficient to sub- due the Slavs and force the Bohemians to acknowledge the Frank- ish king and to pay tribute to him. At the request of an embassy from certain dissatisfied Mohammedans, Charlemagne entered Spain and, after some years, conquered the region north of the Ebro. In this way Charlemagne began that gradual expulsion of the Mohammedans from the peninsula which was carried on until 1492, when Granada, the last Mohammedan stronghold, fell (§509). 329. Charlemagne crowned Emperor by the Pope. But the most famous of all the achievements of Charlemagne was his reestablishment of the Western Empire in the year 800. Charle- magne went to Rome in that year to settle a dispute between Age of Disorder: Feudalism 207 Pope Leo III and his enemies. To celebrate the satisfactory set- tlement of the difficulty the Pope held a solemn service on Christmas Day in St. Peter's, As Charlemagne was kneeling before the altar during this service the Pope approached him and set a crown upon his head, saluting him, amid the acclamations of those present, as "Emperor of the Romans." For inasmuch as Charlemagne held Rome itself in addition to his other pos- sessions in Italy, Gaul, and Germany, it seemed appropriate to all that he should assume this august title. 330. Continuity of the Roman Empire. The empire thus reestablished in the West was considered to be a continuation of the Roman Empire founded by Augustus. Yet it is hardly neces- sary to say that the position of the new emperor had little in common with that of Augustus or Constantine. In the first place, the Eastern emperors continued to reign in Constantinople for centuries, quite regardless of Charlemagne and his successors. In the second place, the German kings who wore the imperial crown after Charlemagne were generally too weak really to rule over Germany and northern Italy, to say nothing of the rest of western Europe. II. Causes of Disorder after Charlemagne 331. Division of Charlemagne's Empire. The task of govern- ing his vast dominions taxed even the highly gifted and untiring Charlemagne and was quite beyond the power of his successors. After his death (814) many attempts were made to divide the Empire peaceably among his descendants, but for generations they continued to fight over how much each should have. Finally it was agreed in 870, by the Treaty of Mersen, that there should be three states, — a West Frankish kingdom, an East Frankish kingdom, and a kingdom of Italy. The West Frankish realm corresponded roughly with the present boundaries of France and Belgium, and its people talked dialects derived from the spoken Latin; the East Frankish kingdom included the rest of Charle- magne's empire outside of Italy and was German in language. 208 General History of Europe 332. Obstacles to maintaining Order. The Treaty of Mersen was followed by several centuries of continued disorder and local warfare. There were a number of difficulties which stood in the way of peace. In the first place, a king found it very hard to get rapidly from one part of his realms to another in order to put down Map of Treaty of Mersen This map shows the division of Charlemagne's empire made in 870 by his descendants in the Treaty of Mersen rebellions, for the Roman roads (§ 256), which had been so ad- mirably constructed, had fallen into disrepair, and the bridges had been carried away by floods. Besides, the king had very little money. There were not many gold or silver mines in western Europe, and there was no supply of precious metals from outside, for commerce with the Eastern countries had largely died out. So the king had no treasury from which to pay his many officials and had to give them land instead of money in return for their services. In this way they gradually became rulers themselves within their own possessions. Age of Disorder: Feudalism 209 333. New Invasions. Moreover, frequent new invasions from all directions kept the three parts of Charlemagne's empire, and England besides, in a state of fear and disaster. The Moham- medans, who had got possession of northern Africa and of Spain, gained control of the island of Sicily shortly after Charlemagne's death and began to terrorize Italy and southern France. On the east the Slavs whom Charlemagne had defeated in his time con- tinued to make trouble, and the Hungarians, a savage race from Asia, penetrated into the Frankish kingdom. Finally they were driven back eastward and settled in the country now named after them — Hungary. 334. The Northmen. Lastly there came the Northmen, 1 bold and adventurous pirates from the shores of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, who not only attacked the towns on the coast of the West Frankish kingdom but made their way up the rivers, plun- dering and burning the villages and towns as far inland as Paris. So there was danger always and everywhere. If rival nobles were not fighting one another, there were foreign invaders of some kind devastating the country, bent on robbing, maltreat- ing, and enslaving the people whom they found in towns and villages and monasteries. No wonder that strong castles had to be built and the towns surrounded by walls. 335. Medieval Fortresses controlled by Individuals. In the absence of a powerful king with a well-organized army to support him, each district was left to look out for itself, and the people came to depend on the nobles to protect them. The Romans had been accustomed to build walls around their camps, and a walled camp was called castra ; in such names as Rochester, Winchester, Gloucester, Worcester, we have re- minders of the fact that these towns were once fortresses. These camps, however, were all government fortifications and did not belong to private individuals ; but as the disorder caused by the incoming barbarians increased, the various counts and dukes and other large landowners began to build forts for themselves. 1 These Scandinavian pirates are often called vikings, from their habit of leaving their long boats in the vik, which meant, in their language, " bay " or " inlet." 210 General History of Europe 336. General Arrangement of a Castle. When the castle was not on a steep rocky hill, which made it very hard to ap- proach, a deep ditch was constructed outside the walls, called the moat. This was filled with water and crossed by a bridge, which could be drawn up when the castle was attacked, cutting off the A Medieval Castle near Klagenfurt, Austria It was not uncommon in mountainous regions to have fortresses perched so high on rocky eminences that it was practically impossible to capture them means of approach. The doorway was further protected by a grat- ing of heavy planks, called the portcullis, which could be quickly dropped down to close the entrance. Inside the castle walls was the great donjon, or chief tower. From the tiny windows in the towers the occupants were able to shoot arrows or pour melted pitch or lead on those attacking them. There was sometimes also a fine hall, as at Coucy (see cut facing page 212), and handsome rooms for the use of the lord and his family, although they sometimes lived in the donjon. There were buildings for storing supplies and arms, and usually a chapel. Age of Disorder: Feudalism 211 III. Feudal System and Neighborhood Warfare 337. Gradual Development of Feudalism. Landholders who had large estates often found it to their advantage to grant some of their manors to other persons on condition that those receiving the land should pledge themselves to accompany him to war, guard his castle upon oc- casion, and assist him when he was put to any unusually great expense. It was in this way that the relation of lord and vassal originated. The vassal who received the land promised to be true to his lord, and the lord, on the other hand, not only let his vassal have the land but agreed to protect him when it was necessary. These ar- rangements between vassals and lords constituted what is called the feudal system. The feudal system, or feu- dalism, was not established by any decree of a king or in virtue of a general agreement between all the landowners. It grew up gradually and irregularly simply because it seemed con- venient under the circumstances. Land granted upon these terms was called a fief. One who held a fief might himself become a lord by granting a portion of his fief to a vassal upon terms similar to those upon which he held his lands of his lord, or suzerain. The vassal of a vassal was called a sub vassal. 338. Homage and Fidelity. The one proposing to become a vassal knelt before the lord and rendered him homage 1 by placing Fortified Gate of a Medieval Castle Here one can see the way in which the entrance to a castle was carefully pro- tected: the moat (4) ; the drawbridge {B) ; the portcullis (C) 1 " Homage " is derived from the Latin word homo, meaning " man." 212 General History of Europe his hands between those of the lord and declaring himself the lord's "man" for such and such a fief. Thereupon the lord gave his vassal the kiss of peace and raised him from his kneeling pos- ture. Then the vassal swore an oath of fidelity upon the Bible, or some holy relic, solemnly binding himself to fulfill all his duties toward his lord. This act of rendering homage by placing the hands in those of the lord and taking the oath of fidelity was the first and most essential duty of the vassal. 339. Feudal Obligations. The obligations of the vassal varied greatly. He was expected to join his lord when there was a military expedition, although it was generally the case that the vassal need not serve at his own expense for more than forty days. He was expected to attend the lord's court when summoned, where he sat with other vassals to hear and pronounce upon those cases in which his fellow vassals were involved. Under certain circumstances vassals had to make money pay- ments to their lord ; as, for instance, when the lord was put to extra expense by the necessity of knighting his eldest son or providing a dowry for his daughter, or when he was captured by an enemy and was held for ransom. Lastly, the vassal might have to entertain his lord, should he be passing his castle. 340. Various Kinds of Fiefs. There were fiefs of all grades of importance, from that of a duke or count, who held directly of the king and exercised the powers of a practically independent prince, down to the holding of the simple knight, whose bit of land was barely sufficient to enable him to support himself and provide the horse upon which he rode. It is essential to observe that the fief became hereditary in the family of the vassal and passed down to the eldest son from one generation to another. So long as the vassal remained faithful to his lord and performed the stipulated services, and his succes- sors did homage and continued to meet the conditions upon which the fief had originally been granted, neither the lord nor his heirs could rightfully regain possession of the land. The result was that little was left to the original owner of the fief except the services and dues to which the practical owner, Coucy-le-Chateau This castle of Coucy-le-Chateau was built by a vassal of the king of France in the thirteenth century. It was at the end of a hill and protected on all sides but one by steep cliffs. One can see the moat (A) and the double draw- bridge and towers which protected the portal. The round donjon (B) was probably the largest in the world, one hundred feet in diameter and two hundred and ten feet high. At the base its walls were thirty-four feet thick. At the end of the inner court (C) was the residence of the lord (D). To the left of the court was a great hall and to the right were the quarters of the garrison. This ancient building was destroyed by the Germans during • the recent World War Movable Tower This attacking tower was rolled up to the wall of the besieged tower after the moat had been filled up at the proper point. The soldiers then swarmed up the outside and over a bridge onto the wall. Skins of animals were hung on the side to prevent the tower from being set on fire Age of Disorder : Feudalism 213 the vassal, had agreed in receiving it. In short, the fief came really to belong to the vassal, and only the shadow of ownership remained in the hands of the lord. 341. Subvassals of the King not under his Control. Ob- viously the great vassals who held directly of the king became almost independent of him as soon as their fiefs were granted to them and their descendants. Their vassals, since they had not done homage to the king himself, often paid little attention to his commands. From the ninth to the thirteenth century the king of France or the king of Germany did not rule over a great realm occupied by subjects who owed him obedience as their lawful sovereign, paid him taxes, and were bound to fight under his banner as the head of the State. As a feudal landlord himself the king had a right to demand fidelity and certain services from those who were his vassals. But the great mass of the people over whom he nominally ruled, whether they belonged to the nobility or not, owed little to the king directly, because they lived upon the lands of other feudal lords more or less independent of him. 342. War the Law of the Feudal World. One has only to read a chronicle of the time to discover that brute force ruled everywhere outside of the Church. The feudal obligations were not fulfilled except when the lord was sufficiently powerful to enforce them. The oath of fidelity was constantly broken, and faith was violated by both vassal and lord. We may say that war, in all its forms, was the law of the feudal world. War formed the chief occupation of the restless nobles who held the land and were supposed to govern it. The feudal bonds, instead of offering a guarantee of peace and con- cord, appear to have been a constant cause of violent ill-feeling and conflict. Everyone was bent upon profiting to the full by the weakness of his neighbor. In theory, the lord could force his vassals to settle their dis- putes in an orderly manner before his court; but often he was neither able nor inclined to bring about a peaceable adjustment, and he would frequently have found it hard to enforce the decisions of his own court. So the vassals were left to fight out 214 General History of Europe their quarrels among themselves, and they found their chief interest in life in so doing. 343. The "Truce of God." The horrors of this constant fight- ing led the Church to try to check it. About the year iooo several Church councils in southern France decreed that the fighters were not to attack churches or monasteries, churchmen, pilgrims, mer- chants, or women, and that they must leave the peasant and his cattle and plow alone. Then Church councils began to issue what was known as the " Truce of God," which provided that all war- fare was to stop during Lent and various other holy days as well as on Thursday, Friday, Saturday, and Sunday of every week. During the truce no one was to attack anyone else. Those be- sieging castles were to refrain from any assaults during the period of peace, and people were to be allowed to go quietly to and fro on their business without being disturbed by soldiers. If anyone failed to observe the truce, he was to be excommuni- cated by the Church. This meant that if he fell sick no Christian should dare to visit him ; on his deathbed he was not to receive the comfort of a priest, and his soul was consigned to hell if he had refused to repent and mend his ways. It is hard to say how much good the Truce of God accomplished. It is certain that many dis- orderly lords paid little attention to the truce and found three days a week altogether too short a time for plaguing their neighbors. 344. The Kings finally get the Better of the Feudal Lords. We must not infer that the State ceased to exist altogether during the centuries of confusion that followed the break-up of Charle- magne's empire, or that it fell entirely apart into little local governments independent of each other. The king, solemnly anointed by the Church, was always something more than a feudal lord. The kings were destined to get th£ upper hand be- fore many centuries in England, France, and Spain, and finally in Italy and Germany, and to destroy the castles behind whose walls their haughty nobles had long defied the royal power. Age of Disorder: Feudalism 215 QUESTIONS I. How did the election of Pippin differ essentially from that of earlier German kings ? Why is a monarch approved by the Church more powerful than one elected by the people? Can you give any modern examples of kings by divine right? Why is Charlemagne a heroic figure in medieval history ? How did Charlemagne build up an empire in western Europe ? What is meant by Charlemagne's reestab- lishment of the Roman Empire in the West? II. How was Charlemagne's empire finally divided after his death? What were the general causes for disorder during the ninth and tenth centuries ? Who were the chief new invaders ? Explain the origin of the medieval nobles. Describe a medieval castle. III. Describe the conditions which led to the development of the feudal system. What advantages did the lord and the vassal derive from their relationship ? How did the feudal system affect the power of the king ? Why was neighborhood warfare common in this period ? In what ways did the Church attempt to check the constant fighting ? Note. This castle of Pierrefonds, not very far from Paris, was built by the brother of the king of France, about 1400. It has been carefully restored and gives one a good idea of a fortress of the period. CHAPTER XVII POPES, EMPERORS, AND PRINCES IN THE MIDDLE AGES I. Origin of the Holy Roman Empire 345. Otto the Great (936-973). The East Frankish, or German part, of Charlemagne's empire had, after his death, fallen apart into big and little fiefs, and the various dukes and counts were constantly making war on each other and on their weak kings. The first German ruler, after Charlemagne, who gained much dis- tinction was Otto the Great, who came to the throne in 936. He repelled the Hungarians, who had been a constant menace, and forced them back into eastern Europe, where they settled and finally built up the modern Hungarian state. Otto was having plenty of trouble to keep his vassals under his control, but never- theless he determined to try to add northern Italy to his realms and succeeded in being acknowledged king of Italy. Later the Pope, needing protection from his enemies, called Otto to Rome, and, in return for his assistance, crowned him emperor, as Charle- magne's successor, in the year 962. The coronation of Otto was a very important event for Ger- many ; for from this time onward the German rulers, who had quite enough to do to keep their own vassals in order, were con- stantly distracted by efforts to keep their hold on their Italian possessions, which lay on the other side of the great mountain range of the Alps. 346. The Holy Roman Empire. Otto's successors dropped their old title of king of the East Franks as soon as they had been duly crowned by the Pope at Rome, and assumed the magnificent and all-embracing designation, "Emperor Ever August of the Romans." Their "Holy Roman Empire," as it came to be called later, was to endure, in name at least, for more than eight centuries, 216 Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages 217 but it was obviously even -less like that of the ancient Romans than Charlemagne's had been. As kings of Germany and Italy these rulers had practically all the powers that they enjoyed as emperors. The title of emperor was of course a proud one, although it gave the German kings no additional power except the fatal right that they claimed of taking part in the election of the Pope. We shall find that, instead of making themselves feared at home and building up a great state, the German emperors wasted their strength in a long struggle with the popes, who proved themselves, in the end, far stronger and finally reduced the Empire to a mere shadow. 347. Lands of the Church drawn into the Feudal System. In order to understand the long struggle between the German rulers and the popes, we must recollect that great tracts of land had been given by princes and dukes, counts, and other great landed proprietors to the Church for the support of the bishop- rics and monasteries. These lands of the churchmen were drawn into the feudal system described in the previous chapter. Bishops might become vassals of the king or other feudal lords by doing homage for a fief and swearing fidelity, like any other vassal. The abbots might hold the lands of a monastery as a fief. But the bishops and abbots were forbidden by the rules of the Church to marry, so they could not hand down their possessions to their children. Consequently, when a bishop or abbot who held a fief died, someone had to be chosen in his place to succeed to the fief and perform the duties attached to the position. 348. Investiture. The bishops were, according to the rules of the Church, to be chosen by the clergy of their bishopric, and the abbot of a monastery by the monks. Their feudal superiors insisted, however, in having their say in elections, and from the time of Otto the Great on both bishops and abbots were com- monly selected to all intents and purposes by the emperor or other feudal lords. When a bishop or abbot had been duly chosen, the feudal' lord proceeded to the investiture. The new bishop or abbot first be- came the "man" of the lord by doing him homage (§ 338), and 218 General History of Europe then the lord transferred to him the. lands and rights attached to the office. No careful distinction appears to have been made between the property and the religious powers. The lord often conferred both by bestowing upon a bishop the ring and the crosier (the bishop's pastoral staff), the emblems of religious au- thority. It seemed shocking enough that the king or feudal lord, who was often a rough soldier, should dictate the selection of the bishops ; but it was still more shocking that he should assume to confer religious powers with religious emblems. 349. The Marriage of the Clergy. Still another danger threat- ened the wealth and resources of the Church. During the tenth and eleventh centuries the rule' of the Church prohibiting the clergy from marrying appears to have been widely neglected in Italy, Germany, France, and England. It was obvious that the property of the Church would soon be dispersed if the clergy were allowed to marry, since they would wish to provide for their chil- dren. Just as the feudal lands had become hereditary (§ 340), so the church lands would become hereditary unless the clergy were forced to remain unmarried. 350. Task of the Popes. A hundred years after the time of Otto the Great it seemed as if the Church would be dragged down by its property into the anarchy of feudalism. But the popes assumed ths gigantic task of making the Church a great inter- national monarchy, like the former Roman Empire, with its capi- tal at Rome. The control of the feudal lords over the selection of the clergy must be reduced or abolished, the marriage of the clergy prohibited, and the corruption connected with Church of- fices checked. The first great move of the Pope was the decree of 1059 depriving the emperor of the right he claimed to control the election of the Pope and putting the choice in the hands of the cardinals. These were the representatives of the clergy of the city of Rome, and in their hands the election of the Pope has legally rested ever since. 351. Gregory VII and his Dictatus. In 1073 the most cele- brated of the medieval popes, Gregory VII (often called Hilde- brand), ascended the papal throne. Among his writings is a brief Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages 219 statement, called the Dictatus, in which he sets forth the powers which he believed God had conferred on the papacy. The Pope, or Bishop of Rome, had, he claims, the right to depose or transfer any other bishop. No Church council could be regarded as speak- ing for Christendom without the Pope's ratification ; no religious Medieval Pictures of Gregory VII These pictures are taken from an illustrated manuscript written some decades after Gregory's death. In the one on the left Gregory is represented blowing out a candle and saying to his cardinals, "As I blow out this light, so will Henry IV be extinguished." In the one on the right is shown the death of Gregory (1085). He did not wear his crown in bed, but the artist wanted us to be sure to recognize that he was Pope book should be deemed authoritative without his approval ; no one might be considered a Catholic Christian who did not yield obedience to the commands of the Roman Mother Church. Gregory does not stop with asserting the Pope's complete supremacy over the Church. He says that "the Pope is the only person whose feet are kissed by all princes" ; that he may depose emperors and "absolve subjects from allegiance to an unjust ruler." No one shall dare to condemn one who appeals to the Pope. No one may annul a decree of the Pope, though the Pope may declare null and void the decrees of all other earthly powers ; and no one may pass judgment upon his acts. 220 General History of Europe II. The Long Struggle between Popes and Emperors 352. Struggle over Investiture between Henry IV and Greg- ory VII. The popes who immediately preceded Gregory had more than once forbidden the churchmen to receive investiture from laymen. Gregory reissued this prohibition in 1075. * n f° r ~ bidding investiture by laymen Gregory attempted nothing less than a revolution. The bishops and abbots were often officers of government, exercising in Germany and Italy powers similar in all respects to those of the counts. The German king not only relied upon them for advice and assistance in carrying on his gov- ernment but they were among his chief allies in his constant struggles with his vassals. This act of Gregory's led to a long and bitter struggle between the popes and German rulers, lasting for two hundred years. Gregory's legates so irritated the young German king Henry IV that he had the Pope deposed as a wicked man (1076). 353. Gregory VII Deposes Henry IV. Gregory's reply to Henry and the German bishops who had deposed him was speedy and decisive. "Incline thine ear to us, O Peter, chief of the Apostles. As thy representative and by thy favor has the power been granted especially to me by God of binding and loosing in heaven and earth [compare §309]. ... I withdraw, through thy power and authority, from Henry the King, who has risen against thy Church with unheard-of insolence, the rule over the whole kingdom of the Germans and over Italy. I absolve all Christians from the bonds of the oath which they have sworn, or may swear, to him ; and I forbid anyone to serve him as king." 354. Henry IV at Canossa (1077). After the Pope deposed Henry his vassals turned against him. He was so discouraged that he hastened across the Alps in midwinter and appeared as a humble suppliant before the castle of Canossa, where Gregory VII was sojourning. The Pope kept him waiting three days barefoot and in the coarse garments of a pilgrim before he would admit him. He then agreed to forgive him for the moment. The spec- tacle of a mighty prince of distinguished appearance in tears ^ &P so o t&. ^ c I^t Of r -^ A.jy\ AJbi B>, '4 ■■! m *- °:,&. s u 8e ; 'bVS* .\\\et xeiioa. Pit 4 v !! Cors iJca l 'sb It. ''-»/; -*o cRomey * ***4*-**« ev Ule ^ 0$ 1? £>4 Is, J!f Sardini & SaleR ^) *^ .«r ^ funis/ ^ 4> / i ^¥ 4p EUROPE ANI> THE OKEEKT IN 1096 Ontlie eve of the Crusades s " f ^ CZ] Christian LandsIUtln Church) | 1 Mohammedan Lands A ' | I Christian Lands (.Greek Church) I I Regions still Pagan & >i— ^ 100 200 300 40 60 , ° ;/ h Scale of Miles THE~M.-N.wonKS, BUFFALO, n.y. Longitude East 10° from Greenwich Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages 221 before a man of small stature who humbly styled himself "the servant of the servants of God" has always been regarded as typifying the power of the medieval Church when directed against even the most exalted rulers of the earth. 355. Concordat of Worms (1122). The famous scene at Canossa settled nothing, however, and the struggle went on after the death of both Gregory and Henry IV. Finally a settlement was reached at the town of Worms which ended the controversy over investitures. The churchmen were to elect their bishops and abbots and confer on them their religious powers. The German king or emperor, on the other hand, was to invest the new bishop or abbot with his fiefs and governmental powers by a touch of the scepter. The king in a way still retained his control, for he could always refuse to hand over the lands unless he was pleased with the person chosen by the churchmen. 358. Frederick I (Barbarossa) of Hohenstaufen (1152-1190). A generation after the Concordat of Worms the most famous of German emperors, next to Charlemagne, came to the throne. This was Frederick I, commonly referred to as Barbarossa (from his red beard). He belonged to the family of Hohenstaufen, so called from their castle in southern Germany. Frederick's ambition was to restore the Roman Empire to its old glory and influence. He regarded himself as the successor of the Caesars, as well as of Charlemagne and Otto the Great. He believed his office to be quite as truly established by God himself as the papacy. He met all the old difficulties in his life-long attempt to build up a strong empire, in which he strove to include northern Italy. He failed in this attempt and died on his way to take part in a crusade to regain the Holy Land. 357. Frederick II and Southern Italy. His gifted grandson Frederick II had married the heiress to the kingdoms of Naples and Sicily, and here he built up a strong modern state far from Germany. But the popes feared the new state to the south of them, and shortly after the death of Frederick II they called in a French prince, to whom they turned over the Italian possessions of the Hohenstaufen. 222 General History of Europe 358. Conditions in Germany and Italy. With the death of Frederick II in 1250 the medieval German Empire may be said to have come to an end. Rudolph of Hapsburg was made king in 1273, but Germany was not really a country but a confused mass of duchies, counties, archbishoprics, bishoprics, abbacies, and free towns. They paid little attention to their kings, who con- tinued to claim the title of emperor but rarely went to Rome to be crowned. Italy was also divided up into practically independent states, the Lombard towns to the north, the papal possessions across the middle of the peninsula, and, to the south, Naples, which re- mained under its French dynasty for a time, and the kingdom of Sicily, which drifted into the hands of a Spanish house. III. Organization and Powers of the Church 359. General Character of the Medieval Church. In the preceding pages it has been necessary to refer constantly to the Church and the clergy. Indeed without them medieval history would become almost a blank, for the Church was incomparably the most important institution of the time, and the popes, bishops, and abbots were the soul of nearly every great enterprise. We have already had abundant proofs that the medieval Church was very different from our modern churches, whether Catholic or Protestant. 1. In the first place, everyone was required to belong to it, just as we all must belong to some country today. One was not born into the Church, it is true, but he was ordinarily baptized into it when he was a mere infant. All western Europe formed a single religious association, from which it was a crime to revolt. To refuse allegiance to the Church, or to question its authority or teachings, was regarded as treason against God — the most terrible of crimes — and was punishable, according to the laws of the time, with death (§395). 2. The medieval Church did not rely for its support, as churches usually must today, upon the voluntary contributions Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages 223 of its members. It enjoyed, in addition to the revenue from its vast tracts of lands and a great variety of fees, the income from a regular tax, the tithe. Those upon whom this fell were forced to pay it, just as we all must now pay taxes imposed by the government. 3. It is clear, moreover, that the medieval Church was not merely a religious body, as churches are today. Of course it maintained places of worship, conducted devotional exercises, and cultivated the religious life; but it did far more. It was, in a way, a State, for it had an elaborate system of law and its own courts, in which it tried many cases which are now settled in our ordinary courts. One may get some idea of the business of the Church courts from the fact that the Church possessed the right to try all cases in which a clergyman was implicated, or anyone connected with the Church or under its special protection, such as monks, students, crusaders, widows, orphans, and the helpless. Then all cases where the rites of the Church, or its prohibitions, were involved came ordinarily before the Church courts, as, for example, those concerning marriage, wills, sworn contracts, usury, blasphemy, sorcery, heresy, and so forth. The Church even had its prisons, to which it might sentence offenders for life, if they were convicted of serious heresy. 4 The Church not only performed the functions of a State, it had the organization of a State. Unlike the Protestant min- isters of today, all churchmen and religious associations of medie- val Europe were under one supreme head, the Pope, who made laws for all, and controlled every church officer, wherever he might be, whether in Italy or Germany, Spain or Ireland. The whole Church had one official language, Latin, in which all com- munications were written and in which its services were every- where conducted. The control of the Pope over all parts of the Christian Church was exercised by his legates. These papal ambassadors were in- trusted with great powers. Their haughty mien sometimes of- fended the prelates and rulers to whom they brought home the authority of the Pope. 224 General History of Europe The task assumed by the Pope of governing the whole Western world naturally made it necessary to create a large body of officials at Rome in order to transact all the multiform business and prepare and transmit the innumerable legal documents. The cardinals and the Pope's officials constituted what was called the .papal curia, or court. To carry on his government and to meet the expenses of palace and retinue, the Pope had need of a vast income. This was supplied from various sources. 360. Reasons for the Great Power of Clergymen in the Mid- dle Ages. The influence of the clergy was greatly increased by the fact that they alone were educated. For six or seven centuries after the break-up of the Roman Empire very few outside of the clergy ever dreamed of studying, or even of learning to read and write. Even in the thirteenth century an offender who wished to prove that he belonged to the clergy, in order that he might be tried by a Church court, had only to show that he could read a single line ; for it was assumed by the judges that no one uncon- nected with the Church could read at all. It was inevitable, therefore, that all the teachers were clergy- men, that almost all the books were written by priests and monks, and that the clergy were the ruling power in all intellectual, artis- tic, and literary matters — the chief guardians and promoters of civilization.' Moreover, the civil government was forced to rely upon churchmen to write out the public documents and proclama- tions. The priests and monks held the pen for the king. Repre- sentatives of the clergy sat in the king's councils and acted as his ministers ; in fact, the conduct of the government largely devolved upon them. 361. Excommunication and Interdict. No wonder that the churchmen were by far the most powerful class in the Middle Ages. They controlled great wealth ; they were the most highly educated class ; it was believed they held the keys of the kingdom of heaven and without their aid no one could hope to enter in. By excommunication they could cast out the enemies of the Church and could forbid all men to associate with them, since they were accursed. By means of the interdict they could suspend Popes, Emperors, and Princes in the Middle Ages 225 all religious ceremonies in a whole city or country by closing the church doors and prohibiting all public services. 362. Chief Sources of Difficulty between Church and State. But as the period of feudal disorder drew to an end, and the kings and other rulers got the better of the feudal lords and established peace in their realms, they began to think that the Church had become too powerful and too rich. Certain difficulties arose of which the following were the most important : 1. Should the king or the Pope have the right of selecting the bishops and the abbots of rich monasteries? Naturally both were anxious to place their friends and supporters in these in- fluential positions. Moreover, the Pope, like the king, could claim a considerable contribution from those whom he appointed. 2. How far might the king venture to tax the lands and other property of the Church? Was this vast amount of wealth to go on increasing and yet make no contribution to the support of the government ? The churchmen usually urged that they needed all their money to carry on the church services, keep up the churches and monasteries, take care of the schools, and aid the poor, for the State left them to bear all these necessary burdens. The law of the Church permitted the churchmen to make vol- untary gifts to the king when there was urgent necessity. 3. Then there was disagreement over the cases to be tried in the Church courts and the claim of churchmen to be tried only by clergymen. Above all was the habit of appealing cases to Rome, for the Pope would often decide the matter in exactly the opposite way from that in which the king's court had decided it. 4. Lastly, there was the question of how far the Pope as head of the Christian Church had a right to interfere with the govern- ment of a particular state when he did not approve of the way in which a king was acting. The powers of the Pope were very great, everyone admitted, but even the most devout Catholics differed somewhat as to just how great they were. We have seen some illustrations of these troubles in the case of the popes and the German emperors. Many others might be given were there space to do so. 226 General History of Europe 363. Babylonian Captivity and Great Schism (1305-1415). By the year 1300 the kings of England and France were coming into a position to enforce their claims against the Church. The power of the popes was weakened for various reasons, and finally the French king was able to get the seat of the papacy transferred from Rome to Avignon, a city on his frontier. Here the popes remained for over seventy years (1305-1377). This Babylonian Captivity, as it is called, was followed by a series of disputed elections, — the "Great Schism," — during which Europe was di- vided on the question as to who was the rightful Pope. Finally, in the fifteenth century, the popes once more regained a considerable part of the influence over European affairs that they had enjoyed in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and returned to their ancient capital. QUESTIONS I. How did the king of the East Franks come to have the title of Emperor of the Romans ? What was the Holy Roman Empire ? How was the Church drawn into the feudal system ? In what ways did the feudal system threaten the prestige and resources of the Church ? What measures did the Church take to meet these difficulties ? How is the Pope elected today ? What is the college of cardinals ? What were the powers of the Pope as claimed in the Dictatus of Gregory VII ? Has the Pope more or less power today than he had in the time of Gregory VII? II. Give an account of the famous struggle between Henry IV and Gregory. How was the question of investiture finally settled? How did the medieval German Empire come to an end ? III. Give a picture of the medieval Church at the height of its power. In what ways did it resemble an international state? Why was the clergy so important in the Middle Ages ? What were the chief sources of difference between Church and State ? What was the Baby- lonian Captivity? CHAPTER XVIII ENGLAND AND FRANCE IN THE MIDDLE AGES I. The Norman Conquest 364. Peculiar Interest of English History. The history of England is naturally of especial interest to all English-speaking peoples, for it is from the English that they have derived their language, their habits of thought, much of their literature, and many of their laws and institutions. In this volume it will, how- ever, be possible to study England only as it played a part in general European history. 365. The Danes and Alfred the Great (87i-9oi). The conquest of Britain by the Angles and Saxons and their conversion to Christianity by Augustine and his monks has already been spoken of (§§321-322). These invasions had scarcely come to an end before the Northmen (or Danes, as the English called them), who were ravaging France (§ 334), began to make incursions into England. They were defeated, however, by Alfred the Great, the first English king of whom we know much. Alfred forced the Danes to accept Christianity and keep out of southern England. But the Danes continued to make trouble, and finally a Danish king (Cnut) succeeded in making himself king of all England in 1017. The Danish dynasty did not last many years and was suc- ceeded by a weak Saxon king, Edward the Confessor. Upon his death one of the greatest events in English history occurred. The most powerful of the vassals of the king of France crossed the English Channel, conquered England, and made him- self its king. This was William the Conqueror. 366. France in the Middle Ages. The old West Frankish kingdom, which we shall now call France, was, like Germany, 227 228 General History of Europe divided up among a great many dukes and counts who built strong castles, gathered armies, and paid little attention to their kings. In the tenth century certain great fiefs, like Normandy, Brit- tany, Flanders, and Burgundy, developed into little nations, each under its line of able rulers. These little feudal states were cre- ated by certain families of nobles who possessed exceptional energy or statesmanship. By conquest, purchase, or marriage they increased the number of their fiefs, and they insured their control over their vassals by promptly destroying the castles of those who refused to meet their obligations. 367. Normandy. Of these subnations none was more impor- tant or interesting than Normandy. The Northmen had been the scourge of those who lived near the North Sea for many years before one of their leaders, Rollo (or Hrolf), agreed, in 911, to accept from the West Frankish king a district on the coast, north of Brittany, where he and his followers might peacefully settle. Rollo assumed the title of Duke of the Normans and introduced the Christian religion among his people. The newcomers for a considerable time kept up their Scandinavian habits and language, but gradually appropriated such culture as their neighbors pos- sessed, and by the twelfth century their capital, Rouen, was one of the most enlightened cities of Europe. 368. Battle of Hastings (1066). Just what William's claims to England were is not very clear, and it makes little difference. The main thing to know is that many ships were building in the Norman harbors in the spring and summer of 1066, and many adventurers readily flocked to William's standard when it became known that he proposed to invade England. The Normans and the English met on the field of Hastings. The English were led by Harold, the successor of Edward the Confessor, who made a brave stand, but was killed and his troops routed by the Norman cav- alry and their excellent bowmen. William managed to induce a number of influential nobles and several bishops to accept him as king, now that Harold was dead. London opened its gates to him, and on Christmas Day, 1066, he was solemnly elected king by an assembly in Westminster Abbey, and duly crowned. England and France in the Middle Ages 229 369. William's Policy in England. The English who had re- fused to join him before the battle of Hastings were declared to have forfeited their lands, but were permitted to keep them upon condition of receiving them back from the new king as his vassals. The lands of those who actually fought against him at Hastings, or in later rebellions, were seized and redistributed among his faithful fol- lowers, both Norman and English. William declared that he did not propose to change the English cus- toms but to govern as Edward the Confessor had done. He maintained the Witenagemot, a council made up of bishops and nobles, whose advice the Saxon kings had sought in all important matters. He avoided giving to any one person a great many estates in a single region, so that no one should thus become inconven- iently powerful. Finally, in order to secure the support of the smaller landholders and to prevent combinations against him among the greater ones, he required every landowner in England to take an oath of fidelity directly to him, instead of having only a few great landowners as vassals who had their own subvassals under their own control, as in France (§366). 370. General Results of the Norman Conquest. It is clear that the Norman Conquest was not a simple change of kings, but that a new element was added to the English people. We cannot tell how many Normans actually emigrated across the Channel, Norman Gateway at Bristol, England This beautiful gateway was originally the entrance to a monastery, begun in 1142. It is one of the finest examples of the Norman style of building to be seen in England 230 General History of Europe but they evidently came in considerable numbers, and their influence upon the English habits and govern- ment was very great. A century after William's con- quest the whole body of the nobility, the bishops, the abbots, and the government officials had become practi- cally all Norman. Besides these, the architects who built the castles and fort- resses, the cathedrals and abbeys, came from Nor- mandy. Merchants from the Norman cities of Rouen and Caen settled in London and other English cities, and weavers from Flanders set- tled in various towns and even in the country. For a time these newcom- ers remained a separate people, but by the year 1200 they had become for the most part indistinguish- able from the great mass of English people among whom they had come. They had nevertheless introduced among the in- habitants of England a new and important element which made the nation more energetic, active-minded, and varied in its occupations and interests than it had been before the Conquest. Choir of Canterbury Cathedral This was destroyed by fire four years after Thomas Becket was murdered there. It was soon rebuilt under Henry II. The lower rows of arches are the old round kind, while the upper row shows how the pointed arch was coming in. (See § 429) The Plantagenet Possessions in England and France 232 General History of Europe II. Henry II and the Plantagenets 371. Henry II (1 154-1 189). After William's death there was a great deal of disorder for two generations, and when his great- grandson, Henry II, came to the throne in 11 54 he found the kingdom in a melancholy condition. He had need of all his energy and quickness of mind to restore order in England and at the same time rule his wide realms in France, which he had either inherited or acquired by marriage with a French heiress. In order to put an end to the constant feuds and fighting he reorganized the courts, and his judges made regular circuits to try cases. The grand jury was introduced to bring accusations against criminals and disturbers of the peace. But the method of trial by a jury of twelve men, so familiar to us now, does not seem to have been introduced until a century later. The decisions of Henry's judges were based on old English customs, not on the Roman law, and the foundations of the English common law were laid in this way. 372. Henry II and Thomas Becket. Henry tried to reduce the powers of the Church courts, and in order to insure his con- trol of the English clergy he had a friend of his, Thomas Becket, made archbishop of Canterbury. But Becket refused to forward the king's plans for reducing the clergy's influence, and after a great deal of misunderstanding Becket was finally murdered in his own cathedral by some of Henry's knights, who thought that they were doing the king a favor. Henry was filled with remorse, and had to make terms with the papal legates by promising to return to Canterbury all the property of the Church he had con- fiscated and by pledging himself to go on a crusade. 373. The French Possessions of the Plantagenets. Henry II spent a great part of his time across the Channel in his French possessions. A glance at the accompanying map will show that rather more than half of his realms lay to the south of the English Channel. He controlled more territory in France than the French king himself. As great-grandson of William the England and France in the Middle Ages 233 Conqueror 1 he inherited the duchy of Normandy and the suze- rainty over Brittany. His mother, Matilda, had married the count of Anjou and Maine, so that Henry II inherited these fiefs along with those which had belonged to William the Conqueror. Lastly, he had married Eleanor, heiress of the dukes of Guienne, and in this way doubled the extent of his French lands. Henry II and his successors are known as the " Plantagenets," owing to the habit that his father, the count of Anjou, had of wearing a bit of broom (Latin, planta genista) in his helmet. So it came about that the French kings beheld a new State, under an able and energetic ruler, developing within their borders and including more than half the territory over which they were supposed to rule. A few years before Henry II died an am- bitious monarch, Philip Augustus, ascended the French throne and made it the chief business of his life to get control of his feudal vassals— above all, the Plantagenets. 374. Richard the Lion-Hearted. So long as Henry II lived there was little chance of expelling the Plantagenets from France ; but with the accession of his reckless son Richard the Lion- Hearted the prospects of the French king brightened wonder- fully. Richard is one of the most famous of medieval knights, but he was a very poor ruler. He left his kingdom to take care 1 William the Conqueror, king of England (1066-1087) William II (Rufus) (1087-1100) Henry I (1100-1135) Matilda (d. 1167) m. Geoffrey Plantagenet count of Anjou Henry II (1154-1189) the first Plantagenet king m. Eleanor of Aquitaine Adela, m. Stephen count of Blois Stephen (1135-1154) Richard (11S9-1199) Geoffrey (d. 11S6) I Arthur John (1199-1216) Henry III (1216-1272) 234 General History of Europe of itself while he went upon a crusade to the Holy Land (§389). When Richard returned, after several years of romantic adventure, he found himself involved in a war with Philip Augustus, in the midst of which he died. 375. John loses the French Possessions of his House. Rich- ard's younger brother John, who bears the reputation of being the most despicable of English kings, speedily gave Philip good excuses for seizing a great part of the Plantagenet lands. Philip Augustus, as John's suzerain, summoned him to appear at the French court to answer certain ugly charges of murder and violence. Upon John's refusal to appear or to do homage for his continental possessions, Philip caused his court to issue a decree confiscating almost all of the Plantagenet lands, leaving to the English king only the southwest corner of France (duchy of Guienne). 376. King John becomes a Vassal of the Pope. John became involved in a controversy with Pope Innocent III, one of the mightiest rulers of the Middle Ages, over the selection of an arch- bishop of Canterbury. In his anger he finally drove the monks of Canterbury out of the country. Innocent replied by placing England under the interdict ; that is to say, he ordered the clergy to close all the churches and suspend all public services — a very terrible thing to the people of the time. John was excommunicated, and the Pope threatened that unless the king submitted to his wishes he would depose him and give his crown to Philip Augustus of France. As Philip made haste to collect an army for the conquest of England, John humbly submitted to the Pope in 12 13. He went so far as to hand England over to Innocent III and receive it back as a fief, thus becoming the vassal of the Pope. He agreed also to send a yearly tribute to Rome. 377. Granting of the Great Charter (1215). The most perma- nently important event of John's reign was the granting of the Great Charter. When John proposed to lead a new army to France, his vassals refused to go, on the ground that they were not pledged to fight for him outside of England. Finally, a number England and France in the Middle Ages 235 of the barons banded together to force the king to sign a docu- ment stating plainly those things which according to old English custom a king might not legally do. The insurgent nobles met the king at Runny mede, not far from London. Here on the 15th of June, 12 1 5, they forced him to swear to observe what they be- lieved to be the rights of his subjects, which they had carefully written out. 378. Provisions of the Charter. The Great Charter is perhaps the most famous document in the history of government. The king promises to observe the rights of his vassals, and the vassals in turn agree to observe the rights of their vassals. The towns are not to be oppressed. The merchant is not to be deprived of his goods for small offenses, nor the farmer of his wagon and im- plements. The king is to impose no tax, besides the three feudal aids, 1 except with the consent of the Great Council of the nation. This was to include the prelates and greater barons and all the king's vassals. There is no more notable clause in the Charter than that which provides that no freeman is to be arrested, or imprisoned, or deprived of his property, unless he be immediately sent before a court of his peers for trial. To realize the importance of this we must recollect that in France, down to 1789, — nearly six hundred years later, — the king exercised such unlimited powers that he could order the arrest of anyone he pleased and could imprison him for any length of time without bringing him to trial or even informing him of the nature of his offense. 379. Permanent Importance of the Great Charter. It must be remembered, however, that the barons, who forced the Charter on the king, had their own interests especially in mind. The nobles, churchmen, merchants, and other freemen made up only about a sixth of the population, and the Charter had little or noth- ing to say of serfs or villains (§ 405), who formed the great mass of the English people at that time. They could still be victimized 1 These three regular feudal dues were payments made when the lord knighted his eldest son, gave his eldest daughter in marriage, or had been captured and was waiting to be ransomed. 236 General History of Europe as before by their masters, the lords of the manor. But in later centuries, when the serfs had become free, the Charter could be appealed to in support of the people in general against attempts of the ruler to oppress them. There were times when the English kings evaded its provisions and tried to rule as absolute monarchs. But the people always sooner or later bethought them of the Charter, which thus continued to form a barrier against perma- nent despotism in England. QUESTIONS I. Review briefly the settlement of England before the Norman Con- quest (§§ 321, 322, 365). Describe the development of Normandy. What policy did William adopt in governing England? What are some of the results of the Norman Conquest? II. What improvements in the administration of the law were introduced by Henry II? How did the English rulers come to have possessions in France? What was the extent of their territory during the time of Henry II ? How was this territory regained by France ? Review the struggle of King John with the Pope. What were the circumstances leading to the signing of the Great Charter ? State some of its important provisions. Note. Edward I built Conway Castle in 1284 to keep the Welsh in check. Its walls are from twelve to fifteen feet thick. CHAPTER XIX THE CRUSADES : HERESY AND THE MENDICANT ORDERS I. The First Crusade 380. Fascination of the Crusades. Of all the events of the Middle Ages the most romantic are the Crusades, the adventurous expeditions to Palestine, undertaken with the hope of reclaiming the Holy Land from the infidel Turks. All through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries each generation beheld at least one great army of crusaders gathering from every part of the West and starting toward the Orient. Each year witnessed the departure of small bands of pilgrims or of solitary soldiers of the cross. For two hundred years there was a continuous stream of Euro- peans of every rank and station, — kings and princes, powerful nobles, simple knights, common soldiers, monks, townspeople, and even peasants, — from England, France, Germany, Spain, and Italy, making their way into Western Asia. 381. The Holy Land conquered first by the Arabs and then by the Turks. Syria had been overrun by the Arabs shortly after the death of Mohammed, and the Holy City of Jerusalem had fallen into the hands of the infidels. The Arab, however, shared with the Christian the veneration for the places associated with the life of Christ and, in general, permitted the Christian pilgrims to worship unmolested. But with the coming of a new and ruder people, the Seljuk Turks, in the eleventh century, the pilgrims began to bring home news of great hardships. Moreover, the Eastern emperor was defeated by the Turks in 107 1 and lost Asia Minor. Finding himself unequal to the task of repelling the Turks, the Eastern emperor Alexius appealed to the Pope, Urban II, for aid. 237 238 General History of Europe 382. Urban II issues a Call to the First Crusade (1095). The Pope responded, and at a Church council held at Clermont in France (1095) he summoned princes, knights, and soldiers of all ranks to give up their usual wicked business of fighting their Christian brethren in the constant neighborhood warfare (§ 342) and to turn instead to the aid of their fellow Christians in the East. He warned them that the cruel Turks would, if unchecked, extend their sway still more widely over the faithful servants of the Lord. The proposed campaign appealed to many different kinds of men. The devout, the romantic, and the adventurous were by no means the only classes that were attracted. Syria held out induce- ments to the discontented noble who might hope to gain a prin- cipality in the East, to the merchant who was looking for new enterprises, to the merely restless who wished to avoid his respon- sibilities at home, and even to the criminal who enlisted with a view of escaping the punishment for his past offenses. The faith- ful crusader, like the faithful Mohammedan, was assured of imme- diate entrance to heaven if he died repentant for his sins. 383. Peter the Hermit and his Crusading Army. A few months after Urban issued his summons a motley army of peas- ants, workingmen, vagabonds, and even women and children had been collected under the leadership of Peter the Hermit and Walter the Penniless. These simple folk were confident that the Lord would protect them during their two-thousand-mile journey to the Holy Land and grant them a prompt victory over the in- fidel. But, as might have been expected, a great part fell by the way, and the rest were slaughtered or scattered by the Turks when the disorderly horde reached Asia Minor. 384. The First Crusade (1096). The most conspicuous figures of the long period of the Crusades are not, however, to be found among the lowly followers of Peter the Hermit, but are the knights, in their long coats of flexible armor. A year after the summons issued at Clermont great armies of fighting men had been collected in the West under distinguished leaders — the Pope speaks of three hundred thousand soldiers. Among the crusading The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders 239 knights who played a most important role were Count Ray- mond of Toulouse, Godfrey of Bouillon, and his brother Baldwin. The Eastern emperor had hoped to use his Western allies to reconquer Asia Minor and force back the Turks. The leading knights, on the con- trary, dreamed of carving out princi- palities for them- selves in the former dominions of the em- peror and proposed to control them by right of conquest. Bald- win got possession of Edessa, of which he made himself prince. The march on Jerusa- lem was postponed, and a year was spent in capturing the rich and important city of Antioch. Then Ray- mond of Toulouse set to work and con- quered a principality for himself on the coast about Tripoli. 385. Conquest of Jerusalem. In the spring of 1099 about twenty thousand warriors were at last able to move upon Jerusalem. They found the city well walled, in the midst of a desolate region where neither food nor water nor the materials to construct the siege apparatus necessary for the capture of the Holy City were to be found. In spite of all the difficulties the place was taken in a couple of months. The crusaders showed no mercy to the people of the city, but with shocking barbarity Kingdom of Jerusalem \\\\^ County of Tripoli Principality of Antioch County of Edessa l%% CALIPHATE Map of the Crusaders' States in Syria 240 General History of Europe cruelly massacred the inhabitants. Godfrey of Bouillon was chosen ruler of Jerusalem. He soon died and was succeeded by his brother Baldwin. 386. Founding of Latin Kingdoms in Syria. It will be ob- served that the "Franks," as the Mohammedans called all the Western folk, had established the centers of four principalities. These were Edessa, Antioch, the region about Tripoli conquered by Raymond, and the kingdom of Jerusalem. The news of these Christian victories quickly reached the West, and in iioi tens of thousands of new crusaders started eastward. Most of them were lost in passing through Asia Minor, and few reached their destination. The original conquerors were consequently left to hold the land against the Mohammedans and to organize their conquests as best they could. This was a very difficult task — too difficult to accomplish under the circumstances, since the greater part of those who visited Palestine returned home after fulfilling the vow they had made to kneel at the Holy Sepulcher. 387. Military Religious Orders. A noteworthy outcome of the crusading movement was the foundation of several curious orders, of which the Hospitalers and the Templars (so called from the quarters assigned them in the king's palace at Jerusalem, on the site of the former temple of Solomon) were the most important. These orders combined the two great interests of the time, those of the monk and of the soldier. They permitted a man to be both at once ; the knight might wear a monkish cowl over his coat of armor. The Hospitalers was a charitable association which cared for the poor and the sick. The Templars became rich and powerful, for they were able to collect vast funds and the popes showered privileges on them. No wonder they grew insolent and aroused the jealousy and hate of princes and prelates alike. Early in the fourteenth century, through the combined efforts of the Pope and the king of France, the order was brought to a terrible end. Its members were accused of the most abominable practices, — such as the worship of idols and the systematic insulting of Christ and his religion. Many distinguished Templars were burned for heresy ; others perished miserably in dungeons. The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders 241 II. The Second and Later Crusades ; Results 388. The Second Crusade. Fifty years after the preaching of the First Crusade the fall of Edessa (1144), an important out- post of the Christians in the East, led to a second expedition. This was forwarded by the great theologian St. Bernard, who went about using his unrivaled eloquence to induce volunteers to join the Crusade. The king of France readily con- sented to take the cross, but the emperor, Con- rad III, appears to have yielded only after St. Bernard had preached before him and given a vivid picture of the ter- rors to be revealed on the Judgment Day. St. Bernard himself, the chief promoter of the expedition, gives a most unflattering description of the "soldiers of Christ." "In that countless multi- tude you will find few except the utterly wicked and impious, the sacrilegious, homicides, and perjurers, whose departure is a double gain. Europe rejoices to lose them and Palestine to gain them ; they are useful in both ways, in their absence from here and their presence there." It is unnecessary to describe the movements and fate of these crusaders; suffice it to say that, from a military standpoint, the so-called Second Crusade was a miserable failure. 389. The Third Crusade. In the year 1187, forty years later, Jerusalem was recaptured by Saladin, the most heroic and dis- tinguished of all the Mohammedan rulers of that period. The loss of the Holy City led to the most famous of all the military expedi- tions to the Holy Land, in which Emperor Frederick Barbarossa (§ 356), Richard the Lion-Hearted of England (§ 374), and his Tomb of a Crusader The churches of England, France, and Ger- many contain numerous figures in stone and brass of crusading knights, reposing in full armor with shield and sword on their tombs 242 General History of Europe political rival, Philip Augustus of France, all took part. The ac- counts of this Third Crusade show that while the several Christian leaders hated one another heartily enough, the Christians and Mohammedans — or Saracens, as they were often called — were coming to respect one another. We find examples of the most polite relations between the representatives of the opposing reli- gions. In 1 192 Richard concluded a truce with Saladin, by the terms of which the Christian pilgrims were allowed to visit the holy places in safety and comfort. 390. The Fourth and Subsequent Crusades. In the thirteenth century the crusaders began to direct their expeditions toward Egypt as a center of the Mohammedan power. The first of these was diverted in an extraordinary manner by the Venetian mer- chants, who induced the crusaders to conquer Constantinople for their benefit. The further expeditions, in which Jerusalem was recaptured for a short time, need not be described, for it was irrevocably lost in 1244. Although the possibility of recovering the Holy City was long considered, the Crusades may be said to have come to an end before the close of the thirteenth century. 391. Settlements of the Italian Merchants. For one class, at least, the Holy Land had great and permanent charms ; namely, the Italian merchants, especially those from Genoa, Venice, and Pisa. It was through their early interest and by means of sup- plies from their ships that the conquest of the Holy Land had been rendered possible. The merchants always made sure that they were well paid for their services. When they aided in the successful siege of a town they arranged that a definite quarter should be assigned to them in the captured place, where they might settle and have their church, market, docks, and all that was necessary for a permanent center for their commerce. 392. Oriental Luxury introduced into Europe. This new commerce had a most important influence in bringing the West into permanent relations with the Orient. Eastern products from India and elsewhere — silks, spices, camphor, musk, pearls, and ivory — were brought by the Mohammedans from the East to the commercial towns of Palestine and Syria ; then, through the The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders 243 Italian merchants, they found their way into France and Ger- many, suggesting ideas of luxury hitherto scarcely dreamed of by the still half-barbarous Franks. 393. Effects of the Crusades on Warfare. Moreover, the Crusades had a great effect upon the methods of warfare, for the soldiers from the West learned from the Greeks about the old Roman methods of constructing machines for attacking castles and walled towns. This led to the construction in western Europe of stone castles, first with square towers and later with round ones, the remains of which are so common in Germany, France, and England. The Crusades also produced heraldry, or the rules for the use of "coats of arms." These were the badges that single knights or groups of knights adopted in order to distinguish themselves from other people. • 394. Other Results of the Crusades. Some of the results of the Crusades upon western Europe must already be obvious, even from this very brief account. Thousands and thousands of French- men, Germans, and Englishmen had traveled to the Orient by land and by sea. Most of them came from hamlets or castles where they could never have learned much of the great world beyond the confines of their native village or province. They sud- denly found themselves in great cities and in the midst of un- familiar peoples and customs. This could not fail to make them think and give them new ideas to carry home. The Crusade took the place of a liberal education. The crusaders came in contact with those who knew more than they did, — above all, the Arabs, 1 — and brought back with them new notions of comfort and luxury. III. The Heretics and the Friars 395. Rise of Heresy. During the period of the Crusades the Church faced a new danger at home. Leaders began to arise who attacked its institutions and beliefs and strove to induce men to join them in their revolt. Those who questioned the teachings of 1 The western Europeans derived many important ideas from the Mohammedans in Spain, as Arabic numerals, alchemy, algebra, and the use of paper. 244 General History of Europe the Church and cast off its authority were regarded as guilty of heresy, which was the supreme crime in the Middle Ages. It is very difficult for us who live in a time of religious tolera- tion to understand the universal and deep-rooted horror of heresy which long prevailed in Europe. But we must recollect that to the orthodox believer in the Church nothing could exceed the guilt of one who committed treason against God by rejecting the religion which had been handed down in the Roman Church from the im- mediate followers of his Son. Moreover, doubt and unbelief were not merely sin ; they were revolt against the most powerful social institution of the time, which continued to be venerated by people at large throughout western Europe. 396. The Waldensians. Among those who continued to accept the Christian faith but refused to obey the clergy the most im- portant sect was that of the Waldensians, which took its rise about 1 1 75. These were followers of Peter Waldo of Lyons, who gave up all their property and lived a life of apostolic poverty. They went about preaching the gospel and explaining the Scrip- tures, which they translated from Latin into the language of the people. 397. The Albigensians. On the other hand, there were popular leaders who taught that the Christian religion itself was false. They held that there were two principles in the universe, the good and the evil, which were forever fighting for the victory. They asserted that the Jehovah of the Old Testament was really the evil power, and that it was, therefore, the evil power whom the Catholic Church worshiped. These heretics were often called Albigensians, a name derived from the town of Albi in southern France, where they were very numerous. 398. The Albigensian Crusade (1208). In southern France there were many adherents of both the Albigensians and the Waldensians, especially in the county of Toulouse. Against the people of this flourishing land Pope Innocent III preached a cru- sade in 1208. An army marched from northern France into the doomed region and, after a bloody war, suppressed the heresy by wholesale slaughter. At the same time the war checked the The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders 245 development of a promising civilization and destroyed the peaceful prosperity of the most enlightened portion of France (see below, §438). 399. The Inquisition. The most permanent defense of the Church against heresy was the establishment, under the headship of the Pope, of a system of courts designed to ferret out secret cases of unbelief and bring the offenders to punishment. These courts, which devoted their whole attention to the discovery and conviction of heretics, were called the Holy Inquisition, which gradually took form after the Albigensian crusade. Those sus- pected of heresy were often subjected to long imprisonment or torture, inflicted with the hope of forcing them to confess their crime or to implicate others. Without by any means attempting to defend the methods em- ployed, it may be remarked that the inquisitors were often earnest and upright men, and the methods of procedure of the Inquisition were not more cruel than those used in the other courts of the period. If the suspected person confessed his guilt and abjured his heresy he was forgiven and received back into the Church ; but a penance was imposed upon him— sometimes even imprisonment for life— as a means of wiping away the unspeakable sin of which he had been guilty. If he persisted in his heresy he was "relaxed to the secular arm"; that is to say, the Church, whose law for- bade it to shed blood, handed over the convicted person to the civil power, which burned him alive without further trial. 400. Founding of the Mendicant Orders. We may now turn to that far more cheerful and effective method of meeting the opponents of the Church which may be said to have been dis- covered by St. Francis of Assisi. His teachings and the example of his beautiful life probably did far more to secure continued al- legiance to the Church than all the harsh devices of the Inquisi- tion. St. Francis and St. Dominic strove to meet the needs of their time by inventing a new kind of clergyman, the begging brother, or "mendicant friar" (from the Latin f rater, "brother"). He was to do just what the bishops and parish priests often 246 General History of Europe failed to do ; namely, lead a holy life of self-sacrifice, defend the Church's beliefs against the attacks of the heretics, and awaken the people to a new religious life. The founding of the mendicant orders is one of the most interesting events of the Middle Ages. 401. St. Francis of Assisi (1182-1226) and his Order. There is no more lovely and fascinating figure in all history than St. Francis. He was born (probably in 11 82) at Assisi, a little town in central Italy. He was the son of a well-to-do merchant and led a gay life during his youth. But after a serious illness at the age of twenty he lost his love for his former pleasures and began to consort with beggars, especially lepers. He soon began to preach in his simple way. Others joined him, and they went bare- foot and penniless about central Italy trying to arouse interest in religion. Pope Innocent III, although at first suspicious of these ragged brethren, decided to approve the enterprise (12 10). 402. Missionary Work of the Franciscans. Seven years later, when Francis's followers had greatly increased in numbers, mis- sionary work was begun on a large scale, and brethren were dis- patched to Germany, Hungary, France, Spain, and even to Syria. It was not long before an English chronicler was telling with wonder of the arrival in his country of these barefoot men, in their patched gowns and with ropes about their waists, who, with Christian faith, took no thought for the morrow, believing that their Heavenly Father knew what things they had need of. Francis never wished his followers to become a rich order, but people were ready to found monasteries for them, and after their founder's death the order tended to degenerate as other monkish associations had done. 403. The Founding of the Dominican Order. St. Dominic (b. 1 1 70), the Spanish founder of the other great mendicant order, was not a simple layman like Francis. He was a church- man and had had a long course in theology in a university. He was much afflicted by the prevalence of heresy and decided to devote his life to combating it. Dominic induced Innocent III to approve his undertaking and sent forth his followers as Francis The Crusades: Heresy and the Mendicant Orders 247 had done. By 122 1 the Dominican order was thoroughly organ- ized and had sixty monasteries scattered over western Europe. The Dominicans were called the " Preaching Friars" and were carefully trained in theology in order the better to refute the arguments of the heretics. The Pope delegated to them especially the task of conducting the Inquisition. They early began to extend their influence over the universities, and the two most distinguished theologians and teachers of the thirteenth century, Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas, were Dominicans. QUESTIONS I. How did the Holy Land happen to be in the possession of in- fidels? What circumstances led to the Crusades? What classes of persons responded to the call? Describe the character and fate of Peter the Hermit's army. Give an account of the First Crusade. What were the military results? What religious orders grew up during this expedition ? II. What was the outcome of the later Crusades? What was the effect of the Crusades on commerce ? on warfare ? on general thought ? III. What was "heresy "? What were the views of the Waldensians ? Give an account of the Albigensians and the crusade against them. Describe the Holy Inquisition. What were the mendicant orders ? How did they differ from the monks with whom we are acquainted? Con- trast the Franciscans and Dominicans. Give an account of St. Francis. Can you trace any effects of these orders on the thought of the Middle Ages ? BOOK V. CIVILIZATION OF THE MIDDLE AGES CHAPTER XX MEDIEVAL LIFE IN COUNTRY AND TOWN I. The Serfs and the Manor 404. Unimportance of Town Life in the Early Middle Ages. There was little town life in western Europe before the twelfth century. The Roman towns were decreasing in population before the German inroads. The confusion which followed the invasions hastened their decline, and a great number of them disappeared altogether. Those which survived and such new towns as sprang up were of very little importance during the early Middle Ages. We may assume, therefore, that during the long period from Theodoric to the opening of the Crusades by far the greater part of the population of England, Germany, and northern and central France were living in the country, on the great estates belonging to the feudal lords, abbots, and bishops. 1 405. The Vill, or Manor. Obviously the owner of the castle had to obtain supplies to support his family, and servants and armed men. He could not have done this had he not possessed extensive tracts of land. A great part of western Europe in the time of Charlemagne appears, as we have seen, to have been divided into great estates or plantations. These medieval estates were called vills, or manors, and closely resembled the Roman villas which had existed in former centuries. The peasants who tilled the soil were called villains, a word derived 1 In Italy and southern France town life was doubtless more general. 248 Medieval Life in Country and Town 249 from vilL A portion of the estate was reserved by the lord for his own use; the rest of the plowed land was divided among the peasants, usually in long strips, of which each peasant had several scattered about the manor. 406 Condition of the Serfs. The peasants were generally serfs who did not own their fields, but could not, on the other hand, be deprived of them so long as they worked for the lord and paid him certain dues. They were bound to the land and went with it when it changed hands. The serfs were required to till those fields which the lord reserved for himself and to gather in his crops. They might not marry without their lord's permis- sion Their wives and daughters helped with the indoor work of the manor house. In the women's buildings the women serfs en- gaged in spinning, weaving, sewing, baking, and brewing, thus producing clothes, food, and drink for the whole community. We get our clearest ideas of the position of the serfs from the ancient descriptions of manors, which give an exact account of what each member of a particular community owed to the lord. For example, we find that the abbot of Peterborough held a manor upon which Hugh Miller and seventeen other serfs, mentioned by name were required to work for him three days in each week during the whole year, except one week at Christmas, one at Easter, and one at Whitsuntide. Each serf was to give the lord abbot one bushel of wheat and eighteen sheaves of oats, three hens, and one cock yearly, and five eggs at. Easter. If he sold his horse for more than ten shillings, he was to give the said abbot fourpence. 407. Slight Use of Money. One of the most remarkable characteristics of the manor was its independence of the rest of the world. It produced nearly everything that its members needed and might almost have continued to exist indefinitely without communication with those who lived beyond its bounds. Little or no money was necessary, for the peasants paid what was due to the lord in the form of labor and farm products. They also gave one another the necessary help and found little occasion for buying and selling. 250 General History of Europe There was almost no opportunity to better their condition, and life must have gone on for generation after generation in a weary routine. Their existence was not merely monotonous, it was wretched. The food was coarse and there was little variety, as the peasants did not even take pains to raise fresh vegetables. The houses usually had but one room, which was poorly lighted by a single little window and had no chimney. 408. Barter replaced by Money Transactions; Decline of Serfdom. The increased use of money in the twelfth and thir- teenth centuries, which came with the awakening trade and industry, tended to break up the manor. The habit of trading one thing for another without the employment of money began to disappear. As time went on, neither the lord nor the serf was satisfied with the old system, which had answered well enough in the time of Charlemagne. The serfs, on the one hand, began to obtain money by the sale of their products in the markets of neighboring towns. They soon found it more profitable to pay the lord a certain sum instead of working for him, for they could then turn their whole attention to their own farms. The landlords, on the other hand, found it to their advantage to accept money in place of the services of their tenants. With this money the landlord could hire laborers to cultivate his fields and could buy the luxuries which were brought to his notice as commerce increased. So it came about that the lords gradually gave up their control over the peasants. A serf might also gain his liberty by running away from his manor to a town. If he remained undiscovered, or was unclaimed by his lord for a year and a day, he became a freeman. 1 1 The slow extinction of serfdom in western Europe appears to have begun as early as the twelfth century. A very general emancipation had taken place in France by the end of the thirteenth century (and in England somewhat later), though there were still some serfs in France when the Revolution came in 1789. Germany was far more back- ward in this respect. We find the peasants revolting against their hard lot in Luther's time, and it was not until the nineteenth century that the serfs were freed in Prussia. Medieval Life in Country and Town II. The Towns and Guilds 251 409. Importance of Town Life. It is hardly necessary to point out that the gradual reappearance of town life in western Europe is of the greatest interest to the student of history. The A Castle with a Village below it A village was pretty sure to grow up near the castle of a-powerful lord and might gradually become a large town cities had been the centers of Greek and Roman civilization, and in our own time they dominate the life, culture, and business enter- prise of the world. Were they to disappear, our whole life, even in the country, would necessarily undergo a profound change and tend to become primitive again like that of the age of Charlemagne. 410. Origin of the Medieval Towns. A great part of the medieval towns appear to have originated on the manors of feudal lords or about a monastery or castle. The French name for towns, 252 General History of Europe ville, is derived from "vill," the manor or villa, and we use this old Roman word when we call a town Jacksonville or Harris- ville. The need of protection was probably the usual reason for establishing a town with walls about it, so that the townspeople and the neighboring country people might find safety within it when attacked by neighboring feudal lords. 411. Compactness of a Medieval Town. The way in which a medieval town was built seems to justify this conclusion. It was generally crowded and compact compared with its more luxurious Roman predecessors. Aside from the market place there were few or no open spaces. There were no amphitheaters or public baths as in the Roman cities. The streets were often mere alleys, over which the jutting stories of the high houses almost met. The high, thick wall that surrounded it prevented its extending easily and rapidly as our cities do nowadays. 412. Townsmen originally Serfs. All towns outside of Italy were small in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, and, like the manors on which they had grown up, they had little com- merce as yet with the outside world. They produced almost all that their inhabitants needed except the farm products which came from the neighboring country. There was likely to be little expansion as long as the town remained under the absolute control of the lord or monastery upon whose land it was situated. The townspeople were scarcely more than serfs, in spite of the fact that they lived within a wall and were traders and artisans in- stead of farmers. They had to pay irritating dues to their lord, just as if they still formed a farming community. With the increase of trade (§§414-418) came the longing for greater freedom. For when new and attractive commodities began to be brought from the East and the South, the people of the towns were encouraged to make things which they could exchange at some neighboring fair for the products of distant lands. But no sooner did the townsmen begin to engage in manufacturing and to enter into relations with the outside world than they became aware that they were subject to exactions and restrictions which rendered progress impossible. Street in Quimper, France None of the streets in even the oldest European towns look just as they did in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, but here and there, as in this town of Brittany, one can still get some idea of the narrow, cramped streets and over- hanging houses and the beautiful cathedral crowded in among them Medieval Life in Country and Town 253 Consequently, during the twelfth century there were many in- surrections of the towns against their lords, and there was a gen- eral demand that the lords should grant the townsmen charters in which the rights of both parties should be definitely stated. These charters were written contracts between the lord and the town government. 413. The Guilds. The tradesmen in the medieval towns were at once manufacturers and merchants ; that is, they made, as well as offered for sale, the articles which they kept in their shops. Those who belonged to a particular trade— the bakers, the butch- ers, the sword-makers, the armorers, etc.— formed unions or guilds to protect their special interests. The oldest statutes of a guild in Paris are those of the candle-makers, which go back to 1061. The number of trades differed greatly in different towns, but the guilds all had the same object— to prevent anyone from prac- ticing a trade who had not been duly admitted to the union. A young man had to spend several years in learning his trade. During this time he lived in the house of a " master workman" as an "apprentice," but received no remuneration. He then became a "journeyman" and could earn wages, although he was still allowed to work only for master workmen and not directly for the public. A simple trade might be learned in three years, but to become a goldsmith one must be an apprentice for ten years. The number of apprentices that a master workman might employ was strictly limited, in order that the journeymen might not become too numerous. The way in which each trade was to be practiced was carefully regulated, as well as the time that should be spent in work each, day. The system of guilds discouraged enterprise but maintained uniform standards everywhere. Had it not been for these unions the defenseless, isolated workmen, serfs as they had formerly been, would have found it impossible to secure freedom and municipal independence from the feudal lords who had formerly been their masters. 254 General History of Europe III. Business in the Later Middle Ages 414. Revival of Business. The chief reason for the growth of the towns and their increasing prosperity was a great develop- ment of trade throughout western Europe. Commerce had pretty much disappeared with the decline of the Roman roads and the general disorganization produced by the barbarian invasions. In the early Middle Ages there were no officials whose business it was to keep up the ancient Roman thoroughfares. The great network of highways from Persia to Britain fell apart when independent nobles or small isolated communities took the place of a world empire. All trade languished, for there was little demand for articles of luxury and there was but little money to buy what we should consider the comforts of life ; even the nobility lived uncom- fortably enough in their dreary and rudely furnished castles. 415. Italian Cities trade with the Orient. In Italy, however, trade does not seem to have altogether ceased. Venice, Genoa, Amain, and other towns appear to have developed a considerable Mediterranean commerce even before the Crusades. The Italian cities established trading stations in the East and carried on a direct traffic with the caravans which brought to the shores of the Mediterranean the products of Arabia, Persia, India, and the Spice Islands. 416. Commerce stimulates Industry. So long as the manor system prevailed and each man was occupied in producing only what he and the other people on the estate needed, there was nothing to send abroad and nothing to exchange for luxuries. But when merchants began to come with tempting articles, the mem- bers of a community were encouraged to produce a surplus of goods above what they themselves needed and to sell or exchange this surplus for commodities coming from a distance. Merchants and artisans gradually directed their energies toward the produc- tion of what others wished as well as what was needed by the little group to which they belonged. 417. The Luxuries of the East introduced into Europe. 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The Spanish Conquests in America. Cortes began the Spanish conquests in the western world by undertaking the sub- jugation of the Aztec empire in Mexico in 15 19. A few years later Pizarro established the Spanish power in Peru. Spain now superseded Portugal as a maritime power, and her importance in the sixteenth century is to be attributed largely to the wealth which came to her from her possessions in the New World. By the end of the century the Spanish Main — that is, the northern coast of South America — was much frequented by ad- venturous seamen, who combined in about equal parts the occu- pations of merchant, slaver, and pirate. Many of these hailed from English ports, and it is to them that England owes the beginning of her commercial greatness. The exploration of the globe and the conquest, by European nations, of peoples beyond the sea led finally to the vast coloniza- tion of modern times, which has caused many wars but has served at the same time to spread European ideas throughout the world. QUESTIONS I. Describe the development of Italian towns during the Hundred Years' War. How was Italy divided in the fourteenth century? Give a picture of Venice at the height of her power. Describe the Italian despots. Describe Florence under the rule of the Medici. Give an ac- count of the rebuilding of Rome. Describe St. Peter's and the Vatican Palace. II. Give a brief account of Renaissance art in Italy. III. What geographical discoveries were made before 1500? What effects did explorations of this period have on commerce? What impor- tant part did the spice trade play in the exploration of the globe? What led Columbus to try to reach the Indies by sailing westward? BOOK VI. THE PROTESTANT REVOLT AND THE WARS OF RELIGION CHAPTER XXIV EMPEROR CHARLES V AND HIS VAST REALMS I. How Italy became the Battle Ground of the European Powers 504. Charles VIII of France invades Italy. Louis XI of France, who had done so much to strengthen the kingly power, was succeeded by his son, Charles VIII (1483-1498), who had little of his father's sagacity. Charles dreamed of being a great conqueror, and his first step was to invade Italy on the ground that the kingdom of Naples belonged rightly to his house be- cause of an ancient claim dating back a couple of centuries. The Italian towns did little to oppose the army of the French king, and he actually got control of Naples for a short time. The ruler of Naples was a Spanish monarch, Ferdinand of Aragon, who had no more right to it than Charles. Charles's troops, however, became demoralized by the excellent wines and other pleasures of southern Italy, his enemies began to combine against him, and he was glad to escape with the loss of only a single battle from the land he had hoped to conquer. He died three years later, but the results of his seemingly foolish expedition were very important. 505. Results of the Expedition of Charles VIII. In the first place, it was clear that the Italian towns did not constitute a nation which would combine to repulse invaders. From this time on, therefore, France, Spain, Austria, and the German emperors undertook successive expeditions with the object of bringing 300 Emperor Charles V and his Vast Realms 301 various portions of the Italian peninsula under their sway. Spain and Austria were particularly successful in this, and Italy re- mained largely under foreign rule down to the latter part of the Court of the Palace at Blois The expedition of Charles VIII to Italy called the attention of French architects to the beautiful Renaissance style used there. As cannon had by this time begun to render the old kind of castles with thick walls and towers useless as a means of defense, the French kings began to construct magnifi- cent palaces, of which this is an excellent example nineteenth century, when it was unified under a single ruler and finally became the independent nation it is today. 506. Spread of Italian Art. In the second place, the French learned to admire the art and culture of Italy. The nobles began to change their feudal castles, which since the invention of gun- powder were no longer impregnable, into luxurious palaces and country houses. The new scholarship of Italy also took root and flourished not only in France but in England and Germany as well, and Greek began to be studied outside of Italy. Conse- quently, just as Italy was becoming, politically, the victim of foreign aggressions, it was also losing, never to regain, that 302 General History of Europe intellectual leadership which it had enjoyed since the revival of interest in Latin and Greek literature — the so-called Renaissance, spoken of above (§§454, 485). 507. Francis I. Francis 1, who came to the French throne in 151 5, at the age of twenty, is one of the most famous of the French kings. He was gracious and chivalrous in his ideas of conduct, and his proudest title was "the gentleman king." Like his contemporaries Pope Leo X, son of Lorenzo de' Medici, and Henry VIII of England, he helped artists and men of letters and was interested in fine buildings, of which a striking example is shown on the preceding page. II. How Spain became a Great European Power 508. Arab Civilization in Spain. The Mohammedan conquest served to make the history of Spain very different from that of the other states of Europe (§§ 306-307). One of its first and most important results was the conversion of a great part of the inhabitants to Mohammedanism. During the tenth century, which was so dark a period in the rest of Europe, the Arab civilization in Spain reached its highest development and exercised its in- fluence on Christian Europe to the north. Cordova, with its half million of inhabitants, its stately palaces, its university, its three thousand mosques, and its three hundred public baths, was perhaps unrivaled at that period in the whole world. 509. The Rise of New Christian Kingdoms in Spain. But the Christians were destined to reconquer the peninsula. As early as the year 1000 (see map, p. 220) several small Christian king- doms — Castile, Aragon, and Navarre — had come into existence in the northern part of Spain. Castile, in particular, began to push back the Mohammedans and, in 1085, reconquered Toledo from them. By 1250, the long war of the Christians against the Mohammedans, which fills the medieval annals of Spain, had been so successfully prosecuted that Castile extended to the south coast and included the great towns of Cordova and Seville. The Christian kingdom of Portugal was already as large as it is today. Emperor Charles V and his Vast Realms 3°3 The Moors, as the Spanish Mohammedans were called, held out for two centuries more in the mountainous kingdom of Granada, in the southern part of the peninsula. Not until 149 2 / after a long siege, did the Christians capture the city of Gra- nada and the last vestige of Mohammedan rule in the Spanish peninsula disappear. 510. Spain becomes a European Power. The first Spanish monarch whose name need be mentioned here was Queen Isabella of Castile, who, in 1469, concluded an all-important marriage with Ferdinand, the heir of the crown of Aragon. It is with this union of Castile and Aragon that the great importance of Spain in European history begins. For the next hundred years Spain was to enjoy more military power than any other of the European states. In the same year that the conquest of the peninsula was com- pleted, the discoveries of Columbus, made under the auspices of Queen Isabella, opened up sources of undreamed-of wealth beyond the seas. The greatness of Spain in the sixteenth century was largely due to the riches derived from her American possessions. The shameless and cruel looting of the Mexican and Peruvian cities by Cortes and Pizarro, and the silver mines of the New World (§§ 501, 503), enabled Spain to assume, for a time, a position in Europe which her ordinary resources and the produc- tions of her own population would never have permitted. 511. Revival of the Inquisition. Unfortunately, the most in- dustrious, skillful, and thrifty among the inhabitants of Spain— that is, the Moors and the Jews, who well-nigh supported the whole kingdom by their toil— were bitterly persecuted by the Christians. So anxious was Isabella to rid her kingdom of the infidels that she revived the court of the Inquisition, of which an account was given above (§399)- For several decades these Church courts arrested and condemned innumerable persons who were suspected of heresy, and thousands were burned at the stake during this period. These wholesale executions have served to associate Spain especially with the horrors of the Inquisition. 304 General History of Europe III. The Empire of the Hapsburgs under Charles V 512. Charles V's Empire. In the year 1500 a baby was born in the town of Ghent who was destined before he reached the age of twenty to rule, as Emperor Charles V, over more of Europe than anyone since Charlemagne. He owed his vast empire not to any conquests of his own but to an extraordinary series of royal marriages which made him heir to a great part of western Europe. These marriages had been arranged by his grandfather, Maximilian I, of the House of Hapsburg. In order to understand European history since 1500 we must learn something of Maxi- milian and the Hapsburg line. 513. Reasons why the German Kings failed to establish a Strong State. The German kings had failed to create a strong kingdom such as that over which Louis XI of France or Henry VII of England ruled. Their fine title of emperor had made them a great deal of trouble and done them no good, as we have seen (§§345, 346, 356, 357). Their attempts to keep Italy as well as Germany under their power, and the alliance of the mighty bishop of Rome with their enemies, had well-nigh ruined them. Their position was further weakened by the fact that their office was not strictly hereditary. Although the emperors were often succeeded by their sons, each new emperor had to be elected, and those great vassals who controlled the election naturally took care to bind the candidate by solemn promises not to interfere with their privileges and independence. The result was that after the downfall of the Hohenstaufens Germany fell apart into a great number of practically independent states, of which none were very large and some were extremely small. 514. The "Germanies" of the Sixteenth Century. In the sixteenth century there was no such Germany as that which precipitated the World War in 19 14, but only what the French called the "Germanies"; that is, two or three hundred states, which differed greatly from one another in size and character. This one had a duke, that a count, at its head, while others were ruled over by archbishops, bishops, or abbots. There were many Emperor Charles V and his Vast Realms 305 cities, like Nuremberg, Frankfort, and Cologne, just as independ- ent as the great duchies of Bavaria, Wurtemberg, and Saxony. Lastly there were the knights, whose possessions might consist of a single strong castle with a wretched vil- lage lying at its foot. The tiny realms of the knights were often insufficient to support them, and they turned to robbery for a liv- ing and plundered the merchants and towns- people. It is clear that these states, little and big, being all tangled up with one another, would be sure to have frequent disputes among themselves and be constantly fighting one another. The em- peror, as we have seen, was not power- ful enough to keep order, and each ruler had to defend himself when he was attacked. Charles V at the Age of Forty-eight (By Titian) 515. The Imperial Title Hereditary in the House of Austria. The dukes of Austria, belonging to the Hapsburg line, were among the most important of the German princes, and the electors had got into the habit of choosing the emperor from that family. So the imperial title became, to all intents and purposes, hereditary in the Hapsburg line. The Hapsburgs were, however, far more interested in adding to their family domains than in advancing the interests of Germany as a whole. Indeed, the Holy Roman 306 General History of Europe Empire was nearly defunct, and, in the memorable words of Vol- taire, it had ceased to be either holy, or Roman, or an empire. 516. Maximilian and the Hapsburg Marriages. While still a very young man, Maximilian I married Mary of Burgundy, the heiress to the Burgundian realms, which included what we now call Holland and Belgium and portions of eastern France. In this way the House of Austria got a hold on the shores of the North Sea. Mary died in 1482, and her lands were inherited by her infant son, Philip. Maximilian's next matrimonial move was to arrange a marriage between the young Philip and the daughter and heiress of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain. 517. Charles and his Possessions. Philip, Maximilian's son, died in 1506, — six years after his eldest son, Charles, was born, — and his poor wife, Joanna, became insane with grief and was thus incapacitated for ruling. So Charles could look forward to an unprecedented accumulation of glorious titles as soon as his grandfathers, Maximilian of Austria and Ferdinand of Aragon, should pass away. 1 He was soon to be duke of Brabant, mar- grave of Antwerp, count of Holland, archduke of Austria, count of Tyrol, king of Castile, Aragon, and Naples, 2 and of the vast Spanish possessions in America — to mention a few of his more important titles. On the death of his grandfather Ferdinand of Aragon, Charles, a boy of sixteen, became the first "King of Spain," and many were his difficulties in controlling the formerly independent monarchies of which Spain had been built up. 518. Charles elected Emperor (1519). But still further and more perplexing problems were to face Charles before he was 1 Austria Burgundy Castile Aragon Naples, etc. (America) Maximilian I = Mary (d. 1482) Isabella = Ferdinand (d. 15 16) (d. 1519) dau. of Charles (d. 1504) the Bold (d. 1477) Philip (d. 1506) Joanna the Insane (d. 1555) Charles V (d. 1558) Ferdinand (d. 1564) = Anna, heiress to kingdoms Emperor, 1 5 19-15 56 Emperor, 15 56-1 564 of Bohemia and Hungary 2 Naples and Sicily were in the hands of the king of Aragon at this time. Emperor Charles V and his Vast Realms 307 twenty years old. It had long been Maximilian's ambition that his grandson should succeed him upon the imperial throne. After his death in 15 19 the electors finally chose Charles as emperor — the fifth of that name — instead of the rival candidate, Francis I of France. By this election the king of Spain, who had not yet been in Germany and who never learned its language, became its ruler at a critical juncture. 519. Diet at Worms (1520). Germany had a national assembly called the diet, which met at irregular intervals,, now in this town, now in that, for Germany had no capital city. The princes and bishops and towns sent representatives to this assembly. It was this diet that Charles V summoned to meet him on the Rhine, in the ancient town of Worms, when he made his first visit to Germany in 1520. The most important business of the assembly proved to be the consideration of the case of a uni- versity professor, Martin Luther, who was accused of writing heretical books, and who had begun what proved to be the first successful revolt against the powerful medieval Church. QUESTIONS I. What were the results of the Italian expedition of Charles VIII ? II. What were the effects of the Mohammedan conquests of Spain ? Give an account of the expulsion of the Mohammedans from the peninsula. How did Spain become a European power? Describe the revival of the Inquisition in Spain. III. How was Charles V's vast empire accumulated? Why did the German kings fail to build up a strong, unified state ? CHAPTER XXV MARTIN LUTHER AND THE REVOLT OF GERMANY AGAINST THE PAPACY I. The Question of Reforming the Church ; Erasmus 520. Break-up of the Medieval Church into Catholics and Protestants. By far the most important event during the reign of Charles V was the revolt of a considerable portion of western Europe against the popes. The medieval Church, which was described in a previous chapter, was in this way broken up, and Protestant churches appeared in various European countries which declared themselves entirely independent of the Pope and rejected a number of the religious beliefs which the medieval Church had taught. With the exception of England all those countries that lay within the ancient bounds of the Roman Empire — Italy, France, Spain, Portugal, as well as southern Germany and Austria — continued to be faithful to the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. On the other hand, the rulers of the northern German states, of England, Holland, Denmark, Norway, and Sweden sooner or later became Protestants. In this way Europe was divided into two great religious parties, and this led to terrible wars and cruel persecutions, which fill the annals of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. 521. Sources of Discontent with the Church. The revolt be- gan in Germany. The Germans were at this time still good Catho- lics and accepted all the beliefs of the Church, but they were seriously troubled by the fact that the popes were so frequently Italians and that the amount of church contributions collected in Germany was so large. Great German prelates, like the arch- bishops of Mayence, Treves, and Cologne, contributed generously 308 Martin Luther and the Protestant Revolt 309 to the papal treasury upon having their election confirmed by the Church authorities at Rome. The Pope enjoyed the right to fill the important church offices in Germany and sometimes appointed Italians, who received the revenue without going to Germany or performing the duties attached to the office. One person often held several church offices. At first, however, no one thought of withdrawing from the Church or of attempting to destroy the power of the Pope. All that the Germans wanted was that the contributions which flowed toward Rome should be lessened, and that the clergy should be upright, earnest men who should conscientiously perform their religious duties. 522. Erasmus ( 1465-1536). Among the critics of the Church in the early days of Charles V's reign the most famous and in- fluential was Erasmus. He was a Dutchman by birth, but spent his life in various other countries — France, England, Italy, and Germany. He was a citizen of the world and in correspond- ence with literary men everywhere, so that his letters give us an excellent idea of the feeling of the times. He was greatly interested in the Greek and Latin authors, but his main purpose in life was to make people more intelligent, especially in religious matters. One of his best-known books was his Praise of Folly, in which he held up to ridicule many of the practices and popular beliefs which Luther later attacked. He believed that superstition would certainly disappear as people became better educated. It seemed to Erasmus that if everybody could read the Bible, especially the New Testament, for himself, it would be a great advantage. Erasmus believed, moreover, that the time was favorable for reform. As he looked about him he beheld intelligent rulers on the thrones of Europe, men interested in books and art and ready to help scholars and writers. There were Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France. Then the Pope himself, Leo X, the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent, was a friend and admirer of Erasmus and doubtless sympathized with many of his views. The youthful Charles V was a devout Catholic, but he too agreed 310 General History of Europe that there were many evils to be remedied. So it seemed to Erasmus that the prospects were excellent for a peaceful reform ; but, instead of its coming, his latter years were embittered by Luther's revolt and all the ill-feelings and dissensions that it created. II. Martin Luther and his Teachings 523. Early Years of Luther. Martin Luther was born in 1483. He was the son of a poor miner. His father, however, was deter- mined that his son should be a lawyer, and so Martin was sent to the University of Erfurt. After he finished his college course and was about to take up the study of the law he suddenly decided to become a monk. He was much worried about his soul and feared that nothing he could do would save him from hell. He finally found comfort in the thought that in order to be saved he had only to believe sincerely that God would save him, and that he could not pos- sibly save himself by trying to be good. He gained the respect of the head of the monastery, and when Frederick the Wise of Saxony was looking about for teachers for his new university at Wittenberg, Luther was recommended as a good person to teach Aristotle ; so he became a professor. As time went on Luther began to be suspicious of some of the things that were taught in the university. He finally decided that Aristotle was, after all, only an ancient heathen who knew nothing about Christianity, and that the students had no business to study his works. He urged them to rely instead upon the Bible. 524. Justification by Faith. Luther's main point was that man was so corrupt that he could do nothing pleasing to God. He could only repent his sins and have faith in God's promises. It was this faith that justified the repentant sinner in God's sight. So Luther came to regard the "good works" recommended by the Church — such as the frequent attendance at Mass, the repetition of prayers, pilgrimages, and the veneration of relics — as unneces- sary for salvation and sometimes misleading. AeTHERNA IRSE SVAE MENTIS SLWVLACHRA IVTHEFiyS ExPFiMXTXT W1TVS CERA LVCAE OCCIDVOS | -AA-D XX Luther as a Monk. (By Cranach, 1520) None of the portraits of Luther are very satisfactory. His friend Cranach was not, like Holbein the Younger, a great portrait painter. This cut shows the reformer when his revolt against the Church was just beginning. He was thirty-seven years old and still in the dress of an Augustinian friar, which he soon abandoned Portrait of Erasmus. (By Holbein) This wonderful picture by Hans Holbein the Younger (149 7-1 543) hangs in the Louvre gallery at Paris. We have every reason to suppose that it is an excellent portrait, for Holbein lived in Basel a considerable part of his life and knew Erasmus well. The artist was, moreover, celebrated for his skill in catching the likeness when depicting the human face. He later painted several well-known Englishmen, including Henry VIII and his little son, Edward VI Martin Luther and the Protestant Revolt 311 Luther's teachings did not attract much attention until the year 151 7, when he was thirty-four years old. Then something occurred to give him considerable prominence. 525. Luther's Theses on Indulgences (1517). The fact has already been mentioned that the popes had undertaken the re- building of St. Peter's, the great central church of Christendom (§§ 49 I ~492). The cost of the enterprise was very great, and in order to collect contributions for the purpose Pope Leo X ar- ranged for an extensive distribution of indulgences 1 in Germany. In October, 15 17, Tetzel, a Dominican monk, began preach- ing indulgences in the neighborhood of Wittenberg and making claims for them which appeared to Luther irreconcilable with Christianity as he understood it. He therefore, in accordance with the custom of the time, wrote out a series of ninety- five statements in regard to indulgences. These theses, as they were called, he posted on the church door and invited anyone interested in the matter to enter into a discussion with him on the subject. Luther did not intend to attack the Church and had no expectation of creating a sensation. The theses were in Latin and addressed, therefore, only to learned men. 526. Luther's Address to the German Nobility (1520). Of Luther's popular pamphlets the first really famous one was his Address to the German Nobility, in which he calls upon the rulers of Germany, especially the knights, to carry out a reform of the Church, since he believed that it was vain to wait for the popes and bishops to do so. Luther denied that there was anything so sacred about a clergyman that he could not be dismissed by a ruler if he did not properly perform his holy duties. Luther 1 An indulgence was a pardon, issued usually by the Pope himself, which freed the person to whom it was granted from a part or all of his stiff ering in purgatory. It did not forgive his sins or in any way take the place of true repentance and confession ; it only reduced the punishment which a truly contrite sinner would otherwise have had to endure, either in this world or in purgatory, before he could be admitted to heaven. It is a common mistake of Protestants to suppose that the indulgence was forgiveness granted beforehand for sins to be committed in the future. There is absolutely no foun- dation for this idea. A person proposing to sin could not possibly be contrite in the eyes of the Church, and even if he had secured an indulgence, it would, according to the theologians, have been quite worthless. 312 General History of Europe claimed, moreover, that it was the right and duty of the rulers to punish a churchman who did wrong just as if he were the humblest layman. The Address to the German Nobility closed with a long list of evils which must be done away with before Germany could become prosperous. Luther saw that his view of religion really implied a social revolution. He advocated reducing the monas- teries to a tenth of their number and permitting those monks who were disappointed in the good they got from living in them freely to leave. He pointed out the evils of pilgrimages and of the numerous church holidays, which interfered with daily work. The clergy, he urged, should be permitted to marry and have fam- ilies like other citizens. The universities should be reformed and "the accursed heathen, Aristotle," should be cast out from them. 527. Luther Excommunicated; Burning of the Papal Bull (1520). Luther had long expected to be excommunicated for his criticisms of the beliefs of the Church. But it was not until the autumn of 1520 that a papal bull or decree arrived condemning many of Luther's assertions as heretical and giving him sixty days to recant. The bull irritated many of the German rulers, who were quite willing to have a reformer bold enough to de- nounce evils which they themselves realized well enough. Some of the princes and universities published it, but in many cases it was ignored, and Luther's own ruler, the elector of Saxony, continued to protect his professor. Luther decided that he must make a public protest, and so he summoned his students to witness what he called "a pious reli- gious spectacle." He had a fire built outside the walls of Witten- berg and cast into it Leo X's bull condemning him, and a copy of the Laws of the Church, together with a volume of scholastic theology which he specially disliked. Yet Luther dreaded disorder. He was certainly sometimes reckless and violent in his writings and often said that bloodshed could not be avoided. Yet he always opposed hasty reform. He was reluctant to make changes, except in belief. He held that so long as an institution did not actually mislead, it did no harm. Martin Luther and the Protestant Revolt 313 528. Luther summoned to the Diet at Worms (1521). When Charles V arrived in Germany to hold his first diet in 1520, the case of Luther was called to his attention by the papal representa- tive, who exhorted him to outlaw the heretic without further delay. While Charles seemed convinced of Luther's guilt, he could not proceed against him without serious danger. The monk had become a sort of national hero and had the support of the power- ful elector of Saxony. Other princes, who had ordinarily no wish to protect a heretic, felt that Luther's denunciation of the evils in the Church was very gratifying. After much discussion it was finally arranged that Luther should be summoned to Worms and be given an opportunity to face the representatives of the German nation and the emperor and to declare plainly whether he was the author of the heretical books ascribed to him and whether he still clung to the views the Pope had condemned. 529. Luther's Defense. It was not proposed to give Luther any opportunity to defend his beliefs before the diet. He was simply asked whether a pile of Latin and German books and pamphlets placed before him were really his work and whether he would recant what he had written. He confessed that the volumes were his and admitted that his attacks had been overviolent at times. He said, however, that he believed no one could deny that decrees issued in the name of the Pope had sometimes gone against the conscience of good Christians and that the German people in particular had been plundered by church officials. If arguments from the Bible could be found to refute his statements he would gladly recant, but as things stood he could not do otherwise than he was doing. 530. The Edict of Worms (1521). There was now nothing for the emperor to do but to outlaw Luther, who had denied the binding character of the commands of the head of the Church. The Edict of Worms declared Luther an outlaw on the following grounds : that he scorned and vilified the Pope, despised the priesthood and stirred up the laity to dip their hands in the blood of the clergy, denied free will, taught licentiousness, despised au- thority, advocated a brutish existence, and was a menace to 314 General History of Europe Church and State alike. Everyone was forbidden to read or publish Luther's works or to give the heretic food, drink, or shel- ter. Moreover, he was to be seized and delivered to the emperor. So general was the disapproval of the edict that few were willing to pay any attention to it. Charles V immediately left Germany and for nearly ten years was occupied with the govern- ment of Spain and a succession of wars. III. The Revolt against the Papacy begins in Germany 531. Luther begins a New Translation of the Bible. As Luther neared Eisenach upon his way home from Worms he was kidnaped by his friends and conducted to the Wartburg, a castle belonging to the elector of Saxony. Here he was concealed until any danger from the action of the emperor or diet should pass by. His chief occupation during several months of hiding was to begin a new translation of the Bible into German. 532. The Revolt Begins. Hitherto there had been a great deal of talk of reform, but as yet nothing had actually been done. There was no sharp line drawn between the different classes of reformers. All agreed that something should be done to better the Church ; few realized how divergent were the real ends in view. The rulers listened to Luther because they were glad of an excuse to get control of the Church property and its revenues. The peasants listened because he put the Bible into their hands and they found nothing there that proved that they ought to go on paying the old dues to their lords. While Luther was quietly living in the Wartburg, translating the Bible, people began to put his teachings into practice. Some of the monks and nuns left their monasteries in his own town of Witten- berg. Some of them married, which seemed — in view of the pledges they had voluntarily taken — a very wicked thing to all those who held to the old beliefs. The students and citizens tore down the images of the saints in the churches and even went so far as to oppose the celebration of the Mass, the chief Catholic sacrament. Martin Luther and the Protestant Revolt 315 Luther was greatly troubled by news of this disorderly reform. He did not approve of sudden and violent changes and left his hiding place to protest. He preached a series of sermons in Wit- tenberg in which he urged that all alterations in religious services and practices should be introduced by the government and not by the people. But his advice was not heeded. 533. The Peasant War. In 1525 the serfs rose, in the name of "God's justice," to avenge their wrongs. Luther was not re- sponsible for the civil war which followed, though he had cer- tainly helped to stir up discontent. Some of the demands of the peasants were perfectly reasonable. The most popular expression of their needs was the dignified "Twelve Articles." In these they claimed that the Bible did not sanction any of the dues which the lords demanded of them, and that, since they were Christians like their lords, they should no longer be held as serfs. There were, however, leaders who were more violent and who proposed to kill the "godless" priests and nobles. Hundreds of castles and monasteries were destroyed by the frantic peasantry, and some of the nobility were murdered with shocking cruelty. Luther tried to induce the peasants, with whom, as the son of a peasant, he was at first inclined to sympathize, to remain quiet j but when his warnings proved vain he turned against them. He declared that they were guilty of the most fearful crimes and urged the government to put down the insurrection without pity. 534. Cruel Suppression of the Peasant Revolt. Luther's ad- vice was followed with terrible exactness by the German rulers, and the nobility took fearful revenge on the peasants. In the summer of 1525 their chief leader was defeated and killed, and it is estimated that ten thousand peasants were put to death, many with the utmost cruelty. Few of the rulers or landlords introduced any reforms, and the misfortunes due to the destruc- tion of property and to the despair of the peasants cannot be imagined. The old exactions of the lords of the manors were in no way lightened, and the situation of the serfs for centuries following the great revolt was worse rather than better. 316 General History of Europe IV. Division of Germany into Catholic and Protestant Countries 535. Religious Division of North and South Germany. Charles V was occupied at this time by his quarrels with Francis I, and was in no position to return to Germany and undertake to enforce the Edict of Worms against Luther and his followers. Germany, as we have seen, was divided into hundreds of practi- cally independent countries, and the various electors, princes, towns, and knights naturally could not agree as to what could best be done in the matter of reforming the Church. Southern Germany decided for the Pope and remains Catholic down to the present day. Many of the Northern rulers, on the other hand, adopted the new teachings, and finally all of them fell away from the papacy and became Protestant. Since there was no one powerful . enough to decide the great question for the whole of Germany, the diet which met at Speyer in 1526 determined that pending the summoning of a Church council each ruler should "so live, reign, and conduct himself as he would be willing to answer before God and His Imperial Majesty." For the moment, then, the various German govern- ments were left to determine the religion of their subjects. 536. Origin of the Term "Protestants." The emperor, Charles V, commanded the diet, which again met at Speyer in 1529, to order the enforcement of the Edict of Worms against the heretics. The princes and towns that had accepted Luther's ideas drew up a protest, in which they claimed that the majority had no right to abrogate the edict of the former diet of Speyer, which had been passed unanimously and which all had solemnly pledged themselves to observe. Those who signed this appeal were called from their action Protestants. Thus originated the name which came to be generally applied to those who do not accept the rule and teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. 537. Diet at Augsburg and the Augsburg Confession. Ever since the diet at Worms the emperor had resided in Spain, Martin Luther and the Protestant Revolt 317 busied with a succession of wars carried on with the king of France. But in 1530 he found himself at peace for the moment, and came to Germany to hold a brilliant diet of his German sub- jects at Augsburg, in the hope of settling the religious problem, which, however, he understood very imperfectly. He ordered the Protestants to draw up a statement of exactly what they believed, which should serve as a basis for discussion. Melanchthon, Luther's most famous friend and colleague, was intrusted with this delicate task. The Augsburg Confession, as his declaration was called, is a historical document of great importance. Melanchthon 's gentle disposition led him to make the differences between his belief and that of the old Church seem as few and slight as possible. He showed that both parties held the same fundamental views of Christianity. But he defended the rejection on the part of the Protestants of a number of the practices of the Roman Catho- lics, such as the celibacy of the clergy and the observance of fast days, 538. Charles V's Attempt at Pacification. Certain theologians who had been loud in their denunciations of Luther were ordered by the emperor to prepare a refutation of the Protestant views. Charles V declared the Catholic statement to be "Christian and judicious" and commanded the Protestants to accept it. They were to cease troubling the Catholics and were to give back all the monasteries and Church property which they had seized. The emperor agreed, however, to urge the Pope to call a council to meet within a year. This, he hoped, would be able to settle all differences and reform the Church according to the views of the more liberal Catholics. 539. The Peace of Augsburg (1555). For ten years after the emperor left Augsburg he was kept busy in southern Europe by new wars. In order to secure the assistance of the Protes- tants he was forced to let them go their own way. Meanwhile the number of rulers who accepted Luther's teachings gradually increased. Finally, there was a brief war between Charles and the Protestant princes, but there was little fighting. 318 General History of Europe In 1555 the religious Peace of Augsburg was arranged. Its provisions are memorable. Each German prince and each town and knight directly under the emperor was to be at liberty to make a choice between the beliefs of the venerable Catholic Church and those embodied in the Augsburg Confession. If, however, an ecclesiastical prince — an archbishop, bishop, or ab- bot — declared himself a Protestant, he must surrender his pos- sessions to the Church. Every German was either to conform to the religious practices of his particular state or emigrate from it. Everyone was supposed to be either a Catholic or a Lutheran, and no provision was made for any other belief. 540. No Freedom of Conscience. It is noteworthy that this religious peace in no way established freedom of conscience in religious matters, except for the rulers. The arrangement which permitted the various princes to determine the religion of their subjects was far more natural in those days than it would be in ours, for the Church and the State had been closely associated since the last centuries of the Roman Empire. No one as yet dreamed that it was possible to leave people to make up their own minds on religious matters without interference on the part of the government. QUESTIONS I. What dissatisfactions with the Church grew up among the German Catholics ? Contrast Erasmus's ideas of reform with those of Luther. II. Tell something of Luther's early life. How did Luther's theory of salvation differ from the orthodox view? What were the famous theses of Luther? How did they differ in their appeal from his Address to the German Nobility ? On what grounds was Luther excommuni- cated ? What was Luther's defense at Worms ? III. Describe some of the ways in which the revolt began. What was the Peasant War? How was it put down? IV. What is the origin of the term " Protestants"? How was Ger- many divided on the religious question ? What was the Augsburg Con- fession} What were the provisions of the Peace of Augsburg? What were its limitations? CHAPTER XXVI THE PROTESTANT REVOLT IN SWITZERLAND AND ENGLAND I. Zwingli and Calvin 541. Origin of the Swiss Confederation. For at least a cen- tury after Luther's death the great issue between Catholics and Protestants dominates the history of all the countries with which we have to do, except Italy and Spain, where Protestantism never took permanent root. In Switzerland, England, France, and Hol- land the revolt against the medieval Church produced discord, wars, and profound changes, which must be understood in order to follow the later development of these countries. We turn first to Switzerland, lying in the midst of the great chain of the Alps which extends from the Mediterranean to Vienna. During the Middle Ages the region destined to be in- cluded in the Swiss Confederation formed a part of the Holy Roman Empire and was scarcely distinguishable from the rest of southern Germany. As early as the thirteenth century the three "forest" cantons on the shores of the winding Lake of Lucern formed a union to protect their liberties against the encroachments of their neighbors the Hapsburgs. It was about this tiny nucleus that Switzerland gradually consolidated. Lucern and the free towns of Zurich and Bern soon joined the Swiss league. By brave fighting, the Swiss were able to frustrate the renewed efforts of the Hapsburgs to subjugate them. Various districts in the neighborhood joined the Swiss union in succession, and even the region lying on the Italian slopes of the Alps was brought under its control. Gradually the bonds between the members of the Swiss union and the Empire were 3 r 9 320 General History of Europe broken. In 1499 they were finally freed from the jurisdiction of the emperor, and Switzerland became a practically independent country. Although the original union had been made up of German-speaking people, considerable districts had been annexed The Swiss Confederation in the Sixteenth Century in which Italian or French was spoken. 1 The Swiss did not, therefore, form a compact, well-defined nation, and consequently for some centuries their confederation was weak and ill-organized. 542. Zwingli leads Revolt against the Old Church. In Switzerland the first leader of the revolt against the Church was a young priest named Zwingli, who was a year younger than Luther. He lived in the famous monastery of Einsiedln, near 1 This condition has not changed ; all Swiss laws are still proclaimed in three languages. Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England 321 the Lake of Zurich, which was the center of pilgrimages on ac- count of a wonder-working image. "Here," he says, "I began to preach the Gospel of Christ in the year 15 16, before anyone in my locality had so much as heard the name of Luther." But the original cantons about the Lake of Lucern, which feared that they might lose the great influence that, in spite of their small size, they had hitherto enjoyed, were ready to fight for the old faith. The first armed collision between the Swiss Protestants and Catholics took place at Kappel in 1531, and Zwingli fell in the battle. The various cantons and towns never came to an agreement in religious matters, and Switzerland is still part Catholic and part Protestant. 543. Calvin ,(1509-1564) and the Presbyterian Church. Far more important than Zwingli's teachings, especially for England and America, was the work of Calvin, which was carried on in the ancient city of Geneva, on the very outskirts of the Swiss Confederation. It was Calvin who organized the Presbyterian Church and formulated its beliefs. Born in northern France in 1509, he belonged to the second generation of Protestants. He was early influenced by the Lutheran teachings, which had al- ready found their way into France. A persecution of the Protes- tants under Francis I drove him out of the country. At Basel he issued his great work, The Institute of Christianity. It was the first orderly exposition of the principles of Christianity from a Protestant standpoint and formed a convenient manual for study and discussion. Calvin was called to Geneva about 1540 and intrusted with the task of reforming the town, which had secured its independ- ence of the duke of Savoy. Calvin intrusted the management of church affairs to the ministers and the elders, or presbyters', hence the name " Presbyterian." The Protestantism which found its way into France was that of Calvin, not that of Luther, and the same may be said of Scotland (§ 575). 322 General History of Europe II. How England fell away from the Papacy 544. Wolsey's Idea of the Balance of Power. Henry VIII came to the English throne when he was eighteen years old. His chief adviser, Cardinal Wolsey, deserves great credit for having constantly striven to discourage his sovereign's ambition to take part in the wars on the Continent. The argument of the cardinal that Eng- land could become great by peace bet- ter than by war was a momentous dis- covery. Peace, he felt, would be best secured by main- taining the balance of power on the Continent, so that no ruler should be- come dangerous by unduly extending his sway. This idea of the balance of power came to be recognized later by the European, countries as a very important consideration in determining their policy. But Wolsey was not long to be permitted to put his enlightened ideas into practice. 545. Henry VIIFs Divorce Case. Henry had married Cath- erine of Aragon, the aunt of Charles V. Only one of their chil- dren, Mary, survived to grow up. As time went on Henry was very anxious to have a son and heir, for he was fearful lest a woman might not be permitted to succeed to the throne. More- over, he had tired of Catherine, who was considerably older than he. His anxiety to rid himself of Catherine was greatly ^'ta^^ly Henry VIII Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England 323 increased by the appearance at court of a black-eyed girl of six- teen, named Anne Boleyn, with whom the king fell in love. Wolsey's failure to persuade the Pope to permit a divorce ex- cited the king's anger, and, with rank ingratitude for his minister's great services, Henry drove him from office (1529) and seized his property. From a life of wealth which was fairly royal, Wol- sey was precipitated into extreme poverty and soon died. Henry induced Parliament to cut off some of the Pope's revenue from England, but as this did not persuade Clement VII to grant the divorce, Henry lost patience and secretly married Anne Boleyn, relying on getting a divorce from Catherine later. Parliament, which did whatever Henry VIII asked, declared Henry's marriage with Catherine unlawful and that with Anne Boleyn legal. 546. How Henry VIII threw off the Papal Authority. In 1534 the English Parliament completed the revolt of the English Church from the Pope by assigning to the king the right to ap- point all the English prelates, and to enjoy all the revenues of the Church. In the Act of Supremacy Parliament declared the king to be "the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England," and that he should enjoy all the powers which the title naturally carried with it. 547. Henry VIII no Protestant. It must be carefully ob- served that Henry VIII was not a Protestant in the Lutheran sense of the word. He was led, it is true, by Clement VII 's refusal to declare his first marriage illegal, to break the bond between the English and the Roman Church and to induce the English clergy and Parliament to acknowledge the king as su- preme head in the religious, as well as in the worldly, interests of the country. Important as this was, it did not lead Henry to accept the teachings of Protestant leaders, like Luther, Zwingli, or Calvin, and he cruelly persecuted some of their followers. Henry, however, authorized a new translation of the Bible into English. A fine edition of this was printed (1539), and every parish was ordered to obtain a copy and place it in the parish church, where all the people could readily make use of it. 324 General History of Europe 548. Dissolution of the English Monasteries. Henry wanted money; some of the English abbeys were rich, and the monks were quite unable to defend themselves against the charges which were brought against them. A large number of scandalous tales were easily collected by Henry's agents, some of which may have been true. The monks were some- times indolent and sometimes violated their pledges to lead a good life. Nevertheless as a body they were kind landlords, hospitable to the stranger, and good to the poor. The royal commissioners took possession of the monas- teries and their lands and sold every article upon which they could lay hands, including the bells and even the lead on the roofs. The picturesque re- mains of some of the great abbey churches are still among the chief objects of interest to the sight-seer in England. 549. Henry VIII's Third Marriage and the Birth of Edward VI. Henry's family troubles by no means came to an end with his marriage to Anne Boleyn. Of her too he soon tired, and three years after their marriage he had her executed on a series of monstrous charges. The very next day he married his third wife, Jane Seymour, who was the mother of his son and suc- cessor, Edward VI. It was arranged that should Edward die leaving no heirs to the throne he should be succeeded by Mary, Henry's daughter by his first wife, Catherine, and that Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, should be next in line of succes- sion. Henry's death in 1547 left the great problem of Protes- tantism and Catholicism to be settled by his son and daughters. \ Edward VI. (By Holbein) This interesting sketch was made be- fore Edward became king; he could have been scarcely six years old, as Holbein died in 1543 Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England 325 III. England becomes Protestant 550. Edward VFs Ministers introduce Protestant Practices. While the revolt of England against the papacy was carried through by the government at a time when the greater part of the nation was still Catholic, there was undoubtedly, under Henry VIII, an ever-increasing number of aggressive and ardent. Protestants who approved the change. During the six years of the boy Edward's reign — he died in 1553 at the age of sixteen — those in charge of the government favored the Protestant party and did what they could to change the faith of the people by bringing Protestant teachers from the Continent. A general destruction of all the sacred images was ordered ; even the beautiful stained glass, the glory of the cathedrals, was demolished, because it often represented saints and angels. The king was to appoint bishops, and Protestants began to be put into the high offices of the Church. Parliament decreed that thereafter the clergy should be free to marry. 551. Queen Mary (1553-1558) and the Catholic Restoration. Edward VI was succeeded in 1553 by his half sister Mary, the daughter of Catherine, who had been brought up in the Catholic faith and held firmly to it. Her ardent hope of bringing her king- dom back once more to her religion did not seem altogether ill- founded, for the majority of the people were still Catholics at heart, and many who were not Catholics disapproved of the policy of Edward's ministers, who had removed abuses "in the devil's own way, by breaking in pieces." The Catholic cause appeared, moreover, to be strengthened by Mary's marriage with the Spanish prince, Philip II, the son of the orthodox Charles V. But although Philip later distinguished himself, as we shall see, by the merciless way in which he strove to put down heresy within his own realms, the English took care that he should have no hand in the government nor by any means be permitted to succeed his wife on the English throne. Mary succeeded in bringing about a nominal reconciliation be- tween England and the Roman Church. In 1554 the papal legate 326 General History of Europe restored to the communion of the Catholic Church the " Kneeling " Parliament, which theoretically, of course, represented the nation. During the last four years of Mary's reign the most serious religious persecution in English history occurred. No less than --_ ./, \: ^^oK^Bfefc^'v ■' - ; .•' {■Hil *~ 1 ™fe mM BK "^ ~ PIS JSfir <3 ^ -*^«iSH ... mk Queen Mary. (By Antonio Moro) This lifelike portrait, in the Madrid collection, is by a favorite painter of Philip II, Mary's husband. It was painted about 1554, and one gets the same impressions of Mary's character from the portrait that one does from reading about her two hundred and seventy-seven persons were put to death for denying the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. The ma- jority of the victims were humble artisans and husbandmen. It was Mary's intention and belief that the heretics sent to the stake would furnish a terrible warning to the Protestants and tend to check the spread of the new teachings, but Catholicism was not promoted ; on the contrary, doubters were only convinced Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England 327 of the deep earnestness of the Protestants who could die so bravely for their faith. The Catholics, in turn, later suffered serious persecution under Elizabeth and James I, the Protestant successors of Mary. Death was the penalty fixed in many cases for those who obstinately refused to recognize the monarch as the rightful head of the Eng- lish Church, and heavy fines were imposed for the failure to attend Protestant worship. Two hundred Catholic priests are said to have been executed under Elizabeth, Mary's sister, who suc- ceeded her on the throne ; others were tortured or perished miser- ably in prison. QUESTIONS I. Give an account of the Swiss Confederation. What part did Zwingli play in the revolt against the Church? Give a brief account of John Calvin. II. What was the cause of the withdrawal of England from the con- trol of the Pope ? How did Henry VIII prove he was not a Protestant ? Give an account of the dissolution of the monasteries. III. Under what ruler did England first become a Protestant coun- try ? Give an account of the Catholic restoration under Queen Mary. CHAPTER XXVII THE WARS OF RELIGION I. The Council of Trent; the Jesuits 552. Council of Trent ( 1545-1563). In the preceding chapters we have seen how northern Germany, England, and portions of Switzerland revolted from the papacy and established independent Protestant churches. A great part of western Europe, however, remained faithful to the Pope and to the old beliefs which had been accepted for so many centuries. In order to consider the important matter of reforming the Catholic Church and to settle disputed questions of religious belief a great Church council was summoned by the Pope to meet in Trent, on the boundary of Germany and Italy, in the year 1545. The Council of Trent did not complete its work for nearly twenty years. It naturally condemned the Protestant beliefs so far as they differed from the views held by the Catholics, and it sanctioned those doctrines which the Catholic Church still holds. It accepted the Pope as the head of the Church ; it declared accursed anyone who, like Luther, believed that man would be saved by faith in God's promises alone, for the Church held that man, with God's help, could increase his hope of salvation by good works. The ancient Latin translation of the Bible — the Vulgate, as it is called — was proclaimed the standard of belief, and no one was to publish any views about the Bible differing from those approved by the Church. 553. The Index. At the Council's suggestion the Pope's officials compiled a list of works which Catholics were not to read lest their faith in the doctrines of the Church should be disturbed. Similar lists have been printed since from time to 328 The Wars of Religion 329 time down to our own day. The establishment of this Index of Prohibited Books was one of the Council's most famous acts. 554. Results of the Reform of the Catholic Church. Al- though the Council of Trent would make no compromises with the Protestants, it took measures to do away with certain evils of which both Protestants and devout Catholics complained. The bishops were ordered to preach regularly and to see that only good men were ordained priests. A great improvement actually took place — better men were placed in office, and many practices which had formerly irritated the people were perma- nently abolished. 555. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556). The Catholic Church was further greatly strengthened by the rise of a powerful organiza- tion pledged to the support of the Pope and the Catholic teach- ings. This was the " Society of Jesus," or Jesuits, founded by a Spaniard, Ignatius Loyola. In 1538 he had summoned his fol- lowers to Rome, and there he received the sanction of the Pope. Loyola had been a soldier in his younger days and, therefore, laid great stress upon absolute and unquestioning obedience. Not only were all the members of the new association to obey the Pope as Christ's representative on earth, and to undertake without hesita- tion any journey, no matter how distant or perilous, which he might command, but each was to obey his superiors in the order as if he were receiving directions from Christ in person. The admirable organization and incomparable discipline of this society were the great secret of the later influence of the Jesuits. 556. Activities of the Jesuits. The members were to pledge themselves to lead a pure life of poverty and devotion. A great number of the members were priests, who went about preaching, hearing confession, and encouraging devotional exercises. But the Jesuits were teachers as well as preachers and confessors. They clearly perceived the advantage of bringing young people under their influence ; they opened schools and seminaries and soon became the schoolmasters of Catholic Europe. So successful were their methods of instruction that even Protestants sometimes sent their children to their schools. 330 General History of Europe The Jesuits rapidly spread not only over Europe but throughout the whole world. Francis Xavier, one of Loyola's original little band, went to Hindustan, the Moluccas, and Japan. Brazil, Florida, Mexico, and Peru were soon fields of active missionary work at a time when Protestants as yet scarcely dreamed of Principal Jesuit Church in Venice The Jesuits believed in erecting magnificent churches. This is a good ex- ample. The walls are inlaid with green marble in an elaborate pattern, and all the furnishings are very rich and gorgeous carrying Christianity to the heathen. We owe to the Jesuits' reports much of our knowledge of the condition of America when white men first began to explore Canada and the Mississippi Valley. 557. Accusations brought against the Jesuits. Protestants soon realized that the new order was their most powerful and dangerous enemy. Their apprehensions produced a bitter hatred which blinded them to the high purposes of the founders of the The Wars of Religion 331 order and led them to attribute an evil purpose to every act of the Jesuits. They were popularly supposed to justify the most deceit- ful and immoral measures on the ground that the result would be "for the greater glory of God." 1 II. Philip II and the Revolt of the Netherlands 558. Division of the Hapsburg Possessions. The chief ally of the Pope and the Jesuits in their efforts to check Protestantism was the son of Emperor Charles V, Philip II of Spain. Charles V, crippled with the gout and old before his time, laid down the cares of government in 1555-15 56. To his brother, Ferdinand, who had acquired by marriage the kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, Charles had earlier transferred the German possessions of the Hapsburgs. To his son, Philip II (1 556-1 598), he gave Spain with its great American colonies, Milan, the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Netherlands (see table, p. 306 n.). 559. The Netherlands. The Netherlands, which were to cause Philip his first and greatest trouble, included seventeen provinces which Charles V had inherited from his grandmother, Mary of Burgundy (§ 516). They occupied the position on the map where we now find the kingdoms of Holland and Belgium. In the north the hardy Germanic population had been able, by means of dikes which kept out the sea, to reclaim large tracts of lowlands. Here considerable cities had grown up — Harlem, Leyden, Amsterdam, and Rotterdam. To the south were the flourishing towns of Ghent, Bruges, Brussels, and Antwerp, which had for hundreds of years been centers of manufacture and trade. 560. Philip IPs Harsh Attitude toward the Netherlands; Alva. Philip did everything to alienate all classes in the Nether- lands and to increase their natural hatred and lively suspicion of 1 As time went on the Jesuits found themselves involved in difficulties with the vari- ous European governments, largely because in the eighteenth century they undertook great commercial enterprises, and for this and other reasons lost the confidence of even the Catholics. Convinced that the order had outgrown its usefulness, the Pope abolished it in 1773. ^ was, however, restored in 1814 and now again has thousands of members. 332 General History of Europe the Spaniards. What was still worse, he proposed that the In- quisition (§§ 399, 511) should carry on its work far more actively than hitherto and put an end to the heresy which appeared to him to defile his fair realms. For ten years the people suffered Philip's rule; nevertheless their king, instead of listening to the protests of their leaders, who were quite as earnest Catholics as himself, ap- peared to be bent on the destruction of the land. So in 1566 some five hundred of the nobles ventured to protest against Philip's policy. Thereupon Philip took a step which led finally to the revolt of the Neth- erlands. He decided to put down the rebellion by dispatching to the low countries the remorseless duke of Alva, whose con- duct has made his name synonymous with blind and unmeasured cruelty. Alva's administration from 1567 to 1573 and the atrocities of his rough soldiers produced a veritable reign of terror. 561. William of Orange, called the Silent (i534-i584). The Netherlands found a leader in William, Prince of Orange. He is a national hero whose career bears a striking resemblance to that of Washington. Like the American patriot, he undertook the seemingly hopeless task of freeing his people from the oppres- sive rule of a distant king. To the Spaniards he appeared to be only an impoverished nobleman at the head of a handful of armed peasants and fishermen, contending against the sovereign of the richest realm in the world. Philip II. (By Antonio Moro) The Wars of Religion 333 William found his main support in the northern provinces, of which Holland was the chief. The Dutch, who had very generally accepted Protestant teachings, were purely German in blood, while the people of the southern provinces, who adhered (as they still do) to the Roman Catholic faith, were more akin to the population of northern France. The Spanish soldiers found little trouble in defeating the troops which William collected. Like Washington, he seemed to lose al- most every battle and yet was never conquered. The first successes of the Dutch were gained by their bold mariners, who captured Spanish ships and sold them in Protestant England. Encouraged by this, many of the towns in the northern provinces of Holland and Zealand ventured to choose William as their governor, al- though they did not throw off their allegiance to Philip. In this way .these two provinces became the nucleus of the United Netherlands. 562. Origin of the Dutch Republic. Alva recaptured a number of the revolted towns and treated their inhabitants with his cus- tomary cruelty ; even women and children were slaughtered in cold blood. But instead of quenching the rebellion he aroused the Catholic southern provinces to revolt. This revolt was, however, only temporary. Wiser and more moderate governors were sent by Philip to the Netherlands, and they soon succeeded in again winning the confidence of the south- ern Catholic provinces. So the northern provinces went their own way. Guided by William the Silent, they refused to consider the idea of again recognizing Philip as their king. In 1579 seven provinces, all lying north of the mouths of the Rhine and the Scheldt, formed the new and firmer Union of Utrecht. The arti- cles of this union served as a constitution for the United Prov- inces, or Dutch Republic, which, two years later, at last formally declared itself independent of Spain. 563. Assassination of William the Silent. Philip realized that William was the soul of the revolt and that without him it might be put down. The king therefore offered to confer a title of nobility and a large sum of money on anyone who should 334 General History of Europe make way with the Dutch patriot. After several unsuccessful attempts, William, who had been chosen hereditary governor of the United Provinces, was shot in his house at Delft, 1584. He died praying the Lord to have pity upon his soul and "on this poor people." 564. Independence of the United Provinces. The Dutch had long hoped for aid from Queen Elizabeth or from the French, but had heretofore been disappointed. At last the English queen sent troops to their assistance. Elizabeth's policy so enraged Philip that he at last decided to attempt the conquest of Eng- land. The destruction of the "Armada," the great fleet which he equipped for that purpose (§ 581), interfered with further attempts to subjugate the United Provinces, which might other- wise have failed to maintain their liberty. Moreover, Spain's resources were being rapidly exhausted, and the State was on the verge of bankruptcy in spite of the wealth which she had been drawing from across the sea. But even though Spain had to sur- render the hope of winning back the lost provinces, which now became a small but important European power, she refused for- mally to acknowledge their independence until 1648 (Peace of Westphalia, §§ 589, 590). III. The Huguenot Wars in France 565. Beginnings of Protestantism in France. The history of France during the latter part of the sixteenth century is little more than a chronicle of a long and bloody series of civil wars between the Catholics and Protestants. Francis I had no special interest in religious matters, but he was shocked by an act of desecration ascribed to the Protestants, and in consequence forbade the circulation of Protestant books. About 1535 several adherents of the new faith were burned, and Calvin was forced to flee to Basel, where he prepared a defense of his beliefs which he published as a sort of preface to his famous Institute of Christianity (§ 543). Francis finally became so in- tolerant that he ordered the massacre of three thousand defenseless The Wars of Religion 335 peasants who dwelt on the slopes of the Alps, and whose only offense was adherence to the simple teachings of the Waldensians (§396). Francis's son, Henry II (1547-1559), swore to extirpate the Protestants, and hundreds of them were burned. He was acci- dentally killed and left his kingdom to three weak sons, the last scions of the house of Valois, who succeeded him in turn during a period of unprecedented civil war and public calamity. When his second son, Charles IX (1560-15 74), came to the throne he was but ten years old, so that his mother, Catherine of Medici, of the famous Florentine family, claimed the right to conduct the government for her son until he reached manhood. 566. The Huguenots and their Political Aims. By this time the Protestants in France had become a powerful party. They were known as Huguenots 1 and accepted the religious teachings of their fellow countryman Calvin. Many of them, including their great leader Coligny, belonged to the nobility. They had a strong support in the king of the little realm of Navarre, on the southern boundary of France. He belonged to a side line of the French royal house, known as the Bourbons, who were later to occupy the French throne. It was inevitable that the Huguenots should try to get control of the government, and they consequently formed a political as well as a religious party and were often fighting, in the main, for worldly ends. 567. Opening of the Huguenot Wars (1562). As the duke of Guise — an ardent Catholic nobleman — was passing through the town of Vassy on a Sunday he found a thousand Huguenots assembled in a barn for worship. The duke's followers rudely interrupted the service, and a tumult arose in which the troops killed a considerable number of the defenseless multitude. The news of this massacre aroused the Huguenots and was the be- ginning of a war which continued, broken only by short truces, for over thirty years. As in the other religious wars of the time, both sides exhibited inhuman cruelty. For a generation there were burnings, pillage, and atrocities throughout the realm. 1 The origin of this name is uncertain. 336 General History of Europe France renewed in civil war all the horrors of the English inva- sions of the Hundred Years' War. 568. Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). For a time Charles IX and his mother, Catherine of Medici, established friendly terms with the great Huguenot leader Coligny, who even became a sort of prime minister. He was anxious that both Catholics and Huguenots should join in a great na- tional war against France's old enemy the Hapsburgs of Spain. The strict Cath- olic party of the Guises frustrated this plan by a most fearful expedient. They easily induced Cath- erine of Medici to believe that she was being de- ceived by Coligny, and an assassin was engaged to put him out of the way ; but the scoundrel missed his aim and only wounded his victim. Fearful lest the young king, who was faithful to Coligny, should discover her part in the attempted murder, Catherine invented a story of a great Huguenot conspiracy. It was arranged that at a given signal a general massacre of the Huguenots should begin on the eve of St. Bartholomew's Day (August 23, 1572). No less than two thousand Protestants were ruthlessly murdered in Paris before the end of the next day. The news of this attack spread into the provinces, and it is probable that, at the very least, ten thousand more Protestants were put to death outside of the capital. 569. Henry IV ( i589-i6io ) accepts the Catholic Faith. Civil war again broke out and was accompanied by a complicated Henry IV of France This spirited portrait of Henry of Na- varre gives an excellent impression of his geniality and good sense The Wars of Religion 337 struggle between claimants of the throne of France, as a result of which the Huguenot Henry of Navarre ascended the throne as Henry IV in 1589. The new king had many enemies, and his kingdom was devas- tated and demoralized by years of war. He soon saw that he must accept the religion of the majority of his people if he wished to reign over them. He accordingly asked to be readmitted to the Catholic Church (1593), excusing himself on the ground that "Paris was worth a Mass." He did not forget his old friends, however, and in 1598 he issued the Edict of Nantes, which insured by law some protection for the Protestants. 570. The Edict of Nantes. By this edict of toleration the Calvinists were permitted to hold services in all the towns and villages where they had previously held them, but in Paris and a number of other towns all Protestant services were prohibited. The Protestants Were to enjoy the same political rights as Catholics and to be eligible to government offices. A number of fortified towns were to remain in the hands of the Huguenots, where they could defend themselves if attacked. 571. Ministry of Sully. Henry IV chose Sully, an upright and able Calvinist, for his chief minister. Sully set to work to reestablish the kingly power, which had suffered greatly under the last three brothers of the house of Valois. In 1 6 10 Henry IV, like William the Silent, was assassinated just in the midst of his greatest usefulness to his country. Sully could not agree with the regent, Henry's widow, and so gave up his position and retired to private life. 572. Richelieu. Before many years Richelieu, perhaps the greatest minister France has ever had, rose to power, and from 1624 to his death in 1642 he governed France for Henry IV's son, Louis XIII (1610-1643). Unlike Sully he was a Catholic and was made a cardinal by the Church. He reduced the power of the Huguenots by depriving them of their fortified towns, not so much on religious grounds as on account of the danger they had become to the king's power. Something will be said of his policy in con- nection with the Thirty Years' War (§ 588). 338 General History of Europe IV. England under Queen Elizabeth 573. England under Elizabeth (1558-1603). The long and disastrous civil war between Catholics and Protestants which desolated France in the sixteenth century had happily no counter- part in England. During her long reign Queen Elizabeth suc- ceeded not only in maintaining peace at home but in repelling the attacks which threatened her realm from without. A wealthy middle class was growing up in England who made their money in sheep raising, manufacture, and commerce. English trade was greatly extended, and the bold mariners of Elizabeth's time sailed about the whole globe, seeking new routes, capturing Spanish ships, plundering Spanish colonies, and sometimes engag- ing in the horrible traffic in negro slaves, which they seized in Africa and sold in the Americas. Houses were more comfortable than they had been, and those who could afford them wore very fine clothes. Wines were imported from the Continent, and tobacco was introduced, but coffee and tea were as yet unknown in England. Pewter plates and spoons began to replace the wooden ones, and chimneys and window glass rendered houses comfortable. Mattresses and pillows took the place of straw pallets and the wooden billets formerly used. People continued, however, to eat with knives or with their fingers, for forks did not come in until later. But while the sheep raising made a few rich, it impoverished many small farmers whose land fell into the hands of those who inclosed it for grazing tracts. The "inclosures" also included stretches of "commons," on which farmers and laborers had for- merly pastured their animals free of charge. The inclosures caused great hardship during the whole sixteenth century, and paupers and tramps so increased that laws had to be passed to provide for them. The poor law enacted at the close of Elizabeth's reign was in force down to the nineteenth century. Elizabeth's reign was celebrated for its great writers, like Shakespeare, Bacon, and Spenser. Poetry, the drama, and science all flourished (§§ 595, 596, 599). Portrait of Queen Elizabeth Elizabeth, the first woman to rule England, deemed herself a very handsome and imposing person. She was fond of fine clothes and doubtless had on her best when she sat for her portrait Mary Queen of Scots and Darnley Mary had been married to the heir to the French throne when she was six- teen. Her French husband, Francis II, died less than three years after. She then returned to Scotland and married her cousin Lord Darnley in 1565, when she was twenty-three years old The Wars of Religion 339 574. Elizabeth establishes the Church of England. Upon the death of Queen Mary (§551), in 1558, the English government became once more Protestant. Queen Elizabeth had a new revised edition issued of the Book of Common Prayer which had been prepared in the time of her half brother, Edward VI. This con- tained the services which the government ordered to be performed in all the churches of England. All her subjects were required to accept the queen's views and to go to church, and ministers were to use no other than the official prayer book. Elizabeth did not adopt the Presbyterian system advocated by Calvin but retained many features of the Catholic Church, including the bishops and archbishops. So the Anglican Church, as it was called, followed a middle path halfway between the Lutherans and Calvinists on the one hand and the Catholics on the other. Elizabeth's first Parliament gave the sovereign the powers of supreme head of the Church of England, although the title, which her father, Henry VIII, had assumed, was not revived. The Church of England still exists in much the same form in which it was established in the first years of Elizabeth's reign, and the prayer book is still used, although Englishmen are no longer required to attend church and may hold any religious views they please without being interfered with by the government. 575. Presbyterian Church established in Scotland. Conditions in Scotland caused much trouble for Elizabeth. There, shortly after her accession, the ancient Catholic Church was abolished, for the nobles were anxious to get the lands of the bishops into their own hands and enjoy the revenue from them. John Knox, a veritable second Calvin in his stern energy, secured the intro- duction of the Presbyterian form of faith and church government which still prevails in Scotland. 576. Mary Stuart, the Scotch Queen, the Hope of the Catho- lics. In 1 56 1 the Scotch queen, Mary Stuart, whose French hus- band, Francis II, had just died, landed at Leith. She was but nineteen years old, of great beauty and charm, and, by reason of her Catholic faith and French training, almost a foreigner to her subjects. Her grandmother was a sister of Henry VIII, and 340 General History of Europe Mary claimed to be the rightful heiress to the English throne should Elizabeth die childless. Consequently the beautiful Queen of Scots became the hope of all those who wished to bring back England and Scotland to the Roman Catholic faith. Chief among these were Philip II of Spain and the powerful French family, the Guises (§§ 567, 568), to which Mary's mother had belonged. Mary quickly discredited herself with both Protestants and Catholics by her conduct. She was suspected of being implicated in the death of her second husband, Lord Darnley, in order to marry a nobleman named Bothwell. How far Mary was responsible for her husband's death no one can be sure. It is certain that she later married Bothwell and that her indignant subjects thereupon deposed her as a murderess. After fruitless attempts to regain her power she abdicated in favor of her infant son, James VI, and then fled to England to appeal to Elizabeth. While the prudent Elizabeth denied the right of the Scotch to depose their queen, she was afraid of her claims and took good care to keep her rival practically a prisoner. 577. The Rising in the North (i569) and Catholic Plans for deposing Elizabeth. As time went on it became increasingly difficult for Elizabeth to adhere to her policy of moderation in the treatment of the Catholics. A rising in the north of England (1569) showed that there were many who would gladly reestab- lish the Catholic faith by freeing Mary and placing her on the English throne. This was followed by the excommunication of Elizabeth by the Pope, who at the same time absolved her sub- jects from their allegiance to their heretical ruler. Happily for Elizabeth the rebels could look for no help either from Philip II or the French king. The Spaniards had their hands full, for the war in the Netherlands had just begun; and Charles IX, who had accepted Coligny as his adviser, was at that moment in hearty accord with the Huguenots. The rising in the North was suppressed, but the English Catholics continued to look to Philip for help. They opened correspondence with Alva and invited him to come with six thousand Spanish troops to dethrone Eliza- beth and make Mary Stuart queen of England in her stead. w W H W M < N t-i i-J w *?» H h-! M P W C/2 § £ > w l-J o < H H < O The Wars of Religion 341 Alva hesitated, for he thought that it would be better to kill Elizabeth, or at least capture her. Meanwhile the plot was dis- covered and came to naught. 578. Relations between England and Catholic Ireland. One hope of the Catholics has not yet been mentioned, namely, Ireland, whose relations with England from very early times down to the present day form one of the most tragic pages in the history of Europe. The population was divided into numerous clans, and their chieftains fought constantly with one another as well as with the English, who were vainly endeavoring to subju- gate the island. Several attempts were made by Catholic leaders to land troops in Ireland with the purpose of making the island the base for an attack on England. Elizabeth's officers were able to frustrate these enterprises, but the resulting disturbances greatly increased the misery of the Irish. In 1582 no less than thirty thousand people are said to have perished, chiefly from starvation. 579. Persecution of the English Catholics. Two Jesuits were sent to England in 1580 to encourage the adherents of their faith. Parliament now grew more intolerant and ordered fines and im- prisonment to be inflicted on those who said or heard Mass or who refused to attend the English services. One of the Jesuit emissaries was cruelly tortured and executed for treason, the other escaped to the Continent. In the spring of 1582 the first attempt by the Catholics to assassinate the heretical queen was made at Philip's instigation. It was proposed that when Elizabeth was out of the way an army should be sent to England to support the Catholics. 580. Execution of Mary Queen of Scots (i587). Mary Queen of Scots did not live to witness the attempt. She became impli- cated in another plot for the assassination of Elizabeth. Parlia- ment now realized that as long as Mary lived Elizabeth's life was in constant danger; whereas if Mary were out of the way, Philip II would have no interest in the death of Elizabeth, since Mary's son, James VI of Scotland, who would succeed Elizabeth on the English throne, was a Protestant. Elizabeth was therefore 342 General History of Europe reluctantly persuaded by her advisers to sign a warrant for Mary's execution in 1587, and the Scotch queen was beheaded. 581. Destruction of the Spanish Armada (i588). Philip II, however, by no means gave up his project of reclaiming Protes- tant England. In 1588 he brought together a great fleet, includ- ing his best and largest warships, which was proudly called by the Spaniards the "Invincible Armada" (that is, fleet). This was to sail through the English Channel to the Netherlands and bring over the Spanish commander there and his veterans, who, it was expected, would soon make an end of Elizabeth's raw militia. The English ships were inferior to those of Spain in size, although not in number, but they had trained commanders, such as Francis Drake and Hawkins. These famous captains had long sailed the Spanish Main and knew how to use their cannon without getting near enough to the Spaniards to suffer from their short-range weapons. When the Armada approached it was permitted by the English fleet to pass up the Channel before a strong wind, which later became a storm. The English ships then followed, and both fleets were driven past the coast of Flanders. Of the hundred and twenty Spanish ships only fifty-four returned home ; the rest had been destroyed by English valor or by the gale, to Which Elizabeth herself ascribed the victory. The defeat of the Armada put an end to the danger from Spain. 582. Failure of Philip IPs Policy. When Philip II died, in 1598, it was apparent that he had not succeeded in his cherished purposes. England was permanently Protestant; the "Invincible Armada" had been miserably wrecked, and Philip's plan for bringing England once more within the fold of the Roman Catholic Church was forever frustrated. In France the terrible wars of religion were over, and a powerful king, lately a Protes- tant himself, was on the throne, who not only tolerated the Protestants but chose one of them for his chief minister and would brook no more meddling of Spain in French affairs (§§ 569 ff.). A new Protestant state, the United Netherlands (Holland), had actually appeared within the bounds of the realm bequeathed to The Wars of Religion 343 Philip by his father. In spite of its small size Holland was destined to play, from that time on, quite as important a part in European affairs as Spain, from whose control it had escaped. , Spain itself had suffered most of all from Philip's reign. His domestic policy and his expensive wars had sadly weakened the country. The income from across the sea was bound to decrease as the mines were exhausted. After Philip IPs death Spain sank to the rank of a secondary European power. V. The Thirty Years' War 583. The Thirty Years' War really a Series of Wars. The last great conflict caused by the differences between Catholics and Protestants was fought out in Germany during the first half of the seventeenth century. It is generally known as the Thirty Years' War (161 8-1 648), but there was in reality a series of wars ; and although the fighting was done upon German ter- ritory, Sweden, France, and Spain played quite as important a part in the struggle as the various German states. 584. Opening of the Thirty Years' War (i6is). Since the religious Peace of Augsburg, in 1555 (§539), the Protestants had increased in numbers, and the seizure of Church property by the Protestant princes had continued. Bohemia and even Austria contained many Protestants, and this was a source of terrible anxiety to the Hapsburg rulers and their efficient helpers, the Jesuits. Bohemia, in 16 18, determined to call a Calvinist prince from the Palatinate on the Pvhine to be their king. But the emperor was able to put the usurping ruler to flight after a reign of a single winter. This was regarded by the Protestants as a serious defeat, and the Protestant king of Denmark decided to intervene. He re- mained in Germany for four years, but was so badly beaten by the emperor's able general Wallenstein that he retired from the conflict in 1629. 585. The Edict of Restitution (1629). The emperor was en- couraged by the successes of the Catholic armies in defeating 344 General History of Europe the Bohemian and Danish Protestant armies to issue that same year an Edict of Restitution. In this he ordered the Protestants throughout Germany to give back all the Church possessions which they had seized since the religious Peace of Augsburg. Moreover, he decreed that only the Lutherans might hold re- ligious meetings; the other "sects/' including the Caivinists, were to be broken up. As Wallenstein was preparing to execute this decree in his usual merciless fashion the war took a new turn, owing to the intervention of Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. 586. The Kingdom of Sweden. We have had no occasion hith- erto to speak of the Scandinavian kingdoms of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, which the northern German peoples had estab- lished about Charlemagne's time ; but from now on they begin to take part in the affairs of central Europe. The Union of Cal- mar (1397) had brought these three kingdoms, previously sep- arate, under a single ruler. About the time that the Protestant revolt began in Germany the union was broken by the withdrawal of Sweden, which became an independent kingdom. Gustavus Vasa, a Swedish noble, led the movement and was later chosen king of Sweden (1523). In the same year Protestantism was introduced. Vasa confiscated the Church lands, got the better of the nobles, — who had formerly made the kings a great deal of trouble, — and started Sweden on its way toward national greatness. 587. Gustavus Adolphus invades Germany. Gustavus Adol- phus undoubtedly hoped by invading Germany not only to free his fellow Protestants from the oppression of the emperor and of the Catholic League but to gain a strip of German territory for Swe- den. Near Leipzig he met and routed the army of the League. At this juncture Wallenstein collected a new army, over which he was given absolute command. After some delay Gustavus met Wallenstein on the field of Llitzen, in November, 1632, where, after a fierce struggle, the Swedes gained the victory. But they lost their leader and Protestantism its hero, for the Swedish king ventured too far into the lines of the enemy and was surrounded and killed. The Wars of Religion 345 The Swedes did not, however, retire from Germany, but con- tinued to participate in the war, which now degenerated into a series of raids by leaders whose soldiers depopulated the land by their unspeakable atrocities. Wallenstein, who had long been detested even by the Catholics, was deserted by his soldiers and murdered (in 1634), to the great relief of all parties. 588. Richelieu re- news the Struggle of France against the Hapsburgs. At this mo- ment Richelieu (§ 572) decided that it would be to the interest of France to renew the old struggle with the Haps- burgs by sending troops against the emperor. France was still shut in, as she had. been since JP^ the time of Charles V, by the Hapsburg lands. So the war was renewed Portrait of Cardinal Richelieu. (From in 1635, and French, a Contemporaneous Painting) Swedish, Spanish, and German soldiers ravaged an already exhausted country for a decade longer. The dearth of provisions was so great that the armies had to move quickly from place to place in order to avoid starvation. 589. Close of the Thirty Years' War (i64s). The participants in the war were now so numerous and their objects so various and conflicting that it is not strange that it required some years to arrange the conditions of peace, even after everyone was ready for it. For four years the representatives of the several powers worked upon the difficult problem of satisfying everyone, but at last the treaties of Westphalia were signed late in 1648. 346 General History of Europe 590. Provisions of the Treaties of Westphalia. The religious troubles in Germany were settled by extending the toleration of the Peace of Augsburg so as to include the Calvinists as well as the Lutherans. The Protestant princes were to retain the lands which they had in their possession in the year 1624, regardless of the Edict of Restitution, and each ruler was still to have the right to determine the religion of his state. The practical dissolu- tion of the Holy Roman Empire was acknowledged by permitting the individual states to make treaties among themselves and with foreign powers ; this was equivalent to recognizing the independ- ence which they had, as a matter of fact, already long enjoyed. While portions of northern Germany were ceded to Sweden, this territory did not cease to form nominally a part of the Empire, for Sweden was thereafter to have three votes in the German diet. The emperor also ceded to France three important towns — Metz, Verdun, and Toul — and all his rights in Alsace, although the city of Strassburg was to remain with the Empire. Lastly, the independence both of the United Netherlands and of Switzer- land was acknowledged. 591. Disastrous Results of the War in Germany. The ac- counts of the misery and depopulation of Germany caused by the Thirty Years' War are well-nigh incredible. Thousands of vil- lages were wiped out altogether ; in some regions the population was reduced by one half, in others to a third, or even less, of what it had been at the opening of the conflict. The people were fearfully barbarized by privation and suffering and by the atroc- ities of the soldiers of all the various nations. Until the end of the eighteenth century Germany remained too impoverished to make any considerable contribution to the culture of Europe. Among the German rulers the hitherto rather unimportant elec- tors of Brandenburg, of the House of Hohenzollern, were just be- ginning to build up a power destined in our own days to cause untold disaster.. Hohenzollern rulers created the kingdom of Prussia in the eighteenth century, humbled both France and the Hapsburgs in the nineteenth, and finally so overreached themselves in the twentieth century that they lost their throne altogether. The Wars of Religion 347 VI. The Beginnings of our Scientific Age 592. The New Science. The battles of the Thirty Years' War are now well-nigh forgotten, and few people are interested in Wallenstein and Gustavus Adolphus. It seems as if the war did little but destroy men's lives and property, and that no great ends were accomplished by all the suffering it involved. But during the years that it raged certain men were quietly devoting themselves to scientific research which was to change the world more than all the battles that have ever been fought. These men adopted a new method. They perceived that the books of ancient writers, especially Aristotle, which were used as textbooks in the universities, were full of statements that could not be proved. They maintained that the only way to advance science was to set to work and try experiments, and by careful thought and investi- gation to determine the laws of nature without regard to what previous generations had believed. 593. The Discovery of Copernicus. The Polish astronomer Copernicus published a work in 1543 in which he refuted the old idea that the sun and all the stars revolved around the earth as a center, as was then taught in all the universities. He showed that, on the contrary, the sun was the center about which the earth and the rest of the planets revolved, and that the reason that the stars seem to go around the earth each day is because our globe revolves on its axis. Although Copernicus had been en- couraged to write his book by a cardinal and had dedicated it to the Pope, the Catholic as well as the Protestant theologians de- clared that the new theory contradicted the teachings of the Bible, and they therefore rejected it. But we know now that Copernicus was right and the theologians and universities wrong. 594. Galileo. The Italian scientist Galileo (1 564-1642), by the use of a little telescope he contrived, was able, in 1610, to see the spots on the sun ; these indicated that the sun was not, as Aristotle had taught, a perfect, unchanging body, and showed also that it revolved on its axis, as Copernicus had guessed that the earth did. Galileo made careful experiments by dropping 348 General History of Europe objects from the leaning tower of Pisa, which proved that Aristotle was wrong in assuming that a body weighing a hundred pounds fell a hundred times as fast as a body weighing but one. He wrote in Italian as well as in Latin. His opponents might have Galileo forgiven him had he written only for the learned, but they thought it highly dangerous to have the new ideas set forth in such a way that the people at large might come to doubt what the theologians and universities were teaching. Galileo was finally summoned be- fore the Inquisition ; some of his theories were condemned, and he was imprisoned by the Church authorities. The Wars of Religion 349 595. Francis Bacon's New Atlantis, Francis Bacon, an Eng- lish lawyer and government official, spent his spare hours in explaining how men could increase their knowledge. He too wrote in his native tongue as well as in Latin. He was the most eloquent representative of the new science which renounced authority and relied upon experiment. "We are the ancients," he declared, not those who lived long ago when the world was young and men ignorant. Late in life he began to write a little book, which he never finished, called the New Atlantis. It describes an imaginary state which some Euro- pean mariners were sup- posed to have discovered on an island in the Pa- cific Ocean. The chief institution was a " House of Solomon," a great laboratory for carrying on scientific investigation in the hope of discovering new facts and using them for bettering the condi- tion of the inhabitants. This House of Solomon became a model for the Royal Society, established in London some fifty years after Bacon's death. It still exists and publishes its proceedings. 596. Scientific Societies Founded. The earliest societies for scientific research grew up in Italy. Later the English Royal Society and the French Institute were established, as well as similar associations in Germany. These were the first things of Lord Bacon 350 General History of Europe the kind in the history of the world — except perhaps the ancient Museum at Alexandria (§ 170). Their object was not, like that of the old Greek schools of philosophy and the medieval universi- ties, mainly to hand down and explain the knowledge derived from the past, but to find out what had never been known before. We have seen how in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries new inventions were made, such as the compass, paper, specta- cles, gunpowder, and, in the fifteenth century, the printing press. But in the seventeenth century progress began to be much more rapid, and an era of invention opened, in the midst of which we still live. The microscope and telescope made it possible to dis- cover innumerable scientific truths that were hidden from the Greeks and Romans. In time this scientific advance produced a spirit of reform, also new in the world. QUESTIONS I. What means did the Catholics take to reform the Church ? Give an account of the famous Council of Trent. What was accomplished by the Council? What is the Index? Describe the founding of the order of Jesuits. What were its aim and policy ? II. Describe the revolt of the Netherlands. What was the character of Philip II ? Give an account of the leadership of William of Orange. What was the origin of the Dutch Republic ? III. Describe the beginnings of Protestantism in France. Describe the struggle of the Huguenots with the Catholics. Describe the Mas- sacre of St. Bartholomew. What was the attitude of Henry IV toward the Protestants ? What were the provisions of the Edict of Nantes ? IV. What religious settlement was made by Queen Elizabeth ? De- scribe the characteristics of the Anglican Church. In what way did Mary Stuart threaten the power of Elizabeth? Describe the destruc- tion of the Armada. V. Give a brief account of the Thirty Years' War. Tell what you can of Richelieu. What were the provisions of the treaties of West- phalia? What were the results of the war on Germany? VI. What was the great discovery made by Copernicus ? What discoveries were made by Galileo? Why was the Church opposed to the teachings of these men? What do you know of Francis Bacon? Give an account of the founding of scientific societies. BOOK VII. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES CHAPTER XXVIII STRUGGLE IN ENGLAND BETWEEN KING AND PARLIAMENT I. The Stuarts and the Divine Right of Kings 597. Accession of James I of England (1603) ; the Stuarts. On the death of Elizabeth in 1603 James I ascended the throne. It will be remembered that he was the son of Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots, and through her he was a descendant of Henry VIIL In Scotland he reigned as James VI ; consequently the two king- doms were now brought together under the same ruler. The chief interest of the period of the Stuarts, which be- gan with the accession of James I and ended with the flight from England of his grandson, James II, eighty-five years later, is the long and bitter struggle between the Stuart kings and Parliament. The vital question was, Should the Stuart kings, who claimed to be God's representatives on earth, do as they thought fit, or should Parliament control them and the govern- ment of the country? 598. James I loved to discuss the King's Claims. James I had a very irritating way of claiming to be the sole and supreme ruler of England. He wrote a book in which he asserted that the king could make any law he pleased without consulting Parlia- ment ; that he was the master of every one of his subjects, high and low, and might put to death whom he pleased. According to the theory of "the divine right of kings" which James held, 35 1 352 General History of Europe it had pleased God to appoint the monarch the father of his people, who must obey him as they would God and ask no ques- tions. The king was responsible to God alone, to whom he owed his powers, not to Parliament or the nation. 599. Great Writers of James's Reign — -Shakespeare, Bacon, Harvey. The writers of James's reign constituted its chief glory. They outshone those of any other European country. Shakespeare is generally ad- mitted to be the greatest dramatist that the world has produced. While he wrote many of his plays be- fore the death of Elizabeth, some of his finest — Othello, King Lear, and the Tem- pest, for example — belong to the time of James I. At the same time Francis Bacon (§ 595) was making his eloquent plea for modern science. It was in James's reign also that the English translation of the Bible was made which is still known and is still published as the authorized version in all countries where English is spoken. An English physician of this period, William Harvey, examined the workings of the human body more carefully than any previous investigator and made the great discovery of the manner in which the blood circulates from the heart through the arteries and capillaries and back through the veins — a matter which had previously been entirely misunderstood. 600. Charles I (1625-1649) and his Struggle with Parliament. Charles I, James's son and successor, did nothing to remove the dis- agreeable impressions of his father's reign and began immediately James Struggle in England between King and Parliament 353 to quarrel with Parliament. When that body refused to grant him funds, — mainly because they thought that these were likely to be wasted by his favorite, the duke of Buckingham, — Charles attempted, without the permission of Parliament, to raise money in irreg- ular ways, such as forcing loans from his subjects and imprisoning those who protested. These and other attacks upon the rights of his people led Parliament to draw up, in 1628, the celebrated Petition of Right, which is one of the most important documents in the his- tory of the English Constitution. Parliament "humbly prayed" that no man need thereafter be forced to make any gift or loan to the king without consent of Parliament ; that no free man should be imprisoned except according to the laws and statutes of the realm as presented in the Great Charter (§377). Very re- luctantly Charles consented to this restatement of the limitations which the English had always, in theory at least, placed upon the powers of their king. The disagreement between Charles and Parliament was rendered much more serious by religious differences. The king had married a French Catholic princess, and the Catholic cause seemed to be gaining on the Continent. There was evidently a growing inclination in Eng- land to restore the older ceremonies of the Church which had prevailed before the Protestant Revolt and which shocked the more strongly Protestant members of the House of Commons. Charles I of England This portrait is by one of the greatest painters of the time, Anthony Van Dyck, 1599-1641 (see cut on page 355) 354 General History of Europe 601. Charles dissolves Parliament (1629) and determines to rule by himself. This fear of a return to Roman Catholicism served to widen the breach between Charles and the Commons. The Parliament, of 1629, after a stormy session, was dissolved by the king, who determined to rule thereafter by himself. For eleven years no new Parliament was summoned. Charles was not well fitted by nature to run the government of England by himself. He had not the necessary tireless energy. Moreover, the methods resorted to by his ministers to raise money without recourse to Parliament rendered the king more and more unpopular and prepared the way for the triumphant return of Parliament. 602. The Different Sects of Protestants — High Church and Low Church. In 1633 Charles made William Laud archbishop of Canterbury. The new archbishop ruled that every clergyman who obstinately refused to conform to the services of the State Church should be brought before the king's special Court of High Commission to be tried and, if convicted, to be deprived of his position. Laud's conduct was no doubt gratifying to the High Church party among the Protestants ; that is, those who still clung to some of the ancient practices of the Roman Church, although they rejected the doctrine of the Mass and refused to regard the Pope as their head. The Low Church party, or Puritans, on the contrary, regarded Laud and his policy with aversion. While they did not urge the abolition of the bishops, they disliked all "superstitious usages," as they called the wearing of the sur- plice by the clergy, the use of the sign of the cross at baptism, the kneeling posture in partaking of the communion, and so forth. 603. The Independents. Moreover, there was an ever-increasing number of Separatists, or Independents. These rejected both the organization of the Church of England and that of the Presby- terians and desired that each religious community should or- ganize itself independently. The government had forbidden these Separatists to hold their little meetings, which they called con- venticles, and about 1600 some of them fled to Holland. Struggle in England between King and Parliament 355 604. The Pilgrim Fathers. The community of them which established itself at Leyden dispatched the Mayflower, in 1620, with colonists — since known as the Pilgrim Fathers — to the New World across the sea. It was these colonists who laid the founda- tions of a New England which has proved a worthy offspring of Children of Charles I This very interesting picture, by the Flemish artist Van Dyck, was painted in 1637. The boy with his hand on the dog's head was destined to become Charles II of England. Next on the left is the prince, who was later James II. The girl to the extreme left, the Princess Mary, married the governor of the United Netherlands, and her son became William III of England in 1688. The two princesses on the right died in childhood the mother country. The form of worship which they established in their new home is still known as Congregational. 605. The Long Parliament. In 1640 Charles found himself engaged in a war with Scotland, which, as we have seen (§ 575), had become Presbyterian and refused to be forced to accept the Anglican form of worship. The army which the king got to- gether was reluctant to fight the Scots, so Charles was at last 356 General History of Europe obliged to summon a Parliament. This, owing to the length of time it remained in session, was called the Long Parliament. The Long Parliament began by imprisoning Archbishop Laud in the Tower of London. It declared him guilty of treason, and he was executed in 1645 m s pite of Charles's efforts to save him. Parliament drew up a "Grand Remonstrance" in which all of Charles's errors were enumerated and a demand was made that the king's ministers should thereafter be responsible to Parliament. 606. The Beginning of Civil War (1642); Cavaliers and Roundheads. Matters grew rapidly worse, and both Charles and Parliament now began to gather troops for the inevitable conflict, which plunged England into civil war. Those who supported Charles were called Cavaliers. They included not only most of the aristocracy and the Catholic party but also a number of mem- bers of the House of Commons who were fearful lest Presby- terianism should succeed in doing away with the English Church. The parliamentary party was popularly known as the Round- heads, since some of them cropped their hair close because of their dislike for the long locks of their more aristocratic and worldly opponents. The Cavaliers in turn scorned the Round- heads as a set of hypocrites, on account of their solemn ways and for liking to go to meeting and singing psalms instead of trying to have a good time. 607. Oliver Cromwell ; Defeat of Charles's Armies at Marston Moor and Naseby. The Roundheads soon found a dis- tinguished leader in Oliver Cromwell (b. 1599), a country gentle- man and member of Parliament, who was later to become the most powerful ruler of his time. Cromwell organized a compact army of God-fearing men, who were not permitted to indulge in profane words or light talk, as is the wont of soldiers, but advanced upon their enemies singing psalms. The king enjoyed the support of northern England and also looked for help from Ireland, where the royal and Catholic causes were popular. The war continued for several years and, after the first year, went in general against the Cavaliers. Finally, the king, defeated Struggle in England between King and Parliament 357 on every side, put himself in the hands of the Scotch army which had come to the aid of Parliament (1646), and the Scotch soon turned him over to Parliament. During the next two years Charles was held in captivity. 608. Pride's Purge. There were, however, many in the House of Commons who still sided with the king, and in December, 1648, that body declared for a reconciliation with the monarch, whom they had safely imprisoned in the Isle of Wight. The next day Colonel Pride, representing the army, — which constituted a party in itself and was opposed to all negotiations between the king and the Commons, — stood at the door of the House with a troop of soldiers and excluded all the members who were known to take the side of the king. This outrageous act is known in history as "Pride's Purge." 609. Execution of Charles (1649). In this way the House of Commons was brought completely under the control of those most bitterly hostile to the king, whom they immediately pro- posed to bring to trial. They declared that the House of Com- mons, since it was chosen by the people, was supreme in England and the source of all just power, and that consequently neither king nor House of Lords was necessary. The mutilated House of Commons appointed a special High Court of Justice made up of Charles's sternest opponents, who alone would consent to sit in judgment on him. They passed sentence upon the king and on January 30, 1649, Charles was beheaded in front of his palace of Whitehall, London. It must be clear from the above account that it was not the nation at large which demanded Charles's death, but a very small group of extremists who claimed to be the repre- sentatives of the nation. II. Oliver Cromwell; England a Commonwealth 610. England becomes a Commonwealth, or Republic. The "Rump Parliament," as the remnant of the House of Commons was contemptuously called, proclaimed England to be thereafter a "commonwealth"; that is, a republic, without a king or House 358 General History of Europe of Lords. But Cromwell, the head of the army, was nevertheless the real ruler of England. He was supported by the Independ- ents, but his main strength lay in his skill as an administrator and in the well-organized army of some fifty thousand men which he had at his command. 611. Ireland and Scotland Subdued. Cromwell found him- self confronted by every kind of difficulty. The three kingdoms had fallen apart. The nobles and Catholics in Ireland proclaimed Charles II as king, and an army of Irish Catholics and English royalist Protestants was formed with a view of overthrowing the Commonwealth. Cromwell accordingly set out for Ireland, where town after town surrendered to his army. In 1652, after much cruelty, the island was once more conquered. A large part of it was confiscated for the benefit of the English, and the Catholic landowners were driven into the mountains. In the meantime Charles II, who after his father's execution had taken refuge in France, had in 1650 landed in Scotland, and upon his agreeing to be a Presbyterian king the whole Scotch nation was ready to support him. But Scotland was subdued by Cromwell even more promptly than Ireland had been. So completely was the Scottish army destroyed that Cromwell found no need to draw the sword again in the British Isles. Oliver Cromwell This portrait is by Peter Lely and was painted in 1653 Struggle in England between King and Parliament 359 612. Cromwell dissolves the Long Parliament (i653) and is made Lord Protector. Cromwell failed, however, to get along with Parliament much better than Charles I had done. The Rump Parliament had become very unpopular, for its members, in spite of their boasted piety, accepted bribes and were zealous in the promotion of their relatives in the public service. At last Cromwell upbraided them angrily for their injustice and self-interest, which were injuring the public cause. On being interrupted by a member, he cried out, "Come, come, we have had enough of this. I'll put an end to this. It's not fit that you should sit here any longer," and calling in his soldiers he turned the members out of the House and sent them home. Having thus made an end of the Long Parliament (April, 1653), he summoned a Parliament of his own, made up of "God- fearing" men whom he and the officers of his army chose. This extraordinary body is known as Barebone's Parliament, from a distinguished member, a London merchant, with the charac- teristically Puritan name of Praisegod Barebone. Many of these godly men were, however, unpractical and hard to deal with. A minority of the more sensible ones got up early one winter morning (December, 1653) and, before their opponents had a chance to protest, declared Parliament dissolved and placed the supreme authority in the hands of Cromwell. 613. The Protector's Foreign Policy. For nearly five years Cromwell was, as Lord Protector, — a title equivalent to that of Regent, — practically king of England, although he refused ac- tually to accept the royal insignia. He did not succeed in per- manently organizing the government at home, but he showed remarkable ability in his foreign negotiations. He promptly formed an alliance with France, and English troops aided the French in winning a .great victory over Spain. England gained thereby Dunkirk and the West Indian island of Jamaica. 614. Cromweirs Death. In May, 1658, Cromwell fell ill and died, and as a great storm passed over England at that time, the Cavaliers asserted that the devil had come to fetch home the soul of the usurper. 360 General History of Europe III. The Restoration 615. The Restoration; Charles II (1660-1685). After Crom- well's death his son Richard, who succeeded him, found himself unable to carry on the government. He soon abdicated, and the remnants of the Long Parliament met once more. But that body soon peacefully disbanded of its own accord. The nation was glad to acknowledge Charles II, whom everyone preferred to a govern- ment by soldiers. A new Parliament, composed of both houses, was assembled, which welcomed a messenger from the king and solemnly resolved that "according to the ancient and funda- mental laws of this kingdom, the government is, and ought to be, by king, lords, and commons." Thus the Puritan revolution and the short-lived republic were followed by the Restoration of the Stuarts. Charles II was quite as fond as his father of having his own way, but he was a man of more ability. He disliked to be ruled by Parliament, but, unlike his father, he was too wise to arouse the nation against him. He did not propose to let anything happen which would send him on his travels again. He and his courtiers led a gay life in sharp contrast to the Puritan ideas. 616. Religious Measures adopted by Parliament. Charles's first Parliament was a moderate body, but his second was made up almost wholly of Cavaliers, and it got along, on the whole, so well with the king that he did not dissolve it for eighteen years. It did not take up the old question, which was still unsettled, as to whether Parliament or the king was really supreme. It showed its hostility, however, to the Puritans by a series of intolerant laws, which are very important in English history. An effort was made to exclude Presbyterians and Independents from town offices. By the Act of Uniformity (1662) any clergyman who refused to accept everything in the Book of Common Prayer was to be excluded from holding his benefice. That many disagreed with the Anglican Church is shown by the fact that two thousand clergymen thereupon resigned their positions for conscience' sake. These laws tended to throw all those Protestants who refused Struggle in England between King and Parliament 361 to conform to the Church of England into a single class, still known today as Dissenters. It included the Independents, the Presbyterians, and the newer bodies of the Baptists and the So- ciety of Friends (commonly known as Quakers). These sects had no desire to control the religion or politics of the country and asked only that they might be permitted to worship in their own way outside of the English Church. 617. Toleration Favored by the King ; Opposed by Parlia- ment. The king, in spite of his dissolute habits, was inclined to be tolerant toward differences in religious beliefs and had secret leanings toward Catholicism. But his efforts to secure religious liberty for Catholics and Dissenters only aroused Parliament to pass harsher measures, for fear the king might once more restore "popery" in the realm. The law excluding all but adherents of the English Church from office remained in force down into the nineteenth century. 618. War with Holland. Charles II, who was earnestly de- sirous of increasing English commerce and of founding new colonies, renewed a struggle with the Dutch which had begun under Cromwell. This war aimed to destroy Holland's shipping and thereby increase the trade of England. The two nations were very evenly matched on the sea, but in 1664 the English seized some of the West Indian Islands from the Dutch. And what was of much greater importance, the English captured the Dutch settlement on Manhattan Island, which was renamed New York in honor of the king's brother, the Duke of York. In 1667 a treaty was signed by England and Holland which confirmed these conquests. IV. The Revolution of 1688 619. James II ( 1685-1688). Upon Charles II 's death he was succeeded by his brother, James II, who was an avowed Catho- lic and had married, as his second wife, Mary of Modena, who was also a Catholic. He was a far more religious man than the late king and was ready to reestablish Catholicism in England 362 General History of Europe regardless of what it might cost him. Mary, James's daughter by his first wife, had married her cousin, William III, Prince of Orange, 1 the head of the United Netherlands, as Holland was called. The English nation might have tolerated James so long as they could look forward to the accession of his Protestant daughter. But when a son was born to his Catholic second wife, and James showed unmistakably his purpose of favoring the Catholics, messengers were dispatched by a group of Protestants to William of Orange, asking him to come and rule over them. 620. The Revolution of 1688 and the Accession of Wil- liam III ( 1688-1702 ). William landed in November, 1688, and marched upon London, where he received general support from all the English Protestants, regardless of party. James II started to oppose William, but his army refused to fight and his courtiers deserted him. James fled to France, and a new Parliament declared the throne vacant. 621. The Bill of Rights (i689). A Bill of Rights was then drawn up, appointing William and Mary joint sovereigns. The Bill of Rights, which is an important monument in English con- stitutional history, once more stated the fundamental rights of the English nation and the limitations which the Petition of Right and the Great Charter of King John had placed upon the king (§§ 377? 600). By this peaceful revolution the English rid them- selves of the Stuarts and their claims to rule by divine right, the powers of Parliament were once more established, and the Catholic question was practically settled by the dethroning of a king who openly favored the rule of the Pope. The Toleration Act was passed by Parliament, which freed Dissenters from all penalties for failing to attend services in Anglican churches and allowed them to have their own meetings. Even Catholics, while not included in the act of toleration, were permitted to hold services undisturbed by the government. 1 Son of Charles I's daughter, Mary, who had married William, Prince of Orange. Struggle in England between King and Parliament 363 V. England after the Revolution of 1688 622. Questions settled by the Accession of William and Mary. With the accession of William and Mary, in 1688, Eng- land may be said to have practically settled the two great ques- tions that had produced such serious dissensions during the previous fifty years. In the first place, the nation had clearly shown that it proposed to remain Protestant, and the relations between the Church of England and the Dissenters were gradu- ally being satisfactorily adjusted. In the second place, the powers of the king had been carefully defined, and from the opening of the eighteenth century to the present time no English monarch has ventured to veto an act of Parliament. 1 623. The Union of England and Scotland (1707). William III was succeeded in 1702 by his sister-in-law, Anne, a younger daughter of James II. Far more important than the War of the Spanish Succession, which her generals carried on against Louis XIV, was the final union of England and Scotland. The two countries had been under the same ruler since the accession of James I, but each had maintained its own independent parlia- ment and system of government. Finally, in 1707, both nations agreed to unite their governments into one. Forty-five members of the British House of Commons were to be chosen thereafter in Scotland, and sixteen Scotch lords were to be added to the Eng- lish House of Lords. In this way the whole island of Great Britain was placed under a single government, and the occasions for strife were thereby greatly reduced. 624. Accession of George I (1714-1727) of Hanover. Since none of Anne's children survived her, she was succeeded, accord- ing to an arrangement made before her accession, by the nearest Protestant heir. This was the son of James I's granddaughter Sophia. She had married the elector of Hanover 2 ; consequently 1 The last instance in which an English ruler vetoed a measure passed by Parliament was in 1707. 2 Originally there had been seven electors, but the duke of Bavaria had been made an elector during the Thirty Years' War, and in 1692 the father of George I had been permitted to assume the title of " elector of Hanover." 304 General History of Europe the new king of England, George I, 1 was also elector of Hanover and a member of the Holy Roman Empire. 2 625. England and the "Balance of Power." William of Orange had been a continental statesman before he became king of England, and his chief aim had always been to prevent France from becoming overpower ful. He joined in the long War of the Spanish Succession (1702-17 13) in order to maintain the "bal- ance of power" between the various European countries. During the eighteenth century England, for the same reason, continued to take some part in the struggles between the continental powers, although she had no expectation of extending her sway across the Channel. The wars which she waged in order to increase her own power and territory were carried on in distant parts of the world and more often on sea than on land. 1 English monarchs from James I to George III : James I (1603-1625) Charles I Elizabeth, m. Frederick V (1625-1649) elector of the Palatinate (Winter King of Bohemia) Charles II (1) Anne Hyde, m. James II, m. (2) Mary of Modena Sophia, m. Ernest (1660-1685) (1685-1688) William III, m. Mary Anne (168S-1702) (1688-1694) (1702-1714) Prince of Orange James (the Old Pretender) Charles Edward (the Young Pre- tender) Augustus elector of Hanover George I (1714-1727) I George II (1727-1760) I Frederick Prince of Wales (d.1751) George III (1760-1820) 2 The troubles with the Stuarts were not entirely over. The son and the grandson of James II — the Old and the Young Pretender — lived in France and engaged in ineffective conspiracies to regain the throne. In 1745 tne Young Pretender landed in Scotland, where he found support among the Highland chiefs, and even Edinburgh welcomed " Prince Charlie." With an army of six thousand men he marched into England, but was speedily forced back into Scotland and disastrously defeated and was glad to reach France once more in safety. Struggle in England between King and Parliament 365 QUESTIONS I. What is the chief interest of the period of the Stuart kings ? How were the kingdoms of England and Scotland united on the accession of James I? What were the views of kingship held by James? Name some of the distinguished writers of James's reign. What was Charles's attitude toward Parliament? What was the Petition of Right? What were the chief religious parties in England in the time of Charles I? Describe the events which led to the execution of Charles. II. What form of government was introduced after Charles's death ? How did Cromwell deal with Parliament? In what did Cromwell's strength consist? III. What led to the restoration of the Stuarts? What was Charles II's attitude toward religious differences? What laws were passed by Parliament against the Puritans ? Who were the Dissenters ? IV. Why was James II unpopular? What was the Revolution of 1688? What was the substance of the Bill of Rights? of the Tolera- tion Act? V. What questions were settled by the accession of William and Mary? On what terms were England and Scotland united in 1707? Explain how a member of the House of Hanover came to the English throne. What is meant by the "balance of power"? BIBLIOGRAPHY The following list is confined to the most useful and readily obtainable books which should be found in any good public library. It will also serve as a guide in the selection of volumes for a high-school library. The teacher may con- sult the much fuller and more detailed classification of material given in Breasted, Ancient Times, and in Robinson, Medieval and Modern Times. BOOK I. THE ANCIENT WORLD Primitive Man. Sollas, Ancient Hunters (second edition). Tylor, Prim- itive Culture. Hoernes, Primitive Mun. Myres, The Dawn of History, chaps, i-ii, vii-xi, an excellent little book in which only the traditional Baby- lonian chronology needs revision. Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury), Prehistoric Times. Osborn, Men of the Old Stone Age, a very valuable and sumptuously illustrated presentation of Early Stone Age life. Breasted, Ancient Times, chap. i. Egypt. Breasted, History of Egypt and History of the Ancient Egyptians. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, chaps, ii-iv, vi-viii. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, ii-iii. Maspero, Art in Egypt. Breasted, The Develop- ment of Religion and Thought in Ancient Egypt. Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. Source Material and Maps. Breasted, Ancient Records of Egypt. Petrie, Egyptian Tales. Maspero, Popular Stories of Ancient Egypt. Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps (Denoyer-Geppert Co., Chicago, 111.), Maps Bi and B3; Teacher's Manual (accompanying these maps), pp. 13-19, 33 - 4°- Babylonia and Assyria. King, History of Sumer and Akkadaxid History of Babylonia. Goodspeed, History of the Babylonians and Assyrians. Recent discoveries have greatly altered the chronology. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, chaps, v, x, xii. Rogers, A History of Babylonia and Assyria. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, iv-v. Jastrow, Civilization of the Babylo- nians and Assyrians. Sayce, Babylonian and Assyrian Life and Customs. Source Material and Maps. R. F. Harper (Ed.), Assyrian and Babylonian Literature. Botsford, A Source Book of Ancient History. Sayce (Ed.), Records of the Past. Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Maps B2 and B3 ; Teacher's Manual, pp. 40-45. Persia and the Hebrews. There is no good modern history of Persia in Eng- lish based on the sources, but see Benjamin, Story of Persia (Story of the Nations Series). Meyer, "Persia," in Encyclopedia Britannica. Breasted, gi i ii General History of Europe Ancient Times, chaps, vi-viii. Hall, The Ancient History of the Near East, chaps, ix, xii. George Adam Smith, The Historical Geography of the Holy Land, the most valuable of the many books on Palestine, but a little advanced for high-school pupils. Henry Preserved Smith, Old Testament History. Cor- NILL, History of the People of Israel. Kent, Histo7y of the Hebrew People and History of the Jewish People. MACALISTER, A History of Civilization in Pales- tine (Cambridge Manuals). Jackson, Persia, Past and Present. This valuable book is the best introduction to the subject of Persia as a whole. Hilprecht, Recent Research in Bible Lands. Source Material and Maps. The Avesta will be found in the series called Sacred Books of the East. The Old Testament in the Revised Version. G. F. Moore, The Literature of the Old Testament. Botsford, A Source Book of Ancient History. Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Maps B2 and B4 ; Teacher's Manual, pp. 37-50. BOOK II. THE GREEKS JEgean Civilization and the Greeks before the Persian Wars. Botsford, Hellenic History, chaps, i-ix. Westermann, Ancient Nations, pp. 43-50, chaps, vii-x. Goodspeed, Ancient World. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, viii- xii. Myres, Dawn of History, chaps, viii-ix. Reinach, Story of Art, pp. 26-32. Hawes, Crete the Forerunner of Greece. Baikie, Sea Kings of Crete. Hogarth, The Ancient East. Mosso, Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization. Hall, Ancient History of the Near East, pp. 31-72. Zimmern, Greek Commonwealth (second edition). Greenidge, Greek Constitutional History. Capps, Homer to Theoc- ritus. Keller, Homeric Life. Seymour, Homeric Age. Sandys, Compa?iion to Greek Studies. Mahaffy, Social Life in Greece. Source Material and Maps. Botsford, Source Book of Ancient History. Thallon, Readings in Greek History. Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civili- zation. Herodotus. Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Maps B3, B5, B6, B7, and B8 ; Teacher's Manual, pp. 17-24, 48-61. The Persian Wars and the Age of Pericles. Botsford, Hellenic History. Westermann, Ancient Nations, chaps, xi-xvii. Goodspeed, Ancient World. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, xiii-xviii. Abbott, Pericles. Hall, Near East. chap. xii. Grundy, Great Persian War. Seignobos, Ancient "Civilization. Grant, Greece in the Age of Pericles. Zimmern, Greek Commotiwealth. Sandys, Companion. Tarbell, History of Greek Art. Munroe, History of Education. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism. Source Material and Maps. Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civilization. Fling, Source Book of Greek History. Herodotus (especially Bk. vii). Plu- tarch's Lives of Theseus, Solon, Aristides, Themistocles, Pausanias, Cimon, Lycurgus, Alcibiades, Nicias. sEschylus' Persians. Thucydides (Jowett), Xenophori's Anabasis and Economics (Dakyn). Plato's Apology. Selections from Gl Bibliography iii Euripides in Appleton, Greek Poets, and in Goldwin Smith, Specimens of Greek Tragedy. Aristophanes' 1 Achai'nians and Birds (Frere in Everyman's). Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Maps B6, B7, B8, and B9 ; Teacher's Manual, pp. 61-64, 65-69 (Map A), 69-70 (Map B), and 70-72 (Map C). Alexander and the Hellenistic Age. Botsford, Hellenic History. Wes- TERMANN, Ancient Nations, chaps, xix-xxii. GOODSPEED, Ancient World. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, xix-xxi. Bury, Greece, chaps, xvi-xviii. Hogarth, Ancient East, pp. 186-251. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism. Capps, Homer to Theocritus. Curteis, Alacedonian E?npire. Wheeler, Alexander. Gardner, Nezv Chapters in Greek History, chap. xv. Shuckburgh, Greek History. Greenidge, Greek Constitutional History, chap. vii. Mahaffy, Greek Life and Thoitght, chaps, i-xvi ; Alexander's Empire, chaps, xiv, xx, and xxiii. Monroe, History of Education, pp. 73-78. Tucker, Life in Ancient Athens, chap. ix. Tarbell, Greek Art, chap. x. Source Material and Maps. Botsford and Sihler, Hellenic Civilization. Botsford, Source Book, chaps, xxiv— xxvii. Plutarch'' s Lives of Demosthenes, Phocion, Alexander. Demosthenes'' Crown and Third. Philippic. Thallon, Readings, chap. xv. Fling, Source Book, Polybius* Histories (Shuckburgh). Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Map Bio; Teacher's Manual^ pp. 74-79. BOOK III. THE ROMANS The Roman Republic to the Time of Augustus. Botsford, History of Pome, chaps, i-viii. Westermann, Ancient Nations, chaps, xxiii-xxxiv. Good- speed, Ancient World. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, xxii-xxvi. Bryant, Short History of Rome. Fowler, Rome. Mosso, Dawn of Civilization. Jones, Companion to Roman History. Heitland, Short History of the Roman Repub- lic. How and Leigh, History of Rome. Abbott, Roman Political Institutions. Frank, Roman Imperialism. Greenidge, Roman Public Life. Smith, Car- thage and the Carthaginians. Morris, Hannibal. Davis, I?ifluetice of Wealth in Imperial Rome. Duff, Literary History of Rome. Fowler, Ccesar. Strachan-Davidson, Cicero. Source Material and Maps. Botsford, Story of Rome and. Source Book. Munro, Source Book. Plutarch' 's Lives of Romulics, Nitma, Pyrrhus, Camillus. D avis, Source Readings, Vol. III. Ccesar's, Gallic War. Sallusfsfugurthine War. Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, Maps Bn, B12, B13 (A), B14 (A-D), B14 (E); Teacher's Manual, pp. 13-17, 25-32, 80-96, 97-100, 106-109, 109-122. The Roman Empire and its Decline. Botsford, History of Rome. Wester- mann, Ancient Nations. Goodspeed, Ancient World. Breasted, Ancient Times, chaps, xxvii-xxix. Fowler, Rome. Capes, Early Empire. Jones, Roman Empire. Bury, Students' Roman Empire, chaps, i-xii. Abbott, Roman Political Institutions, chap. xii. Davis, Influence of Wealth. Firth, Augustus. Gl iv General History of Europe Fowler, History of Roman Literature, Bk. II. Mackail, Roman Literature, Bk. II. Tucker, Life in the Roman World. Arnold, Roman Provincial Administration. REINACH, Story of Art, pp. 75-83. Pellison, Roman Life in Pliny's Time. Mau and Kelsey, Pompei. Tucker, Roman Life, chaps, i-iii, xix-xxi. Hardy, Studies in Roman History, Series I. Cumont, Oriental Reli- gions in^. Roman Paganism. Glover, Conflict of Religions in the Roman Empire. Oman, Byzantine Empire. Cotterill, Mediceval Italy, pp. 21-54. Firth, Con- stantine. DlLL, Roman Society in the Last Century of the Roman Empire. Source Material and Maps. Botsford, Story of Rome; Source Book. Mun- ROE, Source Book. Davis, Source Readings. Laing, Masterpieces of Latin Literature (selections). The Deeds of Augustus (Fairley's translation in the Pennsylvania Translations and Reprints, Vol. V, No. 1). Suetonius' Lives of the Ccesars (selections). Tacitus' Annals, XV, 38-45, 60-65. Letters of Pliny (Firth). New Testament (The Acts of the Apostles). Robinson, Readings in European History, Vol. I, pp. 14-27. The Notitia Dignitatum {Translations and Reprints, University of Pennsylvania). Breasted-Huth, Ancient History Maps, B13 (B), B16 (insert) ; Teacher's Manual, pp. 100-104, 123-128, 128-130. BOOK IV. THE MIDDLE AGES The Barbarian Invasions. The best short accounts of the barbarian inva- sions are Emerton, Introduction to the Middle Ages, chaps, i-vii, and Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chaps, iii and v. Oman, The Dark Ages, gives a somewhat fuller narrative of the events. Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages, chaps, i, ii, iv, and v, discusses the general conditions and results. Hodgkin, the author of an extensive work in eight volumes on Italy and her Invaders, has written two small works, Dynasty of Theodosius and Theodoric the Goth. Sergeant, The Pranks. Every historical student should gain some acquaintance with the celebrated historian Gibbon. Although his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire was written about a century and a half ago, it is still of great interest and is incomparable in its style. The best edi- tion is published by The Macmillan Company. The Cambridge Mediceval His- tory, by various writers, devotes its first volume to the period in question. The textbook and the collateral reading should always be supplemented by examples of contemporaneous material. Robinson, Readings in European His- tory, Vol. I (from the barbarian invasions to the opening of the sixteenth cen- tury) and Vol. II. (from the opening of the sixteenth century to the early twentieth century), arranged to accompany chapter by chapter Robinson's Introduction to the History of Western Europe, will be found especially useful in furnishing extracts which reenforce the narrative together with extensive bibliographies and topical references. For extracts relating to the barbarian invasions, see Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, pp. 28-55 ; Ogg, A Source Book of Mediceval History, chaps, i-iv. Much Gl Bibliography v more extensive are the extracts given in Hayes, C. H., An Introduction to the Sources relating to the Germanic Invasions, 1909 (Columbia University Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law, Vol. XXXIII, No. 3). See also Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for •■ Medieval History. Constant use should be made of good historical atlases. By far the best and most convenient for the high school is Shepherd, Wm. R., Historical Atlas, 191 1 (see maps 43, 45, 48, 50-52). Dow, Earl E., Atlas of European History, 1907, also furnishes clear maps of the chief changes. An admirable syllabus, guide, and exhaustive bibliography for the study of the Middle Ages may be found in Paetow, A Guide to the Study of Mediceval History, 19 1 7. Rise Of the Papacy ; the Monks. Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chap, vi, ix-x. Flick, The Rise of the Mediceval Church. Walker, The History of the Christian Church. Church histories are usually written by either Catho- lics or Protestants, who naturally differ in their interpretation of events. One may refer to Fisher, History of the Christian Church (Protestant), or Alzog, Manual of Universal Church History (Catholic). Milman, History of latin Christianity. Cambridge Mediceval History, Vol. I, chaps, iv, vi. Newman, Manual of Church History, Vol. I (Protestant). Workman, Evolution of the Monastic Ideal. Taylor, Henry O., Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages, admirable chapter on Monasticism. Harnack, Monaslicism. Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II, chap. xvi. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, pp. 14-27, and chaps, iv- v. Much fuller, Ayer, J. C, A Source Book of Ancient Church History and Life of St. Columban in Translations and Reprints, University of Pennsylvania, Vol. II, No. 7. The chief portions of the Benedictine Rule in Henderson, E. F., Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, and in Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Medieval History. Translation by Brehaut of Gregory of Tours, History of the Franks. See map, pp. 46-47, in Shepherd, Historical Atlas, showing spread of Christianity in Europe. Mohammed and his Followers. For Mohammed and the Saracens, see Thatcher and Schwill, Europe in the Middle Age, chap. xv. Gilman, The Saracens. Gibbon has a famous chapter on Mohammed and another- on the conquests of the Arabs. These are the fiftieth and fifty-first of his great work. Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II, chaps, x-xii. MuiR, Life of Mohammed. Ameer Ali, The Life and Teachings of Mohammed, a Short History of the Saracens, by one who sympathizes with them. It is not hard to find a copy of one of the English translations of the Koran. See brief extracts in Robinson, Readings, and in Ogg, Source Book of Medieval History, pp. 97 ff. Stanley Lane- Poole, Speeches and Table Talk of Mohammed, is very interesting. Charlemagne and the Age of Disorder. Emerton, Introduction to the Mid- dle Ages, chaps, xii-xv. Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chaps, xi-xiv. Gl vi General History of Europe Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, chaps, iv-v. Henderson, History of Germany in the Middle Ages, chaps, iv-v. Oman, Dark Ages, chaps, xix-xxv. Adams, G. B., Civilization during the Middle Ages. Hodgkin, Charles the Great, a small volume. Mombert, A History of Charles the Great, the most extensive treatment in English. Cambridge Mediceval Histoiy, Vol. II, chaps, xviii-xx. Seignobos, Feudal Regime (excellent). See "Feudalism," in Encyclopcedia Britannica, nth ed. Ingram, History of Slavery and Serfdom, especially chaps, iv-v. Cheyney, Industrial and Social History of Engla?id. Munro and SELLERY, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 159-212. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, chaps, vii-ix. Ogg, Source Book of Mediceval History, chap. x. Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Mediceval History, pp. 341-417. England in the Middle Ages. There are a number of convenient general histories of England during the Middle Ages which can be used to supplement the short account here given: Cheyney, Short History of England; Green, Short History of the English People; Cross, A. L., A History of England and Greater Britain, chaps, iv-xviii ; Andrews, Charles M., History of England; Terry, History of England; and a number of others. For France, Adams, G. B., Growth of the French Nation ; Duruy, History of France ; and a more recent treatment by Davis, W. S., The History of France. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, chaps, xi, xx. There are several source books of English history: Cheyney, Readings in English History, chaps, iv-xii ; Colby, Selections from the Sources of English History ; Lee, Source Book of English History; Kendall, Source Book of English History. Popes and Emperors. Emerton, Mediceval Europe, chaps, iii-x. Henderson, E. F., History of Germany in the Middle Ages. Thorndike, History of Medi- eval Europe, chap. xv. Davis, H. W. C, Medieval Europe, chaps, v-vii. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, chaps, viii-xi. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, chaps, xii-xiv. Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Mediceval History, Section III, pp. 132-259. Excellent maps for the period will be found in Shepherd, Historical Atlas. The Crusades. Emerton, Mediceval Europe, chap. xi. Tout, The Empire and the Papacy, chaps, vii, viii, xiii, xiv, xix. Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chap. xvi. Davis, Medieval Europe, chap. viii. Munro and Sellery, Mediceval Civilization, pp. 240-276. Adams, Civilization during the Middle Ages, chap, xi, for discussion of general results. Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, chaps, lviii-lix. See " Crusades," in Encyclopcedia Britannica, nth ed. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, chap. xv. Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Mediceval History, Section IX, pp. 510-544. Translations and Reprints, published by the Department of History of the University of Penn- sylvania, Vol. I, Nos. 2, 4, and Vol. Ill, No. 1. Gl Bibliography v ij The Medieval Church; Heresy and the Friars. Emerton, Medieval Eu- rope, chap. xvi. The works of Flick and Walker referred to above are useful brief treatments. Special topics can be looked up in the Encyclopedia Britan- n'ica, the Catholic Encyclopedia, or any other good encyclopedia. Cutts, Parish Priests and their People. Lea, A Histoiy of the Inquisition of the Middle Ages, contains chapters upon the origin of both the Franciscan and Dominican orders. For St. Francis the best work is Sabatier, St. Francis of Assist. See also Gasquet, English Monastic Life ; Jessopp, The Coming of the Friars, and Other Historic Essays; CREIGHTON, History of the Papacy, introductory chapter. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, chaps, xvi, xvii, xxi. Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Medieval History, contains many important documents relating to the Church. BOOK V. CIVILIZATION IN THE MIDDLE AGES Town Life in the Middle Ages. Emerton, Medieval Europe, chap. xv. Davis, Medieval Europe, chap. ix. Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chaps, xvii-xix, xxxi-xxxii. Hulme, Renaissance and Reformation. Emerton, The Beginnings of Modern Europe, chaps, iv-v, ix-x. Gibbins, History of Commerce, best short account with good maps. Cunning- ham, Western Civilization in its Economic Aspects, Vol. II. Cheyney, Indus- trial and Social History of England. Gibbins, Indtistrial History of England. Day, C, History of Commerce. Luchaire, Social Life in the Time of Philip Augustus. Symonds, Age of Despots, gives a charming account of town life in Italy in its more picturesque aspects. Hamlin, History of Architecture, good introduction. Good account of early discoveries in Cambridge Modem History, Vol. I, chaps, i-ii. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, chap, xviii. Ogg, A Source Book of Medieval History, chap. xx. Thatcher and McNeal, A Source Book for Medieval History. Section X, pp. 545-612, gives many interesting docu- ments. Marco Polo's account of his travels is easily had in English. The best edition of Travels of Sirfohn Mandeville is that published by The Macmillan Company. Medieval Books and Science. Emerton, Medieval Europe, chap. xiii. Thorndike, History of Medieval Europe, chaps, xx-xxii. Munro and Sellery, Medieval Civilization, pp. 277-357, 458-490. Hulme, Renaissance and Refor- mation. Rashdall, History of the Universities in the Middle Ages, introductory chapters. The best treatment of medieval intellectual history is Taylor, H. O., The Medieval Mind (2 vols). Saintsbury, Flourishing of Romance, a good introduction to medieval literature. Walsh, The Thirteenth, the Greatest of Centuries (rather too enthusiastic in its claims). Smith, Justin H., The Gl viii General History of Europe Troubadours at Home. Cornish, Chivalry. DeVinne, Invention of Printing. Putnam, Books and their Makers during the Middle Ages. Burckhardt, The Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy. Van Dyck, The History of Painting. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, chap. xix. Steele, Mediae- val Lore, extracts from an encyclopedia of the thirteenth century. The Song of Roland is translated into spirited English verse by O'Hagan. The reader will find a beautiful example of a French romance of the twelfth century in an English translation of Aucassin and Nicolette. Mr. Steele gives charming stories of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Huon of Bordeaux, Renaud of Montauban, and The Story of Alexander. Malory, Mort d Arthur, a col- lection of the stories of the Round Table made in the fifteenth century for English readers, is the best place to turn for these famous stories. Robinson and Rolfe, Petrarch (new enlarged edition, 19 14), a collection of his most interesting letters. Whitcomb, Literary Source Book of the Italiaft Renaissance. Coulter, Medieval Garner, a collection of selections from the literary sources. BOOK VI. THE PROTESTANT REVOLT AND THE WARS OF RELIGION Europe at the Opening of the Sixteenth Century. Hayes, C. J. H., Politi- cal and Social History of Modern Europe, Vol. I, chaps, i, in (excellent brief account). Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, chaps, i-ii. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, iv, xi. See " Charles V," in Encyclopedia Britan- nica. Duruy, History of France, Ninth and Tenth Periods. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. II, chap. ii. Dyer and Hassall, Modern Europe (a political history of Europe in 6 vols.), Vol. I. Creighton, History of the Papacy. Pastor, History of the Popes, Vol. V. Bryce, Holy Roman Empire, chap. xiv. Source Material. Robinson, Readings,. Vol. II, chap, xxiii. The Protestant Revolt in Germany. Hayes, Modem Europe, Vol. I, chap. iv. Henderson, E. F., Short History of Germany. Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, chaps, iii-v. A good recent discussion of the period is contained in Hulme, Renaissance and Reformation. Lindsay, History of the Reformation, Vol. I. See " Reformation," in Encyclopedia Britannica, nth ed. McGiffert, Martin Luther. Beard, Martin Luther, especially introductory chapters on general conditions. Creighton, History of the Papacy, Vol. VI. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. I, chaps, ix, xix, and Vol. II, chaps, iv-viii. Janssen, History of the German People, Vols. I-II. Emerton, Desiderius Eras- mus, very interesting. Smith, Preserved, The Life and Letters of Martin Luther: Bohmer, Luther in the Light of Recent Research. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. I, chap, xxi, and Vol. II, chaps, xxiv-xxvi. Wace and Buchheim (Editors), Luther's Primary Works Gl Bibliography ix and The Augsburg Confession. Whitcomb, Source Book of the German Renais- sance. Hazlitt, Luther's Table Talk. Smith, Preserved, Luther'' s Corre- spondence and Other Contemporary Letters. Protestant Revolt in Switzerland and England. Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, pp. 272 ff. See " Zwingli " and " Calvin," in Encyclopedia Britannica. Chapters on the changes under Henry VIII and Edward VI will be found in all general histories of England ; for example, Pollard, A. F., Histoiy of England (Home University Library), chap, iv ; Cheyney, Short History of England, chap, xii ; Cross, A History of England, chaps, xx-xxii ; Green, Short Histoiy of the English People, chaps, vi-vii. Cambridge Modern Histoiy, Vol. II, chaps, x-xi, xiii-xv. Jackson, S. M., Huldreich Zwingli. Lindsay, History of the Reformation, Vol. II, Bk. Ill, chaps, i-iii, and Bk. IV. Gasquet, The Eve of the Reformation. Pollard, Henry VIII \ and, -by the same, History of England from the Accession of Edward VI to the Death of Elizabeth, two admirable works by one of the most stimulating of modern English historians. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, chap, xxvii. Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, pp. 145 ff., very useful and full. Cheyney, Readings in English History, chap. xii. The Wars of Religion. Johnson, Europe in the Sixteenth Century, chaps, vii-ix. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, chaps, v-vi (excellent). Wakeman, European History, 1598-17/3, chaps, i-v. The portion of the chapter dealing with English affairs can be readily supplemented by means of the general histories of England, Cheyney, Cross, Green, Gardiner, Terry, etc. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. II, chaps, ix, xvi, xviii-xix ; Vol. Ill, chaps, i, vi-x, xv, xx ; Vol. IV, chaps, i, iii-vi, xiii-xiv. Lindsay, History of the Refor- mation, Vol. II, Bk. Ill, chaps, iv-v, and Bk. VI. Putnam, Ruth, William the Silent. Payne, Voyages of Elizabethan Seamen to America, Vol. I. Motley, Rise of the Dutch Republic. GlNDELY, History of the Thirty Years' War. Source Material. Robinson, Readings, Vol. II, chaps. xxviii,xxix. Cheyney, Readings in English History, chap. xiii. BOOK VII. THE SEVENTEENTH AND EARLY EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES England in the Seventeenth Century. Pollard, History of England, chap. v. Cheyney, Short History of England, chaps, xiv-xvi. Hayes, Modern Europe, Vol. I, chap. viii. Cross, A History of England, chaps, xxvii-xxxv. Green, Short History of the English People, chaps, viii-ix. Gardiner, Students' Histoiy of England, Pts. VI-VIII. Cambridge Modern History, Vol. Ill, chap, xvii ; Vol. IV, chaps, viii-xi, xv, xix ; Vol. V, chaps, v, ix-xi. Morley, Oliver Crom- zvell. Macaulay, Essay on Milton. Gardiner, The First Tivo Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution. Pease, The Leveller Movement. Gl x General History of Europe Source Material. Robinson, Readings, chap. xxx. Cheyney, Readings in English History, chaps, xiv-xvi. Lee, Source Book of English History, Pt. VI. Colby, Selections from the Sources of English History, Pt. VI, the Stuart Period. Gee and Hardy, Documents Illustrative of English Church History, pp. 508-664. Gl INDEX Marked letters sound as in ask, far, her, there, move, orb, full; French bon, menu; K like German ch in ich, ach Abbeys, dissolution of, in England, 3 2 4 Abraham, 43 Academy, 79; of Plato, 112 A crop'o lis, 56, 74 Act of Supremacy, 323, 339 Act of Uniformity, 360 Actium (ak'shi urn), 152 Address to the German Nobility, by Luther, 311 f. Ad'ri an o'ple, battle of, 182 ^Egean World, civilization of, 48 ff. ; peoples of, 49 ; and the Orient, 52 f., 70 ff. ; invaded by the Greek bar- barians, 56 ^Egina (e ji'na), 74 ^Egospotami (e gos pot'a mi), 89 ^Eneid (e ne'id), 157 M o'li ans, 55 ^schylus (es'ki lus), 84 Af'ri ca, 161 Agincourt (Eng. pron. aj'in court), 285 Ah'ri man, 37 Ahuramazda (a ho'ra maz'da), 37 Ak'kad, 193 Al'a ric, 182 Albertus Magnus, 247, 272 Al bi gen'sians, 244 f. Al'che my, 243 n., 270 Al ci bl'a des, 88 f . Alemanni (al e man'!), 188 Alexander the Great, 102 ff. Alexandria, 106, 108 f., 161 Alexius, Emperor, 237 Algebra, 194, 243 n. Al ham'bra, 194 Alphabet. See Writing Alsace (al sas"), 346 Alva, duke of, 331 f., 340 f. America, discovery of, 298 ; Spanish possessions in, 299, 303 A'mon, 105 gi xi Amos, 43 A nab' a sis, 92 Andrea del Sarto (an dre'a del sar'to), 295 Angles in Britain, 183, 202, 279 f. Anglo-Saxon language, 265 Anjou (Eng. pron. an'jo), 233, 287 Anne, queen of England, 363 An tig'o nus, 106 Antioch (an'ti ok), 106, 239, 240 Antiochus (an tTo kus) the Great, 137 An'to ny, 151 f. A pol'lo, 67 A pol 15 do'rus, 95 A qui'nas, Thomas, 198, 247, 272 Ar'a bic numerals, 243 n., 274 Ar'abs, 25, 191 ; conquests of, 193, 237 ; civilization of, 193, 243 ; in Spain, 193 {., 302 Aragon, 302 f. Ar be'la, 104 Archimedes (ar ki me'dez), 109 Architecture, earliest, in stone, 45; medieval, 210, 230, 243; Gothic, 260 Ar'gos, 52, 66, 74 Aristarchus (ar is tar'kus), no Ar is toph'a nes, 95 Aristotle, 99, 102, 112, 347; medie- val veneration for, 269, 271 f. ; Luther's attitude toward, 310, 312 Arma'da, 334, 342 Art in the Stone Age, 4 f. See Greek art and architecture, Roman „ art and architecture, Renaissance Ar te mis'ium, 73 Arthur, King, 266 Aryans (ar'yanz), 36 Asia, Western, 24 ff. Assur (as'or), 29 Assyrian civilization, 29 f. Assyrian Empire, 29 ff . ; conquest of Israel by, 44 XIV General History of Europe Diirer, Albrecht, 296 Dutch, origin of, 333. See Holland Dutch language, 265 East Frankish kingdom, 207, 216 East Goths, 184, 186, 197 Edict of Restitution, 343 f., 346 Education, 190, 205, 224, 243, 257 f., 270 ff., 329 Edward the Confessor, 228 f. Edward I, 279 ff. Edward II, 280 ff. Edward III, 282 ff. Edward VI, 324 f., 339 Egypt, physical aspect of, 10; long history of ancient, 10 f.; civiliza- tion of, 14 ff.; the Empire, 20 ff.; conquerors of, 22, 29, 38, 152, 193, 243 Egyptian writing, 1 1 f . Election of German emperors, 304 f. Elizabeth, Queen, 338 ff. England, in the Middle Ages, 229 ff., 279 ff., 286 ff.; peasant revolt in (1381), 284; and France, 285; under Elizabeth, 334, 338 ff. ; and Spain, 334, 342 ; and Ireland and Scotland, 341, 351, 363 ; under the Stuarts, 351 ff- See Angles in Britain, Church, Irish question, Parliament, Saxons English language, 265 Epaminondas, 92 Ep i cu re'ans, 113 Erasmus, 198, 309 Er a tos'the nes, no Estates General, 258, 286 Etruscans, 117, 123, 125 Euripides, 85, 96 Excommunication, 214, 224, 234, 312, 340 Ferdinand of Aragon, 300, 303 Ferdinand I, Emperor, 331 Fertile Crescent, 25, 36, 40, 103, 159, 162, 175 Feudal system. See Feudalism Feudalism, 211 ff.; warfare under, 213 ; involving the Church, 217 f., 248 ; in England, 229, 235, 248, 280 ; in France, 233, 248, 287 Fiefs, medieval, 211, 228 Fla min'i us, 132 Flanders, 228 Florence, 289, 291 ff. Forum, Roman, 119, 1 54 f., 164 Fra Angelico, 198 France in Middle Ages, 283, 287. See Franks Francis I of France, 302, 307, 309, 3 l6 > 334 Franciscans, 198, 246 Franks, 186; conquests of, 186 f., 204, 240; kingdom of, 187 Frederick I (Barbarossa), Emperor, 221 Frederick II, Emperor, 221 Frederick the Wise, 310 French language, 148, 265 f., 320 Friars, Preaching, 245, 247 Friends, Society of, 361 Gaelic, 280 Ga le'ri us, 178 Gascony, 188 Gaul, 147 f. Gauls, 124 f., 161 Genoa (jen'o a), 289 Geographical discoveries, 296 ff. Geography, early science of, no Geometry, no George I, 363 f. German language, 207, 265 German peoples, 35 Germans, early, 146, 158, 173, 175, 182 ff., 202 ; civilization of, 181, 188; fusion of, with the Romans, 188 f. Germany, in the sixteenth century, 304 ; religious division of, 308 f ., 316 ff. See Austria, German Em- pire, Holy Roman Empire Ghent (gent), 255, 257 Ghetto (get'o), 256 Ghiberti (ge ber'te), 295 n. Gizeh (ge'ze), Great Pyramid of, 16 Gladiators, 141 Glass, earliest, 18 f. God, belief in one, 46 Godfrey of Bouillon (bo yon'), 239 Gospels, 169 Gothic architecture and sculpture, 260 ff. Goths, 182 f. Government, earliest on a large scale, 45 Gracchi (grak'I), 145 Grammar, 194 Gra na'da, 194, 206, 303 Grand Remonstrance, 356 Gra ni'cus, 103 Gl Index xv " Great Greece," 63 Great King, 39 " Great Schism," 226 Greek art and architecture, 78 ff., 93 f. Greek city-state, 56, 66, 68, 91, 95, 99 Greek civilization, in the Age of Kings, 56 ff. ; in the Age of Nobles, 66 ; in the Age of Tyrants, 66 ; in the Athenian Empire, 78, 93, 100, 107, 117 ; in Asia, 105 Greek colonization, 62 f., 106 Greek commerce, 63 f., 106 Greek drama, 84, 96 Greek education, 79 f. Greek gods, 61 f., 114 Greek history writing, 98 Greek industries, 63 Greek language, 56, 67, 108 f., 120, 141, 272 f. Greek literature, 59 ff., 67, 81 f., 85, 93, 98 f. ; influence of, 140 f. Greek oratory, 10 1 Greek religion and philosophy, 67., 9S'f-» TI 3 Greek science, 66, 81, 99, 109 Greek sea power, 64, 72 ff., 88, 92, 106. See Hellenistic Age Greek theater, 84 f. Greek wars, 70 ff., 77 Greek wealth, 65, 93, 106 Greeks, 35, 49, 54 ff., 91 f . ; allied with the Romans, 125 ; subjugation of, 138 Gregory VII, 218 ff. Gregory the Great, 197 f., 202 Guienne (ge en 7 ), 233 f., 283 Guilds, 253 Guise (gez), House of, 335, 340 Gunpowder, 275, 301, 350 Gustavus Adolphus, 344 Ha'dri an, 159 f. Hamburg, 255 Ham mu r'a'pi, 28 f. " Hanging Gardens," 34 Hannibal, 131 Hanseatic League, 257 Hapsburgs, 304 ff., 336, 345 Harvey, 352 Hastings, 228 Hawkins, 342 Hebrew kingdoms, 41 ff. Hebrew literature and religion, 40, 43.45 Hebrew writing, 43 Gl Hebrews, 25, 40 ff. ; restoration of the, 44 f. He ji'ra, the, 191 Hellas, 67 Hellenes (hel'enz), 67 Hellenistic Age, 10 1 ff. Hel'les pont, 70, 75 Henry II of England, 232 f., 271, 537 Henry V of England, 285 Henry VIII of England, 302, 309, 322 ff. Henry II of France, 335 Henry IV of France, 336 f. Henry IV of Germany, 220 Heraldry, 243 Heresy, 243 ff., 303 ; of Luther, 313 ; punishment of, 334 Hero songs of Greece, 59 He rod'o tus, 81, 98 Hieroglyphics, 12 Hildebrand. See Gregory VII Hippocrates (hi pok'ra tez), 84, 85 Historic Period, 8 History, earliest writer of, 42 ; sum- mary of ancient, 179; medieval ignorance of, 268 ; sources of, after 1500, 278 Hittites (hit'lts), 30, 53 Hohenstaufens (ho'enshtou'fenz), 221 Holbein (horbln), 296 Holland, 306, 328, 342, 346, 361. See Republic (Dutch) Holy Roman Empire, 216 f., 221 f., 305 ; dissolution of, 346 Homage, 211 H5'mer, 53, 59, 141 Hor'ace, 156, 200 Horse, first appearance of the, 17 Hos'pi tal ers, 240 Hrolf. See Rollo Huguenots (hu'ge nots), 335 f. Humanists, 273 Hundred Years' War, 283 ff. Hungarians, 209, 216 Huns, 182 f. Ikh na'ton, 22 Il'i ad, 59 Imperator, 153 Index of prohibited books, 328 India, 36 Indo-European languages, 36 Indo-Europeans, 35 f., 54, 116 Indulgences, 311 Ingelheim, 205 n. Innocent III, 234, 244, 246 XVI General History of Europe Inquisition, 245, 303, 348 Institute, French, 349 Institute of Christianity, The, by Cal- vin, 321, 334 Interdict, 224 f., 234 Interest, 28, 65, 255 f. Intolerance, examples of, 244, 318,334, 341, 348, 361 Inventions, 274 f., 350 I o'ni ans, 55, 71 Irish question, the, 341 Iron, 30, 53 Isaac, 43 Isabella, queen of Castile, 303 Isaiah (I za/ya), 44 Tsis, 168 Is'larn, 191 I soc'ra tes, 99, ior Israel, 42 Is'sus, 103 Italian cities, and the Orient, 242 f. of the Renaissance, 289 ff., 300 f. Italian despots, 291 Italians, n6f., 161 Italy, early, 63 ; geography and cli- mate of, 116; and the revived Ro- man Empire, 207, 216, 221 f . ; and the Orient, 254 ; during the Renais- sance, 289 ff. ; a battleground for Europe, 300 f . See Rome Jacob, 43 James I, 280 James II, 351, 361 f. James VI of Scotland (I of England), 340 f., 351 f. Je ho'vah, 42 Jerusalem, city of, 34, 41, 44; con- quests of, 237, 239, 241 f. ; kingdom of, 240 Jesuits, 198, 329 ff. Jesus, 168 Jewish State, 45 Jews, 168, 256, 303 Joan of Arc, 285 Joanna the Insane, 306 John of England, 234 f. John II of France, 283 Joseph, 43 Judah, 42, 44 Julian, "the Apostate, 177 Julius Caesar, 147 ff. Jury, trial by, 68, 76, 232, 235 Jus tin'i an Code, 186 Ju've nal, 167 Karnak, 20 Khafre, 20 King, " by the grace of God," 205 ; position of, in feudalism, 213 f . ; in England, 234, 236; in France, 2 35 Kingship, origin of Greek, 56 " Kneeling " Parliament, 326 Knighthood, 267 f. Knights of the Round Table, 266 Knox, John, 339 Koran, 191 f. Lake-dwellers, Swiss, 6 f., 319 Lancaster, House of, 286 Land, ownership of, 122, 171, 208, 211, 217, 232 ft., 249; "inclosures" of, 338 Lateran, 294 Latin kingdoms in Syria, 240 Latin language, 148, 207, 223, 264, 348 ; dialects of, 207 Latins, 118, 124 Latium, 118 Laud, William, 354, 356 Law, earliest written codes of, 28, 122, 160, 186, 189; English common, 232 ; study of, 271 Learning, medieval, 268 ff. Leo the Great, 183, 197 Leo III, 207 Leo X, 302, 309 Leonardo da Vinci, 295 Leonidas, 73 Libraries, in Rome, 167 ; destruction of, 190, 200 Library, of Assurbanipal, 30 ; at Alex- andria, in f . ; first private Roman, 141 Livy, 1 57 Llewellyn, 279 Lombards, 186, 197 Lombardy conquered by Charle- magne, 186 Lord, medieval, 211 Lords, House of, 28 Lorenzo the Magnificent, 275, 292, 3°9 Louis XIV, 363 Low Church party, 354 Loyola, Ignatius, 198, 329 Liibeck, 255, 257 Luther, Martin, 198, 307, 3ioff. Lutheran revolt, 314ft . Liitzen, 344 GI Index xvn Lyceum, 79 Lydia, 38, 40 Lysander, 89 Macedonia, 99, 101 ff. ; conquered by Rome, 137 Magellan, 298 Magnesia (magne'sha), 137 Maine, France, 233, 287 Man, prehistoric, 1 ff. Manor, medieval, 248 f. Mar'athon, 71 Marco Polo, 296 Ma'rius, 145 f. Marseilles (marsalz'), 63 Marston Moor, battle of, 356 Mary of Burgundy, 306 Mary Queen of Scots, 341 Mary Tudor, 324 f. Massilia (masil'ea) (Marseilles), 63 Mathematics, 45, 194 Matilda, 233 Max i mil'i an, 304, 306 Mayence Psalter, 277 Mayor of the Palace, 204 M'az'da, 37 Mecca (mek'a), 191 Medes (medz), 33, 37 Medici (med'e che), 292 Medicine, 45, 81 Medina (made'na), 191 Mediterranean world, 53, 106, H4ff.; failure of the Greeks in the western, 125; Romans in the, 135 f-, 138, i43> J 49> l S 2 > J 54, 163 Melanchthon (me langk'thon), 317 Memphis, 16 Mendicant orders, 245 f. Mer o vin'gi an line, 188, 204 n. Mer'sen, Treaty of, 207 Messina, 130 Metals, 8, 13 f., 28, 48, 53- 2o8 5 P ew " ter, 338 Metz, 346 Michael Angelo (ml'kel an'je lo), 295 Middle Ages, 190; instruction dur- ing, 224, 271 f. ; warfare in, 283, 285 Milan', 289 Miller, Hugh, 249 Mil ti'a des, 7 1 Mines, 63, 208, 303 Minnesingers, 268 Mith'ras, 37, 168 Modena (m6'da na), Mary of, 361 f. Gl Modern languages, 264 ff. Moham'med, 191 Mohammedan conquests, 209, 241, 302 Mohammedans, 191 ff., 206, 302 f. Mommsen, 171 Monarchs, English, 364 n. Monasteries, 201, 324 Monasticism, 198; vows of, 199 f. Money, lack of, 208, 249; replaces barter, 250; grants of, to the gov- ernment, 281 f., 287. See Interest Monks, 198, 201, 246 f., 324, 330; contribution of, to civilization, 200 f. Mon'te Cassino (kas se'no), 199 Moors. See Mohammedans Moses, 40, 43 n. Moslems. See Mohammedans Mosques, 192 f. Museum, the, 109, 350 Naples, kingdom of, 221, 289, 300 Nase'by, 356 Navarre (navar'), 302, 335 Nebuchadnezzar, (neb u kad nez'ar), 33> 44 Ne'ro, 157 Netherlands, revolt of the, 331 ff. See Belgium, Holland, Republic (Dutch) Neustria, 188 New Atlantis, 349 New Testament, 169 New York, 361 Nic 5 me'di a, 176 Nile, 10, 20 Nimwegen, 205 n. Nineveh (nin'e ve), 30, 33, 104 Norman Conquest, 228 f. Normandy, 228, 233, 285 Norway, 344 Norwegian language, 265 Nov'go rod, 257 Octa'vian, 151 ff- O doa'cer, 183, 197 Od'ys sey, 61 Old Testament, 43, 45 Oligarchies, Greek, 91 Olympic games, 66 f., 79 Olym'pus, 54 Orange, House of. See William of Orange Ordeal, trial by, 189 XV111 General History of Europe Orient, achievements of, 8, 45 ; lack of freedom in, 46 ; influence of, on the Mediterranean world, 57, 114, 168, 193 f. ; Europe and, 242, 254, 290, 296. See Crusades Orleans (or'la ail), Maid of, 285 Ostracism, 68 Ostrogoths. See East Goths Otto the Great, 216 f. Ov'id, 200 Oxford, University of, 271 Painting, 295 f. Palestine, 25,40, 56, 147, 237 Pan'the on, 165 Papacy, origin of, 195 ; revenues of, 308 f., 323 ; revolts against, 314, 323. See Pope Papal possessions, 289 Paper and paper-making, 13, 243 n., 276 f., 350 Papy'rus, 13 Parchment, 276 Paris, University of, 271 Parliament, English, 351 ff., 363. See Commons, Lords Par'the non, 84 Par'thians, 159, 173, 175 Patricians, 121 Paul of Tarsus, 168 Pavia (pave'a), 206 Peasants, revolt of, in England, 284 ; in Germany, 315 Pel o pon ne'si an wars, 86 Peloponnesus, 55 Per'i cles, 77, 86 Per i pa tet'ic School of Aristotle, 113 Persecutions, 256, 303, 323, 326, 334f., 34i Persia, empire of, 35 ff., 104 ; wars of, 37 f. ; civilization of, 40 ; invasions of Europe by, 70 ff. ; rise of new, 175; crushed by Moslems, 193 Perspective, discovery of, 95 Peter, St., regarded as the first bishop of Rome, 195 f. Peter the Hermit, 238 Peterborough, 249 Petition of Right, 353, 362 Petrarch, 272 Pharaoh (fa'ro), 20, 22 Phar sa'lus, 149 Phid'i as, 84, 94 Philip Augustus of France, 233, 242 Philip of Macedon, 101, 124 Philip II of Spain, 326, 331 f., 340 ff. Phil ip'pi, 151 Philippics, 1 01 Philistines (fi lis'tinz), 56 Phoenicia (fe nish'a), 17, 104 Phoenicians, 26, 40, 57 Pilgrim Fathers, 355 Pin'dar, 102 Pippin, 204 f. PI rae'us, 77, 89 Pirates, 257, 299 Pisa, .289 Pi sis'tra tus, 68 Pitt, the younger, 418 Pizarro, 299, 303 Plantagenets (plan taj'e netz), 232 f., 283 Pla tae'a, 74 Plato, 97 f . ; the ideal state described by, 99 Plautus, 140 Plebs, 121 Plin'y, 167 Plutarch's Lives, 167 Poland, 206 Political parties in England, 354 Pompeii (pom pa/ye), 166 Pompey (pom'pi), 147 f. Pope, the temporal power of, 195; origin of title of, 197 ; election of, 218; claims of, 219, 234; position of, 223 ff., 308 f. Portcullis, 210 Portugal, 302 Portuguese discoveries, 297 Portuguese language, 265 Postal systems, earliest, 161 Pottery, earliest, 6, 18 f. Praetor (pre'tor), 122 Praise of Folly, by Erasmus, 309 Prax it'e les, 93 Prayer, English Book of Common, 339 Prehistoric Period, 9 Presbyterian Church, 321 ; established in Scotland, 339 Presbyters, 179 Pretenders, 364 n. " Prince Charlie," 364 n. Prince of Wales, 279 Princeps, 153 Printing, invention of, 275, 277 Prophets, the Hebrew, 43 Prot'es tant, origin of the term, 316 Protestant revolt, forerunner of, 285 ; in Germany, 316; in England, 322 ff. Gl Index xix Protestantism, first orderly statement of, 321; in France, 321, 335; spread of, 343 ; sects of, 354 Provencal (pro van sal'), 266 f. Provence (pro vans'), 287 Ptolemies (toremiz), 106, 152 Punic wars, 129 ff. Puritans, 354 Pyramid Age, the, 14 ff. ; life and art in, 19 f. Pyramids, 14, 16 Pyrrhus (pir'us), 125 Py thag'o ras, 81 Quaestors (kwes'torz), 122 Quakers. See Friends Raphael, 295 Raven'na, 186 Raymond, Count, 239 Reform, spirit of, 350. See Science Religious orders, military, 240 Renaissance (re na sons'), cities of the, 289 ff . ; art of the, 294 ff . Republic, Dutch, 333 Repitblic, The, by Plato, 99 Restoration in England, 360 f. Revolution of 1688, 361 f. Rheims (rems), cathedral of, 262, 285 Richard I, 233 f., 241 Richelieu (resh lye), 337, 345 Rollo, Duke of the Normans, 228 Roman army, 124, 129, 133, 146, 153 f., 158, 172, 174 f. ; army of the allies, 127 Roman art and architecture, 139 ff., 155, 1 58 f ., 161, 163 ff., 208 Roman Catholic Church. See Church Roman citizenship, extension of, 123, 172 Roman civilization, Greek influence on, 120, 128, 143, 161 ff. ; wealth in, 139, 142, 167; collapse of, 174 ff.; influence of, 179 Roman colonization, agricultural, 123, 127, 159 Roman commerce, 128, 139 Roman education, 140 f., 162 Roman Empire, origin and govern- ment of, 143, 154, 159; decline of, 170 ff..; division of, 177 ff. ; fall of, in the West, 183 ; continuity of, 207. See Charlemagne, Holy Roman Empire, Julius Caesar, Octavian Roman law, 122, 160, 186 Gl Roman literature, 167, 174, 200 Roman provinces, 135, 138, 147, 159, 162, 176 Roman religion, 168 Roman Republic overthrown, 145, 147 ff., 152 Roman sea power, 130 f., 149, 161 Roman society, 139 ff., 167, 171 f., 176 Roman State, 120 ff., 138,141, 149, 152, 157, 158, 160 f., 169, 174, 177 Roman wars, 1236°., 130 ff., 137, 176; evil results of, 142 Romance languages, 265 Romanesque architecture, 259 Romanoffs, 634 Rome, early, 118; captured by the Gauls, 124; rebuilt by Augustus, 154; in the time of Hadrian, 159; captured by Alaric, 182 ; capital of the Church, 218 Rom'u lus and Re'mus, 141 Rouen (ro oh'), 228, 285 Roumania. See Rumania Roundheads, 356 Royal Academy, 349 Ru'bi con, 148 Ru ma'ni a, 1 59 Runnymede (run'i med), 235 St. Bartholomew, massacre of, 336 St. Benedict, Rule of, 198 f. St. Bernard, 241 St. Boniface, 203 St. Dominic, 245 St. Francis, 245 f. St. Peter's, 294, 311 Sal'a din takes Jerusalem, 241 f. Sal'a mis, 74 Sam'nite wars, 124 Saracens, 242 Sar din'i a, 131 Sardis, 38 Sar'gon I, 28 Sas sa'nids, 175 Satan, 37 Satrap, 39 Saul, 41 Saxons, in Britain, 183, 202, 279 f. ; conquered by Charlemagne, 206 Scholasticism, 272 Schools. See Education Science, ancient, 109; medieval, 167, 194, 269 f., 274 ; modern, 347 ff. Scipio (sip'i o), 134 Scotch nation, 281 ; language of, 280 XX General History of Europe Scotland, 279 ff. ; union of, with Eng- land, 351 ; subdued by Cromwell, 358 Scott, Sir Walter, 281 Sea power, ancient, 109, 130, 149, 161 ; medieval, 299, 342 Seleucids (se lu'sids), 137, 147 Seleucus (se lu'kus), 106 Seljuk Turks, 237 Senate, Roman, I22f., 133, 143, 145ft., i5 2 > 175 Sen'e ca, 157 Sen nach'e rib, 30, 44 Sen ti'num, 124 Separatists, 354 Serfdom, 172, 248 f., 252; decline of, 250; long continuation of, in Ger- many, 315 Se ve'rus, Sep tim'i us, 174 Sev'ille, 194, 302 Seymour, Jane, 324 Shakespeare, 338, 352 Sicily taken by Moslems, 209, 221 Sinai (si'm), 13 Sistine Chapel, 294 Slavery, in Egypt, 19; in Greece, 64; English and Spanish traffic in, 338 Slavic peoples and lands, 35 Social orders and classes. See Bishops, Clergy, Feudalism, Peasants Society of Jesus, 329 Soc'ra tes, 96 f . Solomon, 42 ; temple of, 240 So'lon, 68 Song of Roland, 266 Sophists, 80 Soph'5 cles, 84 f. Spain, 128, 131, 134, 175, 183, 193 f., 299, 302 f. ; first " King of," 306 ; loses Dutch provinces, 334; suffers from policies of Philip II and sinks to second-rate power, 343. See Aus- tria, Charles V, Italy Spanish Armada, destruction of, 342 Spanish language, 265 Spanish Main, 299 Spanish ships captured by English mariners, 338 Spanish Succession, War of the, 363 Sphinx, 20 Spice trade in the Middle Ages, 297 f. Stevenson, Robert Louis, 281 Stoics, 113 Stone Age, Early, 3 f. ; Late, 5 f. Strassburg, 346 Stuarts, 339, 351 ff., 364 n. Sulla (suPa), 146 f. Su me'ri ans, 24 Suzerain, medieval, 211 Sweden, in the Thirty Years' War, 343 ff. ; origin of kingdom of, 344 Swiss lake-dwellers. See Lake-dwellers Switzerland, origin of, 319 ff. ; Protes- tant revolt in, 320 f. ; independence of, 346 Syria, a Roman province, 138; Mos- lems in, 193, 237 ; Latin kingdoms in, 240 Tacitus, 167, 206 Taxation, in the Roman Empire, 160, 171, 176; in the Middle Ages, 235, 256, 282, 284, 285 Templars, 240 Terence, 140 Tet'zel, 311 Teutons, 146 Textbooks, 347 Tha/les, 66 Thebes (in Egypt), 20 f. Thebes (in Greece), 66, 102 The mis'to cles, 71 ff., 76 The od'o ric, 184, 197 Ther mop'y lae, 73 Theses of Luther, 311 Thirty Years' War, 343 ff. Thucydides (thu sicPi dez), 98 Ti be'rius, 157 Tigris River, 24, 92, 104 Tiryns (tPrinz), 52 Titian (tish'an), 295 Toleration, in the Hellenistic Age, 114; toward Calvinists, 337, 346; Act of, 362 Tolls, 256 Tombs, Egyptian royal, 14 f. Toul, 346 Tours (tor), 193 f., 204 Towns, medieval, 248 ff., 319; repre- sentation of, 281, 286 Trade regulated by towns, 253, 257 Trade unions. See Business Tra'jan, 158 f. Trasimene, Lake, 132 Trent, Council of, 328 Tribunes, 120 Tripoli, 240 TrPremes, 64 Troubadours, 267 Gl Index xxi Troy, 52, 55, 103 "Truce of God," 214 Tudor, House of, 286 Turks, 237 "Twelve Articles" of the peasants, 3*5 Twelve Tables, 1: 2f. Union of Calmar, 344 United Netherlands. See Holland Universities, medieval, 194, 270 f., 310 ; German, 271 Urban II, Pope, 237 f. U'trecht, Union of, 333 Valois, 335 Vandals, 183, 186 Van Eyck, the brothers, 296 V'a'sa, Gustavus, 344 V'as'co da Ga'm'a, 297 Vassal, medieval, 211, 213 Vatican, 294 Vedas, 36 Venerable Bede, 198 Venice, 257, 289 f. Verdun, 346 Vespasian (vespa'zhi an), 157 f. Vesuvius, 166 Vikings, 209 n. Vil. See Manor Villains, 248 Virgil, 156, 200 Virginia, 391, 395 Vulgate. See Bible Wager of battle, 189 Waldensians (wol den'shanz), 244, 335 Waldo, Peter, 244 Wales, 202 Wallenstein, 343 ff. Walter the Penniless, 238 Wars, of the Roses, 286 ; of religion, 33 2ff - Wartburg, the, 314 Weapons, earliest, 3 ; crossbows as, 285 Weaving, earliest, 6; Egyptian, 19 Wedge writing (Sumerian), 24 West Frankish kingdom and West Franks, 207, 209, 228, 266 West Goths, 182 f. Western Empire reestablished by Charlemagne, 206 f. Westminster, city of, 282 Westminster Abbey, 201, 228 -Westphalia, Treaty of, ^345 f. . \yheel, earliest use of, 24 ; with cog, 109 William the Conqueror, 228 f. William III, king of England, 362 f. William of Orange, 332 f. See William III, king of England William the Silent, 332 f. ' Wit'e na ge m5t, 229 Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal, 322 f. Wood, early use of, 6 Worms (vorms), Concordat of, 221 ; diet at, 307, 313 ; Edict of, 313 f. Writing, 8; Egyptian, 11 f.; Sumerian, 24; Babylonian, 28; Hebrew, 43; Cretan, 50 ; Greek, 57 ; Phoenician, 57 ; Roman, 120 . Writing materials, invention of, 13; earliest, in Europe, 58 WycTiffe, John, 284 f. Xavier (zav'ier), Francis, 330 Xenophon (zen'o fon), 92 Xerxes (zerk'sez), 72, 74 Yahveh (ya'we), 42 York, House of, 286 . Za'ma, 134 Zo'di ac, 35 Z5 ro as'ter, 37 Zwingli, 320 f. GI s^