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. v> V- v 3> ' ^° ^0 - ft * „0 C t- ^ \.^ N A- "^ ^ % A. A x " vV /, ^ -ik. if \ V • *^ A' * **' k * .A .sV \0 o *■ V . ' ^ * ■*. %*' A V H t- v* oA ^" ^ ' rfV A x ^>- A*' .** >*%. * ^ A N - • A X \ A .A X m X ^. r O0 A J ■ V c * X c ,o \ v O -C A' // % A^ c .* ^ $°* \V •/ ■y I ,. ^ A V O .o ^ N YOUATT it ON THE STRUCTURE AND THE DISEASES OF THE HOUSE, WITH THEIR REMEDIES. ALSO, PRACTICAL RULES TO BUYERS, BREEDERS, BREAKERS, SMITHS, ETC. BEING THE MOST IMPORTANT PARTS OF THE ENGLISH EDITION OF " YOUATT ON THE HORSE," SOMEWHAT SIMPLIFIED. BROUGHT DOWN BY W. C. SPOONER, M. R. C. V. S M AUTHOR OF SEVERAL VETERINARIAN WORKS, TO WHICH IS PREFIXED, AN ACCOUNT OF THE BREEDS IN THE UNITED STATES, COMPILED BY HENRY S. RANDALL. i WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS. NEW YORK: MILLER, ORTON & CO., 25 PARK ROW. 1857. ( 4\, Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 18on, t>y DEEBT & MILLER, in the Clerk's Office for the Northern District of New York. INTRODUCTORY. The universal popularity and pre-eminence in the pub- lic favor, both in this country and England, of Mr Youatt's work on the Horse, is well known. It has had a far wider circulation in the United States than any other veterinary work, and but for one or two circumstances, it is believed, had prevented it from attaining a still vastly wider circulation, — from becoming the common hand-book of nearly every farmer in the land who breeds or owns horses, who is willing to read anything on a sub- ject in which he is so much interested. The first of these circumstances is the size of Mr. Youatt's entire work. This renders it too expensive for general circulation. And it is too minute and voluminous in its details for ordinary readers. This elaborateness, so far from aiding, confuses the common reader ; the precise facts which he seeks — the symptoms and remedies of dis- eases, &c, — are too often so scattered through the glow- ing amplifications of the accomplished author, that it is difficult to clearly distinguish, collect, and apply them. And many are repelled not only from the work itself, but from reading the author's discussion of a disease, a point in breeding, or the like, from impatience of its mere length. In a work of this kind, more perhaps than any- where else,, applies the often quoted remark of Dr. Johnson: " Books that you may carry to the fire, and hold reading in your hand, are most useful after all A man unit often look at them, and be tempted to go on. when he would have been frightened at books of a large? siz> , ami of a more erudite aft/>earance" 17 INTRODUCTORY. The following abridgment is intended to obviate the above objections. While it is believed, that every thought • »r fact in the original, of any importance to the general reader, is preserved entire, much that tended to swell un- necessarily the limits of the work for such a reader, has been omitted. The omissions have been merely anec- dotes, historical narrations, accounts of particular cases, and, in some instances, the less necessary parts of those long anatomical descriptions which could be understood only by the surgeon. The symptoms and remedies of dis- eases — all that tends to the full understanding of the horse and his ailments, is given entire, and almost invari- ably in the precise language of Mr. Youatt. The aim of this work has not been to re- write Youatt, — but simply to strike out what is superfluous in him. The second circumstance prejudicial to a wide, popular circulation of Mr. Youatt's work, has been, according to the common phrase, the "learnedness of its language." The work, as again and again avowed in it, was not so much written to instruct the horse-owner or breeder, as the veterinary surgeon— at least in relation to important diseases, operations, &c. Mr. Youatt is therefore often at little pains to make himself intelligible to uninstructed readers. His language is always learned — frequently highly technical. So far as it could be conveniently and properly done, an attempt has been made in the following pages, to translate his language into that better adapted to ordinary comprehension. A common word is often substituted for the more learned one of Mr. Youatt, or an explanatory one put after it in brackets. The former is all the liberty taken in this way with the text, — and this is only done where the meaning could be accurately preserved. But every thinking man will readily see from the very nature of the subject, that the improvement to be made on the text in the above particulars is limited. When speaking of anatomical details, diseases, particular pro- cesses, &c, no language is fixed and definite but that of science. And it frequently obviates the necessity of very tedious and often repeated circumlocution. Take for ex- ample the word "auscultation" which signifies dis*i" INTRODUCTORY. guishing disease by observing the sounds in the part, by means of the ear, with or without a tube, applied to the surface. Is it necessary to repeat all this every time this process is adverted to ? Clearly not. The word " Thorax" signifies the cavity of the body above or forward of the diaphragm or midriff, — the word " Abdomen' 1 the cavity of the body below or behind the diaphragm. Can any common words — any of the terms of vulgar quackery — be given which will definitely express the above idea.-, and which can be any way more easily remembered than these ? There cannot. In all such cases, therefore, no change of language is attempted. And Webster's Dic- tionary will help the reader out of every difficulty of this kind. We have here a remark to submit to all readers, and especially the young reader, in relation to the propef manner of reading YouATT^-where the aim is to full\ understand him, or the subject which he treats. Thin never can be done by dipping into the book here and there, in search of information now on one topic, and now on another, as the occasion seems to demand it. The; work should be read consecutively and carefully from be- ginning to end. If this is done, and the reader fixes in his mind anatomical names and details, as he advances, he will have no difficulty in fully understanding every part, and he will be infinitely better prepared to form a correct judgment in any case where he is called upon to make a practical application of his knowledge. The horse-owner who takes this course will find Youatt's work an invaluable advantage to him — worth a thousand of the common empirical recipe books on farriery. The one who does not, will find it, or any other work, of little avail. W. C. Spooner, Esq., one of the most distinguished veterinary writers and practitioners of England, wrote, in 1849, a Supplement to Mr. Youatt's work, designed to u advance it to the present state of veterinary science.'" All that is of any importance in this supplement — in fact, most of Mr. Spooner's additional remarks entire, have been added to the present work in the convenient form of notes. Several of them will be found valuable. And VI INTRODUCTORY. we conceive this gives the work a decided advantage over any previous American edition. We are enabled to point with much pleasure to the illustrations in our volume. They are much more com- plete in execution than those of any other similar Araer- can publications, and are decidedly superior to those />f the late English editions of Youatt. They are fully equal to the original English cuts. The present abridgment has been carefully prepared by a distinguished and well-known American agricul- turist, whose writings have been extensively read throughout the United States, for years. The peli mi- nary chapter in relation to the breeds now in the United States, was complied by Henry S. Randall, Esq., it be- ing thought that this would be much more valuable to the American reader, than Mr. Youatt's first chapter. We believe that the author has been fortunate in the execution of his task, and we present the work to the public in the confident belief that we are rendering a valuable service to an important department of Ameri- can Agriculture. The Publishers. CONTENTS INTRODUCTION BY THE PUBLISHERS. CHAPTER I. Pa (IB Breeds of Horses in the United States 17 The English Race Horse 17 The Arabian 25 The Canadian 29 The Norman 26 The Morgan 36 The Cleveland Bay 38 The Dray 89 The Trotting Horse 40 CHAPTER II. The Zoological Classification of the Horse 44 The Sensorial Function 46 CHAPTER III. Injuries and Diseases of the Skull — the Brain — the Ears — and the Eyes 68 Fracture 68 Exostosis 68 Caries 68 Compression of the Brain . „ 69 Pressure on the Brain 69 Megrims 69 Apoplexy 70 Phrenitis 74 Rabies, or Madness 76 Tetanus, or Locked Jaw 79 Cramp 82 Stringhalt 83 Chorea 83 Fits, or Epilepsy 84 VUl CONTENTS. PAOB Palsy 84 Rheumatism 85 Neurotomy 86 Insanity 90 Diseases of the Eye 91 Common Inflammation of the Eye 93 Specific Ophthalmia, or Moon-Blindness 94 Gutta Serena ; 97 Diseases of the Ear 98 Deafness 98 CHAPTER IV. The Anatomy and Diseases of the Nose and Mouth 99 Nasal Polypus 104 Nasal Gleet, or Discharge from the Nose 104 Ozena 105 Glanders 107 Farcy 114 The Lips 117 The Bones of the Mouth 118 The Palate 118 Lampas 119 The Lower Jaw 120 Diseases of the Teeth 130 The Tongue 131 Diseases of the Tongue 132 The Salivary Glands 132 Strangles 133 The Pharynx 135 CHAPTER V. The Anatomy and Diseases of the Neck and Neighboring Parts 136 Poll-Evil 13 G The Muscles and proper form of the Neck 138 The Blood- Vessels of the Neck 140 The Veins of the Neck 1 40 Inflammation of the Vein 141 The Palate 142 The Larynx 142 The Trachea or Windpipe , 143 Tracheotomy # 143 The Bronchial Tubes ! ... 1 .!".*. 1 1 144 CHAPTER VI. The Chest _ 145 The Spine and Back .'.'.".*.!!!.*.'.*.*.*..". 149 TW Loins 15Q CONTENTS. IX PAGE The Withers 150 Fistulous Withers 151 Warbles, Sitfasts, and Saddle Galls 151 Chest-Founder 152 CHAPTER VII. The Contents of the Chest 153 The Thymus Gland 153 The Diaphragm 153 Rupture of the Diaphragm 154 The Pleura 154 The Lungs 155 The Heart 155 Diseases of the Heart 156 The Arteries 158 The Pulse 158 Inflammation 160 Fever 163 The Veins 164 Bog and Blood Spavin 1 64 Bleeding 166 CHAPTER VIII. Thu, Membrane of the Nose 169 Catarrh, or Cold , 169 Inflammation of the Larynx 170 Inflammation of the Trachea 172 Roaring 172 Bronchocele 174 Epidemic Catarrh 175 The Malignant Epidemic 181 Bronchitis 184 Pneumonia — Inflammation of the Lnngs 186 Chronic Cough 193 Thick Wind , 194 Broken Wind 196 Phthisis Pulmonalis, or Consumption 199 Pleurisy 200 CHAPTER IX. The Abdomen and its Contents 206 The Stomach 206 Bots .* 208 The Intestines 210 The Liver 213 The Pancreas 213 The Spleen 213 The Omentum 213 a CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. PAOl The Diseases of the Intestines 215 The Duodenum 215 Spasmodic Colic 215 Flatulent Colic . . . 218 Inflammation of the Bowels 220 Enteritis 220 Physicking 224 Calculi, or Stones, in the Intestines 226 Introsusception of the Intestines 226 Entanglement of the Bowels 226 Worms 227 Hernia, or Rupture 227 Diseases of the Liver 228 Jaundice 229 The Kidneys 230 Inflammation of the Kidneys 281 Diabetes, or Profuse Staling 233 Bloody Urine — Hematuria 233. Albuminous Urine 234 The Bladder 234 Inflammation of the Bladder 234 Stone in the Bladder 235 CHAPTER XI. Breeding, Castration, ■ 2 2? H O > < O ST » P M H B P P D P B* cr •<: EC o cr << OQ b 05 ■- cr c* b> «*s «< s »! — -' CR -o CR p — s a o e . P CO p B £ > ■5" E P C S P v; - B i g * & - p o 2 24 CONSTERNATION. a compact, and, for a thorough-bred, very bony horse, like his immediate ancestors, Confederate, Curiosity, Figaro, &c. In- deed, his sire, Confederate, after being withdrawn from the turf, was kept by his breeder, Earl Fitzwilliam, to breed hunters and carriage-horses from, owing to Lis size, bone, and symmetry, — properties which eminently marked his progeny. His dam, Cu- riosity, was a large, strong mare ; and her sire, Figaro, possessed the same characteristics. The size and bone of Consternation are not, therefore, accidental, or merely individual traits ; they belong to his family, and are, consequently, far more likely to be transmitted to his descendants ; and experience has shown, that he almost invariably transmits these properties to his de- scendants.* Consternation is beautifully symmetrical in all his proportions, with a plumpness and roundness of outline unusual in the thorough-bred ; more like a perfect hunter, or exceedingly stylish carriage-horse, but without a particle of coarseness, cloddiness. or deviation from a true blood-like look. He is a horse of extn. ordinary mettle and activity, rapid in all his paces, singularly elastic and graceful in his movements. He walks nearly five miles an hour, and is a beautiful and rapid trotter. We believe he might be made a fleet, if not a " crack" trotter, under the training of Woodruff or Wheelan. He ran but one race in England, beating Phoenician, at York. (See Johnson's Racing Calendar, 1845.) He was entered for the St. Leger, but, owing to an accident, which injured his off fore-leg, he was disqualified temporarily, and perhaps permanently, from running. Before this point was decided, Mr. Albot purchased and imported him to America for a breeding stallion. He was selected with more especial reference to the improvement of our common stock of horses. Consternation arrived in the United States in the latter part of June, 1345, and was shown in the September following, while still suffering from the effects of his voyage, at the N. Y. State Fair at Utica. He received the first premium in the class of blood horses, beating Mr. Hungerford's Sir Henry, Mr. Crosby's Florizelle, Mr. Thompson's Sir Charles — the viewing committee consisting of Col. J. M. Sherwood, Hon. John A. King, and Col. Edward Long. He was not again shown at a State Fair until 1849, at Syracuse. He here received the certificate of superior- * The writer of this has seen perhaps fifty colts, from one to three years old, the get of Consternation, from common dams, and those possessing dif- ferent proportions of blood. Every one of these has shown good size, and quite as much bone as it is common to see in the get of the common coarse stallions of the country. THE ARABIAN HORSE. *«- ity,* beating Lance, Waxy Pope (imported), Young Alexander .Sir Henry (by the horse of the same name, exiiibited at Jtica) Waxy (by Waxy Pope), and several others. We have been thus full in speaking of Consternation, be- cause we believe that it is by a judicious cross with the thor- ough-bred horse, that the greatest improvement is to be mad< with a class of our common mares, in breeding animals with style, speed, and, above all, bottom, for the carriage, the buggy and the saddle ; and because we believe on the principle that tike produces like, Consternation promises better for such a cross than any other blood stallion of which we have any knowledge. ' His pedigree includes a host of winners, and the most cele- brated horses of England. It is given on the preceding page It may interest some who wish to breed common mare* to Consternation, and who, very properly, consider color an im- portant consideration in carriage and saddle horses, to know that of his ancestors above given thirty-jive were bay — twelve, brown — ten, chestnut — and two, black. THE ARABIAN HORSE. Mr. Youatt says: — "Although in the seventh century the Arabs had no horses of value, yet the Cappadocian and other horses which they had derived from their neighbors, were pre- served with so much care, and propagated so uniformly and strictly from the finest of the breed, that in the 13th century the Arabian horse began to assume a just, and unrivalled celebrity. There are said to be three breeds or varieties of Arabian horses : the Attechi, or inferior breed, on which they set little value, and which are found wild on some parts of the deserts : the Kadischi, literally horses of an unknown race, answering to our half-bred horses — a mixed breed ; and the Kochlani, r* irses whose genealogy, according to the Arab account, is known for two thousand years. Many of them have written and attested pedigrees extending more than four hundred years, and, with true Eastern exaggeration, traced by oral tradition from the stud of Solomon. A more careful account is kept of these gvnealogies than belongs to the most ancient family of the pioudest Arab chief, and very singular precautions are taken to * His having 1 once drawn the first premium in the same class, by the regulations of the Society, disqualified him from again receiving it. But in such cases, the former winner, if adju Iged best, receives a certificate to that effect. ■siO PECULIARITIES OT iiiE ARALTAJN! HOUSE. prevent the possibility of fraud, so far as the written pedigree extends. The Kochlani are principally reared by the Bedouin Arabs, in the remoter deserts. A stallion may be procured witluut much difficulty, although at a great price. A mare is rarely to be obtained, except by fraud and excessive bribery. The Arabs have found out that which the English breeder should never forget, that the female is more concerned than the male in the excellence and value of the produce ; and the genealogies ol their horses are always reckoned from the mothers. The Arabian horse would not be acknowledged by every judge to possess a perfect form : his head, however, is inimitable. The broadness and squareness of the forehead, the shortness and fineness of the muzzle, the prominence and brilliancy of the eye, the smallness of the ears, and the beautiful course of the veins, will always characterize the head of the Arabian horse. His body may be considered as too light, and his chest as too narrow ; but behind the arms the barrel generally swells out, and leaves sufficient room for the play of the lungs. In the formation of the shoulder, next to that of the head, the Arab is superior to any other breed. The withers are high, and the shoulder-blade inclined backward, and so nicely adjusted, that in descending a hill the point or edge of the ham never ruffles the skin. He may not be thought sufficiently high ; he seldom stands more than fourteen hands two inches. The fineness of his legs, and the oblique position of his pasterns, may be supposed to lessen his apparent strength ; but the leg, although small, is flat and wiry ; anatomists know that the bone has no common density, and the startling muscles of the fore-arm and the thigh indicate that he is fully capable of accomplishing many of the feats which are recorded of him. The Barb alone excels him in noble and spirited action ; and if there be defects about him, he is perfect for that for which he was designed. He presents the true combination of speed and bottom — strength enough to carry more than a light weight, and courage that would cause him to die rather than to give up. We may not, perhaps, believe all that is told us of the Arabian. It has been remarked, that there are on the deserts which this horse traverses no mile-stones to mark the distance, or watches to calculate the time ; and the Bedouin is naturally given to exaggeration, and, most of all, when relating the prowess of the animal, which he loves as dearly as his children : yet it cannot be denied that, at the introduction of the Arabian into the European stables, there was no other horse comparable to him. The Ar?b Y n ™ n 's as celebrated for his docilitv and F'.My] KIND TREATMENT OF HIS HORSE BV THE ARAB. 27 temper as for his speed and courage. In that delightful book, 4 Bishop Heber's Narrative of a Journe) through the Upper Provinces of India,' the following interest cig character is given of him. " My morning rides are very pleasant. My horse is a nice, quiet, good-tempered little Arab, who is so fearless, that he goes without starting close to an elephant, and so gentle and docile that he eats bread out of my hand, and has almost as much attachment and coaxing ways as a dog. This seems the general character of the Arab horses, to judge from what I have seen in this country. It is not the fiery dashing animal I had supposed, but with more rationality about him, and more ap- parent confidence in his rider, than the majority of English horses." The kindness with which he is treated from a foal, gives him an affection for his master, a wish to please, a pride in exerting every energy in obedience to his commands, and, consequently, an apparent sagacity which is seldom seen in other breeds. The mare and her foal inhabit the same tent with the Bedouin and his children. The neck of the mare is often the pillow of the rider, and, more frequently, of the children, who are rolling about upon her and the foal : yet no accident ever occurs, and the animal acquires that friendship and love for man which occasional ill-treatment will not cause him for a moment to forget. When the Arab falls from his mare, and is unable to rise, she will immediately stand still, and neigh until assistance arrives. If he lies down to sleep, as fatigue sometimes compels him, in the midst of the desert, she stands watchful over him, and neighs and rouses him if either man or beast approaches. An old Arab had a valuable mare that had carried him for fifteen years in many a hard-fought battle, and many a rapid weary march ; at length, eighty years old, and unable longer to ride her, he gave her, and a scimiter that had been his father's, to his eldest son and told him to appreciate their value, and never lie down to rest until he had rubbed them both as bright as a looking-glass. In the first skirmish in which the young man was engaged he was killed, and the mare fell into the hands of the enemy. When the news reached the old man, he exclaimed that "life was no longer worth preserving, for he had lost both his son and his mare, and he grieved for one as much as the other ;" and he immediately sickened and died. Man, however, is an inconsistent being. The Arab who thus lives with and loves his horses, regarding them as his most valuable treasure, sometimes treats them with a cruelty scarcely to be believed, and not at all to be justified. The severest treat- ment which the English race-horse endures is gentleness compared 28 ANECDOTE. wiih the trial of the young Arabian. Probably the filly has never before been mounted ; she is led out ; her owner springs on her back, and goads her over the sand and rocks of the desert at fuli speed for fifty or sixty miles without one moment's respite. She is then forced, steaming and panting, into water deep enough tor her to swim. If, immediately after this, she will eat as if nothing had occurred, her character is established, and she is acknowledged to be a genuine descendant of the Kochlani breed. The Arab is not conscious of the cruelty which he thus inflicts. It is an invariable custom, and custom will induce us to inflict many a pang on those whom, after all, we love. The following anecdote of the attachment of an Arab to his mare has often been told, but it comes home to the bosom oi" every one possessed of common feeling. " The whole stock of an Arab of the desert consisted of a mare. The French consul offered to purchase her in order to send her to his sovereign, Louis XIV. The Arab would have rejected the proposal at once with indignation and scorn ; but he was miserably poor. He had no means of supplying his most urgent wants, or procuring the barest necessaries of life. Still he hesitated ; — he had scarcely a rag to cover him — and his wife and children were starving. The sum offered was great, — it would provide him and his family with food for life. At length, and reluctantly, he consented. He brought the mare to the dwelling of the consul, — he dismounted, — he stood leaning upon her ; — he looked now at the gold, and then at his favorite ; he sighed — he wept. ' To whom is it,' said he, ' I am going to yield thee up ? To Europeans, who will tie thee close, — who will beat thee, — who will render thee miserable. Return with me, my beauty, my jewel, and rejoice the hearts of my children.' As he pronounced the last words, he sprung upon her back, and was out of sight in a mo- ment." Our horses would fare badly on the scanty nourishment afforded the Arabian. The mare usually has but one or two meals in twenty-four hours. During the day she is tied to the door of the tent, ready for the Bedouin to spring, at a moment's warning, into the saddle ; or she is turned out before the tent ready sad- dled, the bridle merely taken off, and so trained that she gallops up immediately at her master's call. At night she receives a little water ; and with her scanty provender of five or six pounds of barley or beans, and sometimes a little straw, she lies down content, in the midst of her master's family. She can. however, endure great fatigue ; she will travel fifty miles without stopping ; she has been pushed, on emergency, one hundred and twenty miles, and occasionally, neither she nor her rider has tasted food for three whole days. THE CANADIAN AND THE NORMAN HORSE. 29 To the Arabian, principally, England is indebted for her im- proved and now unrivalled breed of horses for the turf, the field, and the road." As already said, when speaking of the English race-horse, the Arabian is not equal to his English descendant. This has also been incontestably proved in the United States. Pure blood Arabians of the highest pretensions have at various times been mported into our country ; but they have never compared in either speed or bottom, with the English race-horse and his descendants. THE CANADIAN HORSE, Found in the Canadian Provinces, and somewhat in the Northern United States, is too well known to require any partic- ular description. He is mainly of French descent — though many so called, and doubtless some of the fleetest ones, are the produce of a cross between the Canadian and the English thorousfh-bred stal- lion. They are a long-lived, easily kept, and exceedingly hardy race, making good farm and draft horses, when sufficiently large. In form, many of them display in a marked manner the charac- teristics of the Norman — so too in their general qualities — but they are usually considerably smaller. Stallions of this breed have in various instances, of late, been introduced into New York and other northern States, to cross with our common mares. The result has been decidedly satisfactory, particularly in giving compactness and vigor of constitution, where the dam does not excel in those particulars. A black stallion imported from Canada, a few years since, by Mr. John Legg, of Skaneateles, N. Y., has got several hundred colts, which, when broken, have averaged about one hundred dollars a piece in value ; a siim considerably above the average prices of horses in the country. They are almost invariably fair roadsters, and excellent farm-horses. This cross is more and more finding favor among our farmers. THE NORMAN HORSE. In connection with the Canadian — though not so old a variety in the United States, as some of which we have presently to speak — we will advert to the French or Norman horse, from which the Canadian is descended. We cannot do this more satisfactorily to ourselves, or more usefully to the reader, than to publish entire the following interesting and admirably candid 30 LETTER FROM MR. HARRTS. 'etter from Edward Harris, Esq., of Moorestowii, Burlington Co., New Jersey, who introduced this breed into the United States. LOUIS PHULIPB7 Moorestown, April 6, 1850. My dear Sir : — Your kind favor of the last of March has been duly received. I regret that, in consequence of the decease of a near relative, it has been out of my power to prepare my answer as soon as you desired. I thank you, my dear sir, for the order you have suggested to be observed in my communication. You will soon perceive that I am by no means a practised writer, therefore your suggestions are the more acceptable in aiding me to draw up my " plain, unvarnished tale." These horses first came under my observation on a journey through France in the year 1831. I was struck with the immense power displayed hy them in drawing the heavy diligences of that country, at a pace which, although not as rapid as the stage-coach travelling of England, yet such a pace, say from five to nine miles per hour, the lowest rate of which 1 do not hesitate to say, would, in a short time, kill the English horse if placed before the same load. In confirmation of this opinion I will give you an extract from an article on the Norman horse in the British Quarterly Jour- nal of Agriculture, which I quoted in my communication to the Farmer's Cabinet of Philadelphia, in 1842, as follows: — * Bred by Edward Harris, Esq., of Moorestown, New Jersey (in 1843), from his pure imported Norman stock. (See Mr. Harris's letter which follows.) Louis Phillipe is an excellent characteristic specimen of the Norman horse, is a dapple gray, fifteen hands one and one half inches high and weighs twelve hundred pounds, in good condition. He is owned by H B. Howland. E*q.. of Union Springs, Cayuga County, N. Y. QUALITIES OF THE NORMAN. ;U "The writei. in giving an account of the origin of the horse, which agings in tracing it to the Spanish horse (of Arabian ancestry), with the account which I have given above, which I procured from French sources, e.tys. 'The horses of Normandy are a capital race for hard work and scanty fare. I have never seen such horses at the collar, under the diligence, the post-carriage, the cumbrous and heavy voiture or cabriolet for one or two horses, or the farm-cart. They are enduring and energetic beyond descrip- tion; with their necks cut to the bone, they flinch not; they put forth all their efforts at the voice of the brutal driver, or at the dreaded sound of his never-ceasing whip ; they keep their condition when other horses would die of neglect and hard treatment. A better cross for some of our horses can not be imagined than those of Normandy, provided they have not the ordi nary failing, of too much length from the hock downwards, and a heavy head.' I think that all who have paid attention to this particular breed of Norman horses (the Percheron, which stands A No. 1), will bear me out in the assertion that the latter part of this quotation will not apply to them, and that, on the contrary, they are short from the hock downwards; that their heads are short, with the true Arabian face, and not thicker than they should be to correspond with the stoutness of their bodies. At all events you can witness that Diligence has not these failings, which, when absent, an Englishman (evidently, from his article a good horseman) thinks, constitutes the Norman horse the best imaginable horse for a cross upon the English horse of a certain description. Again he says, ' They are very gentle and docile ; a kicking or vicious horse is almost unknown there; anv person may pass in security at a fair at the heels of hundreds.'" My own impressions being fortified by such authority from such a source (where we look for little praise of anything French), and numerous others, verbal and written, I made up my mind to r eturn to France at an early day and select a stallion at least, as an experiment in crossing upon the light mares of New Jersey. My intention was unavoidably delayed until the year 1839, when I went seriously to work to purchase two stallions and two mares with the aid of a veterinary surgeon of Havre, Monsieur St. Marc, to whose knowledge of the various distinct breeds which exist in France, and his untiring zeal in aiding my enterprise, I take great pleasure in making acknowledgments. The animals in due time were procured, but the last which was brought for my decision, alrhough a fine stallion, showed such evident signs of a cross of the English blood (afterwards acknowledged oy the owner), that I rejected him, and the packet being about to sail, and preparations being made for the shipment, I was obliged to put the stal- lion and two mares on board, no time being left to look up another stal lion. Here another difficulty arose — I could find no competent groom io Havre to take charge of them on the voyage, and deliver them in New York. I was obliged to make an arrangement with one of the steerage passengers, a German, who had never been to sea before, to attend to them to the best of his ability. As you may suppose, I did not feel very well satisfied with this arrangement. I therefore wrote to M. Meurice of Paris, to take charge of my baggage which I had left at his hotel, and the next morning I was on my way to New York on the packet ship Iowa, Captain Peck, where I lived in the round-house on deck, with himself and officer:-. Tt was the Iowa's first voyage, and her cabin had not been finished, so great was the fear of the owners, at that time, that their " occupation was gone" of carrying cabin passengers, in consequence of the recent success of the English sea-steamers. We had three hundred steerage, and I was the onlv rani,;, passenger. The horses were also on deck. The first night, so greal was the change in the temperature, on the occurrence of a slight storm, that all the hordes took violent, colds, and. unfortunately, with the best os* 32 THE PERCHERON. I could make of M. St. Marc's medicine-chest, and his very judicious direo tions for the treatment of the horses under this anticipated state of affairs, I could not prevent the death of the stallion from inflammation of the lungs, before reaching New York. The mares were landed safely, but too much stiffened by the voyage and their sickness, to make the journey at once across the Jerseys on foot. I procured a trusty man to accompany them, and sent them by railroad for Burlington. The next morning I had the mortifica- tion to see my man returned with the sad news that the finest mare bad broken through the bottom of the car, and fractured one of her hind legs Thus left with one horse out of four selected, the only alternative was to give up, or go back for more. I did not hesitate about the latter, and in three weeks I was steaming it on board the Great Western. My next pur chase was " Diligence," another stallion, and two mares. This time I was ;n<>re fortunate, and procured an excellent groom to accompany them, who succeeded in getting them safely to New York and to Moorestown, carefully slimming the railroad. I have, since that time, lost one of the mares, and the other stallion went blind after making one season. Not wishing to run the risk of perpetuating a race of horses with weak eyes, I have not since permitted him to cover mares ; though I must say for him that his colts have all good eves, and stand high in public favor. Those who an- acquainted with the thorough-bred Canadian horse, will gee in him a perfect model, on a small scale, of the Percheron horse. This I-; the peculiar breed of Normandy which are used so extensively through- out the northern half of France for diligence and post-horses, and from the best French authorities I could command (1 cannot now quote the precise authorities), I learned that they were produced by the cro>s of the Andalu- sian horse upon the old heavy Norman horse, whose portrait may still be seen as a war-horse on the painted windows of the cathedral of Rouen, sev- eral centuries old. At the time of the occupation of the Netherlands by thd Spaniards, the Andalusian was the favorite stallion of the north of Eu rope, and thus a stamp of the true Barb was implanted, which remains to the present day. If you will allow me to digress a moment, I will gWe vui a short desci iption of the old Norman draught-horse on which the cross was made. They average full sixteen hands in height, with head short, thick, wide and hollow between the eyes ; jaws heavy; ears short and pointed well forwards; neck very short and thick; mane heavy; shoulder well inclined backwards ; back extremely short ; rump steep ; quarto 9 very broad ; chest deep and wide; tendons large; muscles excessively de- veloped; legs very short, particularly from the knee and hock to the fet- lock, and thence to the coronet, which is covered with long hair, hiding half the hoof; much hair on the legs. The bone and muscle, and much of the form of the Percheron is derived from this horse, anil he gets his spirit and action from tht> Andalusian. Do- cility corner from both sides. On the expulsion of the Spaniards from the north, the supply of Andalusian stallions was cut off, and since that time in the Perche district in Normandy, their progeny has doubtless been bred in-and-in; hence tba remarkable uniformity of the breed, and the disposi- tion to impart their form to their progeny beyond any breed of domestic animals within my knowledge. Another circumstance which I think has tended to perpetuate the good qualities of these horses, is the fact of all their males being kept entire ; a gelding is, I believe, unknown among the rural horses of France. You may be startled at this notion of mine, but if you reflect a moment, you must perceive that in such a state of things (so contrary to our practice and that of the English) the farmer will always breed from the best horse, and he will have an opportunity of judging, ho- •nuse th<> borse lias been broken to harness and his qualities known before DILIGENCE. 33 he could command business rs a stallion. Hence, too, their indifference to pedigree. It the success of Diligence as a stallion is any evidence of the value of the breed, I can state, that he has averaged eighty mares per season for the ten seasons he has made in this country, and as he is a very sure foal-getter, tie must have produced at least four hundred colts; and as I have never yet heard of a colt of his that would not readily bring one hundred dollars, iiul many of them much higher prices, you can judge of the benerit which aas accrued from his services. I have yet to learn that he has produced me worthless colt, nor have I heard of one that is spavined, curbeo ring- boned, or has any of those defects which render utterly useless so large a number of the fine-bred colts of the present day. The opinion of good judges here is, that we have never had, in this part of the country at least, so valuable a stock of horses for farming purposes ; and further, that no horse that ever stood in this section of the country has produced the same number of colts whose aggregate value has been equal to that of the colts of Diligence ; for the reason that, although there may have been indi- viduals among them which would command a much higher price than any of those of Diligence, vet the number of blemished and indifferent colts has been so great, as quite to turn the scale in his favor. In reply to your queries, I would say to the first, that Diligence has not been crossed at all with thorough-bred mares — such a thing is almost un- known here at the pi e.-ent day ; but those mares the nearest approaching to it have produced the cleanest, neatest, and handsomest colts, though hardly large enough to command the best prices. t Those I know of that cross are excellent performers. % The style of mares with which Diligence breeds best, appears to me to be the mare which you would choose to breed carriage-horses from, with a good length of neck, and tail coming out on a line with the back, to cor- rect the two prominent faults in form of the breed, the short neck and steep rump. 3. What is the result of the cross with different styles (as regards size and shape) ? This may be answered in a general way by stating, the size will depend somewhat upon the size of the mare, with due allowance for casting after back stock, which will be weil understood by breeders. As regards shape, you may depend upon the predominance of the form of the horse in nine cases out of ten ; indeed, I have only seen one of his colts that I could not instantly recognize from the form. The reason will occur to you from what I have said of the extreme purity of the breed : such as they are they have been for centuries; and could you find another race of horses of entirely different form in the same category as regards theii pedigree, my belief is. that when you should see the first colt from them, you would see the model of all that were to follow. 4. Can you breed carriage-horses sufficiently fashionable for the city mar- kets ? I do not hesitate to say that it cannot be done with the first cross. There is too much coarseness about them, which must be worn down by judicious crossing ; and I think a stallion got by Diligence upon a large- sized thorough-bred mare, would go very far towards producing the desire. 1 rnsult. Should this fail, I feel very confident that another cross from these colts on the thnough-bred mare, will give you the Morgan-horse on a 'ofger scale. T still hold to the opinion I expressed to you years ago, that Li e action of our common horses would be improved by this cross. His ■ Its have higher action than their dams, and generally keep their feet bet- > r under them; in other words, they pick them up quicker, not suffering toem to rest so long upon the ground. 3 b «M THE COLTS OF DILIGENCE. Your fifth and sixth questions will be answered by what T have furtbct to "ay in regard to the progeny of Diligence. I may safely say they are universally docile and kind, at the same time spirited and lively. They break-in without any difficulty. As regards their speed, I do not know jf any that can be called fast' horses, though many smart ones among ordinary road horses. Diligence, as I have said elsewhere, was chosen (for obvious reasons) as a full-sized specimen of the breed. As for speed in trotting, we cannot doubt its being in the breed, when we look at the instances among the thorough-bred Canadian ponies. Could I have made my selection from the stallions which I rode behind in the diligences, I could have satisfied the most fastidious on this point, but, unfortunately, these horses all belonged to the government, and are never sold until past service. My main object was to produce a valuable farm horse. The chance of fast colts is not very great ; because those persons having fast mares to breed from, naturally look for a fast stallion, and fail- ing to find him, take one of the best English blood they can find ; and should they occur, they will be mares, or, ten to one, horses, gelded before their good qualities are discovered. Perhaps some part of what I sav above will be more clear to you if I say, that I hold to the opinion that the Percheron blood still exists in Canada in all its purity. You will think, perhaps, that I have said quite enough about my humble hobby, and you will have found out too, that I have no idea, contrary to your good-natured warning, of making "swans of my geese." What I should like to see would be further importations of these horses, thereby muhiplying the chances/or a happy hit in crossing, and to draw public atten- tion to them, which would do more for them than writing till doomsday. So fir from considering these horses as capable by any crossing of producing the very best of horses for all purposes, that is to say, the best horse-of-aU- work I believe that if I had my time to live over again, had a very large anded estate, an unlimited supply of "the dust," I could produce that horse by breeding from the thorough-bred English racer. It would not be difficult now to select, to start from, stallions and mares possessing all the requisites of size, form, temper, &c. ; but each of these individuals is such a compound of all kinds of ancestors, good, bad, and indifferent, that you would be obliged from their progeny to select and reject so often, for faults of size and form, and for blemishes and vices, that vour allotted days would be near a close before you produced anything like" uniformity in the breed, btill, we see what has been done by Bakewell and others in breed- ing stock therefore I contend, a la Sam Patch, that what has been done may be done again. I therefore am decidedly of opinion, that we cannot do better, if we wish to produce in any reasonable time a most invaluable race of horses for the hum and the road, than to breed form the full-sized Norman or Percheron horse. Mr. Holland's horse (the portrait of which is given at the beginning of tins article) is of the true breed, having been raised by me from one of my imported mares, put to Diligence, and I consider him a remarkably fine h penmen of the breed. I remain, yours very sincerely, EDWARD HARRIS. Mr Youatt in speaking of the French horses, says : " The best French horses are bred in Limousin and Normandy. From the former district come excellent saddle-horses and hunters ; inr from the latter a stronger species di. Seneca Co.. N. Y o.J ORIGIN OF THE MORGAN. % saddle and buggy, but as stallions to extend the breed, — is cei tain. They have many warm admirers, and find ready pur- chasers. Others, on the contrary, are disposed to concede to them no uncommon value as a family, as will be seen by some quotations which we shall presently make. The origin of the Morgans is thus stated in a letter to us from a highly intelligent and, as we believe, perfectly responsible source : — Burlington, March Sth, 1850. My dear Sir, — The conflicting reports concerning the origin of the ■' Morgan" horse are so numerous, and come in "such questionable shapes," that no one can be satisfied beyond a doubt of the truth of any one story. The pedigree given by the descendants of Mr. Justin Morgan, is, in my estimation, the one entitled to the most credit. They have made oath to certain statements in regard to the pedigree of the " Morgan" horse. But these statements, so far as I can learn, depend upon the reminiscences of early childhood, and consequently are not entitled to implicit confidence. Adopting the pedigree, as given by a son of Mr. Justin Morgan, as th« most reliable pedigree, I will proceed. The original " Morgan " horse, the founder of the family of horses known by that name, was brought, at two years old. in 1795, from Springfield, Mass., to Randolph, Vt., by Justin Morgan, of the latter place. He was got by "True Hritton," he by More- ton's "Traveller" (imported), among whose ancestors are found "English Eclipse," " Childers," and the " Godolphin Arabian." "True Britton" (not the horse of same name mentioned in the Stud Book, and got by imported • Othello"), was stolen from Gen. Delancey, of New York, while with a band of refugee troops on Long Island. Gen. Delancey was the importer of I he* horses - Wild-air" and "Lath," both thorough-bred horses — the for- mer of such superiority that he was sent back to England, in 1772. -fudging from Gen. Delancey' s taste in horses, it is but right to infer i hat "True Britton" was thorough-bred. Thus much for the sire of the "Morgan" horse. Concerning his dam, Mr. F. A. Weir, of Walpole, N. H., writes as follows (Cultivator, January, 1840, p. 19.): "The dam is described by Mr. John Morgan, who knew her, as of the 'Wild-air' breed, of middling size, with a heavy chest, of a very light bay color, with a nushy mane and tail, the hair on the legs rather" long, and a smooth, hand- some traveller. She was got by ' Diamond,' a thick heavy horse, of about (he middling size, with a thick heavy mane and tail, hairy legs, and a smooth traveller." " Diamond," Mr. Weir further says, was got by " Wild-air." out of the "noted imported mare ' Wild-air.' " 1 can find no account of anv such importation, and deem it improbable that a mare and horse should have been imported about the same time, and allowed to retain one and (he ^iine name. However, I may be wrong, and Mr. Weir right. " Wild- air," sire of "Diamond," was got by imported " Wild-air." The reasonable conclusion from this statement is, that the dam of the old " Morgan" had some good blood in her veins, but was ,iot thorough- bred. This, it is believed, is as correct and reliable an account of the pedi- gree of the " Morgan" horse as can be obtained. From the appearance of chose horses now living, nearest related to the original " Morgan." it is evident that the old horse was possessed of no small share of pure blood. There can he no good reason to doubt the above pedigree, if we jud-e from the character of the immediate descendants of the old horse. I here were hut four colts of the original " Morgan" kept as stallions. r\nd concernmg the blood of rheir dams nothing is know". DESCRIPTIONS OF TI!K MORGAN. 'M I. "Revenge' was foaled in Claremont, N. H., out of a " middle-sized whne mare, of no particular blood. ' II. " ShermaL Morgan," raised in Lyndon, Vt., was from a " chestnut colored mare, of rather light bone, and said to be of English blood." III. " Bulrush," bred by Mr. Giftbrd, of Tunbridge, Vt., was out of , " thick, heavy, dark bay and rather lazy mare." IV. " Woodbury," or " Burbank," was also foaled in Tunbridge, Vt., and was out of a "bay marc, said to weigh about 1000 pounds, a smart, good hiver." " Burbank" was doubtless the best colt from the loins of the old horse, kept as a stallion. He was the sire of the " Gifford Morgan, now owned by F. A. Weir, of Walpole, N. H.," [and grandsire of " General Gifford," given in our cut. — Ed.] The Committee of the N. Y. State Agricultural Society, " on stock owned out of the State," at the State Fair at Auburn, in 1846, thus spoke of the Morgans, and of the horse (General Clifford) represented in the cut, and of his sire Gilford Morgan : — " Gifford Morgan, a dark chestnut stallion, fourteen hands and three inchCf high, aged twenty years, was exhibited by F. A. Weir, of Walpole, N. H. It is claimed on the part of his owner, that this horse possesses the celebrated " Morgan" blood in greater purity than any other now living. " General Gitford," got by the above-named horse, was exhibited by Mr. C. Blodget, of Chelsea, Vt. In his size, figure, action, and color, he closely resembles his sire. Both are exceedingly compact horses, deep chested, strong-backed, with fore-legs set wide apart, and carrying their heads (which are small, with fine, well set eyes) high and gracefully, without a bearing-rein. Their action attracted the marked admiration of all. This breed are reputed to possess great bottom and hardiness, and everything about the two presented, goes to prove that their reputation, in this par- ticular, is well founded. For light carriage or buggy horses, it would be difficult to equal them, and if by crossing with prime large mares, of any breed, size could be obtained in the progeny, without losing the fire and action of the Morgan, the result of the cross would be a carriage of very superior quality. Your committee are not aware of the extent or result of such crosses, in the region where the Morgans originated. Unless expe- rience has already demonstrated their inutility, we could recommend to our horse-breeders, some well-considered experiments, limited at first, to te>t the feasibility of engrafting the Morgan characteristics on a larger horse." A distinguished judge of horses in Vermont, writes us : — " The original Morgan ought Dot to be pronounced a thorough -bred horse, not having been bred from a full blood mare. Yet it is evident that the rich, high blood from which he sprung, though slightly diluted, is the cause of the reputation to which his stock has attained. But when we trace down his stock, we find, in the very first generation, an admixture of cold, worth- less blood, to the full measure of one half. The result, usual in similar eases, is found here. Many of the colts related more or less nearly to the old horse, exhibit the characteristics of the " Morgan" forvi, but lack com pactness — not of general form, bat of muscle, and they lack bottom. The general characteristics of the Morgan family, are small size, weighing from seven hundred to one thousand pounds — a long but strong back — plump 33 TT-JR CLEVELAND RaV. ness of general contour, like a Berkshire pig— short, strong, hairy legs— a brusque air — a bustling gait, with more pucker and gather than freedom and elasticity of step — long, coarse hair — heavy mane and tail — and a sur- prising predisposition to accumulate fat, instead of muscle — and a remark- ably docile and tractable temper. As a general thing, the " Morgans" have not length of stride enough to be good roadsters. They take too many steps in a mile. It is but very rarely one can be found that proves to be a good " all-day horse." It often occurs that one can be driven ten miles within the hour, and perhaps at the same rate for the second hour, without apparent distress or injury. But for a high rate of speed throughout the day, search must be made among other families than the " Morgan." There is a place for them, however. They are good for an hour's drive — for short stages. They are good to run around town with. They are good in the light pleasure-wagon— prompt, lively (not spirited) and " trappy." There is no question among those who have had fair opportunities of com- paring the " Morgans" with horses of purer blood, and descended from dif- ferent stocks, in regard to the relative position of the " Morgan." He is, af he exists at the present day, inferior in size, speed, and bottom, in fact, ir all those qualities necessary for the performance of " great deeds" on the road or the farm, to the descendants of Messenger, Duroc, imp. Magnui - Bonum, and of many other horses of deserved celebrity. The Gifford Mor- gan embodies the characteristics of the " Morgan" form, or did embody them, better, and in more prominent and pleasant relief than any other horse I am acquainted with, of this family." * * * The above is not, as already stated, the popular estimate of this family. Having stated both sides of the question, we leave it to the judgment of the public. THE CLEVELAND BAY. According to Mr. Youatt, the true Cleveland Bay is nearly ex- tinct in England. They were formerly employed as a heavy, slow coach-horse. Mr. Y. says : " The origin of the better kind of coach-horse is the Cleveland Bay, confined principally to Yorkshire and Durham, with, perhaps, Lincolnshire on one side, and Northumberland on the other, but difficult to meet with pure in either county. The Cleveland mare is crossed by a three-fourths, or thorough-bred horse of sufficient substance and height, and the produce is the coach-horse most in repute, with his arched crest and high action. From the thorough-bred of sufficient height, but not of so much substance, we obtain the four-in-hand, and superior curricle-horse. From less height and more substance we have the hunter and better sort of hackney ; and, from the half-bred, we derive the machineer, the poster, and the common carriage-horse : indeed, Cleveland, and the Vale of Pickering, in the East Riding of Yorkshire, may be considered as the most decided breeding coun- *ry in England for coach-horses, hunters, and hacduieys." Again, in his article on the Farmer's Horse, Mr. Y. says: "If THE DRAY HORSE. 39 he (the farmer) has a superior mare, one of the old Cleveland breed, and puts her to a bony, three-fourths-bred horse, or, if he can rind one stout and compact enough, a seven-eighths, or a thorough- bred one. he will have a fair chance to rear a colt that will amply repay him as a hunter or carriage-horse." In his article on Heavy Draught Horses, Mr. Y. says : " The Cleveland horses have been known to carry more than seven hundred pounds sixty miles in twenty-four hours, and to perform this journey four times in a week." Cleveland Bays were imported into western New York, a few years since, where they have spread considerably. They have often been exhibited at our State Fairs. They are monstrously large, and, for their size, are symmetrical horses, and possess very respectable action. Whether they would endure on the road, at any but a moderate pace, we are not informed, and have some doubts. Whether they spring from the genuine and unmixed Cleveland stock, now so scarce in England, we have no means of knowing. The half-bloods, the produce of a cross with our com- mou mares, are liked by many of our farmers. They are said to make strong, serviceable farm beasts — though rather prone to sullenness of temper. THE DRAY HORSE. Ut' the Heavy Black Dray Horses, but few have been imported into this country, and they do not seem likely to become favorites here. Mr. Youatt says of them : " The Heavy Black Horse is the last variety it may be necessary to notice. It is bred chiefly in the midland counties from Lin- colnshire to Staffordshire . Many are bought up by the Surrey and Berkshire farmers at two years old, — and being worked mod- erately until they are four, earning their keep all the while, they are then sent to the London market, and sold at a profit of ten or twelve per cent. It would not answer the breeder's purpose to keep them until they are fit for town-work. He has plenty of fillies and mares on his farm for every purpose that he can require ; he therefore sells them to a person nearer the metropolis, by whom they are gradually trained and prepared. The traveller has probably wondered to see four of these enormous animals in a line before a plough, on no very heavy soil, and where two lighter horses would have been quite sufficient. The farmer is training them for their future destiny ; and he does right in not requiring the exertion of all their strength, for their bones are not yet perfectly formed, nor their joints knit ; and were he to urge them too se- verely, he would probably injure and deform them. By the greiv 40 TILE AMERICAN TROTTIMMTOKSE. tie and constant exercise of the plough, he is preparing them for that continued and equable pull at the collar, which is after- wards so necessary. These horses are adapted more for parade and show, and to gratify the ambition which one brewer has to outvie his neighbor, than for any peculiar utility. They are cer- tainly noble-looking animals, with their round fat carcases, and their sleek coats, and the evident pride which they take in them- selves ; but they eat a great deal of hay and corn, and at hard and long-continued work they would be completely beaten by a team of active muscular horses an inch and a half lower. The only plea which can be urged in their favor, beside their fine appearance, is, that as shaft-horses over the badly-paved streets of the metropolis, and with the immense loads they often, have behind them, great bulk and weight are necessary to stand the unavoidable shaking and battering. Weight must be opposed to weight, or the horse would sometimes be quite tin own off his iegs. A large heavy horse must be in the shafts, and then little ones before him would not look well. Certainly no one has walked the streets of London without pitying the poor thill-horse, jolted from side to side, and exposed to many a bruise, unless, with admirable cleverness, he accom- modates himself to every motion ; but, at the same time, it must be evident, that bulk and fat do not always constitute strength, and that a compact muscular horse, approaching to sixteen hands high, would acquit himself far better in such a situation. The dray-horse, in the mere act of ascending from the wharf, may display a powerful effort, but he afterwards makes little exertion, much of his force being expended in transporting his own over- grown mass." THE AMERICAN TROTTING-HORSE. Before leaving the consideration of our present topic-^-the con- sideration of the principal breeds and varieties of horses now in the United States — we cannot refrain from calling attention to our trotting-horses, though in reality they do not, at least as a whole, constitute a breed, or even a distinct variety or family. There is a family of superior trotters, including several the best our country has ever produced, the descendants of Abdallah aud Messenger, and running back through their sire Mambrino, to the thorough-bred horse, old Messenger. But many of our best trot- ters, including the extraordinary animal of which we have given i cut, have no known pedigrees, and some of them, withoul doubt, are entirely destitute of the blood of the race-horse. Lady Suffolk is by Engineer, but the blood of Engineer is unknowr: \she is a gray mare, fifteen hands and two inches high). Dutch SUPERIORITY OF AMERICAN TROTTERS. 41 LADY SUFFOLK. man has no known pedigree. Other celebrated trotters stand in the same category, — though we are inclined to think that a de- cided majority of the best, especially at long distances, have a greater or less infusion of the blood of the race-horse. The United States has undoubtedly produced more superior trotters than any other country in the world, and in no other country has the speed of the best American trotters been equalled. The New York " Spirit of the Times" — the best authority in oui country on this and all kindred topics — thus compares the Eng- lish and American trotters : — • Nimrod, in admitting the superiority of our trotting- horses to the ' English,' claims that the English ' approach very near to the Americans, even in this breed of cattle. Possibly the characteristic national vanity would not allow him to make a further concession. But there is no com nariaon whatever between the trotting-horses of the two countries. Mr Wheelan, who took Rattler to England last season, and doubly distanced with ease every horse that ventured to start against him, as the record shows, informs us that there are twenty or more roadsters in common use in this city, that could compete successfully with the fastest trotters on the Eng lish turf. They neither understand the art of training, driving, or riding, there. For example : some few years since, Alexander was purchased by Messrs. C. and B. of this city, for a friend or acquaintance, in England Alexander was a well-known roadster here, and was purchased to order at a low rate. The horse was sent out and trials made of him ; but so un«uc 42 CAUSES OF THE SUPERIORITY OF AMERICAN TROTTERS. cessful were they, that the English importers considered him an imposition. Thus the matter stood for a year or more. When Wheelan arrived in Eng laud, he recognized the horse, and learned the particulars of his purchase and subsequent trials there. By his advice the horse was nominated in a stake at Manchester (we believe) with four or five of the best trotters in England, he (Wheelan) engaging to train and ride him. When the horses came upon the ground, the odds were 4 and. 5 to 1 against Alexander, who won by nearly a quarter of a mile ! Wheelan says he took the track at starting, and widened the gap at his ease — that near the finish, being sur- prised that no horse was anywhere near him, as his own had not yet made a stroke, he got frightened, thinking some one might outbrush him — that he put Alexander up to his work, and finally won by an immense way, no horse, literally, getting to the head of the quarter stretch, as he came out at the winning stand ! The importers of Alexander, at any rate, were so surprised and delighted at his performance, that they presented Wheelan with a magnificent gold timing-watch, and other valuable presents, and sent Messrs. C. and B. a superb service of plate, which may be seen at any time at their establishment in Maiden Lane." From whence does this superiority of the American trotters spring ? Is it from blood ? This would seem to he disproved from the facts already shown. The American trotter belongs to no particular breed or blood. Many of our celebrated trotters have partaken more or less deeply of the blood of the English race-horse. The Abdallah and Messenger family are consider- ably more than half-bloods — the dams of these horses being also of Messenger blood. Unless it is shown that the unknown or common blood which they possess, has been the source of their superiority as trotters, then it is certain that England possesses as good materials as ourselves, so far as blood is con- cerned, for breeding trotters. The former has never, so far as we are aware, been claimed, and there is not a reasonable doubt that England does possess all the requisite materials to equal us. The diilerence has been occasioned by management, training, and attention to this definite object. On this subject, we quote the following just and highly spirited remarks from a disser- tation on American Trotting Horses* by that talented but ill- rewarded veteran agricultural writer, Hon. J. S. Skinner : — " According to the theory here maintained, the great number of trotters in America that can go, as before said, their mile under three minutes, and there are many who do it under 1m. 40s., and even in some cases under 1m. 30s., — as for instance in the case of Ripton and Confidence, whose per- formances have given so much gratification to sportsmen, is to be explained in the same way that we account for the great number of superb hunters that are admitted to abound in England above all countries, not excepting our own. There, in every county in the Kingdom, there are organized " Hunts,' 1 with their whippers-in, and huntsmen, and earth-stoppers, and * See prefatory chapter to the American edition of Youatt on tha Horso. Lea . 4 7 which all sensation is referred or carried, and from which all voluntary motion is derived — the spinal cord, a prolongation of the brain, and thus connected with sensation and voluntary mo- tion, governing all the involuntary motions of the frame, and by power from which the heart beats, and the lungs heave, and the stomach digests ; and one other system of nerves — the ganglionic — presiding over the functions of secretion and of nutrition, and the repair and the welfare of the frame generally. The Head. — The following ?ut represents the head of the horse divided into the numerous bones of which it is composed, and the boundaries of each bone clearly marked by the sutures which connect it with those around. It is composed of nine bones. a a The frontal bones, or bones of the forehead. b b The supra-orbital foramina or holes above the omit, through which the nerves and blood- vessels supplying the forehead pass out. The small hole beneath receives the vessels which dip into and supply the bone. c c The parietal bones, or walls of the skull. d d The temporal bones, or bones of the temples. e e The zygomatic, or yoke-shaped arch. ff The temporal fossa, or pit above the eye. % g The occipital bone, or bone of the hinder part of the iiead. h h The orbits containing and defending the eye. i i The lachrymal bones belonging to the convey- ance of the tears from the eyes. j j The nasal bones, or bones of the nose. k k The malar, or cheek-bones. / / The superior maxillary, or that portion of the upper jaw containing the molar teeth or grinders. m rn The infra-orbital foramen — a hole below the or- bit, through which pass branches of nerves and blood-vessels to supply the lower part of the face. n n The inferior maxillary, the lower part of the upper jaw-bone — a separate bone in quadru- peds, containing the incisor or cutting teeth, and the upper tushes at the point of union between the superior and inferior maxillaries. o The upper incisor or cutting teeth. p The openings into the nose, with the bones forming the palate. The ethmoid and sphenoid bones will be better seen ii the cul Fig. 3. . There is an evident intention in this division of the head into so many bones. When the foetus — the unborn foal — first begins to have life, that which afterwards becomes bone, is a mere jellv- like substance. This is gradually changed into a harder material — cartilage ; and, before the birth of the animal, much of the cartilage is taken away by vessels called absorbents, and bone 48 THE HEAD. deposited in its stead. In fiat bones, like those of* the head, this deposit tak3S place in the centre, and rays or radiations of bony extend thence in every direction. Then, by having so many bones, there are so many centres of radiation ; and, consequently, the formation of bone is carried on so much the more rapidly, and perfected at the time when the necessities of the animal require it. At the period of birth, however, this process is not completed, out the edges of the bones remain somewhat soft and pliant, and therefore, in parturition, they yield a little and overlap each other, and thus, by rendering the birth more easy, they save the mother much pain, and contribute to the safety of the foal. The frontal bones are united by a curious and intricate dove- tailing to defend from injury the brain which lies beneath the upper part of them. Lower down, and where the cavity of the nose is only to be defended, their union is sufficient, but far less complicated. Here we have a proof of wise design. Few things more clearly indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of the frontal bones. Who has not remarked the broaa angular forehead of the blood horse, giving him a beautiful expression of intelligence and fire, and the face gradu- ally tapering from the forehead to the muzzle, contrasted with the large face of the cart or dray-horse, and the forehead scarcely wider than the face ? At/", between the frontal bones, is the pit or cavity above the eye, and by the depth of which we form some idea of the age of the horse. There is placed at the back of the eye, a consider- able quantity of fatty substance, on which it may revolve easily and without friction. In aged horses, and in diseases attended with general loss of condition, much of this disappears ; the eye Decumes sunken, and the pit above it deepens. The sinuses on the different sides of the forehead do not commu- nicate with each other, but with other sinuses in the ethmoid, and sphenoid, and upper jaw-bones, and also with the cavities of the nose on their respective sides. These sinuses afford a some- what increased protection to the brain beneath ; and by the con- tinuous and slightly projecting line which they form, they give beauty to the forehead ; but their principal use probably is, like the windings of the French horn, to increase the clearness and loudness of the neighing. It will be remarked that they are very irregular in depth, which at one place is an inch or more. In the sheep, and occasionally in the ox — rarely in the horse — the larvaB of maggots, produced by certain species of flies, i rawl up the nose, lodge themselves in these sinuses, and produce intol- erable pain. Veterinary surgeon? have availed themselves of thpse sinuses to detect the existence of glanders in doubtful cases. If the THE HEAD. 49 horse is glandered, there will probably be a consideraole ulcer* tion in the upper part of the cavity of the nose, and a collection of matter there. This is ascertained by making an opening into the sinuses, which may be done with perfect safety. [See Glanders.] Section of the Head. Fig. 3. a The nasal bone, or bone of the nose. b The frontal bone. The cavities or cells beneath are called the frontal sinuses. c The crest or ndge of the parietal bones. d The tentorium or bony separation between the cerebrum and cerebellum. e The occipital bone. f The .ligament of the neck, or pack-wax, by which the head is ch'efly supported f I a as » s» stat nine or carrying : the first bone of the neck. »t The dentata, tooth-like, or second bone of the neck. t The cuneiform, or wedge-shaped process, or base of the occipital bone Be- tween it and the other portion of the occipital bone, e, lies the ereat foramen or aperture through which the prolongation of the brain— the spinal marrow — issues from the skull. k The sphenoid, tvedge-like, bone, with its cavities. / The ethmoid, sieve-like, bone, with its cells. m The cerebrum, or brain, with the appearance of its cortical and medullary substance. •' n The cerebellum, or little brain, with its beautiful arborescent appearance. o A portion of the central medullary, marrow-like, substance of the brain and the prolongation of it under the name of the crus cerebri, le<* of the brain, and from which many of the nerves take their origin ° p The medulla oblongata— the prolongation of the brain after the medullary substance of the cerebrum and cerebellum have united, and forming the commencement of the sDinal marrow. The columnar appearance 60 THE HEAD. of this portion of the brain is represented, and the origins of the rcepi ratory nerves. q The spinal marrow extending through a canal in the centre of the bones of the neck, back, and loins, to the extremities of the tail, and from which the nerves of feeling and of motion, that supply every part of the frame except the head, arise. r The septum narium, or cartilaginous division between the nostrils. s The same cut off at the lower part, to show the spongy turbinated, turban shaped, bones, filling the cavity of the nostril. t The palate. 11 The molar-teeth, or grinders. v The inferior maxillary bone, containing the incisor teeth, or nippers. The canine tooth, or tush, is concealed by the tongue. w The posterior maxillary, or lower jaw with its incisors. x The lips. y The tongue. z A portion of the os hyoides, or bone of the tongue, like a Greek u, v. 1 The thyroid, helmet-shaped, cartilage, enclosing and shielding the neighboring parts. 2 The epiglottis, or covering of the glottis, or aperture of the wind-pipe. 3 The artyenoid, funnel-shaped, cartilages, having between them the aperture leading into the trachea or wind-pipe. 4 One of the chordae vocales, cords or ligaments concerned in the formation of the. voice. 5 The sacculus laryngis, sac or ventricle of the larynx, ( throat, to modulate the voice. 6 The trachea, or wind-pipe, with its diffei'ent rings. 7 The soft palate at the back of the mouth, so constru led as almost to prevent the possibility of vomiting. 8 The opening from the back part of the mouth into the nostril. 9 The cartilage covering the entrance into the eustachia tube, or communication between the mouth and internal part of the ear. iO The oesophagus, or gullet. \l The cricoid, ring-like, cartilage, below and behind th thyroid 12 Muscle of the neck, covered by the membrane of the back part of the mouth As the frontal sinuses are lined by a continuation of the mem- brane of the nose, they will sympathize with many of the affec- tions of that cavity ; but the membrane of the sinuses is susceptible of an inflammation peculiar to itself. The disease is rare, and the cause of it has not been fully ascertained. It is oftenest metastasis of inflammation of the brain, — shifting of in- flammation from the brain to the membrane of the sinus, or communication of inflammation from tkc brain by proximity of situation. Inflammation of the Membrane of the Frontal Sinuses. — The attack is usually sudden — the horse is dull, lethargic, and almost as comatose as in stomach-staggers. The first thing that excites suspicion of the actual character of the disease, is heat in the situation of the frontal sinus, when the hand is placed on the forehead. The lethargy soon passes over, and a state of the high- est excitation succeeds. The conjunctiva and the membrane of the nose are injected — the pulse is quick and hard — the horse Becomes violent and dangerous ; he kicks, plunges, and, half con- scious and half unconscious, he endeavors to do all the mischief that he can. The disease is now evidently sombined with, or is THE HEAD. 51 essentially, inflammation of the brain. It is distinguished from madness by this half-consciousness, and also by his being more disposed to bite than he is in pure phrenitis. The disease is usually fatal. It rarely lasts more than eight- and-forty hours. The post-mortem appearances are, great inflammation uf the brain, with frequent effusions of blood. The sinuses are some- times filled with coagulated blood. The brain seems to be affected just in proportion to the violence which the animal ha?- exhibited. The treatment should consist of copious bleeding, application of ice to the head, blistering the head, and physic. The trephine is scarcely admissible, from the danger of producing greater irritation. Sometimes the disease assumes a more chronic form. There is ulceration of the membrane, but not cerebral affection. A pur- ulent discharge then appears from the nose, evidently not of a glanderous character, and none of the submaxillary glands are eidarged. In both the acute and chronic form, it is usually con- fined to one sinus. The inner plate of the frontal bone covers a considerable por- tion of the anterior part of the brain, and it is studded with de- pressions corresponding with irregularities on the surface of the brain. Immediately above the frontal, and extending from the frontal to the poll, are the parietal bones. They are two, united together by a suture when the animal is young, but that suture soon becoming obliterated. They are of a closer and harder texture than the frontals, because they are more exposed to injury, and more concerned in defending the brain. A very small portion only of the parietah is naked, and that is composed of bone even harder than the other part, and with an additional layer of bone rising in the form of a crest or ridge externally. Every other part of these bones is covered by a thick mass of muscle, the temporal muscle, which is principally concerned in chewing the food, but which, likewise, by its yield- ing resistance, speedily and effectually breaks the force of the most violent blow. On the side of the head, and under the parietals (d d, Fig. 3), are the temporal bones, one on each side, ff. These again are divided into two parts, or consist of two distinct bones ; the petrous portion, so called from its great or stony hardness, and containing the wonderful mechanism of the ear, and the squamous portion, from the appearance of its union with the parietal, overlapping it like a great scale. From the latter there projects a portion of bone, e, which 62 THE HEAD. unites with the frontal, and forms a strong arch — the zygomatic — distinctly to be felt at the side of the head, immediately above the eye. This arch is designed to protect the upper part of the lower jaw, the motion of which may very plainly be seen be- neath it when the horse is feeding. At the base of the arch is an important cavity not visible in the cut, receiving into it, and forming a joint with, the head of the lower jaw — it will be presently described. Having reached the base of the temporal bone, it is found united to the parietal, not by a simple suture, as the lower part of the frontals, or the bones of the nose (see fig. a andy, Fig. 2), nor by a dove-tailed suture, as the upper part of the frontals (see the same cut), but it is spread over the parietal in the form of a large scale, and hence, as before observed, called the squamous portion of the temporal bone. In fact, there are two plates of bone instead of one. Was there design in this ? Yes, evidently so. In the first place, to increase the strength of the base of the zygo- matic arch. This extensive union between the temporal and parie- tal bones, resembles the buttress or mass of masonry attached to the base of every arch, in order to counteract its lateral pressure. The concussion, likewise, which might be communicated by a blow on the top of the arch, is thus spread over a large surface, and consequently weakened and rendered comparatively harmless ; • and that surface is composed of the union of two bones of dissimi- lar construction. The hard stony structure of the parietal is very different from the tougher material of the temporal ; and thus, as a finger acts on a sounding-glass, the vibration commu- nicated to the temporal is at once stopped, and the brain receives no injury. There is another proof of admirable design. Where is this i quamous portion of the temporal bone situated ? On the side of the head. And what is the figure of the cranium or skull, and principally that part of it which contains the cerebrum or brain ? It is an elliptical or oval arch (see fig. m, n, o, Fig. 3). If pressure is made on the crown of that arch — if a blow is re- ceived on the suture between the parietals sufficient to cause the elastic materials of which the skull is composed to yield — the seat of danger and injury is at the side. If a man receives a violent blow on the crown or back part of the head, the frac- ture, if there is any, is generally about the temple, and the ex- travasation of blood is oftenest found there. The following figure will explain this : — Let the line ABC represent an elliptical arch, composed of elastic materials. Some force shall be applied at B, sufficient to cause it to yield. We cannot compress it into smaller compass ; but just in proportion as it yields at B : will it spur or bulge out at THE HEAD. 53 D, and give way sometimes as represented at E. In a dome the weight of the materials constantly acting may be considered as ■p- . representing the force applied at B ; and so great is the lateral pressure, or tendency to bulge out {vide D and E), that it is necessary either to dove-tail the materials into one another, or to pass strong iron chains round them. For want of sufficient attention to this, " the dome of St. Sophia in Constantinople, C built in the time of the emperor Justinian, fell three times during its erection ; and the dome of the cathedral of Florence stood unfinished an hundred and twenty years, for want of an architect." Nature, in the construction of the horse's head, has taken away the pressure, or removed the probability of injury, by giv- ing an additional layer of bone, or a mass of muscle, where alone there was danger, and has dove-tailed all the materials. Farther than this, in order to make assurance doubly sure, she has placed this effectual girder at the base, in the overlapping of the squamous portion of the temporal bone. Above the parietals, and separated from them by a suture (fig. g, Fig. 2, and fig. e, Fig. 3), is the occipital bone. Supe- riorly it covers and protects the smaller portion of the brain, the cerebellum ; and as it there constitutes the summit or crest of the head, and is particularly exposed to danger, and not pro- tected by muscles, it is interesting to see what thickness it assumes. The head of the horse does not, like that of the hu- man being, ride upright on the neck, with all its weight sup- ported by the spinal column ; but it hangs in a slanting position from the extremity of the neck, and the neck itself projects a considerable distance from the chest, and thus the whole weight of the head and neck is suspended from the chest, and require very great power in order to support them. How is this weight to be supported ? From the back of the occipital bone (fig. f, Fig. 3), and im- mediately below the crest, proceeds a round cord of considerable bulk, and composed of a ligamentous substance, which reaches down and is securely attached to the spines of the vertebrae, or bones of the back ; and by this ligament — the ligamentum colli, ligament of the neck — the head is supported. There are, however, some admirable contrivances connected with this ligament. As it proceeds from the head, it is in the form of a round cord. It passes over the atlas, or first bone of 54 THE HEAD. the neck, Jvithout touching it, and then, attaching itself strongly to the second bone, principally supports the head by its union with this bone. The mechanical disadvantage is increased ; but the head is turned more freely on the first and second bones The principal stress is on the dentata or second bone, so much so, that in poll-evil, this ligament may be divided without seri- ous inconvenience to the horse. It then suddenly sinks deeper, and communicates with all the other vertebrae. Each of these communications becomes a separate point of support, and as they approach nearer to the base, the mechanical disadvantage, or the force with which the weight of the head and neck presses and acts, is materially lessened. The head, then, while the animal is in a state of rest, is sup- ported by this ligament, without any aid from muscular energy. It differs from the other ligaments of the body, in the fact that it is elastic. It stretches full two inches longer when the horse is browsing, and resumes its natural dimensions when the head is held erect. The ligament of the neck is inserted into the centre of the back part of the occipital bone, and immediately below the vertex or crest of that bone ; and therefore the bone is so thick at this part (see fig. e, Fig 3). Many large and powerful muscles are necessary to turn the head in various directions, as well as to assist in raising it when depressed. The occipital bone, as will be seen in the cut, pre- sents a spine running down the centre, B, and a large roughened surface for the attachment of these muscles, C C . Lower down, and still at the back of the occipital bone, are two rounded protuberances D D. by which the head is connected with the atlas, or upper or first vertebra, or bone of the neck ; and these are called the condy- loid, cup-shaped, processes of the occipital bone. All the motions of the head are partly, and many of them wholly, performed by this joint. Between them is a large hole, the foramen magmim, or great aperture, E, through which the continuation of the brain, termed the spinal cord or marrow, passes out of the skull. As an additional contrivance to support the enormous weight of the head, are two other projections of the occipital bone, pe- culiar to animals whose heads are set on in a slanting direction, THE HEAD. 55 and into which powerful muscles are inserted. They are called the coracoid, beak-like, processes or prolongations, F F, of the occipital bone. [\ mining forward, and forming outwardly a part of the base, and inwardly a portion of the floor of the skull, is what, from its wedge-like shape, is called the cuneiform process of the occipital bone (fig. i, Fig. 3). It is thick, strong, and solid, and placed at the bottom of the skull, not only to be a proper foun- dation for, and to give additional strength to, the arch on either side, but speedily to stop all vibration and concussion. At the base of the skull, and anterior to or below the oc- cipital, lies the sphenoid, wedge-like bone (fig. k, Fig. 3). Its body, likewise called the cuneiform or wedge-shaped process, is a continuation of the same process of the occipital, and, like it, is thick and solid, and for the same important purpose. This bone branches out into four irregular bodies or plates, two of which are called the wings, and two running to the palate, the legs. They could not be represented in the cut, and there it- nothing important belonging to them, so far as this work is con- cerned. Internally (fig. k), the sphenoid forms a portion of the cavity of the skull. Of the ethmoid, sieve-like, bone, little can be seen outwardly. A small portion is found in the back part of the orbit, and in the cavity of the cranium ; but the most important part of it is that which is composed of a great number of thin plates, form- ing numerous cavities or cells (fig. I, Fig. 3), lined with the membrane of the nose, and entering into its cavity. The upper portion is called the cribriform or sieve-shaped plate, from its being perforated by a multitude of little holes, through which the nerve connected with smelling passes and spreads over the nose. Altogether these bones form a cavity of an irregular oval shape, but the tentorium penetrating into it, gives it the appear- ance of being divided into two (d, Fig. 3). The cavity of the skull may be said to be arched all round. The builder knows the strength which is connected with the form of an arch. If properly constructed, it is equal to a solid mass of masonry. The arch of a horse's skull has not much weight to support, but it is exposed to many injuries from the brutality of those by whom he should be protected, and from ac- cidental causes. On raising any part of the skull of the horse, the dense and strong membrane which is at once the lining of the cranium and the covering of the brain — the dura mater — presents itself. It is united to the membranes below by numerous little cords or prolongations of its substance, conveying blood and oommuni- 56 THE BRAIN. 1 eating strength to the parts beneath. Between this membrane common to the cranium and the brain, and the proper investing tunic of that organ, is found that delicate gossamer's web, appro- priately called the arachnoid — the spider's membrane — and which is seen in other animals, designed either to secrete the fluid which is interposed, for the purpose of obviating injurious concussion, or perhaps, to prevent the brain from readily sym- pathizing" with any inflammatory action produced by injury of the skull. Beneath is the proper investing membrane of the brain — the pia mater — which not only covers the external surface of the brain, but penetrates into every depression, lines every ventricle, and clothes every irregularity and part and portion of the brain. The Brain. — We now arrive at the brain itself. The brain of the horse corresponds with the cavity in which it is placed {m, Fig. 3). It is a flattened oval. It is divided into two parts, one much larger than the other — the cerebrum or brain, and the cerebellum or little brain (n, Fig. 3). The brain of a horse is only about half the size and weight of that of a man. When the brain is cut, it is found to be composed of two sub- stances very unlike in appearance (m, Fig. 3) ; one, principally on the outside ; gray, or ash-colored, and therefore called the cortical {bark-like) from its situation, and cineritious {ashen) from its color ; and the other, lying deeper in the brain, and from its pulpy nature called the medullary substance. Although placed in apposition with each other, and seemingly mingling, they never run into the same mass, or change by degrees into one another, but are essentially distinct in construction as well as in function. The medullary portion is connected with the nervous system. The nerves are prolongations of it, and are concerned in the dis- charge of all the offices of life. They give motion and energy to the limbs, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, and every part connected with life. They are the medium through which sen- sation is conveyed ; and they supply the mind with materials to think and work upon. The cineritious, part has a different appearance, and is differ- ently constituted. Some have supposed, and with much appear- ance of truth, that it is the residence of the mind — receiving the impressions that are conveyed to the brain by the sensitive nerves, and directing the operation and action of those which give motion to the limbs. From the medullary substance — as already stated — proceed certain cords or prolongations, termed nerves, by which the ani- mal is enabled to receive impressions from surrounding objects. a.nd to connect himself with them ; and also to possess many THE BRAIN. 57 pleasurable or painful sensations. One of them is spread over the membrane of the nose, and gives the sense of smell ; another expands on the back of the eye, and the faculty of sight is gained ; and a third goes to the internal structure of the ear, and the ani- mal is conscious of sound. Other nerves, proceeding to different parts, give the faculty of motion, while an equally important one bestows the power of feeling. One division of nerves (h, Fig. 3), springing from a prolonga- tion of the brain, and yet within the skull, wanders to different parts of the frame, for important purposes connected with respira- tion or breathing. The act of breathing is essential to life, and were it to cease, the animal would die. These are nerves of in- voluntary motion ; so that, whether he is awake or asleep, con- scious of it or not, the lungs heave and life is supported. Lastly, from the spinal cord q — a farther prolongation of the brain, and running through a cavity in the bones of the neck, back, and loins, and extending to the very tip of the tail — other nerves are given off at certain intervals. The cut below delineates a pair of them. The spinal cord a, is combined of six distinct columns or rods, running through its whole length — three on either side The two upper columns — the portion of spinal marrow represent ed in our cut, is supposed to be placed with its inner or lower surface towards us — proceed from those tracks of the brain devoted to sensation. Numerous distinct fibres spring abruptly from the column, and which collect together, and, passing through a little ganglion or enlargement, d — an enlargement of a nervous cord is called a ganglion — become a nerve of sensation. From the lower or inner side, — a prolongation of the track devoted to motion, — proceed other fibres, which also collect gradually to- gether, and form a nervous cord, c, giving the power of motion. Beyond the ganglion the two unite, and form a perfect spina] c 58 THE EAR. nerve, b, possessing the power both of sensation and motion ; and the fibres of the two columns proceed to their destination, enveloped in the same sheath, and apparently one nerve. Our cut, closely examined, will give at b some idea of the man- ner in which these distinct fibres are continued ; — each covered by its own membrane, but all enveloped in a common en- velope. All these nerves are organs of sensation and motion alone ; but there are others whose origin seems to be outside of and below the brain. These are the symjjathetic, so called from their union and sympathy with all the others, and identified with life itself. They proceed from a small ganglion or enlarge- ment in the upper part of the neck, or from a collection of little ganglia in the abdomen. They go to the heart, and it beats, and to the stomach, and it digests. They form a net-work round each blood-vessel, and the current flows on. They surround the very minutest vessels, and the frame is nourished and built up. They are destitute of sensation, and they are perfectly beyond the control of the will. The reader, we trust, will now comprehend this wonderful, yet simple machinery, and be able, by and by, to refer to it thi explanation of several diseases, and particularly of the operation to which we have referred. Two of the senses have their residence in the cavity of the cranium — those of hearing and sight. The Ear. — They who know anything of the horse, pay much attention to the size, setting on, and motion of the ear. Ears rather small than large — placed not too far apart — erect and quick in motion, indicate both breeding and spirit ; and if a horse is frequently in the habit of carrying one ear forward, and the other backward, and especially if he does so on a journey, he will generally possess both spirit and continuance. The ear of the horse is more intelligible even than the eye, in indicating his temper and intentions. His hearing is remarkably acute. The cartilage of the ear is attached to the head by liga- ments and sustained by muscles, on which its action depends The ear is covered by skin thinner than in most other parts of the body, and is destitute of other tissues unnecessarily increasing its bulk and weight. Under the skin are glands that secrete and throw out a white greasy matter, destined to keep the parts sup- ple and smooth. Below this are other glands which deposit the wax, which is supposed to be necessary to deter insects from crawling into the ear, by its offensiveness to them, or by mechan- ically arresting their progress. Long hair standing across the inner passage of the ear in every direction, keeps out insects, cold, and properly breaks sounds striking on the membrane cover THE EYE. 51 shoots out with the velocity of lightning-, and guided by the lids projects over the eye, and clears it of offending matter When the muscle which draws in the eye ceases to act, the eye resumes its natural situation in the orbit. There is room for the fattv matter to return to its place, and it immediately returns bv the elasticity of the membrane by which it is covered, and draws alter it this cartilage with which it is connected, and whose return is as rapid as was the projection. The old farriers strangely misunderstood the nature and desi lock joint on both sides of the leg. DISEASES OF THE EYE. 91 if two leaves were rubbed together — and her fright caused her several times to unhorse her rider. Another mare, quiet in other respects, would invariably rush at another white or gray horse, and attempt to destroy it. These instances are selected from various others, because they approach so nearly to what would be termed insanity in man. It is a species of monomania, and as decided insanity as ever the biped discovered. One of these horses, the second, was by Ions: and kind attention digested of this insane terror, and be- came perfectly quiet and useful ; hut the others hid defiance to all means of cure, and to coercion among the rest. DISEASES OF THE EYE. The diseases of the eye constitute a very important, but a most unsatisfactory division of our work, for the maladies of this organ, although few in number, are frequent in their appear- ance. They are sadly obstinate, and often baffle all skill. We have spoken of fracture of the orbit, and its treatment Occasionally the substance round the eye is wounded by a fork or other sharp instrument, and inflammation ensues. This should be abated by poultices, and bleeding, and physic ; but no probe should be used in such a place. The eyelids are subject to occasional inflammation from Mows or other injuries. Fomentation with warm water will be ser- viceable here. The horse has occasionally a scaly eruption on the edges of the eyelids, attended with great itching, in the effort to allay which, by rubbing the part, the eye may be blemished. The nitrated ointment of quicksilver, mixed with an equal quantity of lard, may be slightly rubbed on the edges of the lids with considerable good effect. The eyelids will sometimes become aedematous (puffed up with a serous humor). Horses fed in low wet pastures, old carriage- horses, &c, are subject to it. It is sometimes the result of badly treated inflammation. The lids should be well bathed with warm water mingled with an aromatic tincture. Weakness and dropping of the upper lid is caused by diminu- tion or loss of power in its muscles. Dry frictions and aromatic Jotions will frequently restore the tone of the parts. The eyelids are subject to occasional injury from their situation and office. In small incised (cut) wounds of them great care should be taken that the divided edges unite hy the first intention. This will hasten the cure, and prevent deformity. If any of the muscles are divided, it is usually the ciliary or orbicularis palpe- orarum. This lesion must be healed, if possible, by the first in- 52 DISEASES OF THE EYE. tention, and either by means of adhesive plaster or the suture (sewing). The suture is probably the preferable agent. Suppurating wounds in the eyelids may be the consequence of the necessary abstraction of a considerable surface of the skin, in the removal of warts or tumors. The principal thing to be at- tended to is the frequent removal of the matter ty means of tow or cotton wool. The rest may generally be left to nature. Inversion of the lids is of very rare occurrence in the horse Warts are sometimes attached to the edges of the lids, and are a source of great irritation. When rubbed they bleed, and the common opinion is true — that they are propagated by the blood. They should be taken off with a sharp pair of scissors, and theii roots touched with the lunar caustic. The membrane which covers the Haw is subject to inflamma- tion. It is, indeed, a continuation of the conjunctiva, the inflam- mation of which constitutes ophthalmia. An account of this inflammation will be better postponed until the nature and treat- ment of ophthalmia come under particular notice. The Haw, or Membrana Nictitans, is subject to inflammation peculiar to itself, arising from the introduction of foreign bodies, or from blows or other accidents. The entire substance of the haw becomes inflamed. It swells and protrudes from the innei angle of the eye. The heat and redness gradually disappear, bnt the membrane often continues to protrude. The inflammation of this organ often assumes a chronic character in a very short time, on account of the structure of the parts, which are y an opeiation. OZENA. 105 der catarrh or cold, is increased ill quantity, and altered in ap- pearance and consistence. This will properly belong to the ac- count of catarrh or cold ; but that which is immediately undei consideration, is a continued and oftentimes profuse discharge of thickened mucus, when every symptom of catarrh and fever has passed away. If the horse is at grass, the discharge is almost as green as the food on which he lives ; — or if he is stabled, it is white, or straw-coloured, or brown, or even bloody, and some- times purulent. It is either constantly running, or snorted out in masses many times a day ; teazing the horse, and becoming a perfect nuisance in the stable, and to the rider. This has been known to continue several months, and eventually to destroy the horse. If the discharge is not offensive to the smell, nor mixed wtih purulent matter, it is probably merely an increased and some- what vitiated secretion from the cavities of the nose ; and, all lever having disappeared, will frequently yield to small doses of blue vitriol, given twice in the day. If fever or cough remains, the cough medicine that will hereafter be described must be combined with the tonic. If the discharge is mingled with pus, and very offensive, the vegetable tonics, gentian and ginger, may be added to the copper ; but there is now reason to apprehend that the discharge will not be controlled, and will terminate in glanders. Turning into a salt marsh will occasionally effect a cure, when both the mineral and the vegetable tonics have failed.* OZENA. Ozena is ulceration of the membrane of the nose, not always or often visible, but recognised by the discharge of muco-purulent matter, and the peculiar stench from which the disease derives its name. It resembles glanders, in being confined, in most in- stances, to one nostril, and the submaxillary gland on the same side being enlarged ; but differs from it in the gland not being adherent, and the discharge, from its earliest stage, being puru- lent and stinking. There is sometimes a foetid discharge from the nostril, in con- sequence of inflammation of the lungs, or produced by some of the sequelae of pneumonia ; distinguished, however, from ozena, * Note by Mr. Spooner. — It is exceedingly rare that the nasal discharge s ever so profuse as that described in the text, unless produced by strangles, or severe catarrh, or glanders : nor is it brown or bloody, unless connected with other active disease. It is, indeed, very rare, and is usually of a gray color and free from smell, and seems to arise from a relaxation of the secret- ing membrane of the nostrils. It should be treated by tonics internally, as- sisted by good feeding and grooming. e 106 OZENA. by its usually flowing irregularly, being coughed up in great quantities, more decidedly purulent, and the gland or glands sel- dom affected. The discharge from ozena is constant, muco- purulent, and attended by enlargement of the glands. It is of immense consequence that wo should be enabled to distinguish the one from the other ; for while ozena may, sometimes at least, be manageable, the other is too frequently the precursor of death. The cause of ozena cannot always be discovered. Chronic in- flammation of the membrane may assume another and malignant character. In severe catarrh, the membrane may become abraded, and the abrasions may degenerate into foul and fetid ulcers. It is not an unfrequent consequence of epidemic catarrh. It has been produced by caustic applications to the lining mem- brane of the nose. It has followed hemorrhage, spontaneous, or the consequence of injury. In some cases, and those as obstinate as any, it cannot perhaps be traced to any probable cause, and the health of the animal has not appeared to be in the slightest degree affected. The steam of a bran-mash, scalding hot, could, by means of a nose-bag, be made to penetrate the cavities of the nose, and would cleanse the part. By means of the nose-bag and warm mash, chloride of lime might be introduced into the cavities, removing the stench and arresting the tendency to decomposition. The vapor of turpentine, or of resinous pine shavings, can by the same means be brought in contact with all parts of the membrane, and it has been found serviceable. A run at spring grass promises still better. It is the finest alterative, depurative, and restora- tive in the whole list of remedies ; and if it is acceptable in the form of a salt-marsh, there is no better chance of doing good.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — When a nasal gleet is attended by much offen sive smell, we may rest assured that it is not glanders, but that it either arises from external injury, or may be justly included under the designation ozena. This is a rare disease in a horse, and is generally produced by catarrh, particularly that of the epidemic kind. The discharge is usually thick, considerable, and very offensive. The treatment should consist of tonics, internally and externally, fumigations of chlorine gas by means of Read's inhaler, or with the common nose bag ; or, if this does not succeed a solution of the chloride of lime may be syringed up the nostrils every day, or may be alternated with a weak solution of the sulphates of zinc and cop- per, and applied in the same manner. Nasal gleet, attended with foetid smell, and proceeding from one nostril only, is usually produced by some blow, or external injury. This much resembles glanders, and has often been confounded with it. GLANDERS. . 1 07 GLANDERS. The most formidable of all the diseases to which the horse is subject, is Glanders. It has been known from the earliest an- tiquity. The earliest symptom of Glanders is an increased discharge from the nostril, small in quantity, constantly flowing, of an aque- ous (watery) character, and a little mucus mingling with it. It is a common and very mischievous error to suppose that this discharge is sticky, when it first makes its appearance. It is an aqueous or mucous, but small and constant discharge, and is thus distinguished from catarrh, or nasal gleet, or any other defluxion (discharge) from the nostril. If a horse is in the highest condi- tion, yet has this small watery constant discharge, and especially from one nostril, no time should be lost in separating him from his companions. No harm will be done by this, although the defluxion should not ultimately betray lurking mischief of a worse character. The peculiar stickiness and gluiness which is generally supposed to distinguish the discharge of glanders from all other mucous and prevalent secretions belongs to the second stage of the dis- ease, and, for many months before this, glanders may have ex- isted hi an insidious and highly contagious form. It must be ac- knowledged, however, that, in the majority of cases, some degree of stickiness does characterise the discharge of glanders from a very early period. It is a singular circumstance, for which no satisfactory account has yet been given, that when one nostril alone is attacked, it is, in a great majority of cases, the near, or left. This discharge, in cases of infection, may continue, and in sc slight a degree as to be scarcely perceptible, for many months, or even two or three years, unattended by any other disease, even ulceration of the nostril, and yet the horse being decidedly glan- dered from the beginning, and capable of propagating the mala- dy. In process of time, however, pus (matter) mingles with the discharge, and then another and a characteristic symptom ap- pears. Some of this is absorbed, and the neighbouring glands be- come affected. If there is discharge from both nostrils, the glands within the under jaw will be on both sides enlarged. If the discharge is from one nostril only, the swelled gland will be found on that side alone. Glanders, however, will frequently exist at an early stage without these swelled glands, and some other dis- eases, as catarrh, will produce them. Then we must look out for some peculiarity about these glands, and we shall readily find it. The swelling may be at first somewhat large and diffused. 108 GLANDERS. out the surrounding enlargement soon goes off, and one or two small distinct glands remain ; and they are not in the centre of the channel, but adhere closely to the jaw on the affected side. The membrane of the nose should now be examined, and will materially guide our opinion. It will either be of a dark purplish hue, or almost of a leaden colour, or of any shade between the wo ; or if there is some of the redness of inflammation, it will have a purple tinge : but there will never be the faint pink blush of health, or the intense and vivid red of usual inflammation. Spots of ulceration will probably appear on the membrane cover- ing the cartilage of the nose — not mere sore places, or streaks of abrasion, and quite superficial, but small ulcers, unusually ap- proaching to a circular form, deep, and with the edges abrupt and prominent. When these appearances are observed, there can be no doubt about the matter. Care should be taken, how- ever, to ascertain that these ulcers do actually exist, for spots of mucus adhering to the membrane have been more than once taken for them The finger should, if possible, be passed over the supposed ulcer, in order to determine whether it can be wiped away ; and it should be recollected, as was hinted when describ- ing the duct that conveys the tears to the nose, that the orifice of that duct, just within the nostril, and on the inner side of it, ha3 been mistaken for a chancrous ulcer. This orifice is on the con- tinuation of the common skin of the muzzle which runs a little way up the nostril, while the ulcer of glanders is on the proper membrane of the nose above. The line of separation between the two is evident on the slightest inspection. When ulcers begin to appear on the membrane of the nose, the constitution of the horse is soon evidently affected. The patient loses flesh — his belly is tucked up — his coat unthrifty, and readily coming off — the appetite is impaired — the strength fails — cough, more or less urgent, may be heard — the discharge from the nose will increase in quantity ; it will be discoloured, bloody, offensive to the smell — the ulcers in the nose will become larger and more numerous, and the air-passages being obstructed, a grating, chok- ing noise will be heard at every act of breathing. There is now a peculiar tenderness about the forehead. The membrane lining the frontal sinuses is inflamed and ulcerated, and the integument of the forehead becomes thickened and somewhat swelled. Farcy is now superadded to glanders, or glanders has degenerated into farcy, and more of the absorbents are involved. At or before this time little tumours appear about the muscles, and face, and neck, following the course of the veins and the ab- sorbents, for they run side by side ; and these the tumours soon ulcerate. Tumours or buds, still pursuing the path of the ab- sorbents, soon appear on the inside of the thighs. They are con- GLANDERS. 109 fleeted together by a corded substance. This is the inflamed and enlarged lymphatic ; and ulceration quickly follows the appear- ance of these buds. The deeper seated absorbents are next affected ; and one or both of the hind-legs swell to a great size, and become stiff, and hot, and tender. The loss of flesh and strength is more marked every day. The membrane of the nose becomes of a dirty livid color. The membrane of the mouth is strangely pallid. The eye is infiltrated with a yellow fluid ; and the discharge from the nose becomes more profuse, and insuffera- bly offensive. The animal presents one mass of putrefaction, and at last dies, exhausted. There are peculiarities about the enlargement of the submax- illary glands, already referred to, which deserve particular atten- tion. They are rarely large, except at first, or hot, or tender ; but they are characterised by a singular hardness, a proximity to the jaw-bone, and, frequently, actual adhesion to it. The adhe- sion is produced by the inflammatory action going forward in the gland, and the effusion of coagulable lymph. This hardness and adhesion accompanying discharge from the nostril, and being on the same side with the nostril whence the discharge proceeds, afford proof not to be controverted that the horse is glandered. But there are cases of glanders in which the glands are neither adherent nor much enlarged. Glanders have often been confounded with strangles, and by those who ought to have known better. Strangles are peculiar to young horses. The early stage resembles common cold, with some degree of fever and sore throat — generally with distressing cough, or at least frequent wheezing , and when the enlargement appears beneath the jaw, it is not a single small gland, but a swelling of the whole of the substance between the jaws, grow- ing harder towards the centre, and, after a while, appearing to contain a fluid, and breaking. In strangles, the membrane of the nose will be intensely red, and the discharge from the nose profuse and purulent, or mixed with matter almost from the first. When the tumor has burst, the fever will abate, and the horse will speedily get well. Should the discharge from the nose continue, as it sometimes does, for a considerable time after the horse has recovered from strangles, there is no cause for fear. Simple strangles need never degenerate into glanders. Good keep, and small doses of tonic medicine, will gradually perfect the cure. Glanders have been confounded with catarrh or cold ; but the distinction between them is plain enough. Fever, and loss of appetite and sore throat, accompany cold — the quidding of the food and gulping of the water are sufficient indications of tie latter of these ; the discharge from the nose is profuse, and per- I 1 GLANDERS. haps purulent ; the glands under the jaw, if swelled, are move- able, there is a thickening around them, and they are tender and hot. With proper treatment the fever abates ; the cough disap- pears ; the swellings under the throat subside ; and the discharge from the nose gradually ceases, or, if it remains it is usually very different from that which characterises glanders. In glanders, there is seldom cough of any consequence, and generally no cough at all. A running from the nose, small in quantity, and, from the smallness of its quantity, drying about the edges of the nostril, and presenting some appearance of stickiness, will, in a few cases, remain after severe catarrh, and especially after the influenza of spring ; and these have gradually assumed the character of glan- ders, and more particularly when they have been accompanied by enlarged glands and ulceration in the nose. Here the aid of a judicious veterinary surgeon is indispensable ; and he will sometimes experience considerable difficulty in deciding the case. One circumstance will principally guide him. No disease will run on to glanders which has not, to a considerable and palpable degree, impaired and broken down the constitution ; and every disease that does this will run on to glanders. He will look then to the general state and condition of the horse, as well as to the situation of the glands, the nature of the discharge, and the character of the ulceration. If, after all, he is in doubt, an experiment may be resorted to, which wears indeed the appearance of cruelty, and which only the safety of a valuable animal, or of a whole team, can justify. He will inoculate an ass, or a horse already condemned to the hounds, with the matter discharged from the nose. If the horse is glandered, the symptoms of glanders or farcy will appear in the inoculated animal in the course of a few days. The post mortem examination of the horse will remove every doubt as to the character of the disease. The nostril is generally more or less blanched, with spots or lines of inflammation of considerable intensity. Ulceration is almost invariably found, and of a chancrous character, on the septum, and also on the SBthmoid and turbinated bones. The ulcers evidently follow the course of the absorbents, sometimes almost confined to the track of the main vessel, or, if scattered over the membrane generally, thickest over the path of the lymphatic. The sethmoid and tur- binated bones are often filled with pus, and sometimes eaten through and carious ; but, in the majority of cases, the ulceration is confined to the external membrane, although there may be pus within. In aggravated cases the disease extends through all the cells of the face and head. The path of the disease down the larynx and windpipe is easily GLANDERS. Ill traced, and the ulcers follow one line — that of the absorbents. In aggravated cases, this can generally be traced on to the lungs. It produces inflammation in these organs, characterised in some cases by congestion ; but in other cases, the congestion having gone on to hepatisation, in which the cellular texture of the lungs is obliterated. Most frequently, when the lungs are affected at all, tubercles are found — miliary tubercles — minute granulated spots on the surface, or in the substance of the lungs, and not accompanied by much inflammation. In a few cases there are larger tubercles, which soften and burst, and terminate in cavities of varying size. In some cases, and showing that glanders is not essentially 01 necessarily a disease of the lungs, there is no morbid affection whatever in those organs. The history thus given of the symptoms of glanders will clearly point out its nature. It is inflammation, whether specific or common, of the lining membrane of the nose — possibly for months, and even for years, confined to that membrane, and even to a portion of it — the health and the usefulness of the animal not being in the slightest degree impaired. Then, from some unknown cause, not a new but an intenser action is set up, the inflammation more speedily runs its course, and the membrane becomes ulcerated. The in- flammation spreads on either side down the septum, and the ul- ceration at length assumes that peculiar chancrous form which characterises inflammation of the absorbents. Even then, when the discharge becomes gluey, and sometimes after chancres have appeared, the horse is apparently well. There are hundreds of glandered horses about the country with not a sick one among them. For months or years this disease may do no injury to the general health. The inflammation is purely local, and is only recognised by the invariable accompaniment of inflammation and increased secretion. Its neighbors fall around, but the disease affects not the animal whence it came. At length a constitu- tional inflammation appears ; farcy is established in its most hor- rible form, and death speedily closes the scene. Glanders may be either bred in the horse, or communicated by contagion. What we have farther to remark on this malady will be arranged under these two heads. Improper stable management we believe to be a far more fre- quent cause of glanders than contagion. The air which is necessary to respiration is changed and empoisoned in its passage through the lungs, and a fresh supply is necessary for the support of life. That supply may be sufficient barely to support life, but not to prevent the vitiated air from again and again passing to the lungs, and producing irritation and disease. The membrane 112 GLANDERS. of the nose, possessed of extreme sensibility for the purposes of smell, is easily irritated by this poison, and close and ill- ventilated stables oftenest witness the ravages of glanders. Professor Cole- man relates a case which proves to demonstration the rapid and fatal agency of this cause. " In the expedition to Gluiberon, the norses had not been long on board the transports before it became necessary to shut down the hatchways for a few hours ; the con- sequence of this was, that some of them were suffocated, and mat all the rest were disembarked either glandered or farcied." The injurious gasses arising from the dung, urine, &c, in badly wieaned stables, are also powerful sources of the mischief. inlanders may be produced by anything that injures, or for a length of time acts upon and weakens, the vital energy of this membrane. They have been known to follow a fracture of the bones of the nose. They have been the consequence of violent caiairh, and particularly the long-continued discharge from the nosmis, ot which we have spoken. They have been produced by me injection of stimulating and acrid substances up the nos- tril, iiverythmg that weakens the constitution generally will lead xo giandeis. Among the causes of glanders are want of regular exercise, over-exertion, ana the stimulating and debilitating cordials ad- ministered oy senseless grooms. Every exerting cause of disease exerts its chief and worst in fluence on the membrane of the nose, and there is not anothei disease which mav not lay the foundation of glanders. A long time may elapse Defore it appears, but when at length the whole frame becomes excited or debilitated in some way, this debilitated portion is the first to yield to the attack. Several strongly marked instances are on record showing the connection between the attack of this disease and exposure to the dampness of brick or stone stables, the walls of which were not yet dry, and in others subject to damp exhalations. There is no doubt that glanders, or a predisposition to glanders, is sometimes hereditary. Glanders are highly contagious. If the discharge from the nostrils of a glandered horse is rubbed on a wound, or on a mu- cous surface, like the nostrils, it will produce a similar disease. If the division between two horses were sufficiently high to pre- vent all smelling and snorting at each other, and contact of every kind, and they drank not out of the same pail, a sound horse might live for years, uninfected, by the side of a glandered one. The matter of glanders has been mixed up into a ball, and given to a healthy horse, without effect. Some horses have eaten the hay left by those that were glandered, and no bad consequence has followed ; but others have been speedily infected. The GLANDERS. 1 1 3 slanderous matter must come in contact with a wound, or fall on some membrane, thin and delicate, like that of the nose, and through which it may be absorbed. It is easy, then, accustomed as horses are to be crowded together, and to recognize each other by the smell — eating out of the same manger, and drinking from the same pail — to imagine that the disease may be very readily communicated. One horse has passed another when he was in the act of snorting, and has become glandered. Some fillies have received the infection from the matter blown by the wind across a lane, when a glandered horse, in the opposite field, has claimed acquaintance by neighing or snorting. It is almost impossible for an infected horse to remain long in a stable with others without irreparable mischief. If some persons underrate the danger, it is because the disease may remain unrecognised in the infected horse for some months, or even years, and therefore, when it appears, it is attributed to other causes, or to after inoculation. No glandered horse should be employed on any farm, nor should a glandered horse be per- mitted to work on any road, or even to pasture on any field He should be destroyed. In a well settled case of glanders it is not worth while, ex- cept by way of experiment at a veterinary school, to attempt any remedies. The chances of cure are too remote, and the danger of infection too great. If, however, remedial measures are resorted to, a pure atmos- phere is that which should first be tried. Turn out the horse, and, if practicable, on a salt marsh, — but much caution is requi- site, as the grass, and even the fences may receive the glander- ous matter ; and hardening on them, it may months afterward communicate the disease to horses ; and there is not yet decided proof that sheep and cattle are not subject to the same malady. Worse than all, the man who attends on that horse is in danger. The cases are now becoming far too numerous in which the groom or the veterinary surgeon attending on glan dered horses becomes infected, and in the majority of cases dies. Every portion of the stable, every vessel, &c, which have been within the reach of a nasal discharge of a glandered horse, should be well scraped, scoured with soap and water, then Avell washed with a solution of chloride of lime (a pint oi the chloride to a pail full of water,) and the walls white-washed. His head gear should be burned — his clothing baked or washed — pails newly painted — and the iron work with which he has been in contact, should, where practicable, be exposed to a red heat.* * Note by Mr. Spoo?ier.—Mr. S.'s note contains nothing materially adding to Mr. Youatt's elaborate account ; but the following is important : The contagiou? character of glanders is very well known, and not only is 8 1 1 4 FARCY. IARCY Farcy is intimately connected with glanders ; they will ruii into each other, or their symptoms will mingle together, anu before either arrives at its fatal termination its associate will almost invariably appear. An animal inocculated with the matter of farcy will often be afflicted with glanders, while the matter of glanders will frequently produce farcy. They are different types or stages of the same disease. There is, how- ever, a very material difference in their symptoms and progress, and this most important one of all, that while glanders are generally incurable, farcy, in its early stage and mild form, may be successfully treated. While the capillary vessels of the arteries are everywhere employed in building up the frame, the absorbents are no less diligently at work in selecting and carrying away every useless or worn-out portion or part of it. There is no surface on which thousands of these little mouths do not open. Opening on the surfaces of glanderous ulcers, they absorb a portion of the virus secreted by them, and as it passes through these little tubes, they become thickened and inflamed by means of its acrimonious qualities, and hence they received the name of corded veins from farriers who mistook them for the veins whose courses they follow. At certain distances in the course of the absorbents are natural valves, or loose duplicatures of the lining membrane, which are pressed against the side of the vessel and permit the fluid to pass in a direction towards the chest, but belly out and impede or arrest its progress from the chest. The virus at these places, and the additional inflammation there excited, is to a greater or less degree evident to the eye and to the feeling. They are usually first observed about the lips, the nose, the neck, and the thighs. They are very hard — even of a scirrhous hard- ness, more or less tender, and with perceptible heat about them. The poisonous matter being thus confined and pressing on the part, suppuration and ulceration ensue. The ulcers have the it so with regard to the horse, but it is capable of being communicated to the human being ; and, indeed, there have been very many deaths from this cause, and most horrible deaths they are. It is generally by means of some cut or abrasion which comes in contact with the glandered matter, that the infection is communicated. The utmost caution should, therefore, be exercised by the attendants ; and it is most, unpardonable to keep glan- dered horses any length of time for the sake of their work ; and we are scarcely justified in tampering long with them under the idea of effecting a cure, when the cases are decidedly glandered. FARCY. 1 1 5 same character as the glanderous ones on the membrane of the nose. They are rounded, with an elevated edge and a pale surface. They are true chancres, and they discharge a virus as infectious and as dangerous as the matter of glanders. While they remain in their hard prominent state, they are called buttons or farcy buds ; and they are connected together by the inflamed and corded veins. In some cases the horse will droop for many a day before the appearance of the corded veins or buds — his appetite will be impaired — his coat will stare — he will lose flesh. The poison is evidently at work, but has not gained sufficient power to cause the absorbents to enlarge. In a few cases these buds do not ulcerate, but become hard and difficult to disperse. The pro- gress of the disease is then suspended, and possibly for some months the horse will appear to be restored to health ; but he bears the seeds of the malady about him, and in due time the farcy assumes its virulent form, and hurries him off. These buds have sometimes been confounded with the little tumors 01 lumps termed surfeit. They are generally higher than these tumors, and not so broad. They have a more knotty character, and are principally found on the inside of the limbs, instead of the outside. The surfeit bumps are pustular and end in des- quamation (scaling off,) not in ulceration, and they do not follow the course of the absorbents, but are scattered irregularly over the skin. Few things are more unlike, or more perplexing, than the different forms which farcy assumes at different times. One of the legs, and particularly one of the hinder legs, will suddenly swell to an enormous size. At night the horse will appear to be perfectly well, and in the morning one leg will be three times the size of the other, with considerable fever, and scarcely the power of moving the limb. At other times the head will be subject to this enlargement, the muzzle particularly will swell, and an offensive discharge will proceed from the nose. Sometimes the horse will gradually lose flesh and strength ; he will be hide-bound ; many eruptions will appear in different parts ; the legs will swell ; cracks will be seen at the heels, and an inexperienced person may conceive it to be a mere want of condition, combined with grease. By degrees the affection becomes general. The virus has reached the termination of the absorbents, and mingles with the general circulating fluid, and is conveyed with the blood to every part of the frame. There are no longer any valves to impede its progress, and consequently no knots or buds, but tho myriads of capillary absorbents that penetrate every part be come inflamed, and thickened, and enlarged, and cease to dis 116 FARCY. charge their function. Hence arises enlargement of the sub- stance of various parts, swellings of the legs, and chest, and head — sudden, painful, enormous, and distinguished by a heat and tenderness, which do not accompany other enlargements. Farcy camiot probably exist without previous glanders, and it is certain that it cannot long and extensively prevail without being accompanied by it. They are, in fact, stages of the same disease. Farcy has been confounded with other diseases ; but he must be careless or ignorant who mistook sprain for it. The inflam- mation is too circumscribed and too plainly connected with the joint or tendon. It may be readily distinguished from grease or swelled legs. In grease there is usually some crack or scurfiness, a peculiar tenseness and redness and glossiness of the skin, some ichorous discharge, and a singular spasmodic catching up of the leg. In farcy the engorgement is even more sudden than that of grease. The horse is well to-day, and to-morrow he is gorged from the fet-lock to the haunch, and although there is not the same redness or glossiness, there is great tenderness, a burning heat in the limb, and much general fever. It is simultaneous inflammation of all the absorbents of the limb. Local dropsy of the cellular membrane, and particularly that enlargement beneath the thorax which has the strange appella- tion of water-farcy, have none of the characters of real farcy. It is general debility to a greater or less degree, and not in- flammation of the absorbents. Farcy, like glanders, springs from infection and from bad stable management. It is produced by all the causes which give rise to glanders, with this difference, that it is more fre- quently generated, and sometimes strangely prevalent in particu- lar districts. The matter of farcy must come in contact with a wound or sore, in order to communicate the disease. The treatment of farcy differs with the form that it assumes. As a general rule, and especially when the buttons or buds are beginning to appear, a mild dose of physic should first be ad- ministered. The buds should then be carefully examined, and if any of them have broken, the budding-iron, at a dull red heat, should be applied. If pus should be felt in them, showing that they are disposed to break, they should be penetrated with the iron. These wounds should be daily inspected, and if, when the slough of the cautery comes off, they look pale, and foul, and spongy, and discharge a thin matter, they should be frequently washed with a strong lotion of corrosive sublimate, dissolved in rectified spirit. When the wounds begin to look red, and the bottom of them is even and firm, and they discharge a thick white or yel- THE LIFS. 1 17 low matter, the Friar's balsam will usually dispose them to heal. As, however, the constitution is now tainted, local applications will not be sufficient, and the disease must be attacked by inter- nal medicine, as soon as the physic has ceased to operate. The most effectual constitutional remedy is the diniodide o) copper. It is a stimulant of the absorbent vessels, and a tonic. The gentian root is usually combined with it. Cantharides, in small quantities, may be advantageously added. . An indication of its influence is a soreness of the diseased parts, arising from the absorbent vessels being roused into increased action : the agent should then be for a time withheld. The animal should be generously fed, have green food, if pos- sible, and a free circulation of air.* THE LIPS. The lips of the horse are far more important organs than many suppose. They are the hands of the animal, and without them he could not convey his food to his mouth. The lips are composed of a muscular substance for the sake of strength, and a multitude of small glands, which secrete a fluid that covers the inside of the lips and the gums, in order to prevent friction, and likewise furnish a portion of the moisture so necessary for the proper chewing of the food. The lips of the horse should be thin and well kept together ; and the depth of the mouth should be considerable. The cor- * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The cure of farcy materially depends on the ex- tent to which the constitution is affected by the disease. If it be continea to a single extremity, particularly one of the hind ones, or if the superficial absorbents are alone affected, there is then a very reasonable prospect of establishing a cure. The application of the caustic, as advised in the text, is very proper ; but we may also materially assist the case by rubbing into any swollen part, or along the course of the absorbents, an ointment consisting of Iodine 31 Lard |1 Mercurial ointment ... 5 1 to be incorporated together. Advantage will also be felt by the internal exhibition of five to ten grains daily of hydriodate of potash in combination with a mineral tonic, such as sulphate of iron, three drachms, and gentian, two drachms. The ointment as well as the ball must be continued for some time. We have succeeded in many cases by this mode of treatment, though it must be acknowledged that there is no disease, to which the horse is liable, bo deceptive as this. When the external symptoms are most favorable, the ulcers healed, and the swelling reduced, the disease will sometimes break out again, and prove rapidly fatal. 118 THE MOUTH PALATE. ners or angles of the lips are sometimes wounded by the tight- ness of the bearing-rein, or by sharp or badly formed bits. if inilammation or ulcers in the mouth follow contusions inflicted by the bit, a little cooling medicine may be administered ; and to the ulcers themselves, tincture of myrrh, diluted with water, or alum dissolved in water, may be applied with advantage. THE BONES OF THE MOUTH. The bones, in and giving form to the mouth, are the superior maxillary or upper jaw (b, Fig. 1, and I, Fig. 2,) containing the grinders : the anterior maxillary, or lower part of the upper jaw, (b, Fig. 1, n, Fig. 2, r, Fig. 3,) containing the upper-nippers or cutting-teeth ; the palatine bone (below 8, Fig. 3,) and the pos- terior maxillary or under jaw (a, Fig. 1, and w, Fig. 3,) con- taining all the under-teeth. The size of these, their connection with the other bones of the head, and their muscular attachments, will be sufficiently learned from a careful inspection of the cuts, Figs. 1, 2, 3, and 12. THE PALATE. Adhering to a portion of the three bones just described, and constituting the lining of the roof of the mouth, is the palate {t> Fig. 3,) composed of an elastic and dense substance, divided into several ridges called bars. The following cut gives a view of th/»m. Fig. 13. 9 . ^ »*»«&_. 9 a The palate, divided into ridges or bars. b A strip dissected up to show the vessels and nerve beneath. c The palatine artery. d The palatine vein. e The palatine nerve, between the artery and the vein. / The cheek divided, showing the direction of the muscular fibres. m g The grinders. h The nippers. i The lushes. LAMPAS. 1 ]\) It will also point out the bleeding place, if it should occasion- ally be deemed advisable to abstract blood from the mouth ; or, if the horse should be attacked with megrims on a journey, and the driver, having no lancet, should be compelled to make use of his knife, the incision should be made between the central and second nippers on either side, about an inch within the mouth, and cutting through the second bar. A stream of blood will be thus obtained, which will usually cease to flow when two or three quarts have escaped, or may generally be arrested by the application of a sponge filled with cold water. Should the cut be made a little too much on one side, and about the middle of the second incisor tooth, the artery may be wounded longitudinally, but not divided, and there may be very great difficulty in stopping the blood. We recollect a horse which almost bled to death from the artery being thus wounded. If, however v a large and firm pledget of lint or tow be rolled round a piece of twine, and that tied firmly round the front teeth, the pressure on the part will effect the desired purpose ; or, should this in a very few cases fail, a gag may be easily con- trived to press upon the pledget, and the bleeding will imme- diately cease. This, however, is a make-shift sort of bleeding, that may be allowable on a journey, and possibly in some cases of lampas, but which is decidedly objectionable as the usual mode of ab- stracting blood. The quantity withdrawn cannot be measured, the degree of inflammation cannot be ascertained by the manner in which it coagulates, and there may be difficulty to the operator, and annoyance and pain to the horse, in stopping the bleeding. LAMPAS. The bars occasionally swell, and rise to a level with, and even beyond the edge of, the teeth. They are very sore, and the horse feeds badly on account of the pain he suffers from the pres- sure of the food on them. This is called the Lampas. It may arise from inflammation of the gums, propagated to the bars, when the horse is shedding his teeth — and young horses are more subject to it than others — or from some slight febrile tendency in the constitution generally, as when a young horse has lately been taken up from grass, and has been over-fed, or not sufficiently exercised. At times, it appears in aged horses ; for the process of growth in the teeth of the horse is continued during the whole life of the animal. In the majority of cases, the swelling will soon subside without medical treatment ; or a few mashes, and gentle alteratives, will 120 THE LOWER JAW. relieve tne animal. A few slight incisions across the bars with a lancet, or pen-knife, will remove the inflammation, and cause the swelling to subside ; indeed, this scarification of the bars in lampas will seldom do harm, although it is far from being so necessary as is supposed. The brutal custom of the farrier, who sears and burns down the bars with a red-hot iron, is most objec- tionable. It is torturing the horse to no purpose, and rendering that part callous, on the delicate sensibility of which all the pleasure and safety of riding and driving depend. It may be prudent, in case of lampas, to examine the grinders, and more particularly the tushes, in order to ascertain whether either of them is making its way through the gum. If it is so, two inci- sions across each other should be made on the tooth, and the horse will experience immediate relief.* THE LOWER JAW. The posterior or lower jaw may be considered as forming the floor of the mouth (a, Fig. 1, or w, Fig. 3). The body, or lower part of it, contains the under cutting teeth and the tushes, and at the sides are two flat pieces of bone containing the grinders. [See the preceding cuts of the anatomy and tissues of the head]. The joint which connects the lower to the upper jaw, unlike that in carnivorous animals, is so constructed, that it not only admits of the simple motion of a hinge, but of a lateral or grinding motion, necessary to break down vegetable fibre, and fit it for the stomach. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — It is almost impossible that the swelling of the bars of the mouth, denominated lampas, can interfere with the process of mastication, when the horse is in the stable and feeding on grain, for we well know that the food is ground as in a mill, by the molar teeth. It often happens, however, that connected with this lampas, there is an inability to masticate properly ; the horse quids his food, as it is called, that is, throws it out of his mouth in rolls covered with saliva. On the same principle as " Tenterden steeple being the cause of Goodwin sands," the lampas has been regarded as the cause of this imperfect mastication. If we look farther, however, we shall almost invariably find that the gums are swelled gene- rally, and particularly the membranous tissues covering the lower jaw-bone, between the molar and incisor teeth ; so much so, that when the horse at- tempts to masticate, this membrane gets between the molar teeth and causes pain, and interrupts the process of mastication. This state of the parts is often overlooked, and the horse becomes weak and thin from not having sufficient nutriment. This disease, if it can be called so, u? com- monly termed the Bags, or Washes, and is relieved by cutting off a portion of the membrane by means of a pair of scissors ; the bleeding relieves the inflammation, and the cicatrization of the wound causes the membrane to contract, so as to be put out of the way of further injury from the teeth. The horse should have mashes for some days after the operatioa and care must be taken that the bit does not injure the denuded part PROCESS OF TEETHING. K) Fig. 14. The space beneath between the jaw-bones, called the channel, is of considerable consequence. It may be a little too wide, and then the face will have a clumsy appearance : but if it is too narrow, the horse will never be able to bend his head freely and gracefully ; he will be always pulling or boring upon the hand, nor can he possibly be well reined in. The jaws contain the teeth, which are the millstones employed in comminuting the food. The mouth of the horse at five years old contains forty teeth, viz. : six nippers or cutting-teeth in front, a tush on each side, and six molars, or grinding-teeth, above and below. The gums are singularly compact, that it may not be wounded by the hard or sharp particles of the food, and almost devoid of feeling, for the same purpose. Seven or eight months before the foal is born, the germs 01 beginnings of the teeth are visible in the cavities of the jaws. At the time of birth, the first and second grinders have appeared, large compared with the size of the jaw, and seemingly filling it. In the course of seven or eight days the two central nippers are seen as in Fig. 14. They likewise appear to be large, and to fill the front of the mouth ; although they will af- terwards be found to be small, compared with the permanent teeth that follow. In the course of the first month the third grinder appears above and below, and, not long after, and gen- erally before six weeks have expired, another incisor above and below will be seen on each side of the two first, which have now considerably grown, but not attained their perfect height. The second cut will represent the appearance of the mouth at that time. At two months, the central nippers will have reached their natural level, and between the second and Fig. 15. third month the second pair will have overtaken them. They will then begin to wear away a little, and the outer edge, which was at first somewhat raised and sharp, is brought to a level with the inner one, and so the mouth continues until some time between the sixth and ninth month, when another nipper begins to ap- pear on each side of the two first, making six above and below, and completing the colt's mouth ; after which, the only ob- servable difference, until between the sec- ond and third year, is in the wear of these teeth. See Fig. 15 F 1^2 PROCESS OF TEETHING. The teeth are covered with a polished and exceedingly hard substance, called the enamel. It spreads over that portion of the teeth which appears above the gum, and not only so. bul as they are to be so much employed in nipping the grass, and gath- ering up the animal's food, and in such employment even this hard substance must be gradually worn away, a portion of it, as it passes over the upper surface of the teeth, is bent inward, and sunk into the body of the teeth, and forms a little pit in them. The inside and bottom of this pit being blackened by the food, constitutes the mark of the teeth, by the gradual dis- appearance of which, in consequence of the wearing down of the edge, we are enabled, for several years, to judge of the age of the animal. The colt's nipping-teeth are rounded in front, somewhat hol- low towards the mouth, and present at first a cutting surface, with the outer edge rising in a slanting direction above the inner edge. This, however, soon begins to wear down until both sur- faces are level, and the mark, which was originally long am', narrow, becomes shorter, and widei, and fainter. At six months the four nippers are beginning to wear to a level. The annexed cut will convey some idea of the appearance of the teeth at twelve months. The four middle teeth are almost level, and the corner ones becoming so. The mark in the two middle teeth is wide and faint ; in the two next teeth it is darker, and longer, and nar- rower ; and in the corner teeth it is darkest, and longest, and narrowest. The back teeth, or grinders, will not guide us far in ascertaining the age of the animal, for we cannot ea- sily inspect them ; but there are some interesting particulars connected with them. The foal is born with two grinders in each jaw, above and be- low ; or they appear within three or four days after the birth. Before the expiration of a month they are suc- ceeded by a third, more backward. The crowns of the grinders are entirely covered with enamel on the top and sides, but attrition soon wears it away from the top, and there remains a compound surface of alternate layers of crusted petraser, enamel, and ivory, which are employed in grinding down the hardest portion of the food. Nature has, therefore, made an additional provision for their strength and endu r ance. Fig. 16. PROCESS OF TEETHING. 123 The five dark Fig. 17. Fie. 18. Fig. 17 represents a grinder sawed across, spots represent bony matter ; the parts covered with lines, enamel ; and the wiiite spaces, a strong bony cement, uniting the other portions of the teeth. At the completion of the first year, a fourth grinder usually comes up, and the yearling has then, or soon after- wards, six nippers, and four grinders above and below in each jaw, which, with the alteration in the appearance of the nippers that we have just described, will enable us to cal- culate nearly the age of the foal, suject to some variations aris- ing from the period of weaning, and the nature of the food. At the age of one year and a-half, the mark in the central nippers will be much shorter and fainter ; that in the two other pairs will have undergone an evident change, and all the nippers will be flat. At two years this will be more manifest. The accompanying cut (Fig. 18,) deserves attention, as giv- ing an accurate represention of the nippers in the lower jaw of a two- year&-old colt. About this period a fifth grinder will appear, and now, likewise, will commence another process. The first teeth are adapted to the size and wants of the young animal. They are sufficiently large to occupy and fill the colt's jaws ; but when these bones have expanded with the increasing growth of the animal, the teeth are separated too far from each other to be useful, and another and larger set is required . The second teeth then begin to push up from below, and the fangs of the first are absorbed, until the former approach the surface of the gum, when they drop out. Where the temporary teeth do not rise immediately under the milk-teeth, but by their sides, the latter being pressed sideway, are absorbed throughout their whole length. They grow narrow, are pushed out of place, and cause inconvenience to the gums, and sometimes the cheek. They are then called wolf's-teeth, and they should be extracted.* The teeth which first appeared are first renewed, and there- * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Although irregularities of the teeth sometimes occur, as mentioned in the text, yet the wolves' teeth are generally two very small supplementary teeth appearing in front of the molar teeth » and, 124 PROCESS OF TEETHING. fore the front or first grinder is changed at the age of twn years. During the period between the falling out of the central milk nippers, and the coming up of the permanent ones, the colt, having a broken mouth, may find some difficulty in grazing. If he should fall away considerably in condition, he should be fed with mashes and corn, or cut feed. The next cut (Fig. 19,) will represent a three-year-old mouth. The central teeth are larger than the others, with two grooves in the outer convex surface, and the mark is long, narrow, deep and black. Not having yet attained their full growth, they are rather lower than the others. The mark in the two next nip- pers is nearly worn out, and it is wearing away in the corner nippers. Is it possible to give this mouth to an early two-years- old ? The ages of all horses used to be reckoned from May, but some are loaled even so early as January, and being actually four months over the two years, if they have been well nursed and fed, and are strong and large, they may, with the inexperi- enced, have an additional year put upon them. The central Fig. 19. nippers are punched or drawn out, and the others appear three or four mouths earlier than they otherwise would. In the natu- ral process, they could only rise by long pressing upon, and caus- ing the absorption of, the first set. But opposition from the first set being removed, it is easy to imagine that their pro- gress will be more rapid. Three or four months will be gained in the appearance of the teeth, and these three or four months may enable the breeder to term him a late colt of a preceding year. To him, however, who is accustomed to horses, the general form of the animal — the little development of the fore-hand — the continuance of the mark on the next pair of nippers — its more evident existence in the cor- ner ones, some enlargement or irregularity about the gums from the violence used in forcing out the teeth — the small growth of the first and fifth grinders and the non-appearance of the sixth though supposed to have an injurious effect on the eyes, we have rarely, if ever, found that they produce any injurious effect, either on the eyes or the mouth, and, consequently, it is useless to interfere -with them. When, how- ever, the teeth grow irregularly, the permanent ones appearing by the side of the temporary, the latter should be removed. PROCESS OF TEETHING. 125 Fig. 20. grinder, which if it is not through the gam at three years oJd, is swelling- under it, and preparing to get through — any or all of these circumstances, carefully attended to, will be a sufficient security against deception. A horse at three years old ought to have the central perma- nent nippers growing — the other two pairs wasting — six grind- ers in each jaw, above and below — the first and fifth level with the others, and the sixth protruding. The sharp edge of the new incisors, although it could not be well expressed in the cut, will be very evident when compared with the neighboring teeth. As the permanent nippers wear, and continue to grow, a nar- rower portion of the cone-shaped tooth is exposed to the attrition, and they look as if they had been compressed, but it is not so. The mark, of course, gradually disappears as the pit is worn away. At three years and a half, or between that and four, the next pair of nippers will be changed, and the mouth at that time cannox be mistaken. The central nippers will have attained nearly their full growth. A vacuity will be left where the second stood, or they will begin to peep above the gum, and the corner ones will be diminished in breadth, worn down, and the mark becoming small and faint. At this period, like- wise, the second pair of grind- ers will be shed. Previously to this may be the attempt of the dealer to give to his three- year-old an additional year, but the fraud will be detected by an examination similar to that which has been already described. At four years, the central nippers will be fully devel- oped ; the sharp edge some- what worn off, and the mark shorter, wider, and fainter. The next pair will be up, but they will be small, with the mark deep, and extending quite across them. The corner nippers will be larger than the inside ones, yet smaller than they were, and flat, and the mark nearly effaced. The sixth grinder will have risen to a level with the others, and the tushes will begin to appear. Now, more than at any other time, will the dealer be anxious to put an additional year upon the animal, for the difference between a four-years-old colt, and a five-years-old horse, in strength, utility, and value, is very great; but, the want of 126 PROCESS OF TEETHING. wear in the other nippers — the small size of the corner ones — the little growth of the tush — the smallness of the second grinder — the low fore-hand — the legginess of the colt, and the thick- ness and little depth of the mouth, will, to the man of common experience among horses, at once detect the cheat. The tushes (see Fig. 13,) are four in number, two in each jaw, situated between the nippers and the grinders — much nearer to the former than the latter, and nearer in the lower jaw than in the upper, but this distance increasing in both jaws with the age. It is conical, protrudes about an inch from the gum, and is sharp pointed and curved. Mares have the rudiments of them, and they usually appear externally in old age. The appearance of the tush in the horse may vary from four years to four years and six months. It can only be accelerated a few weeks by cutting the gum over it. At four years and a half, or between that and five, the last im- portant change takes place in the mouth of the horse. The cor- ner nippers are shed, and the , permanent ones begin to appear. The central nippers are considerably worn, and the next pair are commencing to show marks of usage. The tush has now pro- truded, and is generally a full half-inch in height ; externally it has a rounded prominence, with a groove on either side, and it is evidently hollowed within. The reader needs not to be told that after the rising of the corner nipper, the animal changes its name — the colt becomes a horse, and the filly a mare. At five years the horse's mouth is almost perfect, (see Fig. 21.) Fig 21. The corner nippers are quite up, with the long deep mark irreg- ular on the inside ; and the other nippers bearing evident tokens of increasing wearing. The tush is much grown — the grooves have almost or quite disappeared, and the outer sur- face is regularly convex. It is still as concave within, and with the edge nearly as sharp as it was six months before. The sixth molar is quite up, and the third molar is wanting. This last circumstance, if the general appearance of the animal, and particularly his forehead and the wearing of the centre nippers, and the growth and shape of the tushes, are likewise carefully attended to, will prevent deception if a late fbur-years-old is attempted to be substituted for a Hyh The nippers may be brought up a few months before their time PROCESS OF TEETHING 127 and the tushes a few weeks, but the grinder is with difficulty displaced. The three last grinders and the tushes are nevei shed. At six years, (see Fig. 22,) Fl S- 22 - the mark on the central nip- pers is worn out, There will still be a difference of color in the centre of the tooth. The cement filling up the hole, made by the dipping in of the enamel, will present a browner hue than the other part of the tooth, and it will be evidently surrounded by an edge of enamel, and there will even remain a little de- pression in the centre, and also a depression round the case of enamel : but the deep hole in the centre of the teeth with the blackened surface which it presents, and the elevated edge of enamel, will have disappeared. Persons not much accus- tomed to horses have been puzzled here. They expected to find a plain surface of a uniform color, and knew not what conclu- sion to draw when there was both discoloration and irreg- ularity. , c . In the next incisors the mark is shorter, broader and fainter ; and in the corner teeth the edges of the enamel are more regular, and the surface is evidently worn. The tush has attained its full growth, being nearly or quite an inch in length ; convex outward, concave within ; tending to a point, and the extremity some- what curved.- The third grinder is fairly up ; and all the grind- ers are level. .. . The horse may now be said to have a perfect mouth. All the teeth are produced, fully grown, and have hitherto sustained no material injury. During these important changes oi the teeth, the animal has suffered less than could be supposed possible. In children, the period of teething is fraught with danger. Dogs are subject to convulsions, and hundreds of them die, from the irritation caused by the cutting or shedding of their teeth ; but the horse appears to feel little inconvenience. The gums and palate are occasionally somewhat hot and swollen; but the politest scarification will remove this. The teeth of the horse we more necessary to him than those of the other animals are to them The child may be fed, and the dog will bolt his food ; but that of the horse must be well ground down, or the nutri- ment cannot be extracted from it. 128 PROCESS OF TEETHING. At seven years, (see Fig. 23,) the mark, in the way in which p- 2g we have described it, is worn out in the four central nip- pers, and fast wearing away in the corner teeth ; the tush also is beginning to be altered. It is rounded at the point ; rounded at the edges ; still round without ; and begin- ning to get round inside. At eight years old, the tush is rounder in every way ; the mark is gone from all the bottom nippers, and it may almost be said to be out of the mouth. There is nothing remaining in the bottom nippers that can afterwards clearly 6how the age of the horse, or justify the most experienced ex- aminer in giving a positive opinion. Dishonest dealers have been said to resort to a method of pro- longing the mark in the lower nippers. It is called bishoping, from the name of the scoundrel who invented it. The horse of eight or nine years old, (see Fig. 24,) is thrown, and with an engraver's tool a hole is dug in the now almost plain surface Fig. 24. of the corner teeth, and in shape and depth resembling the mark in a seven-years-okl horse. The hole is then burned with a heated iron, and a permanent black stain is left. The next pair of nippers are sometimes light- ly touched. An ignorant man would be very easily imposed on by this trick : but the irregular appearance of the cavity — the difliision of the black stain around the tushes, the sharpened edges and concave inner surface of which can neve]- be given again the marks on the upp;r nippers, together with the general con- formation of the horse can never deceive the careful examiner Horsemen, after the animal is eight years old, are accustomed to look to the nippers- .n the upper jaw, and some conclusion has been drawn from the appearances which they present. It cannot PROCESS OF TEETHING. 1^9 be doubted that the mark remains in them for some years after it has been obliterated from the nippers in the lower jaw. There are various opinions as to the intervals between the dis- appearance of the marks from the different cutting-teeth in the upper jaw. Some have averaged it at two years, and others at one. The author is inclined to adopt the latter opinion, and then the age will be thus determined . at nine years, the mark will be worn out from the middle nippers — from the next pair at ten, and from all the upper nippers at eleven. During these periods, the tush is likewise undergoing a manifest change — it is blunter, shorter, and rounder In what degree this takes place in the different periods, iong and most favorable opportunities for obser- vation can alone enable the horseman to decide. The alteration in the form of the tushes is frequently uncertain. It will sometimes be blunt at eight, and at others, remain pointed at eighteen. After eleven, and until the horse is very old, the age may be guessed at, with some degree of confidence, from the shape of the upper surface or extremity of the nippers. At eight, they are all oval, the length of the oval running across from tooth to toooth ; but as the horse gets older, the teeth diminish in size — and this commencing in their width, and not in their thickness. They become a little apart from each other, and their surfaces become round instead of oval. At nine, the centre nippers are evidently so ; at ten, the others begin to have the oval shortened. At eleven, the second pair of nippers are quite rounded ; and at thirteen, the corner ones have that appearance. At fourteen, the faces of the central nippers become somewhat triangular. At seventeen, they are all so. At nineteen, the angles begin to wear off, and the central teeth are again oval, but in a reversed direc- tion, viz., from outward, inward ; and at twenty-one, they all wear this form. It would of course be folly to expect anything like certainty in an opinion of the exact age of an old horse, drawn from the above indications. Stabled horses have the marks sooner worn out than those that are at grass, and crib-biters still sooner. At nine or ten. the bars of the mouth become less prominent, and their reg- ular diminution will designate increasing age. At eleven or twelve, the lower nippers change their original upright direction, and project forward or horizontally, and become of a yellow color. The general indications of old age, independent of the teeth, are deepening of the hollows over the eyes ; gray hairs, and par- ticularly over the eyes and about the muzzle ; thinness and hang- ing down of the lips; sharpness of the withers; sinking of the oack ; lengthening of the quarters ; and the disappearance of windgalls. spavins, and tumors of every kind. 130 DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Horses, kindly and not prematurely used, sometimes live to be- tween thirty-five and forty years of age ; and Mr. Percivall gives an account of a barge horse that died in his sixty-second year.* DISEASES OF THE TEETH. Of the diseases of the teeth in the horse, we know little. Ca- rious or hollow teeth are occasionally, but not often, seen ; but the edges of the grinders, from the wearing off of the enamel, or * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We have little to add. There are exceptions, however, to the above rules. We have known a horse at twelve exhibit the same appearance as another at six. In such instances, the age must be judged by the length and shape of the teeth, and more particularly by the shape of the faces of the teeth. A careful examination leads me to believe that the observation in the text, that the teeth are developed much earlier in young animals that are corn- fed and taken early into the stable, and that in thorough-bred horses, conse- quently, the changes of the teeth are earlier than in animals that remain more in a state of nature, is erroneous. I think them, of the two, rather more backward. Many successful attempts have doubtless been made to run four year old horses for three year olds, as in the celebrated case of Running Rein, which obtained such notoriety. An incisor tooth, when it is first shed, and for some time afterwards, is higher on the outer or front edge, than the inner or back edge. After some time, this outer edge is worn down to the same level as the inner, and subsequently both edges wear equally, till the bottom of the hole which forms the mark is reached, when, of course, the mark disappears. It takes about three years to effect this process, that is, from the time the tooth is cut to the disappearance of the mark. In a four year old mouth, there are four permanent lower incisors, and two corner temporary teeth. The outer and inner edge of the central teeth are tolerably level, and the mark smaller than the middle teeth next them, which present the appearance of younger teeth. Now, in a three-year old mouth the central teeth have a younger appearance, the mark being larger, and the outer edge higher, than the inner, whilst the middle teeth are either in the act of being cut, or the temporary teeth have not yet dis- appeared. By careful examination, therefore, the difference between a three and four year old horse can be readily detected. The permanent teeth differ from the temporary, being larger, less white, and having more depth above the gums. After the marks have disappeared, the age of the horse may be judged partly by the shape of the faces of the teeth, and partly by the horizontal position in which the teeth proceed from the jaw. If we take a young in- cisor tooth and saw it off below the bottom of the hole which forms the mark, and again at a similar distance lower down, we shall find that the several surfaces made by the sections resemble the shape of the face of the tooth in a horse in which a similar quantity of the tooth has been naturally worn down. The comparison also holds good with regard to the direction in whirl) the teeth proceed from the lower jaw, being in the young animal up- rufht or curved, and in the old one nearly horizontal. Although the teeth grow to supply the loss of that which wears away, yet the original shape remains, so that the face of an incisor tooth at different periods is owing to that particular part which, in its turn, reaches and forms the surface. THE TONGUE. 131 the irregular growth of the teeth, become rough, and wound the inside of the cheek ; it is then necessary to adopt a summary, but effectual method of cure ; namely, to rasp them smooth. Many bad ulcers have been produced in the mouth by neglect of this. The teeth sometimes grow irregularly in length — particularly the grinders — from not meeting the proper opposition of the cor- responding tooth in the other jaw. These sometimes penetrate the bars, causing ulceration ; and at others, interfere partially 01 entirely with the grinding motion of the jaw. The teeth should be reduced to the level of the others with a saw, and occasionally looked to, because the difficulty will return. Horses often pine away from this unsuspected cause. Every horse that grows thin without apparent cause, especially if he quids, (partly chews and then drops his feed) should be looked to in this particular. Very irregular teeth lessen the value of a horse, and to all intents and purposes constitute unsoundness. Decayed teeth should be removed to prevent injury to the other teeth and to the jaw. The hammer and punch should never be resorted to in this operation, but a keyed instrument, like that of the human subject, only on a larger scale.* Fever, cough, catarrhal affections generally, disease of the eyes, cutaneous affections, diarrhoea, dysentery, loss of appetite, and general derangement, will frequently be traced by the careful observer to irritation from teething, in the colt. It is a rule scarcely admitting of the slightest deviation, that, when young horses are laboring under any febrile affection, the mouth should be examined, and if the tushes are prominent and pushing against the gums, a crucial (in the form of a cross) inci- sion should be made across them. Relief will often be immediate. THE TONGUE. The tongue is the organ of taste. It is also employed in dis- posing the food for being ground between the teeth, and after- wards collecting it together, and conveying it to the back part of the mouth, in order to be swallowed. It is likewise the main instrument in swallowing, and the canal through which the water passes in the act of drinking. Its form, attachments. &c, are too well known to require description. * The keyed instrument is now banished from human practice, and the substitutes for it might probably be advantageously introduced into veteri- nary practice. — American Editor. 132 DISEASES OF THE TONGUE THE SALIVARY GLANDS. DISEASES OF THE TONGUE. The tongue is frequently lacerated by carelessness in adminis- tering medicine, by the bit, and sometimes by being bitten by the animal itself. A little diluted tincture of myrrh, or alum dis- solved in water, or, if the wound is not serious, unassisted nature, will heal the parts. Purple-colored vesicles or bladders will sometimes appear along the under side of the tongue, and increase to considerable size ; the tongue will be enlarged so that it becomes difficult to swallow ; and a great quantity of ropy saliva will drivel from the mouth. Lance the vesicles freely and deeply from end to end and they will soon disappear, and any little fever that remains may be subdued by cooling medicine. THE SALIVARY GLANDS. In order that the food may be properly comminuted preparatory to digestion, it is necessary that it should be previously moistened. Nature has made a provision for this. She has placed in the neighborhood of the mouth various glands to secrete, and that plentifully, a limpid fluid, somewhat saline to the taste. This fluid is conveyed from the glands into tlie mouth, by various ducts, in the act of chewing, and, being mixed with the food, renders it more easily ground, more easily passed afterwards into the stomach, and better fitted for digestion. The principal of these is the parotid gland (see Fig. 12). The quantity of fl uid poured into the mouth, in the act of mastication, from each >i" these glands, amounts to a pint in half an hour. The paiotid gland sympathizes with every inflammatory affec- tion of the upper part of the throat, and therefore it is found swollen, hot, and tender, in almost every catarrh or cold. The catarrh is to be treated in the usual way ; while a stimulating application, almost amounting to a blister, well rubbed over the gland, will best subdue the inflammation of that body. In bad strangles, and, sometimes, in violent cold, this gland will be much enlarged and ulcerated, or an obstruction will take place in some part of the duct, and the accumulating fluid will burst the vessel, and a fistulous ulcer will be formed that will be very difficult to heal. A veterinary surgeon alone will be com- petent to the treatment of either case ; and the principle by which he will be guided, will be to heal the abscess in the gland as speedily as he can, and, probably, by the application of the heated iron : or, if the ulcer is in the duct, either to restore the passage through the duct, or to form a new one, or to cut ofF the flow ol the saliva by the destruction o^ the gland. STRANGLES. 133 A second source of the saliva is from the submaxillary glands, or the glands under the jaw. One of them is represented at s, Fig. 12. When the horse has catarrh or cold, these glands, like the parotid gland, enlarge. This is often to be observed after strangles, and several distinct kernels are to be felt under the jaw. The farriers call them vives, and often adopt cruel and absurd methods to disperse them, — as burning them with a lighted can- dle, or hot iron, or even cutting them out. They will, in the majority of instances, gradually disperse in proportion as the dis- ease which produced them subsides ; or they will yield to slightly stimulating embrocations ; or, if they are obstinate in their con- tinuance, they are of no further consequence, than as indicating that the horse has labored under severe cold or strangles. During catarrh, the little protuberances marking the mouths of these ducts on either side of the bridle of the tongue, are apt to enlarge, and the mouth under the tongue is a little red, and hot, and tender. The farriers call these swellings barbs or paps ; and a.s soon as they discover them, mistaking the effect of disease for the cause of it, they set to work to cut them close off. The bleeding that follows this operation somewhat abates the local inflammation, and affords temporary relief; but the wounds will not speedily heal, and even when healed are apt to break out again for months or years afterwards. These paps disappear with the cold that caused them, and should not be meddled with. The sublingual glands, resembling little folds in the integu- ment on the lower side of the tongue, or on the bottom of the mouth, sometimes enlarge during catarrh, and are called gigs, bladders, ox flaps in the mouth. Let them alone ; and should any ulceration remain after that abatement of the swelling, use tincture of myrrh, or a solution of alum. STRANGLES* This is a disease principally incident to young horses — usually appearing between the fourth and fifth year, and oftener in the spring than in any other part of the year. It is preceded by cough, and can at first be scarcely distinguished from common cough, except that there is more discharge from the nostril, of a yellowish color, mixed with pus, and generally without smell There is likewise a considerable discharge of "ropy fluid from the mouth, and greater swelling than usual under the throat. This swelling increases with uncertain rapidity, accompanied by some (ever, and disinclination to eat, partly arising from the fever, but more from the pain which the animal feels in the act of niaati * Usually termed " Horse Jistnnjier,'' in the United States. 134 STRANGLES cation. There is considerable thirst, but after a gulp or two the horse ceases to drink, yet is evidently desirous of contin ling his draught. In the attempt to sWaUow, and sometimes when not drinking, a convulsive cough comes on, which almost threat- ens to suffocate the animal — and thence, probably, the name of the disease. The tumor is under the jaw, and about the centre of the channel. It soon fills the whole of the space, and is evidently one uniform body, and may thus be distinguished from glanders, or the enlarged glands of catarrh. In a few days it becomes more prominent and soft, and evidently contains a fluid. This rapidly increases ; the tumor bursts, and a great quantity of pus is discharged. As soon as the tumor has broken, the cough subsides, and the horse speedily mends, although some degree of weakness may hang about him for a considerable time. Few horses, possibly none, escape its attack ; but, the disease having passed over, the animal is free from it for the remainder of his life. Catarrh may precede, or may predispose to, the attack, and, undoubtedly the state of the atmosphere has much to do with it, for both its prevalence and its severity are connected with certain seasons of the year and changes of the weather. There is no preventive for the disease, nor is there anything contagious about it. Many strange stories are told with regard to this ; but the explanation of the matter is, that when several horses in the same form, or in the same neighbor- hood, have had strangles at the same time, they have been ex- posed to the same powerful but unknown exciting cause. As soon as the tumor under the jaw is decidedly apparent, the part should be actively blistered. From the thickness of skin, poultices, fomentations, &c, are of little avail. The blis- ter will also abate the internal inflammation and soreness of the throat, and thus lessen the cough and wheezing. As soon as the swelling is soft on its summit, and evidently contains matter, it should be freely and deeply lanced. It is a bad, although frequent practice, to suffer the tumor to burst naturally, for a ragged ulcer is formed, very slow to heal, and difficult of treatment. If the incision is deep and large enough, no second collection of matter will be formed : and that which is already there may be suffered to run out slowly, all pressure with the fingers being avoided. The part should be kept clean, and a little friar's balsam daily injected into the wound. The remainder of the treatment will depend on the symp- toms. If there is much fever, and evident affection of the chest, and which should carefully be distinguished from the oppression and choking occasioned by the pressure of the tumor it will be proper to bleeJ In th^ majority of cases, however THE PHARYNX. 135 bleeding will not only be unnecessary, but injurious. It will delay the suppuration of the tumor, and increase the subsequent debility. A few cooling medicines, as nitre, emetic tartar, and perhaps digitalis, may be given, as the case requires. The appe- tite, or rather the ability to eat, will return with the opening of the abscess. Bran-mashes, or fresh-cut-grass or tares, should be liberally supplied, which will not only afford sufficient nourish- ment to recruit the strength of the animal, but keep the bowels gently open. If the weakness is not great, no farther medicine will be wanted, except a dose of mild physic in order to prevent the swellings or eruptions which sometimes succeed to strangles. In cases of debility, a small quantity of tonic medicine, as chamomile, gentian, or ginger, may be administered.* THE PHARYNX. Proceeding to the back of the mouth, we find the pharynx {carrying or conveying the food towards the stomach). It com- mences at the root of the tongue (see 7, 8 and 9, Fig. 3.) ; is separated from the mouth by the soft palate (7), which hangs down from the palatine bone at 8, and extends to the epiglottis or covering to the windpipe. In order to understand the diseases of these parts, the anatomy of the neck generally must be considered. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — A blister is, unque. tionably, the best topical application ; but it should be washed off as soon a* it rises, by which means it can be repeated in a day or two, and so the action can be kept up, which will greatly promote the suppurative process. After the abscess is lanced, a linseed poultice will be a very desirable application ; and, with regard to injections, they may be omitted without injury. Although the ages from two to five are the usual period for strangles to appear, yet it occasionally attacks old animals ; we have, indeed, known it affect a horse sixteen years old, and within the last month an animal eight years old, but such instances are rare. It is a very desirable thing in strangles to get the submaxillary abscess to form and suppurate without much delay ; for when it is suppressed, or does not form in this place, there is sometimes danger to be apprehended ; occasionally, abscesses will form internally, and carry off the patient. The symptoms of these untoward cases are an unthrifty coat, occasional shiver ing tits, and a pulse rather accelerated. When the glands remain hard, and do not suppurate, the disease is fre- quently termed bastard strangles, and may lead to glanders. The use of iodine, applied externally as an ointment, and internally as hydriodate of potass, in daily doses of five to ten grains combined with tonics, will be found useful. CHAPTER V. THE ANATOMY AND DISEASES OF THE NECK AND NEIGH- BORING PARTS. The neck of the horse, and of every animal belonging to the class mammalia, except one species, is composed of seven bones called vertebra, movable or turning upon each other (see Fig. 1). They are connected together by strong ligaments, and form sc many distinct joints, in order to give sufficiently extensive motion to this important part of the body. The atlas has already been described. Its junction with the head is the seat of a very serious and troublesome ulcer, termed POLL-EVIL. From the horse rubr rig and sometimes striking his poll against the lower end of the manger, or hanging back in the stall and bruising the part wiln the halter — or from the frequent and pain- ful stretching of the ligaments and muscles by unnecessary tight reining, and, occasionally, from a violent blow on the poll, in- flammation ensues, and a swelling appears, hot, tender, and pain- lid. It used to be a disease of frequent occurrence, but it is now, from better treatment of the animal, of comparatively rare oc- currence. It has been stated, that the ligament of the neck passes over the atlas, or first bone, without being attached to it, and the seat of inflammation is between the ligament and the bone beneath ; and being thus deeply situated, it is serious in its nature and dif- ficult of treatment. The first thing to be attempted is to abate the inflammation by bleeding, physic, and the application of cold lotions to the part. In a very early period of the case a blister might have considerable effect. Strong purgatives should also be employed By these means the tumor will sometimes be dispersed. This system, however, must not be pursued too far. V the swelling increases, and the heat and tenderness likewise increase, mattei POLL-EVIL. 137 will form in the tumor ; and then our object should be to hasten its formation by warm fomentations, poultices, or stimulating embrocations. As soon as the matter is formed, which may be known by the softness of the tumor, and before it has time to spread around and eat into the neighboring parts, it should be evacuated. Now comes the whole art of treating poll-evil ; the opening into the tumor must be so contrived that all the matter shall run out, and continue afterwards to run out as quickly as it is formed, and not collect at the bottom of the ulcer, irritating and corroding it. This can be effected by a seton alone. The needle should enter at the top of the tumor, penetrate through its bottom, and be brought out at the side of the neck, a little below the abscess. Without anything more than this, except frequent fomentation with warm water, in order to keep the part clean, and to obviate inflammation, poll-evil in its early stage will frequently be cured. If the ulcer has deepened and spread, and threatens to eat into the ligaments of the joints of the neck, it may be necessary to stimulate its surface, and perhaps painfully so, in order to bring it to a healthy state, and dispose it to fill up. In extreme cases, some highly stimulating application may be employed. All measures, however, will be ineffectual, unless the pus or matter is, by the use of setons, perfectly evacuated. The application of these setons will require the skill and anatomical knowledge of the veteiinary surgeon. In desperate cases, the wound cannot be fairly exposed to the action of the caustic without the division of the ligament of the neck. This may be effected with perfect safety ; for although the ligament is carried on to the occipital bone, and some strength is gained by this prolongation of it, the main stress is on the second bone ; and the head will continue to be supported. The divided ligament, also, will soon unite again, and its former usefulness will be restored when the wound is healed.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — All cooling amplications to the poll-evil are use- less, for when once the swelling which constitutes the disease has appeared we have never known it dispersed, but sooner or later it suppurates. It often takes many months before the matter reaches the surface ; but the more complete the suppuration is, the easier it is to effect a cure. The in- jury, which generally arises from striking the poll against a low door-way, is deep-seated, and the surface of the bone is often diseased from the 1 e- ginning. It must be confessed that the poll-evil is very difficult to cure, a difficulty arising not from the character of the injury, but rather from its situation, and the nature of the surrounding parts. When matter forms in any situation it has a tendency to pass downwards, and to seek an exit where the least obstacles are offered to its passage. Tt consequently forms passages or sinuses (pipes) amongst the muscles, and, when these are filled, the matter points to the surface. This tendency continues after an external opening i» MUSCLES AND FORM OF NECK. THE MUSCLES AND PROPER FORM OF THE NECK The bones of the neck serve as the frame- work to which mi merous muscles concerned in the motions of the head and neck are attached. The weight of the head and neck is supported by the ligament without muscular aid, and without fatigue to the animal ; but in order to raise the head higher, or to lower it, or to turn it in every direction, a complicated system of muscles is necessary. The splenitis muscle (c. Fig. 12) is the principal one concerned in this. It gives its bulk to the neck above, and the beauty of that member depends mainly upon it. It was admirably devel- oped in the horse of whose neck the annexed cut (Fig. 25) gives an accurate delineation. Fig. 25. made, and deep sinuses are formed in various directions, rendering it almost impossible to get a depending opening. The abscess should not be opened till the matter is thoroughly formed, and then a depending opening should be made, through which a seton may be passed. The great error frequently made in the treatment of poll-evil is, that these openings are not made half large enough, so that much of the pus flows in another direction, and there forms sinuses. Now, the chief art in the treatment of this disease is to use the bistoury freely, to lay all the sinuses open as much as possible, and to throw them together ; then to make the lower opening extremely large, and as low down as possible, large enough, indeed, for two fingers to be inserted. If the bone is injured, it will be necessary to apply some caustic application, in order to cause a healthy slough. Pressure is found very useful in keeping the sides of the wound together, and preventing the formation of sinuses. With this view, r 1 ^as been recommended to apply a tight compress, by means of bandages, round the part, but it h extremely inconvenient to apply them in consequence of the windpipe interfering. MUSCLES AND FORM OF NECK. 139 If the curve were quite regular from the poll to the withers, we should call it a perfect neck. It is rather a long neck, and we do not like it the less for that. In the carriage-horse, a neck that is not half concealed by the collar is indispensable, so far as appearance goes ; and it is only the horse with a neck of tolera- ble length that will bear to be reined up, so as to give this part the arched and beautiful appearance which fashion demands. It. is no detriment to the ridmg-horse, and there are few horses of extraordinary speed that have not the neck rather long. The race-horse at the top of his speed not only extends it as far as he can, that the air-passages may be as straight as he can make them, and that he may therefore be able to breathe more freely, but the weight of the head and neck, and the effect increasing with their distance from the trunk, add materially to the rapidity of the animal's motion. It has been said, that a horse with a long neck will bear heavy on the hand ; neither the length of the neck nor even the bulk of the head has any influence in causing this. They are both counterbalanced by the power of the ligament of the neck. The setting on of the head is most of all connected with heavy bearing on the hand, and a short-necked horse will bear heavily, because, from the thickness of the lower part of the neck, consequent on its shortness, the head cannot be rightly placed, nor, generally, the shoulder. However fine at the top, the neck should be muscular at the bottom, or it generally indicates a weak and worthless animal. It is then called a loose neck. The principal bulk of the lower part of the neck is composed of the complexus major, or larger complicated muscle. If its action is habitually too powerful, the muzzle is protruded, and the horse becomes what is technically called a star-gazer. He is heavy in hand, and even the martingale will not ordinarily remedy the difficulty. Connected with this is another unsightly deformity. The horse is ewe-necked ; i. e. the neck is hollowed above, and arched be- low. His head can never be fairly got down, and the bearing rein of harness is a source of constant torture to him. The mane is a matter of some importance. In a wild state, the horse has many battles to fight, and his neck, deprived of the mane, would be a vulnerable part. The hair of the mane, the tail, and the legs, is not shed in the same manner as that on the body. It does not fall so regularly, nor so often ; for, if all were shed at once, the parts would be for a long time defenceless. The mane is generally dressed so as to lie on the right side — some persons divide it equally on both sides. For ponies, it used to be cut off near the roots, only a few stumps being left to stand perpendicularly. This was termed the hog-mane. The groom 140 BLOOD-VESSELS AND VEINS OF THE NECK. sometimes bestows a great deal of pains in getting the mane of his horse into good and fashionable order. It is wetted, and plaited, and loaded with lead ; and every hair that is a little too long is pulled out. The mane and tail of the heavy draught- horse are seldom thin ; but on the well-bred horse, the thin, well-arranged mane is very ornamental THE BLOOD-VESSELS OF THE NECK. Running down the under part of the neck, are the principal blood-vessels, going to and returning from the head, with the windpipe and gullet. Our cut could not give a view of the arteries that carry the blood from the heart to the head, because they are too deeply seated. The external arteries are the carotid, of which there are two. They ascend the neck on either side, close to the windpipe, until they have reached the middle of the neck, where they sometimes diverge, and lie more deeply. The vertebral arteric* run through the bones of the neck, supplying the neighboring parts as they climb, and at length enter the skull at the large hole in the occipital bone, and ramify on and supply the brain. It is rarely or never necessary to bleed from an artery. If an artery is opened in the direction in which it runs, there is usually great difficulty in stopping the bleeding, and it is sometimes ne- cessary to tie the vessel to accomplish this : if cut across, it re- tracts, and after the first gush of blood, no more is obtained. THE VEINS OF THE NECK. The external veins which return the blood from the head to the heart are the jugulars. The horse has but one on either side. The human being and the ox have two. The jugular takes its rise from the base of the skull ; it then descends, receiv- ing other branches in its way towards the angle of the jaw and behind the parotid gland ; and emerging from that, as seen at t, Fig. 12, and being united to a large branch from the face, it takes its course down the neck. Veterinary surgeons and horsemen have agreed to adopt the jugular, a little way below the union of these two branches, as the usual place for bleeding ; and a very convenient one it is, for it is easily got at, and the vessel is large. The manner of bleeding, &c, will hereafter be adverted to. (See page 1G6.) INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN. 141 INFLAMMATION OF THE VEIN. It is usual and proper, after bleeding, to bring the edges of the wound carefully together, and to hold them in contact by insert- ing a pin through the skin, with a little tow twisted round it. In ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, the wound quickly heals, and gives no trouble ; but in a few instances, from using a blunt instrument, or a dirty or rusty one ; or striking too hard, and bruising the vein ; or, in the act of pinning up, pulling the skin too far from the neck, and suffering some blood to insinu- ate itself into the cellular texture ; or neglecting to tie the horse up for a little while, and thus enabling him to rub the bleeding place against the manger and tear out the pin ; or from the animal being worked immediately afterward ; or the reins of the bridle rubbing against it ; or several blows having been clumsily given, and a large and ragged wound made ; or from some disposition to inflammation about the horse (for the bleeder is not always in fault) the wound does not heal, or, if it closes for a little while, it re-opens. A slight bleeding appears — some tumefaction commences — the edges of the orifice sepa- rate, and become swollen and red — a discharge of sanious, bloody fluid proceeds from the wound, followed, perhaps, in a few days, by purulent matter. The neck swells, and is hot and tender both above and below the incision. The lips of the wound be- come everted — the swelling increases, particularly above the wound, where the vein is most hard and cordy — the horse begins to loathe his food, and little abscesses form round the orifice. The cordiness of the vein rapidly increases. Not only the vein itself has become obstructed and its coats thickened, but the cel- lular tissue inflamed and hardened, and is an additional source of irritation and torture. The thickening of the vein extends to the bifurcation above : it occupies both branches, and extends downward to the chest — even to the very heart itself, and the patient dies. Of the means of cure it is difficult to speak confidently. The wound should be carefully examined — the divided edges brought into exact apposition, and any hair interposed between them re- moved — the pin withdrawn or not, according to circumstances — the part carefully and long fomented, and a dose of physic admin- istered. If two or three days have passed and the discharge still remains, the application of the budding-iron — not too large or too not — may produce engorgement of the neighboring parts, and union of the lips of the wound. This should be daily, or every second day, repeated, according to circumstances. A blister applied over the orifice, or as far as the mischief extends, will often be sex- 142 THE PALATE LARYNX. vioeable. Here, likewise, the parts will be brought into contact with each other, and pressed together, and union may be effected. The owner of the horse will find it his interest to apply to a veterinary practitioner as soon as a case of inflamed vein occurs. Should the vein be destroyed, the horse will not be irrepara- bly injured, and perhaps at no great distance of time, scarcely njured at all.* 1 THE PALATE— (resumed). At the back of the paiate (see Fig. 3), and attached to the crescent-shaped border of the palatine bone, is a dense membra- nous curtain, called the velum palati, so arranged that the horse can breathe through his nostrils alone, and in the act of vomiting, the contents of the stomach are ejected the same way, and not by the mouth. On this account it is, and on account of the struc- ture of the entrance of the stomach, that the horse can with great difficulty be excited to vomit. THE LARYNX Is placed on the top of the windpipe (see 1, Fig. 3) and is the inner guard of the lungs, if any injurious substance should pene- trate so far ; it is the main protection against the passage of food into the respiratory tubes, and it is at the same time the instru- ment of voice. The Epiglottis (see 2, Fig. 3), is a heart-shaped cartilage, placed at the extremity of the opening into the windpipe, with its back opposed to the pharynx, so that when a pellet of food passes the pharynx in its way to the oesophagus, it presses down the epiglottis, and by this means, as already described, closes the aperture of the larynx, and prevents any food from entering it. The food having passed over the epiglottis, from * JVote by Mr. Spooner. — This disease sometimes occurs when bleeding has been performed with the utmost care and skill. The course of treatment which a considerable experience of the disease has induced us to adopt, is to avoid all setons, and dissecting out the vein, and above all, caustic injection, which we have known to produce a fatal result. First allay the superficial inflammation by cold applications, and then blister the part, washing off the effects of the blister the following day, and repeating it several times. The ointment of iodine may be alternated with the blister to advantage. During this time, the horse's head should be tied up to the rack, and he should be fed on such food as will not require any considerable action of the jaws, such as bran mashes, scalded oats, car- rots, and but very little hay. In a few weeks the swelling will become re- duced, the blood find new channels, and the horse will become as useful as ever. We have never known this treatment to fail. In a few instances it may be necessary to apply the iron to the edges of the wound, and use other methods to stop bleeding. WLNDPIFE TRACHEOTOMY. 143 its own elasticity and that of the membrane at its base, and more particularly the power of the hyo-epiglotideus muscle, rises again and resumes its former situation. The Thyroid Cartilage (see 1, Fig. 3) occupies almost the whole of the external part of the larynx, both anteriorly and laterally. It envelops and protects all the rest. THE TRACHEA OR WINDPIPE. The windpipe is composed of an elastic cartilage, divided intc rings (50 or 52), sufficiently firm to resist ordinary pressure, and united together by means of an interposed highly elastic fibro- ligamentous substance, which, in effect, constitutes a joint be- tween each ring, giving the necessary flexibility to all its mo- tions, and admitting of elongation when the head is stretched up- ward or downward. It is indisputable that the windpipe should be prominent and loose on the neck, in the horse from which active exertion is re- quired, and which consequently is subjected to hurried respiration. It is not commonly found thus in large slow beasts, like the cart- horse, nor is it necessary. TRACHEOTOMY. It has been found that when obstructions, not speedily re- movable enough for safety, occur in the windpipe of the horse, a portion of the trachea may be safely removed, on or below the point of obstruction, to admit of the continuance of respiration. The operation must be performed while the horse is standing, and secured by a side-line, for he would, probably, be suffocated amidst the struggles with which he would resist the act of throwing. The twitch is then firmly fixed on the muzzle ; the operator stands on a stool or pail, by which means he can more perfectly command the part, and an assistant holds a scalpel, a bistoury, scissors, curved needles armed, and a moist sponge. The operator should once more examine the whole course of the windpipe, and the different sounds which he will be able tc detect by the application of the ear, and likewise the different degrees of temperature and of tenderness which the finger will detect, will guide to the seat of the evil. The hair is to be closely cut off from the part, the skin tight- ened across the trachea, with the thumb and fingers of the left hand, and then a longitudinal incision cautiously made through the skin, three inches in length. This is usually effected when there is no express indication to the contrary on the fifth and sixth rings ; a slip from which, and the connecting ligament H4 THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. above and below, about half the width of each ring:, should be excised with the intervening ligament. The remaining; portion will then be strong enough to retain the perfect arched form of the trachea. If the orifice is only to be kept open while some foreign body is extracted, or tumor removed, or ulcer healed, or inflammation subdued, nothing more is necessary than to keep the lips of the wound a little apart, by passing some thread through each, and slightly everting them, and tying the threads to the mane. If, however, there is any permanent obstruction, a tube will be necessary. It should be two or three inches long, curved at the top, and the external orifice turning downwards with a little ring on each side, by which, through the means of strings, it may be retained in its situation. The purpose of the operation being answered, the flaps of in- tegument must be brought over the wounds, the edges, if neces- sary, diminished, and the parts kept in apposition by a few stitches. The cartilage will be perfectly reproduced, only the rings will be a little thicker and wider. THE BRONCHIAL TUBES. After the windpipe has entered the chest, and continued through the mediastinum to the base of the heart, it divides into two tubes — the Bronchial tubes — whicl> enter each lung, where they are again subdivided into smaller tubes carrying air to every portion and cell of the lungs. Before considering their diseases, we will pause and consider the structure and functions of the chest. CHAPTER VI. THE CHEST. Fig. 26. a The first rib. b The cartilages of the eleven hindermost, or false ribs, connected together and uniting with that of the seventh or last true rib. c The breast-bone. d The top, or point, of the withers, which are formed by the lengthened spinous, or upright processes of the ten or eleven first bones of the back. The bones of the back are eighteen in number. e The ribs, usually eighteen on each side ; the seven first united to the breast- bone by cartilage; the cartilages of the remaining eleven united to each other, as at b. f That portion of the spine where the loins commence, and composed of five bones. g The bones forming the hip, or haunch, and into the hole at the bottom of which the head of the thigh-bone is received. The portion of the spine belonging to the haunch, and consisting of five pieces. The bones of the tail, usually fifteen in number. The chest, in the horizontal position in which it is placed in the cut, is of a somewhat oval figure, with its extremities trun- cated (cut off). The spine is its roof; the sternum, or breast, its floor ; the ribs, its sides ; the trachea, oesophagus, and great blood-vessels passing" through its anterior extremity and the dia- phragm, being its posterior. It is contracted in front, broad and deep towards the central boundary, and again contracted pos- teriorly- It encloses the heart and the lungs, the origin of the J 10 a I !6 THE CHEST. arterial and the termination of the venous trunks and the col ?eeted vessels of the absorbents. The windpipe penetrates into it, and the oesophagus traverses its whole extent. Most ingeniously and admirably is this whole structure con- trived to fill its various purposes. The ribs are eighteen in number on either side. Nine of them are perfect, and commonly called the true, or, more properly, sternal ribs, extending from the spine to the sternum. The remaining nine are posterior and shorter, and are only indi- rectly connected with the sternum. The ribs are united to the corresponding vertebrae, or bones of the spme, so as to form perfect joints — or, rather, each rib forms two joints. Before the ribs reach the sternum, they terminate in a cartilaginous prolongation. The cartilage is united to the ribs and sternum by joints, and the cartilages of the posterior ribs are united to them in the same manner. The sternum, or breast-bone, is a long, flat, spongy bone, form- ing the floor of the chest. It supports the ribs by the connect- ing cartilage. It is composed of from seven to nine pieces united together by cartilage. The point of the breast-bone is occasionally injured by blows, and has even been completely broken off. A kind of tumor on it, difficult to heal, has also been produced by some cruelty or violence. The front of the chest is a very important consideration in the structure of the horse. It should be prominent and broad, and full, and the sides of it well occupied. When the breast is narrow, the chest has generally the same appearance : the animal is flat-sided, the proper cavity of the chest is diminished, and the stamina of the horse are materially diminished, although, perhaps, his speed for short distances may not be affected. When the chest is narrow, and the fore-legs are too close to- gether, in addition to the want of bottom, they will interfere with each other, and there will be wounds on the fetlocks, and bruises below the knee. A chest too broad is not desirable, but a fleshy and a prominent one : yet even this, perhaps, may require some explanation. When the fore-legs appear to recede, and to shelter themselves under the body, there is a faulty position of the fore limbs, a bend, or standing over, an unnatural lengthiness about the fore parts of the breast, sadly disadvantageous in progression. The Intercostal Muscles. — The spaces between the ribs are occupied by muscles firmly attached to their edges, the fibres of which cross each other in the form of the letter X. By the pro- longation thus obtained, they have a muoh greater latitude of action, than they would have if they run straight from rib to rib The ribs, while thev protect the importanl viscera of the tho- PROPER FOR.M OF THE CHEST. 147 rax from injury, are powerful agents in extending and contract- ing the chest in the alternate inspiration and expiration of air. The Proper Form of the Chest. — This leads to a very im- portant consideration, the most advantageous form of the chest for the proper discharge of the natural or extraordinary functions of the thoracic viscera. The contents of the chest are the luno's and the heart : — the first, to render the blood nutrient and stimulating, and to give or restore it to that vitality which will enable it to support every part of the frame in the discharge of its function, and devoid of which, the complicated and beautiful machine is inert and dead ; and the second, to convey this puri- fied arterialized blood to every part of the frame. In order to produce, and to convey to the various parts, a suf- ficient quantity of blood, these organs must be large. If it amounts not to hypertrophy, the larger the heart and the larger the lungs, the more rapid the process of" nutrition, and the more perfect the discharge of every animal function. Then it might be imagined that, as a circle is a figure which contains more than any other of equal girth and admeasurement, a circular form of the chest would be most advantageous. Not exactly so ; for the contents of the chest are alternately expand- ing and contracting. The circular chest could not expand, but every change of form would be a diminution of capacity. That form of chest which approaches nearest to a circle, while it admits of sufficient expansion and contraction, is the best — certainly for some animals, and for all under 'peculiar circum- stances, and with reference to the discharge of certain functions. This was the grand principle on which Mr. Bakewell proceeded, and on which all our improvements in the breeding of cattle were founded. In the heavy draft-horse, the circular chest is no disadvantage, and it gives him, what we require, weight to oppose the weight of his load. Speed is not demanded of him. Some of our saddle-horses and cobs have barrels round enough, and we value them on account of it, for they are always in con- dition, and they rarely tire. But when we look at them more carefully, there is just that departure from the circular form of which mention has been made — that happy medium betweer the circle and the ellipse, which retains the capacity of the on< and the expansibility of the other. Such a horse is invaluable foi common purposes, but he is seldom a horse of speed. If he is per- mitted to go his own pace, and that not a slow one, he will work on forever ; but if he is too much hurried, he is soon distressed The Broad Deep Chest. — Then for the usual purposes of the road, and more particularly for rapid progression, search is made for that form of the chest which shall unite, and to as great a 148 FORM OF CHEST degree as possible, considerable capacity in a quiescent state, and the power of increasing that capacity when the animal requires it. There must be the broad chest for the production of muscles and sinews, and the deep chest, to give the capacity or power of furnishing arterial blood equal to the most rapid exhaustion of vitality. This form of the chest is consistent with lightness, or at least with all the lightness that can be rationally required. The broad-chested horse, or he that, with moderate depth at the girth, swells and barrels out immediately behind the elbow, may have as light a forehead and as elevated a wither as the horse with the narrowest chest ; but the animal with the barrel ap- proaching too near to rotundity is invariably heavy about the shoulders and low in the withers. It is to the mixture of the Arabian blood that we principally owe this peculiar and advan- tageous formation of the chest of the horse. The Arab is light ; some would say too much so before : but immediately behind the arms the barrel almost invariably swells out, and leaves plenty of room, and where it is most wanted for the play of the lungs, and at the same time where the weight does not press so exclusively on the fore-legs, and expose the feet to concussion and injury. Many horses with narrow chests, and a great deal of daylight under them, have plenty of spirit and willingness for work. They show themselves well off, and exhibit the address and gratify the vanity of their riders on the parade or in the park, but they have not the appetite nor the endurance that will carry them through three successive days' hard work. Five out of six of the animals that perish from inflamed lungs, are narrow-chested. There are many other important points, but that which is most of all connected with the general health of the animal, and with combined fleetness or bottom, is a deep, and broad, and swelling chest, with sufficient lengthening of the sternum, or breast-bone, beneath.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — In speedy animals the chest is, no doubt, more capacious than in slower ones, and a greater quantity of atmospheric air is inspired, so as to afford a full supply for the purpose of respiration. This large capacity is gained, however, not by the greater rotundity of the chest, but by its increased depth and length, more particularly the former. It is very evident that a circular chest must present a very unfavorable surface for the attachment of the shoulder blade, and, indeed, must induce a rolling action which is inimical to speed ; thus we find that animals with very cir- cular chests, and with their fore-legs, in consequence, wide apart, are by no means speedy, but have a great predisposition to the accumulation of fat. In such animals a considerable quantity of fat is generally found round the heart and in other parts of the chest, so that, in point of fact, animals witb circular cheats have smaller lungs than those with deep and flat ribs. It is fixtr?mely desirable for a cart-horse to have a circular chest, as this de THE SPINE. 149 The above remarks show the impropriety of tight-girthing, particularly where it is less necessary, as in the stable, or when the rider is off from the saddle. A point of consequence is the length of the carcase and the ribbing home. If the horse has to carry a heavy weight, and has much work to do, he should be well ribbed home, i. e. there should be but little space between the last rib and the hip- bone. If speed, however, is required, there must be room for the full action of the hinder limbs ; and this can only exist where there is sufficient space between the last rib and the hip-bone. The thorax, or chest, is formed by the spine f, above (Fig. 26) the ribs e, on either side ; and the sternum, or breast-bone, c, beneath. THE SPINE AND BACK. The spine, or back, consists of a chain of bones from the poll to the extremity of the tail. It is made of twenty-three bones from the neck to the haunch ; eighteen, called dorsal vertebrce, composing the back ; and five lumbar vertebrce, occupying the loins. The structure and attachments of these are remarkably well calculated for easiness of carriage and strength. The hun- ter will carry a heavy man through a long chase without great fatigue or strain ; but if the horse is over- weighted, or tasked too long, or too suddenly pulled upon his haunches, the ligaments uniting the vertebrae are strained, inflammation follows, and the ligaments become changed to bone. From hard service, and especially from being used too young, very many horses have some of the bones of the back or loins anchylosed — i. e. united by bony matter in the place of the natural ligament. When this exists to any considerable extent, the horse becomes un- pleasant to ride, turns with difficulty in his stall, is indisposed to lie down, or being down, to rise, and has a singular straddling action. The length of the back deserves attention. The long-backed horse will be easier in his paces, because the spring is longer ; and he is formed for speed, for there is more room to bring his hinder legs under him. But he will be comparatively weak in the back, and more easily over- weighted. For general purposes the horse with a short carcase, also, is to be preferred, as possessing greater health and hardiness. He will have sufficient easiness of action not to fatigue the rider, and speed notes a disposition to make flesh, and thus to economize food ; and, for the same reason, in other horses, a rather circular abdomen is approved of — in fact, one neither too wide nor too flat is the most desirable. l£>0 THE LOINS WITHERS. for every ordinary purpose. Length of back will always be de sirable when there is more than usual substance generally, and particularly when the loins are wide, and the muscles of the loins large and swelling. The two requisites, strength and speed, will then probably be united. The back should be depressed a little immediately behind the withers ; and then continue in an almost straight line to the loins. This is the form most consistent with beauty and strength. Some horses have a very considerable hollow behind the withers. They are said to be saddle-backed. Such horses are evidently easy goers, but in the same proportion, they are weak and liable to sprain. A few horses have the curve outward. They are said to be roach-backed, from the supposed resemblance to the arched back of a roach. This is a very serious defect ; — altogether incompati- ble with beauty, and materially diminishing the usefulness of the animal. It is almost impossible to prevent the saddle from being thrown on the shoulders, or the back from being galled ; — the elasticity of the spine is destroyed ; — the rump is badly set on ; — the hinder legs are too much under the animal ; — he is contin- ually overreaching, and his head is carried awkwardly low. THE LOINS. The loins are attentively examined by every good horseman They can scarcely be too broad and muscular. The strength of the back, and especially the strength of the hinder extremities, will depend materially on this. The union of the back and loins should be carefully observed, for there is sometimes a depression between them. A kind of line is drawn across, which shows im- perfection in the construction of the spine, and is regarded as an indication of weakness. THE WITHERS. The spinous processes of the vertebrae, above the upper part of the shoulder, form the elevated ridge called the withers. (See Figs. 1 and 26.) High withers have been always, in the mind of the judge of the horse, associated with good action, and generally with speed. The reason is plain enough : — they afford larger surface for the attachment of the muscles of the back ; and in proportion to the elevation of the withers, these muscles act with greater advan- tage. And as the rising of the fore-parts depends not only upon the muscles of the legs and shoulders, but on certain ones connect- FISTULOUS WITHERS WARBLES, SITFASTS, ETC. 151 ing the loins and the spinous processes, the longer the arm of the lever to which the power is applied, the easier and to the greatei height will the weight be carried up. Good and high action* and speed, will not, therefore, be often found without this con- formation. FISTULOUS WITHERS. When the saddle has been suffered to press long upon the withers, a tumor will be formed, hot and exceedingly tender. It may sometimes be dispersed by the cooling applications recom- mended in the treatment of poll-evil ; but if, in despite of these, the swelling should remain stationary, and especially if it should become larger and more tender, warm fomentations and poultices, and stimulating embrocations, should be diligently applied, in or- der to hasten the formation of pus. As soon as that can be fairly detected, a seton should be passed from the top to the bottom of the iumor, so that the whole of the matter may be evacuated, and continue to be discharged as it is afterwards formed ; or the knife may be freely used, in order to get at the bottom of every sinus. The knife has succeeded many a time when the st ton has failed. The after treatment must be precisely that which was recommended for a similar disease in the poll. In neglected fistulous withers the ulcer may be larger and deeper, and more destructive than in poll-evil. It may burrow beneath the shoulder blade, and the pus may appear at the point of the shoulder or the elbow ; or the bones of the withers may become carious. WARBLES, SITFASTS, AND SADDLE GALLS. On other parts of the back, tumors and very troublesome ul- cers may be produced by the same cause. Those resulting from the pressure of the saddle are called ivarbles, and, when they ul- cerate, they frequently become sitfasts. Warbles are small circular bruises, or extravasations of blood, where there has been an undue pressure of the saddle or harness. If a horse is subject to these tumors, the saddle should remain on him two or three hours after he has returned to the stable. It is only for a certain time, however, that this will perfectly succeed, for by the frequent application of the pressure, the skin and the cellular substance are bruised or otherwise injured, and a permanent sore or tumor, of a very annoying description, takes place. The cen- tre of the sore gradually loses its vitality. A separation takes place from the surrounding integument, and there is a circular piece of dried and hard skin remaining in the centre. No effort 152 CHEST-FOUNDER. must be made to tear or dissect it off, but stimulating poultices or fomentations, or, if these fail, a mild blister will cause a speedy separation ; and the wound will then readily heal hy the use of turpentine dressings, more or less stimulating, according to cir- cumstances. Saddle galls are tumors, and sometimes galls or sores, arising also from the pressure and chafing of the saddle. They differ little from the warble, except that there is very seldom the sep- aration of the dead part in the centre, and the sore is larger and varying in its form. The application of cold water, or salt and water, will generally remove excoriations of this kind. CHEST-FOUNDER. The muscles of the breast are occasionally the seat of an ob- scure disease, called by the old farriers anticor and chest-founder. The horse has considerable stiffness in moving, evidently not ref- erable to the feet. There is tenderness about the muscles of the breast, and, occasionally, swelling. I believe it to be nothing more t ] ian rheumatism, produced by improper exposure. Some- times a considerable degree of fever accompanies this ; but bleed- ing, physic, a rowel in the chest, warm embrocations over the parts affected, warm stabling, and warm clothing, with occasional doses of antimonial powder, will soon subdue the complaint.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The absorption or diminution of the muscles of the chest, alluded to in the text, and which used to be denominated chest founder, is neither more nor less than disease in the feet (the navicular dis- ease, in fact), and which, existing in both feet, prevents the fore-legs being exercised to the same extent as before ; and, consequently, the muscles, from being partially thrown out of use, become, to a certain extent, absorbed. By the term anticor, we rather understand an abscess in the breast, 01 brisket, to which some horses are liable. It is a rare disease, and more Ire quently attacks heavy-chested horses. Foreign horses are more subject t \his disease than English ones. CHAPTER VII. THE CONTENTS OF THE CHEST. THE THYMUS GLAND. At the entrance of the trachea into the thorax, and situated in the doubling of the anterior mediastinum, is an irregular glandular body, called the thymus gland, or " sweet-bread." It conveys a peculiar albuminous fluid to the veins, but its use in the system is unknown. THE DIAPHRAGM. The interposed curtain extending across the cavity of the chest, between the thorax and abdomen, is called the diaphragm (mid- rifF). It is an irregular muscular expansion, proceeding from the inferior surface of the lumbar vertebrae posteriorly and superiorly, adhering to the ribs on either side, and extending obliquely for- ward and downward to the sternum ; or, rather it is a flattened muscle arising from all these points, with its fibres all converging towards the centre, and terminating there in an expansion of tendinous substance. It is lined anteriorly by the pleura or in- vesting membrane of the thoracic cavity, and posteriorly by the peritoneum or investing membrane of the abdominal cavity. The diaphragm is the main agent, both in ordinary and extra- ordinary respiration ; it assists also in the expulsion of the urine, and it is a most powerful auxiliary in the act of parturition. It is subject to injury and disease of a serious and varied char- acter. Whatever may be the original seat of thoracic or abdom- inal ailment, the diaphragm soon becomes irritable and inflamed. This accounts for the breathing of the horse being so much af- fected under every inflammation or excitement of the chest or belly. The irritability of this muscle is often evinced by a sin gular spasmodic action of a portion, or the whole of it. Opium should be administered in small doses, together with ammonia or nitric ether, and as soon as any reaction is observed, have recourse to bleeding. g 154 RUrTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM— *THE TLEURA. RUPTURE OF THE DIAPHRAGM. This may sometimes occur from any extraordinary exertion, particularly when the stomach is distended with food or gas. In rupture of the diaphragm, the horse usually sits on his haunches, like a dog ; but this is far from being an infallible symptom of the disease. It accompanies introsusception, as well as rupture of the diaphragm. [Mr. Youatt gives no remedy, and probably the case admits of none.] THE PLEURA. The walls of the chest are lined, and the lungs are covered, by a smooth glistening membrane, the pleura. It is a serous mem- brane, so called from the nature of its exhalation, in distinction from the mucous secretion yielded by the membrane of the air- passages. The serous membrane generally invests the most im- portant organs, and always those that are essentially connected with life ; while the mucous membrane lines the interior of the greater part of them. The pleura is the investing membrane of the lungs, and a mucous membrane the lining one of the bronchial tubes. Among the circumstances principally to be noticed, with regard to the pleura, is the polish of its external surface. The glistening appearance of the lungs, and of the inside of the chest, is to be attributed to the membrane by which they are covered, and by means of which the motion of the various organs is freer and less dangerous. Although the lungs, and the bony walls which con- lain them, are in constant approximation with each other, both in expiration and inspiration, yet in the frequently hurried and violent motion of the animal, and, in fact, in every act of expi- ration and inspiration, of dilatation and contraction, much and injurious friction would ensue if the surfaces did not glide freel)' over each other by means of the peculiar polish of this membrane. Every serous membrane has innumerable exhalent vessels upon its surface, from which a considerable quantity of fluid is poured out. In life and during health it exists in the chest only as a kind of dew, just sufficient to lubricate the surfaces. The pleura possesses very little sensibility in health, but it is otherwise when it is the seat of disease. In pleurisy, pneumonia, &c, it becomes susceptible of intense pain. The pleura adheres intimately to the ribs and to the substance of the lungs. While the diseases of mucous membranes spread to other parts, those of serous membranes are generally isolated THE LUNGS HEART. 155 THE LUNGS. The lungs form two distinct bodies, the right somewhat larger than the left, and are divided from each other by the duplicative of the pleura, which has been already described — the mediasti- num. Each lung has the same structure, and properties, and uses. Each of them is subdivided, the right lobe consisting of three lobes, and the left of two. The intention of these divisions is probably to adapt the substance of the lungs to the form of the cavity in which they are placed, and to enable them more per- fectly to occupy and fill the chest. If one of these lobes is cut into, it is found to consist of innu- merable irregularly formed compartments, to which anatomists have given the name of lobules, or little lobes. They are distinct from each other, and impervious. On close examination, they can Le subdivided almost without end. There is no communica- tion between them, or if perchance such communication exists, it constitutes the disease known by the name of broken wind. On the delicate membrane of which these cells are composed, innumerable minute blood-vessels ramify. They proceed from the heart, through the medium of the pulmonary artery — they fol- low all the subdivisions of the bronchial tubes — they ramify upon the membrane of these multitudinous lobules, and at length return to the heart, through the medium of the pulmonary veins, the character of the blood which they contain being essentially changed. The mechanism of this, and the effect produced, must be briefly considered. THE HEART. The heart is placed between a doubling of the pleura — termed the mediastinum; by means of which it is supported in its nat- ural situation, and all dangerous friction between these important organs is avoided. It is also surrounded by a membrane or bag of its own, called the ■pericardium, whose office is of a similar nature. By means of the heart, the blood is circulated through the frame. It is composed of four cavities — two above, called auricles, from their supposed resemblance to the ear of a dog ; and two below, termed ventricles, occupying the substance of the heart. In point of fact, there are two hearts — the one on the left side impelling the blood through the frame, the other on the right side conveying it through the pulmonary system ; but, united in the maimer in which they are, their junction contributes to their nan 156 DISEASES OF HEART. tua] strength and both circulations are carried on at the sanifl time. The first is the arterial circulation. No function can be dis- charged — life cannot exist, without the presence of arterial blood. The left ventricle that contains it contracts, and by the power of that contraction, aided by other means, which the limits of our work will not permit us to describe, the blood is driven through the whole arterial circulation — the capillary vessels and the veins — and returns again to the heart, but to the right ventricle. The other division of this viscus is likewise employed in circulating the blood thus conveyed to it, but is not the same fluid which was contained in the left ventricle It has gradually lost its vital power. As it has passed along, it has changed from red to black, and from a vital to a poisonous fluid. Ere it can again convey the principle of nutrition, or give to each organ that impulse or stimulus which enables it to discharge its function, it must be materially changed. When the right ventricle contracts, and the blood is driven into the lungs, it passes over the gossamer membrane of which the lobules of the lungs have been described as consisting ; the lobules being filled with the air which has descended through the bronchial tubes in the act of inspiration. This delicate mem- brane permits some of the principles of the. air to permeate it. The oxygen of the atmosphere attracts and combines with a por- tion of the superabundant carbon of this blood, and the expired air is poisoned with carbonic acid gas. Some of the constituents of the blood attract a portion of the oxygen of the air, and obtain their distinguishing character and properties as arterial blood, and being thus revivified, it passes on over the membrane of the lobes, unites into small and then larger vessels, and at length pours its full stream of arterial blood into the left auricle, thence to ascend into the ventricle, and to be diffused over the frame. DISEASES OF THE HEART. The best place to examine the beating of the heart is imme- diately behind the elbow, on the left side. The hand applied flat against the ribs will give the number of pulsations. The ear thus applied will enable the practitioner better to ascertain the character of the pulsation. The stethoscope affords an un- derlain guide, for it cannot be flatly and evenly applied. Pericarditis. — The bag, or outer investing membrane of the heart (" heart case"), is liable to inflammation, in which the effused fluid becomes organized, and deposited in layers, in- creasing the thickness of the pericardium, and the difficulty of ♦ "A expansion and contraction of the heart. The only symptotfii DISEASES OF HEAR.T. 157 on which dependence can be placed, are a quickened and irregu- lar respiration ; a bounding action of the heart in an early stage of the disease ; but that, as the fluid increases and becomes con- crete, assuming a feeble and fluttering character. Hydrops Pericardii is the term used to designate the presence of the fluid secreted in consequence of this inflammation, and varying from a pint to a gallon or more. In addition to the symptoms already described, there is an expression of alarm and anxiety in the countenance of the animal which no other malady produces. The horse generally sinks from other disease, or from constitutional irritation, before the cavity of the pericardium is rilled ; or if he lingers on, most dreadful palpitations and throb- Dings accompany the advanced stage of the disease. It is sel- dom or never that this disease exists alone, but is combined with dropsy of the chest or abdomen. Inflammation of the Lining of the Heart. — Mr. Simpson relates, in the Veterinarian for 1834, a case in which there were symptoms of severe abdominal pain ; the respiration was much disturbed, and the action of the heart took on an extraordinary character. Three or four beats succeeded to each other, so vio- lently as to shake the whole frame, and to be visible at the dis- tance of several yards, with intervals of quietude for five minutes or more. At length this violent beating became constant. On dissection both lungs were found to be inflamed, the serum in the pericardium increased in quantity, and the internal mem- brane of the heart violently inflamed, with spots of ecchymosis (livid spots occasioned by extravasated blood). This would seem to be a case of inflammation of the heart ; but in a considerable proportion of the cases of rabies, these spots of ecchymosis^ and this general inflammation of the heart, are seen. Hypertrophy is an augmentation or thickening of the sub- stance of the heart ; and although not dreamed of a few years af the pulse, with a hot mouth, and other tokens of fever, are present, and which symptoms may be often removed without the aid of bleeding. We decidedly object to bleeding in those cases of fever attended with a shiver ing fit ; and, indeed, we have found that unless the pulse is full and strong, it is generally better to avoid bleeding. Fever is far more dependent on some irritation of the nervous system than is implied in the text, and bleed- ing is often calculated to increase this irritation. The administration of a diffusible stimulant that will act on the skin, such as the spirit of nitrous ether, is a far better mode of treatment, and will often cut short a case of fever, which the abstraction of blood would only prolong. In cases of fever the mucous membrane is very frequently in an irritable state, so that a purgative will greatly increase such irritation, and should therefore be avoided. If the bowels are costive, oily laxatives should be administered, and aloes carefully avoided, unless given in a liquid form, and as a single ■ lose. It is a very dangerous practice to give small doses of aloes until the bowels are relaxed, for, from the long period required to relax the bowels in the horse, before this effect is produced a quantity will be taken suffi- eie..tly to endanger life, and, indeed, death has in many instances occurred from this practice. It is better therefore either to abstain altogether from giving aloes in such cases, or otherwise confine it to one moderate dose of two drachms. BOG AND BLOOD SPAVIN 165 them on the inside of the hock at its bending. This son*ctimes becomes considerably increased in size, and the enlargement is called a bog-spavin. A vein passes over the bag, which is piess- ed between the enlargement and the skin, and the passage of the blood through it is impeded ; the vein is consequently distended by the accumulated blood, and the distention reaches from this bag as low down as the next valve. This is called blood-spavin. Blood-spavin then is the consequence of bog-spavin. It very rarely occurs, and is, in the majority of instances, confounded with bog-spavin. Blood-spavin does not always cause lameness, except the horse is very hard worked ; but this, as well as bog-spavin, constitutes unsoundness, and materially lessens the value of the horse. The proper treatment is to endeavor to promote the absorption of the contents of the bag. This may be attempted by pressure long applied. A bandage may be contrived to take in the whole of the hock, except its point ; and a compress made of folded linen being placed on the bog-spavin, may confine the principal pres- sure to that part. It is, however, very difficult to adapt a bandage to a joint which admits of such extensive motion ; therefore most practitioners apply two or three successive blisters over the enlargement, when it usually disappears. Unfortunately, however, it returns if any extraordinary exertion is required from the horse.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Much error appears to have prevailed with regard to bog-spavins. We speak with confidence, and after numerous dis- sections, when we say, that this disease does not occur from the distention of any mucous bags, and, therefore, there is no possibility of cutting them out. A bog-spavin is neither more nor less than a distention of the capsular ligament of the joint itself; so that, if we cut into it, we open the joint, and endanger the life of the animal. There are different degrees of severity in which this disease may exist ; it may be merely an increased secretion of synovia, so as to distend the ligament, and in such case it is readily curable ; or, it may be, as it more frequently is, a rupture of the connections of the ligament with the bones, so as not only to distend, but actually to enlarge, the cavity of the joint. In the latter instance, though the disease may be temporarily removed, it generally recurs, with work. When lameness attends bog-spavin, there is usually no little degree of inflammation on the synovial membrane of the joint ; and, in cases of long standing, the synovial fluid becomes solid, and causes permanent stiffness. Thoroughpins, are the same morbid affection as the bog-spavin, but affecting the upper and back part of the joint, and on each side. With regard to the blood-spavin, the vein, as it passes up the leg. may certainly be somewhat obstructed by a bog-spavin: and, consequently, a little enlarged ; but so slightly, that we believe that the bog and blood spavin of the old farriers were one and the same thing, the vein, from its proximity being supposed to feed the enlargement. The best treatment for these enlargements is, next to the actual cautery, the repeated application of the iodide of mercury, which both operates as a blister, as well as specifically, on the absorbents. 166 BLEEDING. BLEEDING. This operation is performed with a fleam or a lancet. The first is the common instrument, and the safest, except in skilful hands. The lancet, however, has a more surgical appearance, and will be adopted by the veterinary practitioner. A bloodstick — a piece of hard wood loaded at one end with lead — is used to strike the fleam into the vein. This is sometimes done with too great violence, and the opposite side of the coat of the vein is wounded. Bad cases of inflammation have resulted from this. If the fist is doubled, and the fleam is sharp and is struck with sufficient force with the lower part of the hand, the bloodstick may be dispensed with. For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected. The horse is blindfolded on the side on which he is to be bled, or his head turned well away. The hair is smoothed along the course of the vein with the moistened finger ; then, with the third and little fingers of the left hand, which holds the fleam, pressure is made on the vein sufficient to bring it fairly into view, but not to swell it too much, for then, presenting a rounded surface, it would be apt to roll or slip under the blow. The point to be selected is about two inches below the union of the two portions of the jug- ular at the angle of the jaw (see Fig. 12). The fleam is to be placed in a direct line with the course of the vein, and over the precise centre of the vein, as close to it as possible, but its point not absolutely touching the vein. A sharp rap with the blood- stick or the hand on that part of the back of the fleam immedi- ately over the blade, will cut through" the vein, and the blood will flow. A fleam with a large blade should always be pre- ferred, for the operation will be materially shortened, and this will be a matter of some consequence with a fidgety or restive horse. A quantity of blood drawn speedily will also have far more effect on the system than double the weight slowly taken, while the wound will heal just as readily as if made by a smaller instrument. There is no occasion to press so hard against the neck with the pail, or can, as some do ; a slight pressure, if the incision has been large enough and straight, and in the middle of the vein, will cause the blood to flow sufficiently fast ; or, the finger being introduced into the mouth between the tushes and the grinders, and gently moved about, will keep the mouth in motion, and hasten the rapidity of the stream by the action and pressure of the neighboring muscles. When sufficient blood has been taken, the edges of the wound should be brought closely and exactly together, and kept togethei by a small sharp pin being passed through them. Round this a little BLEEDING. 1 (>7 tow, or a few hairs from the mane of the horse, should be wrap- ped, so as to cover the whole of the incision ; and the head of the horse should be tied up for several hours to prevent his rub- bing the part against the manger. In bringing the edges of tlie wound together, and introducing the pin, care should be taken not to draw the skin too much from the neck, otherwise blood will insinuate itself between it and the muscles beneath, and cause an unsightly and sometimes troublesome swelling.* The blood should be received into a vessel, the dimensions oi which are exactly known, so that the operator may be able tc calculate at every period of the bleeding the quantity that is subtracted. Care likewise should be taken that the blood flows in a regular stream into the centre of the vessel, for if it is suf- fered to trickle down the sides, it will not afterwards undergo those changes by which we partially judge of the extent ©f in- flammation. The pulse, however, and the symptoms of the case collectively, will form a better criterion than any change in the blood. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the edges of the wound will have united, and the pin should be withdrawn. When the bleeding is to be repeated, if more than three or four hours have elapsed, it will be better to make a fresh incision rather than to open the old wound. For general bleeding the jugular vein is selected as the largest superficial one, and most easily got at. In every affection of the head, and in cases of fever or extended inflammatory action, it- is decidedly the best place for bleeding. In local inflammation, blood may be taken from any of the superficial veins. In sup- posed affection of the shoulder, or of the fore-leg or foot, the plate vein, which comes from the inside of the arm, and runs upwards directly in front of it towards the jugular, may be opened. In affections of the hind extremity, blood is sometimes extracted from the sajihcena, or thigh-vein, which runs across the inside of the thigh. In foot cases it may be taken from the coronet, or, * Note by Mr. Spooner. — In performing this operation with the fleam, the blood-stick should never be loaded with lead, as there is no possible occasion for such extra weight. The lancet requires much greater skill ; and, whilst the jugular vein of the near side is the most convenient situation for the fleam, the off side is the best for the lancet. In using the latter, the head of the horse should be elevated, so as to put the vein somewhat on the stretch, and prevent its rolling ; the vein is then pressed with the ringers of the left hand, which, obstructing the current, causes the vein to swell: the lancet should then be dexterously thrust forwards and upwards, so as to open the vein with one incision. The lancet should not be too large — should be shaped like a human lancet, and about double its size, with a very sharp point. In bleeding from the arm or the thigh, the fleam is more convenient than the lancet. In closing the orfice the pin should not be very large ; and fine .tow should be used to wind ro'P>d \%, and not hair, as the latter is so apt to slip. 168 BLEEDING. much more safely, from the toe ; not by cutting out, as the fai- ner does, a piece of the sole at the toe of the frog, which some- times causes a wound difficult to heal, and followed by festering, and even by canker ; but cutting down with a fine drawing-knife, called a searcher, at the union between the crust and the sole at the very toe until the blood flows, and, if necessary, encouraging its discharge by dipping the foot in warm water. The mesh- work of both arteries and veins will be here divided, and blood is generally obtained in any quantity that may be needed. The bleeding may be stopped with the greatest ease, by placing a bit of tow in the little groove that has been cut, and tacking the she over it.* * A great improvement has lately been introduced in the method of ar- resting arterial hemorrhage. The operation is very simple, and, with com- mon care, successful. The instrument is a pair of artery forceps, with rather sharper teeth than the common forceps, and the blades held close by a slide. The vessel is laid bare, detached from the cellular substance around it, and the artery then grasped by the forceps, the instrument deviating a very lit- tle from the line of the artery. The vessel is now divided close to the for- ceps, and behind them, and the forceps are twisted four or five times round. The forceps are then loosened, and, generally speaking, not more than a drop or two of blood will have been lost. This method of arresting bleeding has been applied by several scientific and benevolent men with almost constant success. It has been readily and effectually practised in docking, and our patients have escaped much torture, and tetanus lost many a victim. The forceps have been introduced, and with much success, in castration, and thus the principal danger of that operation, as well as the most painful part of it, is removed. The colt will be a fair subject for this experiment. On the sheep and the calf it may be readily performed, and the operator will have the pleasing consciousness of rescuing many a poor animal from the unne- cessary infliction of torture. CHAPTER VIII. We now proceed to the consideration of the diseases of the respiratory system. THE MEMBRANE OF THE NOSE. The mucous membrane of the nose is distinguished from other mucous surfaces, not only by its thickness, but its vascularity. It is called the Schneiderian membrane. The importance of ob- serving its color and appearance generaljy, as indicia of the dif- ferent diseases to which the horse is subject, has been adverted to in speaking of the tissues of the head, (p. 103). Its characteristic appearance under all circumstances, should be attentively observed by every one who attempts to prescribe in the diseases of horses CATARRH OR COLD. Catarrh, or Cold, is attended by a slight discharge from the nose — now and then, a slighter weeping from the eyes, and some increased labor of breathing. When this is a simply local in- flammation, attended by no loss of appetite or increased animal temperature, it may speedily pass over. In many cases, however, the inflammation extends and involves the fauces, the lymphatic and some of the salivary glands, the throat, the parotid gland, and the membrane of the larynx. We have then increased discharge from the nose, greater redness of the membrane of the nose, more defluxion from the eyes, and loss of appetite, from a degree of fever associating itself with the local affection ; and there also being a greater or less degree of pain in the act of swallowing, and which, if the animal feels this, he will never eat. Cough now appears more or less frequent 01 painful ; but with no great acceleration of the pulse, or heaving of the flanks. Catarrh frequently arises from exposures, or changes so trifling, H 17 J INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX. that they would not be supposed of the least importance by one unaccustomed to horses. In the majority of cases, a lew warm mashes, warm clothing, and a warm stable — a fever-ball or two, with a drachm of a lues in each, and a little antimony in the evening, will set all right. In nineteen cases out of twenty, recovery would take place with- out any medicine, if the horse is kept free from the cordials which grooms are so fond of administering ; but in the twentieth case, a neglected cough may be a precursor of bronchitis and pneumo- nia. These sometimes creep on before any danger is suspected. If there is the least fever, the horse should be bled. A common cold, attended by heat of the mouth or indisposition to feed, should never pass without the abstraction of blood. A physic-ball, how- ever, should not be given in catarrh without much consideration. If inflammation of the lungs has set in, a dose of physic would be little better than a dose of poison. If there is no danger of this, Fmall doses of aloes may be united with the other medicine with advantage. If catarrh is accompanied by sore throat — if the submaxillary glands are enlarged — if the horse should quid his feed and gulp his water, this will be an additional reason for bleeding, and also for warm clothing and a comfortable stable. Some stimulating liniment may be applied over the inflamed gland, consisting of turpentine or tincture of cantharides, diluted with spermaceti or neat's-foot oil — strong enough to produce con- siderable irritation on the skin, but not to blister, or to destroy the hair. An embrocation sufficiently powerful, and yet that nevei destroys the hair, consists of equal parts of hartshorn, oil of turpen- tine, and camphorated spirit, with a small quantity of lauda- num.* INFLAMMATION OF THE LARYNX. Strictly speaking, this refers to inflammation confined to the larynx ; but either catarrh or bronchitis, or both, frequently ac- company the complaint. Its approach is often insidious, scarcely to be distinguished from catarrh, except by being attended with more soreness of throat, and less enlargement of the parotid glands. There are also more decided and violent paroxysms of coughing than in common catarrh, attended by a gurgling noise, which may be heard at a little distance from the horse, and which, by auscul tation, is decidedly referable to the larynx. The breathing is • Note by Mr. Spooner. — In catarrh, if there is cough, the throat should be blisteied, or stimulated by the tincture of cantharides. SORE THROAT. 171 shorter and quicker, and evidently more painful than catarrh ; the membrane of the uose is redder ; it is of a deep modena color ; and the horse shrinks, and exhibits great pain when the larynx is pressed upon. The paroxysms of coughing become more frequent and violent, and the animal appears at times al- most suffocated. . As the soreness of the throat proceeds the head ol the animal is projected, and the neck has a peculiar stiffness. There is also much difficulty of swallowing. Considerable swelling of the larynx and the pharynx ensue, and also of the parotid, sublin- gual, and submaxillary glands. As the inflammation increases, the coujjh becomes hoarse and feeble, and in some cases alto- gether suspended. At the commencement, there is usually little or no running at the nose ; but the secretion soon appears, either pure or mixed with an unusual quantity of saliva. Auscultation is a very important aid in the discovery of the nature, and serious or trifling character of this disease. It can- not be too often repeated, that it is one of the most valuable means which we possess of detecting the seat, intensity, and re- sults of the maladies of the respiratory passages. No instru- ment is required ; the naked ear can be applied evenly and flatly, and with a very slight pressure, on any part that it is of impor- tance to examine. The healthy sound, when the ear is applied to the windpipe, is that of a body of air passing uninterruptedly through a smooth tube of somewhat considerable calibre : it very much resembles the sound of a pair of forge bellows, when not too violently worked. He who is desirous of ascertaining whether there is any dis- ease in the larynx of a horse, should apply his ear to the lower part of the windpipe. If he finds that the air passes m and out without interruption, there is no disease of any consequence either in the windpipe or the chest ; for it would immediately be detected by the loudness or the interruption of the murmur Then let him gradually proceed up the neck, with his ear still upon the windpipe. Perhaps he soon begins to recognize a little gurgling, grating sound. As he continues to ascend, that sound is more decisive, mingled with an occasional wheezing, whistling noise. He can have no surer proof that here is the impediment to the passage of the air, proceeding from the thickening of the membrane and diminution of the passage, or increased secretion of mucus, which bubbles and rattles as the breath passes. By the degree of the rattling or whistling, the owner will judge which cause of obstruction preponderates — in fact, he will have discovered the seat and the state of the disease, and the sooner be has recourse to professional advice the better. Chronic laryngitis is of more frequent occurrence than acute 172 INFLAMMATION OF THE WINDPIPE ROARING. Many of the coughs that are most troublesome are to be traced to this source. In violent cases laryngitis terminates in suffocation ; in others, in thick wind or in roaring. Occasionally it is necessary to have recourse to the operation of tracheotomy. In acute laryngitis the treatment to be pursued is sufficiently plain. The blood must be abstracted, and that from the jugu- lar vein, for there will then be the combined advantage of gen- eral and local bleeding. The blood must be somewhat copious- ly withdrawn, depending on the degree of inflammation — the practitioner never for a moment forgetting that he has to do with inflammation of a mucous membrane, and that what he does he must do quickly. He will have lost the opportunity of struggling successfully with the disease when it has altered its character and debility has succeeded. The cases must be few and far between when the surgeon makes up his mind to any determinate quantity of blood, and leaves his assistant or his groom to abstract it ; he must himself bleed, and until the pulse flutters or the constitution is evidently affected. Next must be given the fever medicine already recommended : the digitalis, nitre, and emetic tartar, with aloes. Aloes may here be safely given, because the chest is not yet implicated. To this must be added, and immediately, a blister, and a sharp one. The surgeon is sure of the part, and he can bring his counter- irritant almost into contact with it. INFLAMMATION OF THE TRACHEA. Inflammation of the membrane of the larynx, and especially when it has run on to ulceration, may rapidly spread, and in- volve the greater part or the whole of the lining membrane of the trachea. A blister must reach as low as the rattling sound can be detected, and somewhat beyond this. The fever medi- cines must be administered in somewhat increased doses ; and the bleeding must be repeated, if the state of the pulse does not in- dicate the contrary. ROARING. The present will be the proper place to speak of that singular impairment of the respiratory function recognized by this name It is an unnatural, loud, grunting sound made by the animal in the act of breathing, when in quick action or on any sudden ex- ertion. On carefully listening to the sound, it will appear that the roaring is produced in the act of inspiration, arid not in that ROARING. 173 of expiration. If the horse is briskly trotted on a level surface, and more particularly if he is hurried up hill, or if he is suddenly threatened with a stick, this peculiar sound will be heard and cannot be mistaken. Roaring is manifest unsoundness. It proceeds from obstruc- tion in some portion of the respiratory canal. Bands of Coagulated Lymph in the trachea are a frequent cause of roaring. Thickening of the membrane is a more fre- quent cause. In some morbid specimens this is treble its natu- ral thickness, and covered with ulcerations. This is particularly annoying in the upper part of the windpipe, where the passages. in their natural state, are narrow. Thus it is that roaring is the occasional consequence of strangles and catarrh, and other affections of the superior passages. Chronic cough occasionally terminates in roaring. The Disease of Draught- Horses generally. — There can be no doubt of the fact, that the majority of roarers are draught- horses, and horses of quick draught. They are not only sub- ject to the usual predisposing causes of this obstruction, but there is something superadded, — the system of tight-reining. To a certain extent, the curb-rein is necessary. Without it there would be scarcely any command over a wilful horse, and it would need a strong arm occasionally to guide even the most willing. But curbing too tight, particularly when the horse is young, leads to frequent injuries to the larynx, which result in inflammation, and ultimately cause roaring. Facts have established the hereditary predisposition to roar- ing, beyond the possibility of doubt, and therefore a stallion that is a roarer should never be bred from. It is probably useless to attempt to cure confirmed roaring, but if it is of recent date, and the seat of the obstruction can be detected by auscultation, or otherwise, it might be well to bleed, purge, and most certainly to blister over the affected part. The physic having set, a course of fever medicine should be com- menced. It should be considered as a case of chronic inflamma- tion, and to be subdued by a continuance of moderate depletory measures. Probably blood should again be abstracted in less quantity ; a second dose of physic should be given, and, most certainly, the blister should be repeated, or kept discharging by means of some stimulating unguent. The degree of success which attends these measures would determine the farther pur- suit of them. If no relief is obtained after a fortnight or three weeks, perhaps the experimenter would ponder on another mode of treatment. He would again carefully explore the whole ex- tent of the trachea, and if he could yet refer the rattling or wheezing to the same point at which he had before observed it, i.74 BRONCHOCELE. he would boldly propose tracheotomy, for he could certainly cut upon the seat of disease. If he found one of these organized bands, the removal of it would afford immediate relief ; or if he found merely a thickened membrane, no harm would be done ; or the loss of blood might abate the local inflammation. No one would eagerly undertake case of roaring ; but, having undertaken it, he should give the measures that he adopts a fair trial, remembering that, in every chronic case like this, the only hope of success depends on perse- verance.* BRONCHOCELE. Mr. Percival is almost the only author who takes notice of en- largement of the thyroid glands — two oval bodies below the la- rynx, and attached to the trachea. The use of them has never been satisfactorily explained. They sometimes grow to the size of an egg, or larger, but are unattended by cough or fever, and are nothing more than an eye-sore. The iodine ointment has oc- casionally been applied with success. The blister or the seton may also be useful. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — This disease is not always so easily discovered as is implied by the statement in the text. In some cases, the symptoms of roaring are only developed after a short gallop ; and, in many, roarers will not grunt when suddenly alarmed. It is generally very old and confirmed uises that exhibit this symptom. There are not only a variety of degrees in which roaring may exist, but there are many different causes which pro duce the noise which gives a name to the disease. Several of these have been stated in the text; but one, and by no means an unfrequent one, has been omitted, which is the absorption and paralyzation of the muscles, on one side, which assist in opening and enlarging the entrance to the larynx, by pulling back the. arytenoid cartilages, as they are termed. The conse- quence of this is, that an obstruction takes place ; and, although the air can enter with sufficient rapidity when the animal is at rest, yet when respira- tion is hurried by exertion, a great noise is occasioned by the air passing through the narrow aperture with great rapidity. T he greater number of the cases of roaring certainly occur with carriage horses and are connected with the practice of tight reining. It is not, how- ever, the sudden reining in which causes the mischief, but the long-contin- ued position of the windpipe when thus distorted. When the breathing is greatly distressed, either from over-exertion or from inflammation of the lungs, the horse stretches out his head, and extends the nostrils, and by this means places the air-passages in a straight line, and admits their greatest ex- pansion. When, however, the neck is much arched, there is a great angle formed at the throat, and the upper ring of the windpipe is forced up so aa to form an obstruction to the passage of air. This position of the windpipe, at first temporary, at length becomes permanent, and thus proves a frequent cause of roaring. EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 175 EPIDEMIC CATARRH, OR INFLUENZA. Various names are given to this disease — influenza, distempei, catarrhal fever, and epidemic catarrh. Its usual history is as follows : In the spring of the year — a cold, wet spring — and that suc- ceeding to a mild winter, and especially among young horses, and those in high condition, or made up for sale, or that have been kept in hot stables, or exposed to the usual causes of inflamma tion, this disease principally, and sometimes almost exclusively, prevails. Those that are in moderate work, and that are corre- spondingly fed, generally escape ; or even when it appears in most of the stables in a narrower or wider district, horses in bar- racks, regularly worked and moderately fed, although not entirely exempt, are comparatively seldom diseased. If it has been observed from the beginning, it will be found that the attack is usually sudden, ushered in by shivering, and that quickly succeeded by acceleration of pulse, heat of mouth, staring coat, tucked-up belly, diminution of appetite, painful but not loud cough, heaving at the flanks, redness of the membrane of the nose, swelled and weeping eye, dejected countenancc- these are the symptoms of catarrh, but under a somewhat aggra vated form. It clearly is not inflammation of the lungs ; for there is no coldness of the extremities, no looking at the flanks, no stiff im- movable position, no obstinate standing up. It is not simple catarrh ; for as early as the second day there is evident debility. The horse staggers as he walks. It is inflammation of the respiratory passages generally. I 4 . commences in the membrane of the nose, but it gradually involves the whole of the respiratory apparatus. Before the disease has been established four-and-twenty hours, there is frequently sore throat. The horse quids his hay, and gulps his water. There is no great enlargement of the glands ; the parotids are a little tu- mefied, the submaxillary somewhat more so, but not at all equiv- alent to the degree of soreness. That soreness is excessive, and day after day the horse will obstinately refuse to eat. Discharge from the nose soon follows in considerable quantity : thick, very early purulent, and sometimes fetid. The breathing is accelera- ted and laborious at the beginning, but does not always increase with the progress of the disease — nay, sometimes a deceitful calm succeeds, and the pulse, quickened and full at first, soon loses its firmness, and although it usually maintains its unnatural quick- ness, yet it occasionally deviates from this, and subsides to little more than its natural standard. The extremities continue to be 1 76 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. comfortably warm, or at least the temperature is variable, and there is not in the manner of the animal, or in anyone symptom, a decided reference to any particular part or spot, as the chief seat of disease. Thus the malady proceeds for an uncertain period : occa- sionally for several days — in not a few instances through the whole of its course, and the animal dies exhausted by extensive or general irritation : but in other cases the inflammation as- sumes a local determination, and we have bronchitis or pneumo- nia, but of no very acute character, yet difficult to treat, from the general debility with which it is connected. Sometimes there are considerable swellings in various parts, as the chest, the belly, the extremities, and particularly the head. The brain is occa- sionally affected ; the horse grows stupid ; the conjunctiva is alarmingly red ; the animal becomes gradually unconscious, and delirium follows. A curious thickening, that may be mistaken for severe sprain, is sometimes observed about the tendons. It is seen under the knee or about the fetlock. It is hot and tender, and the lameness is considerable. The feet occasionally suffer severely. There is a determination of fever to them far more vio lent than the original disease, and separation of the laminsB and descent of the sole ensue. The most decided character in this disease is debility. Not the stiff, unwilling motion of the horse with pneumonia, and which has been mistaken for debility — every muscle being needed for the purposes of respiration, and therefore imperfectly used in lo- comotion — but actual loss of power in the muscular system gen erally. The horse staggers from the second day. He threatens to fall if he is moved. He is sometimes down, permanently down, on the third or fourth day. The emaciation is also occasionally rapid and extreme. At length the medical treatment which has been employed succeeds, or nature begins to rally. The cough somewhat sub- sides ; the pulse assumes its natural standard ; the countenance acquires a little more animation ; the horse will eat a small quan- tity of some choice thing ; and health and strength slowly, very slowly indeed, return : but at other times, when there has been no decided change during the progress of the disease, no manage- able change of inflammation while there was sufficient power left in the constitution to struggle with it, a strange exasperation of symptoms accompanies the closing scene. The extremities be- come deathly cold ; the flanks heave ; the countenance betrays greater distress ; the membrane of the nose is of an intense red , and inflammation of the substance of the lungs, and congestioo and death speedily follow. At other times the redness of the nostril suddenly disappears ; EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 177 it becomes purple, livid, dirty brown, and the discharge is bloody and fetid, the breath and all the excretions becoming fetid too The mild character of the disease gives way to malignant typhus ; swellings, and purulent ulcers, spread over different parts of the frame, and the animal is soon destroyed. Post-mortem Examination. — Examination after death suffi- ciently displays the real character of the disease, inflammation first of the respiratory passages, and, in fatal or aggravated cases, of the mucous membranes generally. From the pharynx, to the termination of the small intestines, and often including even the larger ones, there will not be a part free from inflammation ; the upper part of the trachea will be filled with adhesive spume, and the lining membrane thickened, injected, or ulcerated ; the lining tunic of the bronchial tubes will exhibit unequivocal marks of in- flammation ; the substance of the lungs will be engorged, and often inflamed ; the heart will partake of the same affection ; its external coat will be red, or purple, or black, and its internal one wil 1 exhibit spots of ecchymosis ; the pericardium will be thick- ened, and the pericardiac and pleuritic bags will contain an un- due quantity of serous, or bloody-serous, or purulent fluid. The oesophagus will be inflamed, sometimes ulcerated — the stomach always so ; the small intestines will uniformly present patches of inflammation or ulceration. The liver will be in- flamed — the spleen enlarged — no part, indeed, will have escaped ; and if the malady has assumed a typhoid form in its latter stages, the universality and malignancy of the ulceration will be ex- cessive. This disease is clearly attributable to atmospheric influence. It is most prevalent in cold, ungenial weather, and is most fre- quent in the spring. It is both epidemic and endemic — some- times raging over large districts so that scarcely a stable escapes, and at others, being confined to a neighborhood. It is much more liable to make its appearance in stables where a number of horses are kept, than in smaller ones. The disease is beyond all doubt contagious. With regard to the treatment of epidemic catarrh, there may be, and is at times, considerable difficulty. It is a disease of the mucous membrane, and thus connected with much debility ; but it is also a disease of a febrile character, and the inflammation is occasionally intense. The veterinary surgeon, therefore, must judge for himself. Is the disease in its earliest stage marked by evident inflammatory action ? Is there much redness of the membrane of the nose — much acceleration of the pulse — much heaving of the flanks ? If so, blood must be abstracted. The orifice should be large, that the blood may flow quickly, and the circulation bo sooner affected ; and the medical attendant should 12 1) 179 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. be present at this first venesection, that he may close the orifice as soon as the pulse begins to falter. This attention to the first bleeding is indispensable. It is the carelessness with which it is performed — the ignorance of the object to be accomplished, and the effect actually produced, that destroys half the horses that are lost from this malady. The first falter of the pulse is the sig- nal to suspend the bleeding. Every drop lost afterwards may be wanted. x If there is no appearance of febrile action, or only a very slight one, small doses of aloes may be given, combined with the fever medicines recommended for catarrh. As soon as the faeces are pultaceous, or even before that, the aloes should be omitted and the fever medicine continued. It will rarely be prudent to con- tinue the aloes beyond the third drachm. A stricter attention must be paid to diet than the veterinarian usually enforces, or the groom dreams of. No corn must be al- lowed, but mashes and thin gruel. The water should be entirely taken away, and a bucket of gruel suspended in the box. This is an excellent plan with regard to every sick horse that we do not wish to reduce too much ; and when he finds that the morn- ing and evening pass over, and his water is not offered to him, he will readily take to the gruel, and drink as much of it as is good for him. Green meat should be early offered, such as grass, tares (the latter especially), lucerne, and, above all, carrots. If these cannot be procured, a little hay may be wetted, and offered morsel after morsel by the hand. Should this be refused, the hay may be damped with water slightly salted, and then the patient will generally seize it with avidity. Should the horse refuse to eat during the two or three first days, there is no occasion to be in a hurry to drench with gruel ; it will make the mouth sore, and the throat sore, and tease and disgust : but if he should long continue obstinately to refuse his food, nutriment must be forced upon him. Good thick gruel must be horned down, or, what is better, given by means of Read's pump. The practitioner will often and anxiously have recourse to aus cultation. He will listen for the mucous rattle, creeping down trie windpipe, and entering the bronchial passages. If he cannot detect it below the larynx, he will apply a strong blister, reach- ing from ear to ear, and extending to the second or third ring of the trachea. If he can trace the rattle in the windpipe, he must follow it, — he must blister as far as the disease has spread. This will often have an excellent effect, not only as a counter-irritant, but as rousing the languid powers of the constitution. A rowel ol tolerable size between the fore-legs cannot do harm. It may act as a derivative, or it may take away a disposition to itiflam mation in the contiguous portion of the chest. EPIDEMIC CATARRH. 179 The inflammation which characterizes the early stage of this disease is at first confined to the membrane of the mouth and the fauces Can fomentations be applied ? Yes, and to the very part, by means of a hot mash, not thrown into the manger over which the head of the horse cannot be confined, but placed in that too-much-undervalued and discarded article of stable-furni- ture, the nose-bag. The vapor of the water will, at every inspi- ration, pass over the inflamed surface. In the majority of cases relief will speedily be obtained, and that suppuration from the part so necessary to the permanent removal of the inflammation — a copious discharge of mucus or purulent matter from the nos- trils — will be hastened. If the discharge does not appear so speedily as could be wished, a stimulant should be applied to the part. The vapor impregnated with turpentine arising from fresh yellow deal saw-dust, used instead of bran, will have very con- siderable effect in quickening and increasing the suppuration. It may even be resorted to almost from the beginning, if there is not evidently much irritability of membrane. A hood is a useful article of clothing in these cases. It in- creases the perspiration from the surface covering the inflamed part — a circumstance always of considerable moment. An equable warmth should be preserved, if possible, over the whole body. The hand-brush should be gently used every day, and harder and more effectual rubbing applied to the leg. The patient should, if possible, be placed, in a loose box, in which he may toddle about, and take a little exercise, and out of which he should rarely, if at all, be taken. The exercise of which the groom is so fond in these cases, and which must in the most per emptory terms be forbidden, has destroyed thousands of horses. The air should be fresh and uncontaminated, but never chilly; for the object is to increase and not to repress cutaneous perspira- tion ; to produce, if possible, a determ. nation of blood to the skin, and not to drive it to the part alreaay too much overloaded. In order to accomplish this, the clothing shou'd be rather warmer than usual. The case may proceed somewhat slowly, and not quite satis- factorily to the practitioner or his employer. Ther^ is not much fever — there is little or no local inflammation ; but tnere is great emaciation and debility, and total loss of appetite. The quan- tity of the sedative may then be lessened but not omitted alto- gether ; for the fire may not be extinguished, although for a little while concealed. There are no diseases so insidious and treach- erous as these. Mild and vegetable tonics, such as gentian and ginger, may be given. Two days after this the sedative may be altogether omitted, and the tonic gradually increased. The feeding should now be sedulously attended to. Almost 180 EPIDEMIC CATARRH. every kind of green meat that can be obtained should be given, particularly carrots, nicely scraped and sliced. The food should be changed as often as the capricious appetite prompts ; and oc- casionally, if necessary, the patient should be forced with gruel as thick as it will run from the horn, but the gradual return of health should be well assured, before one morsel of corn is given. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Though this disease often occurs in the form de- scribed in the text, yet influenza may, and often does occur, as a severe epi- demic both with and without the peculiarities of catarrh. The diseases, therefore, though bordering, and often running into each other, are yet dis- tinct and require separate notice. With reference to the treatment of catarrhal fever, we should recommend great caution with regard to blood- letting ; and, if much weakness is mani- fested, it should not be practised at all. Equal caution should be observed with regard to purgative medicines ; but, if the bowels are constipated, a pint of linseed oil, or two or three drachms of aloes in solution, may be given, but not repeated. This may be assisted by injections. The influenza very extensively prevailed as an epidemic in this country in the years 1836 and 1840. A very full account of this disease as it pre- vailed during these periods, may be found in a small treatise on the subject published by the present writer. The symptoms in 1840 were very similar to those of the epizootic of 1836, sufficiently so to justify us in denominat- ing it the same disease. The first symptom in that of 1 840 which awakened attention was the sudden failure of the appetite (either total or partial) ; the horse, perhaps, might have appeared perfectly well in the morning, and at noon refused his feed. At this stage we usually found the mouth hot and the pulse quickened, varying, however, from 42 to 80, being sometimes full and strong, but more frequently soft and weak. There was generally a somewhat dull appearance of the animal at first, although nothing compared to what afterwards supervened ; the coat was often staring, and when so the attack usually became more severe. This symptom, however, was far from being universal, and the extremities were rarely cold. In the course ot six or twelve hours, the symptoms became more aggravated, the pulse increased in frequency, the appetite was more diminished, and probably the legs and eyelids were considerably swollen. In some cases the respiration became quickened, and in others there was cough and sore throat, but, in the majority of patients, there was no bronchial affection whatever. In a few instances, the disease quickly reached its acme, but, generally, the symptoms increased in severity for two or three days; when, supposing judicious treatment had been employed, they gradually declined, and at length totally disappeared, the animal slowly regaining his former health and spirits. The bowels, generally speaking, were not apparently much deranged, but their mucous coat was particularly susceptible to the action of aperient medicines, and the faeces were frequently enveloped in thin slimy mucus, and often softer than in a state of health. in some cases the affection of the eyes was so violent as to occasion tem- po, ary blindness, and in others pneumonia was present, but more frequently sevei ,. bronchitis. In many patients the aedematous swelling of the legs was enormous, and continued obstinate when the other symptoms nad abated but commonly, in proportion as the legs and eyes were much affected, the internal viscera were free from disease, and vice versa. This rule, hr wever THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. 1S1 THE MALIGNANT EPIDEMIC. Continental veterinarians describe a malignant variety or ter- mination of epidemic catarrh, and Britain is not without its records of it. It prevailed in 1815, and three horses out of five attacked by it died. It reappeared in 1823, but was not so fatal. In 1714, a malignant epidemic was imported from the continent, and in the course of a few months destroyed 70,000 horses and cattle. It continued to visit other countries, with but short intervals, for fifty years afterwards. The malignant epidemic was almost uniformly ushered in by inflammation of the mucous membrane of the respiratory passages, but soon involving other portions, and then ensued a was by no means universal, for, in several instances, severe cephalic and thoracic symptoms were present in the same subject and at the same time. When an animal had been previously suffering from some chronic disease, such as broken wind, or hepatized lungs, the influenza was nearly sure to light up afresh the embers of the former fire; and this local disease gene- rally proved troublesome and obstinate. So, likewise, when, from the idio- syncrasy of the animal, an organ was in a weak and susceptible state, inflam- mation in that part was quickly excited by the general fever present in the system. Treatment. — Whenever the pulse was full and strong, blood was ab- stracted with the best effect. In such instances I observed the blood slow in coagulating, and invariably presenting a buffy coat; great care, however, was taken not to abstract too large a quantity ; and I found I could produce the required influence by half the quantity which, in ordinary inflammatory affections, it would be necessary to take. The amount of blood withdrawn was always determined by its effect on the pulse, taking care, as soon as its character was materially altered, becoming softer and less perceptible, to pin up the orifice. This alteration was sometimes produced by the loss of four pounds of blood, oftener by six, occasionally by eight, and in a few instances, ten pounds were required to be taken. In two or three cases, where there appeared to be severe internal inflammation, the blood-letting was repeated on the following day, and in one case on the same ; but, as a general rule, even in cases where the pulse had on the following day re- gained its strength and fulness, I abstained from a second bleeding, trusting to medicine and the progress of the disease to soften the pulse, a result which usually followed on the second or third day. Recourse was had to local venesection still more frequently than to gene- ral bleeding ; indeed, whenever the eyes were much inflamed, or the lids swollen, I scarified the latter with a lancet, and opened the angular veins, which course of procedure was attended with the best results, for the local inflammation usually subsided in the course of twelve or twenty-four hours, whether I bled generally before or not. On referring to some fifty cases, it appears that in twenty-three I em- ployed general bleeding; in the remainder I did not; but in twenty-five caf the pathology and treat- ment of broken-wind offers nothing of importance that is not found in the CONSUMPTION. 199 PHTHISIS PULMONALIS, OR CONSUMPTION. This fatal complaint is usually connected with, or the conse- quence of, pneumonia or pleurisy, and especially in horses of a peculiar formation or temperament. If a narrow-chested, flat-sided horse is attacked by inflamma- tion of the lungs, or severe catarrhal fever, experience tells us that we shall have more difficulty in subduing the disease in him. than in one deeper in the girth or rounder in the chest. When this disease has been properly treated, and apparently subdued, this horse cannot be quickly and summarily dismissed to his work. He is sadly emaciated — he long continues so — his coat stares — his skin clings to his ribs — his belly is tucked up, notwith- standing that he may have plenty of mashes, and carrots, and green meat, and medicine — his former gaiety and spirit do not re- turn, or if he is willing to work he is easily tired, sweating on the least exertion, and the sweat most profuse about the chest and sides — his appetite is not restored, or, perhaps, never has been good, and the slightest exertion puts him completely off his feet. We observe him more attentively, and, even as he stands quiet in his stall, the flanks heave a little more laboriously than they should do, and that heaving is painfully quickened when sudden exertion is required. He coughs sorely, and discharges from the nose a mucus tinged with blood, or a fluid decidedly purulent — the breath becomes offensive — the pulse is always above 40, and strangely increased by the slightest exertion. When many of these symptoms are developed, the animal will exhibit considerable pain on being gently struck on some part of the chest ; the cough then becomes more frequent and painful ; the discharge from the nose more abundant and fetid, and the emaciation and consequent debility more rapid, until death closes the scene. The lesions that are presented after death are very uncertain Generally there are tubercles ; sometimes very minute, at other times large in size. They are in different states of softening, and some of them have burst into the bronchial passages, and exhibit abscesses of enormous bulk. Other portions of the lungs are shrunk, flaccid, indurated or hepatized, and of a pale or red-brown color ; and there are occasional adhesions between the lungs and the sides of the chest. There is some difficulty in deciding whether consumption is hereditary ; but those conformations which lead to this disease are hereditary, and thus far the disease is. If the horse is not very bad, and it is spring of the year, a run at grass may be tried. But the apparent amelioration is often transient. 5*00 PLEURISY. The medical treatment, if any is tried, will depend on two si«f\ pie and unerring guides, the pulse and the membrane of ti»< nose. If the first is quick and hard, and the second streaked with red, bleeding should be resorted to, Small bleedings of one 01 two quarts, omitted when the pulse :s quieted and the nostril is pale, may be effected. Counter-irritants will rarely do harm. They should be applied in the form of blisters, extending over the sides, and thus brought as near as possible to the affected part. Sedative medicines should be perseveringly administered : and here, as in acute inflammation, the chief dependence will be placed on digitalis. It should be given in small doses until a slightly intermittent pulse is produced, and that state of the con- stitution should be maintained by a continued exhibition of the medicine. Nitre may be added as a diuretic, and pulvis anti- monialis as a diaphoretic. Any tonics here ? Yes, the tonic effect of mild and nutritious food — green food of almost every kind, carrots particularly, mashes, and now and then a malt mash. But anything like a cure in confirmed phthisis is out of the question, and all the practitioner can do is to detect the dis- ease in its earliest state, and allay the irritation which causes 01 accompanies the growth of the tubercles. PLEURISY. The prevailing causes of pleurisy are the same as those which produce pneumonia — exposure to wet and cold, sudden altera- tions of temperature, partial exposure to cold, riding against a keen wind, immersion as high as the chest in cold water, drink- ing cold water, and extra work of the respiratory machine. To these may be added, wounds penetrating into the thorax and la- cerating the pleura, fracture of the ribs, or violent contusions on the side, the inflammation produced by which is propagated through the parietes of the chest. It is sometimes confined to one side, or to one of the pleura on either side, or even to patches on that pleura, whether pulmonary (of the lungs), or costal (of the ribs). The first symptom is rigor (chill) followed by increased heat and partial sweats : to these succeed loss of appetite and spirits, and a low and painful cough. The inspiration is a short, sudden effort, and broken off before it is fully accomplished, indicating the pain felt from the distention of the irritable, because inflamed, membrane. This symptom is exceedingly characteristic. In th** human being it is well expressed by the term stitch, and an ex- ceedingly painful feeling it is. The expiration is retard**! as BOTS. 209 A species of gad-fly, e, the cetrus equi, is in the latter part of the summer exceedingly busy about the horse. It is observed to be darting with great rapidity towards the knees and sides of the animal. The females are depositing their eggs on the hair, and which adhere to it by means of a glutinous fluid with which they are surrounded (a and b). In a few days the eggs are ready to be hatched, and the slightest application of warmth and moisture will liberate the little animals which they contain. The horse in licking himself touches the egg ; it bursts, and a small worm escapes, which adheres to the tongue, and is con- veyed with the food into the stomach. There it clings to the cuticular portion of the stomach, c, by means of a hook on either side of its mouth ; and its hold is so firm and so obstinate, that it must be broken before it can be detached. It remains there feeding on the mucus of the stomach during the whole of the winter, and until the end of the ensuing spring ; when, having attained a considerable size, d, and being destined to undergo a certain transformation, it disengages itself from the cuticular coat, is carried into the villous portion of the stomach with the food, passes out of it with the chyme, and is evacuated with the dung. The larva or maggot seeks shelter in the ground, and buries itself there ; it contracts in size, and becomes a chrysalis or grub, in which state it lies inactive for a few weeks, and then, bursting from its confinement, assumes the form of a fly. The female, becoming impregnated, quickly deposits her eggs on those parts of the horse which he is most accustomed to lick, and thus the species is perpetuated. There are several plain conclusions to be drawn from this history. The bots cannot, while they inhabit the stomach of the horse, give the animal any pain, for they have fastened on the cuticular and insensible coat. They cannot be injurious to the horse, for he enjoys the most perfect health when the cuticular part of his stomach is filled with them, and their presence is not even suspected until they appear at the anus. They cannot be removed by medicine, because they are not in that part of the stomach to which medicine is usually conveyed ; and if they were, their mouths are too deeply buried in the mucus for any medicine, that can be safely administered, to affect them ; and, last of all, in due course of time they detach themselves, and come away. Therefore, the wise man will leave them to them- selves, or content himself with picking them off when they col- lect under the tail and annoy the animal. The smaller bot, / and g, is not so frequently found. Of inflammation of the stomach of the horse, except from poisonous herbs, or drugs, we know little. It rarely occurs. It 210 THE INTESTINES. can with difficulty be distinguished from inflammation of th>• an ordinary or weak dose while the membrane is either in a state of irrita- tion, or liable to become so from sympathy with some other important part, such as the lungs, more particularly their lining or mucous membrane. Bleeding in this disease is seldom of service, the weak and almost imper- ceptible state of the pulse forbidding it. Our endeavors must be devoted to bringing warmth to the skin and extremities, and gradually stopping the irritation of the bowels and sheathing its internal mucous membrane. We rnav venture on powdered chalk with small doses of opiun. administered in thick wheat flour gruel. 224 PHYSICKING PHYSICKING. Physicking the horse is often necessary — but it has injured the constitution and destroyed thousands of animals when unneces- sarily or improperly resorted to. When the horse comes from trass to dry feed, or from the open air to the heated stable, a dose or two of physic may be necessary to prevent the tendency to inflammation. To a horse that is becoming too fat, or has surfeit, or grease, or mange, or is out of condition from inactivity of the digestive organs, a dose of physic is serviceable ; but the periodical physicking of all horses in the spring and autumn, the severe course of physic thought necessary to train them for work, and the too frequent method of treating the animal when under the operation of physic, cannot be too strongly condemned. A horse should be carefully prepared for the action of physic. Two or three bran mashes given on that or the preceding day are far from sufficient when a horse is about to be physicked. Mashes should be given until the dung becomes softened. Five drachms of aloes, given when the dung has thus been softened, will act much more effectually and much more safely than seven drachms, when the lower intestines are obstructed by hardened dung. On the day on which the physic is given, the horse should have walking exercise, or may be gently trotted for a quarter of an hour twice in the day ; but after the physic begins to work, he should not be moved from his stall. Exercise would then pro- duce gripes, irritation, and, possibly, dangerous inflammation. The common and absurd practice is to give the horse most exer- cise after the physic has begun to operate. A little hay may be put into the rack. As much mash should be given as the horse will eat, and as much water, with the coldness of it taken off, as he will drink. If, however, he obsti- nately refuses to drink warm water, it is better that he should have it cold, than to continue without taking any fluid ; but in such case he should not be suffered to take more than a quart at a time, with an interval of at least an hour between each draught. When the purging has ceased, or the physic is set, a mash should be given once or twice every day until the next dose is taken, between which and the setting of the first there should be an interval of a week. The horse should recover from the languor and debility occasioned by the first dose, before he is Harassed by a second. Eight or ten tolerably copious motions will be perfectly suffi- ce ».»t to answer every good purpose, although the groom or the PHYSICKING. 225 carter may not be satisfied unless double the quantity are pro- cured. The consequence of too strong purgation will be, that weakness will hang about the animal for several days or weeks, and inflammation will often ensue from the over-irritation of the intestinal canal. Long-continued custom has made aloes the almost invariable purgative of the horse, and very properly so ; for there is no other at once so sure and so safe. The Barbadoes aloes, although sometimes very dear, should alone be used. The dose, with a horse properly prepared, will vary from four to seven drachms. The preposterous doses of nine, ten, or even twelve drachms, are now, happily for the horse, generally abandoned. Custom has assigned the form of a ball to physic, but good sense will in due time introduce the solution of aloes, as acting more speedily, ef- fectually and safely. The only other purgative on which dependence can be placed is the croton. The farina or meal of the nut is generally used ; but from its acrimony it should be given in the form of ball, with linseed meal. The dose varies from a scruple to half a drachm. It acts more speedily than the aloes, and without the nausea which they produce ; but it causes more watery stools, and, con- sequently, more debility. Linseed-oil is an uncertain but safe purgative, in doses from a pound to a pound and a half. Olive-oil is more uncertain, but safe ; but castor-oil, that mild aperient in the human being, is both uncertain and unsafe. Epsom-salts are inefficacious, except in the immense dose of a pound and a half, and then they are not always safe.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We have little to add under this head. We con- demn, with the author, the reckless administration of violent doses, by which very many horses have been killed. The mucous coat of the intestines of the horse appears to be more irritable than that of man ; besides which it relatively occupies a larger extent of surface. Barbadoes aloes is certainly the best purgative with which we are ac- quainted. A drachm of ginger may be advantageously combined with it to prevent griping. A ball is certainly the best and safest mode of giving ordinary physic to a horse. It is necessary to give a much stronger dose in the form of a draught than that of a ball, which is probably owing to the fact, that with a ball a considerable amount of action is produced at one spot where the ball is dissolved, and the irritation there produced spreads by sympathy to the adjacent parts, whilst the liquid being spread at once over a large surface, a less amount of irritation is produced at any one par- ticular spot. The exercise on the day following the administration of the physic should depend on the effect produced. If the purging is copious, no exercise should be given ; but, if otherwise, it will much assist our opera- tions by giving a greater or lesser amount of exercise, as may be requii ed. J 15 226 CALCULI 1NTROSUSCEPTION ENTANGLEMENT OF BOWELS. CALCULI, OR STONES, IN THE INTESTINES. These are a cause of inflammation in the bowels of the horse and more frequently of colic. They are generally found in the caecum or colon, varying considerably in shape, and varying in weight from a few grains to several pounds. From the horizontal position of the horse's body, the stone does not tend downward as in the human being, and continues increasing until it becomes the source of fatal irritation. It is a fruitful cause of colic. Little advance has been made or can be made to procure their expulsion, or even to determine their existence. 5 * INTROSUSCEPTION OF THE INTESTINES. A portion of an intestine is sometimes slid into the contiguous portion, producing a fold or doubling. The irritation produced by it soon forms an obstruction which no power can overcome. There are no symptoms to indicate the presence of this, except continued and increasing pain ; or, if there were, all our means of relief would here fail. ENTANGLEMENT OF THE BOWELS. This is produced by colic, by the abominable and poisonous drinks of the farrier, and by other causes. When the animal rolls and throws himself about, portions of the intestine become so entangled as to be twisted into nooses and knots, drawn together with a degree of tightness scarcely credible Fie 31 Nothing but the extreme and continued tor- ture of the animal can lead us to suspect that this has taken place, and, could we ascer- tain its existence, there would "be no cure. The following cut shows an entanglement of the bowels of a horse that died from the effects of it. The parts are a little loosened in order better to show the entanglement of v'W^— --^0^\.-'/ the intestines, but in the animal they were drawn into a tight knot, and completely in- tercepted all passage. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — When colic arises from stones or concretions in the intestines, the pain is usually very severe, until, by rolling about, the stone is dislodged from the position in which it was fixed, and then, becoming free, the pain ceases. We may presume such to be the nature of the case if the horse lies much on his back, and rolls over from side to side, with an evident desire to relieve himself from some painful pressure. After repeated attacks of this kind the case at length becomes fatal, the calculus accumu- lates, becomes firmly tixed, obstructing ail passage, inflammation supervenes, aud thr animal dies. WORMS RUPTURE. 227 WORMS. Worms of different kinds inhabit the intestines ; but, except when they exist in very great numbers, they are not so hurtful as is generally supposed, although the groom or carter may trace to them, hidebound, and cough, and loss of appetite, and gripes, and megrims, and a variety of other ailments. The long white worm much resembles the common earth-worm. It is from six to ten inches long, and inhabits the small intestines. If there are too many of them, they may consume more than can be spared of the nutritive part of the food, or the mucus of the bowels. A tight skin, and rough coat, and tucked-up belly, are sometimes connected with their presence. They are then, how- ever, voided in large quantities. A dose of physic will sometimes bring away almost incredible quantities of them. Calomel is frequently given as a vermifuge. The seldomer this drug is ad- ministered to the horse the better. When the horse can be spared, a strong dose of physic is an excellent vermifuge, so far as the long round worm is concerned ; but a better medicine, and not interfering with either the feeding or work of the horse, is emetic tartar, with ginger, made into a ball with linseed meal and trea- cle, and given every morning, half an hour before the horse is fed. A smaller, darker-colored worm, called the needle- worm, in- habits the large intestines. Hundreds of them sometimes descend into the straight gut, and immense quantities have been found in the blind gut. These are a more serious nuisance than the foi- mer, for they cause a very troublesome irritation about the fun- dament, which sometimes sadly annoys the horse. Their existence can generally be discovered by a small portion of mucus, which, hardening, is found adhering to the anus. Physic will sometimes bring away great numbers of these worms ; but when there is much irritation about the tail, and much of this mucus, indicating that they have descended into the straight gut, an injection of linseed oil, or of aloes dissolved in warm water, will be a more effectual remedy. The tape-worm is seldom found in the horse. HERNIA, OR RUPTURE. A portion of the intestine protrudes out of the cavity of tin belly, either through some natural or artificial opening. In some cases it may be returned, but, from the impossibility of applying a truss or bandage, it soon escapes again. At other times, the opening is so narrow, that the gut, gradually distended by dung, or thickened by inflammation, cannot be returned, and sfrangu- 226 T.rVER DISEASES. lated hernia is then said to exist. The seat of hernia is either in the testicle bag of the perfect horse, or the groin of the gelding. The causes are violent struggling when under operations, over- exertion, kicks, or accidents. The assistance of a veterinary sur- geon is here indispensable.* DISEASES OF THE LIVER. Horses dying when not more than five years old of other com- plaints, usually show a healthy liver, but when they reach eight or nine, the liver is frequently increased in size — is less elastic — has assumed a more granulated or broken down appearance — the blood does not so readily pass through its vessels — and at length, blood begins to ooze from it into its membraneous covering, or into the cavity of the belly. The horse feeds well, is in apparent health, in good condition, and capable of constant work ; but, at length, the peritoneal covering of the liver suddenly gives way, and the contents of the abdomen are deluged with blood. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — In congenital hernia (that appearing at birth), in the testicle bag, the remedy consists in castration by the covered opera- tion, that is, without cutting into the hernial sac, but placing wooden claws vjii the cord and the peritoneal membrane, and at the same time, forcing the gut gently upwards towards the abdomen. In the course of a few days the cesticles will slough off, or may be removed. The writer purchased a colt 9 few years since for a trifle, being abandoned by its owner as worthless, on which the operation was successfully performed, and the colt sold afterwards at a good price. When the hernia is strangulated, violent pain and great danger is the re- sult ; the opening through which the gut has escaped is generally very small, being in fact, the inguinal ring. In such cases, if the hernia cannot be re- duced by the hand, or the taxis, as it is called, it is necessary to open the hernial sac, and by means of a bistoury, enlarge the opening sufficiently to put back the gut — an operation of great difficulty and danger, and requiring much skill. Abdominal hernia may occur in different situations, and are usually caused by external violence, such as the horn of a cow, or jumping over and across a post. The muscular and other covering of the abdomen is broken through, whilst the skin, from its greater looseness, remains entire; and, indeed, is the only object between the bowels and the air. If the case is recent, the hernia may be reduced, and the hernial sac opened, and the sides of the opening brought together by sutures of metallic wire. Where, however, the injury is of long standing or natural, as, for instance, in mares, when the abdominal ring is unusually large, we cannot succeed by this means ; but yet the case is not always hopeless. The gut being forced back, an incision is made in the skin, and one or more wooden skewers passed through it, so that a good portion of the skin can be embraced by some strong waxed twine, the skewers preventing it slipping off the skin thus embraced, which doughs off, and a cicatrix forming the surrounding skin becomes tighter and thicker than before— sufficiently so to keep the gut, for the most part, within the abdomen. JAUNDICE. 229 The symptoms of this sudden change are — pawing, shifting the posture, distention of the belly, curling of the upper lip, sighing frequently and deeply, the mouth and nostrils pale and blanched, the breathing quickened, restlessness, debility, fainting, and death. On opening the abdomen, the intestines are found to be deluded with dark venous blood. The liver is either of a fawn, or light yellow, or brown color — easily torn by the finger, and, in some cases, completely broken down. If the hemorrhage has been slight at the commencement, and fortunately arrested, yet a singular consequence will frequently result. The sight will gradually fail ; the pupil of one or both eyes will gradually dilate, the animal will have gutta serena, and become perfectly blind. This will almost assuredly take place on a return of the affection of the liver. Little can be done in a medical point of view. Astringent and styptic medicines may, however, be tried. Turpentine, alum, or sulphuric acid, will af- ford the only chance.* JAUNDICE, Commonly called the The Yellows, is a more frequent, but more tractable disease. It is the introduction of bile into the gene- ral circulation. This is usually caused by some obstruction in the ducts or tubes that convey the bile from the liver to the intes- tines. The yellowness of the eyes and mouth, and of the skin, where it is not covered with hair, mark it sufficiently plainly. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The symptoms which we have noticed as attend- ing this disease are, a heavy dull appearance, loss of appetite, and respira- tion somewhat quickened, but not distressed as in inflammation of the lungs ; the pulse is distinct and somewhat quickened, perhaps from fifty to sixty in the minute. The membranes of the eyelids are yellow, or at any rate pale. It is a very obstinate disease, often becoming fatal, even when the symptoms at first do not appear to denote danger. In such instances they gradually increase in severity, and symptoms of severe pain become connected with those of distress previously existing, and, in the course of six to ten days, the case becomes fatal. Bleeding is required in the first instance, but not to the same extent as in inflammation of the lungs. Recourse should then be had to mercurial alter- atives. Calomel two scruples, with opium one scruple, should be given twice a day for several days, until the system appears to be affected by the mercury. The relaxation of the bowels should be promoted by a pint of linseed oil, repeated twice or thrice. The hair should be cut off the side opposite the liver, and mercurial or blistering ointment rubbed in. If the horse refuses to eat mashes, plenty of Unseed or oatmeal gruel should be given with the horn. The hepatirrhoea, or rupture and bleeding from the liver, mentioned in the text, is uniformly fatal, if not at the first, at the second or third attack. It is sometimes attended with amaurosis, or paralysis of the 3ptic nerve. Treatment is comparatively useless. 230 THE KIDNEYS. The dung is small and hard; the urine highly colored; the horse languid, and the appetite impaired. If he is not soon relieved, he sometimes begins to express considerable uneasiness ; at other times he is dull, heavy, and stupid. A characteristic symptom is lameness of the right fore leg, resembling the pain in the right shoulder of the human being in liver affections. The principal causes are over-feeding or over-exertion in sultry weather, or too little work, generally speaking, or inflammation or other disease of the liver itself. It is sometimes caused by the sympathy of the liver with some other diseased part, and in this case, the removal of that disease will remove it. If there is no other apparent disease to any great extent, an endeavor to restore the natural passage of the bile by purgatives may be tried, not consisting of large doses, lest there should be some undetected inflammation of the lungs or bowels, in either of which a strong purgative would be dan- gerous ; but, given in small quantities, repeated at short inter- vals, and until the bowels are freely opened. Bleeding should always be resorted to, regulated according to the apparent degree of inflammation, and the occasional stupor of the animal. Plenty of water, slightly warmed, or thin gruel, should be given. The horse should be warmly clothed, and the stable well ven- tilated, but not cold. Carrots or green food will be very bene ficial. Should the purging, when once excited, prove violent, we need not be in any haste to stop it, unless inflammation is be- ginning to be connected with it, or the horse is very weak. The medicine recommended under diarrhoea may then be given. A few slight tonics should be given when the horse is recovering from an attack of jaundice.^ THE KIDNEYS. The kidneys are two large glandular bodies, placed under the loins, of the shape of a kidney-bean, of immense size. The right kidney is most forward, lying under the liver ; the left is pushed more backward by the stomach and spleen. A large artery runs to each, carrying not less than a sixth part of the whole of the blood that circulates through the frame. This artery is divided into innumerable little branches, most curiously complicated and :oiled upon each other ; and the blood, traversing these convolu- * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Jaundice very seldom occurs unconnected with inflammation of the liver ; when it does, it is denoted by the yellowness of the membranes, and the absence of any of the symptoms of inflammation It is best treated by the same internal medicines as those we advised under the head of " Inflammation of the liver" (in note); or aloes may also be #iv»n in moderate quantities. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. 231 tions, has its watery parts, and others, the retaining of which would be injurious, separated from it. The fluid thus separated (the urine), varies materially in quan- tity and composition during health. There is no organ in the horse so "much under our command ; and there are no medicines so use- ful, or may be so injurious, as diuretics (those which increase the evacuation of urine), such as nitre and digitalis. They stimulate the kidneys to separate more watery fluid from the blood, and thus reduce the circulation, lowering inflammation and calming excitement. They cause the removal of that fluid in the cellu- lar substance of the legs of the horse, which causes them so often to swell. The legs of many horses cannot be rendered fine, or kept so, without the use of diuretics ; nor can grease — often con- nected with these swellings, producing them or caused by them — be otherwise subdued. It is on this account that diuretics are ranked among the most useful of veterinary medicines. In injudicious hands, however, these medicines are sadly abused. Among the absurdities of stable management, there is nothing so injurious as the frequent use of diuretics. Not only are the kidneys often over-excited, weakened, and disposed to disease, but the whole frame becomes debilitated. There is like- wise one important fact of which the groom or the horseman sel- dom thinks, viz : — That when he is removing these humors by the imprudent use of diuretics, he is only attacking a symptom or a consequence of disease, and not the disease itself. The legs will fill again, and the grease will return. While the cause remains, the effect will be produced. In the administration of diuretics, one thing should be attended co, and the good effect of which the testimony of every intelli- gent man will confirm : the horse should have 'plenty to drink. N*ot only will inflammation be prevented, but the operation of ihe medicine will be much promoted. INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. This is no uncommon disease in the horse, and is more un- skilfully and fatally treated than almost any other. The early symptoms are those of fever generally, but the seat of the dis- ease soon becomes evident. The horse looks anxiously round at his flanks ; stands with his hinder legs wide apart ; is unwilling to lie down ; straddles as he walks ; expresses pain in turning ; shrinks when the loins are pressed, and some degree of heat is felt there. The urine is voided in small quantities : frequently u is high-colored, and sometimes bloody. The attempt to urin- ate becomes more frequent, and the quantity voided smaller, until the animal strains painfully and violently, but the discharge 232 INFLAMMATION OF THE KIDNEYS. is nearly or quite suppressed. The pulse is quick and hard ; full in the early stage oi* the disease, but rapidly becoming small, yet not losing its character of hardness. These symptoms clearly indicate an affection of the urinary organs ; but they do not dis- tinguish inflammation of the kidney from that of the bladder [n order to effect this, the hand must be introduced into the rec- 'uffl. If the bladder is felt full and hard under the rectum, there i inflammation of the neck of it ; if it is empty, yet on the por- tion of the intestines immediately over it there is more than natural heat and tenderness, there is inflammation of the body of the bladder ; and if the bladder is empty, and there is no in- creased heat or tenderness, there is inflammation of the kidney. Too powerful or too often repeated diuretics induce inflamma- tion of the kidney, or a degree of irritation and weakness of that organ that disposes to inflammation from causes that would otherwise have no injurious effect. If a horse is sprained in the loins by being urged on, far or fast, by a heavy rider, or com- pelled to take too wide a leap, or by being suddenly pulled up on his haunches, the inflammation of the muscles of the loins is often speedily transferred to the kidneys, with which they lie in contact. Exposure to cold is another frequent origin of this malady, especially if the horse is drenched with rain, or the wet drips upon his loins ; and, more particularly, if he was previously disposed to inflammation, or these organs had been previously weakened. The treatment will only vary from that of inflammation of other parts by a consideration of the peculiarity of the organ affected. Bleeding must be promptly resorted to, and carried to its full extent. An active purge should next be administered ; and a counter-inflammation excited as nearly as possible to the seat of disease. For this purpose the loins should be fomented with hot water, or covered with a mustard-poultice — the horse should be warmly clothed ; but no cantharides or turpentine should be used, and, most of all, no diuretic be given internally. When the groom finds this difficulty or suppression of staling, he immediately has recourse to a diuretic ball to force on the urine ; and by thus needlessly irritating a part already too much excited, he adds fuel to fire, and frequently destroys the horse. The ac- tion of the purgative having begun a little to cease, white helle- bore may be administered in small doses, with or without emetic tartar. The patient should be warmly clothed ; his legs well bandanged ; and plenty of water offered to him. The food should be carefully examined, and anything that could have excited or that may prolong the irritation carefully removed.* * Not* by Mr. Spooner — This disease is readily distinguished from DIABETES HEMATURIA 233 DIABETES, OR PROFUSE STALING Is a comparatively rare disease. It is generally the conse- quence of undue irritation of the kidney by bad food or strong diuretics, and sometimes follows inflammation of that organ . It can seldom be traced in the horse to any disease; of the digestive organs. The treatment is obscure, and the result often uncer- tain. It is evidently increased action of the kidneys, and there- fore the most rational plan of treatment is to endeavor to abate that action. In order to effect this, the same course should be pursued in the early stage of diabetes as in actual inflammation ; but the lowering system must not be carried to so great an ex- tent. To bleeding, purging, and counter-irritation, medicines of an astringent quality should succeed, as catechu, the powdered leaf of the whortleberry (uva ursi,) and opium. Very careful attention should be paid to the food. The hay and oats should be of the best quality. Green feed, and especially carrots will be vary serviceable.* BLOODY URINE— HEMATURIA. The discharge of urine of this character is of occasional occur- rence. Pure blood is sometimes discharged which immediately coagulates — at other times it is more or less mixed with the urine, and does not coagulate. The cause of its appearance and the source whence it proceeds cannot always be determined, but it is probably the result of some strain or blow. It may or may not be accompanied by inflammation. Should it be the result of strain or violence, or be evidently attended by inflammation, soothing and depleting measures should be adopted. Perhaps counter-irritation on the loins might others, from the great tenderness of the loins when pressed, and the high color of the urine, which is sometimes almost black. The bleeding, as stated in the text, should be very copious, and repeated if necessary. One of the best applications to the loins is a fresh sheep-skin, the skin side inwards. This will very soon cause, and keep up, a consider- able perspiration, which may be continued by means of a fresh skin in the course of twelve hours. With regard to internal medicines, one of the best sedatives is the white hellebore, in doses of a scruple twice a day. The bowels should be opened by means of an aperient draught, and abundance of linseed tea should be given, so as to sheath the irritated parts. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Diabetes is almost invariably produced by un- wholesome food, such as mow-burnt hay, or kiln-dried oats. It causes excessive debility and loss of flesh. We do not approve of blood-letting, as recommended in the text ; but astringents, such as opium and catechu, com- bined with sulphate of iron, in doses of a drachm twice a-day, are of much per vice. The cause of the disease, should of course be removed. 234 ALBUMIN JUS URINE INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. be useful. If there is no apparent inflammation, some gentle stimulus may be administered internally. ALBUMINOUS URINE. A peculiar mucous state of the urine of some horses has lately attracted attention. It has been associated with stretching out of the legs, stiffness, disinclination to move, a degree of fever, and costiveness. Slight bleeding, mild physic, the application of gentle stimulants to the loins, quietness, and gentle opiates, have been of service. THE BLADDER. The urine separated from the blood is discharged by the min- ute vessels, of which we have spoken, into some larger canals, which terminate in a cavity or reservoir in the body of each kid- ney, designated its pelvis. Thence it is conveyed by a duct called the ureter, to a large reservoir, the bladder. INFLAMMATION OF THE BLADDER. There are two varieties of this disease, inflammation of the _body of the bladder, and of its neck. The symptoms are nearly the same with those of inflammation of the kidney, except that there is rarely a total suppression of urine, and there is heat felt in the rectum over the situation of the bladder. The causes are the presence of some acrid or irritant matter in the urine, or of calculus or stone in the bladder. With reference to inflammation of the body of the bladder, mischief has occasionally been done by the introduction of cantharides or some other irritating mat- ter, in order to hasten the period of horsing in the mare. The treatment in this case will be the same as in inflammation of the kidneys, except that it is of more consequence that the ani- mal should drink freely of water or thin gruel. In inflammation of the neck of the bladder there is the same frequent voiding of urine in small quantities, generally appear- ing in an advanced stage of the disease, and often ending in almost total suppression. There is also this circumstance which can never be mistaken by him who will pay sufficient attention to the case, that the bladder is distended with urine, and can be distinctly felt under the rectum. It is spasm of the part, closing the neck of the bladder so powerfully that the con traction of the bladder and the pressure of the muscles are un- able to force out the urine. Here the object to be attempted is sufficiently plain. This epasm must be relaxed, and the most likely means to effect it \u STONE IN THE* BLADDER. 236 to bleed largely, and even to fainting. This will sometimes succeed, and there will be at once an end to the disease. To the exhaustion and loss of muscular power occasioned by copious bleeding, should be added the nausea consequent on physic. Should not this speedily have effect, another mode of abating spasm must be tried — powdered opium, made into a ball or drink, should be given every two or three hours; while an active blister is applied externally. The evacuation of the bladder, both in the mare and the horse, should be effected through the medium of a veterinary surgeon.* STONE IN THE BLADDER. The symptoms of stone in the bladder much resemble those of spasmodic colic, except that, on careful inquiry, it will be found that there has been much irregularity in the discharge of urine and occasional suppression of it. When fits of apparent colic frequently return, and are accompanied by any peculiarity in tha appearance or the discharge of the urine, the horse should be carefully examined. For this purpose he must be thrown. If there is stone in the bladder, it will, while the horse lies on its back, press on the rectum, and may be distinctly felt if the hand is introduced into the rectum. Several cases have lately occurred of successful extraction of the calculus ; but to effect this it will always be necessary to have recourse to the aid of a veterinary practitioner. t The catheter invented by Mr. Taylor is made of polished round iron, three feet long, one and a half inch in circumfer- ence, and with eight joints at its farther extremity. The solid * Note by Mr. Spooner. — This is a very rare but exceedingly dangerous disease, the irritation being so great that it is almost impossible to keep any soothing application in the bladder, the contents of which are being con- tinually ejected. Recourse therefore must be had to very copious bleeding, so as to endeavor to check both the inflammation which exists, as well as to assuage the irritation which forbids topical (local) measures. It will assist to administer calomel combined with opium and tartarized antimony, two scruples of each being given three times a day. The same means may be adopted when inflammation attacks the neck of the bladder, and the spasm prevents its evacuation. As stated in the text the bladder of a mare may be readily evacuated by means of a catheter ; and, by the aid of the elastic and flexible catheter, the bladder of the gelding can also be discharged, though the operation requires some tact and skill. \ Note by Mr. Spooner. — In cutting for the stone, the horse is cast and turned on his back, and supported in that position. A whalebone or wooden staff is then passed up the urethra, and when it is felt at the perineum just under the anus, is cut down upon. A pair of forceps is next passed through the wound thus made, into the bladder, with which the calculus must be removed. The bladder then should be washed out with tepid * iter, aud the wound sewed up. 236 STONE IN THE BLADDER part between each joint is one and a quarter inch in length, and one and a half in circumference, the moveable part being ten inches, and the solid part two feet two inches. The joints are on the principle of a half joint, so that the moveable part would only act in a straight line, or curve in one direction. The joints are perfectly rounded and smooth when acting either in a straight line or a curve. It is represented both m its straight and curved state in the following cuts. Many horses occasionally void a considerable quantity of gravel, sometimes without inconvenience, and at others with evident spasm or pain. A diuretic might be useful in such case, as increasing the flow of urine, and possibly washing out the concretions before they become too numerous or bulky. The urine having passed the neck of the bladder, flows along the urethra, and is discharged. The sheath of the penis is sometimes considerably enlarged. When at the close of acute disease, there are swellings and effusions of fluid, under the chest and belly, this part seldom escapes. Diuretics, with a small portion of cordial medicine, will be beneficial, but in ex- treme cases slight scarifications may be necessary. The inside of the sheath is often the seat of disease. The mucous matter, naturally secreted there to defend the part from the acrimony of the urine, accumulates and becomes exceedingly offensive, and produces swelling, tenderness, and even excoriation, with considerable discharge. Fomentation with warm water, and the cleansing of the part with soap and water, aided perhaps by the administration of a diuretic ball, will speedily remove every in- convenience. CHAPTER XL BREEDING, CASTRATION, ETC. Our observations on this will be of a general nature < md very ll Th* first axiom that we would lay down, is that like dinner,, or at ^-jgj? itS 'ifiSKS- ta Even the consequences of ill usage or nam wore windliess the oro^env There has been proof upon proof, that blindness, oLFngrthfck-wind, broken-wmd, spavins, curbs, ringbones and founded have been bequeathed to their f^^ffieS and the dam. It should likewise be recollected that aitnou these blembhcs may not appear m the immediate Progeny, they frequently do in the next, or even more distant g«" e f > on , £°^ he necessity of some knowledge of the parentage both of the snre ""Fcculiartty of form and constitution will also be inherited. mals that the good points of each are almost lost . the delects 7bothtcrease g d, J the produce is far inferior to both sire and ^The mare is sometimes put to the horse at too early an age ; or whaUs of more freque i occurrence, the ^^^ fnr work bv old age. The owner is unwilling to destroy Her, ami he r rtarmfnestha g t she shall bear a foal, and thus I= a* ; h,m fnr her kee D What is the consequence ? The loal exnit>iis an unkindlineTs of growth,-a corresponding weakness,-and there is larceW an orlfn that possesses its natural and proper strength _ Tha[ Z constitution and endurance of the horse are mhentad, 238 BREEDING. no sporting man ever doubted. The qualities of the sire or the dam descend from generation to generation, and the excellences or detects of certain horses are often traced, and justly so, to some peculiarity in a far-distant ancestor. It may, perhaps, be justly affirmed, that there is more difficulty in selecting a good mare to breed from than a good horse, because ghe should possess somewhat opposite qualities. Her carcase should be long, in order to give room for the growth of the foetus , and yet with this there should be compactness of form and short ness of leg. What can they expect whose practice it is to pur- chase worn-out, spavined, foundered mares, about whom they fancy there have been some good points, and send them far into the country to breed from, and, with all their variety of shape, to be covered by the same horse ? In a lottery like this there may be now and then a prize, but there must be many blanks. As to the shape of the stallion, little satisfactory can be said It must depend on that of the mare, and the kind of horse wished to be bred ; but if there is one point absolutely essential, it is " compactness" — as much goodness and strength as possible con- densed into a little space. Next to compactness, the inclination of the shoulder will be re garded. A huge stallion, with upright shoulders, never got a capital hunter or hackney. From him the breeder can obtain nothing but a cart or dray horse, and that, perhaps, spoiled by the opposite form of the mare. On the other hand, an upright shoulder is desirable, if not absolutely necessary, when a mere slow draught-horse is required. From the time of covering, to within a few days of the expected period of foaling, the cart-mare may be kept at moderate labor, not only without injury, but with decided advantage. It will then be prudent to release her from work, and keep her near home, and under the frequent inspection of some careful person. When nearly half the time of pregnancy has elapsed, the mare should have a little better food. She should be allowed one or two feeds of grain in the day. This is about the period when they are accustomed to slink their foals, or when abortion occurs : the eye of the owner should, therefore, be frequently upon them. Good feeding and moderate exercise will be the best preventives of this mishap. The mare that has once aborted, is liable to a repetition of the accident, and therefore should never be suffered to be with other mares between the fourth and fifth months : for such is the power of imagination or of sympathy in the mare, that if one suffers abortion, others in the same pasture will too often share the same fate. Farmers wash, and paint, and tar theii stables, to prevent some supposed infection ; — the infection lies in \he imagination. BREEDING. 239 The thorough-bred mare — the stock being intended for. sport- ing purposes — should be kept quiet, and apart from otherhorses, after the first four or five months. When the period of parturi- tion is drawing near, she should be watched and shut up during the night in a safe yard or loose box. If the mare, whether of the pure or common breed, be thus taken care of, and be in good health while in foal, little danger will attend the act of parturition. If there is false presentation of the fetus, or difficulty in producing it, it will be better to have recourse to a well-informed practitioner, than to injure the mother by the violent and injurious attempts that are often made to relieve her. The parturition being over, the mare should be turned into some well-sheltered pasture, with a hovel or shed to run into when she pleases ; and if she has foaled early, and grass is scanty, she should have a couple of feeds of grain daily. The breeder may depend upon it, that nothing is gained by starving the mother and stinting the foal at this time. It is the most important pe- riod of the life of the horse ; and if, from false economy, his growth is arrested, his puny form and want of endurance will ever after- wards testify the error that has been committed. The grain should be given in a trough on the ground, that the foal may par- take of it with the mother. When the new grass is plentiful, the quantity of corn may gradually be diminished. The mare will usually be found again at heat at or before the expiration of a month from the time of foaling, when, if she is- principally kept for breeding purposes, she may be put again to the horse. At the same time, also, if she is used for agricultural pur- poses, she may go again to work. The foal is at first shut in the sta- ble during the hours of work ; but as soon as it acquires sufficient strength to toddle after the mare, and especially when she is at slow work, it will be better for the foal and the dam that they should be together. The work will contribute to the health ol the mother ; the foal will more frequently draw the milk, and thrive better, and will be hardy and tractable, and gradually fa- miliarized with the objects among which it is afterwards to live. While the mother, however, is thus worked, she and the foal should be well fed ; and two feeds of corn, at least, should be added to the green food which they get when turned out after their work, and at night. In five or six months, according to the growth of the foal, it may be weaned. It should then be housed for three weeks or a month, or turned into some distant rick-yard. . There can be no better place for the foal than the latter, as affording, and that without trouble, both food and shelter. The mother should be put to harder work and have drier food. One or two urine-balls, 240 BREEDING BREAKING. or a physic-ball, will be useful, if the milk should be troublesome or she should pine after her foal. There is no principle of greater importance than the libera! feeding of the foal during the whole of his growth, and at this time in particular. Bruised oats and bran should form a consid- erable part of his daily provender. The farmer may be as- sured mat the money is well laid out which is expended on the li oerai nourishment of the growing colt ; yet while he is well fed. he should not be rendered delicate by excess of care. A racing colt is often stabled ; but one that is destined to be a hunter, a hackney, or an agricultural horse, should have a square rick, under the leeward side of which he may shelter him- self ; or a hovel, into which he may run at night, and out of the rain. The process of breaking-in should commence from the very period of weaning. The foal should be daily handled, par- tially dressed, accustomed to the halter when led about, and even tied up. The tractability, and good temper, and value of the horse, depend a great deal more upon this than breeders are aware. Everything should be done, as much as possible, by the man who feeds the colt, and whose management of him should be al- ways kind and gentle. There is no fault for which a breeder should so invariably discharge his servant as cruelty, or even harshness, towards the rising stock ; for the principle on which their after usefulness is founded, is early attachment to, and con- fidence in man, and obedience, implicit obedience, resulting prin- cipally from this. After the second winter the work of breaking-in may com- mence in good earnest. The colt may be bitted, and a bit selected that will not hurt his mouth, and much smaller than those in common use. With this he may be suffered to amuse himself, and to play, and to champ it for an hour, on a few suc- cessive days. Having become a little tractable, portions of the harness may be put upon him, concluding with the blind winkers ; and, a few days afterwards, he may go into the team. It would be better if there could be one horse before, and one behind him, besides the shaft horse. There should at first be the mere empty wagon Nothing should be done to him, except that he should have an occasional pat or kind word. The other horses will keep him moving, and in his place ; and no great time will pass, sometimes not even the first day, before he will begin to pull with the rest. The load may then be gradually increased. The agricultural horse is sometimes wanted to ride as well as to draw. Let bis first lesson be given when he is in the team SHE AXING. 24 1 Let his feeder, if possible, bt first put upon him. He will be too much hampered by his harness, and by the other horses, to make much resistance ; and, in the majority of cases, will quietly and at once submit. We need not to repeat, that no whip or spur should be used in giving the first lessons in riding. When he begins a little to understand his business, backing — I he most difficult part of his work — may be taught him ; first to back well without anything behind him, and then with a light cart, and afterwards with some serious load — always taking the greatest care not seriously to hurt his mouth. If the first lesson causes much soreness of the gums, the colt will not readily submit to a second. If he has been previously rendered tractable by kind usage, time and patience will do everything that can be wished. Some carters are in the habit of blinding the colt when teaching him to back. This may be necessary with a restive and obstinate one, but should be used only as a last resort. The colt having been thus partially broken-in, the necessity of implicit obedience must be taught him, and that not by severity, but by firmness and steadiness. The voice will go a great way, but the whip or the spur is sometimes indispensable — not so se verely applied as to excite the animal to resistance, but to con- vince him that we have the power to enforce submission. Few, it may almost be said, no horses, are naturally vicious. It is cruel usage which has first provoked resistance. That resistance has been followed by greater severity, and the stubbornness of the animal has increased. Open warfare has ensued, in which the man has seldom gained advantage, and the horse has been fre- quently rendered unserviceable. Correction may, or must be used, to enforce implicit obedience after the education has pro- ceeded to a certain extent, but the early lessons should be incul- cated with kindness alone. Young colts are sometimes very per- verse. Many days will occasionally pass before they will permit the bridle to be put on, or the saddle to be worn ; and one act ot harshness will double or treble this time : patience and kindness, however, will always prevail. On some morning, when he is in a better humor than usual, the bridle may be put on, or the sad- dle may be worn ; and, this compliance being followed by kind- ness and soothing on the part of the breaker, and no inconve- nience or pain being suffered by the animal, all resistance will be at an end. The same principles will apply to the breaking-in of the horse for the road or the chase. The handling, and some portion of in- struction, should commence from the time of weaning. The fu- ture tractability of the horse will much depend on this. At two years and a half, or three years, the regular process of breaking-in should commence. If it is delayed until the an.mal is four years K 10 242 BREAKING. old, his strength and obstinacy will be more difficult to overcome The plan usually pursued by the breaker cannot perhaps be much improved, except that there should be much more kindness and patience, and far less harshness and cruelty, than these persons are accustomed to exhibit, and a great deal more attention to the form and natural action of the horse. A headstall is put on the colt, and a cavesson (or apparatus to confine and pinch the nose) affixed to it, with long reins. He is first accustomed to the rein, then led round a ring on soft ground, and at length mounted and taught his paces. Next to preserving the temper and docility of the horse, there is nothing of so much importance as to teach him every pace, and every part of his duty, distinctly and thoroughly. Each must constitute a separate and sometimes long-continued lesson, and that taught by a man who will never suffer his pas- sion to get the better of his discretion. After the cavesson has been attached to the headstall, and the long reins put on, the colt should be quietly led about by the breaker — a steady boy following behind, by occasional threatening with the whip, but never by an actual blow, to keep him moving. When the animal follows readily and quietly, he may be taken to the ring, and walked round, right and left, in a very small cir- cle. Care should be taken to teach him this pace thoroughly, never suffering him to break into a trot. The boy with his whip may here again be necessary, but not a single blow should actu- ally fall. Becoming tolerably perfect in the walk, he should be quickened to a trot, and kept steadily at it ; the whip of the boy, if needful, urging him on, and the cavesson restraining him. These lessons should be short. The pace should be kept perfect, and distinct in each ; and docility and improvement rewarded with frequent ca- resses, and handfuls of corn. The length of the rein may now be gradually increased, and the pace quickened, and the time ex- tended, until the animal becomes tractable in these his first les- sons, towards the conclusion of which, crupper-straps, or some- thing similar, may be attached to the clothing. These, playing about the sides and flanks, accustom him to the flapping of the coat of the rider. The annoyance which they occasion will pass over in a day or two ; for when the animal finds that no harm comes to him, he will cease to regard them. Next comes the bitting. The bits should be large and smooth, and the reins buckled to a ring on either side of the pad. There are many curious and expensive machines for this purpose, but the simple rein will be quite sufficient. It should at first be slack, and then very gradually tightened. This will prepare for the more perfect manner in which the head will be afterwards got into its proper position, when the colt is accustomed to the saddle BREAKING. ^43 Occasionally the breaker should stand in front of the colt, and take hold of each side rein near to the mouth, and press upon it, and thus begin to teach him to stop and to back on the pressure of the rein, rewarding every act of docility, and not being too eager to punish occasional carelessness or waywardness. The colt may now be taken into the road or street, to be grad- ually accustomed to the objects among which his services will be required. Here, from fear or playfulness, a considerable de- gree of starting and shying may be exhibited. As little notice as possible should be taken of it. The same or a similar object should be soon passed again, but at a greater distance. If the colt still shies, let the distance be still farther increased until he takes no notice of the object. Then he may be gradually brought nearer to it, and this will be usually effected without the slight- est difficulty : whereas, had there been an attempt to force him close to it in the first instance, the remembrance of the contest would have been associated with every appearance of the object, and the habit of shying would have been established. Hitherto, with a cool and patient breaker, the whip may have been shown, but will scarcely have been used ; the colt must now, however, be accustomed to this necessary instrument of au- thority. Let the breaker walk by the side of the animal, and throw his right arm over his back, holding the reins in his left, occasionally quickening his pace, and at the moment of doing this, tapping the horse with the whip in his right hand, and at first very gently. The tap of the whip and the quickening of the pace will soon become associated in the mind of the animal. Ii necessary, these reminders may gradually fall a little heavier, and the feeling of pain be the monitor of the necessity of increased exertion. The lessons of reining in and stopping, and backing on the pressure of the bit, may continue to be practised at the same time. He may now be taught to bear the saddle. Some little cau- tion will be necessary at the first putting of it on. The breaker should stand at the head of the colt, patting him and engaging his attention, while one assistant, on the off-side, gently places the saddle on the back of the animal ; and another, on the near- side, slowly tightens the girths. If he submits quietly to this, as he generally will when the previous process of breaking-in has been properly conducted, the ceremony of mounting may be attempted on the following, or on the third day. The breaker will need two assistants in order to accomplish this. He will remain at the head of the colt, patting and making much of him. The rider will put his foot into the stirrup, and bear a little weight upon it, while the man on the off-side presses equally on the other stirrup-leather ; and, according to the do- 244 BREAKING CASTRATIOJX. cility of the animal, he will gradually increase the weight, until he balances himself on the stirrup. If the colt is uneasy or fearful, he should be spoken kindly to and patted, or a mouthful of grain be given to him ; but if he offers serious resistance, the lessons must terminate for that day. He may probably be in bet- ter humor on the morrow. When the rider has balanced himself for a minute or two, he may gently throw his leg over, and quietly seat himself in the saddle. The breaker will then lead the animal round the ring, the rider sitting perfectly still. After a few minutes he will take the reins, and handle them as gently as possible, and guide the horse by the pressure of them ; patting him frequently, and especially when he thinks of dismounting ; and, after having dismounted, offering him a little grain, or green feed. The use of the rein in checking him, and of the pressure of the leg and the touch of the heel in quickening his pace, will soon be taught, and his education will be nearly completed. The horse having thus far submitted himself to the breaker, these pattings and rewards must be gradually diminished, and implicit obedience mildly but firmly enforced. Severity will not often be necessary. In the great majority of cases it will be altogether uncalled for : but should the animal, in a moment of waywardness, dispute the command of the breaker, he must at once be taught that he is the slave of man, and that we have the power, by other means than those of kindness, to bend him to our will. The education of the horse should be that of the child. Pleasure is, as much as possible, associated with the early lessons ; but firmness, or, if need be, coercion, must establish the habit of obedience. Tyranny and cruelty will, more speediK m the horse than even in the child, provoke the wish to diso- bey ; and, on every practicable occasion, the resistance to com- mand. The restive and vicious horse is, in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred, made so by ill-usage, and not by nature. None, but those who will take the trouble to make the experiment, are aware how absolute a command the due admixture of firmne&s and kindness will soon give us over any horse. CASTRATION. The period at which this operation may be best performed de- pends much on the breed and form of the colt, and the purpose for which he is destined. For the common agricultural horse the age of four or five months will be the most proper time, or, at least before he is weaned. Few horses are lost when cut at that age. Care, however, should be taken that the weather is not too hot, nor the flies too numerous. li the horse is designed either for the carriage or for heavy CASTRATION. 245 draught, the farmer should not think of castrating him until he is at least a twelvemonth old ; and, even then, the colt should be carefully examined. If he is thin and spare about the neck and shoulders, and low in the withers, he will materially improve by remaining uncut another six months ; but if his fore-quarters are fairly developed at the age of a twelvemonth, the operation should not be delayed, lest he become heavy and gross before, and perhaps has begun too decidedly to have a will of his own. No specific age, then, can be fixed ; but the castration should be performed rather late in the spring or early in the autumn, when the air is temperate, and particularly when the weather is dry. No preparation is necessary for the sucking colt, but it may be prudent to bleed and to physic one of more advanced age. In the majority of cases, no after treatment will be necessary, except that the animal should be sheltered from intense heat, and more particularly from wet. In temperate weather, he will do much better running in the field, than nursed in a close and hot stable. The moderate exercise that he will take in grazing will be preferable to perfect inaction. The old method of opening the scrotum (testicle bag), on either side, and cutting off the testicles, and preventing bleeding by a temporary compression of the vessels, while they are seared with a. hot iron, must not, perhaps, be abandoned ; but there is no necessity of that extra pain, when the spermatic cord (the blood- vessels and the nerve) is compressed between two pieces of wood as tightly as in a vice, and there left until the following day, or until the testicle drops off. The practice of some farmers of twitching * their colts at an early period, exposes the animal to much unnecessary pain, and is accompanied with considerable danger., Another method of castration is by Torsion. An incision is made into the scrotum, and the vas deferens is exposed and divided. The artery is then seized by a pair of forceps contrived for the purpose, and twisted six or seven times round. It retracts without untwisting the coils, and bleeding ceases. The testicle is removed, and there is no sloughing or danger. The most pain- ful part of the operation — the operation of the firing-iron or the clams — is avoided, and the wound readily heals. f * Termed cording in the United States. — Am. Ed. \ Note by Mr. Spooner. — We agree with the author, that the old method of operating, by opening the scrotum with the knife, cutting the clams on the cord, and searing it off with the hot iron is as safe and unob- jectionable as any. We have, however, in performing this operation, found the u^e of chloroform very beneficial, both in removing all pain, and also preventing that severe struggling which often takes place, and which has sometimes been followed with very dangerous consequences. With this assistance we have safely performed the operation in seven minutes, with- out any pain to the animal. CHAPTER XII. THE FORE LEGS. We arrive now ac those parts of the frame which are most essentially connected with the action and value of the horse, and oftenest, and most annoyingly, the subjects of disease SPRAIN" OF THE SHOULDER. The muscles of the shoulder-blade are occasionally injured by some severe shock. This is effected ofteuer by a slip or side-fall, than by fair, although violent exertion. It is of considerable importance to be able to distinguish this shoulder-lameness from injuries of other parts of the fore extremity. There is not much tenderness, or heat, or swelling. If, on standing before the" horse, and looking at the size of the two shoulders, or rather their points, one should appear evidently larger than the other, this must not be considered as indicative of sprain of the muscles of the shoul- der. It probably arises from bruise of the point of the shoulder, which a slight examination will determine. In sprain of the shoulder the horse evidently suffers extreme pain while moving, and, the muscle underneath being inflamed and tender, he will extend it as little as possible. He will drag his toe along the ground. It is in the lifting of the foot that the shoulder is principally moved. If the foot is lifted high, let the horse be ever so lame, the shoulder is little, if at all affected. In shoulder-lameness, the toe alone rests on the ground. The circumstance which most of all characterises this affection is, that when the foot is lifted an 1 then brought considerably forward the horse will express very great pain, which he will not do if the lameness is in the foot or the leg. In sprain of the internal muscles of the shoulder, few local measures can be adopted. The horse should be bled from the vein on the inside of the arm (the plate vein), because the blood is then abstracted more immediately from the inflamed part. A dose of physic should be given, and fomentations applied, and principally on the inside of the arm, close to the chest, and the horse should be kept as quiet as possible. The injury is too SLANTING OF THE SHOULDER. 247 deeply seated for external stimulants to have very great effect, yet a blister will properly be resorted to, if the lameness is not speedily removed.^ SLANTING DIRECTION OF THE SHOULDER. It will be observed, that (see G and J, Fig. 1 .) the shoulder-blade and the lower bone of the shoulder are not connected together in a straight line, but form a very considerable angle with each other. This will be more evident from the following cut, which represents the fore and hind extremities in the situations which they occupy in the horse. Fig. 33. This angular construction of the limbs reminds us of the similar arrangement of the springs of a carriage, and the ease of motion, and almost perfect freedom from jolting, which art thereby obtained. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The symptoms of shoulder lameness as pointed out iu the text, are for the most part correct. A horse, however, never points in this disease, but will sometimes keep the lame limb further back than the other. The pain is almost entirely felt in motion, and not in sustaining the weight; whilst, in strains of the flexor tendons, there is no pain in extending the limb, but only when the weight comes upon it ; so that a horse, in the latter case, steps short with the sound leg and long with the lame one, and the very reverse in shoulder lameness. Bleeding from the arm, and mildly blistering the shoulder, generally succeeds in effecting a cure. 24 b SLANTING OF THE SHOULDER. The obliquity or slanting direction of the shoulder effects other very useful purposes. That the stride in the gallop, or the space passed over in the trot, may be extensive, it is necessary that the (ore part of the animal should be considerably elevated. The shoulder, by means of the muscles which extend from it to the inferior part of the limb, is the grand agent in effecting this. Had the bones of the shoulder been placed more upright than we see them, they could not then have been of the length which they now are, — their connection with the chest could not have been so secure, — and their movements upon each other would have been comparatively restricted. The slanting shoulder accomplishes a most useful object. The muscles extending from the shoulder-blade to the lower bone of the shoulder are the powers by which motion is given to the whole of the limb. The extent and energy of that motion depend much on the force exerted or the strength of the muscle; but there are circumstances in the relative situations of the dif- ferent bones which have far greater influence. Let it be supposed that, by means of a lever, some one is endeavoring to raise a certain weight. A is a lever, resting or turning on a pivot B ; C is the w r enrht to be raised ; and D is the power, or the situation at which the power is applied . If the strength is applied in the direction per- pendicular to the lever, as represented by the line E, the power which must be exerted can easily be calculated. Fig. 34. In proportion as the distance of the power from the pivot or centre of motion exceeds that of the weight from the same place, so will be the advantage gained. The power here is twice as far from the center as the weight is, and therefore advantage is gained in the proportion of two to one : or if the weight is equal to 2001bs., a force of lOOlbs. will balance it. If the direction in which the power is applied is altered, and it is in that of the line F, will lOOlbs. effect the purpose? No ; nothing like it. How, then, is the necessary power to be calculated ? The line of direction must be prolonged, until another line, falling perpen- dicularly from the lever, and commencing at the center of mo- tion, will cut it ; and the length of that line will give the actual SLANTING OF THE SHOULDER. 249 effect of the strength employed. Now, this new line is but half as long as the distance of the weight from the centre of motion, and therefore advantage is lost in the proportion of two to one ; or a strength equal to 4001bs. must be exerted to raise the 2001bs., and so in proportion to the deviation from the right or perpendic- ular line. Let the shoulder of the horse be considered. The point of the shoulder — the shoulder joint — is the pivot or centre of motion; the leg attached to the bone of the arm is the weight ; the shoulder-blade being more fixed is the part whence the power emanates ; and the muscles extending from the one to the other are the lines in which that power is exerted. These lines approach much more nearly to a perpendicular in the oblique than in the upright shoulder (see Fig. 33). In the upright one, the shoulder-blade and the bones of the arm are almost in a straight line, and the real action and power of the muscles are most strangely diminished. In this point of view the oblique shoulder is most important. It not only gives extensive action, but facility of action. The power ol the muscles is more than doubled by being exerted in a line approaching so much nearer to a per- pendicular. The oblique shoulder is less exposed to concussion, particularly n rapid action. The horse is less likely to trip. Nature, as if to supply the deficiency of action and of power in an upright shoulder, invariably accumulates on it more muscle, and there- fore the upright shoulder is proverbially thick and cloddy. Then, ought every horse to have an oblique shoulder ? No ! The question has relation to those horses that are designed to ride pleasantly, or from which extensive and rapid action is re- quired. In them it has been said that an oblique shoulder is indispensable : but there are others which are seldom ridden ; whose pace is slow, and who have nothing to do but to throw as much weight as possible into the collar. To them an upright shoulder is an advantage, because its additional thickness gives them additional weight to throw into the collar, which the power of their hinder quarters is fully sufficient to accomplish ; and because the upright position of the shoulder gives that direction to the collar which enables the horse to act upon every part of it, and that inclination of the traces which will enable his weight or power to be most advantageously employed. An improved breed of our heavy draught-horses has of late years been attempted, and with much success. Sufficient up- rightness of shoulder is retained for the purposes of draught, while a slight degree of obliquity has materially quickened the pace and improved the appearance. k 2/50 MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER. CUT / THE MUSCLES ON THE OUTSIDE OF THE SHOULDER. a and b t in Fig. 35, represent a portion of the Trapezius mus- r\e. Its use is to elevate and support the shoulder-blade — to Y\a 35. raise it and likewise to draw it backward. A portion of it is represented as turned back, to show the muscles beneath. A moment's consid- eration will convince the reader that al- though a low fore- hand and thick shoul- der are very properly objected to, yet still some fullness and fleshiness are necessa- ry, even about the withers ; otherwise, although there may be height of withers, and obliquity of shoul- der, to give extensive action, there will not be sufficient muscular power to work the machine with either quickness or continu- ance. At c is a portion of the levator humeri (the raiser of the shoul- der). It is a muscle of immense power and great utility, raising and drawing forward the shoulder and the arm, or, when these are fixed, turning the head and neck if one only acts, and de- pressing them if the muscles on both sides act at the same time. At d is a portion of the serratus magnus muscle, between the shoulder and side of the chest, and constituting the bulk of the lower part of the neck. At e is a small portion of the splenius muscle, f, represents a muscle sometimes described as a portion of the levator humeri MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER. 251 At g is a portion of the sterno mazillaris, or muscle common Co the fore part of the chest and the lower jaw. h designates the principal portion of this muscle, extending from the shoulder to the humerus, and employed in drawing this bone towards the shoulder-blade, and bending the whole of the limb. The muscle i, antea spinatus, is situated on the outer and anterior part of the shoulder, below and behind the muscle next mentioned ; and its office is to extend the lower bone of tlv shoulder on the shoulder-blade. The muscle j, postea spinatus, behind the spine or ridge, occupies that space of the shoulder. It draws this bone outward and upward. At k, is a muscle common to the breast and the shoulder-blade, and called the pectoralis parvus. Its action, in common with that of a larger muscle, seen at m, the great pectoral, is to draw the head of the shoulder backward, and also the lower part of the shoulder-blade, and to give the latter a more upright position. At q, is the tendon of a very important muscle, the extensor longus of the arm. At r and s, are the three divisions of another muscle concerned in the same office. 1, 2 and 3 designate the places of the principal artery, nerve, and vein of the leg ; 4 gives the subcutaneous vein running within the arm ; and 5 the subcutaneous vein of the side of the chest. Fig. 36 represents the muscles on the inside of the shoulder and fore-arm. a is a very prominent one. It is called the pectoralis transversus (the muscle cross- ing the breast). The use of this muscle is obvious and important. It binds the arm to the side of the horse ; it keeps the legs straight before the horse when he is at speed, that the weight of the body may be received on them in a di- rection most easy and safe to the horse and to the rider, and most advantageous for the full play of all the muscles con- cerned in progression. Considering the unevenness of surface over which a horse often passes, and the rapid turnings which are sometimes necessary, these muscles have enough to do ; and when the animal is pushed beyond his strength, and these muscles are wearied, and the fore-iegs spread out, and the horse is " all abroad,'" the confused and unpleas- ant manner of going, and the sudden l^lling-ofT in speed, are well known to 252 THE ARM. every rider. The lines above represent, in the order from the front, the principal nerves, arteries, and veins of the shoulder and arm ; and, on the muscles, k represents the principal sub- cutaneous vein of the inside of the arm, and i the artery by which it is accompanied. THE HUMERUS, OR LOWER BONE OF THE SHOULDER. Forming a joint with the shoulder-blade, at the point of the shoulder, is the humerus. It is a short, strong bone, slanting backward in an opposite direction to the shoulder-blade. At the upper part it has a large round head, received into the shallow cavity of the shoulder-blade. In a well- formed horse this bone can scarcely be too short. THE ARM. The arm extending from the elbow to the knee (see K and L, Fig. 1, and also Fig. 35), consists, in the young horse, of two dis- tinct bones. The long and front bone, called the radius,, is nearly straight, receiving into its upper end the lower heads of the hu- merus ; and the lower end corresponding with the upper layer of the bones of the knee. The short and hinder bone is called the ulna. It has a very long and powerful projection, received be- tween the heads of the humerus, and called the elbow ; it then stretches down, narrowing by degrees (see L, Fig. 1 , and the Fig. 35), to below the middle of the front bone, where it terminates in a point. The two bones are united together by cartilage and ligament ; but these are by degrees absorbed and changed to bone, and before the horse becomes old the whole of the arm consists of one bone only. The strength of the horse, so far as his fore limbs are concerned, resides principally in those muscles which give size to the arm. A full and swelling fore-arm is the characteristic of every thorough-bred horse. Whatever other good points the animal may possess, if the arm is narrow in front and near the shoulder, flat on the side, and altogether deficient in muscular appearance, that horse is radically defective. He can neither raise his knee for rapid action, nor throw his legs sufficiently forward. The arm should likewise be long. In proportion to the length of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is capable ; and in proportion also to the degree of contraction will be the extent of motion in the limb beneath. Enlargements sometimes appear about the elbow, either the consequence of a violent, blow, or irom the calks of the shoes in- juring this part, when the horse sleeps with his legs doubled under him. If a seton is passed through the tumor, it will sometime THE KNEE. 253 rapidly diminish, and even disappear ; but if it is of considerable magnitude, the skin should be opened along the middle of the swelling, and the tumor dissected out. The elbow-joint is sometimes punctured, either accidentally, or through the brutality of the groom or carter. The swelling is often rapid and extensive, and fatal inflammation may ensue. Rest, and the closure of the wound, are the most important con- siderations. There are other muscles of the fore-arm employed in extending the limb. At x, Fig. 35, is the principal one, called the extensor metacarpi. Its office is to extend the leg. The next muscle in situation and importance is seen at w, and called the extensor pedis. At u, Fig. 35, is the tendon of another extensor muscle, and at z a curious oblique one, passing over the tendon of x, confining it in its situation, and likewise assisting in extending or straight- ening the leg. The muscles employed in bending the leg are both numerous and powerful. Two of the superficial ones are given in Fig. 36.- The first is at t, Fig. 35 ; it is also seen at b, Fig. 35. It is called the flexor medius metacarpi, because its office is to bend the leg. The other is seen at v, Fig. 35. It is called the flexor metacarpi externum, and is also designed to flex the leg. The internal flexor is seen at e. Its office is also to bend the leg. A portion of one of the most powerful of the flexor muscles, and powerful indeed they must be, is delineated at c, Fig. 35. It is the flexor brachii. It is the muscle by which, almost alone, the whole of the leg: below the arm is bent, and carried forward and upward. [There are other muscles of the leg and foot, not necessary to be named here.] THE KNEE. To avoid the effects of concussion in so exposed a part, six dis- tiuct bones, each covered above and below with a thick coating of cartilage, connected together by strong ligaments, but separated by interposed fluids and membranes, form the knee. The knee should be broad. It should present a very consider- able width, compared with the arm above, or the shank below. In proportion to the breadth of the knee is the space for the at- tachment of muscles, and for the accumulation of ligamentous expansions and bands. In proportion to the breadth of the knee there will be more strength ; and likewise the direction of some muscles will be less oblique, and the course of others will be more 264 BROKEN KNEES. removed from the centre of motion, in either of which cases mu>-h power will be gained. BROKEN KNEES. The treatment of broken knees is a subject of considerable mportance, for many horses are sadly blemished, and others are destroyed, by wounds in the knee-joint. The horse, when falling, naturally throws his knees forward ; they receive all his weight, and are sometimes very extensively lacerated. The first thing to be done is, by very careful washing with warm water, to cleanse the wound from all gravel and dirt. It must then be ascertained whether the joint is penetrated. The grating of the probe on one .of the bones of the knee, or the depth to which the probe enters the wound, will too plainly indicate that the joint has been opened. Should any doubt exist, a linseed-meal poultice must be applied. This will at least act as a fomenta- tion to the wound, and will prevent or abate inflammation ; and when, twelve hours afterwards, it is taken off, the synovia or joint-ail, in the form of a glairy, yellowish, transparent fluid, will be seen, if the capsular ligament has been penetrated. Should doubt remain after the first poultice, a second ought to be applied. It having been ascertained that the interior of the joint is not injured, attention must be paid to the wound that is actually made. The horse should wear a cradle to prevent his getting at the wound. A stimulating application — the common black-oil of the farrier is as good as any — should be lightly applied every day, until healthy pus is produced on the wound, and then a little friar's balsam will probably effect a cure. The opening of the joint, however, being ascertained, the first and immediate care is to close the orifice ; for the fluid which separated and lubricated the bones of the knee being suffered to escape, they will be brought into contact with and will rub upon each other ; the delicate membrane with which they are covered will be highly inflamed ; the constitution will be speedily affected, and a degree of fever will ensue that will destroy the horse : while, in the meantime, of all the tortures that can be- inflicted on the poor animal, none can equal that which accom- panies inflammation of the membranes lining the joints. The manner of closing the orifice must be left to the judg- ment of the veterinary surgeon, who alone is capable of properly treating such a case. It may be effected by a compress enclos- ing the whole of the wound, and not to be removed for many days ; or it may be attempted by the old and generally successful method of applying the hot iron over the wound, and particularly BROKEN KNEEb. 255 over the spot where the ligament appears to be lacerated. A poultice may then be placed on the part, and the case treated as a common wound. The surgeon will find no difficulty in de- termining whether the sharp edge of the common firing-iron should be used — as would be the case if the laceration is con siderable, or whether the budding-iron should be resorted to After the use of the cautery, the application of a blister may, in some cases, be serviceable. Should the joint-oil continue to flow, the iron may be applied a second, or even a third time. By its application, so much swelling is produced on the imme- diate puncture, and in the neighboring parts, as mechanically to close up and plug the orifice. If, however, the opening into the joint is extensive, and the joint-oil continues to flow, and the horse is evidently suffering much pain, humanity will dictate that he should be destroyed The case is hopeless. A high degree of fever will ere long carry him off, or the inflammation will cause a deposit of matter in the cavity of the joint that will produce incurable lameness.^ * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The knee is subject to a variety of injuries from falls. Sometimes, though the wound is large and apparently formidable, it is yet but an ordinary wound, and will heal readily with common treat- ment. At other times, partly from the width and extent of the wound, and partly from the restlessness of the animal, a wide and deep fissure takes place, which opens every time the horse bends his knee, and the sides of the chap growing at the same time, the wound becomes deeper and wider, and is extremely difficult to heal. The best mode of treatment is to cut 8 way the sides and edges of the fisssure to its full depth, thereby convert ing it into one simple wound, which may be healed with little difficulty. When the joint is opened the treatment must be conducted on very differ- ent principles from that of an ordinary wound; whereas, in the latter case, fomentations and poultices are very proper, in order to cleanse the wound, and to keep down inflammation. When the joint is opened, these measures are to be avoided, as they increase irritation, by keeping open the joint, and encouraging the flow of synovia (joint-oil), and the entrance of the air. In a case of open joint, our principal endeavor must be to close the joint with all possible despatch ; but even with judicious treatment our chances of success will materially depend on one or two circumstances, viz., the size of the wound, the cavity opened, and the fact as to whether inflammation is already set up in the joint or not. If the latter be the case, our chances of success are very slight, for the joint will, in all probability, become an- chvlosed or stiff. We may in great measure ascertain the existence of inflammation by the animal placing the limb in a bent position, and keep- ing it in motion by pawing from uneasiness. There are various methods of closing an open joint. A simple, and often a very effective one, is by means of a solution of bichloride of mercury in a solution of spirits of wine, and applied to the wound several times a day by means of a fea- ther, till the synovia ceases to flow. Another is the application of the hot iron. The object in both these modes is to coagulate the synovia, so as to form a temporary plug to the joint, till nature has time to close it more permanently. If either of these methods are adopted, it will not do to apply a poultice afterwards, as stated in the text as this would wash 256 THE LEG SPLINT. THE LEG. The part of the limb between the knee and the fetlock consists of three bones — a large one before, called the cannon or shank, and two smaller or spli?it bones behind (see N, Fig. 1). The smaller bones are placed behind the larger ones on either le. They are united to the larger bone by a ligamentous sub- stance. They reach from one-half to two-thirds of the length of the shank-bone, and, through their whole extent, are united to it by this substance ; but, from the animal being worked too soon, or too violently, inflammation ensues — bony matter is de- posited in the room of the ligamentous, and a bony union takes place instead of the natural one. There is no doubt that the ease of motion is somewhat lessened by this substitution ol bone, but other elastic principles are probably called into more power- ful action, and the value of the horse is not perceptibly impaired, although it is hard to say what secret injury may be done to the neighboring joints, and the cause of which, the lameness not appearing until a distant period, is not suspected. In this process, however, mischief does often immediately ex- tend to the neighboring parts. The disposition to deposit bone reaches beyond the space between the larger and smaller bones of the leg, and a tumor, first callous, and afterwards bony, is found, with part of its base resting on the line of union between these bones. This is called a SPLINT. The splint is invariably found on the outside of the small bones and generally on the inside of the leg (c, Fig. 41). The inner bone receives the whole weight transmitted to the small bone of the knee ; and the absurd practice of many smiths of raising the outer heel of the shoe to an extravagant degree, throws still more of the weight of the horse on the inner splint-bone. Bony tumors occasionally appear on other parts of the shank bone, being the consequence of violent blows or other external injuries, and are commonly called splints. away the plug which we have sought to form. Another method of treat- ment, is to apply compresses of bandages and paste, letting them continue on for a length of time, so as to close the joint mechanically. Over these bundages we may apply linseed poultices with advantage, as by so doing we keep down inflammation without washing coagulated synovia from the wound. By this means we may succeed even in formidable wounds, if in- flammation has not been previously set up in the joint. It is very desirable that the horse should keep the limb in a straight position; lying down should therefore be avoided, and it is often necessary to support the ani mal in si hilts. SPLINT SPEEDY CUT 257 When the splint of either sort is forming, the horse is frequently lame, for the periosteum or membrane covering the bone is pain- fully stretched ; but when this membrane has accommodated it- self to the tumor that extended it, the lameness subsides, and al- together disappears, unless the splint be in a situation in which it interferes with the action of some tendon or ligament, or in the immediate neighborhood of a joint. Pressing upon a ligament or tendon, it may cause inflammation of those substances ; or, being close to a joint, it may interfere with its action. Splints, then, do not necessarily cause unsoundness, and may not lessen in the slightest degree the action or value of the horse. All depends on their situation. The treatment of splints, if it is worth while to meddle with them, is exceedingly simple. The hair should be closely shaved off round the tumor ; a little strong mercurial ointment rubbed in for two days ; and this followed by an active blister. If the splint is of recent formation, it will generally yield to this, or to a second blister. Should it, however, resist these applications, it not unfrequently happens, that it will afterwards, and at no great distance of time, begin rapidly to lessen, and quite disappear. There is also a natural process by which the greater part of splints disappear when the horse grows old. The hydriodate of potash, made into an ointment with lard, and a small quantity of mercurial ointment being added, will frequently cause the disappearance of a splint of either sort.* Speedy Cut. — The inside of the leg, immediately under the knee, and extending to the head of the inner splint-bone, is sub- ject to injury from what is termed the speedy cut. A horse with high action, and in the fast trot, violently strikes this part, either with his hoof or the edge of the shoe. Sometimes bony enlarge- ment is the result ; at others, great heat and tenderness ; and the laain from the blow seems occasionally to be so great, that the norse drops as if he were shot. The only remedy is to take care that no part of the shoe projects beyond the foot ; and to let the inner side of the shoe — except the country is very deep, or the horse used for hunting — have but one nail, and that near the toe. This part of the hoof, being unfettered with nails, will expand when it comes in contact with the ground, and contract when in * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The best remedy for splints is unquestionably stibcutaceous 'periosteotomy, an operation which consists in making a small incision through the skin at the lower part of the splint, and passing up a small knife made for the purpose under the skin, and so dividing the peri- osteum, as the membrane which covers the bone is termed. This relieves the tension, and thus puts a stop to the irritation, and its consequence, the bony deposition. A small seton is left in the wound for a fortnight, which keeps it open and produces some counter irritation. J i 17 258 SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. air and relieved from the pressure of the weight oi the body ; and, although this contraction is to no great extent, it will be sufficient to carry the foot harmlessly by the leg. Care should likewise be taken that the shoe is of equal thickness at the heel and the toe, and that the bearing is equal on both sides. Tied in Below the Knee. — Immediately under the knee, is one of those ligamentous rings by which the tendons are so use- fully bound down and secured ; but if the hinder bone of the knee, the trapezium, described at p. 250, is not sufficiently prom- inent, this ring will confine the flexor tendons of the foot too tightly, and the leg will be very deficient in depth under the knee. This is called being tied in below the knee (b, Fig. 41). Every horseman recognizes it as a most serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and most assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot be ridden far and fast, without serious sprain of the back sinews. There are few more serious defects than this tying-in of the tendons immediately below the knee. The fore- leg may be narrow in front, but it must be deep at the side, in order to render the horse valuable ; for then only will the tendons have free action, and the muscular force be exerted in the most advantageous direction. There are few good race-horses whose legs are not deep below the knee. If there are exceptions, it is because their exertion, although violent, is but of short continuance. In a perfect leg, and towards its lower part, there should be three distinct and perfect projections visible to the eye, as well as perceptible by the finger — the sides of the shank-bone being the most forward of the three ; next, the suspensory ligament ; and, hindermost of all, the flexor tendons. When these are not to be distinctly seen or felt, or there is considerable thickening about them and between them (d, Fig. 41), and the leg is round instead Df flat and deep, there has been what is commonly, but improp- erly, called^ SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. These tendons are enclosed in a sheath of dense cellular sub- stance, in order to confine them in their situation, and to defend them from injury. Between the tendon and the sheath, there is * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We cannot agree with the author when he says that there are few good race-horses but what, are deep in the leg below the knee. Very many first class race- horses have very faulty fore-legs, being slight and tottering below the knee. It is well known to trainers that such legs often stand their work very well, for race horses require strength rather in the extensors than in the flexors of the limb. Their action should be long and low, not high and round, which high withers and strong flexor muscles are calculated to produce. Thus what would be a grievous fault in alnvwt every other kind of horse, is not, with a horse kept purely for the turf. SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. 259 a mucous fluid to prevent friction ; but when the horse has been over-worked, or put to sudden or violent exertion, the tendon presses upon the delicate membrane lining the sheath, and in- flammation is produced. A different fluid is then thrown out, which coagulates, and adhesions are formed between the tendon and the sheath, and the motion of the limb is more difficult and painful. At other times, from violent or long-continued exertion, some of the fibres which confine the tendons are ruptured. A slight injury of this nature is called a sprain of the back-sinews or tendons ; and, when it is more serious, the horse is said to have broken down. It should be remembered, however, that the ten- don can never be sprained, because it is inelastic and incapable of extension ; and the tendon, or its sheath, are scarcely ever ruptured, even in what is called breaking down. The first injury is confined to inflammation of the sheath, or rupture of a few of the attaching fibres. This inflammation, however, is often very great, the pain intense, and the lameness excessive. The anguish expressed at every bending of the limb, and the local swelling and heat, will clearly indicate the seat of injury. In every serious affection of this kind, care should be taken that the local inflammation does not produce general disturbance of the system ; and, therefore, the horse should be bled and phys- icked. The bleeding may be at the toe, by which an important local, as well as general, effect will be produced. The vessels of the heart will be relieved, while fever will be prevented. [For directions for bleeding at the toe, see Art. "Bleeding," p. 190.] As a local application, no hot farrier's oil should come near the part, but the leg should be well fomented with warm water two or three times in the day, and half an hour at each time. Be- tween the fomentations, the leg should be enclosed in a poultice of linseed-meal. Any herb that pleases the owner may be added to the fomentation, or vinegar or Goulard's extract to the poultice ; for the beneficial effect of both depends simply on the warmth of the water and the moisture of the poultice. All stimulating ap- plications will infallibly aggravate the mischief. The horse beginning to put his foot better to the ground, and to bear pressure on the part, and the heat having disappeared, the object to be accomplished is changed. Recurrence of the inflam- mation must be prevented, the enlargement must be got rid of, and the parts must be strengthened. The two latter purposes cannot be better effected than by using an elastic bandage — one of thin flannel will be the best. This will sustain and support the limb, while by few means are the absorbents sooner induced to take up the effused coagulable matter of which the swelling is composed, than by moderate pressure. If the bandage is kept wet with vinegar — to each pint of which a quarter of a pint of 260 SPRAIN OF THE BACK-SINEWS. spirit of wine has been added — the skin will be slightly stimu- lated and contracted, and the cold produced by the constant evap oration will tend to subdue the remaining - and deep-seated inflam mation. This bandage should be daily tightened in proportion as the parts are capable of bearing increased pressure, and the treat- ment should be persisted in for a fortnight. If, at the expiration of that period, there is no swelling, tenderness, or heat, the horse may gradually, and very cautiously, be put to his usual work. Should there, however, remain the slightest lameness or con- siderable enlargement, the leg must be blistered, and, indeed, it would seldom be bad practice to blister after every case of severe sprain, for the inflammation may lie deep in the sheath of the tendons, and the part once sprained may long remain weak, and subject to renewed injury, not only from unusual, but even ordi- nary exertion. If a blister is resorted to, time should be given for it to produce its gradual and full effect, and the horse should be afterwards turned out for one or two months. We must here be permitted to repeat, that a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remains about the part, otherwise the slightest injury may be, and often is, converted into incurable lameness. Very severe sprains, or much oftener, sprains badly treated, may require the application of the cautery. If from long-con- tinued inflammation the structure of the part is materially altered — if the swelling is becoming callous, or the skin is thick ened and prevents the free motion of the limb, no stimulus short of the heated iron will be sufficient to rouse the absorbents to remove the injurious deposit. The firing should be applied in straight lines, because the skin, contracting by the application of the cautery, and gradually regaining its elastic nature, will thus form the best bandage over the weakened part. It should likewise be as deep as it can be applied without penetrating the skin. Here, even more particularly than in the blister, time should be given for the full action of the firing. Many weeks pass away before it is perfectly accomplished ; and, after firing, the horse should have at least a six months', and it would be better if he could be given a twelve months' run at grass.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — In the original description of the anatomy of these parts in the text there are one or two omissions which it is necessary to supply. The office of these tendons is two-fold, viz., to flex the limb and also to sustain a great portion of the animal's weight. They therefore act both as sinews and as ligaments. In the latter office they are greatly as- sisted by a strong ligamentous substance which is attached to the common bone above, and to the perforans tendon below, for which, indeed, it formg a sheath. In those strains of the tendons where the enlargement takes place, just under the knee, this ligament is the seat of mischief; and the effect is, if not early subdued, to cause a contraction of the sinews, and con- WIND-GALLS. 2tl In examining a horse for the purchase, the closest attention should be paid to the appearance of the flex or tendons. Li there is any thickening of the substance around them, it shows that the horse has been strained, and is not sound. He has been patched up for awhile, but will fail again when severe exertion is required from him. WIND-GALLS. In the neighborhood of the fetlock there are occasionally found considerable enlargements, oftener on the hind-leg than the fore- one, which are denominated, ivind-galls, (e, Fig. 41). Between the tendons and other parts, and wherever the tendons are ex- posed to pressure or friction, and particularly about their ex- tremities, little bags or sacs are placed, containing and suffering to ooze slowly from them a mucous fluid to lubricate (make slippery) the parts. From undue pressure, and that most fre- eequently produce first a straight or knuckling, and afterwards an over shot fetlock, so that the animal is rendered useless, and requires, in order to restore him to any degree of usefulness, the performance of an opera- tion denominated Division of the Flexor tendons, the purpose of which is actually to lengthen the sinews, and thus restore the fetlock to its original position. The operation is performed midway between the knee and the fetlock, there being there no sheath of any consequence, and no synovial cavity to to be opened. The tendons being divided recede to the extent of from one to two inches, which space is, in the course of a month, filled up with new tendinous substance thrown out from the divided extremities of the sinews. In the ordinary strains of the flexor tendons the seat of injury is usually either midway between the knee and the fetlock, or somewhat nearer the latter joint than the former. There is every possible variety as to the amount of injury, varying from a slight lameness and a trivial enlargement to a very considerable swelling, and excessive pain, inflammation, and lameness. It has been doubted whether the sinews themselves are actually enlarged, many supposing that the swelling is confined to their sheathy in- vestments. The writer, however, is assured from numerous dissections, as well as from the operation before alluded to of dividing the sinews, that they actually become both inflamed and enlarged. When the lameness and enlargement are excessive, the mischief is de- nominatea in racing stables a break-down ; but in such instances this serious mischief is nearly always preceded by a slight strain, which is allowed to pass either unobserved or neglected, for we often find that no men are so careless and neglectful in this respect as those who are intrusted with the most valuable of all horses. In these very severe cases the most energetic measures should be adopted, such as copious bleeding from the arm, repeated if necessary once or twice ; constant Avar m fomentations for some hours at a time; physic, and after some days, cold applications to the leg, continued without inter- mission. By such treatment, the writer has succeeded in restoring the animal to hunting work, when strained to such a degree as to be incapable of standing on the leg for a week. 262 WIND-GALLS. quently caused by violent action and straining of the tendons, or, often, from some predisposition about the horse, these little sacs are injured. They take on inflammation, and sometimes become large and hardened. There are few horses perfectly tree from them. When they first appear, and until the inflamma- tion subsides, they may be accompanied by some degree of lameness ; but otherwise, except when they attain a great size, they do not interfere with the action of the animal, or cause any considerable unsoundness. The farriers used to suppose that they contained wind — hence their name, wind-galls ; and hence the practice of opening them, by which dreadful inflammation was often produced, and many a valuable horse destroyed. It is not uncommon for wind-galls entirely to disappear in aged horses. A slight wind-gall will scarcely be subjected to treatment ; but if these tumors are numerous and large, and seem to impede the motion of the limb, they may be attacked first by bandage. The rollers should be of flannel, and soft pads should be placed on each of the enlargements, and bound down tightly upon them. The bandage should also be wetted with the lotion recommended for sprain of the back-sinews. The wind-gall will often diminish or disappear by this treatment, but will too fre- quently return when the horse is again hardly worked. A blis- ter is a more effectual, but too often temporary remedy. Wind- galls will return with the renewal of work. Firing is still more certain, if the tumors are sufficiently large and annoying to jus- tify our having recourse to measures so severe ; for it will not only effect the immediate absorption of the fluid, and the reduc- tion of the swelling, but, by contracting the skin, will act as a permanent bandage, and therefore prevent the reappearance of the tumor. The iodine and mercurial ointments have occasion- ally been used with advantage in the proportion of three parts of the former to two of the latter.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Numerous dissections of these wind-galls have enabled us to give a different explanation from that stated in the text. They appear to be of two kinds, those situated between the suspensory ligaments and the flexor tendons, and which are the most common, and those formed between the suspensory ligaments and the bone in front, in each case immediately above the fetlock joint. Now the former wind- galls consist in an extension of the investment of the sheath of the flexor perforans formed for it by the perforatus, and the latter a distension of the capsular ligaments of the joint itself. In each a synovial cavity is effected, and consequently the wind-gall cannot be opened without considerable dan- ger. They rarely occasion lameness unless attended with considerable inflammation or ossification of the neighboring parts, or a solidification of the synovia (joint oil). When this is the case the treatment advised in the text should be adopted. THE PASTERNS. 203 THE PASTERNS Fig. 37. kpra a The shank-bone. b The upper and larger pastern-bone. c The sessamoid-bone. d The lower or smaller pastern-bone. e The navicular or shuttle-bone. f The coffi n-bone, or bone of the foot. g The suspensory ligament, inserted into the sessamoid-bone. h A continuation of the suspensory ligament, inserted into the smaller pastern- bone. t The small inelastic ligament, tying down the sessamoid-bone to the larger pastern -bone. k A long ligament reaching from the pastern-bone to the knee. / The extensor tendon inserted into both the pasterns and the coffin-bone. m The tendon of the performing flexor inserted into the coffin-bone, after having passed over the navicular bone. n The seat of the navicular joint lameness. The inner or sensible frog. p The cleft of the horny frog. q A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the smaller pastern. r A ligament uniting the navicular bone to the coffin-bone. s The sensible sole, between the coffin-bone and the horny sole. 1 The horny sole. it The crust or wall of the foot. v The sensible laminae to which the crust is attached. to The coronary ring of the crust. x The covering of the coronary ligament from which the crust is secreted. z Place of bleeding at the toe. 264 THE PASTERNS. At the back of the shank just below the knee, and in the space between the splint bones, is the suspensory ligament, admirably adapted to prevent concussion. It originates from the head of the shank-bone, and is inserted in the sessamoids. The pasterns (see Fig. 37) are united to the shank in an oblique direction, dif- fering in degree in the different breeds of horses, and in each adapt- ed to the purpose for which that breed was designed. The weight falls upon the pastern in the direction of the shank-bone, and the pastern being set on obliquely, a portion of that weight must ue communicated to the sessamoids. Much concussion is saved by the yielding of the pasterns, in consequence of their oblique direc- tion ; and the concussion which would be produced by that por- tion of weight which falls on the sessamoid bones is completely destroyed, for there is no bone underneath to receive it. They are suspended by this ligament — an elastic ligament, which gradually yields to, and is lengthened by, the force impressed upon it, and in this gradual yielding and lengthening, materially lessening, or generally preventing, all painful or dangerous con- cussion. The length and obliquity of the pastern vary in the different breeds of horses, and on it depends the elastic action of the animal, and the easiness of his paces. The pastern must be long in pro- portion to its obliquity, or the fetlock will be too close to the ground, and, in rapid action, come violently into contact with it. In proportion as the pastern is oblique or slanting, two conse- quences will follow, less weight will be thrown on the pastern, and more on the sessamoid, and, in that proportion, concussion will be prevented. Every advantage, however, has, to a certain extent, its corre- sponding disadvantage. The long, slanting pastern has less strength, and will be more subject to strains. The long and slanting pastern is advantageous in the race- horse, from the springiness of action and greater extent of stride by which it is accompanied. A less degree of it is given in the nunter who is to unite continuance of exertion with ease of pace. For the hackney there should be sufficient obliquity to give pleas- antness of going, but not enough to endanger continuance and strength. In the cart-horse the pasterns are short and upright Except a horse for general purposes, and particularly for riding, is very hardly used, a little too much obliquity is a far less evi] than a pastern too upright. While the jolting of the upright pas- tern is an insufferable nuisance to the rider, it is injurious and most unsafe to the horse, and produces many diseases in the feet and legs, and particularly ringbone, ossification of the cartilages and contracted feet. SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT FETLOCK GROGGINESS. 265 INJURIES TO THE SUSPENSORY LIGAMENT. The suspensory ligament is sometimes strained and even rup- tured by extraordinary exertion. The sessamoids, which in their natural state are suspended by it, and from which function its name is derived, are in the latter case let down, and the fetlock almost touches the ground. This is generally mistaken for rup- ture of the flexor tendon ; but one circumstance will sufficiently demonstrate that it is the suspensory ligament which is concerned, viz..: that the horse is able to bend his foot. Rupture of this lig ament is a bad, and almost desperate case. The horse is frequently lame for life, and never becomes perfectly sound. Keeping him altogether quiet, bandaging the leg, and putting on a high-heeled shoe, will afford the most probable means of relief. The common injury to this ligament is sprain, indicated by lameness, and swelling, and heat, more or less severe in propor- tion as the neighboring parts are involved. This will sometimes yield to rest and cooling treatment ; but if the ca^e is obstinate, t will be necessary to have recourse to firing. THE FETLOCK. The fetlock-joint is a very complicated one, and finm the stress which is laid on it, and its being the principal seat of motion be- Ioav the knee, it is particularly subject to injury. There are not many cases of sprain of the back-sinew that are not accompanied by inflammation of the ligaments of this joint ; and numerous supposed cases of sprain higher up are simple affection? of the fet- lock. It requires a great deal of care, and some experience, to distinguish the one from the other. The heat about the part, and the point at which the horse least endures the pressure of the finger, will be the principal guides. Occasionally, by the appli- cation of cooling lotions, the inflammation may be subdued, but, at other times, the horse suffers dreadfully, and is unable to stand A. serious affection of the fetlock-joint demands treatment more prompt and severe than that of the sheaths of the tendons. GROGGINESS. The peculiar knuckling of the fetlock-joint, and the tottering of the whole of the fore-leg, known by the name of grogginess, and which is so often seen in old and over-worked horses, is seldom an affection of either the fetlock or the pastern-joints simply. In deed it is difficult to fix on any particular joint, unless it is that which is deep in the foot, and where the flexor tendon runs over L 266 CUTTING THE PASTERNS. the navicular bone. It seems oftenest to be a want of power in the ligaments of the joints generally, produced by frequent and severe sprains, or by ill-judged and cruel exertion. Professor Stewart very truly says, that "it is common among all kinds of fast workers, and long journeys at a fast pace will make almost any horse groggy. Bad shoeing and want of stable care may help to increase, but never can alone produce grogginess. It is one of the evils of excessive work." In the majority of cases it admits of no remedy.* CUTTING. The .inside of the fetlock is often bruised by the shoe or the hoof of the opposite foot. Many expedients used to be tried to remove this ; the inside heel has been raised and lowered, and the out- side raised and lowered ; and sometimes one operation has suc- ceeded, and sometimes the contrary ; and there was no point so involved in obscurity, or so destitute of principles to guide the practitioner. The most successful remedy, and that which in the great majority of cases supersedes all others, is Mr. Turner's shoe, of equal thickness from heel to toe, and having but one nail, and that near the toe on the inside of the shoe ; care being taken that the shoe shall not extend beyond the edge of the crust, and that the crust shall be rasped a little at the quarters. There are some defects, however, in the natural form of the horse, which are the causes of cutting, and which no contrivance will remedy ; as when the legs are placed too near to each other, or when the feet are turned inward or outward. A horse with these defects should be carefully examined at the inside of the fet- lock, and if there are any sore or callous places from cutting, there will be sufficient reason for rejecting the animal. Some horses will cut only when they are fatigued or lame, and old ; many colts will cut before they arrive at their full strength.! THE PASTERNS. A consideration of the pasterns will throw more light upon thi3 and other diseases of the extremities. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The term grogginess is applied by horsemen to Blight lameness, which goes off with exercise, and which is shown in the sta- ble by the animal pointing the affected foot. The seat of the disease is the navicular joint, and it is altogether unconnected with that knuckling of the fetlock which is often seen in horses much worked, and which appears to be owing to weakness of the sinews, principally of the extensors. \ Note by Mr. Spooner. — This evil is sometimes removed by shoeing the horse very thin on the inside, or even giving him a three-quarter shoe, the tendency of which plan is to make the horse carry his feet wider apart ; but, in some cases the very opposite plan is found the best THE TASTERNS. 267 The upper pastern bone (b, Fig. 37, and a, in Fig, 38, and 6, in Fig. 39,) receives the lower pulley-like head of the shank-hone, and forms a hinge-joint admitting only of bending and extension, but not of side motion ; it likewise forms a joint with the sess it- moid-bones. Its lower head has two rounded protuberances, which are received into corresponding depressions in the lower pastern. On either side, above the pastern-joint, are roughened projections for the attachment of very strong ligaments, both in capsular ligaments, and many cross ligaments, which render the joint between the two pasterns sufficiently secure. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 38. a The upper pastern. b The lower pastern. c The navicular bone. d The coffin-bone. Fig. 39. a The sessamoid-bone. b The upper pastern. c The lower pastern. d The navicular bone, e The coffin-bone, with the horny lamina?. The loiver pastern (d, Fig. 37, and b, in the first figure, and c, iu the second in this cut,) is a short and thick bone, with its larger head downward. Its upper head has two depressions to receive th e Fig. 40. protuberances on the lower head of the upper bone, bearing some resemblance to a pully, but not so decidedly as the lower head of the shank-bone. Its lower head resembles that of the other pastern, and has also two prom- inences, somewhat resembling a pulley, by which it forms a joint with the coffiin-bone , and a depression in front, corresponding with a projection in the coffin-bone. There are also two slight depressions behind, receiving eminences of the navicular bone. Neither of these joints admits of any lateral motion. The ligaments of this joint, both the capsu- lar and the cross ones, are, like those of the pastern-joint, exceedingly strong. The ten- don of the extensor muscle is inserted into 26S STRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT RrNGBONE. the fore-part, both of the upper and lower pastern- bonet, a* well as into the upper part of the coffin-bone (/, Fig. u7), and at the back of these bones the suspensory ligament i& expanded and inserted, while a portion of it goes over the fore- part of the upper pastern to reach the extensor tendon. These attachments in front of the bones kre seen in Fig. 40, in which a represents the lower part of the shank-bone ; b the sessamoid- bones ; c the upper pastern ; d the lower pastern ; and e the coffin-bone ; f are the branches of the suspensory ligaments going to unite with the extensor tendon ; g the long extensor tendon ; k Lgaments connecting the two pastern-bones together ; and i the lateral cartilages of the loot. SPRAIN OF THE COFFIN-JOINT. The proof of this is when the lameness is sudden, and the heat and tenderness are principally felt round the coronet. Bleeding at the toe, physic, fomentation, and blisters are the usual means adopted. This lameness is not easily removed, even by a blister ; and if removed, like sprains of the fetlock and of the back sinews, it is apt to return, and finally produce a great deal of disorgani- zation and mischief in the foot. Sprain of the comn-jointsome- times becomes a very serious affair. Not being always attended by any external swelling, and being detected only by heat round the coronet, the seat of the lameness is often overlooked by the groom and the farrier ; and the disease is suffered to become con- firmed before its nature is discovered. From violent or repeated sprains of the pastern or coffin-joints, or extension of the ligaments attached to other parts of the pastern-bones, inflammation takes place in the periosteum, and bony matter is formed, which often rapidly increases, and is re- cognized by the name of* RINGBONE. Ringbone is is a deposit of bony matter in one of the pasterns, and usually near the joint. It rapidly spreads, and involves not only the pastern-bones, but the cartilages of the foot, and spread- * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Sprain of the coffin-joint i* extremely rare, the joint being so well secured from injury by the horny box in which it is cased. Its ligaments are, however, occasionally strained, which may be detected by heat at the coronet and tenderness, when the joint is wrenched laterally. When these symptoms are absent, we may safely conclude the disease exists elsewhere. It is not this, but the navicular disease, which is often mistaken for shoulder lameness. This disease, when it does occur often occasions ossifications of, and near, the side cartilages of the foot. RINGBONE. 20':' ing around the pasterns and cartilages, thus derives its name. When the first deposit is on the lower pastern, and on both sides of it, and produced by violent inflammation of the ligaments of the joints, it is recognized by a slight en- largement, or bony tumor on each side of the foot, and just above the coronet, (See f, Fig. 41.) Horses with short upright joints, and with small feet and high action, are oftenest, as may be sup- posed, the subjects of this disease, which is the consequence either of concussion or sprain of the pastern-joints. It is also more frequent in the hind foot than, the fore, because, from the violent action of the hind legs in propelling the horse forward, the pasterns are more subject to legamentary injury behind than be- fore : yet the lameness is not so great there, because the disease is confined principally to the ligaments, and the bones have not been injured by con- cussion ; while from the position of the fore limbs, there will generally be in them injury of the bones to be added to that of the ligaments. In its early stage, and when recognized only by a bony enlargement on both sides of the pastern-joint, or in some few cases on one side only, the lameness is not very considerable, and it is not impossible to remove the disease by active blistering, or by the application of the cautery ; but there is so much wear and tear in this part of the animal, that the inflam- mation and the disposition to the for- mation of bone rapidly spread. The pasterns first become connected together by bone instead of ligament, and thence results what is called an anchylosed or fixed joint. From this joint the dis- ease proceeds to the cartilages of the foot, and to the union between the lower pas- tern, and the coffin and navicular bones. The motion o\ % these parts likewise is Fi consequences in the internal part of the foot. If there is a depres- sion or hollow in front of the foot, it betrays a sinking of the coffin-bone, and a flat or pumiced sole. If there is a hollow at the quarters, it is the worse system of bad contraction. The thickness of the crust, in the front of the foot, is rather more than half an inch ; it becomes gradually thinner towards the quarters and heels, but this often varies to a considerable extent. In some hoofs, it is not more than half the above thick- ness. If however there is not, in the majority of horses, more than half an inch for nail-hold at the toe, and not so much at the quarters, it will not appear surprising that these horses are occa- sionally wounded in shoeing, and especially as some of them are very unmanageable while undergoing this process. While the crust becomes thinner towards both quarters, it is more so at the inner quarter than at the outer, because more weight is thrown upon it than upon the outer. It is more under the horse. It is under the inner splint-bone, on which so much more of the weight rests than on the outer ; and, being thinner, it is able to expand more. Its elasticity is called rmre into play, and concussion and injury are avoided. When the expansion of the quarters is prevented by their being nailed to an unbend- ing shoe, the inner quarter suffers most. Corns are oftenest found there ; contraction begins there ; sand-crack is seated there. Nature meant that this should be the most yielding part, in order to obviate concussion, because on it the weight is prin- cipally thrown, and therefore when its power of yielding is taken away it must be the first to suffer. A careful observer will likewise perceive that the inner quarter is higher than the outer. While it is thin to yield to the shock, its increased surface gives it sufficient strength. On account of its thinness, and the additional weight which it bears, the inner heel v/ear saway quicker than the outer ; a cir- cumstance that should never be forgotten by the smith. His ob- ject is to give a plane and level bearing to the whole of the crust. To accomplish this, it will be often scarcely necessary to remove any thing from the inner heel, for this has already been done by the wear of the foot. If he forgets this, as he too often seems to do, and cuts away with his knife or his buttress an equal portion all round, he leaves the inner or weaker quarter lower than the outer ; he throws an uneven bearing upon it ; and produces corns and sand-cracks and splints, which a little care and common sense might have avoided. 296 THE BARS. THE CORONET, OR CORONARY RING. The crust does not vary much in thickness until near the top where it rapidly gets thin. It is in a manner scooped or hollowed Fi»\ 48 ou ^- fr likewise changes its color and consis tence, and seems almost like a continuation of the skin, but is easily separated irom it by mu- ceration, (steeping or soaking in a fluid,) or by disease. The upper and thin part is called the coronary ring, x Fig. 37. It extends round the upper portion of the hoofs, and receives, within it, or covers, a thickened or bulbous prolongation of the skin, called the coronary ligament (see 0, in the accompanying cut). This prolongation of the skin — it is nothing more — is thickly supplied with blood-ves- sels. It is almost a mesh of blood-vessels connected together by hbrous texture, and many of them are employed in secreting or forming the crust or wall of the foot. Hence it is, that in sand- crack, quitor, and other diseases in which strips of the crust are destroyed, it is so long in being renewed, or growing down. It must proceed from the coronary ligament, and so gradually creep down the foot with the natural growth or lengthening of the horn, of which, as in the human nail, a supply is slowly given to answer to the wear and tear of the part. THE BARS. At the back part of the foot the wall of the hoof, instead of continuing round and forming a circle, is suddenly bent in as in Fig. 47, where d represents the base of the crust, and e its inflec- tion or bending at the heel. The bars are, in fact, a continual i< n of the crust, forming an acute angle, and meeting at a point at the toe of the frog — see a, b, and e, in Fig. 47, and the inside of the bars, like the inside of the crust, (see Fig. 46.) presents a con- tinuance of the horny leaves, showing that it is a part of the same substance, and helping to discharge the same office. It needs only the slightest consideration of the cut, or of the natural hoof, to show the importance of the bars. The arch which these form on either side, between the frog and the quar- ters, is admirably contrived both to admit of, and to limit to its proper extent, the expansion of the foot. When the foot is placed on the ground, and the weight of the animal is throAvn on the leaves of the inside of the bars, these arches will shorten and widen, in order to admit of the expansion of the quarters — the bow returning to its natural curve, and powerfully assisting the loot in THE HORNY LAMIN.E THE SOLE. 297 regaining its usual form. It can also be conceived that these bars must form a powerful protection against the contraction, or wiring in, of the quarters. A moment's inspection ( tion with the proprietor of the horse whether be will suffer the medical treatment to proceed.* CHRONIC FOUNDER. This is a species of founder, insidious in its attack, and des- tructive to the horse. It is a milder form of the preceding dis- ease. There is lameness, but it is not so severe as in the former case. The horse stands as usual. The crust is warm, and that warmth is constant, but it is not often probably greater than in a state of health. The surest symptoms is the action of the ani- mal. It is diametrically opposite to that in the navicular disease. The horse throws as much of his weight as he can, on the poste- rior parts of his feet. The treatment should be similar to that recommended for the acute disease — blood-letting, soultices, fomentations, and blisters, and the last much sooner and much more frequently than in the former disease. PUMICED FEET. The sensible and horny little plates which were elongated and partially separated during the intensity of the inflammation of founder, will not always perfectly unite again, or will have lost * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Laminitis, or inflammation of the laminae of the feet (or acute founder), though often occasioned *by long-continued exertion on the hard road, is not produced by galloping on the turf, and, indeed, scarcely ever affects race-horses. Heavier breeds are more liable, and par ticularly when the feet are weak in proportion to the weight of the animal. When horses work on soft ground, the sole and the frog bear some propor- tion of the weight, but on the hard road the shoe alone comes in contact with the ground, and consequently the crust and the laminae bear the whole of the weight, and thus are exposed to inflammatory action from this cause. Some relief, however, is obtained by the feet being alternately in the air and on the ground ; but when horses are confined many days in a standing pos- ture, as on board ship, the laminae are almost constantly on the stretch ; this disease, therefore, very frequently follows a voyage, and has often at- tacked troop-horses, particularly when the voyage has been rough and of undue continuance. When, however, lami?iitis suspenses as a secondary disease, the prior disorder affects a similar tissue as the other ; thus it is when pleurisy is succeeded with laminitis, both the pleura and the laxnime being fibrous tissues and of the same character. Such likewise is the case when acute rheumatism is the prior disease. With regard to treatment, the most energetic measures must be adopted, as advised in the text. It is not however judicious to bleed a second time in the feet, but better to repeat the bleeding from the arms or the coronets. When a blister is applied its effects should be washed off the following day, by doing which it can be repeated several times. Bleeding, however, is tho sheet-anchor, and there is generally a capability of bearing a large deple- tion. 20 3(n rnvircED feet. much of their elasticity, and the coffin-bone, no longer fully sup ported by them, presses upon the sole, and the sole becomes flat teiied, or convex, from this unnatural weight, and the horse ac- quires a pumiced foot. This will also happen when the anima* is used too soon after an attack of inflammation of the feet, and before the laminae have reigained sufficient strength to support the weight of the horse, or to contract again by their elastic power when they have yielded to the weight. When the coffin- bone is thus thrown on the sole, and renders it pumiced, the crust at the front of the hoof will "fall in" leaving a kind of hollow about the middle of it. Pumiced feet, especially in horses with large, wide feet, are frequently produced without this acute inflammation. Undue work, and especially much battering of the feet on the pavement, will extend and sprain these laminae so much, that they will not have the power to contract, and thus the coffin-bone will be thrown backward on the sole. A very important law of nature will unfortunately soon be active here. When pressure is ap- plied to any part, the absorbents become busy in removing it ; so, when the coffin-bone begins to press upon the sole, the sole be- comes thin from the increased wear and tear to which it is sub- jected by contact with the ground, and also because these absorb- ents are rapidly taking it away. This is one of the diseases of the feet for which there is no cure. No skill is competent to effect a reunion between the sep- Liixted liesny and horny laminae, or to restore to them tiie strength and elasticity of which they have been deprived, or to take up that hard, horny substance which speedily fills the space between the crust and the receding coffin-bone. All that can be done in the way of palliation is by shoeing. Nothing must press on the projecting and pumiced part. If the projection is not considerable, a thick bar-shoe is the best thing that can be applied ; but should this sole have much descended, a shoe with a very wide web, bevelled off so as not to press on the part, may be used. These means of relief, however, are only temporary, the disease will proceed ; and, at no great distance of time, the horse will be useless.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — When this disease follows that previously treated of in the preceding article, the horse is rendered completely unser- viceable, the laminae become disorganized, the coffin-bone separates from the crust and descends on the sensible sole, which, unable to bear the pres- sure, becomes bruised and diseased, and in fact the horse is incurably lame. When, however, a convex foot is gradual in its approach, and the sole be- comes pumiced by degrees, there is some palliation to be offered ; in such instances there is usually a weak foot previously, giving a predisposition to the disease. In this case likewise the toe of the bone recedes from the crust, a horny substance is thrown out between them, which is however of CONTRACTION. 307 CONTRACTION. Fig. 47, will give a fair idea of the young and healthy foot, approaching nearly to a circle, and of which the quarters form the widest part, and the inner quarter (this is the near foot) rather wider than the outer. This shape is not long preserved in many horses, but the foot increases in length, and narrows in the quarters, and particularly at the heel, and the frog is dimin- ished in width, and the sole becomes more concave, and the heels higher, and lameness, or at least a shortened and feeling action, ensues. It must be premised that there is a great deal more horror of contracted heels than there is occasion for. Many persons reject a horse at once if the quarters are iviring in ; but the fact is, that although this is an unnatural form of the hoof, it is slow of growth, and nature kindly makes that provision for the slowly altered form of the hoof which she does in similar cases — she ac commodates the parts to the change of form. As the hoof draws in, the parts beneath, and particularly the coffin-bone, and espe- cially the heels of that bone, diminish ; or, after all, it is more a change of form than of capacity. As the foot lengthens in pro- portion as it narrows, so does the coffin-bone, and it is as perfectly adjusted as before to the box in which it is placed. Its lamina) are in as intimate and perfect union with those of the crust as before the hoof had begun to change. On this account it is that many horses, with very contracted feet, are perfectly sound, and no horse should be rejected merely because he has contraction. He should undoubtedly be examined more carefully, and with considerable suspicion ; but if he has good action, and is other- wise unexceptionable, there is no reason that the purchase should not be made. A horse with contracted feet, if he goes sound, is better than another with open but weak heels. The opinion is perfectly erroneous that contraction is the ne- oo use as a support ; the front of the foot, usually the strongest, now be- comes the weakest, and the horse goes mostly upon his heels. A cure being out of the question, we must endeavor to palliate as best we can, and this we shall do by means of shoeing. A bar -shoe should be nailed on, well hollowed out, so as not to press on the sole in the slightest degree, and a rim of leather should be put under the shoe to diminish concussion, but should not extend over the sole. The bar should be put on so as to be within the eighth of an inch from the frog, by which means pressure only will be given it when the foot is on the ground, and it will thus be enabled to support a moderate share of the superincumbent weight, and so relieve the crust of it. The hoof should be frequently anointed with a mixture of tar and grease, and if the horse is rested for some time the coronets may be olistered 308 CONTRACTION. cessary consequence of shoeing. There can be no doubt that an inflexible iron ring being nailed to the foot prevents, to a very considerable degree, the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels below ; and it is likewise probable, that when the ex pansion of the heels is prevented they often begin to contract. But here, as before stated, nature makes provision for the change. Some gentlemen who are careful of their horses have driven them twenty years, and principally over the rough pavement of towns, without a day's lameness. Shoeing may be a necessary evil, but it is not the evil which many speculative persons have supposed it, and notwithstanding its effects, the foot ordinarily lasts longer than the legs ; nay, horsemen tell us that one pair of good feet is worth two pairs of legs. There is nothing in the appearance of the feet which would enable us to decide when contraction is or is not destructive to the usefulness of the animal ; his manner of going, and his capa- bility for work, must be our guides. Lameness usually accom- panies the beginning of contraction ; it is the invariable attendant on rapid contraction, but it does not always exist when the wir- ing in is slow, or of long standing. A very excellent writer, particularly when treating of the foot of the horse, Mr. Blaine, has given us a long and correct list of the causes of injurious contraction, and most of them are, fortu- nately, under the control of the owner of the animal. He places at the head of them, neglect of paring. The hoof is continually growing, the crust is lengthening, and the sole is thickening. This is a provision for the wear and tear of the foot in an unshod state ; but when it is protected by a shoe, and none of the horn can be worn away by coming in contact with the ground, and the growth of horn continues, the hoof grows high, and the sole gets thick, and, in consequence of this, the descent of the sole and the expansion of the heels are prevented, and contraction is the re- sult. The smith might lessen, if not prevent the evil, by care- fully thinning the sole and lowering the heels at each shoeing ; but the first of these is a matter of considerable labor, a>:d the second could not be done effectually without being accompanied by the first, and therefore they are both neglected. Owners should often stand by and see that this is properly done. Wearing the shoes too long, especially when nails are placed nearer than they should be to the quarters to make the shoes hold, is another cause of contraction. There is no rule which admits of so little exception as that, once in about every three weeks, the growth of horn which the natural wear of the loot cannot get rid of, should be pared away — the toe should be shortened in most feet — the sole should be thinned, and the heels lowered Every one who has carefully observed the shape of the CONTRACTION. 30CS horse's foot, must have seen that in proportion to its height 01 neglected growth, it contracts and closes round the coronet. A low-heeled horse might have other serious defects, of which it will be our duty to speak, but he has seldom a contracted foot. Another source of contraction is the want of natural moisture. The hoof of the stable-horse kept from moisture becomes dry ami unelastic, and, consequently, is rendered more subject to this dis- ease. Hence the propriety of stopping the feet where there is the least tendency to contraction. The intelligent and careful groom will not omit it a single night. Cow-dung, with a small portion of clay to give it consistence, is a common and very good stopping. A better one is a piece of thick felt, cut to the shape of the sole, and soaked in water. The common stopping of tar and grease is peculiarly objectionable, for it closes the pores of the feet, and ultimately increases the dryness and brittleness which it was designed to remedy. Thrushes aid sometimes in producing contraction, but they are much oftener the consequence than the cause. The removal of the bars takes away a main impediment to contraction. Their use in assisting the expansion of the foot has been already stated, and should a disposition to contraction be produced by any other cause, the cutting away of the bars would hasten and aggravate the evil ; but the loss of the bar would not of itself produce contraction. The contraction, however, that is connected with permanent lameness, although increased by the circumstances which we have mentioned, usually derives its origin from a different source, and from one that acts violently and suddenly. Inflammation of the little plates covering the coffin-bone is the most usual cause ; and a degree of inflammation not sufficiently intense to be characterized as acute founder, but quickly leading to sad re- sults, may and does spring from causes almost unsuspected. Something may depend upon the breed. Blood-horses are partic- ularly liable to contraction. Not only is the foot naturally small, but it is disposed to become narrower at the heels. On the other hand, the broad, flat foot of the cart-horse is subject to diseases enough, but contraction is seldom one of the number. In horses of equal blood, not a little seems to depend upon the color, and the dark chestnut is proverbially prone to contraction. Whatever is the cause of that rapid contraction or narrowing of the heels which is accompanied by severe lameness, the symp- toms may ue easily distinguished. While standing in the stable, the horse will point with, or place forward, the contracted foot ; or if both feet are affected, he will alternately place one before the other. When he is taken out of the stable, his step will be 310 CONTRACTION. pec uliarly short and quick, and the feet will be placed gently and tenderly on the ground, or scarcely lifted from it in the walk or the trot. It would seem as if the slightest irregularity of sur- face would throw the animal down, and so it threatens to do, tor he is constantly tripping and stumbling. If the fore-feet are care- fully observed, one or both of them will be narrowed across the quarters and towards the heels. In a few cases, the whole of the foot appears to be contracted and shrunk ; but in the majority of instances, while the heels are narrower, the foot is longer. The contraction appears sometimes in both heels : at other times in the inner heel only ; or, if both are affected, the inner one is wired in the most, either from the coronet to the base of the foot, or only or principally at the coronet — oftener near the base of the foot — but in most cases the hollow being greatest about mid-way between the coronet and the bottom of the foot. This irregularity on contraction, and uncertainty as to the place of it, prove that it is some internal disorganization, the seat of which varies with the portion of the attachment between the hoof and the foot that was principally strained or injured. In every recent case, the contracted part will be hotter than the rest of the foot, and the sole will, in the majority of cases, be unnatu- rally concave. Of the treatment of contraction attended with lameness, little that is satisfactory can be said. There have been various me- chanical contrivances, such as clips of a peculiar form, and a joiuted shoe, which, when the foot was softened, was gradually pressed asunder at the heels by a screw ; but all have proved of no avail, for the disease speedily returned when the ordinary shoe was again applied to enable the horse to work, and work was required of him. If the action of the horse is not materially impaired, it is bet- ter to let the contraction alone, be it as great as it will. If the contraction has evidently produced considerable lameness, the owner of the horse will have to calculate between his value, if cured, the expense of the cure, and the probability of failure. The medical treatment should alone be undertaken by a skil ill veterinary surgeon, and it will principally consist in abating any inflammation that may exist, by local bleeding and physic, paring the sole to the utmost extent that it will bear ; rasping the quarters as deeply as can be, without their being too much weakened, or the coronary ring (see b, Fig. 37), injured ; rasp- ing deeply likewise at the toe, and perhaps scoring at the toe The horse is afterwards made to stand during the day in wet clay, placed in one of the stalls. He is at night moved into another stall, and his feet bound up thickly in wet cloths ; or he is turned out into wet pasturage, with tips, or, if possible, with- NAVICULAR DISEASE. 311 out them, and his feet are frequently pared out, and the quarters lightly rasped. In five or six months the horn will generally have grown down, when ha may be taken up, and shod with shoes un- attached by nails on the inner side of the foot, and put to gentle work. The foot will be found very considerably enlarged, and the owner will, perhaps, think that the cure is accomplished. The horse may, possibly, for a time stand very gentle work, and the inner side of the foot being left at liberty, its natural expan- sive process may be resumed : the internal part of the foot, how- ever, has not been healthily filled up with the expansion of the crust. If that expansion has been effected forward on the quar- ters, the crust will no longer be in contact with the lengthened and narrowed heels of the coffin-bone. Thore will not be the natural adhesion and strength, and a very slight cause, or even the very habit of contraction, will, in spite of all care and the freedom of the inner quarter, in very many instances, cause the foot to wire in again as badly as before.* THE NAVICULAR-JOTNT DISEASE. Many horses with well-formed and open feet become sadly and permanently lame, and veterinary surgeons have been puzzled to discover the cause. The farrier has had his convenient explana- tion " the shoulder ;" but the scientific practitioner may not have been able to discover an ostensible cause of lameness in the whole limb. There is no one accustomed to horses who does not recol- lect an instance of this. By reference to e, Fig. 37, it will be seen that, behind and beneath the lower pastern-bone, and behind and above the heel of the coffin-bone, is a small bone called the navicular or shuttle- bone. It is so placed as to strengthen the union between the lower pastern and the coffin-bone, and to enable the flexor tendon, which passes over it in order to be inserted into the bottom of the coffin-bone, to act with more advantage. It forms a kind of joint with that tendon. There is a great deal of weight thrown on the navicular-bone, and from the navicular-bone on * Note by Mr. Spooner. — A vast amount of error has been writter in various books with regard to the subject of contraction. For our own parts, we believe that i.t is in the greater number of instances the conse- quence rather than the cause of lameness; and the dissection of a great number of diseased feet, has assured us that when lameness is present there is disease of the navicular joint, of the pressure of which there cannot be better proof than the symptom of pointing alluded to in the text. It is quite true that some horses will point from gait or habit, without anv dis- ease beinsj present; but when lameness exists, and the horse also points, we may take the latter symptom a* presumptive evidence that the case is one of navicular -joint disease. 312 NAVICULAR DISEASE. the tendon ; and there is a great deal of motion or play be- tween them in the bending and extension of the pasterns. It is very easy to conceive that, from sudden concussion, or trom rapid and overstrained motion, and that, perhaps, after the animal has been sometime a trest, and the parts have not adapted themselves for motion, there may be too much play between the bone and the tendon — the delicate membrane which covers the bone, or the cartilage of the bone, may be bruised, and inflamed, and destroyed ; that all the painful effects of an inflamed and opened joint may ensue, and the horse be irrecoverably lame. Numerous dissections have shown that this joint, formed by the tendon and the bone, has been the frequent, and the almost invariable, seat of these obscure lamenesses. The membrane covering the cartilage of the bone has been found in an ulcerated state ; the cartilage has been ulcerated and eaten away ; the bone has become carious or decayed, and bony adhesions have taken place between the navicular and the pastern and the coffin-bones, and this part of the foot has often become completely disorganized and useless. This joint is probably the seat of lameness, not only in well-formed feet, but in those which become lame after contraction. The cure of navicular disease is difficult and uncertain. The first and all-important point is, the removal of the inflammation in this very susceptible membrane. Local bleeding, poulticing, and physic will be our principal resources. If there is contrac- tion, this must, if possible, be removed by the means already pointed out. If there is no contraction, it will nevertheless be prudent to get rid of all surrounding pressure, and to unfetter, as much as possible, the inside heel of the coffin-bone, by paring the sole and rasping the quarters, and using the shoe without nails on the inner quarter, and applying cold poultices to the coronet and the whole of the foot. This is a case, however, which must be turned over to the veterinary surgeon, for he alone, from his knowledge of the anatomy of the foot, and the precise seat of the disease, is competent to treat it. If attacked on its earliest appearance, and before ulceration of the mem- brane of the joint has taken place, it may be radically cured : but ulceration of the membrane will be with difficulty healed, and decay of the bone will for ever remain. Blistering the coronet will often assist in promoting a cure by diverting the inflammation to another part, and it will materially qunkeii the growth of the horn. A seton passed through the frog by a skilful operator, and approaching as nearly as possible to the seat of disease, has been serviceable. Neurotomy (see p. 86) may be profitably resorted to in this disease, but if the lameness is extreme, either with or without NOTE BY MR SPOONER. 31 7 • contraction, and especially if there is heat about the foot, the operation is dangerous. There is, probably, ulceration of the membrane — possibly, decay of the bone ; and the additions friction to which the parts would be subjected, by the freer ac- tion of the horse, the sense of pain being removed, would cause that ulceration or decay to proceed more rapidly until the fool would be completely disorganized, or the tendon would be gradu- ally worn through by rubbing against the roughened surface ol the bone.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Navicular-joint disease is one of the most fre quent lamenesses by which the horse is afflicted, and one of the most insidi ous and incurable. It sometimes comes on suddenly from a sudden jar or strain, and then the lameness is often very severe, and there is no contraction previous to the lameness, although afterwards, from the pointing of the foot, and the consequent absence of the usual weight upon it, contraction is sure to follow; more frequently, however, this disease is gradual in its approach, the horse points previous to the lameness, and, if the foot is attentively exam- ined, contraction in some degree will be discovered. Thus the symptoms are Lameness, Pointing, and Contraction, each of which demands separate consideration, in order that we may understand the true nature of this very deceptive disease, and the more so as it has not been treated at muchlengdi in the text. The Lameness. — The degree of lameness in navicular disease admits of a variety of shades. In some cases we find it manifested the first hundred yards only ; in some it may continue for a mile or two and then go off; in others, again, it may continue throughout a journey, but not so severely a* at first. This circumstance is common to some other lamenesses, but not so uniformly the case as in navicular disease. So important a symptom is it that, on ascertaining its existence, it of itself leads us strongly to suspect the nature of the lameness. It is customary to say of a groggy horse, " Oh ! he will go sound enough when he gets a little warm." This peculiarity, which is common to many lamenesses, but more particularly to the navicular dis- ease, is ascribed to the attention of the horse being called away from the in- jured part: this in a great measure is the case, but we must add that, in the disease in question, the secretion of synovia becomes increased by exercise, and the horse is enabled so to dispose his weight as to rest but very lightly on the injured joint. In some cases the lameness is so slight that the utmo4 tact of the practitioner is required to detect it: or the horse may show it on the stones and go sound on gravel. Should the horse be slightly lame m both feet the difficulty is still greater, and he may go a long time in this state before the owner thinks him actually lame. # When both feet are thus equally affected, however, the action of the horse becomes altered in propor- tion to the extent of mischief; he no longer bends the knee with the same freedom as before, his action becomes shorter, the heels of the foot scarcely touch the ground, and the shoe will exhibit the toe almost worn away, whilst the heels continue undiminished in thickness. These circumstances, whether one leg or both be affected, will at all times materially assist our diagnosis. After the disease has existed in both feet for a considerable period, the horse brings his hind-legs under his body, and makes them sustain the greater part of his weight, and in the stable he almost constantly hes down. Pointing. — We should be cautious of giving an opinion of the cause of lameness until we have seen the horse in the stable, where, if there be any doubt of the matter, we should leave him for a while un listurbed. In many H 314 NOTE BY MR. SPOONER. cases, on asking the question, " Does the horse point ?" the groom will reply " Oh yes, he has done so for a long time." The ascertainment of the length of this time will inform us how long the disease has been coming on. In other cases, on asking the same question, we are told he never points. The former reply we may generally depend on, but the latter we must newt- trust to ; for, unless the lame foot is thrust out nearly a yard in front of the other, the groom does not consider that the horse points. In a case of this sort (supposing all the time that it is. one of navicular disease,) we shall probably find, on noticing the horse, that the affected foot is advanced in sumo degree beyond the other, that there is very little weight resting on it, and none whatever on the heels. In navicular disease the horse always, or at least in ninety-nine cases in a hundred, points, either little or much, although it may be unnoticed by the attendants ; it is, indeed, one of the most striking characteristics of the disease. We must not, however, always conclude that because a horse points he must necessarily have the disease, although in ihe majority of instances we may expect its approach, either early or late ; but some horses have been known to point for years without going lame : either the horse has pointed from habit, or the alteration of structure in the foot may be sufficient to occasion pointing, and yet by careful treatment prevent- ed from being so bad as to produce lameness. Some persons, having wit- nessed a case in which a horse may have pointed for a lengthened period without being lame, immediately conclude that it is of no consequence, thus confidently drawing an inference from the narrow limits of their own expe- rience, and allowing it to influence their conduct. We may, however, safely aver that pointing, if a habit, is, at best, a wretched bad one, having so much the semblance of disease ; and from its so frequently being the precursor of lameness, it materially lessens the value of an animal. If a horse is lame and points, must we necessarily conclude that he has navicular disease? No; he may point from corns or from other injury at the posterior part of the foot, but then this pointing is different from that of navicular disease. In the latter the foot is generally set out straight ; in the former it is not extended so far, but the heels are more elevated. In the former, the animal having put his foot in the easiest position, turns his atten- tion to other objects, whilst in the latter the solicitude of the horse is evidently directed more continually to the part, and if a horse points from corns, the lameness and pain are unusually severe. Contraction. — This is a symptom that, either generally or partially, we usually find attending navicular disease. It is, however, by no means uni- versally the case ; indeed we occasionally find navicular lameness without any contraction, and, on the other hand, quite as frequently extensive con- traction without any lameness whatever. Contraction is more frequently the consequence than the cause of lameness, arising, as it does most commonly, from resting or favoring the foot which the lameness induces. There are dif- ferent sorts as well as different degrees of contraction. Putting aside the natural oblong narrow mule's»shape foot, which often exists through life un attended with lameness, we may have the heels drawn in, the crust and bars approaching with scarcely any space in the commissures, and the frog much diminished, hard, dry, and preternaturally elevated. In other cases the con- traction may be only on one side, or the foot may appear altogether free from contraction, which may be only found to exist by comparing it with the other foot. There are other cases in which there may be no apparent con traction, and yet the parts are by no means in a natural or proper position the horny sole is preternaturally arched and thick, and the consequence is the navicular joint is driven up higher in the horny box, and instead of ha*" ing a comparatively flat and elastic surface to repose on, it has a hard fei yielding ridge formed by the commissures. NOTE BY MR. SPOONER. 315 Having given the leading symptoms attending the disease, it would be well perhaps, here to mention the morbid appearances of the joint which ac- company them, and which post-mortem examinations of the malady in its different stages, exhibit. Among some morbid specimens in my possession, on«- merely shows a slight indentation ou the ridge of the navicular-bone, and when recent the corresponding portion of the sinew was roughened. The horse had pointed a long time prior to his death, and was lame for a mile or so on first going off. Anothe: specimen exhibits holes in the navicular-bone somewhat like a ca- rious tooth, together with very diminutive bone deposits on different parts of the surface of the bone. The mare to which it had belonged had been lame for several years in both feet, which were much contracted, and got gradually worse until she was only fit to go to plough. Another case developes still greater disease on both navicular-bones, which are ulcerated in a great degree, and present also numerous long spiculi on their corticular surface, besides which there is an ossification of the infe- rior cartilage, so that although the bones have been boiled the navicular- bone rests securely on the ossified parts, which must therefore have materi- ally saved the diseased tendon. The bones had belonged to a very old horse and favorite hunter, that had been lame for many years, and had conse- quently been used for agricultural labor. Another morbid specimen is that of the feet of an old horse that had been groggy for some years. The navicular bones in both feet were closely united to the flexor tendons, and on tearing them apart the fibres of the sinew were lacerated ; the greater part of the posterior surface of these bones was de- nuded of cartilage, and presented a rough appearance, and the bones them- selves were situated higher up in the hoof than natural, assuming a mor« vertical or less horizontal position. Although this was the position of the bones, yet the foot by a common observer would have been pronounced well-shaped ; the sole, however, I found enormously thick. From a review of the various circumstances which attend the domestica- tion of the horse, we may, I thiuk, justly conclude that most of them operate in inducing the disease in question. The foot in its natural state has a dis- position to contract when at rest, and expand when pressed upon. In a weak foot there is a greater tendency to spread than contract, but in a strong one we may consider these two antagonist principles as equivalent to each other. When," however, the horse becomes domesticated, every means is used to aid the contraction and to neutralize the disposition to expansion. The shoe is nailed to the foot when the latter is in its most contracted state, and the horse is confined in a stall the greater part of the day. On a sudden he is taken out of the stable, and, without having prepared his joints and limbs by preliminary exercise, he is driven as fast a-^ he can trot for the space of an hour or upwards, on the hard road, and then duriug the remain- der of the twenty-four hours consigned to the stable. What is the result of this unnatural system? By the joint effects of the shoe, hot litter, an ' standing in the stable so long, the foot so contracts that the sole is dr a upwards, and with it the navicular-bone, which thus, as we have befo no- ticed, has a hard unyielding substance to rest upon; and the joint laving been in a quiescent state for many hours, there is probably a diminished se cretion of synovia (joint oil). In this unprepared state the feet are batterea on the hard road,* and the result is in many cases a bruise of the synovial membrane, which may either be sufficient to produce sudden and severe lameness, or so moderate as to occasion the slightest lameness only. * The reader will bear in mind that Mr. Spooner speaks of the l«ard metal road9 of England. Our roads, hard only when they are Hry, do not prodr.ee ihese effects in a so great degree. — Am. Ed. 316 NOTE BY MR. SPOONED - So far as ray experience goes, horses used for racing are not so often af- fected as others, and this circumstance must, I think, be attributed to the fact of their taking a great deal of exercise on the soft ground, where the various parts of the feet meet the soil. They are not taken out of the stable and compelled to proceed at once with speed, but even during severe train- ing are first walked for a considerable period before they take their gallops, which thus gradually prepares the joints for the severer exertions they are about to perform. Hunters, too, as we have before remarked, although ex- posed to sudden concussions and severe exertions, more perhaps than any other horses, are yet much more exempt from the disease than horses used on the road. How is this, but because they take much walking exercise every day, and particularly on the day of hunting, before their severe exer- tions commence, and these exertions are taken, in great measure, on the soft soil, where the frog, bars, and sole all meet the ground, and greatly assist in diminishing concussion and preserving the feet in a healthy state. It is a fact, too. that few will gainsay who have made extensive observations, that when hunters are affected with navicular disease, it is much more frequently than with other horses, attended by sudden and acute lameness : the horse goes out perfectly sound and comes home dead lame. From these circumstances >ve are disposed to draw the following conclu- sions : — First — That navicular lameness may be produced suddenly by a bruise on the synovial membrane, without any predisposing cause existing, but that this is by no means frequent. Secondly — That well-bred horses with strong feet are most subject to the disease. Thirdly — That the lameness is usually preceded by an alteration in the structure of the foot, whereby the navicular-bone is somewhat displaced, and has a hard unyielding surface to rest on instead of an elastic cushion. Fourthly — That this contraction may be either apparent or obscure. Fifthly — That in feet thus contracted the lameness itself is yet produced by a sudden bruise. Sixthly — That contraction is not a direct cause of lameness itself, although usually considered so by authors, inasmuch as the dissection of morbid feet clearly developes the disease elsewhere ; but that, although not an exciting cause, it is yet a predisposing agent. Seventhly — That contraction is more frequently a consequence than a cause of lameness, being produced by any circumstance that induces the horse to abstain from bearing his weight upon the foot. Treatment. — In endeavoring to cure the navicular disease, much, indeed almost everything, will depend on the length of time the horse has been lame. If the lameness came on suddenly, and but a short time has elapsed, we may then set about our treatment with a reasonable prospect of success ; but if, on the other hand, the mischief has been slowly coming on, and pre ceded by pointing for some time, we may then afford some palliation, but a permanent cure we are seldom able to accomplish. In seeking a remedy our endeavors should be directed, first, to the removal of the inflammation in the joint ; and, secondly, to the restoration of the various parts of the foot to their natural and proper position. If the injury has been suddenly produced our treatment will be principally confined to antiphlogistic measures. The shoe being removed, the foot must be pared out and the sole thinned, more particularly that part opposite the navicular joint ; the commissures should also be well cut out and thinned. This being done the foot must be bled freely from tlie toe; four quarts of blood may be taken, and the foot should then be placed in a linseed-meal poultice, or one made of bran ^nd sand-ckack. 3t7 meaL The poultice should be wetted several times and changed once s day, and the bleeding may be repeated in the course of a few days, if re- quired. The poultice is to be continued for eight or ten days, and then, when the utmost benefit has been derived from it that it is capable of affording, we may have recourse to counter irritation. The importance of venesection in every case of navicular disease must be apparent to every one, for there can be no case requiring treatment but what muse be attended with some degree of inflammation, and in some cases the injury may be confined to inflammation alone. Where we have reason to infer that such is the case we may indeed confine our treatment to the bleeding and poulticing. The benefit of poultice is inferior only to blooddetting. It softens the horn, changing it from a hard, dry, and almost inelastic substance, to a soft, yielding, and elastic material. The degree of paring that may be necessary must depend upon the alteration of structure that has taken place in the foot. Having pushed our antiphlogistic (tending to reduce inflammation) treat ment as far as we well can, we may next seek the aid of counter-irritation. Shall we blister the coronet, or insert a frog seton? The latter is, I think, in every respect preferable ; we create artificial inflammation and suppura- tion very near the seat of the disease, and we may keep this up almost as long as we please ; a month, however, of active suppuration is generally long enough. The only objection to the seton is that the horse must be kept in the stable; he cannot be turned out, or into a soft, moist place during the time it remains in the foot. Before the seton is inserted, a shoe should be placed on the foot, nailed on the outside quarter only, which will much assist the expansion of the foot. By the judicious employment of the treat- ment we have recommended, varied or modified according to the nature of the case, we may in many instances effect a cure ; but a love of truth obliges us to confess, that in a majority of cases, taking them as they come, no treatment will succeed. In chronic cases of navicular disease, in which there is no probability of effecting a cure, and but little of relieving the ani- mal to any considerable extent, we have to determine whether we shall work the animal lame (if he is able to work at all), or remove sensation from the feet by the operation of neurotomy. It is a matter of much con- sequence that when a horse is submitted to the preceding course of treat- ment, every chance should be given it by allowing a long rest, viz., from two to four months. SAND-CRACK. This, as its name imports, is a crack or division of the hoof from above downward, and into which sand and dirt are too apt to insinuate themselves. It is so called, because it most fre- quently occurs in sandy districts, the heat of the sand applied to the feet giving them a disposition to crack. It occurs both in the fore and the hind feet. In the fore feet it is usually found in the inner quarter (see g, Fig. 41), but occasionally in the outer quarter, because there is the principal stress or effort towards expansion in the foot, and the inner quarter is weaker than the outer. In the hind feet the crack is almost invariably found in the front, because in the digging of the toe into the ground in the act of drawing, the principal stress is in front. This is a most serious defect. It indicates a brittleness of the 318 SAND-CRACK. crust, sometimes natural, but oftener the consequence of mis management or disease, which, in spite of every means adopted^ will probably be the source of future annoyance. On a hoof that has once been thus divided, no dependence can be placed, unless, by great care, the natural suppleness of the horn has been restored and is retained. Sand-crack may happen in an instant, from a false step or over-exertion, and therefore a horse, although he may spring a sand-crack within an hour after the purchase, cannot be returned on that account. The crack sometimes does not penetrate through the horn. It then causes no lameness ; nevertheless, it must not be neglected. It shows that there is brittleness, which should induce the pur- chaser to pause ; and, if proper means are not taken, it will generally soon penetrate to the quick. It should be pared or rasped fairly out, and if the paring or rasping has been deep the loot should be strengthened by a coating of pitch, with coarse tape bound over it, and a second coating of pitch covering this. If the crack has penetrated through the crust, and lameness has ensued, the case is more serious. It must be carefully ex- amined, in order to ascertain that no dirt or sand has got into it ; the edges must be more considerably thinned, and if any fungus (proud-flesh) is beginning to protrude through the crack, and is imprisoned there, it must be destroyed by the application of the butyr (chloride) of antimony. This is preferable to the cautery (hot-iron) because the edges of the horn will not be thickened or roughened, and thus become a source of after-irri- tation. The firing iron must then be run deeply across, above, and below the crack ; a pledget of dry tow being placed in the crack, in and over it, and the whole bound down as tightly as possible. On the third day the part should be examined, and the caustic again applied, if necessary : but if the crack is dry, and defended by a hard horny crust, the sooner the pitch plaster is put on the better. The most serious case is, when, from tread or neglect, the coronet is divided. The growth of horn proceeds from the coronary ligament, and unless this ligament is sound, the horn will grow down disunited. The method to be here adopted, is to run the back of the firing-iron over the coronet where it is divided. Some inflammation will ensue ; and when the scab produced by the cautery peels off, as it will in a few days, the division will be obliterated, and sound and united horn will grow down. When there is sufficient horn above the crack, a horizontal line should be drawn with a firing-iron between the sound horn and the crack. The connexion between the sound part and the crack will thus be prevented, and the TREAD AND over-reach. 3 I 'J i. v vw horn will gradually aud safely descend, but the horse should not be used until sufficient horn has grown down fairly to isolate the crack. When the horn is divided at the coronet, it will be five or six months before it will grow fairly down, and not before that, should the animal be used even lor ordinary work. When, however, the horn is grown an inch from the coronet, the horse may be turned out — the foot being well defended by the pitch plaster, and that renewed as often as it becomes loose — a bar-shoe being worn, chambered so as not to press upon the hoof immediately under the crack, and that shoe being taken off, the sole pared out, and any bulbous projection of new horn being removed once in every three weeks. To remedy the undue brittleness of the hoof, there is no better application than that recommended in page 304, the sole being covered at the same time with the common cow-dung, or felt stopping. # TREAD AND OVER-REACH. Under these terms are comprised bruises and wounds of the coronet, inflicted by the other leet. A tread is said to have taken place, when the inside of the coronet of one hind foot is struck by the calkin of the shoe of the other, and a bruised or contused wound is inflicted. A tread, or wound of the coronet, must never be neglected, lest gravel should insinuate itself into the wound, and form deep ulcerations, called sinuses or pipes, and which constitute quitter. Although some mildly stimulating caustic may be occasionally required, the caustic, too frequently used by farriers, should be carefully avoided, not only lest quittor should be formed, but lest the coronary ligament should be so injured as to be afterwards incapable of secreting perfect horn. When properly treated, a tread is seldom productive of much injury. If the dirt is well * Note by Mr. Spooner. — When lameness attends sand-crack, it is owing to the crack extending from the horn to the quick above. If the horse is worked on, this injury is repeated again and again until the coronary sub- stance becomes so injured as to produce a false quarter. When a horse throws out a sand-crack he must be rested a month or more in order to effect a cure, to do which effectually the foot should be poulticed for a week in order to encourage the growth of horn, and the coronet for the same reason may be stimulated. In the course of a month the sound horn will be grown down for the space of a quarter of an inch, and then, and not till then, the firing-iron should be drawn transversely above the crack, so as to cut off the communication between the fissure and the sound horn above, which will gradually grow down. A plaster of pitch or shoe- maker's wax may then be placed on the crack, and a strap fastened round the mot, so as to prevent too much motion taking place. A bar-shoe is indis- oensable, in order that the weak quarter may be secured from the pressure. "320 FALSE QUARTER. washed out of it, and a pledget of tow, dipped in Friar's balsam hound over the wound, it will in the majority of cases, speed lly heal. Should the bruise be extensive, or the wound deep, a poul- tice may be applied for one or two days, and then the Friar's bal- sam, or digestive ointment. Sometimes a soft tumour will form on the part, which will be quickly brought to suppuration by a poul- tice ; and when the matter has run out, the ulcer will heal by the application of the Friar's balsam, or a weak solution of blue vitrol. An over-reach is a tread upon the heel of the coronet of the fore foot by the shoe of the corresponding hind foot, and either inflicted by the toe, or by the inner edge of the inside of the shoe. The preventive treatment is the bevelling, or rounding off, of the inside edge or rim of the hind shoes. The cure is, the cutting away of the loose parts, the application of Friar's bal- sam, and protection from the dirt. Some horses, particularly young ones, overreach so as to strike the toes of the hind shoes against the fore ones, which is termed clinking. Keeping up the head of the horse does some- thing to prevent this ; but the smith may do more by shortening the toe of the hind shoes, and having the web broad. When they are too long, they are apt to be torn off — when too narrow. the hind foot may bruise the sole of the fore one, or may be locked fast between the branches of the fore shoe. FALSE QUARTER. If the coronary ligament, by which the horn of the crust is secreted, is divided by some cut or bruise, or eaten through by any caustic, there will occasionally be a division in the horn as it grows down, either in the form of a permanent sand-crack, or one portion of the horn overlapping the other. It occasionally follows neglected sand-crack, or it may be the consequence . t' quittor. This is exteriorly an evident fissure in the horn, isnd extending from the coronet to the sole, but not always pene- trating to the laminae. It is a very serious defect, and exceed- ingly difficult to remedy ; for occasionally, if the horse is over weighted or hurried on his journey, the fissure will open and bleed, and very serious inconvenience and lameness may ensue. Grit and dirt may insinuate itself into the aperture, and peue- irate to the sensible laminae. Inflammation will almost of ne- c essrity be produced ; and much mischief will be effected. While the energies of the animal are not severely taxed, he may not ex- perience much inconvenience or pain ; but the slightest exertion will cause the fissure to expand, and painful lameness to follow The coronary ligament must be restored to its perfect state ; or at least to the discharge of its perfect function. Much dange* QULTTOR. 321 would attend the application of the caustic in order to effect this. A blister is rarely sufficiently active : but the application, not too severely, of a heated flat or rounded iron to the coronet at the injured part affords the best chance of success — the edges of the horn on either side of the crack being thinned, the hoof supported, and the separated parts held together by a firm encasement of pitch, as described when speaking of the treat- ment of sand-crack. The coronet must be examined at least once in every fortnight, in order to ascertain whether the desired union has taken place ; and, as a palliative during the treatment of the case, or if the treatment should be unsuccessful, a bar- shoe may be used, and care taken that there be no bearing at or immediately under the separation of the horn. This will be best effected, when the crust is thick and the quarters strong, by paring off a little of the bottom of the crust at the part, so that it will not touch the shoe ; but if the foot is weak, an in- dentation or hollow should be made in the shoe. Strain or con- cussion on the immediate part will thus be avoided, and, in sudden or violent exertion, the crack will not be so likely to extend upward to the coronet, when whole and sound horn has beffun to be formed there. QUITTOR. This has been described as being the result of neglected or bad tread or over-reach ; but it may be the consequence of any wound in the foot, and in any part of the foot. In the natural process )f ulceration, matter is thrown out from the wound. It precedes the actual healing of the part. The matter which is secreted in wounds of the foot is usually pent up there, and, increasing in quantity, and urging its way in every direction, it forces the little fleshy plates of the coffin-bone, from the horny ones of the crust or the homy sole from the fleshy sole, or even eats deeply into the internal parts of the foot. These pipes or sinuses run in every direction, and constitute the essence of quittor. If it arises from a wound in the bottom of the foot, the aper ture may speedily close up, and the matter which continues to be secreted is confined within, separating the horny from the fleshy i ole, until it forces its way upward and appears at the coronet (usually at the quarter) and there slowly oozes out. The open- ing and the quantity of matter discharged are so small, that al- though over a great part of the quarter and sole the horn may have separated from the coffin-bone, and the matter may have penetrated even under the cartilages and ligaments, and into the coffin-joint, but little mischief would be suspected by an unexpe- •21 n 322 QUJTTOIt. rienced person. The pressure of the matter wherever it has gone has formed ulcerations that are indisposed to heal, and that re- quire the application of strong and painful stimulants to induce them to heal ; and, worse than this, the horn, once separated from the sensible parts beneath, will never again unite with them, (duittor may occur in both the fore and the hind feet. It may be necessary to remove much of the horny sole, which will be speedily reproduced when the fleshy surface beneath can be brought to a healthy condition ; but if much of the horn at the quarters must be taken away, five or six months may proba- bly elapse before it will be sufficiently grown down again to ren- der the horse useful. Measures of considerable severity are indispensable. The ap- plication of some caustic will alone produce a healthy action on the ulcerated surfaces ; but on the ground of interest and of hu- manity, we protest against that brutal practice, or at least the extent to which it is carried, and is pursued by many ignorant smiths, of coring out, or deeply destroying the healthy as well as the diseased parts — and parts which no process will again restore. When any portion of the bone can be felt by the probe, the chances of success are diminished, and the owner and the opera- tor should pause. When the joints are exposed, the case is hope- less, although, in a great many instances, the bones and the joints are exposed by the remedy and not by the disease. One hint may not be necessary to the practitioner, but it may guide the determination and hopes of the owner ; if, when a probe is intro duced into the fistulous on the coronet, the direction of the sinu- ses or pijjes is backward, there is much probability that a perfect cure may be effected ; but if the direction of the sinuses is for- ward, the cure is at best doubtful. In the first instance, there is neither bone nor joint to be injured ; in the other, the more im- portant parts of the foot are in danger, and the principal action and concussion are found. Neglected bruises of the sole sometimes lay the foundation for quittor. When the foot is flat, it is very liable to be bruised if the horse is ridden fast over a rough and stony road ; or, a small stone, insinuating itself between the shoe and the sole, or con- fined by the curvature of the shoe, will frequently lame the horse. The heat and tenderness of the part, the occasional redness of the horn, and the absence of puncture, will clearly mark the bruise. The sole must then be thinned, and particularly over the bruised part, and, in neglected cases, it must be pared even to the quick, in order to ascertain whether the inflammation has run on to suppuration. Bleeding at the toe will be clearly indicated ; and poultices, and such other means as have either been described under " Inflammation of the Feet," or will be pointed out undej corns. 327 touches the horn at this point ; and thus, before the horse has been shod a fortnight, the shoe rests on this angle, and produces corns. The use of a shoe for the fore feet, thickened at the heels, is, and especially in weak feet, a source of corns, from the undue nearing there is on the heels, and the concussion to which they ire subject. Corns are most frequent and serious in horses with thin horn Hind flat soles, and low weak heels. They do not often occur in :he outside heel. It is of a stronger construction than the inside ^ne. The method adopted by shoeing-smiths to ascertain the existence of corn by the pain evinced when they pinch the bar and crust with their irons, is very fallacious. If the horn is naturally thin, the horse will shrink under no great pressure al- though he has no corn, and occasionally the bars are so strong as not to give way under any pressure. The cure of old corns is difficult ; for as all shoeing has some tendency to produce pressure here, the habit of throwing out this diseased horn is difficult to get rid of when once contracted ; re- cent corns, however, will yield to good shoeing. The first thing to be done is well to pare out the angle between the crust and the bars. Two objects are answered by this : the extent of the disease will be ascertained, and one cause of it re- moved. A very small drawing-knife must be used for this pur- pose. The corn must be pired out to the very bottom, taking care not to wound the sole. It may then be discovered whether there is any effusion of blood or matter underneath. If this is suspected, an opening must be made through the horn, the mat- ter evacuated, the separated horn taken away, the course and extent of the sinuses explored, and the treatment recommended for quittor adopted. Should there be no collection of fluid, the butyr of antimony should be applied over the whole extent of the corn, after the horn has been thinned as closely as possible. The object of this is to stimulate the sole to throw out more healthy horn. In bad cases a bar-shoe may be put on, so chambered, that there shall be no pressure on the diseased part. This may be worn for one or two shoeings, but not constantly, for there are few frogs that would bear the constant pressure of the bar- shoe ; and the want of pressure on the heel, generally occasioned by their use, would produce a softened and bulbous state of the heels, that would of itself be an inevitable source of lameness. The cause of corn is a most important subject of inquiry, and which a careful examination of the foot and the shoe will easily discover. The cause being ascertained, the effect may, to a great extent, be afterwards removed. Turning out to grass, after the horn is a little grown, first with a bar-shoe, and afterwards with the shoe fettered on one side, or vith tips, will often be service- 328 THRUSH able. A horse that has once had corns to any considerable ex- tent should, at every shoeing, have the seat of com well pared out, and the butyr of antimony applied. The seated shoe (here- after to be described) should be used, with a web sufficiently thick to cover the place of corn, and extending as far back as it can be made to do without injury to the frog. Low weak heeis should be rarely touched with the knife, or anything more be done to them than lightly to rasp them, in order to give them a level surface. Where corns exist of any consequence, they are a disgrace to the smith, the groom, and t6 the owner. THRUSH. This is a discharge of offensive matter from the cleft of the frog. It is inflammation of the lower surface of the sensible frog, and during which pus is secreted together with, or instead of horn. When the Irog is in its sound state, the cleft sinks but a little way into it ; but when it becomes contracted or otherwise diseased, it extends in length, and penetrates even to the sensible horn within, and through this unnaturally deepened fissure the thrushy discharge proceeds. A very full and fleshy state of the body may be a predisposing cause of thrush, but the immediate and grand cause is moisture. This should never be forgotten, for it will lead a great way towards the proper treatment of the dis- ease. If the feet are habitually covered with any moist applica- tion — his standing so much on his own dung is a fair example — thrush will inevitably appear. It is caused by anything that in- terferes with the healthy structure and action of the frog. We find it in the hinder feet oftener and worse than in the fore, be- cause in our stable management the hinder feet are too much exposed to the pernicious erlects of the dung and the urine, moist- ening, or as it were macerating, and at the same time irritating them. In the fore-feet, thrushes are usually connected with contrac- tion. We have stated that they are both the cause and the eflect of contraction. The pressure on the frog from the wiring in of the heels will produce pain and inflammation ; and the inflammation, by the increased heat and suspended function of the part, will dispose to contraction. Horses of all ages, and in almost all situations, are subject to thrush. The unshod colt is frequently thus diseased. Thrushes are net always accompanied by lameness. In a grea*: many cases the appearance of the foot is scarcely, or not at all altered, and the disease can only be detected by close examina- tion, or the peculiar smell of the discharge. The frog may not THRUSH. 329 appear to be rendered in the slightest degree tender b\, it. and therefore the horse may not be considered by many as unound. Every disease, however, should be considered as legal unsound- ness, and especially a disease which, although not attended with present detriment, must not be neglected, for it will eventually injure and lame the horse. The pi ogress of a neglected thrush, although sometimes slow, is sure. The frog begins to contract in size — it becomes rough, ragged, brittle, tender — the discharge is more copious and more offensive — the horn gradually disappears — a mass of hardened mucus usurps its place — this easily peels off, and the sensible frog remains exposed — the horse cannot bear it to be touched — fun- gous granulations spring from it — they spread around — the sole becomes under-run, and canker steals over the greater part of the foot. If a young colt, fat and full of blood, has a bad thrush, with much discharge, it will be prudent to accompany the attempt at cure by a dose of physic or a course of diuretics. A few diuretics may not be injurious when we are endeavoring to dry up thrush in older horses. There are many recipes to stop a ruiming thrush. Almost every application of an astringent, but not of too caustic nature, will have the effect. The common iEgyptiacum (vinegar boiled with honey and verdigris) is a good liniment ; but the most effectual and the safest — drying up the discharge speedily, but not suddenly — is a paste composed of blue vitriol, tar, and lard, in proportions according to the virulence of the canker. A pledget of tow, covered with it, should be introduced as deeply as possible, yet without force, into the cleft of the frog every night, and removed in the morning before the horse goes to work. Attention should at the same time, as in other diseases of the foot, be paid to the apparent cause of the complaint, and that sause should be carefully obviated or removed. Before tha application of the paste, the frog should be examined, and every loose part of the horn or hardened discharge removed ; and if much of the frog is then exposed, a larger and wider piece of tow, covered with the paste, may be placed over it, in addition to the pledget introduced into the cleft of the frog. It will be neces- sary to preserve the frog moist while the cure is in progress, and this may be done by filling the feet with tow, covered by com- mon stopping, or using the felt pad, likewise covered with it. Turning out, w T ould be prejudicial rather than of benefit to clirushy feet, except the dressing is continued, and the feet de- fended from moisture. 330 CANKER. J ANKER Is a separation of the horn from the sensible part of the foot, and the sprouting of the fungous matter (proud-flesh) instead of it, oc- cupying a portion or even the whole of the sole and frog. It is the occasional consequence of bruise, puncture, corn, quittor, and thrush, and is exceedingly difficult to cure. It is more fre- quently the consequence of neglected thrush than of any other disease of the foot, or rather it is thrush involving the frog-, the * OCT' bars, and the sole, and making the foot in one mass of rank putrefaction. It is often found in, and is almost peculiar to, the heavy breed of cart-horses, and partly resulting from constitutional predisposition. Horses with white legs and thick skins, and much hair upon their legs — the very character of many dray-horses — are subject to canker, especially if they have an attack of grease, or their heels are habitually thick and greasy. The disposition to canker is certainly hereditary. Although canker is a disease most difficult to remove, it is easily prevented. Attention to the punctures to which these heavy horses, with their clubbed feet and brittle hoofs, are more than any others subject in shoeing, and to the bruises and treads on the coronet, to which, from their awkwardness and weight, they are so liable, and the greasy heels which a very slight degree of negligence will produce in them, and the stopping of the thrushes, which are so apt in them to run on to the sepa- ration of the horn from the sensible frog, will most materially lessen the number of cankered feet. The cure of canker is the business of the veterinary surgeon, and a most painful and tedious business it is. The principles on which he proceeds are, first of all, to remove the extraneous fungous growth ; and for this purpose he will need the aid of the knife and the caustic, or the cautery, for he should -cut away every portion of horn which is in the slightest degree sep- arated from the sensible parts beneath. He will have to dis- courage the growth of fresh fungus, and to bring the foot into that state in which it will again secrete healthy horn. A slight and daily application of the chloride of antimony, and that not where the new horn is forming, but on the surface which continues to be diseased, and accompanied by as firm but equal pressure as can be made — the careful avoidance of the slightest degree of moisture — the horse being exercised or worked in the mill, or wherever the foot will not be exposed to wet. and that exercise adopted as early as possible, and even from the beginning, if the malady is confined to the sole and frog — OSSIFICATION WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. 331 these means will succeed, if the disease is capable of cure. It is proper to resort to neurotomy, if the means of cure are per- sisted in. Medicine is not of much avail in the cure of canker, but as it sometimes alternates with other diseases, a course of alteratives or diuretics may be administered, when the cure is nearly completed. OSSIFICATION" OF THE CARTILAGES. The cartilages embedded in the heels of the feet from bruises, sprains, &c, are subject to inflammation, and the result of that inflammation is that the cartilages are absorbed, and bone sub- stituted in their stead. This is common in heavy draught-horses, particularly as they are used on paved streets. No evident inflammation of the foot, or great, or perhaps even perceptible lameness, accompanies this change ; a mere slight degree of stiffness may have been observed, which, in a horse of more rapid pace, would have been lameness. Even when the change is completed, there is not in many cases anything more than a slight increase of stiffness, little or not at all interfering with the usefulness of the horse. When this altered structure appears in the lighter horse, the lameness is more decided, and means should be taken to arrest the progress of the change. These are blisters or firing ; but, after the parts have become bony, no operation will restore the cartilage. Some benefit, how- ever, will be derived from the use of leather soles. Advantage has resulted from bar-shoes in conjunction with leather. Connected with ringbone the lameness may be very great This has been spoken of in page 268. WEAKNESS OF THE FOOT. This is more accurately a bad formation, than a disease ; often, indeed, the result of disease, but in many instances the natural construction of the foot. The term tveak foot is familiar to every horseman, and the consequence is too severely felt by all who have to do with horses. In the slanting of the crust from the coronet to the toe, a less angle is almost invariably formed, amounting probably to not more than forty instead of forty-five degrees ; and, after the horse has been worked for one or two years the line is not straight, but a little indented or hollow, midway between the coronet and the toe. This has been des- cribed as the accompaniment of pumiced feet, but it is often seen in weak feet, that, although they might become pumiced by severity of work, do not otherwise have the sole convex. The crust is not only less oblique than '.t ought to be, but it has not 332 WEAKNESS OF TTTE FOOT. the smooth, even appearance of the good foot. The surface is sometimes irregularly roughened, but it is much oftener rough- ened in circles or rings. The form of the crust likewise presents too much the appearance of a cone ; the bottom of the foot is unnaturally wide in proportion to the coronet ; and the whole of the foot is generally, but not always larger than it should be. When the foot is lifted, it will often present a round and cir- cular appearance, with a fullness of frog, and would mislead the inexperienced, and indeed be considered as almost the perfection of structure ; but, being examined more closely, many glaring defects will be seen. The sole is flat, and the smith finds that it will bear little or no paring. The bars are small in size. They are not cut away by the smith, but they can be scarcely said to have any existence. The heels are low, so low that the very coronet seems almost to touch the ground ; and the crust, if ex- amined, appears scarcely thick enough to hold the nails. Horses with these feet can never stand much work. They will be subject to corns, to bruises of the sole, to convexity of the sole, to punctures in nailing, to breaking away of the crust, to inflammation of the foot, and to sprain and injury of the pastern, and the fetlock, and the flexor tendon. These feet admit of little improvement. Shoeing as seldom as may be, and with a light yet wide concave web ; little or no paring at the time of shoeing, and as little violent work as pos- sible, and especi Hy on rough roads, may protract for a long period the evil da^ , but he who buys a horse with these feet will sooner or later have cause to repent his bargain. CHAPTER XVI. FRACTURES. Accidents of this description are not of unfrequent occurrence, but when they do happen it is not always that the mischief can be repaired ; occasionally however, and much more frequently than is generally imagined, the life of a valuable animal might be saved if the owner, or the veterinary surgeon, would take a little trouble, and the patient is fairly tractable, and that, in the majority of cases, he will soon become, with kind treatment. With the exception of accidents that occur in casting the ani- imal for certain operations, and his struggles during the opera- tion, the causes of Fracture are usually blows, kicks, or falls, and the lesion may be considered as simple, confined to one bone, and not protruding through the skin — or compound, the bone or bones protruding through the skin — or complicated, where the bone is broken or splintered in more than one direction. The duty of the veterinary surgeon resolves itself into the replacing of the displaced bones in their natural position, the keeping of them in that position, the healing of the integument, and the taking of such measures as will prevent any untoward circum- stances from afterwards occurring. In the greater number of cases of fracture, it will be necessary to place the horse under considerable restraint, or even to sus- pend or sling him. Fig. 49 contains a view of the suspensory apparatus used by Mr. Percivall. A broad piece of sail-cloth, furnished with two breechings, and two breast-girths, is placed under the animal's belly, and, by means of ropes and pulleys attached to a cross beam above, he is elevated or lowered as circumstances may require. It will seldom be necessary to lift the patient quite off the ground, and the horse will be quietest, and most at his ease, when his feet are suffered just to touch it. The head is confined by two collar ropes, and the head-stall well padded. Many horses may plunge about and be difficult to manage at first, but generally speaking, it is not long ere they become perfectly nassive. 334 FRACTURES. The use of the different buckles and straps which are attached to the sail-cloth will be evident on inspection. If the horse exhibits more than usual uneasiness, other ropes may be attached to the corners of the sail-cloth. This will afford considerable relief to the patient, as well as add to the security of the band- ages. Fig. 49. ^^■*..H. In many cases the fracture, although a simple one, may be visible on the slightest inspection ; in others, there may be merely a suspicion of its existence. In detecting it, will be exhibited the skill and humanity of the educated surgeon, or the recklessness and brutality of the ignorant pretender. Heat, swelling, tenderness, fearfulness of the slightest motion, crepitus, (crackling) and especially change of the natural position of the limb, are the most frequent indications of the fracture. The probability of reunion of the parts depends upon the depth of the wound connected with the fracture — the contusion of the soft parts in the immediate neighborhood of it — the blood-vessels, arterial or venous, that have been wounded — the nearness of some large joint to which the inflammation may be communi- cated — dislocation of the extremities of the fractured joint — in- juries of the periosteum — the existence of sinuses, caries, or ne FRACTURE OF THE SKULL, NASAL BOMJS, JAW-BONE. 335 crosis, (diseased bones), or the fracture being compound, 01 broken into numerous spiculse or splinters. In a horse that is full of flesh, the cure of fracture is difficult , likewise in an old or worn-out horse — or when the part is inac- cessible to the hand or to instruments — or when separation has taken place between the parts that were beginning to unite — or when the surrounding tissues have been or are losing their vital, ity — or when the patient is already afflicted with any old 01 permanent disease. It may be useful briefly to review the various seats of fracture - Fracture of the skull. — Fracture of the skull is generally accompanied by stupidity, convulsive motions of the head or limbs, laborious breathing, and a staggering walk. The eyes are almost or quite closed, the head is carried low, and the lower lip hangs down. There are various instances on record of a portion of the depressed bone being removed and the animal recovering ; and hi some instances, a reunion of the depressed bones has taken place, leaving a permanent depression of the outer surface of the skull. Fracture of the nasal bones. — This will sometimes occur from falling, or be produced by a kick from another horse, or the brutality of the attendant or the rider. A fracture of this kind is generally accompanied by a laceration of the membrane of the nose, and considerable hemorrhage, (flow of blood,) which, how ever, may generally be arrested by the application of cold water. The fractured portion of bone is usually depressed, and, the space for breathing being diminished, difficulty of respiration occurs. If there is fracture of the nasal bones, with depression, and only a little way from the central arch and the section between the nostrils, a slightly curved steel rod may be cautiously intro- iuced into the passage, and the depressed portions carefully raised. If this cannot be effected, the trephine must be applied a little above or below the fracture, and the elevator, or steel rod, be in troduced through the aperture. If the fracture is in any other part of the bone, it will be impossible to reach it with the eleva- tor, for the turbinated bones are in the way. The trephine must then be resorted to in the first instance. The wound, if there is any, must be covered, and a compress kept on it. The superior maxillary, or upper jaw-bone, will occasion- ally be fractured. Mr. Cartwright had a case in which it was fractured by a kick at the situation where it unites with the iac- rymal and malar bones. He applied the trephine, and removed many small pieces of bone. The wound was then covered* by adhesive plaster, and in a month the parts were healed. Mr. Clayworth speaks of a mare which, being ridden almost at speed, fell and fractured the upper jaw, three inches above the 336 FRACTURE OF THE SPINE, RIBS. comer incisors. The front teeth and jaw were turned like a hook, completely within the lower ones. She was cast, a balling iron put into her mouth, and the surgeon, exerting considerable force, pulled the teeth outward into their former and proper situation. She was then tied up, so that she could not rub her muzzle against anything, and was well fed with bean-meal, and linseed tea Much inflammation ensued, but it gradually subsided, and, at the expiration of the sixth week, the mouth was quite healed, and scarcely a vestige of the fracture remained. The maxillary bone, or lower jaw, is more subject to frac- ture, and particularly in its branches between the tushes and the lower teeth, and at the symphysis (union by cartilage) between the two branches of the jaw. Its position, its length, and the small quantity of muscle that covers it, especially anteriorly, are among the causes of its fracture, and the same circumstances combine to render a reunion of the divided parts more easy to be accomplished. Mr. Blaine relates that, in a fracture of the lower jaw, he succeeded by making a strong leather frame that exactly encased the whole jaw. The author of this volume has effected the same object by similar means. In the majority of these cases of simple fracture, a cure might be effected, or should, at least, be attempted, by means of well- adapted bandages around the muzzle, confined by straps. It will always be prudent to call in veterinary aid, and it is absolutely necessary in case of compound fracture of the lower jaw. Fracture of the spine. — This accident, fortunately ibr the horse, is not of frequent occurrence, but it has been uniformly fatal. It sometimes happens in the act of falling, as in ieaping a wide ditch ; but it oftener occurs while a horse is struggling during a painful operation. It is generally sufficiently evident while the horse is on the ground. Either a snap is heard, indi- cative of the fracture, or the struggles of the hind-limbs suddenly and altogether cease. In a few cases, the animal has been able to get up and walk to his stable ; in others, the existence of the fracture has not been apparent for several hours : showing that the vertebras, although fractured, may remain in their place for a certain period of time. The bone that is broken, is usually one of the posterior dorsal or anterior lumbar vertebrae. There is no satisfactory case on record of reunion of the fractured parts. Fracture of the ribs. — These fractures are not always easily recognized. Those that are covered by the scapula (shoulder- blade) may exist for a long time without being detected, and those that are situated posteriorly are so thickly covered by muscles as to render the detection of the injury almost impossible. The ordinary causes of fracture are kicks and blows, or falls. The fractures are generally about their middle, and, in the true FRACTURE OF THE PELVIS, TAIL, LIMBS. 337 ribs, commonly oblique. They are occasionally broken into splin- ters, and if those splinters are directed inward, they may seriously wound the pleura or lungs. In order most certainly to detect the situation and extent of these fractures, it may be necessary to trace the rib through its whole extent, and, should there be any irregularity, to press firmly upon it above and below in order to ascertain the nature and extent of the injury. If fracture is detected, it is not often that much essential good can be done. If there is little or no displacement, a broad roller should be tightly drawn round the chest, in order to prevent as much as possible the motion of the ribs in the act of breathing, and to tlirow the labor on the diaphragm and the. abdominal muscles until the tractured parts are united. If the fractured parts protrude outwards, a firm compress must be placed upon them. Ii they are depressed, it will always be advisable to place a firm bandage over the seat of fracture, although, perhaps, there may be scarcely the possibility of elevating them to any consid- erable degree. Should much irritation be the consequence of the nature or direction of the fracture, proper means must be adopted to allay the constitutional disturbance that may be produced. General or local bleedings will be most serviceable. Fracture of ihe pelvis. — This is not of frequent occurrence, on account of the thickness of the soft parts which surround the pelvis, and protect it from injury, but it is of a serious character when it does take place, on account of the violence which must have been necessary to produce it. The usual cases are falls from a considerable height, or heavy blows on the pelvis. The injury may have reference to the internal or external portion of the pel- vis. In the first case, the danger may not be discovered until ir- reparable m schief is produced. When it is chiefly external, the altered appearance of the hip speaks for itself. It is rarely in our power to afford any assistance in cases like this, except when there are fractured portions of the bone that may be partially or entirely removed, or the projecting spine of the ilium is only partially fractured. Fracture of the tail. — This accident is not of frequent oc- currence, except from accidental entanglement, or the application of brute force. The fracture is easily recognized, frequently by the eye and always by the fingers. If the tail is not amputated, a cord passed over a pulley, and with a small weight attached to it, will bring the separated bones again into apposition, and in about a month the natural cartilage of the part will be sufficiently reinstated. Fractures of the limbs. — These, fortunately, are of rare oc- currence in the horse, for although their divided edges might be easily brought again into apposition, it would be almost irr- 338 FRACTURE OF THE SHOULDER, ARM, KLHOW. possible to retain them in it, for the slightest motion wouM dis- place them. A rapid survey of each may not, however, be alto- gether useless. Fracture of the shoulder. — The author is not aware ol the successful treatment of this accident by any English veteri- nary surgeon. It is not at all times easy to discover the existence and precise situation of fracture of the humerus. The lameness is very great — the animal will not bear at all upon the broken limb — he will drag it along the ground — he will move slowly and with difficulty. and his progression will consist of a succession of short leaps The lifting of the foot will give very great pain. If he is roughly han- dled, he will sometimes rear, or throw himself suddenly down. By careful application of the hand, a crepitus (crackling sound) will more or less distinctly be heard. Fracture of the arm. — This accident is not of unfrequent oc- currence. It commonly takes an oblique direction, and is usually first discovered by the displacement of the limb. Mr. Gloag, of the 10th Hussars, gives an interesting account of a case that oc- curred in his practice. " An entire black cart-horse was grazing in a field, into which some mares were accidentally turned. One of them kicked him severely a little above the knee. He, howev- er, contrived to get home, and being carefully examined, there was found a simple fracture of the radius, about an inch and a half above the knee. The ends of the fractured bone could be heard distinctly grating against each other, both in advancing the leg and turning it sideway from the body. He was immediately placed in a sling not completely elevated from the ground, but in which he could occasionally relieve himself by standing. The leg was well bathed with warm water, and the ends of the bone brought as true to their position as possible. Some thin slips of green wood were then immersed in boiling water until they would readily bend to the shape of the knee, and they were tied round the joint, reaching about nine inches above and six below the knee, the ends of them being tied round with tow. A fortnight afterwards he became very troublesome, knocking his foot on the ground, and when, at the expiration of the sixth week, he was taken from the slings, there was a considerable bony de- posit above the knee. This, however, gradually subsided as the horse regained his strength, and, with the exception of turn- ing the leg a little outwards, he is as useful as ever for common purposes." Fracture of the elbow. — This is far more exposed to danger than the two last bones, and is oftener fractured. The fracture is generally an oblique one, and about two-thirds from the summit of the limb. It is immediately detected by the altered action, and FRACTURE OF THE FEMUR, PATELLA, TIBIA, HOCK. 339 different appearance of the limb. It is not so difficult of reduc- tion as either the humerus or the scapula, when the fracture is towards the middle of the bone. A great quantity of tow satu- rated with pitch must be placed around the elbow, and confined with firm adhesive plasters, the ground being hollowed away in the front of the injured leg, so that no pressure shall be made by that foot. Fracture of the femur. — Considering the masses of muscle that surround this bone, and the immense weight which it sup- ports, it would naturally be deemed impossible to reduce a real fracture of the femur. If the divided bones are ever united, it is a consequence of the simple repose of the parts, and their tendency to unite. Fracture of the patella. — This does occasionally, though very seldom, occur. It is usually the consequence of violent, kicks, or blows, and if this singular bone is once disunited, no power can bring the divided portions of the bone together again. Fracture of the tibia. — This affection is of more frequent oc- currence, and of more serious consequence, than we were accus tomed to imagine it to be. Mr. J. S. Mayer gives an interesting account of the successful treatment of a case of fracture of the tibia. The simplicity of the process will, we trust, encourage many another veterinary surgeon to follow his example. " A horse received a blow on the tibia of the near leg ; but little notice was taken of it for two or three days. When, however, we were called in to examine him, we found the tibia to be ob- liquely fractured about midway between the hock and the stifle, and a small wound existing on the inside of the leg. It was set in the following manner : — The leg, from the stifle down to the hock, was well covered with an adhesive compound ; it was then wrapped round with fine tow, upon which another layer of the same adhesive mixture was laid, the whole being well splinted and bandaged up, so as to render what was a slightly compound fracture a simple one. The local inflammation and sympathetic fever that supervened were kept down by antiphlogistic measures. At the end of six weeks the bandages and splints were removed, and readjusted in a similar way as before, and at the termination of three months from the time of the accident he was discharged, cured, the splints being wholly taken off, and merely an adhesive stay kept on the leg. The horse is now at work and quite sound, there being merely a little thickening, .where the callus is formed." Fracture of the hock. — This is not of frequent occurrence, but verv difficult to treat, from the almost impossibility of finding 340 FRACTURE OF THE CANNON, SESAMOID BONES, ETC. means to retain the bone in its situation. A case, however, some- what simple in its nature, occurred in the practice of Mr. Cart- wright. A colt, leaping at some rails, got his leg between them, and, unable to extricate himself, hung over on the other side. After being liberated it appeared, on examination, that there was a simple horizontal fracture of the whole of the os calcis about the middle. A splint was contrived so as to reach from the mid- dle of the tibia to that of the cannon bone, and this was applied to the front of the leg, keeping the hock from its usual motion, and relaxing the muscles inserted into the os calcis. Underneath this splint a charge was applied about the part, in order to form a level surface for the splint to rest upon. The whole was bound together by proper adhesive bandages, and he was ordered to be Kept quiet in the stable, but not to be slung. In about two months the hock was fired and became perfectly sound. Fracture of the cannon or shank bone. — This is of more frequent occurrence than that of any other bone, on account ol the length of the leg, and the danger to which it is exposed There is rarely any difficulty in detecting its situation, but there is sometimes a great deal in bringing the divided edges of the bone again into apposition. A kind of windlass, or a power equal to it, is occasionally necessary to produce sufficient exten- sion in order to effect the desired purpose : but the divided edges being brought into apposition are retained there by the force of the muscles above. Splints reaching from the foot to above the Knee should then be applied. The horse should be racked up during a fortnight, after which, if the case is going on well, the animal may often be turned out. In cases of compound fracture the wounds should be carefully attended to : but Mr. Percivall says that he knows one or two old practitioners, who are in the habit of treating these cases in a very summary and generally successful manner. They employ such common support, with splints and tow and bandages, as the case seems to require, and then the animal with his leg bound up is turned out, if the season permits ; otherwise he is placed in a yard or box, where there is not much straw to in- commode his movements. The animal will take care not to impose too much weight on his fractured limb ; and, provided the parts are well secured, nature will generally perform the rest. Fracture of the sesamoid bones. — There are but two instances of this on record. Fracture of the upper pastern. — Thick and strong, and movable as this bone seems to be, it is occasionally fractured. This lias been the consequence of a violent effort by the horse to save himself from falling, when he has stumbled, — it has happened FRACTURE OF THE LOWER PASTERN. 341 when he has been incautiously permitted to run down a steep descent — and has occurred when a horse has been travelling on the best road, and at no great pace. The existence of fracture in this bone is, generally speaking, easily detected. The injured foot is, as lightly as possible, per- mitted to come in contact with the ground. As little weight as may be is thrown on it, or, if the animal is compelled to use it, the fetlock is bent down nearly to the ground, and the toe is turned upward. If the foot is turned sideways a crackling sound is generally heard, though this is not always the case. The probability of success in the treatment of this fracture, depends on its being a simple or compound one. If it runs laterally across the bone, it may be readily and successfully treated — if it extends to the joints above and below, it will probably terminate in anchylosis (bony union), and if the bone is shivered, as it too frequently is, into various parts, there would scarcely seem the possibility of a successful treatment of the case. The instances, however, are numerous in which the case terminates successfully. Hurtrel d'Arboval recommends that a bandage steeped in some adhesive matter should be applied from the coronet to the middle of the leg. On this some wet paste- board is to be moulded, enveloped afterwards in a linen ban- dage. A small splint is now to be applied before and behind and on each side, and the hollow places are filled with tow, in order to give them an equal bearing. If this does not appear to be sufficiently secure, other splints, thicker and broader, are placed over those extending to the knee or the hock. The case related by M. Levrat was treated in this way. It will be comparatively seldom that it will be necessary to suspend the patient. The animal, under the treatment of M. Levrat, kept his foot in the air for nearly three weeks. At the end of that period he now and then tried to rest his toe on the litter. Six weeks after the accident, he began to throw some weight on the foot ; and a few days afterwards he was able to go to a pond, about fifty paces from his stable, and where, of his own accord, he took a foot-bath for nearly an hour at a time. At the expir- ation of another month he was mounted, and went well at a walking pace ; he was, however, still lame when he was trotted. Fracture of the lower pastern. — Although this bone is much shorter than the upper pastern, there are several instances of fracture of it. The fractures of this bone are commonly longitudinal, and often extend from the larger pastern to the coffin-bone. It is frequently splintered, the splinters takmsr this longitudinal direction. Hutrel d'Arboval relates three cases of this, and in one of them the bone was splintered into four pieces. Ir several instances, however, this bone has been separated into 342 FRACTURE OF THE COFFIN-BONE, NAVICULAR BONE. eight or ten distinct pieces. When the fracture of the bone is neither compound nor complicated, it may be perfectly reduced by proper bandaging, and, in fact, there have been cases, in which union has taken place with slight assistance from art be- yond the application of a few bandages. Fracture of the coffin-bone. — This is an accident of very rare occurrence, and difficult to distinguish from other causes of lameness. The animal halts very considerably — the foot is hot and tender — the pain seems to be exceedingly great, and none of the ordinary causes of lameness are perceived. Accord- ing to Hurtrel D'Arboval, it is not so serious an accident as has been represented. The fractured portions cannot be displaced, and in a vascular bone like this, the union of the divided parts will be readily effected. Fracture of the navicular bone has been sufficiently con- sidered under the article "Navicular Joint Disease," p. 311. CHAPTER X7II. ON SHOEING, ETC. The period when the shoe began to be nailed to the foot of the horse is uncertain. William the Norman introduced it intd our country. Far more than is generally imagined, do the comfort and health of the horse, and the safety of his rider, depend upon shoe- ing. In taking off the old shoe, the clenches of the nails should al- ways be carefully raised or filed ofF; and, where the foot is ten- der, or the horse is to be examined for lameness, each nail should be partly punched out. The edges of the crust are then to be rasped to detect whether any stubs remain in the nail-holes, and to remove the crust into which dirt and gravel have insinuated themselves. Next comes the important process of paring out, with regard to which it is almost impossible to lay down any specific rules. This, however, is undoubted, that far more injury has been done by the neglect of paring, than by carrying it to too great an ex- tent. The act of paring is a work of much more labor than the proprietor of the horse often imagines. The smith, except he is overlooked, will frequently give himself as little trouble about it as he can ; and that portion of horn which, in the unshod foot, would be worn away by contact with the ground, is suffered to accumulate month after month, until the elasticity of the sole i« destroyed, and it can no longer descend, and its other functions are impeded, and foundation is laid for corn, and contraction, and uavicular disease, and inflammation. That portion of horn should be left on the foot, which will defend the internal parts from being bruised, and yet suffer the external sole to descend How is this to be ascertained ? The strong pressure of the thumb of the smith will be the best guide. The buttress, that most de- structive of all instruments, being, except on very particular oc- casions, banished from every respectable forge, the smith sets to work with his drawing-knife, and removes the growth of horn, until the sole will yield, although in the slightest possible degree, 344 SHOEING. to the strong pressure of his thumb. The proper thickness of horn will then remain. The quantity of horn to be removed, in order to leave the pro- per degree of thickness, will vary with different feet. From the strong foot, a great deal must be taken. From the concave foot, the horn may be removed until the sole will yield to a moderate pressure. From the flat foot, little needs be pared ; while the pumiced foot should be deprived of nothing but the ragged parts. The crust should be reduced to a perfect level all round, but left a little higher than the sole, or the sole will be bruised by its pressure on the edge of the seating. The heels will require considerable attention. From the stresa which is thrown on the inner heel, and from the weakness of the quarter there, the horn usually wears away considerably fastei than it would on the outer one, and if an equal portion of horn were pared from it, it would be left lower than the outer heel. The smith should therefore accommodate his paring to the com- parative wear of the heels, and be exceedingly careful to leave them precsely level. The portion of the heels between the inflection of the bar and the frog should scarcely be touched — at least, the ragged and de- tached parts alone should be cut away. The foot may not look so fair and open, but it will last longer without contraction. The bar, likewise, should be left fully prominent, not only at its first inflection, but as it runs down the side of the frog. The heel of tjie shoe is designed to rest partly on the heel of the foot and partly on the bar, for reasons that have been already stated. If the bar is weak, the growth of it should be encouraged ; and it should be scarcely touched when the horse is shod, unless it has attained a level with the crust. It will also be apparent, that the horn between the crust and the bar should be carefully pared out. Every horseman has ob- served the relief which is given to the animal lame with corns, when this angle is well thinned. The degree of paring to which the frog must be subjected, will depend on its prominence, and on the shape of the foot. The principle has already been stated, that it must be left so far pro- jecting and prominent, that it shall be just within and above the lower surface of the shoe ; it will then descend with the sole suf- ficiently to discharge the functions that have been attributed to it. If it is lower, it will be bruised and injured ; if it is higher, it cannot come in contact with the ground, and thus be enabled to do its duty. The ragged parts must be removed, and especially tnose occasioned by thrush, but the degree of paring must depend entirely on the principle just stated. SHOEING. PUTTING ON THE SHOE. 345 The shoe should accurately fit the size of the foot ; if too small, and the foot is rasped down to fit the shoe, the crust is thinned where it receives the nail, and the danger of puncture, and of pressure upon the sole, is increased ; and a foot so artificially di- minished in size, will soon grow over the shoe, to the hazard of uonsid&rable or permanent lameness. The shoe should be properly bevelled off, that the dirt, gravel, &c, which gets between it and the foot may be shaken out. The web of the shoe is likewise of that thickness, that when the foot is properly pared, the prominent part of the frog shall lie just within and above its ground surface, so that in the descent of the sole, the frog shall come sufficiently on the ground to en- able it to act as a wedge, and to expand the quarters, while it is defended from the wear and injury it would receive, if it came on the ground with the first and full shock of the weight. The nail-holes are, on the ground side, placed as near the outer edge of the shoe as they can safely be, and brought out near the inner edge of the seating. The nails thus take a direction in- wards, resembling that of the crust itself, and have firmer hold, and the weight of the horse being thrown on a flat surface, con- traction is not so likely to be produced. It is expedient not only that the foot and ground surface of the shoe should be most accurately level, but that the crust should be exactly smoothed and fitted to the shoe. Much skill and time are necessary to do this perfectly with the drawing-knife. The smith has adopted a method of more quickly, and more accurately adapting the shoe to the foot. He pares the crust as level as he can, and then he brings the shoe to a heat somewhat below a red heat, and applies it to the foot, and detects any little elevations by the deeper color of the burned horn. This practice has been much inveighed against ; but it is the abuse, and not the use of the thing which is to be condemned. If the shoe is not too hot, nor held too long on the foot, an accuracy of adjustment is thus obtained, which the knife would be long in producing, or would not produce at all. If, however, the shoe is made to burn its way to its seat, with little or no previous preparation of the foot, the heat must be injurious both to the sensible and insensible parts of the foot. The heels of the shoe should be examined as to their proper width. Whatever is the custom of shoeing the horses of dealers, and the too prevalent practice in the metropolis of giving the fuot an open appearance, although the posterior part of it is thereby exposed to injury, nothing is more certain than that, in the horse o 346 CALKINS CLIPS. destined for road- work, the heels, and particularly the seat of corn, can scarcely be too well covered. Part of the shoe projecting externally can be of no possible good, but will prove an occasional source of mischief, and especially in a heavy country. A shoe, the web of which projects inward as far as it can without touch- ing the frog, affords protection to the angle between the bars and he crust. Of the manner of attaching the shoe to the foot the owner can scarcely be a competent judge ; he can only take care that the shoe itself sh'all not be heavier than the work requires — that, foi work a little hard the shoe shall still be light, with a bit of steel welded into the toe — that the nails shall be as small, and as few, and as far from the heels as may be consistent with the security of the shoe ; and that, for light work at least, the shoe shall not be driven on so closely and firmly as is often done, nor the points of the nails b^ brought out so high up as is generally practised. CALKINS* There are few cases in which the use of calkins (a turning up or elevation of the heel) can be admissible in the fore-feet, except in frosty weather, when it may in some degree prevent unpleasant or dangerous slipping. If, however, calkins are used, they should be placed on both sides. If the outer heel only is raised with the calkin, as is too often the case, the weight cannot be thrown evenly on the foot, and undue straining and injury of some part of the foot or of the leg must be the necessary consequence. CLIPS. These are portions of the upper edge of the shoe, hammered rat, aud turned up so as to embrace the lower part of the crust and which is usually pared out a little, in order to receive the clip. They are very useful, as more securely attaching the shoe to the foot, and relieving the crust from that stress upon the nail* which would otherwise be injurious. A clip at the toe is almos* necessary in every draught-horse, and absolutely so in the horse of heavy draught, in order to prevent the shoe from being loos- ened or torn off by the pressure which is thrown upon the toe iu the act of drawing. A clip on the outside of each shoe, at the beginning of the quarters, will give security to it. Clips are like- wise necessary on the shoes of all heavy horses, and of all other? who are disposed to stamp, or violently paw with their feet, ant "ihus incur the danger of displacing the shoe ; but they are evils * Called " calks," or vulgarly, "corks," in the U. S. — Am. Ed THE HINDER SHOE DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES. 347 inasmuch as they press upon the crust as it grows down, and they should only be used when circumstances absolutely require them. In the hunter's shoe they are not required at the sides. One at the toe is sufficient. THE HINDER SHOE. In forming the hinder shoes it should be remembered that the hind limbs are the principal instruments in progression, and that in every act of progression, except the walk, the toe is the point on which the whole frame of the animal turns, and from which it is propelled. This part, then, should be strengthened as much as possible ; and, therefore, the hinder shoes are made broader at the toe than the fore ones. Another good effect is produced by this, that, the hinder foot being shortened, there is less danger of over-reaching, forging, or clinking, and especially if the shoe is wider on the foot surface than on the ground one. The shoe is thus made to slope inward, and is a little within the toe of the crust. The shape of the hinder foot is somewhat different from that of the fore foot. It is straighter in the quarters, and the shoe must have the same form. For carriage- and draught- horses generally, calkins may be put on the heels, because the animal will be thus enabled to dig his toe more firmly into the ground, and urge him self forward, and throw his weight into the collar with greater advantage : but the calkins must not be too high, and they must be of an equal height on each heel, otherwise, as has been stated with regard to the fore feet, the weight will not be fairly dis- tributed over the foot, and some part of the foot or the leg will materially suffer. The nails in the hinder shoe may be placed nearer to the heel than in the fore shoe, because, from the com- paratively little weight and concussion thrown on the hinder feet, there is not so much danger of contraction. DIFFERENT KINDS OF SHOES. The shoe must vary in substance and weight with the kind of foot, and the nature of the work. A weak foot should never wear a heavy shoe, nor any foot a shoe that will last longer than a month. Here, perhaps, we may be permitted to caution the horse-proprietor against having his cattle shod by contract, un- less he binds his farrier or veterinary surgeon to remove the shoes once at least in every month ; for if the contractor, by a heavy shoe, and a little steel, can cause five or six weeks to intervene between the shoeings, he will do so, although the feet of the horse must necessarily suffer. The shoe should never be heavier 348 THE CONCAVE SEATED SHOE. than the work requires, for an ounce or two in the weight of the shoe will sadly tell at the end of a hard day's work. This is acknowledged in the hunting-shoe, which is narrower and lighter than that of the hackney, although the foot of the hackney is smaller than that of the hunter. It is more decidedly acknowl- edged in the racer, who wears a shoe only sufficiently thick to prevent it from bending when it is used. THE CONCAVE SEATED SHOE. A cut is subjoined of a shoe which is useful and valuable for general purposes. It is employed in many of our best forges, and promises gradually to supersede the flat and the simple concave shoe, although it must, in many respects, yield to the unilateral shoe. It presents a perfectly flat surface to the ground, in order to give as many points of bearing as possible, except that, on the outer edge, there is a groove or fuller, in which the nail-holes aie punched, so that, sinking into the fuller, their heads project but a little way, and are soon worn down level with the shoe. Fig. 50. The web of this shoe is of the same thickness throughout, from the toe to the heel ; and it is sufficiently wide to guard the sole THE UNILATERAL SHOE. 349 from bruises, and, as much so as the frog will permit, to cover the seat of corn. On the foot side it is seated. The outer part of it is accurately flat, and of the width of the crust, and designed to support the crust, for by it the whole weight of the horse is sustained. Towards the heel this flattened part is wider and occupies the whole breadth of the web, in order to support the heel of t' crust and its reflected part — the bar ; thus, while it defends th* horn included within this angle from injury, it gives that equal pressure from the bar and the crust, which is the best preventive against corns, and a powerful obstacle to contraction. It is fastened to the foot by nine nails — five on the outside, and four on the inner side of the shoe ; those on the outside extend- ing a little farther down towards the heel, because the outside heel is thicker and stronger, and there is more nail-hold ; the last nail on the inner quarter being farther from the heel, on account of the weakness of that quarter. For feet not too large, and where moderate work only is required from the horse, four nails on the outside, and three on the inside, will be sufficient ; and the last nail being far from the heels, will allow more expansion there. The inside part of the web is bevelled off, or rendered concave, that it may not press upon the sole. Notwithstanding the shoe, the sole does, although to a very inconsiderable extent, descend when the foot of the horse is put on the ground. It is unable to bear constant or even occasional pressure, and if it came in contact with the shoe, the sensible sole between it and the coffin- bone would be bruised, and lameness would ensue. Many of oui horses, from too early arid undue work, have the natural concave sole flattened, and the disposition to descend, and the degree oi descent, are thereby increased. The concave shoe prevents, even in this case, the possibility of much injury, because the sole can never descend in the degree in which the shoe is or may \)-j bevelled. A shoe bevelled still farther is necessary to protect the projecting or pumiced foot. THE UNILATERAL, OR ONE SIDE NAILED SHOE. This is a material improvement in the art of shoeing, for which we are indebted to Mr. Turner. What was the state of the foot of the horse a few years ago ? An unyielding iron hoof was attached to it by four nails in each quarter, and the consequence was, that in nine cases out of ten the foot underwent a very considerable alteration in its form and in its usefulness. Before it had attained its full developement — before the animal was five years old, there was, in a great many 350 THE UNILATERAL SHOE. cases, an evident contraction of the hoof. There was an altera- tion in the manner of going. The step was shortened, the sole was hollowed, the frog was diseased, the general elasticity of the foot was destroyed — there was a disorganization of the whole horny cavity, and the value of the horse was materially dimin- ished. What was the grand cause of this ? It was the restraint f the shoe. The firm attachment of it to the foot by nails in ach quarter, and the consequent strain to which the quarters and every part of the foot were exposed, produced a necessary tendency to contraction, from which sprang almost all the mala- dies to which the foot of the horse is subject. The unilateral shoe has this great advantage : it is identified with the grand principle of the expansibility of the horse's foo + y and of removing or preventing the worst ailments to which the foot of the horse is liable. It can be truly stated of this shoe, that while it affords to the whole organ an iron defence equal to the common shoe, it permits, what the common shoe never did or can do, the perfect liberty of the foot. We are enabled to present our readers with the last improve- ment of the unilateral shoe. Fig. 51. The above cut gives a view of the outer side of the off or right unilateral shoe. The respective situations of the five nails will be observed ; the distance of the last from the heel, and the proper situations at which they emerge from the crust. The two clips will likewise be seen — one in the front of the foot, and the p*> *>r n the side between the last and second nail. THE HUNTING SHOE. 351 Fig. 52 gives a view of the inner side of the unilateral shoe. The two nails near the toe are in the situation in which Mr. Tur- ner directs that they should be placed, and behind them is no other attachment, between the shoe and the crust. The portion of the crust which is rasped off from the inner surface of the shoe, is now, we believe, not often removed from the side of the foot ; it has an unpleasant appearance, and the rasping is some- what unnecessary. The heel of this shoe exhibits the method which Mr. Turner has adopted, and with considerable success, for the cure of corns ; he cuts away a portion of the ground sur face at the heel, and injurious compression or concussion is ren- dered in a manner impossible. Fig. 52. There can be no doubt that this one-sided nailing has been exceedingly useful. It has, in many a case that threatened a serious termination, restored the elasticity of the foot, and enabled ii to discharge its natural functions. It has also restored to the foot, even in bad cases, a great deal of its natural formation, and enabled the horse to discharge his duty with more ease and pleasure to himself, and greater security to his rider. THE HUNTING SHOE. The hunter's shoe is different from that commonly used, in form as well as in weight. It is not so much bevelled off as the com- mon concave-seated shoe. Sufficient space alone is left for the in- troduction of a picker between the shoe and the sole, otherwise, in going over heavy ground, the clay would insinuate itself, and by o52 THE BAR-SHOE TIPS. its tenacity loosen, and even tear off the shoe. The heels like- wise are somewhat shorter, that they may not be torn off by the toe of the hind-feet when galloping fast, and the outer heel is fre- quently but injudiciously turned up to prevent slipping. If calk- ins are necessary both heels should have an equal bearing. THE BAR-SHOE. A bar-shoe is often exceedingly useful. It is the continuation of the common shoe round the heels, and by means of it the pressure may be taken off from some tender part of the foot, and thrown on another which is better able to bear it, or more widely and equally diffused over the whole foot. It is principally re- sorted to in cases of corn, the seat of which it perfectly covers — in pumiced feet, the soles of which may be thus elevated above the ground and secured from pressure, — in sand-crack, when the pressure may be removed from the fissure, and thrown on either side of it, and in thrushes, when the frog is tender, or is become cankered, and requires to be frequently dressed, and the dressing can by this means alone be retained. In these cases the bar-shoe is an excellent contrivance, if worn only for one or two shoeings. or as long as the disease requires it to be worn, but it must be left off as soon as k can be dispensed with. If it is used for the protection of a diseased foot, however, it may be chambered and laid off the frog, it will soon become flattened upon it ; or if the pressure of it is thrown on the frog in order to relieve the sand- crack or the corn, that frog must be very strong and healthy which can long bear the great and continued pressure. More mischief is often produced in the frog than previously existed in the part that was relieved. It will be plain that in the use of the bar-shoe for corn or sand-crack, the crust and the frog should be precisely on a level ; the bar also should be the widest part of the shoe, in order to afford as extended bearing as possible on the frog and therefore less likely to be injurious. Bar-shoes are evidently not safe in frosty weather. They are never safe when much speed is required from the horse, and they are apt to be wrenched oh' in a heavy, clayey country. TIPS. Tips are short shoes, reaching only half round the foot, and worn while the horse is at grass, in order to prevent the crust being torn by the occasional hardness of the ground, or the paw- ing of the animal. The quarters at the same time being free, the foot disposed to contract has a chance of expanding and regaining its natural shape. THE EXPANDING SHOE FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. 353 THE EXPANDING SHOE. Our subject would not be complete if we did not describe the supposed expanding shoe, although it is now almost entirely out of use. It is either seated or concave like the common shoe, with a joint at the toe, by which the natural expansion of the foot is said to ba permitted, and the injurious consequences of shoeing prevented. There is, however, this radical defect in the jointed shoe, that the nails occupy the same situation as in the common shoe, and prevent, as they do, the gradual expansion of the sides and quarters, and allow only of the hinge-like motion at the toe. It is a most imperfect accommodation of the expansion of the foot to the action of its internal parts, and even this accommodation is afforded in the slightest possible degree, if it is afforded at all. Either the nails fix the sides and quarters as in the common shoe, and then the joint at the toe is useless : or, if that joint merely opens like a hinge, the nail-holes near the toe can no longer cor- respond with those in the quarters, which are unequally expand- ing at every point. There will be more stress on the crust at these holes, which will not only enlarge them and destroy the fixed attachment of the shoe to the hoof, but often tear away por- tions of the crust. This shoe, in order to answer the intended purpose, should consist of many joints, running along the sides and quarters, which would make it too complicated and expensive and frail for general use. While the shoe is to be attached to the foot by nails, we must be content with the concave-seated or unilateral one, taking care to place the nail-holes so far from the heels, and particularly from the inner heel, as the state of the foot and the nature of the work will admit ; and where the country is not too heavy nor the worl too severe, omitting all but two on the inner side of the foot. FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. When the foot is bruised or inflamed, the concussion or shock produced by the hard contact of the elastic iron with the ground gives the animal much pain, and aggravates the injury or disease. A strip of felt or leather is, therefore, sometimes placed between the seating of the shoe and the crust, which, from its want of elasticity, deadens or materially lessens the vibration or shock, and the horse treads more freely and is evidently relieved. This is a good contrivance while the inflammation or tenderness of the foot con- tinues, but a very bad practice if constantly adopted. The nails cannot be driven so surely or securrly when this sub- stance is interposed between the shoe and the Foot. The contrac- 23 354 FELT OR LEATHER SOLES. tion and swelling of the felt or leather from the effect of moisture or dryness will soon render the attachment of the shoe less firm — there will be too much play upon the nails — the nail-holes will en- large, and the crust will be broken away. After wounds or extensive bruises of the sole, or where the sole is thin and flat and tender, it is sometimes covered with a piece f leather, fitted to the sole, and nailed on with the shoe. This may be allowed as a temporary defence of the foot ; but there is the same objection to its permanent use for the insecurity of fastening, and the strain on the crust, and the frequent chipping of it. There are also these additional inconveniences, that if the hollow between the sole and the leather is filled with stopping and tow, it is exceedingly difficult to introduce them so evenly and accurately as not to produce partial or injurious pressure. A few days' work will almost invariably so derange the padding, as to cause unequal pressure. The long contact of. the sole with stopping of almost every kind, will produce not a healthy, elastic horn, but that of a scaly, spongy nature — and if the hollow is not thus filled, gravel and dirt will insinuate themselves, and eat into and injure the foot.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — [Mr. Spooner's note contains nothing not given more fully in the text. After some remarks on the diversities of opinion on the subject of shoeing, he expresses the following opinions :] Some horses have so strong a development of the horny structure of the foot, that a con- siderable portion requires to be removed at each shoeing, whilst others re- quire, if it were possible, horn to be added, for in them the wear is greater than the growth. Some horses have a tendency to high heels, others to low ones ; some require the toe of the foot to be reduced every month, in others there is not a particle to spare. In some horses the frog is so large and gross that it requires considerable paring, in others it can only be very care- fully removed. We find the sole in some horses so thin and flat, that the shoe must be seated considerably to prevent its pressing on the sole, whilst in others the sole is so strong and concave, that it is a matter of indifference whether the shoe is seated at all, except for the purpose of rendering it lighter. With this endless diversity in horses' feet, how is it possible to lay down any fixed plan for shoeing all horses alike ? All that can be done is to take an average foot, and consider what sort of shoe is best suited for it, and so alter or modify such shoe as to adapt it to other feet according to their peculiarities. There is no better shoe for a saddle or light harness horse on the road than one of moderate weight, rather less than an inch in breadth, seated on the foot surface, with five nails on the outside quarter and toe, and two or three on the inside and near the toe. A clip at the toe and another at the outer quarter will be a useful addition ; and if the shoe is required to be light, then one or even two nails may be dispensed with. By means of such a shoe the foot will be secured from contraction, and the inside heel in great measure from corns. The shoe should be of equal thickness at the heel as at the toe, and the web should oe narrower at the former than the latter situation. If the heels of the foot are very low, it will be prudent to make the heels of the shoe somewhat thicker than the toe, and vice versa. STOPPING THE FEET. 366 STOPPING THE FEET. The general habit of stopping the feet requires some consider- ation. It is a very good or very bad practice, according to cir- cumstances. When the sole is flat and thin it should be omitted, except on the evening before shoeing, and then the application of a little moisture may render the paring of the foot safer and more easy. If it were oftener used it would soften the foot, and not only increase the tendency to descent, but the occa- sional occurrence of lameness from pebbles or irregularities of the road. Professor Stewart gives a valuable account of the proper application of stopping. "Farm horses seldom require any stopping. Their feet receive sufficient moisture in the fields, or, if they do not get much, they do not need much. Cart-horses used in the town should be stopped once a week, or oftener dur- ing winter, and every second night in the hot weeks of summer Groggy horses, and all those with high heels, concave shoes, or hot and tender feet, or an exuberance of horn, require stopping almust every night. When neglected, especially in dry weather ; the sole becomes hard and rigid, and the horse goes lame, or becomes lame if he were not so before." One of two substances, or a mixture of both, is generally used for stopping the feet — clay and cow-dung. The clay used alone is too hard, and dries too rapidly. Many horses have been lamed by it. If it is used in the stable, it should always be removed before the horse goes to work. It may, perhaps, be applied to the feet of heavy draught-horses, for it will work out before much mischief is done. Cow-dung is softer than the clay, and it has this good prop- erty, that it rarely or never becomes too hard or dry. For ordi- nary work, a mixture of equal parts of clay and cow-dung will be the best application ; either of them, however, must be applied with a great deal of caution, where there is any dispo sition to thrush. Tow used alone, or with a small quantity of tar, will often be serviceable. If the sole is inclined to be flat, it will be desirably to make the shoe lorae what broader in the web, unless a leather sole is used, which for such fee is extremely useful, — indeed a leather sole is at all times desirable during the summer season. It secures the sole from injury from stones, and saves many a fall and broken knee ; it materially lessens concussion, dimin- ishes both the wear of the horn and of the shoe, and keeps applied to the sole a stopping of grease and tar spread on tow, which preserves the horn in a moist and healthy state. It is objectionable for hunters by rendering the shoes more liable to cast ; and if required, on account of lameness, for horses going on the soft ground, it should be merely a narrow rim of leather between the bearing part of the shoe and the foot. 356 THE SANDAL. In the better kind of stables, a felt pad is frequently used. It keeps the foot cool and moist, and is very useful, when the sole has a tendency to become flat. For the concave sole, tow would be preferable. THE SANDAL. The shoe is sometimes displayed when the horse is going at an ordinary pace, and more frequently during hunting ; and no person who is a sportsman needs to be told in what a vexatious predicament every one feels himself who happens to loose a shoe in the middle of a chase, or just as the hounds are getting clear away with their fox over the open country. Mr. Percivall has invented a sandal which occupies a very small space in the pocket, can be buckled on the foot in less than two minutes, and will serve as a perfect substitute for the lost one, on the road, or in the field ; or may be used for the race-horse when travelling from one course to another ; or may be truly serviceable in cases of diseased feet that may re- quire at the same time exercise and daily dressing. The follow- ing is a short sketch of the horse sandal. Fig. 53. Toe Clasp Hinge Toe-Clip Tip Middle Bar " Side Bar Heel Clip Toe Clasp Hinge Toe-Clip Tip Middle Bar Side Bar Heel Clip Rings From an inspection of the above cut, it will be seen that the shoe, or iron part of the sandal, consists of three 'principal parts, to which the others are appendages ; which are, the tip THE SANDAL. 357 so called from its resemblance to the horse-shoe of that name ; the middle bar, the broad part proceeding backward from the tip ; and the side bars, or branches of the middle bar, extending to the heels of the hoof. The appendages are, the toe-clasp, the part projecting from the front of the tip, and which moves by a hinge upon the toe-clip, which toe-clasp is furnished with two iron loops. The heel-clips are two clips at the heels of the side bars, which correspond to the toe-clip ; the latter em- bracing the toe of the crust, whilst the former embrace its heels. Through the heel-clips run the rings, which move and act like a hinge, and are double, for the purpose of admitting both the straps. In the plate, the right ring only is represented ; the left being omitted, the better to show the heel-clip. The straps, which are composed of web, consist of a hoof-strap) and a heel and coronet-strap. The hoof -st rap is furnished with a buckle, whose office it is tc bind the shoe to the hoof; for which purpose it is passed through the lower rings, and both loops of the shoe, and is made to en- circle the hoof twice. The heel and coronet-strap is furnished with two pads and two sliding loops ; one, a movable pad, reposes on the heel, to defend that part from the pressure and friction of the strap ; the other, a pad attached to the strap near the buckle affords a Fig. 54. similar defence, to the coronet in front. The heel-strap runs through the upper rings, crosses the heel, and encircles the 358 TO MANAGE A FALLEN HORSE. coronet ; and its office is to keep the heels of the shoe closely applied to the hoof, and to prevent them from sliding forward. lu the application of the sandal, the foot is taken up with one hand, and the shoe slipped upon it with the other. With the same hand, the shoe is retained in its place, while the foot is gradually let down to rest on the ground. As soon as this is done, the straps are drawn as tight as possible, and buckled. Fig. 54, on the preceding page, represents an accurate delinea- tion of the sandal, when properly fastened to the foot. TO MANAGE A FALLEN HORSE Horses occasionally fall from bad riding, or bad shoeing, or over- reaching, or an awkward way of setting on the saddle. The head, the neck, the knees, the back, or the legs will oftenest suffer. It is often difficult to get the animal on his legs again, especially if he is old, or exhausted, or injured by the fall. The principal ob- ject is, to support the head, and to render it a fixed point from which the muscles may act in supporting the body. If the horse is in harness, it is seldom that he can rise until he is freed from the shafts and traces. The first thing is to secure the head, and to keep it down, that he may not beat himself against the ground. Next, the parts of the harness connected with the carriage must be unbuckled — the carriage must then be backed a little way, so that he may have room to rise. If neces- sary, the traces must betaken off; and after the horse gets up, he must be steadied a little, until he collects himself. CHAPTER XVIII. OPERATIONS. These belong more to the veterinary surgeon than to the pro- prietor of the horse, but a short account of the manner of conduct- ing the principal ones should not be omitted. It is frequently necessary to bind the human patient, and in no painful or dangerous operation should this be omitted. It is more necessary to bind the horse, who is not under the control of reason, and whose struggles may not only be injurious to himself, but dan- gerous to the operator. The trevis is a machine indispensable in every continental forge ; even the quietest horses are there put into it to be shod. The side-line is a very simple and useful method of confining the horse, and placing him in sufficient subjection, for the opera- tions of docking, nicking, and slight firing. The long line of the hobbles, or a common cart-rope, with a noose at the end, is fastened on the pastern of the hind-leg that is not to be operated on. The rope attached to it is then brought over the neck and round the withers, and there tied to the portion that comes from the leg. The leg may thus be drawn so far forward that, while the horse evidently cannot kick with that leg, he is disarmed of the other ; for he would not have sufficient support under him, if he attempt- ed to raise it : neither can he easily use his fore-legs ; or, if he at- tempts it, one of them may be lifted up, and then he becomes nearly powerless. If necessary, the aid of the twitch, or the bar- nacles, may be resorted to. For every minor operation, and even for many that are of more importance, this mode of restraint is sufficient, especially if the operator has active and determined assistants ; and we confess that we are no friends to the casting of horses, if it can possibly be prevented. When both legs are included in the hobble, or rope — as in another way of using the side-line — the horse may appear to be more secure ; but there is greater danger of his falling in his violent struggles during the operation. For castrating, and severe firing, the animal must be thrown. The safety of the horse, and of the operator, will require the use 360 OPERATIONS. of the improved hobbles, by which any leg may be released from confinement, and returned to it at pleasure ; and, when the opera- tion is ended, the whole of the legs may be set at liberty at once, without danger. The method of putting the legs as closely to- gether as possible before the pull — the necessity of the assistants all pulling together — and the power which one man standing at the head, and firmly holding the snaffle-bridle, and another at the haunch, pushing the horse when he is beginning to fall, have in bringing him on the proper side, and on the very spot on which he is intended to lie, need not to be described. It will generally be found most convenient to throw the patients on the off side, turning them over when it is required. This, however, is a method of securing the horse to which we repeat that we are not partial, and to which we should not resort, except necessity com- pelled ; for in the fact of falling, and in the struggles after falling, many accidents have occurred, both to the horse and to the surgeon. Among the minor methods of restraint, but sufficient for many purposes, are the tivitch and the barnacles. The former consists of a noose passed through a hole at the end of a strong stick, and in which the muzzle is inclosed. The stick being turned round, the muzzle is securely retained, while the horse suffers considerable pain from the pressure — sufficiently great, indeed, to render him comparatively inattentive to that which is produced by the oper- ation ; at the same time he is afraid to struggle, for every motion increases the agony caused by the twitch, or the assistant has power to increase it by giving an additional turn to the stick. The degree of pain produced by the application of the twitch should never be forgotten or unnecessarily increased. In no case should it be resorted to when milder measures would have the de- sired effect. Grooms and horse-keepers are too much in the habit of having recourse to it when they have a somewhat troublesome horse to manage. The degree of useless torture which is thus in- flicted in large establishments is dreadful : and the temper of many a horse is too frequently completely spoiled. The barnacles are the handles of the pincers placed over and inclosing the muzzle, and which, being compressed by the assist- ant, give pain almost equal to that of the twitch. These may appear to be barbarous modes of enforcing submission, but they are absolutely indispensable. In a few instances the blindfbldiug of the horse terrifies him into submission ; but this is not to be depended upon. The twitch should be resorted to when the least resistance is offered ; and when that, as it occasionally does, renders the horse more violent, recourse must be had to the side- line or the hobbles. # In the painful examination of the fore-leg or foot while on the BLEEDING. ' 36 1 ground, the other foot should be held up by an assistant , or, if [lis aid is required in an operation, the knee may be fully bent, and the pastern tied up to the arm. When the hind-leg is to be examined in the same way, the fore-leg on that side should be held or fastened up.* BLEEDING. The operation of bleeding has been already describ ;d (p. 166). but we would remind our readers of the necessity, in every case of acute inflammation, of making a large orifice, and abstracting the blood as rapidly as possible, for the constitution will thus be the more speedily and beneficially affected. The change which takes place in the blood after it is draAvn from the vein, is diligently noticed by many practitioners, and is certainly deserving of some attention. The blood coagulates soon after it is taken from the vein. The coagulable part is composed of two substances : that which gives color to the blood, and that in which the red particles float. These, by degrees, separate from • Xote by Mr. Spooner. — For the operations of nerving, firing, and many others, where it is necessary to be exact, we prefer casting the horse, as we have him then completely in our own power ; whereas, by the other re- straints, the operator is, in a great measure, at the mercy of the animal, who can effectually resist if he pleases. Besides which, in a case of lameness, there is great danger of injury arising from the plunging of the animal. If a soft bed is made, with dung at the bottom and straw at the top, there is but little risk in casting. During the last nineteen years, in many hundreds of operations, we have only met. with two cases of injury from casting, and these were in very old horses, whose spines proved to be anchylosed or set, and were thus much more liable to fracture. Where the object is to perform an otherwise painful operation without the infliction of pain, the use of sulphuric ether or of chloroform may be had recourse to. It is unnecessary to trace the history of these substances, so much having been of late written on the subject. The writer has used both with success, but the chloroform is pref erable from its greater strength. The horse, however, requires a large quan- tity before the powers of sensation are temporarily destroyed, viz., from two to four ounces. It may be applied by a simple sponge, but better by means of apparatus, by which expiration is permitted, and at the same time suffi cient air admitted to prevent dangerous effects following. The chloroform may be administered while the horse is in a standing position, and in some cases he will quietly fall or lie down ; but as, in other instances, he will re- sist with determination, and stand even after sensation is gone, it is the bet- ter plan, in order to save the chloroform, and shorten the time during which the horse is under its influence, to cast the animal first, when the chloroform can be immediately applied, and the operation commenced as soon as sensa- tion is removed. Or the chloroform can be applied when the horse is in a standing position, and the hobbles affixed at the same time, when, by means of the latter, the animal can be quietly thrown as soon as the former begins to act. This method will effect a saving of time. The use of chloroform is more suitable for short operations, such as nerving or castration, and the re tnoval of tumors, than for those occupying considerable time. P 302 * BLISTERING. each othei, and the red particles sink to the bottom. If the coag- ulation takes place slowly, the red particles have more time to sink through the fluid, and there appears on the top a thick, yel- 'owish, adhesive substance, called the buffy coat. The slowness of the coagulation and the thickness of buffy coat are indicative of inflammation, and of the degree of inflammation. In a healthy state of the system the coagulation is more rapid, the red particles have not time to fall through, and the buffy coat is thin. When the horse is exhausted, and the system nearly broken up, the blood will sometimes not coagulate, but be of one uniform black color and loose texture. When the blood runs down the side of the vessel in which it is received, the coajrula- tion will be very imperfect. When it is drawn in a full stream, it coagulates slowly, and when procured from a smaller orifice, the coagulation is more rapid. Every circumstance affecting the co- agulation and appearance of the blood, the pulse, and the general symptoms, should be most attentively regarded. BLISTERING. We have spoken of the effect of blisters, when treating of Ine various diseases to which they are applicable. The principle on which they act is, that no two intense inflammations can exist in neighboring parts, or perhaps in the system, at the same time. Blisters have likewise the property of increasing the activity of the neighboring vessels : thus we blister to bring the tumor of strangles more speedily to a head — to rouse the absorbents gen- erally to more energetic action, and cause the disappearance of tumors, and even callous and bony substances. The judgment of the practitioner will decide whether the de- sired effect will be best produced by a sudden and violent action, or by the continuance of one of a milder character. Inflamma- tion should be met by active blisters ; old enlargements and swell ings will be most certainly removed by milder stimulants — by the process which farriers call sweating down. There is no better or more effectual blister than an ointment composed of one part of powdered Spanish flies and four of lard and one of resin. The lard and the resin should be melted to- gether, and the powdered flies afterwards added. The best liquid or sweating blister is an infusion of the fly in spirit of turpentine, and that lowered with neat's foot oil, according to the degree of activity required. In preparing the horse for blistering, the hair should be clipped or shaved as closely as possible, and the ointment thoroughly rubbed in. Much fault is often found with the ointment if I he BLISTERING. 3(33 blister does not rise, but the failure is generally to be attributed to the idleness of the operator. The head of the horse should be tied up during the first two days ; except that, when the sides are blistered, the body-clothes may be so contrived as to prevent the animal from nibbling and blemishing the part, or blistering his muzzle. At the expiration of twenty-four hours, a little olive or neat's foot oil should be ap- plied over the blister, which will considerably lessen the pain and supple the part, and prevent cracks in the skin that may be diffi- cult to heal. The oil should be applied morning and night, until the scabs peel off. When they begin to loosen, a lather of soap and water applied with a sponge, may hasten their removal, but uo violence must be used. Every particle of litter should be carefully removed from the stall, ibr the sharp ends of the straw coming in contact with a part rendered so tender and irritable by the blister, will cause a very great annoyance to the animal. After the second day the horse may be suffered to lie down ; but the possibility of blem- ishing himself should be prevented by a cradle or wooden neck- lace, consisting of round strips of wood, strung together, reaching f rom the lower jaw to the chest, and preventing him from suffi- ciently turning or bending his head to get at the blistered part. A blister thus treated will rarely produce the slightest blemish. When the scabs are all removed, the blister may be repeated, if the case should appear to require it, or the horse may be turned out In inflammations which threaten life, a blister can scarcely be too active or extensive. In inflammation of the lungs, it should reach over the whole of the sides, and the greater part of the brisket, for, should a portion of the fly be absorbed, and produce strangury (inflammation, or spasmodic affection of the neck of the bladder,) even this new irritation may assist in subduing the first and more dangerous one. In blistering, however, lor injuries or diseases of the legs or feet, some caution is necessary. When speaking of the treatment of sprain of the back-sinews, p. 260, it was stated, that " a blister should never be used while any heat or tenderness remained about the part," for we should then add to the superficial inflammation, instead of abating the deeper- seated one, and enlargements of the limb and extensive ulcera- tions might follow, which would render the horse perfectly unser- viceable. When there is a tendency to grease, a blister is a dangerous thing, and has often aggravated the disease. In win- ter, the inflammation of the skin produced by blistering is apt to degenerate into grease ; therefore, if it should be necessary to blister the horse during that season, great care must be taken th*.t he is not exposed to cold, and, particularly, that a current of coid air does not come upon the legs 364 FIRING. The inhuman practice of blistering all round at the same time, and perhaps high on the legs, cannot be too strongly reprobated. Many a valuable horse has been lost through the excessive gen- eral irritation which this has produced, or its violent effect on the urinary organs ; and that has been particularly the case, when corrosive sublimate has entered into the composition of the blister. If strangury should appear, the horse should be plentifully supplied with linseed tea, which is thus best prepared — a gallon of boiling water is thrown on half a pound of linseed ; the infu- sion suffered to stand until nearly cold, and the clean mucilaginous fluid then poured off. Three-quarters of a pound of Epsom salts should also be given, dissolved in a quart of water, and, alter that, a ball every six hours, containing opium and camphor, with lin- seed meal and treacle. Half a pound or a pound of good mustard powder, made into a paste with boiling water, and applied hot, will often produce as good a blister as cantharides. It is a preferable one, when, as in inflammation of the kidneys, the effect of cantharides on the uri- nary organs is feared. Hartshorn is not so effectual. Tincture of croton makes an active liquid blister, and so do some of the preparations of iodine. # FIRING. Whatever seeming cruelty may attend this operation, it is in many cases indispensable. The principle on which we have re- course to it is similar to that which justifies the use of a blister — by producing superficial inflammation we may be enabled to get rid of a deeper-seated one, or we may excite the absorbents to * Note by Mr. Spooner. — There has been a vast deal of puffing and hum- bug mixed up with the subject of blistering : — ointments and liniments have been sold under various captivating titles, and professing to be so amiable in their effects, as to require no tying up of the horse's head when the ani- mal is submitted to the operation. Now, it should be borne in mind, that the effect of a blister being to stimulate violently the sensitive cutis and cause it to throw up the scarf skin in the form of bladders, this cannot be accomplished without pain and irritation Of course, if from the weakness of the application a lesser effect is produced, the irritation is so much the less. Cantharides is the base of nearly all blisters, and its action is pretty much the same, whether applied in the usual blistering ointment or in some unguent of peculiar and astonishing efficacy, distinguished alike for the most opposite virtues, — combining the strength of the lion with the mildness of the dove. It is a fact that nine horses out of ten will not attempt to blem ish themselves ; and it is the knowledge of this fact that induces the puffers of these blisters to state that the animal does not require his head to be tied up. The careful veterinary surgeon will, however, use proper precautions in all cases, though only one in ten may actually require it. The writer has Known ahorse tear up the stones under his feet from the irritation pioduceu by James's blister FIRING. 3G5 remove an unnatural bony or other tumor, it raises more intense external inflammation than we can produce by any other means. It may be truly said to be the most powerful agent that we have at our disposal. Humanity, however, will dictate, that on account of the inflammation which it excites, and the pain it inflicts, it should only be had recourse to when milder means rarely succeed. Some practitioners blister immediately after firing. As a gen- eral usage it is highly to be reprobated. It is wanton and useless cruelty. It may be required in bony tumors of considerable ex- tent, and long standing, and interfering materially with the ac- tion of the neighboring joint. Spavin accompanied by much lameness, and ring-bone spreading round the coronet and involv- ing the side cartilages or the pastern joint, may justify it. The inflammation is rendered more intense, and of considerably longer duration. In old affections of the round bone it may be admitted, but no excuse can be made for it in slighter cases of sprain or weakness, or staleness. On the day after the operation, it will be prudent gently to rub some neat's foot oil, or lard, over the wound. This will soften the skin, and render it less likely to separate or ulcerate. A bandage would add to the irritation of the part. Any cracks of the skin, or ulcerations that may ensue, must be treated with the calamine ointment. It will be evident that there is an advantage derived from tiring to which a blister can have no pretension. The skin, par- tially destroyed by the iron, is reinstated and healed, not merely by the formation of some new matter filling up the vacuity, but by the gradual drawing together and closing of the separated edges. The skin, therefore, is lessened in surface. It is tight- ened over the part, and it acts, as just described, as a salutary and permanent bandage. Of the effect of pressure in removing enlargements of every kind, as well as giving strength to the part to which it is applied, we have repeatedly spoken ; and it is far from being the least valuable effect of the operation of firing, that, by contracting the skin, it affords a salutary, equable, and permanent pressure. For whatever reason the horse is fired, he should, if possible, be turned out, or soiled in a loose box, for three or four months at least. The full effect intended to result from the external irritation is not soon produced, and the benefit de- rived from pressure proceeds still more slowly. The firing in every case should be either in longitudinal or par- allel lines. On the back sinews, the fetlocks, and the coronet, this is peculiarly requisite, for thus only will the skin contract so as to form the greatest and most equable pressure. The lines should be about half an inch from each other.* * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Notwithstanding its seeming cruelty, it cannot 366 SETONS. SETONS Are pieces of tape or cord, passed, by means of an instrument re- sembling a large needle, either through abscesses, or the base of ulcers with deep sinuses, or between the skin and the muscular or other substances beneath. They are retained there by the nds being tied together, or by a knot at each end. The tape is moved in the wound twice or thrice in the day, and occasionally wetted with spirit of turpentine, or some acrid fluid, in order to increase the inflammation which it produces, or the discharge which is intended to be established. In abscesses, such as occur in the withers or the poll, and when passed from the summit to the very bottom of the swelling, setons are highly useful, by discharging the purulent fluid, (pus or matter), and suffering any fresh quantity of it that may be secreted to flow out ; and, by the degree of inflammation which they excite on the interior of the tumor, stimulating it to throw out healthy granulations which gradually occupy and fill the hollow. In deep fistulous wounds they are indispensable, for except some channel is made through which the matter may flow from the bottom of the wound, it will continue to penetrate deeper into the part, and the healing process will never be accomplished. On these accounts, a seton passed through the base of the ulcer in poll-evil and fis- tulous withers is of so much benefit. Setons are sometimes useful by promoting a discharge in the neighborhood of an inflamed part, and thus diverting and carry- ing away a portion of the fluids which distend or overload the vessels of that part : thus a seton is placed with considerable ad- vantage in the cheek, when the eyes are much inflamed. We confess, however, that we prefer a rowel under the jaw. With this view, and to excite a new and different inflamma- tion in the neighborhood of a part already inflamed, and espe- cially so deeply seated and so difficult to be reached as the navic- ular joint, a seton has occasionally been used with manifest ben- efit, but we must peremptorily object to the indiscriminate use of the frog-seton for almost every disease of the frog or the foot. In inflammations of extensive organs, setons afford only feeble aid. Their action is too circumscribed. In inflammation of the chest or the intestines, a rowel is preferable to a seton ; and a blister is far better than any of them. be denied that this operation often succeeds when all the other methods of cure have failed. "We have little or nothing to add as to the mode of per- forming the operation, only that we prefer the lines to be made in the oblique or feather form, simply because it is as effectual as the perpendicu- lar tiring, as regards the bandage, and leaves a lesser blemish as the linen become covered by the hair growing from above. docktng. 3f-7 On the principle of exciting the absorbents to action for the removal of tumors, as spavin or splent, a blister is quicker in its action, and far more effectual than any seton Firing is still more useful.* DOCKING. The shortening of the tail of the horse is an operation which fashion and the convenience of the rid ar require to be performed on most of these animals. The operation is simple. That joint is searched for which is the nearest to the desired length of tail. The hair is then turned up, and tied round with tape for an inch or two above this joint, and that which lies immediately upon this joint is cut off. The horse is fettered with the side-line, and then the veterinary sur- geon with his docking-machine, or the farmer with his carving- knife and mallet, cuts through the tail at one stroke. The bleeding which ensues is rarely injurious, but as it would occasionally continue some hours and weaken the animal, it is customary to stop it by the application of a hot iron. A large hole is made in the centre of the iron, that the bone may not be seared, which would exfoliate (scale off) if it were burned with any severity, or drop off at the joint above, and thus shorten the dock. The iron rests on the muscular parts round the bone, and is brought into contact with the bleeding vessels, and very speedily stops the bleeding. Care should be taken that the iron is not too hot — and that it is not held too long or too forcibly on the part, for many more horses would be destroyed by severe application of the cautery, than by the bleeding being left to its own course. Powdered resin sprinkled on the stump, or indeed any other application, is worse than useless. It causes unnecessary irrita- tion, and sometimes extensive ulceration ; but if the simple iron is moderately applied, the horse may go to work immediately after the operation, and no dressing will be afterwards required If a slight bleeding should occur after the cautery, it is much better to let it alone than to run the risk of inflammation or locked-jaw, by re-applying the iron with greater severity. Some farmers dock their colts a few days after they are drop- ped. This is a commendable custom on the score of humanity No colt was ever lost by it ; and neither the growth of the haii, nor the beauty of the tail, is in the least impaired. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We are more favorable than our author to the use of setons ; they are equally effectual and far more cleanly than rowels, and a deep-seated and continued action may be kept up with little or do pain to the animal. They are often preferable to other methods of treat- ment for diseases of the hocks, and we have found the use of the frog seton» in many in*>ancps, extremely beneficial. 368 NICKING. NICKING. This barbarous operation was once sanctioned by fashion, and the breeder and the dealer even now are sometimes tempted to inflict the torture of it in order to obtain a ready sale for their colts. It is not, however, practised to the extent that it used to be, nor attended by so many circumstances of cruelty. The operation is thus performed. The side-line is put on the horse, or some persons deem it more prudent to cast him, and that precaution we should be disposed to recommend. The hair at the end of the tail is securely tied together, for the purpose of afterwards attaching a weight to it. The operator then grasps the tail in his hand, and, lifting it up, feels for the centre of one of the bones — the prominences at the extremities will guide him — from two to four inches from the root of the tail, according to the size of the horse. He then, with a sharp knife, divides the muscles deeply from the edge of the tail on one side to the centre, and, continuing the incision across the bone of the tail, he makes it as deep on the other side. One continued incision, steadily yet rapidly made, will accomplish all this. If it is a blood-horse that is operated on, this will be sufficient. For a hunter, two incisions are usually made, the second being about two inches below the first, and likewise as nearly as possible in the centre of one of the bones. On a hackney, or cocktail, a third incision is made ; for fashion has decided that his tail shall be still more elevated and curved Two incisions only are made in the tail of a mare, and the second not very deep. When the second incision is made, some fibres of the musclee between the first and second will project into the wound, and must be removed by a pair of curved scissors. The same must be done with the projecting portions from between the second and third incisions. The wound should then be carefully ex- amined, in order to ascertain that the muscles have been equally divided on each side, otherwise the tail will be carried awry. This being done, pledgets of tow must be introduced deeply into each incision, and confined, but not too tightly, by a bandage. A very profuse bleeding will alone justify any tightness of baud- age, and the ill consequences that have resulted from nicking are mainly attributable to the unnecessary force that is used in con- lining these pledgets. Even if the bleeding, immediately aftei the operation, should have been very great, the roller must be loosened in two or three hours, otherwise swelling and inflamma- tion, and even death, may possibly ensue. Twenty-four hours after the operation, the bandage must be quite removed ; and NICKING. 359 then, all that is necessary, so far as the healing of the incisions is concerned, is to keep them clean. The wounds must remain open, and that can only be accom- plished by forcibly keeping the tail curved back during two or three weeks. For this purpose a cord, one or two feet in length, is affixed to the end of the hair, which terminates in another divided cord, each division going over a pully on either side of the back of the stall. A weight is hung at either extremity suf- ficient to keep the incisions properly open, and regulated by the degree in which this is wished to be accomplished. The animal will thus be retained hi an uneasy position, although, after the first two or three days, probably not of acute pain. It is barbar- ous to increase this uneasiness or pain by affixing too great a weight to the cords ; for it should be remembered that the proper elevated curve is given to the tail, not by the weight of keeping it in a certain position for a considerable time, but by the depth of the first incisions, and the degree in which the wounds are kept open. The dock should not — for the first three or four days — be brought higher than the back. Dangerous irritation and infiam- mation would probably be produced. It may, after that, be gradually raised to an elevation of forty-five degrees. The horse should be taken out of the pulleys, and gently exercised once or twice every day ; but the pulleys cannot finally be dispensed with until a fortnight after the wounds have healed, because the process of contraction, or the approach of the divided parts, goes on for some time after the skin is perfect over the incisions, and the tail would thus sink below the desired elevation. If the tail has not been unnecessarily extended by enormous weights, no bad consequences will usually follow ; but if consid- erable inflammation should ensue, the tail must be taken from the pulley and diligently fomented with simple warm water, and a dose of physic given. Locked-jaw has in some rare instances followed, under which the horse generally perishes. The best means of cure in the early state of this disease is to amputate the tail at the joint above the highest incision. In order to prevent the hair from coming off, it sliouid be unplaited and combed out every fourth or fifth day P 24 CHAPTER XIX. THE VICES AND DISAGREEABLE OR DANGEROUS HABITS OF THE HORSE. The horse lias many excellent qualities, but he has likewise defects, and these occasionally amounting to vices. Some of them may be attributed to natural temper, for the human being scarcely discovers more peculiarities of habit and disposition than does the horse. The majority of them, however, as perhaps in the human being, are the consequences of a faulty education. Then early instructor has been ignorant and brutal, and they have become obstinate and vicious. RESTIVENESS. At the head of all the vices of the horse is restiveness, the most annoying and the most dangerous of all. It is the produce of bad temper and worse education ; and, like all other habits founded on nature and stamped by education, it is inveterate. Whether it appears in the form of kicking, or rearing, plunging, or bolting, or in any way that threatens danger to the rider or the horse, it rarely admits of cure. A determined rider may to a certain extent subjugate the animal ; or the horse may have nis favorites, or form his attachments, and with some particular person he may be comparatively or perfectly manageable ; but others cannot long depend upon him, and even his master is not always sure of him. It is a rule, that admits of very few ex- ceptions, that he neither displays his wisdom nor consults his safety, who attempts to conquer a restive horse. BACKING OR GIBBING* One of the first kinds of restiveness, taking them in alphabeti- cal order, is backing or gibbing. These are so closely allied that we hardly know how to separate them. Some horses have the * Termed " balking" in the United States, and the horse accustomed te it is said to be " balky." — Am. Ed GipuiNG. 371 habit of backing at first starting, and that more from playfulness than desire of mischief. A moderate application of the whip will usually be effectual. Others, even after starting, exhibit considerable obstinacy and viciousness. This is frequently the effect of bad breaking. Either the shoulder of the horse had been wrung when he was first put to the collar, or he had been foolishly accustomed to be started in the break up-hill, and, therefore, all his work coming upon him at once, he gradually acquired this dangerous habit. A hasty and passionate breaker will often make a really good- tempered young horse an inveterate gibber. Every young horse is at first shy of the collar. If he is too quickly forced to throw his weight into it, he will possibly take a dislike to it, that wilJ occasionally show itself in the form of gibbing as long as he lives. The judicious horse-breaker will resort to no severity. even if the colt should go out several times without even touch- ing collar. The example of his companion will ultimately induce him + o take it voluntarily and effectually. A large and heavy stone should be put behind the wheel be- fore starting, when the horse, finding it more difficult to back lhan to go forward, will gradually forget this unpleasant trick. It will likewise be of advantage as often as it can be managed, so to start that the horse shall have to back up-hill. The diffi culty of accomplishing this will soon make him readily go for- ward. A little coaxing, or leading, or moderate flagellation, will assist in accomplishing the cure. When, however, a horse, thinking he has had enough of work, or has been improperly checked or corrected, or beginning to feel the painful pressure of the collar, swerves, and gibs, and backs, it is a more serious matter. Persuasion should first be tried ; and, afterwards, reasonable coercion, but no cruelty : for the brutality which is often exercised to compel a gibbing horse to throw him- self habitually into the collar, never yet accomplished the purpose. The horse, may, perhaps, be whipped into motion ; but if he has once begun to gib, he will have recourse to it again whenever any circumstance displeases or annoys him, and the habit will be so rapidly and completely formed, that he will become insensible* to all severity. Sometimes a horse not often accustomed to gib, betrays a relu tance to move, or a determination not to move. Before resortin b to severity, the cause, if practicable, should be ascertained. The horse may be overtaxed, his withers may be wrung, or he may be insupportably galled or pained by the harness. These things should be examined into, and, if possible, rectified ; for, under such circumstances, cruelty may produ e obstinacy and vi^e, but not willing- obedjencr 372 BITING CHEEK OF THE BIT IN THE MOUTH They who are accustomed to horses know what seemingly trivial circumstances occasionally produce this vice. A horse, whose shoulders are raw, or have frequently been so, will not start with a cold collar. When the collar has acquired the warmth of the parts on which it presses, the animal will go with- out reluctance. Some determined gibbers have been reformed by constantly wearing a false collar, or strip of cloth round the shoulders, so that the coldness of the usual collar should never be felt ; and others have been cured of gibbing by keeping the collar on night and day, for the animal is not able to lie down completely at full length, which the tired horse is always glad to do. When a horse gibs, not at starting, but while doing his work, it has sometimes been useful to line the collar with cloth instead of leather ; the perspiration is readily absorbed, the substance which presses on the shoulder is softer, and it may be far more accurately eased off at a tender place. BITING. This is either the consequence of natural ferocity, or a habit acquired from the foolish and teasing play of grooms and stable- boys. When a horse is tickled and pinched by thoughtless and mischievous youths, he will first pretend to bite his tor- mentors ; by degrees he will proceed farther, and actually bite them, and very soon after that, he will be the first to challenge to the combat, and, without provocation, seize some opportunity to gripe the incautious tormentor. At length, as the love of mischief is* a propensity too easily acquired, this war, half play- ful and half in earnest, becomes habitual to him, and degen- erates into absolute viciousness. It is seldom that anything can be done in the way of cure. Kindness will aggravate the evil, and no degree of severity will correct it. " I have seen," says Professor Stewart, " biters punished until they trembled in every joint, and were ready to drop, but have never in any case known them cured by this treatment, or by any other. The lash is forgotten in an hour, and the horse is as ready and determined to repeat the offence as before. He appears unable to resist the temptation, and in its worst form biting is a species of insanity." Prevention, however, is in the power of every proprietor of horses. While he insists on gentle and humane treatment of his cattle, he should systematically forbid this horse-play. GETTING THE CHEEK OF THE BIT INTO THE MOUTH. Some horses that are disposed to be mischievous try to do this, and are very expert at it. They soon find what a<] vantage KICKING. 373 it gives them over their driver, who by this manoeuvre loses al- most all command. Harsh treatment is here completely out of the question. AJ1 that can be done, is, by some mechanical contrivance, to render the thing difficult or impossible, and this may be managed by fastening a round piece of leather on the inside of the cheek of the bit. KICKING. This, as a vice, is another consequence of the culpable habit of grooms and stable-boys of teasing the horse. That which is at first an indication of annoyance at the pinching and tickling of the groom, and without any design to injure, gradually be- comes the expression of anger, and the effort to do mischief. The horse likewise too soon recognizes the least appearance of timidity, and takes advantage of the discovery. There is no cure for this vice ; and he cannot be justified who keeps a kick- ing horse in his stable. Some horses acquire, from mere irritability and fidgetiness, a habit of kicking at the stall or the bail, and particularly at night. The neighboring horses are disturbed, and the kicker gets swelled hocks, or some more serious injury. This is also a habit very difficult to correct if suffered to become established Mares are far more subject to it than horses. Before the habit is inveterately established, a thorn-bush or a piece of furze fastened against the partition or post will some- times effect a cure. When the horse finds that he is pretty severely pricked, he will not long continue to punish himself. In confirmed cases it may be necessary to have recourse to the log, but the legs are often not a little bruised by it. A rather long and heavy piece of wood attached to a chain has been buckled above the hock, so as to reach about half-way down the leg. When the horse attempts to kick violently, his leg will re- ceive a severe blow : this, and the repetition of it, may, after a time, teach him to be quiet. A much more serious vice is kicking in harness. From the least annoyance about the rump or quarters, some horses will kick at a most violent rate, and destroy the bottom ot the chaise, and endanger the limbs of the driver. Those that are fidgety in the stable are most apt to do this. If the reins should per- chance get under the tail, the violence of the kicker will often be most outrageous ; and while the animal presses down his tail so tightly that it is almost impossible to extricate the reins, he continues to plunge until he has demolished everything behind him. This is a vice standing foremost in point of danger, and which 37-1 UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED REARING. no treatment will always conquer. It will be altogether in vain to try coercion. If the shafts are very strong and without flaw, or if they are plated with iron underneath, and a stout kicking- strap resorted to which will barely allow the horse the proper use of his hind limbs in progression, but not permit him to raise them sufficiently for the purpose of kicking, he may be pre- sented from doing mischief; or if he is harnessed to a heavy cart, and thus confined, his efforts to lash out will be restrained : but it is frequently a very unpleasant thing to witness these attempts, though ineffectual, to demolish the vehicle, for the shafts or the kicking-strap may possibly break, and extreme dan- ger may ensue. A horse that has once begun to kick, whatever may have been the original cause of it, can never be depended upon again, and he will be very unwise who ventures behind him. The man, however, who must come within reach of a kicker should come as close to him as possible. The blow ma} thus become a push, and seldom is injurious. UNSTEADINESS WHILE BEING MOUNTED. When this merely amounts to eagerness to start — very un pleasant, indeed, at times, for many a rider has been thrown from his seat before he was fairly fixed in it — it may be remedied by an active and good horseman. We have known many instances in which, while the elderly, and inactive, and fearful man has been making more than one ineffectual attempt to vault into the saddle, the horse has been dancing about to his annoyance and danger ; but the animal had no sooner been trans- ferred to the management of a younger and more agile rider than he became perfectly subdued. Severity will here, more decidedly than in any other case, do harm. The rider should be fearless — he should carelessly and confidently approach the horse, mount at the first effort, and then restrain him for a while ; patting him, and not suffering him to proceed until he becomes perfectly quiet. Horses of this kind should not be too highly fed, and should have sufficient daily exercise. When the difficulty of mounting arises, not from eagerness to start, but unwillingness to be ridden, the sooner that horse is disposed of the better. He may be conquered by a skilful and determined horseman ; but even he will not succeed without frequent and dangerous contests that will mar all the pleasure of the ride. REARING. This sometimes results from playfulness, carried indeed, to an unpleasant and dangerous extent ; but it is often er a desperate RUNNING AWAY VICIOUS TO CLEAN. 375 and occasionally successful effort to unhorse the rider, and conse* quetitly a vice. The horse that has twice decidedly and danger ously reared, should never be trusted again, unless, indeed, it waa the fault of the rider, who had been using a deep curb and a sharp bit. Some of the best horses will contend against thes« and then rearing may be immediately and permanently cured by using a snaffle-bridle alone. The horse-breaker's remedy, that of pulling the horse back- ward on a soft piece of ground, should be practised by reckless and brutal fellows alone. Many horses have been injured in the spine, and others have broken their necks, by being thus suddenly pulled over ; while even the fellow who fears no danger, is not always able to extricate himself from the falling horse. If rear- ing proceeds from vice, and is unprovoked by the bruising and laceration of the mouth, it fully partakes of the inveteracy which attends the other divisions of restiveness. RUNNING AWAY. Some headstrong horses will occasionally endeavor to bolt with the best rider. Others with their wonted sagacity endeavor thus to dislodge the timid or unskilful one. Some are hard to hold, or bolt only during the excitement of the chase ; others will run away, prompted by a vicious propensity alone. There is no cer- tain cure here. The method which affords any probabil- ity of success is, to ride such a horse with a strong curb and sharp bit ; to have him always firmly in hand ; and, if he will run away, and the place will admit of it, to give him (sparing neither curb, whip, nor spur) a great deal more running than he likes. VICIOUS TO CLEAN. It would scarcely be credited to what an extent this exists in some horses that are otherwise perfectly quiet. It is only at great hazard that they can be cleansed at all. The origin of this is probably some maltreatment. There is, however, a great differ- ence in the sensibility of the skin in different horses. Some seem as if they could scarcely be made to feel the whip, while others cannot bear a fly to light on them without an expression of an- noyance. In young horses the skin is peculiarly delicate. If they have been curried with a broken comb, or hardly rubbed with an uneven brush, the recollection of the torture they have felt makes them impatient, and even vicious, during every suc- ceeding operation of the kind. Many grooms, likewise, seem to delight in producing these exhibitions of uneasiness and vice ; 37G VICIOUS TO SHOE. although, when they are carried a little too far, and at the Jiaz ard of the limbs of the groom, the animals that have been almost tutored into these expressions of irritation are brutally kicked and punished. This, however, is a vice that may be conquered. If the horse is dressed with a lighter hand, and wisped rather than brushed, and the places where the skin is most sensitive are avoided as much as thorough cleanliness will allow, he will gradually lose the recollection of former ill-treatment, and become tractable and quiet.* VICIOUS TO SHOE. The correction of this is more peculiarly the business of tin smith ; yet the master should diligently concern himself with it, for it is oftener the consequence of injudicious or bao nsage than of natural vice. It may be expected that there will be some dif- ficulty in shoeing a horse for the first few times. It is an opera- tion that gives him a little uneasiness. The man to whom he is most accustomed should go with him to the forge ; and if anothei and steady horse is shod before him, he may be induced more readily to submit. It cannot be denied that, after the habit of resisting this necessary operation is formed, force may sometimes be necessary to reduce our rebellious servant to obedience ; but we unhesitatingly affirm that the majority of horses vicious to s/we are rendered so by harsh usage, and by the pain of correc- tion being added to the uneasiness of shoeing. It should be a rule in every forge that no smith should be permitted to strike a horse, much less to twitch or to gag him, without the master- far- rier's order ; and that a young horse should never be twitched or struck. There are few horses that may not be gradually ren- dered manageable for this purpose by mildness and firmness in the operator. They will soon understand that no harm is meant, and they will not forget their usual habit of obedience ; but if the remembrance of corporal punishment is connected with shoe- ing, they will always be fidgety, and occasionally dangerous.! * Note by Mr. Spooner. — In some instances the skin is so irritable that the horse really endures a great deal of misery every time he is cleaned, besides expending a great deal of muscular exertion needlessly. The rem- edy for this is very simple ; instead of being currycombed and wiped, he should be simply washed over with warm water on his coming in warm from a journey, then gently scraped and covered with a rug. The warmth of the body will very soon dry the skin. \ Note by Mr. Spooner. — This is certainly a very bad vice, and one, in- deed, that very materially diminishes the value of the horse, for it is a habit that generally gets worse at each time of shoeing. It is not so much the kicking of the horse that is to be feared, but the animal will bear his whole SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING. 377 SWALLOWING WITHOUT GRINDING. Horses have many unpleasant habits in the stable and on the road, which cannot be said to amount to vice, but which mate- rially lessen their value. Some greedy horses habitually swallow their grain without properly grinding it, and the power of digestion not being ade- quate to the dissolving of the husk, no nutriment is extracted, and the oats are voided whole. This is particularly the case when horses of unequal appetite feed from the same manger. The greedy one, in his eagerness to get more then his share, bolts a portion of his grain whole. If the farmer, without considerable inconvenience, could contrive that every horse shall have his separate division of the manger, the one of smaller appetite and slower feed would have the opportunity of grinding at his leisure, without the fear of the greater share being stolen by his neigh- bor. Some horses, however, are naturally greedy feeders, and will not, even when alone, allow themselves time to chew or grind their grain. In consequence of this they carry but little flesh, and are not equal to severe work. If the rack was supplied with hay when the grain was put into the manger, they will continue to eat on, and their stomachs will become distended with half- chewed and indigestible food. In consequence of this they will be incapable of considerable exertion for a long time after feed- ing, and, occasionally, dangerous symptoms of staggers will occur. The remedy is, not to let such horses fast too long. The nose- bag should be the companion of every considerable journey. The food should likewise be of such a nature that it cannot be rapidly bolted. Chaff should be plentifully mixed with the grain, and, in some cases, and especially in horses of slow work, it should, with the grain, constitute the whole of the food. This will be treated on more at large under the article " Feeding." In every case of this kind the teeth should be carefully exam- ined. Some of them may be unduly lengthened, particularly the first of the grinders : or they may be ragged at the edges, and may abrade and wound the cheek. In the first place the horse cannot properly masticate his food ; in the latter he will not , weight on the foot required to be shod, so that the smith is unable to lift it up, or afterwards to support it ; besides which the animal will keep continu ally kicking or endeavoring to get the foot away, to the imminent danger of the limbs of the unfortunate operative. This deplorable and vicious habit is greatly increased, if not altogether produced, by rough usage at the early ghoeings, and it generally gets worse at each time of shoeing, so that the horse is often rendered at last completely worthless 378 CRIB-BITING. for these animals, as too often happens in sore-throat, would rather starve than put themselves to much pain. CRIB-BITING. This is a very unpleasant habit, and a considerable defect, al- though not so serious a one as some have represented. The horse lays hold of the manger with his teeth, violently extends his neck, and then, after some convulsive action of the throat, a slight grunting is heard, accompanied by a sucking or drawing in of air. It is not an effort at simple eructation, arising from indiges- tion. It is the inhalation of air. It is that which takes place with all kinds of diet, and when the stomach is empty as well as when it is full. The effects of crib-biting are plain enough. The teeth are in- jured and worn away, and that, in an old horse, to a very serious degree. A considerable quantity of grain is often lost, for the horse will frequently crib with his mouth full of it, and the greater part will fall over the edge of the manger. Much saliva escapes while the manger is thus forcibly held, the loss of which must be of serious detriment in impairing the digestion. The crib-biting horse is notoriously more subject to colic than other horses, and to a species difficult of treatment and frequently dangerous. Although many a crib-biter is stout and strong, and capable of all ordinary work, these horses do not generally carry so much flesh as others, and have not their endurance. On these accounts crib-biting has very properly been decided to be un- soundness We must not look to the state of the disease at the time of purchase. The question is, does it exist at all ? A case was tried before Lord Tenterden, and thus decided ; " a horse with crib-biting is unsound." It is one of those tricks which are exceedingly contagious. Every companion of a crib-biter in the same stables is likely to acquire the habit, and it is the most inveterate of all habits. The edge of the manger will in vain be lined with iron, or with sheep-skin, or with sheep-skin covered with tar or aloes, or any other unpleasant substance. In defiance of the annoyance which these may occasion, the horse will persist in the attack on his manger. A strap buckled tightly round the neck, by compress- ing the wind-pipe, is the best means of preventing the possibility of this trick ; but the strap must be constantly worn, and its pressure is too apt to produce a worse affection, viz., an irritation ;n the windpipe, which terminates in roaring. Some have recommended turning out for five or six months ; but this has never succeeded except with a young horse, and then rarely. The old crib-biter will employ the gate for the same WIND-SUCKING CUTTING. 379 purpose as the edge of his manger, and we have often seen him galloping across a field for the mere object of having a gripe at a rail. Medicine will be altogether thrown away in this case. The only remedy is a muzzle, with bars across the bottom ; sufficiently wide to enable the animal to pick up his corn and to pull his hay, but not to grasp the edge of the manger. If this is worn lor a considerable period, the horse may be tired of attempt- ingthat which he cannot accomplish, and for a while forget the habit, but in a majority of cases, the desire of crib-biting will re turn with the power of gratifying it. The causes of crib-biting are various, and some of them beyond the control of the proprietor of the horse. It is often the result of imitation ; but it is more frequently the consequence of idle- ness. The high-fed and spirited horse must be in mischief if he is not usefully employed. Sometimes, but we believe not often, it is produced by partial starvation, whether in a bad straw-yard, or from unpalatable food. An occasional cause of crib-biting is the frequent custom of grooms, even when the weather is not severe, of dressing them in the stable. The horse either catches at the edge of the manger, or at that of the partition on each side, if he has been turned, and thus he forms the habit of laying hold of these substances on every occasion. WIND-SUCKING. This bears a close analogy to crib-biting. It arises from the same causes ; the same purpose is accomplished ; and the same results follow. The horse stands with his neck bent ; his head drawn inward ; his lips alternately a little opened and then closed, and a noise is heard as if he were sucking. If we may judge from the same comparative want of condition and the flat- ulence which we have described under the last head, either some portion of wind enters the stomach, or there is an injurious loss of saliva. This diminishes the value of the horse almost as much as crib-biting ; it is as contagious, and it is as inveterate. The only remedies, and they will seldom avail, are tying the head up, except when the horse is feeding, or putting on a muzzle with sharp spikes towards the neck, and which will prick him when- ever he attempts to rein his head in for the purpose of wind- sucking. CUTTING. Of this habit, mention has been made at page 266 ; and we would advise the owner of a cutting horse, without trying any previous experiments of raising or lowering the heels, to put on 380 NOT LYING DOWN OVERREACH PAWING. the cutting toot a shoe of even thickness from heel to toe. not pro jectinsr in the slightest degree beyond the crust, and the crust it sell' being rasped a little at the quarters. The shoe should be fas- tened as usual, on the outside, but with only one nail on the in side, and that almost close to the toe. The principle on which this shoe acts, has been explained at page 350 NOT LYING DOWN. It not uncommonly happens that a horse will seldom or never lie down in the stable. He sometimes continues in apparent good health, and feeds and works well ; but generally his legs swell, or he becomes fatigued sooner than another horse. If it is impossible to let him loose in the saddle, or to put him into a spare box, we know not what is to be done. No means, gentle or cruel, will force him to lie down. The secret is that he is tied up, and either has never dared to lie down through fear of the confinement of the halter, or he has been cast in the night and severely injured. If he can be suffered to range the stable, or have a comfortable box in which he may be loose, he will usually lie down the first night. Some few horses, however, will lie down in the stable, and not in a loose box. A fresh, well made bed, will generally tempt the tired horse to refresh himself with sleep. * OVERREACH. This unpleasant noise, known also by the term " clicking," arises from the toe of the hind-foot knocking against the shoe of the fore-foot. The consequences of it, and the treatment of the wounds resulting from it, have been sufficently given on page 320 If the animal is young, the action of the horse may be materi- ally improved ; otherwise nothing can be done, except to keep the toe of the hind foot as short and as round as it can safely be, and to bevel off and round the toe of the shoe, like that which has been worn off by a stumbling horse, and perhaps, to lower the heel of the fore-foot a little. PAWING. Some hot and irritable horses are restless even in the stable, and paw frequently and violently. Their litter is destroyed, the * Note by Mr. Spooner. — It should not be forgotten that the basis of sup- port afforded by the four extremities is so considerable in the horse, that lie is able to sleep in a standing position, and we have known some horses pre- serve their health, strength, and condition, although they have never been Known to lie down. At the same time, it must be confessed that an animal that will quietly lie down and take his rest, generally preserves his condi tion, and is better fitted for exertion. QUIDDING ROLLING SHYING. 381 floor of the stable broken up, the shoes worn out, the feet bruised, and the legs sometimes sprained. If this habit does not exist to any great extent, yet the stable never looks well. Shackles are the only remedy, with a chain sufficiently long to enable the horse to shift his posture, or move in his stall ; but these must be taken off at night, otherwise the animal will seldom lie down. Ex- cept, however, the horse possesses peculiar value, it will be better to dispose of him at once, than to submit to the danger and incon- venience that he may occasion. QUIDDING. A horse will sometimes partly chew his hay, and suffer it to drop from his mouth. If this does not proceed from irregular teeth, which it will be the business of the veterinary surgeon to rasp down, it will be found to be connected with sore-throat, and then the horse, will exhibit some other symptoms of indisposition, and particularly, the swallowing of water will be accompanied by a peculiar gulping effort. In this case, the disease (catarrh, with sore-throat) must be attacked, and the quidding will cease. ROLLING. This is a very pleasant and perfectly safe amusement for a horse at grass, but cannot be indulged in the stable without the chance of his being dangerously entangled with the collar-rein (halter) and being cast. Yet, although the horse is cast, and bruised, and half-strangled, he will roll again on the following night and continue to do so as long as he lives. The only remedy is not a very pleasant one for the horse, nor always quite safe ; yet it must be had recourse to, if the habit of rolling is inveter- ate. " The horse," says Mr. Castley, " should be tied with length enough of halter to lie down, but not to allow of his head resting on the ground ; because, in order to roll over, a horse is obliged to place his head quite down upon the ground." SHYING. We have briefly treated of the cause of this vice at page 66, and observed that while it is often the result of cowardice, or playfulness, or want of work, it is at other times the consequence of a defect of sight. It has been remarked, and we believe very truly, that shying is oftener a vice of half or quarter-bred horses, than of those who have in them more of the genuine racing blood. In the tieatment of shying, is it of great importance to distin- guish between that which is the consequence of defective sight. 382 SHYING. and what results from fear, or newness of objects, or mere affec- tation or skittishness. For the first, the nature of which we have explained at page 66, every allowance must be made, and care must be taken that the fear of correction is not associated with the imagined existence of some terrifying object. The severe use of the whip and the spur cannot do good here, and are likely to ag- gravate the vice ten-fold. A word half encouraging and half scolding, with a slight pressure of the heel, or a slight touch of the spur, will tell the horse that there was nothing to fear, and will give him confidence in his rider on a future occasion. The shying from skittishness or affectation is quite a different affair, and must be conquered : but how ? Severity is altogether out of place. If he is forced into contact with the object by dint of correction, the dread of punishment will afterwards be associ- ated with that object, and, on the next occasion, his startings will be more frequent and more dangerous. The way to cure him is to go on, turning as little as possible out of the road, giving a harsh word or two, and a gentle touch with the spur, and then taking no more notice of the matter. After a few times, what- ever may have been the object which he chose to select as the pretended cause of affright, he will pass it almost without notice. In page 243, under the head "breaking in," we described how the colt may be cured of the habit of shying from fear or newness of objects ; and, if he then is accustomed as much as possible to the objects among which his services will be required, he will not possess this annoying vice when he grows to maturer age. It is now generally admitted by all riding-masters and colt- breakers, that a great deal more is to be effected by lenient than by harsh treatment. Rewards are found to operate more benefi- cially than punishments ; and therefore the most scientific and practised riding-masters adopt methods based upon the former. Let us not be understood to mean that the animal is to receive any encouragement to shy ; for by no other expression can be characterized that erroneous and foolish practice of patting the horse, or "making much of him," either just before or during the time he evinces shyness, The former is bad, because it draws the attention of the animal to the object he dreads ; the latter is worse, because it fills him with the impression either that the ob- ject itself is really terrific, or that he has acted right in shying at it, and ought to do so again. Whether we are approaching the frightful object, or the horse is actually shying, " we should let him alone" — " we should take no notice whatever of him" — neither letting him perceive that we are aware that we are advancing towards anything he dis- likes ; nor do more with him, while in the act of shying, than is necessary for due restraint with a steady hand upon the rein. We SLIPPING THE HALTER. 383 may depend upon it, that battling on our part will only serve to augment affright and arouse resistance on his, and that the most judicious course we can pursue is to persevere in mild forbearant usage. Shying on coming out of the stable is a habit that can rarely or never be cured. It proceeds from the remembrance of some ill-usage oi hurt which the animal has received in the act of pro- ceeding from the stable, such as striking his head against a low door-way, or entangling the harness. When the cure, however, is early attempted, it may be so far overcome that it will be unattended with danger or difficulty. The horse should be bridled when led out or in. He should be held short and tight by the head, that he may feel he has not lib- erty to make a leap, and this of itself is often sufficient to restrain him. Punishment, or a threat of punishment, will be highly im- proper. It is only timid or high-spirited horses that acquire this habit, and rough usage invariably increases their agitation and terror * SLIPPING THE COLLAR OR HALTER. This is a trick at which many horses are so clever, that scarcely a night passes without their getting loose. It is a very serious habit, for it enables the horse sometimes to gorge himself with food, to the imminent danger of staggers ; or it exposes him, as he * Note by Mr. Spooner. — This vice or habit— for it ranges between the one and the other — exists in every variety of degree. There are more horses that shy than do not: when the practice exists in a slight degree, it is a mat- ter of no consequence, but when the animal, instead of merely looking at the object of alarm and dwelling a little in his pace as he approaches it, stops suddenly, or turns round, or swerves considerably, (he habit becomes a dan- gerous vice, and is exceedingly objectionable. There is mure affectation than real fear about this habit, the horse making use of every unusual ob- ject as an excuse for the indulgence of his skittishness, or his obstinacy. There are often some strange eccentricities connected Avith it. Horses will often pass a frightful object without the least fear; but if, perchance, there Is a puddle in the road, or a stick of timber lying beside it, imagination ap- pears to paint the object in the most hideous colors or portentous forms. Horses shy most in the country, where there are but few objects to meet ; and they rarely exhibit this propensity in the crowded streets of the metro- polis. The objects are there far too numerous to allow an excuse for shying, or would soon weary them of the habit ; indeed tl e very best method of curing the vice is to use the animal in crowded streets. Though shying is often connected with imperfect vision, it is rarely produced by actual disease, and, therefore, its existence does not augur unsound eyes. Too great con- vexity of the eye is certainly often connected with shying, so that objects are refracted too quickly, and thus are imperfectly painted on the retina. Shying horses are frequently made much worse by rough usage ; instead of which they should always be treated with gentleness and firmnerR, whicl system, in many instances, will succeed in effecting a cure. 384 TRIPPING WEAVING. wanders about, to be kicked and injured by the other horses, while his restlessness will often keep the whole team awake. If the web of the halter, being first accurately fitted to his neck, is suffered to slip only one way, or a strap is attached to the halter and buckled round the neck, but not sufficiently tight to be of serious inconvenience, the power of slipping the collar will be taken away. TRIPPING. He must be a skilful practitioner or a mere pretender who promises to remedy this habit. If it arises from a heavy fore-hand, and the fore-legs being too much under the horse, no one can al- ter the natural frame of the animal : if it proceeds from tender- ness of the foot, grogginess, or old lameness, these ailments are seldom cured. Also if it is to be traced to habitual carelessness and idleness, no whipping will rouse the drone. A known stum- bler should never be ridden, or driven by any one who values his safety or his life. A tight hand or a strong- bearing rein are pre- cautions that should not be neglected, although they are generally of little avail ; for the inveterate stumbler will rarely be able to save himself, and this tight rein may sooner and farther precipi- tate the rider. If, after a trip, the horse suddenly starts forward, and endeavors to break into a short trot or canter, the rider or driver may be assured that others before him have fruitlessly en- ieavored to remedy the nuisance. If the stumbler has the foot kept as short, and the toe pared as close as safety will permit, and the shoe is rounded at the toe, or has that shape given to it which it naturally acquires in a fort- night from the peculiar action of such a horse, the animal may not stumble quite so much ; or if the disease which produced the habit can be alleviated, some trifling good may be done, but in almost every case a stumbler should be got rid of, or put to slow and heavy work. If the latter alternative is adopted, he may trip as much as he pleases, for the weight of the load and the motion of the other horses will keep him upon his legs. WEAVING This consists in a motion of the head, neck, and body, from side to side, like the shuttle of a weaver passing through the web, and hence the name which is given to this peculiar, and incessant, and unpleasant action. It indicates an impatient, irritable temper, and a dislike to the confinement of the stable. A horse that is thus incessantly on the fret will seldom carry flesh, or be safe to ride or drive. There is no cure for it, but the close tying-up of the animal, or at least allowing him but one loose rein, except a* feedinsr-time. CHAPTER XX. THE GENERAL MANAGEMENT OF THE HORSE. This is a most important part of our subject, even as it re- gards the farmer, although there are comparatively few glaring errors in the treatment of the agricultural horse ; but it comes more especially home to the gentleman, who is too often, and too implicitly, under the guidance of an idle, and ignorant, and designing groom. We will arrange the most important points of general man- agement under the following heads : — AIR. The breathing of pure air is necessary to the existence and the health of man and beast. It is comparatively lately that this has been admitted even in the management of our best sta- bles. They have been close, and hot, and foul, instead of airy, and cool, and wholesome. The stable should be as large, compared with the number of horses that it is destined to contain, as circumstances will allow A stable for six horses should not be less than forty feet in length, and thirteen or fourteen feet wide.*" If there is no loft above, the inside of the roof should always be plastered in order to prevent direct currents of air and occasional droppings from broken tiles. The heated and foul air should escape, and cool and pure air be admitted, by elevation of the central tiles ; or by large tubes car- ried through the roof, with caps a kittle above them, to prevent, the beating in of the rain ; or by gratings placed high up in th« walls. These latter apertures should be as far above the horses as they can conveniently be placed, by which means all injuri- ous draught will be prevented. If there is a loft above the stable, the ceiling should be plas- tered, in order to prevent the foul air from penetrating to the hay above, and injuring both its taste and its wholesomeness ; * It "will be borne in mind that the author is speaking of the close %tone or brick stables of England. — Am. Ed. 25 Q 386 air. and no openings should be allowed above the racks, through which the hay may be thrown into them ; for they will permit the foul air to ascend to the provender, and also in the act of filling the rack, and while the horse is eagerly gazing upward for his food, a grass seed may fall into the eye, and produce con- siderable inflammation. At other times, when the careless groom has left open the trap-door, a stream of cold air beats down on the head of the horse. The stable with a loft over it should never be less than twelve feet high, and proper ventilation should be secured, either by tubes carried through the roof, or by gratings close to the ceil- ing. These gratings or openings should be enlarged or con- tracted by means of a covering or shutter, so that spring, sum- mer, and autumn, the stable may possess nearly the same tem- perature with the open air, and in winter a temperature of net more than ten degrees above that of the external atmosphere. A hot stable has, in the mind of the groom, been long connected with a glossy coat. The latter, it is thought, cannot be obtained without the former. To this we should reply, that in winter a thin, glossy coat is not desirable. Nature gives to every animal a warmer clothing when the cold weather approaches. The horse — the agricul- tural horse especially — acquires a thicker and a lengthened coat, in order to defend him from the surrounding cold. Man puts on an additional and a warmer covering, and his comfort is in- "reased and his health preserved by it. He who knows any- thing of the farmer's horse, or cares about his enjoyment, will not object to a coat a little longer, and a little roughened when the wintry wind blows bleak. The coat, however, needs not to be so long as to be unsightly ; and warm clothing, even in a cool stable, will, with plenty of honest grooming, keep the hair sufficiently smooth an' 1 glossy to satisfy the most fastidious. The over-heated air of a iose stable saves much of this grooming, and therefore the id* ■ attendant unscrupulously sacrifices the health and safety of +ne horse. When we have presently to treat of the hair an 1 skin of the horse, this will be placed in a somewhat different point of view. If the stable is close, the air will not only be hot, but foul. The breathing of every animal contaminates it ; and when, in the course of the night, with every aperture stopped, it passes again and again through the lungs, the blood cannot undergo its proper and healthy change ; digestion will not be so perfectly per- formed, and all the functions of life are injured. Let the owner of a valuable horse think of his passing twenty or tvv enty-two out of the twenty-four hours in this debilitating atmosphere ! Nature does wonders in enabling every animal to accommodate AIR — L.TTER. 387 itself to the situation in which it is placed, and the horse that lives in the stable-oven suffers less from it than would scarcely be conceived possible ; but he does not, and cannot, possess the power and the hardihood which he would acquire under other circumstances. The air of the improperly close and heated stable is still fur- ther contaminated by the urine and dung, which rapidly ferment, there, and give out stimulating and unwholesome vapors. When a person first enters an ill-managed stable, and especially early in the morning, he is annoyed, not only by the heat of the con- fined air, but by a pungent smell, resembling hartshorn ; and can he be surprised at the inflammation of the eyes, and the chronic cough, and the disease of the lungs, by which the animal, who has been all night shut up in this vitiated atmosphere, is often attacked ; or if glanders and farcy should occasionally break out in such stables ? It has been ascertained by chemical experi- ment that the urine of the horse contains in it an exceedingly large quantity of hartshorn ; and not only so, but that, influenced by the heat of a crowded stable, and possibly by other decompo- sitions that are going forward at the same time, this ammoniacal vapor begins to be rapidly given out almost immediately after the urine is voided. When disease begins to appear among the inhabitants of these ill-ventilated places, is it wonderful that it should rapidly spread among them, and that the plague-spot should be, as it were, placed on the door of such a stable ? When distemper appears in spring or in autumn, it is in very many cases to be traced to such a pest-house. It is peculiarly fatal there. The horses be- longing to a small establishment, and rationally treated, have it comparatively seldom, or have it lightly ; but among the inmates of a crowded stable it is sure to display itself, and there it is most fatal. The experience of every veterinary surgeon, and of every large proprietor of horses, will corroborate this statement. Every stable should possess within itself a certain degree of ventilation. The cost of this would be trifling:, and its saving in the preservation of valuable animals may be immense. The apertures need not be large, and the whole may be so contrived that no direct current of air shall fall on the horse. A gentleman's stable should never be without a thermometer. The temperature should seldom exceed 70° in the summer, or sink below 40 or 50° in the winter. LITTER. Having spoken of the vapor of hartshorn, which is so rapidly and so ulentifully given out from the urine of a horse in a heated 388 LIGHT. stable, we next take into consideration the subject of litter. The first caution is frequently to remove it. The early extrication of gas shows the rapid putrefaction of the urine ; and the conse- quence of which will be the rapid putrefaction of the litter that has been moistened by it. Everything hastening to decomposition should be carefully removed where life and health are to be pre- served. The litter that has been much wetted or at all softened oy the urine, and is beginning to decay, should be swept away every morning ; the greater part of the remainder may then be piled under the manger ; a little being left to prevent the painful and injurious pressure of the feet on the hard pavement during the day. The soiled and soaked portion of that which was left should be removed at night. In the better kind of stables, how- ever, the stalls should be completely emptied every morning. No heap of fermenting dung should be suffered to remain dur- ing the day in the corner or in any part of the stable. With re- gard to this, the directions of the master should be peremptory. The stable should be so contrived that the urine shall quickly run off, and the offensive and injurious vapor from the decom- posing fluid and the litter will thus be materially lessened, but if this is effected by means of gutters and a descending floor, the descent must be barely sufficient to cause the fluid to escape, as if the toes are kept higher than the heels, it will lead to lame- ness, and is also a frequent cause of contraction of the foot. Stalls of this kind certainly do best for mares ; but for horses we much prefer those with a grating in the centre, and a slight inclination of the floor on every side towards the middle. A short branch may communicate with a larger drain, by means of which the urine may be carried off to a reservoir outside the stable. Traps are now contrived, and may be procured at little expense, by means of which neither any offensive smell nor current of air can pass through the grating. Humanity and interest, as well as the appearance of the stable, should induce the proprietor of the horse to place a moderate quantity of litter under him during the day.* LIGHT. This neglected branch of stable-management is of far more consequence than is generally imagined ; and it is particularly neglected by those for whom these treatises are principally de- signed. The farmer's stable is frequently destitute of any glazed window, and has only a shutter, which is raised in warm weather, and closed when the weather becomes cold. When the horse is * It will be remembered the author is speaking of paved floors. — Am. Ed. GROOMING. 389 in the stable only during a few hours in the day, this is not of so much consequence, nor of so much, probably, with regard to horses of slow work ; but to carriage-horses and hackneys, so far, at least, as the eyes are concerned, a dark stable is little less injurious than a foul and heated one. In order to illustrate this, reference may be made to the unpleasant feeling, and the utter impossibility of seeing distinctly, when a man suddenly emerges from a dark place into the full blaze of day. The sensation of mingled pain and giddiness is not soon forgotten ; and some minutes pass before the eye can accommodate itself to the increased light. If this were to happen every day, or several times in the day, the sight would be irreparably injured, or possibly blindness would ensue. Can we wonder, then, that the horse, taken from a dark stable into a glare of light, feeling, probably, as we should do under similar circumstances, and unable for a considerable time to see anything around him distinctly, should become a starter, or that the lie quently repeated violent effect of sudden light should induce in- flammation of the eye so intense as to terminate in blindness ? There is, indeed, no doubt that horses kept in dark stables are frequently notorious starters, and that abominable habit has been properly traced to this cause. If plenty of light is admitted, the walls of the stable, and es- pecially that portion of them which is before the horse's head, must not be of too glaring a color. The color of the stable should depend on the quantity of light. Where much can be admitted, the walls should be of a gray hue. Where darkness would other- wise prevail, frequent whitewashing may in some degree dissipate the gloom. For another reason, it will be evident that the stable should not possess too glaring a light : it is the resting-place of the horse. The work of the farmer's horse, indeed, is confined principally to the day. The hour of exertion having passed, the animal returns to his stable to feed and to repose, and the latter is as necessary as the former, in order to prepare him for renewed work. Some- thing approaching to the dimness of twilight is requisite to induce the animal to compose himself to sleep. This half-light more particularly suits horses of heavy work. In the quietness of a dimly-lighted stable, they obtain repose, and accumulate flesh and fat. GROOMING. Of this*, much need not be said to the agriculturist, since cus- tom, and apparently without ill effect, has allotted so little of the comb and brush to the farmer's horse. The animal that is worked all day, and turned out at night, requires little more to be done 390 GROOMING. to him than to have the dirt brushed off his limbs. Regular grooming, by rendering his skin more sensible to the alteration of temperature, and the inclemency of the weather, would be preju- dicial. The horse that is altogether turned out, needs no groom- ing. The dandriff, or scurf, which accumulates at the roots of the hair, is a provision of nature to defend him from the wind and the cold. It is to the stabled horse, highly fed, and little or irregularly worked, that grooming is of so much consequence. Good rubbing with the brush, or the curry-comb, opens the pores of the skin, circulates the blood to the extremities of the body, produces free and healthy perspiration, and stands in the room of exercise. No horse will carry a fine coat without either unnatural heat or dressing. They both effect the same purpose ; they both increase the insensible perspiration : but the first does it at the expense of health and strength, while the second, at the same time that it produces a glow on the skin, and a determination of blood to it, rouses all the energies of the frame. It would be well for the proprietor of the horse if he were to insist — and to see that his orders are really obeyed — that the fine coat in which he and his groom so much delight, is produced by honest rubbing, and not by a heated stable and thick clothing, and most of all, not by stimulating or injurious spices. The horse should be regularly dressed every day, in addition to the grooming that is necessary after work. When the weather will permit the horse to be taken out, he should never be groomed in the stable, unless he is an animal of peculiar value, or placed for a time under peculiar circumstances. Without dwelling on the want of cleanliness, when the scurf and dust that are brushed from the horse lodge in his manger, and mingle with his food, experience teaches, that if the cold is not too great, the animal is braced and invigorated to a degree that cannot be attained in the stable, from being dressed in the open air. There is no necessity, however, for half the punishment which many a groom inflicts upon the horse in the act of dressing ; and particularly on one whose skin is thin and sensible. The curry-comb should at all times be lightly applied. With many horses, its use may be almost dispensed with ; and even the brush needs not to be so hard, nor the points of the bristles so irregular, as they often are. A soft brush, with a little more weight of the hand, will be equally effectual, and a great deal more pleasant to the horse. A hair-cloth, while it will seldom irritate and tease, will be almost sufficient with horses that have a thin skin, and that have not been neglected. After all, it is no slight task to dress a horse as it ought to be done. It occupies no little time, and demands considerable patience, as well as dexteritv It will EXERCISE. 391 be readily ascertained whether a horse has been well dressed by rubbing him with one of the ringers. A greasy stain will detect the idleness of the groom When, however, the horse is chang- ing !iis coat, both the curry-comb and the brush should be ?ised as lightly as possible. Whoever would be convinced of the benefit of friction to the horse's okin, and to the horse generally, needs only to observe the effects produced by well hand-rubbing the legs of a tired horse. While every enlargement subsides, and the painful stiffness dis- appears, and the legs attain their natural warmth, and become fine, the animal is evidently and rapidly reviving ; he attacks his food with appetite, and then quietly lies down to rest. EXERCISE. Our observations on this important branch of stable-manage ment must have only a slight reference to the agricultural horse. His work is usually regular, and not exhausting. He is neither predisposed to disease by idleness, nor worn out by excessive ex- ertion. He, like his master, has enough to do to keep him in health, and not enough to distress or injure him : on the contrary, the regularity of his work prolongs life to an extent rarely wit- nessed in the stable of the gentleman. Our remarks on exercise, then, must have a general bearing, or have principal reference to those persons who are in the middle stations of life, and who con- trive to keep a horse for business or pleasure, but cannot afford to maintain a servant for the express purpose of looking after it. The first rule we would lay down is, that every horse should have daily exercise. The animal that, with the usual stable feeding stands idle for three or four days, as is the case in many establish - ments, must suffer. He is predisposed to fever, or to grease, or most of all, diseases of the foot ; and if, after three or four days of inactivity, he is ridden far and fast, he is almost sure to have inflammation of the lungs or of the feet. A gentleman's or a tradesman's horse suffers a great deal more from idleness than he does from work. A stable-fed horse should have two hours' exercise every day, if he is to be kept free from disease. Nothing of extraordinary, or even of ordinary labor, can be effected on the road or in the field, without sufficient and reg- ular exercise. It is this alone which can give energy to the sys- tem, or develope the powers of any animal. In training the hunter and the race-horse, regular exercise is the most important of all considerations, however it may be for- gotten in the usual management of the stable. The exercised horse will discharge his task, and sometimes a severe one, with ease and pleasure ; while the idle and neglected one will be 392 food. fatigued ere half his labor is accomplished, and, if he is pushed 9 little too far, dangerous inflammation will ensue. How often, nev ertheless, does it happen, that the horse which has stood inactive ir the stable three or four days, is ridden or driven thirty or forty mile? in the course of a single day ! This rest is often purposely given t ♦: contains nine hundred and fifty-five parts of nutritive matter. When farmers have a damaged or unmarketable sample oi wheat, they sometimes give it to their horses, and, being at first used in small quantities, they become accustomed to it, and thrive and work well : it must, however, always be bruised and given in chaff. Wheat contains a greater portion of gluten, or sticky, adhesive matter, than any other kind of grain. It is difficult oi digestion, and apt to cake and forms obstructions in the bowels This willoftener be the case if the horse is suftered to drink much water soon after feeding upon wheat. Fermentation, colic, and death, are occasionally the conse- quence of eating any great quantity of wheat. A horse that is led on wheat should have very little hay. The proportion should not be more than one truss of hay to two of straw. Wheaten Hour, boiled in water to the thickness of starch, is given with good effect in over-purging, and especially if combined with chalk and ° P Bran, or the ground husk of the wheat, used to be frequently given to sick horses on account of the supposed advantage derived from its relaxing the bowels. There is no doubt that it does ope- rate gently on the intestinal canal, and assists in quickening the passage of its contents, when it is occasionally given ■; but it must not be' a constant, or even frequent food. Mr. Ernes attended three mills at which many horses were kept, and there were al- ways two or three cases of indigestion from the accumulation ot bran or pollard in the large intestines. Bran may, however, be useful as an occasional aperient in the form of a mash, but never should become a regular article of food. Beans.— These form a striking illustration of the principle. that the nourishing 6r strengthening effects of the different arti- cles of food depend more on some peculiar property which they possess, or some combination which they form, than on the actual quantity of nutritive matter. Beans contain but five hundred and seventy parts of nutritive matter, yet they add materially to the victor of the horse. There are many horses that will not stand hard work without beans being mingled with their food, and these not horses whose tendency to purge it may be neces- sary to restrain by the astringency of the bean. There is no traveller who is not aware of the difference in the spirit and con- tinuance of his horse whether he allows or denies him beans on his journey. They afford not merely a temporary stimulus, but they may be daily used without losing their power, or producing exhaustion. They are indispensable to the hard-worked coach- horse Washy horses could never get through their work with- out them ; and old horses would often sink under the task im- posed upon them. . They should not be given to the horses whole 398 food. or split, but crushed. This will make a material difference n the quantity of nutriment that will be extracted. They **re sometimes given to turf-horses, but only as an occasional stimu- lant. Two pounds of beans may, with advantage, be mixed with the chaff of the agricultural horse, during the winter. In sum- mer the quantity of beans should be lessened, or they should be altogether discontinued. Beans are generally given whole. This is very absurd : for the young horse whose teeth are strong, sel- dom requires them ; while the old horse, to whom they are in a manner necessary, is scarcely able to masticate them, swallows many of them which he is unable to break, and drops much corn from his mouth in the ineffectual attempt to crush them. Beans should not be merely split, but crushed ; they will even then give sufficient employment to the grinders of the animal. Some post-masters use chaff with beans instead of oats. With hardly- worked horses they may possibly be allowed ; but, in general cases, beans, without oats, would be too binding and stimulating, and would produce costiveness, and probably megrims or staggers. Beans should be at least a twelvemonth old before they are given to the horse, and they should be carefully preserved from damp and mouldiness, which at least disgust the horse if they do no other harm, and harbor an insect that destroys the inner part of the bean. The straw of the bean is nutritive and wholesome, and is usu- ally given to the horses. Its nutritive properties are supposed to be little inferior to those of oats. The small and plump bean id generally the best. Peas are occasionally given. They appear to be in a slight degree more nourishing than beans, and not so heating. They contain five hundred and seventy-four parts of nutritive matter, jr'or horses of slow work they may be used ; but the quantity of chaff should be increased, and a few oats added. They have not been found to answer with horses of quick draught. It is essential that they should be crushed ; otherwise, on account of their globular form, they are apt to escape from the teeth, and many are swallowed whole. Exposed to warmth and moisture in tne stomach, they swell considerably, and may painfully and injuiiously distend it. The peas that are given to horses should be sound, and at least a twelve-month old. In some northern counties pea-meal is frequently used, not only as an excellent food for the horse, but as a remedy for diabetes. Lenseed is sometimes given to sick horses — raw, ground, and boiled. It is supposed to be useful in cases of catarrh. Ha), is most in perfection when it is about a twelve-month old The horse perhaps would prefer it earlier, but it neither so whole- some nor so nutritive, and often has a purgative quality. When FOOD. 39 V J it is about a year old, it retains or should retain somewhat of its green color, its agreeable smell and its pleasant taste. It has un- dergone the slow process of fermentation, by which the sugar which it contains is developed, and its nutritive quality is fully exercised. Old hay becomes dry and tasteless, and innutritive and unwholesome. After the grass is cut, and the hay stacked, a slight degree of fermentation takes place in it. This is neces- sary for the developement of the saccharine principle ; but occa- sionally it proceeds too far and the hay becomes mowbiirnt, in which state it is injurious, or even poisonous. The horse soon shows the effect which it has upon him. He has diabetes to a considerable degree — he becomes hidebound — his strength is wasted — his thirst is excessive, and he is almost worthless. Where the system of manger-feeding is not adopted, or where hay is still allowed at night, and chaff and corn in the day, there is no error into which the farmer is so apt to fall as to give an un- due quantity of hay, and that generally of the worst kind. If the manger system is good, there can be no necessity for hay, or only for a small quantity of it ; but if the rack is overloaded, the greedy horse will be eating all night, instead of taking rest — when the time for the morning feed arrives, his stomach will be already filled, and he will be less capable of work from the want of sleep, and from the long-continued distention of the stomach rendering it impossible for the food to be properly digested. It is a good practice to sprinkle the hay with water in which salt has been dissolved. It is evidently more palatable to the ani- mal, who will leave the best unsalted hay for that of an inferior quality that has been moistened with brine ; and there can be no doubt that the salt very materially assists the process of digestion. The preferable way of salting hay is to sprinkle it over the differ- ent layers as the rick is formed. From its attraction for water, it would combine with that excess of moisture which, in wet sea- sons, is the cause of too rapid and violent fermentation, and of the hay becoming mowburnt, or the rick catching fire, and it would become more incorporated with the hay. The only objection to its being thus used is, that the color of the hay is not so bright ; but this will be of little consequence for home consumption. Of the value of Tares, as forming a portion of the late spring and summer food of the stabled and agricultural horse, there can be no doubt. They are cut after the pods are formed, but a con- siderable time before the seeds are ripe. — They supply a largei quantity of food for a limited time than almost any other forage- crop. Tne vicia sativa is the more profitable of the tare. It is very nutritive, and acts as a gentle aperient. When surfeit- lumps appear on the skin, and the horse begins to rub himself against the divisions of the stall, and the legs swell and the heels 400 FOOD. threaten to crack, a few tares, cut up with the chaff, or given in- stead of a portion of the hay, will afford considerable relief. Ten or twelve pounds may be allowed daily, and half that weight of hay subtracted. It is an erroneous notion, that, given in mode- rate quantities, they either roughen the coat or lessen the capabi- lity for hard work. Rye Grass affords a valuable article of food, but is inferior to the tare. It is not so nutritive. It is apt to scour, and, occasion- ally, and late in the spring, it has appeared to be injurious to the horse. Clover, for soiling the horse, is inferior to the tare and the rye grass, but nevertheless, is useful when they cannot be obtained. Clover hay is, perhaps, preferable to meadow hay for chaff. It will sometimes tempt the sick horse, and may be given with ad- vantage to those of slow and heavy work : but custom seems properly to have forbidden it to the hunter and the hackney. Lucern, where it can be obtained, is preferable even to tares, and sainfoin is superior to lucern. Although they contain but a small quantity of nutritive matter, it is easily digested, and per- fectly assimilated. They speedily put both muscle and fat on the horse that is worn down by labor, and they are almost a speci- fic for hide-bound. Some farmers have thonght so highly of lu- cern as to substitute it for oats. This may be allowable for the agricultural horse of slow and not severe work, but he from whom speedier action is sometimes required, and the horse of all work, must have a portion of hard meat within him. The Swedish Turnip is an article of food the value of which has not been sufficiently appreciated, and particularly for agricul- tural horses. Although it is far from containing the quantity of nutritive matter which has been supposed, that which it has seems to be capable of easy and complete digestion. It should be sliced with chopped straw, and without hay. It quickly fat- tens the horse, and produces a smooth glossy coat and a loose skiu. It will be good practice to give it once a day, and that at night when the work is done. Carrots. — The virtues of this root arc not sufficiently known, whether as contributing to the strength and endurance of the sound horse, or the rapid recovery of the sick one. To the healthy horse they should be given sliced in his chaff. Half a bushel will be a fair daily allowance. There is little provender of which the horse is fonder. The following- account of the value of the carrot is not exaggerated. "This root is held in much esteem. There is none better, nor perhaps so good. When first given it is slightly diuretic and laxative ; but as the horse becomes accustomed to it, these effects cease to be produced. Tney also improve the state of the skin. They form a good sub- FOOD. 401 fltitute for grass, and an excellent alterative for horses out of con- dition. To sick and idle horses they render grain unnecessary, f hey are beneficial in all chronic diseases connected with breathing, and have a marked influence upon chronic cough and broken wind. f hey are serviceable in diseases of the skin, and in combination with oats they restore a worn horse much sooner than oats alone Potatoes have been given, and with advantage, in their raw state, sliced with the chaff; but, where it has been convenient to boil or steam them, the benefit has been far more evident. Purg- ing has then rarely ensued. Some have given boiled potatoes alone, and horses, instead of rejecting them, have soon preferred them even to the oat ; but it is better to mix them with the usual manger feed, in the proportion of one pound of potatoes to two and a half pounds of the other ingredients The use of the po- tato must depend on its cheapness, and the facility for boiling it. Half a dozen horses would soon repay the expense of a steaming boiler in the saving of provender, without taking into the account their improved condition and capability for work.* A horse fed on potatoes should have his quantity of water materially curtailed. Furze has sometimes been given during the winter months. There is considerable trouble attending the preparation of it, al- though its plentifulness and little value for other purposes would, on a large farm, well repay that trouble. The furze is cut down at about three or four years' growth ; the green branches of that and the preceding year are bruised in a mill, and then given to the horses in the state in which they come from the mill, or cut up with the chaff. Horses are very fond of it. If twenty pounds of the furze are given, five pounds of straw, the beans, and three pounds of the oats, may be withdrawn. The times of feeding should be as equally divided as con venience will permit ; and when it is likely that the horse will be kept longer than usual from home, the nose-bag should in- variably be taken. The small stomach of the horse is emptied in a few hours ; and if he is suffered to remain hungry much beyond his accustomed time, he will afterwards devour his food so voraciously as to distend the stomach and endanger an attack of staggers. When extra work is required from the animal, the system of management is often injudicious, for a double feed is put before him, and as soon as he has swallowed it, he is started. It would oe far better to give him a double feed on the previous eve- ning, which would be digested before he is wanted, and then lv * Professor Low says that 1 5 lbs. of potatoes yield as much nourishment as four pounds and a half of oats. Von Thayer asserts that three bushels are equal to 1 12 lbs. of hay ; and Curwen, who tried potatoes extensively in the feeding of horses says that an acre goes as far as four acres of hay. 2G 102 WATER. might set out in the morning after a very small portion of grain has been given to him, or perhaps only a little hay. One of the most successful methods of enabling a horse to get well through a long journey, is to give him only a little at a time while on the road, and at night to indulge him with a double feed of grain and a full allowance of beans. Watee,. — This is a part of stable management little re- garded by the farmer. He lets his horses loose morning and night, and they go to the nearest pond or brook and drink their fill, and no harm results, for they obtain that kind of water which nature designed them to have, in a manner pre- pared for them by some unknown influence of the atmosphere, as well as by the deposition of many saline admixtures. The difference between hard and soft water is known to every one. In hard water, soap will curdle, vegetables will not boil soft, and the saccharine matter of the malt cannot be fully ob- tained in the process of brewing. There is nothing in which the different effect of hard and soft water is so evident, as in the stomach and digestive organs of the horse. Hard water, drawn fresh from the well, will assuredly make the coat of a horse unaccustomed to it stare, and it will not unfrequently gripe and otherwise injure him. Instinct or experience has made even the horse himself conscious of this, for he will never drink hard water if he has access to soft, and he will leave the most transparent and pure water of the well for a river, although the stream may be turbid, and even for the muddiest pool.* He is injured, however, not so much by the hardness of the well-water as by its coldness — particularly by its coldness in summer, and when it is in many degrees below the temperature of the atmosphere. The water in the brook and the pond being warmed by long exposure to the air, as well as having become soft, the horse drinks freely of it without danger. If the horse were watered three times a day, and especially in summer, he would often be saved from the sad torture of thirst, and from many a disease. Whoever has observed the eagerness with which the over-worked horse, hot and tired, plunges his muzzle into the pail, and the difficulty of stopping him until he has drained the last drop, may form some idea of what he had previously suffered, and will not wonder at the violent spasms, and inflammation, and sudden death, that often result. There is a prejudice in the minds of many persons against tho * Some trainers have so much fear of hard or strange water, that they carry with them to the different courses the water that the animal has been accustomed to drink, and that which they know agrees with it. MANAGEMENT OF THE FEET. 403 horse being fully supplied with water. They think that it injures his wind, and disables him for quick and hard work. If he is gulloped, as he too often is, immediately after drinking, his wind may be irreparably injured ; but if he were oftener suffered to satiate his thirst at the intervals of rest, he would be happier and better. It is a fact unsuspected by those who have not carefully observed the horse, that if he has frequent access to water, he will not drink so much in the course of the day as another will do, who, to cool his parched mouth, swallows as fast as he can, and knows not when to stop. On a journey a horse should be liberally supplied with water. When he is a little cooled, two or three quarts may be given to him, and after that his feed. Before he has finished his corn, two or three quarts more may be offered. He will take no harm if this is repeated three or four times during a long and hot day. It is a judicious rule with travellers, that when a horse begins to refuse his food, he should he pushed no farther that day. It may, however, be worth while to try whether this does not pro- ceed from thirst, as much as from exhaustion, for in many in- stances his appetite and his spirits will return soon after he has partaken of the refreshing draught. Management of the Feet. — This is the only division of stable management that remains to be considered, and one sadly neglected by the carter and groom. The feet should be care- fully examined every morning, for the shoes may be loose and the horse would have been stopped in the middle of his work ; or the clenches may be raised, and endanger the wounding of his legs ; or the shoe may begin to press upon the sole or the heel, and bruises of the sole, or corn, may be the result ; and, the horse having stood so long in the stable, every little increase of heat in the foot, or lameness, will be more readily detected, and serious disease may often be prevented. When the horse comes in at night, and after the harness has been taken off and stowed away, the heels should be well brushed out. Hand-rubbing will be preferable to washing, especially in the agricultural horse, whose heels, covered with long hair, can scarcely be dried again. If the dirt is suffered to accumulate in that long hair, the heels will become sore, and grease will follow ; and if the heels are washed, and particu- larly during the winter, grease will result from the coldness occasioned by the slow evaporation of the moisture. The feet should be stopped — even the feet of the farmer's horse, if he remains in the stable. Very little clay should be used in the stopping, for it will get hard and press upon the sole. Cow- dung is the best stopping to preserve the feet cool and elastic ; but 404 MANAGEMENT OF THE TEET. before the stopping is applied, the picker should be run round the whole of the foot, between the shoe and the sole, in order to detect any stone that may have insinuated itself there, or a wound on any other part of the sole. For the hackney and hunter, stopping is indispensable. After several days' hard work it will afford very great relief to take the shoes off, having put plenty of litter under the horse, or to turn him, if possible, into a loose- box ; and the shoes of every horse, whether hardly worked or not, should be removed or changed once in every three weeks. CHAPTER XXI. THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. The skin of the horse consists of three layers. Externally is the cuticle, epidermis, or scarf-skin, composed of innumerable thin transparent scales, like those of a fish. They are raised in the form of pellucid bladders in blistering, and are thrown off in hard, dry, white scales, in mange and some other diseases. The scarf- skin is permeated by innumerable pores, for the passage of the hair, perspiration, and unctuous secretions, and for the inha- lation of gasses and fluids. It is destitute of nerves and blood- vessels, is insensible, and its principal use seems to be to protect the true skin, and to moderate its occasional morbid sensibility. There is a constant alteration and renewal of every part of it, but it adheres to the true skin through the medium of the pores, and also numerous little eminences, or projections, which seemtc be prolongations of the nerves of the skin. Beneath the cuticle is a thin, soft substance, through which the pores and eminences of the true skin pass. It is termed the rete mucosum, from its web-like structure, and its soft mucous consistence. Its office is to cover the minute vessels and nerves in their way from the cutis to the cuticle. It is also connected with the color of the skin. The cutis, or true skin, lies beneath the rete mucosum. It is decidedly of a fibrous texture, elastic, but with difficulty lacerated — exceedingly vascular, and highly sensitive. The skin answers the double purpose of protection and strength. Where it is necessary that the parts should be bound and knit together, it adheres so tightly that we can scarcely raise it. Thus the bones of the knees and the pasterns and the tendons of the legs, on which so much stress is frequently thrown, are securely tied down and kept in their places. Of its strength we have abundant proof, both in the living and dead animal. It is, while the animal is alive, one of the most elastic bodies with which we are acquainted. It not only perfectly adapts it- self to the slow growth or decrease of the body, and appears 406 THE SKIN AND ITS DISEASES. equally to fit, whether the horse is in the plumpest condition 01 reduced to a skeleton ; but, when a portion of it is distended to an extraordinary degree, in the most powerful action of the muscles, it, in a moment, again contracts to its usual dimensions. It is principally indebted for this elasticity to almost innumer- able minute glands which pour out an oily fluid that softens and supplies it. When the horse is in health, and every organ dis- charges its proper functions, a certain quantity of this unctuous matter is spread over the surface of the skin, and is contained in all the pores that penetrate its substance ; and the skin becomes pliable, easily raised from the texture beneath, and presenting that peculiar yielding softness and elasticity which experience has proved to be the best proofs of the condition, or in other words, the general health of the animal. Then, too, from the oilness and softness of the skin, the hair lies in its natural and proper direc- tion, and is smooth and glossy. When the system is deranged, and especially the digestive system, and the vessels concerned in the nourishment of the animal feebly act, those of the skin evi- dently sympathize. This oily secretion is no more thrown out ; the skin loses its pliancy ; it seems to cling to the animal, and we have that peculiar appearance which we call hide-bound. This, however, requires attentive consideration. We observe a horse in the summer. We find him with a thin, smooth, glossy coat, and his extremities clean and free almost from a single rough and misplaced hair. We meet with him again towards the winter, when the thermometer has fallen al- most or quite to the freezing point, and we scarcely recognize him in his thick, rough, coarse, colorless coat, and his legs enveloped in long, shaggy hair. The health of the horse is, to a certain de- gree, deranged. He is dull, languid, easily fatigued. He will break into a sweat with the slightest exertion, and it is almost imposssble thoroughly to dry him. He may perhaps feed as well as usual, although that will not generally be the case, but he is not equal to the demands which we are compelled to make upon him. This process goes on for an uncertain time, depending on the constitution of the animal, until nature has effected a change, and then he once more rallies ; but a great alteration has taken place in him — the hair has lost its soft and glossy character, and is be- come dry and staring. The skin ceases to secrete that peculiar unctuous matter which kept it soft and flexible, and becomes dry and scaly ; and the exhalents on the surface, having become re- laxed, are frequently pouring out a profuse perspiration, without any apparent adequate cause for it. iSo passes the approach to winter, and the owner complains sadly of the appearance of his steed, and, according to the old HIDE-BOUND. 407 custom, gives him plenty of cordial balls, — perhaps too many of them, — on the whole not being unserviceable at this critical pe- riod, yet not productive of a great deal of good. At length the animal rallies of himself, and although not so strong and full of spirits as he ought to be, is hardier and more lively than he was, and able to struggle with the cold of the coming winter. WhaL a desideratum in the management of the horse would be a course of treatment that would render all this unnecessary ! The desideratum has been found — a free escape of perspiration, a moist and softened state of the skin, an evident increase of health, and capability of enduring fatigue, and working on shorter supply of food than he could before. This is said to be performed by the clipping and singeing systems. Mr. Thomas Turner, who was almost one of the earliest advo- cates of these systems, states that during the months of October and November an inordinate growth of hair is observed over the whole surface of the body, and in many horses as early as the be- ginning of September, and almost invariably prevails, more or less, in every horse that is not thorough-bred. The debilitating effects thereby induced are profuse perspiration on the least pos- sible exertion — depression of the animal spirits, and temporary loss of appetite. The immediate removal of all the superfluous hair by close clipping, instantly proves so powerful a tonic to the animal, that he unhesitatingly affirms it to be inferior to none at present known in our pharmacopseia. Mr. Turner adds, — " Now, signal as the success of clipping has been, I do entertain a hope, and am of opinion that, in the majority of instances, it may be superseded by singeing under certain modifications." We may not, perhaps, be able satisfactorily to explain the ap- parently magical effects of clipping and singeing on the general constitution, and particularly the wind of the horse, or the respi- ratory functions generally, but there is no doubt of their exist- ence. An increased tone is given to the system generally ; and probably, in some way not yet sufficiently developed, the increased current of the electric fluid may have much to do with it. HIDEBOUND. This is not so much a diminution of the cellular or fatty sub- stance between the skin and the muscles beneath, as it is an al- teration in the skin itself. It is a hardness and unyieldingness of the skin from the want of the oily matter on its surface and its substance. It is the difference that is presented to the feeling by well curried and supple leather, and that which has become dry and unyielding. The surface of the skin becoming dry and hard, the scales of 408 HIDE-BOUND. the cuticle are no longer penetrated by the hair, but separating themselves in every direction, give that peculiar roughness to the coint which accompanies want of condition. It betokens impaired function of the vessels everywhere, and particularly those of the stomach and bowels. Hide-bound is not so much a disease as a symptom of disease, and particularly of the digestive organs ; and our remedies must be applied not so much to the skin — although we have, in friction and in warmth, most valuable agents in pro- ducing a healthy condition of the integuments — as to the cause of the hide-bound, and the state of the constitution generally. Every disease that can affect the general system may produce this derangement of the functions of the skin. Glanders, when become constitutional, is strongly indicated by the unthrifty ap- pearance of the coat. Chronic cough, grease, farcy, and founder, are accompanied by hide-bound ; and diet too sparing, and not adequate to the work exacted, is an unfailing source of it. If the cause is removed, the effect will cease. Should the cause be obscure, as it frequently is — should the horse wear an unthrifty coat, and his hide cling to his ribs, with- out any apparent disease, we shall generally be warranted in tracing it to sympathy with the actual, although not demonstrable, suspension of some important secretion or function, either of the alimentary canal or the respiratory functions. A few mashes, and a mild dose of physic, are first indicated, and, simple as they ap- pear to be, they often have a very beneficial effect. The regular action of the bowels being re-established, that of all the organs of the frame will speedily follow. If the horse cannot be spared for physic, alteratives may be administered. There is no better alterative for hide-bound and an unthrifty coat, than that which is in common use, pulverized antimony, nitre, and sulphur. The peculiar effect of the antimony and sulphur, and electric influ- ence on the skin, with that of the sulphur on the bowels, and of the nitre on the urinary organs, will be here advantageously combined. Should the horse not feed well, and there is no indication of fever, a slight tonic may be added, as gentian or ginger ; but in the majority of cases, attended by loss of condition and an un- thrifty coat, and hide-bound, tonics and aromatics should be care- fully avoided. The cause of the impaired action of the vessels being removed, the powers of nature will generally be sufficient, and had better be left to themselves. There are not any more dangerous medi- cines in common use in the stable, and especially in cases like these, than tonics and cordials. They often arouse to fatal action a tendency to fever that would otherwise have slept, or they pro- duce a state of excitement near akin to fever, and apt to degen- PORES OF THE SKIN 409 erate into it. By the stimulus of a cordial, the secretions may be suddenly roused, and among them, this unctuous secretion from the pores of the skin, so necessary to apparent condition ; hut the effect soon passes over, and a repetition of the stimulus is neces- sary — the habit is soon formed — the dose must be gradually in- creased, and in the mean time the animal is kept in a state of dangerous excitement, by which the powers of nature must be eventually impaired. Friction may be employed with advantage in the removal of hide- bound. It has repeatedly been shown that this is one of the most efficacious instruments we can use, to call into exercise the sus- pended energies either of the absorbent or secreting vessels. Warmth may likewise be had recourse to — not warmth of stable, which has been shown to be so injurious, but warmth arising from exercise, and the salutary, although inexplicable, imiuenct of clipping and singeing. PORES OF THE SKIN. Besides the openings already mentioned, through which pro- ceeds the unctuous fluid that supplies and softens the skin, there are others more numerous, by means of which a vast quantity of aqueous fluid escapes, and perspiration is carried on. This process of perspiration is not, however, so far under the control of medicine as in the human being.* We are not aware of any drugs that will certainly produce it. Warm clothing seems occasionally to effect it, but this is more in appearance than reality. The insensible perspiration cannot escape through the mass of clothing, and assumes a visible form. There are, however, a few medicines, as antimony and sulphur, that have an evident and very considerable effect on the skin, in opening its pores and exciting its vessels to action. Of the existence of absorbent vessels on the skin, or those which take up some fluid or substance, and convey it into the circulation, we have satisfactory proof. A horse is even more easily salivated than the human being. Salivation has been pro- duced by rubbing a splint with mercurial ointment, previous to blistering ; and a very few drachms rubbed on the inside of the thighs, will probably produce a greater effect than the practitioner desires. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Although the same medicines will not pro- duce this effect, yet those that come under the designation of diffusible stimulants, will. Thus, a large dose of spirit of nitrous ether will often pro- duce perspiration; and so, likewise, w;Q the spirit of hartshorn, and even vinegar. R 410 MOULTING. MOULTING. Twice in the year, the hair of the body of the horse is changed. The short, fine coat of summer would afford little protection against the winter, and that of the winter would be oppressive to the animal, if it appeared during the summer. The hair of the mane and tail remains. The bulbous root of the hair does not die, but the pulpy matter seems to be removed from the root of the hair, which, thus deprived of its nourishment, perishes and dro j off, and a new hair springs at its side from the same bulb. The hair which is produced in the autnmn, is evidently differs i from that which grows in the spring ; it is coarser, thicker, and not so glossy as the other. As moulting is a process extending over the whole of the skin, and requiring a very con- siderable expenditure of vital power, the health of the animal is generally affected at these times. That energy, and nervous vital influence, which should support the whole of the frame, is to a great degree determined to the skin, and the animal is languid, and unequal to much hard work. He perspires greatly w;th the least unusual exertion, and if he is pressed beyond his strengt h, becomes seriously ill. The treatment which the groom in this case adopts, is most absurd and dangerous. The horse, from the deranged distribution of vital power, is disposed to fever, or he labors under a slight degree of fever, sufficiently indicated by the increased quickne'm of pulse, redness of nose, and heat of mouth. The lassitude ani want of appetite which are the accompaniments of this febriK state, are mistaken for debility ; and cordials of various kind's some of them exceedingly stimulating, are unsparingly adminis*- tered. At length, with regard to the hunter, the racer, and even in the hackney and the carriage-horse, the scissors or the lamp are introduced, and a new method is established of guarding against this periodical debility, setting at defiance the occasional exposure to cold, and establishing a degree of health and strength previously unknown. Friction may be allowed, to assist the fall- ing off of the old hair, and to loosen the cuticle for the appear- ance of the new hair, but it is somewhat more gently applied than it used to be. The curry-comb is in a great measure ban- ished, and even the brush is not applied too hard or too long. The old hair is not forced off before the young hair is ready to take its place. Nature adapts the coat to the climate and to the season. The Sheltie has one as long and thick as that of a bear ; and, as the summer is short and cold in those northern islands, the coat is rough and shaggy during the whole of the year. In the southern COLOR. 411 parts :f our country, the short, and light and glossy coat of sum mer gradually yields to the close and heavy, and warm clothing of winter. In the deserts of Arabia, where the winter is rarely cold, the coat remains short and glossy throughout the year. These are wise and kind provisions of nature, and excite our ad miration.* COLOR. The color of the hair admits of every variety, and each color becomes in turn fashionable. Like that of the skin, it is influ- enced by, or depends on, the mucous mesh- work under the cuticle. There are comparatively few perfectly white horses now remain- ing. The majority of white horses are those that have become so. Light-grey colts begin to grow white before they are five years old, especially if they have not much dark mixture about the joints. Grrey horses are of different shades, from the lightest silver to a dark iron-grey. The silver-grey reminds the observer of the palfrey, improved by an admixture of Arab blood. He does not often exceed fourteen hands and a half in height, and is round carcassed — thin-legged — with oblique pasterns, calculated for a light carriage, or for a lady's riding — seldom subject to disease — but not very fleet, or capable of hard work. The iron-grey is usually a larger horse ; higher in the withers, deeper and thinner in the carcass, more angular in all his propor- tions, and in many cases a little too long in the legs. Some of these greys make good hackneys and hunters, and especially the Irish horses ; but they are principally used for the carriage. They have more endurance than the flatness of their chest would pro- mise ; but their principal defect is their feet, which are liable to contraction, and yet that contraction not so often accompanied by lameness as in many other horses. The dappled grey is generally a handsomer and a better horse * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We must protest against the idea that a horse with a long coat, however fed and trained, is in as good condition, or capable of as great exertion, as a horse with a sleek glossy coat. As well may a man with a great coat on attempt to run a race with another stripped al- most to the skin. This fact it is which has led to the now general practice of clipping or singeing, by which the coats of coarse-skinned horses are re- moved, and the horses put on a par with sleek-skinned animals, without the necessity of very hot stables, and a long course of preparatory treatment. The advantages of clipping are great ; perspiration is considerably lessened, the horse is soon brought into condition, and grooming is greatly facilitated, without unnecessary irritation ; indeed, the quickest method is to wash the skin while the animal is somewhat warm, with warm water (and soap if ne- cessary), and then scrape the skin, and throw a horse-cloth on the body, which, in the course of ten minutes, will be found dry and comfortable. 412 COLOR. All the angulai points of the iron-grey are filled up, and with that which not jnly adds to symmetry, but to use. Whether as a hackney, or, the larger variety, a carriage-horse, there are few better, especially since his form has been so materially improved, and so much of his heaviness got rid of, by the free use of foreign blood. There are not, however, so many dappled greys as there used to be, since the bays have been bred with so much care. The dappled grey, if dark at first, generally retains his color to old age. Some of the greys approach to a nutmeg, or even bay color. Many of these are handsome, and most of them are hardy. The roans, of every variety of color and form, are composed of white mixed with bay, or red, or black. In some it seems to be a natural mixture of the colors ; in others it appears as if one color was powdered or sprinkled over another. They are pretty horses for ladies or light carriages, and many of them easy in their paces, but they do not usually display much blood, nor are they celebrated for endurance. If they should have white fore legs, with white hoofs, they are too often tender-footed, or become so with even a little hard work. The strawberry horse is a mixture of sorrel with white ; usu- ally handsome and pleasant, but more celebrated for these quali ties than for strength and endurance. The pied horse is one that has distinct spots or patches of dif- ferent colors, but generally of white with some other color. They are not liked as hackneys, on account of their peculiarity of color, nor in teams of horses ; but they look well when tolerably matched in a phaeton or light carriage. Their value must depend on their breed. Of themselves they have no peculiar character, except that a white leg and foot is as suspicious in them as it is in the roan. The dun, of the Gralloway size, and with considerable blood, is often attached to the curricle or the phaeton. The larger variety is a true farmer's or miller's horse, with no great speed or extra- ordinary strength, yet a good-tempered, good-feeling, good-consti tutioned, useful horse enough. Varieties of the dun, shaded with a darker color, or dappled, and with some breeding, and not stand- ing too high, are beautiful animals, and much sought after for light carriages. The cream-color, of Hanoverian extraction, with his white iris and red pupil, is appropriated to royal use. Attached to the state- carriage of the monarch, he is a superb animal. His bulky, yet perfectly-formed body, his swelling crest, and his proud and lofty action, as if conscious of his office, qualify him for the service that is exacted from him, but we have little experience how far ne would suit other purposes. Of the chestnuts there are three varieties — the pale red or the COLOR. 413 sorrel, usually with some white, either on the face or the legs — generally lightly made, yet some of them bulky enough for the heaviest loads. Their color is generally objectionable, and they are supposed to be somewhat deficient in endurance. The light chestnut, with less red and a little more bay or brown, is considered a preferable animal, especially if he has little or no white about him ; yet even he, although pleasant to ride, is some- times irritable, and generally weak. We must except one variety, the Suffolk punch ; a heavy horse, and adapted for slow work, but perfect of his kind — whom no labor can daunt, no fatigue overcome. This is a breed now, unfortunately, nearly extinct. The present variety, however crossed, is not equal to the old Suffolk. The dark chestnut is as different a horse from the hackney-like chestnut as can be well imagined ; round in the carcase ; pow- erful in the quarters, but rather fine in the legs ; possessed of great endurance, and with a constitution that rarely knows an ailment, except that the feet are small and disposed to contrac- tion, and the horse is occasionally of a hot and unmanageable temper. Of the bays, there are many varieties, and they include the very best of our horses of every description. The bright yellow bay, although very beautiful, and especially if his mane and tail are black, is the least valuable — the lightness of his color seems to give him some tenderness of constitution. The pure bay, with no white about him, and black from the knees and hocks to the feet, is the most desirable of all. He has generally a good con- stitution, and good feet ; and, if his conformation is not faulty, will turn out a valuable horse for almost every purpose. The bay-brown has not always so much show and action, but, generally, more strength and endurance, and usefulness. He has greater substance than the lighter bay, and more depth of leg ; and, if he had the same degree of breeding, he would be as hand- some and more valuable. When, however, we arrive at the browns, it is necessary to examine the degree of breeding. This color is not so fashionable, and therefore these horses have been considerably neglected. There are many good ones, and those that are good are val. uable ; others, probably, are only half or a quarter bred, and therefore comparatively coarse, yet useful for the saddle and for harness — for slow work, and, occasionally, for that which is more rapid. The black-brown is generally more neglected so far as its breed is concerned, and should be more carefully examined. It is val- uable if it retains the goodness of constitution of the brown and bay- brown. 414 COLOR. Of the black, greater care has been taken. The heaA-y black of Lincolnshire and the midland counties is a noble animal, and would be almost beyond price if he could be rendered more ac tive. The next in size constitute the majority of our wagon- horses, and perhaps our best ; and, on a smaller breed, and to the improvement of which much attention has been devoted, nany of our cavalry are mounted. A few black thorough-bred horses and black hunters are occasionally seen, but the improve- ment of horses of this color has not been studied, except for the purposes that have been mentioned. Their peculiar high action, while not objectionable for draught, and desirable for the parade, would be unbearable in the roadster. Black horses have been said to be more subject to vice, disease, and blindness, than those of any other color. This charge is not true to its full extent ; but there certainly are a great many worthless black horses in in every part of the country. After all, there is an old saying, that a good horse cannot be a bad color ; and that it is far more necessary to attend to the conformation and points of the animal than to his color. The foregoing observations, however, although they admit of many exceptions, may be useful in guiding to the judicious purchase of the horse.* * Note bg Mr. Spooner. — Coloe. — We do not consider that the size, con- formation, and qualifications of horses depend so much on the color as the text would imply. We have found both good and bad horses of every color, and the only rule we can admit as correct is, that certain colors denote deficient breeding, and therefore such animal is not likely to be so good as he looks, but is probably deficient in bottom or the powers of endurance. These colors are black, which prevails so much with cart-horses, and sorrel, dun, piebald, ifcc. ; the possessors of which come from the north, and possess no eastern blood. Black horses, unless evidently high bred, are very often soft and sluggish, with breeding insufficient for their work ; the pedigree of the majority of them may be dated from the plough-tail, whatever admix- tures there may have been since. White hair denotes a thin skin, which is objectionable, when it prevails on the legs of horses, as such animals are more disposed to swelled legs and cracked heels than others. Bay horses with black legs are greatly esteemed, and yet we have known many determined slugs of this hue. Their constitution is, however, almost inva- riably good. Chestnut is the prevailing color with our race-horses, and con- sequently chestnut horses are generally pretty well bred, and possess the good and bad qualities which obtain most amongst thorough-breds. The Suffolk cart-horse is also distinguished by his light chestnut color : and it is no small recommendation to find that this br^ed has, for several years past, carried away the principal prizes at the annual shows of the Royal Agricul tural Society of England. Gray is a very good color, and one which has become very fashionable for Carriage and phaeton horses during the present reign. Her Majesty's ponies, as they are still called, although they have increased in height from thirteen to fifteen hands, are beautiful specimens of this color, and have rendered the color fashionable for harness purposes. These horse* have a SURFEIT. 4 1 3 SURFEIT. Large pimples or eruptions often appear suddenly on the skin of the horse, and especially in the spring of the year. Occasion- ally they disappear as quickly as they came. Sometimes they sjem to be attended with great itching, but at other times, the an- noyance is comparatively little. When these eruptions have remained a few days, the cuticle frequently peels off, and a small scaly spot — rarely a sore — is left. This is called a surfeit, from its resemblance to some eruptions on the skin of the human beinof when indigestible or unwholesome food has been taken. The surfeit is, in some cases, confined to the neck ; but it oftenei spreads over the sides, back, loins, and quarters. The cause is enveloped in some obscurity. The disease most frequently appea rs when the skin is irritable during or after the process of moulting, or when it sympathizes with any disorder of the stomach. It has been known to follow the eating of poisonous herbs or mow- burnt hay, but, much oftener, it is to be traced to exposure to cold when the skin was previously irritable and the horse heated by exercise. It has also been attributed to the immoderate drink- ing of cold water when the animal was hot. It is obstruction of some of the pores of the skin and swelling of the surrounding sub- stance, either from primary affection of the skin, or a plethoric state of the system, or sympathy with the digestive organs. The state of the patient will sufficiently guide the surgeon as to the course he should pursue. If there is simple eruption, without any marked inflammatory action, alteratives should be resorted to, and particularly those recommended for hide-bound in page 407. They should be given on several successive nights. The night is better than the morning, because the warmth of the stable will cause the antimony and sulphur to act more power- fully on the skin. The horse should be warmly clothed — half an considerable admixture of eastern blood, and most of them are immediately derived from an Arab or a Turkish horse. This, indeed, is the principal or only use of the eastern horse in this country. It is vain to expect any improvement in the speed of our race-horses from foreign admixture, for every attempt of the kind for some years past has been unsuccessful. The circular carcase, arched neck, good shoulders and fore legs, high and excel- lent trotting action, are, however, qualifications which our thorough-breds cannot supply, and are truly valuable in animals required for getting car- riage-horses. The white Arabian horse is, therefore, the very animal re- quired for getting phaeton horses, and, if put to large mares, are also well adapted for perpetuating handsome and valuable carriage-horses. Then-, are also some excellent cart-horses of a gray color ; some of massive propor tions, and others of moderate size, and more active. The iron grays and roans are generally cleaner about the legs, and more compact than the mottled greys. 41C MANGE. hour's walking exercise should be given, an additional rug thrown over him — such green feed as can be procured should be used in moderate quantities, and the chill should be taken from the water. Should the eruption continue or assume a more violent charac- ter, bleeding and aloes must be had recourse to, but neither should be carried to any extreme. The physic having set, the al- teratives should again be had recourse to, and attention should be paid to the comfort and diet of the horse . If the eruption, after several of these alternative appearan jes and disappearances, should remain, and the cuticle and the hair begin extensively to peel off, a worse affection is to be feared, for surfeit is too apt to precede, or degenerate into, mange. This dis- order, therefore, must next be considered. MANGE Is a pimpled or vesicular eruption. After a while the vesicles break, or the cuticle and the hair fall off, and there is, as in ob- stinate surfeit, a bare spot covered with scurf — some fluid oozing from the skin beneath, and this changing to a scab, which like- wise soon peels off, and leaves a wider spot. This process is at- tended by considerable itching and tenderness, and thickening of the skin, which soon becomes more or less folded, or puckered. The mange generally first appears on the neck at the root of tht> mane, and its existence may be suspected even before the blotches appear, and when there is only considerable itchiness of the part, by the ease with which the short hair at the root of the mane is plucked out. From the neck it spreads upward to the head, or downward to the withers and back, and occasionally extends over the whole carcass of the horse. One cause of it, although an unfrequent one, has been stated to be neglected or inveterate surfeit. Several instances are on record in which poverty of condition, and general neglect of cleanliness, preceded or produced the most violent mange. A remark of Mr. Blaine is very important: — "Among the truly healthy, so far as my experience goes, it never arises spontane- ously, but it does readily form a spontaneous origin among the unhealthy." The most common cause is contagion. Amidst the whole list of diseases to which the horse is exposed, there is not one more highly contagious than mange. If it once gets into a stable, it spreads through it, for the slightest contact seems suffi- cient for the communication of this noisome complaint. If the same brush and currycomb is used on all the horses, the propagation of mange is assured ; and horses feeding in the same pasture with a mangy one rarely escape, from the propensity they MANGE. 417 have to nibble one another. Mange in cattle has been propagated to the horse, and from the horse to cattle. There are also some well-authenticated instances of the same disease being communi- cated from the dog to the horse, but not from the horse to the dog. Mange has been said to originate in want of cleanliness in the management of the stable. The comfort and the health of the horse demand the strictest cleanliness. The eyes and the lungs frequently suffer from the noxious fumes of the purifying dung and urine ; but, in defiance of common prejudice, there is no au- thentic instance of mange being the result. Poverty and starva- tion are fruitful sources of mange, but it does not appear that filth has much to do with it, although poverty and filth generally go hand in hand. The propriety of bleeding in cases of mange depends on the con- dition of the patient. If mange is the result of poverty, and the animal is much debilitated, bleeding will increase the evil, and will probably deprive the constitution of the power of rallying. Physic, however, is indispensable in every case. A mercurial ball will be preferable to a common aloetic one, as more certain and effectual in its operation, and the mercury probably having some influence in mitigating the disease. In this, however, mange in the horse resembles itch in the human being — medicine alone will never effect a cure. There must be some local appli- cation. There is this additional similarity — that which is most effectual in curing the itch in the human being must form the basis of every local application for the cure of mange in the horse. Sulphur is indispensable in every ointment for mange. It is the sheet-anchor of the veterinary surgeon. In an early and not very acute state of mange, equal portions of sulphur, turpentine, and train-oil, gently but well rubbed on the part, will be applied with advantage. Farriers are fond of the black sulphur, but that which consists of earthy matter, with the mere dregs of various substan- ces, caimot be so effectual as the pure sublimed sulphur. A tol- erably stout brush, or even a curry-comb, lightly applied, should be used, in order to remove the dandriff or scurf, wherever there is any appearance of mange. After that, the horse should be washed with strong soap and water as far as the disease has ex- tended ; and, when he has been thoroughly dried, the ointment should be well rubbed in with the naked hand, or with a piece of flannel. More good will be done by a little of the ointment being well rubbed in, than by a great deal being smeared over the part. The rubbing should be daily repeated. During the application of the ointment, and as soon as the physic has set, an alterative ball or powder, similar to those recommend- ed tor the other affections of the skin, should be daily given. If, after some days have passed, no progress should appear to havn 27 r 4] 8 MANGE. been ;nade, haif a pound of sulphur should be well mixed with a pint ol oil ol tar, or, if that is not to be obtained, a pint of Barba- boes tar, and the affected parts rubbed, as before. On every fifth or sixth day, the ointment snould be washed off with warm soap and water. The progress towards cure will thus be ascertained, and the skin will be cleansed, and its pores opened for the more effectual application of the ointment. The horse should be well supplied with nourishing, but not stimulating food. As much green feed as he will eat should be given to him, or, what is far better, he should be turned out, if the weather is not too cold. It may be useful to add, that, after the horse has been once well dressed with either of these liniments, the danger of contagion ceases. It is necessary, however, to be assured that every mangy place has been anointed. It will be prudent to give two or three dressings after the horse has been ap- parently cured, and to continue the alteratives for ten days or a fortnight. The cure being completed, the clothing of the horse should be well soaked in water, to which a fortieth part of the saturated so- lution of the chloride of lime has been added ; after which i v should be washed with soap and water, and again washed ana soaked in a solution of the chloride of lime. Every part of the harness should undergo a similar purification. The curry-comb may be scoured but the brush should be burned. The rack and manger, and partitions, and every part of the stable which the horse could possibly have touched, should be well washe'd with a hair-broom — a pint of the chloride of lime being added to three gallons of water. All the wood-work should then be scoured with soap and water, after which a second washing with the chloride of lime will render all secure. Every case of itchiness of the skin should be regarded with sus- picion. When a horse is seen to rub the root of his tail, or his head, or neck, against the manger, the parts should be carefully examined. Some of the hair may have been rubbed or torn oil* but if the roots remain firmly adherent, and there is only redness and not scurfiness of the skin, it probably is not mange, but only inflammation of the skin, from too great fulness of blood. A lit- tle blood should be abstracted — a purgative administered — and the alteratives given. The mange ointment cannot do harm, and may possibly prevent this heat of the skin from degenerating into mange, or arrest the progress of mange if it has commenced. If a scurfiness of the skin should appear on any of the points that are pressed upon by the collar or harness, the veterinary surgeon will do right to guard against danger by alterative medicine and tVie use of the jintment.* * N'nta by Mr. Spooner. — We have only to remark, that the administration WARTS VERMIN. 419 WARTS. These are occasionally found on all parts of the horse. There are some caustics available, but frequently they must be removed by an operation. If the root is very small, it may be snipped asunder, close to the skin, with a pair of scissors, and touched with the lunar caustic. If the pedicle or stem is somewhat larger, a ligature of waxed silk should be passed firmly round it, and tight- ened every day. The source of nutriment being thus removed, the tumor will, in a short time, die and drop off. If the warts are large, or in considerable clusters, it will be necessary to cast the horse, in order to cut them off close to the skin : the root should then be seared with a red-hot iron. Unless these precautions are used, the warts will speedily sprout again. VERMIN. Both the biped and the quadruped are subject to the visitation of insects that fasten on the skin, and are a constant nuisance from the itchiness which they occasion. If the horse, after being turned out for the winter, is taken up in the spring long and rough in his coat, and poor in condition, and with evident hide-bound, he will almost invariably be afflicted with vermin. In our present imperfect acquaintance with natural history, it is difficult to account for the appearance of certain insects, and of chose alone, on the integument of one animal, while others of an altogether different character are found on its neighbor. Each one has a tormentor peculiar to itself. The vermin of the horse is destroyed by an infusion of tobacco or a solution of corrosive sublimate, the latter requiring the great- est caution. The skin being once cleansed of them, an attention to cleanliness will prevent their reappearance. of mercurial physic requires extreme caution in this disease. We have known horses very low in condition killed by this means, and we doubt the necessity of the purge. Topical treatment is the principal remedy, and it is also well to administer sulphur internally at the same time. There is a disease very much resembling the mange, which we occasionally meet with. The horse is affected with the most violent itching, and the hair is often rubbed off, but the skin does not become wrinkled, as in mange. Though this disease often appears to yield to the same topical treatment as the mange, yet, in some instances, it is incurable, and continue^ through life. CHAPTER XXII. ON SOUNDNESS, AND THE PURCHASE AND SALE OF HORSES. [This chapter is given nearly entire, as in the original, and in the remarks on warranty, &c, entire, because it is believed to give a luminous exposition of what equity in all cases demands in regard to the matters of which it treats. It constitutes there- fore the proper basis of amicable settlement between gentlemen, in all countries, where the purchaser of the horse alleges a violation of warranty ; and the basis of proper adjudication where an action is commenced for fraud. In some of the States of the Union, there may be statutes or judicial decisions which would vary from the English ones cited on the subject of warranty, fraud, and as to what constitutes unsoundness, — but probably in most cases, they will be found substantially the same. — Am. Ed. J There are few sources of greater annoyance both to the pur- chaser and the seller of the horse than disputes with regard to the soundness of the animal. That horse is sound in whom there is no disease, and no alter- ation of structure that impairs, or is likely to impair, his natural usefulness. The - horse is unsound that labors under disease, or has some alteration of structure which does interfere, or is likely to interfere, with his natural usefulness.* The term " natural usefulness " must be borne in mind. One horse may possess great speed, but is soon knocked up ; another will work all day, hut cannot be got beyond a snail's pace : a third with a heavy * Since the publication of our first edition, this definition or rule as to soundness or unsoundness has received very high judicial sanction. Coates v. Stephens, 2 Moody and Robinson, 157, Scholefield v. Robb, id. 210. We "hall adhere to it as our test of soundness or unsoundness throughout this chapter, not forgetting what is said in the following extract from a note to one of these cases. "As it may now be considered as settled law, that the breach of a warranty or soundness does not entitle the purchaser to return •he horse, but only to recover the difference of value of the horse with or without the particular unsoundness, the question of temporary maladies, producing no permanent deterioration of the animal, would, generally speaking, only involve a right to damages merely nominal." SOUNDNESS RULES FOR PURCHASE. 423 forehand is liable to stumble, and is continually putting to hazard the neck of his rider ; another, with an irriwble consti- tution and a loose, washy form, loses his appetite and begins to scour if a litte extra work is exacted from him. The term un- soundness must not be applied to either of these ; it would be opening far too widely a door to disputation and endless wrang- ling. The buyer can discern, or ought to know, whether the form of the horse is that which will render him likely to suit his purpose, and he should try him sufficiently to ascertain his natural strength, endurance, and manner of going. Unsound- ness, we repeat, has reference only to diseease, or to that al- teration of structure which is connected with, or will produce disease, and lessen the usefulness of the animal. These principles will be best illustrated by a brief consider- ation of the usually supposed appearances or causes of unsound- ness. Broken knees certainly do not constitute unsoundness, after the wounds are healed, unless they interfere with the action of the joint ; for the horse may have fallen from mere accident, or through the fault of the rider, without the slightest damage more than the blemish. No person, however, would buy a horse with broken knees, until he has thoroughly tried him, and satisfied himself as to his form and action. Capped hocks may be produced by lying on an unevenly paved stable, with a scanty supply of litter, or by kicking gen- erally, in neither of which cases would they constitute unsound- ness, although in the latter they would be an indication of vice ; but, in the majority of instances, they are the consequence of sprain, or of latent injury of the hock, and accompanied by enlargement of it, and would constitute unsoundness. A special warranty should always be taken against capped hocks.* Contraction is a considerable deviation from the natural form of the foot, but not necessarily constituting unsoundness. It re- quires, however, a most careful examination on the part of the purchaser or veterinary surgeon, in order to ascertain that there is no heat about the quarter, or ossification of the cartilage — that the frog, although diminished in size, is not diseased — that * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Capped hocks. — In nine cases out of ten these enlargements are occasioned by kicking in the stall, a vice altogether differ- ent from that of spitefulness, which appears to arise more from restless- ness than anything else. The swelling consists of an effusion of serum or water in the cellular bag which is found beneath the skin at the point of the hock, placed there for the purpose of giving facility of motion. It is never occasioned by strains, therefore, although a sad blemish, it should not be regarded as an unsoundness, unless accompanied with other indications of disease. 422 SOUNDNESS RULES FOR. PURCHASE. the horse does not step short and go as if the foot were tender, and that there is not the slightest trace of lameness. Unless these circumstances, or some of them, are detected, a horse must not be pronounced to be unsound because his feet are contracted ; for many horses with strangely contracted feet do not suffer at all in their action. A special warranty, however, should be required where the feet are at all contracted. Corns manifestly constitute unsoundness. The portion of the foot in which bad corns are situated will not bear the ordinary pressure of the shoe ; and accidental additional pressure from the growing down of the horn, or the introduction of dirt or gravel, will cause serious lameness. They render it necessary to wear a thick and heavy shoe, or a bar-shoe, in order to protect the weakened and diseased part ; and they are very seldom radically cured. There may be, however, and frequently is, a difference of opinion as to the actual existence or character of the corn. They are sometimes, too, so slight that they do not diminish the value of the horse, and will disappear on the horse being shod with ordinary skill and care, even without any alteration in the shoe. Cough. — This is a disease, and consequently unsoundness. However slight may be its degree, and of whatever short stand- ing it may be, although it may sometimes scarcely seem to inter- fere with the usefulness of the horse, yet a change of stabling or slight exposure to wet and cold, or the least over-exertion, may, at other times, cause it to degenerate into many dangerous complaints. A horse, therefore, should never be purchased with a cough upon him, without a special warranty ; or if — the cough not being observed — he is purchased under a -general war- ranty, that warranty is thereby broken. It is not law, that a horse may be returned on breach of the warranty. The seller is not bound to take him back, unless he has contracted so to do ; but he is liable to damages. Lord Ellenborough has completely decided this matter. "I have always held," said he, "that a warranty of soundness is broken, if the animal, at the time of sale, had any infirmity upon him that rendered him less fit for present service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent or incurable. While he has a cough, he is unsound, although that may either be temporary or prove mortal." In deciding on another case, the same judge said, " I have al- ways held it that a cough is a breach of the warranty. On that understanding I have always acted, and think it quite clear." It was argued on the other hand that two-thirds of the horses in London had coughs, yet still the judge maintained that the cough was a breach of warranty. When it was farther argued that the horse had been hunted the day after the purchase, and the cough SOUNDNESS. 423 might have been increased by this, the reply was singular, but decisive. " There is no proof that he would have got well if he had not been hunted." This doctrine is confirmed by Parke, B., in the first case cited in p. 420. Roaring, Wheezing, Whistling, High-blowing, and Grunt- ing, being the result of alteration of structure, or disease in some of the air-passages, and interfering with the perfect freedom of breathing, especially when the horse is put on his speed, without doubt constitute unsoundness. There are decisions to the contra- ry, which are now universally admitted to be erroneous. Broken- wind is still more decidedly unsoundness.* 0rd3-biting. — Although some learned judges have asserted that crib-biting is simply a trick or bad habit, it must be regarded as unsoundness. This unnatural sucking in of the air must, to a certain degree injure digestion. It must dispose to colic, and so interfere with the strength, and usefulness, and health of the horse. Some crib-biters are good goers, but they probably would have possessed more endurance had they not acquired this habit ; and it i B a fact well established, that, as soon as a horse becomes a crib-biter, he, in nine cases out of ten, loses condition. In its very early stage it may be a mere trick — confirmed, it must have produced morbid deterioration. The wear of the front teeth, and the occasional breaking of them, make a horse old before his time, and sometimes render it difficult or impossible for him to graze, when the state of the animal or the convenience of the owner re quires that he should be turned out.f * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Roaring, wheezing, and whistling may be con- sidered as modifications of the same disease, viz., an obstruction to the pas- sage of air to and from the lungs ; and as the nature and amount of this ob- struction necessarily varies, so must the noise thereby produced, and which is consequently expressed by the terms in question ; all, however, being de- cidedly unsoundness. Grunting is the noise which many roarers will evince when suddenly alarmed by a real or pretended blow. It is the common horse-dealer's method of discovering a roarer, but by no means one that can be depended on, as many moderate roarers, particularly if they have lately become so, will not grunt. With regard to high-blowing, we by no means consider it an unsoundness, understanding by this term, however, the noise, often very considerable, which some horses make on being first excited, or put into motion. This noise is produced by the false nostrils, which either possess greater laxity than common, or else it is owing to the neivousness of the horse. It begins at once if the horse is excited, and, instead of increasing with exertion, like roaring, it diminishes or goes off. This is, or ought to be, the proper test of soundness. Broken wind is of course decided unsoundness, and equally so is thick tqind, or quickened respiration, which often arises fro?n consolidation of a portion of the lungs, and sometimes merely from thickening of the mem- L ane of the air passages. \ Note by Mr. Spooner. — Crib-biting has often been the subject of dispute 424 SOUNDNESS. Curb constitutes unsoundness while it lasts, and perhaps while the swelling remains, although the inflammation may have sub- sided ; for a horse that has once thrown out a curb is, for a while at least, very liable to do so again, to get lame in the same place on the slightest extra exertion ; or, at all events, he would there first fail on extraordinary exertion. A horse, however, is not re- turnable, although he should spring a curb five minutes alter the purchase ; for it is done in a moment, and does not necessarily in- dicate any previous unsoundness or weakness of the part. 5 * Cutting, as rendering a horse liable to serious injury of the legs, and indicating that he is either weak, or has an awkward- ness of gait inconsistent with safety, produces, rather than this, unsoundness. Many horses go lame for a considerable period after cutting themselves severely ; and others have dropped from the sudden agony, and endangered themselves and their riders. As some doubt, however, exists on this subject, and as it is a very material objection to a horse, cutting, when evid nt, should have its serious consequences provided against by a special warranty.! Enlarged Glands. — The enlargement of the glands under th* jaw has not been so much considered as it ought to have been in ii to whether it, constitutes unsoundness or not, which is not to be wondered at, seeing that many crib-biters will perform their work for many years without hindrance or inconvenience. Crib-biting is now, however, regarded as an unsoundness, on the principle that though at the present time the horse may be equal to his work, yet, at a future period, it may render him unequal to its performance, by causing indigestion, loss of flesh, and weakness. It is better that the question should be thus set at rest, as the value of the ani mal is very materially diminished by being a crib-biter, which is owing not so much to real injury, as to the disagreeable habit, and to the fact that if the animal is in a stable with other horses, they are very likely to learn the habit. Wind-sucking must come under the same rules as crib-biting, which re- sembles it so far as the swallowing of air is concerned, the animal, however, being enabled to do it without the necessity of laying hold of the manger. * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Curb constitutes unsoundness, unless it is well known that the horse has stood the ordeal of work for some months since the curb was thrown out, or any treatment adopted for it. As this infor- mation, however, can seldom be satisfactorily obtained, the possible effects of a curb should be guarded against by a special warranty. f Note by Mr. Spooner. — We cannot agree with the text in considering this an unsoundness. It is a visible defect, and therefore can readily be observed, and pointed out, and objected to, in proportion to the amount of the evil which may be very severe and unlikely to be remedied, or slight, and owing either to improper shoeing, or youth, awkwardness or Aveakness. To consider it, therefore, as an unsoundness, there being neither alteration of structure nor function, would be to open the door to perpetual disputes, and render the already vexed question of soundness still more vexatious. At the same time, if the cutting h considerable, and evidently arises from naturally defective action, and is of such a nature as not to ad mit of a remedy, we should not hesitate, in such a case, to pronounce the animal unsound. SOUNDNESS. 425 our estimate of the soundness of the horse. Simple catarrh will occasionally, and severe affection of the chest will generally, be accompanied by swelling of these glands, which does not subside for a considerable time after the cold or fever has apparently been cured. To slight enlargements of the glands under the jaw much attention need not be paid ; but if they are of considerable size, and especially if they are tender, and the glands at the root of the ear partake of the enlargement, and the membrane of the nose is redder than it should be, we should hesitate in pronouncing that horse to be sound. We must consider the swelling as a symptom of disease. Enlarged Hock. — Ahorse with enlarged hock is unsound, the structure of this complicated joint being so materially affected that, although the horse may appear for a considerable time to be capable of ordinary work, he will occasionally fail even in that, and a few days' hard work will always lame nim. # The Eyes. — That inflammation of the eye of the horse which usually terminates in blindness of one or both eyes, has the pecu- liar character of receding or disappearing for a time, once or twice, or thrice, before it fully runs its course. The eye, after an attack of inflammation, regains so nearly its former natural bril- liancy that a person even well acquainted with horses will not always recognize the traces of former disease. After a time, how- ever, the inflammation returns, and the result is inevitable. A horse that has had one attack of this complaint, is long afterwards unsound, however perfect the eye may seem to be, because he carries about with him a disease that will probably again break out, and eventually destroy the sight. Whether, therefore, he may be rejected or not, depends on the possibility of proving an attack of inflammation of the eye, prior to the purchase. Next to direct evidence of this are appearances about the eye, of which the veterinary surgeon at least ought not to be ignorant. Allu- sion has been made to them in page 64. They consist chiefly of a puckering of the lids towards the inner corner of one or both eyes — a difference in the size of the eyes, although perhaps only a slight one, and not discovered except it be looked for — a gloom- iness of the eye — a dullness of the iris — a little dullness of the * Note by Mr. Spooner. — The greater number of these cases, arising as they most frequently do from strains, we should consider as unsoundness, even although the probability may be that the horse will stand work with- out lameness. There is weakness of the part, and a possibility of lame- ness. There are, however, other cases in which the enlargement may be in the skin, or immediately under it, or on the outside of the bone, such cases being often produced by kicks or blows, or other external injuries. There are many such cases that we should regard as blemishes, but not as un- soundness 426 SOUNDNESS. transparent part of the eye generally — a minute, faint, dusky spol deep in the eye, and generally with little radiations of white lines proceeding from it. If these symptoms, or the majority of them, existed at the time of purchase, the animal had assuredly been diseased before, and was unsound Starting has been considered as unequivocal proof. It is usually an indication of defective sight, but it is occasionally a trick. Connected, however, with he appearances just described, it is a very strong corroborative proof.* Lameness, from whatever cause arising, is unsoundness. How- ever temporary it may be, or however obscure, there must be dis- ease which lessens the utility of the horse, and renders him un- sound for the time. So says common sense, but there are contra- dictory decisions on the case. " A horse laboring under a tempo- rary injury or hurt, which is capable of being speedily cured or removed, is not, according to Chief Justice Eyre> an unsound horse ; and where a warranty is made that such a horse is sound, it is made without any view to such an injury ; nor is a horse so circumstanced within the meaning of the warranty. To vitiate the warranty, the injury the horse had sustained, or the malady * Note by Mr.Spooner. — All internal diseases of the eye, or the remains of such diseases, constitute unsoundness ; and even although no mischief can be discovered at the time of sale, yet, if inflammation can be proved to have existed previously, and such inflammation subsequently recurs, the horse is returnable. As, however, it is extremely difficult to obtain such proof, the most particular care should be taken with regard to an examination of the eyes. Distinction, however, must be made between those streaks or opaque spots often seen on the cornea alone, and without the axis of vision, and which, invariably arises from blows or other external injuries, and which, although amounting to a blemish, does not constitute unsoundness. There are also occasional specks deeper in the eye, about the size of a pin's head, evidently on the surface of the crystalline lens, and not in its body. These false cata- racts, as they may be called in contradistinction to true cataracts, are very frequently absorbed, and do not increase or injure vision. When, there- fore, the examiner can satify himself that such is the nature of the specks in question, he will be justified, whilst pointing out their existence, in deciding in favor of soundness of the animal. We cannot by any means agree with the doctrine implied in the text, that a blind horse is not returnable. If the horse is warranted sound, and proves to be blind, the warranty is broken, and the horse is returnable. Many purchasers of horses know no more about a horse than a horse does about them, and cannot be supposed to be capable of discovering the animal's defects, and they have a right to consider the warranty as their protection. The writer himself remembers, many years since, riding a horse twenty miles on a turnpike road, without knowing that the animal was blind. It was a case of amaurosis ; the eye was clear and apparently free from dis- ease, the animal went safe, straight and well, and he could scarcely believe it, the next morning, when he found that the animal was stone blind. If, however, the horse is bought without a warranty, the defect being* ap- parent, the horse is then not returnable on the ground of fraud. SOUNDNESS. 427 under which he labored, ought to be of a permanent nature, and not such as may arise from a temporary injury or accident." On the contrary, Lord Ellenborough says : " I have always held, and now hold, that a warranty of soundness is broken, it the animal at the time of sale has any infirmity upon him which renders him less fit for present service. It is not necessary that the disorder should be permanent or incurable. While a horse has a cough he is unsound, although it may either be temporary or may prove mortal. The horse in question having been lame at the time of sale, when he was warranted to be sound, his condi- tion subsequently is no defence to the action* The decision of Mr. Baron Parke, already referred to, confirms this doctrine. Neurotomy. — A question has arisen how far a horse that has undergone the operation of the division of the nerve of the leg (see p. 86), and has recovered from the lameness with which he was before affected, and stands his work well, may be considered to be. sound. Chief Justice Best held such a horse to be unsound, and in our opinion there cannot be a doubt about the matter. The operation of neurotomy does not remove the disease causing the lameness, but only the sensation of pain. A horse on whom this operation has been performed may be improved by it — may cease to be lame— may go well for many years ; but there is no cer tainty of this, and he is unsound, within our definition, unless na- ture gave the nerve for no useful purpose. Ossification of the lateral cartilages constitutes unsound- ness, as interfering with the natural expansion of the foot, and, in horses of quick work, almost universally producing I o vy"! prince Pumiced-foot. — When the union between the horny and sen- sible lamina?, or little plates of the foot (see p. 305), is weakened, and the coffin-bone is let down, and presses upon the sole, and the sole yields to this unnatural weight, and becomes rounded, and is brought in contact with the ground, and is bruised and injured, that°horse must be unsound, and unsound forever, because there are no means by which we can raise the. coffin-bone again into its place. auiDDiNG.— If the mastication of the food gives pam to the ani- mal, in consequence of soreness of the mouth or throat, he will drop it before it is perfectly chewed. This, as an indication of disease, constitutes unsoundness. Cluidding sometimes arises from irregularity in the teeth, which wound the cheek with their sharp edsres; or a protruding tooth renders it impossible for the horse to 'close his jaws so as^to chew his food thoroughly. Gluiddmg i« unsoundness for the time ; but the unsoundness will cease when * 4 Campbell, 251, Elton vs. Broqden. 428 SOUNDNESS. the teeth are properly filed, or the soreness or other cause of thi? imperfect chewing removed. GIuittor is manifestly unsoundness. Ring-bone. — Although when the bony tumor is small, and on one side only, there is little or no lameness — and there are a few instances in which a horse with ring-bone has worked for many years without its return — yet from the action of the foot, and the stress upon the part, the inflammation and the formation of bone may acquire a tendency to spread so rapidly, that we must pro- nounce the slightest enlargement of the pasterns, or around the coronet, to be a cause of unsoundness. Sand-crack is manifestly unsoundness. It may, however, occur without the slightest warning, and no horse can be rejected on account of a sand-crack that has sprung after purchase. Its usual cause is too great brittleness of the crust of the hoof; but there is no infallible method of detecting this, or the degree in which it must exist in order to constitute unsoundness. When the horn round the bottom of the foot has chipped off so much that only a skilful smith can fasten the shoe without pricking the horse, or even when there is a tendency in the horn to chip and break in a much less degree than this, the horse is unsound, for the brittleness of the crust is a disease of the part, or it is such an altered structure of it as to interfere materially with the usefulness of the animal. Spavin. — Bone spavin, comprehending in its largest sense every bony tumor on the hock, is not necessarily unsoundness. If the tumor affects in the slightest degree the action of the horse, it is unsoundness ; — even if it does not, it is seldom safe to pronounce it otherwise than unsoundness. But it may possibly be (like splint in the fore-leg) so situated as to have no tendency to affect the ac- tion. A veterinary surgeon consulted on the purchase will not always reject a horse because of such a tumor. His evidence on a question of soundness will depend on the facts. The situation and history of the tumor may be such as to enable him to give a decisive opinion in a horse going sound, but not often. Bog or Blood Spavin is unsoundness, because, although it may not be productive of lameness at slow work, the rapid and power- ful action of the hock in quicker motion will produce permanent, yet perhaps not considerable lameness, which can scarcely evei be with certainty removed.* Splint. — It depends entirely on the situation of the bony tumor on the shank-bone, whether it is to be considered as unsoundness. If it is not in the neighborhood of any joint, so as to interfere with * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Blood-Spavin is certainly unsoundness, unless extremely slight, although, in the majority of cases, it does not caus« lameness. SOUNDNESS. 429 its action, and if it does not press upon any ligament or tendon, it may be no cause of unsoundness, although it is often very un- sightly. In many cases, it may not lessen the capability and value of the animal. This has been treated on at considerable length in page 256.* Stringhalt. — This singular and very unpleasant action of the hind-leg is decidedly an unsoundness. It is an irregular commu- nication of nervous energy to some muscle of the thigh, observable when the horse first comes from the stable, and gradually ceasing on exercise. It has usually been accompanied by a more than common degree of strength and endurance. It must, however, be traced to some morbid alteration of structure or function ; and it rarely or never fails to deteriorate and gradually wear out the animal. Thickening of the Back Sinews. — Sufficient attention is not always paid to the fineness of the legs of the horse. If the flexor tendons have been sprained, so as to produce considerable thick- ening of the cellular substance in which their sheaths are envel- oped, they will long afterwards, or perhaps always, be liable to sprain, from causes by which they would otherwise be scarcely affected. The continuance of any considerable thickness around the sheaths of the tendons indicates previous violent sprain. This very thickening will fetter the action of the tendons, and, after much quick work, will occasionally renew the inflammation and the lameness ; therefore, such a horse cannot be sound. It requires, however, a little discrimination to distinguish this from the gum- miness, or roundness of leg, peculiar to some breeds. There should be an evident difference between the injured leg and the other, f Thoroughpin, except it is of great size, is rarely productive of lameness, and therefore cannot be termed unsoundness ; but as it is the consequence of hard work, and now and then does produce * Note by Mr. Spooner. — We do not think the situation of this tumor has as much to do with the existence of lameness as is generally imagined. The lameness is occasioned by the tension of the periosteum, or covering of the hone, which has not had time to accommodate itself to the bony swelling beneath it. All splints, therefore, which evince tenderness on being pressed, should be considered as unsoundness, and, indeed, all splints on horses un- der six years of age should be guarded against by a sufficient warranty, though no lameness or tenderness may exist. In older horses, this precau- tion is unnecessary. f Note by Mr. Spooner. — All enlargements of the sinews or ligaments, un- less evidently produced by blows, constitute unsoundness. It is an old but mistaken idea, that the enlargement of sprung sinews, as it is termed, exists in the cellular membrane. It is the substance of the sinews themselves that becomes thickened. 430 SOUNDNESS lameness, the hock should be most carefully examined, and there should be a special warranty against it.* Thrush. — There are various cases on record of actions on ac- count of thrushes in horses and the decisions have been much at variance, or perfectly contradictory Thrush has not been always considered by legal men as unsoundness. We, however, decided- ly so consider it ; as being a disease interfering and likely to inter- fere with the usefulness of the horse. Thrush is inflammation of the lower surface of the inner or sensible frog — and the secretion or throwing out of pus — almost invariably accompanied by a slight degree of tenderness of the frog itself, or of the heel a little above it, and, if neglected, leading to diminution of the substance of the frog, and separation of the horn from parts beneath, and underrunning, and the production of fungus and canker, and, ul- timately, a diseased state of the foot, destructive of the present, and dangerous to the future usefulness of the horse. f Windgalls. — There are few horses perfectly free from wind- galls, but they do not interfere with the action of the fetlock, or cause lameness, except when they are numerous or large. They constitute unsoundness only when they cause lameness, or are so large and numerous as to render it likely that they will cause it. In the purchase of a horse the buyer usually receives, embod- ied in the receipt, what is termed a warranty. It should be thus expressed : — " Received of A. B. forty pounds for a gray mare, warranted only five years old, sound, free from vice, and quiet to ride or drive. "£40. " C. D." A receipt, including merely the word " warranted," extends on- ly to soundness, — " warranted sound" goes no farther ; the age, freedom from vice, and quietness to ride and drive, should be es pecially named. This warranty comprises every cause of unsound- ness that can be detected, or that lurks in the constitution at the time of sale, and to every vicious habit that the animal has hitherto shown. To establish a breach of warranty, and to be enabled to tender a return of the horse and recover the difference of price, the purchaser must prove that it was unsound or vicious- y disposed at the time of sale. In case of cough, the horse must nave been heard to cough immediately after the purchase, or as * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Thoroughpi7is. unless they are very slight, ought to be considered in the same light as Bog Spavin, which they resemble in their nature though not in situation. They indicate weakness of one of the most important points in the body, though lameness rarely attends it, f Note by Mr. Spooner. — We cannot consider thrush as invariably un- soundness, as it may often be cured. In bad cases, of long standing, we are justified in considering it as unsoundness. SOUNDNESS. 431 he was led home, or as soon as he had entered the stable of the purchaser. Coughing, even on the following morning, will not be sufficient ; for it is possible that he might have caught cold by change of stabling. If he is lame, it must be proved tc arise from a cause that existed before the animal was in the purchaser's possession. No price will imply a warranty, or be equivalent to one ; there must be an express warranty. A fraud must be proved in the seller, in order that the buyer may be enabled to return the horse or maintain an action for the price. The war- ranty should be given at the time of sale. A warranty, or a pro- mise to warrant the horse given at any period antecedent to the sale, is invalid ; for horse-flesh is a very perishable commodity, and the constitution and usefulness of the animal may undergo a considerable change in the space of a few days. A warranty after the sale is invalid, for it is is given without any legal consi- deration. In order to complete the purchase, there must be a transfer of the animal, or a memorandum of agreement, or the payment of the earnest-money. The least sum will suffice for earnest. No verbal promise to buy or to sell is binding without one of these. The moment either of these is effected, the legal trans- fer of property or delivery is made, and whatever may happen to the horse, the seller retains, or is entitled to the money. If the purchaser exercises any act of ownership, by using the animal without leave of the vender, or by having any operation per- formed, or any medicine given to him, he makes him his own. The warranty of a servant is considered to be binding on the master.* If the horse should be afterwards discovered to have been un- sound at the time of warranty, the buyer may tender a return of it, and, if it be not taken back, may bring his action for the price ; but the seller is not bound to rescind the contract, unless he has agreed so to do. Although there is no legal compulsion to give immediate no- tice to the seller of the discovered unsoundness, it will be better for it to be done. The animal should then be tendered at the house or stable of the vender. If he refuses to receive him, the animal may be sent to a livery stable and sold ; and an action for the difference in price may be brought. The keep, however, can be recovered only for the time that necessarily intervened between the tender and the determination of the action. It is not legally neoessary to tender a return of the horse as soon as the unsoundness is discovered. The animal may be kept for a reaso- nable time afterwards, and even proper medical means used to re- * The weight of authority decides that the master is bound bv the act of the servant. Lord Kenyon, however, had some doubt on the sujject 432 SOUNDNESS. • nove the unsoundness ; but courtesy, and indeed justice, wiil r* mire that the notice should be given as soon as possible. Al- though it is stated, on the authority of Lord Loughborough, that '' no length of time elapsed after the sale will alter the nature of a contract originally false," yet it seems to have been on^e thought it was necessary to the action to give notice of the un- soundness in a reasonable time. The cause of action is cer- tainly complete on breach of the warranty. It used to be supposed that the buyer had no right to have the horse medically treated, and that he would waive the warranty by doing so. The question, however, would be, has he injured or diminished the value of the horse by this treatment? It will generally be prudent for him to refrain from all medical treat- ment, because the means adopted, however skilfully employed, may have an unfortunate effect, or may be misrepresented by ig- norant or interested observers. The purchaser possibly may like the horse, notwithstanding his discovered defect, and he may retain, and bring his action for the depreciation in value on account of the unsoundness. Few, how- ever, will do this, because his retaining the horse will cause a suspicion that the defect was of no great consequence, and will give rise to much cavil about the quantum of damages, and after all, very slight damages will probably be obtained. "I take it to be clear law," says Lord Eldon, " that if a person purchases a horse that is warranted, and it afterwards turns out that the horse was unsound at the time of warranty, the buyer may, if he pleases, keep the horse, and bring an action on the warranty ; in which he will have a right to recover the difference between the value of a sound horse, and one with such defects as existed at the time of warranty ; or he may return the horse, and bring an action to recover the full money ; but in the latter case, the sel- ler has a right to expect that the horse shall be returned to him in the same state he was when sold, and not by any means di- minished in value ; for if a person keep a warranted article for any length of time after discovering its defects, and when he re- turns it, it is in a worse state than it would have been if returned immediately after such discovery, I think the party can have no defence to an action for the price of the article on the ground of non-compliance with the warranty, but must be left to his action on the warranty to recover the difference in the value of the ar- ticle warranted, and its value when sold.* Where there is no warranty, an action may be brought on the ground of fraud ; but this is very difficult to be maintained, and not often hazarded. It will be necessary to prove that the dealer knew the defect, and that the purchaser was imposed upon by his * Ourtis v. Hannay, 3 Esp. 83. SOUNDNESS. 433 false representation, or other fraudulent means. If the delect was evident to every eye, the purchaser has no remedy — he should have taken more care ; but if a warranty was given, that extends to all unsoundness, palpable or concealed. Although a person should ignorantly or carelessly buy a blind horse, warranted sound, he may°reject it — the warranty is his guard, and prevents him from so closely examining the horse as he otherwise would have done ; but if he buys a blind horse, thinking him to be sound, and without a warranty, he has no remedy. Every one ought to ex- ercise common circumspection and common sense. A man should have a more perfect knowledge of horses than falls to the lot of most, and a perfect knowledge of the vender too, who ventures to buy a horse witaoat a warranty. If a person buys a horse wairanted sound, and discovering no defect in him, and, relying on the warranty, re-sells him, and the unsoundness is discovered by the second purchaser, and the horse returned to the first purchaser, or an action commenced against him, he has his claim on the first seller, and may demand of him not only the price of the horse, or the difference in value, but every expense that may have been incurred. Absolute exchanges, of one horse for another, or a sum of money being paid in addition by one of the parties, stand on the same ground as simple sales. If there is a warranty on either side, and that is broken, an action may be maintained : if there be no war- ranty, deceit must be proved. The trial of horses on sale often leads to disputes. The law is perfectly clear, but the application of it, as in other matters con- nected with horse-flesh, attended with glorious uncertainty. The intended purchaser is only liable for damage done to the horse through his own misconduct. The seller may put what restriction he chooses on the trial, and takes the risks of all accidents in the fair use of the horse within such restrictions. If a horse from a dealer's stable is galloped far and fast, it is probable that he will soon show distress ; and if he is pushed far- ther, inflammation and death may ensue. The dealer rarely gets recompensed for this ; nor ought he, as he knows the unfitness of his horse, and may thank himself for permitting such a trial ; and if it should occur soon after the sale, he runs the risk of having the horse returned, or of an action for it? price. In this, too, he is not much to be pitied. The mischievous and fraudulent practice of dealers, especially in London, of giving their horses, by overfeeding, a false appearance of muscular sub- stance, leads to the ruin of many a valuable animal. It would be a useful lesson to have to contest in an action or two the ques- tion whether a horse overloaded with fat can be otherwise than in a state of disease, and consequently unsound. 28 S f absorption MEDICINES 469 Lead, Plumbum. — The Carbo?iate of Lead had a deleterious effect on the biped and the quadruped in the neighborhood of lead works. They are subject to violent griping pains, and to constipation that can with great difficulty, or not at all, be over- come. Something of the same kind is occasionally observed in the cider counties, and the " painter's colic" is a circumstance of too frequent occurrence — the occasional dreadful pains, and the ravenous appetite extending to everything that comes in the way of the animal. Active purgatives followed by opium are the most effectual remedies. The Acetate of Lead, Plumbi Acetas. — Sugar of lead is sel- dom given externally to the horse, but is used as a collyrium ibr inflammation of the eyes. The Liquor Plumhi Subacetatis, or Goulard's Extract, or, as it used to be termed at the Veterinary College, the Aqua Vegeto, is a better eye wash, and advantageously used in external and superficial inflammation, and particularly the inflammation that remains after the application of a blister. Lime, — was formerly sprinkled over cankered feet and greasy heels, but there are less painful caustics, and more effectual ab- sorbents of moisture. Lime-water is rarely used, but the Chloride of Lime is exceedingly valuable. Diluted with twenty times its quantity of water, it helps to form the poultice applied to every part from which there is the slightest offensive discharge. The foetid smell of fistulous withers, poll-evil, canker, and ill-condi- tioned wounds, is immediately removed, and the ulcers are more disposed to heal. When mangy horses are dismissed as cured, a washing with the diluted chloride will remove any infection that may lurk about them, or which they may carry from the place in which they have been confined. One pint of the chloride mixed with three gallons of water, and brushed over the walls and manger and rack of the foulest stable, will completely re- move all infection. Professor Morton, very properly, says tha the common practice of merely white- washing the walls serve.* only to cover the infectious matter, and perhaps to preserve it for an indefinite length of time, so that when the lime scales off, dis ease may be again engendered by the exposed virus. The horse furniture worn by a glandered or mangy animal will be effectu- ally purified by the chloride. Internally administered, it seems to have little or no power. Liniments, — are oily applications of the consistence of a thick fluid, and designed either to soothe an inflamed surface, or, by gently stimulating the skin, to remove deeper-seated pain or in- flammation. As an emollient, one composed of half an ounce of extract of lead and four ounces of olive oil will be useful . For sprains, old swellings, or rheumatism, two ounces of hartshorn, 460 MEDICINES. the same quantity of camphorated spirit, an ounce of oil of tur- pentine, and half an ounce of laudanum, may he mixed together ; or an ounce of camphor may be dissolved in four ounces of sweet oil, to which an ounce of oil of turpentine may be afterwards added. A little powdered cantharides, or tincture of cantharides, or mustard powder, will render either of these more powerful, or convert it into a liquid blister. Linseed. — An infusion of linseed is often used instead of water for the drink of the horse with sore-throat or catarrh, or disease of the urinary organs or of the bowels. A pail containing it should be slung in the stable or loose box. Thus gruel, however, is preferable ; it is as bland and soothing, and it is more nutri- tious. Linseed meal forms the best poultice for almost every pur- pose. Lunar Caustic. — See under Argentium. Magnesia. — The sulphate of magnesia, or Epsom Salts, should be used only in promoting the purgative effect of clysters, or, in repeated doses of six or eight ounces, gently to open the bowels at the commencement of fever. Some doubt, however, attends the latter practice ; for the dose must occasionally be thrice re- peated before it will act, and then, although safer than aloes, it may produce too much irritation in the intestinal canal, especially if the fever is the precursor of inflammation of the lungs. Mashes,— constitute a very important part of horse-provender, whether in sickness or health. A mash given occasionally to a horse that is otherwise fed on dry meat prevents him from be- coming dangerously costive. To the over- worked and tired horse, nothing is so refreshing as a warm mash with his usual allow- ance of corn in it. The art of getting a horse into apparent con- dition for sale, or giving him a round and plump appearance, con- sists principally in the frequent repetition of mashes, and, from their easiness of digestion and the mild nutriment which they afford, as well as their laxative effect, they form the principal diet of the sick horse. They are made by pouring boiling water or bran, and stirring it well, and then covering it over until it is sufficiently cool for the horse to eat. If in the heat of summer a cold mash is pre- ferred, it should, nevertheless, be made with hot water, and then suffered to remain until it is cold. This is not always suf- ficiently attended to by the groom, who is not aware that the efficacy of the mash depends principally on the change which is effected in the bran and the other ingredients by boiling water rendering them more easy of digestion, as well as more aperient. If the horse refuses the mash, a few oats may be sprinkled over •t, in order to tempt him to eat it ; but if it is previously designed that, corn should be given in the mash, it should be scalded with MEDICINES. 461 the bran, in order to soften it and render it more digestible. Eran mashes are very useful preparatives for physic, and they are necessary during the operation of the physic. They very soon become sour, and the manger of the horse, of whose diet they form a principal part, should be daily and carefully cleaned out. When horses are weakly and much reduced, malt mashes will often be very palatable to them and very nutritive : but the water that is poured on a malt mash should be considerably below the boiling heat, otherwise the malt will be set, or clogged together. If the owner was aware of the value of a malt mash, it would be oftener given when the horse is rapidly getting weaker from protracted disease, or when he is beginning to recover from a dis- ease by which he has been much reduced. The only exception to their use is in cases of chest affection, in which they must not be given too early. In grease, and in mange accompanied by much emaciation, malt mashes will be peculiarly useful, especially if they constitute a principal portion of the food. Mercury, — see Hydrargyrum. Mercurial Ointment, — see under Hydrargyrum. Muriatic Acid, — see Acidum Muriaticum. Mustard, Sinapis. — This will be found occasionally useful, if, in inflammation of the chest or bowels, it is well rubbed on the chest or the abdomen. The external swelling and irritation which it excites may, to a greater or less degree, abate the inflammation within. Myrrh, — may be used in the form of tincture, or it may be united to the tincture of aloes as a stimulating and digestive ap- plication to wounds. Diluted with an equal quantity of water, it is a good application for canker in the mouth, but as an inter- nal medicine it seems to be inert, although some practitioners ad- vocate its use, combined with opium, in cases of chronic cough. Nitre, — see under Potash. Nitrous ./Ether, Spirit of, — is a very useful medicine in the advanced stages of fever, for while it, to a certain degree, rouses the exhausted powers of the animal, and may be denominated a stimulant, it never brings back the dangerous febrile action which was subsiding. It is given in doses of three or four drachms. Olive Oil, — is an emollient and demulcent. Its laxative effect is very inconsiderable and uncertain in the horse. Opium. — However underrated by some, there is not a more valuable drug on our list. It does not often act as a narcotic, ex- c( pt in considerable doses ; but it is a powerful antispasmodic, sedative, and astringent. As an antispasmodic, it enters into the cholic drink, and it is the sheet-anchor of the veterinarian in the treatment of tetanus or locked-jaw. As a sedative it relaxes that universal spasm of the muscular system winch is the character- 462 MEDICINES. lsti« of tetanus ; and, perhaps, it is only as a sedative that it has such admirable effect as an astringent, for when the irritation around the mouths of the vessels of the intestines and kidneys is allayed by the opium, the undue purging and profuse staling wif necessarily be arrested. Opium should, however, be given with caution. It is its sec- ndary effect that is sedative, and, if given in cases of fever, its primary effect in increasing the excitation of the frame may be very considerable and highly injurious. In the early and acute stage of fever, it would be bad practice to give it in the smallest quantity ; but when the fever has passed, or is passing, there is nothing which so rapidly subdues the irritability that accompanies extreme weakness. It becomes an excellent tonic, because it is a sedative. If the blue or green vitriol, or cantharides, have been pushed too far, opium, sooner than any other drug, quiets the disorder they have occasioned. It is given in doses of one or two drachms, in the form of ball. Other medicines are usually combined with it, according to the circumstances of the case. Externally, it is useful in ophthalmia. In the form of decoc- tion of the poppy-head, it may constitute the basis of an anodyne poultice ; but it must not be given in union with any alkali, with the exception of chalk, in over-purging ; nor with the superace- tate of lead, by which its powers are materially impaired ; nor with sulphate of zinc, or copper, or iron. From its high price it is much adulterated, and it is not always met with in a state of purity. The best tests are its smell, its taste, its toughness and pliancy, its fawn or brown color, and its weight, for it is the heaviest of all the vegetable extracts except gum arabic ; yet its weight is often fraudulently increased by stones and bits of lead dexterously concealed in it. The English opium is almost as good as the Turkish, and frequently sold for it ; but is distinguishable by its blackness and softness. * Palm Oil, — when genuine, is the very best substance that can be used for making masses and balls. It has a pleasant smell, and it never becomes rancid. Pepper, — see Capsici Baccle. Pitch, — is used to give adhesiveness and firmness to charges and plasters. The common pitch is quite as good as the more expensive Burgundy pitch. The best plaster for sand-crack con- sists of one pound of pitch and an ounce of yellow beeswax melted together. Physic. — The cases which require physic, the composition of the most effectual and safest physic-ball, and the mode of treat- ment under physic, have been already described. Potash. — Two compounds of potash are used in veterinary MEDICINES. 463 practice The Nitrate of Potash {Nitre) is a valualle cooling medicine and a mild diuretic, and, therefore, it should enter into the composition of every fever-ball. Its dose is from two to four drachms. Grooms often dissolve it in the water. There are two objections to this : either the horse is nauseated and will not drink so much water as he ought ; or the salt taste of the water causes considerable thirst, and disinclination to solid food. Nitre, whilst dissolving, materially lowers the temperature of water, and fur- nishes a very cold and useful lotion for sprain of the back-sinews, and other local inflammations. The lotion should be used as soon as the salt is dissolved, for it quickly becomes as warm as the surrounding air. The Bitartrate of Potash (Cream of Tartar) is a mild diuretic, and, combined with iEthiop's mineral, is used as an alterative in obstinate mange or grease. The objection, however, to its use in such an animal as the horse, is the little power which it seems to exercise. Poultices. — Few horsemen are aware of the value of these simple applications in abating inflammation, relieving pain, cleans- ing wounds, and disposing them to heal. They are applications of the best kind continued much longer than a simple fomentation can be. In all inflammations of the foot they are very beneficial, by softening the horn hardened by the heat of the foot and con- tracted and pressing on the internal and highly sensible parts. The moisture and warmth are the useful qualities of the poultice ; and that poultice is the best for general purposes in which moisture and warmth are longest retained. Perspiration is most abundantly promoted in the part, the pores are opened, swellings are relieved, and discharges of a healthy nature procured from wounds. Linseed meal forms the best general poultice, because it longest retains the moisture. Bran, although frequently used for poultices, is objectionable, because it so soon becomes dry To abate con- siderable inflammation, and especially in a wounded part, Goulard may be added, or the linseed meal may be made into a paste with a decoction of poppy-heads. To promote a healthy discharge from an old or foul ulcer ; or separation of the dead from the liv- ing parts, in the process of what is called coring out ; or to hasten the ripening of a tumor that must be opened ; or to cleanse it when it is opened, — two ounces of common turpentine may be added to a pound of linseed meal : but nothing can be so absurd, or is so injurious, as the addition of turpentine to a poultice that is designed to be an emollient. The drawing poultices and stop- pings of farriers are often highly injurious, instead of abating inflammation. If the ulcer smells offensively, two ounces of powdered chai- coal may be added to the linseed meal, or the poultice may be made of water, to which a solution of the chloride of lime ha? 464 MEDICINES. been added in the proportion of half an ounce to a pound. Ai an emollient poultice for grease and cracked heels, and especially if accompanied by much unpleasant smell, there is nothing prefer- able to a poultice of mashed carrots with charcoal. For old grease some slight stimulant must be added, as a little yeast or the grounds of table beer. There are two errors, in the application of a poultice, and par- ticularly as it regards the legs. It is often put on too tight, by means of which the return of the blood from the foot is prevent- ed, and the disease is increased instead of lessened ; or it is too hot, and unnecessary pain is given, and the inflammation aggravated. Powders. — Some horses are very difficult to ball or drench, and the violent struggle that would accompany the attempt to conquer them may heighten the fever or inflammation. To such horses powders must be given in mashes. Emetic tartar and digitalis may be generally used in cases of inflammation or fever ; or emetic tartar for worms ; or calomel or even the farina of the croton-nut for physic : but powders are too often an excuse for the laziness or awkwardness of the carter or groom. The horse fre- quently refuses them, especially if his appetite has otherwise be- gun to fail ; the powder and the mash are wasted, and the animal is unnecessarily nauseated. All medicine should be given in the form of a ball or drink. Prussic Acid. — See Acidum Hydrocianicum. Quinine. — See under Bark, Peruvian. Raking. — This consists in introducing the hand into the rec- tum of the horse, and drawing out any hardened dung that may be there. It may be necessary in costiveness or fever, if a clyster pipe cannot be obtained ; but an injection will better effect the purpose, and with less inconvenience to the animal. The introduction of the hand into the rectum is, however, useful to ascertain the existence of stone in the bladder, or the degree of distension of the bladder in suppression of the urine, for the bladder will be easily felt below the intestine, and, at the same time by the heat of the intestine, the degree of inflammation in it or in the bladder may be detected. Resin. — The yellow resin is that which remains after the distillation of oil of turpentine. It is used externally to give consistence to ointments, and to render them slightly stimulant. Internally it is a useful diuretic, and is given in doses of five or six drachms made into a ball with soft soap. The common liquid turpentine is, however, preferable. Rowels. — The manner of rowelling has been already de- scribed. As exciting inflammation on the surface, and so les- sening that which had previously existed in a neighboring but deeper-seated par", they are decidedly inferior to blisters, for they MEDICINES. 466 qo not act so quickly or so extensively ; therefore they should not be used in acute inflammation of the lungs or bowels, or any vital part. When the inflammation, however, although not in- tense, has long continued, rowels will be serviceable by produ- cing an irritation and discharge that can be better kept up than by a blister. As promoting a permanent, although not very con- siderable discharge, and some inflammation, rowels in the thighs are useful in swelled legs and obstinate grease. If fluid is thrown out under the skin in any other part, the rowel acts as a per- manent drain. When the sprain of the joint or the muscles ot the shoulders is suspected, a rowel in the chest will be ser- viceable. The wound caused by a rowel will readily heal, and with little blemish, unless the useless leather of the farrier has been inserted. Sal Ammoniac, — See Chloride of Ammonia. Salt, common, see Sodii Chloridum. Secale cornutum, Ergot of Rye. — This is well known to be an excitant in assisting parturition in cattle, sheep, and dogs. It has been used with success in the mare by Mr. Richardson, of Lin- coln. It should only be applied in difficult cases, and the dose snould be two drachms, combined with some carminative, and given every hour. Sedatives, — are medicines that subdue irritation, repress spas modic action, or deaden pain. We will not inquire whether they act first as stimulants : if they do, their effect is exceedingly tran- sient, and is quickly followed by depression and diminished action. Digitalis, hellebore, opium, turpentine, are medicines of this kind. Their effect in different diseases or stages of disease, and the circumstances which indicate the use of any one of them in preference to the rest, are considered under their respective titles.* Soda. — The Carbonate of Soda is a useful antacid, and prob- ably a diuretic, but it is not much used in veterinary practice. The Chloride of Soda is not so efficacious for the removal of un- pleasant smells and all infection as the chloride of lime ; but it is exceedingly useful in changing malignant and corroding and de- structive sores into the state of simple ulcers, and, in ulcers that are not malignant, it much hastens the cure. Poll-evil and fis- tulous withers are much benefited by it, and all farcy ulcers. It is used in the proportion of one part of the solution to twenty-four of water. Sodii Chloridum, Common Salt, — is very extensively em- ployed in veterinary practice. It forms an efficacious aperient * Note by Mr. Spooner. — Sedatives. — To the list enumerated in the tcx^ may be added the extract of belladonna, or the deadly nightshade, which w (jlven in doses of two drachms. 3Q 4fi6 MEDICINES. clyster, and a solution of it has been given as an aperient drink. Sprinkled over the hay, or in a mash, it is very palatable to sick horses ; and in that languor and disinclination to food which re- main after severe illness, few things will so soon recall the appe- tite as a drink composed of six or eight ounces of salt in solution To horses in health it is more useful than is generally imagined, as promoting the digestion of the food, and, consequently, condi tion. Externally applied, there are few better lotions for in flamed eyes than a solution of half a drachm of salt in four ounce* of water. In the proportion of an ounce of salt to the same quan- tity of water, it is a good embrocation for sore shoulders and backs ; and if it does not always disperse warbles and tumors, it takes away much of the tenderness of the skin. Sod.e Sulphas, — Sulphate of Soda. — Glauber's Salt. — This medicine is seldom used in the treatment of the horse. It ap- pears to have some diuretic property. Soap, — is supposed to possess a diuretic quality, and therefore enters into the composition of some diuretic masses. See Resin. By many practitioners it is made an ingredient in the physic-ball, but uselessly or injuriously so ; for if the shoes are finely powdered and mixed with palm oil, they will dissolve readily enough in the bowels without the aid of the soap, while the action of the soap on the kidneys will impair the purgative effect of the aloes. Spanish Fly, — See Cantharides. Starch, — may be substituted with advantage for gruel in ob- stinate cases of purging, both as a clyster, and to support the strength of the animal. Stoppings, — constitute an important, but too often neglected part of stable management. If a horse is irregularly or seldom worked, his feet are deprived of moisture ; they become hard and unyielding and brittle, and disposed to corn and contraction and founder. The very dung of a neglected and filthy stable would be preferable to habitual standing on the cleanest litter without stop- ping. In wounds, and bruises, and corns, moisture is even more ne- cessary, in order to supple the horn, and relieve its pressure on the tender parts beneath. As a common stopping, nothing is better than cow-dung with a fourth part of clay well beaten into it, and confined with splents from the binding or larger twigs of the broom. In cases of wounds, a little tar may be added ; but tar, as a common stopping, is too stimulating and drying. Pads made of thick felt have lately been contrived, which are fitted to the sole, and, swelling on being wetted, are sufficiently confined b) the shoe. Having been well saturated with water, they will continue moist during the night. They are very useful in gen- tlemen's stables ; but the cow-dung and clay are suffic'riit for the farmer. MEDICINES 467 Strychnia. — This drug has frequently been employed with decided advantage in cases of paralysis in the d jg ; and lately, and with decided advantage, it has been administered to the horse. The dose is from one to three grains, given twice in the day. Sugar of Lead, — see under Lead. Sulphur, — is the basis of the most effectual applications for mange. It is an excellent alterative, combined usually with an- timony and nitre, and particularly for mange, surfeit, grease, hide- bound, or want of condition ; and it is a useful ingredient in the cough and fever ball. When given alone, it seems to have little effect, except as a laxative in doses .of six or eight ounces ; but there are much better aperients. The black sulphur consists prin- cipally of the dross after the pure sulphur has been separated. Tar, — melted with an .equal quantity of grease forms the usu- al stopping of the farrier. It is a warm, or slightly stimulant, and therefore useful, dressing for bruised or wounded feet ; but its principal virtue seems to consist in preventing the penetration of dirt and water to the wounded part. As a common stopping it has been considered objectionable. From its warm and drying properties it is the usual and proper basis for thrush ointments ; and from its adhesiveness, and slightly stimulating power, it often forms an ingredient in application for mange. Some practition- ers give it, and advantageously, with the usual cough medicine, and in doses of two or three drachms for chronic cough. The common tar is as effectual as the Barbadoes for every veterinary purpose. The oil, or spirit (rectified oil) of tar is sometimes used alone for the cure of mange, but it is not to be depended upon. The spirit of tar, mixed with double the quantity of fish-oil, is, from its peculiar penetrating property, one of the best applica- tions for hard and brittle feet. It should be well rubbed with a brush, every night, both on the crust and sole. Tinctures. — The medicinal properties of many substances are extracted by spirit of wine, but in such small quantities as to be scarcely available for internal use in veterinary practice. So much aloes or opium must be given in order to produce effect on the horse, that the quantity of spirit necessary to dissolve it would be injurious or might be fatal. As applications to wounds or in- flamed surfaces, the tinctures of aloes, digitalis, myrrh, and opium, are highly useful. Tobacco, — in the hands of the skilful veterinarian, may be ad- vantageously employed in cases of extreme costiveness, or danger- ous cholic ; but should never be permitted to be used as an ex- ternal application for the cure of mange, or an internal medicine to promote a fine coat. Tonics —are valuable medicines when judiciously employed ; 468 MEDICINES. but, like cordials, they have been fatally abused. Many a horse recovering from severe disease has been destroyed by their too early, or too free use. The veterinary surgeon occasionally ad- ministers them injuriously, in his anxiety to gratify the impa- tience of his employer. The mild vegetable tonics, chamomile, gentian, and ginger, and, perhaps, the carbonate of iron, may sometimes be given with benefit, and may hasten the perfect reco- very of the patient ; but there are few principles more truly found- ed on reason and experience, than, that disease once removed, the powers of nature are sufficient to re-establish health. Against the more powerful mineral tonics, except for the particular pur- poses that have been pointed out under the proper heads, the horse proprietor and the veterinarian should be on his guard. Turner's Cerate, — see under Digestives, and also under Zinc. Turpentine. — The common liquid turpentine has been de- scribed as one of the best diuretics, in doses of half an ounce, and made into a ball with linseed meal and powdered ginger. It is added to the calamine or any other mild ointment in order to ren- der it stimulating and digestive, and, from its adhesiveness and slight stimulating power it is an ingredient in mange ointments. The oil of turpentine is an excellent antispasmodic. For the re- moval of colic it stands unrivalled. Forming a tincture with cantharides, it is the basis of the sweating blister for old strains and swellings. As a blister it is far inferior to the common oint- ment. As a stimulant frequently applied it must be sufficiently lowered, or it may blemish. — See Resin. Verdigris, — see under Copper. Vinegar, — see Acidum Aceticum. Vitriol, — blue, — see under Copper. Vitriol, — green, — see under Ferrum. Vitriol, — white, — see under Zinc. Vitriol, — Oil of, — see Acidum Sulphuricum. Wax. — The yellow wax is used in charges and some plasters ;o render them less brittle. Zinc. — The impure carbonate of zinc, under the name oi Calamine Poivder, is used in the preparation of a valuable heal- ing ointment, called Turner's Cerate. Five parts of lard and out of resin are melted together, and when these begin to get cool two parts of the calamine, reduced to an impalpable powder, art stirred in. If the wound is not healthy, a small quantity of com mon turpentine may be added. This salve justly deserves tins ..-me which it has gained, " The Healing Ointment." The ca- rmine is sometimes sprinkled with advantage on cracked heels and superficial sores. The sulphate of zinc, White Vitriol, in the proportion of three MEDICINES 469 grains to an ounce of water, is an excellent application in opthal- mia, when the inflammatory stage is passing over ; and quittor is most successfully treated by a saturated solution of white vitriol being injected into the sinuses. A solution of white vitriol of less strength forms a wash for grease that is occasionally useful, when the alum or blue vitriol does not appear to succeed. Zingiberis Radix. — Ginger Root. — This is an admirable sti- mulant and carminative. It is useful in loss of appetite and fla- tulent colic, while it rouses the intestinal canal to its propei action. The cordial mass resorted to by the best surgeons con- sists of equal parts of ginger and gentian beaten into a mass with treacle. INDEX. Acetabulum, description of the, 272. Acini, description of, 213. Acetic acid, its properties, 436. Adeps, properties of, 437. iEthiop's mineral, an alterative, 411. Age, natural, of the horse, 130 ; of the horse as indicated by the teeth, 122 ; other indications of, 129. Air, a supply of pure, necessary for the health of the horse, 385. Alcohol, its medicinal properties, 437. Aloes, Barbadoes, far preferable to Cape, 437 ; description of the differ- ent kinds of, 438 ; principal adultera- tions of, 439 ; tincture of, its composi- tion and use, ib. Alteratives, the best, 439 ; nature and effect of, 440. Alum, the use of, in restraining purging, 440 ; solution of, a good wash for grease, ib ; burnt, a stimulant and caus- tic for wounds, ib. Ammonia, given in flatulent colic, 440 ; vapor of, plentifully extricated from dung and urine, most injurious to the eyes and lungs, ib. Anchylosis of bones, what, 149. Animals, zoological divisions of, 44. Anise-seed, its properties, 441. Anodyne, opium the only one to be de- pended on, 441. Antea-spinatus muscle, description of the, 251. Antimonial powder, a good febrifuge, 441. Antimony, black sulphuretof, method of detecting its adulterations, 441 ; used as an alterative, ib. ; tartarized, used as a nauseant, diaphoretic and worm medicine, ib. Antispasmodics, nature of, 442. Apoplexy, nature and treatment of, 70. Aqueous fluid, an, why placed in the labyrinth of the ear, 58 ; humor of the eye, description of the, 64. Arabian Horses, different varieties of, 25, 26 ; character of, 26, 27 ; fondness of the Arabs for, 27 ; prices of, 28 ; unequal to the English race-horse, 29. Arabian, 25 ; Darley, 19 ; Godolphin, 21. Arcned form of the skull, advantage o£ 55. Arm, description of the, 252 ; action of explained on the principle of the lev- er, 249, 252 ; extensor muscles of the. 252, 253 ; flexor muscles of the, 253 , full and swelling, advantage of, ib. ; should be muscular and long, 252 ; fracture of the, 338. Arsenic, medical use of, 442. Arteries, description of the, 140; of the arm, 252 : of the face, 101 ; neck, 140 shoulder, 246. Ascaris, account of the, 227. Astragalus, account of the, 278. Atlas, anatomy of the, 136. Auscultation, the importance of, 171. Back, general description of the, 149: proper form of the, ib. ; long and short, comparative advantages of, ib. ; anat- omy of the, ib. ; muscles of the, 151. Backing, of the colt, 371 ; a bad habit of the horse, usual origin of it, ib. Back-sinews, sprain of the, 258 ; thicken- ing of the. constituting unsoundness 429. Balls, the manner of giving, 442 ; the manner of making, ib. Barbary horse, description of, 21. Barbs or paps, treatment of, 133. Bark, Peruvian, the properties of it, 443. Barley, considered as food for the horse, 396. Barnacles, use of the, as a mode of re- straint, 360. Bar-shoe, description and use of, 352. Bars, description and office of the, 296 ; proper paring of, for shoeing, 297 folly of cutting them away, ib. ; re- moval of, a cause of contraction, ib. ; corns, ib. Basilicon ointment, 443. Bay horses, description of, 413. Beans, good for hardly- worked horses, and that have a tendency to purge, 397, 402; should always be crushed 398. Bearing-rein, the use and abuse of, 113. Beet, the nutritive matter in, 401. Belladonna, extract of, 443. 472 INDEX. Biceps femoris, account of the, 274. Bile, account of the, 213. Bishopingthe teeth, description of, 128. Biting, a bad habit, and how usually ac- quired, 372. Bit, the, often too sharp, 118; sometimes got into the mouth, 372. Biting of the colt, 242. Black horses, description and character of, 414. Blaze, 19. Bladder, description of the, 234; inflam- mation of, symptoms and treatment, ib. ; neck of, ib. ; stone in the, 235. Bleeding, best place for general, 16*6, 361; directions for, 140, 166; from veins rather than arteries, 140; finger should be on the pulse during, 360 ; importance of, in inflammation, ib. ; at the toe described, 168; comparison between the fleam and lancet, 166, 167. Blindness, usual method of discovering, 64 ; discovered by the pupil not dila- ting or contracting, ib. ; of one eye, ib. Blistering all round at once, barbarity and danger of, 363, 445 ; after firing, absurdity and cruelty of, 362. Blisters, best composition of, 362 ; the different kinds and uses of, ib. ; best mode of applying, ib. ; caution with regard to their application, ib. ; the principle of their action, 443 ; use of, in inflammation, 362 ; comparison be- tween them and rowels and setons, 366, 367. Blood, change in after bleeding, 167 ; changes in during respiration, 156 ; coagulation of, 189 ; horses, very sub- ject to contraction, 309 ; spavin, na- ture and treatment of, 164. Bloody urine, 233. Bog spavin, nature and treatment of, 164, 281, 282, 287. Bole-Armenian, medical use of, 444. Bones, strength does not depend on the size of, 28. Bone-spavin, nature and treatment of, £83. Bots in the stomach, natural history of, 208, 209 ; not usually injurious, 209. Bowels, inflammation of the, 220. Brain, description of the, 55; its cortical and cineritious composition, 56; the office of each, ib. ; compression of the, 56, 69 ; pressure on the, 69 ; inflamma- tion of the, 74. Bran, as food for the horse, 397. Breaking in should commence in the second winter, 240 ; description of its various stages, 240, 241 ; necessity of gentleness and patience in, ib. ; of the farmer's horse, ib. ; of the hunter or hackney, ib. Breast, muscles of the, 152. Breathing, the mechanism of, 154. Breeding, qualities of the mare of a* much importance as those of the horse, 237 ; the peculiarity of form and con- stitution inherited, ib. ; in-and-in, ob- servations on, 26, 238. Breeds, good effects of crossing them. 29 ; bad effects of ditto, ib. Broken down, what. 259. Broken knees, treatment of, 254 ; method of judging of the danger of. ib. ; when healed, not unsoundness, but the form and action of the horse should be care- fully examined, 421. Broken-wind, nature and treatment of, 196; influenced much, and often caused by the manner of feeding, 198 ; how distinguished from thick- wind, ib. Bronchial tubes, description of the, 1 44 Bronchitis, nature and treatment of, 184 Bronchocele, account of, 174. Bronchotomy, the operation of, 165. Brood mare, description of the, 237 should not be too old, ib. ; treatment of, after covering, 238 ; after foaling, 239. . Brown horses, description of, 387. Buccinator muscle, description of the, 103. CjEcum, description of the, 211. Calamine powder, account of, 417. Calculi in the intestines, 226. Calkins, advantages and disadvantages of, 346 ; should be placed on both heels, ib. Camphor, the medical use of, 444. Canadian horse, character of, 29 ; cross with American horse, 29. Canker of the foot, nature and treatment of, 330. Cannon, or shank-bone, description of the 256. Cantharides, from the best blister, 445 t given for the cure of glanders, ib. Capillary vessels, the, 159. Capivi, balsam of, 448. Capped hock, nature and treatment of, 270, 285, 286; although not always unsoundness there should be a special warranty against it, 421. Capsicum Berries, their stimulating ef- fect, 445. Carbonate of blood got rid of in respira tion. Carbonate of iron, a mild tonic, 454. Carraways, a good aromatic, 445. Carrots, excellent effects of in disease, 401. Cartilages of the foot, description and action of the, 299 ; ossification of the 331. 427 ; a cause of unsoundness, 4iI7 Caruncula laerymalis, the, 93. Cascarilla Bark, a tonic and aromatic. 443 TNDEX. 473 Castor oil, not a purgative for the horse, 445. Castration, method of, 245 ; proper pe- riod for, 244, 245 ; the operation by torsion, 245. Cataract in the eye, nature of, 65 ; can- not be operated on in the horse, ib. ; method of examination for, ib. : the occasional appearance and disappear- ance o f , 96. Catarrh, description and treatment of, 169. 170 ; distinguished from glanders, 170; distinguished from inflammation of the lungs, 169; epidemic, 175. Catarrhal fever, nature and treatment of, 170. Catachu, a good astringent, method' of giving, and adulterations of, 446. Catheter, description of one, 235, 236. Caustic, an account of the best, 446. Cawl, description of the, 214. Cerebellum, description of the, 56. Cerebrum, description of the, 56. Chalk, its medicinal use in the horse, 446. Chf.ff, attention should be paid to the goodness of the ingredients, 393 ; best composition of, ib. ; when given to the hard- worked horse, much time is saved for repose, 394; quantity necessary for different kinds of horses, 393. Chamomile, a mild tonic, 446. Channel of the jaws, what, 121. Charcoal, useful in a poultice, and as an antiseptic, 447. Charges, composition and use of, 447. Chest, anatomy of the. 145; proper form of the, 146; cut of the, 145; the im- portance of depth of, 146 ; narrow and rounded, comparison between, ib. ; the broad chest, 147 ; founder, descrip- tion of, 152. Chestnut horses, varieties of, 412. Chinked in the chine, what, 149. Childers, Flying, cut of, 18 ; Bartletts, 19 ; their get, ib. Chloride of lime, an excellent disinfec- tant, 412 ; of soda, useful in unhealthy ulcers. 415. Chorea, 83. Choroid coat of the eye, description and use of the, 63. Chyle, the formation of, 211. Ciliary processes of the eye, description of the, 64. Cineritous matter of the brain, nature and function of the, 56 Cleveland Bay, character of, 39 ; im- ported into United States, ib. Clicking, cause and remedy of, 380. Clipping, recommendation of, 407. Clips, when necessary, 346. Clover, considered as an article of food, 400. Clysters, the composition and great use- fulness of, 447 ; directions as to the administration of, ib. Coat, fine, persons much too solicitoui to procure it, 390. Cocktail horse, mode of nicking, 368. Coffin-bone, description of the, 299 ; the lamella?, or leaves of, ib. ; fracture of, 342. Coffin-joint, sprain of, 368. Cold, common, description and treat ment of, 169. Colic, flatulent, account of, 218 ; spasmod ic, description and treatment of, 215. Colon, description of the, 211, 212. Color, remarks on, 411. Colt, early treatment of the, 240. Complexus major, description of the, 139 ; minor, description of the, ib. Concave-seated shoe, the, described and recommended, 348. Conjunctiva, description of the. 61 ; ap- pearance of, how far a test of inflam- mation, ib. Consternation, cut of ', frontispiece ; ped- igree of, 22; character of, 23, 24. Consumption, account of, 199. Contraction of the foot, nature of, 307, 391 ; the peculiarity of the lameness produced by, 309 ; how far connected with thenaviculardisea.se, 312 ; is not the necessary consequence of shoeing 307 ; produced by neglect of paring 308 ; wearing the shoes too long, ib. , want of natural moisture, 309 ; the re moval of the bars, ib. ; not so much produced by litter as imagined, 309 . the cause rather than the consequence of thrush, 307 ; best mode of treating 310, 311 ; rarely permanently cured 311 ; does not necessarily imply un- soundness, 421 ; although not neces sarily unsoundness, should have a special warranty against it, 422 ; blood horses very subject to, 309. Convexity of the eye, the proper, not sufficiently attended to, 62. Copaiba, account of the resin, 448. Copper, the combination of, used in vet erinary practice, 448. Corded veins, what, 114. Cordials, the use and abuse of, in the horse, 449. Cornea, description of the, 62; mode of examining the, ib. ; its prominence or flatness, ib. ; should be perfectly trans parent, ib. Corns, the nature and treatment of, 326 ; produced by cutting away the bars, ib. ; not paring out the foot be tween the crust and bars, ib. ; pres- sure, ib. ; very difficult to cure, £29 • constitute unsoundness, 422. Coronary ligament, description of the 296 ; the crust principally produced from, ib. ; ring, descript'on of the, Ut. 4 f 4 INDEX. Coronet, description of the, 296. Corrosive sublimate, a good tonic for farcy, 411. Cortical substance of the brain, descrip- tion and fraction of, 56. Cough, the nature and treatment of, 190, 191 ; constitutes unsoundness, 421 ; the occasional difficulty with re- gard to this, 430. Cow hocks, description of, 286. Cradle, a safe restraint upon the horse when blistered, 363. Cramp, the nature and treatment of, 82. Cream c jlored horses, account of, 412 ; peculiarity in their eyes, 63. Cream of tartar, a mild diuretic, 414. Creasote, its use in veterinary practice, 450. Crib-biting, description of, 378 ; causes and cure, ib. ; injurious to the horse, 378 ; constitutes unsoundness, 378, 379. Cricoid cartilage of the windpipe, the, 143. Cropping of the ear, absurdity of, 59. Crossing the breeds, good effect of, 29 ; bad effects of ditto, ib. Croton, the farina of, used in physic, 450. Crust of the foot, description of the, 293 ; composition of the, 294; consisting within of numerous horny plates, ib. ; proper degree of it, slanting, 295 ; proper thickness of the, ib. ; brittleness of, remedy for, 297 ; the cause of sand- crack, 317. Crystalline lens, description of the, 65. Cuboid bones, description of the, 279. Cuneiform bones, description of the, 55, 279. Curbs, nature and treatment of, 280; constitute unsoundness, 424. Cuticle, description of the, 405. Cutis, or true skin, account of the, 405. Cutting, cause and cure of, 266, 380 ; constitutes unsoundness, 424 ; away the foot, unfounded prejudice against, 308. Dandriff, the nature of, 405. Darley Arabian, 19. Deafness, 98. Depressor labii inferioris muscle, des- cription of the, 103. Diabetes, the nature and treatment of, 233. Diaphoretics, their nature and effects, 451. Diaphragm, description of the, 153 ; rupture of, 207 ; its connection with respiration, 154. Digestion, the process of it described, 451. Digestives, their nature and use, 45i. Digitalis, highly recommended in colds and all inflammatory complaints, 451. Dilator magnus lateralis muscle, des cription of the. 274 ; naris lateralis muscle, description of, ib. Distance, 42. Diuretic medicines, the use and abuse o£ 452. Docking, method of performing, 367. Dogs, danger of encouraging them about the stable, 76. Dray horse, character of, 40. Drinks, how to admijister, 453 ; com- parison between them and balls, ib. Dropsy of the chest, 203; of the heart, 157. Drum of the ear, description and use of the. 58, 59. Dun horse, account of the, 412. Duodenum, description of the, 211, diseases of the, ib. Dura mater, description of the, 55. Ear, description of the external parts, 58 ; internal parts, ib. ; bones of the, description and use of, 58, 59 ; laby- rinth of the, 58 ; indicative of the tern per, ib. ; clipping and singeing, cruelty of, 59 ; treatment of wounds or bruises of, 98 ; cruel operations on the, ib. Eclipse, pedigree of, 20 ; form of, 20 , history and performances of, 20, 21 thickwinded, 20. Elasticity of the ligament of the neck, 54. Elbow, the proper form and inclination of, 253 ; capped, 252 ; fracture of, 338 ; punctured, 253. Emetic tartar, used as a nauseant, dia phoretic, and worm medicine, 441. Enamel of the teeth, account of the, 122 English Eclipse, 20. Ensiform cartilage, the, 146. Entanglement of the intestines, descrip tion of, 226. Enteritis, account of, 220. Epidemic catarrh, nature and treatmeiv of, 175 ; malignant, nature and treat- ment of, 181. Epiglottis, description of the, 142. Epilepsy, nature and treatment of, 84. Epsom salts, used as a purgative, 460 Ergot of rye, the action of, 405. Ethmoid bone, description of the, 55. Ewe-neck, unsightliness and inconveni ence of, 139. Exchanges of horses stand on the sam* ground as sales, 433. Exercise, directions for, 391 ; the neces sity of regular, 392 ; want of, produ- cing grease, 290 ; more injury done by the want of it than by the hardest work.. 391. Expansion shoe, description and use of the 35.7 INDEX. 475 Extensor pedis muscle, description of the, 267. - Sye, description of the, 89 ; cut of the, *62 ; fracture of the orbit of the, 68 j healthy appearance of the, 64 ; dis- eases of the. 91 s inflammation of, common, 93 ; ditto, specific, 94 ; ditto, causes, 95; ditto, medical treatment of, 94, 95 ; ditto, untractable nature of, 95, 96 ; ditto, consequences of, 95 ; ditto, marks of recent, 425 ; ditto, con- stitutes unsoundness, ib. ; ditto, here- ditary, 95 ; method and importance of examining it, 62, 64 ; indicative of the temper, 59 ; the pit above, indicative of the age, 48 ; muscles of the. 66. Eyebrows, substitute for, 60, Eyelashes, description of, 60 ; folly of singeing them, ib. Eyelid, description of, 60. Eyelids, diseases of the, 91. Exostosis on the orbit of the eye, 68. Face, description of the, 99 ; cut of the muscles, nerves, and blood-vessels of, 10-2. Falling in of the foot, what, 306. False quarter, nature and treatment of, 320, 321. Farcy, a disease of the absorbents of the skin, 114, 115 : connected with glan- i ders, 114 ; both general and infectious. I 116; symptoms of, 115 ; treatment of, 116; buds, what, 115, the effea of Ciintharides in, 117 ; diniodide of cop- per, ib. Feeding, high, connected with grease, 291 ; regular periods of, necessity of attending to, 402; manner of, has much influence on broken wind, 197. Feet, the general management of, 403 ; attention to, and stopping at night, re- commended, ib Felt soles, description and use of, 353. Femur, fracture of the, 339. Fetlock, description of the, 267. Fever, idiopathic or pure, 163; symp- toms of, ib. ; symptomatic, 164. Fibula, description of the, 276. Firing, the principle on which resorted to, 364 ; mode of applying. 365 ; should not penetrate the skin, ib. ; absurdity and cruelty of blistering after, ib. ; horse should not be used for some months after, ib. Fistula laerymalis, 60 ; in the poll, 136. Fits, symptoms, causes, and treatment of, 84. Fleam and lancet, comparison between them, 166. Flexor of the arm, description of the, 253 ; metatarsi muscle, description of the, 276: pedis perforatus, the perfora- ted muscle, description of the, 253, 276 ; pedis perforans, the perforating muscle, description of the, 253, 258 276. Flying Childers, the ne plus ultra of success reached in his days, 29. Foal, early treatment of, 239 ; early handling of, important, 240; impor- tance of liberal feeding of, ib. ; time for weaning, ib. Fomentations, theory and use of, 454. Food of the horse, observations on, 392 ; a list of the usual articles of, 395, et seq. should be apportioned to the work, 393. Foot, description of the, 293 ; diseases of the, 302 ; canker, 330 ; corns, 326 , contraction, 307 ; false quarter. 320 ; founder, acute, 302 ; chronic laminitis, 305 ; inflammation, 304 ; navicular joint disease, 311; overreach, 319; prick, 324 ; pumiced, 305 ; quittor, 321 ; sandcrack, 317 ; thrush. 329 ; tread, 319 ; weakness, 331 ; wounds, 324. Forceps, arterial, the use of, 168. Forehead, the different form of, in the ox aud horse, 56. Fore-le^s, description of, 246 ; diseases of them, 254 ; proper position of them, 270. Forge-water occasionally used, 454. Form, on the improvement of. 25. Founder, acute, symptoms, causes, and treatment of, 302 ; chronic, nature and treatment of, 305. Foxglove, strongly recommended in colds, and all fevers, 451. Fracture of the skull, treatment of, 68 ; general observations on fractures, 333 ; of the skull, 335 ; orbit of the eye, ib. , nasal bones, ib. ; superior maxillary or upper jaw-bone, ib. ; inferior ditto, 336 ; spine, ib. ; ribs, ib. ; pelvis, 337 ; tail, ib. ; limbs, ib. ; shoulder, 338 ; arm ib. ; elbow, ib. ; femur, 339 ; patella, ib. ; tibia, ib. ; hock, ib. ; leg, 340 ; sessamoid bones, ib. ; pastern, ib. ; lower pastern, 341 ; coffin-bone, 342 ; navicular bone, ib. Frog, horny, description of the, 298 , sensible, description of the, 298, 300 ; ditto, action and use of the, 298 ; pressure, question of the, 299 ; proper paring of. for shoeing, ib. ; diseases of the, ib. Frontal bones, description of the, 47 ; sinuses, description of the, 48 ; ditto, perforated to detect glanders, ib. Furze, considered as an article of food, 401. Gall, account of the, 213 ; bladder, the horse has none, ib. Gall-stones. 229. Gentian, the beat tonic for the horse, 455 478 INDEX. Gibbing, a bad habit, cause of, and means of lessening, 370. Gigs, formation of, 133. Ginger, aa excellent aromatic and tonic, 455, 468. Glanders, nature of, 107, 109 ; symp- toms, 51, 107, 112; slow progress of, 107, 109; appearance of the nose in, 51, 107, 110 ; detected by injecting the frontal sinuses, 48 ; how distin- guished from catarrh, 109 ; ditto from strangles, ib. ; connected with farcy, 108, 110; treatment of, 113; causes, 111 ; both generated and contagious, 111, 112 429; oftenest produced by improper stable management, 112 ; mode of communication, ib. ; preven- tion of, 113 ; account of its speedy ap- pearance, 111, 112. Glands, enlarged, it depends on many circumstances whether they constitute unsoundness, 424. Glass-eye, nature and treatment of, 97. Glauber's salt, its effect, 466. Glutasi muscles, description of the, 274. Goulard's extract, the use of it much overvalued, 460. Gracilis muscle, description of the, 273. Grains, occasionally used for horses of slow work, 396. Grapes on the heels, treatment of, 291. Grasses, neglect of the farmer as to the proper mixture of, 399. Gray horses, account of the different shades of, 411, 412. Grease, nature and treatment of, 288 ; cause of, 289 ; farmer's horse not so subject to it as others, 290 ; generally a mere local complaint, 289. Grinders, construction of the, 122. Grinding, of the food, accomplished by the mechanism of the joint of the low- er jaw, 120 ; swallowing without, 377. Grogginess, account of, 265. Grooming, as important as exercise to the horse, 399 ; opens the pores of the skin, and gives a fine coat, 390 ; di- rections for, ib. Grunter, the, description of, 198 ; is un- sound, 423. Gullet, description of the, 206; foreign bodies in, 208. Gum-arabic, for what purposes used, 435. Gutta serena, nature and treatment of, 97. Habits, vicious or dangerous, 370. Hematuria, 233. Hair, account of the, 405; question of cutting it from the heels, 29 1. Haunch, description of the, 271 ; wide, advantage of, 272 ; injuries of the, ib. ; joint, singular strength of it, 271 ; also of the thigh bones, advantage of t)i* oblique direction of, ib. Haw, curious mechanism of the, 60 ,• diseases of, 92 ; absurdity and cruel- ty of destroying it, 61. Hay, considered as food, 394 ; mow- burnt, injurious, 399 ; old preferable to new, 398. Head, anatomy of the, 47 ; the numerous bones composing it the reason of this, 47, 48 ; section of the, 49 ; beautiful provision for its support, 53. Healing ointment, account of the, 468. Hearing of the horse, the very acute, 58. Heart, description of the, 155 ; its action described, 156 ; inflammation of the, 157; dropsy of the, ib. Heels, question of cutting the hair from them, 291 ; low, disadvantage of, 332 , proper paring of, for shoeing, 343 ; washing of the, producing grease, 291. Hellebore, white, used in inflammation of the lungs and fevers, 455 ; black, its use, ib. Hemlock, given in inflammation of the chest, 456. Hepatic duct, the, 213. Hernia, the nature and treatment of, 227. Hide-bound, the nature and treatment of, 383. High-blower, or roarer, a description of the 193 ; is unsound, 423. Hind logs, description of the, 271. Hip-joint, the great strength of the, 272 Hips, ragged, what, 272. Hobbles, description of the best, 359. Hock, capped, 285, 286 ; description of the, 278; enlargement of the, nature of and how affecting soundness, 279, 425 ; inflammation of the small bones of, a frequent cause of lameness, 279 ; the principal seat of lameness behind, ib. ; lameness of it, without apparenl cause, 285 ; fracture of, 339. Hogs' lard, properties of, 437. Hoof, cut of the, 293 ; description of the. 294. Horn of the crust, secreted principally by the coronary ligament, 297 ; once separated from the sensible part with- in, will never again unite with it, ib. Horse, the race horse, 17 ; Arabian, 25 ; the Canadian, 29 ; the Cleveland bay, 38 ; the Norman, 29 ; the Morgan, 35 ; the dray, 39 ; the trotter, 40 ; superi- ority of American over English, 41, 42. Humerus, description of the, 252. Hydrocyanic acid, its occasional good service, 436. Hydrothorax, symptoms and treatment of, 202. INDEX. 477 Ileum, description of the, 211. lull animation, nature of, 160 ; treatment of, 160, 161 ; hot or cold applications to, guide in the choice of, ib. ; import- ance of bleeding in, 160, 361 ; when proper to physic in, 161 ; of the bow- els, 220 ; ditto, distinction between it and colic, ib. ; brain, 74 ; eye, 93 ; foot, 302; kidneys, 231 ; larynx, 171; lungs, 186; stomach, 207; trachea, 172; veins, 141. Influenza, nature and treatment of, 175. Infusions, manner of making them, 457. Insanity, 90. Intercostal muscles, description of the, 146. Intestines, description of the, 210. Introsusception of the intestines, treat- ment of, 226. Invertebrated animals, what, 44. Iodine, usefulness of, in reducing en- larged glands, 458. Iris, description of the, 64. Iron, the carbonate of, a mild and useful ionic, 454 ; sulphate of, a stronger tonic, ib. ; ditto, recommended for the cure of glanders, ib. Itchiness of the skin should always be regarded with suspicion, 458. James's powder, 442. Jaundice, symptoms and treatment of, 229, 230. Jaw, the lower, admirable mechanism of. 120 ; upper, description of, 121. Jejunum, description of the, 211. Jointed shoe, the description and use of, 353. lugular vein, bleeding from the, 167. Juniper, oil of, use of, 458. Kicking, a bad and inveterate habit. 373. Kidneys, description of the, 230 ,- in- flammation of, symptoms and treat- ment of, 231. Knee, an anatomical description of the, 253 ; tied in below, 258 ; broken, treat- ment of, 254, 421. Knowledge of the horse.how acquired, 46. Labykinth of the ear, description and use of the, 58. Lachrymal duct, description of the, 60; gland, description and use of the, ib. Lamed*, or laminae, horny, account of the, 297 ; fleshy, account of the, ib. ; weight of the horse, supported by the, ib. Lameness, shouider, method of ascer- taining, 246 ; from whatever cause, unsoundness, 426. Lampas, nature and treatment of, 119 ; cruelty of burning the bars for, 120. Laminae of the foot. See Lamellae. Lancet and fleam, comparison between them, 166. Laryngitis, chronic and acute, 172. Larynx, description of the, 143 ; inflam- mation of the, 171. Laudanum, the use of in veterinary practice, 461, 462. Lead, the compounds of, used in veter- inary practice, 459; extract of, its power much over-valued, ib. ; sugar of, use of, ib. ; white, use of, ib. Leather, soles, description and use of, 353. Leg, cut of the, 87 ; description of the, 256; fracture of the, 342. Legs, fore, the situation of, 246; hind, anatomical description of the, 271 ; swelled, 287. Levator humeri muscle, description of the, 250. Lever, muscular action explained on the principle of it, 248. Ligament of the neck, description and elasticity of the, 53, 54. Light, the degree of, in the stable, 389. Limbs, fracture of the, 337. Lime, the chloride of, exceedingly use- ful for bad smelling wounds, &c, 459 ; the chloride of, valuable in cleansing stables from infection, ib. Liniments, the composition and use of, 459. Linseed, an infusion of, used in catarrh, 398, 460 ; meal forms the best poultice, 460, 463. Lips, anatomy and uses of the, 117 lips the hands of the horse, ib. Litter, the, cannot be too frequently re- moved, 387 ; proper substances for 388 ; contraction not so much pro- duced by it as some imagine, 309. Liver, the anatomy and use of it, 213 ; diseases of the, 228. Locked jaw, symptoms, cause, and treatment of, 79. Loins, description of the, 150. Lucern, considered as an article of food. 400. Lumbricus teres, or long white worm, the, 227. Lunar caustic, a very excellent applica- tion, 442. Lungs, description of the, 155; symp- toms of inflammation of the, 186 , causes of, ib. ; how distinguished from catarrh and distemper, 186, 187 ; treatment of. 188, 189 ; importance of early bleeding in, 190 ; blisters prefer- able to rowels or setons in, 191. Madness, the symptoms and treatment of, 76. Magnesia, the sulphate of, 460. Mallenders, the situation of, 270 ; the nature and treatment of, 286. 478 INDEX. Mammalia, the, an important class of animals, 45. Manchester, account of the course at, 42. Mane, description and use of the, 139. Mange, description and treatment of, 416; causes of, 416, 417; ointment, recipes for, 417 ; highly infectious, 418 ; method of purifying the stable after, ib. Manger-feeding, the advantage of, 393. Mare, put to the horse too early, 237, 238 ; deterioration in, 238 ; her proper form, ib. : breeding in-and-in, ib. ; time of being at heat, 239 ; time of going with foal, ib. ; best time for covering, ib. ; management of, when with foal, ib. ; management of, after foaling, ib. Mark of the teeth, what, 122. Mashes, importance of their use, 460 ; best method of making them, ib. Masseter muscle, description of the, 103. Maxillary bones, anatomy of the, 118; fractures of, 335, 336. Medicines, a list of the most useful, 435 Medullary substance of the brain, its nature and function, 50, 56. Megrims, cause, 69 ; symptoms, 70 ; treatment, ib. ; apt to return, ib. Melt, description of the, 213. Mercurial ointment, the use of, in veteri- nary practice, 456. Mercury, various preparations of, 456. Mesentery, description of the, 211. Metacarpals, description of the, 253. Midriff, description of the, 153. Moisture, want of, a cause of contraction, 309. Moon-blindness, the nature of, 94. Morgan horse, cut of, 35 ; origin of, 36, 37 ; character of, 37, 38. Moulting, the process of, 410; the horse usually languid at the time of, ib. ; no stimulant or spices should be given, ib. ; mode of treatment under, ib. Mounting the colt, 243. Mouth of the horse, description of the bones of, 118 ; should be always felt lightly in riding, ib. ; importance of its sensibility, ib. Mowburnt hay injurious, 399. Muriatic acid, its properties, 436. Muscles of the back, description of the, 150 ; breast, ditto, 150 ; eye, ditto, 67 ; face, ditto, 102; neck, ditto, 138; ribs, ditto, 146 ; shoulder-blade, 250 ; lower bone of the shoulder, ib. ; the advan- tageous direction of, more important than their bulk, 247—249. Muscular action, the principle of, 252. Mustard, the use of, 461. Myrrh, the use of, for canker and wounds, 461. Nasalis labii superioris muscle, descrip. tion of the, 103. Nasal bones, fracture of, 335 ; deM:iip tion of, 49. gleet, 104. polypus, 104. Navicular bone, description of the, 300 ; the action and use of it, 301. Navicular joint, disease, nature and treatment of the, 311 ; how far con- nected with contraction, 312 ; the euro very uncertain, ib. ; fracture of, 342. Neck, anatomy and muscles of the. 138, 139 ; description of the arteries of the, 140 ; description of the veins of the, ib. ; bones of the, 138; proper confor- mation of the, ib. ; comparison be- tween long and short, 139 ; loose, what, ib. Nerves, the construction and theory of, 46 ; spinal, the compound nature of, 57 ; of the face, 102. Neurotomy, or nerve operation, object and effect of it, 86 ; manner of per- forming it, ib. ; cases in which it should or should not be performed 87, 88 ; a vestige of the performance of it, constitutes unsoundness, 427. Nicking, the method of performing, 368; useless cruelty often resorted to, 369. Nitre, a valuable cooling medicine, and mild diuretic, 463. Nitric acid, for what employed, 436. Nitrous aether, spirit of, a mild stimulant and diuretic, 461. Norman horse, cut of, 30 ; imported into United States, ib. ; character of, 31. Nose, description of the bones of the, 99, 100 ; spontaneous bleeding from. ib. ; the importance of its lining mem brane, 101, 169; the nose of the horse slit to increase his wind, 102. Nosebag, importance of the, 401. Nostrils, description of the, 99 ; peculiar inflammation of the membrane of the, 50 ; the membrane of, important in ascertaining disease, 103, 169 ; im- portance of an expanded one, 101 , slit by some nations to increase the wind of the horse, 102. Nutriment, contained in the different ar- ticles of food, 392, et seq. Oats, the usual food of the horse, 395; should be old, heavy, dry, and sweet ib. ; kiln-dried, injurious to the horse ib. ; proper quantity of, for a horse, ib Oatmeal, excellent for gruel, and some times used as a poultice, 396. Occipital bone, description of the, 51. (Esophagus, description of the. 206. Olfactory nerves, the importance :>' them, 102. Olive oil, an emollient, 461. Omentum, description of the, 214. INDEX. 479 Opacity of the eye, the nature and treatment of, 94. Operations, description of the most im- portant, 359. Ophthalmia, 94. Opium, its great value in veterinary practice, 461 ; adulterations of it, 462. Orbicularis muscle of the eye, descrip- tion of it, 67. Orbit of the eye, fracture of, 68. Os femoris, account of, 275. Ossification of the cartilages : cause and treatment of, 332. Over-reach, the nature and treatment of, 319, 380 ; often producing sandcrack or quittor. 380. Ozena, account ef, 105. Pachydermata, an order of animals, 44. Pack-wax, or ligamentum colli, descrip- tion of the, 53, 136. Palate, description of the, 143. Palm-oil, the best substance for making up balls, 462. Palsy, the causes and treatment of, 84. Pancreas, description of the, 230. Paps or barbs, 133. Parietal bones, description of the, 51. Paring out of the foot for shoeing, direc- tions for, 343 ; neglect of, a cause of contraction, 309. Parotid gland, description of the, and its diseases, 103, 133. Pastern, upper, fracture of, 340 ; lower, fracture of, 341 ; description of the, 263, 267 ; bones of the, ib. ; cut of the, ib. ; proper obliquity of the, 264. Patella or stifle bone, description of the, 275 ; fracture of, 339. Pawing, remedy for, 381. Payment of the smallest sum completes the purchase jof a horse, 431. Peas, sometimes' used as food, but should be crushed, 398. Pectineus muscle, the, 273. Pectorales muscles, description of the, 251. Pedigrees of American trotters, 40. Pelvis, fracture of the, 337. Pericardium, description of the, 155. Perspiration, insensible, no medicines will certainly increase it, 410. Pharynx, anatomy of the, 135. Phrenitis, 74. Phthisis pulmonalis, description of, 199. Physic balls, method of compounding the best, 442; should never be given in inflammation of the Kings, 154. Physicking, rules for, 224. Pia mater, description of the, 56. Pied horse, account of the, 412. Pigmeutum nigrum, account of the, 63. Piper, description of the. 198. Pit of the eye, the, indicative of the ase,4g I Pitch, its use for charges and plastera 462. Pleura, description of the, 154. Pleurisy, the nature and treatment of, 154, 200. Pneumonia, the nature and treatment of, 186. Poll-evil, the cause and treatment of, 13C importance of the free escape of the matter, 137. Postea spinatus muscle, description of the, 251. Potash, the compound of, 462. Potatoes, considered as an article of food, 401. Poultices, their various compositions, manner of acting, and great use, 463. Powders, comparison between them and balls, 464. Pressure on the brain, effect of, 69. Prick, in the loot, treatment of, 324 ; in- jurious method of removing the horn in searching for, 326. Pulse, the natural standard of the, 158 ; varieties of the, ib. ; importance of at- tention to the, ib. ; the most conveni- ent place to feel it, ib. ; the finger on the pulse during the bleeding, 159. Pumiced feet, description and treatment of, 305 ; do not admit of cure, 306 ; constitute unsoundness, 427. Pupil of the eye, description of the, 64, the mode of discovering blindness in it, ib. Purchase, to complete the, there must be a memorandum, or payment of some sum, however small, 431. Purging, violent, treatment of, 222, 223. Quarters of the horse, description of the, 272 ; importance of their muscu- larity and depth, ib. ; foot, description of, 293 ; the inner, crust thinner and weaker at, 295 ; folly of lowering the crust, ib. Ouidding the food, cause of, 381 ; un- soundness while it lasts, 427. Q,uinine, the sulphate of, 443. duittor, the nature and treatment of, 321 ; the treatment often long and dif- ficult, exercising the patience both of the practitioner aud owner, 322, 323 ; is unsoundness, 428. Rabies, symptoms of, 76. Race-horse, English, pedigree of, 17; excels the Arabian, 18 ; form of, 19 , examples of, 19, 20. 21. Racers may beget trotters, 40. Racks, no openings should be allowed above them, 386. Radius, description of the, 252. Ragged-hipped, what. 272 ; no impedi ment to action, ib. 480 INDEX. Raking, the operation of, 465. Rearing, a dangerous and inveterate habit, 375. Recruit, beat the best Arabian in India. 18. Recti muscles, of the neck, description of, 138; of the thigh, 273. Rectum, description of the, 211, 212. Reins, description of the proper, 118. esin, its use in veterinary practice, 464. Respiratory nerves, the, 57. Restiveness, a bad habit, and never cured, 370. Retina, description of the, 66. Retractor muscle of the eye, description of it, 67 Rheumatism, 85. Ribbed-home, advantage of being, 148. Ribs, anatomy of the, 146. Ring-bone, the nature and treatment of, 268, 269 ; constitutes unsoundness, 428.' Roach-backed, what, 150. Roan horses, account of, 412. Roaring, the nature of, 172, 198; curi- ous history of, 173 ; constitutes un- soundness. 423 ; from tight reining, 173 ; from buckling in crib-biting, ib. ; treatment of, 174. Rolling, danger of, and remedy for, 381. Roman nose in the horse, what, 99. Round-bone, the, can scarcely be dislo- cated, 275. Rowels, manner of inserting, and their operation, 464 ; comparison between them, blisters, and setons, 366. | Running away, method of restraining, ! 375. Rupture, treatment of, 227 ; of the sus- pensory ligament, 265. Rye-grass, considered as an article of ! food, 400. Saddles, the proper construction of, 151 ; points of, ib. Saddle-backed, what, 150; galls, treat-; ment of, 152. Saddling of the colt, 243. Sainfoin used as an article of food, 400. Sal ammoniac, the medical use of, 441. Saliva, its nature and use, 132. Salivary glands, description of the, 132. Sallenders, nature and treatment of, 286. Salt, use of in veterinary practice. 465 ; value of, mingled in the food of aui mals, 399. Sampson, 18. Sandal, Mr. Percivall's, 356. Sandcrack, the situation of, 270 ; the na- ture and treatment of, 317, 318; most dangerous when proceeding from tread, 318; liable to return, unless the brittleness of the hoof is remedied. ib. ; constitutes unsoundness, 428. Sartorius muscle, description of the, 272 Scapula, description of the, 246. Sclerotica, description of the, 62. Scouring, general treatment of, 218, 219 Secale cornutum, the effect of, 465. Sedatives, a list of them, and their mode of action, 465. Serratus major muscle, description of the, 250. Sessamoid bones, admirable use of in obviating concussion, 366 ; fracture of, 264, 340. Setons, mode of introducing, 366 ; cases in which they are indicated, ib. ; com- parison between them and rowels and blisters, ib. Shank-bone, the, 256. Shoe, the concave-seated, cut of, 348 ; described and recommended, ib. ; the manner in which the old one should be taken oft', 343 ; the putting on of the shoe. 345 ; it should be fitted to the foot, and not the foot to the shoe, ib. ; description of the hinder, 347 ; the unilateral, or one side nailed shoe, 350 ; the bar shoe. 352 ; the tip, ib. ; the hunting, 351 ; the jointed, or ex- pansion, 353. Shoeing not necessarily productive of contraction. 309 ; preparation of the foot for, 343 ; the principles of, 344. Shoulder, anatomical description of the, 246 ; slanting direction of the, advan- tageous, 247, 248 ; when it should be oblique, and when upright, 249 ; . sprain of the, 246 ; lameness, method of ascertaining, ib. ; fracture of the, 338. Shoulder-blade, muscles of the, 246 ; lower bone of the, description of, 252 ; muscles of the, 252, 253. Shying, the probable cause of, 66, 381 ; treatment of. 382 ; on coming out of the stable, description of, 383. Side-line, description of the, 359. Sight, the acute sense of, in the horse, 59. Silver, the nitrate of, an excellent caus- tic, 442. Singeing, recommendation of, 407. Sinuses in the foot, necessity of follow- ing them as far as they reach, 328 frontal, of the head, 49. Sitfasts, treatment of, 151. Skeleton of the horse, description of the, 45. Skin, anatomical description of the 405 ; functions and uses of it, 405. 406 ; pores of it, 409 ; when the an imal is in health, is soft and elastic, 403 Skull, anatomical description of the, 47 arched form of the roof, 55 ; fracture of the, 68, 335. INDEX. -181 Slipping the halter, remedy for, 383. Smell, the sense and seat of, 101 ; very acute in the horse, ib. Snap, 2. Soap, its use in veterinary practice, 466. Soda, chloride of, its use in ulcers, 465 ; sulphate of, ib. Sole, the horny, description of, 297 ; descent of, 298 ; proper form of, ib. ; management of, in shoeing, ib. ; the sensible, 298 ; felt or leather, their use. 353. Sore-throat, symptoms and treatment of, 171. Soundness, consists in there being no disease or alteration of structure that does or is likely to impair the useful- ness of the horse, 420 ; considered with reference to the principal causes of unsoundness, 421. Spasmodic colic, nature and treatment of, 215. Spavin, blood, the nature and treatment of, 165 ; is unsoundness, 428 ; bog, cause, nature and treatment of, 164, 165, 281 ; bone, 283 ; why not always accompanied by lameness, ib. ; is un- soundness, 428. Spavined horses, the kind of work they are capable of, 284. Speedy-cut, account of, 257. Sphenoid bone, description of the, 55. Spine, description of the, 145, 146 ; fracture of, 336. Spleen, description of the, 213, 230. Splenius muscle, description of the, 138. Splint, nature and treatment of, 256, 270 ; when constituting unsoundness, 429 ; bones, description of the, 256. Sprain of the back sinews, treatment of, 258, 270 ; sometimes requires firing, 260 ; auy remaining thickening consti- tutes unsoundness, 429 ; sprain of the shoulder, 246. Stables, dark, an occasional cause of in- ■ flammation of the eye, 95 ; hot and foul, a frequent one of iuflammation of the eye, ib. ; ditto, lungs, 385 ; ditto, glanders, 112, 113; should be large, compared with the number of I horses, ib. ; the management of, too much neglected by the owner of the horse, ib. ; the ceiling of, should be plastered, if there is a loft above, ib. ; ! should be so contrived that the urine will run off, 388; the stalls should not have too much declivity, ib. ; should be sufficiently light, yet with- ^ out any glaring color, 388, 389. Staggers, stomach, symptoms, cause, and treatment of, 70, 71, 401 ; generally fatal, 71 ; producing blindness, 73 ; sometimes epidemic, ib. ; mad, symp- toms and treatment, 74. n-t Staling, profuse, cause and treatment of, 233. Stallion, description of the proper, fot breeding, 237. Starch, useful in superpurgation, 466. Stargazer, the, 139. Sternum, or breast-bone, description of the, 147, 251. Stifle, description of the, 275 ; accidents and diseases of the, ib. Stomach, description of the, 206, 207; very small in the horse, 207 ; inflam- mation of the, 207, 208 ; pump recom mended in apoplexy, 72. Stone in the bladder, symptoms and treatment of, 235 ; kidney, ib. Stoppings, the best composition of, and their great use, 466. Strangles, symptoms and treatment of, 133 ; distinguished from glanders, 109 ; the importance of blistering early in, 134. Strangury, produced by blistering, 363 ; treatment of, 364. Strawberry horse, account of the, 412 Stringhalt, nature of, 83; is decidedlv unsoundness, 83, 429. Structure of the horse, importance of a knowledge of, 46. Strychnia, account of, 467. Stylo-maxillaris muscle, description of the, 102. Sublingual gland, description of the, 133. Submaxillary glands, description of the, 133 ; artery, description of the, 103. Sub-scapulo hyoideus muscle, descrip tion of the, 103. Sugar of lead, use of, 459. Sulphate of copper, use of in veteri nary practice, 449 ; iron, 454 ; mag- nesia, 460 ; zinc, 468. Sulphur, an excellent alterative and in- gredient in all applications for manure, 467. Surfeit, _ description and treatment of, 415 ; importance of bleeding in, 416. Suspensory ligament, beautiful mechan- ism of the, 265 ; rupture of the, ib. , suspensory muscle of the eye, descrip- tion of the, 67. Swallowing without grinding, 377. Swelled legs, cause and treatment 287 ; most frequently connected v\ debility, ib. Sweetbread, description of the, 213. Sympathetic nerves, description of the, 58. Tail, anatomy of the, 145 ; fracture of the, 337 ; docking, 367 ; nicking, 368. Tar, its use in veterinary practice, 467. Tares, a nutritive and healthy food, 399. Tartar, cream of, 463. U 482 INDEX. Tears, the secretion and nature of the, 60. Teeth, description of the, as connect- ed with age, 121 ; at birth, ib. ; 2 months, ib. ; 12 months, 122; 18 months, 123 ; the front sometimes pushed out, that the next pair may sooner appear, and the horse seem to be older than he is, 124 ; 3 years, ib. ; 3 A years, 125 ; 4 years, ib. ; 4£ years. 126 ; 5 years, ib. ; 6 years, 127 ; 7 >ears, 128; 8 years, ib. ; change of ,ne, 123 ; enamel of the, 122 ; irregular, inconvenience and danger of, 131 ; mark of the, 122 ; frauds practised with regard to the, 124, 125 ; diseases of the, 130. Temper denoted by the eye, 59 ; by the ear, 58. Temperature, sudden change of, injuri- ous in its effect, 385. Temporal bones, description of the, 51. Tendons of the leg, 256. Tetanus, symptoms, causes and treat- ment of, 79. Thick wind, nature and treatment of, 194, 198 ; often found in round-chested horses, 195. Thigh and haunch bones, description of, 271, 272; form of, 272; should be long and muscular, ib. ; description of the muscles of the inside of the upper bone of, 272, 273 ; do. of the outside, ib. ; mechanical calculation of their power, 273, 274. Thorough-pin, the nature and treatment of, 277 ; is not unsoundness, 429. Thrush, nature and treatment of, 328 ; the consequences, rather than the cause of contraction, ib. ; its serious nature and consequences not suffi- ciently considered, 329 ; constitutes unsoundness. 430. Thymus gland, the, 153. Thyroid cartilage of the windpipe, de- scription of the 143. Tibia, account of the, 276, 279 ; fracture of, 339. Tied in below the knee, nature and dis- advantage of, 258. Tinctures, account of the best, 467. Tips, description and use of, 352. Tobacco, when used, 467. Toe, bleeding at the, described, 168. Tongue, anatomy of the, 131; diseases oC 132 ; bladders along the under part of, ib. Tonics, an account of the best, 467 ; their use and danger in veterinary practice, 468. Torsion, the mode of castration by, 245 ; forceps, description of, ib. Trachea, or windpipe, description of, 144 ; inflammation of, 172. Tracheotomy, 143; operation of, 143, 144. Trapezius muscle, description of the 250. Trapezium bone, description of the, 253 Tread, nature and treatment of, 319 often producing sandcrack or qailtor ib. Tripping, an annoying and inveterate habit, 384. Trochanter of the thigh, description of the, 272. Trochlearis muscle, the, 67. Trotter, American, cut of, 41 ; pedigrees of, 40, 41 ; superiority to the English, 41, 42 ; reasons for, 42, 43. Turbinated bones, description of the, 101. Turpentine, the best diuretic, 468 ; a useful ingredient in many ointments, ib. Tushes, description of the, 125—127. Twitch, description of the, 360. Ulcers in the mouth, treatment of, 131. Ulna, description of the, 252. Ungulata, a tribe of animals, 44. Unilateral shoe, 349. Unsoundness, contraction does not al- ways cause it, 307 ; being discovered, the animal should be tendered, 431 ; ditto, but the tender or return not le- gally necessary, ib. ; the horse may be returned and action brought for depreciation in value, but this not ad- visable, 432 ; medical means may be adopted to cure the horse, they are, however, better declined, lest in an unfortunate issue of the case they should be misrepresented, 431. Unsteadiness whilst mounting, remedy for. 374. Urine, albuminous, 234 ; bloody, 233. Vastus muscle, description of the, 273. Veins, description of the, 164 ; of the arm, description, &c, 250 ; of the neck, ditto, 140 ; of the face, ditto, 102 ; of the shoulder, ditto, 250 ; inflammation of the, treatment of, 141. Vena portarum, the, 213. Verdigris, an uncertain medicine, when given internally, 449 ; a mild caustic. ib. > Vermin, account of, 419. Vertebrae, the dorsal and lumbar, 145. Vertebrated animal, the horse a, 44. Viees of horses, account of the, 370. Vicious to clean, a bad habit that should be conquered, 375 ; to shoe, a bad habit that may also be conquered, 376. Vinegar, its use in veterinary practice, 436. Vines, Mr., his use of the Spanish fly m glanders, 445. Vision, theory of, 63. INDEX. 483 Vitreous humor of the eye, account of the, 65. Vitriol, blue, use of, in veterinary prac- tice, 449. Wall-eyed horses, what, 64 ; whether they become blind, ib. Warbles, treatment of, 152. Warranty, the form of a, 430 ; breach of, how established, ib. ; no price will imply it, 431 ; when there is none, the action must be brought on the ground of fraud, ib. Warts, method of getting rid of, 419. Washing of the heels, productive of grease, 291. Washy horses, description and treat- ment of, 223. Water, generally given too sparingly, 402 ; management of on a journey, 403 ; the difference in effect, between hard and soft, 402 ; spring, principally in- jurious on account of its coldness, ib. ; stomach of the horse, the, 212. Water farcy, nature and treatment of, 116. Wax used in charges and plasters, 468. Weakness of the foot, what, 331. Weaving indicating an irritable temper, and no cure for it, 384. Wheat, considered as food for the horse, 397 ; inconvenience and danger of it, 3!»S Wheezer, description of the, 198 ; is un- sound, 423. Whistler, description of the, 398 ; is un sound, 423. White lead, use of, 459 ; vitriol, its use in veterinary practice, 469. Wind, broken, nature and treatment of 196 ; galls, description and treatment of, 261, 268 ; ditto, unsoundness when they cause lameness, or are likely to do so, 430 ; thick, nature and treat ment of, 194. "Windpipe, description of the, 143 , should be prominent and loose, ib. Wind-sucking, nature of, and remedy for, 380. Withers, description of the, 150 ; high, advantage of, ib. ; fistulous, treatment of, 1 51. Worms, different kinds, and treatment of, 227. Wounds in the feet, treatment of, 324. Yellows, symptoms and treatment of the, 229. Zinc, its use in medicine, 468. Zoological classification of the horse 44. Zygomatic arch, reason of the strong construction of the, 52. Zygomaticus muscle, description of ***** 103. THE END. New Work; Unrivaled tor Interest* Value and Instruction* The Book of the Age ! RECOLLECTIONS OF A LIFETIME, OB MEN AND THINGS I HAVE SEEN IN ETJBOPE AND AMERICA. BY S. G. GOODRICH, Tb* veritable " Peter Parley," author of "The History of All Nations," &c. Ac In two volumes, 1105 pp. large 12mo., 25 Original Engravings, including an accurate Steel Portrait of the Author. Price, Black or Scarlet Cloth, $3 00 ; Scarlet Cloth, Gilt Edges, $4 00 ; Half Calf, Marble Edges, $5 00 ; Full Calf, Gilt Edges, $7 00. 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To all which is added, the Author's recent ANECDOTES OF TRAVEL, In England, Scotland, Ireland, France and Italy, together with a Complete Catalogue of the Author's Works, now for the first time published ; with curious commentaries on the Counterfeit Parley Books, got up in London. &T° The Publishers will send this work, Postage Paid, to any Post-Oflice in the Uni- ted States, on receipt of price as above. MILLER, 0RT0N & CO., Publishers, No. 25 Park Eow, New York, and 107 Genesee-st., Auburn. MAGNIFICENT WORK OF HISTORY. A WHOLE LIBRARY IN ITSELF ! Cost $11,000—1207 Pages— 70 Maps— 700 Engravings HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS. OR, W11¥11SA1 mssoit; in which THE HISTORY OF EYERY NATION, ANCIENT AND MODERN, IS SEPARATELY GIVEN. By S. Q. GOODRICH, Consul to Paris, and Jluthor of several Works of History, Parley's Tales, etc. It contains 1207 pages, royal octavo, and is illustrated by 70 Maps and 700 En- gravings : bound in imitation Turkey morocco. Invariable retail price, $6,00 in one volume ; $7,00 in two volumes. The same, full gilt edge and sides, $8,00 in one volume ; $10,00 in two vols. *** It is believed that the above work, by Mr. Goodrich, will be very ac- ceptable to the American public. It is the result of years of toil and labor, as- sisted in his researches by several scholars of known ability, and has been gotten up at a great expense by the proprietors. No pains have been spared in the execution of the Illustrations and Maps, which are entirely new, and pre- pared by the distinguished author expressly for the work. Indeed, all the other historical writings of Mr. Goodrich sink into insignificance, when compared with this, the result of his riper and maturer years. It is admitted that One Hundred Dollars could not purchase the same matter in any other shape ; and the publishers confidently expect that — in consideration of the great literary value of the work, the large sum expended in preparing it for the press, and the exceedingly moderate price at which it is offered — it will be favorably received by every lover of good books. Published by MILLER, ORTON & CO., No 25 Park Row, New York, and 107 Genesee-st. Anburn. ALL THE ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS. EXPLORATIONS AND DISCOVERIES DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. BEING DETAILED ACCOUNTS OF THE SEVERAL EXPEDITIONS TO THE NORTH SEAS, BOTH ENGLISH AND AMERICAN, CONDUCTED BY ROSS, PARRY, BACK, FRANKLIN, M'CXURE AND OTHERS. INCLUDING THE FIRST GRINNELL EXPEDITION , UNDER LIEUTENANT DE HAVEN, AND THE FINAL EFFORT OF F>R. E. K. KANE IN SEARCH OF SIR JOHN FRANKLIN. BY SAMUEL M. SMUOKER. 517 pages 12mo., with Illustrations. Price $1 00. Repeated, bold, and daring enterprises have been undertaken during the present century, to explore the hidden recesses of the Northern eearn, the vast frozen region of everlasting snow, of stupendous ice- bergs, of hyberborean storms, of the long, cheerless nights of the Arc- tic Zone. To navigate and explore these dismal realms, men of ex- treme daring, of sumblime fortitude, of unconquerable perseverance, were absolutely necessary. And such men possessed one great ele- ment of distinguishing greatness, of which the explorerers of more ge- nial and inviting climes were destitute. Their investigations were made entirely without the prospect of rich reward, and chiefly for the promotion of the magnificent ends of science. The discovery of a north-western passage was indeed not forgotten ; but it must be con- ceded that other less mercenary and more philanthropic motives have given rise to the larger portion of the expeditions which, during the progress of the nineteenth century, have invaded the cheerless soli- tudes of that dangerous and repulsive portion of the globe. This work contains a narrative of the chief adventures and discov- eries of Arctic explorers during this century. No expedition of any importance has been omitted ; and the work has been brought down in its details to the present time, so as to include a satisfactory account of the labors, sufferings, and triumphs of that prince of Arctic explorers and philanthropists, Dr. Kane; whose adventures, and whose able nar- rative of them, entitle him to fadeless celebrity, both as a hero in the field, and as a man of high genius and scholarship. The great chapter of Arctic adventure and discovery, may now be considered as closed. A concise and reliable account threfore, of those adventures and discoveries, with the novel and thrilling incidents at- tending them, cannot be otherwise than interesting in themselves, and ac- ceptable to the public. MILLER, ORTON & CO., Publishers, 25 Park Row, New York, and 107 Genesee-st., Auburn. "Par Sale hv the distributor of this Circular. I \ 1 ■0 --■ ^ ^ 4- S * , > °0 '* ■> HO ^ r <^ * a i \ .(V % .^•% n '.V . V s. ^7 ^ ,s >**. ,x A v . ** «5 •*<. rf- ,-x ^ V ' ,-fc *> s '> S- V-. ' \ ^ .0 / V A \ v < x ry -j W '% ^ r A G H -C> cJ> * ^ <- >V • ' / V. V \ o A <^c V\\ . e r,vt V • v V' v>^ v ■ ^ ^ &°<* -y oS ■/ 8 I \ 1V C < J V / ,0' s ** o. Cb ' 'f>. > %, V* » v OCT O0 1 x ^. ■%» <* *^ * o ^ C\

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